Symbols

Symbols are a kind of shorthand system for writing down elements and
compounds. Each element has a particular one or two letter symbol. The first
letter of a symbol is always capital, and if there is a second letter, e.g. Mg
(magnesium), this is written in lower case.
A complete set of symbols is found in a periodic table. The following table lists
some common elements, their symbols, and their physical state at room
temperature and pressure.

Table 1 A set of common elements, their symbols and physical state

Element Symbol Physical State
Hydrogen

gas

Oxygen

gas

Chlorine

Cl

gas

Mercury

Hg

liquid

Gold

Au

solid

Silver

Ag

solid

Molecules
Atoms of elements usually join up either with atoms of the same element or with
atoms of different elements to form molecules. In both cases the atoms are
chemically bound together. On the other hand there are elements whose atoms
are not found as molecules but as single atoms. These elements are said to be
monatomic, e.g. He, helium; Ne, neon; Kr, krypton; Xe, xenon. Elements
whose atoms are found joined up in twos as molecules are called diatomic, e.g.
Cl2, chlorine; O2, oxygen; N2, nitrogen.
Atoms of one element may join up with atoms of another element to form a new
substance. These are called compounds. For example, one atom of oxygen
binds chemically with two atoms of hydrogen to form a molecule of water. Water
is a compound made up of oxygen and hydrogen.

Chemical formulae
When we are talking about molecules of compounds we do not write symbols
for them, but we write chemical formulae. Taking water as an example, since

Symbols

one molecule of water is composed of two atoms of hydrogen and one of

oxygen, the chemical formula can be written as H2O.
When writing a chemical formula, metals and hydrogen are always written
before non-metals, e.g. HCl, NaCl, MgO, etc.
The chemical formula of a compound gives the ratio of the atoms of the
different elements, e.g.
NaCl: one atom of sodium : one atom of chlorine
MgCl2: one atom of magnesium : two atoms of chlorine
Not all chemical formulae are so easy. Look at the chemical formulae in the
following tables:
Note that for aluminium hydroxide the formula is Al(OH)3 and not AlO3H3. Why
is this so question? The answer to this question comes out when we discuss
radicals. A radical is a group of atoms that exists in several compounds but
does not exist on its own. The next table contains some common radicals.

Table 2: Some radicals

Groups of atoms present Name of radical Examples of compounds
NO3

Nitrate

NaNO3, Cu(NO3)2

NO2

Nitrite

NaNO2, Cu(NO2)2

CO3

Carbonate

Na2CO3, K2CO3

HCO3

Hydrogencarbonate

NaHCO3, Mg(HCO3)2

SO4

Sulfate

CaSO4, (NH4)2SO4

SO3

Sulfite

MgSO3, K2SO3

HSO4

Hydrogensulfate

Mg(HSO4)2, Ca(HSO4)2

NH4

Ammonium

NH4Cl, (NH4)2CO3

OH

Hydroxide

NaOH, KOH

PO4

Phosphate

AlPO4, Mg3(PO4)2

Cl

Chloride

NaCl, CuCl2

Sulfide

ZnS, FeS

Oxide

MgO, CO2

So when we write the chemical formula of a compound that contains radicals we

must consider the radical as one entity and not as separate atoms.

Symbols

Note that when looking at the names of compounds there are certain trends in
the endings. For example, the ending -ate indicates a radical containing
oxygen, e.g. sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3), magnesium sulfate
(MgSO4).
The ending -ide indicates the presence of two elements only, e.g. sodium
chloride (NaCl), potassium iodide (KI).

Valency
But how are we going to decide what is the ratio of atoms combined in a
compound. This is decided by the valency of an element.
For example, hydrogen has a valency of 1; chlorine has a valency of 1 as well.
So hydrogen (H) and chlorine (Cl) will combine to form a molecule of hydrogen
chloride in a ratio of 1 hydrogen atom : 1 chlorine atom. The chemical formula
will therefore be HCl.
One has to remember the valencies of the most common elements. A help to
remember this is to know which Group in the Periodic table the element is
found in.
For example, sodium is in Group 1 and has a valency of 1. Magnesium is in
Group 2 and has a valency of 2. Aluminium is in Group 3 and has a valency of
3. Carbon is in Group 4 and has a valency of 4. This rule has to be changed a
bit when it comes to Groups 5, 6 and 7.
For these groups, the valency is equal to the number of electrons required to
achieve an outer shell of 8 electrons which is stable.
For Group 5 elements, they have 5 outer electrons and hence need 3 to achieve
a noble gas configuration, and so their valency is 3. The same is done for
Groups 6 and 7, whose elements have valencies of 2 and 1 respectively. For
more notes about valency refer to Topic 6.
Also,

i. there are some elements that have variable valencies, i.e. they may have
more than one valency. This is a property of the transition metals, e.g. Copper
has can have a valency of either 1 or 2; iron may have a valency of either 2 or 3;
ii. even radicals have valencies (see Table 3 below);

Symbols

iii. noble gases, i.e. the elements found in Group 8 or Group O have a valency of
0.
Table 3: Valencies of radicals
Radical

Symbol Valency

Hydroxide

OH

Chloride

Cl

Nitrate

NO3

Hydrogencarbonate HCO3

Hydrogensulfate

HSO4

Ammonium

NH4

Oxide

Carbonate

CO3

Sulfate

SO4

The following table summarises the symbols and valencies of common

elements.

Table 4 Common elements and their valency

Elements Valency
Hydrogen

Sodium

Magnesium

Calcium

Carbon

Oxygen

Iron

2 or 3

Steps for writing chemical formulae

1. Look at the name of the chemical compound and write the symbols of the
elements and/or radicals that make it up.
aluminium chloride:
aluminium ion, Al3+
chloride ion, Cl-

Symbols

2. Note the valencies of the atoms and/or radicals making up the compound.
Al - valency 3
Cl - valency 1
3. The valencies need to be balanced if they are not balanced already.
Al - valency 3: one ion is needed (resulting valency = 3)
Cl - valency 1: three ions are needed (resulting valency 1 x 3 = 3)
4. Therefore for every aluminium ion there is, there have to be three chlorine
ions.
5. Resulting chemical formula: AlCl3

Symbols for states of substances

A substance can be either a solid, a liquid or a gas. A substance may also be in
solution, usually in water.
There is a symbol for all these four states. These symbols are usually written
in brackets as subscripts after an element or compound.
The symbol for solid is (s).
The symbol for liquid is (l).
The symbol for gas is (g).
The symbol for in aqueous solution is (aq).
This means that the substance is in solution in water. These symbols are
usually used when we are writing chemical equations.

Chemical equations
Chemical equations represent what happens in chemical reactions. One can
also represent what is happening in a chemical reaction by use of word
equations, e.g.
iron + sulphur

iron sulfide

On the left hand side of the equation, one writes the reactant/s, i.e. the
substances that actively react in the reaction.
Symbols

On the right hand side of the equation, one writes the product/s, i.e. the
substances produced as a result of the reaction.
The above is called a WORD EQUATION because words are used to show what
is happening.
A more accurate and scientific way of showing what happens in a chemical
reaction, is to use symbols for elements and chemical formulae instead of
words.
Hence for the reaction above, we can write,
Fe + S

FeS

We can also add the symbols that show the physical state for each substance,
Fe(s) + S(s)

FeS(s)

Now, one must see that the number of atoms of an element (or radical) on
the left hand side must equal those on the right hand side.
For the above equation, this is so, and hence the chemical equation is all
right.
But what about the next one ?
Zn(s) + HCl(aq)

ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Note that for Zn, the number of atoms on the left hand side balance those
on the right hand side, but not so for Cl and H.
For the equation to be balanced, there must be two HCl molecules on the left
hand side, and the equation becomes:
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq)

ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Note that the 2" is written IN FRONT of the molecule and not anywhere
else.
REMEMBER THIS !
Numbers in chemical formulae and equations:
A,B are the elements or radicals and X is a number.

Symbols

AX, BX: means that there are x atoms of A and X of B in a molecule; e.g.
Cl2, O2, Na2O, AlCl3.
(AB)X: means that there x radicals of AB in a molecule, e.g. (NH4)2SO4,
Al(OH)3, Al2(CO3)3.
X AB: means that there are X molecules of AB, e.g. 2 NaCl, 3 MgCO3.
NOTE: When balancing chemical equations, sometimes it is easier to multiply
the whole equation, rather than have a fraction, e.g.
KClO3

KCl + O2 is not balanced;

KClO3

KCl + 11/2 O2 is balanced but not correct;

2 KClO3

2 KCl + 3 O2 is balanced and correct.

Calculations from formulae and equations

A chemical formula of a compound does not tell you only what types of atoms
make up that compound but also the number of atoms present in that
compound.
For example, a molecule of magnesium chloride, MgCl2, has one atom of
magnesium and two atoms of chlorine chemically combined together.
In moles, one mole of magnesium chloride molecules, consists of one mole of
magnesium ions and two moles of chloride ions.
In grams, the relative molecular mass (RMM) of MgCl2 is (24+(35.5 x 2) = 95g.
Therefore 95g of MgCl2 contains 24g of Mg combined with 71g of Cl.
These ideas can be used to calculate the empirical formula of a compound,
i.e. the simplest ratio of atoms present in a molecule.

Example:
Find the empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide if 0.04g of hydrogen react with
0.64g of oxygen to form hydrogen peroxide.
Atoms present: H O
Masses given: H - 0.04g

Symbols

O - 0.64g
To find the empirical formula we have to obtain a ratio of moles.
Number of moles of hydrogen in 0.04g:1g of hydrogen molecules contains 1 mole of hydrogen atoms
0.04g of hydrogen molecules contains ? moles of hydrogen atoms
0.04 x 1 / 1 = 0.04 moles
Number of moles of oxygen in 0.64g:16g of oxygen molecules contain 1 mole of oxygen molecules
0.64g of oxygen molecules contain ? moles of oxygen molecules
0.64 x 1 / 16 = 0.04 moles
Therefore the ratio of moles of hydrogen reacting with moles of oxygen to
given hydrogen peroxide is 0.04:0.04 or 1:1
Therefore the empirical formula is HO
Another way to calculate the empirical formula is shown in the following
example.

Example:
Sodium sulfate has the following composition by mass: Na 32.4%, S 22.5%, and
O 45.1%. What is the empirical formula question
Na

% composition

32.4

22.5

45.1

Divide by RAM

32.4/23

22.5/32

45.1/16

=0.70

=2.82

Relative number of atoms =1.41

Divide by smallest number 1.41/0.70 0.70/0.70 2.82/0.70

=2

=1

=4

Therefore empirical formula is Na2SO4

Symbols

Note that for the final division answers may not be whole numbers. In this
case round them to the nearest whole or half.

Calculating the molecular formula from the empirical

formula
The molecular formula is different from the empirical formula. The latter
gives the simplest ratio of atoms present in a molecule whereas the former
gives the actual number of atoms present in a molecule.
You can obtain the molecular formula if you know both the empirical
formula and the RMM.
For example, for hydrogen peroxide, the empirical formula is HO. The mass of
this empirical formula is (1 + 16) 17. The RMM is 34. Therefore one immediately
notes that the RMM is twice the mass of the empirical formula, and so the
molecular formula is (OH) x 2, or H2O2.

Percentage composition from the chemical formula

If the RMM of a compound is taken as 100%, then the relative atomic masses
(RAM) of each element can be taken as a percentage of the total RMM.

Example: Find the percentage composition by mass of ammonium nitrate.

1. Write down the formula of the compound: NH4NO3
2. Calculate the RMM: 14 + (1 x 4) + 14 + (16 x 3) = 80
3. Take the TOTAL RAM of each element: N = 14 (x 2) = 28
O = 16 (x 3) = 48
H = 1 (x 4) = 4
4. Find what percentage of the RMM, each TOTAL RAM is.
N = 28/80 x 100 = 35%

Symbols

O = 48/80 x 100 = 60%

H = 4/80 x 100 = 5%
5. Check that the percentages total to 100%.
NOTE For hydrated compounds, i.e. compounds that have water of
crystallisation, e.g. CuSO4.5H2O, the H2O is taken as an entity on its own, and
not as H and O on their own.
E.g. Percentage composition of MgCl2.6H2O
RMM = 24 + (35.5 x 2) + (18 x 6) = 203
Mg = 24/203 x 100 = 11.82%
Cl = 71/203 x 100 = 34.98%
H2O = 108/203 x 100 = 53.2%

Mass calculations and equations

The masses of reactants or products can be calculated using chemical
equations.
For example,
S(s) + O2(g)

SO2(g)

The equation indicates that 1 mole of S reacts with 1 mole of O2 to produce 1

mole of SO2.
We can express this statement in masses.
32g of S (RAM of S) react with 32g (RAM of O x 2 = 16 x 2) of O2 to produce
64g of SO2.
This idea can be used to work out masses of products or reactants.

Example:

Symbols

10

How much magnesium oxide will be produced when 48g of magnesium are
burned in excess of oxygen. (RAM: Mg = 24; O = 16)
2 Mg(s) + O2(g)

2 MgO(s)

i.e. 2 moles of Mg + 1 mole of O2

2 x 24 + excess O2
48g + excess O2

2 moles of MgO
2 x (24 + 16)
80g

Therefore when 48g of Mg react with excess O2, 80g of MgO are produced.

Example:
Calculate the mass of zinc required to produce 81g of zinc oxide when heated
in excess of oxygen. (RAM: Zn = 65; O = 16)
2 Zn(s) + O2(g)
2 moles of Zn + excess O2
2 x 65 + excess O2
130g + excess O2

2 ZnO(s)
2 moles ZnO
2 x (65+16)
162g

But we want to find out the mass of Zn required to produce 81g of ZnO and not
162g.
Therefore, 162g of ZnO are produced by 130g of Zn
81g of ZnO are produced by ? of Zn
= 130 x 81
162
= 65g of Zn

Symbols

11