MCVSD9thGradeBiology

ComprehensiveExamReviewSheet
By:SamFisher,JuliaNager,LanaSalloum,Christina
Sundt,andDanDiPietro
SciencePractices

EssentialQuestions:

Safety(19symbols)
SafetyGoggles
Toprotectyoureyesfromforeignmaterials
LabApron
Toprotectyourskinandclothing
PlasticGloves
Tokeepawayfromcontactwithchemicalsorharmfulorganisms
Breakage
Handlematerialswithcareanddonttouchbrokenglass
HeatResistantGloves
Nevertouchhotobjectswithyourbarehandsandwearheatgloves
Heating
Useclamportongstoholdhotobjects
SharpObject
Pointawayfromyourselfandothersastheycancutorpunctureskin
ElectricShock
Neveruseelectricityaroundwateranduntanglecordssoyoudonttrip
CorrosiveChemical
Avoidgettingthischemicalonyouanddonotinhalevapors
Poison
Donotletitgetonyouorinhalevapors,andwashhandsafteruse
Flames

 Tiebackloosehairandclothingandfollowinstructionsforlighting
NoFlames
Flammablematerialsmaybepresent,donotuseflamesnearby
Fumes
Workinaventilatedareaandonlywafttheodor
PhysicalSafety
Usecautiontoavoidinjurytoyourselforothersduringphysicalmotion
AnimalSafety
Treatliveanimalswithcaretoavoidinjury,andtreatanimalpartswith
caution
PlantSafety
Handleplantsonlyasdirectedandavoidpoisonousorthornyplants
Disposal
Chemicalsandothermaterialsshouldbedisposedofcorrectly
HandWashing
Washyourhandsthoroughlywithsoapandwarmwater
GeneralSafetyAwareness
Followspecificinstructionsprovidedtoavoidinjury
GeneralSafetyRules
Dresscorrectlywithallsafetygearandnoloosehairorclothing
Followallgeneralsafetyrulesandknowwherefirstaidsuppliesare
Nevermixchemicalsforfun,waftthem,andusewithcaution
Neverusebrokenorchippedglasswareandhandlewithcaution
Handlelivespecimenwithcare
Scientificmethod
Scienceasaprocess=thescientificmethod
Step1:makeanobservation/askaquestion
observation:actionorprocessofobservingsomethingorsomeone
carefullyinordertogaininformation
theabilitytonoticesignificantdetails
inference:drawsaconclusionormakesalogicaljudgementonthe
basisofcircumstantialevidenceandpriorconclusionsratherthan
onthebasisofdirectobservation
typesofquestions:
testablevs.nontestable
Step2:gatherinformation
usingvalidresources
Step3:developahypothesisthatmakesaprediction
usepriorknowledge

 if.thenstatement
mustbetestable
Step4:testtheprediction(experiment)
experiment:atestundercontrolledconditionstotestahypothesis
Step5:collectdata
quantitative:havingtodowithnumbers
qualitative:descriptiveusingwords*think5senses
Step6:analyzedata
makinggraphscanhelptodetectpatterns
Step7:revisethehypothesisandrepeatasneeded
Step8:drawaconclusion
hypothesesmayneedtoberevised
makenewpredictionsandconductnewexperiments
Step9:shareyourfindings
inscientificarticles
peerreviewandcritique
scientificjournals
Step10:asuccessfulhypothesisbecomesatheory
theory:explainswhatisseen,predictswhatwillhappeninthe
future
Experimentaldesign
experiment:atestundercontrolledconditionstotestahypothesis
parts
variables:
independent
dependent
control
constant(s)
Independentvs.DependentVariables
IndependentVariable
thepartoftheexperimentthatismanipulatedorchangedbythescientist
orpersonperformingtheexperiment
changeonlyoneindependentvariableatatime
DependentVariable
thepartoftheexperimentthatisaffectedbytheindependentvariable
Howtousemeasurementandobservationtools
simiple
metersticks
complex

 loggerprocomputerprogram/tools
Interpretationofdataintablesandgraphs
DataTables
Title
Labeledcolumns
Datausingorganizationandpresentation
Gridwitharuler
useaveragesandcalculations
Graphs
usedtofindpatterns,canseeitvisually
Characteristicsoflivingthings(8)
madeupofcells
cell:acollectionoflivingmatterenclosedbyabarrierthatseparatesthe
cellfromitssurroundings
multicellular:multiplecelled(hundredsorthousands)organism
unicellular:onecelledorganism
basisoforganizationfromsmallesttobiggest
atoms/molecules
cells
tissues
organs
organsystem
multicellularorganism
basedonauniversalgeneticcode(DNA)
passedontooffspring
holdsinformationonhowtolive,grow,andreproduce
obtainandusematerialsandenergy
metabolism:thecombinationofchemicalreactionsthroughwhichan
organismbuildsuporbreaksdownmaterials
energyisobtainedindifferentways
plants:fromsunlight,photosynthesis
animals:fromfood
growanddevelop
growth:capableofthis,gettingbigger
development:cycleofchange
differentiation:
cellsbegintolookdifferentfromeachotherandperformdifferent
functions
reproduce

 sexual
twocellsfromdifferentindividualsunitetoformthefirstcellofa
neworganism
offspringhasdifferenttraitsfromparents
species:groupoforganismsthatcanbreedwitheachotherand
producefertileoffspring
asexual
singleparentdividesintotwoorganisms
offspringhassametraitsasparent
respondtotheirenvironment
stimulus
signaltowhichanorganismresponds
external:fromtheenvironment
light,temp,sound,heat,gravity
internal:fromwithintheorganism
levelofsugarglucose
maintainastableinternalenvironment
homeostasis
anorganismsabilitytomaintainconstantorstableconditionsthat
arenecessaryforlife
changeovertime(asagroup)
evolution:abilityoforganismstochangeovertime
adaptation:inheritedcharacteristicsthatresultsfromachangeinspecies
overtime

Biochemistry!!

Atom:Electrons,protons,neutrons,nucleus
element
puresubstancemadeupofonetypeofatom
atom:buildingblocksofmatter,smallestunitofmatter
electricallyneutral
proton
innucleus
samemassasneutron
atomic#:#ofprotonsinnucleus
neutron
innucleus
samemassasproton
electron
outsideofnucleus

 1/1840massofproton,almostnegligible
Ions
achargedatom
ifanatom
losesanelectronbecomes+
gainsanelectronbecomes
Isotopes
atomsofthesameelementthathavedifferent#ofneutrons
mass#:protonsneutrons
radioactiveisotopes:nucleiareunstableandbreakdownovertimeata
constantrate
givesoffradiation
Bonding:Ionic,covalent
Ionic
oppositelychargedionsattract
transferelectronsbetweenatoms
Covalent
shareelectrons
movingelectronstravelaroundnucleiofbothatoms
usuallybetween2nonmetals
multiplebondscanformiftheyneedmorethanoneelectrontofill
outershell
singlebond
doublebond
triplebond
molecule
smallestunitofmostcompounds
HydrogenBonding
bondsthatformbetweenthepositivelychargedhydrogeninonemolecule
andthenegativelychargedoxygeninanearbymolecule
notjustbetweenH+andO
weakinteractionsbetweenanH+atomand
fluorine
oxygen
nitrogen
notasstrongasionicorcovalent
waterspolarityenablesittoformmanyhydrogenbonds
specialpropertiesofwater
expansionuponfreezing
cohesion
adhesion
heatcapacity
Propertiesofwater
structureofwater
3atoms:2hydrogen,1oxygen

 shape:likemickeymouse,V
hydrogenbondsarejoinedtotheoxygenby2single
covalentbonds
polar
partialchargeontheoxygenatom
partial+chargeonbothhydrogenatoms
polarityenablesittoformmanyhydrogenbonds
accountsforwatersspecialproperties
expansionuponfreezing
cohesion
attractionbetweenmoleculesofthe
samesubstance
watermoleculesareattractedtowater
molecules
surfacetension
cohesionofwatermoleculesat
thesurfaceofabodyofwater
adhesion
moleculesareattractedtoother
materials
capillaryaction
capillaryaction
combinationofadhesionandcohesion
inplants
watermovesfromrootstoleaves
againstgravity
watermoleculesareattractedto
eachother(cohesion)andtothe
cellwallsintheplants(adhesion)
heatcapacity
amountofheatneededtoraisethetemp
ofasubstancebyonedegree
centigrade
waterhasthehighestheatcapacityof
anyknownliquidexceptammonia
watercanabsorbalotofheatfor
littletempchange
wateristheuniversalsolventb/cofitspolarnature,candissolveionicand
polarcompounds
mixture:materialcomposedoftwoormoreelementsorcompounds
thatarephysicallymixedtogether,butnotchemicallycombined
solution:
mixoftwoormoresubstancesevenlydistributed
solvent
dissolvingagent

 solute
whatgetsdissolved
essentialforchemicalreactionsinlivingthings
waterhasatransportfunction
carriesdissolvednutrientsandeliminateswaste
lifeisfoundinlakesandoceans
abletosupplyfoodandoxygentoorganisms
vitalforbiogeochemicalcycles
watercontainsdissolvedoxygen,CO2,andweather
rocksformorenutrientsandthencarryittoother
locations
suspensions
mixtureofwaterandnondissolved,suspendedparticles
physicalstates
liquid
mostdenseb/chydrogenbondsarebrokenfromcrystalline
structureintheice
solid
hasacrystallinestructurethatmakesitlessdensethan
waterwhenitfreezesduetothehydrogenbonding
gas

pH:Acids,bases
somewatermoleculesdissociate(comeapart)inasolution,formingions
reaction
H20>H^++OH
H+hydrogenion
OHhydroxideion
purewaterisneutral(pHof7)
neutralsolutions
H+=OH
acids
causethereleaseofH+intoasolution
H+>OH
bases(alkalinesolutions)
takeinH+ionsandreleaseOHions
H+<OH
pHscale
pH=powerofhydrogen
measureofH+concentrationinasolution
logscale(multipliesby10)
rangefrom014
buffer
tomaintainhomeostasiscontrolpHlevels
buffers:dissolvedcompounds(weakacidsorbases)thancanreact

withstrongacidsorbasestoabsorborreleaseH+orOHas
needed
preventssharp,suddenchangesinpH

Monomersvs.Polymers
monomer
singlesubunit
polymer
longchainofrepeatingunitscalledmonomers

Polymer

Monomer

Carbohydrate

Sugar

Elements

C,H,O

Monomer

saccharide(sugar)

FunctionalGroups HydroxylGroup
(OH0

Lipid

FattyAcid

Element

C,H,O

Monomer

fattyacidchain

FunctionalGroup

Methyl(CH)
Carboxyl(COOH)

Protein

AminoAcid

Element

C,H,N,O,S

Monomer

AminoAcid

FunctionalGroup

Amino(NH2)
Carboxyl(COOH)

NucleicAcid

Nucleotides

Elements

C,H,N,O,P

Monomer

Nucleotide
3components:
adenine
guanine
cytosine
thymine
(CG)(AT)
uracil

FunctionalGroup

Phosphate

Macromolecules******
madeofthousandsorhundredsofthousandsofsmallermolecules
proteins
peptidebond:acovalentbondbetweentheamino(NH2)ofone
aminoacidandthecarboxyl(COOH)ofanotheraminoacid
awatermoleculeisreleasewhenabondisform
polypeptide
manypeptidebonds
manyaminoacidsheldtogetherinachainbypeptidebonds
Carbohydrates:Monosaccharides,disaccharides,polysaccharides
monosaccharide
onesugar
simplesugar
buildingblockforcomplexsugars
ex.glucose,fructose
disaccharide
twosugars
sucroseisanex
oligosaccharide
210monosaccharides
ex.fructooligosaccharide
foundinveggies
polysaccharide

manymonosaccharides
longsugarchains
ex.cellulose,chitin
storage
glycogen,starch
function
transportandstorage
plants:starchesmadefromglucose
animals/fungus:glycogen
structuralsupport
chitintoformexoskeleton
Protein:Aminoacids
3Dstructurewith4levelsofinteractiondeterminedbyaminoacid
interactions
primary
aminoacidsequence
heldtogetherbypeptidebonds
secondary
3Dfoldedshape
H+bonds
tertiary
determinesfunction
SHAPEDETERMINESFUNCTION
H+bonds,vanderWaalsforces
quaternary
shapeaftercombiningwithotherpolypeptidechains
Enzymes:ActivationEnergy
ActivationEnergy
minimumamountofenergythatmustbesuppliedtostartthe
reaction
Enzymes
typeofprotein
actasabiologicalcatalyst
speeduptherateofreactioninbiologicalprocesses
lowertheactivationenergy
enzymescancatalyzeanabolicorcatabolicdependingonwhether
theygotsmallerorbindedtogetherandgotbiggerthroughthe
process
mostarespecifictoonereaction
enzymesonlyfitwithaparticularsubstrate
substrate
reactant(s)thatbindtotheenzyme
enzymesubstratecomplex
providewherereactantsarebroughttogethertoreact
combinewiththesubstrateintheactivesite

 activesite
locationwherethesubstratebindsonthe
enzyme
manyendinASE
examples
DNAPolymerase
joinsmonomerstomakeDNA
ATPsynthase
synthesizesATP
Protease
breaksdownproteins
Lipids:Glycerol,fattyacids,unsaturatedfattyacidsvs.saturatedfattyacids
fattyacid
glycerolmolecule+fattyacidchain
madeupofchainsofmethyl(CH)units
carboxylgroup(COOH)atoneend
commoncategoriesoflipids
fats
oils
waxes
triglyceride
glycerolmolecule+3fattyacidchains
saturatedvs.unsaturatedfats

saturated

unsaturated

structure

straightchain

Kinkedchain
C=Cbonds

stateatroomtemp

solid

liquid

ex.

animalfat

oliveoil

NucleicAcids(DNA,RNA):Nucleotides
nucleotidesarejoinedtogetherbythephosphategroupofoneand
thesugargroupofanothernucleotide
manynucleotidesjoinedtogetherinthiswaymakethesugarphosphate
backbone
Doublestranded
TWOpolynucleotidestrandsareconnectedtooneanotherinthe
centerwithhydrogenbonds
therearetwohydrogenbondsbetween(AT)and(CG)
lookslikealadder
basesbondedtooneanotherarecalledpaired
pairedbasesmustcomplementeachother
DNA
AT
CG
thenumberofhydrogenbondingsitesavailabledeterminesthe
complementarybasepairing
DNA
nitrogenousbasesstoreinstructionsformakingproteins
iscopiedintoRNA
doublestranded
3componentsofDNAnucleotides
PhosphateGroup
5Csugardeoxyribose
nitrogenousbase
AT,CG
strandsareantiparallelruninoppositedirections
strandstwistaroundeachotherandformadoublehelix
rail
sugarphosphatebackbone
COVALENTbondsbetweennucleotides
steps
nitrogenousbasenitrogenousbase
hydrogenbonding
turns
connectrailsintodoublehelixby
hydrogenbonds
vanderWaalsforce
RNA
carriesmessagestotherestofthecellwherethemessageis
decodedintoprotein
singlestrand
3componentsofRNAnucleotides

phosphategroup
5Csugarribose
nitrogenousbase
AU,CG
Breakdown,rearrangement,andsynthesisofmolecules
Dehydrationsynthesis(Condensation)
typeofsynthesisreaction
joinsmonomerstomakeapolymer
releaseswaterasabyproduct
Hydrolysis
breaksapartmacromolecules(polymers)intomonomersbyaddinga
watermoleculetobreakabond
Metabolism
thesumofallchemicalreactionsinthebody
abalanceofanabolismandcatabolism
Catabolism(bigtosmall)
breakdownofcomplexsubstancesintosimplersubstances
oftenreleaseenergy
exothermic:releaseenergywhenbondsarebroken
energyoftheproductsislowerthantheenergyofthereactants
Anabolism(smalltobig)
anyprocessinlivingthingsthatinvolvesputtingtogether(synthesizing)
complexsubstancesfromsimplersubstances
requiresenergy
areendothermic:absorbenergytostoreinthebondsofmolecules
energyofproductsishigherthanenergyofreactants

Maintenanceofoptimalconditions
Cellmembranestructureandfunctions
Responsetochangingexternalenvironment:tonicityhypertonic,hypotonic,isotonic
Celltransport:Diffusion,osmosis,facilitateddiffusion,passiveandactivetransport,
endocytosis,exocytosis

Enzymefunction

CellMembraneStructureandfunctions
regulateswhatgoesinandoutofthecell
membraneisselectivelypermeable
protectsandsupportsthecell
madeupof
phospholipid(lipidbilayer)
givesthecellmembraneaflexiblestructurethatformsastrong
barrierbetweenthecellanditssurrounding
theheadloveswater(hydrophilic),isnegativelycharged
thetailisnonpolarandhydrophobic
thisiscalledamphipathic(doubtwehavetoknowthis)
keepswateroneitherside
proteins
givecharacteristic
PassiveTransporth
noenergyisrequired
cellmembraneregulatesthemovementofmoleculesfromonesideofthe
membranetotheother
Diffusion
processbywhichparticlesmovefromanareaofhighconcentrationtoanareaof
lowconcentration
requiresnoenergy
usedinalveolartubes(foundinyourlungs)
oxygenisdiffusedintocells
carbondioxidecomesoutthroughdiffusion
facilitateddiffusion
theprocessinwhichmoleculesthatcannotdirectlydiffuseacrossthe
membranepassthroughspecialproteinchannels
Osmosis
diffusionofwaterthroughaselectivelypermeablecellmembrane
highconcentrationtolowerconcentration
aquaporins
waterchannelproteinsforwatertopassrightthrough
osmoticpressure
thenetmovementofwateroutoforintoacellproducesthisforce
hypertonic
whenacellissurroundedbyaliquidwithahigherconcentrationofsolute
hypotonic
whenacellissurroundedbyaliquidwithalowersoluteconcentration
isotonic
whenyoureachequilibrium

ActiveTransport

 movementofalargeamountofmaterialsagainstaconcentrationdifference
usesenergy(ATP)
Endocytosis
movingmaterialsinsidethecell
phagocytosis:cellengulfsparticlestogointhecell
Exocytosis
movingthingsoutsideofthecell
releaseoflargeamountsofmaterial
ex.sendingneurotransmittersfromonecelltoanothernearby

Biosynthesis
Matterinanecosystem
Mattermovesthroughthebiospheredifferentlythanenergy
Nocontinualinputofresources
matterisrecycledcannotbedestroyedorcreated(LawofConservationof
Mass)
Biogeochemicalcyclesarepoweredbytheflowofenergy
Nutrient:achemicalsubstancethatlivingorganismsobtainfromtheenvironment
tocarryoutlifeprocessesandsustainlife
Amountofmatterstaysthesame:locationmaychange
BiogeochemicalCycles
Nutrientscyclethroughecosystemofabioticandbioticfactors
Drivenbyenergyfromthesun
BiologicalProcesses:anyandallactivitiesperformedbylivingorganisms
eating,breathing,burningfood,eliminatingwasteproducts
GeologicalProcesses:dynamicprocessesatworkintheearthslandformsand
surfaces
volcaniceruptions,formation/breakdownofrock,majormovementsof
matterwithinandbelowthesurfaceoftheearth
ChemicalandPhysicalProcesses:includetheformationofcloudsand
precipitation,flowofrunningwater,actionoflightning
NitrogenCycle
Nitrogencompoundsareessentialforlife,soil(asfertilizer),andaminoacidsin
proteinsandnucleotides
Majorityoftheatmosphereiscomposedofnitrogeninitsunusableform
Thiscycleconvertsatmosphericnitrogenintoaformplantsandanimalscanuse
NitrogenFixation:bacteria,(lightning,industry)convertnitrogenairinto
ammonia
Nitrification:convertammoniatonitrate
Assimilation:Plantsuseammoniaornitritestomakenitrogencontaining
compoundsforplants
Denitrification:Bacteriaconvertnitratestonitrogengas
CarbonCycle
Essentialforcarbonbasedlife
Frameworkforproteins,carbohydrates,fats,nucleicacids

 Reservoirforcarbonintheatmosphere
Tworeactions
Removescarbondioxidefromair
photosynthesis:removescarbondioxidefromair
Plantsusecarbondioxideandwatertocreatecarbohydrates
topassthroughitsconsumer
thecarbohydratescombinecarbonwithcalciumandoxygen
toformskeletons(calciumcarbonate)
weatheringrocks
Addscarbondioxidetoair
respiration:organismsreleasecarbondioxide
decomposersbreakdowndeadorganisms
woodburning
volcanicactivity
combustionoffossilfuels
TheWaterCycle
wateristhemostabundantsubstanceinlivingthings
inthereactionsofphotosynthesis,digestion,andcellularrespiration,is
usedasahabitat
Watercontinuouslymovesbetweentheoceans,theatmosphere,andthe
landsometimesoutsidelivingthingsandsometimesinsidethem
Evaporation
Transpiration:evaporationoffofanorganism
Condensation,precipitation
Percolation/infiltration:filtrationofwaterthroughtheground

LimitingFactors
Afactorthatcontrolsthegrowthofapopulation.
DensityDependentlimitingfactors
Competition
Twospeciescompeteforthesameresources
Onewinsout,theothermustmoveorgoextinct
PredationandHerbivory
Predatorsandpreylimitpopulationgrowth
ParasitismandDisease
Thedenserthehost,thefasterthediseasecanspread
Stressfromovercrowding
Overcrowdingweakensanimalandlimitspopulations
DensityIndependentlimitingfactor
Majorstormsthatdonotdependondensity
Examples:hurricanes,droughts,orfloods
Abioticvs.Biotic
Abiotic=nonliving
Examples:Rocks,wind
Biotic=living

Plants,animals
RangeofTolerance
Theabilitytosurviveandreproduceunderarangeofenvironmental
circumstances.
Nichevs.Habitat
HabitatThegeneralplacewhereanorganismlives
Determinedbyaspeciestoleranceforenvironmentalconditions.
NicheDescribeswhatanorganismdoes,andhowitinteractswithbiotic
andabioticfactorsinitscommunity
ResourcesandtheNiche
Anynecessityoflifeintheniche
Examples:Nutrients,space,food,sunlight,etc.
PhysicalAspectsoftheNiche
Theabioticfactorsrequiredforsurvival
Especiallyimportantforamphibians
BiologicalAspectsoftheNiche
Thebioticfactorsrequiredforsurvival
Whenandhowitreproduces
Thefooditeats
Thewayitobtainsfood
Competition
Whenmorethanoneorganismtriestousethesameresources.
Usuallyforfood,water,andsoil
IntraspecificCompetition
Competitionamongmembersofthesamespecies
InterspecificCompetition
Competitionbetweenmembersofdifferentspecies
Onespecieswinsoutandtheothermustmoveorgoextinct
Predation:Predator,Prey
Aninteractioninwhichoneanimal(thepredator)feedsonanotheranimal
(theprey).
Symbioticrelationships:
Commensalism
Oneorganismbenefitsandtheotherisneitherhelpednorharmed
intheirrelationship
Example:Barnaclesonawhalesskin
Mutualism
Bothspeciesbenefitfromtheirrelationship
Example:Theseaanemoneandclownfish
Parasitism
Oneorganism(theparasite)livesinoronthehost,itbenefitsbut
thehostisharmedintheirrelationship.
Example:Ticksonhumans
PopulationDensity
Thenumberofindividualsperunitarea.

Dispersion

Distribution
Referstohowindividualsinapopulationarespacedoutacrosstherange
Emigration

Theprocessofapopulationmovingoutofitsrange.

Immigration

Theprocessofapopulationmovingintoanewrangefromelsewhere.

Exponential(JShapedCurve)

Whenapopulationbeginstogrowwithunlimitedresourcesunderideal
conditions.
Thesizeofeachgenerationofoffspringincreases.
Thelargerapopulationgets,thefasteritgrows.

ExponentialGrowthCANNOToccurforever.

Logistic(Sshapedcurve)

Occurswhenapopulationsgrowthslowsandthenstops.
Followsaperiodofexponentialgrowth.
Stabilizesatcarryingcapacity
Carryingcapacityisthemaximumnumberofindividualsofa
particularspeciesthataparticularenvironmentcansupport.

Factorsthatimpactpopulationgrowth
Birthratedecreases
Deathrateincreases
Birthsanddeathsrisetogether
Immigrationdecreases
Emigrationincreases

Agestructureofapopulation
Thenumberofmalesandfemalesofeachageapopulationcontains
Providesinformationaboutfuturegrowthrates
Tellshowdifferentcountrieswillcontributetopopulationgrowth
inthefuture.

Biodiversity(Biologicaldiversity)
Thetotalofallthegeneticallybasedvariationinallorganismsinthe
biosphere.
3levelsofbiodiversity
EcosystemdiversityThevarietyofcommunities,habitats,and
ecologicalprocessesinthebiosphere.

SpeciesdiversityThenumberofdifferentspeciesinthebiosphere
GeneticdiversityThesumtotalofalldifferentformsofgenetic
informationcarriedaroundbyaparticularspecies,orallorganisms
BiodiversityandMedicine
Wildspeciesarethemainsourceofmanyofourmedicines
BiodiversityandAgriculture
Wildplantscarrygeneswecanusetotransferdiseaseandpest
resistancetocropplants.
Donethroughplantbreedingorgeneticengineering
BiodiversityandEcosystemServices
Thenumber/varietyofspeciescontributestoanecosystems
stability,productivity,andvaluetohumans.
Effectedbythepresenceofonekeystonespecies
Aspeciesinwhichmanyothersintheecosystemdepend
on.Withoutit,theecosystemwouldchangedrastically
Healthyanddiverseecosystemsplayavitalroleinmaintaining
soil,water,andairquality.
ThreatstoBiodiversity
AlteredHabitats
Naturalhabitatsaredepletedforurbanoragriculturaluse
Numberofspeciesdropsorgoextinct
Developmentcauseshabitatfragmentation
Splittingoffecosystemsintopieces
Makeshabitats/speciesmorevulnerabletomore
disturbances
HuntingandDemandforWildlifeProducts
Huntingoccursformeatorvaluablehides
Alsoaffectedbyhabitatfragmentation
IntroducedSpecies
Causenativeanimalstogoextinct
Costmillionsofdollarsindamages
Pollution
Manypollutantsareathreatindifferentways
ClimateChange
Climatemaymoveoutofanorganismstolerancerange
Forcedtomoveorgoextinct
Fragmentedhabitatsareparticularlyvulnerable
ConservingBiodiversity
ProtectingIndividualSpecies
Organizationsdesignedtoprotectthreatenedandendangered
species
PreservingHabitatsandEcosystems
Thegoalistopreservethenaturalinteractionsofmany
species
Nationalparks,forests,marinesanctuaries,andother

protectedareas
Mostlyprotectecologicalhotspots
Aplacewheresignificantnumbersofspeciesand
habitatsareinimmediatedangerofextinction.
ConsideringLocalInterests
Helpstoofferarewardorincentivetothepeopleinvolved
Changingforthebetterwhilestillsupplyingforhumans

StableEcosystems
Thecapabilityofanaturalecosystemtoapplyitself

Succession
Theobservedprocessofchangeinthespeciesstructureofanecological
communityovertime.
Aresultofcomplexinteractionswithbioticandabioticinteractions
Occursby:
Slow,naturalchangesintheenvironment
Naturaldisasters
Humanactivities
2types
Primarysuccession
Occursonneworsterilizedexistingland
Inaplacewithnoremnantsofanoldercommunity
Startwithpioneerspecies
Thefirstspeciestocolonizebarrenareas
Steps:
Soilstartstoformbecauseofspecieslikelichens
whentheydieanddecompose
Simpleplantsbegintogrow
Thedeathoftheseplantsaddmorenutrients
Treesandshrubscanbegintogrow
Insects,smallbirds,andmammalsbegintomovein
Secondarysuccession
Beginsinaplacenotcompletelydestroyedbyadisturbance
Alreadyhadsoilexisting
Occursfasterandinlargeandsmallareas.
Steps:
Landclearing(storm,humans,etc.)
Grassesandfernsgrow
Abundantsaplingsofcanopytrees
Densestandofcanopytrees
Canopytreesincreaseinheighttomaturetrees

Biomes
The10differentgroupsofregionalclimatecommunitiesthatecologists

classifyEarthsterrestrialecosystemsinto
Biomesaredescribedintermsof:
Abioticfactors
Climateandsoiltype
Bioticfactors
Plantandanimallife
Thetenmajorbiomesare:
TropicalRainForest
TropicalDryForest
TropicalGrassland/Savanna/Shrubland
Desert
TemperateGrassland
TemperateWoodlandandShrubland
TemperateForest
NorthwesternConiferousForest
BorealForest
Tundra

Characteristicsoflivingthings
Molecule,organelle,cell,tissue,organ,andbodysystemlevels
Celltypes:Prokaryoticvs.EukaryoticCells,Animalvs.PlantCells
Prokaryotic
donthaveanucleus
bacteria
Eukaryotic
haveanucleusthatsurroundstheirgeneticmaterial(DNA)
protists,multicellularorganism(plantsandanimals,fungi)
PlantCellsvs.AnimalCells
plantcellshave
cellwall
largecentralvacuole
chloroplast
animalcellshave
lysosomes
centrioles
bothhavemitochondria****
Celltheory
thecelltheorystates
alllivingthingsaremadeofcells
cellsarethebasicunitofstructureandfunctioninlivingthings
newcellsareproducedfromexistingcells
Relatestructuretofunctionof:
Cell/Plasmamembrane
hasalipidbilayer
givescellmembraneaflexiblestructurethatformsastrongbarrier

betweenthecellanditssurrounding
theheadofthephospholipidishydrophilicandthetailishydrophobicand
nonpolar
FluidMosaicModel
namedthisbecausetherearemanydifferentthingsthatencompass
thecellmembrane
cellmembraneisselectivelypermeable
somesubstancescanpassthrough,butotherthingscannot
Cellwall
plantshave
mainfunctionistosupport,shape,andprotectthecell
mostcellwallsareporousenoughtoallowwater,oxygen,carbondioxide,
andcertainothersubstancestopassthrough
Cytoplasm/Cytosol
portionofthecelloutsidethenucleus
nucleusandcytoplasmworktogetherinthebusinessoflife
NuclearMembrane
separatesthenuclearmaterialfromtheotherpartsofthecell
Nucleus
controlcenterofthecell
containshereditaryinstructions(DNA)
containsothermoleculesthatareinvolvedinhowtheinstructionsareread,
modifiedanddispersed
Nucleolus
thickkindofprotoplasm
foundinnucleus
carriesoutproductionandassemblyofribosomes
Lysosome
smallorganellesfilledwithenzymes
breakdownlipids,carbohydrates,andproteinsintosmallmoleculesthat
canbeusedbytherestofthecell
alsoinvolvedinbreakingdownorganellesthathaveoutlivedtheir
usefulness
Chromosomes
containDNAthatcodesforprotein
Mitochondria
haveadoublemembrane
centerforcellrespiration
carryoutthechemicalreactionsthatreleaseenergystoredincarbohydrates
toformmoleculessuchasATP
Powerhouseofthecell
animalcellshavemoremitochondriathanplantcells
needoxygen
Chromatin
composedofthreadlikestrandsofgeneticmaterial

duringcelldivision,itcondensesintorodshapedbodiescalled
chromosomes
GolgiApparatus
alsoknownasGolgiComplex
receivesmoleculesofproteinandlipidsfromER
actsaspackagingandshippingfactory
formsamembranearoundtheproteins,hormones,enzymesandother
proteinstoexport
RoughEndoplasmicReticulum
hasribosomes
treatsandtransportsmostlyaminoacids
SmoothEndoplasmicReticulum
treatsandtransportsmaterials
synthesizeslipids
lacksribosomes
Vacuole
membranestructures
containfood,waterorwaste
Plastid
leucoplast
storagestorefood
production
createstarchfromglucose
chloroplast(usedinphotosyntheticorganisms)
production,storage(storepigmentsforphotosynthesiswhich
producesglucose)
Chloroplasts
solarpowerplants
capturetheenergyfromsunlightandconvertitintofoodthatcontains
chemicalenergythroughphotosynthesis
containgreenpigment,chlorophyll
Ribosomes
preformproteinsynthesis
createnewpolypeptidechainsattheirsurface
Microtubules
straighthollowrods
wallofeachtubeisconstructedfromtubularproteinscalledtubulins
helptoshapeandsupportthecell

Biosphere,Biome,Ecosystem,Community,Population,Species
Biosphere
ConsistsofalllifeonEarthandallpartsofEarthinwhichlifeexists
Biome
largegroupofecosystemsthatsharethesameclimateandhavesimilar
typesofcommunities

 Ecosystem
naturalunitoflivingandnonlivingcomponentswithwhichtheyinteract.
thoughtofintermsofenergyflowanddisplaypyramidalrelationships
Community
Anassemblageofalldifferentpopulationsthatlivetogetherinadefined
area
Population
individualorganismsofasinglespeciethatsharethesamegeographic
locationatthesametime
Species
individualscapableofbreedingwithoneanotherandproducingfertile
offspring