Acceleration and Vibration Measurement The measurement of acceleration is required for a varicty of purposes. These include: ‘+ Machinery vibration, Periodic vibration monitoring on rotating equipment such as Pumps, motors, compressors, and shafts can detect increases in vibration levels which may indicate imbalance of shafts, excessive wear of support bearings or gears, and broken mounts. * Modal analysis and structural testing. Vibration measurement are used to determining the relationship of vibration to the geometry and material properties of component. For example, the determination of the natural frequency of a ski * Seismic vibration. Accelerometers are used to measure the vibration on. large structures in order to detect any structural changes due to earthquake, construction, mining activity, or the movement of large transportation vehicles. * Shock testing. Determine the maximum impact accelerations experienced by objects oor humans due to sudden impacts Seismic Transducer A seismic transducer refers to a class of accelerometers that can measure very low accelerations levels and frequencies (including steady state). A seismic transducer consists of three basic elements. These are a spring-mass damper system, a protective housing, and an appropriate output transducer. Through the appropriate design of the characteristics of this spring-mass-damper system, the output is a direct indication of either displacement or acceleration. Seismic transducers are used to pick up the motion of the surface to which they are attached. They are sensitive to motion in only one direction, and so must be oriented in the direction of interest. If acceleration levels in more than one direction are required at the same time, then several accelerometers are required.‘The principle component of a seismic transducer is the seismic mass. This mass is suspended from a resilient support whose deflection is proportional to the force applied to it. As the transducer is accelerated, the mass deflects which in turn triggers a signal to the transducer. The output from the transducer is proportional to the deflection of the ‘mass which in turn is proportional to the acceleration, The “dashpot” represents damping contained in the system which allows the system to achieve a steady state in a short order of time. Governing Equation for Seismic Transducers ‘The relationship between a constant acceleration and the displacement of the seismic mass resembles a spring, F'=Kx, However, we often want to measure complex acceleration waveforms (such as the acceleration of a ship in waves). This variation in acceleration levels will produce a dynamic effect on the seismic mass (oscillation of the ‘mass). The relative strength of the spring and dashpot wall effect the output of the signal In mathematics, it can be shown that complex acceleration waveforms (such as vibration) can be represented by a series of sine and cosine functions (see your calculus textbook on Fourier Series). If we investigate the case in which the seismic transducer is attached to an object which is following a sinusoidal motion, we can get an understanding of the expected output signal of the device when subjected to a complex waveform. yO= At Fc sinlout +f.) Let us define yn as the position of the mass , y4, as the position of the transducer housing, and y, as the position of the mass relative to the housing (Seismic Transducer Figure). Im “et Ir q) If we subject the housing to a sinusoidal motion we get, & y, = Asin and the acceleration is oS = Aw’ sinax @) If we apply Newton’s second law to the seismic mass, we get, mPa 4B sy, 20 ®)where mis the seismic mass, cis a damping constant, and kis a spring constant. ‘Substituting (1) into (3) we get, ayy ay) Sn FN 4) nf Fue oa hd @ ‘Substituting (2) into (4) we get; ay, | D, a mae teat t hy, = mba sinor © The solution to this well known second order system can be solved using complex variables to yield; cos (ax - 4) © ik c + %(afo,) ene ore oh 1-(@/0,) o ” The term o, is defined as the natural frequency, € is the damping ratio, and ¢ is the phase shift. The characteristics of the seismic transducer can be plotted as a ratio of seismic mass displacement to casing displacement. ‘Frequency response of selmi csplacement pickup a) amplitude, () phase sit ~3-The plots show that for excitation frequencies well above the natural frequency, the displacement of the seismic mass relative to the casing is practically equal to the displacement of the casing. However, the displacements will be 180° out of phase. This ‘means that as the casing moves in one direction, the mass will move in the other direction. {it virtually stands stil). If the excitation frequencies applied to the accelerometer are rear the resonant frequency of the seismic system, the signal output from the transducer will be incorrect. Therefore is critical that in choosing an accelerometer, one ensures that the expected frequencies are far from the resonant frequency. Piezoelectric Accelerometers Piezoelectric accelerometers rely on the piezoelectric effect of quartz or ceramic crystals to generate an electrical output that is proportional to applied acceleration. The piezoelectric effect is produced when the quartz material is placed between two plates and a compressive force is applied to the plates. Compression of the quartz crystals will produce an electrostatic charge on the plates. This charge and corresponding voltage is proportional to the compressive load. ‘The piezoelectric effect can be used in reverse. If a voltage is applied to the electrodes of a piezoelectric crystal, it expands or contracts as if the corresponding foree had been applied. Thus an AC voltage will cause the crystal to emit sound atthe frequency of the ‘AC voltage. Sound generators of this type, normally in the form of thin dises, provide the beeps in numerous toys, watches, and calculators. Quartz piezoelectric crystals are also found in watches and computers to provide a steady oscillation frequency which can be used as an electronic timing device. ‘With an accelerometer, itis the seismic mass, undergoing an acceleration that will impose a force on the quartz crystals. Over its specified frequency range, this structure will follow Newton's Second Law F’=ma and the accumulated charge is proportional to the applied force, and subsequently the applied acceleration, oped carn (a) Howsing Mass im) + Sera Peroeleeie = Leeds Nawal Basle Accelerometer = 4Since piezoelectric transducers are a capacitance device, they require a special amplifier called a charge amplifier to provide an output signal voltage that can be read by data acquisition devices such as oscilloscopes and computers. A simplified diagram of the charge amplifier circuit is given below. The piezoelectric crystal is represented by the capacitor C which acquires a charge q in proportion to the force applied to it. The capacitor C is connected to the inputs of an operational amplifier, and the input is also ‘connected to the output of the amplifier through a feedback capacitor Cy It can be shown that the output voltage V, (which would be read by an oscilloscope) can be defined as, vje-4 1 Often charge amplifiers will contain a series of feedback capacitors that can be included into the circuit by means of a switch in order to change the range of the output voltage for a given piezoelectric transducer. The resistor Rin the circuit is required to help stabilize the signal, Three main configurations of piezoelectric accelerometers are used in industry. Each design is driven by the required application of the sensor. The three configurations are shear, compression and flexural beam. In each design, the piezoelectric material is subject to either pure shear stress, compression stress, or bending stress. Shear and compression type devices are the most common piezoelectric accelerometer design. i Meee! oS Parone ac, Palo rg ne ‘Ble Eraied att Poe See ‘Ss ana base z oxi Sue eae ‘pace reece pram Compton ‘Shear MaceIt should be noted that all piezoclectric material must be preloaded in compression in order to work properly. The material does not behave properly in tension. Therefore by preloading the material in compression any subsequent tension force on the material due to the seismic mass undergoing an acceleration will result in a reduced compression on ‘the material. ‘Since the design of a piezoelectric accelerometers involves a mass and stiff spring (the (quartz. crystal), the response of the system will behave in a similar manner as the seismic accelerometer. There will exist a natural frequency for the accelerometer that must be avoided in order to ensure a reliable output signal from the device. A typical response ‘curve for a piezoelectric accelerometer is given below. However, in this case the ‘operating region of the transducer lies below the natural frequency of the device. These high natural frequencies are due to the high stiffness of the material and low mass. For ‘example, the accelerometer used in the flywheel experiment (PCB Model 338834) has a frequency range of 1 to 2000 Hz (with <5% sensitivity deviation) and a natural frequency of 12,000 Hz. Piezoelectric accelerometers are generally well suited to high frequency applications such as vibration analysis, Their light weight make them suitable for attaching to an object without altering the overall mass of the object which would then alter the frequency response of the object. However, these accelerometers cannot measure a steady state acceleration (such as gravity) or low frequency accelerations. In these cases, a seismic accelerometer is better suited for the application. Response of an IOP" Accelerometer