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A number of other variations of turbines have been developed that work eectively with steam. The de Laval
turbine (invented by Gustaf de Laval) accelerated the
steam to full speed before running it against a turbine
blade. De Lavals impulse turbine is simpler, less expensive and does not need to be pressure-proof. It can operate with any pressure of steam, but is considerably less
ecient. fr:Auguste Rateau developed a pressure compounded impulse turbine using the de Laval principle as
early as 1900, obtained a US patent in 1903, and applied
the turbine to a French torpedo boat in 1904. He taught at
the cole des mines de Saint-tienne for a decade until
1897, and later founded a successful company that was
incorporated into the Alstom rm after his death. One
of the founders of the modern theory of steam and gas
turbines was Aurel Stodola, a Slovak physicist and engineer and professor at the Swiss Polytechnical Institute
(now ETH) in Zurich. His work Die Dampfturbinen und
ihre Aussichten als Wrmekraftmaschinen (English: The
Steam Turbine and its prospective use as a Mechanical
Engine) was published in Berlin in 1903. A further book
Dampf und Gas-Turbinen (English: Steam and Gas Tur-
History
TYPES
Rotor
Fixed
nozzle
Rotating
nozzle
Moving
buckets
Rotating
nozzle
Fixed
nozzle
Rotor
Stator
Rotation
Pressure
Velocity
Pressure
Velocity
2.3
2.2
3
needs or sent to boiler feedwater heaters to improve overall cycle eciency. Extraction ows may be controlled
with a valve, or left uncontrolled.
Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate stage to produce additional power.
A low-pressure steam turbine working below atmospheric pressure in a nuclear power plant
3.1
Turbine eciency
Impulse turbines
Velocity triangle
A velocity triangle paves the way for a better understanding of the relationship between the various velocities. In
the adjacent gure we have:
V1 and V2 are the absolute velocities at the inlet
and outlet respectively.
Vf 1 and Vf 2 are the ow velocities at the inlet
and outlet respectively.
Vw1 + U and Vw2 are the swirl velocities at the
inlet and outlet respectively.
3.1
Turbine eciency
Vr1 and Vr2 are the relative velocities at the inlet and outlet respectively.
V12
2
= h2 +
V22
2
2
Then by the law of moment of momentum, the torque on Nozzle eciency is given by N = 2(hVh
, where the
1
2)
the uid is given by:
enthalpy (in J/Kg) of steam at the entrance of the nozzle
is h1 and the enthalpy of steam at the exit of the nozzle
T = m(r
2 Vw2 r1 Vw1 )
is h2 . Vw = Vw1 (Vw2 ) Vw = Vw1 + Vw2
For an impulse steam turbine: r2 = r1 = r . Therefore, V = V cos + V cos V = V cos (1+
w
r1
1
r2
2
w
r1
1
the tangential force on the blades is Fu = m(V
w1 Vw2 ) Vr2 cos 2 )
Vr1 cos 1
. The work done per unit time or power developed: W =
The ratio of the cosines of the blade angles at the outlet
T .
2
and inlet can be taken and denoted c = cos
cos 1 . The raWhen is the angular velocity of the turbine, then the tio of steam velocities relative to the rotor
speed at the
blade speed is U = r . The power developed is then outlet to the inlet of the blade is dened by the friction
W = mU
(Vw ) .
coecient k = VVr2
.
r1
Blade eciency
k < 1 and depicts the loss in the relative velocity due to
Blade eciency ( b ) can be dened as the ratio of the friction as the steam ows around the blades ( k = 1 for
work done on the blades to kinetic energy supplied to the smooth blades).
/V1 )(1+kc)
uid, and is given by
w
b = 2UVV
= 2U (cos 1 U
2
V1
1
2U Vw
W ork Done
b = Kinetic Energy Supplied = V 2
The ratio of the blade speed to the absolute steam velocity
1
at the inlet is termed the blade speed ratio = VU1
Stage eciency
d
2
b
b is maximum when d
d = 0 or, d (2cos 1 (1 +
cos 1
kc)) = 0 . That implies = 2 and therefore VU1 =
cos 1
. Now opt = VU1 = cos21 (for a single stage
2
impulse turbine)
Therefore the maximum value of stage eciency is obtained by putting the value of VU1 = cos21 in the expression of b /
We get: (b )max = 2( cos 1 2 )(1 + kc) =
cos2 1 (1+kc)
.
2
Convergent-divergent nozzle
U Vw
h
It leaves the stator as a jet that lls the entire circumference of the rotor. The steam then changes direction and
increases its speed relative to the speed of the blades. A
pressure drop occurs across both the stator and the rotor,
with steam accelerating through the stator and decelerating through the rotor, with no net change in steam velocity
across the stage but with a decrease in both pressure and
temperature, reecting the work performed in the driving
of the rotor.
Blade eciency
2
From the inlet velocity triangle we have Vr1
2
2
V1 + U 2U V1 cos 1
1 = 2 , 1 = 2
V1 = Vr2 , Vr1 = V2
Assuming Parsons turbine and obtaining all the expressions we get
E = V12
2
Vr1
2
V2
2U V1 cos 1
U
2
1
2
E = h is equal to the kinetic energy supplied to the E = V1 2 2 +
xed blades (f) + the kinetic energy supplied to the movV12 U 2 +2U V1 cos 1
E=
2
ing blades (m).
Work done (for unit mass ow per second): W =
Or, E = enthalpy drop over the xed blades, hf + enU Vw = U (2 V1 cos 1 U )
thalpy drop over the moving blades, hm .
Therefore the blade eciency is given by
The eect of expansion of steam over the moving blades
2U (2V1 cos 1 U )
is to increase the relative velocity at the exit. Therefore b = V 2 U 2 +2V
1 U cos 1
1
the relative velocity at the exit Vr2 is always greater than
Condition of maximum blade eciency
the relative velocity at the inlet Vr1 .
2
2
Vr2
Vr1
2
If =
U
V1
, then
(b )max =
2(cos 1 )
V12 U 2 +2U V1 cos 1
db
d
= 0 , we get
hf =
the nozzle
= cos 1
Velocity diagram
V12 V02
2
U
V1
(b )reaction =
2 cos2 1
1+cos2 1
(b )impulse = cos2 1
V12
2
E = hf + hm
2
2
Vr2
Vr1
2
3.4
3.3
Speed regulation
4 DIRECT DRIVE
t =
h3 h4
h3 h4s
where
h3 is the specic enthalpy at state three
h4 is the specic enthalpy at state four for the actual
turbine
h4s is the specic enthalpy at state four for the isentropic turbine
4 Direct drive
T-s diagram of a superheated Rankine cycle
W
= h3 h4
m
where
5.1
Early development
Marine propulsion
10
on long voyages when fuel economy is desired. Although
this brought the propeller speeds down to an ecient
range, turbine eciency was greatly reduced, and early
turbine ships had poor cruising ranges. A solution that
proved useful through most of the steam turbine propulsion era was the cruising turbine. This was an extra turbine to add even more stages, at rst attached directly to
one or more shafts, exhausting to a stage partway along
the HP turbine, and not used at high speeds. As reduction gears became available around 1911, some ships, notably the USS Nevada (BB-36), had them on cruising turbines while retaining direct drive main turbines. Reduction gears allowed turbines to operate in their ecient
range at a much higher speed than the shaft, but were expensive to manufacture.
5 MARINE PROPULSION
1935-36, introduced double-reduction gearing. This further increased the turbine speed above the shaft speed,
allowing smaller turbines than single-reduction gearing.
Steam pressures and temperatures were also increasing progressively, from 300 psi/425 F (2.07 MPa/218
C)(saturation temperature) on the World War I-era
Wickes class to 615 psi/850 F (4.25 MPa/454 C)
superheated steam on some World War II Fletcher-class
destroyers and later ships.[26][27] A standard conguration
emerged of an axial-ow high pressure turbine (sometimes with a cruising turbine attached) and a doubleaxial-ow low pressure turbine connected to a doublereduction gearbox. This arrangement continued throughout the steam era in the US Navy and was also used in
some Royal Navy designs.[28][29] Machinery of this conguration can be seen on many preserved World War IIera warships in several countries.[30] When US Navy warship construction resumed in the early 1950s, most surface combatants and aircraft carriers used 1,200 psi/950
F (8.28 MPa/510 C) steam.[31] This continued until the
end of the US Navy steam-powered warship era with
the Knox-class frigates of the early 1970s. Amphibious
and auxiliary ships continued to use 600 psi (4.14 MPa)
steam post-World War II, with the USS Iwo Jima (LHD7), launched in 2001, possibly being the last non-nuclear
steam-powered ship built for the US Navy. Except for
nuclear-powered ships and submarines and LNG carriers,[32] steam turbines have been replaced by gas turbines
on fast ships and by diesel engines on other ships.
Cruising turbines competed at rst with reciprocating engines for fuel economy. An example of the retention
of reciprocating engines on fast ships was the famous
RMS Titanic of 1911, which along with her sisters RMS
Olympic and HMHS Britannic had triple-expansion engines on the two outboard shafts, both exhausting to an
LP turbine on the center shaft. After adopting turbines
with the Delaware-class battleships launched in 1909, the
United States Navy reverted to reciprocating machinery
on the New York-class battleships of 1912, then went
back to turbines on Nevada in 1914. The lingering fondness for reciprocating machinery was because the US
Navy had no plans for capital ships exceeding 21 knots
until after World War I, so top speed was less important than economical cruising. The United States had acquired the Philippines and Hawaii as territories in 1898,
5.3 Turbo-electric drive
and lacked the British Royal Navy's worldwide network
of coaling stations. Thus, the US Navy in 1900-1940 had
the greatest need of any nation for fuel economy, especially as the prospect of war with Japan arose following
World War I. This need was compounded by the US not
launching any cruisers 1908-1920, so destroyers were required to perform long-range missions usually assigned to
cruisers. So, various cruising solutions were tted on US
destroyers launched 1908-1916. These included small reciprocating engines and geared or ungeared cruising turbines on one or two shafts. However, once fully geared
turbines proved economical in initial cost and fuel they
were rapidly adopted, with cruising turbines also included
on most ships. Beginning in 1915 all new Royal Navy de- The 50 Let Pobedy nuclear icebreaker with nuclear-turbo-electric
stroyers had fully geared turbines, and the United States propulsion
followed in 1917.
In the Royal Navy, speed was a priority until the Battle Turbo-electric drive was introduced on the USS New
of Jutland in mid-1916 showed that in the battlecruisers Mexico (BB-40), launched in 1917. Over the next eight
too much armour had been sacriced in its pursuit. The years the US Navy launched ve additional turbo-electricBritish used exclusively turbine-powered warships from powered battleships and two aircraft carriers (initially or1906. Because they recognized that a signicant cruis- dered as Lexington-class battlecruisers). Ten more turboing range would be desirable given their world-wide em- electric capital ships were planned, but cancelled due to
pire, some warships, notably the Queen Elizabeth-class the limits imposed by the Washington Naval Treaty. Albattleships, were tted with cruising turbines from 1912 though New Mexico was retted with geared turbines in a
1931-33 ret, the remaining turbo-electric ships retained
onwards following earlier experimental installations.
the system throughout their careers. This system used two
In the US Navy, the Mahan-class destroyers, launched large steam turbine generators to drive an electric motor
11
on each of four shafts. The system was less costly initially
than reduction gears and made the ships more maneuverable in port, with the shafts able to reverse rapidly and deliver more reverse power than with most geared systems.
Some ocean liners were also built with turbo-electric
drive, as were some troop transports and mass-production
destroyer escorts in World War II. However, when the US
designed the treaty cruisers, beginning with the USS
Pensacola (CA-24) launched in 1927, geared turbines
were used for all fast steam-powered ships thereafter.
Locomotives
Testing
9 References
[1] Encyclopdia Britannica (1931-02-11). Sir Charles Algernon Parsons (British engineer) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Britannica.com. Retrieved 2010-09-12.
[2] Wiser, Wendell H. (2000). Energy resources: occurrence,
production, conversion, use. Birkhuser. p. 190. ISBN
978-0-387-98744-6.
[3] turbine. Encyclopdia Britannica Online
[4] A new look at Herons 'steam engine'" (1992-06-25).
Archive for History of Exact Sciences 44 (2): 107-124.
[5] O'Connor, J. J.; E. F. Robertson (1999). Heron of Alexandria. MacTutor
[6] "Power plant engineering". P. K. Nag (2002).
McGraw-Hill. p.432. ISBN 978-0-07-043599-5
Tata
[7] Taqi al-Din and the First Steam Turbine, 1551 A.D., web
page, accessed on line October 23, 2009; this web page
refers to Ahmad Y Hassan (1976), Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering, pp. 34-5, Institute for the
History of Arabic Science, University of Aleppo.
[8]
[9]
See also
Balancing machine
12
11
10
Further reading
11
External links
Steam Turbines: A Book of Instruction for the Adjustment and Operation of the Principal Types of this
Class of Prime Movers by Hubert E. Collins
EXTERNAL LINKS
13
12
12.1
12.2
Images
14
12
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12.3
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