Catherine W.

Gibson
ENGL 7710
Dr. Kirk St. Amant
A Framework for Successful Intercultural Communication
December 9, 2012

Gibson 1

A Framework for Successful

Intercultural Communication
The problem with communication is the illusion that it has been
accomplished. (Stringer and Cassiday, 2009, p. ix)

Introduction
The rapid growth and expansion of global economics has created a need for
experts who can communicate with international audiences. Gone are the
days in which competitive companies market products and services solely
within the confines of their own national borders. Transcontinental sales can
make the difference between a company that thrives and one that survives.
While the relaxing of governmental laws and tariffs has enabled
transcontinental sales to flow with greater ease, the language and cultural
differences have been barriers to overcome. Through the expertise of
technical communicators, companies can successfully and strategically
market goods and services to countries distinctly different from their own in
language, culture, and currency.
This tutorial presents steps to building a framework for intercultural
communication, while considering traditional approaches and exploring new
trends affecting the current and future landscape of communication across
cultures. Specifically, this tutorial aspires to teach technical communicators
essential skills and strategies needed to cultivate a deeper cultural
awareness and sensitivity. Through lectures, handouts, discussions and
practical exercises, this tutorial will reveal some of the strengths and
weaknesses of current approaches to intercultural communication. The
strategies and topics included would be remiss in ignoring the implications of
technology, such as the electronic mail, as well as the strong cultural
traditional beliefs and practices which have held true through a thousand
generations. Both traditional and emerging cultural practices are discussed,
as their impact on intercultural communication is explored.
What is culture? Culture can be seen as a system of thinking and acting
that is taught by, and reinforced by, a group of people (Stringer and
Cassiday, 2009, p. ix). Cultures are dynamic, as cultural practices shift, and
as societal trends emerge and subside. Yet, some features of various
cultures remain static and often lay the groundwork for assumptions and
preconceptions, whether valid or not, that persist over decades of time.

Gibson 2

The first exercise, which follows below, explores hidden or unspoken beliefs
about various cultures. To stereotype others might be deemed as human as
breathing, and perhaps, is just as involuntary. While most people do not
elect to practice cultural bias, beliefs about other cultures are reflected in
attitudes and behaviors, often with negative impact. In this eye-opening
exercise, the names of group participants remain undisclosed to encourage
the most honest and genuine responses possible.

EXERCISE 1
WHAT DO YOU SEE? EXAMINGING STEREOTYPES AND ASSUMPTIONS

Objective: To examine the traditional stereotypes we hold about people of

different ethnic groups.
Materials: Microsoft PowerPoint or other presentation slideshow depicting a
racially diverse selection of people in various cultural settings; paper, pens or
pencils.
Implementation: Group members view pictures of a racially and culturally
diverse selection of people, and are instructed to write down all words that
come immediately to mind, regardless of whether their initial impressions
appear prejudiced or biased. Group members will also attempt to determine
the citizenship of these depicted persons, based solely upon their
appearance. The presenter shares the findings and encourages a fruitful
discussion that will begin to explore the origins of such biases and
assumptions and discuss ways to overcome them. It is especially important
to discuss how stereotypes may or may not impact one who writes for
multicultural and intercontinental audiences.
Optional ways to employ this exercise: Present pictures or names of
various countries, and instruct participants to record their initial impressions
on paper.

Gibson 3

How Do I Say?
Successfully
communicating
across
cultures
requires
more
than
understanding the grammar of the language, with proper translation applied.
Studies of cultural communication show there are distinct differences in the
way various cultures communicate. How one speaks is never more
important than what one speaks as when communication occurs in a crosscultural and international context.
Cultures can be defined as high-context or low-context cultures,
according to social anthropologists Edward T. Hall and Geert Hofstede (St.
Amant & Sapienza, 2011). Low-context cultures prefer direct message
structure and straight-forward diction, while high-context cultures favor a
more indirect approach, where the unspoken message is implied and subtle
(St. Amant & Sapienza, 2011). The Asian and American cultures are best
representative of the high-context and low-context cultures, respectively.
Complicating matters further, the Asian communication style also places
significant importance upon the concept of face, with special emphasis
upon saving face (St. Amant & Sapienza, 2011). Simply stated, face
refers to an emphasis upon honor, respect, power, status, and acquiescence.
This difference in communication style sets the stage for miscommunication
between cultures, as the brusque direct style of Americans is poised to
offend the subtle, indirect, face-seeking niceties of the Asians.

Chinese Face and Face-Related Behavior

Face can be measured--higher status equates to having more face.

The amount of face can be altered--face can change over time.
Face can be exchanged--face is a form of currency.
Face is mutualif one person loses face, all in the group lose face.
Face is influenced by otherone gives face to others in a business
relationship as part of the process of building trust and establishing
credibility

Losing face has serious implicationsface losing actions include

displaying anger, directly refusing requests, failing to honor requests,
acting aggressively, and failing to show appropriate respect for the
status of others.
(St. Amant & Sapienza, 2011, p. 134).

Gibson 4

Building upon the findings in social anthropology studies, Hofstede

contextualizes high-context cultures as affiliation cultures, and low-context
cultures as achievement cultures (St. Amant & Sapienza, 2011). Again,
Asian and American cultures can be viewed as extreme polar opposites, with
the American emphasis placed upon individualism and high achievement.
Hence, it directly contrasts with the Asian concept of group achievement and
cooperation, and the preservation of group face. Hofstede posits that there
are five dimensions of culture (St. Amant & Sapienza, 2011), and they
continue to be echoed in discussions of cross-cultural communication
theories and strategies.

Hofstedes Five Dimensions of Culture

Power Distance
The extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and groups
expect and accept that power is distributed unequally.
Individualism vs. Collectivism
Individualism focuses on the individual, with the expectation that everyone
looks after himself. Collectivism exhibits the expectation that from birth
onward people are integrated into strong, cohesive groups. Includes concern
for face.
Uncertainty Avoidance
The extent to which members of a culture feel threatened by uncertain or
unknown situations.
Masculinity vs. Femininity
Refers to gender roles with masculine cultures exhibiting assertiveness and a
focus on material success, and feminine culture exhibiting modest, tender,
caring qualities with a focus on relationships.
Long-Term vs. Short Term
Reflects to Confucian principles of respect for tradition and social status
obligations, virtue in future rewards, includes concern for face.
(St. Amant & Sapienza, 2011, p. 135).

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Points to Consider in Cross-Cultural Communication

Communication addressed to people from group-oriented

cultures focuses on the organizations needs. Writers use we
statements instead of I statements. Look for letters to be
addressed Dear Sir and to use the organizations name,
instead of an individuals own, as the letters closure.
Group-oriented cultures see a smaller distance between
business life and private life. The business day may extend to
social activities like dinner and sporting events. Communication
in such business settings have a more personal tone and may
include informal topics, such as the weather, family members
and their health, etc.
In cultures with considerable power distance between ranks
is very formal, with informal greetings like Dear Jim
discouraged, unless a familiar relationship exist. Respect for
rank and stature are valued and emphasized.
In cultures that favor an indirect approach, documents tend to
be less detailed and less conclusive, where vagueness is the
accepted norm. In high-context cultures, like Asia, writers may
omit information considered obvious, as they strive to refrain
from insulting the reader.
In
certain
cultures
that
favor
uncertainty,
written
communication is often less detailed, as they rely less on
written policies.
(Markel, 2010).

Electronic Mail: Friend or Foe?

Electronic mail has increasingly become the preferred means of
communication in both the business and personal world, for most people.
The quick delivery of email makes it ideal for communication between
international audiences. Yet, despite its many benefits, electronic mail is not
without problems, as writers struggle to communicate against a backdrop of
varying cultural expectations and practices. The Asian and American
business cultures view email differently, with the Asian culture showing a
disdain for the often informal nature of electronic mail. For the Asian e-mail
correspondent, who is typically writing in a nonnative language and within a
formal communication context, the seemingly casual writing style of the
American e-mail communication correspondent may suggest an
inappropriate tone to the Asian correspondent (St. Amant & Sapienza,
2011, p. 141). The concern for proper respect supersedes any benefits of

Gibson 6

rapidity the electronic mail provides. Also, this same issue of hierarchy
presents a problem for the Asian email writer when multiple recipients may
need to be addressed; these multiple recipients may include managers who
must be properly and formerly addressed based upon rank and stature in the
corporate environment (St. Amant & Sapienza, 2011). Moreover, with the
Asian cultures emphasis on affiliation rather than individualism, for some
business transactions, email could be viewed as an impediment to fostering
and maintaining relationships. A survey of virtual team members in Korea
revealed that when a face-to-face meeting was possible, it was viewed as
optimal, with fax or overnight letter as second choice, and that a strong
preference was expressed for email with peers, while a more respectful
medium was preferred for communication with a manager (St. Amant &
Sapienza, 2011, p. 140).

The following is an excerpt from a guide to writing letters to Japanese

readers.
A Japanese letter is the reverse of one in the West, in the sense that you
proceed first from the general to the specific. You need to begin with the
social niceties, with small talk about the weather, the holidays, or some
seasonal reference. Include at least a paragraph of such material before
getting to the heart of the correspondence. You may begin the business
section with a phrase such as: We are so happy that your business is
becoming more prosperous, and then state your business in a soft
manner. Even then, do not be overly direct or assertive. Use phrases like; I
am not sure; I wonder if; I hope this is not too bold a request, but
Also, include some sort of reference to the personal, trusting relationship
you have both put so much effort into, and how you desire its continuance.
Your letter should end with a closing general phrase at the bottom, followed
by the date. The date is given in the reverse order of dates in the West: the
year, the month, and then the day.
(Markel, 2010, p. 96)

Gibson 7

EXERCISE 2
THE DIMENSIONS OF CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION AT WORK

Lecture: Discuss the concepts of face, cultural communication styles, and

Hofstedes five dimensions of culture. Share relevant examples of each.
Objective: To facilitate a deeper understanding of the concepts of face,
and American versus Asian communication styles and cultural practices.
Materials: Copies of the Face-Related Behavior chart, Hofstedes Five
Dimensions of Culture chart, More Points to Consider... chart, Guide to
writing Japanese letters, all distributed as handouts; pen or pencil, and
paper.
Implementation: Study the following scenario. Discuss how the situation
might best be addressed. Consider the theories and concepts recently
discussed, such as face, direct versus indirect communication style, gender
style, correspondence preferences, cultural expectations, etc.
Scenario
You are a U.S. communications specialist working at the Chinese location of
your employer. Your job is to write manuals, in addition to other duties
involving communication, and you lead a team of Chinese technical
communicators. To complicate matters, you are required to frequently
communicate with your Chinese managers, apprising them of your progress,
plans and/or snarls encountered as your department progresses. Emails
from your coworkers are often filled with poorly written sentences and
grammatical errors. In addition, correspondence is written in a very indirect
style, often leaving you clueless. You are accustomed to a fast-paced
environment where instructions are clear and concise, with tight deadlines
you adhere to faithfully. Your working relationship with co-workers and
superiors in the American office was relaxed and informal. How do you
intend to address the disparity in cultural communication styles? How do you
address indirectness, and the vague, poorly written emails your receive,
while your Chinese counterparts wrestle to learn and manage your primary
language? How do you write a manual providing instruction when the
straightforward approach is considered offensive? What are some strategies
you can employ to achieve success?

Gibson 8

Enhancing Communication through Graphics, Translation

and Localization
As expected, translation is an essential step in preparing documents for
international audiences. However, translation in technical communication
transcends the mere substitution of one word for another. Author Kirk St.
Amant, expounds: Translation is not a simple process where all one does is
convert words from one language to another. Rather, translation is a
specialized skill in which the translator needs to how specific words get
converted from one language into another, and what the rhetorical
expectations of both cultures are (St. Amant, 2003, p. 2). To succeed at
translating successfully without offending the reader, it is imperative that the
translator have a firm understanding of the culture for which he/she
translates. What are the spoken and unspoken cultural mores of the
international audience? Translation expertise is one of the most vital services
and skills technical communicators can provide to a company appealing to
international consumers and end-users.
Translation, however, is but one step to converting documents for crosscultural communication. Two equally important processes are undertaken to
ensure the fluid movement of text and ideas across continents and cultures.
Internationalization, closely linked to translation, is the process of
converting culture-specific materials into a more general format that can
easily be used by a greater/general international audience (St. Amant,
2003, p. 1). The conversion of time from the standard American format to
a more general format is an example of internalization. The converse of
internationalization is localization, which may be defined as a kind of
cultural custom fitting (St. Amant, 2003, p. 1). In this step, documents
undergo a custom fitting to match the exact cultural expectations of an
particular culture.
Localization may include attention to the important specifics of color, icons
and other symbols, so that documents will be deemed credible by the
receiving audience. American symbolism familiar and generally overlooked at
home, may confuse international readers, unfamiliar with American icons
and symbols. For example, the color red in the American culture is often
used to signify danger or caution, while the same color in the Chinese
culture is equated with celebration. Icons such as the American style mail

Gibson 9

box and the first-place blue ribbon may not be equated with the same
meaning in other cultural settings. In the U.K., a red ribbon often signifies
first place, with the blue ribbon denoting a second-place finish (St. Amant,
2009). Such miscommunication, while seemingly small, may have a great
impact, and impede the results desired. In Islamic countries where gender
roles are strictly enforced, graphics depicting a working woman, or any
woman appearing in positions of authority over men, would not be well
received, and any product bearing such symbolism would likely be rejected.
Technical communicators with expertise in localization, translation and
internationalization provide specialized services immeasurable in the scope
of contribution they provide to cross-cultural communication and the
globalization of goods and services, alike.
Writing for translation involves writing documents that are considered
translation friendly. The four steps below outline the process for creating
translation-friendly documents.
1. The writer must replace any figures of speech, and culturally specific
wording, with more generic terms that could be understood by a wider
international audience. The expression Its raining cats and dogs
would be replaced with a statement such as its raining very forcefully
or very hard.
2. The drafter of the document needs to include words that make the
relationship between items in a sentence or a paragraph clearer. In
short, the writer must remove ambiguity. For example, the statement,
This is a bad idea is ambiguous, since the translator may be unsure
what this refers to.
3. The writer must write in such a way that the words used can have only
one meaning throughout the text. For example, the word invalid may
mean not valid or it may refer to a sick person.
4. The writer needs to supply the translator with a glossary of terms,
containing the following kinds of words:

Newly coined or highly technical terms. Remember, new words are

being added to the dictionary each day.

Specialized or uncommon terms not part of everyday English.

(St. Amant, 2003, p. 3-4).

Gibson 10

EXERCISE 3
DOUBLE MEANING, CULTURAL PROVERBS, AND FIGURES OF SPEECH

Objective: To make group members aware of common words and

expressions that may lead to translation and miscommunication blunders.
Materials: Handout of Cultural Sayings, pen or pencil, and paper.
Implementation: Part One: Group Members are to interpret the proverbs
on the handout and provide substitutive means to express the proverbs in a
more culturally-friendly generic style. Part Two: Group members will list
American words which have dual meaning, such as set and invalid-words that might challenge international audiences and pose difficulty for
translators.
Cultural Sayings and Proverbs
1. The nail that sticks up feels the hammer first.Japan
2. To drown in a glass of water.--Mexico
3. Put your nose to the grindstone.U.S.
4. Fish and visitors smell after three days.U.S.
5. Dont make an elephant out of a mosquito.Estonia
6. The slowest barker is the surest biter. France
7. No flies get into a closed mouth.Mexico
8. Just because you wake up early, the dawn wont happen any sooner.
Mexico
9. Too much and too little ruin everything.Sweden
10. The one who opens his mouth for a lot, often loses the whole piece.
Sweden
11. A word is not a sparrow; once it flies out you cant catch it.Russia
12. Heaven is high; Emperor is far.China
13. Very often behind a sweet talking mouth is hiding a poisonous heart.
Romania
14. Tell me who you run around with and I will tell you who you are.
Mexico
15. The leaves on the tree do not last forever.Mexico

Gibson 11

16. The truth rises to light as the oil above the water.Romania
17. Better to take what is certain than aim for the uncertain.Sweden
18. The one who is not right is the one who screams the loudest.
Romania
(Stringer and Cassiday, 2009, p. 193)

Cross-Cultural Communication in Technical Writing-Trends,

Changes and Challenges
In spite of the specialized skills of translation, internationalization, and
localization, miscommunication across cultures and continents still occurs.
Authors like Huatong Sun, have sought to understand why these current
practices are failing to achieve their intended results. According to Sun, the
focus on localization is simply too narrow, as too much emphasis is placed
upon the dos and do nots in cross-cultural communication (2009, para.
1). The process of localization is to capture and address the unique
characteristics of a particular culture, and then match documents, marketing
and packaging to fit those unique cultural characteristics. According to Sun,
this practice is precisely the problem. Sun posits, it is hard to separate
local culture from global culture. Both local cultures and global cultures are
so closely intertwined that the former is actually one part of the latter
(2009, para. 7).
Globalization, today, is more than an economic phenomenon; it is also a
cultural one, as West embraces East, and East embraces West. This blending
and bleeding of one culture into another is evident in the music, clothing and
fashion of teens and young adults worldwide. Restaurants that were once
American icons, only, are expanding abroad at a rapid pace with no signs of
abating, but the most significant blending of cultures is evident in the music.
Consider the global expansion of the much controversial hip-hop music,
which originated in urban America.
Today, it is embraced, imitated,
worshipped and disdained in France, Germany, Shanghai, Japan, and other
countries and cultures too numerous to mention.
Though unfathomable to imagine, such blending of cultures almost renders
the practice of localization null and void, since the focus is no longer to
isolate a cultures mores, since all cultural mores bear semblance. Is it
possible that teens and young adults will truly bridge all cultural divides, as

Gibson 12

they shed the traditional practices of their cultures in exchange for a generic
international one-size-fits-all? What two cultures stand in greater opposition
than the polite, honor-preserving, face-saving, niceties of the Asians and
the often crude, vulgar, misogynistic and aggressive, in-your-face lyrics of
the hip hop movement and music? Surprisingly, Asian youth are as obsessed
with the hip hop phenomenon as the urban American youth who birthed it.
Only time will tell if Asian youths will dispense with hip hop and rap as they
cross the threshold into adulthood and don the business attire of their
forefathers before them. None can predict where cultural boundaries will lie
in the future, and if or when the need for localization will cease to be as
important as it is today. Clearly, products and services geared toward teens
and young adults may require a more globally generic marketing strategy.
Nonetheless, appeals directed at older international audiences must adhere,
still, to the traditions, expectations and practices that have defined these
cultures for centuries.
Change is certainly on the horizon, but a massive cultural blending and
osmosis has yet to occur, such that all cultural boundaries are erased. With
this realization in mind, technical communicators will continue to write with
consideration for the cultural differences that divide us, identify us, and
make us inherently unique. Concurrently, however, all must remain alert to
theories espoused by the likes of Huatong Sun: in the age of globalization,
culture is a dynamic process in which cultural meanings, objects and
identities flow across institutions, nations, and generations (Sun, 2009,
para. 7).

Gibson 13

A Checklist for Cross-Cultural Communicators

Be aware that reading patterns differ. In some countries people read

from right to left or top to bottom.
Be aware of varying cultural attitudes toward giving instructions.
Avoid culture-specific language, symbols, and references.
Portray people very carefully in graphics and symbolism.
Be careful in portraying hand gestures.
If possible study the documents written by people in your cultural
audience.
Study your readers culture, and seek assistance from someone native
to the culture.
Read guides and visit websites which may assist you in writing for
readers from others cultures.
(Markel, 2010, p.96, 333-335)

To Learn More About Cross-Cultural Communication Read:

52 Activities for Improving Cross-Cultural Communication,
Stringer and Patricia A. Cassiday, Authors.

Donna M.

Culture,
Communication
and
Cyberspace:
Rethinking
Technical
Communication for International Online Environments. Kirk St. Amant and
Filipp Sapienza, Editors.
Technical Communication, Mike Markel, Author.

Gibson 14

References
Markel, M. (2010). Technical Communication (9th ed.). Boston, M.A.:
Bedford/St. Martins.
St. Amant, K. & Sapienza, F. (2011). What We Have Here Is a Failure to
Communicate: How Cultural Factors Affect Online Communication
Between East and West in St. Amant, K. & Sapienza, F. (Eds.), Culture,
Communication and Cyberspace (pp. 131-141). Amityville, N.Y.:
Baywood Publishing.
St. Amant, K. (2003). Localization, internationalization, and translation.
Retrieved December 9, 2012 from
https://blackboard.ecu.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?
tab_tab_group_id=_6_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute
%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D_334926_1%26url%3D.
St. Amant, K. (2009). The role of rhetoric in localization and Offshoring.
Retrieved December 9, 2012, from
https://blackboard.ecu.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?
tab_tab_group_id=_6_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute
%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D_334926_1%26url%3D.
Stringer, M. & Cassiday, P. (2009). 52 Activities for Improving Cross-Cultural
Communication. Boston, M.A.: Intercultural Press.
Sun, H. (n.d.) Why cultural contexts are missing: A rhetorical critique of
Localization Practices. Retrieved December 9, 2012, from
https://blackboard.ecu.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?
tab_tab_group_id=_6_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute
%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D_334926_1%26url%3D