POSITION (DISPLACEMENT) AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENT ‘The measurement of dimensions, both linear and angular, is critical in numerous engineering ications. In almost all applications, one must know either the dimensions of.an object, the position of the object relative to reference, and its speed. Several methods of displacement and velocity wll be liutrated in he following sete cere Metrology The term metrology is used to describe the accurate measurement of lengths, angles, and Weights of engineered items. The incorporation of mass production techniques and interchanging of parts required an accurate and universal measurement techniques. With the development of accurate stec! rulers (1850's) and gauge blocks (1890's), it became Possible to check if a manufactured par falls within the specified tolerances imposed by the engineer. It did not matter that ifthe part was made in the company's machine shop or somewhere else. Gauge blocks are rectangular steel blocks machined to precise dimensions. Gauge blocks are anecessary tool for dimensional quality control in the manufacture of interchangeable ts, Gauge blocks can be added together through a process called wringing in which the ighly polished surfaces are rubbed together and attraction between molecules on these surfaces hold the blocks together. This way any combination of length can be achieved by ‘wringing together several gauge blocks. Normally increments of 0.001 inches can be achieved through the use of gauge blocks. Mechanical devices for accurate displacement measurement normally involve a dial gauge. The dial gauge utilizes a rack and pinion gearing systems designed to amplify the displacement of needle in contact with a surface. Dial gauges are an excellent means to illustrate the profile of items and deflections of loaded members. Dial gauges do contain internal friction in the unit themselves that in some cases may distort the actual value being read. Dial gauges are also prone to inertial effects which are magnified by the gearing in the device. This requires large restoring forces ifthe pointer is to follow rapidly varying displacements. Also a dial gauge is not a remote reading device. The device does nat ‘ransmit an electrical signal to a recording device . Hence electrical Tequired whenever data acquisition or automatic control is require Potentiometers ‘The measurement of displacement involves the determination of the relative position between two points. The method used to measure this displacement will vary depending on ' the application. The most common, and: simplest, electronic instrument for measuring displacement is the potentiometer, or pot. The principle behind a potentiometer is quite simple, the transducer is made up of a sliding contact, or wiper and a winding, called a track The outpotsignel from the device ackions by supplying a constant voltage to the winding and measuring the output voltage which is proportional tothe fraction of the distance the contact point has moved along the winding. Potentiometers that measure linear displacement are called slide potentiometers while potentiometers that measure angular displacement are commonly named multiturn potentiometers. Wire-wound potentiometers as shown on Figure 1 are robust and wear resistant. However, the resolution of potentiometers is limited to the number of windings on the track. The ‘output increases and decreases in steps as the wiper passes over successive windings.a Rett ce meus coer Nowowewe te ter seco (Corte poston Figure 1. Angular Pote jometer and Representative Output Signal Various construction techniques exist for making potentiometers. These include carbon track, cermet, and conductive plastic. Carbon track i the cheapest and most common ty] of potentiometer. A cermet potentiometer is made by coating a ceramic base with a me oxide resistance track. ive plastic elements provide high resolution and are often used in linear potentiometer construction. ‘The major limitation of potentiometers is that fact there are end limits to the track. Potentiometers cannot be used where the displacement may continue indefinitely. Often a multiturn potentiometer can be used to provide a voltage signal over several turns. Multiturn potentiometers are constructed by having the resistance wire wound on to a helix, ‘The wiper is made to travel a helical path with the same pitch as the resistance element so that itis always in contact with the resistance. Multitum potentiometers are designed from 3/4 of a revolution to 10 revolutions. Potentiometer Loading In order to measure the output voltage of the potentiometer one must apply a voltmeter to the circuit. Since this voltmeter will contain an internal resistance, R,, the overall circuit will look like Figure 2. Figure 2. Potentiometer with Output Load R, The tion of the potentiometer resistance between the wi windings will be aR where R is the total resistance and i (between O and 1) Therefore aR and R, are in parallel, and their effective resistance is aRxR, aR+R, Rny ‘The portion of the potentiometer resistance above the wiper has resistance (J-a)R and so the ) voltage applied to the load is; “Radar” Substituting for R, gives y, y, a \.- Tana ‘The curves in Figure 3 illustrates how the output voltage V, deviates from the linear relationship V, =aV, as the ratio R/R, increases to 1 é ) (toe potion wa ecto ck Weg Figure 3. Curves of Potentiometer Output for Various Resistance Ratios of Potentlometer/Load Example. iosenenmasrenet m atbemae oth wound reinmer th {Stietormcad enone cl emcee fe winewrh voc apo SV de ‘Slsucssmndn LWT pore ss 8 Vn ie pct ad 2 Check ate power tag oe pene ilo need Gael he peenge ero in he opt he pteiomere at iano de pooner ing « Sopzest how th accuracy ofthe sytem could be improved ©) The following improvements sald be made Solution "Tasca a wtewound gota oe wha conducive pat 1) Power spaced in the poenloneter = ould have ifn resoation ond i nary ofisresancesiee eS tater » Rel a accent Ye onasw : ; Rie shichis wel within te ating of 15 W. 1) Wecocl se tia equation above, bus ute ery to work om ft principle TAWA onarngeotOt9 15 ger avolteeterrestnce of 100) (5= ISO0D4 Refering {oFigue 3 stmisng of porsoomear te wger svete stones ean tno ove pro 650) fleas The were tance parle! with be ower pardon The eect essae 0 S00 snd 5 000 in pri 0015000 soriso0 ‘Therefore the ouput vag of te potentiometer a akbage pid gnseranv ea (C Atisidrange th ouput votage of he poteaomeser would be 75 V ithe sytem were none Therefore te pecomage eae =ag190 25-2371 2SBT op 1, ST 0 164%Potentiometer Limitations 1. The potentiometer supply voltage must be kept constant within close limits. Any variation in the supply voltage will be transmitted to the output voltage signal. 2. Potentiometers often develop significant noise over time due to the buildup of dirt and corrosive products on the windings. The build up of this dirt changes the resistance berween the wiper andthe ‘resistance track, causing electrical noise in the output voltage signal. ‘The Linear Variable Diiferential Transformer (LVDT) ‘AnLVDT isa differential transformer that is used to measure linear displacement. Unlike a “iometer, the LVDT provides a continuous output signal without any contact between the fixed and moving portions of the transducer. An LVDT has low frictional resistance and negligible electrical noise in the signal. An LYDT is designed with three coils placed in a linear arrangement with a moving magnetic core that moves freely inside the coils (Figure 4) The primary coil is supplied with analternating current (AC) of constant amplitude and frequency from an oscillator (normally 5 to 8 kHz). The conductive core made from a ferro magnetic material such as, Soft iron induces an AC voltage in the secondary coils. As long as the core is in the middle of the two secondary coils the amplitude of the AC voltages in each coil is the same but are out of phase with one another by 180°so when the voltages are added they cancel each ‘other. Once the core is displaced to one side, the voltage in that secondary winding is. jncreased while the voltage in the other winding isreduced. Since the secondary windings are connected so that their AC voltages are added together, the output is an AC voltage with amplitude proportional to displacement and the phase in relation to the direction. «Dy Pia be, oy Figure 4. Diagram of LVDT Transducer and Measurement System e be TAS aThe LVDT output is fed into a phase-sensitive detector which converts the AC signal intoa rectified DC signal of either positive or negative polarity, This DC signal is then smoothed by passing it through a low pass filter. Thus the output signal from an LVDT, as the core traverses through the midpoint, isa signal that decreases to zero and then increases again but in opposite sign, Commercial LVDTs are available in a broad range of sizes and lengths, The units are often used to provide accurate feedback signal to precision machine tools . Commercial LVDTS either come with the oscillator, phase-sensitive detector, and output filter built into the unit (expensive) or one must obtain an external unit that provides the required signal conditioning. tations 1. There isa practical limit to the dimensions of the core and windings in an LVDT. ‘Therefore the range of displacement for these units is quite low, in the order of 215mm, 2. ‘The frequency response of LVDTS is primarily limited by the inertia characteristics of the device. In general the frequency of the applied voltage should be 10 times the desired frequency response. 3. Since the windings in the two secondary coils can never be exactly the same, there will be slight differences between the secondary voltages near the midposition of the LVDT. ‘These differences result in a slight non-linearity in the DC output and a non-zero voltage at the midpoint, called null voliage(see Figure 5). Normally this error is less than 1% of the full scale output of the transducer. : ML, F F ee Figure 5. LVDT Output Signal Showing Non-linear Behaviour in. the Null Region VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS In general linear velocity measurements can only be measured by mechanical means over a short period of time or small displacements due to limitations in transducers. Therefore, linear velocities are usvally obtained by converting linear velocity into rotational velocity ‘and measuring this rotational velocity, i.e. the speedometer of your car. In many experimental applications, the velocity measurements are obtained by differentiating the displacement signal or integrating the acceleration signal. Moving Coil Transducers ‘Moving coil transducers take advantage of the voltage generated when a conductor experiences a displacement in a magnetic field. Thisis the same phenomenon used to ‘generate electric power in generators and alternators. Whenever the coil is moved in the magnetic field an emf is induced in the coils given by ,a gnetic field strength -coil diameter duced electromotive force 2D - velocity of coil linear motion F=coil length A moving coil transducers appropriate for applications in which the velocities of small amplitude motions are measured. The output voltage is proportional to the coil velocity, and output polarity indicates velocity direction. These devices are often used in seismic or vibration applications. Whenever longer amplitudes are required the magnet becomes the moving object and the coils are wrapped within a tube. These transducers , called a moving magnet pickup can be designed with displacements as great as 20 inches and sensitivities from about 0.5 to 0.05 Vi(in/s) Figure 6. Moving Magnet Pickup Angular Velocity Measurements ‘Stroboscopic Angular Velocity A stroboscope utilizes high intensity flashes of light at a precise frequency to “freeze” a rotating object . A mark on a rotating shaft can appear stationary at integer multiples of the actual rotational speed as well as for integral submultiples , as illustrated on Figure 7. 5 ‘2600RFM —«K0RPM—«SEOORPM 500 RPE Figure 7. Images due to Harmonte and Subharmonic Flashing Rates of @ StroboscopeThe determination of the actual rotational speed of an object requires careful observation of the synchronous images. In general, to distinguish the actual speed from. a submultiple, decrease the flashing rate wntil another synchronous image appears. If this flashing tte ‘one-half the original rate, then the original rate is the actual speed. If it does not occur ‘one-half the original rate, then the original rate is a submultiple. DCTachometer ADC tachometer is simply a DC generator connected to the output shaft of the object we ‘want to measure. The DC tachometer gives an output voltage approximately proportional to the speed at which itis driven. The design of the tachometer is such that the output voltage isa linear relationship to the output speed. Typical DC tachometers have a sensitivity of 5 volts per 1000 rpm over a speed range of 0 io 6000 rev/min., with non-linearity of 0.01%. Normally, a small superimposed ripple voltage is present because of the finite number of gonduciors in the rotating armature. This ripple noise canbe removed through the use of low-pass filtering. However, at low speeds filtering is not practical so often gearing is employed to increase the speed of the tachometer. ACTachometers An AC tachometer utilizes a two phase induction motor in which one phase of the motoris supplied with its usual AC voltage and taking the voltage appearing at the second phase as the output. Rotation of the shaft in one direction causes an output AC voltage of the same frequency as the excitation AC voltage but with the output amplitude proportional to the instantaneous speed. The output AC voltage is in phase with the excitation. Reversal of the shaft rotation causes the same action, except the phase of the output voltage shift 180°. a “6, Tne te) oa a « « %, ibe - T Tine {ech WO" phase shit Figure 8. DC and AC Tachometers Eddy-Current Drag-Cup Tachometer Many analogue display instruments which display rotational speed are eddy current drag, cup tachometers. These include the common car speedometer which is a drag cup tachometer gear driven via aflexible cable from the output shaft of the vehicle’s gearbox. ‘The device utilizes the rotation of a magnet inside an aluminium cup carried by the spindle ‘on which the pointer is mounted. The field of the magnet passes through the aluminium cup toa fixed iron casing. As the magnet rotates, the magnetic field generates eddy currents in the cup. These eddy currents create their own magnetic field which is attracted to that of the rotating magnet, and so exerts a torque on the cup proportional to the speed of the input. rolation. The cup and pointer assembly rotate to the postion at which the torque is equal to the opposing torque reaction of the torsion spring.©