Pearl Harbor: One Sunday in December That Changed the Path of America

Battle ships that once stood tall now scatter upon the bottom of the harbor along
with thousands of service men that were slaughtered like unprepared prey. Their lives,
seemingly glorified when protecting their country, now lay static: powerless to fight,
powerless to return to their loved ones, powerless to hope. Throughout the 1930s,
America remained in an isolationist state, unwilling to become involved in foreign
conflicts. However, it was on the morning of Sunday, December 7, 1941, when Japanese
aircrafts flew over Pearl Harbor and began mercilessly firing at US navy battleships that
were not prepared for such a ruthless attack1; suddenly, isolationism was no longer an
alternative. With the attack came a change of attitude by the Americans toward foreign
countries2, which then led to the change of the entire country. Furthermore, the attack on
Pearl Harbor created an immediate turning point in U.S. foreign and domestic policy,
catapulting the U.S. into the war it had been trying to avoid for years and devising new,
sophisticated policies.
Prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor, America was still trying to save itself from the
Great Depression, which began during the 1920s. The depression was mainly caused by
a combination of stock market crashes, bad banking structure, and tight monetary
policies. By 1932, over 13 million Americans had become unemployed.3 As the results of
World War I (WWI) proved to be devastating to all countries that participated, it was
evident that the citizens of the United States were highly against joining another war in
the near future, which would undoubtedly make domestic matters worse. Growing
tensions in Europe created serious conflicts for America during the 1930s. The first
1

Judith Rosen. "Remembering a Day of Infamy." (Publishers Weekly 7 May)

Johnie Gano and Gano Dale. "Interview with Pearl Harbor Eyewitnesses."
Interview.
3 Ibid.
2

challenge America faced arrived in 1935 when Fascist Italy troops invaded Ethiopia. This
brought up the question of whether America should become involved in stopping
aggression. However, America was not yet part of the League of Nations, an international
organism designed to prevent such aggression. Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who was the
president at the time, did not feel neutral at all. He began to criticize Benito Mussolini,
the leader of the Fascist Italian party and he ordered Americans to not send supplies to
Italy and Ethiopia. Shortly after, the Spanish civil war had broke out after fascists tried to
overthrow the government in Madrid.4 The continuous chain of conflicts occurring in
Europe made Roosevelt very insecure, but the American public was still strong
isolationist. Roosevelt met the wishes of Americans by avoiding war, but personally, he
was deeply bothered by the events happening in Europe. He wrote, One cannot help
feeling that the whole European situation is blacker than at any time in your lifetime or
mine.5 In response to the chaos in Europe, the United States Congress passed the
Neutrality Acts during the 1930s. These acts put forth an embargo on arms sales to
hostile forces, forbade American ships from entering war zones and prohibited them from
being armed, and banned the right for Americans to travel on belligerent ships.6 These
acts would ensure that the United States would not become part of foreign conflicts like
its involvement in WWI.
This feeling of neutrality and isolationism at the time of the depression was the
basis for the shift in the domestic and foreign policies. Charles Lindbergh, a dynamic
social activist, gave the Des Moines speech on September 11, 1941, to convince the
4

"American Isolationism in the 1930s." U.S. Department of State: Office of the

Historian
5 Ibid.
6 Ibid.
2

people of America to go against war because America was not ready for the unintended
consequences of war:
We are on the verge of war, but it is not yet too late to stay out. It is not too late to
show that no amount of money, or propaganda, or patronage can force a free and
independent people into war against its will. It is not yet too late to retrieve and to
maintain the independent American destiny that our forefathers established in this
new world. 7
Through this speech, it is evident that there were Americans that were strongly against
entanglement in foreign affairs. Along with Lindbergh, there were other influential
people that supported the cause of neutrality. Gerald Nye, who was a Senator of North
Dakota, led the Nye Committee, officially known as the Special Committee on
Investigation of the Munitions Industry.8 The committees main role was to investigate
the financial and banking interests that underlay the United States involvement in World
War I.
We didnt win a thing we set out for in the last warWe merely succeeded, with
tremendous loss of life, to make secure the loans of private bankers to Allies. 9
As Nye said, a major reason for American neutrality and isolationism was the unknown
consequence of Americas economy after the war. Especially after seeing the results of
WWI. As most Americans at the time had gone through the Great Depression, they did
not want to repeat past mistakes. In 1935, 150,000 college students participated in a
nationwide student strike for peace, while half a million students signed pledges saying
that they would refuse to serve in the event of war. 10 Through a public opinion poll,

Quoted in Charles Lindbergh. "Des Moines Speech." Des Moines, Iowa.

Speech.
8

"The Nye Report on the Munitions Industry and World Peace, 1936." The Nye
Report on the Munitions Industry and World Peace, 1936.
9 "Isolationism During the 1930s." Digital History.
10 Ibid.
3

results showed that 39 percent of college students would refuse to participate in any war
and 70 percent of Americans sided with the belief that intervention would be a mistake. 11
However, by 1938, European and Asian countries had begun rapid modernization and
militant movements, making interventionism inevitable for the United States.
The conflicts in Europe shaped the election of 1940. Roosevelt faced Wendell
Willkie for his re-election to an unprecedented third term. During the campaign, Willkie
proclaimed that Roosevelt would lead the United States into the chaotic conflicts in
Europe. On the eve of the election, Roosevelt responded, I have said this before, but I
shall say it again and again: Your boys are not going to be sent into any foreign wars.12
Roosevelt went on to easily defeat Willkie. After the election, on March 11, 1941,
Roosevelt passed the Lend-Lease Act, a program under which the United States supplied
numerous countries including the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, China, France, and
other Allied nations with materials. At the time Great Britain was actively engaged in war
against Nazi Germany, which caused the British to develop a lack of supplies. This
provoked Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister at the time, to pressure Roosevelt
for help. As Roosevelt felt the need to help the British, but also felt constrained by the
boundaries of the Neutrality Acts, Roosevelt passed the Lend Lease Act. As Roosevelt
himself put it, there can be no reasoning with incendiary bombs.13 The American goal
was to aid the British without being dragged into the war. In February 1941, a poll
revealed that 54 percent of Americans were in favor of Lend-Lease. A further 15 percent
were in favor, but only if it did not bring America into war, or if the British were to give

Ibid.
Ibid.
13 Ibid.
11
12

America security.14 The Lend-Lease was the first significant change in American policy
toward foreign conflicts after the Neutrality Acts. Americans had started to shift toward
interventionism, but only if they knew America would not be forced into war.
The United States needed a catalyst in order to join the conflicts. On the morning
of December 7th, 1941, Imperial Japanese fighters conducted a surprise military strike
against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The attack had three main
goals. First, to destroy American fleet units preventing it from entering areas in Southeast
Asia where Japan was trying to pursue. Second, Japan wanted to buy time for it to
stabilize its naval strength. Lastly, Japan wanted to frighten Americans and discourage
them from entering a war for the Pacific Ocean and Dutch East Indies. 353 fighters,
bombers, and torpedo planes arriving in two waves attacked the base. All eight U.S. navy
battleships were damaged, four being sunk. 188 U.S. aircraft were destroyed and 2,402
Americans were killed and 1,282 wounded, the Japanese only lost 29 aircrafts and 65
servicemen.15 Clearly, the Americans suffered far greater losses.
The day after the bloody attack, Roosevelt gave the Presidential Address to
Congress, also known as the Day of Infamy Speech. The speech was short, giving it the
dramatic effort it needed for the country. It was intended not merely as a response by
Roosevelt himself, but a statement on behalf of the citizens of the United States, who
faced a collective trauma as one country. The tone of the speech was one of realism.
Roosevelt made no effort to cover the great damage done; he emphasized his confidence
in the strength of the American people to stand up to the enemy. The main takeaway of

Matt Brown. "American Isolationism Before World War II." Harwich

Historical Journal, n.d. Web.
15 Judith Rosen. "Remembering a Day of Infamy." Publishers Weekly
14

the speech was Roosevelts stressing on his termination of the isolationist movement,
which he had campaigned so strongly the past few years. The country was under direct
threat, therefore, action must be taken. He claimed:
I believe that I interpret the will of the Congress and of the people when I asset
that we will not only defend ourselves to the uttermost, but will make it very
certain that this form of treachery shall never again endanger us. Hostilities exist.
There is no blinking at the fact that our people, our territory, and our interests are
in grave danger. With confidence in our armed forces, with the unbounding
determination of our people, we will gain the inevitable triumph - so help us God.
I ask that the Congress declare that since the unprovoked and dastardly attack by
Japan on Sunday, December 7th, 1941, a state of war has existed between the
United States and the Japanese empire. 16

1. The December 8, 1941, issue of the Manitowoc Herald-Times17

16
17

Franklin D. Roosevelt. "A Date Which Will Live in Infamy." Speech.

"Pearl Harbor Articles & Newspapers." Archives.
6

After the United States declared war on Japan, America had officially entered World War
II (WWII). In January 1942, the Allies, who opposed the Axis powers, including Hitler,
issued the Declaration by United Nations, which affirmed the Atlantic Charter. The
Atlantic Charter was a policy issued in August 1941, drafted by Britain and the United
States. The Charter stated that countries seek no aggrandizement, no territorial changes,
that countries respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under
which they will live, that they will respect their obligations, to trade raw materials if
needed, to bring about the fullest collaboration between all nations, to establish peace
after the destruction of the Nazis, and lastly, to come to the abandonment of the use of
force.18
Along with shifts in foreign policy, Americas factories began to operate at
incredible rates through workers doubling in shifts to create a vast amount of war
materials. As young men left to enter the war, women were given the opportunity to enter
the workforce. Even American entertainers and sports heroes joined the effort. At this
point in time, it is clear that America had fully shifted into internationalism.

2. Percentage of Unemployment in the United States: 1910 - 196019

18

"The Atlantic Charter." The Avalon Project. N.p., n.d. Web.

Robert M. Coen. "Labor Force and Unemployment in the 1920's and 1930's: A
Re-examination Based on Postwar Experience." The Review of Economics and Statistics
55.1 (1973)
19

The war thoroughly changed America. Workers being able to double in shifts
brought about great economic wonders, changing the percent of unemployment from
21% to a mere 2% in a decade. On April 12, 1945, President Roosevelt passed away,
leaving Harry Truman in power. Under Truman, the United States successfully concluded
the devastating war, resulting in fifty to over seventy million casualties.20 In order to
prevent yet another savage world war, the United Nations was officially founded in 1945
and aimed to prevent another war through the facilitated cooperation in international law,
international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and the
achievement of world peace.21 The United States was a permanent and dominant member
of this international organization. It had truly changed its perspective on trying to prevent
war. Prior to WWII, the United States had persisted on continuing as an isolationist state,
until the impetus came. Following WWII however, it had changed into one of the
dominant internationalist powers. Keeping the internationalist system of the United
States, President Truman put forth the Truman Doctrine in 1947. Its primary purpose was
to aid countries or peoples who were threatened by the Soviet Union or communism, thus
proving the United States desire to become involved in foreign affairs and its overall
dominance of the world.
The domestic policies of the United States had altered as well. In 1947, President
Truman signed the National Security Act put forth by Congress. Truman stated that the
Japanese attack might have been prevented if there had been something like

Robert Macdougall. "Red, Brown, and Yellow Perils: Images of the American
Enemy in the 1940s and 1950s." Journal of Popular Culture
21 Edward Johnson. "Dilemmas of Internationalism: The American Association
for the United Nations and US Foreign Policy, 1941-1948." Review. Diplomacy &
Statecraft
20

coordination of information in the government.22 The Act realigned and reorganized the
U.S. Armed Forces and Intelligence Community by merging the Department of War and
the Department of the Navy into the National Military Establishment. Along with
military reorganization, the act established the National Security Council, a place of
coordination for national security, and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), which
would monitor and advise the president on any domestic or foreign policies that should
be taken into any consideration.23 Evidently, America did not want to go through another
blind attack, such as Pearl Harbor, in the near future.
To this day, the attack on Pearl Harbor remains a historical turning point,
changing the path of the United States ideology. By comparing America, then and now,
it is evident that there have been drastic changes to prevent such results like Pearl Harbor
again. Today, Pearl Harbor is preserved as a historical site for people to visit and pay
respect to the lives that were lost in the attack. This, more than anything, serves as a
memoir to demonstrate Americas strength and perseverance through harsh times. The
attack of Pearl Harbor was far more than just a surprise attack; it was, ultimately, a sign
of Americas power and its step towards world supremacy.

22

"Intelligence Throughout History: The Impact of Pearl Harbor." Central

Intelligence Agency. Web
23 Ibid.
9

Annotated Bibliography
Primary Sources:
Gano, Johnie, and Dale Gano. "Interview with Pearl Harbor Eyewitnesses." Interview.
Scholastic, n.d. Web. <http://teacher.scholastic.com/pearl/transcript.htm>.
This online interview from Scholastic incorporates two eyewitnesses of the Pearl Harbor
attack. It clearly visualizes the incident and what the people were experiencing during the
time. The main purpose of this interview was to get an idea of what was happening
around the area of the bombing, away from the battleships and closer to residential areas.
Dale Gano, a retired U.S. Navy Commander and his wife Johnie Gano witnessed the
event and started involving in interviews with students from the Scholastic webpage. The
interviews were recorded in 1996.
Lindbergh, Charles. "Des Moines Speech." Des Moines, Iowa. Speech.
This a speech given by Charles Lindbergh, an American aviator, arguing about how
America should remain an isolationist country rather than join WWII. Lindbergh makes
his argument by emphasizing that the America is not ready for such a vast war that is
about to commence and that the only thing America will get out of the war is chaos and
prostration. This speech was delivered September 11, 1941, in Des Moines, Iowa.
Charles Lindbergh was the first American aviator to make the solo flight across the
Atlantic Ocean. He joined the America First Committee, an organization that opposed
voluntary American entry into World War II and became a leading spokesman for the
committee.
"The Nye Report on the Munitions Industry and World Peace, 1936." The Nye Report on
the Munitions Industry and World Peace, 1936. N.p., n.d. Web.
<https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/nye.htm>.
The Nye Committee played a big part in American neutrality during the 1930s. It was led
by Senator Gerald Nye who lead this committee in investigating the damages WWI had
done to the United States economy to prove to the people of America that entering yet
another war, WWII, would be again, devastating to the country and the people.
"Pearl Harbor Articles & Newspapers." Archives. N.p., n.d. Web.
<http://www.archives.com>.
This is a photo of a newspaper article published by Manitowoc Herald-Times. The front
page of the newspaper shows numerous articles written on Pearl Harbor in very small,
illegible text. But the article titles can be seen, for example, Negotiate With Japs, The
War Today, Big Tank Battle On, and County Has Many in Pacific War Sector. Some of
these may have nothing to do with Pearl Harbor but the fact that the major headline of the
newspaper is, U.S. Declares War, makes it pretty obvious that the United States was
impacted heavily.

10

"Pearl Harbor." History.com. N.p., n.d. Web.

<http://www.history.com/photos/pearl-harbor>.
This is a photo of a newspaper article published the day after the Pearl Harbor attack. It
shows the newspaper company, the New York World-Telegram, publishing a newspaper
with headlines, 1500 Dead in Hawaii, Congress Votes War. Under the headline is
written, tally in Senate is 82 to 0, in house 388 to 1. This shows how desperate and fast
the Americans were to declare war on Japan right after the bombing.
Roosevelt, Franklin D. "A Date Which Will Live in Infamy." 8 Dec. 1941. Speech.
This speech, given by Franklin D. Roosevelt on December 8th 1941 after the bombing of
Pearl Harbor, clearly emphasizes the devastation the Americans experienced. This speech
is incredibly important to my research because it signifies the turning point in which
America enters the war. Strictly after this speech, the Congress declared war on Japan,
thus bringing America into the war. Franklin Delano Roosevelt was the 32nd president of
the United States.
Roosevelt, Franklin D. "Quarantine Speech." Chicago, Illinois. Speech.
This speech, given by Franklin D. Roosevelt on October 5, 1937, is known to be a
landmark in US foreign policy. This speech can be interpreted as FDR announcing that
he has decided to reverse the US foreign policy by abandoning isolationism. Although
this speech wasnt for the entering of WWII, it shows the numerous conflicts that the
United States had while deciding whether to become an internationalist or isolationist
country. This speech was directed toward the Axis Powers especially.
Secondary Sources:
"American Isolationism in the 1930s." U.S. Department of State: Office of the
Historian,n.d. Web.
Isolationism is a main focus in my essay. This article provides the information I need in
order to prove the neutrality and isolationism that America was supporting at the time.
This article gives me the specific statistics on the public opinion towards isolationism
during the 1930s. These include public opinions on the Lend-Lease Act and many college
student protests or rallies.

11

Brown, Matt. "American Isolationism Before World War II." Harwich Historical
Journal, n.d. Web. <http://harwich.edu/depts/history/HHJ/iso.htm>.
This online article from the Harwich Historical Journal, written by Matt Brown, talks
about American isolationism before WWII. The article gives great detail and facts on the
people and events that helped to support this act of isolationism. The main objective of
this article is to point out the conflicts between internationalists and isolationists. Gaining
more knowledge about isolationism is very important to me because I am trying to
support my thesis of an immediate shift in American foreign policy. This article also
leads to several significant speeches that were given to support his/her cause against or in
favor of isolationism.
Coen, Robert M. "Labor Force and Unemployment in the 1920's and 1930's: A Reexamination Based on Postwar Experience." The Review of Economics and
Statistics 55.1 (1973): n. page. Web.
For the context of this essay, I will be specifically noting the Great Depression and its
effect on the economy of the United States by forcing people into unemployment. To
really emphasize the damage the Great Depression made, this journal article provides
statistics and graphs on the unemployment rate during the Great Depression and after
WWII.
Degrace, Tom. "The Great Depression Facts, Timeline, Causes, Pictures." Stock Picks
System. N.p., n.d. Web. <http://www.stockpickssystem.com/the-great-depression/>.
Before Pearl Harbor or WWII, the Great Depression was going on in the United States.
This online article provides great background information on the time period during the
Great Depression by giving examples of what people were doing at the time. It also
provides a little information on how WWII impacted America during the Great
Depression.
Feifer, George. "Perry and Pearl: The Unintended Consequence." World Policy Journal
24.3 (2007): 103-10. EBSCO. Web.
This journal article from World Policy Journal, written by Feifer George, talks about the
foreign relations between Japan and the United States. The journal mentions a
commodore Matthew Perry who led a squadron to Japan for the first official time. This
meeting would begin the conflict type relationship between the two countries. This article
can definitely help me with my thesis with how the foreign policy was changed towards
Japan.

12

"Intelligence Throughout History: The Impact of Pearl Harbor." Central Intelligence

Agency, 10 Dec. 2010. Web. <https://www.cia.gov/news-information/featured
story-archive/2010-featured-story-archive/pearl-harbor.html>.
This online article, published by the Central Intelligence Agency, talks about the impact
of Pearl Harbor on the domestic policies of the United States. The articles main focus is
the establishment of a professional and centralized intelligence organization. The CIA is
an independent US Government agency responsible for providing national security
intelligence to US policymakers.
"Isolationism During the 1930s." Digital History. N.p., n.d. Web.
<http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2>.
Isolationism is where the turning point originates, therefore, its good to get some
background information on it. This online article gives an overall idea on the situation of
isolationism in America.
Johnson, Edward. "Dilemmas of Internationalism: The American Association for the
United Nations and US Foreign Policy, 1941-1948." Review. Diplomacy &
Statecraft Mar. 2010: 140-42. Print.
This book review, written by Edward Johnson, is a review of the book Dilemmas of
Internationalism: The American Association for the United Nations and US Foreign
Policy, 1941-1948 written by A. Johnson. Although this is only a book review, it still
provides a lot of specific facts and evidence of the change of US foreign policy and its
relation with the American Association for the United Nations. Some of the specifics are
the numerous organizations that had some relation to Americas isolationism becoming
internationalism. These organizations include the American Association for the United
Nations, the American League of Nations Association, and others. Edward Johnson
works at Birmingham City University in Birmingham, UK.
Macdougall, Robert. "Red, Brown, and Yellow Perils: Images of the American Enemy in
the 1940s and 1950s." Journal of Popular Culture n.d.: 59-75. EBSCO.Web
This magazine article from Journal of Popular Culture, written by Robert Macdougall,
talks about the images of the US enemies between the 1940s and 1950s. It legibly
explains what happened on December 7th, 1941. The main purpose of this article is to
point out the struggles and challenges America faced during this time period. This article
really highlights what happened at Pearl Harbor and the impact of it on the United States
military. The author, Robert Macdougall, is the Associate Professor & Graduate Chair
Associate Director of the Centre for American Studies at Harvard University.

13

Rosen, Judith. "Remembering a Day of Infamy." Publishers Weekly 7 May

2001:35.EBSCO.Web
This newspaper article from Publishers Weekly, written by Judith Rosen, is about the
incident of Pearl Harbor, 1941. It clearly summarizes the dreadful event of the bombings
by the Japanese soldiers on December 7th, 1941. The main purpose of this article is to
outline how Pearl Harbor has impacted the lives of many Americans. This article gives
me good background knowledge on what has happened but insufficient evidence on what
the Americans did afterwards. The author, Judith Rosen is a journalist for Publishers
Weekly.

14