Multivariate Analysis in Hydrochemistr: An Example of the Use of Factor and Correspondence Analyses by Eduardo J, Usunoff and Amado Guzman-Guemin ABSTRACT Statistical based, semignanstaive reshnigues [actor Analy (1-4) and Correspondence Analysis (CA) were §pplicl co chemicl dats fom sw aquifers ev assess the hefanes of such this tthe initial stages of Py dr ‘hemica src, or the frst case, both FA and CA defined three factors ascii forthe major om aratone bere in the alk iver aquifer (bert. Canada). namely. sulfa ‘aluetion occuring i the recharge area and eis of Seite siferene ages nthe deeper porte the {er jon atom proces, an om exchange om chy Foethe FA the comparison between vary and blige oration le tsi interpretations oe the secon stay aed the San Pedr River isin Uricona, USA.) EA (Qovinke) extracted tu factors, sich eed seyrepite waters frm the two aquifers he dies The CA applic only to simples from the canine Suter, drew own factors which were related to Seolation ‘gypsum coupled with im exchange tatening 35 ehe imam mechanists operitng in the aquifer, along witha hspothericl presen of fvurite nthe ayuifer sediments Juny the vather igh [FT ubsersed in lval ground ‘Comparisons made between the ess presened and the fining af earn stale highlight the descuptve Capabilities of FA and G.\ as exploratory tous in Iyumehemical investigitions INTRODUCTION Due to che complexity of the chemical evolu: tion of ground waters and the sometimes substan tilly arge amount of base information available, hydrologists are often unable to obtain a clear Picture of the system under study, The basie lichavioral model must be known as the necessary "Departmen of livarulogy and Water Resources, Uneeraty of Aceona, Tucson, Arion $8721 Received September 1987, revised February 1988, secepted April 198K Discusion open until July 1.1989. Vol 27, No. 1-GROUND WATER-January-Febouary 1989 framework upon which more sophisticated inter pretations or detailed explanations are to be built Ie isin those first stages that multivariate analysis comes into play asa rather essential tool, particu larly in these days of high-speed electronic computers. Factor analysis (FA), as stated by Harman (1976, p. 5) “does give a simple interpretation of a given body’ of data and thus affords a fundamen tal description of the particular set of variables analy7ed.” As pointed out by Dalton and Upchurch (1978), FA has several advantages over lassie graphical approaches in that: (1) neusral chemical species (eg. SiO) and nonchemical data (temper ature, depth) can be included in the interpretations (2) variations in ions in small concentrations (eg. F', Br) are not masked In chemically similar ions in greater concentrations (C1 and (3) secondary mixing teends are emphasized Two types or modes of F\ are regularly applied, the Remoue, which describes the similar ities among variables, and the Qmade, which ‘studies the correlations among the sampling sites, Separate interpretations are needled because the scaling transformations made in the R- andl Q-modes are not symmetrical Briefly explained, the FA proceeds as follows the correlation mattis, jc. the array of eortelation coefficients for all possible pairs of variables is caleulated. Then, the mattis is diagonalized and its principal components (eigenvectors) are obtained The so-called factor Iwill be related to the largest eigenvalue and able to explain the greatest amount of variance in the data set. The second fuetor (orthogonal and uncoreelated to the frst one) explains the greatest of the remaining varianee, and so forth, Correspondlence analysis (CA), on the other hand, can be viewed asa simultancous linear regression scheme with dual scaling, whieh allows the interpretation of both sample sites and variables 7in the same factor space, Such a unique feature is strictly related to the scaling and weighing proce dure used in CA. Inasmuch as the 2-D diagrams from CA include the location of both the sample points and the variables, their interpretation is enhanced because: (1) groups of sample points belong to a specific Family :(2) the closer the variables, the greater the correlation between them and (3) the closeness of variable(s) and sample(s) ‘might he an indication that the sime underlying processes are determining such proximity in the plotting positions (David eval, 1977). It should ‘be kept in mind, however, that che proximity of two points in 2-D does not necessarily: mean that ‘those points are close in ther original (ie.,non- projected) multiD spaces. Its then imperative for ‘the interpretation to compute the absolure contributions (AC) of the variables (or samples) and the relative contribution (RC) of the extracted factors In carrying out the study, we have closely followed the guidelines given by key publications fon the subject (Klovan, 1966 and 1975; Dawdy and Peth, 1967; Harman, 1976; Joreskog etal 1976; David etal, 1977; Dalton and Upchareh, 1978, among the most relevant names). Their terminology and symbols were also adopted. The two techniques, FAA and CA, were applied to chemical data from two aquifers, che Milk River aquifer (Alberta, Canada) and the San Pedro River aquifer (Arizona, U.S.A.) and the conclusions of ‘sch study’ will now be presented. For the FA, the Statistical Package for the Soci Sciences (SPSS) ‘was used, whereas the CA was performed by 2 ‘computer program made available through Dr. Donald Myers (University of Arizona, Tucson). EXAMPLE 1: THE MILK RIVER AQUIFER, ALBERTA, CANADA The Milk River aquifer, in Alberta, Canada (Figure 1), has been the object of many hydrolog: ieal and hydrochemical studies, eg, Meyboom, 1960) Swanick, 1982; and Domenico and Robbins 1985. Asa result of these studies, several theories have been proposed to explain the hydrodynamic and hydrochemical processes that control the present conditions of the system, ‘A brief description of the hydrogeological features found in the area covered by'this ease study is as follows: Meyboom (1960) deseribes the stratigraphy of the zone as sedimentary rocks mostly of Upper Cretaccous age consisting of inter bedded sandstones and shales, The Milk River unit consists of massive, medium grained sandstone with concretions, grading downward into shaly 28 sandstone and sandy shale. The surficial deposits are Tertiary glacial drift. The Milk River unit repre sents 2 confined aquifer that pinches out between underlying and overlying shales, with a thickness varying from 145 m in the southwest eo 90 min the northeast. Discharge from the system oveurs through leakage to the adjacent shales, outtlow through the down-cutting of the Milk River in the southern portion of the area: and pumping of the ‘once flowing wells The chemistry in the aquifer is characterized by spatial variations on the concentrations of the major ions, according to the Following pattern: the ‘concentrations of Na*, HCO; and CI increase markedly in the dircetion of ground-water flow that is from south ro north. Mg"* and Ca"* concen trations decrease moderately, whe sas the concen tration of SO decreases rapidly in the sime direction, Infact, sulfate concentrations decrease about two orders of magnitude in less than 20 miles ‘Two sets of chemical analyses, including laboratory measurements of the major ions and the stable isotopes "0 and deuterium, were available for the statistical analyses. After preliminary ion: balance caleulations, 45 samples were selected for the study (Figure 1), Twenty-nine are reported by Swanick (1982) and the other 16 by Henry and Robertson (1986). Factor Analysis (R- Mode) The appropriateness of the factor model was evaluated by the Kaiser Meyer Olkin measure of sampling adequacy, which isan index for compar- ing the magnitudes of the correlation coetticients With chose of the partial correlation coefficients, and the Bartlett test of sphericity, which helps Fig. 1. Mik River aqut sample points. location of study oes andcheck whether the correlation matrix is similar to an identity matrix (SPSS, 1986). The conclusion was that FA ean produce statistically meaningful results, FA follows three main steps, namely factor extraction, ratation of factors, and calcula tion of scores for each factor, Factor extraction was done by principal components (PC), and then the number of factors to be kept was decided. In the rotation stage, varimax (VR) and oblique rotation (OR) with Kaiser normalization were used. Varimas is one of the most commonly used ‘methods for orthogonal rotation and results in factors that are uncorrelated. By the contrary oblique rotation results on nonorthogonal corre: lated factors (SPSS, 1986), Inasmuch as geochem cal processes evolve through very dynamic and highly interrelated mechanisms, oblique rotation may be more appropriate to define relationships among hydrochemical variables. Figure 2 shows the location of the variables in the space defined by Fa ot 11s Factor I for the varimas rotation. The proportion of the tozal variance explained by the extracted factors isa function of their eigenvalues. Factor I accounts for 36% of the variance of the set, Factor Il for 34%, and Factor MI for 12%. Thus, these three common Taetors acount for 82% of the total variance, Also, the communalities of the variables, the proportion of their variance explained by the extracted common factors, are in general larger than 0.8. Therefore, the FA model is assumed to represent adequately the overall variance of the data st. Varimax Rotation ‘The squares of the factor loadings in the rotated factor matrix imply that Factor | accounts for the major part of the variances of Cl, 1, N and HCO, , the respective percentages being 85, 79, 62, and 56, Factor Il explains most of the variance ‘of Ca™* (86%), Mg" (86%), Pe"** (79%), and K” (40%). Likewise, Factor IT represents the variance of SO¥ in 4% and that of COS in 28%. COs has moderate loadings in the three extracted factors, which indicates thar its variations are the reslt of multiple mechanisms. One goal of FA is to represent relations among tarlables by means af a few new, unobservable factors ina simple and meaningtul way. Results of FA show thar Faetor I ean be associated with waters with high concentrations of C11, Na" HCO, In other words, Factor Hi indicative of the hydrochemistry of the distal area of the aquifer “where the jon filtration processes are presumed 10 he more important. Fuetor Il relates to Ca", Mg", Fe", and K°. The first three ions present high fle oof he : % 1 8 coo fet Fig. 2 Mil River gute: datribuion of variables a gen by factor analysis (Remodel, concentrations at the recharge area, Potassium, however, shows uniform spatial distribution, and 1 preferential patterns can be distinguished. Factor Ils asociated with geochemical processes taking place at the main recharge ares of the aquifer. Factor III shows opposition becween SOF and CO} ions. This polarity might indicate ‘competition between these anions in reactions with Ca", namely dissolution/precipitation of gypsum fr ealeite, These reactions are likely t0 occur neat the recharge area where the largest concentrations ‘of Ca" and SOF are found, Obtique Rotation ‘Oblique transformation resulted in the exchange of the firse neo Faetors obtained by: ‘arimax roration, That is, Factor 1s now related to Ca", Mg”, Fe", and K" jons. Ieexphiined approximately the sume percentages of their variance as Factor 1 did in VR. Factor I in OR is then equivalent co Factor Hin VI. Factor IIL remains practically the same as in VR. These results indicate that composition of the taetors re asin the VR and that the OR factors are approsi imately orthogonal. Hence, the varianee ot the chemical constituents is adequately explained by the orthogonal factors derived by varima rotation, Correspondence Analysis Tn correspondence analysis, actor is repre sented by the eigenvector of the normalized coat: ee OF correlation matriy of the data. From the 2»A analysis, three factors were estimated t0 repre sent about 98% (71.5 + 16.7 + 9.7) of the variance ‘of the original data, Factor | explains 30% or more fof the variance of Na‘, Ca", Mg", Cl, HCOs, and F Iralso explains 99% of the variation of SOF According 10 the absolute contributions (AC), the dispersion along Factor 1 is mostly produced by sullate (82%) and to a smaller degree by chloride (8%), The relative contributions (RC) show that Factor Il explains 66% of the variance of CI, 39% of that of HCO,, 81% of COF, and 64% of F. The first three variables account for 989% of the varia- tion along this second factor, with chloride con wibuting 64%, bicarbonate 23%, and carbonate 11% of the appearance of this factor. Factor 1] explains more than 55% of the variance of the ‘metal ons (Ca, Mg”, Fe", K°, and Na"). Fifey percent ofits variation is due to Ca", and 39% is ‘contributed by Mg” the absolute contributions of the samples indicate thar seven wels situated close to the main recharge area, and showing the highest SO con: centrations, ate responsible for 80% of the variance explained by Factor I. These wells surround the ‘outcrop area of the Milk River formation in the FACTOR 100. =cbo northeast portion of the Sweet Grass Hills. ‘The high concentration of sulfate can be related to gypsum-carrying glacial tills (Hendry and Robertson, 1986), Therciore, dissolution of ‘gypsum probably represents the main source of sulface in the recharge ares. Likewise, eight wells located to the northeast are responsible for $54 of the presence of Factor I, Factor Il ean be related to high concentrations of chloride in the distal portion of the aquifer. Phillips eral. (1986) point fout that che concentration of Cl increases by about two orders of magnitude in the flow dirce tion, and conclude that ion-filtration dominates and best accounts for such inerease down the flow path, Similarly, five wells located near the outerop area and cartying high concentrations of Ca and Mg"* account for more than 95% of the appearance fof Factor IT Again, the C2 inthis factor might be related to the presence of gypsum in the sedi ments. A plot of Factor Is. Factor I reveals clear opposition between wells located near the recharge area and those to the north of the aquifer (Figure 3)_A line connecting those wells from negative to positive coordinates along Factor f would also describe the main direetion of flow: alo a FACTORIL Fig, 9. Mik River aquier: distribution of variables (x and samples (@) as given by corespondence a 30Only three of chose wells seem not to follow the described pattern, namely wells 42, 45, and 104, which can be the resule of erroneous measurements, very localized geological variations, or external sources of solute, Similarly, samples located in the northeast quadrant of the aquifer are clearly separated along Factor It: simples with low Cl ‘concentrations appear with negative Factor IL values, whereas those with high CI have large positive Factor 1 values. These contrasting concen trations may be due co ion-filtration as presented boy Phillips eta. (1986). These authors also state that ion-filtration is a result of vertical transport through low-conductivity trata. Ifthe Milk River sandstone were a diseontinous unit a¢ this portion ff the aquifer, there would be a significant amount ‘of leakage from the more conductive Milk River formation to the shales in that area, This assumption ‘would support the theory of a high-conductivity path as deseribed by Meyboom (1960). In Tact, Phillips ee al, (1986) found chat isochrons developed using the "CLC ratio follow this high- permeability pattern, The RC of Faetors I and 11 account for more than 98% of the variance in most of the samples. Consequently. Factor II explains only a somall pare of the variance in the data se. From the CA, and specifically from the absolute contributions of the variables, relation: ships among these variables ean be derived. In [igure 3, the opposition between sulfate and bicarbonate along Factor 1 might be explained by the sulfate reduction or methanogenesis mentioned by several authors. Phillips etal. (1986) indicate that production of CO: during methanogenesis ean inerease the bigarbonate conventration, They also mention that ealeite is undersaturated due t0 exchange of Ca" by Nat which produces caleite dissolution with the conseeutie inerease in HICO, down the flows path. Additionally, Cl and SOs pest opposition along Factor which might be indicative of mising of recharge water with older vater. Hendry and Robertson (1986) mention the rising of two types of waters. one rich in Na’ and 807 and the other rich in Na” and Cl The inverse relation sketched by: Factor I among the carbonate species (ICO, and COF )and Cl isnot simple to espllin, However, the increased contents of these ‘ons.can be related to the iomiltation mechanists. In some instances, opposition among variables indicates mutual eyclusivty resulting from competi tke processes (Dawdy and Feth, 1967). On the ater hand, Faetor III shows an inverse relation beeween Na" and Ca” and Mg’™ ions which ean be cxplined by: eation exchange on clay minerals in theaquiter Fis. 4. San Pesto River aquifer location of study ares and sample points EXAMPLE 2: THE SAN PEDRO RIVER AQUIFER, ARIZONA, U.S.A. the study area, 4 typical section of the Basin and Range Provinee, lies inthe NE past of the "upper San Pedro Riser basin, Cochise County Arizona, with a NS length of 24 miles and a wide ff 18 miles (Figure +). Hydrogeologically, wo water bearing units ‘can be distinguished: a lower, confined aquifer ‘locally artesian) in Miocene Pliocene sedimentary rocks ivalleyfill deposits). and an upper. uncon Fined aquifer in Pleistacene sediments (floodplain alluvium), separated by a lowspermeability unit of more than 1000 feet thick in the center of the valley. The confining layer is made up of Finesize sediments (clay and silt range, with grpsam reins} in the enter of the valley, and becomes coueser toward the mountains, Recharge from precipite tion takes place at the mountain fronts, whereby the general pattern of ground-water flow i trom the mountains toward the valley axis, and then rorthwsard. Additional sources of recharge to the 31“unconfined aquifer ate infiltration from runoff, Seepage from irigated lands, and water moving tupward from the confined aquifer through breaks fF discontinuities in the contining beds or through ‘wells tapping both aquifers (Montgomery, 1963 Roeske and Werzell, 1973), A composite interpretation of earlier studies {Smith and Cammack Smith, 1932; Wallace and Cooper, 1970; Roeske and Wereell, 1973; Konicerk, 1980; Usunoff, 1984) has revealed that, hydro: chemically, the following processes are active in both aquifers: (1) dissolution of gypsum-cartying sediments along the flow direction, with « consider: able increase in SOZ and Ca"* concentrations; {@) increase of HCO, concentrations, correlated ‘with a possible dissolution of carbonate rocks; (3) ion exchange, favored by the existence of clay Tenses. with softening of the ground water (Ca retained, Na* released): and (4) F” concentrations jn the area are generally well above the recom ‘mended limits, and their distribution is rather terratic Such 4 puzzling characteristic might be ‘explained by assuming the presence of F- carrying minerals (chiefly fluorite, CaF) randomly distributed in the sediments and/or the very Tocalized changes on some determinant che parameter (pl, for example) Tm onder to verify the above findings and, if possible, to better explain them, factor and Fig. 5 San Pero River aquifer: datbution of samples at ‘ven by factor analysis (C-mode) 2 correspondence analyses were performed. The friginal data mais consisted of 49 samples from both aguifers and the river, each sumple character ined by 12 measured chemical parameters (concer trations of Ca", Mg”, Na", K", Sis, CT. SO HCO, , F-vand Ie, pH and electrical conductivity). Factor Analysis (-Mode) Following the transposition of the original data matrix, the Qmode of factor analysis was applied to assess the correlation existing among the \arious sampling points. Ir was found that Factor 1 explains 97% ofthe variance in the mattis, whereas the inclusion of Factor I] improres that percentage 10 99%, The concision is, then, that two factors are enough to describe the system. After obtaining the communaliies h, the sum of the squares of the variable loadings on the factors) for cach variable, a pair of coordinates was caleulated for teach sample as follows (Klovan, 1966): aij where a = loading of variable fin taetor jam 1 = communality of variable i, For each variable t and, in this ease, for} = 2 is new set of coordinates are plotted on a 2D diagram (Figure 5) to shows the grouping of variables. Keeping in mind thae the position of cach sample is determined by its particular chemistry, the conclusion is that warers rom the two aquifers are segregated by factor analysis, an indication that the hy drocherieal processes act with differen intensity: in the aquifers and that Some modifying phenomenon might be acting in fone of the aquifers. Those samples with average coordinates along Factors Vand I could represent mixtures of water from the two aquifers, Not Surprisingly. those simples are located to the north df the study. area, where by drological and geological data indicate that the confining layer becomes tdiscontinuous and that an upward How is more probable Correspondence Analysis The results presented apply’ to the confined aquifer only, Two factors were exeracted, which accounted for 77% of the cotal variance in the data matrix. The analysis, therefore. is made on the basis of a 2:D plot (Figure 6) to make easier the visualization of the variables grouping (simplenumbers have been omitted for ckarity), In inter: preting the diagrams, one should keep in mind the spatial imporcanee attached (0 the factor order. Factor |, then, explains variations registered at the regional level (by regional the scale of the study area is meant), whereas Factor HL takes over when it comes to variations at a more localized (inter: mediate) seale (David et al, 1977). The sum of the absolute contributions of SOF, Ca, and Na’ on Factor I yields 94%, whereas Figure 6 shows that SO and Na” are associated (Ge. same sign along Factor 1) and opposed to Ca" This might be interpreted as a regional process involving dissolution of gypsum coupled with ion: exchange reactions thar soften the ground water by releasing Na" and trapping Ca" ions. The coordinates of C2", SO¢, and Mg" along Factor 1 are numerically similar, whieh is indicative of concomitant variations of those species. The same can be said about the F- and Na" ions, both on the negative field of Factor Il. The opposition of Ca" and F™ along Factor If (e., loadings of similar ‘value but different sign) would indicate that F concentrations in the aqui are governed by the «equilibrium Cal F” + Ca", although the absoluce contributions of Ca and E> an Factor 1 are quite different. ‘The conclusion is that the ion exchange seems to dominate the scenario at the intermediate scale, and that the eather high F concentrations observed cannot be easily related to the hypothetical presence of fluorite in the aquifer sediments. From a statistical viewpoint, it ean be thought that the variation of F- concentrations is related to variables nox included in this study and? or thar the mineral (uorite) is randomly distributed in the sediments, which would explain the shape of the F variograms tor this ares Carrera et al, 1984), Fis 6. San Peero [alan sample (+a given by correspondance analyse Those samples with significant absolute conti butions on Factors | and Il cortespond to wells located in an area where the geological and hydro- logical information indicate an increase on the clay ‘content in the sediments as well as the presence of gypsum layers CONCLUSIONS As referred co the Milk River aquifer, the results of FA indicate that two types of water ate present in the aquifer, the first type characterized by high concentrations of CI,” Na‘, and HCO, described by Factor I, and a second type with high concentrations of Ca", Mg™, Fe". and K°, de- scribed by Factor Il FA highlighted the opposition between the concentrations of SO, and COs. This polarity may indicate competition between those tons in reactions with Ca", namely, dissolution/ Precipitation of gypsum or calcite, Rased on CA’s unique feature of allowing the representation of samples and variables on the same factor space, the faetors obtained trom CA, are interpreted as follows: Factor |, mainly related to high SO, concentrations, indicates water recently recharged through the gypsum-carrying zlicial tills of the Milk River formation. Sullate reduction or methanogenesis could be the geo: chemical processes associated with Factor |. Factor Mis related to high CU concentrations, and attrib uted to ion-iltration mechanisms taking place at the northeastern portion of the aquifer. Factor IIL is interpreted as indicative of cation exchange on clay minerals in the recharge area of the aquifer Additionally, the results af CA indicate dis: crepant bchavior of some wells, namely 42, 45, and 104. The ability 10 isolate such anomalous samples would be very usetul to discoxer erroneous measurements, very localized geological variations, or external sources of solute In studies dealing with the geochemistry of the Milk River aquifer, which cover the time span between 1960 and 1986, the geochemical processes discussed here and some others have been postu laced as the mechanisms responsible for the ‘observed hydrochemical patterns in the area. This exercise demonstrates that FA and CA were able to isolate the most relevant mechanisms described in those reports, As for the San Pedro River basin study, the segregation achieved by FA (Q-mode) indicated that, from the viewpoint of theit chemical charac teristics, the local aquifers contain waters of & different type, Differences can be due to the intensity with which similar modifying processes 3‘operate at each aquifer, and to the particular geology drained. A mixture of waters, long sus pected from geological and hysrological data, was also found, More conventional studies had sug- ested thatthe spatial variations of (Ca (SO. and [Na’] in the confined aquifer could be the result of dissolution of gypsum and ion-exchange reactions, and that the distribution of [F°] was not easy to interpret. The results of the CA led to similar conelusions ‘The examples presented in this paper indicate a reasonably’ good agreement between the conclu sions drawn by earlier investigations and those obtained from the application of FA and CA. In our view, however, the approach used in this paper offers ewo key advantages, namely, a shorter execution time, and a greater objectivity in the pre sentation of preliminary results. As exploratory. tools, FA and CA can then be used at the first stages of hy drochemical studies in order to define the “profile” of each variable, the correlations among variables, and the relationship between variables and samples. Such basie models should later be validated and enlarged by consideration of additional hydrological, geological, and hydro chemical data, and by the application of suitable techniques or methods (chemical equilibrium modeling, laboratory experiments, field test, ete). REFERENCES. Carers, JE Urano, and F. Seidaronshy. 1988.4 ‘ethod for optimal observation network design for soondnteranagnen, Jour 873.98 Dalton, M.G.andS.H. Upchurch, 1978, Interpretation uf Ihydrochemict facies by factor analysis, Ground Wacee-v: 16, 90.4 pp. 228-283. David, MLM. Daghertand'V. Beauchemin. 1977. Statist ‘al analysis in geology correspondence analysis ‘method. Quirtery of the Colorado School of Mines, 8°72, no. 1.80 pp. Dawdy. D. Rand J. H.Feth, 1967. Applications of factor snalsis in studies of chemistry and pround water ‘quality: Mojave River Valley, California, Water Res, Kes. 3, m0. 2, pp. $08°810. Domenico, PAvand G-A. Robbins. 1985. The dspace ‘en of connate water from aquifers, Geo. 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Cammack Sith, 1932, Moat ‘enamel in Arizona ial corrlaton with thes ‘entration of fluores i water supplies Unser ‘of Arizuma Age Fp Sta Tech Rull-43. 287 py SSS Ine 19K0, SPSS/PC + lsanvel Statics, SPSS Marketing Dept. Chica. I Swanick, G. 8.1982. The bydrushemist’ and age of the eater ia the Mik Riser auter, Abert, Canal Unputiished M.S. Thess, Univesity of Arion Tucson. 103 pp, Usunofl J. 1984. Hydeocheminey of the Som Pode Riser busin nar Saint Dav. Cchise Count Arizona, with special empha nthe best of ‘worate. Unpublished M.S. Thesis, Univer Ancona, Tues. 191 pp Wallace, D-Eand LK. Cooper. 1970, Dispersion ut atuelly occurring ion in onl weer frm vations ck ype in portimaf he San Pde Rie basi, Ariza, Jour Hyaleey- 20.0.4 pp, 391-403, duane J. Usnausf completed bis undereotaste lgree in Geology att Unisersitad acon eel Se Argentina in 1998 nd is MLS. yd ot th University of vison 1984. saben be serena envoed inthe Ph.D. progann. His sesh utero incl the geochemistry af fuori in ground watersand te application of multisite analysis n bydrochemieal audi made tsuzmin-Gsmnin obtained bis bachelor's degree in Hipdology at the Unicoridad ate Metro politons, Mesicn 1982. Curnenty. be i the PED. pe [eam nilyrology atthe Cnisersty of risine. Bis escape anes ese flow tthe anette so transport process povons nd, nt grtates.