Modeling of Thermal Systems "40.1 Introduction ‘Astudent, after completing a few initial courses in mechanics develops a capability of formulating and arriving at equations of motion for systems comprising of particles and rigid bodies interacting with each other and acted upon by external forces. The situation with thermodynamics is not so happy. If we closely watch (or recall our ‘own experience) the growth of capability of a student in thermodynamics, it will be Apparent that in general students dwell within a class of thermo-dynamical systems Varying marginally from a well layed-out set of situations. Fault is not with the ‘students but often with the pedagogies in this field. The statements of the, so called, second law are often phenomenological in character from which each time a set of suitable working rules is erected to approach a new situation. The approaches become so arduous due to the tendency to delay the introduction of notion of entropy and absence of a basic unit or a building block such as. point in geometry and a particle in classical mechanics. In what follows, thermodynamics would be handled the way it was used by Born [3] and Prigogine [51]. The basic unit of thermodynamic modeling is a Homogenous Block. A homogenous block is a body or a subsystem which is at uniform temperature. The only way in which it’s entropy can be altered is through exchange of heat. Now, we state the second law of thermodynamics of a system comprising of ‘homogenous blocks. (@) Each homogenous block of the system is associated with a single valued function of time T, called temperature. The temperature of each homogenous block is a positive number ie, T > 0. 0) Ifthe total system is conceived as a set C of homogenous blocks, and say 4. rman Cio. 5 ised o Dn sein Seen ae apit IN MODELING, SIMULATION AND FAULT IDENTIFICATION GRAI 272 BOND! er words entropy is an vy etc. extensive quantity Tike mass, popu In othe volume, energ Ta o Rts The time rate of change of entropy of the system C has two componeni a8 ) © T A Pe @mi19NT Yo onifgt Sc =S.+ My Hobopy & is due to exchange from outside the system C ang, .$).,is;the, within the system C. (a). The.Sy-may take place. two ways, 0 Na 0, ny SiG oy 7 where Q,, is rate at which'the:# th homogenous block imports Heat ffom agencies outside the system C, 7; is the temperature of i th homogenous block and Nj is the number of homogenous blocks the system Cis comprised of. (i) The ‘other’ way’ of growth’ ofS, would 'bé through’ addition’ OF nay homogenous blocks. Tf may réducé if the homogenous blocks are removed from C. Symbolically we may write this component of entropy growth a S_q.NS, Where. is rate at which new homogenous blocks are added toe system € and Sis the entropy of blocks. In place of number of homogengs block N any other suitable enumerator may be used. For continuous systems mass or volume may as well play this role. ses 30 The total. rate of growth of exchange entropy is sum,of the changes in ba the above Wve ways, 1d eworagornell Sis not defined but 5,20. When §, is greater than zero the proces Called irreversible and when'8)'=0 then the process i reversible! noi All statements of second | axioms, We wil usr a ratioay let ay ‘one of them. Reader may try ClandStés stutément: . Re Woody at fiver ease Work it flows from te Proof :- Let us as shown in Fig. 103, memLING OFITHERMALSYSTEMS 273 Move Fig. 10.1 Ihe block 4 is at a temperature T; and block B is at a temperature Ty, Say heat flows 2 and that of the B, from A to B then, rate of change'of entropy of 4, S4 1% §p=+ 2. The change of entropy of system Cis Ty Ke he change of entropy is entirely internal thus 5,20 which leads to 0247) » 9 Tip Now as 7,> 0 and 7,> 0 one may see that 7j >7y. Tj.’ Ty means'that if heat goes from. Ato B then the temperature of A is higher than that of B. What about 7, = T, can heat till go from to B of from’B t6 A, a8 both should be permissible? Yes, ifa part of 41S ‘worklessly removed and appended to B or vice versa. Such a transfer is reversible. We how proceed to the actual business of modeling thermo-dynamical systems. This chapter begins with modeling a volume of gas to which mechanical and thermal ‘energies are imparted andthe! amount of gas varies by exchange of material. The pare Crfield for a volume of gas was. initially considered by Beaman and veld [4]. Section 10.2 to 10.7 of this chapter are devoted to creation of the C-field and its interfaces. 10.2 The thermal C- field for a volume of gas ceo acol ‘le chamber as ‘shown in Fig. 10.2 with. thermally conducting walls a hole which gas may enter or leave. The gas within the volume is a System compris aon Seer tomers block at the same tempyrature enumerated by the 4 | 2 aie et ese. | aiaND FAULT IDENTIFICATION. MODELING, SIMULATION Al Bonn GRAPH IN 274 Fig. 10.2 The intemal energy inside the volume V may be expressed as a function of volume the chamber, total entropy and total mass of the gas inside the chamber. Itis assum that the gas under consideration is ideal. U=UV,S,m). (10.1) where U= internal energy, = chamber volume, = total entropy and ‘m= total mass of the gas inside the chamber. The rate of change of this intemal energy with respect to time may be written as ou ou Pa age and aes where oe is thermodynamic pressure, T is absolute temperature and jis chemicl Abasic C- fi ic Nett now may be proposed as shown in Fig. 103.MopeLING oF THERMAL Systems 275 C- field has three power ports. The flow and effort variables for mechanical port ‘and -p, that for thermal port are S and T and for material port are mm and #1. .C-field is not complete for the process of generation of entropy S is incomplete. Hig an extensive quantity we may define S= ms, where s is entropy per unit mass. rt md (103) The component sis is due to mass transfer where as mi is the growth due to heat ‘gansfer to the gas volume as we assume that there is no possibility of growth of lentropy in any other way inside the chamber. Thus: S=ns+Syy (10.4) ‘where Sj, denotes growth of entropy due to heat transfer. J Now an outer layer may be added to the basic C- field as shown in Fig. 104. Ifthe effort of the external material port is taken as h,, then he = +Ts. (10.5) ‘One interprets 4 as internal or Gibb’s free energy per unit mass of gas entering the chamber and as s is entropy per unit mass of the gas h. becomes enthalpy of unit “Mass of the gas within the chamber. This may be shown as follows. _ The Gibb’s free energy function is defined as G=U+pV-IS=H-Ts, apd G~Gitb's free energy function for entire amount of gas, F ithalpy of entire amount of gas. Nowi ULATION AND FAULT IDENTIFICATION 1 MODELING,SIM 276 BOND GRAPH! - noliy ba woh af tog 19404 sani eel blah seliteey riot 0 SF:Q,/T $F:Q\/7 —— Fes | Jia] Aol i L ~~ f | SF Te | =O} , { f | 4 f re {1-40 —I1 — +) : I PA V2 hy hy! iy (ame BT Ag 21 hy=hal H (hgh) ee a — H(h,-h,):SF 27 2 Fig, 10.10 10.7 Interface through finite resistor le uume the chambers are interconnected through a resistive element a8) in Fig, 10.11, The flow through such a resistor obeys linear law as follows: ap= RO, where Ap is Pressure drop across the resistor and @ is the it and Ris the resistance. it inpMODELING oF THERMat SysteMs 283 Oy ee ie @)-—s4 ‘Ap, [—— Jp is also assumed that the flow inside the chamber receiving the gas becomes ted, Thus kinetic energy of the gas gets converted to heat there. This additional ‘entropy must be accounted for at the receiving chamber. The bond graph model of this system is shown in Fig. 10.12 whereSIMULATION AND FAULT IDENTIFICATION MODELING, 284 BonD GRAPHIN eee mneumatic resister iS defined often the P! pan Ap. = of Fig, 10.12 would be moditieg bond graph mass flow rate ae Seay oh oi 1058 el Hw = where ‘it A wl shown in Fig. 10.13 * oe Ry jt - Qt on —-—=0 SF 01 | SF oa C5 TAR 0 4 Tra 1=40—s11-——_> | = TF fly Init a | a ; A (iL Ht (aay SF 1 (ity tay fi SF Ca 9) i + cpa Fig. 10.13 10.8 Model of a toy hovercraft A model of toy Hovercraft is shown in Fig. 10.14. The spring with stiffness K is kept compressed to start with, On release it pushes the Piston P, which in turn compresses the gas in chamber -1. The gas from ha chamber -1 goes to the lower chamber 2 Ta through a resistor R, then = lower chamber it 8Mopeuinc or THenmat Systems 285 it is the pressure in the lower chamber that keeps the craft afloat. The bond shof the device is shown in Fig. 10.15. Mpil#— 120 +11 ig ae ons Se ie ‘Ap oe % C (eee 2 ORY Hepp) es 0 FART HO SF aw ron d 15 = ——— cy 1 0—a In? 0-1 a sp:-2en3p /2hyoha) (Ta~h) | cae 0-—-C C44 0 +4 SF Fig. 10.15 10.9 Pseudo bond graph for heat transfer and concept of derived bond _ &raph (DBG) 9.1 Pseudo bond graph for heat transfer h ‘modeling of the thermal interface was presented in the previous section. This ‘Was essentially that of heat transfer through a thermal resister. The base of theMODELING, SINULATION AND FAULT IDENTIFICATION HIN 286 BOND GRA! ry: pseudo bond graph model for the phenomenon oft : a ean in thermal capacitor may be created as foll heat and its accu raster Fig. 10.16 To start with let us consider a thermal resister as shown in Fig. 10.16, The rate of he transfer Q through an ideal linear thermal resister (with constant thermal conductivity and no thermal capacity) may be written as ' O=M(f,-f), (1028) where 4 is the area of cross-section, / is coefficient of thermal conductivity, 7, and T, are the temperatures at the two faces of the thermal conductor. . In terms of thermal conductivity k one may write the relation as SG-n), (1029) where Lis the length of the conductor. These relations are similar to that of flow of current through an electrical resistance, if we give Q the status of flow, T)and T;that of potentials or Wie Th) as the effort (potential difference) applied to the conductor and WA) or Li(k4) the status of resistance That is rim), Unlike electrical systems, where flow system Q times (1-1) Telates to no multiplied by. of Constitutive a heat through a be -Mopeuinc or THERMAL SYSTEMS 287 {let us consider an ideal heat capacitor as shown in the Fig. 10.18. eo Fig. 10.18 t capacitor is, what is often termed as thermodynamic homogeneous ck. Which means the entire body is at the same temperature. Heat reaches all its tantaneously. If a mass point is treated as a primitive building block of ical mechanics, these homogeneous blocks are primitive building blocks of dynamics. For a thermal capacitor, Ma)-To)=2 foe, (1031) Ta)-No) is rise in temperature of the heat capacitor, C it's heat capacity and @ the heat flowing to it. One may express C in terms of specific heat and total mass the substance as C = mc. This relation is similar to charging of an electrical pacitor, The simple bond graph mimicking this phenomenon is shown in Fig. 10.19. ae \aee eee Fig. 10.19 we are prepared to create bond graph models of heat transfer in simple ions. Let us consider a conducting rod placed between two chambers at es Ti and T:.as shown in Fig. 10.20. The rod is insulated such that heat ws-in axial direction. The rod is then subdivided in reticules (say six in this ).A JON AND FAULT IDENTIFICATION tw MODELING, SIMUL 288 BoND.GRAPH tual reticulation is done assuming that heat a = ‘cack, " The conceptual neous blocks and the resistances represent a ont to that of the next reticule are placed tivity from Deete tivity of half a reticules are placed at ty centre resis! fogenons Hoke ources, This scheme is shown in Fig. 1021, interfacing BS RBS Real ‘ caf Fig. 10.21 Pseudo bond graph model of the system as per the above reticulation is shown in Fig. 10.22. Re/2 Bitte ewes th { IK 9_a cig, & ‘SEMODELING OF THERMAL SYSTEMS 289 5 Pure substance (HO) Conductive under going phase h transitions 1 ff Heat transfer 1 Pld st SU eae 1 : ba $e + Pat a Rodiativeheat--} jb Radiative heat transfer — transfer Heat capacityof the solid wall Fig. 10.23 total heat and temperature relation of the pure substance may be as shown in 10.24. The bond graph of the system is shown in Fig. 10.25. ae boiling melting solid Fig. 10.24 Ria Cpsl.Q) R./2 Cw, R22 Ry, R c R c R a ial —-0—= | —~9—=1 leh antIDENTIFICATION Grant tn MODELING, SIMULATION AND PAU 290 BOND for radiative heat transfer between surface i and / may be expr, R, ‘The resistor as follows. 1 R, [acts +7))(%.+77) Te, + Ve. and A, are the areas of * and j* surfaces, 6 is the Stefan. ir A a= mils A) ee core the temperatures of the two surfaces and gy yaeae Boltzmann constant T;, 7) emissivity of the surfaces. One will have to create a working bond graph from the conceptual bond Braph by appending suitable observers and modulated sources. For inclined surfaces one has 3 eae view factors. Reader may see details in any standard text on heat transfer. 10.9.2 Derived bond graphs - a path to pseudo bond graphs (Note: reader may skip this section if he is not specially disturbed by pseudo bond graphs of heat transfer). Often system equations derived in one set of variables may be changed to some other set of variables. The variables of the new set are function of those of the original set. Such change of variable is done either by bringing the set of equations to easily integrable form or to obtain other meaningful description of system behavior or both. Such change of variables may even be done right at the system model in form of bond graph. However, in doing so we may have to bring suitable changes in the constitutive relation of the elements including the two-ports TF and GY and the junction elements. In addition to this an icon like an enclosing box will have to be introduced for representing the change of variables and scope of the change in the Beni model. These new readjusted graphs may be called derived bond graphs. In the ‘ollowing we would develop the idea of derived bond graph in steps. 10.9.3 Definitions is an enclosure which encloses a part or fe graph which is within the scape-box I ned fined as functions of original effort and noid are cree wes of the box which do not intersect any or just nes i ese notches vata the triangular notch the foorson seated = —_ flow ‘on mapping the original S written and within or lust near the rectan, ‘ular notch the function: bis i 8Fig. 10.26 Fig. 10.27 g Functions (MF): The mapping functions may be written as follows f'=GAf) and e'=H;(e). e and fare the effort and flow variables of original true bond graph model, df’ are that of derived bond graph. The function G,( /) is function of originalING, SIMULATION AND FAULT LOENTIFICA TION: ye 292 ono Grarnin MOD and ererten tea tes” it would be marked as /y (Fi; rt of the graph this junction woul Id 4 (Fig. 10 derived pa ph jee Jaws would be modified as Goth ey ee ee aa =o) and 11 Vet)+ Hy Meh) Hy Meh) toes Hy Meh) =0 Likewise for a zero junction of the original model shown in Fig. 10.29. ahr ae Ng Care) an aS Fig. 10.29 md he hepesy. Whereas for the ‘ Would get revised og Pending Oy junction shown in Fig. 1G+ Ge '(6)+ Ge UD* . Gel) Hee) — and y Fig. 10.30 ved junction | and 0 even within the scope- adeler has option of using under Fit turns out meaningful. sive relation for true bond graph may be written 25 C Element: The constitut id exo(0)) with 0 [£04 Id be or derived C element the constitute relation shoul cits... {introduce derived generalized displacement aS. al LEON oe [ree git nui reer ewollol may be able to write the derived constitutive reIR#OM.. jy 6 =91(0). is: ” ‘pulo-a raMODELING, SIMULATION AND FAULT IDENTIFICATION 7 ‘APH IN 294 BoND GR r-cale ie melee] e may also introduce derived generalized momentum One may i BF i mi ‘One may als Pp "(E)dé . le (é)as 1 be that some times the derived constitutive laws may be written as o = Hilo), it may be Derived & Element: When & element isin its resistive form the constitutive eatin rive : may be written as e = p,(/). Thus it's derived form would be | =H, oP Ga) i] : Likewise if the element is in its conductive form, then it would be / = x(e). It's derived form may then be written as f'= Gao ( H 7 1)] : Derived two-port Element: Let us now consider derived two-port elements. (i) Derived Transformer: Sa relation for forward causalit y in a true bond graph model a transformer ty as shown in Fig. 10.31 is as follows, A=U fs q=pe. Its derived version would be AG nae" (y)]; =H] wuz! ()) a al Fig. 10.31 In reversed causalityMopetinc or THERMAL Systems 295 abil ip ely nema; heme H we d version would be ype afta" | : modulus operates on the original flow and effort variables. Otherwise there change in the role of mapping functions. In a scope-box, the derived transformer represented as shown in Fig, 10.33. Gelf) He@) ett) ix # ee Fig. 10.33 Derived Gyrator: The constitutive relations of a gyrator for two of its causal on as shown in Fig. 10.34(a) and Fig. 10.34(b) would be as follows. p 4 u Gy—2—_syJ jy—1_Gy-_ + J8 derived relations should have been asfollows. beset tp ‘The correspond Nes boyd Layer pac ben) ‘a end (if owl i ider'a: significant aspect of these relations are not valid. Let us consis oa But Pe tsiaies of flow toveffort and effort to flow Across a gyrator, demands that the mapping functions should also be flipped. The low, elermeny function before a gyrator element should be flipped to an effort mapping o ae follow. ( GA) =G le). Likewise the effort mapping function would be flipped to a flow mapping junction a follows. H,(e)> HA). Thus one scope-box should terminate right at a gyrator and a new scope-box should then begin with mapping functions flipped as shown in Fig! 10-35. This i8 in addition to the constitutive relation. se Se Hrte) He(f) Gre), l Fig. 10.35 The right derived constitutive rel 1 lation for’ py tat considering all the changes which t aaa ‘ake place across this oe For the causal orientation of Fig. 1034(a) the derived 4 Gyhay| Mopenincor THen ma systems 297, ‘qusal orientation of Fig, 10.34(b) the derived constitutive relation of the: q Vad 1 fe nie ‘)} wi ca ((4or) 3 to the problem of heat transfer homogeneous blocks. at temperatures 7) and. 7} interconnected istivity R or conductivity C, = 1/R as ‘of the homogeneous blocks be C, and ider two {deal linear thermal conductor of res Fig. 10.36, Say the thermal capaci icqeqore rf) tuo aher (6.01 yf) ‘graph for this system may be created in two ways, i eT ? = ey / ing, total heat Q as base measure and temperature,as effort and rate of se of entropy as flow. vo bo 0 0 y\s as base measure and reciprocal of absolute oer as effort ancl rate of heat flow @ as flow. The effort ¢ | {a)The phenomenon of n the previous section of thermal interface,Fig. 10.37 .ws for thermal capacitors would be as follows. ‘The la C= TS. thus T#Tye%%, where T is the initial temperature and Syis the initial entropy. C is the heat capacity. Now we proceed for derived bond graph with mapping functions as ; : i 0=G,(8)=18. and T= H,(1)=T , identity mapping. We would perform the mapping. in two stages, First, we mark out the scope~boxes and the mapping functions, covering the bond graph model (Fig. 10.38). Qe is \E 2 aed i # os Gy ~ Scope Box Fig. 10.38 ‘The derived resistive field then would beMODELING OF THERMAL SYSTEMS 299 citor would be as $-IT. 9B ,s T=Tge ts, 14 ae 6 or Fate eels" OH al= or T=OWIC, oc P-L f OG)as. ‘The derive 0-junction, 0, is as follows (Fig. 10.39). Fig. 10.39 o difference between derived 0, and original 0-junction and one may see has been reduced to a simple one port R element with resistivity C; and true 0junction, Thus the derived bond graph is as shown in Fig. 10.40.jparttiy MODELING) SIMULATION AND FAULT IDENTIFICATION 300. BoND GRAl ow if the gyrator is removed by reinterpreting, 0, show that this ch; dent of its value, pansion of gas lange of entropy is ly insulated tube wi ith ends closed Partitioned in twoAND FAULT IDENTIFICATION MODELING, SIMULATION 306 BoND GRAPHIN is shown in Fig. p103. Draw its bond graph model. Assume that there is no exchange of heat with the environment or within the system. The hydraulic resistances at the oil ports follow a law p3. A hydro-preumatic shock absorber pet A ISESSSESSSESS —$ 9/0 7G Ae le where p is the density of oil, C, is the coefficient of discharge, Ap is port area, rot Lt @ is volumetric flow and Ap is the pressure difference. Fig. P10.3 P4. A simple entrapped gas D™] spring system is shown in L le Fig. P104. The fraction between piston and cylinder is assumed to be zero. A a load M, is placed at the top of piston as shown in Fig. P10.4. The chamber is filled with ideal gas at volume and _ sufficient pressure ' + balance the load. The deal gas ie thermal resistance of the wall is , and the ambient temperature is 1, Draw thermal resistance bond graph model of the Of the wall = Bq system with thermal ports, the Ta Ta Fig. Pog and derive 5 ts damping el equations, Show that Y Agen when Ra») aaMopetine oF THenaat Systems 307 ‘A thermo fluid syste m with a scheme of discretization of thermo fluid ve shown in Fig. P10.5. The total inertia and hydraulic resistance of the water in the tube may be considered as lumped in single I and R elements. The out let valve is also represented by a resistance. ‘Lumped thermal Lumped heat resistance of water ‘capacitance ha L 2 3 Axes hth eee Finite pneumatic resistance L+j-J coil with electric Lumped Air-Water resistance Re interface thermal resistance Fig. P10.5 Draw bond graph model of the system. The tube may assumed to be ‘uniform with area of cross section a and the reservoir of area A. The " temperatures in each section are much below the boiling temperature of ; thus there is no phase change in the system. problems ‘compressible fluid with constant density flows through a tube of cross- area A. The tube is thermally insulated every where along its length a portion of length /. This portion of the tube is a heat conductor. this portion a resistive coil of resistance R. is wound. This coil is from outside by an insulating tube with reflecting inner surface. of the heat generated in the coil goes to the flowing water as n Fig. Pr10.1 per Bhar se ei ‘thermal insulator—— UU i: 11N MODELING, SIMULATION AND FAULT IDENTIFICATION 308 BoND GRAN! uid per unit volume is Cy the the inlet temperature iS Tin then create real and fence h models of the system to predict the outlet temperature If the thermal capacity of the fl conductivity is pseudo bond grap! Tout ww heat exchanger is shown in Fig. Pr10.2. Pr2. A coaxial counter flor a 6 perfect insulator et = ; ia 6, Ro a Ri ae Per | gt tare oe | + t He tt i tt ap | 164 acne aaeaicen Fig. Pr10.2 The thermal conductivity of the wall of inner tube is Ke and its capacity per unit volume is Cw. The heat capacity of unit volumes of Fe a ne thermal conductivity of fluids be kj. Consider the system ic S eine it by transverse planes such as aa’ and bb! as eee or simplicity assume that temperature of each rm. Create derived or pseudo bond graph model onpter 11 sdraulic Systems Introduction Tational theory of the phenomenon of fluid flow has developed as a branch of known as Fluid Mechanics. Fluid mechanics is a field theory in the sense that ‘entities involved are functions of both space and time. Like any other rational of the physical world, fluid mechanics also has a structure, which is built h physical observations. These observations lead to constitutive laws of fluids ‘when subjected to the laws of mechanics and thermodynamics acquire the x of predicting the motion of fluid media and all other properties that are in various contexts. It has been rightly pointed out by Karnopp and g [31] that bond graphs are capable of dealing with the problems of fluid mechanics. lies on the other hand aims at suitably discretising fluid mechanics. Its lumps |real components of a circuit of fluid. These macro lumps may now be combining science of fluid, mechanics and empirical measurements. The of a hydraulic circuit are pumps, pipes, pistons, valves, restrictions, nulators and hydraulic motors. The fluid flowing through them or stored is very high volumetric stiffness and may be treated as incompressible. The in major parts of a hydraulic circuit is slow enough to ensure that the dominates the dynamic pressure and viscous stresses. However, the ‘extremely fast through valves and restrictions, being predominantly y inertial forces. Immediately before and after these restrictions and ‘is again slow. The flow through valves and restrictions are thus necessary for creating the mathematical usable in analysis and design of hydraulic circuits,