Running head: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Annotated Bibliography: Alternative Programs For At-Risk Students

Ryan Sheehan
City University of Seattle
ECC 510: Technology Tools and Information Literacy
Michelle Khatib
July 9, 2014

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Research Topic: How can small rural high schools structure programs to meet the needs of atrisk students?
Keywords: alternative education, at-risk students
Reference #1: Journal Article
Benson, J. (2012). 100 Repetitions: Teachers of troubled students need to know that the
road to success is paved with many useful failures. Educational Leadership, 70
(2), 76-78.
Benson writes about his experiences from working with challenging students in
alternative education programs for almost 20 years. He theorizes that these
students, who could be suffering from addiction, trauma, or behavior issues,
need100 useful repetitions of experiencing failures while being effectively
supported by teachers before they learn the necessary lesson. Although Benson
includes inspiring anecdotal stories from his experiences, along with helpful
advice, he has not done formal research to support his theory in terms of
identifying his sample or methods. He summarizes six ways for teachers to
support struggling students: 1. Preserve relationships. 2. Be genuine in your
emotions. 3. Help the student accurately understand the consequences. 4.
Highlight every bit of growth. 5. Listen to the student. 6. Let them feel their
feelings. The bias present in the article is that the author looks at the situation
through one lens, that being that struggling students need to simply experience
their failures while receiving ongoing support from teachers. He does not consider
other methods for these students to make change such as counselor support or

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having more structure from teachers. Each student and situation is unique and
may require different approaches, which Benson does not recognize in this article.
The article is theoretically based rather than research based. It is not a study that
has empirical data to prove his ideas. The perspective of the author emphasizes
compassion, relationship building, and support for struggling students. These
aspects might work well with other alternative education models.
Keywords: alternative education, at-risk, teenagers
Reference #2: Journal Article
Chalker, S., & Stelsel, K. (2009). A fresh approach to alternative education. using malls
to reach at-risk youth. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 45(2), 74-77.
Chalker and Stelsel write about specific alternative schools named Education
Resource Centers (ERCs) that collaborate with Simon Youth Foundation (SYF)
and are housed in shopping malls. The schools target youth who are considered
at-risk for a variety of reasons, including teen pregnancy, abusive or challenging
home lives, and social-interaction problems. The schools have small class sizes
(approximately 15:1 ratio of students to teacher), computer-based delivery of
courses, allow students to work at their own pace, a respectful climate that limits
social distractions, an emphasis on dispute resolution and multicultural
interaction, flexible half day sessions, and caring teachers that model pro-social
behaviors. The mall is a comfortable setting, which also has employment,
internship, and mentoring possibilities. The ERCs have rules about when students
can enter the mall and where the classrooms are situated within the mall. The goal

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is to create a school that has a different approach rather than an environment that
has lower standards than traditional schools. Student survey results show that
ERC students have a more positive opinion of their schools than students who
attend traditional schools. Parents, administrators, superintendents, and principals
indicate appreciation for the ERCs. The article does not describe a research study
that was carried out with a specific sample or methodology. Chalker worked in
alternative schools for 15 years. Both he and Stelsel now work for SYF, so there
is bias in the article. Subjectivity is apparent, for example, it would be difficult to
prove if a teacher is caring and models pro-social behaviors. A viable program
using the ERC model provides unique opportunities because it promotes
flexibility while supporting at-risk youth. Advocacy, mentorship and employment
opportunities for students are critical components of the model for keeping kids in
school.
Keywords: alternative education, at-risk students, student-paced
Reference #3: Peer-reviewed article
Gut, E., & McLaughlin, J.M. (2012). Alternative educations impact on office
disciplinary referrals. Clearing House 85 (6) p. 231-236. DOI:
10.1080/00098655.2012.695409
Gut and McLaughlin studied the changes in the number of office disciplinary
referrals (ODRs) in public schools in a southeastern state that had access to an
alternative education provider. The program included a shortened school day, low
student to teacher ratios (no higher than 10:1), student-paced learning, computer-

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assisted learning, group projects, and no class changes, breaks, or lunch sessions.
Credits are completed based on skill mastery rather than hours per credit. These
programs are located away from the public schools, usually in a strip mall. The
alternative program is meant for students with behavioral problems, medical
needs, attendance problems, or those who are behind on credits. For privacy
reasons, rather than individual students, the participants in the study were eight
schools from a southeastern state. The researchers collected quantitative data that
compared the number of ODRs from pre- to post-partnership with the alternative
program. The study showed significant decreases for some specific problematic
behaviors such as fighting, threats, and intimidation. The results indicated that
public schools were safer because of the partnership with the alternative education
program. The authors seem to present their research objectively and there appears
to be no bias in the article. The authors acknowledge limitations to their study
including a small sample that is only from one state as well as that none of the
schools that ended their partnership with the alternative program were included in
the study. Although the alternative program was meant for students with varying
needs, this study focuses on the disciplinary reasons. It is probably easier to
quantify the results this way because of the data for ODR, however, similar
programs may emphasize the need to serve students with broader needs than
discipline; including mental health, bullying issues, and attendance issues.
Practices such as low ratios, shortened school days, flexibility, student-paced

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learning, and blended learning could still be effective modifications for these
populations.
Keywords: at-risk students, dropout prevention
Reference #4: Peer-reviewed article
Knesting, K. (2008). Students at risk for school dropout: supporting their persistence.
Preventing School Failure, 52(4), 3-10.
The research in this article is qualitative in nature and examines a group of high
school students who are at-risk of dropping out, but continue going to school. The
intention of the research was to determine reasons for the perseverance of these
students including factors within the school rather than only considering student
characteristics. Knesting indicated four factors that emerged as critical for
teachers supporting student persistence: 1. Listening to students. 2.
Communicating caring. 3. The role of the school in dropout prevention. 4. The
role of students in dropout prevention. The study took place in Washington High
School with students from grade 9 through 12. The sample was a group of 17
students who were identified as at-risk for dropping out by a panel of teachers
from the school. The researcher used interviews with students and school staff to
collect her data. Knesting used comparisons of student responses and the creation
of categories to allow grouping of data from open-ended questions to help show
themes found and thus draw effective conclusions. Confidentiality and sound
ethical procedures were used, including recording interviews, checking for
accuracy and clarification from the students, and the use of pseudonyms. There

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appears to be no bias evident in the article. The research found that committed,
empathetic, and caring teachers were more important to the persistence of the
students than academic support or counseling programs. Knesting concludes that
it is important to listen more carefully the perspectives of students about their
school experience. She also concludes that schools can have a positive influence
on the persistence of a student. The determination of the students along with
involvement with supportive teachers helps students to stay in school. The major
limitation in this study was that it was carried out with a small sample size. The
research supports the idea of relationship building as being a key factor to the
success of at-risk students.
Keywords: drop out prevention, alternative education
Reference #5: Academic Journal
Lagana-Riordan et al. (2011). At-risk students perceptions of traditional schools and a
solution-focused public alternative school. Preventing School Failure, 55(3), 105114. DOI: 10.1080/10459880903472843
This article describes research done to explore perspectives of at-risk students
about their former traditional school and their current alternative school. The
researchers point out the lack of available research on the effectiveness of
alternative schools. This study used qualitative research methods and asked a
series of interview questions to the students about their experiences in each school
setting and the differences they perceived between the two. The alternative
program is identified as a solution-focused alternative high school (SFAS) that

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has eight major characteristics that make it solution focused as well as unique
features such as multigrade classrooms, individualized instruction, flexible and
student-paced programming, and goal-setting. The study was done with 33
students who attend the Austin Independent School District. The at-risk students
are identified students with special circumstances such as homelessness, teenage
pregnancy, low socioeconomic backgrounds, learning English as a second
language, and ethnic minorities; all of whom are more likely to drop out of school
than their peers. The results show that the students had more positive experiences
of the alternative programming over the traditional school setting and that they
benefitted from the SFAS and were able to achieve a level they could not have in
a traditional school. There appears to be no bias in the article. The limitations of
the study include a small sample size from one geographic area and the use of
only one form of alternative education program. Also of note, there may be
ethical concern over the fact that students were offered $5 as incentive for
participating in the interview. Students may have felt obligated to give positive
reviews of the SFAS. The findings of the research support the idea of alternative
education programs that are meant to support students who are at-risk of dropping
out of school.
Keywords: alternative education, at-risk students
Reference #6: Video (TED Talks)

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Robinson, K., (2013, May 10). Sir Ken Robinson: How to escape educations death
valley [video file]. Retrieved from:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wX78iKhInsc
Sir Ken Robinson compares education to Death Valley. One season Death Valley
received 7 inches of rain, consequently, vegetation flourished in an area that
normally sees little plant life. Similarly, schools can change if the right conditions
are provided, namely, a broader range of opportunities that offer teachers and
students discretion to be innovative and creative. Robinson identifies problems
with the education system in the United States including: students are diverse, but
education is based on conformity rather than diversity, there needs to be more
room for students to explore their curiosity, and there is a need for a broader and
more creative approach in order to prevent students from dropping out of school.
Robinson does not speak of specific studies that he has carried out to prove his
ideas. He speaks about five commonalities to alternative education programs that
are designed to get youth back into school. These programs are: 1. Very
personalized. 2. Have strong support for teachers. 3. Have close links with the
community. 4. Use a broad and diverse curriculum. 5. Students are involved
outside school as well as inside the school. While Robinson has valid arguments
for transforming education, he shows bias in terms of having a negative opinion
of the education system. He sees many flaws and proposes possible solutions, yet
does not have objectivity because he does present opposing views of the
education system. He does not present positive aspects of the current education

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model. His highlights of the five commonalities of the alternative education

programs are congruent with other alternative education programs. Integrating the
Registered Apprenticeship Program as well as the Work Experience Program
alongside the alternative program could promote student involvement outside the
school and in the community.

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