CHEMISTRY OF MAJOR

COMPOUNDS IN THE BODY

CARBOHYDRATES

LIPIDS
PROTEINS

NUCLEIC ACIDS

CARBOHYDRATES
ALDEHYDE OR KETONE DERIVATES OF POLYHYDRIC ALCOHOLS

4 CLASSES BASED ON THEIR SIZE

I.

MONOSACCHARIDES
- SMALLEST UNIT OF CARBOHYDRATES
- CANNOT BE HYDROLIZED INTO SIMPLER CARBOHYDRATES
- MONOSACCHARIDES MAY BE CLSSIFIED BASED ON THE NUMBER
OF THEIR CARBON ATOMS:
- TRIOSE : GLYCERALDEHYDE
- TETROSES : ERYTHROSE
- PENTOSES : RIBOSE
- HEXOSES : GLUCOSE, GALACTOSE, FRUCTOSE, MANNOSE
- HEPTOSES : SEDOHEPTULOSE

- SUGARS EXHIBIT VARIOUS FORMS OF ISOMERISM

1. D AND L SUGARS
- MONOSACCHARIDES ARE DESIGNATED D OR L,DEPENDING ON
THE CONFIGURATION OF THE ASYMETRIC CARBON FARTHEST
FROM THE CARBONYL GROUP
( D ISOMER IF THE HYDROXYL GROUP IN THE RIGHT SIDE,
L ISOMER IT THE HYDROXYL GROUP IN THE LEFT SIDE )
- MOST OF THE SUGARS IN LIVING ORGANISM BELONG TO
THE D SERIES
2. PYRANOSE AND FURANOSE RING STRUCTURE
- HEXOSES, SUCH AS THE ALDOHEXOSE OR THE KETO-HEXOSE
FORM EITHER SIX-MEMBERED RING (PYRANOSE)
OR FIVE-MEMBERED RING ( FURANOSE )

3. ALPHA AND BETA ANOMERS

- IF THE SUGAR IS DEPICTED WITH THE RING IN THE PLANE OF
THE PAPER, THE HYDROXYL GROUP COVALENTLY ATTACHED TO
THE ANOMERIC CARBON IS IN THE ALPHA POSITION IF IT IS
BELOW THE PLANE OF THE RING, BETA POSITION IF IT IS ABOVE
THE PLANE OF THE RING
4. EPIMERS
- ISOMER DIFFERING AS A RESULT OF VARIATIONS IN THE OH
AND H ON CARBON ATOMS
5. ALDOSE-KETOSE ISOMERISM
- ONE OF THE CARBON ATOM FORMS A CARBONYL GROUP VIA A
DOUBLE BOND WITH OXYGEN
ALDOSE IF THE CARBONYL GROUP IS AN ALDEHYDE
OR KETOSE IF IT IS A KETONE GROUP

THE STRUCTURE OF GLUCOSE CAN BE REPRESENTED IN THREE

WAYS:
STRAIGHT-CHAIN STRUCTURE, RING STRUCTURE, CYCLIC STRUCTURE
(HAWORTH PROJECTION) AND THE CHAIR-BOAT FORM
II. DISACCHARIDES

- CONTAINS 2 MONOSACCHARIDES JOINED BY AN O-GLYCOSIDIC

BOND
- EXAMPLES : MALTOSE (GLUCOSE-GLUCOSE)
LACTOSE (GLUCOSE-GALACTOSE)
SUCROSE (GLUCOSE-FRUCTOSE)

III. OLIGOSACCHARIDES
- CONTAINS 3 10 MONOSACCHARIDES
- COMPONENTS OF GLYCOPROTEINS AND GLYCOLIPIDS
IV. POLYSACCHARIDES
- CONTAINS MORE THAN 10 MONOSACCHARIDES, JOINED BY
GLYCOSIDIC BOND
- EXAMPLES : STARCH
GLYCOGEN
INULIN
GLYCOSAMINOGLYCAN

LIPIDS
CLASSIFICATION:
I.

SIMPLE LIPID:
- ESTERS OF FATTY ACIDS WITH VARIOUS ALCOHOLS

II.

COMPLEX LIPIDS:
- ESTERS OF FATTY ACIDS CONTAINING GROUPS IN ADDITION
TO AN ALCOHOL AND FATTY ACIDS
- EXAMPLES : FOSFOLIPID, GLYCOLIPID, LIPOPROTEIN

III.

PRECURSOR AND DERIVED LIPID

- EXAMPLES : FATTY ACIDS, GLYCEROL, STEROIDS, KETONE
BODIES

FATTY ACIDS
- STRAIGHT ALIPHATIC CHAINS WITH METHYL GROUP AT ONE
END (OMEGA-CARBON) AND A CARBOXYL GROUP AT THE
OTHER END
-

MOST FATTY ACIDS IN THE HUMAN HAVE AN EVEN NUMBER

OF CARBON ATOMS USUALLY BETWEEN 16 20

FATTY ACIDS MAY BE SATURATED OR UNSATURATED

THE DOUBLE BONDS IN MOST NATURALLY OCCURING

SATURATED FATTY ACIDS ARE IN THE CIS CONFIGURATION (THE
ACYL CHAINS ARE ON THE SAME SIDE OF THE DOUBLE BONDS);
TRANS MEANS THAT THE ACYL CHAINS ARE ON OPPOSITE SIDES
OF THE DOUBLE BOND

ACYLGLYCEROLS
- FATTY ACIDS REACT WITH ALCOHOL (HYDROXYL) GROUPS TO
FORM ESTERS ---- TRIACYLGLYCEROLS

PHOSPHOACYLGLYCEROLS
- PHOSPHOACYLGLYCEROLS CONTAIN FATTY ACIDS ESTERFIED TO
POSITIONS 1 AND 2 OF GLYCEROL AND A PHOSPHORYL GROUP
AT POSITION 3
IF ONLY A PHOSPHATE GROUP IS ATTACH TO POSITION 3, THE
COMPOUND IS KNOWN AS PHOSPHATIDIC ACID
-

COMPOUNDS DERIVED FROM PHOSPHATIDIC ACID THAT

CONTAIN SUBSTITUENTS ON THE PHOSPHATE GROUP ARE
KNOWN AS PHOSPHOLIPID (PHOSPHOGLYCERIDES).

SPHINGOLIPIDS
- SPHINGOLIPIDS ARE DERIVATES OF CERAMIDE (SYNTHESIZED
FROM SERINE , PALMITIC ACID) AND AN ADDITIONAL FATTY ACID
- PHOSPHOCHOLINE IS ESTERIFIED TO CERAMIDE IN
SPHINGOMYELIN ( PHOSPHOLIPID)
- SUGARS ARE ATTACHED TO CERAMIDE IN CEREBROSIDES AND
GANGLIOSIDES
- SPHINGOLIPIDS ARE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF MYELIN AND OF
THE MEMBRANES OF BRAIN AND OTHER NERVOUS TISSUE

EICOSANOIDS
- EICOSANOIDS ARE PRODUCED BY MANY CELL IN THE BODY,
SYNTHESIZED FROM POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS CONTAINING
20 CARBON ATOMS WITH 3, 4, OR 5 DOUBLE BONDS
- EXAMPLES : PROSTAGLANDINS, THROMBOXANS, LEUKOTRIENES

STEROIDS
-

THE STEROIDS ARE A GROUP OF COMPOUNDS THAT CONTAIN A

STRUCTURE KNOWN AS THE STEROID NUCLEUS (CYCLOPENTANO
PERHYDRO PHENANTHRENE)

CHOLESTEROL (SYNTHESIZED IN ANIMALS BUT NOT IN PLANTS)

IS THE PARENT COMPOUND FROM WHICH OTHER STEROIDS ARE
PRODUCED IN HUMANS

CHOLESTEROL IS CONVERTED TO BILE SALTS, THE

ADRENOCORTICAL HORMONE ( STEROID HORMONE) AND THE SEX
HORMONES

THE 3-HYDROXYL GROUP OF CHOLESTEROL CAN REACT WITH

FATTY ACIDS, FORMING CHOLESTEROL ESTERS WHICH ARE LESS
SOLUBLE THAN FREE CHOLESTEROL AND THREFORE IS STORED
AS DROPLETS IN CELLS, AND ALSO ARE FOUND IN THE BLOOD
LIPOPROTEINS

THE BILE SALTS ARE AMPHIPATIC COMPOUNDS CONTAIN BOTH

HYDROPHOBIC AND HYDROPHILIC REGIONS, SERVING TO EMULSIFY
THE LIPIDS IN THE DIGESTIVE TRACT