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BBCNewsWorldWarOne:10interpretationsofwhostartedWW1

MAGAZINE
11February2014Lastupdatedat19:32ET

WorldWarOne:10interpretationsofwhostartedWW1
Asnationsgearuptomark100yearssincethestartofWorldWarOne,academicargumentstillragesoverwhich
countrywastoblamefortheconflict.
EducationSecretaryforEnglandMichaelGove'srecentcriticismofhowthecausesandconsequencesofthewararetaughtin
schoolshasonlystokedthedebatefurther.
Here10leadinghistoriansgivetheiropinion.
SirMaxHastingsmilitaryhistorian

Germany
Noonenationdeservesallresponsibilityfortheoutbreakofwar,butGermanyseemstometodeservemost.
ItalonehadpowertohaltthedescenttodisasteratanytimeinJuly1914bywithdrawingits"blankcheque"whichoffered
supporttoAustriaforitsinvasionofSerbia.
I'mafraidIamunconvincedbytheargumentthatSerbiawasaroguestatewhichdeserveditsnemesisatAustria'shands.AndI
donotbelieveRussiawantedaEuropeanwarin1914itsleadersknewthatitwouldhavebeeninafarstrongerpositiontofight
twoyearslater,havingcompleteditsrearmamentprogramme.
ThequestionofwhetherBritainwasobligedtojointheEuropeanconflictwhichbecameinevitableby1Augustisalmosta
separateissue.InmyownviewneutralitywasnotacredibleoptionbecauseaGermanyvictoriousonthecontinentwouldnever
afterwardshaveaccommodatedaBritainwhichstilldominatedtheoceansandglobalfinancialsystem.
SirRichardJEvansRegiusprofessorofhistory,UniversityofCambridge

Serbia
SerbiaborethegreatestresponsibilityfortheoutbreakofWW1.Serbiannationalismandexpansionismwereprofoundly
disruptiveforcesandSerbianbackingfortheBlackHandterroristswasextraordinarilyirresponsible.AustriaHungaryboreonly
slightlylessresponsibilityforitspanicoverreactiontotheassassinationoftheheirtotheHabsburgthrone.
FranceencouragedRussia'saggressivenesstowardsAustriaHungaryandGermanyencouragedAustrianintransigence.Britain
failedtomediateasithaddoneinthepreviousBalkancrisisoutoffearofGermany'sEuropeanandglobalambitionsafearthat
wasnotentirelyrationalsinceBritainhadclearlywonthenavalarmsraceby1910.
ThegenerallypositiveattitudeofEuropeanstatesmentowardswar,basedonnotionsofhonour,expectationsofaswiftvictory,
andideasofsocialDarwinism,wasperhapsthemostimportantconditioningfactor.Itisveryimportanttolookattheoutbreakof
thewarintheroundandtoavoidreadingbacklaterdevelopmentstheGermanSeptemberProgrammeforexample(anearly
statementoftheirwaraims)intotheeventsofJulyAugust1914.
DrHeatherJonesassociateprofessorininternationalhistory,LSE
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BBCNewsWorldWarOne:10interpretationsofwhostartedWW1

AustriaHungary,GermanyandRussia
AhandfulofbellicosepoliticalandmilitarydecisionmakersinAustriaHungary,GermanyandRussiacausedWW1.
Relativelycommonbefore1914,assassinationsofroyalfiguresdidnotnormallyresultinwar.ButAustriaHungary'smilitary
hawksprincipalculpritsfortheconflictsawtheSarajevoassassinationoftheAustroHungarianArchdukeFranzFerdinand
andhiswifebyaBosnianSerbasanexcusetoconqueranddestroySerbia,anunstableneighbourwhichsoughttoexpand
beyonditsbordersintoAustroHungarianterritories.Serbia,exhaustedbythetwoBalkanwarsof191213inwhichithadplayed
amajorrole,didnotwantwarin1914.
BroaderEuropeanwarensuedbecauseGermanpoliticalandmilitaryfigureseggedonAustriaHungary,Germany'sally,to
attackSerbia.ThisalarmedRussia,Serbia'ssupporter,whichputitsarmiesonawarfootingbeforealloptionsforpeacehad
beenfullyexhausted.
ThisfrightenedGermanyintopreemptivelydeclaringwaronRussiaandonRussia'sallyFranceandlaunchingabrutalinvasion,
partlyviaBelgium,therebybringinginBritain,adefenderofBelgianneutralityandsupporterofFrance.
JohnRohlemeritusprofessorofhistory,UniversityofSussex

AustriaHungaryandGermany
WW1didnotbreakoutbyaccidentorbecausediplomacyfailed.Itbrokeoutastheresultofaconspiracybetweenthe
governmentsofimperialGermanyandAustriaHungarytobringaboutwar,albeitinthehopethatBritainwouldstayout.
After25yearsofdominationbyKaiserWilhelmIIwithhisangry,autocraticandmilitaristicpersonality,hisbeliefinthe
clairvoyanceofallcrownedheads,hisdisdainfordiplomatsandhisconvictionthathisGermanicGodhadpredestinedhimto
leadhiscountrytogreatness,the20orsomenhehadappointedtodecidethepolicyoftheReichoptedforwarin1914inwhat
theydeemedtobefavourablecircumstances.
Germany'smilitaryandnavalleaders,thepredominantinfluenceatcourt,sharedadevilmaycaremilitarismthatheldwartobe
inevitable,timetoberunningout,andliketheirAustriancounterpartsbelieveditwouldbebettertogodownfightingthantogo
ontoleratingwhattheyregardedasthehumiliatingstatusquo.Inthespringof1914,thissmallgroupofmeninBerlindecidedto
make"theleapintothedark"whichtheyknewtheirsupportforanAustrianattackonSerbiawouldalmostcertainlyentail.
ThefinetuningofthecrisiswaslefttothecivilianchancellorTheobaldvonBethmannHollweg,whoseprimaryaimwasto
subvertdiplomaticinterventioninordertobeginthewarunderthemostfavourableconditionspossible.Inparticular,hewanted
toconvincehisownpeoplethatGermanywasunderattackandtokeepBritainoutoftheconflict.
GerhardHirschfeldprofessorofmodernandcontemporaryhistory,UniversityofStuttgart

AustriaHungary,Germany,Russia,France,BritainandSerbia
LongbeforetheoutbreakofhostilitiesPrussianGermanconservativeeliteswereconvincedthataEuropeanwarwouldhelpto
fulfilGermany'sambitionsforcoloniesandformilitaryaswellaspoliticalprestigeintheworld.
TheactualdecisiontogotowaroverarelativelyminorinternationalcrisisliketheSarajevomurder,however,resultedfroma
fatalmixtureofpoliticalmisjudgement,fearoflossofprestigeandstubborncommitmentsonallsidesofaverycomplicated
systemofmilitaryandpoliticalalliancesofEuropeanstates.
IncontrasttothehistorianFritzFischerwhosawGermanwaraimsinparticulartheinfamousSeptemberProgrammeof1914
withitsfarreachingeconomicandterritorialdemandsatthecoreoftheGermangovernment'sdecisiontogotowar,most
historiansnowadaysdismissthisinterpretationasbeingfartoonarrow.TheytendtoplaceGermanwaraims,orincidentallyall
otherbelligerentnations'waraims,inthecontextofmilitaryeventsandpoliticaldevelopmentsduringthewar.
DrAnnikaMombauerTheOpenUniversity

AustriaHungaryandGermany

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Wholelibrarieshavebeenfilledwiththeriddleof1914.Wasthewaranaccidentordesign,inevitableorplanned,causedby
sleepwalkersorarsonists?TomymindthewarwasnoaccidentanditcouldhavebeenavoidedinJuly1914.InViennathe
governmentandmilitaryleaderswantedawaragainstSerbia.TheimmediatereactiontothemurderofFranzFerdinandon28
June1914wastoseekredressfromSerbia,whichwasthoughttohavebeenbehindtheassassinationplotandwhichhadbeen
threateningAustriaHungary'sstandingintheBalkansforsometime.Crucially,adiplomaticvictorywasconsideredworthless
and"odious".AtthebeginningofJuly,Austria'sdecisionmakerschosewar.
ButinordertoimplementtheirwaragainstSerbiatheyneededsupportfromtheirmainallyGermany.WithoutGermany,their
decisiontofightagainstSerbiacouldnothavebeenimplemented.TheBerlingovernmentissueda"blankcheque"toitsally,
promisingunconditionalsupportandputtingpressureonViennatoseizethisgoldenopportunity.Bothgovernmentsknewitwas
almostcertainthatRussiawouldcometoSerbia'saidandthiswouldturnalocalwarintoaEuropeanone,buttheywerewilling
totakethisrisk.
Germany'sguaranteemadeitpossibleforViennatoproceedwithitsplansa"no"fromBerlinwouldhavestoppedthecrisisin
itstracks.WithsomedelayViennapresentedanultimatumtoSerbiaon23Julywhichwasdeliberatelyunacceptable.Thiswas
becauseAustriaHungarywasbentonawarandGermanyencourageditbecausetheopportunityseemedperfect.Victorystill
seemedpossiblewhereasinafewyears'timeRussiaandFrancewouldhavebecomeinvincible.Outofamixtureofdesperation
andoverconfidencethedecisionmakersofAustriaHungaryandGermanyunleashedawartopreserveandexpandtheir
empires.Thewarthatensuedwouldbetheirdownfall.
SeanMcMeekinassistantprofessorofhistoryatKocUniversity,Istanbul

AustriaHungary,Germany,Russia,France,BritainandSerbia
Itishumannaturetoseeksimple,satisfyinganswers,whichiswhytheGermanwarguiltthesisendurestoday.
WithoutBerlin'sencouragementofastrongAustroHungarianlineagainstSerbiaafterSarajevothe"blankcheque"WW1
wouldclearlynothavebrokenout.SoGermanydoesbearresponsibility.
ButitisequallytruethatabsentaterroristplotlaunchedinBelgradetheGermansandAustrianswouldnothavefacedthis
terriblechoice.CivilianleadersinbothBerlinandViennatriedto"localise"conflictintheBalkans.ItwasRussia'sdecisionafter
Petersburgreceiveditsown"blankcheque"fromParistoEuropeanisetheAustroSerbianshowdownwhichproducedfirsta
EuropeanandthenfollowingBritain'sentryworldconflagration.Russia,notGermany,mobilisedfirst.
Theresultingwar,withFranceandBritainbackingSerbiaandRussiaagainsttwoCentralPowers,wasRussia'sdesired
outcome,notGermany's.Still,noneofthepowerscanescapeblame.AllfiveGreatPowerbelligerents,alongwithSerbia,
unleashedArmageddon.
ProfGarySheffieldprofessorofwarstudies,UniversityofWolverhampton

AustriaHungaryandGermany
ThewarwasstartedbytheleadersofGermanyandAustriaHungary.Viennaseizedtheopportunitypresentedbythe
assassinationofthearchduketoattempttodestroyitsBalkanrivalSerbia.ThiswasdoneinthefullknowledgethatSerbia's
protectorRussiawasunlikelytostandbyandthismightleadtoageneralEuropeanwar.
GermanygaveAustriaunconditionalsupportinitsactions,againfullyawareofthelikelyconsequences.Germanysoughtto
breakuptheFrenchRussianallianceandwasfullypreparedtotaketheriskthatthiswouldbringaboutamajorwar.Someinthe
Germanelitewelcomedtheprospectofbeginninganexpansionistwarofconquest.TheresponseofRussia,Franceandlater
Britainwerereactiveanddefensive.
ThebestthatcanbesaidofGermanandAustrianleadersintheJulycrisisisthattheytookcriminalriskswithworldpeace.
DrCatrionaPennellseniorlecturerinhistory,UniversityofExeter

AustriaHungaryandGermany
Inmyopinion,itisthepoliticalanddiplomaticdecisionmakersinGermanyandAustriaHungarywhomustcarrytheburdenof
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responsibilityforexpandingalocalisedBalkanconflictintoaEuropeanand,eventually,globalwar.Germany,sufferingfrom
somethingofa"youngerchild"complexinthefamilyofEuropeanempires,sawanopportunitytoreconfigurethebalanceof
powerintheirfavourviaanaggressivewarofconquest.
On5July1914itissuedthe"blankcheque"ofunconditionalsupporttothecrumblingAustroHungarianEmpire(tryingto
reassertitsdominanceovertherebelliousSerbia),despitethelikelihoodofthissparkingwarwithRussia,anallyofFranceand
GreatBritain.However,AustriaHungary'sactionsshouldnotbeignored.
TheultimatumitissuedtoSerbiaon23Julywascomposedinsuchawaythatitspossibilityofbeingacceptedwasnear
impossible.Serbia'srejectionpavedthewayforAustriaHungarytodeclarewaron28July,thusbeginningWW1.
DavidStevensonprofessorofinternationalhistory,LSE

Germany
ThelargestshareofresponsibilitylieswiththeGermangovernment.Germany'srulersmadepossibleaBalkanwarbyurging
AustriaHungarytoinvadeSerbia,wellunderstandingthatsuchaconflictmightescalate.WithoutGermanbackingitisunlikely
thatAustriaHungarywouldhaveactedsodrastically.
TheyalsostartedwiderEuropeanhostilitiesbysendingultimatatoRussiaandFrance,andbydeclaringwarwhenthoseultimata
wererejectedindeedfabricatingapretextthatFrenchaircrafthadbombedNuremberg.
Finally,theyviolatedinternationaltreatiesbyinvadingLuxemburgandBelgiumknowingthatthelatterviolationwasvirtually
certaintobringinBritain.ThisisneithertodenythatthereweremitigatingcircumstancesnortocontendthatGerman
responsibilitywassole.
SerbiasubjectedAustriaHungarytoextraordinaryprovocationandtwosideswereneededforarmedconflict.Althoughthe
CentralPowerstooktheinitiative,theRussiangovernment,withFrenchencouragement,waswillingtorespond.
Incontrast,whileBritainmighthavehelpedaverthostilitiesbyclarifyingitspositionearlier,thisresponsibilityevendisregarding
thedomesticpoliticalobstaclestoanalternativecoursewaspassiveratherthanactive.
FindoutmoreonthegeneralsofWW1andifhistoryhasmisjudgedthemandtheWorldWarOneCentenary.
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