Seed Production of the Native Catfish (Hito)

August 5, 2008 by Leo 5,133 Views

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The freshwater catfish Clarias macrocephalus is native to the

Philippines but is fast becoming scarce in many natural habitats.

It is a favorite food fish due to its tender and delicious meat. Recently, farming of C.
macrocephalus has gained interest among catfish growers. Like other catfish species, it is
resistant to diseases, can be stocked at high densities, and tolerates low water quality.

The catfishes C. macrocephalus and C. batrachus are almost similar in size and
appearance, but differ by the shape of the occipital process in the head portion. The
occipital process is blunt or rounded in C. macrocephalus and pointed in C. batrachus. C.
macrocephalus also has small white spots along the sides of the body.

Broodstock Development and Management

 Catfish broodstock can be obtained from lakes, rivers,
tributaries and other freshwater bodies, and caught by hand or indigenous fish traps. C.
macrocephalus was reported to abound in the Bicol region, Palawan, and some areas in
Mindanao.

Sexes are separate in catfish. Males have elongated urogenital papillae around the anus,
whereas females have a simple round opening.

Catfish are carnivores, but can feed on small bottom dwelling animals, rice bran, kitchen
refuse, fish meal, or formulated feeds. Broodstock fed a SEAFDEC-formulated diet with
43% protein had similar reproductive and larval quality as those fed “trash fish.”

Catfish mature at about 6-8 months of age. Larger mature females produce more eggs
than smaller females. About 20-90 eggs/g body weight (BW) can be stripped from a
gravid female after hormone injection.

Breeding

Captive C. macrocephalus contain eggs and sperm the whole year but do not spawn by
themselves. Artificial propagation of C. macrocephalus involves inducing the gravid
females to spawn by injection of different hormones, and manually stripping the eggs
after several hours. Before females are stripped of eggs, male catfish are sacrificed. The
male reproductive tract is then dissected and macerated to obtain the milt to fertilize the
eggs. (click image to enlarge)

Success in induced spawning depends largely on knowledge of (i) the optimum dose of
hormones to be used, and (ii) latency period, the time between injection of hormones and
stripping of eggs. Induced spawning of C. macrocephalus can be done in any of the
following ways:

Hatchery

Four to five days after hatching, catfish larvae are stocked at 30 per liter in bigger tanks.
They are fed natural food organisms such as newly hatched brine shrimp Artemia for
three days, and the water flea Moina for another four days. Thereafter, larvae can be
weaned to formulated diets with 44% protein and particle size 150-200 ?m. The diet is
given twice daily to two- to four-week old catfish fry at a feeding rate of 20% BW and to
older fry at 5-10% BW.

Nursery

The nursery tank or pond is fertilized ten days before

stocking of catfish fry. Fifteenday old fry may be stocked at 200-800/m2 in tanks and up
to 1200/m2 in ponds. More fingerlings can be obtained when the fry are grown in net
cages suspended in either tanks or ponds. Fingerlings are harvested after 28 days, ready
for stocking in grow-out ponds.

For further information, contact

Catfish Project
SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department
Tigbuan, Iloilo
Tel: (033) 335-1009, 336-2965, 336-2937
Fax: (033) 335-1008, 336-2891
Email: aqdchief@aq.seafdec.org.ph, d_chief@i-iloilo.com.ph

Profitability Assessment: A Case Study of African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus)

Farming in the Lake Victoria Basin, Kenya

John Kengere Okechi,

KMFRI,Kisumu,Kenya

Páll Jensson, Professor

University of Iceland,Reykjavik

Motivation

• No reports on the economic evaluation of aquaculture production systems in

Kenya (other than the few case studies on tilapia).
• Yet economic considerations are crucial in the selection of an appropriate
aquaculture production system.
• Currently aquaculture is almost entirely for subsistence, with little surplus
production being sold in the rural market.
• Fish farmers lack information on how to asses profitability
• This has hampered aquaculture development in the country.

Study area

Basin/Catchment area: 38,913 Km2

Densely populated = 9 million people

Annul rainfall of 1,000 – 13,000 mm

Temperature range of 14 – 340C

Multi-river basin

*Enhanced potential for

Aquaculture development.

Aquaculture contribution to total fish production in Kenya

(adapted from FAO 2002)

Background information

Annual Production:

Average: 180,000 Metric tonnes (MT)

Commercially important fish species:

Lates niloticus (Nile perch) = 58%

Rastrineobola argentea (Dagaa) = 30%

Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) = 10%

Aquaculture < 1% of the total production

(main species: tilapia, trout & catfish)

Why catfish farming?

• Grows fast and feeds on a large variety of agriculture by-products.

• Can be raised in high densities resulting in high net yields (6–16 t/ha/year).
• Higher price than tilapia as it can be sold live at the market.
• Hardy and can tolerate adverse water quality conditions.
 Goal/Vision

• To develop a decision support tool for profitability assessment of fish farming.

• To study the Feasibility of Catfish farming in the Lake Victoria Basin.

• The vision: This might in the future be valuable for the sustainability of fish
farming in Kenya.

Fish Farming Assumptions

Investment Assumptions

Production Assumptions

The models developed

 • Production model for one pond
• Production model for 12 ponds
• Profitability model:
• Investment & Financing
• Operating Statement
• Balance Sheet
• Cash Flow
• Profitability Measures & Sensitivity Analysis

One pond model

• Pond size 800 m2

• Stocked with 4000 fingerlings at 5 / m2
• Limed at a rate of 5 tonnes ha-1
• Urea at a rate of 90 kg ha-1
• DAP at a rate of 30 kg ha-1
• Supplementary feed (daily)
• After every 2 weeks pond is sampled (mean body wts & % survival rates)
• Used to compute biomass of fish in pond
• Based on biomass fish is fed daily for culture period of 28 weeks
• Fish harvested, net production weight determined & sold at Ksh. 120/kg

One pond production model

Production data on monoculture of the African catfish, density 5 fingerlings m2, mean
temperature 25-27 °C

Summary: Revenue, costs and net profit contribution.

 Twelve pond model

• Information from one pond used to prepare production planning model for 1-ha
(12 ponds each 800 m2)
• Two ponds stocked with catfish fingerlings every month to have continuos
production
• After 6 months in operation all 12 ponds were stocked and the first 2 ponds
harvested in the 8th month
• Economics of scale

Production schedule for 1-ha (12 ponds)

catfish farm during first year of operations

>Able to tell how much of the

resources needed at any

particular time of operations

• In stocking more than one pond,

benefits from the economies

of scale

2nd year of operations

Yields

Yr 1 : 9 t/ha

Yr 2: 12 t/ha
 Profitability model

Investment & Cash Flow chart

Profitability measure: NPV

Profitability measure: IRR

Sensitivity analysis

Conclusions

• Purpose of study: To develop a generic tool to assess the profitability of fish

farming.
• A valuable management tool to aquaculture farmers, investors and financial
institutions and banks.
 • Based on the assumptions and analysis of the model, catfish farming appears
feasible and profitable along the LakeVictoria Basin, 9t/ha/yr -12t/ha/yr.
• Need to test modeled yields in real farm situation
• Uncertainties and risks: Monte Carlo simulation

By-products

Two documents developed:

• Brochure: Fish Farming-getting started

• Record keeping and data collection for small scale fish farming

For your attention

Farm catfish & make money

Catfish
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

For other uses, see Catfish (disambiguation).
Catfish
Fossil range: Late Cretaceous - Present
 small-tailed catfish
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Osteichthyes
Superorder: Ostariophysi
Order: Siluriformes
Families
Akysidae
Amblycipitidae
Amphiliidae
Anchariidae
Andinichthyidae †
Ariidae
Aspredinidae
Astroblepidae
Auchenipteridae
Austroglanididae
Bagridae
Callichthyidae
Cetopsidae
Chacidae
Clariidae
Claroteidae
Cranoglanididae
Diplomystidae
Doradidae
Erethistidae
Heptapteridae
Hypsidoridae †
Ictaluridae
Lacantuniidae
Loricariidae
Malapteruridae
Mochokidae
Nematogenyiidae
Pangasiidae
Pimelodidae
Plotosidae
Pseudopimelodidae
Schilbeidae
Scoloplacidae
Siluridae
Sisoridae
Trichomycteridae

incertae sedis
Conorhynchos
Horabagrus
Phreatobius

Catfish (order Siluriformes) are a diverse group of ray-finned fish. Named for their
prominent barbels, which resemble a cat's whiskers, catfish range in size and behavior
from the heaviest, the Mekong giant catfish from Southeast Asia and the longest, the wels
catfish of Eurasia, to detritivores (species that eat dead material on the bottom), and even
to a tiny parasitic species commonly called the candiru, Vandellia cirrhosa. There are
armour-plated types and also naked types, neither having scales. Despite their name, not
all catfish have prominent barbels; members of the Siluriformes order are defined by
features of the skull and swimbladder. Catfish are of considerable commercial
importance; many of the larger species are farmed or fished for food. Many of the smaller
species, particularly the genus Corydoras, are important in the aquarium hobby.
Contents
[hide]

• 1 Distribution and habitat

• 2 Physical characteristics
o 2.1 External anatomy of catfish
o 2.2 Size
o 2.3 Internal anatomy
• 3 Catfish as food
• 4 Aquaculture
• 5 Catfish as invasive species
• 6 Dangers to humans
• 7 Taxonomy
• 8 References

• 9 External links

[edit] Distribution and habitat

Extant catfish species live in inland or coastal waters of every continent except
Antarctica. Catfish have inhabited all continents at one time or another.[1] Catfish are
most diverse in tropical South America, Africa, and Asia.[2] More than half of all catfish
species live in the Americas. They are the only ostariophysans that have entered
freshwater habitats in Madagascar, Australia, and New Guinea.[3]

They are found in freshwater environments of all kinds, though most inhabit shallow,
running water.[3] Representatives of at least eight families are hypogean (live
underground) with three families that are also troglobitic (inhabiting caves).[4][5] One such
species is Phreatobius cisternarum, known to live underground in phreatic habitats.[6]
Numerous species from the families Ariidae and Plotosidae, and a few species from
among the Aspredinidae and Bagridae, are found in salt water.[7][8]

[edit] Physical characteristics

[edit] External anatomy of catfish

Most catfish are bottom feeders. In general, they are negatively buoyant, which means
that they will usually sink rather than float due to a reduced gas bladder and a heavy,
bony head.[3] Catfish have a variety of body shapes, though most have a cylindrical body
with a flattened ventrum to allow for benthic feeding.[3]

A flattened head allows for digging through the substrate as well as perhaps serving as a
hydrofoil. Most have a mouth that can expand to a large size and contains no incisiform
teeth; catfish generally feed through suction or gulping rather than biting and cutting
prey.[3] However, some families, notably Loricariidae and Astroblepidae, have a
suckermouth that allows them to fasten themselves to objects in fast-moving water.
Catfish also have a maxilla reduced to a support for barbels; this means that they are
unable to protrude their mouths as other fish such as carp.[3]

The channel catfish has four pairs of barbels.

Catfish may have up to four pairs of barbels: nasal, maxillary (on each side of mouth),
and two pairs of chin barbels, although pairs of barbels may be absent, depending on the
species. Because their barbels are more important in detecting food, the eyes on catfish
are generally small. Like other ostariophysans, they are characterized by the presence of a
Weberian apparatus.[1] Their well-developed Weberian apparatus and reduced gas bladder
allow for improved hearing as well as sound production.[3]

The armor plates are evident in Corydoras semiaquilus.

Catfish have no scales; their bodies are often naked. In some species, the mucus-covered
skin is used in cutaneous respiration, where the fish breathes through its skin.[3] In some
catfish, the skin is covered in bony plates called scutes; some form of body armor appears
in various ways within the order. In loricarioids and in the Asian genus Sisor, the armor is
primarily made up of one or more rows of free dermal plates. Similar plates are found in
large specimens of Lithodoras. These plates may be supported by vertebral processes, as
in scoloplacids and in Sisor, but the processes never fuse to the plates or form any
external armor. By contrast, in the subfamily Doumeinae (family Amphiliidae) and in
hoplomyzontines (Aspredinidae), the armor is formed solely by expanded vertebral
processes that form plates. Finally, the lateral armor of doradids, Sisor, and
hoplomyzontines consists of hypertrophied lateral line ossicles with dorsal and ventral
lamina.[9]
A sting from the striped eel catfish, Plotosus lineatus, may be fatal.

All catfish, except members of Malapteruridae (electric catfish), possess a strong, hollow,
bonified leading spine-like ray on their dorsal and pectoral fins. As a defense, these
spines may be locked into place so that they stick outwards, which can inflict severe
wounds.[2] In several species catfish can use these fin rays to deliver a stinging protein if
the fish is irritated.[10] This venom is produced by glandular cells in the epidermal tissue
covering the spines.[1] In members of the family Plotosidae, and of the genus
Heteropneustes, this protein is so strong it may hospitalize humans unfortunate enough to
receive a sting; in Plotosus lineatus, the stings may result in death.[1]

Juvenile catfish, like most fish, have relatively large heads, eyes and posterior median
fins in comparison to larger, more mature individuals. These juveniles can be readily
placed in their families, particularly those with highly derived fin or body shapes; in
some cases identification of the genus is possible. As far as known for most catfish,
features that are often characteristic of species such as mouth and fin positions, fin
shapes, and barbel lengths show little difference between juveniles and adults. For many
species, pigmentation pattern is also similar in juveniles and adults. Thus, juvenile
catfishes generally resemble and develop smoothly into their adult form without distinct
juvenile specializations. Exceptions to this are the ariid catfishes, where the young retain
yolk sacs late into juvenile stages, and many pimelodids, which may have elongated
barbels and fin filaments or coloration patterns.[11]

Sexual dimorphism is reported in about half of all families of catfish.[12] The modification
of the anal fin into an intromittent organ (in internal fertilizers) as well as accessory
structures of the reproductive apparatus (in both internal and external fertilizers) have
been described in species belonging to 11 different families.[13]

[edit] Size

Catfish have one of the greatest range in size within a single order of bony fish.[3] Many
catfish have a maximum length of under 12 cm.[1] Some of the smallest species of
Aspredinidae and Trichomycteridae reach sexual maturity at only 1 centimetre (0.39 in).
[2]

The wels catfish, Silurus glanis, is the only native catfish species of Europe, besides the
much smaller related Aristotle's catfish found in Greece. Mythology and literature record
wels catfish of astounding proportions, yet to be proven scientifically. The average size
of the species is about 1.2–1.6 m (3.9–5.2 ft), and fish more than 2 metres (6.6 ft) are
very rare. The largest specimens on record measure more than 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) in
length and sometimes exceeded 100 kilograms (220 lb).

The largest Ictalurus furcatus, caught in the Mississippi River on May 22, 2005, weighed
124 pounds (56 kg). The largest flathead catfish, Pylodictis olivaris, ever caught was in
Independence, Kansas, weighing 123 lb 9 oz (56.0 kg). In July 2009, a catfish weighing
193 pounds was caught in the River Ebro, Spain, by a 11-year old British schoolgirl.[14]
However, these records pale in comparison to a giant Mekong catfish caught in northern
Thailand in May 1, 2005 and reported to the press almost 2 months later that weighed
293 kilograms (650 lb). This is the largest giant Mekong catfish caught since Thai
officials started keeping records in 1981.[15] The giant Mekong catfish are not well studied
since they live in developing countries and it is quite possible that they can grow even
larger.

[edit] Internal anatomy

In many catfish, the humeral process is a bony process extending backward from the
pectoral girdle immediately above the base of the pectoral fin. It lies beneath the skin
where its outline may be determined by dissecting the skin or probing with a needle.[16]

The retina of catfish are composed of single cones and large rods. Many catfish have a
tapetum lucidum which may help enhance photon capture and increase low-light
sensitivity. Double cones, though present in most teleosts are absent from catfish.[17]

The anatomical organization of the testis in catfish is variable among the families of
catfish, but the majority of them present fringed testis: Ictaluridae, Claridae,
Auchenipteridae, Doradidae, Pimelodidae, and Pseudopimelodidae.[18] In the testes of
some species of Siluriformes, organs and structures such as a spermatogenic cranial
region and a secretory caudal region are observed, in addition to the presence of seminal
vesicles in the caudal region.[19] The total number of fringes and their length are different
in the caudal and cranial portions between species.[18] Fringes of the caudal region may
present tubules, in which the lumen is filled by secretion and spermatozoa.[18]
Spermatocysts are formed from cytoplasmic extensions of Sertoli cells; the release of
spermatozoa is allowed by breaking of the cyst walls.[18]

The occurrence of seminal vesicles, in spite of their interspecific variability in size, gross
morphology and function, has not been related to the mode of fertilization. They are
typically paired, multi-chambered, and connected with the sperm duct, and have been
reported to play a glandular and a storage function. Seminal vesicle secretion may include
steroids and steroid glucuronides, with hormonal and pheromonal functions, but it
appears to be primarily constituted of mucoproteins, acid mucopolysaccharides, and
phospholipids.[13]

Fish ovaries may be of two types: gymnovarian or cystovarian. In the first type, the
oocytes are released directly into the coelomic cavity and then eliminated. In the second
type, the oocytes are conveyed to the exterior through the oviduct.[19] Many catfish are
cystovarian in type, including Pseudoplatystoma corruscans, P. fasciatum, Lophiosilurus
alexandri, and Loricaria lentiginosa.[18][19]

[edit] Catfish as food

Tuscaloosa Catfish served with corn bread and rice

Catfish have been widely caught and farmed for food for hundreds of years in Africa,
Asia, Europe, and North America. Judgments as to the quality and flavor vary, with some
food critics considering catfish as being excellent food, others dismiss them as watery
and lacking in flavour.[20] In Central Europe, catfish were often viewed as a delicacy to be
enjoyed on feast days and holidays. Migrants from Europe and Africa to the United
States brought along this tradition, and in the southern United States catfish is an
extremely popular food. The most commonly eaten species in the United States are the
channel catfish and blue catfish, both of which are common in the wild and increasingly
widely farmed. Farm-raised catfish became such a staple of the diet of the United States
that on June 25, 1987, President Ronald Reagan established National Catfish Day to
recognize "the value of farm-raised catfish."

Catfish is eaten in a variety of ways; in Europe it is often cooked in similar ways to carp,
but in the United States it is typically crumbed with cornmeal and fried.[20] In Indonesia
catfish are usually served grilled in street stalls called warung and eaten with vegetables;
the dish is called Pecel Lele (Lele is the Indonesian word for catfish). In Malaysia catfish,
called "Ikan Keli," is fried with spices and is often eaten with steamed rice. Vietnamese
catfish cannot be legally marketed as catfish in the US, and is subsequently referred to as
"swai."[21]

Catfish is high in Vitamin D.[22] Farm-raised catfish contains low levels of omega-3 fatty
acids and a much higher proportion of omega-6 fatty acids.[23]

As catfish lack scales, they are judged to not be kosher and cannot be eaten by observant
Jews.

[edit] Aquaculture
Main article: Aquaculture of catfish

Catfish are easy to farm in warm climates, leading to inexpensive and safe food at local
grocers. Ictalurids are cultivated in North America (especially in the Deep South, with
Mississippi being the largest domestic catfish producer).[24] Channel catfish (Ictalurus
punctatus) supports a $450 million/yr aquaculture industry.[2] In Central Louisiana,
Morgan W. Walker, Jr., an Alexandria businessman, in 1970 converted a 1,100-acre
cattle ranch into catfish ponds to raise fish on a mass scale for sale and consumption.[25]

Catfish raised in inland tanks or channels are considered safe for the environment, since
their waste and disease should be contained and not spread to the wild.[26]

In Asia, many catfish species are important as food. Several walking catfish (Clariidae)
and shark catfish (Pangasiidae) species are heavily cultured in Africa and Asia. Exports
of one particular shark catfish species from Vietnam, Pangasius bocourti, has met with
pressures from the U.S. catfish industry. In 2003, The United States Congress passed a
law preventing the imported fish from being labeled as catfish.[27] As a result, the
Vietnamese exporters of this fish now label their products sold in the U.S. as "basa fish."
Trader Joe's has labeled frozen fillets of Vietnamese Pangasius hypothalmus as
"striper."[28]

There is a large and growing ornamental fish trade, with hundreds of species of catfish,
such as Corydoras and armored suckermouth catfish (often called plecos), being a
popular component of many aquaria. Other catfish commonly found in the aquarium
trade are banjo catfish, talking catfish, and long-whiskered catfish.

[edit] Catfish as invasive species

Walking catfish is an invasive species in Florida.

Representatives of the genus Ictalurus have been introduced into European waters in the
hope of obtaining a sporting and food resource. However, the European stock of
American catfishes has not achieved the dimensions of these fish in their native waters,
and have only increased the ecological pressure on native European fauna. Walking
catfish have also been introduced in the freshwaters of Florida, with the voracious catfish
becoming a major alien pest there. Flathead catfish, Pylodictis olivaris, is also a North
American pest on Atlantic slope drainages.[2] Pterygoplichthys species, released by
aquarium fishkeepers, have also established feral populations in many warm waters
around the world.[29][30][31][32][33]

[edit] Dangers to humans

This section needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (July 2009)
While the vast majority of catfish are harmless to humans, a few species are known to
present some risk. Perhaps the most notorious of these is the Candiru, due to the way it is
reputed to parasitize the urethra, though there is only one well-documented case of a
candiru attack on a human. Since 2007, the Goonch catfish has also gained attention
following a series of fatal underwater attacks which have been alleged by biologist
Jeremy Wade to have been from unusually large goonch. The Wels catfish has also been
reputed to kill humans (especially young children), and while there are no documented
cases of fatalities, larger specimens are known to cause serious injuries in rare instances
(probably from defensive reactions rather than attempted predation). In addition, other
species are reputed to be dangerous to humans as well, but with less definitive evidence.

[edit] Taxonomy

The catfishes are a monophyletic group. This is supported by molecular evidence.[34]

Catfish belong to a superorder called the Ostariophysi, which also includes the
Cypriniformes, Characiformes, Gonorynchiformes and Gymnotiformes, a superorder
characterized by the Weberian apparatus. Some place Gymnotiformes as a sub-order of
Siluriformes, however this is not as widely accepted. Currently, the Siluriformes are said
to be the sister group to the Gymnotiformes, though this has been debated due to more
recent molecular evidence.[1] As of 2007 there are about 36 extant catfish families, and
about 3,023 extant species have been described.[35] This makes the catfish order the
second or third most diverse vertebrate order; in fact, 1 out of every 20 vertebrate species
is a catfish.[2]

The taxonomy of catfishes is quickly changing. In a 2007 and 2008 paper, Horabagrus,
Phreatobius, and Conorhynchos were not classified under any current catfish families.[35]
There is disagreement on the family status of certain groups; for example, Nelson (2006)
lists Auchenoglanididae and Heteropneustidae as separate families, while the All Catfish
Species Inventory (ACSI) includes them under other families. Also, FishBase and the
Integrated Taxonomic Information System lists Parakysidae as a separate family, while
this group is included under Akysidae by both Nelson (2006) and ACSI.[1][36][37][38] Many
sources do not list the recently revised family Anchariidae.[39] The family Horabagridae,
including Horabagrus, Pseudeutropius, and Platytropius, is also not shown by some
authors but presented by others as a true group.[34] Thus, the actual number of families
differs between authors. The species count is in constant flux due to taxonomic work as
well as description of new species. On the other hand, our understanding of catfishes
should increase in the next few years due to work by the ACSI.[1]

The rate of description of new catfishes is at an all-time high. Between 2003 and 2005,
over 100 species have been named, a rate three times faster than that of the past century.
[40]
In June, 2005, researchers named the newest family of catfish, Lacantuniidae, only the
third new family of fish distinguished in the last 70 years (others being the coelacanth in
1938 and the megamouth shark in 1983). The new species in Lacantuniidae, Lacantunia
enigmatica, was found in the Lacantun river in the Mexican state of Chiapas.[41]
According to morphological data, Diplomystidae is usually considered to be the most
primitive of catfishes and the sister group to the remaining catfishes, grouped in a clade
called Siluroidei. Recent molecular evidence contrasts the prevailing hypothesis, where
the suborder Loricarioidei are the sister group to all catfishes, including Diplomystidae
(Diplomystoidei) and Siluroidei; though they were not able to reject the past hypothesis,
the new hypothesis is not unsupported. Siluroidei was found to be monophyletic without
Loricarioid families or Diplomystidae with molecular evidence; morphological evidence
is unknown that supports Siluroidei without Loricarioidea.[34]

Below is a list of family relationships by different authors. Lacantuniidae is included in

the Sullivan scheme based on recent evidence that places it sister to Claroteidae.[42

Franchising Raising and production of catfish (Hito)

There are two common varieties of catfish in the Philippines—one that is our own native
hito that thrives in rice fields and rivers, sometimes in muddy places; and the other one
brought over from Thailand or Taiwan. Both kinds can be raised and grown
commercially. Within four months, hito can grow as big as a size weighing 300-400
grams or three in a kilo. In Taiwan, they grow hito as big as two kilos each.

Clarias batrachus is a black, slippery fish with moustache to aid it in swimming. It is

called catfish in English, hito in Ilocos, ito in Pampanga, and pantatin in Pangasinan,
Cebu and Iloilo. Catfish are usually found in marshes, ricefields, swamps, streams, rivers,
lakes irrigation canals, or in any body or fresh water.

Catfish farming requires extremely heavy stocking (75 to 100 fingerlings per squire
meter) and intensive feeding (90 per cent protein). Hito fry supplies are few; thus, those
who go into catfish raising depend on natural sources for fry. But with proper planning
and management, the hito farmers can produce his own supply of frees.

The size of the ponds depends on your available capital. The minimum size is 50
square meter (sq m) and should be located in low and flat areas. Land where pesticides
have been regularly used should be avoided. Choose a shady area so that fish will have
shade when the sun is intense and lumot or moss will grow easily. The area should also
have a good supply of water either from wells, spring or run-off ponds.
There are two ways to prepare your ponds. The dug-out excavated type is made by
digging the soil of the desired area at least one to one-and-a-half (1 1/2) meters (m) deep.
The soil removed is used to build perimeter dikes 2 m high from the base to the top. The
inner sides of the ponds is made firm by pressing with a heavy log or board. This will
prevent the catfish from climbing or burrowing through the sides. A water pipe, 7.62
centimeters (cm) in diameter should be installed in the middle of the ponds so water can
run through it slowly. This aerates the pond water and discourages the catfish from
digging and stirring the pond bottom.

The dug-out concrete type also follows the same principle, except that the walling is
made of 10 cm x 20 cm x 41 x cm concrete hallow blocks. The bottom is covered with a
15 cm-thick layer of clay soil and planted with aquatic plants like tapo grass, water lily,
or kangkong to create the natural habitat for the fish.

Stocking rate. The extremely heavy stocking method produces a minimum poundage of
fish per unit area. Catfish farming produces 2 crops a year at an average rearing period of
5 to 6 months. It is best to stock in the late afternoon or early morning when it is cool.

The stocking rate depends on size of fish and depth of water. (See figures below.)

Size of fish #of Fish stock/sqm surface period (months)

3 to 4 cm 60 pcs/kg 80 to 100 5 to 6
5 to 6 cm 50 pcs/kg 60 to 80 4 to 5
7 to 10 cm 30 pcs/kg 40 to 60 3 to 4

Catfish are carnivorous so their feed is 90 per cent meat or other protein sources. These
can be ground fresh trash fish , worms, insects, slaughterhouse by-products, chicken
entrails, dried or fresh water shrimp, fish of fall and by-products of canning factories. The
remaining 10 per cent is composed of boiled broken rice mixed with vegetables or rice
bran. To augment food supply, install strong light over pond to attract insects.

Feed the catfish twice a day. To avoid waste, give the feeds slowly, by handful, until the
fish stop eating. Daily feed ration is 6-7 per cent of the fish stock's body weight. If the
fish remains small after giving them the necessary feed, provide them with 30 kilograms
of farmyard manure. Add 5 to 10 per cent carbohydrates in the feed to enhance the stock
growth rate. Trash feed should be fresh to maintain the nutritive value. Never overfeed
since the excess would only pollute the water causing death or stunted growth.

Mating and spawning. Female catfish ready to spawn or to produce offspring builds its
nest of debris or roots of aquatic plants like water hyacinths, kangkong, or filamentous
algae. It spawns in shallow water, 30 cm to 60 cm deep.

Males and females ready to make frequent the nest area. Courting starts by chasing each
other, darting sideways, pressing their abdominal regions together. This constantly
movement is repeated several times until the females releases the eggs and male milt or
sperms is simultaneously ejaculated. Fertilizer takes place at 27o to 30oC water
temperature.

The number of eggs laid range from a few hundreds to several thousands.

Never scrimp on feeds especially during this period, remember that catfish are
cannibalistic and quarrelsome. If the parent fish are very hungry, they may gobble up the
young as quickly as any other food that come their way.

One drawback that discourages people from catfish farming is the lack of fingerlings. The
following process will assure you a continuous supply of fingerlings.

There two methods effecting spawning by hormone injection. Both methods use the most
gravid or pregnant females and healthy. mature males, each weighing at least 200 grams
(g).

The body of the pregnant hito is distended prominently, the genital part pinkies, and the
blood vessels on its belly prominent. Breeders should be conditioned first in the concrete
or semi-concrete tanks/vats 2 to 5 months before they are injected with hormone.

The natural method entails injecting hormones to gravid females and male catfish through
their coal regions or bases located on the posterior side of the pelvic fin. Use commercial
hormone preparation like gonadotropin or synahorin. If these preparations are not
available, use fresh of fish. Each female hito should be receive 200 to 250 IU
(international units) of gonadotropin, while each male, 50 IU. Wrap fish in a small net so
they will not struggle during injection. After injection, put the male and female together
in an oxygenated tank provided with an improvised fish nest made of cabo negro(blank
palm fibers).

The stripping method requires several male catfish milters to be killed. Use forceps to
remove their testes which is pinkish yellow and soak in Ringer's solution. Extract sperm
by macerating the testes in the distilled water. Use sperm to fertilize breeder's eggs. Inject
hormone (mentioned earlier) into the gravidbreeder's body. Inject at the side of the fish's
body, a little above lateral line, with this dosage: gonadotropin = 750 to 1,500 IU;
synahorin = 1,000 to 1,500 IU. After 12 hours, squeeze the breeder's abdomen to force
the eggs out. A 250-gram breeder produces 8,000 to 15,000 eggs. Mix eggs with sperm
and stir for a minute. Spread eggs thinly over hatching troughs which are immersed in
running water with a temperature of 26o to 36oC. Eggs hatch 24 to 36 hours later.

Transfer the hatch larvae in basins half-filled with water. The young fish will absorb all
the egg yolk in 5 days. After this period, they will begin to swim active and take food.

You can rear 15,000 to 20,000 frys in a space of 1 x 3 x 6 m. Minute organisms are the
best food for the fry at the early stage. Twenty thousand (20,000) fry needs 20,000 liters
(1) of zooplankton every morning plus a kilo of fish flesh and 250 g of peanut cake in the
afternoon. After one week, fry should have grown to 1.5-4.3 cm long.
Pond-raised catfish are usually attacked by bacterial diseases. Aeromonas spp. is
characterized by distended abdomen filled with opaque or bloody fluid, red spots on the
body, stomach filled with yellow mucus, swollen kidneys, eroded fins, inflamed mouth,
pale or green liver and excess secret of mucus. When catfish lose their equilibrium, are
pale, their abdominal area tight with a distended anterior, and their peritoneal cavity filled
with bloody excretion , they are suffering from pseudomonas spp. The usual sources are
diseased fishes and frogs. Therefore, preventive measure must be taken during
transporting and before stocking the fish. One method is to add penicillin and
streptomycin to the water at the rate of 10 to 50 milligrams of per liter.

Harvesting. The rearing period depends upon the size of fingerlings stocked. Seven to
ten cm fingerlings culture period lasts about 4 months while 3 to 4 cm fingerlings need 6
months. When the fish are about 20 to 25 cm long you can start harvesting, partially or
completely. Drain pond partially and captured fish by seines (net hung vertically, one
side with floats, other side with sinkers) or scoop nets as soon as water level is low
enough. To harvest completely, let the water out through the drain pipe.

Storage and transport. The quality of fish depends on handling from the time it is
caught until it reaches the consumer. Wash fish to remove mud, debris, or any foreign
substance, sort them according to size and separate those which are bruised decomposed
or damaged.

Remove harvested catfish from water immediately after catch and place in wood, plastic
aluminum, or styroform containers. Be sure that the containers have perforated covers to
prevent hito from escaping.

Catfish are equipped with special assessor organs which enable them to survive out of
water for a long time. There are no rules to be followed in storing an d transporting hito
because of their innate hardiness. Fill three-fourth of the container with 20 to 25 cm long
catfish and four a liter of plain water. This moisture level will enable them to withstand
the rigors of travel up to 12 hours. By following this, the harvest will reach markets in
tip-top condition where they are sold live. This manner of transport is also used for
foreign destinations.

Market information. Catfish are commonly farmed in region 1 and 2. Raisers sell them
at P21.63 per kilo (data from Market Assistance Section of Fishery Economics and
Information Division), each kilo being equivalent to 5 to 6 pieces of 20 top 25 cm long
hito.

This black delicious fish is sold in almost all parts of the country at an average price of
P26.46 per kilo. Hito is customarily marketed through middlemen who sell at P24.28
(average cost) a kilo to retailers.

If intend to supply the local market, it is best to breed Clarias macrocephalus. Its more
intense, "fishy" taste is preferred by local consumers. But if you plan to export, breed the
longer bodies

Clarias batrachus or Bangkok hito. Its milder taste but firmer meat is favored by the
foreign market. We exported 776,134 kg of catfish worth P29,553,813 to 13 country in
1986. The three major importers were the U.S.A., Singapore, and Canada. There is much
potential in developing the British, Australian, and Taiwanese markets.

In assessing the profitability of catfish farming, you must first consider your inputs. You
will need ponds, deep well, water pump, water control structures, purchase of starter
fingerlings and feeds. A one-hectare hito pond usually yields 100 metric tons or 95,000
pieces of fish. If there are 6 pieces per kilo, the gross sales would add up to P341,993 if
you sell at P21.60 per kilo giving you roughly 30 per cent profit.

RAISING TIPS

Don’t over stock

Catfish can be stocked at 1500 fish per surface acre for non-commercial ponds. A pond
stocked at 1500 fish per acre could produce about 1500 pounds of catfish ready at one
time! That’s a lot of catfish!

Feed like hogs

Catfish convert feed at an average yield of about 1 pound of fish for every 2 pounds of
feed. Feed them like hogs. If you have the time feed twice a day. Keep their gut full. Feed
them as much as they can consume in 15 to 30 min. Do not over feed. Feed is money.
Feed the fish in the morning around 8 a.m. At this time dissolved oxygen levels have
started to rise and no later than mid afternoon around 3 P.M. to allow for digestion during
periods of low oxygen. Use floating catfish feed. This type of feed remains at the surface
for considerable periods of time and is not subject
to loss in mud on the bottom as is sinking feed. Sinking feeds represent a small
percentage of feed fed to catfish. Feed consumption by catfish is directly related to water
temperature. A 32 percent protein floating feed is fed to large fingerlings to harvest (six
inches an up). As the water temperature drops, consumption declines. Feeding is
inconsistent below about 70 °F and, although catfish feed at temperatures as low as 50 °F,
consumption is greatly reduced.

Don’t stock catfish with other fish

It is very important to keep all bream out of your catfish pond. This will save you money
on your feed bill and it could prevent low oxygen problems. If you want to have a good
catfish pond, stock only with catfish. A pond produces only so much oxygen for your
fish.

Use Common Sense

Catfish will eat like hogs. When catfish get sick they stop feeding. If they stop or slow
down something is wrong. Think Diseases! There can be a lot of other things wrong but
diseases can kill a lot of fish quick. If in doubt seek help quick. Diseases and parasites are
numerous and complicated. There are no quick explanations about diseases. A fish
biologist spends years studying diseases.

How to train your fish on feed

Catfish will take man made feed very easy. Place a flowing ring in the pond big enough
to hold your feed. This ring can be made out pvc or wood or any thing that floats. This
allows your feed to stay in one place ( keeps the wind from blowing the feed on the
bank ) your fish can find the feed and know where to go to feed. Place this ring in at less
3 feet of water. Once your fish start to feed, this ring can be removed.

The don't list

* Don't fertilize a catfish pond.

* Don't over feed.
* Don't let your catfish reproduce in your pond.
* Don't raise catfish and bream together.

Training and seminars:

Bureau of Fisheries (BFAR)
Arcadia Building
860 Quezon Avenue
1103 Quezon City, Philippines
Tel No. : +63(2)3725043
Fax No. : +63(2)3725048
Email : info@bfar.da.gov.ph

Raising Catfish

Contributor
By G. K. Bayne
eHow Contributing Writer
Article Rating: (3 Ratings)

Fishermen can raise catfish as a hobby or to put extra food on the table. Catfish are hearty
and can be grown to eating size in less than a year. In a pond, catfish have few predators
and will eat anything from small bait fish to algae. Stocking a pond is simple and only
takes a bit of planning.
Things You'll Need:

• Catfish fingerlings
• Pond
• Catfish food
1. Step 1
Determine if your pond is deep enough to raise catfish to maturity. The perfect
pond is around 4 feet deep, but they can be raised in as shallow as 2 feet and as
deep as 6 to 10 feet. The deeper the pond, the harder it will be to harvest the fish.
2. Step 2
Contact your local feed stores or county extension agent to find out where to
purchase catfish fingerlings. These fish are usually 4 to 6 inches long and are
purchased in groups of 50 or more fish to the bag. Most feed stores have "fish
stocking days" in which several varieties of fingerling fish are offered for sale.
3. Step 3
Place the unopened bag of fish into the pond to give them a chance to acclimate to
the difference in water temperature in the bag, as compared to the pond water.
Leave the bag unopened for several hours to overnight.
4. Step 4
Release the fingerlings into the pond. Sprinkle a high-protein catfish food on top
of the water. Read the bag to determine how much food to feed for the number of
catfish you have purchased.
5. Step 5
Fish the pond using catfish or other bait monthly to determine fish growth. The
fish should begin to reach a small, edible size in approximately 6 months.
6. Step 6
Harvest the fish by either fishing or by throwing a seine in the water when the fish
have reached the desired size. Clean and process the fish immediately after
harvest.
Tips & Warnings
• Most catfish foods are medicated to prevent diseases common to the catfish
species.
• Catfish can live for many years and reach 20 pounds or more in an average pond.

Hito (Catfish) Raising

If you want to know tips and procedure how to culture Catfish or Hito, then this is the
post your looking for.

Hito can be raised in a small pond. There are two common varieties of catfish in the
Philippines—one that is our own native hito that thrives in rice fields and rivers,
sometimes in muddy places; and the other one brought over from Thailand or Taiwan.
Both kinds can be raised and grown commercially.

Within four months, hito can grow as big as a size weighing 300-400 grams or three in a
kilo. In Taiwan, they grow hito as big as two kilos each.

Hito from Taiwan origin is dark gray with white belly.

Cage

1. For commercial purposes, one hectare of fish pond can rear as many as 100,000 small
hito or fingerlings. In other countries like Thailand, they grow as many as 300,000 to
400,000 fingerlings in one hectare of fish pond.

2. The sides of the fishpond should be concrete so as to withstand flood or heavy rains.
The smaller the grow-out ponds, the easier to manager them. (1 ½ hectare)

3. It is not necessary to provide an aerator even if the fish population is big because the
hito has an auxiliary respiratory organ and can naturally breathe fresh air; therefore it is
not stressed by low dissolved oxygen levels.

4. The ponds water depth must be about one and half meters ( ½ m) throughout the
culture period. fresh water may be drawn from a nearby river. Change of water is done
when it becomes murky.
Feed

Hito needs protein, so they like flesh meat. They can also thrive on any food growing in
the pond bottom, or they can eat one another, or escape from the pond. So, they must be
provided with enough protein foods—carcass, trash fish, commercial fish feed.
Some hito growers get their carcass feed from chicken or poultry internal organs, or trash
fish from fishermen.

It takes four months to grow hito that is about 2 kilograms, or three-to-four-pieces per
kilo.
Source: Greenfields, August 1991; http://elgu2.ncc.gov.ph; photo from:advanceddivermagazine.com

Workbook
work·book (wûrk b k )
n.
1. A booklet containing problems and exercises that a student may work directly on the
pages.
2. A manual containing operating instructions, as for an appliance or machine.
3. A book in which a record is kept of work proposed or accomplished.
workbook [ˈwɜːkˌbʊk]
n
1. (Social Science / Education) an exercise book or textbook used for study, esp a
textbook with spaces for answers
2. (Communication Arts / Printing, Lithography & Bookbinding) a book of instructions
for some process
3. (Communication Arts / Printing, Lithography & Bookbinding) a book in which is
recorded all work done or planned
workbook - a student's book or booklet containing problems with spaces for solving
them
book - a written work or composition that has been published (printed on pages bound
together); "I am reading a good book on economics"

Manual
Of or pertaining to the hand; done or made by the hand; as, manual labor; the king's sign
manual.
A small book, such as may be carried in the hand, or conveniently handled; a handbook;
specifically, the service book of the Roman Catholic Church.
A keyboard of an organ or harmonium for the fingers, as distinguished from the pedals; a
clavier, or set of keys.
A prescribed exercise in the systematic handing of a weapon; as, the manual of arms; the
manual of the sword; the manual of the piece (cannon, mortar, etc.).

textbook definition
text·book (tekst′bo̵ok′)
noun
a book giving instructions in the principles of a subject of study, specif. one used as the
basis or partial basis of a course of study
adjective
so typical as to be suitable for inclusion in a textbook; providing a model; classic a
textbook case of medical malpractice
Definitions
noun
textbook

1. a formal manual of instruction in a specific subject, especially one for use in

schools

or colleges.

Translations:

• Dutch: studieboek
• French: livre de classe
• German: Lehrbuch
• Italian: libro di testo
• Spanish: libro de texto

adjective

1. of or pertaining to textbooks or their styles.

examples

1. dealing with a subject in a pragmatic or fundamental way, as books

or persons do.

a approach to introductory psychology

1. having the typical characteristics of some class of phenomenon.

a case of mistaken identity