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Electrical Energy Storage - Large Scale

(August 2009)
Amit Kumar Lohiya, 4th Year, BE- Electrical & Electronics Engineering, MIT,Manipal.
Abstract — The most versatile form of energy in use today
is electrical energy. It can be easily transformed to all the
needs of the customer: power, heat, light and communication.
Electrical energy, however; suffers from some disadvantages:
transportation is only possible over limited distances and
needs a network; also direct storage systems for large
capacity systems are mainly in the prototype and
demonstration phases of development. Batteries are
generally too expensive for use for large scale electrical utility
applications. This article describes Pumped Storage
Technique of electrical energy storage, its main features and
functions.

Index Terms ― Load Balancing, Japan, Variable Speed

units.

I. INTRODUCTION

W hat is electrical energy storage device? The simplest

definition of a storage device is one that is
specifically designed to accept electrical energy from the
Fig. 1 Pumped Storage Facility

For large scale utility energy storage there are three

grid, convert it into an energy form suitable for storage,
subsequently convert it back into electricity and, apart
from any losses due to inefficiencies, return it to the grid.
Why do we need to store electrical energy in the first
place? Electricity has to be use as soon as it has been
generated. This is why grid control and electricity
dispatching systems are important; they have to balance the
demand for electricity with supply. Once one fails to match
the other, problem occurs. It would seem obvious, given
this situation, that some reservoir of saved electricity
would be a major boon to grid operation. Yet storing
electricity has proved difficult to master.
This necessitates the requirement of a buffer between
electricity generation and electricity demand to optimize
utilization of renewable energy sources, optimize the use of
transmission line infrastructure, and generate revenue by
capturing otherwise wasted energy output from renewable
sources is variable, which is subject to largely
unpredictable changes in weather. Fluctuations in output
must be accommodated on the system by regulating the
output of conventional plant or by providing storage.
Several possible technologies for electrical energy storage
are - electrochemical battery storage, flywheels,
superconducting magnetic energy storage, compressed air
energy storage, pumped hydroelectricity storage, etc.
possible technologies to chose between, pumped storage
hydropower; compressed air energy storage; and large
batteries. I however would like to focus on pumped
hydroelectric storage (PHS), (Fig. 1).
II.PUMPED STORAGE HYDROELECTRICITY
Pumped storage hydroelectricity is a type of power
generation used by some power plants for load balancing.
It is the only method of large scale electrical energy
storage in widespread use today.
The basic concept is simple (Fig. 1). Energy is stored as
hydraulic potential energy by pumping water from a
low-level into a high-level reservoir. When recovery of the
energy is required, the water is returned to the lower
reservoir through turbines which drive electrical
generators.
The energy used in pumping a volume V of water of
density ρ and through a height h with a pumping efficiency
ηp
E1 = ρghV MWh (1)
3600*ηp
And the energy recoverable with a regeneration efficiency
ηg is

E2 = ρghV*ηg MWh (2)

3600
Where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Typically, the overall efficiency E2/E1 = ηg*ηp is in the
range 70—80%

Report received August 26, 2009. This work was supported in part by the
Electrical and Electronics, Department of Manipal Institute of technology. III. PUMPED STORAGE AROUND THE WORLD
Amit Kumar Lohiya is a student of Manipal Institute of technology IVth
year EEE and as part of Seminar has decided to submit this report.
(Correspondence: phone- 9916822317; email-lohiyaistkrank@gmail.com) Pumped storage was first installed by manufacturing
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industries in Italy and Switzerland in the 1890s to enable
them to store surplus night-time output from run-of-river
hydro stations for use in meeting their peak power
requirements the following day.
Japan, USA, Italy, Germany, France and Spain are the
world’s leading countries in terms of installed capacity of
pumped storage projects, including those under
construction.
For countries with topography and geologic conditions
suitable for pumped storage project sites, one measure of
the extent of utilization of pumped storage capacity is the
percentage of the total electric capacity that is provided by
pumped storage.
Austria stands out as the country having the highest
percentage of pumped storage capacity on its electric
system. Pumped storage provides approximately 17 percent
of Austria’s total generation capacity. Austria is followed
by Switzerland, Spain, Italy and Japan, all with pumped
storage capacities of approximately ten percent of their
generating capacity. The USA lags well behind with only
2.5 percent of its generation capacity being provided by
pumped storage.
Japan is far ahead of all other countries in the advancement
of pumped storage technology and its utilization. Some
pumped storage projects in Japan are operated nearly 24
hours each day. The use of variable speed units in Japan
provides load ramping capability in the pumping mode and
contributes to the versatility and effective use of pumped
storage.
is justified primarily on its basic benefits of providing
peaking capacity, and economic energy transfer.
for projects in highly developed, industrialized nations, the
dynamic operating benefits are, in many instances the
driving force for justification and construction of modern
pumped storage projects.
A. Environmental Sensibility
Today environmental aspects of all power plants are
receiving more stringent scrutiny, and new pumped storage
projects are no exception. While the level of concern varies
around the world, environmental aspects are being
investigated in greater detail and are increasingly a major
consideration in planning and operation of pumped storage
projects.
Some of the design features used to reduce the
environmental effects of pumped storage projects include:
1. Design of closed systems to isolate pumped
storage projects from the area streams and
other natural bodies of water. This minimizes
impacts on water quality and precludes impacts
on fisheries.
2. Use of underground power houses and flow lines
to reduce visual surface disturbances.
3. Consideration of excavated underground lower
reservoirs to further reduce surface disturbances.
4. Environmental enhancements provided when
opportunities are available, for example, the
provision of recreational facilities.

B. Reliability and Availability

TABLE 1 Despite their inherent reliability, pumped storage projects
PUMPED STORAGE IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES
with demanding duties on the electric system are being
designed for ever improving reliability and availability.
Capacity
Country
in MW
Largest plant By Capacity (MW) The requirements for plant reliability and availability affect
the arrangement of the water passages, the equipment
Australia 2564 Tumut Three (1500) selection, and the plant control system. Numerous
Austria 2877 Malta-Hauptstufe (730) operating and maintenance conditions are considered, and
China 4200 Guangzhou (2400) the equipment is designed to reduce outages. Furthermore,
the stations are designed such that the outage and
France 4520 Grand Maison (1070) maintenance of one unit will not affect operation of the
Germany 3803 Goldisthal (1060) remaining units.
India 6894 Sardar Sarovar, Gujarat (1200) Modern pumped storage projects are designed for an
Italy 4244 Chiotas (1184) annual availability of 95 percent or more (an outage
duration of about two weeks per unit, annually) and a
Japan 15606 Kannagawa (2700) reliability of 98 percent or better.
South Korea 4700 Yangyang (1000)
South Africa 3000 Ingula (under construction) C. Energy storage Capacity
(1332) A pumped storage project must have sufficient energy
Spain 3272 Villarino (Salamanca) (810) storage capacity to support its installed capacity, to provide
Switzerland 6000 Cleuson-Dixence VS (2099) for flexibility of its operation, and to provide a greater
UK contribution to system reliability.
2833 Dinorwig, Wales (1728)
Operation of a pumped storage project as an electric
Ukraine 5600 Dniestr HPSP (2268) system management and reliability resource does not
USA 25000 Bath County,( Largest) (2710) require large energy storage for its operation. The
N.B. - Indicative only, Including ones under Dinorwig station in North Wales, an example of modern
construction station providing system management functions, has an
energy storage capacity equivalent of about five hours of
IV. TRENDS AND FEATURES OF PUMPED STORAGE PROJECTS operation at full capacity. For most of Japan’s modern
pumped storage projects, the energy storage capacity is
Pumped storage projects are designed to perform functions equivalent to six to eight hours of operation at full
to meet system requirements. capacity. Many of Japan’s pumped storage projects’ upper
For projects in some developing countries, pumped storage reservoirs are designed for long term seasonal storage and
drawdown.
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D. Overall Cycle Efficiency
Overall cycle efficiency also called the round trip
efficiency is the ratio of the energy output to the energy
input of a project (usually taken over a full
generating/pumping cycle) emptying and returning the
upper reservoir to its full starting level. Equipment
efficiencies, hydraulic losses, and operating conditions all
affect the cycle efficiency. Part-load operations will result
in lower hydraulic losses. However, part-load operations
may involve operation of the pump-turbine at lower
efficiencies points.
Cycle efficiency may be calculated or estimated from the
plant operating data after excluding operations that do not
involve pumping or generating, such as synchronous
condenser operations. The value of round trip efficiency
usually lies in the range of 70-80 percent.
There appears to be a trend towards more liberal sizing of
water passages to reduce the hydraulic losses, and also
more attention to hydraulic design of bifurcations and
manifolds to reduce the hydraulic losses for the dividing
and combining flow conditions. The equipment
manufactures are continuously striving to improve the
efficiency of the pump-turbine, generator-motors, and other
equipments that contribute to higher pump-turbine
efficiency and higher overall cycle efficiency.
E. Location Near a Load Center
Siting a pumped storage project near a major load center or
metropolitan area may be difficult. However, construction
of additional transmission lines to major load centers to
serve the load may be even more difficult. The logic is that
a pumped storage project located near a major load center
can be more effectively used as a system management
resource and provide a greater contribution to the system
reliability.
With advancement of pumped storage projects with
excavated underground lower reservoirs, the siting of
pumped storage projects near major load centers not only
is possible, but holds great promise for future.
F. Variable Speed Units
Successful introduction of variable-speed, single-stage,
reversible pumped storage units in Japan has added a new
dimension of versatility to pumped storage projects. In
Japan several new projects are equipped with variable
speed units, and some existing projects have been
retrofitted with this new technology. It is anticipated that at
least some units of other modern pumper storage projects
will be of the variable-speed type to improve the
performance of the project on the electric system.
A variable speed unit can vary the pump input power by
adjusting its speed within a specified range. Because of this
characteristic, it is now possible to provide load regulation
or automatic frequency control (AFC) during off peak
hours using a pumped storage project in the pumping
mode.
Also, with a variable-speed unit, it is possible to operate
the unit at or near the optimum speed for the particular
head and output, and thus obtain a higher efficiency than is
possible with a single-speed unit.
A variable-speed unit has many other advantages which are
listed below:
3
1. Suppression of power system fluctuations,
2. Smooth pump start up,
3.Extension of the pump-turbine operating head
range in the generating mode,
4. An interesting use is the use of diagonal flow
(Deriaz type, pump turbines–example: Japan’s
Takami Pumped Storage Station).
The proven maximum head of for these units has increased
from 600 m about ten years ago to over 800m today, and
the upward trend is continuing (for single stage reversible
units).
G. Fast Start & Fast Load ramping in the
Generating Mode
Modern pumped storage projects are designed for fast start
from the shutdown condition and for fast ramping of the
load to full-load conditions. This capability is required for
a pumper storage project to provide system frequency
control and to compensate promptly for loss of other
generating units or transmission lines.
Typical performance characteristics of modern pumped
storage projects are given below.
Shutdown to On-Line 60 - 90 seconds
On-Line to full-load generating 5 - 15 seconds
Spinning-in-air to full-load generating 5 - 15 seconds
The Ffestiniog Pumped Storage Scheme in north Wales has
four water turbines which generate 360 MW of electricity
within 60 seconds of the need arising.
H. Fast Start, Load Ramping & Unloading in the
Pumping Mode
Modern pumped storage projects, such as the largest
projects equipped with variable-speed units in Japan, have
the capability of load ramping in the pumping mode.
Whether equipped with variable-speed units or not, modern
pumped storage projects are designed for fast start in the
pumping mode and unloading at full load, as may be
necessary to respond to system emergencies.
Typical performance characteristics of modern pumped
storage projects are given below.
Shutdown to normal pumping 6 minutes
Spinning-in-air to normal pumping 60 seconds
Fig. 2 - Mode Changes throughout the day for a typical
Pumped Storage Plant
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I. Design for a Large Number of Mode Changes
Daily
Modern pumped storage projects are designed for many
mode changes daily, as they respond to the system needs.
Two primary modes of operation are, of course, the
pumping and the generating modes. Other modes of
operations include: spin generating; machine synchronized
spinning-in-air; and spin pumping , similar to spin
generating but in the reverse rotation. When the machine is
in the spin generation or spin pumping modes, the
generators can be operated as synchronous condensers for
voltage regulation.
The Dinorwig Station in North Wales, which is operated to
respond to the system imbalances and other needs, was
designed for an average of 40 mode changes per unit per
day and has at times experienced as many as 80 mode
changes in one day on one unit. Some pumped storage
projects in Japan are operated 24 hours a day, and similarly
undergo many mode changes in response to the system
needs. (Fig. 2 shows a typical pumped storage unit’s daily
operation. Note the changes occurring during the length of
the day.)
V. FUNCTIONS & BENEFITS OF PUMPED STORAGE PROJECTS
Pumped storage has evolved into highly sophisticated,
electric system management resource with many functions
that contribute to the system reliability and the quality of
service provided. One major attribute of pumped storage
that is rarely matched by other resources is the continuing
discovery of more and more benefits. The full valuation of
the benefits of such projects generally trails their
construction and operation. In Japan, pumped storage
projects are used in a variety of ways to continuously
correct system imbalances, to respond to system needs, and
to provide for efficient utilization of other generation and
transmission resources.
Pumped storage power plants help achieve maximum
efficiency for the power generating system, aid in load
balancing and maintain power system stability as a whole.
Although the losses of the pumping process makes the
plant a net consumer of energy overall, the system
increases revenue by selling more electricity during periods
of peak demand, when electricity prices are highest.
It is difficult to prepare an all inclusive list of the functions
and services of pumped storage projects. This report covers
only the primary functions of a modern pumped storage
projects which are also its advantages. Some of the
functions may appear overlapping.
A. Peaking Capacity:
A pumped storage plant contributes to the total peaking
capacity of the system. If peaking capacity is not provided
by pumped storage project, it has to be provided by gas
turbines or other generating resources increasing the cost of
energy generation.
B. Peaking and pumping energy:
For the hours of pumped storage generation on the electric
system, pumped storage provides peaking energy to the
system. The revenues from the peaking energy produced
are partially offset by the cost of the pumping energy. The
pumping energy costs are the applicable off-peak rates for
the generating units used for the pumping duty.
Operation of a pumped storage project results in load
4
balancing with associated benefits to the electric system.
One important benefit is the reduction of minimum
operating load requirement of the thermal plants during
off-peak hours.
C. Load Regulation:
During the generating cycle, a pumped storage project is
suitable for continuous matching of the system generation
with the system loads, as is a pumped storage project with
variable-sped units during the pumping cycle. Depending
on the generation mix of the system or its interconnections
to other utilities, this attribute of pumped storage can be of
great value.
Electric systems that have pumped storage plants available
use them for minute- by-minute area-control, load
regulation and frequency control. These uses are
particularly important in electric systems with a large
installed base of thermal units.
D. Spinning and Standby Reserves:
The criteria for the definition of spinning and standby
reserve vary according to the system being served.
Generally, a resource qualifies as spinning reserve if it is
operating synchronized and can be brought to full load in a
short time, that is, a pumped storage unit in spin-generating
mode ready to be loaded, or operating at part load
Standby reserves are resources that can be brought on-line
and loaded quickly, generally in 5 to 10 minutes. Most
pumped storage projects in a shutdown condition, with
sufficient energy stored in upper reservoir, qualify as
standby reserves.
Pumped storage project in spinning and standby reserve
modes are available to provide system frequency control,
and to respond to and correct low frequency occurrences.
Fig. 3
E. Load Following
Nearly every electric system that has pumped storage finds
great value in its fast pick-up or shedding of load(ramping)
and its large load change capability. This reduces the need
for scheduled purchases and operation of old thermal plants
at reduced load. (Fig. 3)
F. Black Start Capability
The black start capability of a pumped storage project
contributes to system reliability and restart in case of
system-wide failure of the transmission or generation
system.
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G. Improved efficiency & Reduced Maintenance
Costs Elsewhere in the System
The off-peak-pumping load provided by pumped storage
project generally results in less cycling of the thermal units
and fewer stops and starts of these units. This results in
improved efficiency and reduced maintenance costs of
thermal units.
H. Voltage Regulation
Depending upon the needs of the system, a pumped
storage project can operate in condenser mode to
generate or absorb reactive power as may be required for
system voltage regulation. This is more effective for the
plants located near the load centers.
I. Transmission system Benefits
A pumped storage project itself also provides many
transmission system benefits. For example, a pumped
storage project located near a load center may provide the
reserve capacity needed to permit more effective utilization
of the interconnecting transmission system. Also, a pumped
storage project may contribute to the system reliability by
redistributing the power flows.
J. Air Quality Benefits
A pumped storage project itself has no emissions to the
atmosphere and generally contributes to air quality
improvements or geographical shifting of the emission,
depending upon the source of power for the pumping
energy. Generally, a pumped storage project provides for
more utilization of the thermal units and fewer stops and
starts, thus contributing to overall reduced emissions. Also,
pumped storage reduces emissions during the hottest
periods of the day by offsetting of the generation that
would otherwise be required from thermal plants.
K. Ease of Operation
Operation of an electric system is much easier when
pumped storage units are available because of their quick
response to rapid changes in load.
VI. DRAWBACKS
Like any other technology, Pumped Storage is not free
from setbacks either. Various limitations are outlined
below.
A. The technique is currently the most cost-effective
means of storing large amounts of electrical
energy on an operating basis, but capital costs and
the presence of appropriate geography are critical
decision factors. The available sites are often in
areas of scenic important. Massive civil
engineering works are required. Initial
construction costs are more expensive
compared to thermal generation.
B. Permanent visual impact on the landscape. Can
have adverse affect on fisheries and wild life if
not designed properly.
C. Efficiency of energy expended to that recoverable
is in the order of 70-82%.
5
D. Can not be used as base load station as it can
only generate for limited hours.
E. Taking into account evaporation losses from the
exposed water surface and conversion losses,
approximately 70% to 85% of the electrical
energy used to pump the water into the elevated
reservoir can be regained.
F. It is simply a large scale energy storage
system and should not be confused with
renewable system.
G. The possibility of increased production of air
emissions.
H. The choice may be further limited by
environmental constraints and the distance of
sites from major generation and load centers.
I. Earlier pumped storage projects used existing
bodies of water, often causing fish mortality and
degrading water quality.
VII. POTENTIAL TECHNOLOGIES:
The use of underground reservoirs as lower dams has been
investigated. Salt mines could be used, although ongoing
and unwanted dissolution of salt could be a problem. If
they prove affordable, underground systems might greatly
expand the number of pumped storage sites.
A new concept in pumped storage is to utilize wind
turbines or solar power to drive water pumps directly, in
effect an Energy Storing Wind or Solar Dam. This could
provide a more efficient process and usefully smooth out
the variability of energy captured from the wind or sun.
One can use pumped sea water to store the energy. A
potential example of this could be used in a tidal barrage or
tidal lagoon. A potential benefit of this arises if seawater is
allowed to flow behind the barrage or into the lagoon at
high tide when the water level is roughly equals either side
of the barrier, when the potential energy difference is close
to zero. Then water is released at low tide when a head of
water has been built up behind the barrier, when there is a
far greater potential energy difference between the two
bodies of water. The result being that when the energy used
to pump the water is recovered, it will have multiplied to a
degree depending on the head of water built
up. Downsides: the generator must be below sea level, and
marine organisms would tend to grow on the equipment
and disrupt operation.
VIII.PUMPED STORAGE IN JAPAN
Japan leads in pumped storage technology and hence it was
only fit to give a small overview of the trends in Japan.
Many Japanese pumped storage projects are built in
conjunction with conventional hydropower projects and
include major dams, spillways, and other structures.
Takase, the highest rock-fill dam in Japan is 176 m high
was built in conjunction with Shin Takasegawa Project as
the upper reservoir. Many other large concrete and rock-fill
dams have been built in conjunction with various pumped
storage projects.
Most of the powerhouses are of the underground type with
vertical walls and an arched shaped roof. For the Imaichi
plant, the Japanese have built their largest underground
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powerhouse utilizing a horseshoe-shaped cavern with a

width of 33.5 m. To reduce the side deformation of the
excavated rock cavern for Shin Takasegawa, a rock bench X.CONCLUSION
was left in place near the center of the powerhouse to serve
as the erection bay. The advancing use of renewable energy, particularly wind
Japan has innovated the pumps to get better operation with power, will change the perception of storage and lead to
variable speed units, which has revolutionized the pumped significant increase of its use. There is just 90GW of
storage technology. Japan has been researching on diagonal electricity storage capacity in operation - around 3% of
flow, Deriaz type, pump turbines which are capable of global capacity, which is much lower than in other energy
having adjustable or fixed blades. It provides higher industries.
frequency over a broad load and head range. As an emerging group of technologies, estimates on the
Japan’s Seawater Demonstration Project covers the main cost of electrical energy storage vary widely, on average by
aspects of siting a pumped storage project on a coastal area more than 100% and typically much higher in battery
including the environmental concern of prevention of technologies. The US and Japan are the global leaders in
groundwater contamination from the upper reservoir and large scale pumped storage hydropower plants and China is
marine growth in the waterways in other areas. set to become the country with largest installed pumped
storage projects in a couple of years. However, Japan leads
IX. WHERE DOES INDIA STAND in technological advancements binging forth new concepts
like variable speed units, closed loop pumped storage.
Pumped storage schemes in India are commonly used in Closed loop pumped storage (CLPS), built without using
hydropower projects to meet the peak power demands. existing bodies of water, and provides a solution that will
There are quite a number of favorable sites in India for provide energy storage without degrading environmental
development of pumped storage stations. A study to resources.
identify the sites by CEA identified 56 such sites with a
total installation possibility of 94,000 MW.
TABLE 2
PUMPED STORAGE IN INDIA
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Number of Total
Schemes units*unit size Capacity
(MW) (MW)
I would like to acknowledge and extend my heartfelt
Schemes in operation gratitude to Mr P. N. Hrishikesh who have made given me
the opportunity to present my first seminar.
Kadana Stage I & II- 2*60 + 2*60 240 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for
Gujarat the constant reminders and much needed motivation.
Paithon- Maharashtra 1*12 12 To all my teachers for their encouragements and the
Nagarajun Sagar - A.P. 7*100 700 enthusiasm with which they are trying to impart all the
Kadamparai – T.N. 4*100 400 knowledge that is at their disposal.
Panchet Hill – D .V.C 1*40 40 Most especially to my family for always being with me in
all of my endeavors.
Ujani - Maharshtra 1*12 12 Last but not the least to all my friends
Bhira - Maharshtra 1*150 150 and to God, who made all things possible.
1554
Schemes Under Construction
Sardaar Sarovar – 6*200 1200
Gujarat
Ghatgur – Maharshtra 2*125 250
Srisailam – A.P. 6*150 900
Purulia – W.B. 4*225 900
Koyana Stage IV- 4*250 1000
Maharashtra
Bhivpuri- Maharashtra 1*90 90
4340
Schemes approved by CEA
Tehri Stage II – U.A. 4*250 100
Total 6894
N.B. - Indicative only
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