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Harliansyah, PhD
Department of
Biochemistry
Faculty of Medicine
University of YARSI
Jakarta,
Metabolism
Metabolism is all the biochemical reactions by which food is
transformed into energy store (ATP) and by which our bodies
require to function, including anabolism and catabolism.
Catabolic reactions breakdown complex organic compounds:
- providing energy (exergonic)
- Glycolysis, Krebs cycle and Electron transport
Anabolic reactions synthesize complex molecules from small
molecules:
- requiring energy (endergonic)
Exchange of energy requires use of ATP molecule.
O2
BREATHING
CO2
Lungs
CO2
Bloodstream
Muscle cells
O carrying out
2
CELLULAR
RESPIRATION
Sugar + O2 ATP + CO2 + H2O
Glucose
Oxygen gas
Carbon
dioxide
Water
Energy
Energy released
from glucose
(as heat and light)
Energy released
from glucose
banked in ATP
Gasoline energy
converted to
movement
About
40%
25%
100%
Burning glucose
in an experiment
Burning glucose
in cellular respiration
Burning gasoline
in an auto engine
OILRIG
Oxidation is losing electrons
Reduction is gaining electrons
Loss of hydrogen atoms
Energy
Glucose
Gain of hydrogen atoms
OILRIG
Gain or loss of electrons is often in the form of hydrogen.
The hydrogen is then passed to a coenzyme such as NAD+
FAD
+ 2H
Remember that H = 2
NADH
H+
FADH2
electrons
and
2H+
Generation of ATP
There are two ways to generate ATP
Chemiosmosis
Substrate-Level Phosphorylation
Generation of ATP
Chemiosmosis
Cells use the energy
released by falling
electrons in the ETS to
pump H+ ions across a
membrane
Generation of ATP
Chemiosmosis
Generation of ATP
Substrate Level Phosphorylation
Enzyme
ATP can also be
made by transferring
phosphate groups
from organic
molecules to ADP
Adenosine
substrate
Adenosine
product
Figure 6.7B
Generation of ATP
Substrate Level Phosphorylation
Enzyme
ATP can also be
made by transferring
phosphate groups
from organic
molecules to ADP
Adenosine
substrate
Adenosine
product
Figure 6.7B
glucose
Producers
Consumers
H2O
Metabolism also
allows the cycling
of N in the biosphere
(NH4+)
NO3NO2-
(Fuels)
Exergonic Oxidation
Biodegradation
Output of energy
Simpler
Metabolites
Complex
Metabolites
Input of energy
Endergonic Reduction
Biosynthesis
(Fuels)
Coenzymes (vitamines)
carbohydrate
Amino acids
hormone
nucleotid
Amino aci
lipids
General Outline
Glucose
Glycolysis
Oxygen
Aerobic
Transition Reaction
Krebs Cycle
ETS
36 ATP
Pyruvic Acid
No Oxygen
Anaerobic
Fermentation
Glycolysis
Where? The cytosol
Anabolism
Catabolism
GLYCOLYSIS
The specific pathway by which the body gets
energy from monosaccharides
First stage is ACTIVATION
At the expense of 2ATPs glucose is
phosphorylated
Step #1
formation of glucose-6-phosphate
Step # 2
isomerization to fructose-6-phosphate
Step # 3
Second phosphate group is attached to yield fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
Step # 4
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is broken down into two C3 fragments
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G-3-P) and dihydroxyacetone phosphate
(DHAP)
Only G-3-P is oxidized in glycolysis. DHAP is converted to G-3-P as the
latter diminishes.
Step # 6
Phosphate from the carboxyl group is transferred to the ADP yielding ATP and 3phosphoglycerate
Step # 7
Isomerization of 3-phosphoglycerate to 2-phosphoglycerate
Step # 8
Dehydration of 2-phosphoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)
Step # 9
Removal of the remaining phosphate to yield ATP and pyruvate
Step # 10
Reductive decarboxylation of pyruvate to produce ethanol and CO2
REACTIONS OF GLYCOLYSIS
STEP
REACTION
Glucose + ATP
G-6-P + ADP + H+
G-6-P
F-6-P + ATP
F-1,6-BP + ADP + H+
F-6-P
ENZYME
REACTION
TYPE
G in
kJ/mol
Hexokinase
Phosphoryl
transfer
-33.5
Phosphoglucose
isomerase
Isomerization
-2.5
Phosphofructokinase
Phosphoryl
transfer
-22.2
STEP
REACTION
REACTION TYPE
G in
kJ/
mol
Aldolase
Aldol cleavage
-1.3
Triose
phosphate
isomerase
Isomerization
+2.5
ENZYME
F-1,6-BP
DHAP
GAP + Pi + NAD+
1,3-BPG + NADH + H+
Glyceraldehyde
-3-Phosphate
Dehydrogenase
Phosphorylation
coupled to
oxidation
+2.5
1,3-BPG + ADP
3-phosphoglycerate +ATP
Phosphoglycerate kinase
Phosphoryl
transfer
+1.3
3-phosphoglycerate
2-phosphoglycerate
Phosphoglycerate mutase
Phosphoryl shift
+0.8
2-phosphoglycerate
PEP + HOH
Enolase
Dehydration
-3.3
10
Pyruvate kinase
Phosphoryl
transfer
-16.7
DHAP + GAP
GAP
Glycolysis
Steps 1 3 A fuel
molecule is energized,
using ATP.
Glucose
Step
1
Glucose-6-phosphate
2
Fructose-6-phosphate
3
Fructose-1,6-diphosphate
Step 4 A six-carbon
intermediate splits into
two three-carbon
intermediates.
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
(G3P)
5
Step 5 A redox
reaction generates
NADH.
6
Steps 6 9 ATP
and pyruvic acid
are produced.
1,3-Diphosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
3-Phosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
2-Phosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
2-Phosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
NET 2 ATP
Pyruvic acid
(2 molecules
per glucose molecule)
Insulin
Beta cells of
pancreas are stimulated
to release insulin
into the blood.
STIMULUS:
Rising blood glucose
level (for instance, after
eating a carbohydraterich meal)
Liver takes
up glucose
and stores it
as glycogen.
Blood glucose level
declines to set point;
stimulus for insulin
release diminishes.
Homeostasis:
Blood glucose level
(about 90 mg/100 mL)
Blood glucose level
rises to set point;
stimulus for glucagon
release diminishes.
Liver breaks
down glycogen
and releases
glucose into
blood.
STIMULUS:
Dropping blood glucose
level (for instance, after
skipping a meal)
Glucagon
General Outline
Glucose
Glycolysis
Oxygen
Aerobic
Transition Reaction
Krebs Cycle
ETS
36 ATP
Pyruvic Acid
No Oxygen
Anaerobic
Fermentation
Glycolysis
Transition Reaction
Krebs Cycle
Transition Reaction
Each pyruvic acid molecule is broken down to form
CO2 and a two-carbon acetyl group, which enters the
Krebs cycle
Pyruvic Acid
Acetyl CoA
Glycolysis
Transition Reaction
Krebs Cycle
Krebs Cycle
Where? In the Mitochondria
Krebs Cycle
Glycolysis
Krebs Cycle
Protein
complex
Intermembrane
Electron
space
carrier
Inner
mitochondrial
membrane
Electron
flow
Mitochondrial
matrix
ATP
SYNTHASE
General Outline
Glucose
Glycolysis
Oxygen
Aerobic
Transition Reaction
Krebs Cycle
ETS
36 ATP
Pyruvic Acid
No Oxygen
Anaerobic
Fermentation
Fermentation
Requires NADH generated by glycolysis.
Fermentation