Central America Geology PDF

Central America: Geology, Resources and Hazards
Cover Illustrations
The cover page shows a preliminary geological map of Central America compiled
by the editors on the digital elevation model PIA3364 [Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech].
The digital elevation map from NASA can be used free for scientific purposes
mentioning the source: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA03364.
The photos of the back covers of volume 1 are courtesy of G.E. Alvarado (Pliocene
turbidites, Pta. Burica), D. Lpez (Cerro Verde volcano), and P. Lesage (spectrogram
tremor at Arenal volcano), those of volume 2 of O. Aragn (Arenal volcano, 1998),
S. Paniagua (road destroyed by the Limn earthquake, 1991), and G.E. Alvarado
(intrusive rock).
2007 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK
Central America: Geology,

Resources and Hazards
Edited by
Jochen Bundschuh
International Technical Cooperation Program, CIM (GTZ/BA), Frankfurt,
Germany Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE), San Jos, Costa Rica
Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Stockholm, Sweden
Guillermo E. Alvarado
Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE), San Jos, Costa Rica
Escuela Centroamericana de Geologa, Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR)
LONDON / LEIDEN / NEW YORK / PHILADELPHIA / SINGAPORE
Taylor & Francis is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Reproduced as CRC by Charon Tec Ltd (A Macmillan Company), Chennai, India
Printed and bound in Spain by Grafos SA, Barcelona
All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein may
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any damage to the property or persons as a result of operation or use of this publication
and/or the information contained herein.
Published by: Taylor & Francis/Balkema
P.O. Box 447, 2300 AK Leiden, The Netherlands
e-mail: Pub.NL@tandf.co.uk
www.balkema.nl, www.taylorandfrancis.co.uk, www.crcpress.com
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Central America : geology, resources, and hazards / edited by Jochen Bundschuh,

Guillermo E. Alvarado.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-415-41647-4 (hardcover, set : alk. paper)
ISBN-13: 978-0-415-41648-1 (v. 1 : alk. paper)
ISBN-13: 978-0-415-40169-2 (v. 2 : alk. paper)
1. GeologyCentral America. 2. Natural resourcesCentral America.
3. Hazardous geographic environmentsCentral America. I. Bundschuh, Jochen.
II. Alvarado Induni, Guillermo E., 1960QE210.C46 2006
557.2dc22
ISBN13 set: 978-0-415-41647-4 (Hbk)
ISBN13 Volume 1: 978-0-415-41648-1 (Hbk)
ISBN13 Volume 2: 978-0-415-40169-2 (Hbk)
ISBN13: 978-0-203-94704-3 (Ebook)
2006028790
Volume 1
Table of contents
List of contributors
List of reviewers
Authors acknowledgements
Editors foreword
Editors note
About the editors
ix
xxxv
xli
xlv
liii
lvii
lxi
I. REGIONAL OVERVIEW
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1
Geographical, social, economic, and environmental framework
and developments
Jochen Bundschuh, Manuel Winograd, Michael Day and
2
History of geology
Gregorio Escalante and Gerardo J. Soto
53
II. GENERAL GEOLOGY

GEOMORPHOLOGY
3
Geomorphology and physiographic provinces
Jeffrey S. Marshall
4
Volcanism and volcanic landforms
Benjamin van Wyk de Vries, Pablo Grosse and Guillermo
E. Alvarado
5
Karst landscapes
Michael J. Day
6
Glacial geology and geomorphology
Matthew S. Lachniet
7
Coastal morphology and coral reefs
Jorge Corts
TECTONICS AND GEODYNAMICS
8
Overview of plate tectonic history and its unresolved tectonic problems
Paul Mann, Robert D. Rogers and Lisa Gahagan
75
123
155
171
185
201

vi
10
11
12
Convergent margin tectonics: A marine perspective

Csar R. Ranero, Roland von Huene, Wilhelm Weinrebe and
Udo Barckhausen
Crustal structure
Ernst R. Flueh and Roland von Huene
Structural geology: From local elements to regional synthesis
Keith H. James
Seismicity and neotectonic
Mario Fernndez, Eduardo Camacho, Enrique Molina,
Griselda Marroqun and Wilfried Strauch
STRATIGRAPHY AND PALEONTOLOGY

13 Stratigraphy and geologic history
Guillermo E. Alvarado, Carlos Dengo, Uwe Martens, Jochen
Bundschuh, Teresita Aguilar and Samuel B. Bonis
14 Onshore to offshore tephrostratigraphy and marine ash layer
diagenesis
Steffen Kutterolf, Ulrike Schacht, Heidi Wehrmann, Armin Freundt
and Tobias Mrz
15 Late Quaternary lake and swamp sediments: Recorders of climate and
environment
Sally P. Horn
16 Vertebrate paleontology
Spencer G. Lucas, Guillermo E. Alvarado, Ramiro Garca, Edgar
Espinoza, Juan Carlos Cisneros and Uwe Martens
17 Invertebrate paleontology
Rudolf Fischer and Teresita Aguilar
18 Micropaleontology
Laurel S. Collins
IGNEOUS AND METAMORPHIC PETROLOGY

19 Metamorphism and metamorphic rocks
Uwe Martens, Carlos Ortega-Obregn, Juliana Estrada
and Marvin Valle
20 Oceanic igneous complexes
Kaj Hoernle and Folkmar Hauff
21 Intrusive rocks
Lina C. Patino
22 Petrology and geochemistry of lavas
Michael J. Carr, Lina C. Patino and Mark D. Feigenson
23 Petrogenesis of ignimbrites
Thomas Vogel, Lina Patino, Guillermo
E. Alvarado and William I. Rose
239
267
277
323
345
395
423
443
453
467
485
523
549
565
591

vii
Volume 2
III. GEOLOGICAL RESOURCES
HYDROGEOLOGY AND GROUNDWATER RESOURCES
24 Hydrogeology
David Bethune, Cathryn Ryan, Marcelino
Losilla and Jiri Krasny
25 Water availability, use and valuation
John C. Bergstrom and Hugo Cardona
GEOTHERMICS AND GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES
26 High and low enthalpy geothermal resources and potentials
Peter Birkle and Jochen Bundschuh
27 Hydrogeochemical and isotopic composition of geothermal fluids
Peter Birkle and Jochen Bundschuh
28 Gas geochemistry of volcanic and hydrothermal fluids
Tobias P. Fischer, Alison M. Shaw and David R. Hilton
29 Geothermal resources for development valuation, present use
and future opportunities
Jochen Bundschuh, Peter Birkle, Asbjrn Aaheim and
FOSSIL FUEL AND MINERAL RESOURCES
30 Petroleum geology
Carlos A. Dengo
31 Coal and peat resources
Luis Gmo. Obando and Kenneth Bolaos
32 Metallic mineral resources
Carl E. Nelson
33 Industrial minerals
Fernando Alvarado and Byron Mota
GEOLOGICAL HERITAGE RESOURCES
34 Geology-related tourism for sustainable development
Jochen Bundschuh, Peter Birkle, Richard
C. Finch, Michael Day, Juan Romero, Sergio Paniagua,
Guillermo E. Alvarado, Prosun Bhattacharya, Karola Tippmann
and Damaris Chaves
665
687
705
777
839
869
895
917
931
963
1015
IV. GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS

SEISMIC HAZARDS AND MONITORING
35 Seismic hazard and microzonation
Conrad D. Lindholm, lvaro Climent, Eduardo
Camacho, Wilfried Strauch, Jos Cepeda, Diego Cceres,
Juan P. Ligorra and Hilmar Bungum
1099

viii
36
37
Seismic monitoring
Mario Fernndez, Wilfried Strauch, Enrique Molina, Jaime
Toral and Griselda Marroqun
Strong-motion monitoring
lvaro Climent, Victor Schmidt, Douglas Hernndez,
Jos Cepeda, Eduardo Camacho, Rdiger
Escobar and Wilfried Strauch
VOLCANIC HAZARDS AND MONITORING

38 Volcanic activity, hazards, and monitoring
Guillermo E. Alvarado, Gerardo J. Soto, Carlos R. Pullinger,
Rdiger Escobar, Samuel Bonis, Demetrio
Escobar and Martha Navarro
39 Volcano seismology
Philippe Lesage, Mauricio Mora, Wilfried Strauch,
Demetrio Escobar, Otoniel Matas, Virginia Tenorio,
Emilio Talavera, ngel Rodrguez and Guillermo E. Alvarado
LANDSLIDES AND TSUNAMIS

40 Earthquake-induced landslides
Carlos E. Rodrguez
41 Earthquake triggered tsunamis
Mario Fernndez and Modesto Ortiz
1119
1129
1155
1189
1217
1257
Table of contents
Volume 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
LIST OF REVIEWERS
AUTHORS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
EDITORS FOREWORD
EDITORS NOTE
ABOUT THE EDITORS
ix
xxxv
xli
xlv
liii
lvii
lxi
I. REGIONAL OVERVIEW
1
GEOGRAPHICAL, SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, AND ENVIRONMENTAL

FRAMEWORK AND DEVELOPMENTS
1.1
1.2
Introduction
The environment
1.2.1
Biophysical traits, resources and hazards
1.2.1.1
Climate
1.2.1.2
Hydrography
1.2.1.3
Geomorphology and soils
1.2.1.4
Geology
1.2.1.5
Energy, mineral, and water resources
1.2.1.5.1
Fossil fuel resources
1.2.1.5.2
Renewable energy resources
1.2.1.5.3
Freshwater resources
1.2.1.5.4
Mineral resources (metallic and non-metallic)
1.2.1.5.5
Geological tourism destination
1.2.2
Biological traits and resources
1.2.2.1
Land cover and forests
1.2.2.2
Land uses and productivity
1.2.2.3
Biodiversity and ecosystems
1.2.2.4
Coasts and seas
The changing nature of the environment
1.3.1
Socioeconomic traits and resources
1.3.1.1
Population, social dynamics and human development
1.3.1.2
Economy and economic dynamics
1.3.2
Conservation, environmental protection and sustainable development
Limitations and potential for sustainable development: risk and vulnerability
1.4.1
Geology and climate related hazards and risks
1.4.1.1
Seismicity and seismic hazard
1.4.1.2
Volcanic hazards
1.4.1.3
Landslide and soil liquefaction hazards
1.4.1.4
Tsunami hazard and risk
1
2
2
2
6
8
9
11
11
12
13
14
15
15
15
18
19
19
20
20
20
27
32
39
39
40
43
43
44
1.3
1.4

x CONTENTS
1.4.2
1.4.3
1.4.1.5
Climate hazards
Renewable energy options for sustainable development
Increasing stress on freshwater resources
44
46
48
HISTORY OF GEOLOGY
53
2.1
2.2
Introduction
Pre-Columbian period
2.2.1
Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes
2.2.2
Non-metallic mineral resources and construction materials
2.2.3
Metallic mineral resources
Colonial and early independence period
2.3.1
2.3.2
Volcanoes and earthquakes
From independence to the first half of the 20th century
2.4.1
The early interest in geological research
2.4.2
Pioneering geological works
2.4.3
Studies carried out for the Nicaragua and Panama canals projects
2.4.4
Seismology
2.4.5
Geological accomplishments during the late19th and early 20th centuries
2.4.6
Outstanding results at the end of this period
From 1950 to the present
2.5.1
Regional geology
2.5.2
Central American geologists and international cooperation
2.5.3
Central American geological institutions
2.5.4
Consolidation of autochthonous geology
Overview and epilogue
53
56
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
62
63
64
65
65
67
67
68
68
69
70
70
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
II. GENERAL GEOLOGY

3
GEOMORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES
75
3.1
3.2
Introduction
Geomorphology of northern Central America
3.2.1
Maya highlands province
3.2.1.1
Cuchumatanes range
3.2.1.2
Cham and Santa Cruz ranges
3.2.1.3
Lacandn range
3.2.1.4
Maya mountains
3.2.2
Yucatn platform province
3.2.2.1
Northern pitted karst plain
3.2.2.2
Southern hilly-karst plain
3.2.2.3
Petn karst plateau and lowlands
3.2.2.4
Eastern block-faulted coastal plain
3.2.3
Motagua fault zone province
3.2.3.1
Motagua and Polochic valleys
3.2.3.2
Las Minas and Chuacs ranges
3.2.4
Chortis volcanic front province
3.2.4.1
Guatemalan cordillera
3.2.4.2
Salvadoran cordillera
3.2.5
Chortis forearc province
75
77
78
79
80
80
80
81
81
81
82
82
82
83
83
83
84
84
85

CONTENTS xi
3.3
3.2.5.1
Guatemalan coastal plain
3.2.5.2
Salvadoran coastal plain
3.2.6
Chortis highlands province
3.2.6.1
Central Chortis plateau
3.2.6.2
Western rifted highlands
3.2.6.3
Eastern dissected highlands
3.2.6.4
Honduran borderlands
3.2.7
Mosquito coast lowlands province
3.2.7.1
Northern Mosquitia
3.2.7.2
Southern Mosquitia
3.2.8
Nicaraguan depression province
3.2.8.1
Central Nicaraguan depression
3.2.8.2
Median trough, El Salvador
3.2.8.3
Los Guatusos and San Carlos lowlands, Costa Rica
3.2.9
Nicaraguan volcanic front province
3.2.9.1
Cosigina peninsula
3.2.9.2
Los Marabios cordillera
3.2.9.3
Apoyeque and Las Sierras shields
3.2.9.4
Cocibolca cordillera
3.2.10 Sandino forearc province
3.2.10.1
Northern Nicaraguan coast
3.2.10.2
Southern Nicaraguan coast
3.2.10.3
Las Sierras shield
3.2.10.4
Punta Descartes, Costa Rica
Geomorphology of southern Central America
3.3.1
Chorotega volcanic front province
3.3.1.1
Guanacaste cordillera
3.3.1.2
Tilarn and Aguacate cordilleras
3.3.1.3
Central cordillera
3.3.1.4
Central valley
3.3.1.5
Talamanca cordillera
3.3.1.6
Central cordillera, Panama
3.3.2
Chorotega forearc province
3.3.2.1
Santa Elena peninsula and Papagayo gulf
3.3.2.2
Nicoya peninsula
3.3.2.3
Orotina-Esparza coast
3.3.2.4
Herradura headland
3.3.2.5
Quepos-Parrita coast
3.3.2.6
Fila Costea
3.3.2.7
General and Coto Brus valleys
3.3.2.8
Osa peninsula
3.3.2.9
Burica peninsula
3.3.2.10
Son and Azuero peninsulas
3.3.3
Chorotega backarc province
3.3.3.1
Tortuguero lowlands
3.3.3.2
Southern Limn and Bocas del Toro coast
3.3.4
Canal zone lowlands province
3.3.4.1
Gatn fracture zone
85
85
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86
86
88
88
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88
89
89
89
90
90
90
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91
91
92
92
92
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93
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96
97
97
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98
99
99
100
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103
103
104
104
104
105
105
106
106
106
107
108

xii CONTENTS
3.3.5
Darin isthmus province

3.3.5.1
East Panama deformed belt
Summary
108
109
110
VOLCANISM AND VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
123
4.1
Introduction
4.1.1
Volcanic landforms
Description of volcanic landforms
4.2.1
Basic volcano
4.2.2
Cones, domes, stratovolcanoes, shields
4.2.3
Erosion
4.2.4
Sedimentary apron
4.2.5
Tectonic faults
4.2.6
Gravitational spreading
4.2.7
Calderas
4.2.8
Sector collapse
Landforms and processes of Central America
4.3.1
Geometrical characteristics of the Central American volcanoes
4.3.2
Volcanoes of Guatemala
4.3.2.1
Calderas
4.3.2.2
Major stratocones
4.3.2.3
Ipala graben volcanoes
4.3.3
Volcanoes of El Salvador and southeast Guatemala
4.3.3.1
Coatepeque and western Central valley
4.3.3.2
Ilopango and Central valley of El Salvador
4.3.3.3
San Miguel group
4.3.4
Volcanoes of the Gulf of Fonseca
4.3.5
Volcanoes of Nicaragua
4.3.5.1
Marabios range
4.3.5.2
Las Sierras volcanoes
4.3.5.3
Mombacho
4.3.5.4
Zapatera
4.3.5.5
Ometepe
4.3.6
Volcanoes of Costa Rica
4.3.6.1
Guanacaste group
4.3.6.2
Arenal
4.3.6.3
Central cordillera volcanoes
4.3.7
Volcanoes of Panama
4.3.7.1
Cerro Bar
4.3.7.2
El Valle
4.3.8
Isolated volcanic landforms
4.3.8.1
Domes and lava fields in Guatemala
4.3.8.2
Honduran volcanoes
4.3.8.3
Lava fields in Nicaragua
4.3.8.4
Volcanic lineaments
4.3.8.5
Maars and tuff rings in Nicaragua
4.3.8.6
Cinder cones and domes in Costa Rica and eastern Nicaragua
Conclusions
123
123
124
126
127
128
129
129
129
130
130
131
131
136
136
137
138
138
138
140
140
141
142
142
143
144
144
144
146
146
147
148
149
149
150
151
151
151
151
151
152
152
152
3.4
4.2
4.3
4.4

CONTENTS xiii
KARST LANDSCAPES
155
5.1
5.2
Introduction
Karst environments
5.2.1
Geomorphology
5.2.2
Climate
5.2.3
Soils
5.2.4
Ecology
5.2.5
Human impacts
Karst areas and styles
5.3.1
Guatemala and Belize
5.3.2
Honduras
5.3.3
El Salvador and Nicaragua
5.3.4
Costa Rica and Panama
Regional karst studies
5.4.1
Belize
5.4.2
Guatemala
5.4.3
Costa Rica
Summary and conclusions
155
155
156
156
156
156
158
158
159
160
160
160
162
162
165
166
166
GLACIAL GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY
171
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
Introduction
Glacial geology and geomorphology of Costa Rica
6.2.1
Erosional landforms
6.2.2
Depositional landforms
6.2.3
Glacial limits and equilibrium line altitudes
6.2.4
Chronology
Glacial geology and geomorphology of Guatemala
Paleoclimate
171
174
174
176
177
180
181
182
COASTAL MORPHOLOGY AND CORAL REEFS
185
7.1
7.2
Introduction
Coastal geomorphology
7.2.1
Caribbean coast
7.2.2
Pacific coast
Coastal ecosystems
7.3.1
Beaches
7.3.2
Rocky outcrops
7.3.3
Intertidal mud flats
7.3.4
Mangroves
7.3.5
Seagrasses
Coral reefs
7.4.1
Caribbean coast
7.4.2
Pacific coast
7.4.3
Natural disturbances to coral reefs
7.4.4
Anthropogenic impacts to coral reefs
Conclusions
185
186
186
188
190
190
190
190
191
192
192
193
194
194
195
195
5.3
5.4
5.5
7.3
7.4
7.5

xiv CONTENTS
OVERVIEW OF PLATE TECTONIC HISTORY AND ITS

UNRESOLVED TECTONIC PROBLEMS
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
Introduction and objectives

Methodology of this chapter
Overview of the tectonic history of Central America and the Cava
Key tectonic events affecting Central America shown in the plate reconstructions
Plate reconstructions of Central America: 1650 Ma
8.5.1
Plate reconstructions of Central America and the eastern Pacific
8.5.2
165 Ma (Late Jurassic)
8.5.3
144 Ma (Early Cretaceous)
8.5.4
120 Ma (Early Cretaceous)
8.5.5
90 Ma (Late Cretaceous)
8.5.6
72 Ma (Late Cretaceous)
8.5.7
49 Ma (Eocene)
8.5.8
22 Ma (Miocene)
8.5.9
0 Ma (Present-day)
Discussion: unresolved tectonic problems
8.6.1
Suggested future studies
8.6.2
Precambrian connections between North and South America
8.6.3
Defining the edges of the Chortis block in the Middle America
trench and Hess escarpment
8.6.4
Slowing of spreading in Cayman trough and relation to events in
Central America
8.6.5
Faralln plate breakup and relation to events in Central America
8.6.6
Evolution of the Panama fracture zone
8.6.7
Early ridge jumps between Cocos and Nazca plates and the original shape of
the now subducted Cocos ridge
8.6.8
Slab breakoff of the Cocos plate beneath Central America
8.6.9
Timing of impact of the Cocos ridge on the southern Central
American arc
8.6.10 Impact of migration of the Caribbean-Cocos-Nazca triple junction on
land geology
8.6.11 Slab windows beneath the southern Central American arc
8.6.12 Models for the internal deformation of the Chortis block and western
Caribbean plate
8.6.13 Tectonic erosion vs. tectonic accretion models for the Middle America trench
8.6.14 Defining the Central American forearc sliver and the origin of the
Nicaraguan depression
Future work
8.6
8.7
201
201
204
205
208
208
208
209
209
212
212
212
213
213
215
216
216
216
216
217
217
219
219
220
224
225
225
226
230
230
232
CONVERGENT MARGIN TECTONICS: A MARINE

PERSPECTIVE
239
9.1
9.2
Introduction
Accretion versus non-accretion
9.2.1
Early studies offshore Guatemala
9.2.2
Contribution of bathymetric mapping
9.2.3
Accretion versus non-accretion models
Changes in the paradigm
9.3.1
Long-term subsidence and subduction erosion
239
240
240
242
244
246
246
9.3

CONTENTS xv
9.4
9.5
The forearc Sandino basin

Quaternary tectonics
9.5.1
Segmentation of the incoming oceanic plate
9.5.2
Parallel segmentation of subducting and overriding plates
Summary
250
252
254
258
260
10
CRUSTAL STRUCTURE
267
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
Introduction
Geology and terranes
Early seismic investigations
Description of crustal data
Discussion and conclusions
267
267
269
270
273
11
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY: FROM LOCAL ELEMENTS TO

REGIONAL SYNTHESIS
277
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
Introduction
Historical development of recognized main tectonic components
Basic geometric observations
Maya
11.4.1 Onshore the Yucatn Peninsula
11.4.2 Offshore east Maya
Chortis
11.5.1 Onshore
11.5.2 Offshore north and east Chortis
11.5.3 Cayman ridge, Nicaragua rise and Hess escarpment
The Motagua fault zone
11.6.1 Nomenclature, offsets, current understanding
11.6.2 Cayman trough offset, amount and age
11.6.3 Nature of the Motagua suture
11.6.4 Origin of Motagua zone curvature
11.6.5 Origin of Maya and Chortis
Chorotega and Choc (Costa Rica-Panama isthmus: the isthmian link)
11.7.1 Chorotega
11.7.2 Choc
11.7.3 Chorotega-Choc, same origin? continental crust present?
Unconformities
11.8.1 Late PalaeozoicMiddle Jurassic
11.8.2 Early Cretaceous
11.8.3 Late Cretaceous
11.8.4 PalaeoceneMiddle Eocene
11.8.5 Early Oligocene
11.8.6 Middle Miocene
Plate tectonics
11.9.1 Cocos-Central America interaction, control of current structures
11.9.2 Tectonic evolution
Summary
Conclusions
277
278
280
284
284
284
286
286
290
292
294
294
296
297
298
299
299
300
302
303
304
305
305
305
306
306
306
306
306
308
309
310
9.6
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10
11.11

xvi CONTENTS
12
SEISMICITY AND NEOTECTONICS
323
12.1
12.2
12.3
Introduction
Historical and major earthquakes in Central America
Plate boundaries
12.3.1 Middle America trench
12.3.2 North America-Caribbean plate boundary
12.3.3 The Panama fracture zone
12.3.4 Caribbean-Nazca boundary
12.3.5 Caribbean-South American plate boundary
Intra-plate tectonics
12.4.1 The Central American volcanic front
12.4.2 Epirogenic uplifts
12.4.3 Nicaraguan depression
12.4.4 Hess escarpment
12.4.5 Central Costa Rica
12.4.6 North Panama deformed belt
12.4.7 Azuero-Son fault zone
12.4.8 Paleoseismology
12.4.9 Segmentation of Cocos plate
Conclusions
323
324
327
327
328
331
331
332
332
332
333
334
335
335
336
337
338
339
340
13
STRATIGRAPHY AND GEOLOGIC HISTORY
345
13.1
13.2
Introduction
Crystalline basement, early-sedimentary and igneous rocks (mesoproterozoic
to paleozoic)
13.2.1 Metamorphic rocks
13.2.1.1
Basement of the Maya block north of the Polochic fault
(Silurian and Triassic)
13.2.1.2
Basement of the southern border of the Maya block
(Mesoproterozoic, Middle DevonianPermian)
13.2.1.3
Basement of the northern Chorts block, between the
Motagua and the Jocotn-Chamelecn faults
(Mesoprotezoic; Late Carboniferous)
13.2.1.4
Basement of the Chorts block, south-central Honduras and
northern Nicaragua (Post-Permian?)
13.2.2 Sedimentary rocks
13.2.2.1
Volcaniclastic sequence (CarboniferousPermian)
13.2.2.2
Carbonates (Pre-Permian?Middle Permian)
13.2.3 Magmatism
13.2.3.1
Volcanic rocks (CarboniferousEarly Permian)
13.2.4 Geological history: The metamorphic history and beginning of the
sedimentary record
Proto-Caribbean sea (JurassicCretaceous)
13.3.1 Magmatism
13.3.1.1
Intrusive calc-alkaline rocks (JurassicCretaceous)
13.3.1.2
Island arc rocks (Cretaceous)
13.3.1.3
Basic igneous complex (Cretaceous)
13.3.1.4
Peridotites
13.3.1.5
Tholeiitic plagiogranites to gabbros (Cretaceous)
345
12.4
12.5
13.3
348
348
348
348
350
350
351
351
351
351
351
351
353
353
353
353
353
354
354

CONTENTS xvii
13.3.2
13.4
13.5
13.6
Sedimentary rocks
13.3.2.1
Radiolarites (JurassicCretaceous)
13.3.2.2
Dark gray to reddish clastic sediments (Middle Jurassic)
13.3.2.3
Continetal redbeds (Late JurassicEarly Cretaceous)
13.3.2.4
Epineritic to littoral marine (Late JurassicEarly Cretaceous)
13.3.2.5
Pelagic limestones (BerriasianValanginian, AptianAlbian)
13.3.2.6
Marine volcaniclastic and black shale deposits (Albian to
Campanian)
13.3.2.7
The great reef/evaporitic event (AptianConiacian)
13.3.3 Geological history: The Proto-Caribbean Sea and the Caribbean large igneous
province (CLIP)
Primitive in situ island arc and related sedimentary rocks (CampanianEocene)
13.4.1 Magmatism
13.4.1.1
Basic igneous complex (MaastrichtianLate Eocene)
13.4.1.2
Early in situ-arc lavas (CampanianEocene)
13.4.1.3
Granitoids (MaastrichtianMiddle Eocene)
13.4.2.1
Redbeds (Campanian?Eocene)
13.4.2.2
Rudist lithosomes (Late CampanianMaastrichtian)
13.4.2.3
Arc-related flysch (Late CretaceousEocene)
13.4.2.4
Red limestone (Late CretaceousPaleocene)
13.4.2.5
Large foraminiferal platform rimmed reef (Paleocene
Oligocene)
13.4.2.6
Calcareous/evaporitic facies (Early Eocene)
13.4.2.7
Tectonic and sedimentary melange (MiddleLate Eocene)
13.4.2.8
Fossiliferous shallow marine rocks (PaleoceneEocene)
13.4.3 Geological history: The events through the K/T
Configuration of paleo-volcanic front (OligoceneMiocene)
13.5.1 Magmatism
13.5.1.1
Calc-alkaline volcanism (Late OligoceneMiocene)
13.5.1.2
Ignimbrites (Late OligoceneMiocene)
13.5.1.3
Basic igneous complex (EarlyMiddle Miocene)
13.5.1.4
Intrusive rocks (OligoceneMiocene)
13.5.2.1
Redbeds (OligoceneMiocene)
13.5.2.2
Open marine platform and talus facies (OligoceneMiocene)
13.5.2.3
Dysaerobic marine sediments (Late OligoceneMiddle Miocene)
13.5.2.4
Arc-related flysch (Early OligoceneMiddle Miocene)
13.5.2.5
Shallow marine to parallic sediments (Miocene)
13.5.2.6
Tectonic melange (Middle Miocene)
13.5.3 Geological history: The beginning of the closing of deep oceanic circulation,
and the formation of the isthmus
Present configuration of the isthmus (PlioceneQuaternary)
13.6.1 Magmatism
13.6.1.1
Calc-alkaline volcanism (Pliocene)
13.6.1.2
Alkaline magmatism (Pliocene)
13.6.1.3
Calc-alkaline intrusive rocks (Pliocene)
13.6.1.4
Ignimbrites (PlioceneQuaternary)
354
354
356
356
356
358
358
358
360
362
362
362
363
363
363
363
364
364
364
365
365
366
366
366
369
369
369
369
369
369
370
370
370
370
372
372
374
374
376
376
376
376
377
377

xviii CONTENTS
13.6.2
13.7
13.6.1.5
Sediments
13.6.2.1
13.6.2.2
13.6.2.3
13.6.2.4
13.6.2.5
13.6.2.6
Volcanic-front (Quaternary)
Marine sediments (PliocenePleistocene)

Conglomeratic molasse (PliocenePleistocene)
Flysch (PlioceneEarly Pleistocene)
Alluvial and coastal sediments (Upper Quaternary)
Lacustrine sediments (Pleistocene)
Fluvio-glacial and glacial deposits (Late PleistoceneEarly
Holocene)
13.6.2.7
Reefs (PlioceneHolocene)
13.6.3 Geological history: The final closure of the isthmus of Panama
Conclusions
14
ONSHORE TO OFFSHORE TEPHROSTRATIGRAPHY AND MARINE

ASH LAYER DIAGENESIS
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
Introduction
Methods used in marine tephrostratigraphy
Comprehensive marine tephrostratigraphic correlations
Periodicity and cyclicity of volcanic activity in the Circum-Pacific volcanic belt
Preliminary results from the Nicaraguan continental slope
14.5.1 Sediment cores and ash layers recovered on RV Meteor cruise M54/2
14.5.2 Identification of reworked ash
14.5.3 Correlation between cores
14.5.4 Correlations with tephras on land
14.5.4.1
Quantifying explosive quaternary volcanism in Nicaragua
14.5.4.2
Correlations with Nicaraguan eruptions
14.5.5 Role of ash layers during forearc diagenesis
14.5.5.1
Alteration of volcanic ash on the seafloor
14.5.5.2
Methodology and results
14.5.5.3
Discussion of results
Conclusions and implications of an integrated marine and terrestrial
tephrostratigraphy in Central America
14.6.1 Implications for eruption dynamics and event chronology
14.6.2 Implications of diagenesis
14.6.3 Implications for marine sedimentation or erosion rates
14.6
377
377
377
378
378
378
379
379
379
379
380
395
395
396
397
399
401
401
406
408
410
410
411
412
412
413
415
416
416
417
418
15
LATE QUATERNARY LAKE AND SWAMP SEDIMENTS:

RECORDERS OF CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENT
423
15.1
15.2
Introduction
Climate history in Central America
15.2.1 The Late Pleistocene and transition to the Holocene
15.2.2 The Early to Middle Holocene
15.2.3 The Late Holocene
Human use and modification of the environment
Natural disturbance
Lessons from paleoenvironmental records
423
423
424
430
432
433
435
435
15.3
15.4
15.5

CONTENTS xix
16
VERTEBRATE PALEONTOLOGY
443
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
Introduction
OligoceneMiocene
Pliocene
Pleistocene
Significance
443
443
446
446
449
17
INVERTEBRATE PALEONTOLOGY
453
17.1
17.2
Introduction
The disequilibrium of the fossil record
17.2.1 Studies on Central American invertebrate fossils
17.2.1.1
Sponges
17.2.1.2
Corals
17.2.1.3
Bryozoa
17.2.1.4
Brachiopoda
17.2.1.5
Polychaeta
17.2.1.6
Arthropoda
17.2.1.7
Echinodermata
17.2.1.8
Molluscs other than bivalves and gastropods
17.2.1.9
Bivalves and gastropods
17.2.1.10 Ichnofossils
17.2.2 Lack of knowledge
Neogene biota: the Central American isthmus and its influence on evolutionary changes
453
453
454
454
454
455
456
456
456
456
458
458
459
460
460
18
MICROPALEONTOLOGY
467
18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5
18.6
Introduction
Paleozoic (Permian) micropaleontology
Mesozoic micropaleontology
Paleogene micropaleontology
Neogene micropaleontology
Conclusions
467
467
468
471
474
478
19
METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS
485
19.1
19.2
Introduction
Metamorphic rocks between the Polochic and the Motagua faults
19.2.1
Metamorphic rocks in the Sierra de Chuacs
19.2.2
The Chuacs complex in the Sierra de Chuacs
19.2.3
The Salam metasediments
19.2.4
The sheared Rabinal granite
19.2.5
The Chuacs complex in eastern Guatemala
19.2.6
Mylonitic orthogneiss in the San Agustn Acasaguastln-Ro Hondo area
19.2.7
The Jones and San Lorenzo formations
19.2.8
Garnet-amphibole-phengite gneiss in El Progreso
19.2.9
The Chuacs complex in western Guatemala
19.2.10 Age of the Chuacs complex and Salam metasediments
Metamorphic rocks north of the Polochic fault system: the Maya mountains
and the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes
19.3.1
The Cuchumatanes anticlinorium
485
486
486
490
492
494
495
495
496
496
497
498
17.3
19.3
500
500

xx CONTENTS
19.3.2
The Maya mountains
19.3.3
Age and remaining issues
Metamorphism of rocks in the Motagua suture zone and of adjacent ophiolites
19.4.1 The Motagua suture zone, and its metamorphic/metasomatic-rock occurrences
19.4.2 The El Tambor allochthon
19.4.3 La Pita complex
19.4.4
Jadeitites and associated metasomatic rocks north of the Cabaas fault
19.4.5 Contrasting eclogites from the Motagua valley: southern lawsonite-eclogite
and northern zoisite-eclogite
19.4.6 Age of the El Tambor group and high-pressure belts from the Motagua
valley
Metamorphic rocks south of the Motagua fault in Guatemala and
northwestern Honduras
19.5.1 Las Ovejas complex and high-grade rocks in north and northwestern
Honduras
19.5.2 San Diego phyllites
19.5.3 Probable metamorphic age of Las Ovejas complex and San Diego phyllites
Metamorphic rocks of central and south Honduras, and northern Nicaragua
19.6.1 Cacaguapa schist Central Honduras
19.6.2 Las Segovias metamorphic complex northern Nicaragua
19.6.3 Age constraints and correlations
Isthmic region: Costa Rica and Panama
19.7.1 Amphibolites from the Santa Elena peninsula
19.7.2 Low-grade metamorphism of Pre-Quaternary volcanics
19.7.3 Other extraneous reports of metamorphic rocks from Costa Rica
19.7.4 Pacific peninsulas in southern Panama
Metamorphism of samples collected during offshore drilling
506
509
509
510
510
512
513
514
514
515
516
516
517
20
OCEANIC IGNEOUS COMPLEXES
523
20.1
20.2
Introduction
Regional geology, ages and composition of the oceanic igneous complexes
20.2.1 Costa Rica mafic igneous complexes
20.2.1.1
Northwestern Pacific coast: Santa Elena peninsula
20.2.1.2
Nicoya peninsula, Herradura peninsula and Tortugal
20.2.1.3
Central and southern Costa Rica: Upper Herradura, Quepos,
Osa, Golfito and Burica
20.2.2 Panama
20.2.2.1
Southwestern Panama: Azuero and Son peninsulas and
Coiba island
20.2.2.2
Southeastern Panama: Serrana del Sapo (Darin) complex
20.2.3 Nicaragua-Guatemala: Forearc basement
20.2.4 Guatemala: Motagua fault
Evolution of the Pacific margin of Central America: origin of mafic igneous complexes
The disputed origin of the Caribbean plate
523
525
525
525
530
21
INTRUSIVE ROCKS
549
21.1
21.2
Introduction
Pre-Jurassic plutons
21.2.1 Sierra de Omoa
549
550
550
19.4
19.5
19.6
19.7
19.8
20.3
20.4
500
501
502
502
502
504
504
505
505
506
534
536
536
538
538
539
539
542

CONTENTS xxi
21.3
JurassicMiddle Eocene
21.3.1 Oceanic rocks: Basic and ultrabasic intrusive bodies
21.3.2 Continental and arc related evolved plutons
21.3.2.1
Chiquimula pluton, Guatemala
OligocenePliocene
21.4.1 Talamanca range
Conclusions
552
552
555
555
558
560
561
22
PETROLOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF LAVAS
565
22.1
22.2
22.3
22.4
Introduction
Tectonic and geologic setting of volcanoes
Petrology and petrography of volcanic front lavas
Geochemistry of the volcanic front
22.4.1 Regional variations
22.4.2 Anomalous mantle in central Costa Rica
22.4.3 Subducted component
22.4.4 Geochemical variations within volcanoes
22.4.5 Bimodal distribution of TiO2 and HFS elements in volcanic front lavas
22.4.6 Local variations in magma type and in flux composition
Petrologic characteristics of subalkaline backarc lavas
Geochemical variations transverse to the arc
Tertiary volcanism
22.7.1 Tertiary geochemistry
Important characteristics of volcanism and geochemistry
565
566
570
572
574
575
578
579
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
23
PETROGENESIS OF IGNIMBRITES
591
23.1
23.2
Introduction
Ignimbrite characteristics
23.2.1 Geographic and age distribution
23.2.2 Cretaceous submarine ignimbrites
23.2.3 OligocenePliocene ignimbrites
23.2.4 Pleistocene to Holocene ignimbrites
Variation along the arc
23.3.1 Mineralogical trends along the arc
23.3.2 Chemical trends along the arc
Petrogenic models
Ignimbrites and continental growth
591
592
592
592
594
597
602
602
602
605
613
21.4
21.5
22.5
22.6
22.7
22.8
23.3
23.4
23.5
Volume 2
III. GEOLOGICAL RESOURCES
24
HYDROGEOLOGY
665
24.1
24.2
Introduction
Regional hydrogeologic conditions
24.2.1 Geology
24.2.2 Physiography
665
666
666
667

xxii CONTENTS
24.2.3
24.2.4
Climate
Aquifer types in Central America
24.2.4.1
Volcanic aquifers
24.2.4.2
Alluvial aquifers
24.2.4.3
Sedimentary rock aquifers
24.2.4.4
Metamorphic and igneous intrusive rock aquifers
24.2.5 Regional groundwater recharge, flow and discharge
24.2.6 Natural groundwater chemistry
Groundwater quality and quantity issues
24.3.1 Groundwater quality impacts
24.3.1.1
Urbanization
24.3.1.2
Agriculture
24.3.1.3
Industry (non-agricultural)
24.3.1.4
Intrusion of seawater or polluted surface water
24.3.2 Water quantity issues
24.3.2.1
Over-pumpage
24.3.2.2
Deforestation
24.3.2.3
Climate change
Conclusions
669
669
670
671
672
674
674
676
677
677
678
678
679
681
681
681
682
682
682
25
WATER AVAILABILITY, USE AND VALUATION
687
25.1
25.2
25.3
25.4
25.5
25.6
25.7
Introduction
Geographic and institutional perspectives and problems
Water availability and use
Water values
Economic valuation process
Economic valuation techniques
Implications and conclusions
687
687
690
692
697
698
702
26
HIGH AND LOW ENTHALPY GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES AND

POTENTIALS
705
26.1
26.2
Introduction
Commercial geothermal activities through the present
26.2.1 Regional overview
26.2.2 Guatemala
26.2.3 Honduras
26.2.4 El Salvador
26.2.5 Nicaragua
26.2.6 Costa Rica
26.2.7 Panama
High-enthalpy sites in exploitation or feasibility stages
26.3.1 Zunil (Guatemala)
26.3.1.1
Location
26.3.1.2
Regional structural geology
26.3.1.3
Local stratigraphy
26.3.1.4
Reservoir exploration
26.3.2 Amatitln (Guatemala)
26.3.2.1
Location
705
708
708
708
710
712
714
716
716
718
718
718
718
719
720
720
720
24.3
24.4
26.3

CONTENTS xxiii
26.4
26.3.2.2
26.3.2.3
Local stratigraphy
26.3.2.4
26.3.3 Ahuachapn (El Salvador)
26.3.3.1
Location
26.3.3.2
26.3.3.3
Local stratigraphy
26.3.3.4
26.3.4 Berln (El Salvador)
26.3.4.1
Location
26.3.4.2
26.3.4.3
Local stratigraphy
26.3.4.4
26.3.5 Momotombo (Nicaragua)
26.3.5.1
Location
26.3.5.2
26.3.5.3
Local stratigraphy
26.3.5.4
26.3.6 San Jacinto-Tizate (Nicaragua)
26.3.6.1
Location
26.3.6.2
26.3.6.3
Local stratigraphy
26.3.6.4
26.3.7 Miravalles (Costa Rica)
26.3.7.1
Location and regional geological setting
26.3.7.2
Structural geology
26.3.7.3
Local stratigraphy
26.3.7.4
Reservoir temperature distribution compared with mineral
alteration distribution
26.3.7.5
Reservoir exploration and exploitation
26.3.7.6
Reservoir response to exploitation
26.3.8 Las Pailas-Borinquen (Costa Rica)
26.3.8.1
26.3.8.2
Structural geology and local stratigraphy
26.3.8.3
26.3.9 Tenorio (Costa Rica)
26.3.9.1
26.3.9.2
Structural geology and local stratigraphy
26.3.9.3
Other principal high-enthalpy sites
26.4.1 San Marcos (Guatemala)
26.4.1.1
Location and reservoir exploitation
26.4.1.2
26.4.1.3
Local stratigraphy
26.4.2 Moyuta (Guatemala)
26.4.3 Tecuamburro (Guatemala)
26.4.3.1
26.4.3.2
721
721
722
723
723
723
724
725
727
727
728
729
729
731
731
731
731
732
733
733
733
733
734
734
734
734
735
736
737
739
744
744
744
745
747
747
747
749
749
749
749
749
750
750
751
751
751

xxiv CONTENTS
26.4.4
26.4.5
26.4.6
26.4.7
26.4.8
26.4.9
26.4.10
26.4.11
26.4.12
26.4.13
26.4.14
26.4.15
26.4.16
26.4.17
26.4.18
26.4.19
26.4.20
26.4.21
26.4.22
26.4.3.3
Local stratigraphy
Totonicapn (Guatemala)
Los Achiotes, Ixtepeque-Ipala, Palencia, Retana, Ayarza, Atitln, and
Motagua (Guatemala)
San Vicente (El Salvador)
26.4.6.1
Reservoir exploitation
26.4.6.2
Geological framework
Chinameca (El Salvador)
Platanares (Honduras)
26.4.8.1
26.4.8.2
26.4.8.3
Local stratigraphy
Azacualpa (Honduras)
26.4.9.1
26.4.9.2
26.4.9.3
Local stratigraphy
San Ignacio (Honduras)
26.4.10.1 Location and reservoir exploitation
26.4.10.2 Regional structural geology
26.4.10.3 Local stratigraphy
Pavana (Honduras)
Sambo creek (Honduras)
El Olivar (Honduras)
Cosigina volcano (Nicaragua)
Telica-El ajo volcano (Nicaragua)
El Hoyo-Monte Galn (Nicaragua)
Managua-Chiltepe and Tipitapa (Nicaragua)
Masaya-Granada-Nandaime (Nicaragua)
Zapatera and Ometepe islands (Nicaragua)
Poco Sol (Costa Rica)
El Valle de Antn (Panama)
Bar-Colorado (Panama)
751
752
752
752
752
753
753
753
753
754
754
755
755
756
756
757
757
757
757
757
757
757
758
758
758
758
758
759
759
759
759
759
760
760
760
761
762
27
HYDROGEOCHEMICAL AND ISOTOPIC COMPOSITION OF

GEOTHERMAL FLUIDS
777
27.1
27.2
Introduction
Zunil (Guatemala)
27.2.1
Hydrochemical composition
27.2.2
Isotopic composition
27.2.3
Hydrochemical-isotopic model
Amatitln (Guatemala)
27.3.1
777
777
777
778
778
781
781
27.3

CONTENTS xxv
27.4
27.5
27.6
27.7
27.8
27.9
27.10
27.11
27.12
27.13
27.14
27.15
27.16
27.17
27.3.2
27.3.3
San Marcos (Guatemala)
27.4.1
27.4.2
27.4.3
Tecuamburro (Guatemala)
27.5.1
27.5.2
27.5.3
Other potential geothermal sites in Guatemala
Ahuachapn (El Salvador)
27.7.1
27.7.2
27.7.3
Hydrochemical-isotopic conceptual model
27.7.3.1 Ahuchapn Host rock and reservoir conditions
27.7.3.2 Temperature conditions
27.7.3.3 Reservoir recharge
27.7.3.4 Discharge
27.7.3.5 Petrophysical conditions
27.7.3.6 Specific Chipilapa conditions
Berln (El Salvador)
27.8.1
27.8.2
27.8.3
27.10.1
27.10.2
27.10.3
27.11.1
27.11.2
27.11.3
27.12.1
27.12.2
27.12.3
Other Honduran sites (Pavana, Sambo creek, El Olivar)
Geochemistry of Nicaraguan sites
Momotombo (Nicaragua)
27.15.1
27.15.2
27.15.3
San Jacinto-tizate (Nicaragua)
27.16.1
27.16.2
Cosigina volcano (Nicaragua)
785
786
787
787
788
788
789
789
791
792
793
793
793
794
795
796
796
796
797
797
798
799
799
800
800
802
803
803
803
804
805
805
805
805
806
806
807
807
807
808
809
809
809
811
812
812
812
813

xxvi CONTENTS
27.18
27.19
27.20
27.21
27.22
27.23
27.24
27.25
27.26
Casita-San Cristbal volcano (Nicaragua)

Telica-El ajo (Nicaragua)
27.19.1
27.19.2
El Hoyo-Monte Galn (Nicaragua)
Masaya-Granada-Nandaime and Managua-Chiltepe Tipitapa (Nicaragua)
Miravalles (Costa Rica)
27.22.1
Hydrochemical composition of geothermal surface manifestations
27.22.2
Hydrochemical composition of the reservoir fluids
27.22.3
Acid reservoir fluids
27.22.4
27.22.5
Rincn de la Vieja (Costa Rica)
27.23.1
Hydrochemical and isotopic composition of geothermal surface
manifestations
27.23.2
Hydrochemical composition of the reservoir fluids
27.23.3
Hydrochemical model
Bar (Panama)
Summary of specific features of geothermal reservoirs in Central America
Comparison of isotopic characteristics of thermal fluids in Central America
814
814
814
815
815
816
816
816
818
818
818
819
820
820
822
822
824
825
828
28
GAS GEOCHEMISTRY OF VOLCANIC AND HYDROTHERMAL

FLUIDS
839
28.1
28.2
Introduction
Summary of prior work
28.2.1 Studies of gas chemistry
28.2.2 Volatile flux studies
Sources of volatiles
28.3.1 Approaches to resolving volatile provenance
28.3.2 Sediment recycling of volatiles
28.3.2.1
Evidence of recycling
28.3.2.2
Efficiency of recycling
28.3.3 Geothermal resources: volatile studies
28.3.3.1
Application of gas geochemistry to geothermal resources
28.3.3.2
Case studies
28.3.4 Hazard assessment and monitoring with volatiles
Future studies
28.4.1 Melt inclusion studies
28.4.1.1
Water
28.4.1.2
Sulfur
28.4.1.3
Boron
28.4.1.4
Lithium
28.4.2 Remote sensing techniques
28.4.3 Summary of major questions to be addressed
839
840
840
846
848
849
851
851
852
853
853
854
856
857
857
858
858
858
859
860
860
29
GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES FOR DEVELOPMENT

VALUATION, PRESENT USE AND FUTURE OPPORTUNITIES
869
29.1
Introduction
869
28.3
28.4

CONTENTS xxvii
29.2
29.3
Integrating aspects of development in the value of geothermal energy

Economic, environmental and social benefits
29.3.1 The geothermal potential
29.3.2 The economic asset value of geothermal energy
29.3.3 Benefits through emission reduction
29.3.3.1
Emission reduction potential
29.3.3.2
Economic evaluation of emission reduction/Local
environmental impacts
29.3.3.3
The Clean Development Mechanism
29.3.4 Benefits of geothermal versus hydroelectric power generation
29.3.4.1
Climate related risks, environmental and social impacts
29.3.4.2
Volcanic and seismic hazards
29.3.5 Geothermal surface manifestations promote tourism industry
Costs, risks and financing issues
29.4.1 Costs
29.4.2 Investments from the perspective of private agents
29.4.3 Investments in a socio-economic perspective
Geothermal energy in the framework of national energy demand and expansion plans
Geothermal rural electrification and direct use of geothermal energy
Overcoming barriers to geothermal energy
871
873
873
874
875
875
30
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
895
30.1
30.2
30.3
Introduction
Tectonic setting and controls on hydrocarbon occurrence
Basins of the Maya block, northern Central America
30.3.1 The Petn, Corozal and Southern Belize basins (Guatemala and Belize)
30.3.2 The Amatique basin (Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras)
Basins of the Chortis block, northern Central America
30.4.1 The Ulua-Olancho basin (Honduras)
30.4.2 The Tela-Mosquitia basin (Honduras and Nicaragua)
30.4.3 The Tehuantepec basin (Southern Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador,
Honduras and Nicaragua)
Basins of the Chorotega and Choco blocks, southern Central America
30.5.1 Limn-Bocas del Toro basin (Costa Rica and Panama)
30.5.2 The Trraba-Tempisque basin (Costa Rica)
30.5.3 The Tuira-Chucunaque basin (Panama)
Summary
895
896
900
902
904
904
906
906
907
908
909
910
911
911
31
COAL AND PEAT RESOURCES
917
31.1
31.2
Introduction
Coal deposits
31.2.1 Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks
31.2.1.1
Guatemala
31.2.1.2
Honduras
31.2.2 Cenozoic sedimentary rocks
31.2.2.1
Guatemala
31.2.2.2
Honduras
31.2.2.3
El Salvador
917
918
918
918
918
920
920
921
921
29.4
29.5
29.6
29.7
30.4
30.5
30.6
876
878
879
879
881
882
882
882
884
885
886
890
891

xxviii CONTENTS
31.2.2.4
31.2.2.5
31.2.2.6
Peat deposits
31.3.1 Back-barrier type
31.3.1.1
Aeropuerto peat deposit (Costa Rica)
31.3.1.2
Tortuguero peat deposit (Costa Rica)
31.3.1.3
Mon peat deposit (Costa Rica)
31.3.1.4
Changuinola peat deposit (Panama)
31.3.2 Flood plain type
31.3.2.1
Medio Queso peat deposit (Costa Rica)
31.3.2.2
El Cairo (Ro Silencio) peat deposit (Costa Rica)
31.3.3 Intermountain basin type
31.3.3.1
Talamanca peat deposit (Costa Rica)
Coal and peat end uses
921
921
921
922
923
923
924
924
925
925
925
925
925
926
926
927
927
927
928
32
METALLIC MINERAL RESOURCES
931
32.1
32.2
Introduction
Epithermal gold deposits
32.2.1 Epithermal Bonanza vein deposits
32.2.1.1
Bellavista deposit, Miramar district, Costa Rica
32.2.1.2
Talavera deposit, El Limn district, Nicaragua
32.2.1.3
El Dorado district, El Salvador
32.2.1.4
San Juancito deposit, Honduras
32.2.1.5
Cana district, Panama
32.2.1.6
Exploration for new bonanza vein deposits
32.2.2 Hot spring stockwork and disseminated deposits in volcanic dome fields
32.2.2.1
Veraguas Gold Belt, Panama
32.2.2.2
Cerro Crucitas, Costa Rica
32.2.2.3
Marlin, Guatemala
32.2.2.4
Exploration for new hot spring stockwork and disseminated
deposits
Porphyry copper deposits
32.3.1 Petaquilla district, Panama
32.3.2 Exploration for new porphyry copper deposits
Copper skarn and base metal replacement deposits
32.4.1 Mochito deposit, Honduras
Volcanogenic massive sulfide and related deposits
32.5.1 San Sebastin, El Salvador
32.5.2 Cerro Quema, Panama
Orogenic gold deposits
32.6.1 Ixtahuacan district, Guatemala
Lateritic nickel and bauxite deposits
32.7.1 Sechol, Guatemala
32.7.2 Paraso de Cartago, Costa Rica
931
932
934
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
940
942
942
31.3
31.4
32.3
32.4
32.5
32.6
32.7
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
31.2.2.5.1
31.2.2.5.2
31.2.2.5.3
31.2.2.5.4
Panama
Coal deposits of the South Limn basin

Coal deposits of San Carlos basin
Coal of Central valley
Other areas
944
945
946
946
947
947
950
952
952
953
954
956
956
958

CONTENTS xxix
32.8
Conclusions
958
33
INDUSTRIAL MINERALS
963
33.1
33.2
Introduction
Industrial minerals domains
33.2.1 Basicultrabasic intrusives, including ophiolite complexes
33.2.1.1
Peridotite and serpentinite
33.2.1.2
Chromite
33.2.1.3
Jade
33.2.1.4
Magnesite and attapulgite
33.2.2 Acidintermediate intrusives, plutons and associated pegmatite dikes, and
granitic rocks
33.2.2.1
Granite
33.2.2.2
Barite
33.2.3.1
Garnet
33.2.3.2
Marble
33.2.4.1
Limestone
33.2.4.2
Dolomite
33.2.4.3
Gypsum
33.2.5 Volcanic rocks
33.2.5.1
Lava flows and dikes
33.2.5.2
Scoria cones and tuffs
33.2.5.3
Pozzolanic materials
33.2.5.4
Perlite
33.2.5.5
Sulfur
33.2.5.6
Zeolites
33.2.6 Unconsolidated sediments
33.2.6.1
Sand and gravel
33.2.6.2
Common clays, kaolin, ball clay, refractory clay and bentonite
33.2.6.3
Diatomite
33.2.6.4
Silica sand and feldspar (glass industry)
33.2.6.5
Silica and siliceous sands (non-glass industry)
33.2.6.6
Salt
33.2.6.7
Bauxite and laterite
Industrial mineral management
Industrial minerals and industry
33.4.1 Construction industry
33.4.1.1
Cement
33.4.1.2
Aggregate industry
33.4.1.3
Dimension stones
33.4.2 Non-construction industry
33.4.2.1
Fillers
33.4.2.2
Fertilizers/agrochemicals
33.4.2.3
Ceramics
33.4.2.4
Glass
33.4.2.5
Paints
963
964
965
965
966
966
966
33.3
33.4
968
968
968
968
968
969
970
970
974
975
976
976
976
977
978
978
979
979
979
980
981
982
983
983
983
984
985
986
987
989
991
993
994
995
996
997
998

xxx CONTENTS
33.4.2.6
Drilling fluids
33.4.2.7
Food processing/preservation
33.4.2.8
Household products
33.4.2.9
Chemicals
33.4.2.10 Others
Industrial mineral statistics
Industrial minerals current status
Industrial minerals obstacles to development
Industrial minerals future status
Conclusions
998
999
999
999
999
999
1001
1005
1008
1011
34
GEOLOGY-RELATED TOURISM FOR SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT
1015
34.1
34.2
Introduction
Ecotourism in Central America: opportunities and obstacles
34.2.1 Costa Rica as an example
34.2.2 Regional protected areas legislation
Volcanoes and volcanic landscapes use and protection
34.3.1 General
34.3.2.1
Guatemala
34.3.2.2
El Salvador
34.3.2.3
Nicaragua
34.3.2.4
Costa Rica
34.3.2.5
Panama
Geological resources for thermalism and therapeutic tourism
34.4.1 Introduction
34.4.2 Geothermal resources related to volcanism and their actual use
34.4.2.1
Overview
34.4.2.2
Guatemala
34.4.2.3
Honduras
34.4.2.4
El Salvador
34.4.2.5
Nicaragua
34.4.2.6
Costa Rica
34.4.2.7
Panama
34.4.3 Resources related to coastal lagoons and marine salt pans and their use
34.4.4 Needs and tools to develop health tourism
34.4.4.1
Problems and related needs
34.4.4.2
Protecting the resources for sustainable development
34.4.4.3
Marketing and promotion
Karst and caves use and protection
34.5.1 Introduction
34.5.2 Protected karstlands the regional situation
34.5.3 Protected karst areas and their human use: selected examples
34.5.3.1
Belize
34.5.3.2
Guatemala
34.5.3.3
Honduras
34.5.3.4
Costa Rica
34.5.3.5
Other Central American countries
1015
1020
1024
1026
1027
1027
1028
1028
1030
1032
1036
1038
1039
1039
1039
1039
1042
1044
1046
1048
1049
1052
1052
1053
1053
1054
1056
1057
1057
1058
1060
1060
1062
1066
1068
1069
33.5
33.6
33.7
33.8
33.9
34.3
34.4
34.5

CONTENTS xxxi
34.6
34.7
34.8
34.5.4 Summary and conclusions

Other geo-heritage of touristic value
Ecotourism future for conservation and development
34.7.1 Economic analysis of ecotourism
34.7.2 Identification of ecotourism targets and challenges
34.7.2.1
Overview
34.7.2.2
Arenal volcano case study Contribution to development
34.7.2.3
Arenal volcano case study, continued Security measures for
tourism development in volcanic active areas
34.7.3 Tools to promote ecotourism
34.7.3.1
General
34.7.3.2
Certification for sustainable tourism
34.7.3.3
Co-management of protected areas
34.7.3.4
State-incentives
34.7.3.5
Product development and marketing
Conclusions and recommendations
1070
1071
1073
1073
1077
1077
1080
1082
1084
1084
1085
1087
1088
1089
1094
IV. GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS

35
SEISMIC HAZARD AND MICROZONATION
1099
35.1
35.2
Introduction
Seismic hazard studies in Central America
35.2.1 Regional studies of seismic hazard
35.2.2 Guatemala
35.2.3 El Salvador
35.2.4 Honduras
35.2.5 Nicaragua
35.2.6 Costa Rica
35.2.7 Panama
Applications of hazard results
Concluding remarks
1099
1102
1103
1105
1105
1107
1108
1110
1113
1114
1114
36
SEISMIC MONITORING
1119
36.1
36.2
36.3
Introduction
History
Seismic monitoring
36.3.1 National networks
36.3.2 Local networks
36.3.3 Seismic stations in volcanoes
36.3.4 Ocean bottom networks
Norwegian and cepredenac assistance
The Central America seismological center
Conclusions
1119
1120
1122
1122
1123
1124
1125
1125
1125
1127
37
STRONG-MOTION MONITORING
1129
37.1
37.2
Introduction
Strong-motion networks in Central America
1129
1130
35.3
35.4
36.4
36.5
36.6

xxxii CONTENTS
37.2.1 Monitoring in Guatemala

37.2.2 Monitoring in El Salvador
37.2.3 Monitoring in Nicaragua
37.2.4 Monitoring in Costa Rica
37.2.5 Monitoring in Panama
Strong-motion records from Central America
37.3.1 Strong-motion attenuation studies
37.3.1.1
Regional studies
37.3.1.2
Studies for Costa Rica
37.3.1.3
Studies for El Salvador
Concluding remarks
1130
1132
1137
1139
1142
1144
1147
1147
1147
1148
1151
38
VOLCANIC ACTIVITY, HAZARDS, AND MONITORING
1155
38.1
38.2
Introduction
Volcanic centers and activity
38.2.1 Periodic volcanic activity
38.2.2 Long-term volcanic activity
38.2.3 Dormant and violently reactivating volcanoes
Volcanic hazards
38.3.1 Volcanoes as social and economic conditioners
38.3.2 Geovolcanic studies and hazard zonation maps
38.3.3 Types of volcanic hazards
38.3.3.1
Fallout and ballistics
38.3.3.2
Block/bomb and ash flows and surges, including blasts
38.3.3.3
Lava flows
38.3.3.4
Lahars
38.3.3.5
Debris avalanches and landslides
38.3.3.6
Formation of new volcanic vents
38.3.3.7
Volcanic gases and acid rain
38.3.3.8
Earthquakes
38.3.3.9
Secondary syn- and post-eruptive effects
38.3.3.10 Caldera-forming events and related ignimbrites
Triggers of volcanic activity
38.4.1 Earth tides
38.4.2 Magma mixing and mingling
38.4.3 Regional and local seismic events
38.4.4 Temporal fluctuations
Volcano monitoring
38.5.1 Seismicity
38.5.2 Volcanic gases, temperature, and hot springs
38.5.3 Ground deformation and gravity measurements
38.5.4 Satellite remote sensing
Conclusions
1155
1156
1158
1158
1160
1163
1163
1166
1168
1168
1170
1171
1171
1172
1172
1173
1174
1174
1174
1175
1175
1175
1176
1177
1177
1178
1178
1179
1179
1181
39
VOLCANO SEISMOLOGY
1189
39.1
39.2
39.3
Introduction
Meaning and use of volcanic seismicity
Seismic monitoring systems
39.3.1 Guatemala
1189
1190
1191
1194
37.3
37.4
38.3
38.4
38.5
38.6

CONTENTS xxxiii
39.3.2 El Salvador
39.3.3 Nicaragua
39.3.4 Costa Rica
39.3.5 Panama
Overview of the volcanic seismicity in Central America
39.4.1 Guatemala
39.4.1.1
Tacan
39.4.1.2
Santiaguito
39.4.1.3
Fuego
39.4.1.4
Pacaya
39.4.2 El Salvador
39.4.3 Nicaragua
39.4.3.1
San Cristbal volcanic complex
39.4.3.2
Telica
39.4.3.3
Cerro Negro
39.4.3.4
Momotombo
39.4.3.5
Masaya
39.4.3.6
Concepcin
39.4.4 Costa Rica
39.4.4.1
Arenal
39.4.4.2
Pos
39.4.4.3
Iraz
Case studies and specific experiments
39.5.1 Developments in seismic monitoring of lahars
39.5.2 Wave field analysis and source location of the permanent tremor of
Masaya
39.5.3 The sources of tremor and explosions at Arenal volcano
39.5.4 Shallow structure of Arenal volcano
Conclusions
1195
1195
1196
1197
1198
1198
1198
1198
1198
1198
1199
1200
1200
1201
1201
1202
1203
1203
1203
1203
1204
1205
1206
1206
40
EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED LANDSLIDES
1217
40.1
40.2
40.3
Introduction
General setting
Overview of landslides caused by earthquakes
40.3.1 Earthquake-induced landslides in Central America
40.3.1.1
Guatemala
40.3.1.2
Honduras
40.3.1.3
El Salvador
40.3.1.4
Nicaragua
40.3.1.5
Costa Rica
40.3.1.6
Panama
40.3.2 Landslide mechanisms
40.3.2.1
Rock falls
40.3.2.2
Soil falls
40.3.2.3
Disrupted rock slides
40.3.2.4
Disrupted soil slides
40.3.2.5
Coherent slides
40.3.2.6
Lateral spreads and flows
1217
1218
1219
1225
1225
1225
1226
1226
1227
1227
1228
1228
1228
1230
1230
1232
1232
39.4
39.5
39.6
1206
1207
1209
1210

xxxiv CONTENTS
40.4
Slope susceptibility to failure

40.4.1 Lithology
40.4.2 Material properties
40.4.2.1
Mineralogical composition
40.4.2.2
Soil strength
40.4.2.3
Soil structure
40.4.2.4
Antecedent moisture content
40.4.3 Site amplification of seismic waves
40.4.4 Post-earthquake behavior
Minimum seismic shaking to induce landslides
Earthquake-induced landslide hazard assessment
40.6.1 Mora and Varhson method
40.6.2 New approach
40.6.3 Slope stability analysis
Earthquake-induced landslide risk
Summary and conclusions
1233
1233
1233
1233
1234
1235
1235
1236
1236
1237
1241
1241
1242
1247
1248
1250
41
EARTHQUAKE TRIGGERED TSUNAMIS
1257
41.1
41.2
41.3
41.4
41.5
Introduction
Sources of tsunamigenic earthquakes
The potential effect of tsunamis from teleseismic sources
The tsunami hazard
Conclusions
1257
1258
1260
1263
1264
40.5
40.6
40.7
40.8
List of contributors
Volume 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Aguilar, Teresita: Escuela Centroamericana de Geologa, Universidad de Costa Rica

(UCR), San Jos, Costa Rica, aaguilar@geologia.ucr.ac.cr
Alvarado, Fernando: Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE), San Jos, Costa
Rica, falvarado@ice.go.cr
Alvarado, Guillermo E.: Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE) and Universidad
de Costa Rica (UCR), San Jos, Costa Rica, galvaradoi@ice.go.cr,
galvaradoinduni@gmail.com
Barckhausen, Udo: Bundesanstalt fr Geowissenschaften and Rohstoffe (BGR),
Hannover, Germany, udo.barckhausen@bgr.de
Bonis, Samuel B.: Department of Earth Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New
Hampshire, U.S.A., sbonis1920@yahoo.com
Bundschuh, Jochen: International Technical Cooperation Program, CIM (GTZ/BA),
Frankfurt, Germany Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE), San Jos, Costa
Rica, and Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), jochenbundschuh@yahoo.com
Camacho, Eduardo: Instituto de Geociencias, Universidad de Panam, Panama City,
Panama, eduardo_pa@yahoo.com, ecamacho@cableonda.net
Carr, Michael J.: Department of Geological Sciences, Rutgers University, New
Brunswick, New Jersey, U.S.A., carr@rutgers.edu
Cisneros, Juan Carlos: Bernard Price Institute of Palaeontological Research, University
of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, JC_Cisneros@hotmail.com
Collins, Laurel S.: Department of Earth Sciences and Department of Biological
Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, U.S.A., collinsl@fiu.edu
Corts, Jorge: Centro de Investigacin en Ciencias del Mar y Limnologa (CIMAR),
and Escuela de Biologa, Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR), San Jos, Costa Rica,
jcortes@cariari.ucr.ac.cr
Day, Michael J.: Department of Geography, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee,
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, U.S.A., mickday@uwm.edu
Dengo, Carlos A.: ExxonMobil Exploration Company, Houston, Texas, U.S.A.,
carlos.a.dengo@exxonmobil.com
Escalante, Gregorio: Consultant, San Jos, Costa Rica, deseased on
September 6, 2006
Espinoza, Edgar: Museo Nacional de Nicaragua, Managua, Nicaragua,
mnndc@ibw.com.ni
Estrada, Juliana: Depto. de Geologa, CICESE, Ensenada, B.C., Mexico,
juestrada@yahoo.com
Feigenson, Mark D.: Department of Geological Sciences, Rutgers University, New
Brunswick, New Jersey, U.S.A., feigy@rci.rutgers.edu
Fernndez, Mario: Central America Seismological Center (CASC: CEPREDENACUCR), Center for Geophysical Research, Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR), Red
Sismolgica Nacional (RSN: ICE-UCR), San Jos, Costa Rica, mefernan.
mario@gmail.com, mefernan@geologia.ucr.ac.cr
Fischer, Rudolf: Elbinger Weg 39, 30938 Burgwedel, Germany, rugu.fischer@Tonline.de
Flueh, Ernst R.: Leibniz-Institute for Marine Sciences, IFM-GEOMAR, and SFB 574
of Christian-Albrechts University Kiel, Kiel, Germany, eflueh@ifm-geomar.de

xxxvi LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
21. Freundt, Armin: Leibniz-Institute for Marine Sciences, IFM-GEOMAR, and SFB 574
of Christian-Albrechts University, Kiel, Germany, afreundt@ifm-geomar.de
22. Gahagan, Lisa: Institute for Geophysics, John A. and Katherine G. Jackson School of
Geosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, U.S.A., lisa@ig.utexas.edu
23. Garca, Ramiro: Museo Nacional de Nicaragua, Managua, Nicaragua
24. Grosse, Pablo: Facultad de Ciencias Naturales and Inst. Miguel Lillo. Tucumn,
Universidad Nacional de Tucumn, Tucumn, Argentina, pablogrosse@yahoo.com
25. Hauff, Folkmar: Leibniz Institute for Marine Sciences (IFM-GEOMAR), Kiel,
Germany, fhauff@ifm-geomar.de
26. Hoernle, Kaj: Leibniz Institute for Marine Sciences (IFM-GEOMAR), and SFB 574 of
Christian-Albrechts University, Kiel, Germany, khoernle@ifm-geomar.de
27. Horn, Sally P.: Department of Geography, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville,
Tennessee, U.S.A., shorn@utk.edu
28. James, Keith H.: Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth, Wales,
U.K., khj@aber.ac.uk
29. Kutterolf, Steffen: Leibniz-Institute for Marine Sciences, IFM-GEOMAR, and SFB
574 of Christian-Albrechts University Kiel, Kiel, Germany, skutterolf@ifm-geomar.de
30. Lachniet, Matthew S.: Department of Geoscience, University of Nevada, Las Vegas,
Nevada, U.S.A., matthew.lachniet@ccmail.nevada.edu
31. Lucas, Spencer G.: New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science,
Albuquerque, New Mexico, U.S.A., spencer.lucas@state.nm.us
32. Mann, Paul: Institute for Geophysics, John A. and Katherine G. Jackson School of
Geosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, U.S.A.,
paulm@ig.utexas.edu
33. Marroqun, Griselda: Servicio Nacional de Estudios Territoriales de El Salvador
(SNET), San Salvador, El Salvador, gmarroquin@snet.gob.sv
34. Marshall, Jeffrey S.: Geological Sciences Dept., Cal Poly Pomona University, Pomona,
California, U.S.A., marshall@csupomona.edu
35. Martens, Uwe: Centro Universitario del Norte, Universidad de San Carlos, Cobn,
Guatemala Now at: Dept. Geological & Environmental Sciences, Stanford
University, Stanford, California, U.S.A., umartens@pangea.stanford.edu
36. Molina, Enrique: Instituto de Sismologa, Vulcanologa, Meteorologa e Hidrologa
(INSIVUMEH) de Guatemala, Guatemala City, Guatemala,
emolina@insivumeh.gob.gt
37. Mrz, Tobias: Research Center Ocean Margins (RCOM), Bremen University,
Germany, tmoerz@uni-bremen.de
38. Ortega-Obregn, Carlos: Instituto de Geologa, UNAM, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico
DF, Mexico, carloo45@gmail.com
39. Patino, Lina C.: Department of Geological Sciences, Michigan State University, East
Lansing, Michigan, U.S.A., patinoL@msu.edu
40. Ranero, Csar R.: ICREA at Instituto de Ciencias del Mar (ICM), Centro Mediterrneo
de Investigaciones Marinas y Ambientales (CMIMA), CSIC, Barcelona, Spain,
cranero@icm.csic.es
41. Rogers, Robert D.: Department of Geology, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez,
Puerto Rico, rrogers@uprm.edu
42. Rose, William I.: Department of Geological Engineering and Sciences, Michigan
Technological University, Houghton, Michigan, U.S.A., raman@mtu.edu
43. Schacht, Ulrike: Leibniz-Institute for Marine Sciences, IFM-GEOMAR, and SFB 574
of Christian-Albrechts University Kiel, Kiel, Germany, uschacht@ifm-geomar.de
44. Soto, Gerardo J.: Consultant, San Jos, Costa Rica, katomirodriguez@yahoo.com
45. Strauch, Wilfried: Instituto Nicaraguense de Estudios Territoriales (INETER),
Managua, Nicaragua, wilfried.strauch@gf.ineter.gob.ni

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xxxvii
46. Valle, Marvin: Centro de Investigaciones Geocientficas, UNAN, Managua, Nicaragua,

mvalle@cigeo.edu.ni
47. Van Wyk de Vries, Benjamin: Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans, Observatoire du
Physique du Globe de Clermont, Universit Blaise Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand, France,
b.vanwyk@opgc.univ-bpclermont.fr
48. Vogel, Thomas: Department of Geological Sciences, Michigan State University, East
Lansing, Michigan, vogel@msu.edu
49. Von Huene, Roland: Leibniz-Institute for Marine Sciences, IFM-GEOMAR, and SFB
574 of Christian-Albrechts University Kiel, Kiel, Germany University of California,
Davis, California, U.S.A., rhuene@mindspring.com
50. Wehrmann, Heidi: Leibniz-Institute for Marine Sciences, IFM-GEOMAR, and SFB
574 of Christian-Albrechts University Kiel, Kiel, Germany, hwehrmann@ifmgeomar.de
51. Weinrebe, Wilhelm: Leibniz-Institute for Marine Sciences, IFM-GEOMAR, and SFB
574 of Christian-Albrechts University Kiel, Kiel, Germany, wweinrebe@ifmgeomar.de
52. Winograd, Manuel: Land Use Unit, International Tropical Agriculture Center (CIAT),
Cali, Colombia, m.winograd@cgiar.org
Volume 2*
53. Aaheim, Asbjrn: CICERO, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway,
h.a.aaheim@cicero.uio.no
54. Alvarado, Fernando: Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE), San Jos, Costa
Rica, falvarado@ice.go.cr
55. Alvarado, Guillermo E.: Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE) and Universidad
de Costa Rica (UCR), San Jos, Costa Rica, galvaradoi@ice.go.cr
56. Bergstrom, John C.: Richard B. Russel, Jr. Professor of Public Policy, The University
of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, U.S.A., jberg@uga.edu
57. Bethune, David: Department of Geology & Geophysics, University of Calgary,
Alberta, Canada, bethuned@ucalgary.ca
58. Bhattacharya, Prosun: KTH-International Groundwater Arsenic Research Group,
Department of Land and Water Resources Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology
(KTH), SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden, prosun@kth.se
59. Birkle, Peter: Instituto de Investigaciones Elctricas, Gerencia de Geotermia,
Cuernavaca, Mexico, birkle@iie.org.mx
60. Bolaos, Kenneth: Consultant, San Jos, Costa Rica, irigaray@racsa.co.cr
61. Bonis, Samuel B.: Department of Earth Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New
Hampshire, U.S.A., sbonis1920@yahoo.com
62. Bundschuh, Jochen: International Technical Cooperation Program, CIM (GTZ/BA),
Frankfurt, Germany Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE), San Jos, Costa
Rica, and Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), jochenbundschuh@yahoo.com
63. Bungum, Hilmar: NORSAR/International Centre of Geohazards, Kjeller, Norway
64. Cceres, Diego: Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden, diego.caceres@telia.com
65. Camacho, Eduardo: Instituto de Geociencias, Universidad de Panam, Panama City,
Panama, eduardo_pa@yahoo.com, ecamacho@cableonda.net
66. Cardona, Hugo: Department of Agricultural Economics, University of San Carlos,
Guatemala City, Guatemala, hcastil@lsu.edu

xxxviii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
67. Cepeda, Jos: Universidad Centroamericana Jos Simen Caas, San Salvador, El
Salvador. Now at: International Centre for Geohazards, Oslo, Norway,
jose.cepeda@geohazards.no
68. Chaves, Damaris: Cmara Nacional de Ecoturismo (CANAECO), Managua,
Nicaragua, canaeco1@racsa.co.cr
69. Climent, lvaro: Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE), San Jos, Costa Rica,
acliment@ice.go.cr
70. Day, Michael J.: Department of Geography, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee,
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, U.S.A., mickday@uwm.edu
71. Dengo, Carlos A.: ExxonMobil Exploration Company, Houston, Texas, U.S.A.,
carlos.a.dengo@exxonmobil.com
72. Escobar, Demetrio: Servicio Nacional de Estudios Territoriales, San Salvador, El
Salvador, descobar@snet.gob.sv
73. Escobar, Rdiger: Department of Geological Engineering and Sciences, Michigan
Technological University, Houghton, Michigan, U.S.A., rpescoba@mtu.edu
74. Fernndez, Mario: Central America Seismological Center (CASC: CEPREDENACUCR), Center for Geophysical Research, Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR), Red
Sismolgica Nacional (RSN: ICE-UCR), San Jos, Costa Rica, mefernan.
mario@gmail.com, mefernan@geologia.ucr.ac.cr
75. Finch, Richard C.: Cookeville, Tenneesee, U.S.A., rfinch@tntech.edu
76. Fischer, Tobias P.: Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of New
Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, fischer@unm.edu
77. Hernndez, Douglas: Servicio Nacional de Estudios Territoriales, San Salvador, El
Salvador, dhernandez@snet.gob.sv
78. Hilton, David R.: Fluid & Volatiles Laboratory, Geosciences Research Division,
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California, U.S.A., drhilton@ucsd.edu
79. Krsn, Jir: Charles University Prague, Czech Republic, krasny.hg@seznam.cz
80. Lesage, Philippe: Laboratoire de Gophysique Interne et Tectonophysique, Universit
de Savoie, Le Bourget-du-Lac, France, lesage@univ-savoie.fr
81. Ligorra, Juan P.: Consultant, Guatemala City, Guatemala, jpligorria@intelnett.com
82. Lindholm, Conrad D.: NORSAR/International Centre of Geohazards, Kjeller, Norway,
conrad@norsar.no
83. Losilla, Marcelino: Consultant, San Jos, Costa Rica, mlosilla@racsa.co.cr
84. Marroqun, Griselda: Servicio Nacional de Estudios Territoriales de El Salvador
(SNET), San Salvador, El Salvador, gmarroquin@snet.gob.sv
85. Matas, Otoniel: Servico de Vulcanologa, Instituto Nacional de Sismologa,
Vulcanologa, Meteorologa e Hidrologa, Guatemala City, Guatemala,
vulcanologia@insivumeh.gob.gt
86. Molina, Enrique: Instituto de Sismologa, Vulcanologa, Meteorologa e Hidrologa
(INSIVUMEH) de Guatemala, Guatemala City, Guatemala,
emolina@insivumeh.gob.gt
87. Mora, Mauricio: Escuela Centroamericana de Geologa, Universidad de Costa Rica
(UCR), San Jos, Costa Rica, mmmora@geologia.ucr.ac.cr
88. Mota, Byron: Consulting Geologist; Gconsult, Guatemala City, Guatemala,
bmota@cempro.com
89. Navarro, Martha: Instituto Nicaragense de Estudios Territoriales (INETER),
Managua, Nicaragua, martha.navarro@gf.ineter.gob.ni
90. Nelson, Carl E.: Bellhaven Ventures Inc., Panama City, Panama,
CNelson945@aol.com
91. Obando, Luis Gmo.: Escuela Centroamericana de Geologa, Universidad de Costa Rica
(UCR), San Jos, Costa Rica, lobando@geologia.ucr.ac.cr
92. Ortiz, Modesto: Centro de Investigacin Cientfica y de Educacin Superior de
Ensenada Baja California, Mexico, ortizf@cicese.mx

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xxxix
93. Paniagua, Sergio: Escuela Centroamericana de Geologa, Universidad de Costa Rica

(UCR), San Jos, Costa Rica, spaniagu@geologia.ucr.ac.cr
94. Pullinger, Carlos R.: Servicio Nacional de Estudios Territoriales, San Salvador, El
Salvador, cpullinger@snet.gob.sv
95. Rodrguez, ngel: Red Ssmica de Chiriqu, Panama, angel@volcanbaru.com
96. Rodrguez, Carlos E.: Facultad de Ingeniera, Universidad Nacional de Colombia,
Bogot, Colombia, cerodriguezpi@unal.edu.co
97. Romero, Juan: Centro Nacional de Termalismo Victor Santamar, La Habana, Cuba,
termalis@infomed.sld.cu
98. Ryan, Cathryn: Department of Geology & Geophysics, University of Calgary, Alberta,
Canada, cryan@ucalgary.ca
99. Schmidt, Victor: Laboratorio de Ingeniera Ssmica, INII, Universidad de Costa Rica
(UCR), San Jos, Costa Rica, vschmidt@eic.ucr.ac.cr
100. Shaw, Alison M.: Fluid & Volatiles Laboratory, Geosciences Research Division,
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California, U.S.A. Current Address:
Department of Geology & Geophysics, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods
Hole, Massachusetts, U.S.A., ashaw@whoi.edu
101. Soto, Gerardo J.: Consultant, San Jos, Costa Rica, katomirodriguez@yahoo.com
102. Strauch, Wilfried: Instituto Nicaraguense de Estudios Territoriales (INETER),
Managua, Nicaragua, wilfried.strauch@gf.ineter.gob.ni
103. Talavera, Emilio: Instituto Nicaragense de Estudios Territoriales (INETER),
Managua, Nicaragua, emilio.talavera@gf.ineter.gob.ni
104. Tenorio, Virginia: Instituto Nicaragense de Estudios Territoriales (INETER),
Managua, Nicaragua, virginia.tenorio@gf.ineter.gob.ni
105. Tippmann, Karola: Cooperacin Tcnica Alemana Oficina Regional: Proyecto
FODESTUR Fomento al Desarrollo Sostenible mediante el Turismo en
Centroamrica; Managua, Nicaragua, karola.tippmann@gtz.de
106. Toral, Jaime: Red Nacional de Movimientos Fuertes, Centro Experimental de
Ingeniera (CEI), Universidad Tecnolgica de Panam (UTP), Panama City, Panama,
jaime.toral@gmail.com
____________________________________________________________________
* Some of the listed authors have also contributed to Volume 1 of the book.
List of reviewers
Volume 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
Aiken, Carlos (chapter 9: C. Ranero et al.): Center for Lithospheric Studies, Dept. of
Geosciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas, U.S.A.,
aiken@utdallas.edu
Anderson, Laurie C. (chapter 17: R. Fischer and T. Aguilar): Department of Geology
and Geophysics, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, U.S.A.,
landerson@geol.lsu.edu
Avendao, Isabel (chapter 1: J. Bundschuh et al.): Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR),
San Jos, Costa Rica, isaavefl@fcs.ucr.ac.cr
Arford, Martin (chapter 14: S. Kutterolf et al.): Department of Geography, University
of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S.A., marford@utk.edu
Campos, Lolita (chapter 11: K.H. James): Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR), San Jos,
Costa Rica, locampos@racsa.co.cr
Culver, Stephen J. (chapter 18: Laurel S. Collins): Department of Geology, East
Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, U.S.A., culvers@ecu.edu
Ebbing, Jrg (chapter 9: C. Ranero et al.; chapter 10: E.R. Flueh and R. von Huene):
Geological Survey of Norway (NGU), Trondheim, Norway, Joerg.Ebbing@ngu.no
Ferrigno, Jane G. (chapter 6: M.S. Lachniet): U.S. Geological Survey, Reston,
Virginia, U.S.A., jferrigno@usgs.gov
Fisher, Donald (chapter 3: J. Marshall): Department of Geosciences, Pennsylvania
State University, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., fisher@geosc.psu.edu
Flood, Tim (chapter 4: B. van Wyk de Vries et al.): Natural Sciences Division,
St. Norbert College, Wisconsin, U.S.A., tim.flood@snc.edu
Garrison, Virginia H. (chapter 7: J. Corts): U.S. Geological Survey, F.I.S.C., St.
Petersburg, Florida, U.S.A., ginger_garrison@usgs.gov
Giunta, Giuseppe (chapter 20: K. Hoernle and F. Hauff): Dipart. Geologia, Universit,
Palermo, Italia, giuntape@unipa.it
Gtze, Hans-Jrgen (chapter 11: K.H. James): Christian-Albrechts-Universitt zu Kiel,
Institut fr Geowissenschaften, Abt. Geophysik, Kiel, Germany, hajo@geophysik.unikiel.de
Hastenrath, Stefan (chapter 6: M.S. Lachniet): Department of Atmospheric and
Oceanic Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison Wisconsin, U.S.A.,
slhasten@facstaff.wisc.edu
Hinderer, Matthias (chapter 15: S.P. Horn): Angewandte Sedimentgeologie, TU
Darmstadt FB 11, Institut fr Angewandte Geowissenschaften, Darmstadt,
hinderer@geo.tu-darmstadt.de
Iturralde-Vinent, Manuel (chapter 13: G.E. Alvarado et al.): Museo Nacional de
Historia Natural, La Habanna, Cuba, iturralde@mnhnc.inf.cu
James, Keith H. (chapter 8: P. Mann et al.; chapter 13: G.E. Alvarado et al.): Institute
of Geography and Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth, Wales, U.K., khj@aber.ac.uk
Johnson, Ken (chapter 17: R. Fischer and T. Aguilar): Palaeontology Dept., Natural
History Museum, London, U.K., J.Johnson@nhm.ac.uk
Kerle, Norman (chapter 4: B. van Wyk de Vries et al.): International Institute for
Geoinformation Science and Earth Observation (ITC), Department of Earth
Observation Science, Enschede, The Netherlands, E-mail: kerle@itc.nl
Kruse, Sarah (chapter 12: M. Fernndez et al.): Department of Geology, University of
South Florida, Tampa, Florida, U.S.A., skruse@cas.usf.edu
Leroy, Suzanne A.G. (chapter 15: S.P. Horn): Department of Geography and Earth

xlii LIST OF REVIEWERS
Sciences, Brunel University, Uxbridge, Middlesex, U.K., suzanne.leroy@brunel.ac.uk

22. Lewis, John (chapter 20: K. Hoernle and F. Hauff): George Washington University,
Washington, DC, U.S.A., jlewis@gwu.edu
23. MacPhee, Ross D.E. (chapter 16: S.G. Lucas et al.): Division of Vertebrate Zoology/
Mammalogy, American Museum of Natural History, West New York, New York,
U.S.A., macphee@amnh.org
24. Mann, Crystal P. (chapter 23: T. Vogel et al.): Earth and Planetary Sciences, McGill
University, Montreal, Canada, cpmann@eps.mcgill.ca
25. Martens, Uwe (chapter 21: L. Patino): Centro Universitario del Norte, Universidad de
San Carlos, Cobn, Guatemala Now at: Dept. Geological & Environmental
Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California, U.S.A.,
umartens@pangea.stanford.edu
26. Marvin, Ursula B. (chapter 2: G. Escalante and G.J. Soto): Harvard-Smithsonian
Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A., umarvin@cfa.harvard.edu
27. Meissner, Rolf (chapter 10: E.R. Flueh and R. von Huene): Christian-AlbrechtsUniversitt zu Kiel, Institut fr Geowissenschaften, Abt. Geophysik, Kiel, Germany,
rmeissner@email.uni-kiel.de
28. Merritts, Dorothy (chapter 7: J. Corts): Department of Earth & Environment, Franklin
and Marshall College, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., dorothy.merritts@fandm.edu
29. Mickus, Kevin L. (chapter 10: E.R. Flueh and R. von Huene): Dept. of Geography,
Geology & Planning, Missouri State University, Springfield, Missouri, U.S.A.,
kevinmickus@missouristate.edu
30. Mora, Sergio (chapter 5: M. Day): Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo, La Paz,
Bolivia, sergiomo@iadb.org
31. Nelson, Carl (chapter 1: J. Bundschuh et al.): Bellhaven Ventures Inc., San Francisco,
Panama City, Panama, CNelson945@aol.com
32. Nelson, Stephen A. (chapter 4: B. van Wyk de Vries et al.): Dept. Earth & Environmental
Sciences, Tulane University, New Orleans, Luisiana, U.S.A., snelson@tulane.edu
33. Oldroyd, David (chapter 2: G. Escalante and G.J. Soto): School of Science and
Technology Studies, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales,
Australia, doldroyd@optushome.com.au, D.Oldroyd@unsw.edu.au
34. Orvis, Kenneth H. (editoral help): Department of Geography, University of Tennessee,
Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S.A., orvis@utk.edu
35. Petrinovic, Ivan A. (chapter 23: T. Vogel et al.): Facultad de Ciencias Naturales,
Universidad Nacional de Salta (UNSa), Salta, Argentina, petrino@unsa.edu.ar
36. Philip Reeder (chapter 5: M. Day): Dept. of Geography, University of South Florida,
Tampa, Florida, U.S.A., preeder@cas.usf.edu
37. Pindell, James (chapter 8: P. Mann et al.): Tectonic Analysis Ltd., Duncton, West
Sussex, U.K., jim@tectonicanalysis.com
38. Sadofsky, Seth J. (chapter 19: U. Martens et al.): Leibniz-Institute for Marine Sciences,
IFM-GEOMAR, and SFB 574 of Christian-Albrechts University Kiel, Kiel, Germany,
ssadofsky@ifm-geomar.de
39. Sak, Peter (chapter 3: J. Marshall): Department of Geology, Dickinson College,
Carlisle, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., sakp@dickinson.edu
40. Schwartz, Susan (chapter 12: M. Fernndez et al.): Earth Sciences Department and
IGPP, University of California, Santa Cruz, California, U.S.A., sschwartz@es.ucsc.edu
41. Siebe, Claus (chapter 14: S. Kutterolf et al.): Instituto de Geofsica, UNAM, Ciudad
Universitaria, Coyoacan, Mexico, D.F., Mexico, csiebe@tonatiuh.igeofcu.unam.mx
42. Solari, Luigi (chapter 19: U. Martens et al.): Instituto de Geologa, UNAM, Ciudad
Universitaria, Del. Coyoacn, Mexico DF, solari@servidor.unam.mx
43. Stanek, Klaus Peter (chapter 11: K.H. James): TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Institut fr
Geologie, Freiberg, Germany, stanek@geo.tu-freiberg.de
44. Tournon, Jean (chapter 21: L. Patino): UFR Sciences de la Terre, Petrologie,

LIST OF REVIEWERS xliii
Universite Pierre e Marie Curie, Paris, France, tournon@ccr.jussieu.fr

45. Veni, George (chapter 5: M. Day): Owner of George Veni and Associates, San
Antonio, Texas, U.S.A., gveni@satx.rr.com.
46. Wang, Chun-Yong (chapter 10: E.R. Flueh and R. von Huene): Institute of
Geophysics, China Seismological Bureau, Beijing, China, wangcy@cdsn.org.cn
47. Williams, Jr., Richard S. (chapter 6: M.S. Lachniet): U.S. Geological Survey, Woods
Hole, Massachusetts, U.S.A., rswilliams@usgs.gov
48. Wrner, Gerhard (chapter 22: M. Carr et al.): Geowissenschaftliches Zentrum
Gttingen, GZG (Geoscience Center Goettingen), Abt. Geochemie, Universitt
Gttingen, Gttingen, Germany, gwoerner@gwdg.de
Volume 2*
49. Bhattacharya, Prosun (chapter 27: P. Birkle and J. Bundschuh): KTH-International
Groundwater Arsenic Research Group, Department of Land and Water Resources
Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
50. Blandn, Astrid (chapter 31: L. Gmo. Obando and K. Bolaos): Faculty of Mines,
National University of Colombia, Medelln, Colombia, asblando@unalmed.edu.co
51. Bommer, Julian J. (chapter 35: C.D. Lindholm et al.; chapter 37: A. Climent et al.;
chapter 40: C.E. Rodrguez): Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering,
Imperial College London, London, U.K., j.bommer@imperial.ac.uk
52. Chandrasekharam, D. (chapter 29: J. Bundschuh et al.): Department of Earth Sciences,
Centre of studies in Resources Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay,
India, dchandra@geos.iitb.ac.in
53. Cohen, Arthur D. (chapter 31: L. Gmo. Obando and K. Bolaos): Department of
Geological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, U.S.A.,
cohen@geol.sc.edu
54. Curtis, Laurence (chapter 32: C.E. Nelson): Intrepid Minerals Corporation, Toronto,
Ontario, Canada, lcurtis@intrepidminerals.com
55. Darce, Mauricio (chapter 30: C.A. Dengo): Instituto Nicaragense de Energa,
Direccin General de Hidrocarburos, now at: NORWOOD de Nicaragua S.A.,
Managua, Nicaragua, mdarce@norwoodresources.com, mdarce@cablenet.com.ni
56. Hatheway, Allen W. (chapter 35: C.D. Lindholm et al.; chapter 36: M. Fernndez
et al.; chapter 37: . Climent et al.): International Consultant, Rolla, Missouri, U.S.A.,
allen@hatheway.net
57. Horlacher, Craig F. (chapter 33: F. Alvarado and B. Mota): Silver Crescent
Exploration, Inc., Lakewood, Colorado, U.S.A., cfhgeo@attglobal.net
58. Katz, Mike (chapter 32: C.E. Nelson): KCM International, School of Mining
Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia,
M.Katz@unsw.edu.au
59. Kesler, Stephen E. (chapter 32: C.E. Nelson): Department of Geological Sciences,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A., skesler@umich.edu
60. Littke, Ralf (chapter 31: L. Gmo. Obando and K. Bolaos): Institute of Geology and
Geochemistry of Petroleum and Coal, Aachen University, Aachen, Germany,
littke@lek.rwth-aachen.de
61. Lopez, Dina L. (chapter 27: P. Birkle and J. Bundschuh; chapter 28: T.P. Fischer
et al.): Department of Geological Sciences, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio,
lopezd@ohio.edu
62. Minissale, Angelo (chapter 28: T.P. Fischer et al.): CNR-Institute of Geosciences and
Earth Resources, (Section of Florence), Florence, Italy, minissa@igg.cnr.it

xliv LIST OF REVIEWERS
63. Moya, Paul (chapter 26: P. Birkle and J. Bundschuh): Instituto Costarricense de
Electricidad, Centro de Servicios Recursos Geotrmicos, San Jos, Costa Rica
64. Nelson, Carl (chapter 29: J. Bundschuh et al.): Bellhaven Ventures Inc., San Francisco,
Panama City, Panama, CNelson945@aol.com
65. Orvis, Kenneth H. (editoral help): Department of Geography, University of Tennessee,
Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S.A., orvis@utk.edu
66. Pararas-Carayannis, George (chapter 41: M. Fernndez and M. Ortiz): Retired
Director, International Tsunami Information Center, UNESCO Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission, Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.A., itmc@pixi.com
67. Sanchez Barreda, Luis (chapter 30: C.A. Dengo): Bureau of Economic Geology,
University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, U.S.A., luis.barreda@beg.utexas.edu
68. Sanchez, John J. (chapter 39: P. Lesage et al.): Departamento de Geociencias,
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Ciudad Universitaria, Bogot, Colombia,
jjsancheza@unal.edu.co
69. Schwartz, Susan (chapter 12: M. Fernndez et al.): Earth Sciences Department and
IGPP, University of California, Santa Cruz, California, U.S.A., sschwartz@es.ucsc.edu
70. Seidl, Andrew (chapter 25: J.C. Bergstrom and H. Cardona): Department of
Agricultural & Resource Economics, Colorado State University, Fort Collins,
Colorado, U.S.A., Andrew.Seidl@colostate.edu
71. Sracek, Ondra (chapter 27: P. Birkle and J. Bundschuh): Institute of Geological
Sciences, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
72. Szymanski, David (chapter 38: G.E. Alvarado et al.): Department of Geological
Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, U.S.A.,
szyman16@msu.edu
73. Truesdell, Alfred H. (chapter 27: P. Birkle and J. Bundschuh): 36 Dos Posos, Orinda,
CA 94563, ahtruesdell@comcast.net
____________________________________________________________________
* Some of the listed reviewers have also contributed to Volume 1 of the book.
Authors acknowledgements
Volume 1
Chapter 1: The authors thank David Bethune (University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada)
for his valuable comments and Carl Nelson (Bellhaven Ventures Inc., Panama City,
Panama) and Isabel Avendao (Universidad de Costa Rica UCR, San Jos, Costa Rica)
for their thoughtful and constructive reviews of this chapter.
Chapter 2: The authors wish to extend their appreciation for the invitation to participate
in this book. Editors J. Bundschuh and G.E. Alvarado contributed with valuable
suggestions to improve the final version of the manuscript. Escalante acknowledges
with gratitude the help rendered by his secretary Giselle Zamora, and for providing the
photograph included herein as Figure 2.3b. Soto extends his thanks to Uwe Martens
and Franklin Matzdorf for providing useful information.
Chapter 3: I would like to thank editors J. Bundschuh and G.E. Alvarado for inviting
me to contribute to this volume. Thanks also to my colleagues and friends who have
helped to inspire a deep appreciation for Central Americas spectacular geology and
geomorphology. This chapter benefited greatly from insightful conversations and field
experiences over the past two decades with T. Gardner, D. Fisher, R. Anderson,
M. Protti, E. Malavassi, F. Guendel, J. Brenes, P. Denyer, W. Montero, S. Wells,
T. Bullard, N. Pinter, P. Sak, D. Merritts, E. Silver, K. McIntosh, P. Mann, R. Rogers,
P. LaFemina, W. Strauch, M. Carr, D. Scholl, R. von Huene, U. Barckhausen,
C. Ranero, and P. Vannuchi. I also appreciate the helpful comments of Don Fisher,
Pete Sak, and Guillermo Alvarado and Jochen Bundschuh who reviewed earlier
versions of this manuscript. Funding and logistical support for fieldwork in Costa Rica
and Nicaragua was provided by the U.S. National Science Foundation, Keck Geology
Consortium, Joint Oceanographic Institutions, Cal Poly Pomona University, Penn State
University, U.C. Santa Cruz, OVSICORI-UNA (Costa Rica), ECG-UCR (Costa Rica),
IGN (Costa Rica), and INETER (Nicaragua). Finally, I would like to gratefully
acknowledge the hospitality of the Central American people, who have graciously
welcomed us onto their lands and into their communities.
Chapter 4: Our studies in Central America have been supported by INSIVUMEH and
University of San Carlos (Guatemala), INETER and CIGEO (Nicaragua), RSN: ICEUCR (Costa Rica), Royal Society of London, Centre de Recherches Volcanologiques
(CRV), and Universit Blaise Pascal (France). We thank Tim Flood and Norman Kerle
for helpful comments.
Chapter 5: Research on Central American karst was funded in part by financial support
from the Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies at the University of
Wisconsin-Milwaukee, and was assisted by the American Geographical Society
Library at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. Figure 5.1 was prepared by the
staff of the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Cartographic and Geographic
Information Sciences Center, and is based on an original compiled by Dan Weber.
Thoughtful and constructive reviews of this chapter were provided by Drs. George
Veni and Philip Reeder.

xlvi AUTHORS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Chapter 6: Research on the glacial geology of Costa Rica was made possible by a
Fulbright Fellowship, the Geological Society of America, Syracuse University, and
permission from the Costa Rican government. The author thanks Guillermo Alvarado
for encouragement to initiate glacial research in Costa Rica, and to the editors for
soliciting this review. Field research in Guatemala was supported by the University of
Nevada, Las Vegas, and the author thanks the people of La Ventosa for their support.
The author also thanks Richard S. Williams, Jr. and Stefan Hastenrath for very valuable
reviews that improved the chapter.
Chapter 7: I appreciate the invitation by Jochen Bundschuh and Guillermo Alvarado (the
editors) to participate in this book. I appreciate the reviews of the chapter by B. Bezy,
J.A. Vargas, J. Bundschuh and Richard Petersen. Funding for research in coral reefs and
other coastal ecosystems have been provided by Vicerrectora de Investigacin,
Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR); CONICIT (projects 90-326-BID and FV-046-02),
US-AID-CDR (Grant TA MOU-97-C14015), IUCN and WWF. I thank all my colleagues
and friends that have helped me over the years to get to know Central America, its
wonderful people, their beautiful coastal areas and their outstanding coral reefs.
Chapter 8: Funding for field studies in Honduras related to this review was provided by
the Petroleum Research Fund of the American Chemical Society (grant no. 33935-AC
to Mann). Mann and Rogers thank the NSF MARGINS program for the opportunity
and financial support to participate in the Subduction Factory Workshop in San Jos,
Costa Rica, in July, 2001, where many of these topics were originally discussed. We
thank L. Patino, H. Sigurdsson, S. Carey, U. Barckhausen, T. Gardner, K. McIntosh,
and L. Lawver, W. Dickinson, and T. Lawton for useful discussions. Special thanks to
Lisa Bingham for editing and computer drafting. University of Texas Institute for
Geophysics contribution no. 1725. Support for this work was provided in part by the
John A. and Katherine G. Jackson School of Geosciences and the Geology Foundation
of the University of Texas at Austin.
Chapter 9: R/V Sonne cruises were funded by German BMBF and R/V Meteor cruises
by German DFG. Seismic data from the Institute of Geophysics of the University of
Texas were provided by Tom Shipley. Aeromagnetic data from Costa Rica were kindly
provided by RECOPE. This work is contribution No. 72 of the SFB 574 Volatiles and
fluids in subduction zones at Kiel University.
Chapter 10: Our field studies in Costa Rica and Nicaragua were financially supported
by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), the Bundesministerium fr Bildung
und Forschung (BMBF), and the European Union, and were logistically supported by
Instituto Nicaragense de Estudios Territoriales (INETER) in Nicaragua, Instituto
Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE) and Escuela de Geologa, Universidad de Costa
Rica (UCR). Special thanks are to German Leandro of ICE, without his restless effort
all the field surveys would have ended in a total disaster for sure. This work is
contribution No. 44 of the SFB 574 Volatiles and fluids in subduction zones at Kiel
University.
Chapter 11: I had great fun researching this chapter and learned a lot. I offer it as
different view, which I hope will stimulate discussion. I am grateful for thoughtful

AUTHORS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xlvii
reviews by Guillermo Alvarado, Lolita Campos, Hans-Jrgen Gtze and Klaus Stanek.
Hazer Rodrguez helped with the formatting of the references.
Chapter 12: Special thanks to Carlos Ramrez for his help in preparing the figures and also to
the Red Sismolgica Nacional (RSN: ICE-UCR) for the seismic data used in this work.
Chapter 13: The authors thank Manuel-Iturralde-Vinent and Keith James for their
suggestions and improving the English. We thank Spencer Lucas, Thomas Vogel, and
Alberto C. Riccardi, for helpful discussions on the Geological Time Scale
nomenclature. G.E. Alvarado, T. Aguilar and U. Martens thank the University of San
Carlos (Guatemala), Centro de Investigaciones Geocientficas (CIGEO, Nicaragua),
University of Costa Rica (UCR) and Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE) for
supporting our research in Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama.
Mara Sandoval helped with figures and references in the early stage of the work.
Chapter 14: We wish to thank captain H. Papenhagen and his crew of RV Meteor for
their support during Leg M54/2. We especially thank K. Wallmann for his persistence
during perforation of the Nicaraguan slope; and the scientific party of RV Meteor 54/2
for the good working atmosphere. The work described above is part of the efforts of the
research program SFB 574 Volatiles and fluids in subduction zones to understand
the turnover processes and transport rates of volatile components in the Central
American subduction zone. This publication is contribution no. 47 of the
Sonderforschungsbereich 574 Volatiles and Fluids in Subduction Zones at the
University of Kiel. We owe special thanks to Guillermo Alvarado for helpful and
positive comments as well to the reviewers Claus Siebe and Marty Arford.
Chapter 15: I thank Ken Orvis, Mark Brenner, and Chad Lane for critical input during
the preparation of this chapter, and Suzanne A.G. Leroy, Matthias Hinderer, and the
editors for helpful reviews. Grant BCS-0242286 from the U.S. National Science
Foundation supported the preparation of this chapter.
Chapter 16: Jochen Bundschuh, Ross MacPhee and Gary Morgan offered helpful
comments on the manuscript.
Chapter 17: Many thanks to Dr. Sue Turner (Brisbane), for her suggestions for
improving the English.
Chapter 18: I am grateful to Co-editor Guillermo E. Alvarado (ICE-Sabana,
Exploracin Subterrnea, UNE, PySA, Costa Rica) for many references, to Daniel
Vachard (Universit des Sciences et Technologies de Lille, UFR des Sciences de la
Terre) for information on the Paleozoic of northern Central America, and to Stephen
Culver (East Carolina University, North Carolina) and Guillermo Alvarado for helpful
suggestions on the manuscript. Photographs of fossil pollen were graciously donated by
Alan Graham (Missouri Botanical Garden).
Chapter 19: The authors wish to express their gratitude to CUNOR-Guatemala and
CIGEO-Nicaragua for granting assistance during field trips, to DGMH-Honduras for
providing access to valuable geologic information, to Jean Tournon for commenting on
the geology of the Talamanca cordillera and providing samples, to Guillermo Alvarado
for information on metamorphic rocks in the Central American Isthmus and for

xlviii AUTHORS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
correcting the first draft, to Nicholas Charland for translating papers from French, and to
Cassandra Koenig and Oluwatosin Akimpelu (Tosin) for correcting the manuscript.
Special appreciation is expressed to Fernando Ortega, Luigi Solari, Sergio Morn, and
Marco Menichetti for fruitful discussion on the geology of northern Central American.
Chapter 20: We thank Roland von Huene, Paul van den Bogaard, Joerg Geldmacher
and Britta Lissinna, (IFM-GEOMAR, Germany), Reinhard Werner (Tethys
Geoconsulting, Germany), G.E. Alvarado (ICE, San Jos, Costa Rica) and Juan de
Dios Villa (Recursos Minerales de Comercio e Industria, Panama) for field assistance
and/or insightful discussions of Central American geology. Paul van den Bogaard is
especially thanked for sharing some of his unpublished 40Ar/39Ar age data. Special
thanks also go to the Recursos Minerales de Comercio e Industria, the Police Special
Border Forces at Puerto Obaldia and La Miel, the Panamanian Maritime Special
Services on Son and the Tropic Star Lodge staff for logistical support of our field
studies in Panama. We thank J. Lewis and G. Giunta for reviews. We would like to
express our deepest gratitude to G.E. Alvarado and J. Bundschuh for their editorial
handling and patience. This study has been supported by grants from the Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft (HO1833/6, Panama Terranes and SFB574, subproject C2).
Chapter 21: I am grateful for the comments of U. Martens and J. Tournon that help
making this chapter more complete. I will also like to thank the editors of this book,
G.E. Alvarado and J. Bundschuh for their efforts of compiling of the present
knowledge of the geology of Central America and for helping us realized how much
has been done in the last 26 years and much still needs to be done.
Chapter 22: Central America is productive place to study volcanoes because of the
support of so many institutions and individuals. Especially helpful were the Instituto
Nicaragense de Estudios Territoriales and G.E. Alvarado in Costa Rica. The chapter
benefited from review by Gerhard Wrner. This work was supported in part through
NSF grants EAR9628251, EAR9905167 and EAR0203388.
Chapter 23: We would like to acknowledge NSF INT-9819236 for support for some of
the work in Central Costa Rica. Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad kindly provided
field transportation on many field excursions. We appreciate support of individuals at
the Escuela Centroamericana de Geologa, University of Costa Rica and the Instituto
Nicaragense de Estudios Territoriales. Discussions with Rob Rogers and George
Bergantz were very helpful in focusing our attention on some of the problems on the
origin of calc-alkaline silicic magmas in Central America. We appreciate the careful
reviews and suggestions by Ivan Petrinovic and Crystal P. Mann.
Volume 2
Chapter 24: We would like to thank Jochen Bundschuh and Guillermo Alvarado for
their support during the preparation of this chapter. We would also like to thank our
groundwater colleagues in Central America who have contributed to this chapter
through excellent hydrogeologic studies. Thanks to the Government of Canada who has
made a lasting contribution to hydrogeology in Central America through the funding of

AUTHORS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
M.Sc. programs in hydrogeology at the national universities of Costa Rica, Nicaragua,

El Salvador, Honduras and Guatemala and the formation of the Central American
Water Resource Management Network (CARA; www.caragua.org).
Chapter 25: Comments from Dr. Andy Seidl, Colorado State University, U.S.A. are
gratefully acknowledged. Any remaining deficiencies in the paper are of course the
responsibility of the authors.
Chapters 26: The authors thank Paul Moya and Guillermo Alvarado, both from the
Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE), San Jos, Costa Rica for their valuable
reviews and comments, which significantly contributed to improve the chapters. Special
thanks to Kenneth Orvis (University of Tennessee, U.S.A.) for editing and Adrian Patio
(Instituto de Investigaciones Elctricas, Mexico) for the graphical illustrations.
Chapter 27: We would like to express our gratitude to Ondra Sracek (Masaryk
University, Czech Republic), Dina Lopez (Ohio University, U.S.A.), Prosun
Bhattacharya (Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden) and Alfred H. Truesell (LBNL,
U.S.A.) whose suggestions and constructive criticism were very helpful to improve the
manuscript. Special thanks to Chad Lane (University of Tennessee, U.S.A.) for English
language editing.
Chapter 28: We would like to thank the following institutions and individuals who
provided us with invaluable logistical support during our work in Central America:
ICE-UCR, Costa Rica: Guillermo Alvarado, Francisco Arias and Carlos Ramrez;
INETER, Nicaragua: Wilfried Strauch and Pedro Perez; SNET, El Salvador: Carlos
Pulinger, Demetrio Escobar and Walter Hernnez; ICE, Guatemala: Alfredo Roldn
and INSIVUMEH, Guatemala: Eddy Snchez, Enrique Molina, Otoniel Matas and
Gustavo Chigna. We also thank Wayne Suiter, Joe Hlebica, Mindy Zimmer and
Melissa Pfeffer for help in Costa Rica, Barry Cameron and Eric Mickelson for help in
Guatemala, Steve McKnight, Lynne Elkins and Jessica Albrecht for help in Nicaragua,
Diana de Leeuw and Melissa Pfeffer for help in El Salvador and Fraser and Cathy
Goff, Gonzalo Cruz Calderon, Laura Clor and Diana de Leeuw for help in Honduras.
Discussions with Jim Walker (NIU) are gratefully acknowledged. Our studies in
Central America were mainly funded by NSF grants EAR 0079402 MARGINS and
EAR 003668 to TPF and EAR0003628 to DRH. We thank an anonymous reviewer for
helpful comments that improved the manuscript.
Chapter 29: The authors express their gratitude to J.A. Rodrguez (Geotermia
Salvadorea de C.V. GESAL, El Salvador), A.R. Roldn and J.C. Palma (Instituto
Nacional de Electrificacin INDE, Guatemala), A. Ziga (Instituto Nicaragense de
Electricidad INE, Nicaragua), E. Reyes (Empresa de Transmisin Elctrica S.A.
ETESA, Panama), and G. Castillo and R.M. Salgado (Empresa Nacional de Energa
Elctrica ENEE, Honduras) for providing valuable information. Thanks to
D. Chandrasekharam (Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, India) and C. Nelson
(Bellhaven Ventures Inc., Panama City, Panama) for their critical reviews.
Chapter 30: I thank the editors of this volume for inviting me to participate with this
contribution and ExxonMobil Exploration Company for permission to publish this
xlix

l AUTHORS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
material and for releasing certain proprietary company data. This chapter benefited
from constructive reviews by Jochen Bundschuh, Gregorio Escalante, Arthur Green,
Kurt Rudolph, Steve Creaney, Mike Sullivan, Luis Snchez-Barreda and Mauricio
Darce. I thank them for the many style and content improvements they suggested.
Deborah Sycamore provided key reference material for Belize and Guillermo Alvarado
and Mauricio Darce material for Nicaragua and Costa Rica. The opinions and
interpretations presented here are those of the author and not of ExxonMobil
Exploration Company.
Chapter 31: Thanks to Prof. Littke, Aachen, Germany who read the manuscript and
made a number of very useful suggestions for its improvement and thanks to Astrid
Blandn Montes, Professor Associate National University of Colombia for reading the
manuscript. Our gratitude to Dr. Arthur D Cohen, Professor of Geological Sciences,
University of South Carolina, who sent us his papers, read the manuscript, and offered
his advise and comments. Thanks to Jean N. Weaver, United States Geological Survey,
Geologist Dionisio Rodrguez, Centro de Investigaciones Geocientficas, UNAN,
Nicaragua, and finally thanks to Guillermo Alvarado and Jochen Bundschuh.
Chapter 32: The author is grateful to Jochen Bundschuh and Guillermo Alvarado for their
support during the preparation of this chapter. Two anonymous reviews and helpful
comments by Richard Goldfarb resulted in substantial improvements to the text.
Chapter 33: The authors would like to express their gratitude to David Harrison (British
Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham, UK) and Siegfried Kussmaul (Escuela
Centroamericana de Geologa, Universidad de Costa Rica UCR) as well as two
anonymous reviewers, whose suggestions and constructive criticism were very helpful
to improve the first manuscript. We thank all our Central American colleagues and
friends in industry and academia who contributed with very useful unpublished
information on industrial minerals. Our appreciation also to the editors for their
suggestions and their patience.
Chapter 34: Thanks to Jaime Incer, Dina Lopez, Olger Aragn, Sergio Mora, Raul
Mora, and to Rutahsa Adventures who kindly provided excellent photos, which
contributed significantly to this chapter.
Sergio Paniagua expresses his gratitude to Ing. Omar Flores, CESEM, Universidad de
San Carlos de Guatemala, for providing important information about that countrys thermal
waters. Also to Ing. Salvador A. Paniagua, of the Physics Department of the Universidad de
El Salvador, who participated in fieldwork and provided photographs of thermal facilities in
El Salvador. Dr. Manuel A. Barrantes, Minister Counselor of the Costa Rican Embassy in
Nicaragua, took part in visits to tourist areas with hot springs, and Kevin Ludeke, of the
private sector in Costa Rica, made helpful suggestions while reviewing a draft section on
economic conditions of thermal resources in Central America. Thanks also to Amelia
Swartzbaugh, from the Health Office of the United States of Americas Embassy in Costa
Rica, for her translation and advice regarding thermal sources in the health arena, and to
Licda Carolina Molina, from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Office of International
Cooperation, for her help in interpretation and acquisition of information about tourism and
health organizations in Central America. Licda Asela Landau, from the Panamanian Social
Security, provided information about thermal areas in Panama. Thanks to these and all others
who helped in one or the other way to obtain information about thermomineral waters.

AUTHORS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS li
Chapter 35: The work has benefited from many years of cooperation with Central
American seismologists. We thank Dr. Hatheway and Dr. Bommer for thorough
reviews of an early manuscript, which significantly improved the present contribution.
Chapter 36: Thanks to CEPREDENAC for the financial support for CASC and its help to
the seismological centers of Central America. We are grateful to the Vicerrectora de
Investigacin and the Centro de Investigaciones Geofsicas, Universidad de Costa Rica
(UCR), for providing personnel to CASC. The Escuela Centroamericana de Geologa,
Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR), greatly collaborates with personnel to CASC. Finally,
thanks to Carlos Redondo for his assistance to elaborate the figures of this chapter.
Chapter 37: We thank Dr. A.W. Hatheway for his review of the document. Thanks to
Jochen Bundschuh for his constant advice and participation to improve the formal part of
the document. Special gratitude to Dr. J.J. Bommer for his careful review, commentaries
and recommendations that allowed us to substantially improve the final document.
Chapter 38: Our studies in Central America have been funded by INSIVUMEH and
CONRED (Guatemala), SNET (El Salvador), INETER (Nicaragua) and RSN: ICEUCR (Costa Rica). Many thanks to Davis Szymanski for his suggestions and for
improving the English. Dione Barahona assisted in drafting some figures and tables in
the early stage of the work.
Chapter 39: We would like to thank John Snchez for his careful reading and
suggestions that greatly improved the manuscript. We are grateful to Jean-Philippe
Mtaxian for providing some figures and for valuable discussions. Many thanks to the
book editors for their support and patience.
Chapter 40: The author expresses his gratitude to Dr. Julian Bommer at Imperial
College for his guidance on studying volcanic-soils instability and landslide hazard
assessment and for his contribution to the manuscript. I am also grateful for the support
provided by Universidad Nacional de Colombia and Dr. Beln Benito. Contributions
and manuscript review by Jochen Bundschuh and data supplied by Guillermo Alvarado
is highly appreciated. Figures 42.8 and 42.11 were supplied by ICL-NGI. Many thanks
go to Mara Cristina Arango, Angela Tatiana Torres and Edwin Len who assisted with
data compilation and analysis. Discussion about behavior of volcanic soils with Astrid
Sandoval, Gustavo Redondo and Juan David Arango are gratefully acknowledged.
Chapter 41: We would like to express our sincere thanks to the Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA), the Instituto Mexicano de Cooperacin Internacional
(IMEXI), and the CONACyT, by the financial support to carry out this investigation.
We are also grateful to the Geology Department of the University of Costa Rica for the
logistic support to carry out this research. The authors wish to acknowledge with
appreciation the review by Dr. George Pararas-Carayannis, retired Director of the
International Tsunami Information Center, and in particular his commentary on the
September 2, 1992 earthquake and tsunami in Nicaragua.
Editors foreword
The growing complexity of geoscientific
research and the global perspective of
modern geosciences demand interdisciplinary and international cooperation on a
world-wide scale. Because science does
not stop at national borders, [the
subjects] cover almost the entire field of
geoscientific research, ranging from interior
Earth dynamics to Global Change, natural
resources of water, minerals and hydrocarbons, mitigation of natural hazards, or usage
and protection of underground space. L.
Stroink, H.-P. Harjes and J. Karte: Coordinated Geoscientific Research in Germany
The Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and
its Programs to Foster International
Cooperation, 2000.
Geological sciences play a major, but often overlooked role with regard to economic
development. This is especially true in Central America, currently home to about 40
million people, a number that is projected to increase to nearly 50 million by 2015.
The unique geological setting of Central America as a natural bridge between the
Americas is dominated by the presence of five tectonic plates and several blocks and
terranes. Its position along plate boundaries, subduction zones, and major strike-slip fracture
zones results not only in numerous earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, but also in benefits
such as interesting mineral deposits, fertile volcanic soils, and an abundance of geothermal
and hydroelectric energy resources all in the midst of a biological and tourist paradise.
Although Central America encompasses a relatively small area (525,780 km2), its
geology is both complex and interesting. It contributes fundamentally to our
understanding of the geologic history of the Americas and of the Caribbean region, of the
role of biogeography in the migration and evolution of species, and of geographic barriers
and climate change. It is one of Earths regions of highest biodiversity and offers a
natural laboratory in geology, geophysics, geochemistry, biology, and climatology.
During recent decades, the Central American region has witnessed an unrelenting
succession of disasters related to geological processes such as earthquakes, landslides, and
tsunamis, and to climatic events such as hurricanes, extreme precipitations, floods, and
droughts. These have cost thousands of lives and material losses in the billions of dollars. In
the past 35 years alone, between 32,000 and 41,000 people were killed by natural disasters.
Geology and climate have posed constant hazards since the first Amerindians
populated Central America more than 13,000 years ago. However, the geological and
climate-related risks increased sharply during the last few decades and will continue to
grow in the future. Reasons include human activities such as inadequate land use
practices, and demographic pressures that force people to live in areas prone to
geologic hazards. For example, seismic and volcanic hazards coincide with those areas
where most of the regions population is found, aggravating the risk.

liv EDITORS FOREWORD
Living with risk cannot be avoided, but disaster-reduction programs can limit losses.
These include, for example, early warning systems, improved forecasting tools, adequate landplanning and land use, and the establishment and effective control of construction codes.
Geologic hazards need to be better assessed, via improved seismic and volcanic
monitoring, and landslide hazard evaluation. Geological risks should be compiled, by
category, into hazard maps, which are an indispensable resource for any wise decisionmaking by authorities attempting to compile construction codes, risk evaluations,
emergency rescue plans, adequate land-use plans, etc.
Considering the availability of energy resources as a precondition for any development,
Central America has very few fossil fuel resources, but fortunately has huge resources of
geothermal energy. Today these provide only 7% of the regions electricity generation.
They can be exploited further as an environmentally sound domestic energy source to cover
projected electricity demand, which is expected to grow through the year 2020 at an annual
rate of 6% thanks to growing populations and expanding economies. Additionally,
increased use of geothermal resources would reduce the regions over-dependence on
hydroelectric energy sources, which are currently used to produce over 50% of the regions
electricity. Hydroelectric resources are influenced by climatic events and hence are neither
stable nor reliable, despite which they are now used to meet most of the regions electricity
demand. At present, geothermal resources are extremely under-used and marginalized
compared to other renewable and conventional energy resources.
The freshwater resources of Central America are becoming increasingly limited and
thus are assuming the status of Central Americas gold of the 21st century. Principal
reasons for this growing scarcity are increasing contamination of surface waters and
their seasonally fluctuating availability. That leaves groundwater resources as the only
viable long-term solution for meeting anticipated future demand for drinking water, as
well as irrigation water needed for food security. Water, its purification, and its
equitable distribution pose great social challenges for Central America. However, the
availability of groundwater resources remains unevaluated, making development,
protection, and efficient and optimal sustainable use impossible, so that future access of
Central Americans population to safe water cannot be guaranteed, even though it is a
fundamental human need and, therefore, a basic human right.
Implementing needed measures and working against these deficits requires detailed
knowledge of geological processes and their interactions with other processes such as
climatic events and socioeconomic factors, as well as forecasts of both demographic
and economic development. Classical and modern geological studies are needed,
involving modern methods and technologies on the ground along with data obtained
from airborne and satellite platforms.
National, regional, and international authorities and private-sector participants need
to integrate more than at present aspects of development involving issues of
geological resources and hazards/risks. They should consider both the economic- and
development-related benefits that could result from improving hazard mitigation and
increasing the sustainability of resources use.
Prerequisite for all these needed improvements is knowledge of basic geological
issues and processes such as plate tectonics and kinematics, structural geology,
seismology, petrology, and stratigraphy. Geological resources need to be better
assessed. Detailed knowledge of hydrogeology and estimates of economically usable
groundwater resources, their quality, and their vulnerability, as well forecasts of water
demand, are needed. Geothermal resources, especially those of low and middle

EDITORS FOREWORD lv
enthalpy which have only recently become economically and technically exploitable,
need to be evaluated in terms of their potential future use in the frame of development.
Geological heritage resources such as volcanoes, volcanic lakes, geothermal springs,
and lava and karst caves should be addressed in the frame of economic and social
development. In fact, Central America has 11 noteworthy volcanoes, of which three are
among the most active in the world. The national parks associated with them receive
over half a million visitors annually. Central America is also home to the second largest
coral barrier reef on our planet.
That such needs remain unmet has sometimes been blamed on a lack of consideration
and awareness on the part of national authorities, but in fact it is mostly a matter of the lack
of local capacity and of missing, incomplete, or inefficient institutional and regulatory
frameworks, in both the Central American countries themselves and within international aid
and financial and technical cooperation agencies. Capacity building, awareness formation,
and educational resources and tools are needed to foster in-depth thinking and problemsolving. These will stimulate improved use of local sustainable resources such as
geothermal energy, and improved geological hazard mitigation generally, within an
integrated and sustainable approach to geological resources and hazards.
We hope this monograph will help us all to rededicate ourselves to wise and
responsible use of Central American geological resources, and will let us improve geologic
hazard mitigation. Our goal must be to reduce human and material losses for the sake of
our children and our grandchildren, and to avoid jeopardizing their future through inept
use of natural resources and underestimation of geology-related hazards and risks.
The book aims to address professionals and academics equally members of the
pertinent national, regional, and international geological communities. It is also
intended to serve as a resource for key Central American institutions that deal with
land-use planning, water resource planning, seismic and volcanic hazard reduction,
energy planning, mining, and urban and infrastructure development, and as a guideline
for decision- and policy-making and administrative leaders, both in Governments and
in international bodies concerned with technical and economic cooperation in
developing countries like those of the United Nations family and the international
and regional development banks, financial institutions, donors, etc.
We hope this monograph will become a standard, used by educational institutions,
research institutions, and Research and Development establishments involved in the
respective issues. The book should prove useful to senior undergraduate and graduate
students, professional geologists and geophysicists, engineers, and others working in
Central America. Also, it is ideal for anyone looking for a quick, round-up reference on the
geology of Central America, whether professional scientists visiting or preparing to do work
in the region, or educated lay-persons who are merely interested in geology, landscapes,
natural wonders, and long-term history. For them, it can serve either as a self-contained
guidebook or as a foundation for further research.
Not least, this book fills a gap in the literature, not only in the geographic sense of
linking the Americas, North and South, but it also joins the Greater and Lesser Antilles
into the framework of a single larger Caribbean geological history.
The editors
Jochen Bundschuh
San Jos, November 2006
Editors note
In 1961, Borntraeger (Stuttgart) published a book by German scientist Richard Weyl
entitled Die Geologie Mittelamerikas (Geology of Central America). In 1980, its
completely revised edition was published in English, making it unique work that it
was into obligatory standard reading for any professional or academic with an
interest in Central American geology. However, in the 27 years since the publishing of
Weyls 1980 edition, numerous important investigations have been completed in
Central America in various fields of geology, with new methods and geological
concepts introduced, by groups of researchers primarily from Germany and the United
States, but also from Italy and France as well as the Central American countries
themselves. The salient results of those investigations have been presented in numerous
publications and reports, many of which either cover narrow topics or are restricted to
internal use within particular institutions in the Central American region. This situation
convinced us of the need for a synoptic monograph, which would compile more than a
century of geoscientific work on the Central American region, including the addition of
a great deal of new data obtained over the last few years. We wanted to showcase these
new studies and their conclusions, as well as the trends of ongoing research in a broad
spectrum of topics in classical and applied fields of geology in Central America.
We wanted this compilation to be as exhaustive as possible so as to combine the
dispersed and often difficult-to-find information in a single monograph. To that end,
we assisted the authors in obtaining additional information from local sources and we
provided them with copies of internal reports from regional institutions, articles
published in local journals with limited distributions, and even archival documents, all
of which are difficult to obtain for various reasons. However, it is possible that some
datasets or information proved impossible to locate, or escaped our literature search,
and have not been included. We apologize to our readers for any such omissions.
Nonetheless, we feel confident that we have included virtually all the scientific and
other information that presently exists. For this reason, the reader should keep in mind
that many of the recent results and interpretations presented actually include data from
active, ongoing research projects, and these should be considered as links to be used for
contacting the respective research groups to obtain updated information. Additionally,
the completed monograph clearly reveals that a lot of further investigations need to be
performed in Central America, and it hopefully will give its readers appropriate
stimulus. We urge all readers to that end those interested in basic geological
research or applied science; those whose interests relate to energy, mineral, and water
resources; and those involved in geological hazard and risk mitigation.
We have included with each chapter an opening phrase, typically an historic
statement by someone well known in the field of the chapters topic, which highlights
the importance of that topic either for scientific, economic, social, or human
development of the Central American region.
The author(s) of each chapter was (were) entirely responsible for the scientific
content of his (their) manuscript. The changes that we made concerned only the style of
the text, with the aim of bringing more consistency and homogeneity to the monograph.
We have, however, left the choice of place names up to individual authors, as the
spelling of certain geographical sites can vary according to sources of reference. The
reader may also find slight differences from chapter to chapter in altitudes, areal
extents, and the like, which is similarly caused by discrepancies between references.

lviii EDITORS NOTE
We have used English expressions for place names generally, in the cause of
homogeneity. However, in some cases that was not practical (so, e.g., you will find
Laguna Hule, but San Juan river). In addition, we preserved the Spanish accents on the
majority of names, with some exceptions (e.g., Panama). Also, for consistency we have
preferably used lower case, e.g. for place-name components such as city, river, lake, etc.
In other matters, we have redrawn or modified most of the figures in order to improve
their quality, but especially to achieve more consistency and homogeneity within the
monograph. Political boundaries, national surface areas, and other political data
contained in the monograph may slightly differ from other sources: this is in no way
intentional and does not state any territorial claim, or intend anything else of a similar
nature.
This monograph would be incomplete without an expression of our sincere and
deep sense of gratitude to all the authors, who agreed to participate in this work by
writing and summarizing their specialists knowledge of the Central American region.
We thank them for their patience and their willingness to accept all the extensive
revisions and requests, from us and from the more than 60 external reviewers, to
improve their chapter. When we selected the external reviewers, our philosophy was to
select experts in the topic, intentionally paired so that one team member in each case
would be a researcher familiar with the geographical region of Central America, and
one would be an expert whose work is focused in another region and so would bring an
outsiders perspective.
Many thanks also to our colleagues who have devoted their valuable time to
reviewing the manuscripts submitted for this monograph. We wish to express our
sincerest thanks to them, whose efforts contributed to the high quality of the chapters in
this monograph.
The large group of 94 participating authors is well balanced geographically (in
terms of where they currently live and work, not necessarily in terms of national
origin). Most of them are from Central America, with 36 authors. Ordered by numbers,
they hail from Costa Rica (15), Nicaragua (9), El Salvador (5), Guatemala (5), and
Panama (4). The second largest group, with 24 authors, hails from the United States of
America and Canada. Europe has a similar number (22), the largest group (11) from
Germany. Other authors represent Mexico (4), Colombia (2), and one each from
Argentina, Cuba, Puerto Rico and South Africa.
We hope that the work will not only benefit its readers, but that involvement in its
writing and creation has already contributed to bringing scientists from different
geographic regions closer together, through working alongside each other while
preparing their chapters, and that this effort will prove to be a catalyst and starting
point for many new collaborations and scientific research projects.
We are especially grateful to the support provided by the Integrated Expert Program
of CIM (GTZ/BA)*, Frankfurt, Germany, which delegated me [JB] as long-term
integrated expert to the Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE) in San Jos, Costa
Rica. This mission allowed, within the framework of the German governmental
cooperation, the compilation of this monograph, which will remain as one of the solid
outcomes of this cooperative effort between the governments of Germany and Costa
Rica. Many thanks to the Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE), which supported
the compilation of this monograph in this framework and which provided its facilities.
Additionally, we would like to thank NASA for their courtesy in permitting use of
their digital elevation models PIA3377 (North America), PIA3364 (Central America),

EDITORS NOTE lix
and PIA3388 (South America) (http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov) [Courtesy NASA/JPLCaltech]. These regional digital elevation models of 90 m spatial resolution, which
were obtained from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (STRM) of NASA, are
excellent for assessing larger-scale morphology and were, therefore, used in many of
the figures as backgrounds for maps.
The editors
Jochen Bundschuh
San Jos, November 2006
______________________________________________________________________
* Auftraggeber: Bundesministerium fr Wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung
(BMZ), Centrum fr Internationale Migration und Entwicklung (CIM). [Federal Ministry for
Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), Center for International Migration and
Development (CIM)].
About the editors

Jochen Bundschuh (1960, Germany), finished his PhD
on numerical modeling of heat transport in aquifers in
Tbingen in 1990. He is working in geothermics,
subsurface- and surface hydrology and integrated water
resources management and connected disciplines. From
1993 to 1999 he served as expert of the German Agency
of Technical Cooperation (GTZ) and as long-term professor
for the DAAD (German Academic Exchange Service)
in Argentine. In 2001 he was appointed within the
Integrated Expert Program of CIM (GTZ/BA), Frankfurt,
Germany and works within the framework of the German
governmental cooperation in mission to Costa Rica at the
Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE), where he assists the country in the area of
the sustainable use of surface and groundwater resources for power generation. In 2005, he
was designated as UMSAs permanent coordinator of international affairs in the areas of
environment and water resources. Further on, he is a professor of the Royal Institute of
Technology, Stockholm, Sweden.
Prof. Bundschuh is editor of the books Geothermal Energy Resources for Developing
Countries (2002) and Natural Arsenic in Groundwater (2005) and author of over
60 international scientific publications. In 2006 he was elected as Vice-president of the
International Society of Groundwater for Sustainable Development (ISGSD).
Guillermo E. Alvarado (1960, Costa Rica), is a geologist

working for more than 20 years in different fields of
volcanology and Quaternary geology in Costa Rica and
other Central American countries. In 1985 he became the
chief of the Seismology and Seismic Engineering Section
of the Institute of Electricity of Costa Rica (ICE), now
Seismic and Volcanic Hazards and Monitoring Unit. Dr.
Alvarado finished his PhD in Kiel, Germany, in 1993 and
he is also professor of Volcanology and Geoarcheology at
the University of Costa Rica.
Dr. Alvarado is author of 8 books including The
Volcanoes of Costa Rica (in Spanish; 1st edition 1989,
2nd edition 2000), Costa Rica: Land of Volcanoes (1st edition 1993, 2nd edition 2005),
a book on Igneous Geomorphology (1990), and a book on Natural History (1994), and he
is co-author of the Geological Map of Costa Rica and its explanation booklet (Tournon
and Alvarado 1997), and Tectonic Atlas of Costa Rica (Denyer et al. 2003). Further on,
he is author and co-author in 134 scientific publications, 50 authored by him, 35 are on
international level.
Chapter 1
Geographical, social, economic, and
environmental framework and developments
JOCHEN BUNDSCHUH, MANUEL WINOGRAD, MICHAEL DAY AND
GUILLERMO E. ALVARADO
In the near future, a rising number of
questions confronting modern geosciences
will concern problems of pressing societal
importance. The most striking ones, like climate changes, safe waste disposal, responsible landuse, water supply or prevention and
reduction of natural hazards are of global
significance. L. Stroink, H.-P. Harjes and J.
Karte: Coordinated Geoscientific Research
in Germany The Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and its Programs to Foster
International Cooperation, 2000.
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Central America comprises 7 countries (Fig. 1.1) that cover 50 million hectares
extending over different ecoregions (Fig. 1.2a) and shelter nearly 39 million people
(2003). With a relatively high population density (71 inhabitants/km2), Central
America is one of the worlds regions most prone to geology-related and climaterelated natural disasters. Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, which are related to the
Central American tectonic setting, and landslides, which are either earthquake induced
or rainfall-related, are the most severe geological burdens of the region. Central
America also is afflicted by several climatic hazards, particularly droughts and
hurricanes, which may be accompanied by secondary hazards, including high winds,
flooding and landslides.
After decades of political, economic and social instability, Central American
countries in the 1990s defined and applied a series of policies and actions geared
towards pacification, regional integration, environmental protection and the opening of
economies. The willingness of governments to find a new balance between economic
growth, social equity and environmental protection shaped agreements like ALIDES
(Alianza Centroamericana para el Desarrollo Sostenible), led to the development of
integrated projects like Plan Puebla-Panam, and defined environmental protection
and conservation strategies like Corredor Biolgico Mesoamricano. Such projects
notwithstanding, degradation of the environment, vulnerability to natural hazards and
external events, increasing poverty, and local economic crises remain predominant
characteristics of the region.
Although most of the countries of the region share a common language and culture,
2 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
stemming from a similar colonial past, socioeconomic and environmental heterogeneity

prevents analysis of the region as a simple unit. From an economic standpoint, the
region can be divided into countries with very low-income economies (Honduras and
Nicaragua), low-income economies (Guatemala and El Salvador) and middle-income
economies (Costa Rica, Belize and Panama). Taking into account the socioeconomic
situation, the region may be subdivided into groups of countries with high human
development indices (Costa Rica, Belize), middle human development indexes
(Panama, El Salvador), and low human development indices (Guatemala, Honduras,
Nicaragua) [1].
1.2
THE ENVIRONMENT
1.2.1 Biophysical traits, resources and hazards

1.2.1.1 Climate
Because of its relatively restricted latitudinal range (718N), present day climate
throughout Central America is broadly tropical and seasonal (wet/dry), with substantive
variations reflecting altitude and distance from the ocean, particularly in the downwind
or lee direction, and with latitude playing a lesser role.
Temperatures (Fig. 1.2b) are influenced largely by warm ocean currents on both the
Pacific and Caribbean coasts. The Pacific North Equatorial Current flows northward
along the Pacific coast and the combined Atlantic North Equatorial Current and the
Gulf Stream bring warmth and humidity to the Caribbean coast.
Temperature is influenced also by altitude and distance from the oceans, generally
decreasing with increasing altitude and increasing with distance from the coast.
Atmospheric temperatures decrease about 6.4 C per 1000 m of increased elevation,
although actual temperatures depend on air movement and humidity too. The impact of
temperature decrease with increasing elevation is reflected in a broad general lifezone
classification in which, generally, elevations lower than 900 m a.s.l. are regarded as
tierras calientes, those between 900 and 1800 m are tierras templadas, and those from
1800 to 3600 m are tierras fras, with the highest areas being tierras heladas [2].
Altitude held constant, with increasing distance northward there occur greater
winter-summer temperature extremes, with the highest and lowest temperatures
occurring closer to the Tropic of Cancer (minimum about 14, maximum about 42 C).
The warmest months generally occur at the end of the dry season, prior to the summer
solstice and the onset of cloudier conditions. During winters, polar cold fronts, known
as nortes or northers, occasionally invade Central America, bringing steady rains and
cool temperatures, often followed by cold sunny conditions with frosts at higher
elevations.
Regionally, shifting atmospheric pressure belts, prevailing winds and orographic
effects all influence precipitation totals and distribution, with continentality playing a
very minor role [3]. Equatorial low pressure extends to about 15 degrees north latitude,
giving way beyond that to the dynamically induced subtropical high pressure. As these
atmospheric pressure belts shift latitudinally in response to the seasonal progression of
the sun, they produce distinct winter dry periods of differing intensity and duration, and
wet summers. The wet season generally commences in May, with the arrival of the
northern edge of the equatorial low pressure, developing as the low dominates from
June through September, and diminishing in October. A short drier season, or
CENTRAL AMERICA: GEOLOGY, RESOURCES AND HAZARDS; BUNDSCHUH & ALVARADO (EDS)
Figure 1.1. Central America: Regional political, geographical, geomorphologic and geotectonic
overview.
veranillo, may occur between early and late peaks in rainfall. By November,
subtropical high pressure is again dominant, and dry conditions prevail through the
winter.
Central America is subject to intense tropical cyclonic storms known as hurricanes
on the Atlantic side, and as chubascos on the Pacific side. Caribbean hurricanes are
most frequent in late summer, reflecting the concurrence of the Intertropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and ocean water temperatures above 26.7 C [3], and can
cause extensive wind damage and severe flooding, with other associated hazards (see
1.4.1). Prevailing winds and elevated landmasses also account for uneven rainfall
distribution [3]. Other things being equal, annual rainfall totals decrease with
increasing distance from the oceans, but this effect is minimal within the region.
Central America is dominated by the northeast trade winds, with the result that rainfall
totals generally decrease from east to west, with orographic effects particularly
pronounced on the eastern sides of mountain ranges. In the far south of the region, in
the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), or doldrums, within seven to eight degrees
of the Equator, the trade winds diminish and the dominance of the equatorial low
produces unstable convective thunderstorm precipitation. Disturbances or waves in
Figure 1.2. (a) Ecoregions, forest surfaces and soils (modified after [5, 6, 7]);
(b) Climate (modified after [6]).
the ITCZ may cause particularly intense weather activity [4].

Most significantly, rainfall generally increases with elevation. Orographic cooling
produces condensation in eastern, windward locations, with western, leeward areas
experiencing higher temperatures and less precipitation. The Caribbean side of the
region generally receives between 4000 and 6500 mm of rainfall annually, but Pacific
coastal areas receive less than 1500 mm (Fig. 1.2b). The mountains of the Darin, in
eastern Panama, may receive annual rainfall totals amounting to 8000 mm, and the
highest areas of Costa Rica receive up to 7555 mm/yr. The effects of the El NioSouthern Oscillation (ENSO), in which periodic disruption of the tropical Pacific
ocean-atmosphere system by trade wind reduction results in pronounced warming of
water in the eastern Pacific, may also be pronounced in Central America, with regional
perturbations, including both floods and droughts in warmer El Nio years and more
predictable weather in the contrasting La Nia years.
1.2.1.2 Hydrography
Its maritime tropical location favors river development in Central America, but
seasonal rainfall differences result in corresponding variations in runoff and river
discharge. Moreover, the relatively short distances from the volcanic central cordillera
to the oceans, particularly on the Pacific side, limit the length of river systems, and
their catchment or drainage basin areas and annual discharges are therefore relatively
restricted (Fig. 1.3). Highland rivers, especially to the windward, may evacuate
drainage rapidly to the coastal plains, but percolation throughout catchments serves to
maintain baseflow through all but the most severe droughts. To the leeward, by
contrast, hydrologic regimes are less stable, with throughflow being less consistent.
There are few major river systems draining to the Pacific (e.g., Lempa, Tempisque,
Trraba; Fig. 1.3), but drainage to the Caribbean is via more extensive river systems,
which have developed broad, swampy valleys on the coastal plains, where there are
also extensive lagoons and mangrove swamps. Northern Belize is drained by the
Hondo river, the New river and others, with the northern fringes of the Maya
mountains drained by the Belize river and the Sibun river. Rivers draining the eastern
slopes are generally short, but prone to rapid flooding; the Sarstoon river forms the
southern boundary between Belize and Guatemala.
Much of eastern Guatemala is drained by the Izabal and Motagua rivers, and much
of northern Honduras is drained by the Ulua and Patuca rivers. The Lempa river rises
in Guatemala and flows through Honduras before discharging to the Pacific Ocean in
El Salvador, and the Ro Grande de Matagalpa drains much of eastern Nicaragua, with
the Coco (Segovia) river forming the northern boundary with Honduras.
Central Americas largest freshwater lakes, Lake Nicaragua and Managua lake,
occupy a downfaulted structural trough, or graben, and are drained towards the
Caribbean by the San Juan river (Fig. 1.3). These lakes constitute the most important
resource of surface water of Central America. Other important inland lakes include the
lakes Pten Itza and Izabal, in eastern Guatemala, lake Atitln, which occupies a
volcanic caldera, and lakes Bayano and Gatn in Panama (see Chapters 3, 4 and 24).
In areas of karst terrain (see Chapter 5) there is limited surface water, with the
drainage systems being dominantly underground. Groundwater may be contained
within the rock pores, along dissolved fractures, or within large and extensive cave
conduits. Around the upslope edges of karst areas, rivers rising on adjacent rocks may
disappear underground via sinks; in lower areas formerly subterranean flow may re-
Figure 1.3. Hydrographic map of Central America.
emerge as springs; within the karst itself the underground drainage may be exposed via
collapse features known generally as karst windows or cenotes.
1.2.1.3 Geomorphology and soils
As a result of active regional plate tectonics and its tropical maritime location, Central
Americas topography is spectacularly pronounced, and rates of geomorphologic
processes are high. Both constructional (built up) and erosional landforms are
widespread, and the overall landscape is highly dynamic (see Chapter 3).
The mountainous spine of Central America is part of the western alpine system
the orogenic manifestation of this collision and subduction along the plate boundaries.
Catastrophic earthquakes strike western Central America roughly once every decade
[8] and volcanic activity is also intense, particularly in Nicaragua, which has 28
volcanoes along a 290 km volcanic front, and also in Guatemala [9].
The Central American volcanic axis dominates from western Panama to western
Guatemala, bordered by relatively narrow Pacific coastal plains and the downfaulted,
sediment-filled structural trough, or graben of western Nicaragua. Except for the
intrusive Talamanca range of southwestern Costa Rica, mountains and valleys along
the central axes are dominated by volcanic rocks, including lava flows and
pyroclastic rocks. In Guatemala, the volcanic axis is paralleled by a second, eastern
range, which extends into Honduras and central Nicaragua, eventually curving towards
the Caribbean coast. Broad plains extend eastward from the mountainous backbone to
the Caribbean coast from Belize to Costa Rica. Extending along the Belize coast to
Honduras is the worlds second longest barrier reef complex. Eastern Panama is
characterized by low coastal ranges and interior valleys, grading westward to the
central lowlands of the Panama canal zone.
The relative warmth and abundance of water promote both mechanical and
chemical weathering processes, particularly the latter, which are also accentuated by
high levels of biological activity. This results in a generally deep regolith, or waste
mantle, which is prone to erosion, particularly where deep regolith on steep slopes
becomes saturated with water, leading to rapid mass movements such as landslides and
mudflows. Deep weathering of granitic intrusions, for example in the Mountain Pine
ridge of Belize, has lead to the development of resistant rock corestones and residual
landforms known as tors [10].
Fluvial processes dominate the erosional spectrum and, except in the regional karst
landscapes where the drainage is largely underground (see Chapter 5), river valleys
dissect most of the landscape. In the uplifted mountains, stream and river courses are
steep and incised, attaining less steep gradients and broader valleys as the coastal plains
are approached. Seasonal discharge variations are often manifested in braided channels
and the exposure of sediment bars during low flow.
Central American soils are highly variable as a consequence of the complex
environmental mix of bedrock type, climate, topography and living organisms,
including humans. Mineral soils dominate because generally high temperatures lead to
rapid decay of soil organic matter and abundant rainfall aids in leaching of soluble
minerals, particularly under conditions of long-term stability. Rapid absorption of
nutrients by plants leads to an accumulation of nutrients in the vegetation, rather than in
the soil, and iron and aluminum oxides accumulate, producing lateritic soils. Steep
slopes generally restrict the development of soil profiles, and soil erosion rates may be
rapid, especially under inappropriate cultivation or deforestation. Local conditions
produce distinctive intrazonal soils, such as the calcimorphic soils developed over
regional limestones. There is much disagreement about soil classification, and there
exist several different classification systems, none of which is exclusive to Central
America. Martinson [4] assigns Central American soils to three major zonal types
according to the U.S. Comprehensive Soil Classification System (USCSCS). There are
myriad local variations as depicted in Figure 1.2a, which portrays soils as classified by
FAO [7]. The majority of the region is dominated by what within the USCSCS system
are termed highland soils, which are developed largely from lava and ash deposits, and
which are depicted in Figure 1.2a in more detailed categories such as cambisols,
andosols and nitosols. On steep slopes these soils are highly erodible, but in interior
basins such as Costa Ricas Central valley they are highly productive. Mollisols in the
USCSCS system, base-rich dark colored soils typical of grasslands, occur in the
southern Yucatn peninsula, in Belize and western Guatemala, and are categorized in
Figure 1.2a as rendzinas and vertisols. Ultisols in the USCSCS, relatively infertile,
strongly leached acidic forest soils, are predominant along the Caribbean coast of
Nicaragua, extending into northern Costa Rica, and throughout Panama. In Figure 1.2a
these are represented as acrisols and histosols.
1.2.1.4 Geology
The structural basis of Central America is broadly the destructive, convergent boundary
between the Cocos and Caribbean tectonic plates, although also involving three other
plates: the Nazca and the North and South American plates (Fig. 1.1). The North and
South American plates are moving westward in response to seafloor spreading along
the Mid-Atlantic ridge, and are overtaking the eastern margins of the Caribbean plate,
which is drifting slowly to the southwest. The small Cocos plate is advancing towards
the northeast, and the northern edge of the Nazca plate is moving northward, in both
cases subducting beneath the Caribbean plate margin. The collision of the Cocos and
Caribbean plates particularly, which is manifested by the Middle America trench that
parallels the Pacific coast, results in crustal instability and active tectonic activity,
evidenced primarily as earthquakes and volcanism, which are fundamental elements of
Central American geomorphology.
The 1100-km long Quaternary volcanic range of Central America extends from the
Mexico-Guatemala border to central Costa Rica (Fig. 1.3). It comprises 40 major
volcanic centers (large andesitic shield volcanoes, composite volcanoes, and twin
stratovolcanoes), with a 175-km gap between the Turrialba (Costa Rica) and Bar
(Panama) volcanoes (Fig. 1.3). These centers are regularly spaced along narrow
discrete lineaments. The close spacing of approximately 26 km provides one of the
worlds highest densities of active volcanic centers along a convergent plate margin
[11].
The history of Central America began with the opening of a spreading centre
between North and South America sometime after about 170 Ma and more probably
after 130 Ma following the Late TriassicJurassic break-up of Pangaea (see Chapters 8
and 13). To understand the origin of the Caribbean, it is necessary to identify the nature
and provenance of ophiolites and related JurassicCretaceous sedimentary
complexes within the area (see Chapters 8, 11, 13, and 20). Also important is the
recognition, correlation, and geographic reconstruction of Cretaceous anoxic units and
old reef deposits, including the petrological signature and source of the Albian to
Campanian volcanic arc-like sequences (Fig. 1.4).
Figure 1.4. Simplified geological map of Central America (modified from [14]).
The fragmentation of Pangea as a result of the separation of North and South America,
and the subsequent formation of the Caribbean and Central America, involved complex
movement of crustal blocks and terrains between the two pre-existing continental
masses. Since the earlier work by Schuchert [12], Lloyd [13] and Weyl [14], several
paleogeographical and paleogeotectonic models reconstructing the formation of the
Caribbean-Central American region have been developed. These models fall into two
main categories (see Chapters 8, 11, 13 and 21). The Pacific group of models propose
that the Caribbean plate was formed in the Pacific and was transported into its present
location. Alternative models propose an intra-plate, essentially in situ formation of the
Caribbean between the two Americas. The two sets of models converge at the
beginning of the Cenozoic (see also discussion in [15, 16]). Each model has a solid
geological basis, and it is clear that the similar tectonic, metamorphic, sedimentary,
magmatic, and temporal characteristics of the pre- and post-Mesozoic blocks in the
region, as well as the extrapolation of regional correlations and global paleogeographic
models, indicates an integrated developmental history. Nevertheless, there are still
many unsolved regional geological problems, and in many areas the tectonic
framework of the correlations and interpretations (between the Americas and through
time) is still incomplete and speculative. More detailed studies and greater regional
coordination between countries are necessary.
Central America can be divided into four major structural regions: the Maya,
Chortis, Chorotega and Choc blocks [17, 18] (Fig. 1.1). The Maya block of northern
Guatemala represents the southern margin of the North American continent. The
Chortis block, which encompasses southern Guatemala, Honduras, northern Nicaragua
and the western Nicaraguan rise, has a pre-Mesozoic continental (crystalline)-type crust
(Figs. 1.1 and 1.4). The Chortis block forms the only continental part of the present-day
Caribbean plate and provides a link to the tectonic history of western North America
[19]. Costa Rica and western Panama are part of the Chorotega block and western
Panama is part of the Choc block; both geological provinces comprise oceanic
basement of MesozoicCenozoic age. No Neogene igneous intrusive bodies have been

mapped in eastern Panama, in contrast with the Chorotega block (Fig. 1.4), where
igneous intrusive bodies of various types are numerous. The scarcity of intrusive
Cenozoic bodies within the Choc block serves as an additional criterion to distinguish
this from the Chorotega block [18].
The evolution of the southern part of Central America has been controlled by
subduction since the Upper Cretaceous. The closure of the isthmus of Costa Rica and
Panama appears to have begun as a result of initially subducted oceanic plate followed
by volcanism, which started about 15 Ma and ended about 3 Ma ago. The northern
boundary corresponds to the North Panama deformed belt, which at the latitude of port
Limn changes to a wide and diffuse recent fault system to define the Central Costa
Rica deformed belt.
Many recent studies present high resolution seismic and bathymetric data showing
evidence of current erosional activity by seamount subduction, and by thinning of a
distended upper plate. Cross sections from Nicaragua and Costa Rica indicate that
erosion may extend along much of the Middle America trench [20].
Additional geochronology (biostratigraphic and isotope dating), field mapping
(geological, geomorphological, neotectonics) and geophysical studies are essential for
understanding the geological-geophysical relationships in Central America, which has
a complex history of terranes ansuperimposed orogenies. Reliable high quality isotopic
dates have become avalaible only in the last 15 years, and much work is still in
progress, especially in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. Considerable progress has
also been made in dating major volcanic events, or locally in dating tectonic events
(uplift and faulting movements) and even landslides. The importance of this work
cannot be overemphasized not only from a purely scientific but also from a mineral
exploration and hazard evaluation standpoint.
1.2.1.5 Energy, mineral, and water resources
1.2.1.5.1 Fossil fuel resources
Although Central America is located between two of the worlds most prolific
petroleum systems, in southeastern Mexico and in northern South America (Venezuela
and Colombia), the region is poor in fossil fuel resources (Chapter 30). This limited
potential is inherent in the complex tectonic and volcanic history of the region, which is
generally detrimental to the accumulation of oil and gas in traps. Guatemala is the only
country in Central America that produces appreciable amounts of crude oil,
approximately 22,000 barrels of oil per day, most of which is exported to the United
States for refining, with the remainder consumed locally. Estimated reserves for the
region are extremely small, and are available only for Guatemala, at approximately 530
million barrels of oil. There is no available estimate for the undiscovered oil resource
potential of the region (Chapter 30). Natural gas is not produced in any of the Central
American countries.
Coal and peat resources are of very limited regional importance, although small
deposits of coal (lignite, sub-bituminous coal and bituminous coal) occur in all the
Central America countries except Belize, and peat deposits occur particularly in Belize,
Costa Rica and Panama. As yet there is no commercial peat production, but there is the
potential for other, more extensive peat resources to be discovered (Chapter 31).
11
Table 1.1. Water resources in Central America and other countries [21].
Country
Renewable water resources1)

(m3 per capita)
Total renewable water

resources2) (km3/year)
Belize3)
Guatemala
El Salvador
Honduras
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
71111.1
8788.4
3814.6
13513.2
35142.0
26447.1
46578.5
18.56
111.27
25.23
95.93
196.69
112.40
147.98
Canada
Mexico
U.S.
Brazil
Bahamas
U.K.
Switzerland
Netherlands
South Africa
China
India
Israel
Kuwait
91418.9
4357.3
10333.2
45573.3
63.1
2473.6
7467.9
5607.9
1105.9
2205.6
1754.2
254.6
7.7
2902.00
457.22
2071.00
8233.00
0.02
147.00
53.50
91.00
50.00
2829.57
1896.66
1670.00
0.02
1)
Renewable Water Resources Per Capita gives the maximum theoretical amount of water
actually available, on a per person basis, for each country. In reality, a portion of this water
may be inaccessible to humans. Actual renewable water resources are defined as the sum of
internal renewable resources (IRWR) and external renewable resources (ERWR), taking into
consideration the quantity of flow reserved to upstream and downstream countries through
formal or informal agreements or treaties and possible reduction of external flow due to
upstream water abstraction.
2)
Internal renewable water resources (IRWR) are comprised of the average annual flow of rivers
and recharge of groundwater (aquifers) generated from endogenous (internal) precipitation.
Even though IRWR measures a combination of surface and groundwater resources, it is
typically less than the sum of the two because of overlap water resources that are
common to both surface and groundwater. External renewable water resources (ERWR) are
the portion of the countrys renewable water resources which is not generated within the
country. The ERWR include inflows from upstream countries (groundwater and surface
water), and part of the water of border lakes or rivers. Per capita water resources are
calculated by WRI using 2004 population estimates from the United Nations Population
Division.
3)
Although Belize is very rich in surface and groundwater resources, at present, renewable water
resources cannot be evaluated accurately because the existing data are limited, in particular
with respect to groundwater availability.
1.2.1.5.2 Renewable energy resources

In contrast to fossil fuel resources, Central America is well endowed with major
renewable energy resources such as hydroelectric and geothermal power. The
geothermal resources result from Central Americas location within the so-called Ring
of Fire, the geologically active region around the Pacific Ocean, and make it an
optimal region for high-enthalpy geothermal resources. These geothermal resources are
as yet little utilized, but could theoretically meet the entire electricity demand of the
region, excluding Panama and Belize, and represent a critically important development
opportunity (see Chapters 26 and 29). Gawell et al. [22] estimate that the maximum
electrical generating capacity of the region is about 8.8 GW using todays technology,
and about 13.2 GW using enhanced technology for power generation. The hightemperature geothermal areas occur in a narrow band roughly parallel to the Pacific
coast, which is marked by the occurrence of numerous volcanoes (Fig. 1.3), whereas
low- and middle temperature resources are more extensively distributed (see Chapters
26 and 29).
1.2.1.5.3 Freshwater resources
The Central America region is naturally blessed by a humid tropical climate and water
resources are plentiful including large lakes, mountain-fed rivers and deep aquifers.
Water resources are abundant (Table 1.1) in Central America compared with most of
the world including Mexico, Europe, India and China.
Table 1.2. Groundwater usage of Central American countries and major cities1).
Population2)
(millions)
Groundwater usage
(%)3)
Belize
Belize city
Guatemala
Guatemala city
Honduras
San Pedro Sula
Tegucigalpa
El Salvador
San Salvador
Nicaragua
Managua
Costa Rica
San Jos
Panama
Panama city
0.270
0.070
12.599
2.227
7.205
0.901
0.851
6.881
1.475
5.487
1.281
4.327
1.045
3.232
1.335
<50
ND
>60
90
60704)
60705)
<104)
>80
60
95
100
906)
647)
50
ND
Total
40.0018)
Country/city
1)
2)
7090
3)
Includes surrounding metropolitan area; Countries: [23]; Cities: [24]; Expressed as a % of

total water supply for human consumption (a.k.a. drinking water supply). From [25] except
as indicated; 4)[26]; 5)Enamorado C. (pers. comm. 2004); 6)[27]; 7)[28]; 8)Estimated based on
usage percentage for each country (weighted for total population); ND: no data.
The variation within the region is significant from Belize with 71,111 m3 of renewable
water resources per capita to small, and densely populated, El Salvador with only
3815 m3 per capita (Table 1.1). Note that about two-thirds of the Central American
population lives in the Pacific watersheds, which have only about one-third of the total
water resources. In addition to El Salvador, locally very high population densities can
be found in the valleys and watersheds where the major cities are located.
Central American aquifers are among the most productive and best quality in the
world and the vast majority of the regions population depend on them for their potable
water supply, irrigation water and industrial water supply. Groundwater currently
provides an estimated 8090% of the potable, irrigation and industry water supply for
the Central America region (Table 1.2). This compares to a groundwater usage in the
range of 3050% for most other regions of the world. The relatively high groundwater
dependence in Central America reflects the resources natural high quality, relative
protection from pollution, easy and cheap access, and year-round reliability (especially
13
during the annual dry season, and also in drought periods). Surface waters (streams,
rivers and lakes) are often polluted (especially downgradient of urban areas) and suffer
from low flows during the dry season. The use of surface water for drinking water is
mainly limited to a few large cities with perennial rivers nearby (e.g., San Jos and
Tegucigalpa). In rural areas, families capture springs or dig very shallow wells (which
are often polluted). Although groundwater usage is highest in rural areas, most Central
American cities depend either entirely (Managua) or mostly on groundwater
(Guatemala city, San Pedro Sula, San Salvador, and San Jos) for their potable water
supply.
Table 1.3. Distribution of water use in Central America corresponding to 1.7% of the internal
renewable water resources (IRWR) (annual water use by sector) [22].
Agriculture
Domestic
km3/year % of total
9.4
77
Industrial
km3/year % of total
1.8
15
Total use
km3/year % of total
0.9
km3/year m3/inhab.
12.2
428
Water use is dominated by irrigation and followed by domestic (drinking water,

washing, sanitation, etc.) and industry (Table 1.3). Irrigation and industrial water
supply is mostly obtained from large shallow wells pumped with submersible pumps,
whereas domestic water is obtained from large wells as well as springs and numerous
shallow dug wells (in rural areas).
1.2.1.5.4 Mineral resources (metallic and non-metallic)
One on the first things noted by the early Spanish conquistadores was the great
abundance of gold and silver held by the Amerindians in Central America and other
Latin American countries, and it was these riches that led to the initial wave of
European immigration to this region.
Central America is host to a variety of metallic mineral resources including gold,
silver, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, cobalt, antimony, tungsten, and aluminum. Precious
metal production comes largely from epithermal quartz veins (e.g., Talavera, Bonanza,
and La Libertad, Nicaragua), vein stockworks (e.g., Marlin, Guatemala), and from
skarn deposits (e.g., La Luz, Nicaragua) (details and locations see Chapter 32). Base
metal production comes largely from skarn and replacement deposits (e.g., Mochito,
Honduras). Most of Central Americas copper endowment is hosted by two large
porphyry copper deposits (Cerro Colorado and the Petaquilla district in Panama)
(details see Chapter 32). In addition, erosion and weathering has produced alluvial
gold, lateritic nickel, and bauxite (aluminum) deposits (Chapter 32).
Currently, the mineral endowment of Central America totals 34 M ounces of gold,
276 M ounces of silver, 15.3 M tons copper, 2 M tons lead plus zinc, 0.9 M tons nickel,
0.09 M tons antimony, and 130 M tons of aluminum. Only Belize has no established
metallic mineral resources. It is worthwhile to note that placer deposits represent a
significant portion of historic gold production, particularly in Costa Rica and Panama.
Important gold discoveries during the past 25 years have come largely in response to
improvements in heap leach technology. In addition, substantial new information is
available for a number of the porphyry copper districts (e.g., Petaquilla and Cerro
Chorcha, Panama). Porphyry copper and lateritic nickel deposits, some quite large,
have yet to be developed (Chapter 32).
In general, the active non-metallic mineral sector of Central America includes the
mining of industrial rocks and minerals, salt, and the production of cement (see Chapter
33).
In the past, mining operations have been affected by civilian disturbances, labor
problems, and difficulty in securing political risk insurance and financing (e.g.,
Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua). With improvements in security,
financing, and market price conditions, the mineral industry can be expected to attract
new exploration capital, which could lead to important economic contributions to the
regions economy.
1.2.1.5.5 Geological tourism destination
Central America is a region with abundant geological resources of interest to tourists
such as volcanoes, crater lakes and thermal springs. These resources have important
potential for social and economic development of the region (see Chapter 34). These
resources are relatively well developed in Costa Rica and Belize. Inadequate
infrastructure, initiatives, governmental support, etc., hinder their development in other
countries.
1.2.2 Biological traits and resources

1.2.2.1 Land cover and forests
Figure 1.5a shows the map of major land cover in Central America. For 19901995,
62% of the total area of agricultural lands was under permanent pastures; 22%, mixed
production systems; 10%, permanent crops; and 6%, annual crops. Using other
information sources [2933] to observe trends in the extent of land cover and
production systems, shows that in 1980, permanent pastures accounted for 62%; annual
crops 32%; and permanent crops 6%, compared with 72%, 14%, and 14%,
respectively, for 19901995. In other words, with the modernization and intensification
of agroecosystems, production systems have tended to homogenize with a
predominance of permanent crops for export and permanent pastures, which are also
located on the best soils and in the more accessible areas.
These changes, however, are part of cycles of expansion-contraction, depending on
medium- and long-term structural factors, for example agroecological potential, access
to new lands, and land tenure. Short-term circumstantial factors are also important;
these include changes in the market and in international and national prices, fiscal and
agricultural policies, structural adjustments, and the opening of economies in the
region.
This explains why cotton-growing areas have almost disappeared, while not only
the area planted to bananas but also the production figures have doubled in the last 15
years. Furthermore, not only have the areas planted to annual crops decreased, but their
yields per hectare have remained stable. This is due to the lack of improved technology
or difficult access to technology, and the continuous displacement of annual crops
toward marginal areas, the only exception being rice. In addition to the loss of diversity
of production systems, this situation has lead to reduced food security, increased rural
poverty, and a marked dependency on the agro export sector.
Figure 1.2a shows the actual situation of forest cover in Central America. The
region is losing its forests at a rate of 1.6% per year (or 341,000 ha/year) [34].
15
Figure 1.5. (a) Land cover (modified after [6, 30]; (b) Potential agricultural yields (modified after
[38]); (c) Coastal resources (modified after [33, 39]); (d) Population density [43].
17
Generally, when deforestation is analyzed in Central America, the emphasis is on

tropical and subtropical moist forests (closed forests) while tropical and subtropical dry
forests (open forests) are ignored. Thus, for example, in the case of the tropical dry
forests of Central America, natural forests today make up only 4% of the original area.
Currently, forestry and conservation policies concentrate almost exclusively on
tropical moist forests, without taking into account zones with high deterioration and
forest-loss levels. In these overloaded zones, it is crucial to assess the value, potential,
and possible loss of forest and biodiversity. As for reforestation, the policy challenge is
tremendous because for each hectare cultivated, more than 10 natural hectares are
deforested. The average reforestation-to-deforestation ratio is 1:30. Clearly, forest
exploitation is mainly selective. Even though the exploited area doubled between 1970
and 1990, harvest intensity remained stable at 8 m3/ha (i.e., 5% of the gross standing
volume), compared to 38 m3/ha in Asia and 12 m3/ha in Africa [35].
1.2.2.2 Land uses and productivity
Croplands are under-utilized because, although 85% of the region can yield 2.5 annual
harvests of short-cycled crops, only 65% of the cultivated area is harvested [36]. In
Central America, 40 to 60% of the croplands show erosion problems [29, 31]. Despite
the expansion of improved grasses and the intensification of the livestock sector in
recent years, the use of lands for livestock activities in Central America has been
characterized by low efficiency, small yields and low stocking rates (only 0.6 animals
per hectare) [37]. The 1990s have been marked by the phenomenon of cattle being
raised in traditionally agricultural areas.
Figure 1.5b shows the level of land use management/intensification for Central
America. Although deforestation has decreased in some areas, in others it has increased
because of increased cultivation of permanent crops and livestock production. The
intensification in areas under permanent crops (i.e., banana and sugarcane) has
increased the use of inputs, thus contaminating waters and soils while also affecting
human health [29]. Furthermore, these changes go beyond the simple conversion of
forests and marginal lands, creating genuine poles of attraction and development. For
example, in Costa Rica the banana sector accounts for 13% of national agricultural
employment, but covers less than 10% of total agricultural lands [29, 37]. Plant health
problems and changes in product prices can, however, turn these booms into a problem,
making the agricultural and livestock sector more vulnerable to cyclic behavior and
reducing food security.
In many areas, improved management and intensification has led to increased meat
and milk production using less land thus curtailing the expansion of the agricultural
frontier. Another beneficial result is a decrease in soil degradation in these areas. To
increase productivity, however, changes have been made that have displaced several
traditional crops, such as shade-grown coffee, for systems that are more productive but
have a greater impact on the environment, for example nonshaded coffee [40]. Changes
in production systems are also related to consumption pattern trends. In Central
America, meat, milk, and chicken fed with imported grain show the most important
increase in food consumption. Cattle raising continues to be the production system by
which small and intermediate producers can save and accumulate capital. However, of
the 12 million hectares under pasture, 4 million have been abandoned or left fallow
[29]. As depicted in Figure 1.5b, if we consider potential agricultural productivity for
the various ecoregions of Central America, the land needed to feed projected
populations using low inputs in agriculture would not be available in 2030 except in
Panama. The situation in Central America improves a little if an intermediate level of
inputs is used; only Guatemala and El Salvador will fall short of farmland and food.
The high use of agricultural inputs would solve the food problem in most countries in
the region, though the intensive use of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides entails
economic, health-related, and environmental problems of its own. The potential for
expanding agriculture is evidently low in Central America.
1.2.2.3 Biodiversity and ecosystems
Biological diversity constitutes one of the main resources for development. In Central
America, biological diversity is not limited to the existence of numerous plant and
animal species (Table 1.4). The region also contains a great variety of habitats and
ecosystems. For these reasons the real wealth of the region is this biodiversity, with
high rates of endemism (14% of the total species are endemics). Estimations show that
Central America contains 7% of global biodiversity, with for example 20,000 of the
250,000 global total botanical species [29].
Table 1.4. Biodiversity: Number of species known by 2000 [41].
Guatemala
Mammals
Birds
Reptiles
Amphibes
Fishes
Plants
250
458
231
99
220
8681
Honduras El Salvador
173
422
152
56
46
5680
135
251
73
23
16
2911
Nicaragua Costa Rica
Panama
205
600
214
162
130
12119
218
732
226
164
101
9915
200
482
161
59
50
7950
This great biodiversity notwithstanding, about 90% of all regional agricultural

production comes from the use of only 15 cultivated species, and most of these
originate from rather homogenous genotypes developed to obtain high yields a
process that invites genetic erosion at the very time that important food crops are being
abandoned, especially those on hillsides where peasant agriculture predominates.
One of the most important yet relatively unknown components of biodiversity is
agro-biodiversity. Agro-biodiversity allows agricultural systems to preserve stability,
increase adaptability and maintain resistance. The establishment of protected areas,
urban growth and changes in agricultural practices have important and irreversible
effects on agro-biodiversity. For example, the distribution of wild species of beans
(native species from Mexico, Central America and the Andes) shows that the majority
of areas with high diversity are actually located in urban, accessible and not protected
areas, exposing agro-biodiversity to loss and degradation. These spatial patterns need
to be taken into account to plan protected areas and define biodiversity conservation
strategies and actions.
1.2.2.4 Coasts and seas
Central America with more than 6000 km of coasts and 240,000 km2 of continental
platform contains more than 500,000 ha of mangroves and 1600 km of coral reefs.
Important economic activities (fisheries and aquaculture, tourism, intensive agriculture,
urbanization and human population centers; Fig. 1.5c) are exposing these sensitive
areas to increasing stress and pressures on natural resources. Thus, for example, 25% of
19
the total population lives in coastal areas that generate from fisheries more than 750
million US$ and 200,000 jobs [29]. Income from tourism represent 28% of total
regional exports in 1995, when 2.5 million tourists visited the region generating 1200
million US$. The principal tourist destinations were coastal areas and protected areas
[29, 42]. Some coastal lowlands are the most productive lands for agriculture with
important surfaces in banana, African palm, rice and livestock.
The coastal areas and seas generate important economic benefits for the region.
During the 1990s, fisheries generated 200,000 tons from marine captures and 23,000
tons from shrimp aquaculture per year that generated from export more than 250
million US$ [29]. Nevertheless, the high level of economic activity and population
generates, among others, pollution and waste problems, reconversion of wilderness
areas, overexploitation of marine and forests species and erosion along the coasts.
1.3
THE CHANGING NATURE OF THE ENVIRONMENT
1.3.1 Socioeconomic traits and resources

1.3.1.1 Population, social dynamics and human development
Between 1950 and 2000, population growth rates were high, with annual growth rates
of 3% in most countries of Central America (Fig. 1.5d; Table 1.5). Projected population
growth rates are less than 2.3% per year for the next 20 years. At these rates, the
current population of 35 million will increase to about 50 million in 2025. However,
land area in Central America is not evenly populated and densities vary from less than
8 people per square kilometer to more than 250 people per square kilometer. Mountain
and coastal areas now boast more than 70% of the total population. Tropical moist
forests are home to less to 20% of the total population.
Population dynamics in Central America, as for Latin America in general, have
changed sharply during recent decades. In the 1950s and 1960s, population increased
significantly in the cities. In the 1970s and 1980s, a process of expansion of the
agricultural frontier has taken place, along with efforts to integrate isolated regions into
the national economies. During the 1990s the urbanization process characterizes
population dynamics. While the total regional population grew at 3% per year in the
period 19502000, the urban population increased 6 times while the rural population
multiplied by only 2. Currently, approximately 50% of the population lives in rural
areas, while in 2025 only 30% of the total population will still live in rural areas.
In Central America there are marked differences in public spending on social
programs. In countries such as Costa Rica and Panama, during 1996 and 1997, per
capita social spending was over US$ 550 per year, while in Guatemala, Honduras and
Nicaragua, the amount did not surpass US$ 100 per year. In terms of Gross Internal
Product (GIP), Costa Rica and Panama allotted at least 20% to the social sector, while
countries such as El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras, assigned less than 10% of the
GIP to these sectors.
A standardized evaluation of the stage of human development and a countrys
future goals can be performed using the human development index HDI, which is
based on life expectancy, life quality, education and GDP. The HDI values (Table 1.5)
indicate that Central American countries have very different levels of human
development. According to their HDI, the countries can be divided into three groups,
those with a high HDI (Costa Rica, Belize), middle HDI (Panama, El Salvador), and
low HDI (Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua) [1] (Table 1.5).
Considering the human poverty index HPI-1 (Table 1.5), Central American
countries can be divided in three groups: Costa Rica, Belize and Panama have an HPI-1
of less than 10%, followed the middle HPI-1 group of El Salvador (17.2%) and
Honduras (19.9%), and the high HPI-1 group of Guatemala (22.9%) and Nicaragua
(24.3%) (Table 1.5). An analysis of the quality of life and well-being of the population
in the region indicates sharp differences. Life expectancy varies from 65.6 years in
Guatemala to 76.6 years in Costa Rica and rates of illiteracy vary from 45% in
Guatemala to 6% in Costa Rica (Table 1.5). With respect to poverty, 30% of urban
regional population is poor and more than 60% of rural population is below the poverty
line.
When considering HDI or HPI values and the other aforementioned development
parameters, it must be remembered that these are average values and that they may
vary significantly within single countries. Differences exist between rural and urban
areas, as already outlined, as well as by region, county and municipality. In Figure
1.6a, the incidence of total poverty is plotted using data from region, county, or
municipality scale. The figure shows that the number of persons living in poverty
exceeds 50%. The lowest total poverty values are found in the vicinity of the respective
countrys capitals; the only exception is Honduras. Figure 1.6a shows the relative
distribution of the poor in Central America. Thirty percent of Central Americas poor
live in Guatemala and Nicaragua [41]. Although, the large urban areas and their
vicinities show, with the exception of the case of Honduras, lower incidence of
poverty, it must be considered that these areas are the most densely populated. This
hides the fact that huge numbers of poor people (15.4% of Central American poor and
11.6% of all Central Americans) live in urban areas. Figure 1.6a combines the
incidence level of extreme poverty with the relative distribution of people living in
extreme poverty. Thereby, it can be recognized that 51.5% of the extreme poor live in
areas characterized by a high concentration of extreme poor. On the other hand, 12.2%
of the extreme poor are living in areas with a low percentage of extreme poor.
All these above outlined numbers indicate clearly the urgent need to meet as soon
as possible the goals to accelerate human development, as these goals were formulated
and approved in the Development Agenda Freedom from Want of the Millennium
Declaration of September 2000, signed by 147 heads of government [44], in particular:
Extreme poverty and hunger: To halve, by 2015, the proportion of the worlds
people (currently 22% worldwide, 18% in Central America) whose income is less
than one dollar a day.
Water: To halve, by 2015, the proportion of people who do not have access to safe
drinking water (currently 20% worldwide, in Central America 15%).
Education: To narrow the gender gap in primary and secondary education by 2005;
and to ensure that, by 2015, all children complete a full course of primary
education. By 2015, all children must complete primary schooling, with equal
opportunities for both genders at all levels of education.
HIV/AIDS: To halt, and begin to reverse, the spread of HIV/AIDS by 2015.
Clearing the slums: to endorse and act upon the Cities Without Slums plan
launched by the World Bank and United Nations to improve the lives of 100
million slum dwellers by 2020.
21
Figure 1.6. (a) Poverty by regions (modified after [41]); (b) Accessibility and climate (modified
after [6]); (c) Accessibility to markets (modified after [6]); (d, e) Conservation condition and
protected areas (modified after [5, 6]).
23
Guatemala
Belize
Honduras
El Salvador
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
Table 1.5. Population, social dynamics, social equity, and human development indicators.
6.0
11.7
12.3
16.2
0.1
0.2
-0.3
3.0
6.6
7.0
8.8
4.1
6.3
6.6
7.6
2.5
5.2
5.5
7.0
2.1
4.0
4.2
5.0
1.7
3.0
3.1
3.8
36.7
40.0
46.2
50.2
48.1
51.7
32.1
53.6
64.3
41.5
61.3
73.2
48.9
56.5
62.6
42.5
59.5
66.5
49.0
56.6
61.7
Population density2)
(inhabitants per km2)
1990
2000
2003
80
105
113
8
11
--
44
58
62
243
289
317
32
42
46
60
77
82
32
39
40
Annual population growth rate1, 6) (%)

19752001
20002015
2.6
2.3
2.3
1.8
3.0
2.0
1.6
1.3
2.8
2.1
2.6
1.6
2.1
1.7
--- 0.522 0.595

0.514
-0.551 0.709 0.571 0.595
-0.587 0.749 0.626 0.653
0.652 0.776 0.667 0.719 0.643
121
105
115
67
119
0.749
0.774
0.794
0.832
42
0.710
0.729
0.745
0.788
59
Total population (millions)1)

1975
2001
20032)
2015
urban population (% of total)5)
1975
2001
2015
Human development index HDI1, 7)

1975
1980
1990
2001
HDI world rank 20018)
Human poverty index HPI-11)
value 20019)
rank 200110)
Life expectancy at birth1, 11) (years)
197019753)
200020054)
Infant mortality rate1, 12)
(per 1000 live births)
19703)
20014)
Under five mortality rate1, 13)
(per 1000 live births)
19703)
20014)
Probability at birth not to survive a
age of 60 years1, 14)
(% of cohort 20002005)
22.9
43
8.8
12
19.9
38
17.2
32
24.3
44
4.4
4
7.8
9
53.7
65.8
67.6
71.4
53.8
68.9
58.2
70.7
55.1
69.5
67.8
78.1
66.2
74.7
115
43
56
34
116
31
111
33
113
36
62
9
46
19
168
58
77
40
170
38
162
39
165
43
83
11
68
25
28.7
20.0
25.6
21.9
22.9
10.9
15.0
Mortality rate in children under 5

years4) (deaths per 1000 births)
2000
1990
1960
59.0 41.0 40.0 40.0 45.0 12.0

82.0 49.0 61.0 60.0 66.0 16.0
202.0 104.0 204.0 191.0 193.0 112.0
26.0
34.0
88.0
Total poverty2, 15) 2000/2001

total
urban areas
rural areas
2000
56.2
27.1
74.5
2000
40.5
23.4
68.9
2002
--3) 71.6
-- 63.4
-- 78.5
2000
45.5
35.3
59.9
2001
45.8
30.1
67.8
2001
22.9
18.6
28.5
Extreme poverty2, 15) 2000

total
urban areas
rural areas
15.7
2.8
23.8
----
53.0
32.5
70.4
19.8
11.1
31.9
15.1
6.2
27.4
23.0
10.8
35.1
26.5
11.1
52.2
Population living on less than 1

US$/day4, 16) (%) 199499
10.0
--
24.3
21.0
--
12.6
14.0
Children less than 5 years age with

insufficient weight1, 17) (%) 1995
2001
24.0
6.027) 25.0
12.0
12.0
5.0
7.0
92.0
--
88.0
83.0
77.0
66.0
77.0
70.0
95.0
--
90.0
--
98.0 100.0
-88.0
95.0
89.0
91.0
88.0
91.0
93.0
99.0
--
99.0
--
88.0
69.0
82.0
--
81.0
78.0
64.0
48.0
59.0
44.0
92.0
--
79.0
--
81.0
70.0
50.0
--
75.0
61.0
82.0
73.0
85.0
76.0
93.0
--
92.0
--
83.0 71.00
-82.0
93.0
81.0
89.0
87.0
95.0
97.0
89.0
--
99.0
--
79.0
62.0
25.0
--
55.0
41.0
76.0
62.0
72.0
53.0
97.0
--
83.0
--
0.65
0.88
0.71
0.74
0.66
0.86
0.86
72
81
86
91
91
100
67.2
66.9
62.8
95.8
95.7
93.9
92.3
92.1
89.0
11
20
8
13
3132)
2935)
Population with access to improved

water supply4, 18) (% of population)
total
2000
1990
urban areas
2000
1990
rural areas
2000
1990
Population with access to improved
sanitation4, 19) (% of population)
total
2000
1990
urban areas
2000
1990
rural areas
2000
1990
Education index, 20011, 20)
Net primary enrolment ratio
19901991
20002001
1, 21)
92.0
76.0
(%)
Literacy rate (adults)4, 22) (%)

2002
2000
1990
Youth unemployment1, 23)
(% of labor force)
1990, age group 1524
2001, age group 1524
-84
70.0
69.3
61.1
431)
333)
Diseases1) (per 100,000 people)

386
reported malaria cases, 200024)
48
reported tuberculosis cases, 200125)
people with HIV/AIDS 200126)
1.00
total (%) of, age range 1549
27000
woman, age range 1549
4800
children, age range 014
Technology diffusion and creation1)
(per 1000 people)
Telephone mainlines
1990
2001
21
65
9828)
100
93.7
93.4
89.1
-2334)
8928)
88
75.7
75.1
68.5
1132)
7
7529)
8130)
97.7
79.2
72.5
1732)
1834)
541
46
11
36
402
35
42
7
36
28
1.6
2.00
1000 27000
180 3000
0.6
6300
830
0.2
1500
210
0.55
2800
320
1.5
8700
800
17
47
24
102
13
29
101
230
93
130
657
18
92
143
25
Cellular subscribers
1990
2001
Internet users
1990
2001
Personal computers in use
1990
2001
-97
0
159
0
36
0
134
0
30
0
76
0
164
-17.1
-73
-13.8
-23.4
-14.4
-93.4
-41.5
-1.3
-13.4
-1.2
-2.2
-2.5
-17
-3.8
Sources: 1)[1], 2)[41], 3)not yet found, 4)[45].

Parameter definitions, conventions, etc.: 5)Urban Population corresponds to the midyear
population of areas classified as urban according to the criteria used by each country, as
reported to the United Nations; 6)Refers to the average annual exponential growth rate for the
period indicated; 7)The Human Development Index HDI is a composite index measuring
average achievement in three basic dimensions of human development a long and healthy
life, knowledge and a decent standard of living. Calculated from life expectancy index,
education index, and GDP index; 8)HDI world rank: Ranking within a list of 175 countries,
where in 2001 Norway had the highest value (0.944), and Sierra Leone the lowest (0.275);
9)
The Human Poverty Index HPI-1 is a composite index measuring deprivations in the three
basic dimensions captured in the human development index; calculated from the parameters:
(1) probability at birth not surviving to age of 40, (2) adult illiteracy rate, (3) population
without sustainable access to an improved water source, and (4) children under weight under
age 5; 10)HPI-1 rank: Ranking within a list of 94 developing countries, where in 2001
Barbados had lowest value (2.5%), and Niger Leone the highest (61.8%); 11)Life expectancy
at birth: The number of years a newborn infant would live if prevailing patterns of agespecific mortality rates at the time of birth were to stay the same throughout the childs life;
12)
The probability of dying between birth and exactly one year of age, expressed per 1000
live births; 13)The probability of dying between birth and exactly five years of age, expressed
per 1000 live births; 14)Probability at birth not to survive a age of 60; 15)Total poverty and
extreme poverty: see reference 2; 16)Population living below $1/day is the percent of the
population of a country living on less than US$1.08 a day at 1993 international prices,
(equivalent to $1 in 1985 prices, adjusted for purchasing power parity); 17)Includes moderate
underweight, defined as more than two standard deviations below the median weight for age
of the reference population, and severe underweight, defined as more than three standard
deviations below the median weight; 18)An improved water source includes any of the
following types of drinking water sources: household connections, public standpipes,
boreholes, protected dug wells, protected springs, rainwater collection; at least 20 liters per
person per day of this water must be available within one kilometer of a users dwelling;
19)
Improved sanitation includes any of the following excreta disposal facilities: connection to
a public sewer, connection to a septic tank, pour-flush latrine, simple pit latrine, and
ventilated improved pit latrine; 20)The education index is based on the adult literacy rate and
the combined primary, secondary and tertiary gross enrolment ratio; 21)Net primary
enrolment ratio: the number of students enrolled in the primary level of education who are of
official school age for that level, as a percentage of the population of official school age for
that level; 22)The adult literacy rate is defined as the percentage of the population aged 15
years and over who can both read and write with understanding a short, simple statement on
their everyday life; 23)Youth unemployment refers to unemployment between the ages of 15
or 16 and 24, depending on the national definitions; 24)The total number of malaria cases
reported to the World Health Organization by countries in which malaria is endemic.
Remark: Many countries report only laboratory-confirmed cases; 25)The total number of
tuberculosis cases reported to the World Health Organization; a tuberculosis case is defined
as a patient in whom tuberculosis has been bacteriologically confirmed or diagnosed by a
clinician; 26)people living with HIV/AIDS: The estimated number of people or gender groups
with HIV/AIDS at the end of the year specified.
Other remarks: 27)Data refer to a year or period other than that specified, differ from the
standard definition or refer to only part of a country, 28)data refer to the 1991/92 school year,
29)
data refer to the 1992/93 school year, 30)data refer to the 1999/2000 school year, 31)data
refer to 1989, 32)data refer to 1991, 33)data refer to 2002, 34)data refer to 1999, 35)data: 2000.
1.3.1.2 Economy and economic dynamics

Central America historically has depended mainly on agricultural production.
However, industry and commerce have acquired positions of equal or greater
importance in most countries of the region. In recent years, tourism has also grown
significantly, surpassing the agricultural sector in its contribution to the
macroeconomic indicators in half of the countries of the region.
During the 1990s new economic conditions had great impacts on Central American
countries. These included liberalization of foreign trade and financial markets,
reduction of state regulations, privatization of public companies and services, more
flexible labor relations and also the extension of property rights into new areas [1].
In consequence, patterns of foreign trade and exports have been modified, opening
economies, leaving a number of national industrial and agricultural sectors unprotected
and increasing the export of raw materials and agricultural products. Agricultural
sectors expanded with redevelopment that promoted the export of crops, but only those
for specific consumption niches in developed countries (for example fruits and ecolabeled coffee). The amount of imports, in US$, is two times the amount of exports and
the external debt is around 30,000 million US$, four times the regions total annual
exports (see Table 1.6).
In general economic growth in the 1990s was volatile and reflected a pattern of
increased dependence on foreign finance, in particular associated with the boom in
asset privatization [1].
In the service sector, the agricultural GDP (gross domestic product) continues to
decline from more than 30% of regional GDP in the 1970s to less than 20% of GDP in
2000. The tourism industry grew to become one of the most important sectors for
Central American economies (more than 5% of the regional 2001 GDP in comparison
with the coffee sector that accounts for less than 5% of regional 2001 GDP) (see Table
1.6). Nevertheless, this new economic sector places great pressure on the environment,
in particular on the coastal zones, although increases in ecotourism can help to cushion
this impact. Thus, for example, the tourism industry has helped to reduce
unemployment and mitigate poverty; it has also spurred the construction of large-scale
tourist complexes in or near sites whose carrying capacity cannot support the impact of
large volumes of visitors.
Although agriculture in Central America, including agro-industries, continues to
generate an important part of the regional GDP (see Table 1.6), the mismanagement
and misuse of lands is at the heart of the problem of increased poverty, rural migration,
and rapid degradation of the natural resource base.
Historically, two characteristics of agriculture management in Central America
have been extensive agricultural and livestock activities and an expansion of the
agricultural frontier. However, as of the 1990s, agroecosystem use and management
have tended more towards the modernization and intensification of agriculture. This is
particularly valid for export products because a high percentage of agricultural
production continues to consist of so-called wage benefits [46, 47]. Concentration of
land in a few hands continues to characterize the regions agricultural structure.
Concentration indices have not only remained practically unchanged since 1950,
but are also the highest worldwide [50]. For example, in Central America, 44% of
farms are under peasant agriculture but these farms cover only 6% of the total
agricultural land [51].
27
Panama
723 1133
2566 3899
2916 4803
5950 11401
7358 13850
Costa Rica
53
185
403
773
931
Nicaragua
Honduras
El Salvador
Belize
Guatemala
Table 1.6. Indicators of economy and economic development.
GDP (million current US$)

19701)
19802)
19902)
20002)
20042)
1904
7879
7609
18859
19676
GDP (PPP) (million US$)

19751)
19802)
19902)
20002)
20042)
8451
17186
28382
52177
65535
162 2663 7839 4875 4807 3090

276 4665 6812 5191 7852 7005
666 8967 10444 6849 15600 12142
1249 15175 20165 11788 30632 22975
1493 18694 24188 14437 35504 26696
0.133
0.106
0.117
0.116
0.002
0.002
0.003
0.003
0.036
0.033
0.034
0.034
0.053
0.039
0.045
0.044
0.04
0.026
0.026
0.026
0.061
0.058
0.069
0.065
0.054
0.045
0.052
0.049
5.2
5.3
0.9
4.1
3.5
5.5
7.5
4.9
4.6
4.4
4.5
5.1
2.5
3.3
2.5
5.3
2.1
0.2
3.2
3.0
6.3
0.4
1.3
3.3
3.7
5.7
5.3
2.8
5.2
2.5
7.3
3.9
1.6
5.13
3.0
GDP (PPP)2) share of world total

(%)
1980
1990
2000
2004
GDP constant prices
average annual change (%)
196119703)
197119803)
198119904)
199120004)
20042)
Total external debt1)
(million current US$)
1970
1980
1990
2000
159.3
1179.9
3080.4
4622.1
989 1016
779
1411 4831 3810
1564 5707 5313
2412 15957 11938
2705 18617 13256
4.1 110.6 182.5 202.8 287.1 228.9

63.0 1472.5 911.1 2192.9 2744.1 2974.5
153.8 3718.1 2148.7 10744.7 3755.6 6506.2
499.0 5487.2 4023.2 7018.5 4465.8 7055.9
Total external debt

as percent of GDP5)
(current US$) prices
1970
1980
1990
2000
8.4
15.0
40.5
24.5
7.7
34.1
38.2
64.6
15.3
57.4
127.5
92.2
16.1
23.4
44.7
35.3
26.0
155.4
687.0
291.0
29.0
56.8
65.8
28.0
22.5
78.1
122.5
59.1
GDP per capita (current US$)

19701)
19802)
19902)
20002)
20042)
363
1139
827
1564
1471
434
1234
2120
3177
3545
279
695
601
917
1025
315
864
914
1817
2046
367
517
405
477
481
571
2147
1909
4058
4386
675
2005
2201
4193
4348
GDP (PPP) per capita (US$)

19751)
19802)
19902)
20002)
20042)
1404
2484
3085
4327
4899
1210
1841
3504
5133
5685
883
1264
1848
2339
2604
1903
1510
1987
3214
3573
1952
1902
1774
2331
2567
2442
3490
5218
7790
8364
1793
3686
5030
8070
8756
GDP percent from agriculture,

annual averages21)
196119703)
197119803)
198119903)
199120003)
20001)
-27.910)
-27.0
21.9
25.6
19.6
24.2
21.4
22.8
37.8
28.6
21.4
20.8
17.8
41.4
38.6
25.9
13.2
10.1
24.310)
24.3
25.5
31.5
32.3
26.6
22.3
22.8
12.5
9.4
--8.7
7.5
6.8
GDP percent from industry,

annual averages21)
196119703)
197119803)
198119903)
199120003)
20001)
-18.310)
-20.0
26.1
20.3
26.3
19.9
27.0
19.9
20.2
23.9
24.4
30.1
31.6
23.0
24.4
24.0
28.2
30.2
24.410)
27.8
28.5
22.1
22.6
24.9
30.1
31.3
30.4
31.2
--17.2
16.8
17.0
GDP percent from manufacturing,

annual averages21)
196119703)
197119803)
198119903)
199120003)
20001)
-15.310)
-15.9
17.6
15.7
15.4
14.1
17.4
13.2
12.8
15.3
14.9
18.2
20.0
18.9
18.9
18.5
22.1
23.4
18.210)
21.7
22.9
16.3
14.4
19.410)
--21.9
10.0
23.9
8.6
23.3
7.6
24.4
GDP percent from services,

annual averages21)
196119703)
197119803)
198119903)
199120003)
20001)
-53.810)
-53.1
52.1
54.1
54.2
56.0
51.6
57.3
42.1
47.6
54.2
49.1
50.7
35.7
37.0
50.2
58.6
59.6
51.410)
48.0
46.0
46.4
45.1
48.5
47.5
45.9
57.1
59.4
--74.1
75.7
76.3
Total exports1, 22)

(million current US$)
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
132
354
1748
1609
3881
--108
257
448
72
202
930
1108
2497
127
281
1221
892
3589
54
208
520
252
76113)
109
278
1279
1976
7649
--1933
2042
3391
Export as percent of GDP,

annual averages22)
196119703)
197119803)
198119903)
199120003)
20001)
15.8
21.2
15.6
18.3
20.0
--56.3
52.2
46.9
26.0
33.1
26.9
39.9
42.3
24.5
32.4
20.9
21.8
27.6
26.8
31.3
18.9
29.7
40.2
25.1
29.4
35.7
40.5
48.3
--39.1
36.3
33.1
Export of agricultural goods as

percent of total exports,
annual averages23)
197119803)
198119903)
199120003, 17)
19961)
16.4
9.7
4.8
5.0
4.8
3.3
2.4
1.0
12.5
5.8
3.4
3.0
11.9
4.7
0.9
0.9
26.6
23.712)
7.9
4.7
1.0
2.9
5.3
6.7
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.5
Export of food as percent of total

exports, annual averages24)
198119903)
199120003, 11)
20001)
54.5
43.5
39.1
56.9
37.2
37.8
70.3
51.1
31.3
50.8
40.0
34.7
57.112) 53.3
39.9
62.8
66.113) 23.0
12.8
16.5
18.7
29
Trade in forest products, export

value1, 25) (1000 US$)
1961
1970
1980
1990
2000
1240
2820
22640
12970
19580
2980
1100
1730
1060
3760
440
30 3030
7520
400 3820 1680
13280
920 4080 21900
32010
18620 2720 2290 12120
45860 10620 22250 21660
Trade: manufacturing products as

percent of total exports,
annual averages26)
197119803)
198119903)
199120003, 11)
19971)
24.1
23.9
29.8
30.2
Trade: metal exports as percent of

total exports, annual averages27)
197119803)
198119903)
199120003, 11)
19971)
1.2
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.018)
0.017)
0.116)
0.1
56
Electrification6)
(% of population)
Total electricity production6)
2000 (GWh/year)
Electricity demand growth rate6)
forecast 20002020 (%/year)
Coffee production7)
Share of GDP (%)
1990
2000
Share of total export
1990
2000
Employees (1000 persons) 2000
Tourism industry28)
export value1)
(current million US$)
1990
1995
2001
Share of total exports8) (%)
1990
1995
2001
Share of GDP8) (%)
1990
1995
2001
Share of total employments7)
2002 (%)
Inversion of capital7)
2002 (million US$)
Share of total inversion of
country7) 2002
1)
2)
3)
120
260
1060
3760
7670
28.8
30.0
42.5
38.8
15.5
8.812)
17.0
24.6
7.5
4.4
1.7
3.0
1.3
2.2
2.5
1.9
1.5
0.412)
1.8
1.1
0.1
0.6
1.015)
1.214)
0.9
1.4
1.1
1.7
--
50
65
52
80
67
5348
--
3547
3327
2265
6935
6691
--
7
4.1
to 10 to 7.35
4.8
to 6.1
4.9
4.2
---
7.4
8.2
4.5
2.5
4.4
7.2
2.0
1.3
---
20.2
16.6
700
----
20.2
16.6
300
37.9
10.5
160
20.4
23.3
280
18.1
4.7
200
----
185
277
493
44
77
121
29
107
26219)
18
41
235
12
50
109
275
660
1278
172
367
626
11.5
9.8
12.9
17.1
26.1
27.3
2.6
6.2
10.519)
2.0
2.0
5.9
4.8
13.9
8.6
15.0
11.820) 18.6
8.4
12.5
18.4
2.4
1.9
2.6
10.9
13.1
15.0
1.0
2.7
4.419)
0.4
0.5
2.0
0.8
2.6
4.2
4.8
5.6
7.8
3.2
4.6
5.2
6.6
--
8.6
5.8
7.9
14.0
10.7
375.7
--
179.6
237.0
58.4
608.9
379.3
10.4
--
12.2
9.6
6.9
17.1
12.4
19.2
8.7
17.1
7.1
15.616) 16.9
27.5
12.7
4)
22.7
6.7
25.1
14.8
25.615) 17.8
25.414) 17.4
Sources: [45], [48], calculated from WRI annual data [45], calculated from IMF annual
data [48], 5)calculated from GDP and total external debt data of the same table, 6)[49], 7)[41],
8)
calculated from GDP in current prices from IMF [48], and total exports from WRI [45],
Remarks: 9)not included, 10)19651970 period, 11)data from 199197, 12)no data from 1987
included, 13)1998 value, 14)1996 value, 15)without 1997 value, 16)without 1991 value,
17)
without 1986 value, 18)no value for 1973, 19)2000 value, 20)1998 value.
Parameter definitions and other comments: 21)The sector-wise shares of GDP as percentage
from total GDP (constant 1995 US$) measures the percent of total output of goods and
services which are a result of value added by the agriculture, industrial, manufacturing, and
the service sectors respectively1). These goods and services are for final use occurring within
the domestic territory of a given country, regardless of the allocation to domestic and foreign
claims1). Value added is the net output of a sector after adding up all outputs and subtracting
intermediate inputs1). It is calculated without making deductions for depreciation of
fabricated assets or depletion and degradation of natural resources. The industrial origin of
value added is determined by the International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC)
revision 31). Agriculture corresponds to ISIC divisions 15 and includes forestry and
fishing1). Industry corresponds to ISIC divisions 1045 and includes manufacturing (ISIC
divisions 1537). It comprises value added in mining, manufacturing (also reported as a
separate subgroup), construction, electricity, water, and gas1). Manufacturing refers to
industries belonging to divisions 15371). These divisions include the manufacture of food
products and beverages, tobacco products, textiles, leather, wood, paper, refined petroleum
products, chemicals, rubbers, basic metals, machinery, communications equipment, motor
vehicles, and other transport equipment, as well as recycling1). Services correspond to ISIC
divisions 5099 and they include value added in wholesale and retail trade (including hotels
and restaurants), transport, and government, financial, professional, and personal services
such as education, health care, and real estate services1). Also included are imputed bank
service charges, import duties, and any statistical discrepancies noted by national compilers1).
22)
Exports of goods and services represent the value of all goods and other market services
provided to the rest of the world1). They include the value of merchandise, freight, insurance,
transport, travel, royalties, license fees, and other services, such as communication,
construction, financial, information, business, personal, and government services1). They
exclude labor and property income as well as transfer payments1).
23)
Agricultural raw materials comprise Standard International Trade Classification (SITC)
Section 2 (crude materials except fuels) including hides and skins, crude rubber, cork and
wood, pulp and waste paper, textile fibers, and crude animal and vegetable materials; and
excluding Divisions 22 (oil seeds, oil nuts, and oil kernels), 27 (crude fertilizers and minerals
excluding coal, petroleum, and precious stones), and 28 (metalliferous ores and scrap)1).
24)
Food comprises the commodities in the Standard International Trade Classifications (SITC)
Sections 0 (food and animal), 1 (beverages and tobacco), and 4 (animal and vegetable oils
and fats) and Division 22 (oil seeds, oil nuts, and oil kernels)1).
25)
Forest products include industrial roundwood (including sawlogs and veneer logs, pulpwood
and particles, chips and particles, wood residues, and other industrial roundwood), fuelwood
and charcoal, sawnwood, wood-based panels (including veneer sheets, plywood, particle
board, and fibreboard), wood pulp (including mechanical, chemical, semi-chemical,
dissolving, and recovered paper), and paper and paperboard (including newsprint, printing
and writing paper, and other paper and paperboard)1).
26)
Manufactures comprise commodities in the Standard International Trade Classifications
(SITC) Sections 5 through 9 (chemicals and related products, basic manufactures, machinery
and transport equipment, other manufactured articles and goods not elsewhere classified)
excluding Division 68 (non-ferrous metals)1).
27)
Ores and metals comprise commodities in the Standard International Trade Classifications
(SITC) Sections 27 (crude fertilizers and minerals excluding coal, petroleum, and precious)
stones); 28 (metalliferous ores, scrap); and 68 (non-ferrous metals)1).
28)
Tourism is defined as the activities of people travelling to and staying in places outside their
usual environment for no more than one consecutive year for leisure, business, and other
purposes not related to an activity remunerated from within the place visited1). International
tourism receipts are expenditures by international inbound visitors, including payments to
national carriers for international transport1). These receipts should include any other
prepayment made for goods or services received in the destination country. They also may
include receipts from same-day visitors, except in cases where these are so important as to
justify a separate classification1).
31
The livestock industry in Central America occupies 28% of the total sub region and
67% of all agricultural land but contributes only 11 percent of the income from
agricultural exports. In contrast, coffee, which occupies 12% of the agricultural area
and 4% of the total agro-productive area, contributed US$ 1500 to US$ 3100 per square
kilometer of productive land, compared to US$ 18 to US$ 48 per square kilometer for
livestock production [52].
Accessibility is a critical function for development, as it affects the movement of
people, goods, resources, and services. Poor infrastructure, and consequently limited
accessibility, implies fewer opportunities for improving economic status, health, or
social standing. However, improving accessibility may also create new pressures on
natural resources, for example when it facilitates the exploitation of forests or other
natural resources. As depicted in Figures 1.6b and c, mountainous areas with export
crops and the Pacific coast have good accessibility to markets and integration, while
most of the Caribbean region of Central America is disconnected from markets.
1.3.2 Conservation, environmental protection and sustainable development

Central America, which covers 1% of the worlds terrestrial area, contains 7 to 10% of
all known life species (24,000 endemic). Also, the region is a center of origin of
numerous varieties of agricultural crops such as beans and maize.
The whole region still shows a small proportion of area under protection (Table
1.7). Some important zones are poorly represented. The least protected areas are dry
forests. The protected areas of tropical moist forests should be increased to conserve
habitats and species. Nevertheless, it is important to note that less than 10% of the areas
in critical condition are protected; only 10% of the total surface area is under protection
and only 30% of protected areas have institutional presence. Besides these facts, less
than 10% of coniferous and dry forests are under protection and more than 50% of
protected areas are tropical moist forests. More importantly, the main areas at risk or in
danger are poorly represented and most protected areas are concentrated in unstable or
vulnerable regions (Fig. 1.6d, e).
Many protected areas, despite their declared legal status, are really only protected
on paper, and lack any real means of preventing degradation. From the political side,
despite important progress and improvement in natural resource conservation and
protection, the impact of policies and actions is still limited given the absence of real
biodiversity evaluation and monitoring of protected areas (see Table 1.8).
Central America is recognizing the social value of biodiversity for local
communities as it re-evaluates its biodiversity and natural resources as the basis for the
generation of new products and hence socio-economic development [53]. The
Mesoamerican Biological Corridor (MBC; with a surface area similar to the United
Kingdom) covers approximately 30% of the region and is made up of the
interconnection of the Central American System of Protected Areas (SICAP), along
with neighboring buffer zones and multiple use zones.
The expansion of protected areas has been an important response to the pressures
that threaten the biodiversity of the region. In the last 30 years, the region has gone
from having only 25 areas under some category of protection, to approximately 600,
covering more than one fifth of the territory of the region [54]. Nevertheless, despite
the considerable area under diverse categories of protection, approximately 60% of
these areas are considered too small (less than 10,000 hectares) for them to fulfill their
goal of protecting their biodiversity in the long run [55]. But to have a complete picture
about conservation, environmental protection and sustainable development issues and
opportunities in the region there is a need to analyze the main land use causes and
consequences in Central America.
Figure 1.7a shows the actual land use index. Land use is one of the main driving
forces related to the environment and development in Central America. Nearly half of
the land surface in Central America (46%) is used inappropriately. This can have
important consequences since the inappropriate use of the land is one of the principal
causes of soil degradation. Of the total land surface, 25% has the potential to be used
for agriculture but these lands are used for other purpose (e.g., secondary forest). About
14% of the land area is used for agricultural production where other land uses, for
instance forestry, would be more suitable. Similarly 7.5% of the surface has an
inappropriate agriculture use, for instance pasture where the land would be better used
to grow coffee.
To develop this index, a combination of two indicators: potential production
systems and actual production systems were used. To derive potential production
systems indicator the 4 production systems are assigned to 8 classes of potential land
use where appropriate use shows areas where the actual production system is
appropriate for the potential land use class.
Inappropriate agriculture shows areas where the actual production system is
inappropriate but where another production system would be more appropriate.
Inappropriate use also shows areas that are in productive use but which should be left
for natural vegetation. Potential for agriculture are those areas that are currently not in
agricultural use but which have the capacity to support agriculture. The main
assumptions of the land use index consider that agriculture is located in the most
accessible areas. There is some evidence for this; a multiple regression exercise looking
at possible drivers of land use showed a strong positive correlation between presence of
agriculture and high accessibility to markets (Kok. K, Wageningen Agricultural
University, pers. comm., 1999).
Nevertheless, land use change has other important impacts on natural resources. For
example as depicted in Figure 1.7b, the forest risk index shows that much of the forest
in protected areas is under high risk. In fact, less than 10% of some protected areas are
forested. About 20% of the remaining protected areas were deforested in the 1990s.
Deforestation and the fragmentation of forests are some of the principal consequences
of the development process in Central America. Presently 45% of the land in the region
is forested; the vast majority of this (84%) is broadleaf forest with the remaining
amount being mainly coniferous.
However, 29% of the regions forests are at a high risk of being lost, 21% are at
intermediate risk and 50% have a low risk. Moreover 55% of the coniferous forests are
at high risk in comparison with the 23% at high risk for broadleaf forest, and only 14%
of coniferous forests are at low risk in comparison with the 58% for the broadleaf
forest. To develop this index all forested areas were classified according to their
accessibility to markets. Accessibility refers to the time taken for the transportation of
goods to markets. The modes of transport, and therefore the speed and accessibility
value, are dependent on the topography and quality of the transport infrastructure (Fig.
1.6b, c). Three classes of accessibility were used: High risk is defined as those areas of
forest that are within 1 hour of a market, intermediate risk is defined as those areas of
forest that are between 1 and 2 hours from a market, and low risk forests are those that
are greater than 2 hours from a market.
33
Figure 1.7. (a) Land use index (after [6]); (b) Forest risk index (modified after [6]); (c) Coastal
risk index (modified after [6]); (d) Potential land use changes 19952010 (after [6]);
(e) Climate risk index and climate events (modified after [6]).
35
Protected areas1, 14), 2003 (WRI)

marine or littoral
number
area (1000 ha)
Forest cover
area (1000 ha)
20003)
percentage of total land area4)
1990
2000
annual change3) 19902000
absolute (1000 ha)
percentage (%)
Population using wood/charcoal for
cooking3) 2000 (%)
Solid waste of principal cities3, 10)
population of city (million)
Volume (metric tons/day)
Share of recollection (%)
Type of final recollection
Sanitary landfill
Controlled sanitary landfill
Disposed at open air
Belize
Honduras
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
25.3
47.5
20.8
2.2
21.8
23.4
1979.4
18.1
629.7
28.4
528.9
4.7
0.0
0.0
777.1
6.0
476.9 483.0
9.2
6.5
48
922.9
20
355.7
15
396.9
1
3.2
4
320.3
22
9
453.7 470.7
32
1056.5
16
274.0
39
132.0
1
2.0
45
61
456.8 1056.5
92
795.1
19
23
422.4 1815.9
23
62
40.4 2033.0
2
1
1
1
3
--57.67) 96.3 500.08)
10889 2296 11209 2104 13000
Panama
Guatemala
Protected areas, 2003 (WRI)
percent of total land area
IUCN categories IV1, 13)
area (1000 ha)
% of total area
IUCN categories Ia, Ib and II1)
number
area (1000 ha)
IUCN categories III, IV and V1)
number
area (1000 ha)
IUCN categories VI and other1)
number
area (1000 ha)
World Heritage sites2) (2004)
number
area (1000 ha)
total land area (1000 ha)1)
El Salvador
Table 1.7. Conservation and contamination indicators.
19.5
8
12.1
91
24
729.2 971.3
36)
46)
591.5 804.09)
5110 7552
5
55.7
23
186.9
20
261.0
3
7.5
5
130.4
2585
1348
5383
121
3278
1968
2876
31.2
26.3
74.7
59.1
53.4
48.1
9.3
5.8
36.7
27.0
41.6
38.5
45.6
38.6
54
1.7
36
2.3
59
1.0
7
4.6
117
3.0
16
0.8
52
1.6
--
--
--
38.6
64.3
11.8
20.7
1.0
650
75
1.3
700
60
1.0
600
70
1.0
960
90
0.8
770
90
3.2
1200
80
25
21
392.8 1747.6
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Emissions from public electricity

and heat producers5, 10) (106 t CO2)
1999
1990
0.8
0.2
---
0.0
0.8
1.0
0.2
1.2
0.5
0.1
0.0
1.2
0.4
Carbon dioxide emissions per

capita4, 16) (metric tons)
1990
1999
0.6
0.9
1.6
2.7
0.5
0.8
0.5
0.9
0.7
0.8
1.0
1.6
1.3
2.9
Consumption of ozone-depleting
chlorofluorocarbons4, 7) (metric tons)
1990
2001
357
265
Total annual emission of organic

contaminants in surface water of the
Pacific by industrial activity3),
1999 Emission (metric tons/yr)
Share of Pacific contam. (%)
6589
14.8
2011)
28
-122
-- 12433
-27.9
42312)
117
5951
13.3
87
35
26712)
145
3521 11790
26.5
7.9
252
180
4160
9.3
Sources: 1)[45]; El Salvador data of protected land areas IUCN levels IV, III, IIIV were
modified by the authors by including El Imposible national park (level II) and Montecristo
national park (level IV), 2)[56], 3)[41], 4)[1], 5)[57].
Remarks: 6)One of the World Heritage sites is shared by Costa Rica and Panama. This site is
tallied under both countries; 7)Comprises only the Tikal national park, 8)comprises only the
Maya site of Copn, 9)comprises only the Darin and the Panamenean part of the La Amistad
national park, 10)principal cities: Guatemala: Guatemala City, Honduras: Tegucigalpa, San
Salvador: El Salvador, Nicaragua: Managua, Costa Rica: San Jos, Panama: Panama city;
11)
data refer to 1989, 12)data refer to 1991.
Parameter definitions and other comments: 13)Protected land areas with IUCN category:
These data refer to the percent of total land area that is designated as protected in the World
Database on Protected Areas (WDPA). Many of the protected areas are IUCN Management
Protected Areas. Terrestrial areas only, marine areas are not included.
14)
Protected marine and littoral areas with IUCN category: These data include marine protected
areas, littoral protected areas, and protected areas with both marine and littoral components.
All are assigned an IUCN category (IVI). IUCN defines a Marine Protected Area as: any
area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora and
fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective
means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment. These marine protected areas
(MPAs) include areas that are fully marine and areas that have only a small percentage of
intertidal land. Many MPAs have large terrestrial areas. The extent of the marine portion of
most protected areas is rarely documented. The degree of protection varies from one country
to another, and may bear little relationship to the legal status of any site. Littoral is defined
as any site which is known to incorporate at least some intertidal area.
15)
Definition: Carbon dioxide emissions from public electricity and heat production include the
sum of emissions from combustion of all fossil fuel types used for public electricity
generation, public combined heat and power generation, and public heat plants. Public
utilities are defined as those undertakings whose primary activity is to supply the public.
Emissions from electricity and heat production for use by the producer (autoproduction) are
not included in this variable, as those emissions are attributed to industry, transport or
other sectors. CO2 from public electricity and heat production corresponds to International
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Source/Sink Category 1 A 1 a.
16)
Carbon dioxide emissions per capita corresponds to the anthropogenic (human-originated)
carbon dioxide emissions stemming from the burning of fossil fuels, gas flaring and the
production of cement. Emissions are calculated from data on the consumption of solid, liquid
and gaseous fuels, gas flaring and the production of cement.
17)
Consumption of ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons corresponds to the sum of production
and imports minus exports of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) controlled under the Montreal
Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer. CFCs are synthetic compounds
formerly used as refrigerants and aerosol propellants and known to be harmful to the ozone
layer of the atmosphere. Under the Montreal Protocol, the CFCs to be measured are those
found in prepolymers; aerosol products; portable fire extinguishers; vehicle air conditioning
units; insulation boards, panels and pipe covers; and domestic and commercial refrigeration,
air conditioning and heat pump equipment.
Forests were classified into broadleaved and coniferous types. The assumptions for the
index are that the risk to forests is closely associated with accessibility. This conclusion
is based on evidence from Amazonia [32, 58] and Central America [32].
37
At the same time, and as depicted in Figure 1.7c, coastal risk index is the other key
issue to be taken into account to assess the conservation, environmental protection and
sustainable development opportunities and limitations in Central Amercia. As a result
of pressures on coastal and marine resources, 40% of coastal areas are under high risk.
In consequence, some protected areas are also under high risk. The coverage of
protected areas is high in the Caribbean coast but deficient in particular in the Pacific
coast. A consequence of development in Central America is the increasing exploitation,
degradation and transformation of coastal and marine environments. From the map it
can be seen that that the influence of infrastructure is far greater on the Pacific coasts of
the region than on the Caribbean, while pressure from ports exist on both coasts. As a
result of these pressures, 40% of the regions coasts are at high risk, 10% are at
intermediate risk and 50% are at low risk.
Honduras
El Salvador
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
Ratification of CBD
Policy assessment
Biodiversity monitoring
National study
National action plan
National report
Biodiversity valuation
Protected areas system
Guatemala
Table 1.8. Situation of the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) in Central America (2000).
1995
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
1995
No
No
No
In process
No
No
Yes
1994
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
1995
No
No
Partial
1995
No
No
Yes
1994
No
Inventory
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
1994
No
Inventory
Report
In process
In process
Partial
No
This index is roughly based on the Coastlines at Risk index [59]. The index as shown
in the map is a combination of the coastline (classified into three classes) and the
explanation of the classification. The influence of ports extends to a distance of 60 km
in the case of medium sized ports or to 100 km in the case of large ports (i.e., Panama
and Coln due to the number of ships rather than amount of cargo). The coastlines
affected by the influence of ports are classed at high risk. The influence of
infrastructure uses an average figure for accessibility per coastal administrative district.
Accessibility values refer to the time taken for the transportation of goods to markets.
The modes of transport, and therefore the speed and accessibility value, are dependent
on the topography and quality of the transport infrastructure. Those districts with an
average accessibility figure of two hours or below are classed as highly accessible. The
areas of coastline in these districts are classed at intermediate risk (unless there is also
an influence from the ports in which case this takes precedence and they classed at high
risk). All other coastlines are classified at low risk. The main assumptions to develop
the index are the two major pressures have been chosen that correspond either
explicitly or implicitly to four of the pressures used in the Coastlines at Risk index
[59]. In Central America all of the large coastal towns were ports and so were included
in this class whilst pipeline density is not an issue in Central America. For more
information refer to the WRI report on this issue, which gives justifications for the
choice of inputs for the index.
Finally, it is important also to analyze the potential and limitation for sustainable
development strategies related to land use, land use changes and environmental
protection. Using different possible scenarios Figure 1.7d shows the costs of different
alternatives. In the case of a protected areas scenario, the total cost in land use change
and management could reach 250 to 300 millions US$/year during the next 15 years. In
detail the results of the simulation show that the main activities and costs are:
= 465 million US$,
Reconversion
= 1000 million US$,
Reforestation
= 1250 million US$,
Rehabilitation
= 800 million US$,
Restoration
= 300 million US$.
Conservation
The main effect of this scenario is that more than 35% of the land is still badly used
and managed. Although the management of land will be improved in important areas,
the problems will be moved to or increased in other regions.
In the case of a sustainable development scenario, the total costs in land use change
and management could reach 300 to 350 millions US$/year during the next 15 years. In
detail the results of the simulation exercise show that the main activities and costs are:
= 325 million US$,
Reconversion
= 1200 million US$,
Reforestation
= 1200 million US$,
Rehabilitation
= 1200 million US$,
Restoration
= 600 million US$.
Conservation
The main effect of this scenario is that less than 15% of the land is still badly used and
managed. The priority is given, in function of potential uses, to manage, restore and
rehabilitate lands and protect ecosystems.
1.4
LIMITATIONS AND POTENTIAL FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:

RISK AND VULNERABILITY
1.4.1 Geology and climate related hazards and risks

Central America is one of the worlds regions most prone to geology-related natural
disasters. Earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, which are due to the Central
American tectonical setting, and landslides, which are either earthquake induced or
rainfall-related, are the most severe geology related burdens of the region.
The other hazard group is related to the fact that Central America is prone to
climate events such as heavy rainfall, hurricanes, etc., and consequently to rainfallinduced landslides, and soil liquefaction. Due to increasing population and continuous
increase of settlement on areas that are especially prone to these hazards, there are
increasingly negative impacts. Corresponding zoning and land planning is required. To
address geological issues, we need to improve the understanding of geological
processes by classical and modern geological studies involving modern methods and
technologies using in situ data as well as air or satellite derived data.
The concentration of geohazards requires improvement of monitoring and
forecasting of seismic and volcanic activities as well of rainfall-related landslides
including warning systems to improve information availability and to increase the
capacity of those concerned with geological disaster reduction to use technical and
scientific information in a holistic manner as a basis for their decision making.
It must be considered that geology, landforms and risk levels for populations and
infrastructure are closely linked, making estimation of geohazards, including hazard
zonation, an important planning tool for all types of construction and infrastructure.
The prediction of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions remains one of the most
39
challenging of geoscience problems. However, the prediction of volcanic eruptions and

their consequences are perhaps more straightforward than in the case of earthquakes.
Volcanoes pose serious hazards to many parts of Central America.
The most dramatic hazards are pyroclastic flows that can sweep down volcanic
slopes. Nearly all Central American volcanoes have produced such flows and lahars in
the past, but the most devastating seem to be those that follow a particularly long
period of repose (e.g., Arenal volcano in 1968). Although eruptions cannot be
prevented by people and efforts to control them have met with only limited success,
there is much that can be done to evaluate what to expect from a volcano and when to
expect it. This information can save many lives, especially if hazard maps of dangerous
volcanoes are made for short, medium and long-term hazards, and made available to
government authorities or local organizations.
1.4.1.1 Seismicity and seismic hazard
Seismic activity in Central America is concentrated along the North American/South
American/Caribbean/Cocos/Nazca plate boundaries (and boundaries of associated
blocks). Plate boundary subduction processes dominate seismic hazards in the region.
The most well known seismic events were the devastating earthquakes of Managua on
December 23, 1972: MS 6.2 (600010,000 people died), Guatemala on February 4,
1976: M W 7.5 (23,000 fatalities), and the El Salvador October 1986 earthquake (MS
5.4, 11001200 deaths) (Table 1.9).
Central America, except for the period between 1938 and 1944 when there was an
apparent migration with time of large earthquakes from north to south, is characterized
by the same south to north migration pattern noted in Mexico and in the Caribbean
area. Some of the patterns of migration of large earthquakes originating in Panama and
Costa Rica terminate at the Cayman fault, which seems to give rise to a higher
frequency of earthquakes in the Honduras-Guatemala area [60].
Geological hazards associated with earthquakes include the phenomena of ground
shaking, surface faulting, earthquake induced ground failures, liquefaction and
tsunamis.
Reduction of the loss of life, property damage, and disruption of social and
economic development caused by earthquakes depends on reliable estimates of seismic
hazard. The purpose of seismic hazard assessment (probabilistic and/or deterministic)
is to evaluate in a quantitative way the threat posed by earthquakes to human-built
structures.
To improve seismic risk mitigation, governments at the state, provincial and
municipal level, decision makers, land planners, emergency response entities, builders,
entities approving construction plans, universities, and society in general need
estimates of seismic hazard to improve land use planning, building design and
construction (including elaboration and application of codes for construction), and
emergency response plans and etc.
The areas with the highest seismic hazards generally occur along the plate
boundaries. The highest seismic hazard values are along the west coast of Central
America, coincident with the subduction of the Cocos plate beneath the Caribbean plate
(Fig. 1.1). These areas are generally the most populated and hence seismic risk is
highest in these areas, too.
Table 1.9. Examples of natural extreme events in Central America and effects on humans in the last 35 years [41].
Country and event
date
CRED
Belize
hurricane Iris
September 1982
October 1998
October 2001
October 2001
CEPAL
affected1)
casualties
injured
affected
Casualties
Affected
256
-11
20256
105700
10011
855
268
--
482
280
--
20000
110758
700
-268
--
-105000
--
30
--
20000
22
9800
--
--
620
384
8
Honduras
hurricane Fifi
hurricane Mitch
September 1974
October 1998
8000
14600
-12000
860000
2100000
8000
6600
-12772
670000
1393669
7000
5657
115000
617831
El Salvador
earthquake
inundation
earthquake
hurricane Mitch
earthquake2)
earthquake
June 1982
September 1982
October 1986
October 1998
January 2001
February 2001
20
500
1100
475
844
315
694
18000
20000
-4723
3399
33194
68000
770000
84000
1329806
256021
40
631
1200
240
944
315
60
13
10000
-3399
5565
30000
10632
500000
84316
275013
136410
--1200
240
1142
--
--520000
84316
1412938
--
Nicaragua
earthquake
hurricane Joan
volcanic eruption Cerro Negro
tropical storm Bret
hurricane Cesar
hurricane Mitch
December 1972
October 1998
April 1992
August 1993
July 1996
October 1998
10000
130
2
37
42
3132
20000
278
75
--228
720000
360278
310075
123000
10724
868228
10000
121
2
31
9
2863
20000
182
75
-50
388
400000
300000
120000
69000
110000
368261
6000
148
2
-9
3045
320000
550000
12000
-29500
368261
Costa Rica
earthquake
earthquake
inundation
hurricane Cesar
hurricane Mitch
April 1973
April 1991
February 1996
July 1996
October 1998
21
47
6
51
8
98
199
----
3563
14000
20000
500000
18400
26
53
9
40
4
100
299
----
-10000
100000
571400
16500
---39
4
---40260
16500
Guatemala
trop. depression
hurricane Mitch
hurricane Iris
CEPREDENAC
injured
casualties
41
Panama
hurricane Joan
earthquake
hurricane Mitch
1)
Date
October 1988
April 1991
October 1998
CRED
CEPREDENAC
injured
affected1)
casualties
injured
affected
casualties
affected
30
30
0
-560
--
8732
18060
7500
7
34
2
-596
--
7000
17500
8408
----
----
includes all persons, whoisuffered adverse affects related to the event (with exception of the casualties).
In this case, CEPAL indicates a global amount of loss for the both earthquakes registered.
CRED: Centre for Research of Epidemology of Disasters
CEPREDENAC: Centro para la Prevencin de los Desastres Naturales en Amrica Central
CEPAL: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (Comisin Econmica para Amrica y el Caribe).
2)
CEPAL
casualties
Country and event
Also, earthquakes can affect the environment. For example, the April 22, 1991 Limn
earthquake caused landslides that affected almost 2000 km2, most of which was
originally covered by tropical rain forest. About 3000 km2 were affected by soil
liquefaction and related phenomena, and severe impacts afflicted organisms not only in
the rainforest but also in the intertidal and shallow subtidal zones and on coral reefs.
The reef experienced uplift (maximum 2 m), and a large area (45,000 m2) was exposed
above sea-level. An increase in water turbidity was triggered by terrestrial landslides,
and thus fine sediments affected the still alive reef organisms (see Chapter 7).
Assessment of maximum earthquake magnitude remains one of the most difficult
and subjective assessments for seismic hazard analyses (see also Chapters 35, 36, and
37). However, in recent years the major advances regarding seismic networks have
been made in the development of higher quality earthquake catalogs and a start has
been made towards gathering paleoseismic evidence that will allow calculation of the
recurrence intervals of large earthquakes. Neotectonic and paleoseismological studies,
including the frequency of large historic and prehistoric earthquakes should continue in
order to take full advantage of the historic record.
Uniform, regional catalogs of earthquakes (including confident locations,
magnitudes and depths) are essential to recurrence assessments and should be
developed routinely for all of Central America. In addition, another priority for
improvement is in strong-motion equipment for improving the measurement and
collection of more data, particularly close to large earthquakes.
1.4.1.2 Volcanic hazards
In Central America there are 57 historically active volcanoes and over 400 recorded
eruptions since 1500 AD. Volcanoes that have been dormant for some time are often
the most dangerous ones. The great explosions of Cosigina (Nicaragua) in 1835, Santa
Mara (Guatemala) in 1902, and Arenal (Costa Rica) in 1968, all involfed volcanoes
that had no historic record of eruptions (Fig. 1.3). For example, the 1902 eruption of
Santa Mara volcano in Guatemala killed more than 7000 and the 1929 eruption of
Santiaguito volcano in Guatemala killed about 5000 people. In addition, few volcanoes
have been carefully studied or are being monitored (see Chapters 38 and 39). In fact, of
about 70 stratovolcanoes, only 17 have minimum volcanic monitoring systems in place.
1.4.1.3 Landslide and soil liquefaction hazards
Additional geohazards are landslides, which are either earthquake triggered or raininduced and related to extreme climate events as hurricanes (see also Chapter 40). A
recent example was hurricane Mitch which struck parts of Honduras, Nicaragua, El
Salvador and Guatemala, in 1998 and killed over 10,000 people, many of them struck
by landslides. Intensification of rainfall in mountainous regions due to climate
change would increase the risk of land- and mudslides. Earthquakes have triggered
extensive landslides and soil liquefaction in Central America. The most important
concentrations of landslides occur in the vicinity of the epicentral areas, on steep slopes
covered with residual-regolithic soils, especially those derived from Tertiary and
Quaternary sedimentary and igneous rocks. Most landslides can be classified as
disrupted soil slides and rock falls, although rock and soil slumps, earth flows and
debris avalanches also occur. Soil liquefaction and related effects triggered by
earthquakes are also common phenomenon in Central America, usually affecting three
geomorphic landscapes: (1) inland alluvial plains and terraces, (2) sand bars and
43
beaches, (3) litoral sandy strips between coast lines and marshes, estuarines and
lagoons. Bridges, houses, roads and other lifelines and structures suffer local to
extensive damage by lateral spread, fracture, compactation and sand boils. In
developing areas, the most cost-effective method for limiting damage due to landslides
and liquefaction hazards is though proper landuse planning, based on susceptibility
maps for specific hazards. Although extensive engineering experience and techniques
have also been worldwide developed to deal with these problems, these techniques are
usually expensive.
1.4.1.4 Tsunami hazard and risk
Tsunami warning systems began after the 1992 earthquake in Nicaragua (see Chapter
41). Earthquakes prone to generate tsunamis can often be recognized and there may be
adequate time to issue warnings. Volcanic events that produce tsunamis are unusual,
and fortunately only a few Central American volcanoes are located on or near large
bodies of water (see Chapters 4 and 38).
1.4.1.5 Climate hazards
The Central American region, where geological features and climatic circumstances
conspire more perversely than in most other regions of the world to expose people to
risk, is prone to climate risks including drought, flooding and hurricanes, and to
combined climate and geological risks such as rainfall and earthquake induced
landslides. Although, large hurricanes like Mitch (1988) receive worldwide attention
and as a consequence generate extensive humanitarian, technical and financial aid
programs, most such events are fated to join a numbing litany of geological and
climate-related natural disasters. Hundreds of these so-called non-catastrophic
disturbances floods, landslides, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, droughts
happen each year in the Central American region, but few are reported in the
international press [61]. Untold thousands of people are killed or left homeless by these
events and innumerable economic losses are the consequence. Studies performed by
the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) indicate
that these smaller disasters have cost Central America and the Caribbean 1.5 billion
US$ per year in lost property and productive potential [61]. A great part of the damage
is related to human activities such as (1) inappropriate agricultural practices, (2) house
construction in dangerous locations, (3) failure to plan for evacuations, or (4)
deforestation and resulting erosion. All these human activities have led to an increase
of the frequency and severity of events such as flooding, and landslides.
Droughts and climatic variability events increasingly affect hydroelectric projects
and water availability for agriculture and human consumption. Central American
droughts, extended drier-than-usual conditions during the normally wet season, are
often associated with El Nio events. Since the 1950s there have been major El Nio
events in 195758, 1965, 196869, 197273, 197677, 198283, 198687, 199192,
199495 and 199798, with that in 198283 being the most intense. More than 50
people died in late 1997 El Nio floods, following which a prolonged drought set in,
severely disrupting food production and the economies of Honduras, El Salvador and
Panama particularly. Such droughts affect not only agriculture, but also domestic and
industrial water supplies, plus hydroelectric generation. Direct losses associated with
the 1998 droughts reached US$ 1.5 billion.
Classified 15 by intensity, a category five hurricane generates sustained wind
speeds over 250 km per hour and gusts up to 300 km per hour may be associated with a
category three storm. Such winds destroy trees, crops, power lines, houses and other
structures, causing extensive damage, financial loss, personal injury and loss of life to
people and livestock. Accompanying the winds are intense rains and coastal storm
surges, which may exceed seven meters in height and inundate low-lying coastal areas.
Among twentieth century Central American hurricanes, hurricane Fifi killed 17,000
people in Honduras in 1974, and hurricane Joan in 1988 left over 180,000 people
homeless in Nicaragua and El Salvador (Fig. 1.7e).
The combination of the high frequency of tropical storms and the aforementioned
seismic and volcanic activity is the reason why so much of Central America has
suffered from so many destructive natural events in recent centuries. It must be
highlighted that the severity of these events can be greatly reduced by (1) careful
environmental planning, and (2) hazard mitigation measures. We know how to reduce
vulnerability to natural hazards from a technical point of view, said Robert Kaplan,
IDB environment division chief for a group of countries that include Central America
in 1999 but The challenge now is to couple this technical capability with institutions
and decision-making processes that can get the job done effectively. And this has to be
done at the local level, where people live, as well as nationally and regionally. [61].
Figure 1.7e shows the climate risk for the Central American region expressed by a
climate risk index. Sixty percent of the region is under risk of drought or inundations,
increasing the vulnerability to natural disasters. Land use changes and agricultural
practices increase the risk and vulnerability to natural events like fires. Besides the
catastrophic effects of hurricanes and other individual natural events in Central
America, the risk of flooding and drought are permanent biophysical traits in the region
that need to be taken into account. In total just over a quarter of the land (27%) is at
risk due to flooding and over a third of Central America is at risk from drought. A
significant proportion of the region (40%) is at risk from either flooding or severe
drought.
The climate risk index combines the risk of drought and the risk of flooding; it is
intended to give a broad picture of the two major climatic risk factors in the region. The
risk of drought is indicated by the greatest number of consecutive dry months. This
figure was calculated by analyzing the monthly precipitation figures for various climate
stations in the region. A precipitation surface was created for each month with two
classes: those areas with less than 60 mm; and those areas with more than 60 mm.
These surfaces were created using an inverse distance squared weighted interpolation
method with a radius of 12 cells. When the twelve precipitation surfaces were
completed they were analyzed on a cell-by-cell basis to calculate the greatest number
of consecutive dry months. This analysis took into account the comparison of data in
December to that of January so that dry seasons that traversed the start and finish of the
calendar year were not overlooked. The index shows the number of consecutive dry
months in three categories of which two are shown on the map: 03 months (no risk of
drought); 45 months (risk of drought); and 6 months and above (risk of severe
drought). The risk of flooding is very simplistic, and shows those areas that are flat
and within 2 miles (3.2 km) of rivers. Flat is defined as those areas with less then 1
degree of slope. There is only one class for flood risk areas. The most important
omission is probably the size of the upstream area and potential of the soil (and
vegetation) to store water. These will determine the actual discharge at a certain point
(under certain rain conditions). However, to include all of these factors would
complicate the index, and the data are currently unavailable for much of the region.
45
1.4.2 Renewable energy options for sustainable development

At present most of the regions electricity (50% in 2000, [49]) is produced by
hydroelectric plants, whose future capacity to meet increasing demand for electricity is
limited due to increasing environmental concerns. A limited amount of land is suitable
for hydroelectric projects without presenting a risk for downstream populations in case
of dam failures in the earthquake-prone area (Chapter 29).
Huge geothermal resources, which could theoretically meet the regions entire
electric demand for the next several decades (except for Panama and Belize), represents
an important opportunity to be further developed (Chapter 29). Geothermal energy can
be a driving force for economically sound and sustainable development of the region. It
must be integrated into the framework of sustainable energy development in the region
for power generation, rural electrification and direct use to support small scale
industries, like food processing, greenhouse cultivation, aquaculture, thermalism and
eco-tourism.
In 2000, electricity production in the region is dominated by hydroelectric
generation (50%), followed by thermal (41%) and geothermal (7%) sources [49].
During the next decades, however, Central American electricity demand is expected to
increase at an annual rate of about 6% due to a growing population and expanding
economies. This will require the development of more reliable and environmentally
sound electrical systems. Nevertheless, the region is becoming more and more
dependent on imported fossil fuels and on hydroelectric projects highly susceptible to
climate events. Little or no consideration is given to the abundant and much more
reliable domestic and environmentally friendly geothermal energy resources.
The development of geothermal resources must overcome different hurdles; these
are basically regulatory, economic and financial. The true potential of geothermal
energy can be successfully harnessed only if governments undertake the preparation of
institutional and regulatory frameworks necessary for attracting large inflows of private
financing. Additionally, public intervention is necessary in the form of economic
incentives to private investors. To overcome existing financial barriers and promote
development of a countrys geothermal industry, the focus must be on seeking a
balance in the risk distribution between the government and private investors.
Future opportunities for the use of geothermal energy must be seen in the
framework of the energy markets of the individual countries and the region as a whole.
At the present time, Central American countries are working to introduce more
competition to produce greater economic efficiencies in their electricity sectors, and to
attract local and foreign private investment. This is necessary due to the scarcity of
government funds and the high (about 6%) annual growth in energy demand in the
region. To reach those goals, Central American countries have reformed their national
energy laws and regulations; although implementation varies from country to country
(Fig. 1.8; [49]). The former state-owned monopolies have been broken up and partly
privatized. The electricity markets are in the process of deregulation by privatizing,
upgrading and expanding power generation, transmission and distribution sectors. The
progress of deregulation varies significantly across the region. While the national
energy markets of Panama, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Guatemala have already been
quite liberalized, those of Costa Rica and Honduras maintain a monopolistic structure
with only limited opportunities for private sector participation [49].
Deregulation of the Central American electricity market requires massive
investments by the private sector and multinational institutions like the Inter-American
Figure 1.8. Structure of national energy markets by country: rectangles: private; circles and
ellipses: public providers; in parentheses: numbers of entities [49].
47
Development Bank (IDB); at least 7300 million US$ before 2006. However, the
introduction of competition in wholesale electricity markets may benefit consumers by
decreasing electricity prices. Deregulation of the national electric sectors will have
mixed impacts on geothermal projects. They will be affected by transition period
instabilities, and by the changing competitive environment. Both tend to increase
private investor risk. One of the advantages of deregulation is the reduction of the
hazard of political uncertainties. Deregulation will provide a huge opportunity to
promote the use of geothermal and other clean energy resources. On the other hand, it
requires special attention from governments and corresponding tax benefits or other
incentives to promote and support private investments in renewable energy projects.
This will allow the gradual replacement of polluting fossil fuels that degrade the
environment with cleaner energy sources.
1.4.3 Increasing stress on freshwater resources

Central Americas water resources are huge in terms of abundance and natural quality.
However, there are increasing signs of stress on both groundwater and surface water
due to increasing population density, urbanization, poverty, intensive agriculture,
climate change and inadequate water policy. Climate change has been discussed in
Section 1.4.1, nevertheless, it should be noted that the major impact of climate change
on Central America will be a re-distribution of rainfall and groundwater recharge
which could lead to irrigation and domestic water shortages in some areas.
The regions population (urban in particular) is expected to continue increasing in
the coming decades heightening the need to secure additional sources of municipal
water supply and irrigation water to satisfy an increasing agricultural demand. High
population density directly impacts water resources as watersheds (recharge areas) are
deforested and/or paved, municipal wells are over-drawn and compete for the same
groundwater and sewage or urban runoff gradually seep into aquifers. This will be most
strongly felt in the ever-growing cities where critical recharge areas are gradually being
destroyed. In rural areas, there is a very high dependence on poorly constructed shallow
dug wells (which are often polluted). The long-term water supply solution for rural
populations is to reduce the number of small shallow water wells and instead supply
the populations with larger deeper communal wells that together pump as much as the
particular aquifer can sustain in the long-term. Unfortunately rural areas lack the
resources for such municipal water schemes.
Intensive agriculture has the two-prong impact of depleting groundwater resources
through intensive pumping and the introduction of agrichemicals to groundwater and
surface waters.
Water policy is mostly focused on surface water management and protection with
little attention to the more important groundwater resources. Water policy remains
overly centralized and fragmented as municipalities lack the resources to assume full
management their own water supplies and protection of their watersheds. Government
agencies lack technical expertise and the necessary political mandates to strengthen
water policy.
Regionally, there is a great dependence on groundwater for all water supply
(irrigation, domestic water supply and industry) and water policy must reflect the
importance of groundwater to the region (see Chapters 24 and 25). Many large urban
areas are either entirely supplied by groundwater (e.g., Managua), use groundwater as their
principal source of water supply (e.g., Guatemala city), or use groundwater as a

secondary water supply (e.g., San Jos). The high level of dependence on groundwater
resources is predicted to increase as surface waters are either unreliable during the dry
season (especially mountain rivers) or polluted (e.g., Managua lake or Virilla river) or
far from major populations (e.g., Ro San Juan) (see Chapter 24). Although there is
enormous potential for increased irrigation from groundwater, there is little
understanding of hydrogeologic conditions and the impacts of large-scale pumping.
The long-term food supply from the region will very much depend on groundwatersourced irrigation (local and large scale) but expertise is required to develop, manage
and protect groundwater resources.
Poverty leads to significant degradation of water resource quality as little attention
is paid to sewage treatment or watershed protection. In addition, impoverished
communities cannot afford to properly operate and maintain up-graded municipal water
systems. Central Americas rural poor are particularly dependent on groundwater but
often use poorly constructed shallow wells drawing water from the water table which is
often slightly polluted where shallow or unprotected naturally. The resultant impacts on
groundwater and surface water quality and quantity are only gradually being
recognized with the majority of information emerging from surface water studies and
relatively few reliable groundwater studies. Although groundwater is naturally
protected from human pollution certain aquifers can be polluted where pollution
loadings are high or the water table is shallow.
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Bundschuh (eds): Geothermal energy for developing countries. Balkema Publisher, The
Netherlands, 2002, pp.313364.
FAO: Potential for Agricultural and Rural Development in Latin America and the Caribbean,
Annex II Rural Poverty; Annex IV Natural Resources and the Environment; and Annex V
Crops, Livestock, Fisheries, and Forests. FAO, Rome, Italy, 1988.
Utting, P.: The Social Origins and Impact of Deforestation in Central America. United Nations
Research Institute for Social Development, Discussion Paper 24, Geneva, Switzerland, 1991.
Leonard, H.J.: Recursos naturales y desarrollo econmico en Amrica Central. IIED and
CATIE, San Jos, Costa Rica, 1987.
CCAD, PNUD/GEF: Proyecto Corredor Biolgico Mesoamericano. Technical report, CCAD,
San Salvador, 1996.
CCAD, Banco Mundial: Mesoamrica en Cifras. Observatorio del Desarrollo, San Jos, Costa
Rica, 2002.
Miller, K., Chang, E. & Johnson, N.: Defining common ground for the Mesoamerican
Biological Corridor. WRI Research Report, WRI, Washington, D.C., 2001.
WDPA (World Commission of Protected Areas): World Database on Protected Areas, 2004;
http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/wdbpa/index.htm.
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and Development (OECD).
Pfaff, J.: What Drives Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon? Policy Research Working Paper
1772, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1997.
WRI: Coastline Index: Coastlines at Risk: An Index of Potential Development-Related Threats
to Coastal Ecosystems. In: D. Bryant, E. Rodenburg, T. Cox & D. Nielsen (eds), WRI,
Washington, D.C. http://www.igc.org/wri/indictrs/coastrsk.htm.
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51
Physics Branch 46:3 (1977), pp.1636.

61. Constance, P.: Anatomy of a high-risk location. Interamerican Development Bank (IDB);
http://www.iadb.org/idbamerica/Archive/stories/1999/eng/e899i.htm, 1999.
Chapter 2
History of geology
GREGORIO ESCALANTE AND GERARDO J. SOTO
Then the earth was created by them [Tepeu
and Gucumatz, the Forefathers]. So it was, in
truth, that they created the earth. Earth! they
said, and instantly it was made. Like the
mist, like a cloud, and like a cloud of dust
was the creation, when the mountains
appeared from the water; and instantly the
mountains grew. Only by a miracle, only by
magic art were the mountains and valleys
formed; and instantly the groves of cypresses
and pines put forth shoots together on the
surface of the earth. Popol Vuh: The sacred
book of the ancient Quich Maya (translated
by A. Recinos 1947, and D. Goetz and S.G.
Morley 1950).
2.1
INTRODUCTION
The history of geology of Central America refers basically to that which concerns each
of its nations (Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and
Panama). A significant contribution to this knowledge, however, is also derived from
the study of the history of geology of neighboring areas such as the Caribbean Sea and
the Pacific Ocean. Some scholars have treated this theme in detail previously: Weyl [1]
and Dengo [2] for the whole of Central America, Draper and Dengo [3] and Dengo [4]
for the Central American-Caribbean region, Escalante [5] for southern Central America
and western Colombia, and Alvarado et al. [6] and Denyer and Alvarado [7] for Costa
Rica. For simplicity, this chapter for the most part follows the order of events and
periods outlined by Dengo [2], although it updates this work and introduces new data
and discussions on the subject.
The subdivision into periods obeys a conventional approach (Fig. 2.1), beginning
with a chronicle of the pre-Columbian period (up to the early 16th century) and is
followed by the history of geology during colonial and early independence times. A
third period extends from the early independence of the Central American countries
(Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica) up to the advent of the
Second World War, when geological work in Central America came to a virtual
standstill. The last period begins in 1950, with the revival of geological activities in the
region, and extends to the present. This last period is characterized by the emergence of
international and national institutions dedicated to the teaching and application of
geology for the region and individual countries.
Various factors have provoked the extraordinary interest of geoscientists from the
Figure 2.1. Chronology of the main historical events in Central American geology.
whole world in investigating the geology of Central America and surrounding areas
during the last thirty years. One of these concerns the fact that Central America
comprises at least four active tectonic plates and a microplate, thus constituting a
significant area in which to investigate plate tectonic concepts, not only for the Central
American region, but also for the surrounding areas. Another important consideration,
is the fact that during the final stages of the geological history of the isthmus, a land
bridge developed, which gave rise to biological exchanges throughout the last 3 million
years. This geological event has attracted the interest of scientists in the analysis of
biological evolutionary trends in the American continent and the nearby islands of the
Pacific and Atlantic oceans. In addition, a large number of catastrophic natural events
have taken place in Central America in the last four decades, exemplified by the Arenal
eruption in Costa Rica in 1968, the Managua earthquake in 1972, the Guatemala
earthquake in 1976, the Nicaragua tsunami in 1992, and the destructive geological
events due to hurricane Mitch in 1998, including the collapse of Casitas volcano in
Nicaragua. All those catastrophes have attracted geologists from around the world to
the region to study such geological phenomena as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and
landslides. The investigations of a basically scientific nature that developed from such
studies have led to other approaches, such as the design of policies for disaster prevention.
As might be expected, the development of the geological sciences in Central America has
led to searches for mineral and energy resources.
Figure 2.2. Location map of Central America with localities mentioned in the text.
55
2.2
PRE-COLUMBIAN PERIOD
This period of time concerns geology as it was understood by the early inhabitants of
the region (> 8000 years BC to the early 16th century) for which no written records are
known to have been preserved, or were destroyed during the early stages of Spanish
colonization. The occurrence of geological phenomena of a catastrophic nature, such as
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, which are common events in the region, must have
been noted with great apprehension by the early settlers. The Mayan civilization, the
most advanced Indian group in Central America (the Olmec civilization of southern
Mexico, which precedes the Mayans, was influential only in a small portion of the
northern Pacific region of Guatemala) did not produce written records of these
phenomena in spite of the fact that very large volcanic eruptions are known to have
been experienced by this people. Catastrophic earthquakes are also likely to have taken
place during this period, although there are no Maya iconography or glyphs indicating
the occurrence of such phenomena (L.A. Brown, pers. comm., 2003). According to
archaeologists [8], some artifacts of pre-Columbian pottery (dated 300800 AD) used
for the burning of incense, show a prominent cupola, having the form of a volcanic
edifice and simulated a smoking volcano during use. Alvarado [9] cites several legends
preserved through the centuries by oral tradition, which refer to volcanic and seismic
events as having mythological origins. This was a common explanation for such events
in early civilizations elsewhere in the world.
2.2.1 Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes

Archaeological investigations of various sites in Central America have yielded important
evidence for the occurrence of volcanic eruptions, which affected the early settlers of
Central America. Pottery fragments dating from 1800 BC have been recovered at the
base of thick ash deposits in the Arenal volcano (hereafter, all mentioned localities are
shown in Fig. 2.2) of Costa Rica [10] and on the shore of Managua lake, human
footprints in hardened mudstone underlie a tuff with accretionary lapilli a few
centimeters thick that has preserved them. These footprints have been coincidently
dated by two different sources, and are considered to be around 6000 BP [1, 11].
The most striking archaeological evidence for the occurrence of a major volcanic
eruption, in pre-Columbian time in Central America was discovered in 1976 in the
village of Cern in El Salvador, where an entire settlement is deeply buried in volcanic
ash. This event originated from the Ilopango volcano and has been dated as having
taken place between AD 410 and 535 [12]. Cern has been referred to lately as the
Pompeii of the New World and was registered as a UNESCO Heritage Site in 1993.
This eruption is believed to have disrupted the Mayan civilization in the central part of
Central America and to have produced major shifts in population [13, 14].
The pre-Columbian record of earthquakes has not been well documented.
Indigenous geographical names such as Cuscatln, whose meaning is the valley of the
hammocks [15], given by the natives to the present valley of San Salvador, are quite
eloquent of the knowledge they had of earthquakes. Trenches dug in recent sediments
in various areas of Central America exhibit prominent fault patterns and fractures. This
is clearly shown by extensive trenching carried out in the suburbs of Managua,
Nicaragua, following the destructive earthquake of 1972 (with the epicenter in the city
itself). Movements along these faults have not been pinned down to any particular
Figure 2.3. (a) Mayan stella from Tikal, carved in the Late Classical period, around 8th century,
about 2 m high, and (b) stone sphere in southern Costa Rica, almost 2 m across. A banana
plantation can be seen in the background (1953).
historical or pre-historical account, although paleoseismic investigations indicate that

large earthquakes have occurred in the last 2000 years [16].
2.2.2 Non-metallic mineral resources and construction materials

Amerindians seem to have been successful prospectors for raw materials for making
items of general use. The exploitation of clays and ochre of many colors used in the
manufacture of pottery and artifacts was of great importance in the life of the early
settlers. In fact, many of the deposits dating from pre-Columbian time have been
exploited up to the present day for the elaboration of pottery for daily use and for the
tourist trade in certain native communities.
The fashioning of cutting implements and spear and arrow heads from minerals and
rocks required great skill and an understanding of the characteristics of their materials
by the early inhabitants of Central America. They also carried on significant
exploitation of other rocks and minerals to produce the ornaments with which they
adorned themselves. These included jade in northern Central America and gold from
alluvial deposits more commonly found in the southern portion of the isthmus. The
most common material used by the ethnic groups in central and southern Central
America for the manufacture of figures and utensils were volcanic rocks, predominantly
vesicular basalts and andesites. The early Indian tribes at Masaya in Nicaragua used
volcanic tuffs to carve idols [2]. These rocks occur in extensive outcrops and are still
used today as dimension stones for houses and fences.
Limestones of various types, and ignimbrites, were important rocks used in the
erection of prominent monuments and pyramids. The pre-Columbian settlers of
northern Central America must have learned to recognize the particular properties of
certain rocks for the engraving of stellae (Fig. 2.3a), which remain today as the graceful
57
artistic heritage of the Mayan civilization. These are especially prominent in the Petn
department of Guatemala (mostly limestones) and the Copn area of Honduras (mostly
ignimbrites). The engraved Mayan stellae at Quirigu in central Guatemala, were
carved from red sandstones and the prominent Mayan structures without engravings at
Mixco Viejo, located near Guatemala city, were constructed of metamorphic rocks.
The limestones, ignimbrites and sandstones used in Mayan edifices and the stellae of
Petn, Copn and Quirigu originated from places near where these rocks occurred.
However, the metamorphic rocks at Mixco Viejo are most likely derived from the
Sierra Chuacs located far away, in central Guatemala.
Various types of volcanic rocks were used in grinding stones, axes, figurines, and
ornaments of the pre-Columbian period throughout the entire area. Weapons of war and
utensils for many uses were also produced from obsidian and jasper. The early
inhabitants of the southern Pacific region of Costa Rica made use of large boulders of
intrusive rocks, mostly porphyritic gabbros and granodiorites, rolled down from the
neighboring Talamanca cordillera. From these, they sculptured almost perfectly
rounded spheres up to 2.5 m in diameter (Fig. 2.3b). The purpose of these spheres
remains a mystery to this day.
The exploitation of obsidian, in particular, to manufacture cutting implements and
spear and arrow heads must have been an important industry during Mayan times. It is
even suggested that the southward movement of the Mayans from Belize and northern
Guatemala in the 5th and 6th centuries AD, might have been partly motivated by the
necessity of controlling access to obsidian [17]. Obsidian artifacts are commonly
present in the burial grounds of the various tribes which inhabited southern Central
America. Discarded chips of obsidian are of very common occurrence throughout
northern Central America. The sources of obsidian in Central America have been
chemically fingerprinted by analyses of their trace and minor elements [17, 18]. The
results of this research point to the lode of obsidian in El Chayal and Ixtepeque
localities of Guatemala as the most important sources of the obsidian used from as far
north as Veracruz in Mexico to the southern part of Central America. El Chayal,
located about 25 km NE of Guatemala city, exhibits vestiges of old mining operations
consisting of piles of obsidian rubble and other refuse from the manufacturing process
believed to have taken place before or during the Mayan civilization. Thus, the El
Chayal locality may represent one of the oldest evidences of an open pit mine or quarry
in the geological history of Central America (Fig. 2.4).
The recent discovery of the origin of translucent bluish and blue-green jade in the
southern part of the Motagua valley of Guatemala [19], appears to account for the long
lost source of this type of jade which was used in the carving of figures in the Olmec
civilization (1300400 BC) of southern Mexico and Guatemala. This variety of jade is
also found in the burial grounds of the Indian tribes that inhabited southern Central
America. As previously mentioned, the presence of particular rocks and minerals in the
burial grounds of the early inhabitants of Central America, point to the significance of
commerce during this time. The above mentioned case of obsidian from different
sources has established the considerable extent of this trade.
2.2.3 Metallic mineral resources

Metalworking technology spread to northern Colombia from the Central Andes as a
result of trade between groups, which extended to the present territories of Panama and
Figure 2.4. El Chayal obsidian quarry near Guatemala city (km 25 on the route to Puerto
Barrios), one of the oldest open pit mines in the geological history of the civilizations of
Central America: (a) the present site of exploitation; (b) a modern Mayan working in the
quarry; (c) Overview of the site by the road.
Costa Rica between 0 and 500 AD, and to Mexico by 600800 AD. Metalworking
technology complemented and slowly came to replace jade carving in southern Central
America, between 500 and 900 AD, expanding to the Caribbean, central and northern
parts of Costa Rica. Golden amulets, found in northwestern Costa Rica, were traded
from other places. The most impressive metalworking, combining new elements and
producing awesome pieces was developed in southeastern Costa Rica, and Chiriqu and
Veraguas in Panama. These areas experienced the growth of large towns from the
cordilleran piedmont down to the coastal zone around 800 AD. The Amerindians are
believed to have extracted native copper from the slopes of the Talamanca range, and
gold nuggets from placer deposits in and around Osa peninsula, sites that remained
forgotten for centuries, but are being exploited again today. Both metals were mixed in
different alloys (Cu between 30% and 90%), for lowering the melting point to a more
manageable fluid mixture than that of pure gold. Two different technologies for
metalworking were used: hammering, and casting by the lost-wax technique. This
last technique was performed by the pouring of molten gold into casts of ceramics
previously molded on wax figures. As the wax melted, it was expelled through a hole
and then replaced by the metal.
2.3
COLONIAL AND EARLY INDEPENDENCE PERIOD
The Central American countries were colonies of Spain until their independence in
1821. Panama, however, was a province of Colombia until 1903, and Belize,
dominated by the British, did not achieve full independence until 1981. Thus, the term
colonial should not be applicable in a strict sense to these countries. However, for
simplicitys sake, the 1820s will be considered to be the end of this period for the entire
region.
59
2.3.1 Metallic mineral resources

The quest for minerals in Central America became an important catalyst in exploring
this part of the newly discovered continent. The thirst of the Spanish conquistadors for
precious minerals and the search for the sources of such wealth, became an obsession
with them. This interest was aroused soon after Columbus presented the results of his
original voyage in 1492 to the Spanish Crown. During his third voyage to the New
World, Columbus brought with him a miner by the name of Pablo Beluis to whom the
Spanish Crown gave a contract to dig and sluice for gold [20]. On his fourth and final
voyage in 1502, Columbus reported seeing some natives carrying golden ornaments
and artifacts, but he made no mention as to the presence of miners in his entourage at
that time. He wrote in a letter to the Catholic kings: I saw in this land of Veragua
[he was referring to a portion of southern Central America, between present-day Limn
in Costa Rica and northwestern Panama] greater evidence of gold in the first
two days than in Espaola in four years. In fact, Columbus chronicles for this,
his last trip, gave birth to the myth of a rich coast (Costa Rica). However, the name
was actually given in 1538 by Hernn Snchez de Badajoz to the portion of southern
Central America where Columbus had encountered the evidence of such wealth [21].
Although the Spaniards, despite tireless efforts, never found the sources of the gold
carried by the natives, it was probably obtained from the rich placer deposits in the Osa
peninsula, on the Pacific side of the isthmus. The name Costa Rica for the country has
prevailed to our days.
The mining of precious metals in the Americas provided wealth for the Spanish
empire. How much of this wealth originated from Central America is not known. The
earliest Spanish accounts describing the mining in Central America date from the early
1500s, with the exploitation of alluvial gold deposits at various localities. This was
followed by the discovery and exploitation of important deposits of gold and silver
bearing rocks, which were worked extensively in various parts of Central America. No
serious geological studies accompanied these ventures, which were carried out mostly
by slave labor, under the supervision of European miners making use of the primitive
mining techniques that prevailed at that time. These mining activities contributed little
to the well being of these countries which were required to contribute all this wealth for
the exclusive use of the Spanish Crown. Some of these mines attracted the attention of
the early settlers, who established large population centers such as Tegucigalpa, the
present capital of Honduras, which had its beginning as a mining town.
The mining activities in Central America during colonial times are well
documented in the Archivo General de Indias and an annotated catalogue concerning
the Audiencia de Guatemala (or provincial court, often called Kingdom: southernmost
Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica), which was
published in 1970 [22]. These documents, dating from 1529 to 1819, refer extensively
to mining matters and give the location of the most important mines. They cover
mostly Guatemala and Honduras and to a lesser extent El Salvador, Nicaragua and
Costa Rica. Nothing on this subject has been published for Panama. Dengo [2]
summarized the most relevant aspects of mining and geology, as indicated in these
documents.
The presence of alluvial gold in the river Guayape in Honduras, which was
discovered in 1542, is likely to have given rise to the first organized exploitation of
minerals in Central America by the Spanish conquistadors. The search for minerals in
Honduras led to important discoveries and the exploitation of mines such as those at
Figure 2.5. Guatemalan volcanoes as were seen by the natives and early Spanish conquistadors.
This lithography is by M. Dupressoir (engraved in the early 19th century) after a sketch by M.
Van-Lockhorst. The volcanoes from left to right are Agua, Fuego and Acatenango.
Cerro de Guazucarn and Santa Luca of Tegucigalpa in the early 17th century, and the
discovery in 1779 of the mine of Cantarranas (San Juancito or Rosario). Up to the
present time, this has been the most prolific mine in Central America. The extensive
mining activity in Honduras led to the formation in 1601 of the first official institution
dedicated to geologic and mining matters in Central America, christened as the
Alcalda Mayor de Minas de la Provincia de Honduras [2].
2.3.2 Volcanoes and earthquakes

The presence of the magnificent volcanic ranges, which dominate the topographic
heights for most of Central America, and especially the sight of active volcanoes (Fig.
2.5), must have amazed and perturbed the minds and sometimes the religious
sentiments of the Spanish conquistadors and other European explorers. Pedro de
Alvarado, conquistador of Guatemala, in a letter written on July 28, 1524, described a
range with a volcano, near the city he just had founded (Santiago de los Caballeros).
This is the first documented use of the word volcn in the Spanish language [23].
There are allusions to volcanic eruptions and earthquakes in Central America
obtained in the Archivo General de Indias, referred in the previously mentioned
catalogue, and summarized by Dengo [2]. Information gathered from the Masaya
volcano in Nicaragua, is most revealing. This volcano, which sometimes exhibits a
pool of incandescent lava at the bottom of a deep crater, attracted the interest of the
conquistadors. Some believed it to be the entrance to hell, and others thought this fluid
lava consisted of molten gold or silver. The many attempts by the conquistadors guided
by greed rather than the unraveling of the mysteries of a natural phenomenon failed to
obtain samples of this lava. Fray Francisco Jimnez, wrote a magnificent book, dated in
61
1722, entitled The Natural History of the Kingdom of Guatemala, which not only
described the most prominent volcanoes in Guatemala and El Salvador (as well as the
Orizaba volcano of Mexico), but also described the mineral richness of the isthmus in
detail. The eruptions, during 1723, of the Iraz volcano in Costa Rica, were described
by Diego de la Haya Fernndez, who was the first person to record such a geological
phenomenon in that country.
Information on prominent earthquakes during the colonial period, although mostly
of a descriptive nature, nevertheless, pointed to the location, intensity and periodicity of
movements along active faults, especially in northern Central America, and is thus of
great aid in the evaluation of those areas most prone to catastrophic seismic events.
Compilations of scattered and sometimes ambiguous information, accounts and even
legends produced in this period, and preserved in archives, letters, official
correspondence and newspapers, have given place to the outstanding works of
Montessus de Ballore [24] and Cleto Gonzlez Vquez [25]. This last mentioned
investigator, who was twice president of Costa Rica, is the only leading political figure
in Central America, up to the present, to have been enthusiastically involved with the
geosciences. More recently, several scholars have made use of the information for
further scientific purposes, such as White [26], who refers to important seismic events
that took place mostly in Guatemala and Honduras, Feldman [27], who describes
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in Central America from the 16th to the 19th
centuries, Peraldo and Montero [28] for Costa Rica, and Peraldo and Montero [29],
who have made a compilation for the entire Central America from pre-Columbian
times to the 19th century.
2.4
FROM INDEPENDENCE TO THE FIRST HALF OF THE 20TH CENTURY
This period, as defined by Dengo [2], extends from the end of the colonial period or
independence of the Central American countries (with the exception of Belize and
Panama, as noted above) to the years prior to the onset of World War II (1820s to late
1930s), when geological activities came to a virtual standstill throughout the entire
region.
2.4.1 The early interest in geological research

The widely publicized results of the work carried out by the German naturalist
Alexander von Humboldt in northern South America between 1799 and 1804, and later
on in Mexico and its vicinity, had far reaching consequences for a select group of earth
scientists, mostly of European extraction, who wanted to follow Humboldts footsteps
by exploring remote little-known lands.
Soon after independence, a major volcanic event contributed to the interest of earth
scientists worldwide, prompting them to carry out explorations in Central America.
That event, the sudden eruption of Cosigina volcano in northern Nicaragua, which
occurred on 22 January 1835, was heard as far away as Jamaica, Bogot (Colombia)
and Curacao (2000 km away). This formerly was believed to have been one of the
largest events of this nature to have taken place during the history of mankind.
However, it has been claimed that the volume of the ejecta and its effects on climate
had been largely overestimated by the contemporaneous scholars [30, 31].
After the Cosigina eruption, the Nicaraguan naturalist Miguel de Larreynaga
proposed in 1843, a new hypothesis to explain the origin of volcanic eruptions, which
he considered to be a consequence of the melting of the rocks lying on the bottom of
the sea. He proposed that when sunlight traverses through sea water, its refraction acts
as a lens concentrating heat and melting the rocks, which ascend as the magmas
feeding the erupting volcanoes. In spite of its erroneous conception, Humboldt
reportedly commented very favorably on this idea. The Cosigina eruption attracted
scientists from around the world, including not only those interested in geology, but
also in geography, botany and zoology of Central America.
A captivating book on the history and geography of Central America entitled
Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas and Yucatn [32], by the North
American traveler John Lloyd Stephens, had wide circulation in Europe and North
America. It provided new knowledge of Central America and attracted the attention of
scientists who wished to explore this relatively little known part of the new world.
Following independence, many geologists contributed to an increase in knowledge
of the geology of Central America. However, for the most part their investigations
focused on one of two main purposes: the search for mineral deposits and exploitation
of mines, or the search, in the interests of the governments of the United States of
America and France, for an appropriate route for a canal to connect the Caribbean Sea
with the Pacific Ocean.
2.4.2 Pioneering geological works

Maldonado-Koerdell [33] and Dengo [2] have listed a large number of publications and
names of geologists and pioneering explorers from Europe and North America who
participated in obtaining a meaningful understanding of the geology of Central
America. It was at this time when the first of a series of discoveries of significant large
macrofossils were made: a mastodon tooth in Tambla, Honduras [34]. These led to the
earliest ideas about Central America as a long-lasting land bridge for biota.
Among the most outstanding contributors to the knowledge of geology during that
time, is Herman Karsten [35], who published in 1858 the geological map of the Grand
Colombia, including Panama (which at that time was still part of Colombia, see Table
2.1). This map depicts the pertinent geological features of Panama and the relationship
of this country to Central America, and is considered to be the first geological map
covering a portion of Central America. Around 1827, Humboldt approached the
geographer H. Berghaus, expecting to collaborate in a geographical atlas [36]. Over
years, Berghaus published a thematic atlas, and a second edition in 1852 included a set
of three regional maps of volcanism, one of them of Central America [37].
The German geologist Karl von Seebach, was the first to present a systematic and
detailed description of the volcanoes of Central America in 1864 and 1892. These
could be considered two of the first of these studies carried out in the New World, after
other similar studies in Italy. On the other hand, French geologists A. Dollfus and E. de
Montserrat [38], working in El Salvador and Guatemala, published the first geological
map of northern Central America (Fig. 2.6). This was the period for the appearance of
the seminal geological maps of the region (Table 2.1).
To the south, in Costa Rica, the North American geologist William Gabb worked
from 1873 to 1876, but most of his results remained unpublished due to his early death
in 1878. Gabb was originally a mineral prospector for a private company, but was later
hired by the Costa Rican Government. He is now recognized as having produced the
63
Figure 2.6. Geological map of El Salvador, published by French geologists A. Dollfus and E. de
Montserrat in 1868 (from a reproduction of the 1950s).
first geological map of a large area of the Caribbean side of that country (see Table
2.1), which although lost for a long time, was brought to light recently [39]. Most of
Gabbs work was synthesized in a single posthumous report [40].
2.4.3 Studies carried out for the Nicaragua and Panama canals projects
Feasibility studies for a canal across Nicaragua carried out in 1872 and 1873 yielded
geological reports by B.F. Whitfield (see Table 2.1) [41] and a subsequent study by
C.W. Hayes [42]. The French geologist H. Douville [43] compiled the results of the
geological work carried out in the first attempt to build the inter-oceanic canal in
Panama. This work was followed by more elaborate reports on the geology of the
Panama canal by American geologist D.F. MacDonald [44]. A geological event led to
an important debate as to the most favorable location for building the trans-isthmian
canal: The French, having built the Suez canal, enthusiastically initiated another canal
in Panama in 1881, which soon failed for many reasons. The monumental task was
then taken up by the Americans, who were in the midst of the planning stage when the
tragic eruption of Mount Pele in the West Indies occurred in 1902. This volcanic event
provoked a serious debate in the United States Senate, which was to decide whether
Nicaragua or Panama, would be the best location for such an important artery. The
decision would have worldwide repercussions in the commerce amongst nations. The
debate was dramatically ended when those who opposed the Nicaragua canal brought
the attention of the Senate to a one cent stamp issued by Nicaragua (Fig. 2.7a), showing
a volcano under eruption in that country. This stamp led to the final decision to build
the canal in Panama [45]. An illustration depicting a geological phenomenon thus
played a key historical decisive role in politics and commerce, which would eventually
have long-lasting effects.
Figure 2.7. (a) The stamp showing the fuming Momotombo volcano that persuaded the American
senate to build the interoceanic canal in Panama rather than Nicaragua; (b) Inauguration of
the Third Central American Geological Meeting in San Jos, Costa Rica in 1971: At the
table, from left to right, G. Dengo, G. Vicariolli, C. Dndoli, W.P. Woodring, E. Rodrguez
(University of Costa Rica President), President of Costa Rica Jos Figueres (standing), G.
Escalante, J. Brenes (Minister of Education), and J. MacCourtney; (c) Gabriel Dengo in the
field at Guanacaste (Costa Rica) in the early 1960s.
2.4.4 Seismology
At the same time that the French were attempting to build the Panama canal, a strong
earthquake occurred in 1882 in that country. Two months after this earthquake, a
seismoscope, which recorded some aftershocks, was installed in Panama city. This was
the first apparatus of this type in the Americas. A French scientific mission led by S.
Aillaud and J. Canella evaluated the effects of the event. In opposition to the common
opinion at the time [15, 46], they established no volcanic origin for the quake. In 1900,
the French installed an Ewing pendulum seismograph, and in 1914, soon after the
completion of the Panama canal, the U.S. Government installed a seismological station
in Balboa as part of its seismological network. In Costa Rica, the first seismographic
observations, using instruments that were partly assembled by the scholar Jos Fidel
Tristn, were performed in 1888. These devices formed part of the National
Meteorological Observatory, which was established in combination with the recently
created Liceo de Costa Rica [47]. In El Salvador, the first Ewing seismographs were
installed in 1896, but it was not until 1918 that the National Seismological Observatory
was founded making use of new equipment. The first seismological station in
Guatemala was established in 1926 [48]. All these stations contributed to a better
understanding of seismicity in Central America.
2.4.5 Geological accomplishments during the late 19th and early 20th centuries
The German geologist Karl Sapper deserves special attention in an overall evaluation
of the scientists who played an important role in geological investigations in Central
America. He is also considered to have been one of the worlds first volcanologists
sensu stricto. Maldonado-Koerdell [33] refers to his work in Central America as
65
colossal, without any exaggerations. This outstanding geologist carried out his task in
Central America for a nearly continuous period extending from 1888 to the late 1930s.
Sapper traveled mostly on foot in the company of two Guatemalan indians across the
entire breadth of Central America, from the lowlands of the Caribbean and the Pacific
to the summits of high volcanoes, producing geological maps [49] (see Table 2.1). He
continued his studies for an unbelievable period of more than fifty years, with only
short intervals spent in his native country. Even today, field geologists in Central
America marvel at the exploits of this remarkable man who visited and described
places in Central America which are still almost inaccessible. The senior writer of this
chapter remembers vividly his personal frustration when he erroneously believed to
have been one of the first geologists to come across a particular outcrop in the remote
Patuca river of Honduras. Later on, he discovered that it had been described in full
detail by Sapper! His work, summarized by Termer [50], includes the references to his
very extensive bibliography. Other important contributions to the geological
knowledge of Central America during this period are listed below.
The North American paleontologist J.S. Newberry [51], first described the presence
of fossil plants of Late Triassic and Early Jurassic ages in Central Honduras. To date,
this is the only known occurrence of rocks of this age in Central America.
Early in the 20th century, the English geologist J. Romanes [52] carried out
geological investigations in Costa Rica, in the Nicoya peninsula and the central part of
the country. Romanes described the rocks he encountered in the central part of the
country as resembling both lavas and tuffs. He thus became one of the first scientists to
describe this type of rocks in Costa Rica, that later were called ignimbrites, and that are
widespread elsewhere in Central America.
Beginning in 1915, American oil companies took a sudden interest in exploring in
Central America. This brought a number of geologists to the region to carry out this
task which was mostly concentrated in the Caribbean side of Panama and Costa Rica.
The work by MacDonald, who had previously been involved in the study of the
geology of the Panama canal, in addition to the geological work carried out by R.A.
Terry and Wendell P. Woodring are among the better known investigations from this
exploration period. Terry, who remained living in the area, wrote a report on the
geology of Panama in 1956. Woodring, a paleontologist with the United States
Geological Survey, published a paper on Caribbean tectonics [53] and a map in which
he compiled the geology of the Panama canal zone [54]. Woodring also deserves
special attention for his contributions towards the establishment of geological
institutions in Central America. He became very friendly and cooperative with the new
generation of local geologists (see Fig. 2.7b). Just prior to his death in 1983, he donated
his extensive library to the Central American School of Geology, established in Costa
Rica. In northern Central America, significant geological explorations were carried out
just prior to and during the 1920s by the American geologists Sidney Powers in the
boundary area between Guatemala and Honduras, and L.H Ower in Belize [55] (see
Table 2.1), the Swedish geologist H. Waddel in northern Guatemala and the German
geologist L. Waibel in neighboring Chiapas [2].
By the first two decades of the 20th century, some local scientists started to make
their first contributions to geosciences, especially in geophysics and seismology in
Costa Rica, and geology in Guatemala [2, 47]. Governmental authorities in Costa Rica
contracted the services of the Swiss geologist Paul Schaufelberger in 1929, to teach this
science in schools. Later on, in 1937, the government contracted the Italian geologist
Csar Dndoli to replace Schaufelberger, who continued his geological activities in
Colombia. Dndoli, who became a citizen of Costa Rica, was an enthusiastic

geological educator and is remembered fondly for his efforts towards the establishment
of the Central American School of Geology. Dndolis accomplishments as an
educator and geologist will be referred to again in the next section.
2.4.6 Outstanding results at the end of this period

This period in the history of geology in Central America ends with the publication of
the two most important works on the geology of the region, which together represent an
appropriate culmination of the pioneering work of a large number of earth scientists
from many countries and diverse backgrounds. The first of these was the study entitled
Historical Geology of the Antillean-Caribbean Region, published in 1935, in which
North American geologist Charles Schuchert [56] compiled and interpreted what was
known at that time on the geology of the Caribbean including Mexico, the Gulf of
Mexico, Central America and northern South America. The other significant study was
that of Karl Sapper [57] entitled Mittelamerika, published in 1937, which summarized
his geological work in Central America for a period of half a century. According to
Dengo [2], Schucherts work comprised a landmark in the investigation of the
Caribbean region, and that of Sapper crowned a very significant period in the
development of the fundamental geological knowledge of Central America. Both works
point out the significant differences in the geological history and constitution of
northern and southern Central America.
Table 2.1. Early significant geological maps in the Central American countries.
Country
First geological map

Author(s)
First entire country geological map

Year
Author(s)
Year
1905
K. Sapper [49]
1868
Guatemala Dollfus and de Montserrat [38]
1955
C.G. Dixon [58]
L.H. Ower [55]
1928
Belize
1974
Reniery [60]
Roberts and Irving [59]
1957
Honduras
1905
K. Sapper [49]
1868
El Salvador Dollfus and de Montserrat [38]
1905
K. Sapper [49]
B.F. Whitfield [41]
1874
Nicaragua
1905
K. Sapper [49]
1873
Costa Rica W.M. Gabb1)
1956
R.A. Terry [61]
1858
Panama
H. Karsten [35]2)
1)
Although the map was produced in 1873, it remained unpublished and then missing until it was
)
published by Denyer and Soto [39]; 2 Included in the map of the Grand Colombia.
2.5
FROM 1950 TO THE PRESENT
As stated previously, geological activities in Central America came to a virtual

standstill during the Second World War. The only significant work was the result of a
systematic evaluation of Central American minerals, especially those of strategic value
for the war effort. The final result of this work was a report published after the war,
entitled Mineral Deposits of Central America [59] authored by geologists R.J. Roberts
and E.M. Irving from the United States Geological Survey. This report was
accompanied by a geological map of Central America at a scale of 1:1,000,000 which
integrated the prominent features of geology of this region and was to become a source
of information on the subject for many years to come.
Prominent geologists from many countries, including a number of specialists in
various branches of the profession, contributed to a better understanding of the geology
67
of Central America. Their accomplishments are well documented by Dengo [2], and
are outlined in the following sections.
2.5.1 Regional geology

One of two eminent scientists of the period was the North American (originally British)
volcanologist Howell Williams from the University of California at Berkeley, who
carried out during the 1950s volcanological investigations in Guatemala, El Salvador,
Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Some of his work was done in conjunction with
Alexander McBirney, a student of him at Berkeley, and Gabriel Dengo, at that time
working for an oil company in Guatemala. Although these reports refer basically to
volcanology, they contain valuable information on the general stratigraphy and
geological history for most of these countries. Williams, who died in 1980, is
remembered fondly for his lucid prose and clear interpretation of geological
phenomena. He became much appreciated by a large number of local geologists of
Central America, who were starting on their careers and had the good fortune to enjoy
his friendship.
The other major figure was Richard Weyl, a professor of Geology from the
University of Kiel and later from the University of Giessen, Germany, who initiated
geological investigations in Central America in 1951. His work over many years
carried out in most of the countries of Central America, culminated in the presentation
of three books: Die Geologie Mittelamerikas [62], Erdgeschichte und Landchaftsbild in
Mittelamerika [63] and Geology of Central America [1], which became the most
important sources of geological information on the region for many years. Weyl was
the first geologist to recognize glaciation in the highest part of the Talamanca cordillera
in Costa Rica and was an important contributor to the establishment of the Central
American School of Geology, which was founded in Costa Rica in 1970.
Significant contributions to the geology of particularly poorly known areas of
Central America during the early part of this period, were made by C.G. Dixon in
Belize, James E. Carpenter in Honduras in the 1950s and James E. Case in the Darin
of Panama (and neighboring area in Colombia) in the early 1970s.
2.5.2 Central American geologists and international cooperation

Soon after the end of the Second World War, a major change in the history of geology
in Central America began to take shape with the participation of native-born citizens,
who became attracted to the study of geological sciences. By the late 1950s and early
60s, a large number of Central American students completed geological studies in
institutions of higher learning in the U.S.A. and Europe. Most of them enjoyed
scholarships from local governments and foreign institutions. Also important for this
period and extending to the present, was the active participation of international
organizations and governmental and academic institutions from many countries, in the
birth and consolidation of the governmental institutions which became involved in
geological matters in Central America. Dengo [2, 4] has listed the organizations that
participated in this task and he has referred to the influence of these agencies and
institutions towards the better understanding of the geology of these countries. He also
referred to the establishment of governmental offices responsible for the control and
regulation of mining and exploitation of minerals and of petroleum exploration, which
played a significant role in increasing the knowledge of geological matters throughout

the region.
2.5.3 Central American geological institutions

The most important contribution towards the education of Central American geologists
was the establishment in 1969 (classes started in 1970, see Table 2.2) of the Central
American School of Geology at the University of Costa Rica. In 1992 the School
expanded its curriculum to include a Masters degree. To date, it has granted more than
325 degrees in geology [64]. Csar Dndoli, previously referred to, enthusiastically
promoted the establishment of the school, which initially received the collaboration of
various foreign governments and institutions including UNESCO. Dndolis
accomplishments also deserve a special recognition because his endeavors brought the
attention of governmental and private institutions to the importance of the geological
science in the economic development of the countries of Central America. By the last
decade of the 20th century, three more educational institutions in geology had been
established in Central America, of which only one did not survive (Table 2.2). These
new institutions have contributed to the wider formation and participation of
geoscientists in decision-making levels.
Table 2.2. Geological teaching institutions in Central America.
Institution and University
Escuela Centroamericana de Geologa
(Central American School of Geology),
University of Costa Rica
Year of
foundation
1969
(classes in
1970)
Degrees
BSc and Licenciatura,
MSc in Geology since 1992
Geology, Centro Universitario del Norte, 1976

Cobn, University of San Carlos,
Guatemala
Technician in Mineral Processing and

in Mineral Prospection, both merged
as Technician in Geology in 1980,
then in 1991 a Licenciatura in
Engineering Geology
Carrera en Ciencias de la Tierra (Earth

Sciences), Department of Civil Engin.,
University of El Valle, Guatemala
1990
(closed in
1999)
Licenciatura in Earth Sciences
Geology, National Autonomous

University of Nicaragua
1997
Geological engineer
In 1980, Weyl [1] listed 26 institutions in Central America dedicated to geological

investigations, ranging from those academic institutions mentioned, to a wide spectrum
of other bodies, including museums, geographical, mining and oil, meteorological,
seismological, volcanological, geotechnical, energy production, hydrogeological, and
industrial institutes. Since the 1980s, other institutions or new branches of the existing
ones, have developed mainly in the fields of natural-disaster prevention (e.g.,
CEPREDENAC, Center of Coordination for the Natural Disasters Prevention in
Central America) and environmental matters, especially those related to groundwater
pollution and other impacts. Professional associations of geologists have also appeared,
such as the Association of Geologists of Costa Rica in 1966, which transformed into
Colegio de Gelogos de Costa Rica (Guild of Geologists) in 1973, and the Geological
Society of Guatemala, in 1974.
69
2.5.4 Consolidation of autochthonous geology

The number of contributors to the knowledge of geology in Central America during the
last few years is outstanding and difficult to list because of the problem of giving due
credit to such a large contingent of earth scientists, which now include specialists in
many facets of modern geology including mining, petroleum, and engineering geology
as well as hydrogeology and the investigation of geological hazards. This group
comprises many geologists from all the countries of Central America, as exemplified
by the credentials of the contributors to this book which lists 36 Central American
geoscientists.
Also significant to this analysis is the accelerated increase in the interest of
geologists to get involved and participate in geological matters in Central America.
Escalante [65] has pointed to the participation of only 25 geologists and the
presentation of eight papers during the First Meeting of Central American Geologists in
1965. In contrast, two decades later, in 1986, for the symposium on Energy and
Mineral Potential of the Central American and Caribbean Region celebrated in Costa
Rica in 1986 under the auspice of the Circum Pacific Council for Energy and
Mineral Resources 60 papers on the geology of Central America were presented.
Through the last forty years the Central American countries have held eight regional
geological meetings (San Jos, 1965, 1971 (Fig. 2.7b), 1990; Guatemala, 1966, 1992;
Tegucigalpa, 1974; Managua, 1977, 1984), despite the fact that there has been a decline
in regularity. All this geologic effervescence in the region has resulted in a high respect
for the profession from the concerned citizens of Central America. This is a far cry
from the time, not long ago, when for many people of Central America, geologists and
their accomplishments were thought to be more related to witchcraft than science!
The single most important contributor to knowledge of the geology of Central
America during the period extending from 1950 to the present is by far, Gabriel Dengo
(Fig. 2.7c), the acknowledged dean of Central American geology who was born and
raised in Costa Rica but later became a citizen of Guatemala. His accomplishments are
considered to have paved the way to the understanding of the regional geology of the
isthmus in the context of modern world tectonics and its relationship to the Caribbean
region. Dengos career was dedicated to the unification of Central American geologists.
He was also an enthusiastic organizer of numerous Central American geological
meetings and participated in establishing the Central American School of Geology.
Most of this work was carried out in the employment of various Central American
institutions and international organizations, which he so ably administered. An
impressive listing of the awards given to him and positions he held is given in the
presentation of the Michel T. Halbouty Human Needs Award in 1996, and in
memorials prepared by G. Murray and others for the AAPG [66] and by J.J. Prucha and
J.E.Case, published by the Geological Society of America [67].
2.6
OVERVIEW AND EPILOGUE
As pointed out before, since the early 1970s, an extraordinary interest has arisen among
earth scientists from all over the world to investigate the geology of Central America
and surrounding areas. This interest is due in part, to the fact that this region is set in a
very unusual tectonic environment. Additionally, the occurrence of recurrent natural
disasters, has brought the worldwide attention of geologists to study these geological
phenomena in Central America. The development of geological sciences in the region,
however, has also obeyed other less scientific impulses, through a span of over ten
millennia. This history can be sub-divided into four periods:
the pre-Columbian period (> 10 ka up to early 16th century),
the colonial period and early independence (up to 1821),
from independence to the early 20th century (until the advent of WWII), and
from 1950 to present.
The first period is characterized by the rudimentary development of prospector
techniques by the Amerindians. They learned how to exploit rocks, minerals and
precious stones and minerals. The presence of particular rocks and minerals in the
burial grounds of the Amerindians of Central America, points to the great significance
of commerce during this time. There is no doubt that the raw materials inspired the
native Americans to use them in the most advantageous way. They were real
technicians and used some technological advances for exploitation and construction,
but were lacking in scientific ideas. Thus, the persistence of legends pertaining to the
causes of natural phenomena such as earthquakes and eruptions , were
exclusively related to mythological events.
During the second period, the quest for minerals, especially the search for precious
ones, in Central America became the most important catalyst in exploring this part of
the continent being conquered. This interest was initiated soon after the arrival of
Columbus, when a mineral rush came into being during the early 16th century. No
serious scientific geological studies accompanied this venture, which was done using
primitive mining techniques. During this period, ambiguous information, imaginative
accounts, and even legends about seismic and volcanic events, were produced as
documents and stored in archives. That information, although mostly of a descriptive
nature with no relation to science, points to the location, intensity and periodicity of
movements along active faults and volcanoes, especially in northern Central America.
This information has been of great value to the modern scientists in the reconstruction
of geological events. By the end of this period, the modern sciences were blooming in
Europe, and extended to this part of the world during the following stage.
The third period was characterized by contributions to the geological knowledge of
Central America by geologists from many countries, mostly from Europe and the U.S.A.,
which led to the promulgation of the first concepts of regional geologic significance in
the area. Four main attractions promoted the arrival of foreign scientists and naturalists:
(1) The interest in the natural sciences of the Americas provoked by Alexander von
Humboldts investigations in late 18th and early 19th centuries; (2) the violent eruption
of Cosigina volcano in Nicaragua in 1835; (3) the survey for precious minerals and
fossil fuels, and (4) the search for advantageous routes for the construction of a canal to
connect the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific Ocean. The first geological maps from
different countries of Central America were produced through the second half of the
19th century. By the first two decades of the 20th century, some native-born scientists
had started their first contributions to geosciences. The starting paradigms of the
geological sciences were applied in different ways to explain the geological
characteristics of the isthmus, and they reached their peak with two seminal works
carried out by Schuchert and Sapper in the 1930s. During the Second World War as
was the rule over the world geological work in Central America came to a virtual
standstill, but was revived quite suddenly during the early 1950s.
The fourth and last period, extending from 1950 to the present is characterized by
the emergence of international and national institutions dedicated to the teaching and
application of geology for the individual countries and the region as a whole. Also
71
important in this period is the work of institutions and individuals that gave rise to the
application of modern regional geological concepts in the interpretation of the structure
and stratigraphy of the region. This period also marks the significant contribution of
local geologists to this task, together with contributions carried out by geologists from
many countries. These led to the promulgation of the first concepts of regional geologic
significance in the area, and gave birth to modern Central American Geology. This can
be seen by comparing the numbers of papers on this subject written by the end of the
previous period (i.e., 18 papers in the quinquenium 193337) against those written in
the mid 70s (i.e., 346 between 1973 and 1977), a twenty-fold in the production of
geological publications (data taken from [1]). The rise of the paradigm of plate
tectonics throughout the world, found Central America to be a promising area in which
to apply its postulates, guided by such pioneers as G. Dengo. Undoubtedly, the
foundation of the first school of Geology in the area, in Costa Rica in 1969, helped to
raise new projects for a better understanding of the regional tectonics, stratigraphy and
geology. Three more institutions for teaching, and many others for research were born
during the late 20th century and have led to more prolific scientific contributions. There
is, however, still much unknown geology to unveil in Central America: a task for the
geologists of the 21st century.
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Colombiana Cienc. Ex. Fs. Nat. VII (1947), pp.27.
36. Christy, B.M. & Lowman, P.D. Jr.: Global maps of volcanism: two maps from two centuries.
In: N. Morello (ed): Volcanoes and History. Proceedings of the 20th INHIGEO Symposium,
Brigatti, Genova, 1998, pp.6590.
37. Berghaus, H.: Physikalischer Atlas. 2nd ed. Gotha : J. Perthes. Phillips 216 ; Espenhorst 2.7.1
(2.1. Aufl. 1852 [54]).
38. Dollfus, A. & de Montserrat, E.: Voyage gologique dans les rpubliques de Guatemala et de
Salvador. Mission Scientifique en Mexique et dans lAmrique Centrale. Imprimerie Impriale,
Paris, 1868.
39. Denyer, P. & Soto, G.J.: Anlisis de los trabajos geolgicos de William M. Gabb sobre Costa
Rica, a la luz del paradigma geolgico del siglo XIX. Rev. Geol. Amr. Central 23 (2000),
73
pp.97118.
40. Gabb, W.M.: Informe sobre la exploracin de Talamanca verificada durante los aos 1873
1874 (Introduction by H. Pittier). Tipografa Nacional, San Jos, 1895.
41. Whitfield, B.F.: Report of Geology of the Nicaraguan Surveying Expedition. In: C. Hatfield
et al. (eds): Reports of Explorations and Surveys for the Location of a Ship-Canal between the
Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans through Nicaragua, 18721873. Washington, 1874, pp.2531.
42. Hayes, C.W.: Physiography and Geology of region adjacent to the Nicaraguan Canal route.
Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 10 (1899), pp.285348.
43. Douville, H.: Sur lge des couches traverses par le Canal de Panam. C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris
112 (1891), pp.497499.
44. MacDonald, D.F.: Contributions to the geology and paleontology of the Panama Canal Zone
and geologically related areas in Central America and the West Indies. Bull. U.S. Natl. Mus.
103 (1918), pp.525545.
45. McCullough, D.: The Path Between the Seas. The Creation of the Panama Canal 18701914.
Simon and Schuster, New York, 1977.
46. Leeds, D.J.: Panama Seismic History. Central American Conference of Earthquake
Engineering, San Salvador, El Salvador, 1978, pp.107116.
47. Morales, L.D.: Historia de la Sismologa en Costa Rica. Rev. Filos. Univ. Costa Rica XXIV 59
(1986), pp.93104.
48. Vassaux, J.: Cincuenta aos de sismologa en Guatemala. Observatorio Meteorolgico
Nacional, Guatemala City, 1969.
49. Sapper, K.: ber Gebirgsbau und Boden des Sdlichen Mittelamerika. Petermanns
Geographische Mitt. 32 (1905), pp.182.
50. Termer, F.: Carlos Sapper, Explorador de Centroamrica (18661945). An. Soc. Geogr. Hist.
Guatemala XXIX (1956), pp.55130.
51. Newberry, J.S.: Triassic plants from Honduras. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 7 (1888), pp.113115.
52. Romanes, J.: Geology of a part of Costa Rica. J. Geol. Soc. London 68 (1912), pp.103139.
53. Woodring, W.P.: Tectonic features of the Caribbean Region. Proc. Third Pan-Pacific Science
Congress, Tokyo, 1, 1928, pp.401441.
54. Woodring, W.P.: Geology and paleontology of Canal Zone and adjoining parts of Panama. U.S.
Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 306-A (1957), pp.1145.
55. Ower, L.H.: The geology of British Honduras. Journ. Geol. 36:6 (1928), pp.507523.
56. Schuchert, C.: Historical Geology of the Antillean-Caribbean Region. John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1935.
57. Sapper, K.: Mittelamerika: Handbuch der Regionalen Geologie. Steinman und Wilkens,
Heidelberg, 1937.
58. Dixon, C.G.: Geology of Southern British Honduras with notes on adjacent areas. Georgetown,
1955.
59. Roberts, R.J. & Irving, E.M.: Mineral deposits of Central America. U.S. Geol. Surv. 1034
(1957), pp.1205.
60. Reniery, E.A.: Geologa de Honduras (folleto explicativo del mapa geolgico de la Repblica
publicado a escala 1: 500 000). Minist. Rec. Natur., Pub. 1 (1974), pp.151.
61. Terry, R.A.: A geological reconnaissance of Panama. Calif. Acad. Sci. Occ. Paper 33 (1956).
62. Weyl, R.: Die Geologie Mittelamerikas. Beitrge zur Regionalen Geologie der Erde. Band 1,
Berlin, 1961.
63. Weyl, R.: Erdgeschichte und Landschaftsbild in Mittelamerika. Verlag von Waldemar Kramer,
Frankfurt am Main, 1965.
64. Castillo, S.I. & Peraldo, G.: Ventana al pasado, resea histrica, Escuela Centroamericana de
Geologa. Rev. Inf. Semestral, Inst. Geogr. Nac., Costa Rica 36 (2000), pp.97122.
65. Escalante, G.: The known and potential resource base for economic development in the Central
American-Caribbean Region. In: R.L. Miller, G. Escalante, J.A. Reinemund & M.J. Bergin
(eds): Circum-Pacific Council for Energy and Mineral Resources Earth Science Series, v.16.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, 1995, pp.710.
66. Murray, G., Green, A., Maxwell, J.C. & Escalante, G.: Memorial to Gabriel Dengo. AAPG
Bull. 84:8 (1999), pp.12291230.
67. Prucha, J.J. & Case, J.E.: Memorial to Gabriel Dengo 19221999. Geol. Soc. Amer. Memorials
33, April (2004), pp.1316.
Chapter 3
Geomorphology and physiographic provinces
JEFFREY S. MARSHALL
We have been sailing placidly along the
coastall day a broad, low land, densely
clad in a green, tropical vegetation In full
view are three noble mountains tall,
symmetrical cones, with sides furrowed with
wrinkle-like valleys veiled in a dreamy,
purple mist that is charming to the eye, and
summits swathed in a grand turban of rolling
clouds. They say these are volcanoes, but we
cannot see any smoke. No matter it is a
fairy landscape that is very pleasant to look
upon. Mark Twain, December 1866, letter
written aboard the steamer Columbia
offshore of Guatemala, published in the San
Francisco Alta California, March 15, 1867.
3.1
INTRODUCTION
Central America encompasses an intricate mosaic of dynamic landscapes shaped by a

wide range of Earth surface processes. Few other regions worldwide exhibit a
comparable magnitude of geomorphic diversity. Along the length of the Central
American isthmus, highly variable tectonic, lithologic, and climatic domains (see
Chapter 1) are superimposed across a small land area (0.4% of Earths total land
surface). The resulting physiography is characterized by a heterogeneous array of
geomorphic provinces (Fig. 3.1), each featuring a distinctive landform assemblage that
preserves a unique history of landscape evolution.
Over 1500 km in length, Central America reaches from the rugged Maya highlands
of Guatemala in the north, to the humid coast ranges of Panamas Darin isthmus in the
south. This narrow landbridge links the two American continents and forms a critical
divide between the Pacific and Atlantic ocean basins, varying in width from less than
100 km at the Panama canal, to over 400 km across the interior highlands of Nicaragua
and Honduras. From towering volcanic peaks (> 4000 m elevation) to jungle-shrouded
alluvial lowlands, and from rugged tectonic shorelines to passive-margin lagoons,
Central America embodies a geomorphic microcosm of remarkable diversity.
The physiographic architecture of Central America (Fig. 3.1) is defined primarily
by the northwest-trend of the Middle America trench and Central American volcanic
front. These major morphotectonic features were formed by Cenozoic subduction of the
Cocos oceanic plate, and its predecessor, the Faralln plate, beneath the western margin
of the Caribbean plate [110]. While the northern volcanic front developed over
Paleozoic continental basement of North American origin (Maya and Chortis blocks),
76 GEOMORPHOLOGY
the southern volcanic front formed on the Mesozoic oceanic basement of the Caribbean
plate (Chorotega and Choc blocks) (see Chapter 13, Fig. 1.1). Throughout the
Cenozoic, this first-order contrast in basement lithology has been overprinted with a
diverse suite of rock formations (see Chapter 1) generated in a variety of tectonic
settings, including volcanic cordilleras, forearc and trench-slope basins, alluvial plains
and deltas, intra-arc rift valleys, fold-and-thrust belts, highland plateaus, and carbonate
platforms.
Active tectonic deformation continues to shape the Central American landscape
along several complex plate-boundary zones (see Chapters 1, 8, and 11). In the north,
the Motagua-Polochic fault system cuts across central Guatemala, accommodating
sinistral shearing between the North American and Caribbean plates [1113]. Along
Central Americas Pacific margin, rapid convergence (710 cm/yr) occurs between the
Cocos and Caribbean plates at the Middle America subduction zone, generating large
earthquakes [1418], active volcanism [1923], and pronounced upper-plate
deformation [2437]. The oblique suduction of steeply dipping seafloor, produced at
the East Pacific rise, results in pervasive strike-slip faulting and rifting along the
northern Central American margin [2427]. In contrast, the flat subduction of rough,
hotspot-thickened seafloor, produced at the Galpagos spreading center, drives rapid
uplift and crustal shortening across southern Central America [2837]. Along the
margins of Panama, rapid deformation occurs in response to collision with South
America to the east, and oblique subduction of the Nazca plate to the south [3842].
In addition to contrasting lithologic and tectonic domains, Central America also
hosts a wide array of climatic and ecological zones (see Chapter 1), ranging from the
humid tropical rainforests of the Caribbean and southern Pacific lowlands, with
> 4.0 m/yr of rainfall, to the dry tropical savannahs of the northern Pacific coastal
plains, with < 1.0 m/yr of highly seasonal precipitation [4345]. Similarly, vegetation
zones within mountainous regions range from the humid cloud forests of volcanic
highlands to the dwarf scrublands of the high-altitude pramo. Dramatic climatic and
topographic gradients juxtapose 4000 m peaks that were glaciated in the Pleistocene
[46] in close proximity to humid lowland basins mantled by thick lateric oxisols [7].
Topographic extremes coupled with variations in slope aspect, wind direction, and
orographic precipitation result in extraordinarily diverse microclimates, vegetative
cover, and soil types within single mountain ranges.
As a whole, the Central American isthmus forms a geologically tenuous landbridge
that links the two American continents and creates a topographic divide between the
Atlantic and Pacific Ocean basins. This narrow landmass plays a vital role in directing
the ecological evolution of the Americas [47, 48], and may also profoundly influence
ocean circulation and global climate [4951]. During the Cenozoic, a diverse array of
landscapes has developed along the isthmus in response to dynamic interactions
between regionally variable rock types, complex plate-boundary tectonics, and an
energetic tropical climate. Central America therefore serves as a unique laboratory for
the study of a wide range of geomorphic processes and consequent pathways of
landscape evolution.
This chapter explores the regional geomorphology of Central America and defines a
system of physiographic provinces (Fig. 3.1) that characterizes the overall landscape
diversity of this dynamic region. The chapter is organized into sections that provide an
overview of the characteristic landforms and geomorphic processes that define each of
the physiographic provinces. The first half of the chapter looks at the geomorphic
provinces of northern Central America, and the second half examines those of southern
Figure 3.1. Map of the physiographic provinces of Central America as defined in this chapter.
Central America. Each section provides a brief review of current geomorphic research
within the physiographic provinces. Due to the wide range of possible topics, it is
impractical to cover every aspect of these diverse landscapes. The discussion is
therefore limited to a subset of critical topics that provide a general flavor for the
regional geomorphology of Central America. Several of these topics are explored in
greater detail in the four chapters that follow: Volcanism and volcanic landforms
(Chapter 4), Karst landscapes (Chapter 5), Glacial geology and geomorphology
(Chapter 6), and Coastal morphology and coral reefs (Chapter 7).
3.2
GEOMORPHOLOGY OF NORTHERN CENTRAL AMERICA
Northern Central America straddles the boundary between two major crustal domains
(see Chapters 1, 8, and 11), the Maya block of southern Mexico, Belize, and northern
Guatemala, and the Chortis block of southern Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and
Nicaragua [5255]. These two basement terranes are juxtaposed across the MotaguaPolochic fault zone of central Guatemala, which defines the active North AmericanCaribbean plate boundary. The lithologic and structural contrast between the Maya and
Chortis blocks (see Chapter 1, Fig. 1.1) exerts a first-order control on regional
geomorphology in northern Central America. This geomorphic template is in turn
77
78 GEOMORPHOLOGY
affected by active plate-boundary deformation along both the eastwest trending

Motagua-Polochic fault zone and the northwest-trending Middle America convergent
margin along the Pacific coast. Late Cenozoic volcanism, generated by subduction at
the Middle America trench imparts an additional influence on regional geomorphology.
Both the Maya and Chortis blocks encompass continental basement terranes of
Lower Paleozoic metamorphic and igneous rocks [5258]. On the Maya block to the
north, the basement is overlain by a thick sequence of Upper Paleozoic clastic and
carbonate sediments, Upper Jurassic continental redbeds, and Cretaceous to Eocene
carbonate and evaporitic rocks [5961]. This sequence is exposed across the Maya
block within the Sierra Madre of southeastern Mexico, the northern highlands of
Guatemala, and the vast lowlands of the Yucatn platform. The basement of the Chortis
block, to the south of the Motagua-Polochic fault zone, is overlain by Mesozoic clastic
and carbonate sediments, Paleogene redbeds, and a thick sequence of Neogene
ignimbrites [59, 6264]. These rocks are exposed throughout the Chortis highlands of
southern Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua.
While the Maya block has undergone only minor rotation relative to the North
American craton, the allocthonous Chortis block to the south, has experienced
significant southeastward displacement and rotation relative to its original position
northwest of the Maya block. The regional geomorphology of northern Central
America is strongly influenced by the lithologic and structural contrasts between these
two adjacent tectonic blocks.
3.2.1 Maya highlands province

The Maya highlands province (Fig. 3.1) extends in a broad arc from Mexicos Sierra
Madre de Chiapas, eastward across the northern Guatemalan Altiplano, to the Maya
mountains of southern Belize. These rugged highlands consist of a series of
morphologically distinct mountain ranges separated by deep fault-controlled canyons
and occasional broad alluvial valleys.
The Maya highlands are developed across a Cretaceous-Paleogene age fold belt that
affects the underlying crystalline basement and its sedimentary cover [14]. The
intensity of deformation decreases toward the north, where a near-horizontal section
forms the foundation of the Yucatn carbonate platform. The geomorphology of the
Maya highlands is largely controlled by variations in the lithology and structural grain
of deformed sedimentary rocks and metamorphic basement exposed within a series of
eroding, high-altitude mountain belts [65].
In western Guatemala (Fig. 3.2), the Maya highlands province extends across the
border from Mexicos Sierra Madre massif, forming the northwest-trending
Cuchumatanes range. These rugged mountains encompass several distinct geomorphic
sectors, including an extensive high-altitude plateau (> 3800 m) that was glaciated
during the Pleistocene [46]. Toward the east, the Maya highlands decrease in elevation,
extending into the Cham and Santa Cruz ranges of east-central Guatemala (Fig. 3.2).
Along their northern margin, the highlands descend toward the Yucatn platform,
encompassing the Lacandn range (< 800 m) of northern Guatemala and the Maya
mountains of southern Belize (< 1200 m).
Figure 3.2. Map of the physiographic provinces of northern Central America, showing significant
geomorphic features of Guatemala, El Salvador, and portions of Mexico, Belize, Honduras,
and Nicaragua.
3.2.1.1 Cuchumatanes range

The Cuchumatanes range in northwestern Guatemala (Fig. 3.2) consists of a deeply
dissected, northwest-trending, fault-bounded mountain block. This high-altitude range
(> 3800 m maximum elevation) encompasses a thick (> 7500 m) section of deformed
Upper Paleozoic to Mesozoic sedimentary rocks overlying a Lower Paleozoic
metamorphic basement [61]. The Cuchumatanes range exhibits several distinct
geomorphic sub-regions, including a spectacular highland plateau (Altos de los
Cuchumatanes), a rugged mountainous zone of karst topography, and a lower-elevation
area of ridges and valleys developed on metamorphic basement [65].
The Altos de los Cuchumatanes plateau (34003800 m elevation), in the core of the
Cuchumatanes range, is formed primarily on a 2500-m-thick section of Cretaceous
limestone and dolomite strata near the top of the Maya highlands sedimentary sequence
[61]. This plateau was glaciated during the Pleistocene, leaving a relict landscape of
striated bedrock, moraines, and outwash plains [46, 66, 67] (also see Chapter 6). The
abrupt margins of the Cuchumatanes plateau correspond with deep canyons developed
79
80 GEOMORPHOLOGY
along a series of northwest trending faults and folds. The southern edge of the plateau
follows a prominent fault escarpment that separates the Maya highlands sedimentary
section from crystalline basement rocks exposed within the Motagua-Polochic fault
zone to the south (Fig. 3.2).
3.2.1.2 Cham and Santa Cruz ranges
The Cham range of north-central Guatemala (Fig. 3.2) exhibits a complex
mountainous landscape formed over eastwest trending folds in the Mesozoic
sedimentary section [65]. Where carbonate rocks outcrop along the fold belt, the
Cham mountains exhibit an undulating karst topography with scarce surface drainage.
On intervening clastic rocks, the landscape consists of low-relief erosion surfaces
traversed by meandering streams. To the east of the Cham mountains, the Santa Cruz
range (Fig. 3.2) features a strikingly different mountain landscape of steep northwesttrending ridges cut by deeply-eroded drainages [65]. The drainage divides consist of a
series of orthogonal spurs that extend out from the primary ridges. This morphology is
the product of differential erosion along a system of parallel fractures within the
underlying ultramafic basement rocks [60].
3.2.1.3 Lacandn range
The Lacandn range (Fig. 3.2) marks the northern edge of the Maya highlands
province, extending in a broad arc across Guatemalas southern Petn region to the
Maya mountains of Belize. This relatively subdued mountain chain (< 800 m elevation)
is formed along an arcuate belt of tightly folded Cretaceous limestone and dolomite
strata (La Libertad arch) at the southern margin of the Yucatn platform [59]. Rising
above the humid Petn lowlands, the Lacandn range consists of a series of ridges and
valleys that exhibit a rugged karst landscape of abundant sinks, isolated knobs, and
poorly integrated surface drainages [65]. The central Lacandn range also encompasses
some broader low-relief karst uplands with occasional limestone columns and towers.
Along the southern margin of the Lacandn range (Fig. 3.2), an extensive alluviallowland has formed where several major rivers descend out of the higher
Cuchumatanes and Cham ranges to the south [65]. This broad interior lowland
consists of a network of major flood plains, developed where rapid sedimentation
buried the underlying karst topography.
3.2.1.4 Maya mountains
The Maya mountains of Belize (Fig. 3.2) consist of a fault-bounded highland (< 1200 m
elevation) that exposes granitic and meta-sedimentary basement rocks within an east
northeast trending synclinorium [57, 58]. This isolated mountain block rises abruptly
above the surrounding lowlands of the Petn region and the Belize coastal plain [65].
River systems draining from the Maya mountains experience sharp changes in channel
morphology as they cross the steep mountain front that separates deformed crystalline
rocks within the massif from the generally flat lying carbonate platform of the adjacent
lowlands [68]. The coastline east of the Maya mountains (Fig. 3.2) is characterized by a
series of small deltas constructed of coarse clastic sediments eroded from the
metamorphic and igneous interior of the mountain block [69]. This coastal morphology
differs considerably from the low-relief shorelines to the north and south, characterized
by broad estuaries and lagoons fed by stream networks draining carbonate terrains.
3.2.2 Yucatn platform province

Extending to the north of the Maya highlands, are the expansive carbonate lowlands of
Petn, northern Belize, and the Yucatn peninsula (Fig. 3.2, Chapter 5). Together, these
regions encompass the most extensive karstlands of the North American continent,
covering over 100,000 km2 [7073] (also see Chapter 5). The Yucatn platform
province features a wide array of karst landforms, including sinkholes, cenotes, dry
valleys, cockpits, towers, and elaborate cave networks. This vast carbonate platform
can be subdivided into several distinct physiographic regions (Fig. 3.1), each exhibiting
a characteristic topography and a unique assemblage of karst landforms. The
geomorphic character of each of these areas is closely linked to regional variations in
lithology, structure, and depth to the groundwater table.
3.2.2.1 Northern pitted karst plain
On Mexicos Yucatn peninsula (Fig. 3.1), a relatively subdued karst landscape is
developed across a flat-lying sequence of Cenozoic marine carbonate rocks [70, 71].
The northern third of the peninsula consists of a low relief pitted karst plain (030 m
elevation), characterized by a dense network of sinkholes and cenotes (flooded collapse
pits that access the groundwater table). Efficient subsurface drainage within the pitted
karst plain results in a complete absence of surface streams [7477]. An extensive
interconnected system of flooded caverns (up to 130 km long) lies beneath the northern
Yucatn lowlands. These caverns formed by aggressive karst dissolution during sea
level low stands of the Late Pleistocene. Much of this cave network is now flooded by
stratified groundwater consisting of a lower saline layer, capped by an overlying fresh
water lens.
A prominent 180-km-diameter semicircular alignment of cenotes extends across the
northwestern Yucatn plain. This feature, known as the Ring of Cenotes, represents a
concentric band of enhanced karst permeability that overlies the buried Cretaceous-age
Chicxulub impact structure [78, 79]. Breaks within extensive coastal dune fields reveal
where the buried impact structure intersects the northwestern coastline of the Yucatn
peninsula. These locations coincide with zones of concentrated groundwater discharge,
as manifested by a high density of springs and flooded coastal wetlands.
3.2.2.2 Southern hilly-karst plain
The broad lowland of the northern pitted-karst plain (Fig. 3.1) is bordered along its
southern edge by the prominent northwest-trending La Sierrita de Ticul fault scarp
[70]. The Ticul escarpment consists of an abrupt line of hills that rise up to 50 m above
the northern lowlands. This chain of hills forms a distinct ridge that extends for nearly
200 km across the northern Yucatn peninsula, dividing the northern pitted-karst plain
from a hilly karst terrain to the south. The southern hilly-karst plain (Fig. 3.1) covers
much of the Campeche region of the Yucatn peninsula, south of the Ticul escarpment.
This extensive upland (6080 m elevation) features an irregular karst terrain
characterized by abundant hills with intervening flat-floored depressions (poljes). Many
of these depressions host ephemeral surface streams and contain alluvial sediments.
These basins occasionally flood during the rainy season due to the inefficient karst
drainage in this region.
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82 GEOMORPHOLOGY
3.2.2.3 Petn karst plateau and lowlands

In the Petn region of Guatemala, and adjacent portions of northwestern Belize (Fig.
3.1, Chapter 5), a distinctly more rugged and heterogeneous karst terrain has formed on
an older sequence of CretaceousPaleogene carbonate rocks [65, 80]. The diversity of
karst geomorphology across this region is controlled by local variations in the lithology
and structure of the carbonate bedrock. The karst plateau (< 450 m elevation) of
northeastern Petn exhibits a hilly landscape with local relief in excess of several
hundred meters. Surface drainage across the plateau is poorly developed and abundant
sinkholes feed into an extensive network of solution fractures and caverns. Along the
eastern margin of the Petn karst plateau, the landscape exhibits a rugged topography
controlled by underlying normal faults [65, 81]. Local relief can exceed 100 m across
steep scarps formed along the fault-controlled margins of elongate depressions. A
diverse suite of karst landforms occurs in this area, including dry valleys, residual
limestone hills, isolated cockpits, sinkholes, solution corridors, open fissures, and
elaborate cave systems. To the west of the Petn karst plateau, is a humid lowland
region consisting of a vast low-relief alluvial plain covered by large swamps and
numerous lakes [65]. The river network draining this region exhibits an irregular
pattern, interrupted locally by subsurface karst drainage. In some areas, an undulating
topography has formed by karst dissolution and alluvial filling across a series of folds
within the carbonate bedrock.
3.2.2.4 Eastern block-faulted coastal plain
The low-relief coastlines of the Yucatn platform (Fig. 3.1) are characterized by broad
lagoons, mangrove swamps, and seasonally-flooded marshlands. Along the platforms
east-facing Caribbean coast (including northern Belize), the elongate morphology of
coastal lagoons and lowlands follows a series of northnortheast-trending, faultbounded ridges and depressions [70]. Offshore, an extensive network of fringing reefs
and coral cays has also developed along this structural grain (forming the worlds
second longest barrier reef). This horst and graben structure is the result of broadly
distributed transtensional deformation along the North American-Caribbean transform
boundary south of the Yucatn peninsula.
Groundwater discharge along the east coast of the Yucatn peninsula is
concentrated along the northnortheast-trending faults [71, 75, 76]. Mixing of meteoric
groundwater and saline water at the coast results in vigorous karst dissolution,
producing a network of fracture-solution caverns that extend well inland [8284].
Alignments of cenotes and large lakes occur above these fractures on the coastal plain.
Where these solution fractures intersect the coast, cave collapse results in progressive
enlargement of coves and lagoons. Gradual coalescence of lagoons by wave erosion
results in the formation of broad, crescent-shaped beaches along the eastern Yucatn
coast.
3.2.3 Motagua fault zone province

A series of major northeast-trending river valleys have developed across central
Guatemala along sinistral strike-slip faults of the North American-Caribbean plate
boundary (Fig. 3.1). This major fault zone separates the Maya and Chortis blocks along
a broad arc extending from the Guatemalan volcanic highlands along the Pacific
margin to the Gulf of Honduras on the Caribbean coast [16]. The two most prominent
fault-controlled valleys are those of the Motagua and Polochic rivers (Fig. 3.2), which
drain the interior highlands and flow eastward to the Caribbean Sea [65]. Offshore, the
Motagua and Polochic fault systems merge with the Swan islands fault, forming a
transform boundary along the northern margin of the Caribbean plate [5, 6].
3.2.3.1 Motagua and Polochic valleys
The lower Motagua and Polochic valleys (Fig. 3.2) contain extensive alluvial plains
that grade eastward into a broad delta on the Gulf of Honduras [65]. A major structural
depression within the lower Polochic valley impounds Izabal lake (590 km2), the
largest inland body of water in northern Central America. Along both valleys, offset
river terraces, gravel fans, and tributary drainages attest to sinistral slip along plate
boundary faults [12, 13]. The damaging MW 7.5 Guatemala earthquake of 1976
produced left-lateral surface rupture along 230 km of the Motagua fault with an
average of 1.1 m of horizontal displacement and 0.3 m of vertical displacement [11].
Quaternary slip rates of 0.41.9 cm/yr have been determined from offset terrace treads
in the Motagua valley [13].
While the Motagua fault presently accommodates a significant portion of plateboundary slip, the presence of offset Late Neogene fluvial landforms along the
Polochic valley to the north (Fig. 3.2) indicates that the Polochic fault may have been
the primary plate-boundary between 10 and 3 Ma [85]. Prior to this (2010 Ma), plateboundary deformation may have been localized further to the south along the JocotnChamelcn fault zone in northwestern Honduras. This now inactive fault system has
since been fragmented by eastwest extension along a series of north-trending rift
valleys (Fig. 3.2) along the southern margin of the plate-boundary deformation zone
[8688].
3.2.3.2 Las Minas and Chuacs ranges
From the broad alluvial valleys on the Gulf of Honduras, the Motagua and Polochic
faults extend westward into the Guatemalan highlands (Fig. 3.2), where they curve to
the northwest along a series of deeply incised valleys. In this region, the plate-boundary
faults delimit a set of mountain-block slivers that expose lower Paleozoic metamorphic
and igneous basement rocks [56]. The faulted structure of these crystalline basement
rocks largely defines the morphology of sub-parallel ridges and valleys within the Las
Minas and Chuacs ranges (Fig. 3.2) of central Guatemala [65]. To the west, the plate
boundary faults extend into Chiapas, Mxico, where deformation becomes more diffuse
within the Sierra Madre massif [89].
3.2.4 Chortis volcanic front province

The active Chortis volcanic front (Fig. 3.1) encompasses two major, northwest-trending
morphotectonic segments, the Guatemalan cordillera, formed along the western margin
of the Chortis highlands, and the Salvadoran cordillera, developed along the southern
boundary faults of the Median trough graben [14, 1923, 9092] (also see Chapter 4).
Both of these cordilleras consist of aligned clusters of stratovolcanoes and calderas
localized along transverse faults that cut the Chortis volcanic front.
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84 GEOMORPHOLOGY
3.2.4.1 Guatemalan cordillera

Central Americas highest volcanoes, Tacan and Tajumulco (> 4000 m elevation),
mark the northwestern end of the Chortis volcanic front just south of the Motagua fault
zone (Fig. 3.2, Chapter 4). In general, the Guatemalan volcanoes are aligned in clusters
where north to northeast-trending faults intersect the range front of the Teritiary
volcanic highlands [93]. These frontal stratovolcanoes are often flanked by large silicic
calderas [94]. For example, a major volcanic complex in western Guatemala that
includes Santa Mara, Santiaguito, Santo Toms, and Cerro Quemado volcanoes has
developed along a transverse, northeast-trending lineament that extends into the backarc
[9597]. The Quezaltenango valley north of these stratovolcanoes may represent an
extinct caldera. Similar transverse clusters of frontal stratovolcanoes flanked by backarc calderas occur along the entire Chortis volcanic front. Other volcanic complexes
along the Guatemalan cordillera (Fig. 3.2) include the San Pedro-Atitln-Tolimn
cluster (flanked by Atitln caldera), the Yepocapa-Acatenango-Fuego lineament
(flanked by Barahona caldera), and the Agua-Pacaya pair (flanked by Amatitln
caldera).
Near Guatemala city, the twin stratovolcanoes of Acatenango and Fuego form
spectacular cones that tower 2000 m above the interior highlands and over 3500 m
above the adjacent Pacific coastal plain [98]. Nearby Agua volcano adds a third hulking
peak to the horizon of the modern Guatemalan capital. In 1541, a major debris flow
descended from Aguas summit to obliterate the colonial capital of Ciudad Vieja [99].
Throughout the Quaternary, such debris avalanches and lahars have conspired with
occasional ash flows to construct a broad landscape of debris aprons that extend
outward from the Guatemalan volcanoes and on to the Pacific coastal plain below. The
potential for similar events in the future represents a significant geologic hazard for the
people of Guatemala [100].
3.2.4.2 Salvadoran cordillera
In El Salvador, the active volcanic front is aligned along the southern boundary faults
of the Median trough (Fig. 3.2), an elongate structural basin at the northwestern end of
the Nicaraguan depression. Similar to Guatemala, the Salvadoran volcanoes are
localized where tranverse faults intersect the trough [2023].
In western El Salvador, the Izalco and Santa Ana stratovolcanoes occur within a
large, fault-controlled volcanic complex that also includes the Coatepeque caldera
[101]. This volcanic cluster is the source of a series of Quaternary andesitic ignimbrites
that extend northward into the Median trough. Late Pleistocene edifice collapse at
Santa Ana volcano unleashed a massive debris avalanche that traveled over 50 km to
the south into the Pacific Ocean [102]. Like Guatemala, the populated lowlands of El
Salvador face a significant threat from debris avalanches and lahars generated by
gravitational failure along the volcanic front [103106].
San Salvador volcano, adjacent to the countrys capital city, consists of multiple
remnants of Quaternary eruptive centers, including a large central crater (El Boquern),
and several surrounding peaks [105107]. The nearby Ilopango caldera forms a large
lake-filled basin created by a series of major collapse events that generated widespread
tephra deposits found throughout central El Salvador [108, 109]. Southeast of Ilopango
caldera, San Vicente volcano consists of a broad composite mass of two overlapping
stratocones [103]. A Late Pleistocene debris avalanche and lahar deposit forms a swath
of hummocky terrain that extends 25 km to the southeast of the volcano, reaching the
Lempa river on the coastal plain.

Near the southern end of the Chortis volcanic front, San Miguel volcano forms an
imposing composite cone that rises over 2000 m above the lowland coastal plain near
the Gulf of Fonseca [104, 110]. As one of the most active volcanoes in El Salvador,
this prominent peak is surrounded by a youthful landscape consisting of multiple,
historic lava flows. Unlike most of the Chortis volcanoes, San Miguel is composed
predominantly of basalt.
3.2.5 Chortis forearc province

The Pacific coastal plain of Guatemala and El Salvador (Fig. 3.1) consists of a lowrelief (bajada) of coalescing alluvial fans that extend up to 70 km seaward of the
volcanic front [111] (also see Chapter 7). This broad alluvial plain is constructed of
volcanic ejecta and clastic sediments delivered by a network of debris-choked rivers
that drain the interior volcanic highlands. In general, coastal topography along the
Chortis forearc (Fig. 3.2) is relatively subdued, with only minor localized faulting
affecting the Quaternary strata. This low-relief coastal morphology strongly contrasts
with the tectonically active coastlines of the Chorotega forearc in southern Central
America (Fig. 3.1). In that region, active faulting and rapid uplift have produced abrupt
coastal topography along the rugged coastlines of Costa Rica and Panama.
3.2.5.1 Guatemalan coastal plain
The Guatemalan coastal plain (Fig. 3.2) forms a prominent bulge (> 200 km long, and
up to 70 km wide) along Central Americas northern Pacific coastline. This extensive
alluvial lowland encompasses a series of overlapping debris fans, consisting of thick
Quaternary sequences of volcaniclastic sands, gravels, pumiceous ash, and lahar
deposits [111]. These materials have been deposited and reworked along a sub-parallel
network of river channels that descend from the adjacent volcanic highlands. The
spectacular stratovolcanoes that tower more than 3500 m above the coastal plain to the
east represent sources for pyroclastic flows, long-run-out lahars, and massive debris
avalanches [100]. Confined within deeply incised drainages along the volcanic front,
such flows are capable of traveling great distances to inundate the coastal plain below.
3.2.5.2 Salvadoran coastal plain
Although narrower than the Guatemalan coastal plain, the Pacific lowlands of El
Salvador (Fig. 3.2) share a similar geomorphology of coalescing alluvial fans fed by
coarse detritus from the volcanic highlands. In western El Salvador, the coastline
exhibits a prominent headland referred to as the Acajutla peninsula (Fig. 3.2). This
small promontory extends 7 km offshore to its southern tip at Punta Remedios. The
Acajutla peninsula is the product of a massive Late Pleistocene debris avalanche
generated by edifice collapse at Santa Ana volcano, 50 km to the north [102]. The
subaerial deposit covers 390 km2 with an additional estimated component of 150 km2
lying offshore. A 10-km-wide swath of hummocky terrain extends from the Acajutla
peninsula up to the source of the debris avalanche on Santa Ana volcano.
Southeast of the Acajutla peninsula (Fig. 3.2), the coastal plain narrows and gives
way to rocky headlands and cliffs cut into resistant Pliocene volcanic rocks of the
Blsamo range. This rugged volcanic range intersects the coast in a series of southwest-
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86 GEOMORPHOLOGY
trending ridges separated by deeply incised linear canyons. To the east, the Salvadoran
coastal plain widens again where a series of rivers that drain the volcanic front have
deposited broad alluvial fans. The most prominent geomorphic feature along this
coastal segment is the massive delta of the Lempa river (Fig. 3.2). This major river
drains a significant portion of the interior Chortis highlands, transporting its sediment
load across the Median trough to the Pacific coast. The resulting, low relief, alluvial
coastline is characterized by a series of elongate barrier islands and spits that enclose
extensive lagoons.
3.2.6 Chortis highlands province

The majority of the Chortis block (Fig. 3.1) consists of a broad, dissected, highland
plateau that extends from western Guatemala, across Honduras and El Salvador, to
northern Nicaragua [27, 5255, 112114]. This mountainous topography reaches
elevations > 1 km and extends up to 400 km behind the active volcanic front. The
Chortis highlands can be divided into four geomorphic sub-regions (Fig. 3.1) [27, 114]:
a high-altitude central massif with concordant erosion surfaces; a western rifted plateau
south of the Motagua-Polochic fault zone; an eastern zone of heavily dissected
mountains facing the Caribbean lowlands; and an area of eastwest trending, faultbounded valleys and ridges along the northern coast. The geomorphic contrast between
these subregions reflects variations in lithology, proximity to plate boundaries, and a
strong eastwest climatic gradient across the Chortis highlands.
3.2.6.1 Central Chortis plateau
The core of the Chortis highlands province (Figs. 3.1 and 3.2) consists of a tectonically
stable massif of Paleozoic metamorphic basement rocks and an overlying sequence of
folded Cretaceous sediments. Concordant high-altitude erosion surfaces (7001000 m
elevation) form a relatively level plateau across this region [27]. While major rivers
have incised deep canyons into bedrock, the plateau remains largely intact with only
limited dissection by tributary networks (Fig. 3.2). The central Chortis plateau (Fig.
3.1) is isolated from the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean, receiving less rainfall (1.0
1.5 m/yr) than the rifted highlands to the west (> 2 m/yr) and the heavily dissected
Caribbean slope to the east (> 3 m/yr) [27]. Tomographic imaging of the subducting
Cocos plate reveals a slab gap extending the length of the Chortis highlands [27]. Slab
break-off during the Miocene and associated upwelling of buoyant mantle beneath the
Caribbean plate may have induced epeirogenic uplift of the Chortis highlands [27].
This regional-scale uplift, beginning in the Middle to Late Miocene, led to deep
entrenchment of meandering rivers throughout the region. Vertical meander incision
with no lateral migration implies that uplift proceeded without local faulting or tilting,
as a regional event that affected the entire Chortis highlands [27].
3.2.6.2 Western rifted highlands
South of the Motagua-Polochic fault zone (Figs. 3.1 and 3.2), the Chortis highlands of
southern Guatemala and western Honduras are cut by a discontinuous series of small,
north-trending, flat-floored rift valleys of Late Miocene to Quaternary age [86]. Early
workers referred to these valleys under the collective term Honduras depression [19,
112]. However, instead of a single continuous feature as this term implies, these
Figure 3.3. Map of the physiographic provinces of northern Central America, showing significant
geomorphic features of Nicaragua, and portions of Honduras, El Salvador, and Costa Rica.
localized, independent rift basins are scattered across a broad area of the western
highlands (Fig. 3.2) stretching from the Guatemala city graben in the west, to the Sula
and Comayagua valleys of Honduras in the east. Rifting across the western Chortis
block is attributed to regional extension in response to eastward movement of the
Caribbean plate south of the arcuate Motagua-Polochic fault zone [27, 8688, 113,
114]. In a similar fashion, anticlinal folding has occurred north of the MotaguaPolochic fault zone in response to shortening within the southern Maya block [87].
The southwestern margin of the Chortis highlands province (Fig. 3.2) overlies a
2 km thick sequence of pyroclastic rocks produced during the Middle Miocene
ignimbrite flare-up along the Central American volcanic front [63]. These materials
were deposited across a pre-existing low-relief terrain formed on underlying basement
rocks. This extensive ignimbrite sheet buried earlier drainage networks and reset the
landscape for the development of a new system of low-gradient meandering rivers [27].
The rift basins of the western Chortis highlands cut these deposits, providing a wellconstrained maximum age for rifting (Middle Miocene). In many cases, the riftbounding faults also disrupt entrenched river meanders formed during the regional
uplift event that post-dates the ignimbrites.
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88 GEOMORPHOLOGY
3.2.6.3 Eastern dissected highlands

The eastern Chortis highlands of Honduras and Nicaragua (Figs. 3.1 and 3.3)
encompass a rugged mountain landscape that faces the Caribbean lowlands of the
Mosquito coast [27]. This region is highly dissected by drainage networks and is
traversed by several major trunk rivers that descend from the interior highlands onto
the coastal plain. These include the high-discharge Patuca, Coco, and Matagalpa rivers
(Fig. 3.3), which transport large volumes of coarse sediment eroded from the uplifted
interior. Although the eastern portion of the highlands overlies the same basement
rocks as the central plateau, a sharp climate gradient toward the Caribbean coast leads
to significantly greater rainfall in this area (more than double the annual precipitation).
Deep weathering and intense erosion have consumed the highland plateau in this
region, leaving a heavily dissected, lower-elevation terrain (average of < 500 m)
characterized by steep ridges and deep intervening valleys.
3.2.6.4 Honduran borderlands
The northern margin of the Chortis highlands (Figs. 3.1 and 3.3), east of the rifted
plateau, consists of a zone of eastwest trending fault-bounded basins and ranges,
including the Aguan valley, and the Nombre de Dios and La Esperanza ranges [114].
Five major eastnortheast-trending faults traverse this region, forming the boundaries
of elongate mountain blocks. Offset river channels and other geomorphic indicators
suggest that these faults accommodate left-lateral transtension along the northern flank
of the Chortis highlands. Transtensional fault blocks in this area may represent the
onshore extension of normal fault-bounded basins within the offshore Honduran
borderlands south of Swan island fault zone. The difference in orientation and
kinematics between the northsouth oriented rift valleys to the west, and the EW
oriented basins and ranges to the east, is attributed to variations in the divergence angle
between the Caribbean plate motion vector and the plate-boundary fault zone [114].
3.2.7 Mosquito coast lowlands province

The Mosquito coast lowlands province (Fig. 3.1) consists of a broad, thickly vegetated
alluvial plain, up to 150 km wide, along the east-facing portion of Central Americas
Caribbean coast. With annual precipitation rates of 46 m/yr, these humid lowlands
represent one of the wettest regions on Earth. The alluvial plains of the Mosquito coast
formed during the Late Cenozoic atop a coalescing mass of deltaic sand and gravel
deposits derived from the eroded interior highlands to the west [115]. These deposits
may reach a thickness of up to 4500 m in some areas. Neogene uplift of the Chortis
highlands (Fig. 3.1) resulted in the deep incision of river drainages, producing a pulse
of coarse, clastic sedimentation across the Caribbean lowlands [115]. Progradation of
these deltaic materials across the shallow Nicaragua bank offshore has produced a lowrelief, lobate shoreline (Fig. 3.3) characterized by extensive mangrove swamps, broad
tidal lagoons, elongate barrier islands, and scattered coral reefs.
3.2.7.1 Northern Mosquitia
The promontory of Cabo Gracias a Dios (Fig. 3.3) at the Honduras-Nicaragua border
marks the apex of a massive PliocenePleistocene age delta [115]. This extensive
gravel complex is composed of sediments derived from the Coco and Patuca river
CENTRAL AMERICA: GEOLOGY, RESOURCES AND HAZARDS; BUNDSCHUH & ALVARADO (EDS) 89
watersheds within the Chortis highlands. Pleistocene stream piracy within the
highlands shifted deposition to the north of Cabo Gracias as the Patuca river captured
flow from the paleo-Coco drainage [115]. Rising sea-level during the Holocene has
transferred deposition from the distal fan offshore, to a series of smaller nearshore
deltas along the modern coast. The constant interplay between shifting river courses,
fluctuating sea-level, and migrating deltas has been instrumental throughout the late
Cenozoic in shaping the broad alluvial plains of the Mosquito coast.
3.2.7.2 Southern Mosquitia
Along the southern Mosquito coast (Fig. 3.3), in eastern Nicaragua, a dense network of
low-gradient rivers feed into a series of extensive coastal wetlands and lagoons. These
lagoons are protected behind large barrier spits that generally extend southward from
the mouths of major rivers. Along the southern Nicaraguan coast, the monotonous,
low-relief alluvial plain is disrupted by occasional hills and coastal cliffs formed by
outcrops of Paleogene to Quaternary volcanic rocks [116]. The Azul volcanic field, in
the jungle-covered lowlands west of Pearl lagoon, consists of three well-defined
Holocene cinder cones. Along the coast between Perlas and Monkey points, a series of
prominent cliffs expose resistant basalt flows interbedded with Tertiary volcaniclastic
sediments. Tertiary lavas also form the basement of the offshore Corn islands, where
coastal cliffs up to 100 m high expose massive basalt flows.
3.2.8 Nicaraguan depression province

The Nicaraguan depression (Fig. 3.1) is a ~50 km wide structural trough that extends
for over 600 km along the length of the active volcanic front from El Salvador, through
Nicaragua, to northern Costa Rica [25, 116]. This elongate basin is generally
interpreted as a half-graben, bounded along its southwestern margin by northweststriking transtensional faults. The basin is most pronounced in Nicaragua where it
contains Central Americas two largest lakes, Lake Nicaragua (Cocibolca) and
Managua lake (Xolotln). Beginning in the Pliocene, the Nicaraguan volcanic front
migrated toward the Middle America trench and trench-perpendicular extension within
the upper plate opened the Nicaraguan depression. Rifting along the Nicaraguan
volcanic front may reflect a Late Cenozoic decrease in the plate convergence rate along
the Pacific margin and hinge rollback of the subducting Cocos plate slab.
3.2.8.1 Central Nicaraguan depression
In central Nicaragua (Fig. 3.3), the floor of the Nicaraguan depression lies only 50 m
above sea-level. Here, the Mateares fault forms a prominent 900-m-high scarp along
the basins southwestern margin. Alluvial and volcanic fill within the basin may be up
to 2000 m thick along the base of the Mateares scarp, indicating nearly 3 km of dip slip
since the Pliocene [25]. The northeastern boundary of the Nicaraguan depression is
generally defined by the 500-m-high mountain front of the interior Chortis highlands
formed on a thick sequence of Tertiary volcanic rocks [116, 117].
Damaging earthquakes in Managua in 1931 and 1972 resulted from shallow rupture
on northeast-trending, left-lateral, oblique-slip faults within a pull-apart basin along the
southern shore of Managua lake [118, 119]. These faults may be part of a regional
system of northeast-trending sinistral faults that accommodate dextral shear across the
90 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Nicaraguan depression between a forearc sliver at the coast and the interior highlands
to the east [26]. These cross-arc transtensional faults exert a first-order control on the
shoreline morphology of lakes Managua and Nicaragua. They also may influence the
spacing and orientation of volcanic centers along the Nicaraguan volcanic front [22].
3.2.8.2 Median trough, El Salvador
From northern Nicaragua, the Nicaraguan depression extends across the Gulf of
Fonseca (Fig. 3.3), where it continues along a more westerly trend as the Median
trough of El Salvador (Fig. 3.2). In El Salvador, the topographic expression of the
trough is more subdued than Nicaragua, yet its general structure and stratigraphy are
quite similar. As in Nicaragua, the volcanic front of El Salvador is localized along the
southwestern margin of the trough where transverse faults intersect the basin. Focal
mechanisms for shallow upper-plate earthquakes along the southern boundary faults of
the Median trough indicate that these structures are predominantly right-lateral strikeslip faults with minor components of extension [120122]. These faults have produced
multiple damaging earthquakes throughout El Salvadors recorded history [123]. The
geomorphic expression of the Median trough dies out near the Guatemalan border
where transtensional deformation gives way to pure dextral slip along the northwest
striking Jalpatagua fault [124]. This fault forms a major topographic scarp that cuts
through the southern Guatemalan volcanic front offsetting Neogene deposits [24].
3.2.8.3 Los Guatusos and San Carlos lowlands, Costa Rica
South of Lake Nicaragua (Fig. 3.4), the Nicaraguan depression extends into the Los
Guatusos and San Carlos lowlands of the northern Costa Rican backarc. Here, the
depression is buried by a thick sequence of Quaternary alluvium and volcanic debris
shed from Costa Ricas Guanacaste and Central volcanic cordilleras. Rivers descending
from the volcanic front flow northward across the basin to join the San Juan river
(Chapter 1). This major river, which defines the border between Nicaragua and Costa
Rica, flows from Lake Nicaragua eastward to the Caribbean Sea. The southern end of
the Nicaraguan depression in this area coincides with a rapid transition from
extensional to compressional tectonics within the backarc of Costa Ricas Central
volcanic cordillera [34]. This transition is related to an abrupt change in the thickness
and dip of the subducting Cocos plate beneath central Costa Rica.
3.2.9 Nicaraguan volcanic front province

The Quaternary volcanic front of Nicaragua has developed along the floor of the
Nicaraguan depression, with most volcanic centers located along its fault-controlled
southwestern margin [1923, 116] (also see Chapter 4). Beginning at the solitary
Cosigina volcano on the Gulf of Fonseca (Fig. 3.3), the Nicaraguan volcanic front
extends southward along the Los Marabios cordillera to the spectacular stratocone of
Momotombo on the shore of Managua lake. The volcanic chain then continues
southward, past the Apoyeque caldera, to the massive Las Sierras ignimbrite shield and
the calderas of Masaya and Apoyo. The Cocibolca cordillera (Figs. 3.3 and 3.4), the
southern end of the volcanic front, extends from Mombacho volcano on the northern
shore of Lake Nicaragua to the twin stratovolcanoes of Concepcin and Madera on
Ometepe island.
3.2.9.1 Cosigina peninsula

The Nicaraguan volcanic front begins at Cosigina volcano (Fig. 3.3), on the southern
shore of the Gulf of Fonseca [116]. This solitary volcano stands isolated on a wide
promontory that extends outward into the southern gulf from Nicaraguas northern
coastal plain. Cosigina consists of a broad, low-elevation, composite cone (872 m)
with a pronounced ancient caldera rim along its northern slope, a young 300-m-high
summit cone, and a 2-km-wide, prehistoric, lake-filled summit caldera. This massive
composite volcano generated a powerful, explosive eruption in 1835 that sent
pyroclastic flows into the Gulf of Fonseca, and produced ash fall throughout Central
America and as far away as Mexico and Jamaica [125]. This event is now recognized
as one of the Western Hemispheres most powerful historic eruptions.
3.2.9.2 Los Marabios cordillera
The Los Marabios range (Fig. 3.3), southeast of Cosigina, consists of a densely spaced
series of composite volcanoes that form a prominent divide between the northern
Pacific coastal plain and the Nicaraguan depression [116]. This alignment of clustered
volcanic vents includes the major stratovolcanoes, San Cristbal, Casita, Telica, Rota,
Las Pilas, and Momotombo (Fig. 4.1). The rapidly growing cinder cone of Cerro Negro
represents the newest addition to this range, having erupted a significant volume of lava
and pyroclastic material since the mid-1800s [126, 127]. Momotombo volcano, at the
southern end of the Los Marabios range, forms a spectacular 1300 m high Holocene
stratocone that towers above the northern shore of Managua lake (Figs. 3.3 and 4.1).
During hurricane Mitch in 1998, a rain-triggered landslide (1.6 million m3) from the
summit of Casita volcano (Chapter 4) unleashed a devastating lahar (24 million m3)
that inundated several villages on the volcanos Pacific flank, killing more than 2500
people [128]. This volcano has been identified as a potential site for a future sector
collapse related to hydrothermal weakening of its summit edifice [129]. Steep
topography, energetic volcanism, and an aggressive tropical climate have conspired
throughout the Quaternary to induce repeated gravitational failure along the Nicaraguan
cordillera. The resulting lahars in combination with pyroclastic flows have constructed
a broad coastal debris apron that extends up to 30 km seaward of the volcanic front.
3.2.9.3 Apoyeque and Las Sierras shields
Between Managua lake and Lake Nicaragua (Fig. 3.3), a series of calderas and
explosion pits occur along the trace of the Mateares fault zone at the southwestern edge
of the Nicaraguan depression [116]. The Apoyeque caldera complex, at the northern
end of this chain, sits within a broad ignimbrite shield that forms the Chiltepe peninsula
on the western shore of Managua lake. This low-lying (500 m elevation) volcanic
complex includes two large, lake-filled calderas that are the source of thick Quaternary
pyroclastic deposits mantling the surrounding landscape. The Nejapa-Miraflores
alignment, west of the city of Managua, features a series of explosion pits, fissure
vents, and cinder cones along a northsouth trend that marks a right-step along the
Nicaraguan volcanic front.
Southeast of Managua, the lake-filled calderas of Masaya and Apoyo occupy a
prominent upland along the escarpment of the Mateares fault (Chapter 4). These two
calderas formed during highly explosive pyroclastic eruptions in the late Quaternary
[130133]. Subsequent activity along the southern margin of Masaya caldera, has
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92 GEOMORPHOLOGY
constructed the twin volcanoes of Nindir and Masaya, both sources of historic lava
flows.
The Masaya and Apoyo calderas both belong to the massive NeogeneQuaternary
Las Sierras volcanic shield (180 km3), located between lakes Nicaragua and Managua
[130133]. The Las Sierras shield forms an anomalous, crescent-shaped highland
(> 900 m elevation) along the central Nicaraguan volcanic front. This elongate massif
consists of a broad, seaward-facing apron of ignimbrite deposits of PlioPleistocene
age, produced primarily by unusually explosive eruptions of mafic magma from the
Masaya caldera.
3.2.9.4 Cocibolca cordillera
The Cocibolca cordillera (Fig. 3.3) of southern Nicaragua extends southeastward from
the Las Sierras shield to Ometepe island in Lake Nicaragua. This cordillera consists of
a widely spaced chain of four major volcanoes that form a series of promontories and
islands within Lake Nicaragua. Standing on the northwestern shore of the lake,
Mombacho volcano is a large stratocone with a jagged profile, scarred by multiple
episodes of edifice collapse during the late Quaternary. These events unleashed debris
avalanches and lahars that form extensive hummocky deposits in the lowlands
surrounding the mountain [134]. These deposits include an adjacent promontory and
group of small islands that extend out into the lake.
Zapatera volcano, southeast of Mombacho, consists of a low-lying volcanic shield
that forms a broad island near the northwestern shore of Lake Nicaragua (Figs. 3.3 and
3.4). This volcano features a 2-km-wide summit caldera with a 300-m-high central lava
dome. To the southeast of Zapatera, the spectacular twin stratovolcanoes of
Concepcin and Madera form Ometepe island, located in central Lake Nicaragua.
Towering > 1600 m above the lake, Concepcin is one of Nicaraguas most active
volcanoes, with 25 eruptions recorded in the last 120 years [135]. Recent lava flows
and lahars continue to expand the shoreline of Ometepe island.
3.2.10 Sandino forearc province

The Sandino forearc province (Fig. 3.1) extends along the entire Pacific coast of
Nicaragua, from Punta Cosigina on the Gulf of Fonseca, to Costa Ricas Punta
Descartes just north of the Santa Elena peninsula. This narrow coastal strip lies west of
the Nicaraguan depression and volcanic front. It includes a northern low-relief coastal
plain constructed of volcanic debris shed from the Los Marabios cordillera (Fig. 3.3),
and a southern cliff-lined coast where CretaceousCenozoic marine sedimentary rocks
of the Sandino forearc basin extend on land in a series of margin-parallel folds [25,
136139] (also see Chapter 7).
3.2.10.1 Northern Nicaraguan coast
Nicaraguas northern Pacific coast, between the Gulf of Fonseca and Puerto Sandino
(Fig. 3.3) consists of a low-relief alluvial plain developed on volcaniclastic debris shed
from active volcanoes of the Los Marabios cordillera. The 1998 hurricane Mitch debris
flow from Casita volcano ran out on to the coastal plain for nearly 10 km, producing
sediment laden flooding that extended even further along local stream channels. Similar
to the broad volcanic debris aprons of the Chortis forearc to the north, the northern
Nicaraguan coastal plain faces a significant hazard from highly mobile volcanic debris
flows. The stream networks draining the Los Marabios range, deliver an abundant
supply of volcaniclastic sediment to the coast. This material has been reworked along
this low-relief coastline, forming a system of large estuaries, delta plains, and barrier
beaches.
3.2.10.2 Southern Nicaraguan coast
In sharp contrast to the northern coastline, Nicaraguas southern Pacific coast (south of
Puerto Sandino) is characterized by a rugged morphology of rocky headlands, sea
cliffs, and pocket bays (Fig. 3.3). The resistant grain of this coastline is controlled by
structures within CretaceousPaleogene marine sedimentary rocks of the Sandino basin
[25, 136139]. These units outcrop within a series of margin-parallel folds, which
intersect the coastline at oblique angles, resulting in variable resistance to marine
erosion. Along the central Nicaraguan coast, where these folds expose the Neogene
units within the upper section of the Sandino basin, a basin-and-range topography has
developed along the coastal plain.
A notable geomorphic feature along this coastline is a 10-km-long Middle Miocene
basaltic dike [138] that armors the coastal bluff near the town of El Trnsito. This
feature extends offshore at El Trnsito bay, forming a rock curtain that constricts the
bay entrance. This resistant barrier contributed to unusually high wave run-up and a
large death toll at this site during the 1992 Nicaraguan tsunami.
3.2.10.3 Las Sierras shield
Between Puerto Sandino and Las Salinas, Quaternary pyroclastic rocks of the Las
Sierras volcanic complex extend seaward to the Pacific coast forming a prominent
convex bulge in the Nicaraguan coastline. A network of deeply incised barrancas is
developing on the Pacific slope of the range due to the rapid headward erosion of steep
drainages into these weak volcanic rocks. At the coast, a Late Pleistocene marine
terrace, referred to as the La Boquita surface [140], is cut across the Las Sierras ash
flow tuffs and the steeply dipping CretaceousNeogene marine sediments of the
Sandino basin.
The Las Sierras tuffs have been correlated with a distinctive ash horizon in offshore
drill cores dated stratigraphically at 135 ka [133]. This age suggests that the La Boquita
marine terrace may have formed during the last interstadial sea level high stand at 125 ka
[140]. This terrace occurs along the coast at elevations of 1722 m attesting to active
uplift at rates near 0.1 m/k.y. The La Boquita terrace occurs only along the coastal
segment adjacent to the Las Sierras massif (Fig. 3.3), suggesting that coastal uplift may
be related to thermal expansion or erosion-driven isostatic rebound of the Las Sierras
shield.
3.2.10.4 Punta Descartes, Costa Rica
At the southern end of the Sandino forearc province (Fig. 3.3), offshore folds intersect
the coastline of northwestern Costa Rica forming the Punta Descartes (an anticline) and
adjacent bays (synclines). On Punta Descartes, the westnorthwest grain of the ridges
and valleys is controlled by a system of parasitic folds on a broader anticline. Elevated
Holocene shore platforms, beach ridges, and stream terraces record active coastal
emergence on the Descartes headland [141]. Valley-fill terraces within coastal
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94 GEOMORPHOLOGY
embayments extend several kilometers inland reaching 1520 m elevation. Streams

draining to the Baha de Salinas are incised into these deposits exposing uplifted
shallow bay to intertidal muds overlain by beach ridge sands and fluvial gravels.
Radiocarbon ages for Holocene deposits indicate uplift rates of 2.03.5 m/ k.y. [141].
3.3
GEOMORPHOLOGY OF SOUTHERN CENTRAL AMERICA
In contrast to the continental Chortis block to the north (see Chapter 1, Fig. 1.1), most
of southern Central America consists of a NeogeneQuaternary volcanic belt that
overlies Mesozoic oceanic basement of Caribbean plate origin [110, 142]. This region,
referred to as the Chorotega block, includes all of Costa Rica and western Panama. The
boundary between the Chorotega block and the Chortis block to the north is defined by
a major fault lineament extending from Costa Ricas Santa Elena peninsula (Fig. 3.4),
eastward to the Hess escarpment in the Caribbean Sea. The geomorphology of the
Chortega block reflects a dynamic history of Cenozoic volcanism and upper-plate
deformation influenced by complex tectonics along the southern Middle America
trench [710]. The eastern limit of the Chorotega block is defined by a basement suture
at the Panama canal zone that separates it from the Choc block beneath eastern
Panama [46, 142]. The Choc block (Chapter 1, Fig. 1.1) consists primarily of
Mesozoic igneous basement and overlying Cenozoic sediments that extend along
Panamas Darin isthmus and into the northwestern Colombian cordillera.
The Chorotega and Choc blocks are situated within a region of complex tectonics
between four major converging plates: Caribbean, South America, Cocos, and Nazca
(Chapter 1, Fig. 1.1) [46]. Active collision between these plates has fragmented their
margins into a system of fault-bounded microplates that accommodate diffuse regional
deformation [142145] The Panama microplate (or Panama block) extends from the
margin of South America to central Costa Rica and includes portions of the Choc and
Chorotega basement terranes. This rapidly deforming fragment of Caribbean crust is
thusting over the backarc in response to flat subduction of thickened seafloor (Cocos
ridge) in the west, and collision with the South American craton to the east [34, 3840].
Fold and thrust belts offshore of both northern and southern Panama (North and
South Panama deformed belts) accommodate active convergence with the Caribbean
and Nazca plates (Chapter 1, Fig. 1.1) [3941, 146, 147]. Thrust faults in western
Colombia (Atrato-Urub suture zone) [148] and a broad zone of strike-slip faulting in
eastern Panama (East Panama deformed belt) [42] absorb the collision between the
Panama block and South America. The western boundary of the Panama block consists
of a diffuse transpressional fault zone (Central Costa Rica deformed belt) that traverses
Costa Rica from the Caribbean to the Pacific margin [34].
Central Costa Rica has long been recognized as a tectonic segment boundary along
the Middle America convergent margin [20, 149]. An abrupt transition from the steep
subduction of smooth Cocos plate seafloor in the northwest (East Pacific rise origin), to
the flat subduction of rough, hotspot-thickened seafloor in the southeast (Galpagos
spreading center origin) occurs along the Middle America trench offshore of central
Costa Rica [150154]. This transition coincides with pronounced changes in
subduction zone seismicity [149, 150], arc volcanism [2023, 36], and upper-plate
morphotectonics [2837].
The thickened seafloor offshore of southern Costa Rica includes the Cocos ridge
and adjacent seamount domain, products of hotspot volcanism along the Galpagos
Figure 3.4. Map of the physiographic provinces of southern Central America, showing
significant geomorphic features of Costa Rica, and portions of Nicaragua and Panama.
spreading center [151158]. As this rough, sediment-poor seafloor enters the

subduction zone, the overriding plate margin experiences pronounced subduction
erosion [159161]. Flat subduction of this hotspot-thickened crust also drives
transpressional faulting along a broad deformation front (Central Costa Rica deformed
belt) that is propagating from the forearc into the interior of the upper plate [34]. Late
Cenozoic slab flattening led to retreat of the magmatic front away from the Middle
America trench in central Costa Rica [36], and total extinction of volcanism directly
inboard of the Cocos ridge in southern Costa Rica [162, 163]. Collision of the Cocos
ridge with the southern Costa Rican margin generates pronounced uplift and upperplate shortening from the forearc into the backarc basin [2837]. Along the centra
Costa Rican margin, subducting seamounts on the northwest ridge flank erode the outer
trench slope [151, 152] and produce corregated uplift of forearc fault blocks at the
coast [3335].
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96 GEOMORPHOLOGY
3.3.1 Chorotega volcanic front province

The volcanic front of southern Central America (Fig. 3.1) is segmented into a series of
distinct cordilleras that have evolved in response to variations in the geometry,
tectonics and geochemistry of subduction along the Middle America trench [1923, 36,
162170] (also see Chapter 4). In Costa Rica, a dynamic history of Cenozoic tectonics
generated a complex volcanic belt that includes the Guanacaste, Tilarn, Aguacate,
Central, and Talamanca cordilleras (Fig. 3.4). In Panama, Quaternary volcanism has
been limited to the Central cordillera west of the Panama canal zone. Spatial and
temporal variations in the subduction system have led to sharp contrasts in magma
chemistry and eruption style along the length of the Chorotega volcanic front [2123].
Changes in slab thickness and dip have instigated episodes of volcanic front migration
and rotation, resulting in a complex morphology of overlapping cordilleras and
intervening basins [36, 170]. Each of the volcanic cordilleras of Costa Rica and
Panama exhibits a unique geomorphology and geologic history [171177].
3.3.1.1 Guanacaste cordillera
The northern segment of the Chorotega volcanic front consists of a Quaternary chain of
shield-like stratovolcanos known as the Guanacaste cordillera [169]. The four primary
volcanoes of this chain, Oros-Cacao, Rincn de la Vieja, Miravalles, and Tenorio, are
constructed of coalescing lava flows and pyroclastic material emitted from multiple
vents. Unlike the Central cordillera to the south, the Guanacaste volcanoes each form
distinct mountains that rise sharply above a surrounding low-relief landscape. The gaps
between these volcanoes allow for easy passage of the Trade Winds between the
Caribbean and Pacific basins, resulting in an exceptionally dry climate along
Guanacastes Pacific coast.
Two remnant calderas occur along the Guanacaste cordillera, and a broad
ignimbrite plateau (2000 km2) extends seaward from the base of the chain. Constructed
of silicic tuffs emitted from pre-cordillera vents, the Guanacaste ignimbrites form a
gently undulating plain (Fig. 3.4) that ends in an abrupt 100150 m high escarpment
near the modern Pacific coast. Rivers draining the cordillera have incised deep
barrancas into the plateau.
The southern outpost of the Guanacaste cordillera is Arenal volcano, a relatively
small (15 km3) and highly active Holocene strato-cone [178180]. Located behind the
eroded massif of the extinct Tilarn cordillera, this steep-sided cone (> 1100 m high)
rises abruptly above a structural trough in which it has formed. A deadly pyroclastic
blast in 1968 decimated 15-km2 of rainforest on the volcanos western flank. Since this
event, Arenal has remained in constant activity, unleashing occasional ash flows and
frequent lava flows that continue to alter the surrounding landscape.
3.3.1.2 Tilarn and Aguacate cordilleras
The extinct Tilarn and Aguacate ranges (Fig. 3.4) consist of heavily dissected
remnants of stratovolcanoes and calderas composed of MioceneLower Pleistocene
basaltic to andesitic lavas, breccias, tuffs, and lahar deposits [169, 181, 182].
Hydrothermal alteration and deep tropical weathering have destabilized the steep slopes
of these ranges, resulting in pervasive landsliding.
Throughout the central Aguacate range (Fig. 3.4), deeply incised linear canyons
have developed along active, northwest-and-northeast-trending faults of the Central
Costa Rica deformed belt [3436]. The Ro Grande de Trcoles cuts a deep gorge
through the central Aguacate range, connecting rivers of the Central valley basin (Fig.
3.4) with the Pacific coastal plain to the southwest. Along the Trcoles gorge and many
of its tributary canyons, resistant ignimbrite deposits form level benches and isolated
hilltops 50100 m above the valley floor. Bedrock incision rates based on late
Quaternary isotopic ages for the ignimbrites [40], range from 0.1 to 0.5 mm/yr. Several
extinct, bowl-shaped calderas (e.g., Palmares and Atenas) centered along the northern
flank of the Aguacate range may have generated silicic ignimbrites [36, 182].
3.3.1.3 Central cordillera
The composite shield volcanoes of Costa Ricas Central cordillera, Platanar, Pos,
Barva, Iraz, and Turrialba (Fig. 3.4 and Chapter 4), form an imposing NW-trending
mountain range, located northeast of the extinct Aguacate cordillera [169, 181]. With
peak elevations ranging from 20003400 m, these massive, broad-shouldered
volcanoes tower above the adjacent low-relief landscape of Costa Ricas densely
populated Central valley (Fig. 3.4). These are the largest volcanoes, in both area and
volume, of the entire Central American volcanic front. Their summits exhibit wide
collapse scarps with multiple craters and transverse alignments of parasitic cones [169].
A strong climatic gradient across the range results in greater weathering and erosion,
deeper stream incision, and more frequent landsliding on the humid Caribbean slope.
Along both flanks of the Central cordillera (Fig. 3.4), gravitational spreading of the
volcanic massif generates prominent fault-propagation-fold scarps along the base of the
mountains [183]. These structures offset a sequence of Quaternary lava flows, ash flow
tuffs, lahar deposits, and tephra that drape across the volcanic slopes. Streams that drain
the steep slopes of the Central cordillera have cut a radial network of deeply incised
barrancas into the Quaternary volcanic sequence [36]. These canyons serve as conduits
that feed pyroclastic flows, lavas, and lahars toward the adjacent lowlands of both the
Central valley and Caribbean coastal plain.
3.3.1.4 Central valley
The elongate Central valley of Costa Rica (Fig. 3.4) consists of an eastwest trending
basin (6001200 m elevation) situated between the active volcanoes of the Central
cordillera and the eroding volcanic remnants of the Aguacate range. Throughout the
Quaternary, this highland basin filled with a thick accumulation (> 1 km) of andesitic
to dacitic lavas, pyroclastic rocks, lahar deposits, and lacustrine sediments [36, 181,
182].
The floor of the Central valley consists of a low-relief upland surface with deeply
incised river canyons cut into the underlying Quaternary volcanic sequence [35, 36].
These abrupt canyons outline a pervasive network of seismically active, northeast and
northwest trending transcurrent faults that offset MiocenePleistocene rock units
throughout the Central valley and adjacent volcanic ranges [3436, 184186]. In
addition to controlling regional drainage patterns, these structures exhibit abundant
geomorphic features associated with active faulting, including abrupt scarps,
compression ridges, sag ponds, and perennial springs.
The active faults of the Central valley mark the leading edge of the Central Costa
Rica deformed belt [34], a diffuse deformation front that is propagating into the upper
plate in response to shallow subduction of hotspot-thickened seafloor beneath central
Costa Rica. This broad fault zone extends across the central Costa Rican volcanic front
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98
GEOMORPHOLOGY
(Fig. 3.1), linking the North Panama deformed belt on the Caribbean coast, with the
Middle America trench on the Pacific margin. Throughout Costa Rican history, these
faults have produced damaging, shallow-focus earthquakes, including the 1910 event
that destroyed the colonial capital Cartago [187, 188]. Periods of heightened seismic
activity along the Central Costa Rica deformed belt have been documented in
association with large thrust earthquakes centered on both the Pacific and Caribbean
margins [189192]. This active deformation zone marks the western boundary of the
Panama microplate [30, 34].
The fault-controlled drainage networks of the Central valley feed into the Trcoles
gorge, a prominent canyon cut through the eroded highlands of the Aguacate cordillera
[35, 36]. This precipitous gorge provides a link between Central valley rivers and the
Pacific coastal plain below. During the MiddleLate Pleistocene, the Trcoles river
breached the Aguacate drainage divide, leading to progressive capture and rerouting of
Central valley drainage networks toward the Pacific slope [35, 36].
The geomorphic evolution of Costa Ricas Central valley and surrounding volcanic
cordilleras (Fig. 3.4) was profoundly affected by changes in Cocos plate subduction
during the late Cenozoic. The propagation of irregular, hotspot-thickened seafloor
down the subduction zone led to a shallowing of the subducting slab and a progressive
retreat of the volcanic front from the Aguacate cordillera to the Central cordillera [36].
This northeastward expansion of the volcanic front resulted in the formation of the
Central valley basin and a shift in the location of the Pacific-Caribbean drainage divide.
Linkage of the Central valley drainage with the Pacific slope established a pathway for
spillover of Quaternary pyroclastic flows and lahars onto the Orotina debris fan at the
coast. Retreat of the volcanic front occurred only onshore of moderately thickened
crust of the Cocos plate seamount domain, leading to formation of the Central
cordillera. Directly inboard of the subducting Cocos ridge to the south, volcanism shut
off and rapid uplift maintains the drainage divide along the crest of the Talamanca
cordillera [36].
3.3.1.5 Talamanca cordillera
Southeast of the Central valley, the extinct Talamanca cordillera (Fig. 3.4) corresponds
with a 175 km volcanic gap that extends into western Panama [2023]. These rugged
mountains represent the only area of southern Central America above 4000 m in
elevation. Similar in age to the Aguacate cordillera (Fig. 3.4), the Talamanca range is
composed of a suite of NeogeneQuaternary intrusive (principally granodiorites) and
extrusive rocks (andesites) [162, 163, 166170]. In contrast to the Aguacate range
however, rapid Quaternary uplift and unroofing caused by Cocos ridge subduction has
stripped off large volumes of extrusive rock from the Talamanca range exposing the
intrusive core. The highest peaks of this range were glaciated during the Pleistocene,
leaving striking examples of moraines, tarns, and striated bedrock on mountaintops
overlooking thickly vegetated tropical lowlands [46, 193198] (also see Chapter 6).
3.3.1.6 Central cordillera, Panama
The Talamanca volcanic gap of southern Costa Rica ends at the dormant Bar volcano
(Fig. 3.4) at the western end of Panamas Central cordillera [163166]. This imposing
stratovolcano towers above the Pacific coastal plain of western Panama. It features a 6km-wide summit caldera that was breached on its western margin by a major
Quaternary debris-avalanche. Lava flows and lahar deposits on the southwestern flank
of Bar volcano are affected by incipient faults of the Trraba thrust belt, which is
propagating southeastward along the margin in the wake of the migrating Panama triple
junction [199, 200]. In addition to Bar, the Panamanian cordillera also features several
other Quaternary volcanoes, including La Yeguada and El Valle [164166]. Isotopic
ages on lava flows, in conjunction with youthful geomorphic features provide evidence
for recent activity at these volcanoes.
3.3.2 Chorotega forearc province

The Chorotega forearc (Fig. 3.1) extends along the Pacific coast from Costa Ricas
Santa Elena peninsula in the north (Fig. 3.4), to the Gulf of Panama in the south (Fig.
3.5). This rapidly deforming convergent margin coast is characterized by abrupt
topography [201] and a series of peninsulas and headlands that expose oceanic
basement rocks [202205] (see also Chapters 13 and 20) and overlying pelagic to
shallow marine sediments of PaleogeneQuaternary age [206208]. These peninsulas
and promontories, located in both Costa Rica and Panama, include Santa Elena,
Nicoya, Herradura, Quepos, Osa, Burica, Son, and Azuero (Figs. 3.4 and 3.5). Like
the adjacent volcanic front, the Chorotega forearc is highly segmented with sharp
contrasts in structure and coastal morphology linked to variations in the subducting
Cocos and Nazca plates offshore [2837] (also see Chapter 7).
Along the Chorotega forearc (Fig. 3.1), the subducting Cocos and Nazca plates
exhibit dramatic variations in thickness, roughness, dip, and convergence angle that
coincide with sharp contrasts in the style of upper plate deformation. Overall, the
subducting seafloor has minimal sediment cover and, in many areas (e.g., offshore
southern Costa Rica), is anomalously thick with substantial morphologic roughness
[151, 152]. As a result, subduction erosion produces scarring and subsidence along
much of the offshore forearc [159161]. In contrast, however, the subaerial inner fore
arc along the coast has experienced uplift in many areas, consistent with out-ofsequence thrusting or underplating beneath the margin [33, 35, 37].
The overall Quaternary deformation pattern along the Costa Rican coast strongly
reflects the offshore bathymetry associated with the subducting Cocos ridge and
seamount domain [29, 33, 35]. In general, Quaternary uplift rates derived from
radiometrically-dated marine and fluvial terraces decrease parallel to the margin,
moving northwestward away from the subducting Cocos ridge. These rates range from
a maximum of 67 m/k.y. astride the ridge in the south, to background rates of
< 1 m/k.y. above smooth subducting crust in the north. This overall long-wavelength
trend reflects a decrease in upward flexure of the overriding crust as the thickness of
the subducting plate diminishes away from the Cocos ridge axis.
Shorter-wavelength roughness related to seamounts superimposes local variability
on this background uplift pattern [33]. Along the central Costa Rican Pacific coast (Fig.
3.4), uplift rates vary sharply across a series of margin-perpendicular faults that
segment the coastal forearc into discrete fault blocks [3335]. While the central Costa
Rican forearc exhibits strong segmentation across fault-bounded blocks, the forearc
region south of Quepos deforms more uniformly by rapid shortening across the Fila
Costea fold and thrust belt [37, 109, 200]
3.3.2.1 Santa Elena peninsula and Papagayo gulf
The northern Chorotega forearc (Fig. 3.4) meets the Sandino forearc of the Chortis
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100 GEOMORPHOLOGY
block along an abrupt boundary defined by the Murcilago fault zone on the Santa
Elena peninsula [141, 209]. This structure follows a linear EW trending valley that
bisects the peninsula along its northern coast forming several prominent bays. The
Murcilago fault zone marks a sharp change in geology and geomorphology from the
northwest-dipping hogback ridges formed on Late Cretaceous Sandino basin marine
sediments in the north, to the peninsulas rugged interior highlands in the south formed
on the JurassicCretaceous ultramafic basement of the Santa Elena nappe [162, 202].
The morphology of the rugged shoreline extending southward from the Santa Elena
peninsula to the northen Nicoya peninsula (Fig. 3.4) is determined primarily by
resistant fault-bounded basement outcrops and steep cliffs formed of the overlying
Guanacaste ignimbrites. At Punta Mala along the Baha Culebra (Fig. 3.4), a surviving
fragment of the ignimbrite shield maintains steep columnar-jointed cliffs rising from a
foundation of basement rocks. Coastal embayments here preserve a Quaternary fill
wedge of shallow marine sediments that record active uplift [141].
3.3.2.2 Nicoya peninsula
The Nicoya peninsula (Fig. 3.4) lies along an emergent segment of the Chorotega forearc
south of the Santa Elena peninsula. Separated from the Costa Rican mainland by
the broad Gulf of Nicoya and Tempisque river basin, this large, rectangular peninsula
covers over 4800 km2 of the outer forearc [171, 172]. The Nicoya peninsulas rugged
Pacific coastline features abundant pocket bays and sandy beaches, bounded by steep,
rocky headlands. Uplifted marine terraces and paleo-beach deposits indicate active
emergence throughout the late Quaternary [210215]. In contrast, the peninsulas gulf
coast follows a low-relief alluvial plain with extensive mangrove estuaries. The coastal
piedmont along all sides of the Nicoya peninsula rises steeply into a mountainous
interior highland that reaches over 900 m in elevation.
Basement rocks exposed on the Nicoya peninsula consist of the Cretaceous Nicoya
complex, an intensely deformed oceanic sequence of pillow basalts, mafic intrusive
rocks, and pelagic sediments [162, 202205]. Along the margins of the peninsula, a
sequence of Upper Cretaceous to Quaternary marine sediments drapes unconformably
across the Nicoya complex basement [206208]. These sediments include Cretaceous
Paleocene turbidites, Eocene deep-water carbonates, Miocene shelf clastics and a
shallowing upward sequence of PlioPleistocene shelf sandstones and conglomerates.
Located only 60 km inboard of the Middle America trench (Fig. 3.1), the Nicoya
peninsula lies directly above the seismogenic zone [211, 213215]. This unique
location results in pronounced seismic cycle deformation, which is readily observed
along the peninsulas shorelines. Coseismic uplift of > 1 m affected the Nicoya
peninsulas central Pacific coastline during the M 7.7 subduction earthquake of 1950
[211]. Since that event, interseismic strain has led to notable subsidence along this
same shoreline. Seismicity and GPS data indicate that the peninsula occupies a highpotential seismic gap that is accumulating strain in advance of the next event [216,
217].
A sequence of Quaternary marine and fluvial terraces on the Nicoya peninsula (Fig.
3.4) provide a record of continuing uplift along this segment of the Chorotega forearc
[35, 210215]. High-elevation remnants (4001000 m a.s.l.) of a PliocenePleistocene
marine erosion surface (Cerro Azul surface) are preserved within the peninsulas
interior mountain block [210]. Deformation of this surface records differential uplift
across a series of mountain block faults. A lower elevation alluvial terrace (La Mansin
surface) occupies interior river valleys at 410 m above local base level [210].
Near Cabo Blanco at the southern tip of the Nicoya peninsula (Fig. 3.4), a
prominent Late Pleistocene marine erosion surface (Cbano surface) is cut across
PliocenePleistocene shallow-water sediments and Late Cretaceous oceanic basalts
[35, 210215]. This uplifted erosion surface forms a broad dissected platform between the
interior mountains and abandoned sea cliffs near the coast. The Cbano surface
encompasses at least four distinct Pleistocene marine terrace treads ranging in elevation
from 15 m to 220 m above sea-level. Age correlation with Late Pleistocene sea-level
high stands at 60215 ka (marine oxygen isotope stages 37) indicate net uplift rates of
1.02.0 m/k.y. [213215]. Radiogenic ages (Optically Stimulated Luminescence) for
terrace deposits on the lowest three treads are consistent with sea-level correlations,
indicating ages of 30120 ka (marine oxygen isotope stages 35). The Cbano terraces
exhibit a measurable decrease in tread elevation toward the northeast, away from the
Middle America trench. Uplift and tilting, beginning in the Middle to Late Pleistocene,
led to emergence of the Nicoya peninsulas southern tip and erosion of the Cbano
terraces during sea-level highstands of the Late Pleistocene.
An adjacent set of narrow (< 1 km), low-lying (< 20 m elevation) Holocene terraces
(Cabuya surface) occur between the active shoreline and the abandoned sea cliffs along
the seaward edge of the Pleistocene Cbano surface [211]. These wavecut platforms
have emerged where uplift rates exceed the rate of Late Holocene sea-level rise.
Radiocarbon dating of 35 samples from fossiliferous, intertidal sand and beach rock
deposits yielded Holocene ages ranging between 0.3 and 7.4 ka [35, 211, 212]. Uplift rates
decrease from a maximum of 6.0 m/k.y. near Cabo Blanco, to < 1.0 m/k.y. along a
20 km length of both the margin-perpendicular and margin-parallel coastlines of the
peninsulas southern tip. This trend indicates active rotation of Holocene paleoshorelines toward the north, consistent with the tilt observed on the adjacent
Pleistocene Cbano terraces. Rapid uplift and northward tilting of the Nicoya
peninsulas southern tip has been attributed to seamount subduction offshore of the
Cabo Blanco headland [35, 211, 212].
Along the northern coast of the Nicoya peninsula (Fig. 3.4), an additional Late
Pleistocene marine erosion surface (Iguanazul surface) is cut across Late Cretaceous
seafloor basalts [213215]. The Iguanazul surface consists of at least three separate
wave-cut treads that preserve paleo-shorelines from 1032 m in elevation. Age
correlation with Late Pleistocene sea-level high stands at 80215 ka (marine oxygen
isotope stages 57) indicate net uplift rates of 0.10.3 m/k.y. Radiocarbon-dated beach
rock horizons along the active beach yield Holocene ages consistent with recent uplift
at < 0.5 m/k.y. [213215].
While the northern Nicoya peninsula lies onshore of the Cocos plate smooth
domain, the southern peninsula sits inboard of subducting seamounts of the rough
domain (Fig. 3.1). The order-of-magnitude difference in Quaternary uplift rates
between the northern Nicoya peninsula (Iguanazul surface) and the southern peninsula
(Cbano surface) may be linked to sharp contrasts in the roughness, thickness, and dip
of the subducting Cocos plate offshore. Rapid uplift and block rotation of the
peninsulas southern tip is consistent with seamount subduction along the projected
trend of the Fisher seamount chain [35, 211, 212]. A large subduction earthquake
centered offshore of Cabo Blanco in 1990 (MS 7.0) may have ruptured a seamount
asperity, imaged both by aftershock locations and seismic tomography [190, 218].
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102 GEOMORPHOLOGY
3.3.2.3 Orotina-Esparza coast

Along 150 km of coastline south of the Nicoya peninsula (Fig. 3.4), major trunk rivers
draining the inner forearc flow along a system of active, coast-orthogonal faults. These
steep faults segment the inner forearc coastline into seven fault-bounded blocks with
sharply differing Quaternary uplift rates as determined from elevated marine and
fluvial terraces [30, 3336]. These fault blocks are named (from north to south):
Esparza, Orotina, Herradura, Esterillos, Parrita, and Quepos.
The coastline between the Nicoya peninsula and the Herradura headland (Fig. 3.4)
consists of a low-relief (< 250 m) coastal piedmont (750 km2) along the base of the
extinct Aguacate volcanic range [35, 36, 219]. This region includes the lower drainage
basins of the Barranca, Jess Mara, and Trcoles rivers, which flow southwestward
into the Gulf of Nicoya. These rivers follow fault-controlled valleys incised within
NeogeneQuaternary nearshore sediments, volcaniclastic debris, and pyroclastic
deposits. The Barranca, Jess Mara, and Trcoles faults form the boundaries of the
Esparza and Orotina fault blocks.
The low-lying Orotina fault block (Fig. 3.4) between the Jess Mara and Trcoles
rivers is covered by a > 100 m thick Quaternary sequence of lahar deposits, ash flows,
volcaniclastic sands, and fluvial gravels [35, 36, 219]. During the early Quaternary, a
series of eruption-generated lahars descended from the volcanic front onto the coastal
plain, forming the framework of a 25-km-wide debris fan (Orotina fan). Rapid
headward erosion across the Aguacate drainage divide led to stream capture within the
Central valley (Fig. 3.4) and deep incision of the modern drainage system funneling
toward the Trcoles gorge. This shift in the location of the Pacific-Caribbean drainage
divide opened a pathway for pyroclastic flows to spill over onto the Orotina debris fan
at the Pacific coast. Meandering paleo-channels of the Trcoles river are preserved
across the fan surface as inverted topographic ridges of welded tuff overlying river
gravels [35, 36].
The interior of the Orotina fault block is cut by a series of active northeast-striking
dip-slip faults resulting in horst and graben topography that exposes Miocene
sediments and PlioPleistocene lahar deposits within isolated topographic highs [34
36]. These faults show up to 50 m of vertical displacement within a welded tuff dated
at 350 ka. Earthquake focal mechanisms, historical ground ruptures, mapped
Quaternary offsets, and mesoscale fault data from the Orotina debris fan are all
consistent with transtensional deformation across the northeast-striking marginperpendicular faults.
Up to five late Quaternary alluvial fill terraces (10260 m elevation) occur along
the lower reaches of the fault-controlled Barranca and Trcoles rivers [35]. Vertical
offsets of terrace treads and Holocene marine benches at the coast indicate active slip
along these faults. The upper river terrace (El Diablo surface) forms an extensive
upland along the foot of the Aguacate cordillera [30, 35, 36, 219]. This surface caps a
thick accumulation (> 50 m) of highly weathered alluvial gravel that exhibits a
distinctive, bright-red, clay-rich soil. This deeply weathered fill terrace resembles
others found along many of the major river systems draining the Chorotega forearc.
These pervasive valley-fill deposits are interpreted as uplifted alluvial prisms
formed during sea-level rise toward eustatic highstands of the late Quaternary [35].
Lower, inset terraces may also reflect valley aggradation during periods of sea-level
rise. A regional terrace correlation framework developed for the Costa Rican Pacific
margin [35] establishes constraints on the distribution and magnitude of forearc uplift
during the Quaternary. These correlations are based on terrace elevations, radiometric
ages, soil and weathering rind characteristics, and stratigraphy of terrace deposits. The
total number of terraces, and the vertical spacing between them, varies along the coast
with respect to the magnitude of local tectonic uplift rates. This relationship suggests
that terrace generation along this coastline is strongly controlled by the interaction of
rock uplift and eustatic sea-level fluctuation.
3.3.2.4 Herradura headland
The Herradura headland (Fig. 3.4) exhibits the highest topographic relief within the
Chorotega forearc (> 1700 m). This fault-bounded block exposes Late Cretaceous
oceanic basalts, which have been stripped of their sedimentary cover by rapid
Quaternary uplift and erosion. The differential uplift between the Herradura block and
adjacent lower-relief blocks is accommodated by dip slip along steep marginperpendicular faults [3335]. Holocene river terraces and wavecut benches attest to
rapid uplift along the Herradura headland. The absence of Pleistocene terraces here
may reflect high uplift rates and accelerated erosion along the steep mountain front.
Rapid uplift of the Herradura block may be driven by seamount subduction beneath the
margin, as suggested by extensive scarring of the margin wedge offshore [151, 152].
3.3.2.5 Quepos-Parrita coast
The Quepos-Parrita coastal piedmont (Fig. 3.4) southeast of the Herradura promontory
consists of a low-relief embayment in the coastal mountain front where the Fila
Costea thrust belt merges with the northern Talamanca cordillera. This area
encompasses the Esterillos, Parrita, and Quepos coastal fault blocks inboard of the
rough domain on the subducting Cocos plate [3335]. Several major rivers descending
from the interior highlands traverse the Quepos-Parrita piedmont on their way to the
Pacific coast. Active faulting in this area has disrupted drainage patterns, uplifting
Quaternary river deposits to form flights of fluvial terraces [220225]. High sediment
loads have formed a low-relief coastline with barrier beaches and mangrove estuaries,
interrupted only by an isolated rocky headland at Quepos.
The rugged, high topography of the Herradura block (Fig. 3.4) descends abruptly to
the southeast where a major dip-slip fault separates it from the lower-relief upland of
the Esterillos block [3335]. The dissected upland surface of the Esterillos block is
formed on a thick accumulation of alluvial gravels deposited by the paleo-Parrita river
[35, 225]. Four separate Late Pleistocene terrace treads occur on these deposits, ranging
from 40185 m in elevation above river level. These terraces extend up to 15 km
northwest of the Parrita river, indicating channel migration in response to late
Quaternary uplift and tilting of the Esterillos block. Like other forearc rivers along the
central Costa Rican coast, the Parrita river flows along a steep dip-slip fault oriented
perpendicular to the margin [3335]. This structure accommodates differential uplift
between the Esterillos fault block and the lower-elevation Parrita block to the
southeast. The smaller Quepos fault block (Fig. 3.4) has experienced pronounced uplift
relative to the surrounding Parrita lowlands. Similar to other peninsulas and
promontories along the Chorotega forearc of Costa Rica and Panama, the Quepos
headland exposes CretaceousPaleogene oceanic basement rocks [33]. Several
drainage networks on the Parrita coastal plain are deflected around the Quepos
highland and exhibit at least four late Quaternary terraces that attest to active uplift
[220223].
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104 GEOMORPHOLOGY
3.3.2.6 Fila Costea

The Fila Costea (Fig. 3.4) is a steep-fronted, linear mountain range that runs subparallel to Costa Ricas southern coastline from the Herradura headland to the Panama
border [37, 220224]. This abrupt coastal topography (> 1 km of local relief) formed
during the late Cenozoic by rapid forearc shortening and crustal thickening inboard of
the subducting Cocos ridge [37]. Four major thrust faults imbricate EoceneMiocene
rocks of the Trraba basin, producing rapid uplift along the Fila Costea range front.
These faults are exposed along the Trraba river gorge (Fig. 3.4), which cuts across the
range front, linking the General and Coto Brus valleys with the Pacific coast [32, 37,
224]. The Trraba river serves as the primary drainage for the Pacific slope of the
Talamanca cordillera (Fig. 3.4), which rises to the northeast of the Fila Costea. Four
Quaternary fluvial terraces occur along the Trraba gorge, with some surface elevations
reaching > 250 m above modern river level [224]. Irregular terrace profiles, offset
gravel deposits, and sharp variations in mountain-front morphometry attest to active
uplift and faulting within the Fila Costea thrust belt [220, 221, 224]. The frontal thrust
of the Fila Costea separates a subsiding outer forearc offshore of southern Costa Rica
from the onland area of rapid uplift within the inner forearc [37]. This pattern is broken
only directly inboard of the axis of the subducting Cocos ridge, where rapid uplift in
the outer forearc has formed the Osa peninsula [29].
3.3.2.7 General and Coto Brus valleys
The General and Coto Brus valleys occupy an elongate structural basin that stretches
for over 100 km along the Pacific slope of the Talamanca cordillera (Fig. 3.4). This
basin is separated from the Pacific coastal plain to the southwest by the Trraba thrust
belt within the Fila Costea. A series of broad alluvial fans coalesce along the foot of
the Talamanca cordillera, forming an extensive piedmont surface covering over
400 km2 of the valley bottom [226229].
Tributaries of the General and Coto Brus rivers, which drain the Talamanca
highlands, have deeply incised within this fan complex leaving a sequence of terrace
remnants along canyon margins. These alluvial surfaces are distinguished from one
another based on geomorphic setting, sedimentary texture, and the morphologic and
chemical characteristics of soils [226, 228]. The oldest geomorphic surfaces coincide
with the extensive piedmont upland in the northwestern portion of the General valley.
These well-drained upland surfaces exhibit dark-red, deeply weathered lateritic oxisols.
A series of lower fan surfaces with less-developed soils yield Late Pleistocene
radiocarbon ages. The youngest alluvial surfaces consist of low elevation aggradational
terraces inset along river canyons and abandoned braided channel bars of the General
and Coto Brus rivers.
3.3.2.8 Osa peninsula
The Osa peninsula (Fig. 3.4) within the outer Chorotega forearc of southern Costa Rica
has formed by rapid uplift and crustal shortening directly above the axis of the
subducting Cocos ridge [29]. This rugged peninsula covers over 1200 km2 and exposes
a highly deformed sequence of Late CretaceousPaleogene oceanic basement rocks and
acreted marine sediments [204, 205]. The Osa peninsula segment of the Middle
America trench is a known source for large (M VXEGXFWLRQ HDUWKTXDNHV
associated with underthrusting of the buoyant Cocos ridge [191, 192].
Quaternary marine sands, beach ridges, and alluvial gravels along the Osa
peninsulas shorelines record high rates of tectonic uplift (6.52.1 m/k.y.) that
descrease along an arcward trend from the peninsulas interior, northeastward toward
the Dulce gulf [29, 224, 230]. Along the peninsulas abrupt seaward-facing coast, Late
Pleistocene shallow marine sands dated at 2750 ka are preserved in fill wedges
overlying basement rocks at > 75 m above sea-level [230]. Along the northeastern
coastal piedmont, a sequence of uplifted beach ridges yield radiocarbon ages ranging
from < 1 ka near the modern shoreline to > 30 ka at an elevation of 25 m [29]. Rivers
draining the coastal piedmont exhibit two extensive Pleistocene gravel terraces that
form a thick alluvial apron across the fault-bounded mountain front [224]. These
deposits overlie nearshore marine sediments dated at > 30 ka. Two lower terraces with
late Holocene radiocarbon ages occur adjacent to active channels attesting to continued
uplift.
3.3.2.9 Burica peninsula
The elongate Burica peninsula juts southward into the Pacific Ocean forming a 25-kmlong promontory at the Costa Rica-Panama border (Fig. 3.4). This emergent fragment
of the outer Chorotega forearc exposes a basement of CretaceousPaleogene oceanic
basalts overlain unconformably by a PlioPleistocene sequence of marine sands,
conglomerates, and turbidite beds [28, 231]. Facies relationships and faunal
assemblages indicate that Pliocence subsidence was interrupted by rapid Pleistocene
uplift [28]. The PioPleistocene sediments exhibit significant folding and vertical
displacement along a prominent north-trending fault valley that bisects the peninsula.
Uplifted wavecut platforms along the peninsulas coast attest to ongoing deformation.
Faulting and uplift here are attributed to subduction of the Cocos ridge and passage of
the Panama triple junction [28].
3.3.2.10 Son and Azuero peninsulas
The Son and Azuero peninsulas of western Panama together form a major forearc
promontory (> 10,000 km2) that extends over 100 km southward into the Pacific Ocean
from the Panamanian isthmus (Fig. 3.5). This prominent coastal landmass forms the
eastern edge of the Gulf of Chiriqu and the western shore of the Gulf of Panama (Fig.
3.5). Both peninsulas feature central mountain ranges (> 500 m elevation) that are
separated from the volcanic cordillera to the north by eastwest trending lowlands. The
two peninsulas are separated from each other by the narrow north-trending Gulf of
Montijo (Fig. 3.5). Offshore to the southwest of the Son peninsula, lies Coiba island
within the Gulf of Chiriqu. The mountains of the Son and Azuero peninsulas are both
cut by the northwest-trending Son-Azuero fault [38]. This major left-lateral strike-slip
fault forms a prominent lineament that cuts across the peninsulas along a series of
aligned river valleys. Deformation along the Son-Azuero fault affects a 40-km-wide
zone marked by steep fault scarps and prominent linear valleys [38]. This fault
separates two distinct suites of basement rocks common to both peninsulas. South of
the fault, the basement is comprised of homogenous Cretaceous seafloor basalts, while
to the north it consists of a heterogeneous Late CretaceousEocene volcanic arc
complex of basalts and intrusive rocks overlain by intermediate lavas. Offshore to the
southwest, the Coiba fault zone runs parallel to the Son-Azuero fault, resulting in
uplift at Coiba island [232].
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106 GEOMORPHOLOGY
3.3.3 Chorotega backarc province

The Chorotega backarc province (Fig. 3.1) extends from the vast Caribbean plains of
the Tortuguero lowlands in northeastern Costa Rica (Fig. 3.4) to the abrupt emergent
shorelines of the southern Limn and Bocas del Toro basins near the Costa RicaPanama border. While the Tortuguero lowlands in the north feature an extensive lowrelief alluvial plain with a relatively monotonous shoreline, the southern Limn and
Bocas del Toro region exhibits a narrow, higher-relief coastal plain with a rugged
shoreline of rocky headlands and intervening embayments [171, 172]. The sharp
geomorphic contrast between these regions reflects a sudden shift along the Chorotega
backarc from relatively stable tectonics in the north, to active crustal deformation
within the North Panama deformed belt in the south.
3.3.3.1 Tortuguero lowlands
The Tortuguero lowlands of the northern Chorotega backarc encompass an extensive
alluvial plain that reaches 4070 km seaward from the base of Costa Ricas Central
volcanic cordillera (Fig. 3.4). A series of major rivers draining the volcanic cordillera
traverse the alluvial lowlands, transporting a high sediment load for deposition across
broad inland flood plains and a coalescing delta complex at the coast. A sequence of
massive alluvial fans has developed along the foot of the volcanic cordillera where the
major rivers exit the mountain front [229]. In many cases, modern rivers have incised
below extensive upland fan surfaces comprised of thick accumulations of Pleistocene
fluvial gravels, capped by well-developed, deep-red, clay-rich soils [233]. These soils
and associated aggradational surfaces may be age correlative with the Pleistocene
alluvial terraces observed along Costa Ricas Pacific forearc [35].
Along the Tortuguero coast (Fig. 3.4), the low-relief, sediment-laden shoreline
traces a broad, continuous arc for over 120 km between the San Juan river in the north
and the Limn headland in the south. This coastline consists of a 1015 km wide band
of prograding, shore-parallel, beach ridges that stretch along the margin of the vast
alluvial plain. The lower reaches of rivers approaching the coastline are often deflected
between the shore-parallel beach ridges, resulting in a coastal morphology of elongate
lagoons and narrow barrier islands. At several locations along the Tortuguero coast, the
low-relief landscape is interrupted by abrupt hills generated by NeogeneQuaternary
backarc volcanism. These volcanic hills, however, represent only a minor departure
from the overall monotonous topography of the Tortuguero lowlands.
3.3.3.2 Southern Limn and Bocas del Toro coast
The low-relief landscape of the Tortuguero region contrasts sharply with the rugged
emergent morphology of the southern Limn and Bocas del Toro coastlines to the
south (Fig. 3.4). Along this southern segment of the Chorotega backarc, a narrow
coastal plain (< 20 km) with undulating topography runs along the steep Caribbean
slope of the Talamanca mountains. This stretch of rugged coastline extends for
> 200 km from Costa Ricas Limn headland in the northwest (Fig. 3.4), to Panamas
Bocas del Toro archipelago and Gulf of Mosquitoes in the southeast (Fig. 3.5).
The coastal morphology of the southern Limn region is characterized by a series of
rocky promontories and coastal islands interspersed with pocket bays and wide
crescent-shaped beaches. Coral reefs and prominent cliffs occur along some segments
of coastline, while other areas feature broad estuaries, peat swamps, and barrier
Figure 3.5. Map of the physiographic provinces of southern Central America, showing
significant geomorphic features of portions of Panama and Colombia.
beaches. At Bocas del Toro in northwestern Panama, an extensive low-relief coastal

embayment (70 km wide) lies inboard of an emergent string of cliff-lined islands and
promontories. To the east of Bocas del Toro, the Chorotega backarc extends along the
Gulf of Mosquitoes where a series of river deltas form localized bulges in the coastline.
The rugged geomorphology of the Limn and Bocas del Toro region (Fig. 3.4) is
controlled by active crustal shortening within the North Panama deformed belt along
the Caribbean margin of the Panama block [234]. Rapid uplift above northeast-verging
thrust faults has led to the emergence of Quaternary coral terraces along the southern
Limn coastline [235]. Active subsidence has also produced a low-relief trough inboard
of the emergent islands of the Bocas del Toro archipelago. During the 1991 MS 7.6
Valle de la Estrella earthquake, coseismic uplift of 0.51.5 m affected the southern
Limn coast [236], while subsidence of 0.50.7 m resulted in inundation of peat
swamps along the Bocas del Toro embayment [237]. Toward the northwest, the zone of
active coastal deformation ends abruptly at the Limn headland, where thrust faulting
within the North Panama deformed belt gives way to oblique slip along steeply-dipping
faults of the Central Costa Rica deformed belt [34, 235].
Uplift along the Limn-Bocas del Toro coast has exposed a Neogene sequence of
marine to terrestrial sediments and volcanic rocks along coastal cliffs and islands [238
241]. These deposits are correlative with similar units mapped in the canal zone and
Darin regions of Panama [242, 243]. As a whole, this rock sequence provides a
detailed record of Neogene emergence along the Panama isthmus, resulting in closure
of the oceanic strait between the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean basins [8, 9].
3.3.4 Canal zone lowlands province

The Panama canal zone (Fig. 3.1) occupies a region of relatively low topography
between the Central volcanic cordillera of western Panama and the mountainous Darin
isthmus to the east (Fig. 3.5). This lowland encompasses a network of low-gradient
river valleys that drain surrounding hills with peak elevations of less than 1200 m
[244]. The Pacific-Caribbean drainage divide descends to one of its lowest elevations
in Central America (< 200 m) in the low saddle of the Culebra Cut along the Panama
107
108 GEOMORPHOLOGY
canal (Fig. 3.5). The most pronounced expression of low topography in this region is
the once-extensive swamp within the broad valley of the Chagres river, now covered by
the Panama canals Gatn lake [245].
The stratigraphy of the Panama canal zone lowlands includes a Cretaceous volcanic
basement that is overlain unconformably by a thick sequence of EoceneMiocene
shallow marine and terrestrial sediments [242, 244248]. These rocks are moderately
folded, and were affected by late Neogene faulting and uplift that produced localized
bedrock highs within fault-bounded blocks [38, 245]. Within adjacent topographic
lows, these sedimentary rocks are buried unconformably by a horizontal valley-fill
sequence of PleistoceneHolocene estuarine and swamp deposits referred to as the
Atlantic Muck.
3.3.4.1 Gatn fracture zone
The low topography of the Panama canal zone (Fig. 3.5) has been attributed to
pervasive faulting and fracturing that extends across the Panamanian isthmus within an
80-km-wide zone referred to as the Panama canal discontinuity or the Gatn fracture
zone [244, 245, 248]. This major crustal discontinuity has been interpreted as a
Neogene-age basement fault that divides the Chorotega block to the west from the
Choc block of eastern Panama [4].
Seismic imaging along the Caribbean coast indicates that faulting in the canal zone
post-dates Late Miocene strata and may in some cases displace overlying Quaternary
beds of the Atlantic Muck [245]. Prominent geomorphic lineaments, topographic
breaks, and bends in river courses are all consistent with a young, fault-controlled
landscape [244246]. For example, a major northeast-trending fault lineament along
the Gatn river (Fig. 3.5) forms the southern boundary of a basement highland at the
northern end of the Panama canal zone. This lineament extends eastward into the
northern coastal ranges of the Darin isthmus and is interpreted as a major left-lateral
strike-slip fault [38]. Abundant north-striking and generally east-facing scarps south of
the Gatn fault suggest that the Panama canal zone is undergoing active eastwest
extension across a series of normal faults [38]. These normal faults may represent the
western termination of left-lateral shearing along major strike-slip faults within the
Darin region of eastern Panama.
3.3.5 Darin isthmus province

The Darin isthmus (Fig. 3.1) of eastern Panama is bounded by a northwest-trending
set of rugged mountains along both its Caribbean and Pacific coasts (Fig. 3.5). These
include the San Bls and Darin ranges along the Caribbean coast, and the Maj,
Bagre, and Sapo ranges along the Pacific side. These coastal highlands flank an
elongate lowland basin centered along the broad valleys of the Bayano, Chucunaque,
and Tuira rivers (Fig. 3.5). On the Pacific coast, the Gulf of San Miguel (Fig. 3.5)
forms a deep bight into the coastal mountains where the Tuira river estuary drains from
the central lowland into the ocean. Much of the humid and rugged landscape of the
Darin isthmus remains cloaked in dense tropical vegetation, contributing to its
reputation as one of Central Americas most remote regions.
The coastal massifs of the Darin isthmus expose a CretaceousEocene crystalline
basement complex comprised predominantly of highly deformed mafic igneous rocks
[142, 243, 248, 249]. These rocks belong to the Choc block (Fig. 3.1), an allocthonous
oceanic basement terrane that lies beneath eastern Panama and western Colombia [4].
The Choc block is separated from the Chorotega block to the west, across basement
faults of the Panama canal discontinuity.
The basement rocks of the Darin region are overlain along the flanks of the coastal
mountains by EoceneMiocene pillow basalts and deep marine sediments deposited
prior to Panamas collision with South America [243]. These rocks are in-turn buried
by a thick, post-collisional sequence of Neogene siliciclastic sediments within the core
of a complex synclinorium centered along the Bayano-Chucunaque basin.
Within Panama and southern Costa Rica, the Choc and Chorotega basement
terranes (Fig. 3.1) together form the modern Panama block, a semi-rigid microplate that
is caught between the Caribbean, Cocos, Nazca, and South American plates [5, 6]. Fold
and thrust belts offshore of both the northern and southern Darin isthmus (North and
South Panama deformed belts) accommodate active convergence with the Caribbean
and Nazca plates [39]. Active collision between the Panama block and the South
American craton to the east occurs across thrust faults of the Atrato-Urub suture zone
in western Colombia [148].
3.3.5.1 East Panama deformed belt
Ongoing collision between the Panama block and South America results in clockwise
rotation and left-lateral slip along several major northwest-trending faults that cut the
eastern Darin isthmus [38]. Together, these structures constitute a diffuse deformation
zone referred to as the East Panama deformed belt [42]. The Sansn hills, Samb,
Maj, and Jaqu river faults (Fig. 3.5) each follow prominent northwest-trending
lineaments along the flanks of the Pacific coastal ranges.
The Sansn hills fault forms the boundary between the Chucunaque basin (Fig. 3.5)
and the coastal highlands to the southwest [38, 42]. Hilly topography northeast of the
fault exposes Paleogene sediments of the Chucunaque basin within a series of
breached, en-echelon anticlines. These folded strata are juxtaposed against Cretaceous
oceanic basement rocks exposed southwest of the fault within the estuarine lowlands of
the Tuira river.
The Samb fault, southwest of the Tuira river (Fig. 3.5), marks the boundary
between the Bagre and Sapo massifs near the coast [38, 42, 250]. A left-step in this
fault bounds the Samb pull-apart basin, which forms the entrance to the Gulf of San
Miguel and a broad alluvial valley between the Bagre and Sapo ranges (Fig. 3.5). The
Maj fault trends onshore to the northwest from the Gulf of San Miguel where it offsets
basement rocks of the Maj massif [38, 42]. The Jaque river fault along the southwest
range front of the Sapo massif follows the Pacific coast southeastward from the Darin
isthmus into western Colombia [38, 42, 250].
The northwest-trending left-lateral faults of the Darin isthmus terminate at their
southeastern ends along a zone of north-trending thrust faults within the Panama-South
America suture zone [38, 42, 243]. Toward the northwest, the left-lateral faults die out
as they approach north-trending extensional structures along the Panama canal
discontinuity. The presence of undeformed PliocenePleistocene sediments along fault
valleys in the eastern Darin isthmus may indicate that the left-lateral faults are no
longer active [243]. If this is the case, the Panama block in this region may now be
acting as a rigid plate as it collides with South America.
109
110 GEOMORPHOLOGY
3.4
SUMMARY
The geomorphology of Central America is extraordinarily rich and varied (Fig. 3.1).
This small fragment of land linking North and South America features a diversity of
landforms and geomorphic processes usually associated with an entire continent. While
accounting for only 0.4% of the Earths total land area, Central America encompasses
a wide range of landscapes, from jungle-covered tropical lowlands to glaciated
highland plateaus, from cloud-forested volcanic peaks to rolling dryland savannahs,
and from rocky tectonic shorelines to low-relief barrier islands and mangrove estuaries.
This chapter presents a broad overview of Central American geomorphology, and
defines a system of physiographic provinces (Fig. 3.1) that serves as a framework for
characterizing regional landscapes and geomorphic processes.
The physiographic trend of the Central American isthmus is defined by the Middle
America trench and volcanic front, active since the initiation of subduction in the Late
Cretaceous. Cenozoic magmatic rocks and adjacent sedimentary basins are overprinted
across four crystalline basement terranes, two of continental affinity beneath northern
Central America (Maya and Chortis blocks), and two of oceanic origin (Chortis and
Choc blocks) beneath the southern isthmus. This geologic template (Fig. 3.2) is in
turn affected by active tectonics within three major plate-boundary deformation zones:
the Motagua-Polochic faults of Guatemala, the Middle America convergent margin
along the Pacific coast, and the diffuse collisional belts along the margins of Panama
and Costa Rica. The delicate interplay between Central Americas highly variable
climate and topography imparts an additional influence over regional geomorphology.
The Maya highlands province of northern Central America includes a series of
high-altitude mountain ranges and plateaus that extend in a broad arc from Central
Mexico, across northern Guatemala, to Belize. These highlands descend to the north
onto the vast carbonate lowlands of the Yucatn platform province, the most extensive
karstlands of the North American continent. Along the southern margin of the Maya
highlands, the Motagua fault zone province extends across central Guatemala along a
series of major fault-controlled valleys that define the active North AmericanCaribbean plate boundary.
The Chortis volcanic front province parallels the Pacific margin from Guatemala to
El Salvador, and consists of a series of clustered stratovolcanoes and calderas arranged
along transverse fault lineaments. Along the Pacific slope, the Chortis forearc province
encompasses a broad coastal plain made-up of coalescing alluvial debris fans that
descend from the volcanic highlands. Behind the volcanic front, and south of the
Motagua fault zone, the Chortis highlands province extends across the mountainous
interior of Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. This extensive region of high
topography includes a rifted plateau in the west, a stable central massif, a northern
coastal borderland of fault-bounded ridges, and an eastern zone of dissected mountains
facing the Caribbean coast. The Mosquito coast lowlands province (Fig. 3.1), east of
the Chortis highlands, encompasses the extenisve alluvial plains along the Caribbean
coast of Honduras and Nicaragua.
The Nicaraguan depression province consists of a 600-km long, fault-bounded
structural basin located between the coastal forearc and the interior Chortis highlands.
This tectonic lowland includes the Median trough of El Salvador, the Gulf of Fonseca,
and lakes Managua and Nicaragua. The Nicaraguan volcanic front province
encompasses a chain of stratovolcanoes and calderas centered along the southwestern
boundary faults of the Nicaraguan depression. The Sandino forearc province,
southwest of the Nicaraguan volcanic front, includes a low relief coastal plain
composed of volcaniclastic debris in the north, and a rugged shoreline of pocket bays
and rocky headlands in the south.
The Chorotega volcanic front province of Costa Rica and Panama consists of a
segmented series of distinct cordilleras that have evolved in response to highly variable
tectonics along the southern Middle America margin. A major volcanic gap occurs
along an uplifted segment above the subducted Cocos ridge. The adjacent Chorotega
forearc province encompasses a rugged tectonic coastline, characterized by prominent
uplifted headlands and peninsulas, as well as an active fold and thrust belt inboard of
the Cocos ridge. The Chorotega backarc province features a broad alluvial lowland in
northern Costa Rica and a rugged coastline with uplifted coral reefs formed within an
active backarc thrust belt. The Panama canal zone lowlands province includes a swath
of densely fractured, low relief landscape that extends across central Panama. To the
east, adjacent to South America, the Darin isthmus province consists of a faultbounded series of humid coastal mountain ranges flanking an elongate central valley.
As described throughout this chapter, the physiographic provinces of Central
America (Fig. 3.1) each exhibit a characteristic assemblage of landforms that records a
unique history of landscape evolution. The distinctive geomorphology of each province
reflects a dynamic interplay between regionally variable rock types, active plateboundary tectonics, and an energetic tropical climate. As a whole, the physiographic
provinces of this dynamic region encompass an exceptionally diverse array of
landscapes and associated landforms. Central America, therefore, serves as an
outstanding geomorphic laboratory for the study of a broad range of surface processes
and their imprint on the landscape.
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paleomagnetic stratigraphy of late Neogene deposits around Limn, Costa Rica: A coastal
emergence record of the Central American isthmus. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 112 (1999), pp.963
981.
241. Coates, A.G., Aubry, M.P., Berggren, W.A., Collins, L.S. & Kunk, M.: Early Neogene history
of the Central American arc from Bocas del Toro, western Panama. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 115
(2003), pp.271287.
242. Collins, L.S., Coates, A.G., Berggren, W.A., Aubry, M.P. & Zhang, J.: The Late Miocene
Panama Isthmian Strait. Geology 24 (1996), pp.687690.
243. Coates, A., Collins, L.S., Aubry, M.P. & Berggren, W.A.: The Geology of the Darien, Panama
and the late MiocenePliocene collision of the Panama arc with northwestern South America.
244. Lowerie, A., Stewart, J., Stewart, R.H., Van Andel, T.J. & McRaney, L.: Location of the
eastern boundary of the Cocos plate during the Miocene. Mar. Geol. 45 (1982), pp.261279.
245. Pratt, T.L., Holmes. M., Schweig, E.S., Gomberg, J. & Cowan, H.A.: High resolution seismic
imaging of faults beneath Limn Bay, northern Panama Canal, Republic of Panama.
246. Jones, S.R.: Geology of Gatn Lake and vicinity. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 61 (1950), pp.893922.
247. Woodring, W.P.: Geology and paleontology of Canal Zone and adjoining parts of Panama. U.S.
Geological Survey Professional Paper 306-A, Denver, 1957.
248. Case, J.E., Duran, L.G., Lopez, A. & Moore, W.R.: Tectonic investigations in western
Colombia and eastern Panama. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 82 (1971), pp.26852712.
249. Case, J.E.: Oceanic crust forms the basement of eastern Panama. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 85
(1974), pp.645652.
250. MacDonald, H.C.: Geologic evaluation of radar imagery from Darien province, Panama. Mod.
Geol. 1 (1969), pp.163.
Chapter 4
Volcanism and volcanic landforms
BENJAMIN VAN WYK DE VRIES, PABLO GROSSE AND
We passed in regular succession the
volcanoes of San Salvador, San Vicente, San
Miguel, Telega, Momotombo, Managua,
Nindiri, Masaya, and Nicaragua, each one a
noble spectacle, and all together forming a
chain with which no other in the world can
be compared; indeed, this coast has well
been described as bristling with volcanic
cones. J.L. Stephens: Incidents of travel in
Central America, Chiapas and Yucatn,
1841.
4.1
INTRODUCION
The Central American volcanic front (CAVF) contains approximately fifty active or
potentially active edifices that are highly variable in height, volume, composition and
morphology [13]. There are approximately ten volcanoes engaged in various levels of
eruption at any time [4]. Historic activity has included major destructive eruptions,
such as Santa Mara, Guatemala in 1902 [5], or the 300 AD eruption of Ilopango in El
Salvador [6]. The volcanoes range from high, elegant stratocones in Guatemala, with
edifice heights of up to 3 km, to low lava-dominated shields in the central part of
Nicaragua with heights of less than one kilometer. There is a great range of variability
in eruption styles, associated deposits and subsequent erosion that has lead to the
development of a very complex topography. This volcanic topography has controlled
the emplacement of volcanic deposits such as lava flows, pyroclastic flows and lahars
and is a major factor in the evolution of human settlement. Because of this, a good
knowledge and understanding of volcanic landforms is essential for the management of
natural hazards. Due to recent information obtained by satellite mapping missions, the
quality of the topographic data over the whole area is greatly improved. In particular
the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (STRM) of NASA has provided a regional
digital elevation model (DEM) of 90 m spatial resolution, which is excellent for
assessing large-scale volcano morphology. It is now possible to examine the volcanic
landforms at a regional scale. This chapter presents a summary description of
landforms throughout the active CAVF (Fig. 4.1).
4.1.1 Volcanic landforms

Most simply, volcanoes can be thought of as elevated edifices that erupt lava or
124 GEOMORPHOLOGY
pyroclastic rocks. More precisely, volcanoes can be differentiated on the basis of the
various landforms that they create. Common types of volcanoes include cinder cones,
lava domes, maars, tuff rings, shields and stratovolcanoes. The range of landforms has
a certain consistency in that size increase is generally accompanied by an increase in
complexity. In essence, the large complex landforms are made up of many small simple
ones. Examples of such different volcano types are the following (Fig. 4.2):
A complex cinder cone, Cerro Negro is part of the El Hoyo complex in Nicaragua.
This volcano has produced a series of lava flows and has deposited ash over a wide
area. The ash blanket can be seen extending from the foot of the cone.
A dome, Santiaguito is located at the base of the Santa Mara stratocone in
Guatemala. Santa Mara had a plinian eruption in 1902 that vented from the
southwest base of the cone. The resulting crater was occupied by a dome in 1922.
The dome has been active and growing for about 70 years. It consists of a central
group of viscous plugs, a large scree carapace and subsidiary lava tongues.
A shield volcano: the Zapatera island in Nicaragua. The low slope angles of this
lava shield are the result of gravity spreading and tectonic fault activity. The
irregular ridge is a series of connected fault scarps. On the far left of the photo is the
much steeper Mombacho stratocone. Its two peaks are the product of sector
collapse.
A large complex stratovolcano makes up Oros volcano in Costa Rica. This volcano
is very different from the previous examples. It is a complex mixture of different
individual vents and flow fields that have coalesced into a major structure. The
edifice is also cut by various faults that are related to regional tectonics and its own
gravitational instability.
The range of volcanic landforms in Central America includes all the constructive
features mentioned in the last paragraphs, but also destructive features such as calderas,
avalanche scars, and erosion features with associated sedimentary features (Fig. 4.3). In
addition, volcano surfaces may also be altered by tectonic stresses and the stress of
their own gravitational spreading [6, 7]. Gravitational spreading has produced well
defined structures on many volcanoes in Central America. Thus, volcanism and
associated processes have produced landforms that are complex and varied.
Conversely, these landforms are also evidence of the underlying volcanic processes
that can be used as a tool for understanding volcanism.
This chapter introduces some of the main volcanic landform types in Central
America and their significance. A traverse of the volcanic chain in Central America
follows in order to provide an overview of the different volcanic processes. Most
interpretations and descriptions are based on recent DEMs such as from the STRM, and
more detailed data from DEMs produced from aerial stereophotogrammetry. The
emphasis in this chapter is on landform interpretation based on surface morphology.
This approach lends the greatest credibility to the interpretation of the new DEM data.
These data are presented in a series of annotated images to provide a visual
representation of the volcanic landforms in Central America.
4.2
DESCRIPTION OF VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
When considering the morphology of a volcano there are three types of topography: (1)
Constructional topography, caused by deposition of erupted or eroded material; (2)
Erosional topography, caused by the modification of constructional topography by
Figure 4.1. Map of the main Central American volcanic front (CAVF), showing the location of individual centres and main structural features, such as the
Motagua fault zone, the Central valley of El Salvador and the Nicaraguan depression. Principal volcanoes are named, where space permits.
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126 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Figure 4.2. Photos illustrating the differences possible in volcanic landforms: (a) The featureless
black flanks of a cinder cone, Cerro Negro, part of the El Hoyo complex, Nicaragua; (b) A
rough lava dome, Santiaguito, part of the Santa Mara stratocone, seen behind, Guatemala;
(c) A shield volcano, Zapatera complex, Nicaragua, seen as a silhouette from Concepcin
volcano in Nicaragua lake; (d) Vertical view of a large complex stratovolcano, Oros-Cacao,
Costa Rica (radar image), several coalescing, deformed and eroded cones are present.
erosion, and (3) Deformational topography, caused by surface change due to tectonic,
gravitational or magmatic deformation [8]. From a landform perspective, a volcanic
edifice could be considered to end when it no longer has a constructional effect on
topography. Such a definition runs into problems when volcanic material runs into
ravines or collects far from the vent on distal fans that are separated from the edifice.
As yet there is no truly satisfactory morphological definition of a volcano. For working
purposes, the interpretations divide the central edifice from the distal fans. Within the
above three-fold morphological classification there are numerous different landforms,
described below.
4.2.1 Basic volcano

A volcano is basically an accumulation of volcanic deposits around a source vent.
Deposits may be lava flows, tephra, ballistics and pyroclastic flows (Fig. 4.2). The
growth of a volcano creates a new topographic landform on top of the pre-existing
surface. The distance to which a volcano technically extends is easily defined for lavas
that have sharp flow fronts, but is impossible for pyroclastic rocks that tend to thin
asymptotically away from the vent.
Figure 4.3. Photographs and images of volcanic landforms and processes: (a) Erosional
processes, San Cristbal volcano, Nicaragua in 1997; (b) Lahar deposition, the base of
Concepcin volcano, Nicaragua; (c) Faulting in a quarry in Managua, Nicaragua; (d)
Gravitational spreading at Maderas volcano, Nicaragua; (e) Caldera collapse: aerial oblique
image of the Apoyeque caldera; (f) Sector collapse: radar image of Las Isletas collapse on
Mombacho volcano, Nicaragua.
4.2.2 Cones, domes, stratovolcanoes, shields

The basic volcano shape has several forms (Fig. 4.2). The two most basic forms are the
cone and the dome, respective examples of these in Central America are Cerro Negro
and the Santiaguito dome (part of Santa Mara volcano, Guatemala). Cerro Negro is an
accumulation of scoria and minor lava flows around a vent; Santiaguito is a
accumulation of mainly lava over a vent. Each is a small volcano with steep sides and
well-defined topographic limits. Each has had numerous eruptions with different
products and both are quite complex. For example, Cerro Negro has a well-defined
cone limit on the east and southeast sides, but the cone limit is extended by tephra falls
to the west. The cone limit is also extended locally by lava flows that extend beyond
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128 GEOMORPHOLOGY
the relatively clear-cut cone base. Santiaguito also has lava flows that extend from the
dome, and also pyroclastic flows and lahars that change the valley morphology
downstream.
Volcanoes may be defined on the basis of their steepness. One general class is
shield-like volcanoes. Within this class, the flattest type is called an ignimbrite shield.
Ignimbrite shields increase in slope to lava shields that ultimately merge into even
steeper stratovolcanoes (Fig. 4.2). Ignimbrite shields are well represented in Central
America (Chapter 23). However, in Guatemala and El Salvador, the major Quaternary
ignimbrite eruptions were emplaced onto an already rough topography, hence the
shield landform is not well developed. A broad dissected plain is the main expression
of these ignimbrites in northwest Guatemala, where a broad flat area extends from the
volcanic front to the Motagua fault zone. The best examples of ignimbrite shields are
located in Nicaragua where the Las Sierras shield hosts the Masaya volcano. Lava
shields are present in Central America, but are restricted to the compositionally lessevolved volcanoes in Nicaragua and to the central Costa Rican volcanoes. The best
known is Masaya volcano in Nicaragua, which has erupted copious pahoehoe lavas and
fills the Masaya caldera. Other Nicaraguan volcanoes, such as Telica, El Hoyo and
Zapatera are lava shields with a similar shape. Many of the volcanoes in Costa Rica,
such as Barva, Iraz, and Turrialba have low slope angles (416) and are shield-like
stratovolcanoes. They are constructed of mixtures of primary volcanic products and
secondary volcanoclastic sediments such as lahars and avalanche deposits. They have
large sedimentary aprons and the edifices are dissected by large canyons and fault
scarps. This topography is also due in part to the volcanoes having been built from
multiple vents distributed over a wide area. However, these volcanoes have also
undergone gravitational spreading that has reduced their slope angles [911].
Platform cone fields are a particular type of volcanic landform in Central America.
They are flat-lying volcanic terranes associated with extensive lava flows and small
cinder cones. They are distinct from small cinder cones and lavas on the flanks of
major volcanoes [12]. Seven platform cone fields have been recognized in Central
America and they are located 10100 km behind the volcanic front. These fields
consist primarily of monogenetic basaltic cinder cones and shield volcanoes.
4.2.3 Erosion
Erosion is an important control on the development of volcanic morphology (Fig. 4.3).
Very few volcanoes on Earth are unmodified by erosion. The climate in Central
America is characterized by a wet season with large amounts of rainfall, occasional
tropical depressions and hurricanes, and a pronounced dry season. The topography of
certain volcanoes may chiefly be the result of the local climate. For example, in Costa
Rica there is more rainfall on the Caribbean side and the summits than on the
southwestern flanks. This difference in rainfall is reflected in different rates of erosion,
thickness of vegetation and consequently topography. In Panama, the volcanoes are
especially highly eroded, partly due to the high rainfall, but also due to the low
recurrence rate of volcanic activity.
San Cristbal volcano, in Nicaragua (Fig. 4.3a), is an example where erosional
processes are acting on an active cone. Phreatic eruptions are depositing fine ash on the
western flank, which is smooth and un-eroded. There are deep erosional gullies on the
south flank (facing in Fig. 4.3a) in pyroclastic flow deposits related to a major set of
eruptions about 500 years ago. Vegetation is protecting the lower flanks from erosion.
The summit was forested before the 1960s when the volcano reactivated. The
photograph in Figure 4.3a was taken in 1997, since when the removal of vegetation
cover has increased erosion and has lead to increasing lahar activity.
4.2.4 Sedimentary apron

At the base of any volcano, there is a zone where coarse eroded material is collected
and distributed (Fig. 4.3b). This sedimentary apron is produced by erosion of volcanic
products and deposition of far-traveled pyroclastic flows. For example, Figure 4.3b
shows a lahar deposit at the base of Concepcin volcano, Nicaragua. The lahar has
removed banana plantations in its path and has deposited about a one-meter thick layer
on the soil.
Sediments are often deposited en masse by debris avalanches, lahars and floods,
leading to a distinctive braided drainage pattern. The volcanoes of Costa Rica and
Panama typically have large clastic aprons surrounding them. The volcanoes of El
Salvador and Nicaragua (where the volcanoes are in the rain shadow) typically have
more limited clastic aprons and hence lava flow fronts create a more distinctive
landform at the base.
4.2.5 Tectonic faults

Volcanoes are generally associated with active tectonic regions and faults often
influence the volcanos topography. Figure 4.3c shows a quarry cutting a cinder cone in
Managua, Nicaragua, where a small graben has been exposed. The cone lies above one
of the active faults of the Managua graben and has been deformed. Faults are
commonly represented at the surface by deviations in drainage and large valleys are
often aligned along faults. The median fault of central El Salvador, which cuts several
volcano-sedimentary aprons, is a good example of a escarpments and valleys formed
by one fault. Faulting associated with volcanic edifices may be quite complex [13].
Most commonly, edifice faulting is expressed by the formation of grabens and
structures related to flank destabilization. Faults may be deflected near a volcano due to
the stress modification by the edifice load. Many of the large calderas in northern
Central America are associated with pull-apart basins, and there may be a genetic
relationship between associated large intrusions and the pull-aparts [14].
4.2.6 Gravitational spreading

Volcanoes are large accumulations of rock emplaced onto strata that often lack the
fundamental strength to support the extra load [8]. An extreme case is the accumulation
of a volcanic load onto a sedimentary basin. For example, the volcanoes in Nicaragua
lake have grown on clay sediments that are approximately 1 km thick. Figure 4.3d
shows the edifice of Maderas volcano, Nicaragua. It was once a cone, but is now cut
deeply by spreading-related fault scarps. The result is the lateral expulsion of the
sediments and the sagging of the edifice into the lake [15]. Concepcin volcano in
Nicaragua is the best example of gravitational spreading. The rate of spreading here has
been measured at several centimeters per year [15]. Thrust faults below Platanar, Pos,
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130 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Iraz and Turrialba in Costa Rica are also related to gravitational spreading. This basal
compression is compensated by the development of summit grabens [10, 11].
Gravitational spreading is not a phenomenon that is restricted to the inability of
substrata to react to volcanic loading. Volcanoes may also themselves become unstable
due to hydrothermal alteration, which changes solid rock to clay. Flank spreading can
be a result of this type of internal core alteration. In this case, the top of the volcano
sinks into the altered core, while the flanks are displaced sideways. Consequently,
normal faults may cut the summit and thrusts may appear at the base. Casita and
Mombacho volcanoes in Nicaragua are the classic examples of this process [9]. Casita
volcano has also produced catastrophic debris avalanches, though, at least up to now,
of much smaller volumes than at Mombacho volcano where the deforming flanks failed
and a debris avalanche rich in altered material was produced [9].
Interaction between gravitational spreading, flank spreading and tectonics is
common. All processes may operate on a given volcano at the same time. The
deformation rate of each process defines the relative importance of each on the stability
of the volcano and its surface expression.
4.2.7 Calderas
Calderas are an important landform in Central America (Fig. 4.3e). They can be
separated into two types: volcano-tectonic depressions (7 along the CAVF), and simple
collapse calderas (13 along the CAVF). The depressions are usually rectangular and,
where the limits of the collapse do not exactly coincide with the underlying intrusion,
may represent pull-apart structures associated with tectonic activity. The calderas range
in size from the 1 1.5 km covering rectangular depression on Zapatera, Nicaragua,
through the 15 km wide Atitln caldera in Guatemala, to the 25 km wide Las Sierras
caldera in Nicaragua. The simple collapse type is related exclusively to volcanic
eruption related to discharge from an underlying magma chamber. These collapse types
are no more than 7 km across in Central America: this probably represents the
maximum size limit that a single Central American magma chamber may have before
becoming tectonically unstable. Apoyo caldera (7 km across) and Apoyeque caldera (2
km across) in Nicaragua and the Guayabo caldera (7.5 km across) in Costa Rica are
good examples. Figure 4.3e shows an aerial oblique image of the Apoyeque caldera.
The caldera is part of the Las Sierras-Masaya ignimbrite province.
4.2.8 Sector collapse

Sector collapse is an event that may happen once or several times in the lifetime of a
volcano. It is a large (between one and several tens of cubic kilometers) landslide of the
edifice and it generally produces a debris avalanche. The event leaves a large deposit at
the base of the volcano and typically a horseshoe-shaped scar. The scar may be rapidly
refilled and completely concealed. Figure 4.3f shows the Las Isletas collapse
structure on Mombacho volcano, Nicaragua. The northeast side of the cone has slid away
and avalanched into Nicaragua lake leaving an archipelago of some 200 islands. Another
deep collapse structure may be observed facing south in the deep radar shadow.
Volcanoes are generally unstable by nature and the failure of these edifices can be
initiated by numerous events. The basic conditions that lead to failure include
weakening by internal alteration, gravity spreading or tectonic action. Some

combination of these factors may ultimately lead to collapse. Triggers for collapse may
be seismic activity, magma intrusion, direct fault movement, rainfall, or just the
progressive weakening of the sliding mass. Mombacho volcano in Nicaragua is the best
example of sector collapse in Central America [16]. Mombacho has had at least four
sector collapses. An early collapse left a hummocky deposit on the southeast base
although the scar itself has been completely filled in. Two large collapses have
occurred to the north and to the south. The southern collapse has a deep, rounded,
horseshoe-shaped scar and was initiated by flank spreading. The northern collapse,
defined by a long scar that descends to the base of the volcano, was created by failure
of the substrata at the foot of the volcano. There is also an older avalanche deposit on
the southeast base of the volcano, however the scar associated with this is now not
visible on the cone. A small fourth scar developed in the scoria that accumulated on the
southwest flank of the volcano after the last set of prehistoric eruptions.
4.3
LANDFORMS AND PROCESSES OF CENTRAL AMERICA
The diversity of volcano morphology and the multitude of landforms in Central

America is the result of the processes described above. In the section that follows data
related to the general shape, size and volume of volcanic areas is discussed. Specific
areas are then presented with reference to characteristic landforms.
4.3.1 Geometrical characteristics of the Central American volcanoes

The volcanoes of Central America are extremely varied in shape and size. At one
extreme is the Masaya-Las Sierras volcanic complex in Nicaragua. Here the edifice is
no more than 900 m high, but has a radius of 50 km. At the other extreme are cones
like Santa Mara volcano in Guatemala that that has a radius of only 10 km, but is 2000 m
high. The height here is defined as the vertical distance from the volcano base to its
summit, elevation is the height above sea-level of the summit. Carr et al. [2, 3]
provided a comprehensive description of the variations in height, volume and chemical
composition of the volcanoes of the CAVF. There is a symmetry to the front as a
whole, centered around Nicaragua. The volcanoes with the lowest heights have
compositions that are also the least evolved. In addition, the depth of magma storage
appears to increase from Nicaragua towards the arc extremities.
In general, there is a symmetry centered about Nicaragua in terms of elevation,
height, and to a smaller extent, volume and area. These variations for the CAVF are
illustrated in Figure 4.4a. There are several anomalies in the data related to area and
volume. The volumes and areas of Costa Rican volcanoes are unusually large. As
previously discussed, Costa Rican volcanoes are shield-like with large, squat shapes
and low slope angles. They are distinctly different from Guatemalan volcanoes of
similar height. Another anomaly is the Masaya-Las Sierras volcanic complex, which is
the site of a very large ignimbrite shield structure. In other areas, such as western
Guatemala, the ignimbrites were deposited on a rough topography. Consequently, they
are not a clearly recognizable and measurable landform. While they do not appear on
the graph, it should be noted that there are several large-area, large-volume, low-height
ignimbrite volcanoes located along the CAVF from northern Costa Rica to Guatemala.
There is a segmentation along the CAVF [2, 3], with each segment being about
100200 km in length. The centre of each segment hosts larger volume volcanoes [2,
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132 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Figure 4.4. Plots of geometrical variables of Central American volcanoes: (a) Position of
volcanoes along CAVF versus area, elevation above sea-level, height above volcano base,
and volume; (b) Area versus elevation; (c) Area versus height; (d) Elevation versus height;
(e) Area versus volume.
3]. The segmentation was inferred to be due to lateral changes in the dip of the
subducting slab. There are some obvious jumps in the CAVF (e.g., at the political
boundaries Costa Rica-Nicaragua and Nicaragua-El Salvador), which may be due to
slab influence (Fig. 4.1). However, other authors [13, 14] have suggested that
segmentation is not so well marked. Furthermore they suggest that the complex block
rotation tectonics of the Caribbean plate is responsible for the apparent segmentation
and transverse structures. The transverse structures on the volcanic front could be
explained also by the loading of volcanoes along with the strike-slip, arc parallel stress
regime.
In addition to the along-front variations in volcano geometry, some non-geographic
observations on volcano shape and evolution are observed. For this chapter, the surface
areas of various volcanic edifices in Central America were calculated, along with
previously determined volumes, height and elevations (Table 4.1).

The data source was the 90-m resolution DEM (STRM project) for Central America
produced by NASA. This freely available DEM is of sufficient resolution to allow first
order quantification of the morphological features. It is also useful for the more
descriptive morphological analysis that is presented later in the chapter. All the
following figures are based on this DEM except for the descriptions of Arenal,
Concepcin, and Zapatera volcanoes, that use map-derived 30 m resolution DEMs.
It is generally very difficult to define the radius of a volcano because it tends to
merge into the surrounding landscape. In addition the volume is difficult to assess
because tephra may be deposited at great distances from the eruption, and also the
subsurface is not well constrained. Some volcanoes may sag deeply into their substrata
(such as the Nicaraguan volcanoes of Concepcin and Maderas) and underestimates of
volumes are likely in this case. On the other hand, volcanoes erupted onto rough
topography and older volcanic edifices may have their volumes grossly overestimated
if a planar base is assumed (e.g., central Costa Rican volcanoes). In spite of such
limitations, some significant inferences may be drawn.
In general, there is a positive correlation between elevation and area, and height and
area (Fig. 4.4b to d). There is a large range of volcano height for equivalent volumes.
This is due in part to some volcanoes being very tall and not occupying a large area.
Volcanoes may initially form steep cones such as the young steep cones of Izalco in El
Salvador, Momotombo in Nicaragua and Arenal in Costa Rica. Such cones will
ultimately begin to widen by secondary processes, such processes as erosion and
associated redeposition, volcano collapse and gravitational spreading. Volcanoes may
also grow too high to erupt lavas easily [2]. This may be due to corresponding pressure
constraints or to edifice extension and weakening that would instead produce flank
eruptions. The role of local tectonics in facilitating multiple vent centers, and therefore
reducing the ratio of volcano height versus area, is clear. In Nicaragua for example, low
volcanoes such as Telica and El Hoyo lie in fault zones [17].
Costa Rican shield volcanoes characteristically show a correlation between area and
greater height (Fig. 4.4). This same relationship is also clear for volume versus area.
When area and height are compared, it is interesting to note that for elevations
below fifteen hundred meters elevation there is a linear correlation. At greater
elevations, volcanoes do not increase in height so rapidly and appear to plateau out at
just above two thousand meters. Figure 4.4c shows many data points lying below the
maximum curve. This indicates that these may be volcanoes growing towards a
maximum height. In simple terms, the graph suggests that as a volcano grows, it gains
elevation. It further indicates quite emphatically that there is a rough maximum height
for volcanoes in Central America. This height is lower than that in most volcanic arcs,
indicating that maximum height is controlled locally. Such controls may be related to
some combination of the local tectonics, crustal thickness and magma flux. It may also
be related to climate if erosion rates are higher than edifice building rates.
The volcanoes of CAVF are related by height and volume and can be separated into
various general classes (Fig. 4.5). These are:
Large and flat (LF): volumes > 80200 km3, low slopes (< 13 mean slope): Santa
Ana, Apaneca, Rincn de la Vieja, Miravalles, Tenorio, Pos, Barva, Iraz and
Turrialba.
Medium size and medium slopes (MM): volumes 2575 km3, slopes 1018:
Tecuamburro, San Salvador, San Vicente, Tecapa, Conchagua, San Cristbal, Oros
and Platanar.
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134 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Table 4.1. List of volcano edifices and calderas on the CAVF. Data for elevation, height volume
and area are provided. These data come from [2], and from local maps, volume and area
calculated from regional 90 m DEM.
Volcano name
Type
Elevation
(m)
Height
(m)
Volume
(km3)
Area
(km2)
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
4003
4220
-3770
-3000
3540
3980
3760
2530
--1850
1700
1900
2050
-1800
--2000
2016
2160
1000
--1350
1400
20
35
20
10
110
130
65
45
14
10
-----
--61
98
104
52
233
306
204
111
206
225
238
296
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
2380
1970
1980
1960
2180
--1590
1450
--2130
1240
500
500
500
500
1800
1400
1400
1450
1650
--1350
1250
--1850
1240
500
500
500
500
165
5
100
110
130
120
40
50
35
2
2
2
2
-----
83
76
306
203
312
121
876
114
58
429
105
199
118
14
24
34
61
shield
stratovolcano
dome
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
shield
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
shield
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
shield
domes
shield
shield
860
1750
1000
900
1400
-1001
850
900
1080
600
1190
-420
900
600
860
1700
1000
900
1350
-900
700
800
900
500
1190
-420
900
--
30
50
2
2
30
40
28
10
25
40
10
20
500
13
700
60
275
124
31
14
91
71
100
11
51
154
19
40
1135
153
3709
170
Guatemala
Tacan
Tajumulco
Almolonga
Santa Mara
Santo Tomas
San Pedro
Atitln/Tolimn
Fuego/Acatenango
Agua
Pacaya
Old cone
Old edifice
Tecuamburro
Moyuta
El Salvador
Santa Ana
Izalco
Apaneca
Boquron
San Vicente
Taburete
Tecapa Usulutn complex
El Tigre
Usulutn
Tecapa
Chinameca
San Miguel
Conchagua
Conchaguita
Meanguera
El Tigre (Honduras)
Zacate Grande (Honduras)
Nicaragua
Cosigina
San Cristbal
Chonco
Moyotepe
Casita
Pelona
Telica
Santa Clara
Rota
Las Pilas/El Hoyo
Monte Galan
Momotombo
Chitepe 1
Apoyeque
Las Sierras
Masaya
Apoyo
Mombacho
Zapatera
Concepcin
Maderas
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
shield
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
-1350
630
1610
1390
-1300
1300
1600
1380
50
33
60
60
--
111
185
61
141
122
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
shield
shield
shield
stratovolcano
1440
1810
2030
1920
1550
1200
2180
2700
2890
3430
3340
1200
1500
1600
1500
1100
800
1490
1700
1900
2000
1900
55
130
120
95
15
10
50
95
255
300
290
257
274
187
223
54
12
656
478
1119
778
569
stratovolcano
stratovolcano
shield
2780
2950
800
1800
1900
800
150
140
--
319
394
2663
Costa Rica
Oros
Rincn de la Vieja
Miravalles
Tenorio
Arenal
El Chato
Platanar
Pos
Barva
Iraz
Turrialba
Panama
Old edifice near Bar
El Bar
El Valle
Medium size and steep slopes (MS): volumes also 2575 km3, slopes > 18:
Tajumulco, Atitln, Fuego, Acatenango, Agua and San Miguel.
Small and steep (SS): volumes < 25 km3, very steep slopes (> 25): Tacan, Santa
Mara, Concepcin, Momotombo and Arenal.
Small and medium slopes (SM): volumes < 25 km3, slopes 1220: El Hoyo,
Mombacho and Maderas.
Medium size and flat (MF): volume ~30 km3, slopes < 10: Telica.
Large and very flat (LVF): volume > 100 km3 and very low slopes (< 5): Masaya.
A comparison of the various volcano types based on height versus volume once again
shows the possible evolution of volcanoes from a young and steep phase to a broad and
high phase (Fig. 4.5). Not all volcanoes will systematically progress through the
various phases. For example, those volcanoes that result from the coalescence of
several vents, such as El Hoyo in Nicaragua, start out as broad volcanoes. They tend to
have long, thin lava flows that build shields. The satellite vent of El Hoyo, the Cerro
Negro, has been increasing its radius, area and volume in recent years by lava flows
and sub-plinian eruptions. However, at the same time its elevation has slightly
decreased, indicating that there are departures, at least in the short-term, from the norm
suggested above. In addition, several of the small and medium slope volcanoes have
been modified either by collapse (Mombacho in Nicaragua) or gravitational spreading
(Maderas in Nicaragua), or by lava accumulating at the base (Arenal in Costa Rica).
The data seem to indicate that small steep volcanoes reach a limited maximum
height before they begin to widen. This is certainly true of Concepcin volcano in
Nicaragua, which is widening by gravitational spreading at about five centimeters per
year [18]. Another widening situation is at Santa Mara volcano in Guatemala that has
stopped erupting and is being widened by the growth of Santiaguito dome at its base.
The medium steep (MS) volcanoes are all located in Guatemala and they form a
class of elegant stratocones. Any further development of these volcanoes is likely to be
by voluminous flank eruptions, such as at Santa Mara volcano, or by collapse and
further growth. Alternatively, these stratovolcanoes may have reached a balance
135
136 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Figure 4.5. Plot of volume against height, showing the variation between different volcanoes
with different average slopes. LF large and flat, MM medium size and slope, MS medium
size and steep slopes, SS small and steep slopes, SM small and medium slopes, MF medium
size and flat, LF large and very flat (data from [2, 3] and this study). Diagonal lines
corresponds to the slopes of regular theoretical cones fitted to the data.
between eruption flux and erosion rate. Their next evolutionary step may be to become
medium-size, medium-slope volcanoes or large flat volcanoes. Interestingly, no active
Guatemalan volcanoes are in the large field area although some of the older volcanoes
fall into the medium field. Instead of remaining high, the Guatemalan volcanoes may
lose height with no great volume addition. They appear simply to shut off activity and
become denuded. The Guatemalan landscape is full of severely eroded inactive centers
(Figs. 4.6 and 4.7). In contrast, most of the volcanic massifs in Costa Rica are active,
indicating that once a volcano has reached its maximum height here, it continues to be
active and expands laterally.
4.3.2 Volcanoes of Guatemala

4.3.2.1 Calderas
There are two obvious calderas in the morphology of Guatemala along with other
possible volcanotectonic depressions [19]. The northern part of the Guatemalan
volcanic range is dominated by ignimbrite plateaus that are incised by a complex
drainage network and also cut by faults. There is an evident relationship in this area
between the calderas and the regional tectonics [14]. For example, Amatitln caldera is
located just south of Guatemala city and is formed around the southern border of the
Guatemala graben (Fig. 4.6). Planar ignimbrite plateaus are located to the east and
north, but the caldera itself is filled in with products from other volcanoes such as
Pacaya. The Atitln caldera, which has a clear topographic expression, is a large
depression partially filled with products from the synonymous volcano. The north side
of Atitln caldera is notable for a several kilometer wide crescentic scarp that has
formed a large terrace extending down into the caldera. Such a terrace is likely to have
formed during collapse when the ratio of roof thickness to intrusion width is about one
[20]. So it can be assumed that the Atitln intrusion roof was at least 10 km deep.
Figure 4.6. Western Guatemala calderas and stratocones: Amatitln caldera is associated with the
Guatemala city graben (GCG). Possible volcano-tectonic depressions near Quetzaltenango
(Q1 and Q2) are shown. Two possible debris avalanche lobes are distinguished below Fuego
(Fue) Acatanalgo (Acat) and Agua volcanoes. The legend presents the symbols common to
all following figures.
Additionally, the major strike-slip faults of the southern Montagua fault zone cut
southwestwards near Atitln. Although there is probably a close association between
the caldera and the tectonic activity, no obvious extensional features, such as those at
Ilopango volcano in El Salvador or Amatitln volcano in Guatemala, are observed.
Another topographically depressed area, the Quezaltenango plain, is located
approximately 40 km to the west of Atitln volcano and is surrounded by fault scarps.
Yet another depression is located ~20 km further west. Both of these areas may be
volcano-tectonic depressions, but there are no recorded ignimbrite eruptions associated
with them. North of this area is a highly dissected ignimbrite shield.
4.3.2.2 Major stratocones
It is an injustice to group all of the Guatemalan stratocones together as one landform
type. On a fine scale they are probably as unique and varied as any other volcanic
complex described in this chapter, yet in general they are similar. For example, Agua
volcano is a classic Guatemalan stratovolcano (Fig. 4.6). It has a symmetrical cone
shape with little associated erosional topography. The conical shape suggests a system
with a well-developed single conduit and rapid growth, relative to processes of
degradation. The corresponding pyroclastic and volcanoclastic apron is constrained by
the coastal ranges. On the coastal plain there is an area of hummocky topography that
may belong to a debris avalanche deposit [21]. This may have come from Agua
volcano or the nearby volcanoes of Acatenango and Fuego, although there is no clear
scarring evidence on any volcano.
Signs of gravitational instability in other volcanic landforms are present in the area.
There are inactive cones to the south and west of the Quezaltenango plain that have
crescentic scars produced either directly by sector collapse or by flank spreading. Other
older edifices have deep central valleys that are possible erosional calderas located in
volcanic collapse structures. Santa Mara volcano is notable for the scar crater created
by the 1902 eruption. It is surprising that the whole volcanic edifice did not collapse
into this crater as a debris avalanche. Today the Santiaguito dome occupies this scar.
The coastal plain and volcano-sedimentary apron produced by the Guatemalan
137
138 GEOMORPHOLOGY
volcanoes is extensive and shows little structural disturbance. The plain consists of
volcanic material deposited from all sides of the volcanic front. This depositional
pattern is due to control on sediment transport by the regional slope. There are several
valleys that run across the slope that may host faults, and there are several areas where
increased erosion may indicate basal uplift. Below the volcanoes of Agua, Atitln and
Tajumulco, there are major erosional channels, probably related to the increased flux of
material from these volcanoes.
The final two volcanoes, Tajumulco and Tacan are located farthest west. Both
stand in highly dissected topography, where the surrounding relief is as high as the
local relief of the cones, so they do not stand out as distinct landforms.
4.3.2.3 Ipala graben volcanoes
A series of basins occupied by small volcanoes (Fig. 4.7) occur north of the volcanic
front in eastern Guatemala. These basins are north-trending grabens formed between
the coastal faults and the Montagua fault zone. They formed in an area of basaltrhyolite volcanism behind the volcanic front [1]. The topography in this region is
subdued, as the valleys have been filled in by local volcanic products. The major
features are the Retana caldera and the Suchitn and Ipala volcanoes. More than 95
cinder cones are associated with lava flows and small shield volcanoes. Rhyolitic
domes occur approximately in the center of this volcanically active region [1].
Figure 4.7. Ipala graben volcanoes, in Guatemala near the borders with El Salvador and
Honduras (Hon). These volcanoes are spread widely over a large set of basins between the
volcanic front (VF) and faults related to the Motagua fault zone (MFZ). Ixtepeque (Ix) is a
rhyolite dome complex.
4.3.3 Volcanoes of El Salvador and southeast Guatemala

4.3.3.1 Coatepeque and western Central valley
In general, the style of simple stratocone shapes is continuous through the whole of the
Guatemalan range, and continues into El Salvador. This chain of mostly Guatemalan
volcanoes is remarkable for the consistency of the volcanic landforms, which are
Figure 4.8. Coatepeque caldera, the western Central valley of El Salvador and east Guatemala.
The volcanoes of Coatepeque, Santa Ana and Izalco do not show a tectonic influence in
contrast to Ilopango volcano. To the west however, faulting becomes a major influence on
the landscape of volcanoes. The inactive volcanic cones in Guatemala are strongly faulted
and there is a large fault scar to the north of the Moyuta volcano.
mainly restricted to cones, a few domes, calderas and volcano-tectonic depressions

(Figs. 4.6 and 4.8).
The Tecuamburro and Moyuta massifs in southeast Guatemala are composed of
numerous volcanic centers and are cut by numerous faults. They have simple radial
drainages and lack major calderas or avalanche scars. Their topography shows no
evidence of gravitational deformation in the form of flank spreading or volcano
spreading, except for a small zone of increased erosion at their base. This may be a sign
of localized uplift due to a rising thrust anticline (Fig. 4.8). The faults cutting these
volcanoes are mostly parallel to the volcanic front and develop southwards into the
Central valley structure, a graben-like feature that runs through eastern Guatemala and
El Salvador.
The western part of the Santa Ana group occurs as a south-facing arc of coalescing
edifices that drain towards the Pacific Ocean. To the west of this group, clear southfacing fault scarps cut the Central valley (Fig. 4.8). A major fault scarp is developed on
the north side of the valley. These faults are continuous with the depression that trends
into Guatemala where they terminate at the Tecuamburro-Moyuta range. The faults
continue as a broad belt until they intersect the Guatemala city graben and the
Amatitln caldera.
San Salvador or El Boquern volcano is a recent landform with a well-formed
central crater. Coatepeque caldera occurs next along the front, continuing with the
Santa Ana group, including the recently active Izalco volcano (Fig. 4.8). Coatepeque
volcano differs from Ilopango caldera in that it shows no relationship to the regional
tectonics, except a rough elongation along a northeasterly direction. Coatepeque
caldera is a deep hole surrounded by a raised pyroclastic apron. Faults cut an older
edifice on its northeast flank, but otherwise this volcano and the entire group of
volcanoes is remarkable for the lack of structural features. Concentric scars on the
Santa Ana volcano indicate that it has slumped, or is slumping, into the caldera. The
small cones around the volcanoes of Santa Ana and Izalco are arranged in an arc
concentrically around the caldera. This arrangement may be the result of the underlying
structural controls, which may also influence the intrusion that feeds these centers. To
the south below Izalco volcano, there is a clear lava apron and a well developed
associated coastal debris fan. Both features are related to recent activity.
139
140 GEOMORPHOLOGY
4.3.3.2 Ilopango and Central valley of El Salvador

Ilopango is a square-shaped caldera with many small curved bays, next to the city of
San Salvador (Fig. 4.9). This caldera was source of a major ignimbrite eruption in
~600 AD [6, 11, 19] and the location of a dacite lava dome that formed in the 19th
century. The topography around the caldera is that of a subdued plateau with a dense
network of quebradas (deep gullies). Ilopango caldera is spatially associated with
several tectonic features. An eastwest fault that cuts the San Miguel range is proximal
to the central part of the caldera. The southern border of the caldera is aligned with a
north-facing scarp that forms the southern edge of the Central valley. East-orientated
faults occur on the northwest side of the Ilopango shield just to the south of the
Guazapa volcano, and in line with the north wall of the caldera. Overall the caldera
appears to be part of a pull-apart structure, a volcano-tectonic depression, with a leftlateral, eastwest sense of motion with an additional northerly extensional component.
Figure 4.9. Volcanoes of El Salvador, Ilopango and the Central valley. Note the large throw on
the fault near San Vicente volcano that may be a volcano-tectonic depression. On the coastal
range there is a marked break in the basal of the slope and some possible landslides.
The San Vicente volcano, just to the east of Ilopango volcano, is also affected by
faulting. An obvious curved, north-trending scarp cuts the edifice. A fresh land surface
also extends northwards to another major fault scarp. This scarp has a scalloped margin
suggesting either partial caldera collapse or major landsliding. A very eroded edifice
near the southern part of San Vicente volcano is also cut by faults. This area appears to
be a volcano-tectonic depression much like the Ilopango area, but the structural history
is much less clear. A scarp also occurs at the base of the coastal slope and there are
other scars that may be landslides. The proximal scarp is clearly a former sea cliff in
the west, but the mode of formation becomes less clear to the east. The eastern area
may be the expression of a degraded cliff and hence evidence of increased local uplift
to the east, and/or may be the trace of a thrust fault at the base of the coastal slope
associated with large-scale gravity sliding of the coastal slope [22].
4.3.3.3 San Miguel group
The San Miguel group is a set of five main volcanic edifices located on the coastal
plain of El Salvador (Fig. 4.10a). San Miguel volcano is the active centre and is a
classic stratocone shape. Its cone has a slope of 30 and descends down to a lava apron
where several large lobes are visible. Proximal to San Miguel volcano is an eroded
edifice hosting a caldera (Apastepe). The western part of the massif is composed of two
pairs of edifices aligned in a southsouthwest direction. The southernmost of these
volcanic centers, Usulutn, appears to have the most recently developed land surface.
Overall, the San Miguel group has a wide volcanoclastic apron with a correspondingly
well developed drainage. The westernmost volcano, Tecapa, has a large north-facing
scar, which descends to the base. The base consists of some hills, and further north, a
wide fan of material. This topography has the signature of a large debris avalanche
(hummocks and lobes).
The northern sediment fans associated with the San Miguel group are cut by an
east-trending fault, the Median fault [1]. This is a major tectonic feature that originates
northwest of the San Miguel complex and cuts across the group up to the Ilopango
caldera. This fault is clearly younger than the inferred debris avalanche. To the north of
the San Miguel group, this fault cuts a material fan related to the small caldera.
Figure 4.10. (a) Volcanoes of El Salvador, San Miguel group: Note the well-formed fresh
morphology of San Miguel with lava flows. A major east-orientated fault cuts all deposits on
the northern debris apron. A large scar on Tecapa volcano is associated with a possible debris
avalanche deposit, or a volcanic fan; (b) Cosigina volcano (Nicaragua) and the Gulf of
Fonseca. Conchagua volcano lies on the northeast side.
4.3.4 Volcanoes of the Gulf of Fonseca

The Gulf of Fonseca is situated between Nicaragua and El Salvador and is the location
of the Honduran opening to the Pacific (Fig. 4.10b). The area is low-lying except for a
number of volcanic edifices. Several small, faulted edifices occur in the Gulf of
Fonseca itself. The origin of the faulting is unclear but, because they stand on thick
sedimentary sequences, they probably are related to gravitational deformation. On the
El Salvador side of the gulf is a large volcanic ridge (Conchagua volcano). Behind this
volcano sits a range of eroded edifices with a very distinctive north-orientated structure
and several rhomb-shaped depressions that grade into a plain. One cone to the north of
141
142 GEOMORPHOLOGY
the plane has a smooth topography, with few signs of erosion. On the Nicaraguan side
is Cosigina volcano. This volcano had the most violent eruption in Central America
during the 19th century, with explosions heard as far away as Jamaica. The volcano is a
broad shield topped by a 2 km wide caldera (formed in 1835). A broad pyroclastic
apron extends from the caldera out to the coast on the west. A remnant of an older
edifice occurs on the east, and in general the slopes on this side of the volcano are
steeper. There are several arcuate faults that suggest that the volcano is slumping or
deforming by flank spreading towards the northeast (Fig 4.10b).
4.3.5 Volcanoes of Nicaragua

4.3.5.1 Marabios range
The Marabios range of northwest Nicaragua hosts six main stratovolcanoes (Fig. 4.11).
The base of the range is composed of an ignimbrite shield complex, which is best
observed in the southeast area of the range where the Malpaisillo and Monte Galn
calderas form clear topographic landforms. The volcanoes are probably a continuation
of the Las Sierras complex that is separated by an area near Managua lake where no
landforms are exposed.
Figure 4.11. Marabios range volcanes. The ignimbrite shields are shown in grey. This is centered
on the Malpaisillo caldera. Note the stratocones of Momotombo (Mom) and San Cristbal
(SC) and the lava shields of Telica and El Hoyo.
Two types of volcanoes characterize the Marabios range. There are two stratocone
complexes: Momotombo and San Cristbal/Casita and three lava-shield complexes: El
Hoyo, Rota and Telica. The stratocones have smooth recent surfaces (Momotombo and
San Cristbal), thin lava lobes, and are associated with small calderas (Monte Galn
and La Pelona). The shields are broad complexes of coalescing centers dominated by
copious lava effusions. Satellite vents are numerous. Cerro Negro is the active vent for
El Hoyo volcano at present (Fig. 4.2). The steepest sides are the west sides, where due
to the prevailing winds, scoria has accumulated in preference to lava flows.
Irregular landforms related to regional tectonic and gravitational spreading occur
throughout the area. All the volcanoes are cut by north-orientated grabens that die out
on the flanks. The grabens have been interpreted as local tensional features related to a
right-lateral strike-slip regime that probably affects all of northwest Nicaragua [13, 23].
In addition, the southwest side of Momotombo volcano is a zone of rough and blocky
topography that, like southwest Mombacho volcano, is probably related to southwest
directed sliding on lake sediments (see Fig. 4.12 and section 4.3.5.3). Casita volcano
has a highly deformed topography [8]. The cone was probably well formed and steep
approximately 8000 years ago, like San Cristbal volcano is today. However, rapid
alteration of the core has caused massive flank spreading. The southern part of the
volcano is now slumping to the south and may create a debris avalanche.
4.3.5.2 Las Sierras volcanoes
The Las Sierras area in the central part of Nicaragua is defined by a unique set of
volcanic landforms (Fig. 4.12). The largest landform includes a central caldera
complex with a very broad ignimbrite shield. The shield is not symmetric but is rather
elongate along a northeastsouthwest axis. It is higher to the west than the east. In the
east the slopes are low and the shield is partially obscured in the basin of Lake
Nicaragua. To the extreme north the shield surface is inverted and elevates towards the
central mountains. To the south and west, ridges of Tertiary basement rocks interrupt
the topography of the shield. At the coast, however, there are several fans of material
related to the shield. To the northwest, the shield becomes more eroded and less
pronounced, although there is a second raised area directly east of Managua lake.
Figure 4.12. Las Sierras-Masaya volcanoes. Note the broad ignimbrite shield-form centered on
Masaya, and the raised area west of Chiltepe. The Las Sierras shield is interrupted to the SW
by a set of ridges (Tertiary sediments), but forms a coastal deposit (CD). To the NE the Las
Sierras shield is in contact with Tertiary volcanoes (Tv). To the SE is Mombacho volcano
with four debris avalanches and a west flank that is slumping into Lake Nicaragua.
There are three main volcanic centers with associated calderas on the shield: Apoyo,
Masaya, and Apoyeque. The caldera associated with Apoyo volcano is a typical round
shaped collapse caldera with an associated ignimbrite. The caldera associated with
Masaya volcano is an unusual elongated caldera containing a lava shield and an active
vent, Santiago, in a pit crater. It is surrounded by several crescentic faults related to the
major shield-forming ignimbrites. The caldera associated with Apoyeque volcano is a
small structure hosted by the Chiltepe dome complex and associated with a long
volcanic lineament (the Nejapa-Miraflores lineament).
There are clear structural features cutting the constructional end erosional
topography of the Las Sierras area. A most spectacular fault is the Mateare fault that
forms a 300500 m high escarpment that cuts the northwest side of the shield. The
Managua graben extends from the Masaya caldera through to the north of the shield.
143
144 GEOMORPHOLOGY
The faults of the graben can also be observed cutting the southern end of the caldera.
The close association of the faults and the volcanoes suggest that they may be related.
However, the nature and mechanisms of the interaction is unclear.
4.3.5.3 Mombacho
Mombacho volcano lies on the edge of Nicaragua lake and straddles the limit between
the lake sediment basin and the Las Sierras ignimbrite shield (Fig. 4.12). The
topography on the east side reflects the effects of gravity spreading, while the
topography on the west side reflects a more stable area. The southeast side is marked
by a zone of rough terrain and reflects a slow gravity slide, where the flank of the
volcano is sliding into the lake and breaking up into big blocks. Hummocky
topography to the south of the slump is an associated debris avalanche deposit. The
slide area becomes less prominent to the north and is replaced by a long scar in the
cone. A spectacular debris avalanche deposit, Las Isletas, is associated with the long
scar. This deposit is the result of the failure of Las Sierras ignimbrite below the edifice,
caused by gravitational spreading [16]. To the west of the avalanche, the thrust scarp is
still visible and is increasingly cut by north-orientated faults. These faults can be traced
up the edifice to maar craters and cones. The west side of the cone shows a distinct lack
of slumping compared to the east, although it also is cut by faults. In addition, lava
flow fronts are clearly visible here. The south of the volcano is dominated by a deep
horseshoe-shaped scar that has produced a large debris avalanche, which can be
marked as rough hummocky terrain to a distance of up to 12 km. A scarp running along
the base of the volcano that cuts the two southern debris avalanches may be a thrust
fault related to southerly spreading. The avalanche debris in the scar (El Crter) is
strongly altered, commonly to clay. Fumaroles are still present. The origin of this
southern collapse is probably related to internal weakening due to hydrothermal
activity [16]). The southwest and north sides of the cone have concave-convex slopes
and it is inferred that some of the small normal faults located there may be related to
on-going gravity slumping. There is a small debris avalanche, which is composed
mainly of scoria, on the southwest flank. This has occurred in the most recently formed
part of the edifice and may be related to northerly-directed flank spreading.
4.3.5.4 Zapatera
This small shield-like volcanic island has no historic activity and is densely forested. It
is cut by several deep fault scarps and hosts a small angular caldera with a central dome
(Fig. 4.13a). There is a very strong northeast lineament on the west side of the volcano
that is a distinctive fault. This volcano has been affected by both local tectonics and by
gravity spreading. Initially, the island was most probably a low-angle shield-form
composed dominantly of mafic lavas. Subsequently, gravitational spreading has
reduced the slope angles even further. The spreading is asymmetric and clearly
controlled by the northeasterly strike-slip faulting and associated north-orientated
tensional faults.
4.3.5.5 Ometepe
Two volcanoes form the Ometepe island, in Lake Nicaragua (Fig. 4.13b). Concepcin
volcano is a stratocone with a diameter of fourteen kilometers and a relief of sixteen
hundred meters above the lake. It is connected via a narrow isthmus to Maderas
Figure 4.13. The volcanoes of Lake Nicaragua: (a) Zapatera: Note the strong north-easterly
trending fault system on the west and the north-trending system over the main cone. There is
a small fault controlled caldera with a central dacite dome (D); (b) Ometepe (Concepcin and
Maderas). Note the annular range of hills around Concepcin and the severe faulting on
Maderas. Displacements due to gravitational spreading over 19941997 are shown on
Concepcin.
volcano, which is located 25 km to the southeast. Tephra deposits dominate the western
sector of the cone of Concepcin volcano. This is due to the prevailing trade winds,
which carry most tephra in this direction. The eastern sector is dominated by lava
flows, which are clearly seen on the DEM. The cone of Concepcin volcano is a
primary construction feature [18]. Faulting is absent on the cone. This is in striking
contrast to the Maderas volcano and all of the surrounding lowland areas, all of which
are highly faulted.
Concepcin volcano (Fig. 4.13b) is surrounded by a wide topographic rise that
forms an annulus twenty kilometers in diameter. The rise is larger on the western and
eastern sides and is composed of lake sediments blanketed by tephra. Deformed beds
and raised beaches are common to the west and east of the rise. There is a trough
between the rise and the cone that is partially in-filled by lahars and lava flows. In
contrast the north and the south sides of the volcano are marked by two stretches, each
3 km wide, that have no rise.
The western topographic rise is composed of a series of north-trending ridges that
reach over one hundred and sixty meters above the lake level. These ridges consistently
have their steepest slopes facing away from the volcano. The most westerly
escarpments intersect the lake on its north shore. Those inland in the north swing to a
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146 GEOMORPHOLOGY
more easterly direction and converge to produce a marked 100 m high single scarp.
This western rise protects the coastal area from descending lahars and lavas. These
lahars and lavas either pond behind the rise or are diverted north and south of the rise.
The topographic ring that surrounds the cone of Concepcin volcano is related to a
rising belt of thrusts and anticlines caused by gravitational spreading [18]. The lack of
observed faults on the cone of Concepcin volcano is related to large-scale resurfacing
during the last one hundred years. In contrast Maderas volcano, which has been
inactive for several thousand years, has a heavily fault-dissected landscape.
4.3.6 Volcanoes of Costa Rica

The volcanoes of Costa Rica can be divided into three morphological types. A group of
four similar shield-like volcanoes occur in northwest Costa Rica: Oros, Rincn de la
Vieja, Miravalles and Tenorio (Fig. 4.14). A second group of similar volumetrically
small, steep stratocones occur in the central portion of the country: Arenal, Chato,
Congo and Cacho Negro (Fig. 4.15). The third group is a southern group of five major
volcanoes: Turrialba, Iraz, Pos, Barva and Platanar. These volcanoes have
characteristic low slope angles and broad tops (Fig. 4.16).
Figure 4.14. The Guanacaste group of volcanoes. From east to west: Tenorio, Miravalles (with
Guayabo caldera), Rincn de la Vieja, Oros-Cacao. Note the various debris avalanche
deposits.
4.3.6.1 Guanacaste group

The volcanoes of northwest Costa Rica are generally similar in appearance to the group
in the southeast. However, those in the northwest are smaller, have slightly steeper
slopes, and form distinct massifs rather than a continuous range (Fig. 4.14). The base of
all the volcanoes is comprised of ignimbrite. The ignimbrite shield at the base of
Miravalles forms a clear dissected fan that extends to the southeast. A sharp, but irregular
scarp truncates this fan. At least two obvious caldera structures can be seen around parts
of the base of Miravalles and Rincn de la Vieja volcanoes (the Guayabo and
Guachipeln-Alcntaro calderas). A few quebradas occur orthogonal to the radial
drainage, indicating a structural control along a northnortheast trend. The north side of
this group of volcanoes has a steep irregular slope. The origin of this slope is not clear but
may be similar to the origin of the scarp in Nicaragua along southwest Lake Nicaragua.
That slope is the product of Late MioceneQuaternary uplift and folding [18].
Figure 4.15. Arenal volcano: (a) Regional DEM showing the position of Arenal and Chato
volcanoes in a deep valley (now partially occupied by Arenal lake), which may be a pullapart structure; (b) 20 m scale DEM (Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad) showing the
fine-scale morphology of Arenal in 1975. Note the older more eroded edifice on the east side,
and Chato volcano. Slight folds due to deep seated slope creep of the lava surface of the cone
have created a stepped topography.
Each of the volcanoes in the northwest is comprised of several coalescing structures.

The southernmost member of this group is the highly dissected Tenorio volcano, which
contains several major scarps that likely formed by some degree of lateral spreading.
Eastnortheast trending scarps also cut Miravalles volcano and part of the Oros group.
Although it is extensively covered by a fresh volcanic surface, similarly oriented scarps
occur on the summit region of Rincn de La Vieja. Overall, there appears to be a fairly
consistent structural trend related to the extension in the northwest group of volcanoes.
This deformation is likely related to local tectonic influences. Grabens are located
along this section of the volcanic front and their orientations may be related to a north
northeast extension direction and possible dextral shear. This deformational direction is
opposite of that in southern Nicaragua [13], but is consistent with a possible pull-apart
structure surrounding Arenal volcano.
Two large volcano-sedimentary debris fans with possible debris avalanche deposits
occur in the area. One is associated with Tenorio volcano and one with the Oros group.
The latter formed due to a large gravity slump on the southwest flank of Cacao cone.
There is another such gravity slump on the southeast side of Cacao. The two slumps on
this cone were probably generated by deep alteration in the volcanic edifice that
weakened the rock and led to subsequent gravity spreading [24].
4.3.6.2 Arenal
Arenal volcano is a twin volcano situated in a depression that may be a pull-apart
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148 GEOMORPHOLOGY
graben (Fig. 4.15). The geometry of the faults defining the probable pull-apart indicate
dextral, eastwest shear, which is in agreement with the graben structures on the
Guanacaste group volcanoes. The cone of Arenal is Holocene in age and a very fresh
morphological feature, with little vegetation or erosional gullies. There is little
deformational or erosional topography except on the northern side. Two unique ridges,
originally interpreted to be possible processing artefacts, can be observed on the DEM
[25]. However, a review of aerial photographs and a field survey indicate that they are
real topographic features. They are probably folds in the lava-dominated surface caused
by down-slope sliding on weaker tephra or altered horizons. A prominent scarp on the
southwest flank may be related to the presence of a reverse fault below the edifice [26],
in conjunction with the transition between lava-dominated upper edifice and the
pyroclastic apron [27].
4.3.6.3 Central cordillera volcanoes
The volcanoes of the Central cordillera can be divided into two groups. The volcanoes
of Turrialba and Iraz occur to the southeast, and Barva, Pos and Platanar occur to the
westnorthwest (Fig. 4.16). All of these volcanoes are ~40 km in diameter and have a
height above their bases of up to 3500 m. These volcanoes are the most voluminous of
any volcanoes in Central America. They have relatively low slope angles (~20) and in
profile resemble broad shields. As viewed from the Central valley they do not look like
volcanoes, but rather an expansive rise. Barva volcano is the largest volcano in Central
America in area and volume, followed by the neighboring volcanoes of Iraz and Pos,
respectively. One of the largest recent (Late Pleistocene) lava flow field (area 42 km2,
volume 1 km3) in Central America is on the flanks of Iraz volcano.
In this field, compound lava flows erupted from two parallel and very close NS
aligned fissure vents on the southeast slope. The western vent produced a field of
basaltic lavas (10.5 km2, 0.17 km3). The eastern vent produced a lava unit (31.5 km2,
0.9 km3) that is of basaltic andesite.
Figure 4.16. Volcanoes of the Central cordillera of Costa Rica. The image shows the volcanoes
(from east to west) Turrialba and Iraz, Barva, Pos, and Platanar. Debris avalanche deposits
on Turrialba and lava flow fronts south of Barva, and north of Turrialba are indicated.
The southern group of volcanoes contains several major structures. On the southern
slopes of Pos volcano, the trace of the Alajuela fault is clearly visible. This is a thrust
fault related to the gravitational spreading of Barva volcano and Pos volcano [10]. An
arcuate set of ridges to the northwest of Platanar volcano and a steepened area near the
north base of Pos volcano may also be anticlines generated by gravitational spreading.
These features are not found at Barva volcano, perhaps due to cover by a large volcanic
fan. Another set of possible ridges is at the base of Iraz volcano near the contact with
Barva volcano (Fig. 4.16). On the south of the cordillera there are several very large
features, possibly slumps, which may be related to basal destabilization of the southern
volcanic range caused by gravitational spreading. Summit grabens are another feature
of spreading. They are obvious structures on the volcanoes of Platanar, Pos and
Turrialba but less so on the volcanoes of Barva and Iraz. There are several horseshoeshaped structures on the range, which may be related to flank spreading imposed over
the slower basal spreading. A large part of Platanar volcano may be sliding towards the
northwest as indicated by a pronounced basal ridge. Superimposed on this ridge is a
possible northwest-directed slump. Similar slumps may occur on the volcanoes of
Barva, Iraz and Turrialba. Several horseshoe-shaped scars high on the north facing
flanks of Barva, Iraz and Turrialba are probably debris avalanche scars.
Several major lineaments cut the southern volcano group that are probably related
to regional tectonic structures. There is a major structure on Iraz volcano orientated
eastnortheast that continues into the non-volcanic Talamanca cordillera (Fig. 4.16).
Northwest-orientated structures also cut the south side of Platanar volcano.
Gravitational spreading in the southern group of volcanoes may be due in part to
their large volumes. These large volume volcanoes are relatively young and grew in
two main periods: 0.60.4 ka and 0.1 ka to present [28, 29]. There may be a
relationship between this rapid growth and the gravitational spreading. As a volcano
spreads it extends over its central part, which may allow for the rise of more magma.
This process would increase the mass of the volcano and hence likelihood of spreading.
A similar feedback mechanism has been used to explain the larger size of calderas and
edifices in various tectonic settings [13].
4.3.7 Volcanoes of Panama

Two major volcanic landforms are visible on the regional DEM of Panama. One is the
Cerro Bar volcanic complex (Fig. 4.17a), the other is El Valle caldera (Fig. 4.17b).
Other than these major features, Panama consists mostly of a rugged erosional
topography. Occasional small Quaternary volcanic centers may be present, but if so are
masked by rapid erosion.
4.3.7.1 Cerro Bar
The Cerro Bar volcanic complex stands to the south of the main cordillera in western
Panama, not far from the Costa Rica border. This complex is composed of a main
edifice that is breached by a depression that opens to the westsouthwest. A smooth
area, which represents recent deposition, is present at the mouth of this depression. The
deposition in this area is due to either direct volcanic activity or secondary erosional
processes. The southeast area leading to the coastal plain is a smooth fan dissected by
only by a few ravines that radiate from the volcano. A major canyon separates this area
from the cordillera to the northeast. The small radiating ravines indicate that the plain is
formed by material from the volcano that has been accumulating against the cordillera.
The canyon is the result of drainage diverted from the cordillera by the influx of
sediment. On the east side of the Bar, the plain becomes rougher either due to the
presence of the underlying coastal range that appears at the Costa Rica border, or
because of preferential erosion related to drainage from the scar on the volcano. To the
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150 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Figure 4.17. Volcanoes in Panama: (a) Cerro Bar: Note the large west-facing amphitheatre.
Below this is an area of smooth topography, probably formed by deposits from erosion along
the northern limit of the scar; (b) El Valle caldera: El Valle is seen here as a broadly circular
landform with intense erosion. The rectangular caldera is surrounded to the south by an
ignimbrite shield. Far to the north there is a concentric belt of ridges.
northwest, there is a dissected plain that may be related to an older volcanic edifice.
This edifice is recognized by the near radial drainage to the northwest of the present
volcano (Fig. 4.17a). There are several obvious regional structures that can be seen on
Figure 4.17a. A major structural lineation runs eastwest and appears to change
direction near the border with Costa Rica. A set of ridges, occurring between the
volcanic plain and the coastal plain that may be anticlinal ridges (Fig. 4.17a).
Eastwards of these ridges, the base of the coastal range is identified by the presence of
a steep scarp and parallel lineations. These features are related to thrust fault
propagation at the base of the range.
Fault scarps on the volcano are possibly related to spreading of the edifice towards
the south with a corresponding graben opening up across the summit. The fault
structures may also be related to flank spreading and a corresponding sector collapse
episode. In this scenario, the east flank deformed towards the east and created a series
of avalanches, like at the volcanoes of Casita, or Oros [24]. The rough southeast plain
may also be partly caused by debris avalanche and lahar deposits.
4.3.7.2 El Valle
El Valle caldera complex is located to the east of Panama city (Fig. 4.17b). It forms a
broad volcanic massif, most of which is highly eroded. The south side of the complex
has the freshest topographic surfaces and is centered on a small rectangular caldera. A
complex set of concentric lineaments occurs around the north side of the complex. The
disposition of these lineations suggests some connection to the volcanic center.

Possible connections include anticlines related to gravitational spreading, an outward
push of the intrusive complex [30], or bending of regional structures due to a modified
stress field [13]. The curved features suggests a major influence of the volcanic system
of the surrounding structure, and possibly the existence of a much larger intrusive
complex than the one indicated by the limits of the small caldera. It is not known
whether this larger complex is now active, either magmatically or tectonically.
4.3.8 Isolated volcanic landforms

4.3.8.1 Domes and lava fields in Guatemala
The Ipala graben cone field, the largest platform cone field in Central America, extends
over approximately three thousand square kilometers of southeast Guatemala and
western El Salvador (Fig. 4.7). A series of rhyolite obsidian domes and flows were
contemporaneously erupted amidst basaltic cinder cones in the field [12]. Ixtepeque
volcano is the source for the largest series of these rhyolitic extrusive complexes.
Cerro Quemado is an exogenous dome complex of Holocene age located in a backarc
volcanic field referred as the Almolonga volcanic field. This field lies on the southern
margin of what may be an older silicic caldera that comprises Quezaltenango valley
(Fig. 4.6) [31]. The Santiaguito dome complex, lies below Santa Mara volcano [32].
4.3.8.2 Honduran volcanoes
Small alkaline volcanoes occur far behind the CAVF in Honduras and Nicaragua [33].
Honduras also hosts the small Zacate Grande volcano on the edge of the Gulf of
Fonseca (Fig. 4.10b).
4.3.8.3 Lava fields in Nicaragua
Most volcanic activity in Nicaragua is concentrated on major centers. Some of the
centers however, such as El Hoyo, actually encompass a number of smaller loci of
activity that extends over a wide area. One interesting lava field is separated from the
main volcanic front near Telica volcano. This lava field lies on the edge of the
Malpaisillo caldera and the San Jacinto geothermal field (Fig. 4.11). It consists of two
domes of dacite, surrounded by a complex of tuff rings and 25 km2 of basaltic lava
flows. The morphology is subdued except for the two small domes each ~50 m high.
4.3.8.4 Volcanic lineaments
Many of the volcanoes in Central America, both large and small, are associated with
transverse lineations that strike NS to NESE. These lineations extend from the
edifices proper up to ten to fifteen kilometers away on either side of the volcano.
Cinder cones, maars and tuff rings, along with small lava flows and domes are common
features associated with these lineations. The most prominent volcanic lineaments of
the CAVF are the Nejapa-Miraflores lineament, which extends from outward from the
Apoyeque caldera (Fig. 4.12), and the Asososca and Cerro Negro lineaments, which
extend outward from El Hoyo volcano. These lineaments may represent feeding
conduits to the main volcanoes that rose up along inherent structural weaknesses. The
magmas that erupted from these conduits are the most mafic and primitive magmas
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152 GEOMORPHOLOGY
erupted in all of Central America. Many landforms of phreatomagmatic origin formed

due to the ease of interaction between the magma in these conduits and high level
aquifers. Conversely, no sustained phreatomagmatic interchange occurred with the
larger edifices due to a high permeability that precluded the water from accumulating
in the aquifers.
4.3.8.5 Maars and tuff rings in Nicaragua
The Nicaraguan depression contains numerous phreatomagmatic landforms. The
volcanoes of Maderas and Concepcin have lineaments that end with tuff rings (Fig.
4.13b), while Zapatera volcano is surrounded by tuff rings (Fig. 4.13a). Arguably the
most familiar landforms in Nicaragua are the Nejapa and Asososca maars in Managua,
and the Tiscapa tuff ring in the Managua city centre.
4.3.8.6 Cinder cones and domes in Costa Rica and eastern Nicaragua
Isolated cinder cones, cinder cones with a northsouth alignment, tuff rings and domes
occur near the volcanic front in Costa Rica [34]. The cones have tholeiitic or high-Al
basalts and basaltic andesites including also basaltic andesite calc-alkaline lavas. These
occur in front of the CAVF (e.g., Chopo, Corobic), within (e.g., 196365 tuff ring in
Iraz) and behind (e.g., the Hule intra-maar cone) the CAVF (Fig. 4.16). Alkaline
cinder cones and small shield volcanoes occur behind the volcanic front as well [34].
The Caas Dulces dacitic to rhyolitic domes, which erupted around 1.5 Ma into or
at the rim of the Alcntaro-Guachipeln caldera, are found at the base of the Rincn de
la Vieja volcano [28], and in El Valle volcano in Panama [35]. Also, an andesitic dome
field (the Bijagua domes) is present on the northwest base of Tenorio volcano [36].
4.4
CONCLUSIONS
A general overview of the volcanoes and volcanic landforms of CAVF, based mostly
on DEM images, is presented in this chapter. The diversity of constructional volcano
types, as seen through their landforms, is a striking feature. For example, the huge
shield-like stratovolcanoes of central Costa Rica contrast with the high, elegant
stratocones of Guatemala. The Costa Rican volcanoes stand out as being larger in
volume, larger in area and having lower slope angles compared to most other CAVF
volcanoes. The reasons for these differences include the magma supply rate, the degree
of evolution that magmas undergo before eruption, and the interrelationship between
magmatism, tectonics and erosion. For example, Guatemalan stratocones are associated
with significant dacite to rhyolite dome complexes and calderas. It is possible that the
magmas arriving in the Guatemalan crust are stored long enough to fractionate to silicic
magma. In addition, these stratocones block the rise of mafic magma, which eventually
leads to large caldera collapses. In Costa Rica, by contrast, large volumes of mafic
magma have reached the surface and produced large edifices that spread laterally, thus
allowing the rise of even more mafic magma. This process induces a state of feedback
whereby mass added from below increases the rate of magma rise. The causes for the
greater apparent magma flux in central Costa Rica are not clear. This flux may be
related to local subduction processes, mantle melting, regional Caribbean plate tectonic
processes, or various spreading phenomena. Nicaragua has the most mafic, nearprimitive compositions that have erupted in small cinder cone alignments such as
Nejapa-Miraflores, near Managua. These alignments are located in fault zones that
probably allow rapid rise of the basic magma. CAVF erosional landforms are very
diverse, because there are many different rock types and constructional forms (such as
dome lavas or scoria cones) that respond differently to the various climatic regions. An
understanding of the origin and erosional controls of these landforms is critical for
adequate assessment of hazards such as lahars. For example, extreme erosion in parts
of Panama has removed volcanic landforms that may in fact be much younger than
similar well-preserved landforms in El Salvador or Nicaragua. This implies that
volcanic landforms in the dryer countries to the north and west are significantly less
eroded for their age than volcanic landforms in the more humid areas. Finally,
deformational features related to volcanic landforms are clearly displayed in the
topography throughout the CAVF. Gravitational spreading in some form is common
throughout the arc. It is best developed on the large volume volcanoes in Costa Rica
and at the volcanoes built on soft sediment in Nicaragua. The landform features
associated with spreading are also seen in Panama and Guatemala and will warrant
more detailed study in the future. The structural morphology related to regional
tectonic movements is also well displayed. This is particularly apparent in the close
association of calderas such as Masaya and Ilopango with pull-apart structures and the
preferred orientation of graben structures along the arc. These structures show evidence
of both left- and right-lateral strike-slip motion and suggest that block rotation and
local tectonic movements in Central America are very complex. In this chapter, the
nature and origin of volcanic morphology in Central America was described in a
regional context. The description of individual volcanoes has not yet been done in
detail for but a few. Such detail is beyond the scope of this short chapter, and should be
the subject of further research. As DEM data become more available and as their
resolution increases, a much finer-scale analysis will be possible for the region, hence
allowing an even better understanding of the volcanoes of Central America.
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H., Jackson, T.E. & Restrepo, J.F.: Andesite and dacite genesis via contrasting processes: the
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Chapter 5
Karst landscapes
MICHAEL J. DAY
An irregular accumulation [in the Alta
Verapaz] with steep slopes all around
alternates with funnel-shaped or cylindrical
hollows, true dolines of significant depth,
dry elongated basins, oval poljes, valley-like
depressions. Water drains away mainly
underground in the cavities and joins in the
rock. F. Termex: Zur Geographie der
Republik Guatemala, 1936.
5.1
INTRODUCTION
Central America encompasses a significant international carbonate karst landscape,

amounting to approximately 40,000 km2, or about eight percent of the total land area
[1, 2]. Nearly 40% of Central Americas karst is in the Petn department of
northeastern Guatemala and extending into Belize, with other significant areas in
Honduras, elsewhere in Guatemala, and in Nicaragua. Considerable geologic,
topographic and environmental heterogeneity characterizes the region, but Central
America contains a number of dramatic karst landscapes, including cockpits, towers,
dry valleys, sinkholes, and extensive cave systems, plus an impressive marine karst
landscape, including the Worlds second longest barrier reef off the Caribbean coast of
Belize.
Information about the extent of carbonate karstlands (areas dominated by karst)
within the region is available from numerous sources, including geologic and
topographic maps, atlases, and previous published research. For a summary of this
information, see the list of references provided by Middleton and Waltham [3], Kueny
[4] and Kueny and Day [1]. To ensure consistency, it is assumed here that all expanses
of carbonate rocks indicated in geological sources do in fact represent karst landscapes.
For this reason, all karst area data should be regarded as approximate, pending
additional studies.
5.2
KARST ENVIRONMENTS
The Central America karstlands are strongly heterogeneous with respect to geologic
and geomorphic factors. Moreover, climate, soils and biota are also variable, leading to
a wide range of specific karst environments. Troester et al. [5] attribute this to
variations in the following: (1) sedimentary depositional environments, (2) bedding and
lithification, (3) tectonic history, (4) groundwater flowpaths, (5) altitude above base
level, and (6) climate, vegetation and soil cover.
156 GEOMORPHOLOGY
5.2.1 Geomorphology
The carbonate rocks of Central America (Fig. 5.1) represent discontinuous carbonate
deposition from the Permian (286251 Ma) to the Pleistocene (< 1.81 Ma). The karst
rocks themselves range from older pure, dense, hard, fractured, crystalline limestones,
some much altered from their original state, to young impure, powdery, soft, porous,
amorphous carbonates [58]. In general, the most impressive karst is developed in the
older fractured and crystalline limestones of the Maya and Chortis structural blocks.
Reflecting the broader geologic history of the region, some carbonates are covered by
volcanic ash, some are brecciated, and others have been extensively folded and faulted.
Karst landscape elevations range from sea-level up to 3000 m; some are mountainous,
others planar; some are hydrologically isolated, while others receive surface drainage
from higher, adjacent non-karst terrains. The karst landscapes have been and still are
influenced by regional tectonic, eustatic, and climatic changes [914].
5.2.2 Climate
Present day climate varies too, with mean annual precipitation in the karstlands ranging
from less than 1000 mm to over 3000 mm. Regionally, shifting atmospheric pressure
belts, prevailing winds and orographic effects all influence precipitation totals and
distribution [15]. Rainfall generally increases with elevation, and leeward karst
locations experience higher temperatures and lower precipitation than karst areas to the
windward. As a result of shifting atmospheric pressure belts, there are distinct winter
dry periods of differing intensity and duration, with prevailing winds and elevated
landmasses also accounting for spatially uneven rainfall distribution [15]. Late summer
hurricanes and tropical depressions can cause severe flooding, with associated hazards,
in normally dry karst areas. Temperatures are influenced mainly by altitude and ocean
currents, generally decreasing with increasing altitude and with increasing distance
from the coast [15].
5.2.3 Soils
The predominant soil types in the Central American karst are calcimorphic mollisols
and vertisols, although complex associations of other orders also occur [10, 1618]. In
particular, some karst areas have pockets of typical terra rossa soils residual
lateritic ultisols that are highly plastic and compressible and rich in bauxite, hematite
and limonite hydroxides. Karstland soils are extremely variable, but generally tend to
be clay-rich, heavily leached, patchy and thin, except in depression and valley bases,
where they are deeper. Steep slopes may have no soil cover except in joints and
solutional pockets. Differences in climate, vegetation, age, and relief account for major
differences in karst soil types throughout Central America, and many soils have been
altered by human agricultural practices.
5.2.4 Ecology
The natural karstland vegetation varies from xerophytic scrub to wet tropical broadleaf
forest, including both deciduous and evergreen trees, although much of the original
forest has been cleared, with only fragments remaining in remote karst areas. For
Figure 5.1. Location of major karstlands and caves in Central America.
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158 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Table 5.1. Central American karst areas and styles.

Country
Karst area
(km2)
Towers
Cockpits
Dolines
Fluviokarst
15000
5000
10000
300
5000
2000
2000
+
+
?
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Guatemala
Belize
Honduras
El Salvador
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
?
?
?
+
?
Marine
+
+
+
+
general overviews of karst landscape ecology, see Gillieson [19, 20] and Vermeulen
and Whitten [21], and for a Central American perspective see Day [22]. Within the
karst, topography and drainage play an important role in influencing vegetation
patterns, with distinct differences between hill summit and depression associations
[17]. Central America also supports one of the Worlds most diverse wildlife
assemblages [23], and specifics of the regional karstland ecology warrant additional
studies. Biological significance is a major factor in designation of protected areas
within the Central American karst, as elsewhere [24].
5.2.5 Human impacts

Human impact on Central American karst landscapes has been long-term and severe, in
particular through forest clearance, settlement, species introduction, agriculture,
degradation of water resources, and industrial activities, including mining and
quarrying [25, 26]. Important archaeological sites, both surface and subterranean, are
significant facets of karstlands throughout Central America [25, 27] (Fig. 5.2a).
Contemporary threats to the karst include agricultural expansion, logging, quarrying,
and unsustainable tourism [24, 28]. The World Conservation Monitoring Center adds
the exploitation of floral and faunal resources, the establishment of settlements within
protected areas, and unclear or ineffective legislation [29].
5.3
KARST AREAS AND STYLES
Differential dissolution of the carbonate rocks has produced a wide range of karst
landscapes including dry valleys, sinkholes and cockpits, residual towers, and extensive
cave systems (Table 5.1). Considerable topographic variation characterizes the karst of
Central America as a whole, although three distinct karst terrain styles doline,
polygonal (cockpit/cone) and tower are recognized [30, 31]. Dry or underdrained
valleys (fluviokarst) and subdued depressions or dolines (Figs. 5.2b and 5.2c) occur
throughout the region but have received little scientific attention. Cockpit, cone and tower
karst occurs in Belize, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua (Figs. 5.2df and 5.3a).
Variations of these types occur throughout Central America and are not restricted to the
areas described above. Caves, formed by the underground dissolution of carbonate rock,
are also abundant [3] (Figs. 5.3bd).
Figure 5.2. (a) Xunantunich, Belize; (b) Fluviokarst (dry valley), Corredor river, Costa Rica;
(c) Doline karst, Corredor river, Costa Rica; (d) Polygonal (cone) karst, Petn, Guatemala;
(e) Polygonal (cockpit) karst, Petn, Guatemala; (f) Karst tower, Gracy Rock, Belize
(e: courtesy of George Veni).
5.3.1 Guatemala and Belize

The most extensive karst area, including cockpit and tower karst developed in
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160 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Cretaceous (Cobn and Campur) and Paleogene carbonates, is developed on the Maya
block, where it extends from northern El Quiche and Alta Verapaz through the Petn of
northeastern Guatemala into Belize (Fig. 5.1), covering nearly 15,000 km2. The karst
here has developed on an elevated (100 200 m) southern extension of the Yucatn
platform, particularly in the west central Petn, where there is extensive karst
development in the Sierra del Lacandn. The Guatemalan highlands north of the
Polochic fault zone are also dominated by Permian (Chochal) and Cretaceous (Ixcoy,
Cobn and Campur) carbonates, particularly in the Cuchumatanes cordillera, a
prominent carbonate upland at an elevation exceeding 3000 m in the Huehuetenango
department, and in the Montaas del Mico, in the eastern department of Izabal (Fig.
5.1) [13]. Many of the Cretaceous carbonates are extensively brecciated, with five
distinct types being recognized [32]. Some of the breccias are depositional, some
tectonic, others solutional-collapse, but their influence on subsequent karst morphology
has not yet received adequate attention. Some of the multi-event breccias may have
resulted from the K/T Chicxulub bolide impact, but others are related to plate collision
and/or volcanic events [33]. Karst is also developed on the Miocene Ro Dulce
limestone, along the Caribbean coast in eastern Guatemala.
In Belize, the primary karstlands are distributed to the north, west and south of the
Maya mountains. Miller [7, 34] subdivided this karst into five units: The Vaca plateau,
west of the mountains and extending into Guatemala; the Little Quartz ridge and the
K/T (Cretaceous/Tertiary) fault ridges, in southern Belize; and the Boundary fault and
Sibun-Manatee areas to the north of the Maya mountains. Karst also occurs in the
northern half of Belize, but is far less pronounced.
5.3.2 Honduras
Honduras has three major karst areas covering approximately 10,000 km2: the Montaa
Santa Brbara in the northwest, the Agalta cordillera in central Honduras, and the
Sierra de Coln and Entre Ros cordillera in the southeast bordering Nicaragua [35]
(Fig. 5.1). The karstlands in both Montaa Santa Brbara and Agalta cordillera have
received only moderate scientific attention and that on the Sierra de Coln has received
even less due to its remoteness and dense vegetation [3]. The dominant carbonates here
on the Chortis block are the Cretaceous Yojoa group limestones [13].
5.3.3 El Salvador and Nicaragua

The Yojoa group limestones also give rise to significant carbonate karst areas in
northwestern El Salvador and in northern Nicaragua, although these have been little
studied. In El Salvador karst covers less than 300 km2, mostly located along the border
with Honduras and Guatemala south of Anguiatu [36] (Fig. 5.1). The Nicaraguan karst
is poorly known, but covers some 5000 km2, notably in the southwest and east of the
country [37] (Fig. 5.1).
5.3.4 Costa Rica and Panama

In southern Central America there are Cretaceous and later carbonates deposited on the
Chorotega block, particularly on the Pacific side, where they extend from the Nicoya
Figure 5.3. (a) Incised fluviokarst valley, Vaca plateau, Belize; (b) Brecciated limestone in cave
wall, Vaca plateau, Belize; (c) Ro Fro cave, Belize; (d) Bushman cave, Vaca plateau, Belize;
(e) Caves Branch polje, Belize (a, b, d: courtesy of Philip Reeder).
peninsula of Costa Rica to the Chiriqu province of western Panama (Fig. 5.1). On the
Caribbean side, the only documented Cretaceous carbonate area is where the
Changuinola formation outcrops in western Panama, near the boundary with Costa
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162 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Rica [38]. In the Central valley of Costa Rica, Miocene limestones of the San Miguel
formation crop out intermittently.
There are at least sixteen distinct, but mostly small karst areas throughout Costa
Rica, developed primarily in Cenozoic carbonates in the southern and western parts of
the country [5, 8, 39] (Fig. 5.1). The Barra Honda and Corredor river karsts are the best
known and best developed, but even here karst development is limited to dolines, dry
valleys and rounded residual hills, without fully developed polygonal karst cockpits or
towers.
Karst occurs in Panama in the Bocas del Toro archipelego along the northwest
border with Costa Rica, in the Maj mountains of central Panama near the Chepo river,
and in the eastern Darin department [40, 41] (Fig. 5.1).
5.4
REGIONAL KARST STUDIES
Widely published scientific research has been conducted in some Central American
karst areas, notably in Belize [7, 42, 43] and Costa Rica [5, 8, 39] but overall the
regional karst offers considerable scope for future research [2]. The karst areas of
Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua, in particular, warrant further study, although this
may be hindered by problems of accessibility and the absence of national karst research
centers in these countries.
5.4.1 Belize
The most extensive karst research in Central America has been in Belize [43], where
well-developed karst in Cretaceous carbonates surrounding the Maya mountains covers
about 5000 km2, about 25% of the country, and poorly developed karst occurs
throughout another 5000 km2 in Cenozoic rocks in the northern half of the country. The
northern karst has received little attention, but dolines, dry valleys and karst windows
occur throughout the Yalbac hills and there are a series of prominent limestone
escarpments in the northwestern part of the Orange Walk district in which are
developed karren, dolines, springs and small cave systems. Some of the regional bajos
seasonally wet-dry subdued depressions may have karstic origins, at least in part,
and much of the regional hydrology has a distinct karstic character. Sascab, a calcrete
or caliche composed of unconsolidated, weathered calcareous surficial material and
often known as marl, is widespread [44]. In places the sascab shows surface
induration, or case-hardening, suggesting geomorphic legacy from drier periods during
the Pleistocene.
More extensive research has been undertaken on the karst in the southern half of
Belize, where differential dissolution of the Cretaceous carbonates surrounding the
Maya mountains has been accentuated by runoff from the non-carbonate uplands, and
where there is well-developed polygonal and fluviokarst. Miller [7, 34] subdivided this
karst into five units: Vaca plateau, Little Quartz ridge, K/T fault ridges, Boundary fault
and Sibun-Manatee.
The northern Vaca plateau has been the site of an ongoing geoarchaeological
project since 1990 [4547]. Rugged fluviokarst is dominant here (Fig. 5.3a), and the
karst is dissected by the allogenic Macal river, but dismembered cave systems (Fig.
5.3b) and vertical pits, many of which have archaeological significance, honeycomb
the interfluvial hills and ridges. As in parts of Guatemala, the Cretaceous limestone
here is heavily brecciated (Fig. 5.3.c), which may limit the development of holokarst.
Locally, for example around Augustine, the carbonates overlie granites; the main
passage of the Ro Fro cave has a granite floor (Fig. 5.3d).
Further south, the fluvial influence declines as the elevation increases towards the
Chiquibul karst and cave systems, which have been studied in considerable detail [7,
42, 48]. The surface karst here is the most dramatic in Belize, with well-developed
cockpits and major collapse sinkholes, with 20 collapses covering 2% of one 30 km2
area [48]. The Chiquibul cave system, with a length of over 55 km and a vertical relief
of 300 m, is the largest hydrologically linked cave network in Central America [7, 42].
The karst in the Toledo district south of the Maya mountains has received less
attention, although it appears to be more subdued than that to the north or west. Five
major rivers sink where the limestone flanks Little Quartz ridge, and the surface karst is
very rugged, suggesting limestone pavement on a grand scale with countless
solution depressions and ridges. [49]. There is also some fluviokarst south and west of
the main ridge, and some larger collapse features to the south and east [7]. Extensive
caves are associated with the allogenic drainage of the Ro Grande [50] and Bladen
Branch [7].
The karst of the K/T fault ridges is poorly known, but differs from that elsewhere in
Belize in terms of both age and structural setting [7]. The isolated block-fault ridges, up
to 20 km long and up to 300 m high, are developed in Late CretaceousEarly
Paleocene carbonates, and are pocked by small, irregularly shaped depressions and
sharp-edged pits. Jalacte creek cuts through one ridge, but the other allogenic streams
sink into the limestone to emerge at resurgences on the downstream side of the ridges.
A wide range of cave and karst studies have been undertaken in the Boundary fault
karst, which is clearly delineated by an 800 m faulted escarpment on the south and by
the Belize river valley alluvium on the north. The karst belt is cut into distinct blocks
by the allogenic runoff of Barton creek, Roaring river, and the Sibun river and its
tributaries, Caves Branch and Dry creek [5155] (Fig. 5.3e). These through-cutting
valleys are polje-like in appearance and function, and Miller [56, 58] showed that
surface flow from the Caves Branch river was pirated underground into the
Petroglyph/St. Hermans cave system, part of which is exposed in the karst window
known as the Blue Hole [59]. Further downstream the underground flow rejoins the
surface river before it sinks into a ponor, or open sink at the north end of the polje.
Miller [56] has investigated the hydrology of the Caves Branch karst in detail, noting
the open nature of the dissolutional system and the boosting of carbon dioxide levels
within the aquifer, perhaps by vegetative decay. Resurgence waters are usually
supersaturated with respect to calcite and dolomite, and overall denudation rates are
high, in the range of 0.100.13 m/ka [7, 56].
Between the structurally controlled river valleys (poljes), cockpits and residual hills
pit the karst blocks; many of the cockpits are interconnected in loosely aggregated
chains resembling valleys. Along the main valley sides are hanging tributaries, further
attesting to the considerable fluvial inheritance. Beneath the karst surface are extensive
cave systems consisting of active conduits, from 20 to 100 m in width and up to 30 m
above the present rivers, and unconnected remnants higher up [7].
Day [6, 60, 61] investigated the morphology and hydrology of cockpits in the
Boundary fault karst. Over a 21 km2 area, depression and summit densities were 9.7
and 29.2 per km2 respectively, with a summit/depression ratio of 3.01 [6]. Within a 1
km2 field survey site, there were 11 cockpits and 36 residual hills, with a
summit/depression ratio of 3.27 [6]. Depressions ranged in depth from 25 to 60 m, and
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164 GEOMORPHOLOGY
diameters from 80 to 240 m, with a mean depth/diameter ratio of 0.28. Throughout the
21 km2 area, depression dispersion had a strong systematic, uniform element, with the
nearest-neighbor R statistic being 1.193. Depressions did not exhibit marked
elongation, but elongated individuals were dominantly oriented approximately north
south (N20 W N10 E), perhaps reflecting regional geologic dip and jointing, or
possibly the legacy of former fluvial drainage systems. Miller [56] detected similar
patterns in a 20 km2 area around Caves Branch.
More detailed studies of cockpit morphology and hydrology [60, 61] have shown
that cockpit slopes are composed of essentially four identifiable units: staircases,
broken cliffs, inclined bedrock slopes and talus slopes, whose occurrence is associated
with slope position. Staircases are most common near hill summits and decrease in
occurrence downslope; broken cliffs are most common in midslope sections; inclined
bedrock slopes occur mostly at slope bases; and talus slopes increase in occurrence
downslope. Of 525 categorized slope segments within 35 slope profiles in seven
cockpits, 28% are staircases, 30% broken cliffs, 23% inclined bedrock, and 19% talus
slopes [61].
Process studies show that, although there appears to be no consistent downslope
variation in either soil pCO2 or water hardness, emplaced weight loss tablets suffer
increased weight loss with increasing downslope position, regardless of slope unit type
[60, 61]. This may result from the 10 20% increased precipitation throughfall reaching
depressions bases [61]. Surface runoff within cockpits is of limited distance (mean
1.7 m) and duration (mean 4 minutes) (n=39) but it nevertheless contributes to surface
corrosion and the development of internal cockpit morphology. Miller [7, 56]
suggested that a minimum of 12 mm/day of rainfall was required to generate surface
flow into cockpit swallets, but this threshold clearly depends on antecedent moisture
conditions. When it occurs, vadose seepage is rapid, and subsurface corrosion exceeds
that at the surface. Surface activity complements that in the subcutaneous zone by
directing recharge into the epikarstic aquifer.
Elevated levels of soil CO2 clearly are implicated in promoting effective dissolution
in the epikarst, but meaningful soil CO2 levels are difficult to measure accurately and
they vary both spatially and temporally, being influenced by temperature, moisture, and
organic respiration and decay [6, 62]. Recorded CO2 levels in Central American and
other tropical karst soils generally range between 0.5 and 4.0%, although levels up to
7.0% have been reported [6]. Levels around 1.5% at 20 cm soil depth appear normal in
Belize, but these can be greatly influenced by human activities, such as burning and
cultivation [62]. Short-term (1975 1983) mean weight loss of emplaced limestone
tablets has been measured at 0.055 g/yr, and mean dissolutional erosion is estimated at
0.10 0.13 m/ka for the Belize karst in general [7].
High-resolution carbon isotope analysis of a stalagmite from Actun Tunichil
Muknal has revealed large and rapid fluctuations in /13C values at interannual to
subseasonal time scales between 1975 and 2000, showing a very strong correlation
with recorded El Nio/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events [63]. Meteoric water
percolation to the caves is estimated to occur within three to 10 months, and the
variations in /13C values are suggested to arise primarily from fluctuations in soil and
ecosystem CO2 recycling.
The role of case-hardening in influencing karst morphology in Belize was examined
by Ireland [64] who concluded that the process was not as significant on the hard,
dense limestones there as it was on less well lithified carbonates in the Caribbean. The
Belize carbonates are highly variable petrographically, although dominantly
biomicritic, with insoluble residues ranging between about 2 and 5% [6]. The limestone
has a relatively high compressive strength, with Schmidt Hammer hardness values in
the range of 3840 [6, 6567]. Case-hardening, the development of an indurated
surface layer, is relatively limited on these hard limestones, which are also relatively
resistant to a range of weathering processes [6].
The Sibun-Manatee karst is essentially an eastern extension of the Boundary fault
karst, but it dominated by tower karst (Fig. 5.2f), with only remnant cockpits and cones
(Fig. 5.2d), or what Miller [6: 113] describes as skeins of hills surrounding flatfloored depressions.. McDonald [6870] made extensive studies of the tower karst in
the Sibun-Manatee karst, drawing attention to the interaction of fluvial and karst
processes around the bases of towers. Allogenic rivers traversing the alluvium cause
lateral erosion and undermining of individual tower bases, but away from the rivers in
situ bedrock footslopes are not undermined, although closed basins, which contain
temporary lakes after flooding, surround the towers.
The 250 km long barrier reef complex bordering the Caribbean coast of Belize also
has considerable karstic interest, particularly in the periodic interplay of subaerial
karstification and submarine carbonate deposition [7173]. Tectonic isolation of fault
block platforms resulted in differential reef initiation and lagoon depths, and variations
in Pleistocene karst topography influenced subsequent carbonate facies distribution
patterns, although topographic highs may also be related to fluvial and deltaic
processes [74, 75]. In addition to karst topography, including drowned sinkholes such
as the Blue Hole [76] the barrier reef also includes drowned caves, within which
marine lithification is now occurring [77]. Moreover, caves may still be developing at
fresh/salt water interfaces through mixed-water dissolution [78, 79].
5.4.2 Guatemala
In Guatemala the most extensive karst is in the northeastern department of Petn.
Relatively high altitude (ca. 1500 m) cockpit karst occurs around Cobn, in the central
Guatemalan department of Alta Verapaz, where an ongoing program of research is
being coordinated by the Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala and the Centro
Universitario del Norte (CUNOR) [80].
The Petn limestone is dominantly biomicritic, with an insoluble residue of about
4% [6]. The limestone has a relatively high compressive strength, with Schmidt
Hammer hardness values in the range of 3840 [6, 6567]. Case-hardening, the
development of an indurated surface layer, is relatively limited on these hard
limestones, which are also relatively resistant to a range of weathering processes [6].
Day [6] studied two 1 km2 cockpit karst areas in the Petn, south of Flores,
obtaining a range of morphometric data for comparison with other regional karstlands.
In the two study sites, depression densities were 10 and 14 per km2, with surrounding
hill summit densities of 25 and 14 per km2. Over a broader 40 km2 area, 524
depressions yielded a density of 13.1 per km2 and 1264 summits a density of 31.6 per
km2. Individual cockpits were surrounded by between three and seven residual hills,
with means of 5.4 and 4.2 for the two 1 km2 study sites. Depressions ranged in depth
from 25 to 60 m, and diameters from 90 to 260 m, with a mean depth/diameter ratio of
0.24. Throughout the 40 km2 area, depression dispersion had a strong systematic,
uniform element, with the nearest-neighbor R statistic being 1.217. Depressions did not
exhibit marked elongation (54% of width/length ratios less than 0.5), but elongated
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166 GEOMORPHOLOGY
individuals were dominantly oriented approximately northsouth (N20WN10E),

with a subdominant trend approximately N40N50E, perhaps reflecting regional
geologic dip, jointing and faulting.
Interestingly, the Petn cockpits had a connectivity index of 4.0 (6079% of
depressions separated by a divide significantly lower than other portions of their
perimeters), which is higher than other cockpit areas in the broader regional study,
suggesting possible inheritance of fluvial drainage patterns. Closer to Flores there is a
clear northsouth gradation from fluvial to karst topography, with dry valley systems
becoming increasingly dismembered and finally disaggregated entirely by polygonal
karst [6, 81]. This has wider implications for the inheritance of fluvial paleodrainage
patterns in polygonal karst terrain [81], and is reported on a regional scale in
Guatemala and Belize by Miller [48], who notes that much of the karst landscape
contains through-flowing rivers, dry and hanging valleys, and topographicallydescending doline corridors, all prima-facie evidence for fluvio-karst development.
[48]. Through morphometric analysis, Miller [48] also detected non-random patterns
associated with photo-lineations, and described cockpit soils showing affinities with
soils developed on non-carbonate rocks.
5.4.3 Costa Rica

Karst studies in Costa Rica are also ongoing (Fig. 5.1), with an emphasis to date on
geology, hydrology and ecology [5, 8, 39]. In the Ro Corredor basin, in southeastern
Costa Rica, karst is developed in the Fila de Cal formation of Eocene age, particularly
where surface drainage is directed onto it from the overlying non-carbonate Trraba
formation [82]. Karst features, particularly dolines and dry valleys are well developed
in the basin, particularly in fault locations, but are relatively young in age and
maturity [82] (Figs. 5.2b and 5.2.c). Some dolines are sufficiently developed to
constitute pseudo-cockpits, and in the Quebrada Seca valley there are two large
towers, one 50 m tall. The limestone surface in general is densely pitted, with
spitzkarren up to 2 m tall [82].
Where surface streams encounter the clastic/limestone contacts or faults they are
captured via large insurgences that ultimately supply resurgences 100200 m lower in
the Cao Seco or Corredor river valleys. Caves are largely fault-controlled, and two
main levels separated by an elevation difference of about 25 m may reflect rapid uplift
during the Quaternary.
The Barra Honda karst is developed in Paleocene limestones and was designated a
national park in 1974. The Barra Honda limestone typically caps hilltops, and
represents remnants of a formerly continuous carbonate platform [8]. Although the
limestone exposures in the hill flanks do not exceed 90 m in thickness, caves extend to
depths of 200 m, suggesting the development of synsedimentary cuvettes, where
continuous deposition caused subsequent weight-subsidence in the center of the hills.
[8]. Although there are some extensive cave systems and peripheral springs, the karst
landforms are restricted to sinkholes, dry valleys and karrenfields.
5.5
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The limited research yet undertaken in Central Americas karstlands emphasizes their
variability in terms of geologic context, material properties, environmental setting,

hydrology and morphology. The regional tectonic background clearly exerts a major
influence, as do hydrologic conditions, particularly with respect to allogenic inputs.
The most dramatic karst development occurs where extensive, well jointed or faulted,
older, crystalline carbonates, at elevations sufficient to provide a steep hydraulic
gradient, abut and receive allogenic drainage from higher non-carbonate catchments.
Under these conditions, initial fluviokarst and doline karst develops progressively into
polygonal cockpit and tower karst landscapes, such as those in Guatemala and Belize.
Elsewhere, less accentuated karst landforms remain dominant.
Detailed karst morphologic research in Central America is still in its infancy, and
more information is needed about intra-regional variability, for example in cockpit
dimensions. Although the increasing availability and quality of satellite imagery is
helpful in this context, field research remains critical. Likewise, process studies have so
far been limited in scope and duration, and there is a clear mandate for long-term
systematic research into regional karst and cave hydrology.
Overall, there remains tremendous potential for further studies of the Central
American karst, particularly in Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica.
Regionally, however, there is little concentration on geosciences, and Guatemalas
CUNOR (Centro Universitario del Norte) is the only university geology department
located in a karst area [80]. Although studies of karst geomorphology and hydrology
are necessary, there is an even greater need for attention to the karst ecosystems, and
for the development of sustainable land management strategies. A Central American
Karst Institute, with bases in Costa Rica and Guatemala, has been proposed [80], and
this could play a critical role in promoting the study and conservation of the regions
karst heritage.
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Miller, T.E.: Chiquibul Cave. Nat. Geogr. Mag. 197:4 (2000), pp.5571.
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Sauro, A. Bondesan and M. Meneghel (eds): Proceedings of the International Conference on
Environmental Change in Karst Areas. Quad. Dip. Geografia, Universita di Padova, 1991,
pp.3138.
Day, M.J.: Resource use in the tropical karstlands of central Belize. Environ. Geol. 21:3
(1993), pp.122128.
Day, M.J. & Rosen, C.J.: Human impacts on the Hummingbird Karst of central Belize. In: D.S.
Gillieson and D.I. Smith (eds): Resource Management in Limestone Landscapes: International
Perspectives. Department of Geography and Oceanography, University College, Australian
National Defence Force Academy, Canberra, Special Publication 2, 1989, pp.201214.
Miller, T.E.: Hydrochemistry, hydrology and morphology of the Caves Branch karst Belize.
PhD Thesis. McMaster University, 1981.
Miller, T.E.: Hydrology and hydrochemistry of the Caves Branch karst, Belize. J. Hydrol. 61
(1983), pp.8388.
Miller, T.E.: Karst of the Caves Branch, Belize. Proc. 9th Int. Speleol. Congr. 1 (1986), pp.25
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Day, M.J.: The geomorphology and hydrology of the Blue Hole, Caves Branch. Belizean Stud.
20:3 (1992), pp.310.
Day, M.J.: Slope form and process in cockpit karst in Belize. In: K. Paterson and M.M.
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Day, M.J.: Slope form, erosion and hydrology in some Belizean karst depressions. Earth Surf.
Process Landf. 12:5 (1987), pp.497505.
Day, M.J.: Short-term decline in soil carbon dioxide concentrations upon burning of secondary
vegetation in the karst of Belize. In: I. Barany-Kevei and J. Gunn (eds): Essays in the Ecology
and Conservation of Karst. Acta Geog. 36 (1999), pp.6369.
Frappier, A., Sahagian, D., Gonzlez, L.A. & Carpenter, S.J.: El Nio events recorded by
stalagmite carbon isotopes. Science 298 (2002), p.565.
Ireland, P.A.R.: Case-hardening and karst geomorphology in the tropics with particular
reference to the Caribbean and Belize. DPhil Thesis, Oxford University, 1982.
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Day, M.J.: The influence of some material properties on the development of tropical karst
terrain. Trans. Brit. Cave Res. Assoc. 9:1 (1982), pp.2737.
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68. McDonald, R.C.: Observations on hillslope erosion in tower karst topography of Belize. Geol.
Soc. Am. Bull. 86 (1975), pp.255256.
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N.F., Supp. 26 (1976), pp.98103.
70. McDonald, R.C.: Tower karst geomorphology in Belize. Z. Geomorph. N.F., Supp. 32 (1979),
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71. Purdy, E.G.: Karst-determined facies patterns in British Honduras: Holocene carbonate
sedimentation model. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull. 58:5 (1974), pp.825855.
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73. Gischler, E. & Lomando, A.J.: Isolated carbonate platforms of Belize, Central America:
sedimentary facies, late Quaternary history and controlling factors. Geol. Soc. Spec. Pub. 178
(2000), pp.135146.
74. Choi, D.R. & Ginsburg, R.N.: Siliclastic foundations of Quaternary reefs in the southernmost
Belize Lagoon, British Honduras. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 93 (1982), pp.116126.
75. Choi, D.R. & Holmes, C.W.: Foundations of Quaternary reefs in south-central Belize lagoon,
Central America. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull. 66:12 (1982), pp.26632681.
76. Dill, R.F.: The Blue Hole a structurally significant sink hole in an atoll off British Honduras.
Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., Abs. with Prog. 3:7 (1971), pp.544545.
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78. Back, W., Hanshaw, B.B., Herman, J.S. & Van Driel, J.N.: Differential dissolution of a
Pleistocene reef in the ground-water mixing zone of coastal Yucatan. Geology 14 (1986),
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79. Mylroie, J.E. & Carew, J.L.: Speleogenesis in coastal and oceanic settings. In: A.B. Klimchouk,
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National Speleological Society, Huntsville, 2000, pp.226233.
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241.
82. Hempel, J.C., Venn, C. & Storrick, G.: Karst geology of the Corredor River Basin. In: N.
Peacock and J.C. Hempel (eds): Studies in the Rio Corredor Basin. Nat. Speleol. Soc. Bull.
55:1/2 (1993), pp.5.15.31.
Chapter 6
Glacial geology and geomorphology
MATTHEW S. LACHNIET
... in every one of my explorations, I have
found new proof of glaciation of our ranges
[Costa Rica] in relatively recent epochs. H.
Pittier, 18961897, in R. Castillo: Geologa
de Costa Rica Una Sinopsis, 1984.
6.1
INTRODUCTION
Despite the lack of modern glaciers in tropical Central America, the presence of glacial
landforms and deposits in the Talamanca cordillera of Costa Rica (91 :
above 3000 m was noted in Pittiers 1897 study [in 1], followed by extensive scientific
studies by Weyl [2, 3], and Hastenrath [4]. In Guatemala, Anderson [5, 6] and
Hastenrath [7] described glacial deposits and landforms on the high plateau of Los
Cuchumatanes in Guatemala, with additional field observations by this author.
Although a few other Central American mountains have sufficiently high altitude to
have risen slightly above the Pleistocene glacial equilibrium line altitude,
unquestionable evidence of former glaciation remains sparse. On their reconnaissance
expeditions to the Talamanca cordillera, Weyl and Hastenrath provided the first
photographic and geomorphic evidence of past glaciation, and their work is the basis
for later investigations. Bergoeing [8] presented a glacial geomorphic map based on
interpretation of aerial photographs of the Talamanca cordillera. Barquero and
Ellenberg [9, 10] provided a geomorphic map of glacial tills (morrenas) in Chirrip
national park (hereafter Chirrip N.P.), which apparently is a grouping of all
occurrences of ablation and subglacial tills, as well as lateral, frontal, and medial
moraines. A thorough study by van Uffelen [11] presented detailed field observations
of surficial Quaternary sediments and soils in Chirrip N.P., though a geologic map
was not included. Shimizu [12] also interpreted aerial photographs of parts of Chirrip
N.P. and presented a geomorphological sketch map. Protti [13] presented evidence for
striated boulders and suggested the presence of glacial features at low elevations in the
Valle de El General, some 1000 m below clear glacial features in Chirrip N.P., but
these evidences merit further attention. Orvis and Horn [14] used aerial photographs
and field observations to delineate past glacial extents and equilibrium line altitudes
(ELAs) in Morrenas valley. Lachniet and Seltzer [15] mapped the extent and type of
surficial glacial and periglacial deposits for the main glaciated areas in Costa Rica, and
from them reconstructed past glacial extents and ELAs. Radiocarbon dates of basal
lake sediments from tarns in Morrenas valley demonstrate that glaciers retreated above
3500 m prior to 10,140 120 yr BP [14, 16].
The glacial geology of Guatemala has received less attention than Costa Rica.
Anderson [5, 6] and Hastenrath [7] provided evidence for the glaciation of the Altos de
los Cuchumatanes plateau in NW Guatemala (151 : $QGHUVRQV VNHWFK
maps delineate the probable maximum ice field extent and the locations of some
172 GEOMORPHOLOGY
moraines, and Hastenrath also mapped moraines and periglacial features in the area.
However, the reconnaissance nature of these studies and the sketch maps require
further field verification. Though other peaks in Guatemala currently reach above the
late-Quaternary ELA, no other evidence of glaciation has been reported.
This chapter presents a summary of the primary details concerning the lateQuaternary glacial and periglacial geology of Costa Rica and Guatemala, taken from
published studies and the authors observations. Summaries are also presented in [17
18]. Because of more numerous and detailed studies in the Costa Rican highlands, this
Figure 6.1. Stereopair of the Talari valley, Chirrip national park, Costa Rica. Shows typical
alpine glaciation geomorphology and glacial geology of some sites mentioned in the text. C:
Cerro (hill or peak). For location see Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2. Glacial geology and topography of Chirrip N.P. (from [15]) shows distribution of
surficial glacial deposits in the main glaciated region of Costa Rica. C: Cerro (hill or peak),
V: Valle (valley), and P: Pico (peak).
summary is biased towards that region. The significance of the past glaciations is also
173
174 GEOMORPHOLOGY
briefly discussed as a paleoclimatic indicator. The chronology of glaciation in Central

America remains an unsolved puzzle that deserves serious consideration in future
studies.
6.2
GLACIAL GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY OF COSTA RICA
The glacial geology in the Talamanca cordillera of Costa Rica is best expressed in the
Chirrip national park, where the nucleus of glaciation occurred on peaks rising above
3300 m, and also served as the location of the most detailed studies [2, 3, 4, 11, 14, 15].
Access to the park is via the town of San Gerardo, north of San Isidro in the Valle de El
General, and a 16 km hike, increasing ~2 km in elevation. Alternate access to the park
is on a less-used trail via Cerro Urn.
Elsewhere, seven cirques are apparent in vertical aerial photographs and
topographic maps from around Cerro Kmuk (3549 m) at elevations of ~3300 m [15],
and probable cirque basins surround Cerros Cueric (3394 and 3345 m). Weyl [3]
suspected a glacial origin of planed and smoothed bedrock around Cerro de la Muerte
(also know as Cerro Buenavista and Cerro Pramo). On the basis of several stoss-andlee bedrock landforms, grooves and striae on bedrock, and planar erosional bedrock
surfaces overlain by diamict, Lachniet and Seltzer [15] concluded that areas around
Cerro de la Muerte (3475 m) also supported a small ice field during the late
Quaternary. Hastenrath [4] noted a periglacial block field there, interpreted the
erosional surfaces as periglacial in origin (Hastenrath, pers. comm., 2002), but did not
find conclusive evidence for glaciation.
Other peaks in Costa Rica reach elevations greater than 3300 m, such as Iraz
volcano (3432 m) and Turrialba volcano (3328 m), and in Panama, Bar volcano (3475
m) and Fbrega peak (3335 m). Glacial evidence is lacking at these peaks, though a
determined effort has not yet been advanced to evaluate them. The complete glacial
moraine sequence and the majority of features indicative of alpine glaciation in Costa
Rica are encountered in the Talari valley, which is considered the type locality for
glaciation in Chirrip N.P.; it serves as the focus for discussion in this chapter. Many of
these features are visible in Figure 6.1, a labelled stereopair of the lower Talari valley,
to which the reader is referred for subsequent descriptions. The Talari valley is also the
most convenient site for visitors because of the recently-constructed Costa Rican park
service shelters on the NW side of the valley and trail system that allows for quick
access to the numerous glacial features. The glacial geology in Chirrip N.P. [15] is
shown in Figure 6.2, which allows for orientation to the main glaciated regions and site
localities discussed in the text.
6.2.1 Erosional landforms

On the largest scale are glacial erosional forms such a U-shaped valleys excavated by
Pleistocene glaciers in pre-existing fluvial valleys. In Chirrip N.P., the U-shaped
valleys occur above ~3100 m, and below this elevation typical V-shaped fluvial valleys
dominate. The highest parts of the valleys are cirques with wide and relatively flat
surface topography, which served as the main accumulation basis during glaciation,
and presently support permanent and ephemeral lakes. Figure 6.3 demonstrates the
cirque of the Talari valley (locally known as Conejos valley), which is approximately
1.5 km wide and some 300 to 400 m deep. Also noted are the highest peaks
surrounding the valley and the col to Pirmide valley and a postglacial landslide scar.
Cirques are common in other areas of the park, notably in upper Morrenas, Lagos,
Pirmide, and Terbi valleys, amongst others. Numerous horns are present, e.g., Cerros
Chirrip, Pirmide, and Ventisqueros, (Figs. 6.1 and 6.2); they are connected to valley
walls by well-defined artes. Cols between prominent peaks occur at elevations of
3540 to 3760 m. Glacial scouring has also produced numerous closed basins in cirque
floors that support perennial and ephemeral lakes, most notably in Morrenas, Lagos,
and Duchi valleys, and at the head of Ditkebi valley. These tarns are up to 22 m deep
(Lagos valley, [19]) and contain 5 to 7 m of glaciolacustrine and lacustrine sediment
[20]; Lachniet, unpublished data).
Figure 6.3. View to the north across Conejos valley, the cirque basin in the upper Talari valley.
This cirque served as the main snow accumulation center for the paleoglacier in Talari
valley, and is floored with subglacial till and fluvial sediments along the Talari river.
Virtually, all of the glacial valleys in Chirrip N.P. contain erosional forms such as
whalebacks, roche moutonne, and striated, grooved, and polished bedrock. Good
examples of striations and stoss-and-lee erosional bedrock forms are prevalent in Talari
valley, particularly in the bedrock channel of the Talari river near the Costa Rican park
service shelters, and in exposed bedrock along the trail to Cerro Chirrip.
Within the main glaciated areas of the Talamanca cordillera, the effect of glacial
activity has been to smooth the landscape, which stands in contrast to the highly rough
slopes that result from weathering under humid and warm conditions. Based on aerial
photographic interpretation, many of the peaks in the Talamanca cordillera with
elevations above 3000 m are characterized by smooth surfaces with lower-angle slopes
similar to those associated with valley and cirque glaciers in Chirrip N.P. The lower
limits of these surfaces extend to 3140 m at Cerro Urn and Cerros Cueric, and to
3260 m around Cerro Am and Cerro Am; they generally coincide with the lower
altitudinal limit of pramo vegetation. The possibility that glacial and periglacial
processes have formed these surfaces and also contributed to suitable conditions for the
pramo ecosystem remains an intriguing hypothesis.
175
176 GEOMORPHOLOGY
6.2.2 Depositional landforms

Lateral, terminal, and medial moraines are the most prominent depositional features in
Chirrip N.P. Based on detailed field studies and aerial photographic analysis of all
major glaciated valleys, three principle moraine groups are known from Chirrip N.P.
[4, 15], and possibly 5 glacial expansions [14]. From oldest to youngest they are the
Talamanca, Chirrip, and Talari moraines; they delineate past glacial extent during
several stillstands (correlative with Chirrip IV, III, and II glaciers, [14], respectively).
In the Talari valley, where all three moraine groups are represented (Figs. 6.1 and 6.2),
a left lateral Talamanca moraine (Fig. 6.4) measures some 25 m in height and extends
for 1 km downvalley to an altitude of 3140 m. It has three distinct ridges. The lowest
portion of the moraine is denuded, but remnants of its terminal portion are clearly
visible from the approach trail to the park. Remnants of a right lateral moraine are
present on the opposite valley wall but morainic topography is lacking. The denuded
moraine continues upvalley as a pronounced trim line that is readily observable due to
its greater tree cover than higher slopes (Fig. 6.4). The Talamanca moraine consists of
gravel, boulders, and blocks in a sandy matrix, and supports andesite boulders along its
crest and flanks.
Figure 6.4. View of left lateral Talamanca moraine (white dashed line along crest) in the Talari
valley, view looking N. Also clearly visible is the Talamanca trimline (black dotted line).
The Talamanca moraine consists of three separate ridges, suggesting at least three glacial
expansions reached this elevation.
The Chirrip group moraine is ~20 m high and reaches an altitude of 3300 m in Talari
valley to form a terminal moraine breached by the Talari river. The Chirrip moraine
has a similar texture to the Talamanca moraine but supports fewer boulders on its
surface. Several trimlines are apparent in the Chirrip moraine surface that represent
various ice thickness attained following deposition of the moraine. Contained within
the limits of the Chirrip moraine are several smaller (to 5 m high) terminal moraines
of the Talari group at an altitude around 3300 m. Hastenrath [4] suggested that these
are recessional moraines, but must represent a period of glacial equilibrium (stillstand).
Though Orvis and Horn [14] recognized another moraine group in Morrenas valley
(Chirrip I) on the basis of till mantling bedrock highs which dammed tarns, evidence
is lacking for a similar moraine-forming stillstand in other valleys in Chirrip N.P.
Clear evidence of a much larger glacial expansion and moraine group (possible
Chirrip V of ref. [14]) below the Talamanca moraines is lacking, but similar ancient
and denuded moraines in the Venezuelan Andes [21] support their potential existence.
If confirmed by further field work, this earlier advance likely would have resulted in
the occupation by ice of the Sabana de los Leones valley, which has possible glacial
geomorphology [15].
Cirque floors, and in some locations valley walls, are mantled in a tough, cohesive,
fissile subglacial till. This subglacial till is exposed in a stream cut of the upper Talari
river in Talari valley and supports vertical faces. The till contains numerous angular
clasts of andesite, granodiorite, and fossiliferous limestone and weathers to till cobbles
in the stream floor. Other areas are mantled by a loose, sandy ablation till of greater
porosity than the subglacial till. During the dry season, this ablation till serves as an
aquifer that discharges water to streams.
Late Quaternary glaciofluvial and Holocene fluvial deposits are present in
numerous locations throughout Chirrip N.P. Most notably, a large fluvioglacial
outwash terrace ~0.4 km2 in area extends from the maximum ice limit at 3180 m to
2980 m elevation (Fig. 6.2); it is bisected and incised by the Broi river. The surface of
this outwash deposit shows braided channel morphology and lacks significant tree
cover. Other glaciofluvial terraces are present in the Terbi valley [15] where they
formed upvalley of a bedrock narrows at 3200 to 3100 m altitude (Fig. 6.1) and are
overlain by gelifluction lobes. Fluvial deposits in the upper Talari valley form terraces
up to 5 m wide. At present, the rivers in Chirrip appear to be incising their Holocene
deposits. In the lower Talari valley just within the Chirrip terminal moraine, fluvial
deposits are associated with the Talari moraines, and appear to have aggraded when the
breach in the Chirrip moraine was at a higher elevation. This area may also have held
a moraine-dammed lake.
Periglacial features and deposits are present but not abundant in the Talamanca
cordillera. Freeze-thaw processes have produced frost-cracked cobbles and boulders,
which produced block fields around Cerro Nudo and on valley walls in some glacial
valleys [15] and at Cerro de la Muerte [4]. Below the glacial limit, colluvium has been
modified by gelifluction to produce sediment lobes, such as in the Terbi valley and in
the valley of Sabana de los Leones. Above the glacial limit, tills have been modified to
produce gelifluction terraces with treads and risers 1 to 3 m in width and height [17].
These terraces are evident in the upper Talari and Morrenas valleys and are marked by
distinct vegetational zonation that gives the hillsides a striped appearance.
6.2.3 Glacial limits and equilibrium line altitudes

Based on the mapped moraine limits and presence of glacial geomorphology in
Chirrip N.P., the extents of late Quaternary glaciers for the Talamanca group moraines
were reconstructed ([15]; Fig. 6.5). In Chirrip N.P., the upper glacial limit, as
determined by the limit of clear glacial sculpture and cirque headwall altitude, was
generally taken to be 3700 m, and the lower ice limits are marked by moraines and/or
the transition from U-shaped to V-shaped valleys. The most extensive glaciers were
present in valleys surrounding Cerro Chirrip and along the Filas Norte and Urn.
Morrenas and Talari paleoglaciers had lengths of ~4 km, and areas of 4.5 km2 and 4.0 km,
177
178 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Figure 6.5. Extent of glaciers associated with the Talamanca moraine group in Chirrip N.P.;
from [15].
respectively, and thickness of 150 to 175 m. The area of glaciers in Chirrip N.P.,
including permanent ice fields above glacier surfaces, was estimated to be ~35 km2
[15]. Outside of Chirrip N.P., Cerro de la Muerte could have been covered by as much
as 5 km2 (Fig. 6.6a), and around Cerro Kmuk 2 km2 (Fig. 6.6b). Distinct cirque-like
valleys surrounding Cerros Cueric have a likely glacial origin, and may have
supported ~2 km2 of ice. Cirque morphology is not clear around Cerro Urn, but it may
have supported as much as 5 km2 of ice and/or seasonal snow cover. The valley of
Sabana de los Leones (from 3290 to ~3100 m) contains morphology reminiscent of a
glaciated valley, and may have been occupied by a glacier of a larger, pre-Talamanca
expansion age. Surficial sediments there consist largely of slope debris derived from
gelifluction, but a thorough search for glacial sediments has not been done.
Figure 6.6. (a) Extent of ice on Cerro de la Muerte, Talamanca cordillera of Costa Rica, [11]; (b)
Extent of ice on Cerro Kmuk, Talamanca cordillera, Costa Rica, [11]; (c) Topographic and
glacial geologic map of the Altos de los Cuchumatanes, Guatemala (after [6]). Ice limits
were modified slightly where original had implausible valley outlet glaciers reaching 2600 m
altitude. Contour lines are every 100 m and contour lines 3600, 3700, and 3800 m appear
smoothed and generalized. Locations of mapped moraines are shown (after [6, 7]).
The equilibrium line altitudes (ELAs, where steady-state glacier mass balance is zero)
were first estimated by reckoning and cirque floor altitudes [2, 4] to be ~3500 m.
Quantitative estimates of ELAs for Talari and Morrenas paleoglaciers were determined
using the toe-headwall-altitude-ratio (THAR), the maximum elevation of lateral
moraines (MELM), the accumulation area ratio (AAR) methods, [15] and
accumulation-area-balance-ratio (AABR) methods ([22]; see [23] for a discussion of
the various methods), and for various paleoglacier stages in Morrenas valley using the
AABR method [14]. Using AAR and THAR ratios of 0.70, paleo ELAs for the
Talamanca stage advance were 3532 and 3502 m for the Talari and Morrenas valley
179
180 GEOMORPHOLOGY
paleoglaciers, respectively [15]. ELAs calculated with the AABR method using a
balance ratio of 1.8 were 3532 m and 3525 m respectively, and with a balance ratio of 4
[23] 3489 and 3464 m, respectively [24]. Because of the small altitudinal range of
paleoglaciers in Chirrip N.P. (~3700 to 3100 m), the resulting error in ELA estimates
is likely to be small, and corresponds with other estimates [4, 14]. Cirque floor altitudes
in Chirrip N.P. correspond well with ELAs derived from other methods. The presence
of immature cirques around Cerro Kmuk and probable cirques around Cerros Cueric
suggests that ELAs there could have descended to as low as 3260 m. If a preTalamanca age glacial expansion (e.g., in Sabana de los Leones) is demonstrated with
field evidence, corresponding ELAs could have been lowered to 31003200 m.
6.2.4 Chronology
Initiation of first glaciation in Costa Rica would have occurred when the Talamanca
cordillera was uplifted sufficiently high to be above the stadial ELA. Rapid uplift of the
Talamanca cordillera began at ca. 1 m.y. [25], which places a possible maximum age
for glaciation in Costa Rica. The rapid accumulation and growth of alluvial fans in the
Valle de El General [26] indicate unroofing of plutonic rocks in the Talamanca
cordillera during the Pleistocene. The fans have ages upwards of 65,000 yr, based on
radiometric dates and extrapolation of sedimentation rates [27]; they indicate that the
Talamanca cordillera had attained near-modern elevations by that time.
The well-developed glacial geomorphology of the Talari valley suggests that
glaciation was sufficiently long-term to effectively scour the pre-existing fluvial
valleys into the broad, classic, alpine glacial valley. The compound, three-crested
Talamanca moraine in Talari valley suggests at least three glacial stillstands reached
this extent. Qualitative weathering characteristics do not allow for the quantitative
differentiation of these moraines, though further studies to this end merit attention.
The only firm chronological controls are radiocarbon dates on basal, organic
lacustrine sediments from tarns in Morrenas valley, which indicate deglaciation by
10,140 120 14C yr BP [16, 20]. Because the dated lacustrine sediments are underlain
by at least one meter of organic-poor silts, this age provides a minimum limiting age
only, and the glacial expansions predate this timing. On the basis of the deglacial ages,
Orvis and Horn [14] tentatively correlated the youngest moraines to the Younger Dryas
event. No suitable ancient organic material or tephras associated with glacial sediments
have been found, so further work utilizing alternative dating methods is needed to
resolve the chronology of glaciation in Costa Rica. Despite the lack of constraining
chronology, the Costa Rican glacial expansions can be correlated with well dated
glacial sequences in the Venezuela and Colombian Andes [21, 28, 29]. In the Mucubaj
valley of Venezuela, an outwash fan bounded by moraines of a late stade advance
formed between 19,080 820 and 16,500 290 14C yr BP [21] and thus dates to the
Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). An LGM timing for similar glacial expansions is found
in Colombia [28, 29]. The associated moraines are visually similar to the Talamanca
group lateral moraines, and ELAs for glacial expansions in the Mrida Andes, as
determined by the AABR method with balance ratios of 1.8 to 4.0, is 3400 to 3700 m
[24]. Considering the similar climate and physical geography for Costa Rica and
Venezuela, and the correspondence of ELAs between the Mucubaj and Talamanca
expansions, the Talamanca moraines are tentatively correlated to the last glacial
maximum (LGM). This correlation should be tested with other dating methods.
6.3
GLACIAL GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY OF GUATEMALA
In comparison to glaciation in Costa Rica, relatively little is know about glaciation on

the high karstic limestone plateau of Los Cuchumatanes in Guatemala (151
91: ZKHUH DQ LFH ILHOG RI DSSUR[ LPDWHO\ NP2 existed [57] north of the
Limn river. The plateau reaches an elevation of 3837 m and is predominantly above
3400 m. Field evidence of glaciation comes from planed, limestone bedrock in shallow
U-shaped valleys. A complex of at least four lateral/terminal moraines with relief up to
20 m occurs in the valley of Llanos de San Miguel [7], extending for ~1 km to
terminate at an elevation of 3470 m (Fig. 6.6c), and contains striated cobbles.
Downvalley of the moraines, an outwash plain (the Llanos de San Miguel) is present to
an elevation of ~3350 m and hummocky topography is present upvalley. Outwash
deposits are also present in other valleys draining the high plateau. Based on the
moraine elevations and geomorphological evidence, both Anderson [5, 6] and
Hastenrath [7] estimated the Pleistocene ELA at ~3600 m. The glacial limits in Figure
6.6c were modified from Anderson [6]; moraine limits are from Anderson [6] and
Hastenrath [7]. Field observations and aerial photographic analysis by this author
largely corroborate the moraine limits, and are the subject of ongoing research into the
late Quaternary ELA depression and chronology of glaciation in Central America. The
presence of multiple moraine ridges in both Costa Rica and Guatemala raise the
possibility of simultaneous glacial expansion; this hypothesis merits testing with
absolute dating techniques.
Closer inspection of topographic maps of the Cuchumatanes area reveals the
presence of a 6 2 km, high-altitude mountain range south of the Ro Limn and the
area investigated by [57]. The area contains several peaks that rise to elevations
> 3500 m, including Montaa San Juan (3784 m), two unnamed peaks rising to 3775 m
and 3621 m, and others rising to more than 3600 m. Aerial photographic analysis
reveals glacial cirque morphology and moraines in U-shaped valleys draining the
highest peaks. Given the Pleistocene ELA of 3600 m, several other peaks rising above
3600 m would have supported permanent ice during glaciation, increasing estimates of
the total glaciated area in Guatemala. Further field work to delineate past glacial extent
and chronology on the glaciated highlands of Guatemala is merited.
There are no absolute age dates for the glaciation of the high plateau of Altos de los
Cuchumatanes. However, considering the apparently slightly weathered deposits they
may have formed during the Late Pleistocene, and may share a similar chronology to
the Mexican glaciers [c.f. 30, 31, 32]. Cosmogenic nuclide surface exposure ages using
36
Cl on Iztacchuatl volcano [32] show that major glacial expansions occurred between
151,000 and 126,000 yr BP with glacier snouts reaching 3100 m altitude, and later
expansions at 19,00018,000 and 14,00015,000 yr BP, with glacier snouts reaching
3300 to 3800 m. Smaller Holocene expansions occurred at ~10,000 (to 3900 m) and
between 8800 and 7400, and a Little Ice Age advance to 43004700 m. These ages
may change as the production rate of 36Cl is better constrained. A tentative correlation
for the largest Guatemalan glacial expansion is for the late Quaternary advances
between 19,000 and 14,000 yr BP. This hypothesis should be tested using available
dating techniques. Other volcanic peaks in Guatemala presently reach elevations
greater than the Pleistocene ELA, but evidence of glaciation or periglacial processes is
not apparent [7]. Glacial evidence may have been effaced by volcanic activity,
overlooked, or peak elevations during the Pleistocene may have been too low to
support glaciers. Further field work is needed to evaluate these possibilities.
181
182 GEOMORPHOLOGY
6.4
PALEOCLIMATE
Because glacier extents respond to both temperature and precipitation changes, they are
sensitive climatic indicators. As no glaciers exist today in Central America, their
presence in the late Quaternary indicates a substantially different climate state. Glaciers
of the inner, wet tropics, such as Costa Rica and Guatemala, are most sensitive to
temperature variations [23, 33]. The magnitude of temperature depression associated
with paleoglaciers can be estimated in the most simple case by multiplying the late
Quaternary ELA depression by the environmental lapse rate (ELR), which ranges from
5.0 to 6.0 C/km in the wet tropics [23].
The lack of modern glaciers in Central America does not allow observation of the
modern ELA, but it can be estimated by determining the level of the 0 C isotherm,
which should be within a few hundred meters of the ELA [23]. In Costa Rica, the
altitude of the 0 C isotherm was estimated from radiosonde data to be ~5000 200 m
[15], and by terrestrial climate data to be ~4900 200 m [14]. The ELR is 5.4 C /
km. Assuming a modern ELA of 5000 200 m, and a late Quaternary ELA of 3500 m,
the late Quaternary ELA depression in Costa Rica was 1500 200 m, which gives a
highland temperature reduction of 8.1 1.1 C. These temperature depression
estimates apply for the glaciated highlands only, and are consistent with an 8 C
glacial/interglacial temperature change and an upper forest line depression of 1400 m
inferred from pollen spectra [34]. The timing of maximum forest line depression (and
cooling) was estimated to be ~18,000 14C yr BP [34], which further supports a
supposed LGM age of glacial expansions in Chirrip N.P. Based on the 10,140 120
yr BP deglaciation age, the youngest glacial event in Chirrip N.P. was tentatively
correlated to the Younger Dryas [14]. However, the inference of a 23 C temperature
depression from montane pollen profiles [35] for the Younger Dryas chron (11,000 to
10,000 14C yr BP) does not seem sufficient to produce a glacial stage in Chirrip N.P.,
because ELAs would have to be depressed by at least 10001200 m (a cooling of 5 to 6
C) to reestablish glaciers on Cerro Chirrip. This discrepancy again highlights the
need for further dating control of Costa Rican and Guatemalan glaciation.
Extrapolation of highland LGM temperature depression estimates to sea-level is
complicated and requires ELR assumptions that can not be verified for the Late
Pleistocene. For further discussions of tropical paleoclimates and glacial equilibrium
line altitudes (see references [3641]).
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Castillo, R., 1984. Geologa de Costa Rica: una sinopsis. Editorial de la Universidad de Costa
Rica, San Jos.
Weyl, R.: Eiszeitliche Gletscherspuren in Costa Rica (Mittelamerika). Z. fr Gletsch. und
Glazial. 3 (1956), pp.317325.
Weyl, R.: Glaciares Pleistocenos en la zona tropical de Centroamrica. Sonderdruck aus
Alemania La Revista de la Repblica Federal 2. Jahrgang Heft no. 4 (1962), pages
unknown.
Hastenrath, S.: On the Pleistocene glaciation of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica. Z. fr
Gletsch. and Glazial. 9 (1973), pp.105121.
Anderson, T.H.: First evidence for glaciation in Sierra Los Cuchumatanes Range, Northwestern
Guatemala. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 121 (1969a), pp.387.
Anderson, T.H.: Geology of the San Sebastin Huehuetenango quadrangle, Guatemala. PhD
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Bergoeing, J.P.: Modelado Glaciar en la Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica. Inform. Sem.
Inst. Geogr. Nac. (1978), pp.3344. Ministerio de Obras Pblicas y Transportes, San Jos,
Costa Rica.
Barquero, J. & Ellenberg, L.: Geomorfologa del piso alpino del Chirrip en la Cordillera de
Talamanca, Costa Rica. R. Geog. Am. Cent. 17/18 (1982/1983), pp.293299.
Barquero, J. & Ellenberg, L.: Geomorphologie der alpinen Stufe des Chirrip in Costa Rica.
Eiszeit und Gegen. 36 (1986), pp.19.
van Uffelen, J.G.: A geological/geomorphological and soil transect study of the Chirrip Massif
and Adjacent areas, Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica. Centro Agronmico Tropical de
Investigacin y Enseanza Agricultural, University Wageningen, Ministerio de Agricultura y
Ganaderia de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional, Heredia, 1991.
Shimizu, C.: Glacial landforms around Cerro Chirrip in Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica.
J. of Geogr. (Japan) 101 (1992), pp.615621 (In Japanese).
Protti, R.: Evidencias de glaciacin en el Valle del General (Costa Rica) durante el Pleistoceno
tardio. R. Geol. Am. Cent. 19/20 (1996), pp.7585.
Orvis, K.H. & Horn, S.P.: Quaternary Glaciers and climate on Cerro Chirrip, Costa Rica.
Quat. Res. 54 (2000), pp.2437.
Lachniet, M.S. & Seltzer, G.O.: Late Quaternary Glaciation of Costa Rica. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull.
114 (2002), pp.547558. Errata, p. 922.
Horn, S.P.: Timing of deglaciation in the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica. Clim. Res. 1
(1990), pp.8183.
Lachniet, M.S., Seltzer, G.O. & Sols, L.: Geologa, geomorfologa y depsitos glaciares en los
pramos de Costa Rica. In: M. Kappelle, S.P. Horn and A. Chaverri (eds): Pramos de Costa
Rica. INBio, 2005, pp.129146.
Lachniet, M.S.: Late Quaternary glaciation of Costa Rica and Guatemala. In J. Ehlers and P.L.
Gibbard (eds): Quaternary glaciations extent and chronology, part III: South America,
Asia, Africa, Australia, Antarctica. Developments in Quaternary Science, Elsevier, Amsterdam,
2004, pp.135138.
Glocke, K., Lahmann, E., Rojas, G. & Romero, J.: Morphometric and basic limnological data
of Laguna Grande de Chirrip, Costa Rica. Rev. Biol. Trop. 29 (1981), pp.165174.
Horn, S.P.: Postglacial vegetation and fire history in the Chirrip Pramo of Costa Rica. Quat.
Res. 40 (1993), pp.107116.
Schubert, C. & Clapperton, C.M.: Quaternary glaciations in the northern Andes (Venezuela,
Colombia, and Ecuador). Quat. Sci. Rev. 9 (1990), pp.123135.
Benn, D.I. & Gemmell, A.M.D.: Calculating equilibrium-line altitudes of former glaciers by
the balance ratio method: a new computer spreadsheet. Glaci. Geol. Geomorph.. (1997)
http://ggg.qub.ac.uk/papers/frame.htm.
Kaser, G. & Osmaston, H.: Tropical Glaciers. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.
2002.
Lachniet, M.S. & Vazquz-Selem, L.: Last Glacial Maximum equilibrium line altitudes in the
circum-Caribbean (Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia, and Venezuela). Quat. Int.
138139C (2005), pp.129144.
Gardner, T.W., Back, W., Bullard, T.F., Hare, P.W., Kesel, R.H., Lowe, D.R., Menges, C.M.,
Mora, S.C., Pazzaglia, F.J., Sasowsky, I.D., Troester, J.W. & Wells, S.G.: In: W.L. Graf (ed):
Central America and the Caribbean, Geomorphic systems of North America: Geol. Soc. Am.,
Centennial Special volume 2, Boulder, 1987, pp.343402.
Kesel, R.H.: Quaternary History of the Ro General valley, Costa Rica. Research Reports
Nat. Geog. Soc. 15 (1983), pp.339.
Kesel, R.H. & Spicer, B.E.: Geomorphologic relationships and ages of soils on alluvial fans in
the Rio General Valley, Costa Rica. Catena 12 (1985), pp.149166.
Helmens, K.F.: Late Pleistocene Glacial sequence in the area of the high plain of Bogot
eastern cordillera, Colombia). Paleogeogr. Paleoclimatol. Paleoecol. 67 (1988), pp.263283.
Helmens, K.F., Rutter, N.W. & Kuhry, P.: Glacier fluctuations in the eastern Andes of
Colombia (South America) during the last 45,000 radiocarbon years. Quat. Int. 3839 (1996),
pp.3948.
White, S.E.: Equilibrium line altitudes of late Pleistocene and recent glaciers in central Mexico.
Geog. Ann. 63 (1981), pp.241249.
Heine, K.: Late Quaternary glacial chronology of the Mexican Volcanoes. Die Geowiss. 6
183
184 GEOMORPHOLOGY
(1988), pp.197205.
32. Vzquez-Selem, L. & Phillips, F.M.: Glacial chronology of Iztacchuatl Volcano, central
Mexico, based on cosmogenic 36Cl exposure ages and tephrochronology (abstract). AMQUA
15th biennial meeting, Puerto Vallarta, Mexico, abstract volume (1998), pp. 174.
33. Seltzer, G.O.: Climatic interpretation of alpine snowline variations on millennial time scales.
Quat. Res. 41 (1994), pp.154159.
34. Hooghiemstra, H., Cleef, A.M., Noldus, G.W. & Kappelle, M.: Upper Quaternary vegetation
dynamics and palaeoclimatology of the La Chonta bog area (Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa
Rica). J. Quat. Sci. 7 (1992), pp.205225.
35. Islebe, G.A. & Hooghiemstra, H.: Vegetation and climate history of montane Costa Rica since
the last glacial. Quat. Sci. Rev. 16 (1997), pp.589604.
36. Rind, D. & Peteet, D.: Terrestrial conditions at the Last Glacial Maximum and CLIMAP seasurface temperature estimates: are they consistent? Quat. Res. 24 (1985), pp.122.
37. Betts, A.K. & Ridgeway, W.: Tropical boundary layer equilibrium in the last ice age. J.
Geophys. Res. 97 (1992), pp.25292534.
38. Broecker, W.S.: Mountain glaciers: recorders of atmospheric water vapor content? Glob.
Biogeochem. Cycle 11 (1997), pp.589597.
39. Hostetler, S.W. & Mix, A.C.: Reassessment of ice-age cooling of the tropical ocean and
atmosphere. Nature 399 (1999), pp.673676.
40. Crowley, T.J.: CLIMAP SSTs re-revisted. Clim. Dyn. 16 (2000), pp.241255.
41. Seager, R., Clement, A.C. & Cane, M.A.: Glacial cooling in the tropics: exploring the roles of
tropospheric water vapor, surface wind speed, and boundary layer processes. J. Atmos. Sci. 57
(2000), pp.21442157.
Chapter 7
Coastal morphology and coral reefs
JORGE CORTS
He [Christopher Columbus] continued
navigating toward the Southeast and arrived
at the Cape of Gracias Dios [Nicaragua]
on the 17 of September [1502] and explored
the Mosquito coast, where he anchored for
some days in the area of Cariary or Cariar
[Isla The Uvita, Limn, Costa Rica] and
then continued on October 5 on the same
Southeast course, observing the coast of the
country whose riches have merited since
then the popular name of Costa Rica, and on
October 6 he arrived at a great bay [Baha
Almirante, Panama]. D.L. Fernndez:
Historia de Costa Rica, 1907.
7.1
INTRODUCTION
The Central American isthmus is a narrow strip of land that divides the two largest
oceans of the world, the Atlantic and the Pacific. The uplift of the isthmus 33.5 million
years before present created a landbridge connecting South and North America and
closed the circumtropical flow of the between the oceans. The landbridge facilitated
movement of terrestrial organisms between the two large tectonic plates as it
simultaneously blocked movement of marine organisms between the now separated
waters to the east (the Atlantic ocean) and to the west (the Pacific Ocean) of the isthmus.
With the closure of the pre-Pliocene sea-oceanographic conditions on each side of the
isthmus changed slowly, producing the tropical Atlantic and Pacific oceans of today [1,
2]. The Caribbean coast of Central America is characterized by relatively stable water
temperatures, extensive coral reefs and seagrass beds, and large areas of carbonate
platforms (e.g., Nicaraguan rise) [3]. The Pacific coast of the isthmus is characterized by
extensive mangrove systems, isolated coral reefs of limited development, and essentially
no seagrasses. Seawater temperatures in the Pacific can be extreme warm during El Nio
events (up to 33 C), or cold (as low as 12 C) during seasonal upwelling [47].
The morphology of the coast of Central America is dictated by the origin,
composition and spatial distribution of rock, and the processes of coastal erosion,
tectonic activity, coastal currents, bioerosion, land accretion (e.g., mangrove forests),
and coral reef development.
In this chapter, the morphology of the Caribbean and Pacific coasts of Central
America is presented with brief descriptions of the predominant coastal ecosystems. In
186 GEOMORPHOLOGY
the final section, current knowledge of the coral reefs of the Caribbean and the Pacific
coasts of Central America is summarized, including the natural and anthropogenic
impacts that are affecting these coral reefs.
7.2
COASTAL GEOMORPHOLOGY
7.2.1 Caribbean coast

Stretching from Belize to Panama, the Caribbean coast of Central America has several
distinctive characteristics (Fig. 7.1). This coast is considered a passive margin, with
few elevated outcrops [1, 8] (Fig. 7.2a). Outcrops on the Caribbean coast are composed
of fossil reefs and beachrock that have been uplifted by tectonic activity, such as
occurred in the MS 7.6 magnitude earthquake on the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica in
1991 [9, 10]. Typically, these rocky outcrops are separated by sandy beaches. Islands
and islets on the Caribbean coast of Central America are formed by fossil reefs,
mangrove accumulations in shallow waters, volcanic rocks and coral ramparts.
Several large rivers flow into the Caribbean of Central America, for example the
Sartoon river between Belize and Guatemala, the Coco between Honduras and
Nicaragua, San Juan between Nicaragua and Costa Rica, and Sixaola between Costa
Rica and Panama. Even though these rivers transport large volumes of sediments there
are no large deltas on the Caribbean coast. The absence of large deltas is probably due
to the strong coastal currents that disperse the sediments [11]. Sediments inhibit coral
reef development nearshore, as exemplified by the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua [12].
The main currents in the Caribbean Sea flow from east to west. The Central
American isthmus deflects some water to the south along the Nicaragua, Costa Rica
and Panama coast. The rest of the current continues west along the Honduras coast and
then curves to the north along the coast of Belize [5]. There are two important gulfs on
the Caribbean coast of Central America: the large, open Gulf of Honduras, which lies
between Belize, Guatemala and Honduras (Fig. 7.1); and the relatively enclosed
embayment at Bocas del Toro, Panama [13].
The coastal zone of Central America is low-lying with fairly intact forest in most
sections. The forests provide a natural terrestrial corridor from Belize to Panama, along
the Caribbean coast [14]. Interrupting the forest corridor are many ports (including the
entrance to the Panama canal), towns, and large cities such as: Belize city, La Ceiba,
Limn, and Cristbal (Fig. 7.1). The cities and towns, from the coast to far inland, all
generate waste that ends up in the Caribbean, be it via direct discharge or via rivers.
Long stretches of the Caribbean coast of Central America are low-lying and may be
associated with coastal lagoons or canals and swamps (Fig. 7.2b). In northern Costa
Rica the coastal canals are separated from each other and from the sea by sand barriers
that represent previous coastlines [15]. The eastern Honduras coast is composed of a
similar arrangement of sand bars and lagoons [16].
Four large carbonate platforms are present on the Caribbean coast of Central
America (Fig. 7.1). Much of Belize as well as the Yucatn consist of karst formations
[16]. The platform along Belize is an intricate composite of various types of coral reefs
(barrier reef, patch reefs and atolls), seagrass beds, mangrove forests and sand patches
[17]. The most extensive carbonate platform, called the Nicaraguan rise, Nicaraguan
shelf or Miskito bank [18], is located offshore along the Caribbean coast of Honduras
and Nicaragua. Patch reefs, mangrove islands and seagrass beds sit atop this large
carbonate platform, that in some areas is composed of Halimeda flakes [19]. The other
Figure 7.1. Map of Central America, with location of the main reef areas, mangroves, and seagrasses.
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188 GEOMORPHOLOGY
two extensive carbonate platforms are located in Panama: Bocas del Toro and San Bls
(Fig. 7.2c). These Panamanian platforms underlie various types of coral reefs,
mangrove islands and forests, and seagrass beds [20].
Mangrove forests and seagrass beds occur along the Caribbean coast of Central
America (Fig. 7.1) and coral reefs are present in the marine waters of all the Central
American countries [3, 21] (Fig. 7.1). Belize has the largest atolls in the Caribbean and
one of the longest barrier reefs in the world [17].
7.2.2 Pacific coast

The Pacific coast of Guatemala and the northern part of El Salvador consist of sandy
beaches, with mangrove forests to landward of the sand bars. These mangrove forests
can be very extensive and important for local economies [22]. At Los Cbanos in El
Salvador (Fig. 7.1) there is a change in orientation of the coast and low rocky outcrops
and platforms appear (Fig. 7.2d). Isolated living corals have been found on the rock
outcrops/platforms [23]. Southward to the Gulf of Fonseca the coast consists of highenergy sandy beaches. The Gulf of Fonseca is the main embayment on the Pacific coast
of northern Central America and it is shared by El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua
(Fig. 7.1). The gulf is surrounded by rocky outcrops and the most extensive mangrove
forests along the Pacific coast of these three countries [22]. In contrast to the
Caribbean, there are only a few islands off the Pacific coast of northern Central
America and all are located in the Gulf of Fonseca [23].
The Pacific coast of southern Nicaragua, all of Costa Rica and most of Panama
consist of a combination of rocky points, sandy beaches, cobble beaches, deltas and
several gulfs (Fig. 7.1). The rocky points range from small promontories to immense
outcrops of rocks of varied origin and composition (Fig. 7.2e). Many islets and islands,
ranging from a few square meters to several square kilometers, occur off the coast of
southern Central America, especially in Panama. There is also a volcanic oceanic
island, the Cocos island, which lies more than 500 km to the southwest of Costa Rica
(Fig. 7.2f).
Five gulfs dominate the southern coast of Central America: the Gulf of Papagayo
[7]; the Gulf of Nicoya, a typical estuary [24]; the Golfo Dulce, a tropical fjord [25]
(Fig. 7.3a); the Gulf of Chiriqu, a large open gulf with many islands and coral reefs
[26, 27]; and the Gulf of Panama, a shallow, upwelling area with an exaggerated tidal
range, up to 8 m [2, 14]. In addition, many small bays are found along the coast
(Fig. 7.1).
The estuaries, such as the Gulf of Nicoya, are diverse and highly productive areas
that are essential to the local artisanal fisheries [28]. It is clear that environmental
changes on the watersheds, such as deforestation, erosion, changes in water flow, and
use of chemicals, are adversely affecting the estuaries [28]. Upwelling areas are very
productive and support important coastal fisheries. Between December and AprilMay,
the trade winds cross the Central American isthmus, generating coastal upwelling off
the southern section of Nicaragua and northern Costa Rica (Gulf of Papagayo), and in
the Gulf of Panama. Elsewhere along the Pacific coast, high mountains divert the trade
winds from the coastal waters [2, 2931]. During the peak of upwelling surface water
temperatures can drop to as low as 12 C (e.g., [32]) and there is a shift in the
zooplankton to more conspicuous gelatinous organisms [31].
The Pacific coast of Central America has the largest ports and cities in the region
Figure 7.2. (a) Exposed fossil coral reef on the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica; the present day
reefs grow over submerged sections of these fossil reefs; (b) Coastal canals parallel to the
shoreline on the northeast coast of Costa Rica; (c) Coral reefs on the carbonate platform at
San Bls, Panama; (d) Rocky promontories and sandy beach at Los Cbanos, El Salvador;
(e) Rocky outcrop on the Pacific coast of Panama; (f) Cocos island, a volcanic structure, is
the only oceanic island belonging to a Central American country.
(Fig. 7.3b). Very little forest remains outside of southern Costa Rica and the
southeasternmost section of Panama. There are few coastal lagoons or swamps, and
none have been studied. Mangrove forests are extensive along the Pacific coast of all
Central American countries. Seagrasses are extremely rare in the region, with only a
few patches reported. Coral reefs are generally small and limited in distribution,
occurring in Panama and Costa Rica. Coral communities (as opposed to reefs) are
found in El Salvador and possibly in southern Nicaragua.
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190 GEOMORPHOLOGY
7.3
COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS
7.3.1 Beaches
Caribbean and Pacific coasts of all countries in Central America have both sandy and
cobble beaches. Unfortunately, beach community research in these areas is scarce.
Only two studies have documented the macroinfauna of beaches in Central America.
One study compared a single beach in Caribbean Panama with a single beach in Pacific
Panama [33] and the other study surveyed five Caribbean Costa Rica and eight Pacific
Costa Rica beaches [34]. Both studies reported the diversity, biomass and density of
organisms were higher in the Pacific than in the Caribbean and that the majority of the
fauna consisted of related species with similar patterns of distribution on both coasts.
The most abundant organisms were isopods. Considerable research has been conducted
on the marine sea turtles that frequent the nearshore waters of Central America to nest,
mate, forage or rest. Tortuguero (Caribbean) and Las Baulas (Pacific) in Costa Rica
(Fig. 7.1) are just two of the internationally important turtle nesting beaches (Fig. 7.3c).
7.3.2 Rocky outcrops

There is a paucity of information on the rocky intertidal zone of the Caribbean coast of
Central America. Research published on the endolithic fauna of the intertidal and
shallow subtidal zones of Cahuita, Costa Rica [35] (Fig. 7.1) found that polychaetes
and sipunculids were the most abundant endolithic fauna. Rock surfaces were inhabited
primarily by mollusks. Studies conducted in the San Bls islands of Panama (Fig. 7.1),
reported boring sponges to be the most abundant endolithic organisms [35]. Other
research in Panama documented the declines or disappearance of populations of some
echinoid species when the reef flat was exposed to the air [36].
A few studies have explored the rocky intertidal zones of the Pacific of Costa Rica
[3739] and Panama [40, 41] (Fig. 7.3d). Rocky intertidal gastropod assemblages in
Costa Rica were found to contain five times more species than assemblages in
Washington State [42]. The organisms of the rocky intertidal zone are constrained by
physical stress. To survive the physical stresses inherent in the rocky intertidal zone,
gastropods studied in Panama used activity patterns such as coming out at night and
use of microhabitats as protection from heat and desiccation [40]. Some species
exhibited behavioral patterns such as sealing the shell with the operculum or elevating
the shell to reduce contact with the hot rocks, in order to reduce desiccation and heat
stress [40].
7.3.3 Intertidal mud flats

Mud flats are formed where there is a source of sediments and reduced water
movement. They are common in mangrove areas (Fig. 7.3e). Detailed studies have
been conducted on the intertidal mudflats in the Gulf of Nicoya [4347]. The most
abundant groups of organisms were deposit feeders and most species appeared to
reproduce throughout the year. Peaks of reproductive activity, however, were detected
for some species [43]. The macrofauna of the mudflats showed significant oscillations
of the dominant species [44]. A positive correlation between the fraction of silt and
clay in the mud and the abundance of meiofaunal organisms was reported [45]. Some
meiofaunal species showed regular seasonal fluctuations while others did not have a
Figure 7.3. (a) Dulce gulf, Costa Rica, a tropical fjord; (b) Panama city, Panama, the largest city
on the Pacific coast of Central America; (c) Leatherback turtle on a Pacific Costa Rican sand
beach; (d) Rocky intertidal zone on the Pacific coast; (e) Intertidal mudflat in Gulf of Nicoya,
Costa Rica (Photograph by Ulrich Saint-Paul); (f) Mangrove forest on the Pacific coast.
definable pattern [46, 47]. Studies have also been carried out in El Salvador [48], and
Panama. A comparison of the tidal mud flats from Australia and Central America (El
Salvador, Costa Rica and Panama) showed a high degree of faunal similarity despite
the spatially separated biogeographic areas and found considerable variation in species
diversity, even within the same geographic area [49]. The life forms of benthic fauna in
both regions were found to be similar as were the ecological roles taken by related
species. Most interestingly, some specific ecological roles in Australia had no
counterpart in Central America [49].
7.3.4 Mangroves
Caribbean mangrove forest development is extensive in Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua
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192 GEOMORPHOLOGY
and Panama, but minimal in Guatemala, due to the limited coastal area [50], and in
Costa Rica, due to the presence of high-energy beaches or coral reefs [8, 51]. The main
species of mangroves occurring on the Caribbean coast are Rhizophora mangle,
Laguncularia racemosa and Avicennia germinans [5254]. The largest areas of
mangrove cover are on the Nicaraguan rise. Extensive forests are also found in Bocas
del Toro [13].
Mangrove forests occur on the Pacific coast of all the Central American countries,
with the most extensive in Costa Rica and Panama [23, 55, 56] (Fig. 7.3f). Mangroves
are extremely important breeding and nursery grounds for commercially important
species of fishes and crustaceans, provide habitat for wildlife, protect the coast from
erosion, and stabilize land-derived sediment. The most abundant species of mangrove
belong to two genera: Rhizophora and Avicennia, with the species: R. mangle, R.
racemosa, R. hariisonii, A. germinans and A. bicolor. Other species present on the
Pacific coast are: Laguncularia racemosa, Conocarpus erecta and Pelliciera
rhizophorae [23, 5558].
7.3.5 Seagrasses
Seagrasses are present on the Caribbean coast of all Central American countries:
Guatemala [50], Belize [17], Honduras [59], Nicaragua [18], Costa Rica [60], and
Panama [13, 61]. The main species of seagrasses are: Thalassia testudinum and
Syringodium filiformis (Fig. 7.4a). In some regions seagrasses cover extensive areas,
such as on the Nicaraguan rise [62]. Recent comprehensive research explored the use
of seagrass beds by fishes and decapod crustaceans in Guatemala [63, 64] and
quantified the biomass, productivity and density of the seagrass Thalassia testudinum
meadows in Costa Rica [65].
The presence of seagrasses has been documented along the Pacific coast of
Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama [66]. However, only the
Costa Rican seagrass beds have been described in detail [67]. The most common
species in the region are: Ruppia maritima and Halophila baillonii. Ruppia maritima
has been reported from all Central American countries, whereas Halophila baillonii has
been reported from Panama [66] and recently from Costa Rica [67]. Other species
reported are Halodule beaudettei (possibly from the Caribbean coast) from Guatemala,
Nicaragua and Panama, and Naja marina from El Salvador [66].
7.4
CORAL REEFS
Coral reefs on each side of the isthmus are built by completely different species of
corals that produce very different reef structures [68]. Central America divides the
coral world into two distinct provinces, on one side is the Caribbean-Atlantic and on
the other side is the Indo-Pacific province. The two provinces/oceans have no species
of reef-building corals in common, meaning that the coral reefs in the Caribbean are
built by totally different species of coral than are the reefs in the Pacific [21]. Before
the emergence of the Central American isthmus the species on both sides were similar,
but after the emergence, the populations were separated and the oceanographic
conditions of the eastern Pacific changed radically. First, the emergence of the isthmus
created the conditions for the development of El Nio-Southern Oscillation events,
which can result in sea surface temperature increases of up to 4 C [4, 21, 68].
Figure 7.4. (a) Seagrass bed (Thalassia testudinum) on the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica;
(b) Underwater view of a coral reef in the Bay islands, Honduras; (c) Seascape of a coral reef
at Cocos island, Costa Rica; (d) Coral bleaching during the 198283 El Nio-Southern
Oscillation; (e) Terrigenous sediments swirling over a coral reef on the Pacific coast of Costa
Rica.
Second, seasonal coastal upwelling can lower the sea surface temperature during part
of the year. Thus, the corals in the Pacific were subjected to much greater extremes of
temperature, as well as other differences in the physical, chemical and biological
environment of the Pacific Ocean. Because the coral reefs on both sides of Central
America are distinct from each other, they will be treated separately in the following
sections.
7.4.1 Caribbean coast

Coral reefs occur in the nearshore waters of all Central American countries, with the
largest Caribbean barrier reef in Belize. Belizes coral reefs have been extensively and
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194 GEOMORPHOLOGY
intensively studied for many years. Belize has many coral reefs, of many different
types, from patch reefs to oceanic atolls, and high coral diversity [17]. At the other
extreme, Guatemalan reefs are scarce with relatively small patches of coral about
which little is known [50]. Honduras has many reefs, some of them in very good
condition, with high coral diversity [3, 6971] (Fig. 7.4b). Nicaragua has the largest
carbonate platform in the southern Caribbean, with patch reefs dispersed over the
platform, and fringing reefs around some of the islands [18]. Costa Rica has fringing
and patch reefs on the southern part of the coast, as well as an incipient algal ridge [60].
Panama also has extensive, complex coral reefs. Some of them are very well studied,
but most have only recently been explored [13, 20, 7276].
7.4.2 Pacific coast

Coral reefs of the eastern tropical Pacific are relatively small, isolated and composed of
a relatively few coral species [4, 77] (Fig. 7.4c). Guatemala and Honduras have no
coral reefs on their Pacific coasts. Neither the high-energy sandy beaches of Guatemala
nor the estuarine habitat of Honduras are conducive to coral growth [70]. El Salvador
coral communities are limited to a rocky outcrop at Los Cbanos (Fig. 7.1). The rest of
the El Salvadoran coast is made up of sandy beaches or muddy estuaries [22].
Nicaragua has no reported coral reefs, only isolated coral colonies [18], but there may
be reefs on the southern end of the coast, near reefs in nearby Costa Rican waters.
Costa Rica has coral reefs and coral communities all along the Pacific coast, with the
main species of corals that build the reefs changing from north to south. The largest
reefs occur along the coast of the southern part of the country and around Cocos island,
500 km offshore [78] (Fig. 7.1). Panama has many coral reefs, some of them well
studied. Reefs in Panama are large and well developed in both the Gulf of Chiriqu,
where there is no upwelling, and in the Gulf of Panama, where upwelling occurs [26,
27, 79] (Fig. 7.1).
7.4.3 Natural disturbances to coral reefs

Coral reefs around the world are being degraded by natural and anthropogenic impacts
[8081], and Central American reefs are no exception. Extensive mortality of corals
associated with bleaching (Fig. 7.4d) has been observed worldwide. The bleaching
results from the loss of color caused by the expulsion or degradation of the symbiotic
algae that live within the coral tissue and give color to the coral. Although bleaching
can be caused by extremes in water temperature, salinity, sediment, or bacterial
infection, mass bleaching episodes are correlated with higher than usual water
temperatures, especially during El Nio-Southern oscillation periods. Central American
reefs such as those in Belize [82], the Caribbean coasts of Honduras [73] and Costa
Rica [83], and the Pacific coasts of Costa Rica [7, 8486] and Panama [27, 87] have
been greatly affected by these warming events. The bleaching-related mortalities have
resulted in a significant reduction in live coral cover.
Hurricanes are another natural disturbance that can cause significant mortality of
corals in the northern Central American Caribbean [17]. The 50% reduction of live
coral that occurred between 1997 and 1999 in Belize has been attributed to hurricane
Mitch and hurricane-related coral bleaching [71]. Tectonic activity is another natural
process that can cause mortality of coral and seagrass. Along the southern section of
Central America, a single MS 7.6 earthquake on the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica
resulted in the uplift of corals and extensive seagrass beds, causing their death by
exposing them to the air [88].
Ultimately, climate change is predicted to affect corals reefs in several ways: rising
sea-level, increasing coastal erosion and sedimentation, increasing water temperatures,
and, the increasing CO2 in seawater will cause a decrease in coral calcification rates
[80, 89].
7.4.4 Anthropogenic impacts to coral reefs

Pollution, including garbage, adversely impacts coral reefs. Oil pollution has been
monitored in Costa Rica for many years [90]. Most research regarding this issue in
Central America has been conducted in a bay near an oil refinery on Panamas
Caribbean coast. There has been long-term influx of hydrocarbons from the refinery to
the bay [91], including several large oil spills [92]. The oil has directly caused
mortality of corals, decreased the ability of the coral to recover from wounds, and
stopped sexual reproduction in several species [9395]. Other pollutants include toxic
heavy metals from industry and farming in Panama and Costa Rica [96, 97].
Historical coral mining is evident in Panama, where the Spanish fortifications were
built with coral ([20], Jimnez and Guzmn pers. comm., 2004). An estimated
12,923 m3 of coral were mined from the late 1500s to mid 1700s, in Portobelo, Panama
alone. Coral mining today continues to degrade the coral reefs of San Bls, Caribbean
of Panama (Fig. 7.1). Corals are being removed from the reef to increase the size of the
islands in order to compensate for population growth of the indigenous population [76].
Tourism is important to the economies of many Central American countries.
Tourism has been touted as non-polluting and of low environmental impact; however,
there are important direct and indirect tourism-related impacts to coral reefs. Direct
impacts of tourism on coral reefs include reef walkers, curio collection, construction of
tourism facilities too close to or over the reefs, anchor and boat-related damage, and
damage caused by divers and snorkelers [60]. Indirect effects include over-exploitation
of resources to satisfy the demand for seafood, sedimentation from construction, loss of
mangrove forests and coastal swamps for construction, sewage from tourism facilities,
and other indirect effects from a range of pollutants [80].
Probably the main anthropogenic impact on coral reefs in Central America is the
increase in terrigenous sedimentation. Sediments can bury corals and kill them when
the loads are high (Fig. 7.4e). Even at lower sediment concentrations, corals expend
energy cleaning the sediment off the colony, energy that cannot be used for growth,
wound healing or reproduction [60, 78, 98, 99].
7.5
CONCLUSIONS
Central America is bordered by the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. The
Caribbean coastline is a passive margin. It is low-lying, with extensive carbonate
platforms, coral reefs, mangrove forests and seagrass beds. The Pacific coastline is a
characteristic active margin, with small, isolated coral reefs, extensive mangroves,
practically no seagrasses, and long sandy beaches. Coral reefs on both sides of the
Central American isthmus are very different in terms of coral species composition and
reef structure, but both sides face environmental problems that are degrading the coral
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196 GEOMORPHOLOGY
reefs and other coastal ecosystems. In summary, Central America is a thin stretch of
land separating two huge oceans, resulting in extremely interesting, important and
delicate coastal and marine ecosystems. With a few notable exceptions, these marine
environments have been studied very little. Unfortunately, most of these extremely
delicate, interesting and important coastal and marine ecosystems are being severely
degraded by natural and anthropogenic impacts.
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Chapter 8
Overview of plate tectonic history and its
unresolved tectonic problems
PAUL MANN, ROBERT D. ROGERS AND LISA GAHAGAN
Although several of the ideas basic to the
following discussion have been presented in
earlier publications, no attempt has been
made to integrate these separate ideas into a
broader outline of the geologic history of the
Caribbean, nor have many of these ideas
been presented in the context of plate
tectonics. B.T. Malfait and M.G.
Dinkelman: Circum-Caribbean Tectonic and
Igneous Activity and the Evolution of the
Caribbean Plate. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 83,
pp. 251272, 1972.
8.1
INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES
Central America provides an accessible natural laboratory for the study of how tectonic
and volcanic processes operate in tandem (Fig. 8.1). Two factors that make this region
favorable for integrated tectonic-volcanic studies are that the outputs of the system are
accessible for study in the onland arc, and that the oceanic inputs to arc systems are
reasonably well constrained due to the large, rapidly expanding, and digital database of
offshore geological and geophysical data (e.g., [1]) (Figs. 8.2 and 8.3).
The various segments of the Central American volcanic arc (CAVA) and its modern
volcanic front (CAVF) summarized on Figure 8.1 offer many advantages for
researchers to:
nvestigate large variations in the slab/sediment component of volcanic products
that are observed along the arc, especially the dramatic changes between Nicaragua
and Costa Rica. Volcanoes in Nicaragua record the global maximum in recycled
sediment signatures, such as 10Be and Ba/La [24].
Investigate large-scale forcing functions on the Central American volcanic arc or
subduction factory, such as the variation in convergence rate (~6590 mm/yr;
Fig. 8.1) along the margin, and its effect on mass fluxes of sediments, carbonate,
and water through the subduction system [4].
xamine the effects of different ages (1524 Ma) and thicknesses (618 km) of
subducting oceanic crust on the geochemical properties of the CAVA and CAVF
(Fig. 8.2) [1, 5].
xamine a well-exposed, onland temporal record of MiocenePliocene arc
volcanism that can be tracked through time as a result of the shift in the volcanic
axis of the CAVA from the northeast to southwest [4].
202 TECTONICS AND GEODYNAMICS
xamine the geochemistry of volcanic products which are not significantly

contaminated and complicated by the continental arc and oceanic plateau crust of
the overriding Caribbean plate [3, 4].
xamine an extremely active arc with closely spaced volcanoes and arc-related
faults that often pose major hazards to local populations [6].
View the plutonic roots of the arc in an area affected by shallow subduction of the
Cocos ridge, where the arc can be traced along strike into the modern CAVF to the
northwest and southeast [79] (Fig. 8.2).
While this area has many advantages for studies of both modern and ancient subduction
processes, the regional tectonic development of the CAVA and CAVF is more complex
than is presently perceived, and an improved tectonic framework will be an important
step in more detailed subduction studies.
For example, there are several potential areas for the study of longer term tectonic
processes that have shaped the Cenozoic CAVA and modern CAVF. Some of these
longer term tectonic processes include: (1) the detachment, translation and rotation of
the continental Chortis block of northern Central America which forms the basement
for the northern part of the CAVA and CAVF; (2) slab break-off events affecting the
subducting Cocos plate of the type described by Rogers et al. [10] in northern Central
America in the Miocene and by Ferrari [11] for Miocene arcs in southern Mexico; (3)
dramatic increases in the Cocos-Caribbean plate convergence rate, based on the superfast Early to Middle Miocene Cocos-Pacific spreading rates at the East Pacific rise
reported by Wilson [12] (Fig. 8.2); and (4) changing positions of the Cocos-NazcaCaribbean triple junction, now located off the Costa Rica-Panama border (Fig. 8.1);
based on current plate motions (Nuvel-1, [13]). Several interpretations show that this
triple junction may have swept NW to SE along most of the Costa Rican Pacific margin
since ~10 Ma [14, 15] (Fig. 8.1).
Such significant changes in plate motions and forcing functions must be taken into
account in any systematic effort to understand the ancient and active processes of the
Central American subduction system. Unfortunately, current plate reconstructions fail
to explain many geologic constraints in the published literature.
______________________________________________________________________________
Figure 8.1 (right). Tectonic and topographic setting of the Central American arc (volcanic arc
segments 25), Trans-Mexican volcanic belt (segment 1) and the Middle America trench.
Plate motions in cm/yr for Caribbean-North American plates are from Demets et al. [91] and
for Cocos-Caribbean and Nazca-Caribbean plates are from DeMets and Dixon [96]. Box
shows approximate area of the MARGINS subduction factory focused study area of arc
segment 3 in Nicaragua and arc segment 4 in Costa Rica. Basement block types of overriding
Caribbean plate include the following terranes described in the text: the Central Chortis
terrane is underlain by Grenville age Precambrian crust detached from the southern margin of
Mexico in the Late Cretaceous to Paleogene (approximate reconstructed Late Cretaceous
position of Chortis is shown by dotted outline and is from Rogers [98]); Eastern Chortis
terrane is underlain by Jurassic metasedimentary rocks formed along the Mesozoic rifted
margin of the Chortis block; the Siuna terrane is underlain by deformed rocks of oceanic
island origin that were accreted to the eastern Chortis terrane during Late Cretaceous time
[24, 36, 37] the southern Chortis terrane is underlain by a Late Cretaceous island arc accreted
to the Central Chortis terrane in Late Cretaceous time; the arc is inferred to represent a
fragment of the Guerrero terrane of Mexico [38]; and northern Chortis terrane is inferred to
record a magmatic overprinting of parts of the central and eastern Chortis terranes. Age and
position of ends of Cayman trough from Leroy et al. [40]; positions of Cocos-NazcaCaribbean triple junction from McIntosh et al. [15].
203
To elucidate the tectonic setting of Central America, and more specifically, the
evolving Central American subduction system, a quantitative set of plate
reconstructions of Central America and Caribbean region for the period of 1650 Ma is
presented in this chapter.
The reconstructions are used as background to discuss unresolved questions
concerning the changing position of the subduction plate boundary through time,
changing rates of subduction, changing angles of subduction, changing ages of the
subducted crust, and the current position and past migration of triple junctions.
Knowledge of the tectonic setting through time is necessary to support any conclusions
concerning the temporal variation of the geochemical output at the CAVA.
The reconstructions presented here take into account a great deal of new magnetic
and fracture zone data acquired in the past 12 years [12, 1618]. These data allow a
much more accurate description of oceanic plate motions (Cocos, Nazca, Pacific)
compared to reconstructions widely used in the region [19, 20] (Fig. 8.2).
The reconstructions of the Cocos-Nazca-Caribbean plates, linked by magnetic
anomalies and fracture zones to the North and South America plates, provide the
tectonic framework needed to constrain the large-scale forcing functions of the
CAVA. These include properties such as convergence rate, age of subducted
lithosphere, and position of plate boundaries through time, which are key elements to a
variety of ongoing CAVA studies including geochemistry, GPS geodesy, volcanology,
seismology, and geophysics. Recent onshore geologic work (e.g., [4, 21, 22]) document
and date critical tectonic processes and changes. The offshore geophysical database,
which now includes seismic reflection and refraction [1, 15, 24, 25], gravity, magnetic,
and swath bathymetry data [26, 27] constrain the tectonic history.
8.2
METHODOLOGY OF THIS CHAPTER
Reconstructions presented in this paper are based on the following steps:

Compilation of all existing magnetic anomaly (Cenozoic) and fracture zone data
from the Cayman trough (Caribbean Sea) and eastern Pacific Ocean. We use
extensive fracture zone and magnetic anomaly data from Udo Barckhausen, Hans
Roeser and co-workers of BGR (Germany) [18];
Integration of main Cenozoic tectonic events in the surrounding ocean basins,
which have potentially affected the Central American subduction factory, including:
(1) initiation and subsequent seafloor spreading in the Cayman trough; (2) early
rifting of the Faralln plate at 22.7 Ma; (3) super-fast spreading on the East Pacific
rise between 18 and 10 Ma; and (4) early history of the Cocos ridge and its offset
by the Panama fracture zone around 6 Ma;
Integration of main Cenozoic tectonic events onshore in Central America that
potentially affected the Central America subduction factory, including: (1) eastward
migration of the Chortis continental block to northern Central America and
progressive 3528 Ma cessation of plutonic activity in southern Mexico [28]; (2)
NE to SW migration of the volcanic arc activity and opening of the Nicaraguan
backarc basin from 100 Ma [4]; (3) west to east migration of Carib-Cocos-Nazca
triple junction along the Costa Rican margin from 80 Ma [15]; and (4) Pliocene to
recent collision of the Cocos ridge with the margin [7, 29].
Figure 8.2. Marine magnetic anomalies and fracture zones which constrain tectonic
reconstructions such as those shown in Figure 8.5 (ages of anomalies are keyed to colors as
explained in the legend; all anomalies shown are from UTIG PLATES data base [97]): (1)
Boxed area in solid blue line is area of anomaly and fracture zone picks by Leroy et al. [40]
and Rosencrantz [56] for the Cayman trough; (2) boxed area in dashed purple line shows
anomalies and fracture zones of Barckhausen et al.[18] for the Cocos plate; (3) boxed area in
dashed green line shows anomalies and fracture zones from Wilson and Hey [16]; and (4)
boxed area in red shows anomalies and fracture zones from Wilson [12]. Onland outcrops in
green are either the obducted Cretaceous Caribbean large igneous province, including the
Siuna belt, or obducted ophiolites unrelated to the large igneous province (Motagua
ophiolites). The magnetic anomalies and fracture zones record the Cenozoic relative motions
of all divergent plate pairs influencing the Central American subduction zone (Caribbean,
Nazca, Cocos, North America, and South America). When incorporated into a plate model,
these anomalies and fracture zones provide important constraints on the age and thickness of
subducted crust, incidence angle of subduction, and rate of subduction for the Central
American region.
8.3
OVERVIEW OF THE TECTONIC HISTORY OF CENTRAL AMERICA AND

THE CAVA
The CAVA and CAVF show complexities related to the mobility of the Caribbean
plate and other small plates or microplates in the complexly deformed region between
the much larger North and South American plates and along the convergent margin
with eastern Pacific oceanic plates (Fig. 8.1). Much of the relative movements of these
elements has been broadly outlined in previous reconstructions, such as those by
Pindell and Barrett [30], Pindell and Kennan [20] and Meschede and Barckhausen [31];
however, these motions are quantitatively reconstructed by incorporating as many of
the recent magnetic (Figs. 8.2 and 8.3), fracture zone, and geologic (Fig. 8.1)
205
constraints as possible. The reconstructions show that some of the tectonic and
geochemical complexities of the CAVA and CAVF may be related to structures and
crustal variations in the upper plate.
Some important tectonic elements of the CAVA that attest to its mobility,
highlighted in reconstructions of the region, include the following features:
Chortis block: This area has been traditionally regarded as the Precambrian
Paleozoic continental nucleus of northern Central America upon which the CAVA
formed (Fig. 8.1). Radiometric dating by Schaff et al. [28] shows the diachronous
nature of magmatism along the southern coast of Mexico that supports the proposed
progressive, Cenozoic west to east translation and counter-clockwise rotation of the
Chortis block from its Late Cretaceous position proposed by Pindell and Barrett
[33] and shown in Figure 8.1. This large-scale left-lateral offset is consistent with a
minimum of 1100 km of left-lateral offset recorded on the narrow Cayman trough
to the east (Fig. 8.3). Recent studies by Rogers [34] and Rogers et al. [35] show that
the block is not homogeneous and can be divided into tectonic terranes shown on
Figure 8.1: (1) the Central Chortis terrane, underlain by Grenville age Precambrian
crust detached from the southern margin of Mexico in the Late Cretaceous to
Paleogene (approximate reconstructed position of Chortis is shown in Figure 8.1);
(2) the eastern Chortis terrane, underlain by Jurassic metasedimentary rocks formed
along the Mesozoic rifted margin of the Chortis block; (3) the Siuna terrane,
underlain by deformed rocks of oceanic island origin accreted to the eastern Chortis
terrane during Late Cretaceous time [24, 36, 37]; (4) the southern Chortis terrane is
underlain by a Late Cretaceous island arc accreted to the Central Chortis terrane in
Late Cretaceous time; the arc is inferred to represent a fragment of the Guerrero
terrane of Mexico [38] and (5) the northern Chortis terrane, the area of magmatic
overprinting of parts of the Central and eastern Chortis terranes. In Figure 8.1, the
boundaries between these varying basement types strike at right angles to the
CAVA and may be important controls on the tectonic structures of the arc and types
of magmas erupted along this subduction boundary. For example, a large ignimbrite
erupted between 19 and 14 Ma and aligned along the northwest-trending boundary
of continental terranes of the Chortis block suggests that melting was guided by this
crustal break [10]. Movements along block boundaries within Chortis may also
account for the changes in strike directions of the active arc segments in Nicaragua
and Costa Rica numbered 3 and 4 on Figure 8.1. The interpreted basement
boundaries also coincide fairly well with many of the offsets that segment the
volcanic arc.
Cayman trough: This 1100-km-long oceanic basin formed as a pull-apart basin at
the Mid-Cayman spreading center (MCSC) between 49 Ma and present [39, 40].
The marine magnetic anomalies and fracture zones produced by seafloor spreading
provide a partial record of the motion between the North America and Caribbean
plates and Chortis block as well as the changing position and counterclockwise
rotation of the CAVA through time (Fig. 8.1), provided the complexities of the
Gonave microplate, at the southeastern edge of the Cayman trough in Jamaica and
Hispaniola, are taken into account [41]. Recent work by Mller et al. [42] suggests
that the Caribbean plate has remained fixed relative to Atlantic and Indian Ocean
hotspots for much of the Cenozoic. By understanding the motion of the Caribbean
plate, including the Chortis block, kinematic constraints on the CAVA and CAVF
should be able to be improved.
Figure 8.3. Marine magnetic anomaly interpretations of the Cayman trough. MCSC: MidCayman spreading center. (a) Rosencrantz [56] interpretation: numbers next to lineations
identify magnetic anomalies; (b) Leroy et al. [40] interpretation: numbers next to lineations
identify magnetic anomaly numbers; (c) Ten Brink et al. [99] interpretation showing larger
area of thinned, continental crust. Numbers next to lineations represent their crustal thickness
values.
207
8.4
KEY TECTONIC EVENTS AFFECTING CENTRAL AMERICA SHOWN IN

THE PLATE RECONSTRUCTIONS
The reconstructions shown in Figures 8.4ah coincide with major tectonic events. The
main Cenozoic tectonic events in the surrounding ocean basins, which have potentially
affected the Central American volcanic arc, include the following:
initiation of spreading of the Cayman trough around 49 Ma (diffuse rifting that
preceded organized seafloor spreading at the Mid-Cayman spreading center began
earlier [43]) (Fig. 8.3);
slowdown or cessation of Cayman trough spreading at 2620 Ma [56] (Fig. 8.3);
early rifting and breakup of the Faralln plate at 22.7 Ma and the original
distribution of now dispersed fragments that include the Cocos, Malpelo, and
Carnegie ridges [31] (Fig. 8.2);
super-fast spreading on the East Pacific rise between ~18 and 10 Ma [12];
offset of the Cocos ridge by the Panama fracture zone around 6 Ma [44].
The main Cenozoic tectonic events in the Central America that potentially affected the
CAVA and CAVF in a diachronous manner include:
eastward migration relative to the Chortis continental block to northern Central
America and progressive 3528 Ma cessation of plutonic activity in southern
Mexico [28];
NE to SW migration of the volcanic arc and opening of the Nicaraguan backarc
basin from 100 Ma [4, 21];
NW to SE migration of Carib-Cocos-Nazca triple junction across the Costa Rican
margin from ~80 Ma [15, 44];
collision of the Cocos ridge with the Costa Rican margin from 5.5 to 3.5 Ma [29,
45] with a slight east to west component of collision;
ridge subduction and slab window (gap in subducting plate) formation beneath
Costa Rica and Panama as a result of either triple junction migration [22] or
subduction of the Cocos ridge [46].
The reconstructions also integrate the main Cenozoic tectonic events affecting the
Caribbean plate as a whole. For example, recent work has suggested that the Caribbean
plate has remained stable relative to Atlantic and Indian Ocean hotspots since 38 Ma
[42]. North and South America converged rapidly from 38 to 10 Ma and slowly from
10 to 0 Ma [47].
8.5
PLATE RECONSTRUCTIONS OF CENTRAL AMERICA: 1650 MA
8.5.1 Plate reconstructions of Central America and the eastern Pacific

Several plate tectonic models for the Caribbean and Pacific Ocean appeared during the
late 1980s and early 1990s. These works included: Ross and Scotese [19], Rosencrantz
et al. [39], Mayes et al. [48], Atwater and Severinghaus [49], and Pindell and Barrett
[30]. Since these early efforts, new marine magnetic anomaly/fracture zone data and
new interpretations of existing data have been published in these regions [12, 16, 18,
40, 50, 51]. Some of these data were incorporated in more recent plate models by
Meschede et al. [52], Meschede and Barckhausen (ODP Leg 170 Scientific Results,
[31]), Mann [65], and Mller et al. [42]. Mann [53] incorporated the North AmericaSouth America-Africa motions determined by Mller et al. [42], using the PLATES
software [97] and database to expand the area extent of their reconstructions [97]. He
did not incorporate of the magnetic anomaly picks of Leroy et al. [40] or Barckhausen
et al. [18] who worked independently.
A series of plate reconstructions is presented from the MiddleLate Jurassic to the
present-day that depicts the evolution of Central America in the regional context of the
southern Cordillera of western North America, the Caribbean plate, the Cayman trough
of the Caribbean, and the oceanic plates of the Pacific Ocean (Fig. 8.4ah). The
reconstructions were made in the mantle reference framework of Mller et al. [42] and
illustrate the westward migration of the North and South American plates relative to a
Caribbean plate fixed in the mantle reference frame. The present position of the
Galpagos hotspot provides a stationary point of reference for this framework and is
shown in all reconstructions in Figure 8.4. It should be noted that the geologic evidence
for its existence can now be extended back to 139 Ma [54, 55].
The principal constraints on the plate motions shown on the reconstructions are
published seafloor spreading anomalies and finite rotation poles by previous workers
that were compiled by us for the purpose of this study (anomalies used are shown on
Figs. 8.2 and 8.3). The plate circuit used for the reconstructions is Caribbean to North
America [56]; North America to Africa and South America to Africa [42]; Africa to
Antarctica [57]; Antarctica to Nazca [58, 59] and Antarctica to Pacific [58, 60]; and
Nazca to Cocos [16, 18]. The nature and location of ancient plate boundaries shown in
the reconstructions of Mexico and the Caribbean in Figure 8.4ah are based on
geologic constraints summarized in the synthesis of Mexican geology by Dickinson
and Lawton [38] and in the syntheses of Caribbean and northern South American
geology by Pindell and Barrett [33], Pindell and Keenan [61], and Mann [53].
8.5.2 165 Ma (Middle Jurassic)

The reconstructions start in the Middle Jurassic and resemble the reconstructions of
Dickinson and Lawton [38] for the earlier evolution of Mexican terranes (Fig. 8.4a). At
this time, North America and South America are shown just prior to their separation to
form the now-subducted, proto-Caribbean seaway. Opening of the Gulf of Mexico
during this period rotated the Maya (Yucatn) block south to Central America [32].
The continental terranes of the Chortis block were adjacent to the autochthonous
Mexican terranes. The Cretaceous margins of Chortis was likely derived from elements
of the Guerrero-Caribbean arc formed at the leading edge of the Faralln plate that
consumed the Mezcalera plate as it advanced from the west. East-dipping subduction
along the western margin of the Americas occurred across the Central America region
(Fig. 8.4a).
8.5.3 144 Ma (Early Cretaceous)

At the start of the Cretaceous, North America and South America continued to separate
and form the proto-Caribbean seaway [30]. The oceanic crust of the proto-Caribbean
was later consumed by the eastward and northeastward advance of the GuerreroCaribbean arc shown in Figure 8.4b. Opening of the proto-Caribbean formed the
eastern Chortis terrane of attenuated continental crust [33]. The opening event also
rifted the Jurez terrane of Mexico [38].
Rifting along the southwestern margin of North America formed the Arperos basin
[62]. Widespread rifting along the western margin of North America at this time is
209
Figure 8.4. Reconstructions of the development of the western Cordillera and Caribbean from
Jurassic to present: (a) ~ 165 Ma; (b) ~144 Ma; (c) ~120 Ma; (d) ~90 Ma; (e) ~72 Ma;
(f) ~49 Ma; (g) ~22 Ma; (h) Present-day. See text for discussion. Key to abbreviations: N:
Nicaragua; NR: Nicaraguan rise; C: Cuba; M: Maya block; G: Guerrero terrane; CLIP:
Caribbean large igneous province; Y: Yucatn basin; CT: Cayman trough; and LA: Lesser
Antilles. Countries of Costa Rica and Panama correspond to approximate area of Chorotega
block; countries of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Guatemala correspond to Chortis block.
attributed to trench rollback as subduction of the oceanic Mezcalera plate slowed

during the approach of the Guerrero-Caribbean arc from the west [38] (Fig. 8.4b).
We adopt the interpretation by Tardy et al. [62] and Moores [63] that the Caribbean
arc and the Guerrero arc are parts of the same segments of the same intra-Pacific ocean
arc system that entered the Caribbean region during Cretaceous time. Diachronous
collision of this arc with the western North America margin progressed from north
Figure 8.4 (continued).
(Sierran foothills of California) to south (Guerrero terrane with southern Mexico) [38]
(Fig. 8.4b). Following this arc-continent collision, eastward-dipping subduction of the
Faralln plate stepped outboard (westward) of the newly accreted Guerrero terrane.
An alternative view not supported by the compilation presented here proposes that
the present-day area of the Caribbean was created during the period of 130 to 80 Ma
but that this newly created area has remained relatively stationary with respect to North
and South America and was not consumed by the Caribbean arc system [64] (cf.,
preface in Mann [65] for a review of salient points of both proposed concepts). The
alternative viewpoint of Frisch et al. [64] fails to explain the diachronous west to east
timing of foreland basin subsidence and thrust deformation related to the diachronous
collision between the Caribbean arc and the passive margins of North and South
211
America (cf., [30, 65]). Rifting of the southwest Mexican margin during the Early
Cretaceous detached part of the Oaxaca and Mixteca terranes from nuclear Mexico
(Del Sur block of Dickinson and Lawton [38]) to form the Chortis block.
Rifting of Chortis may have occurred along the southward extension of the Arperos
basin as proposed by Pindell and Kennan [61] or along a failed rift arm of the protoCaribbean spreading center (Fig. 8.4a). During this time, the Chortis block underwent
intra-block rifting and deposition of pre-Aptian, terrigenous siliciclastic rocks [34, 66].
8.5.4 120 Ma (Early Cretaceous)

Extension between North and South America continued and the Guerrero-Caribbean
arc advanced eastward to subduct the proto-Caribbean oceanic basin (Fig. 8.4c). By
this time, collision of the Guerrero terrane with the margin of western North America
and closure of the Arperos basin was complete to the latitude of Baja (W. Dickinson,
pers. comm., 2003). It is proposed that prior to the diachronous closure of the GuerreroCaribbean arc against southwestern Mexico, Chortis-Mexico convergence occurred
along a short-lived, westward-dipping subduction zone (Fig. 8.4c). This subduction
produced intra-arc rifting and arc volcanism in the overriding Chortis block by 126 Ma
[34, 66, 67]. Termination of this subduction cycle between Chortis and southwestern
Mexico is recorded by a well-dated, 120 Ma-old subduction complex along the
northern edge of the Chortis block presently exposed on the southern margin of the
Motagua valley of Guatemala [68, 69]. Structural and stratigraphic continuity between
Chortis and southwestern Mexico at this time is suggested by: (1) the geochemical
similarity between the volcanics erupted on the Chortis block and the Teloloapan
volcanic rocks of Mexico; and (2) the similar Mesozoic stratigraphy and structural
trends shared by both areas [34].
8.5.5 90 Ma (Late Cretaceous)

The Guerrero-Caribbean arc continued diachronous suturing along the western and
southern thinned, continental edges of the Chortis block (Fig. 8.4d). The short-lived,
middle Cretaceous volcanic arc, intra-arc basins, and associated mixed carbonateclastic deposition on the Chortis block were terminated by a collisional event recorded
by the deposition of clastic sedimentary rocks of Late Cretaceous age in Honduras [34,
37]. Collision-related shortening inverted intra-arc basins and created the four
alignments of deformed Cretaceous sedimentary rocks seen in the present-day geology
of Honduras [66]. Strong shortening effects are also seen in southern Mexico at this
time [38].
By this time, the Guerrero-Caribbean arc had overridden the Galpagos hotspot,
heralding a vigorous period of submarine oceanic plateau volcanism that began as early
as 139 Ma and was widespread by 88 Ma [54, 55, 70]. These elements became
amalgamated as the Chorotega block of southern Central America.
8.5.6 72 Ma (Late Cretaceous)

By the latest Cretaceous the Caribbean arc, now adjacent to the thick, young and
buoyant Caribbean oceanic plateau, continued to migrate and collide to the northeast.
Convergence between the arc and the southern rifted margin of Honduras (eastern
Chortis terrane) led to the obduction of Guerrero-Caribbean arc material (Siuna terrane
of northern Nicaragua; Venable [36]) (Fig. 8.4e) and to the formation of the Coln
deformed belt [34]. Arc-Chortis convergence was expressed as left-lateral strike-slip
motion along the Guayape fault system that developed at this time along the rifted
structural grain of the southern Jurassic margin of Chortis (eastern Chortis terrane).
Shortening also occurred at this time between the Chortis and Maya blocks as recorded
by the well-dated emplacement of ophiolites onto the Maya block [68, 69, 71].
Eastward-dipping subduction developed between the Faralln plate and the western
margin of the Caribbean oceanic plateau (Fig. 8.4e). The Caribbean arc detached from
the Caribbean oceanic plateau, which was pinned on its northern and southern edges by
collision with Chortis and northwestern South America. Continued north and eastward
motion of the Caribbean arc by trench rollback detached Cuba from the Caribbean
oceanic plateau and formed the Yucatn backarc basin south of Cuba and the Grenada
backarc basin west of the present-day Lesser Antilles arc [65].
8.5.7 49 Ma (Eocene)
The northeastward migration of the Caribbean arc ended when part of the arc collided
with the Bahaman carbonate platform (Fig. 8.4f). Collision transferred the Cuban area
from the Caribbean plate to the North American plate as the strike-slip boundary
moved southward. The Motagua-Cayman trough-Oriente fault zone developed to
accommodate this new zone of left-lateral, strike-slip displacement between the North
American and Caribbean plates [39].
Along the southwest Mexican margin, eastward-dipping shallow subduction
produced the Xolopa magmatic arc and the northern Chortis terrane [28]. The geometry
of the Xolopa arc with respect to the Chortis-Faralln margin is highly oblique, similar
to the present-day geometry of the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt with respect to the
Cocos-North America margin (Fig. 8.4f). This geometry would suggest that the Chortis
block occupied a forearc setting during oblique convergence of the Faralln plate
relative to North America [28]. Southeast translation of Chortis block was facilitated by
weakening of the detachment zone parallel to the zone of Xolopa arc magmatism; this
hot, weakened zone of arc was broken under oblique, Faralln-North America
convergence and the Chortis block was dislodged from Mexico and moved
southeastwards [28]. Magnetic and stratigraphic similarities suggest that a small
remnant of the Chortis block was not dislodged in this manner and remained behind in
Mexico (Teloloapan subterrane of Dickinson and Lawton [38]) [34, 35].
8.5.8 22 Ma (Miocene)
Stress patterns arising from Faralln plate subduction to the northeast beneath North
America and to the southeast beneath South America resulted in its breakup into the
Cocos and Nazca plates at 23 Ma (Fig. 8.4g) [18, 72]. The reorganization led to near
orthogonal subduction of the Cocos plate beneath the Chortis block [16], and the
oblique subduction force previously driving the eastward motion of the Chortis block
ended abruptly. A superfast spreading period of this segment of the East Pacific rise
preceded the detachment of the Cocos slab beneath northern Central America. Rogers
et al. [10] proposed that this slab detachment event produced large-scale topographic
213
uplift in northern Central America. The development of the Nicaragua intra-arc

depression, a backarc basin, was produced by a late Neogene phase of trenchward
migration of the Central America volcanic arc and slab rollback [4] that was perhaps
initiated by steepening of the Cocos slab following the break off of its subducted,
downdip extension about 4 10 Ma [73]. Ferrari [11] has proposed a similar process of
slab breakoff for the arc in southern Mexico.
During this time, Central America became incorporated with the Caribbean plate
and moved eastward relative to the North American plate. Several parallel, left-lateral
strike-slip faults (Jocotan-Chamelecn, Polochic, Motagua) developed in Guatemala
along the Late Cretaceous Motagua valley suture between the Chortis and Maya
blocks. To the east, these faults connect to the Swan islands fault zone of the Cayman
trough. Internal deformation of the Chortis block and formation of transtensional rifts
in the offshore Honduran borderlands resulted from divergence of the Caribbean plate
motion vector from the azimuth of these plate boundary faults [34, 74].
8.5.9 0 Ma (Present-day)
Presently, Central America is bounded by the Middle America trench and subduction
system to the southwest and the strike-slip faults of the Motagua-Swan islands to the
north, and it is attached to the stable Caribbean plate to the east and southeast (Fig.
8.4h). GPS studies now in progress in both northern and southern Central America will
improve constraints on block motions within this area.
215
8.6
DISCUSSION: UNRESOLVED TECTONIC PROBLEMS
8.6.1 Suggested future studies

A challenge for future workers is to relate magmatic and deformational events recorded
in the CAVA and CAVF to changing plate boundary configurations of North America,
Caribbean, Nazca, and Cocos as predicted by the plate reconstructions shown in Figure
8.4ah. Part of the problem is that plate motion rates in this region have been fast (e.g.,
518 cm/yr range; [12]), highly oblique (in the case of Nazca-Caribbean motion along
the present-day margin of southern Panama and possibly along the Neogene margin of
Costa Rica), and have involved the migration of triple junctions and the subduction of
buoyant hotspot-related features like the Cocos ridge as presently observed off Costa
Rica. Future studies should seek consistency between onland and oceanic
interpretations by working with data sets from both realms.
8.6.2 Precambrian connections between North and South America

Fragments of Precambrian age continental crust occur in central Honduras and in
Guatemala (Fig. 8.5a). Renne et al. [75] proposed that these elements once formed a
continuous belt linking the more continuous Grenville belts of North and South
America (Fig. 8.5b). Centeno-Garcia and Keppie [76] suggest the fragments represent
parts of multiple belts that have been reorganized by plate motions since their
formation (Fig. 8.5c). The Precambrian rocks of Central America represent a key, but
largely unconstrained, element to the pre-Mesozoic configuration of the region. Since
Precambrian rocks commonly have distinctive age provinces, composition and
geochemical signatures, the reconstruction of these blocks could be accomplished by
working systematically in the widely separated areas shown on Figure 8.5a.
8.6.3 Defining the edges of the Chortis block in the Middle America trench and
Hess escarpment
On the basis of crustal velocities and geophysical profiling, Walther et al. [24]
proposed that an eastern Pacific oceanic plateau may have accreted to the southern
boundary of the eastern Chortis terrane and the Siuna terrane of the Chortis block in
latest Cretaceous time to form the Sandino forearc basin (geophysical transect shown in
Figs. 8.6a and b). The crustal suture between continental crust of the Chortis block and
the oceanic plateau was proposed to lie along the eastern edge of the Nicaraguan
depression (Fig. 8.6b). Rollback of the subducted Cocos slab in Late Cenozoic time is
thought to have produced extension in the Nicaraguan depression [4].
Similarly, Bowland [77] suggested that the Hess escarpment is a Late Cretaceous to
Early Paleogene strike-slip margin separating the Chortis block from the Caribbean
oceanic plateau and onland Chorotega block to the south. Bowland [77] noted onlap of
Late Cretaceous sediments over faults defining the Hess escarpment showing that
motion along this part of the Hess escarpment had largely ceased by Paleogene time.
Variations in gravity field suggest the presence of crustal blocks of varying thickness
and composition (Fig. 8.6c).
Figure 8.5. Precambrian and Paleozoic connections between North America, the Chortis block,
and South America: (a) Present-day map showing the locations of Precambrian and
Paleozoic rock belts modified from Renne [75]. CB: Chortis block; CBS: Caribbean-Bahama
suture; D: DSDP holes 537 and 538A in southeast Gulf of Mexico; G: Grenville belt;
GSMB: Garzon-Santa Maria belt; LL: Llano uplift of Texas; OC: Oaxaca complex; SB:
Sunsas belt; SC: Socorro suture; SS: Suwanee suture; YB: Yucatn or Maya block; (b)
Reconstruction of Pangea, ~250 Ma, showing possible connection of the Grenville fronts
through North America, Chortis, and South America from Renne [75]; C: Chortis block; (c)
Distribution of Precambrian elements in reconstruction of Pangea from Centeno-Garcia and
Keppie [76]; 1: Mixitequita complex, 2: Chiapas basement, 3: Maya mountains.
8.6.4 Slowing of spreading in Cayman trough and relation to events in Central

America
Cayman trough history includes the initiation of oceanic spreading at 49 Ma and a
slowdown in spreading rate from 26 to 20 Ma [57] (Fig. 8.3). The Cayman trough is a
valuable, long-term recorder of motion between the northern end of the CAVA on the
Caribbean plate (Chortis block) and the North American plate (Fig. 8.3). Through
closure conditions, these motions can be used to better constrain motions of the
Faralln plate and, after 22 Ma, the Cocos and Nazca plates beneath the CAVA. The
Cayman trough aeromagnetic data suggest that the motion was not steady but began
quickly from about 49 Ma to 26 Ma, slowed down considerably between 26 and 20 Ma,
and then maintained a slow but steady spreading rate between 20 and 0 Ma [56].
8.6.5 Faralln plate breakup and relation to events in Central America

This critical event subdivided the Faralln plate into the Cocos and Nazca during the
Early Miocene around 22 Ma (Fig. 8.2). Key questions include: What was the position
of the breakup relative to the Galpagos hotspot? Was the hotspot active at this time,
and, if so, did it influence the breakup? What was the strike of the new spreading
center? Was it an immediate opening over the entire distance from the EPR to the
217
Figure 8.6. (a) Free-air gravity map (from Sandwell and Smith [101]) of the oceanic crust
adjacent to Central America. the locations of the seismic profile in Figure 8.6b and the
velocity transect model in Figure 8.7 are shown as thick lines; (b) Velocity transect across
the forearc of Nicaragua from Walther et al. [24]. Mantle velocities at shallow levels of the
upper plate interpreted as accreted plateau material along edge of Central America. This
collision presumably occurred along the southern boundary of the Chortis block and formed
the substrate for the forearc basin of the Middle America trench. Location shown in Figure
8.6a. Inset shows steeply dipping Cocos slab as defined by earthquake epicenters; (c)
Seismic reflection profile and interpretation of the Hess escarpment [77]. CB3: Late
Cretaceous pre-deformation sequence; CB2: Paleogene syndeformation sequence containing
folding and internal onlap horizons; CB1: Neogene post-deformational sequence. Onlap
relationships indicate that the Hess escarpment was active during the Late Cretaceous and
became inactive in the Cenozoic.
subduction zone, or was it a propagating rift? Can it be seen somewhere in the geology
of the CAVA or the CAVF the effects of the subduction of an active spreading center,
beginning 22.7 Ma? Barckhausen et al. [18] and Barckhausen (pers. comm., 2000)
traced magnetic anomalies along the Grijalva scarp off the coast of northwestern South
America (Figs. 8.2 and 8.7) and did not find evidence of ridge propagation in this area,
which is presumably the conjugate margin to the 22 Ma rifted area. The widely used
rotation poles of Mayes et al. [48] are based on only a small part of the data shown on
Figure 8.2 and can be improved by using the more recent magnetic anomaly data that
are now available.
8.6.6 Evolution of the Panama fracture zone

Recent work by Barckhausen et al. ([18] and pers. comm., 2000) on northsouth
magnetic profiles between the Malpelo and Carnegie ridges (profiles from 1999
German cruise SO-144) shows that both ridges (Fig. 8.7) were once contiguous as
originally interpreted by Lonsdale and Klitgord [44] (Fig. 8.8a). Separation of these
aseismic ridges began at 14.7 Ma and ended around 10 Ma. The cessation of spreading
on the ridge segment between these hotspot tracks marks a critical reorganization in the
plates, which was detected by Wilson [12] and coincides with a jump in the CocosNazca transform boundary 100s of km to the west to the Coiba fracture zone (and
later, the nearby Panama fracture zone). This jump in the Panama fracture zone
occurred when part of the Cocos plate was transferred to the Nazca plate [44] (Fig.
8.8a). An alternative interpretation of McIntosh et al. [15] reconstructs the position of
the Cocos-Caribbean-Nazca triple junction and finds that the boundary was originally
located much farther to the west (Fig. 8.8b). In their interpretation, the direction of
triple junction migration was to the southeast, and did not jump northwest as proposed
by Lonsdale and Klitgord [44].
The direction of triple junction migration is a key factor for understanding the
southern CAVA, which most workers have not considered as a major impact on forcing
functions for this segment of the CAVA. Figures 8.1 and 8.8b show calculated
positions of the triple junction from 8 Ma to the present according to the
reconstructions of McIntosh et al. [15], who used the NUVEL-1 [13] instantaneous
poles. If the triple junction did occupy these positions along the Costa Rica margin,
then the direction of Nazca-Carib plate convergence east of the triple junction would
have been at a much lower angle than the area west of the triple junction and would
have resulted in a much different forearc structure, slab convergence angle, slab
convergence rate, and volcanic arc history.
8.6.7 Early ridge jumps between Cocos and Nazca plates and the original shape of
the now subducted Cocos ridge
Two major ridge jumps that occurred at 19.5 Ma and 14.7 Ma are discussed in detail by
Barckhausen et al. [18]. These jumps are reflected in the changing directions of the
magnetic anomalies off central Costa Rica from N50E to N70E, and finally to the
nearly EW orientation of spreading fabric that is observed today in the subducting
seafloor along the Middle America trench [1] (Fig. 8.2). Meschede and Frisch [17]
have tried to define the position of the spreading axis relative to the Galpagos hotspot
from observations on Cocos and Carnegie ridges (Fig. 8.2). Their paper is a solid start
but the interpretation could benefit from the input of additional magnetic data now
available.
The original shape of the Cocos ridge, which may be inferred through
reconstruction, is key for assessing its effect on the Central American margin because
part of the ridge is now subducted beneath Costa Rica [44, 78] (Fig. 8.9). A longer
219

Figure 8.7. (a) Present setting of Central America showing plates, Cocos crust produced at East
Pacific rise (EPR) and Cocos-Nazca spreading center (CNS), triple-junction trace (heavy
dots), volcanoes (open triangles), Middle America trench (MAT), western edge of detached
slab (dashed line), and rates of relative plate motion [91, 95]. East Pacific rise half spreading
rates from Wilson [12] and Barckhausen et al. [18]. Ocean-crust age: 10 Ma, 20 Ma, older
than 20 Ma. Lines 1, 2, and 3 are locations of topographic and tomographic profiles in (c);
(b) (right) Tomographic slices of the P-wave velocity of the mantle at depths of 100, 300 and
500 km beneath Central America; (c) Upper-Topography and bathymetry. Lower-Tomographic
profiles showing Cocos slab detached below northern Central America, upper Cocos slab
continuous with subducted plate at Middle America trench, and slab gap between 200 and
500 km. Grey tones and symbols indicate anomalies in seismic wave speed as a 0.8%
deviation from average mantle velocities. The minus symbol indicate colder, subducted slab
material of Cocos plate; Circles are earthquake hypocenters. Grid sizes on profiles
correspond to quantity of ray-path data within that cell of model; smaller boxes indicate
regions of increased data density; CT: Cayman trough; SL: sea level (modified from Rogers
et al. [10]).
reconstructed ridge would imply an older, more protracted collision history in Costa
Rica while a shorter ridge would imply a more recent collisional event.
8.6.8 Slab breakoff of the Cocos plate beneath Central America

P-wave tomographic images of the mantle beneath northern Central America reveal a
detached slab of the subducted Cocos plate (Figs. 8.7b and c) [10]. Landscape features
of the region of Honduras and Nicaragua above the detached slab are consistent with
epeirogenic uplift produced by mantle upwelling following slab breakoff between 10
and 4 Ma.
221
Figure 8.8. (a) Reconstructions of Costa Rica and Panama by Lonsdale and Klitgord [44] based
on their interpretation of magnetic anomalies and fracture zones available at that time. The
main events shown include the breakup of the Faralln plate into the Nazca (east) and Cocos
(west) plates; the abandonment of an early ridge system south of Panama; and the breakup of
the Cocos, Malpelo and Carnegie ridges which formed as continguous spreading ridge about
15 Ma; (b) Reconstruction of McIntosh et al. [15] showing the eastward migration of the
Cocos-Nazca-Caribbean triple junction along the Nicaraguan and Costa Rican margin (inset
shows plate motions at triple junction); see text for discussion.
Following slab detachment, hot asthenospheric mantle flows inward to fill space
vacated by the cold, more dense slab as it sinks into the mantle (cf., [79]).
Thermomechanical modeling of the slab-detachment process demonstrates large

Figure 8.9. Convergence and subduction of Cocos ridge on southern Central America. Motion
vectors of Cocos and Nazca plates are from Nuvel-1A model of Demets [100]. Location of
earthquake epicenters (ISC catalogue; magnitude greater than or equal to 5.5) on basemap of
topography and predicted bathymetry data from Smith and Sandwell [102]. White arrows are
the present-day plate motion vectors relative to a fixed Caribbean plate.
(> 500 C) transitory heating of the base of the upper plate for several million years
[81]. Asthenospheric upwelling can produce decompression-induced volcanism, and
the geochemistry of the basaltic lavas from behind the volcanic front in Honduras and
Guatemala is consistent with mantle upwelling [81]. Slab detachment and uplift of the
Central American plateau occurred between the end of the subduction-related
ignimbrite flare-up at 10 Ma and prior to 3.8 Ma, the time at which the tip of the Cocos
slab was subducted (i.e., beginning of the modern subduction period in Central
America) (Figs. 8.7b and c).
In collisional settings, slab detachment occurs as the force of slab-pull near the
trench is resisted by buoyant lithosphere producing a tear in the downgoing slab [79].
Rogers et al. [10] suggest that this mechanism occurred along the non-collisional
Middle America trench margin as a result of the decreasing age and increasing
buoyancy of the incoming Cocos oceanic plate during the 1910 Ma interval of super
fast spreading [12] along the southernmost Cocos-Pacific segment of the East Pacific
rise (Fig. 8.7a). Although steady-state subduction at the Middle America trench since
2.5 Ma has been inferred from the presence of cosmogenic isotopes in the modern arc
lavas of Central America [2], tomographic observations showing slab breakoff require
highly variable rates of subduction and rates of slab melting during the Neogene.
223
8.6.9 Timing of impact of the Cocos ridge on the southern Central American arc
The Cocos ridge (500 km long by 100 to 200 km wide; Fig. 8.9) is a hotspot trace of
the Galpagos hotspot that stands 2 to 2.5 km higher than the surrounding seafloor and
is presently being subducted beneath the southern CAVA in Costa Rica. Estimates of
the timing of the arrival of the Cocos ridge at the trench vary from a minimum of 0.5
Ma [83] to intermediate ages of 3.6 [29] to 5.5 Ma [45] to maximum estimates of
Middle Miocene [84].
Most workers assume that the point of contact has remained stationary from the
time of its arrival to the present-day when in fact the angularity between the plate
convergence direction (~N27 E) and trend of the ridge (~N44 E) suggests that the
collision should propagate northwestward along the trench.
A localized fold-thrust belt in the Fila Costea and Talamanca cordillera of Costa
Rica summarized on Figure 8.10 correlates well with the area of the bathymetrically
highest and thickest part of the Cocos ridge [7]. Outcrop patterns suggest that a preexisting Eocene Late Miocene forearc basin was inverted locally by the Cocos ridge
subduction. This event is also recorded by rapid uplift and exhumation of arc rocks
along with thrusting in the backarc (Caribbean area) of Costa Rica [29].
Figure 8.10. (a) Basin inversion of the Trraba forearc basin (shaded) spatially associated with
highest and thickest part of the subducting Cocos ridge (crosshatched). Trraba belt is now a
fold-thrust belt and the Limn belt is the inverted backarc basin. The backarc basin is not
inverted in northern Costa Rica and merges with the actively subsiding intra-arc Nicaraguan
depression to the northwest. Cross sections across the central Trraba belt (b) and the eastern
Trraba belt (c). Numbers identify regionally inverted faults [7]. Jkn: Nicoya complex; Tb:
Brito Fm.; Tt: Trraba Fm.; Tc: Curr Fm.; Tpr: Paso Real Fm.; Qg: El General Fm.,
F: faults.
The history of the interaction of the Cocos ridge with the Central American trench can
now be reconstructed using marine magnetic anomalies and fracture zones from the
surrounding ocean basins. For the recent past (~9 Ma to present), a plate circuit can be
closed using the seafloor spreading in the Gulf of California [51]. One key question
future work could address is when the Cocos ridge impacted the margin. A second
question is to determine what part of the margin it has affected: has the impact area
remained stationary or has the zone of impact swept along the margin?
Several papers have shown the Cocos ridge collision event is the dominant event
affecting the CAVA in Costa Rica starting about 1 to 6 Ma [7, 9, 29, 45, 85]. This
event has produced a rapid along-strike variation in crustal exposures, which was one
of the original attractions of this area as a subduction factory focus area. Estimates of
initial ridge subduction, which are key to many geochemical studies of the SUBFAC,
vary from 0.51.0 Ma [83, 44] to 3.6 Ma [29] to 3.55.5 Ma [45]. Variation is related
to the different methods used, which include plate reconstructions, paleobathymetry,
age of volcanism, and fission-track dating. A goal of future work is to work
interactively to better constrain the initial arrival of the ridge and its modification of the
subduction zone, which has evolved to the present-day situation of a volcanic arc gap
shown in Figure 8.1.
8.6.10 Impact of migration of the Caribbean-Cocos-Nazca triple junction on land

geology
This process may prove to be as or more important than the Cocos ridge collision for
shaping the forearc and volcanic arc. The velocity vector triangle describing the
relative motion of these plates predicts a migration of the fault/trench/trench triple
junction from northwest to southeast along the trench through time [15] (Fig. 8.8b).
Motion of the Nazca plate east of the triple junction would be highly oblique (cf., Fig.
8.8a) as it is observed today along the southwestern Panama margin [7, 9]. Motion
northwest of the junction is currently nearly orthogonal to the margin. The assumption
of most workers is that the present-day orthogonal motion is representative of past
Neogene motions when in fact a highly oblique Nazca-Caribbean scenario is predicted
for the recent past by tectonic reconstructions [14, 15, 44] (Fig. 8.8a).
A tectonic implication is that the forcing functions are quite different for the NazcaCaribbean case where motion is slower, much more oblique, and involves younger
more buoyant crust. Future work could aim to better quantify the triple junction
position through time using recent magnetic constraints provided by Barckhausen and
the BGR group and using the results of Wilson [12] and Wilson and Hey [16]. Once the
migration of the triple junction is better quantified, its tectonic and volcanic
manifestations will become better understood.
8.6.11 Slab windows beneath the southern Central American arc

Johnston and Thorkelson [22] proposed that a ridge subducted beneath the Costa RicaPanama segment of the CAVA has produced a slab window, and that this process can
explain the many geochemical anomalies of the arc volcanoes in this area (Fig. 8.11a).
This interpretation differs from previous interpretations including that of Lonsdale and
Klitgord [44] (Fig. 8.8a) and Hardy [86], which show no evidence in the magnetic
anomaly record for the limb of a subducted ridge south of Panama as proposed by
Johnston and Thorkelson [22]. However, the western Panama region of the Nazca plate
is complex and characterized by short spreading segments separated by long fracture
zones, which could potentially have led to the formation of a slab window. For this
problem, future work could resolve the spreading history in this area of the Nazca plate
in order to evaluate the slab window proposal and its effects on the CAVA. Abratis and
Wrner [46] proposed an alternative model for a slab window opening beneath Costa
Rica that is related to slab breakoff during the Cocos ridge subduction (Fig. 8.11b).
225

Figure 8.11. (a) Interpretation of a slab window and its effects on volcanic products in the
subduction factory area of southern Central America based on the reconstructions of
Johnston and Thorkelson [22]; (b) Alternative interpretation of slab window development
from Abratis and Wrner [46] where slab breakoff and window are related to the subducting
Cocos ridge.
8.6.12 Models for the internal deformation of the Chortis block and western
Caribbean plate
Onshore extensional deformation of the western Caribbean plate has been explained as
resulting from: (1) Counter-clockwise rotation of the Chortis block around the arcuate
Motagua-Polochic plate boundary faults [87, 88] (Fig. 8.12a) and (2) as fault
termination features along the North America-Caribbean margin (Fig. 8.12b) [89].
Offshore extensional deformation is generally attributed to a diffuse plate margin south
of the Swan islands fault zone [90]. Demets et al. [91] relate the deformation along the
northern margin of the Caribbean plate to the angle between the GPS-derived motion
vector of the Caribbean plate and the azimuth of the plate boundary zone. Rogers [34]
refines the observations of Demets et al. [91] for the western Caribbean plate and relate
the pattern of active borderlands, oblique-slip faulting (Fig. 8.12c) to the angular
divergence of Caribbean motion and the local azimuth of the plate margin faults. This
______________________________________________________________________
Figure 8.12 (right). Internal deformation of the Chortis block, produced by: (a) Counterclockwise
rotation of Chortis block [88]; and (b) Fault termination [89]; (c) Compilation of active faults
along the north coast of Honduras by Rogers [35]; GPS-derived Caribbean plate velocity
[91] was calculated at 30 minute increments (Xs on map) along the main North AmericaCaribbean plate boundary faults (Motagua-Swan islands-Mid-Cayman spreading centerOriente system). The three plate vectors shown are for points along the fault system at
longitudes 89W, 85W, and 81W and are decomposed to show the extensional and strikeslip component of the plate vector. The extensional component of motion is controlled by the
angular divergence between the plate vector and the trend of the plate boundary fault. Note
that the extensional component of the plate vector increases from 0.2 mm/yr at longitude
81W near the Mid-Cayman spreading center to 4.8 mm/yr at longitude 89W in the Motagua
valley of Guatemala and is consistent with the widening of plate margin deformation from
east to west.
227
Figure 8.13. GPS-derived vector of North America (NA) relative to South America (SA) across
the Caribbean (CA) plate. Note the convergence increase to the west, reaching a maximum in
Central America. NAB: North Andean block; NPDB: Northern Panama deformed belt;
SCDB: Southern Caribbean deformed belt. (From Dixon and Mao [47]).
view of the western Caribbean deformation is also compatible with the fault
termination model of Guzman-Speziale [89] (Fig. 8.12b).
On a larger scale, North America and South America are converging in a north
south direction across the Caribbean plate (based on both plate tectonic reconstructions
[42] and GPS results [47]; Fig. 8.13). This convergence is greatest in the western
Caribbean and in Central America and decreases in an eastward direction. Western
Caribbean features that may be attributed to this gradient of northsouth shortening
includes Neogene bending of the Panama arc, Miocene age of right-lateral slip on the
Hess escarpment [77] and late Neogene right-lateral slip on the Guayape fault of
Honduras [88]. GPS data will assist in distinguishing this broad regional shortening
from more localized effects of fault rotation and termination.
______________________________________________________________________
Figure 8.14 (right). (a) Schematic diagram across the Sandino forearc basin on the Pacific margin
of Nicaragua derived from multiple seismic surveys (from Ranero and von Huene [92]).
Units 16 represents Cretaceous to Holocene depositional sequences deposited on a
basement of at least Cretaceous age. Dots represent earthquake hypocenters. Inset shows true
scale section of subducting Cocos slab; (b) Comparison of accretionary (top), nonaccretionary (middle) and velocity models for the submerged margin of Costa Rica from
Vannucchi et al. [103]. The accretionary model for the margin ascribes margin evolution to
massive underplating of oceanic sediment since the Paleogene. The contrasting, nonaccretionary model contends that the margin is mostly underlain by Cretaceous crystalline
rocks that extend seaward from coastal outcrops to near the trench axis. The velocity
structure of the margin supports the non-accretionary origin.
229
8.6.13 Tectonic erosion vs. tectonic accretion models for the Middle America trench
Several recent interpretations of subduction processes along the southern Middle
America trench suggest that subduction erosion may be an important regional tectonic
process [1]. Regional cross sections such as those shown in Figures 8.14a and 8.14b
have been interpreted as both evidence for tectonic erosion and for slow accretion.
Proponents of tectonic erosion cite evidence for widespread bathymetric subsidence as
evidence for removal of the oceanic plateau forearc basement by incoming bathymetric
highs (e.g., [52]). Proponents of slow subduction accretion cite seismic data show small
imbricate structures at the base of slope [15]. Concepts of subduction erosion propose a
relatively static plate configuration through the Neogene (e.g., [17, 92]). However, if the
Panama fracture zone or Coiba fracture zone were present off the Nicoya peninsula of
Costa Rica as the active Cocos-Nazca plate boundary, then most of Costa Rica should
have experienced highly oblique plate convergence during subduction of the Nazca
plate.
This tectonic environment can cause disruption of the forearc by strike-slip slivers
driven by oblique subduction. It is suspected that some structural anomalies of this
margin, including proposed subduction erosion effects by Meschede et al. [17], may
have formed in this oblique subduction environment. The oblique-subduction process is
currently active where the Panama fracture zone and Coiba ridge, moving with the
Nazca plate, intersect the margin in western Panama and SE Costa Rica. These ridges
apparently erode the upper plate as they sweep southeasterly along the margin [93, 94].
The long-term influence of subduction erosion along the Middle America trench is
difficult to reconcile with the presence of the Cretaceous to recent Sandino forearc
basin off the Pacific margin of Nicaragua (Fig. 8.14a). The basin is locally up to 10 km
in thickness [92]. Why, if long-term subduction erosion occurred at todays rates, could
such an extremely thick and long-lived forearc basin develop? Aggressive and longlived tectonic erosion would have undermined the forearc and not allowed such
longterm subsidence.
8.6.14 Defining the Central American forearc sliver and the origin of the Nicaraguan
depression
The Nicaraguan depression is a prominent Quaternary morphologic and structural
depression aligned roughly with the belt of active Central American volcanoes and
extending approximately 600 km from the northern Gulf of Fonseca in El Salvador and
northern Nicaragua to the Caribbean Sea in Costa Rica (Fig. 8.15a). The Nicaraguan
depression is an atypical backarc basin in that the depression commonly encompasses
the entire active volcanic chain rather than occurring only in a backarc position. Two
hypotheses have been proposed to explain the tectonic origin of this regional structure
within the framework of the Central American volcanic arc (CAVA). The first
mechanism, supported by geochemical analyses and radiometric dating of volcanic
rocks adjacent to the depression, supports the traditional two-dimensional view of arcnormal extension accompanying trenchward or southwestward migration of the arc
from 24 Ma (Middle Miocene) to the present [4]. Trenchward shifts in the position of
the volcanic arc through time are related to a steepening or rollback in the dip of the
subducted slab of the Cocos plate from about 50 at about 12 Ma to a current dip > 65.
Increased slab dip was directly expressed by an increase in crustal extension of the
volcanic arc with up to 20 percent pure shear over the last 12 Ma.

Figure 8.15. (a) The Central American forearc sliver (FS) is produced by the slight (~10 degrees)
oblique convergence of the Cocos plate at the Middle America trench resulting in the
northeastward migration of the forearc sliver [95]. Earthquake focal mechanisms show rightlateral strike-slip motion along the Central America arc. Motion vectors, shown in mm/yr.
For tectonic comparison, forearc sliver produced by oblique convergence of Indo-Australia
plate and the Eurasia plate in Sumatra (b) and by convergence of Pacific plate and the North
America plate in the Kurile islands and northern Japan (c). Black arrows in B identify
localized pull-aparts along right-lateral fault bounding forearc sliver in Sumatra. Black
arrows in C show trend of strike-slip fault bounding fault sliver in Kurile Islands and
northern Japan.
The second hypothesis states that the Nicaraguan depression has formed as a
consequence of pull-apart extension at right-stepping stepovers along a major rightlateral fault system aligned with the active volcanic chain and parallel to the trend of
231
the topographic and structural depression (Fig. 8.15a). The driving force for this
deformation is slightly oblique subduction of the Cocos plate, which drives a forearc
sliver along the right-lateral fault, formed along the thin, hot crust along the active
volcanic axis [95]. This forearc sliver interpretation, which explains plate motions and
strain partitioning in the obliquely subducting Sumatran and Kuril arcs, is consistent
with the belt of damaging earthquakes along the volcanic arc of the CAVA, which
mostly exhibit right-lateral focal mechanisms (Figs. 8.15b and c). One controversy is
whether the fault accommodating the strike-slip displacement of the forearc sliver is a
single zone or is composed of bookshelf faults that accommodate strike-slip by
motion on a series of oblique faults [6].
8.7
FUTURE WORK
It is our hope that this review helps to stimulate increased work in Central America,
particularly with regard to how the plate setting has evolved through time and how this
plate evolution has changed the forcing functions along the CAVA and CAVF.
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237
Chapter 9
Convergent margin tectonics:
A marine perspective
CSAR R. RANERO, ROLAND VON HUENE, WILHELM WEINREBE AND
UDO BARCKHAUSEN
These geological factors are important, but
they only represent one fact of a complex set
of relations that, although clearly related to
ocean plate subduction, have yet to be
investigated in adequate detail. G.P.
Woollard: The Status of Geophysical
Research in Latin America. In: Geophysics
in the Americas, 1977.
9.1
INTRODUCTION
The Central American convergent margin is a classic representative of the Pacific

Margin in the nomenclature of Gutenberg and Richter [1] and early plate tectonics. It
extends from the Gulf of Tehuantepec to Panama (Fig. 9.1). The dominant
morphological feature is the Middle America trench (MAT) that was named by
Heacock and Worzel [2], and runs from the Riviera fracture zone offshore Mexico to
the Cocos ridge offshore south Costa Rica. Earthquakes clearly define a WadatiBenioff zone of landward dipping seismicity or a subduction zone where Cocos plate
and the older Faralln plate subducts beneath the Caribbean plate. Hypotheses
regarding the MAT contributed to the evolution of concepts in the geosciences over the
past 75 years.
The history of marine geoscience research along Central America margin (CAM)
and the MAT is intimately interwoven with the evolution of concepts regarding
convergent plate boundaries. Geophysical data tested with scientific ocean drilling
along the CAM was significant in modifying ideas in the plate tectonic paradigm about
convergent plate boundaries. This chapter is introduced with a narrative history of this
evolution and then concentrates on the insights from modern bathymetry, potential field
data, and improved seismic reflection information. A review of the marine geological
and geophysical studies carried out along the convergent margin of Middle America
shows that the areas unique features have motivated research over the past 50 years
that influenced the understanding of convergent plate boundary evolution.
Interpretations of processes that shaped the CAM have been markedly modified as
techniques and quality of data improved. Proposed in early models was a steady growth
of the continent by long-term accretionary processes through which material from the
incoming oceanic plate was tectonically transferred to the overriding plate.
Subsequently, as the accretionary hypothesis was tested with scientific drilling, it was
realized that the margin is non-accretionary. In the last ~10 years a wealth of new,
higher resolution data, have led to a consensus that the continental margin has been
tectonically eroded during the NeogeneQuaternary periods (~23 Ma) and that a large
mass of the overriding plate has been removed and probably recycled to the mantle.
Modern data show the close correlation between the character of the incoming oceanic
plate and the recent (~5 Ma) tectonic evolution of the arc-forearc system. Forearc
tectonics, submarine sliding, arc magmatism and interplate seismicity differ in
segments and those segments parallel segmentation of the oceanic plate subducting
along the MAT. This understanding helps in assessments of the risk from natural
hazards.
9.2
ACCRETION VERSUS NON-ACCRETION
9.2.1 Early studies offshore Guatemala

Investigations offshore Central America between 1950 and 1960 by scientific
institutions were numerous for the time. Bathymetric data compiled in the early 1960s
[3, 4] revealed the varied morphological character of the adjacent ocean basin. Soon
afterwards, areas of the continental shelf were considered potentially petroliferous and
were surveyed by industry explorationists who informally shared with academic
colleagues that deformation on the slope indicated accretion. A concept of accretion
was published by Dickinson [5] suggesting that although ocean crust is carried down
with the descending lithosphere, lighter sediment is probably scraped off against a
more durable overriding plate. These off-scraped sediments and ophiolitic scraps were
presumably equivalent to the materials exposed in the Sambagawa formation of Japan
and in the Fransciscan formation in California, a vast tract of rock whose origin had
long puzzled geologists. Dickinson proposed steady-state accretion and that the terrain
between the arc and trench was proportional in width to the age of the arc-trench
system. Dickinson summarized the model during his seminal workshop in Asilomar in
1971, where the concept was debated between marine and land geoscientists. He
proposed a steady-state process of continental growth that was commonly referred to as
the plate tectonic margin model. The origin of the ophiolites of the Nicoya peninsula
thus became an interesting target of research.
Many proponents of plate tectonics were enthusiastic about the accretionary
hypothesis, and when Exxon released a multichannel seismic reflection record across
the MAT off Guatemala the model was convincingly backed by published data [6]. The
Exxon record showed many landward dipping reflections but at the time it was difficult
to differentiate between real reflections and diffractions without todays more powerful
processing software systems. The Guatemalan example elevated the accretionary
hypothesis to broad consensus in the scientific community and the Guatemalan seismic
record was commonly cited as a type accretionary section. At this time, drilling in the
Nankai trough based mainly on industry records of JAPEX [7] provided further
evidence supporting accretion [8] and a tendency to equate all convergent margins with
accretion became common. With the Guatemalan record, Seely and his colleagues [6,
9] elevated the accretionary model from speculation to broad acceptance by
geoscientists and other proprietary data were later integrated in an interpretation of the
Oregon and Alaskan margins. Seely [9] interpreted reflection data off Oregon and
Alaska as he had interpreted the Guatemalan record inferring that slices were detached,
then rotated upward by younger underthrusting slices, to progressively build
continental crust. The actively accreting prism uplifted the shelf edge forming the
Figure 9.1. Shaded relief map of Cocos and Caribbean plates. Areas of Deep Sea Drilling Program (DSDP) legs 66, 67, 84 and Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Leg
170 are indicated.
241
seaward flank of forearc basins. Single-channel marine seismic reflection data of the
academic community were grossly inadequate to reveal the complex structure along
active convergent margins. In hindsight, even the early multichannel Exxon record
processed with digital methods available only in industry was also over interpreted.
Notwithstanding the focus on accretion in the published literature, evidence was
building that convergent margins were also subjected to tectonic erosion. As Miller
[10] and Rutland [11] pointed out, some older arc-trench systems have narrow forearcs
seaward of an exposed Mesozoic continental framework. This observation was not lost
on Creighton Burk. At the time, Burk was Director of the University of Texas Marine
Science Institute (UTMSI). In 1974, he formulated a program to investigate the
tectonics of the MAT from the Cocos ridge to the Riviera fracture zone. He and
colleagues on the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) Active Margins Panel reasoned
that investigating two adjacent areas one of which appeared accretionary and the other
erosional would yield insights greater than those derived from studies of either margin
type alone. In contrast to the accretionary Guatemalan margin, the southwestern
Mexico margin appeared to have no older accreted mass because Mesozoic rock crops
out along the coast as observed along the Chilean margin. Thus the volume of a
possible accretionary prism cannot accommodate all incoming sediment on the lower
plate and part of the prism must be missing. Site surveys by UTMSI produced the first
multichannel seismic reflection data off Acapulco Mexico and off Guatemala,
Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. These surveys formed a basis for selecting two transects
that were drilled during DSDP Legs 66, 67, and 84 (Fig. 9.1). Much to everyones
surprise, the Guatemalan margin proved non-accretionary [12, 13] and the Mexican
margin was interpreted as accretionary [14]. The Guatemalan margin yielded
Cretaceous limestone resting on igneous oceanic rocks of the upper plate within 4 km
of the trench axis. Clearly, steady accretion had not affected the margin during Tertiary
time [12, 15]. Although many of the landward dipping reflections interpreted as
accretionary thrusts were shown to be diffractions by later pre-stack depth processing,
rare landward dipping reflections do occur in the margin wedge. The shortcomings of
geophysics alone to assess basic convergent margin tectonic processes was also
experienced along the Japan, Marianas, Tonga, Peru, and most recently the Costa Rica
margins. Although the seismic reflection technique and the information content of the
seismic reflection method have improved greatly in the past 40 years, the accretionary
model that guided interpretations of geophysical data was appropriate only along some
margins. We return to this point after recounting the great advances made over the past
10 years with multibeam bathymetry (Fig. 9.2) and seismic reflection investigations
that include advanced pre-stack-depth processing.
9.2.2 Contribution of bathymetric mapping

Investigators at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography compiled bathymetric
information along the CAM most of which are summarized in Fisher [16].
Geoscientists compiling conventional bathymetric data in the late 1950s were mindful
of seafloor processes in constructing maps from widely spaced data. Fishers maps
showed numerous seamounts along the northern flank of the Cocos ridge. The many
transit legs of research vessels from ports in the area and through the Panama canal
became data of opportunity that Lonsdale and Klitgord [17] later compiled, data
included in the independent compilation of Case and Holcombe [18]. The latter
Figure 9.2. Shaded relief map of the bathymetry and topography of Costa Rica and Nicaragua.
The oceanic plate has four segments with different morphological character. Segments 13
were formed at the Cocos-Nazca spreading center and segment 4 at the East Pacific rise.
ODP Leg 170 sites are indicated by black circles filled white. DSDP Leg 84 site 565 is a white
circle filled black. Oil exploration drills sites onshore and offshore Nicaragua are indicated
by black filled circles. Black lines represent tracks of seismic profiles.
compilation included continental geology and both compilations depicted the seamount
covered ocean floor off central Costa Rica and the adjacent smooth ocean floor and less
complicated slope off Nicoya peninsula. This was termed the rough-smooth boundary
by Hey [19] who correlated it with the change in origin of ocean crust. The subducting
Cocos ridge was positioned opposite the uplifted Osa peninsula and off both Costa
Rican peninsulas the shelf is very narrow. At this time a first order morphology of the
continental margin was known as well as could be expected from conventional
bathymetry without GPS navigation.
A short multibeam bathymetric survey of the trench off Guatemala made with the
French R/V Jean Charcot demonstrated the more coherent information acquired with
multibeam [20]. Revealed were details of horst and graben as the plate bends into the
trench. These horst and graben underthrust the base of the continental slope, and are
243
roughly mimicked by lower-most slope morphology where the plate interface forms a
scarp parallel to the trench axis. Disruption of the lower slope by seafloor relief of ~300 m
is minor but the slope morphology has a restless character that matches the poor
coherence of reflectivity in seismic reflection records. Tectonism of the middle and
lower slope is apparent from seismic data but without 100% coverage the tectonic
significance of multibeam bathymetry is not obvious. Nonetheless, Aubouin and coworkers correctly interpreted extensional tectonism and drilling established the nonaccretionary nature of all but the slope toe. With 100% coverage, extensive mass
wasting and extensional tectonics shaping slope morphology becomes apparent but this
was not achieved until 2003.
A multibeam system was installed on the Scripps R/V Thomas Washington during a
port stop in Puntarenas, Costa Rica in 1984. The instrument test data was preceded by a
survey off the Nicoya peninsula where the continental slope morphology is least
complicated [21]. It showed that even the simplest morphology was generously
endowed with small-scale gravity sliding as noted in DSDP drill cores [22]. Off
Guatemala the Charcot survey was expanded by R/V Thomas Washington and
combined with high-resolution seismic data the indications of sediment folding,
interpreted as accretion across the slope toe, were emphasized [23]. A small frontal
prism was in evidence despite upper plate basement sampled during Legs 67 and 84.
The GEOMAR Geodynamics group selected Costa Rica for investigation because
of a possible subducting seamount that had been partially mapped inadvertently by the
R/V Thomas Washington test survey. Scientific questions to investigate included the
fate of large seamounts in a subduction zone, whether they remain on the lower plate or
are sheared off, whether they form earthquake asperities, and whether they
mechanically erode the continental margin. R/V Sonne mapped about 400 km of the
CAM bathymetry with near 100% [24]. These data were expanded during several
subsequent cruises and current maps include detailed morphology of the continental
slope and incoming oceanic plate from northern Nicaragua to the Cocos ridge offshore
southern Costa Rica (Fig. 9.2).
9.2.3 Accretion versus non-accretion models

Seismic records acquired offshore Costa Rica by UTMSI in 1978 showed a thicker
slope sediment section off Costa Rica than offshore Nicaragua and Guatemala. Beneath
that sediment section is a rough yet strong reflective top of the rock comprising the
bulk of the continental margin, the so-called margin wedge. The base of the margin
wedge is defined by strong reflections paralleling the plate interface (Figs. 9.3 and 9.4).
Within the margin wedge are landward dipping reflections clearly differentiated from
diffractions [25]. A hole drilled offshore Costa Rica during DSDP Leg 84 failed to
reach basement for safety reasons and thus the accretionary model was not tested. The
seismic records off Nicaragua and Costa Rica were interpreted in accord with the
accretionary model [21, 2527] although a non-accretionary Costa Rican model was
also proposed [13, 28]. The UTMSI seismic data offshore the Nicoya peninsula showed
some of the strongest coherent plate interface reflections of any collected at the time
and this area was chosen for the first academic 3-D reflection seismic experiment
across a convergent margin. The 3-D survey was collected across the lower slope and
extended with 2-D lines shot from the continental shelf to the ocean plate [25, 30, 31].
Within the 3-D volume of rock, landward dipping reflections were traced from the top
Figure 9.3. Seismic reflection section from a 3-D survey of the lower slope offshore Nicoya
peninsula, Costa Rica [29].
of the margin wedge to the plate interface (Fig. 9.3). They were interpreted as recently
formed structures representing thrust faults, duplex structures, and out-of-sequence
faults. Out-of-sequence fault is a generic term derived from the constant accretionary
model to explain landward dipping reflections that exceed the length of initial
accretionary thrust faults. They are longer than the initially detached sections of
accreted oceanic sediment and are proposed to cut the accretionary prism once the first
thrust faults are rotated and become too steep to continue thickening the prism. Other
structures were interpreted as underplated duplexes seaward of a post-Eocene
accretionary prism forming the bulk of the continental margin (Figs. 9.3 and 9.4). A
major shortcoming of the interpretation was the lack of reliable velocity data and the
difficulty to balance structure in the context of an accretionary model [31].
During the 1991 and 1992 R/V Sonne cruises 76 and 81, not only multibeam
echosounding but also magnetic data [32], seismic refraction data [33], and
multichannel seismic reflection sections [34] were acquired. The refraction data
indicated higher acoustic velocity in margin wedge rock (~56 km/s) than that derived
from time processing of the 3-D seismic reflection data. These velocities were similar
to those in upper plate crustal rock of the Guatemalan margin [35] where the margin
Figure 9.4. Seismic reflection profile FM-CR20. Stack produced at the Institute of Geophysics
University of Texas at Austin [30]. Post-stack deconvolution and time migration applied at
GEOMAR. ODP Leg 170 drill holes and DSDP Leg 84 site 565 are shown. The margin wedge
extends to ~ 7 km of the deformation front. The frontal sediment prism is composed of
reworked slope sediment. All oceanic sediment is underthrusted past site 1040 [36]. Location
on Fig. 9.2.
245
wedge had been shown to be igneous rock, and not indicative of young accreted
sediment [31, 33]. In addition to the high velocities, the bathymetry offshore Central
Costa Rica indicated only a small frontal prism. The subducting plate with seamounts
and ridges appeared to erode the margin because opposite the seamounts the slope was
indented [24] (Fig. 9.5). A non-accretionary origin explained most readily the structure
imaged in reflection sections [34]. Modeling of magnetic anomalies was consistent
with a margin wedge composed of igneous rather than sedimentary rock [32]. Drilling
results from ODP Leg 170 confirmed that all sediment in the incoming plate is
underthrust and no classical accretionary prism occurs, although the margin wedge rock
was not unequivocally sampled [36]. In fact, the small accretionary prism at the
lower slope was shown to consist only of tectonized slope sediment without transfer of
oceanic sediment from the lower to the upper plate (Fig. 9.4). Thus the former
accretionary prism is now termed a frontal sediment prism. Consequently, the steady
state accretionary model for Costa Rica was no longer the consensus interpretation.
9.3
CHANGES IN THE PARADIGM
9.3.1 Long-term subsidence and subduction erosion

Tectonic processes controlling the past 5 m.y. evolution of the CAM became much
clearer once multibeam bathymetry was available and structure was imaged in true
depth with multichannel seismic reflection sections (Figs. 9.5 and 9.6). DSDP and ODP
drill holes provided a lithostratigraphy of sedimentary units and benthic microfossil
fauna documented paleo bathymetry to reveal a history of massive subsidence. These
data indicated that a large mass of the CAM was missing and was presumed to be
tectonically eroded during Neogene time. Evidence for Neogene margin subsidence
offshore Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Guatemala supports the structural evidence for
subsidence observed in the seismic data and this evidence is discussed below.
In Costa Rica, large-scale Neogene subsidence and upper plate extension has been
interpreted from structure in seismic images and it is recorded in DSDP Leg 84 and
ODP Leg 170 cores. The top of the margin wedge is a rough low-relief surface overlain
by sedimentary strata that locally show onlap (Fig. 9.6). The upper plate landward of
the frontal prism appears extended [30, 37]. Numerous normal faults offset the
sedimentary strata and some appear to continue as discrete reflections deep into the
margin wedge. Most likely, the surface at the top of the margin wedge is an erosional
unconformity that subsided from the surf zone to its current depths beneath the outer
shelf and the middle and lower slope (Fig. 9.6).
The margin wedge lower boundary, the plate interface, is imaged as a reflective
interface that retains a high amplitude signature for about 50 km from the trench and to
about 12 km depth. Reflection and onshore-offshore refraction velocities constrain
determinations of upper plate thickness from the lower slope ( 200 m) to the coast
( 500 m). If the margin wedge unconformity was formed by surf zone erosion near a
former coast, the crust there may have been 1416 km thick, similar to upper plate
thickness beneath the current coast [33, 38, 39]. The margin wedge in central Costa
Rica is currently only 10 km thick beneath the outer shelf and about 3.5 km thick
beneath the middle lower slope (e.g., km 35 on Fig. 9.6). If the unconformity was
formed near sea-level, the upper plate must be thinned. Although faulting of the upper
plate may account for some of the thinning, the small offsets along these faults is not
sufficient to explain the much larger thinning observed and thus basal erosion and
Figure 9.5. Perspective view of the shaded relief of bathymetry and topography of Costa Rica
and Nicaragua. The Talamanca cordillera reaches ~3800 m high and the trench axis ~5700 m
deep. Main morphological features are labeled.
removal of material is a plausible explanation for subsidence. Upper plate extension is

an apparent response to basal erosion and thinning rather than the main cause of margin
subsidence. The margin wedge unconformity and normal faulting has been mapped
across the entire slope of Costa Rica [30, 37, 40] and a similar unconformity separating
igneous basement from overlying strata has been observed beneath the continental
slopes of Nicaragua and Guatemala. Since onlap produces a time-transgressive
unconformity, the age of the unconformity probably varies along the CAM.
Although the distinctive unconformity at the top of the margin wedge is seen
regionally across the middleupper slope, it becomes more irregular farther down slope
and the upper plate is increasingly dismembered. Locally the unconformity is more
disrupted where lower plate relief (seamounts and ridges) has subducted and
247
stratigraphy is poorly imaged in seismic records because of the deformation [37]. The
margin wedge dismemberment beneath the lower slope is consistent with subduction
erosion there.
Consistent with geophysical evidence for subsidence of the CAM in Costa Rica are
results from studies of DSDP Leg 84 site 565 cores, and site 1041 of ODP Leg 170
cores. The lithologies of rock from the unconformity at the top of the margin wedge
currently at ~4 km (site 1042, Leg 170), have shallow-water affinities [41, 42]. The
latter sites recovered igneous basement. The site 1042 cores just above the margin
wedge unconformity recovered ~25 m of carbonate cemented limestone breccia
underlain by ~10 m of a breccia composed of clasts of red chert, doleritic basalt and
mafic rock [36]. The contact between material from the high velocity body and
sediment was not recovered because the site 1042 was located at the frontal tip of the
margin wedge and a thrust truncated the stratigraphic section. The chert and igneous
rock from the breccia are similar to rocks found in the Nicoya complex cropping out
onshore [36]. Analysis of the carbonate cemented limestone breccia indicates a beach
to near shore depositional environment [41]. Drilling at Sites 565 and 1041 penetrated
much of the sediment overlying the margin wedge and good recovery provided a
relatively continuous benthic foraminiferal stratigraphy. The depth at which the
foraminiferal assemblages lived changes from shallow water at the base of the section,
to abyssal fauna in the upper section consistent with the present depth of the sites [43].
The beach to near shore carbonate cemented limestone breccia is ~16 Ma old and
neritic fauna (water depth < 300 m) appears in sediment older than 56.5 Ma indicating
slow average subsidence. However, the more detailed depth information from benthic
foraminifera shows a sudden acceleration in subsidence offshore Nicoya peninsula
starting at ~56.5 Ma when that area of the margin subsided rapidly to upper-middle
bathyal depth (< 800 m water depth). A renewed increase in subsidence rate occurred at
~1.8 Ma when the slope deepened to abyssal depths (> 2000 m) or the current core
depth of ~3200 m. [43]. These observations are explained by long-term margin
subsidence caused by subduction erosion and thinning of the upper plate.
In Nicaragua, drill hole information along a seismic reflection/refraction transect
across the Sandino basin shows that the basin depocenter was located beneath the
current continental shelf during Cretaceous to ~Middle Eocene time (Fig. 9.7). The
CretaceousPaleogene sediment units rapidly pinch out along the basin seaward flank.
Beneath the current upper continental slope, a thin CretaceousEarly Paleogene
sediment sequence becomes indistinct down slope [44] but probably extends to the
middle slope where dredging recovered fragments of igneous basement rock and
Cretaceous limestone [45]. From about Late Eocene to latest Oligocene or Early
Miocene time (~2623 Ma) the outer shelf seafloor was sufficiently elevated to form a
barrier to sediment transport and most deposition was restricted to the inner shelf area
where a stable depocenter accumulated sediment about 5 km thick. A major change in
basin configuration and the beginning of long-term regional subsidence of the seaward
part of the margin occurred in latest Oligocene or Early Miocene time. When the outer
shelf subsided, Neogene sediment unconformably covered the CretaceousEarly
Paleogene units. Since Early Miocene, a 70-km-wide swath of the Nicaraguan margin
forming the current upper continental slope subsided about 2 km at the position of the
current shelf break, and probably 34 km along the middle to-upper slope transition
(Fig. 9.7).
In Guatemala, paleo-depths from benthic foraminifera of sites 568570 on the
middle-upper slope yield similar evidence for long-term subsidence as off Costa Rica
Figure 9.6. Pre-stack depth migration of Sonne-81 line 4 projected on bathymetry. Line 4 is 58 km long from the slope toe to the outer continental shelf. The top
of the margin wedge is an unconformity cut by normal faults with small offset. Thrust faulting occurs only at the lower continental slope in the small frontal
sediment prism where the slope drainage system is disrupted. Location on Figure 9.2. Modified from Ranero and von Huene [37].
249
[42]. Benthic foraminiferal assemblages indicate a progressive subsidence of the slope

that might have started in latest Oligocene or Early Miocene (~2623 Ma) time.
Subsidence began earlier (~26 Ma) in the middle slope (site 569 currently at 2799 m
depth). Subsidence at site 568 (currently at 2030 m deep) started about 19 Ma and at
site 570 (currently at 1720 m deep) about 11 Ma. The record of vertical tectonism
shows a migration of margin subsidence toward the continent.
The Neogene subsidence record in Guatemala and Nicaragua (~2623 Ma) begins
at approximately the same time but is somewhat later in Costa Rica offshore Nicoya
peninsula (~17 Ma). The rapid subsidence pulse at ~56.5 Ma in the latter area is not
observed in Nicaragua or Guatemala. Initiation of widespread subsidence in the CAM
might be related to a major kinematic reorganization of the plates in the eastern Pacific.
Soon after the Faralln-Pacific spreading center collided with the North American plate
in the Late Oligocene [46] a latest Oligocene or Early Miocene (2623 Ma) change in
plate kinematics led to the opening of the Cocos-Nazca spreading center [46, 47]. The
plate kinematic reorganization produced a change from oblique to normal convergence
along the MAT and was accompanied by an increased rate of spreading along the East
Pacific rise [48] adjacent to the newly formed Cocos plate. Fast convergence rates and
arrival of a younger and shallower slab at the trench may have induced subduction
erosion along the plate boundary [42, 44]. The rapid pulse of subsidence at 56.5 Ma
recorded locally offshore Nicoya peninsula is coeval with the arrival of the topographic
swell associated with the Cocos ridge [43]. Studies of the Talamanca cordillera
opposite the subducting Cocos ridge indicate that widespread calcalkaline volcanism
ceased about 3.55 Ma [49, 50]. Adakitic rocks probably produced by partial melting
of ocean crust were emplaced ~3.5 Ma [51] and denudation ages from fission track
analysis indicate uplift of the cordillera to about this same time [52]. These
observations indicate a 57 Ma arrival time of Cocos ridge at the trench. The arrival of
Cocos ridge further decreased the subduction angle of the incoming plate as far north as
Nicoya peninsula and after an initial uplift a former shelf area subsided to its current
abyssal depth [43].
9.4
THE FOREARC SANDINO BASIN
Sandino forearc basin is located beneath the broad continental shelf from the Gulf of
Tehuantepec to Costa Rica (Figs. 9.7 and 9.8). This basin has been subsiding active
since Late Cretaceous and contains a 915 km thick sediment accumulation at its
depocenter [44, 53]. The structure of the basin is similar from Guatemala to Nicaragua.
Its depocenter is located near the current coastline and the infill progressively shallows
towards a basement outer high located beneath the current shelf edge. Evolution of the
basin from Nicaragua to Guatemala was similar during the Tertiary. Although there
may be a difference in the pre-Eocene tectonics at each segment of the margin, it is also
possible that previous interpretations are different because of incomplete data [44]. The
pre-Middle Eocene basin imaged near the present coastline off Nicaragua (Fig. 9.7)
was not clearly imaged off Guatemala. Offshore Nicaragua, seismic stratigraphy and
backstripping indicate that rapid basin subsidence occurred during early development
of the Sandino basin (CretaceousPaleocene). In Costa Rica, Late Cretaceous deep
water sediment rests over Nicoya complex igneous rock, and deformation of the basin
has uplifted similar strata that crop out along the coastal region of Nicaragua [28, 54]
indicating a single development of the entire forearc basin along Middle America.
Figure 9.7. Pre-stack depth migration of a cross section composed of three multichannel seismic reflection profiles across the Nicaragua margin. Seismic
stratigraphy has been calibrated with Corvina-2 and Argonaut-1 wells. The continental shelf is underlain by the more than 9 km deep Sandino basin. Location
on Fig. 9.2. Modified from Ranero et al. [44].
251
The Late Eocene and Oligocene section in Nicaragua and Guatemala have similar
structure. The strata show landward thickening and are absent from the outer high and
upper slope probably indicating subsidence restricted to the shelf. A transition from
deep to shallow water sediment in Guatemala [55] Costa Rica [28, 56] and Nicaragua
Pacific margin in the Late Eocene indicates similar conditions regionally. From
Nicaragua to Guatemala a phase of renewed subsidence from the latest Oligocene to
the Quaternary is documented by sediment deposition across the outer high and upper
slope. In EarlyMiddle Miocene time tectonic shortening deformed strata in the
Nicaraguan segment (Fig. 9.7) creating an angular unconformity beneath the shelf. A
similar unconformity locally separates Oligocene from Miocene sections in Guatemala
(Fig. 9.8). Therefore, the entire Sandino basin developed as a unit and the similar Late
Cretaceous to Oligocene tectonic histories indicate a major regional tectonic event.
Along the CAM, the basement of the forearc basin is probably composed of igneous
rocks of oceanic origin. The Nicoya complex onshore Costa Rica belongs to the
Caribbean basaltic province [5759] and it is possible that the basement underlying the
forearc basin of the CAM is part of a single volcanic province. Landward of the MAT,
the magnetic anomalies offshore Nicaragua and Costa Rica include a broad positive
anomaly (Fig. 9.9). Magnetic model ling has shown that this can be explained with an
offshore extension of the igneous rocks that crop out on the Nicoya peninsula [32].
Wide-angle seismic studies also show that the igneous complex extends seaward to
near the continental slope toe [33, 39]. The continuity of the magnetic anomalies across
the forearc of Costa Rica and Nicaragua indicates that the same igneous basement
extends across the entire region (Fig. 9.9). The origin of a sharp magnetic boundary
across the coastline of northern Costa Rica in the Nicoya peninsula area is not yet clear
but may be related to the Chortis-Chorotega block transition and is older than the
development of the forearc basin. The Caribbean basaltic province is interpreted as
formed largely by initial melting of the head of the Galpagos plume (~90 Ma) and
subsequent obduction (~80 Ma) [57, 58, 60, 61]. This large igneous body was obducted
along at the Antilles easterly dipping subduction zone. It is proposed that this obduction
terminated subduction and eventually caused inversion of subduction polarity [60].
Subduction along the Middle America trench probably began on the western edge
of the Caribbean basaltic province at ~75 Ma, as suggested by the oldest volcanoclastic
Cretaceous sediment overlying the igneous complexes [54]. Subduction initiation is
associated with rapid subsidence of the upper plate [62, 63] that might have caused the
initial development of the Sandino basin along the western rim of the Caribbean plate.
Subduction initiation is associated with rapid subsidence to several-km depth at 150
200 km from the trench, driven by sinking of the slab into the mantle [62, 64, 65]. As
subsidence rates decreased after initial subduction, the basin was filled with sediment
(MiddleLate Eocene) from a developing volcanic arc. Subsidence seems to be
currently active across the continental shelf and slope.
9.5
QUATERNARY TECTONICS
A compilation of multibeam bathymetry ~600-km-long and 100150 km-wide offshore

Costa Rica and Nicaragua provides an unprecedented map of the active tectonics
exhibited as seafloor relief (Figs. 9.2 and 9.5). Data were acquired with the
Hydrosweep system during R/V Sonne cruises 76, 81, 107, 144 and 150, R/V M. Ewing
cruises 0005 [66] and 2001 [67], and with a Simrad system during R/V Sonne cruise
Figure 9.8. Post-stack time migration of line GUA2 across the Guatemala margin. The line was collected in 1977 by R/V Ida Green. Re-processing includes poststack deconvolution, frequency-wavenumber noise attenuation, dip-dependent trace interpolation and migration. The Sandino basin may be more than 10 km
deep underneath the continental shelf and thins rapidly towards the outer shelf. Basement extends underneath the continental slope to a point very close to the
trench and is covered by a thin and disrupted sediment section. The top of the basement is indicated by the black-filled circles where observed. The pelagic
sediment section of the oceanic plate is strongly tilted at the trench axis indicating that faults are active across the entire oceanward trench slope. Turbidites
partially fill a half graben being underthrust at the deformation front. The top of the subducting plate can be followed ~35 km underneath the overriding plate
and it shows that the half graben structure is preserved.
253
163. Editing with MB system software [68] eliminated spurious soundings and
accepted soundings were converted to depth with water velocities measured during
different cruises. There data allowed gridding at ~100 m node spacing. This bathymetry
resolves tectonic structure less than 0.5 km wide from which sedimentary and tectonic
processes can be interpreted. A compilation of magnetic data shows the structure of the
incoming oceanic plate formed at the East Pacific rise and Cocos-Nazca spreading
center (Fig. 9.9). The comparison of magnetic and bathymetric data shows the control
of structure formed at the spreading centers on the configuration of the oceanic plate
and on the deformation during bending at the trench.
The emphasis of previous Costa Rica margin studies was on segmentation of the
ocean plate, which correlates, with large-scale tectonic segmentation of the upper plate
[37, 40, 47]. The current bathymetric and magnetic compilations sharpen the
correlation between lower ocean plate segmentation and upper plate tectonics.
Expanded coverage offshore Costa Rica and Nicaragua shows this upper/lower plate
similarity that we interpret as a cause-and-effect relation between lower plate character
and upper plate tectonism.
9.5.1 Segmentation of the incoming oceanic plate

The along strike variability in ocean plate relief and water depth result from a
combination of magmatic and tectonic processes. The oceanic Cocos plate subducting
beneath much of CAM is divided into two provinces that were generated at different
mid-ocean spreading centers (Fig. 9.1). Most of the oceanic lithosphere entering the
MAT today originates from the East Pacific rise (EPR) and has the low relief
morphology and low-amplitude magnetic anomalies common to fast-spreading ridges
[19, 48]. Along the southern boundary of the Cocos plate, crust was generated along
the Cocos-Nazca spreading center (CNS) by intermediate spreading with a rough
topography and high-amplitude magnetic anomalies [69]. The resulting rough-smooth
boundary that separates these two provinces enters the MAT offshore the Nicoya
peninsula in northern Costa Rica [47]. Detailed magnetic mapping (Fig. 9.9) clearly
defines the location of this feature, other tectonic boundaries and seafloor spreading
magnetic lineations in the Cocos plate which resulted from the break-up of the Faralln
plate at 23 Ma and the early history of the subsequent Cocos-Nazca spreading (Fig.
9.10).
The identification of seafloor spreading anomalies provides the age of the Cocos
plate along the MAT. The oldest plate of 24 m.y. is found offshore Nicaragua. To the
north, the EPR-generated crust becomes progressively younger until it is almost zero at
18N where the EPR meets the MAT offshore Mexico. To the south of Nicaragua, the
age of the Cocos plate decreases rapidly to ~13 Ma. offshore the Costa Rica-Panama
border where the Cocos plates terminates at the Panama fracture zone against the
Nazca plate. No clear Wadati-Benioff seismicity is observed underneath Panama and
lithospheric underthrusting may not be active in that region.
Magmatic processes at the Cocos-Nazca spreading center and the Galpagos hotspot
govern crustal formation from the 20 km beneath the crest of Cocos ridge to ~6
km offshore central Costa Rica [33, 70, 71]. The high heatflow on and adjacent to
Cocos ridge and the much lower than normal heatflow offshore Nicoya peninsula [67]
are probably also related to magmatic history and fluid circulation in ocean crust but
causes for strong lateral changes have not yet been determined. Magmatism also
Figure 9.9. Magnetic anomalies in Nicaragua and Costa Rica compiled from R/V S onnecruises
76, 107 and 144, R/V M. Ewing cruises 0005 [66] and 0104 [67], and R/V R. Revelle
delivery cruise [90]. Data processing includes corrections for daily variations of the magnetic
field. In addition, detailed maps of an aeromagnetic survey across Costa Rica were digitized
and merged with the marine data. The contour interval is 100 nT. Different patterns of
magnetic anomalies result from the different types of oceanic crust.
constructed large volcanic edifices adjacent to Cocos ridge. The tectonic process of
bending-related normal faulting seems greatly influenced by crustal thickness and the
orientation of tectonic fabric created at the spreading center with respect to the axis of
bending [72]. Seafloor relief in the study area defines 4 distinct oceanic plate segments
(Figs. 9.2 and 9.5). The lithosphere of segments 13 was formed at the Cocos-Nazca
spreading center whereas the crust of segment 4 was formed at the East Pacific rise.
Segment 1 consists of the broad Cocos ridge whose crest is the shallowest seafloor area
(water depth 2.51.5 km) of the MAT. The shallow seafloor corresponds to the
anomalously thick ocean crust of Cocos ridge produced ~14 Ma ago by the interaction
of the Galpagos hotspot with the Cocos-Nazca spreading center [73]. Paralleling
Cocos ridge are large tilted normal fault blocks indicating extension perpendicular to
the ridge axis along segment 1. Steep normal fault scarps dip toward the Cocos ridge
axis and bound a large graben over the thickest crust (Figs. 9.2 and 9.5). The sediment
strata in the graben are not tilted, indicating that the large faults are not recent and
related to the bending of the plate, but probably old structures formed during the
creation of the Cocos ridge. Smaller ridges, conical seamounts, and the Quepos plateau
characterize segment 2. The conical seamounts and Quepos plateau are 1315 Ma old
255
Figure 9.10. Isochron map of the Cocos plate offshore Nicaragua and Costa Rica with ages
derived from identification of seafloor spreading anomalies [47]. Numbers indicate ages in
m.y. of identified magnetic lineations. Dotted lines show tectonic boundaries, double arrows
indicate crust formed at the East Pacific rise and at the Cocos-Nazca spreading center.
Triangles show the locations of volcanoes. The 100 km isodepth contour of the WadatiBenioff zone is shown [47].
[73] and are emplaced on 2118 Ma old lithosphere [47]. The age and geochemistry of
the seamounts is essentially the same as Cocos ridge indicating emplacement during the
hotspot activity in the adjacent segment 1 lithosphere [73]. The ocean crust of segment
2 is 78 km thick [33, 71] and it is flexed into the trench more than the contiguous
segment 1. Bending at segment 2 is partially relieved by normal faulting near the trench
axis (Figs. 9.2 and 9.5), that strikes obliquely to the trench axis and to the seafloor
spreading magnetic anomalies (Figs. 9.9 and 9.10). Segment 3 with a 6 km thick crust
[33] has the smoothest morphology displaying a few bending-related faults with
relatively small vertical displacement. Bending-related faults strike roughly parallel to
the trench and are perpendicular to the magnetic anomalies, implying that bending,
rather than reactivating the inherited tectonic fabric, forms new faults. The boundary
between segment 3 and segment 4 is a low ridge that strikes perpendicular to the trench
and marks the juncture between the lithosphere formed at the Cocos-Nazca spreading
center and at the East Pacific rise. The crust in segment 4 is ~56 km thick [33, 74] and
is pervasively faulted as it bends into the trench. Faulting is roughly parallel to the
trench axis and to magnetic lineations (Figs. 9.9 and 9.10) and thus parallel to the fabric
formed at the East Pacific rise (Figs. 9.2 and 9.5). In this segment, trench depth and the
width of the faulted area increase to the NW to ~5500 m depth.
Bending-related faulting produces a profound geochemical and mechanical change
of the incoming oceanic lithosphere. The pervasive system of faults cuts across the
entire crust and into the upper mantle to at least 20 km below the seafloor [72].
Figure 9.11. Perspective shaded relief view of the bathymetry from central Costa Rica showing seamount subduction and the Nicoya slide.
257
Faulting remains active across the entire trench oceanic slope and as the plate continues
bending new faults form up to the trench axis. This extensional system provides open
paths for fluid percolation deep into the oceanic plate, leading to serpentinization of the
peridotites of the mantle and perhaps also important hydration of the crust [72]. As the
oceanic plate subducts, the progressive pressure-temperature increase leads to
metamorphic dehydration reactions liberating fluids from the slab that are released into
the mantle wedge of the overriding plate, triggering arc volcanism [75]. The
segmentation of the oceanic plate is also displayed in the variability of the amount of
bending-related faulting at the trench which might also imply differences in the amount
of hydration of the plate along the subduction zone.
In summary, the morphology of the subducting oceanic plate, the amount of
bending and the associated increase in trench depth, change greatly in segments of the
CAM studied. Controlling parameters appear to be the changes in crustal thickness, its
age and thermal structure, and the angle between seafloor spreading fabric and the axis
of bending. This segmentation of the incoming plate is parallel by a similar spatial
segmentation in the character of the overriding plate.
9.5.2 Parallel segmentation of subducting and overriding plates

Remarkable is the parallelism between morphotectonics of the continental slope, the
shelf, the land, and the morphological segmentation of the ocean plate. Active forearc
tectonism is influenced by local uplift over subducting seafloor relief and the
subsidence from subduction erosion at the front and along the base of the upper plate.
Thus, changes in character of the subducting oceanic plate influence differences in the
Quaternary tectonic evolution of the continental margin. The influence of the
subducting oceanic plate character is additionally correlated to distinct differences in
seismic activity occurring along the four segments of the margin. The volcanic arc also
displays along-strike variability that corresponds to changes in the character of the
incoming plate.
Segment 1 of the incoming plate subducts offshore the Osa peninsula of
southeastern Costa Rica. It contains the thick and buoyant Cocos ridge and correlates
with singular morphotectonic features landward of the continental slope to the arc.
Retreat of the margin is greatest opposite the colliding Cocos ridge which implies
accelerated Quaternary erosion (Figs. 9.2 and 9.5). Opposite the subducting ridge,
uplift of a broad area of the continental shelf culminates in the Osa peninsula. The
peninsula displays margin perpendicular topography parallel to the large tilted fault
blocks on the ridge [40]. Landward of Osa peninsula, the Fila Costea thrust and fold
belt is the only area along the margin where active contraction is significant. Further
landward, arc volcanism is extinguished and the Talamanca cordillera has been uplifted
[76, 77] exposing mid crustal granodioritic plutons [49]. Rough relief from river
incision characterizes the region where arc volcanism ceased and a drainage system
developed (Fig. 9.5). Large earthquakes of MW 77.5 have nucleated in this area but
during the past 20 years small earthquakes in this segment have been relatively few
compared to those in the adjacent middle segment [78].
Segment 2 of the incoming plate subducts offshore central Costa Rica. The
subducting ridges and chains of seamounts that are 2 to 3 km high breach the margin
front and leave seafloor grooves up the slope indicating material removal. Subducting
seamounts breach the lower slope during initial collision with the margin (Fig. 9.11)
Figure 9.12. Prestack depth migration of S onne-81 line 6 indicating active tectonic erosion
above a subducting seamount as it tunnels underneath the continental plate. Dots mark the
plate boundary, with black dots delineating the seamount flanks. This segment of line 6 is
parallel to the continental margin and shows the lateral variations in margin wedge thickness.
The margin wedge is 0.50.7 km thinner above the subducting seamount than on either side.
Tectonic extension of the overriding plate caused by uplift above the seamount is too small to
explain the thinning. The thinning is probably due to ongoing tectonic erosion by the
seamount. Location on Fig. 9.2. Modified from Ranero and von Huene [37].
and as they tunnel beneath it they apparently erode the underside of the upper plate
(Fig. 9.12). The continental slope is uplifted above the subducting seamount causing
mass wasting at the seafloor. Mass wasting produces slumps and slides locally several
tens of km long. The largest slide is the Nicoya slide with a headwall detachment
running more than 50 km across the middle slope (Fig. 9.11). The slide toe runs about
5 km up the ocean trench slope and it could have created a tsunami wave about 30 m
high [79]. Seamounts and ridges remain attached to the subducting plate beneath the
continental shelf where they produce uplift (Fig. 9.13). Subducted basement highs
beneath the shelf induce local increase of the stress on the plate interface and are areas
of earthquake nucleation [37, 8082]. The largest events associated with chains of
subducting seamounts are Mw < 7 [37]. Some seamounts are associated with local uplift
on land that may separate the Panama block from northern Costa Rica along margin
perpendicular faults [83, 84]. In this segment the volcanic output is greater than along
other segments of the arc, and the arc volcanoes have recently migrated landward [85]
perhaps related to the accelerated tectonic erosion associated with seamount subduction
here [37, 40]. Where large seamounts on the ocean plate are sparse and small,
roughness of seafloor forms from bending-related normal faulting. Segment 3 and the
contiguous portion of segment 4 exhibit a relatively smooth subducting oceanic plate
morphology (Figs. 9.2 and 9.5) mainly opposite the Nicoya peninsula. There the
continental slope displays the most stable morphology of the margin with gentle dips
and well-developed canyon systems in the upper-middle slope (Fig. 9.5). Heatflow at
the trench and lower slope is exceptionally low [67, 86]. Some of the largest historic
earthquakes have nucleated in this segment [78] adjacent to the smoothest subducting
topography in the area. The oceanic plate of segment 4 displays more bend-faulting and
morphological roughness that increases towards the NW (Figs. 9.2 and 9.5). The
vertical displacement of individual faults increases progressively NW from a few tens
of m to as much as 500 m. A parallel change in continental slope morphology occurs
along the margin. The slope of the margin changes gradually from the simplest
structure offshore Nicoya peninsula to a margin characterized by an upper, middle and
259
Figure 9.13. Prestack depth migration of Sonne-81 line 5 showing the subducted extension of
the Quepos plateau underneath the continental shelf. Note the uplift of shelf strata above the
subducting ridge. Location on Fig. 9.2.
lower slopes with different morphologies and dips. The upper slope dips gently and its
many canyons develop at the slope break and coalesce downslope. A change to steeper
dips defines the transition to the middle slope, characterized by many normal faults and
the mud diapirs associated with fluid flow [87] and chemosynthetic fauna [88]. Also,
the middle slope dip increases progressively towards the NW, where slump scars
become abundant (Figs. 9.2 and 9.5). The lower slope is an area characterized by
terraces that display an en echelon pattern that mimic and strike parallel to the
morphology of the half grabens in the subducting oceanic plate. The terraces are
formed by the riffling of the thin apex of the overriding plate over subducting
topography indicating a largely dismembered upper plate. Segment 4 ocean floor
subducts in the area where the damaging 1992 large tsunami earthquake occurred [89].
9.6
SUMMARY
Early in the exploration of the Pacific basin the CAM was recognized as a Pacific type
margin with a trench and Wadati-Benioff zone. It was recognized as a subduction zone
when the plate tectonic paradigm first developed. Later it was significant in developing
the knowledge to correctly differentiate between accretionary and erosional convergent
margin end-members. When only seismic data are available the constant accretionary
end-member model must be applied with greater care than it was invoked in the past.
Landward dipping reflections in seismic records are not only derived from accretionary
processes but in erosional margins they may represent extensional structures or
inherited fabric and their origin requires further investigation. The CAM displays the
effects of subducting lower plate character on tectonics of the upper plate. The effects
of relief, crustal thickness, thermal structure, and the orientation of original oceanic
crustal fabric also shape continental slope structure, induce a pattern of earthquake
seismicity, influence the potential for tsunamigenic submarine sliding, and correlate
with changes in the volcanic arc. Oceanic crustal thickness and temperature correlate
with trench depth and bending of the incoming plate. Orientation of oceanic crustal
fabrics subdue or accentuate bend faulting which imparts subducting plate roughness
and correlates with rates of erosion. These interactive geological processes are not yet
fully understood and are the topics of ongoing research. The differences in the
character of the subducting plate are sharply segmented along the CAM and segment
boundaries in the lower plate correspond with features in the upper plate. This
segmentation also separates earthquake magnitude and epicentral patterns. Subducting
seamounts are commonly associated with large submarine slides. Thus, the forefront
research along the CAM continues to contribute significantly to a basic understanding
of natural hazards and promotes progress towards the mitigating of their damaging
effects.
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265
Chapter 10
Crustal structure
ERNST R. FLUEH AND ROLAND VON HUENE
The relief, seismic aspects, gravitational
characteristics and crustal structure of
the marine zone surrounding Central
America are extremely important for our
understanding of the continental areas.
R. Weyl: Geology of Central America, 1980.
10.1
INTRODUCTION
In Central America, knowledge of crustal structure is still limited despite some wideangle seismic experiments during the past decades in southern Central America. The
great variability of Central American geology requires detailed mapping of its surface
geology and its subsurface crustal structure to better understand its geologic history, its
resource potential, and to asses risks from natural hazards. Crustal structure was largely
inferred prior to 1990 from geologic maps, gravity studies, potential field data, and
sparse seismic and seismological observations. Fundamental questions still debated by
geoscientists are the location of boundaries between the continental Paleozoic
basement of North America and the oceanic igneous crust or island arc crust of Costa
Rica and Panama. Another question is the amount of island arc crust preserved and the
amount eroded along the Central American convergent margin. In contrast to the lack
of crustal data on land is the more complete understanding of offshore structure along
Panama, Costa Rica and Nicaragua. During the past 20 years the consensus regarding
tectonic processes has changed from accretion to subduction erosion. From the first
tests of the constant accretionary hypothesis off Guatemala [1, 2] to the recent tests off
the Nicoya peninsula of Costa Rica [3], it is clear that model driven geophysical
interpretations of convergent margin tectonic processes must be applied with care.
In this chapter knowledge about the continental crustal structure is summarized and
suggestions are made for some urgently needed investigations to understand more
completely the major geologic units comprising the Earths crust of Central America.
10.2
GEOLOGY AND TERRANES
Dengo [4], who had mapped the Nicoya and Santa Elena peninsulas (Costa Rica) and
recognized their affinity with ocean crust compiled an early comprehensive geology of
Costa Rica. The exposed basement here consists of mafic and ultramafic rock like
harzburgite, gabbro, basalt, pillow basalt, with volcanoclastic and oceanic sediment.
Ultramafic rock of the Santa Elena peninsula was interpreted as the basal part of an
ophiolitic sequence [4]. Many investigators studied the Nicoya complex and several
Figure 10.1. General tectonic map of the southern Central American isthmus from Guatemala to
Panama, showing major features. NPDB: North Panama deformed belt, TCRFS: Trans-Costa
Rican fault system, PFZ: Panama fracture zone, MPF: Motuga Polochic fault, OP: Osa
peninsula, NP: Nicoya peninsula, Tgc: Tegucigalpa, LB: Limn basin; SE: Sta. Elena
peninsula; LC: Los Chiles, TB: Tempisque basin, TC: Talamanca cordillera, TBB: Trraba
basin. The triangles represent Quaternary volcanoes; P3 is the seismic profile obtained
during cruise SO107 and analyzed by Walther et al. [30]; P1 and P2 were obtained during
projects TICOSECT and COTCOR in 1995 and 1996 and analyzed by Sallars et al. [33]
(P2, see also Fig. 10.4) and Stavenhagen et al. [29] 1998, P1, see also Fig. 10.3, respectively.
competing hypotheses were proposed. However, recent geochemistry suggests an

affinity with the Caribbean large igneous province (CLIP). Age dating and
geochemical data from the Nicoya peninsula show that the Nicoya complex was
derived from Galpagos hotspot volcanism [5].
Dengo [6] further recognized a fundamental break in the regional geology at the
Santa Elena peninsula and also between Costa Rica and Panama. In keeping with the
terrane concept he divided Central America into the Chortis terrane including the area
from Guatemala to southern Nicaragua and the Chorotega terrane from Santa Elena to
the central Panama fracture zone, bounded to the south by the Choc terrane (Fig.
10.1). The Trans-Costa Rican fault system [7] is a diffuse boundary between stable
Caribbean plate in northern Costa Rica and the deforming Panama block microplate in
southern Costa Rica.
From southern Mexico to Central Costa Rica, the Central American convergent
margin is a classical Pacific margin in the sense of Gutenberg and Richter [8] in having
a deep trench, an active Wadati-Benioff zone, and a volcanic arc. Vening Meinesz
measured strong negative gravity anomalies over the trench in 1926 which identified
the trench as one of the typical trenches of the Circum-Pacific. Bullard observed heat
flow in the area and seismic refraction experiments were made in the 1950s era of
Figure 10.2. 1-D velocity-depth models for Central America: (a) used in routinely locating of
earthquakes by the Instituto Nicaragense de Estudios Territoriales (INETER); and (b) by
the Red Sismolgica Nacional (RSN: ICE-UCR), based on Matumoto et al. [15]; in c) we
compare the velocity model for northern Central America by Kim et al. [17] (grey line) and
by Ligorria and Molina [18] (black line). The graph presented in d) is the best reference 1-D
model (or minimum 1-D model) for Costa Rica inverted from local seismicity data, after
Sallars et al. [33], using a wide range of a priori models (bands shown dashed).
ocean exploration after World War II [9]. These authors interpreted a nearly horizontal
Moho, which was a surprise at the time since it did not conform to the geometry called
for by the Tectogene of several Dutch authors (i.e., [10]) and the gravity data of Vening
Meinesz [11] of Kuenen and Griggs. Fisher and Hess [12] summarized many of these
surveys at the time of initial formulation of the plate tectonic paradigm.
10.3
EARLY SEISMIC INVESTIGATIONS
Seismic data on land was first acquired by the oil industry beginning in the 1930s both
at the Pacific coast in Nicaragua and at the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica. In the late
1960s Elf explored an area near the Santa Elena peninsula. This was followed by
further exploration in the Limn and the Tempisque basins as well as the Nicaraguan
depression on land and proprietary offshore surveys (Fig. 10.2a). Several wildcat
exploratory wells were drilled in areas of surface seeps and source rock outcrops. Their
locations are summarized by INE [13] for Nicaragua and are shown in the geological
map of Tournon and Alvarado [14] for Costa Rica.
Deep crustal structure using seismic data was first investigated by Matumoto et al.
[15] in Costa Rica and was further developed by Liaw [16]. Both used a very limited
number of instruments that recorded a few widely separated explosive source or local
earthquakes. They interpreted a three-layer crust 44 km thick with a continental
affinity. Layering was essentially horizontal. A modified velocity section of Matumoto
et al. [15] has until recently been used to routinely locate earthquakes from the Costa
Rican networks of seismometers (Fig. 10.2b). Kim et al. [17] presented a crustal model
for northern Central America, based on shallow earthquakes along the Motagua
Polochic fault in Guatemala recorded by a seismological station in Tegucigalpa,
Honduras. They postulate a three layer continental crust of 37.4 km thickness (Fig.
10.2c). This model was later revised by more observations by Ligoria and Molina [18],
which indicated a thicker (~50 km) continental crust (Fig. 10.2c).
Two networks of seismographs to locate earthquakes in Costa Rica, the ICE-UCR
RSN (now: Red Sismolgica Nacional) and UNA (OVSICORI) were established in
269
1974 and 1984, respectively. In Nicaragua, a network was established and maintained
for five years by the U.S. Geological Survey prior to the Sandinista regime [19]. Some
instruments operated until 1990 and in 1993 a new network was deployed and put into
operation by INETER [20]. The velocity-depth model used to locate earthquakes from
the Nicaraguan network differs considerably from that used in Costa Rica as shown in
Figures 10.2a and 10.2b.
These networks allowed detailed analysis of the local seismicity of Costa Rica and
Nicaragua. The studies of those data replaced earlier investigations from the late 1960s
to 1984 in which it was recognized that the dip of the seismogenic zone becomes
shallower from Nicaragua toward the Cocos ridge area off Osa peninsula of Costa
Rica. The analysis of local seismicity showing that changing dip in detail was reported
by Protti et al. [21]. Colombo et al. [22] used teleseismic arrivals in the Costa Rican
networks to make a tomographic analysis of the lithosphere and found considerable
lateral variability related to the subduction zone.
Case et al. [23] presented a detailed summary of the crustal structure of the
Caribbean provinces, including Central America. Using the above mentioned seismic
investigations and numerous gravity constrains (e.g., [24, 25]) they presented contour
maps of crustal thickness that, as they state, is not without its risks and depths could be
in error by 5 km or more.
Following the summary of Case et al. [23], numerous studies of modern controlledsource wide-angle measurements were made along the Pacific coasts of Costa Rica and
Nicaragua in the 1990s. These included onshore-offshore experiments recording mostly
closely spaced marine airgun shots and some explosions on land. The focus of these
studies was on the margin wedge and the subducting oceanic plate [2630]. All
confirmed a high velocity and the igneous oceanic affinity of the rock comprising the
margin wedge. This excluded the inference of Case et al. [23] and of Shipley et al.
[31], who proposed a wedge of accreted trench sediment that ended at the coast. The
absence of a wide accretionary prism was later confirmed by the results of drilling on
Leg 170 [3]. In 1995, two marine transects were extended with recordings on land and
in 1996 explosive shots that were recorded by an array of land stations. The first
transect (Fig. 10.1) crosses the entire isthmus of southern Costa Rica across the
Talamanca cordillera and ends in the Limn basin [29]. The second or northern transect
(Fig. 10.1) traverses the Nicoya peninsula, the active volcanic front, and reaches the
Nicaraguan border at Los Chiles [3234]. These two traverses (Figs. 10.3 and 10.4) are
up to now (2005) the fundamental crustal structural data of Costa Rica (and Middle
America).
10.4
DESCRIPTION OF CRUSTAL DATA
The ~230 km long southern transect across the isthmus of southern Costa Rica extends
from seaward of the Pacific continental slope to the Caribbean shore (Fig. 10.1). In the
Pacific basin on the northwest flank of Cocos ridge it revealed oceanic crust thickened
to about 15 km. This thickness was later confirmed with the perpendicular line across
the ridge of Walther [35], who found 12 km thick crust at the intersection of the two
lines and 24 km thick crust beneath the crest of Cocos ridge. Velocities in the margin
wedge increase landward and the base of the wedge is 25 km deep near the coast. A
moderate velocity reversal occurs within the wedge above the plate boundary interface.
Sediment in the forearc basin offshore and within the Trraba basin on land is up to
Figure 10.3. 2-D velocity-depth profile after Stavenhagen et al. [29], obtained across southern
Costa Rica isthmus during the projects COTCOR and TICOSECT (see P1 in Fig. 10.1 for
location). Triangles mark position of OBH and landstations that recorded airgun shots during
Project TICOSECT in 1995. Stars mark locations of explosive sources recorded by a 57
element landarray (vertical bars) during project COTCOR in 1996.
3 km thick. The plate interface can be followed to a depth of nearly 40 km beneath

Talamanca cordillera and the velocities increase from 6.0 km/s at the surface to about
7.3 km/s at 35 km depth. The crust/mantle boundary could not be identified
unambiguously although a seismic boundary was identified at about 35 km depth. That
boundary could be the Moho. Farther along the transect, in the Limn basin, about
4 km of sediment is observed in accord with earlier results from hydrocarbon
exploration. The upper part of the crustal structure resembles the nearby cross section
of Rivier [36] although details of the shallow geology are not resolved in the refraction
data.
A transect across northern Costa Rica (P2 in Fig. 10.1) was studied by Christeson et
al. [28], Sallars et al. [32], [33] and Goedde [34]. The most complete investigation of
the onshore segment is that reported by Sallars et al. [33]. They find that the crust is
comparatively homogeneous except for near surface variations in the Tempisque basin
and the volcanic arc (Fig. 10.4). Crustal thickness increases from 30 km near the coast,
where the base of the crust is juxtaposed against the downgoing Cocos plate, and
increases gradually to nearly 40 km beneath the backarc basin. Crustal velocity
increases from about 6.0 km/s at 5 km depth to 7.2 km/s at the Moho. Subcrustal
velocities were not observed directly, but amplitude modeling of PmP critical distances
indicates low mantle velocities between 7.4 and 7.6 km/s. This is in contrast to earlier
results of Matumoto et al. [15] and also differs with the results of Stavenhagen et al.
[29]. The latter authors did not have convincing evidence for higher mantle velocities
and were also unable to examine direct Pn-phases due to the limited length of their
profiles. In addition to amplitude evidence, Sallars et al. [33] provide convincing
evidence for a low upper mantle density of 3.1 g/cm3, which further supports their
results. Also low mantle velocities are in excellent agreement with local seismological
observations. Data from the two Costa Rican local seismometer networks were
analyzed independently by Sallars et al. [37] and Quintero and Kissling [38] to
271
Figure 10.4. 2-D velocity-depth profile after Sallars et al. [33], obtained across northern Costa
Rica isthmus during the projects COTCOR and TICOSECT (see P2 in Fig. 10.1 for
location). Grey triangles numbered 2 to 20 show location of OBH , black triangles
landstations that recorded airgun shots from 0 to 80 km along the profile, and open triangles
A to E indicate land shots recorded by 120 stations between 90 and 250 km along the profile
used to constrain the model. M1 and M2 display the oceanic and continental Moho. NC:
Nicoya complex, TB: Tempisque basin, VA: Volcanic arc, BB: Backarc basins.
determine minimum 1-D models (Fig. 10.2c). Both studies point towards low velocities
in the upper mantle, that do not exceed 8.0 km/s above 50 to 60 km depth. Sallars et
al. [33] therefore conclude that the Moho beneath Costa Rica is a transition zone of
layered sequences of mafic residues and solidified melting products with intrusions of
mantle-derived igneous stratiform bodies. Husen et al. [39] present a tomographic
image of Costa Rica based on a careful analysis of earthquakes recorded by the Costa
Rican local networks. Their results point towards large lateral variations within the
crust and upper mantle between northern and central Costa Rica, although the
resolution is locally limited. However, they confirm the low mantle velocities above
the subducting slab and argue for dehydration and serpentinization of the mantle
wedge.
The crustal structure of Nicaragua is known to an even more limited extent. An
onshore-offshore profile where the land instruments recorded the marine shots (P3 in
Fig. 10.1) was reported by Walther et al. [30]. With no reversed shot, the structure
below the continent remains ambiguous (Fig. 10.5). These authors infer a 4 km thick
sedimentary sequence in the Nicaragua depression, in contrast to Sandino basin on the
continental shelf with a 10 km thick section filling its depocenter. An interesting
structure observed by Walther et al. [30] beneath the landward flank of Sandino basin
is a mantle sliver with velocities of 7.5 km/s. They interpreted the sliver as the remnant
of a former subducting slab. Elming and Rasmussen [40], who inferred a 25 to 30 km
thick crust beneath the Nicaragua depression, based this on a magnetotelluric and
gravimetric investigation across Nicaragua. However, without a seismic survey for
calibration, this interpretation of their data bears some uncertainty. Further to the north
in Middle America, only the above mentioned seismological [17, 18] and gravimetric
investigations [24, 25] contribute to our sparce knowledge on crustal structure, that was
summarized earlier by Case et al. [23].
Figure 10.5. 2-D velocity-depth profile after Walther et al. [30], obtained across the Nicaraguan
margin (see P3 in Fig. 1 for location). Black triangles 1 to 10 indicate OBH positions, open
triangles 30 to 46 mark positions of PDAS landstations. Open circles present earthquakes
from a ~30 km wide corridor around the profile and are scaled by magnitude. Inset shows
earthquakes to greater depth.
10.5
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The Central American crust south of Santa Elena peninsula is considered part of the
Caribbean large igneous province (CLIP), which belongs to the Chorotega terrane. A
likely northern limit of the Chorotega terrane are the aligned Santa Elena peninsula and
the Hess escarpment. The CLIP velocity structure, where unaffected by subducting
relief of the Cocos plate, is relatively variable consisting of high velocity centers in a
field of lower velocity crustal material [39]. This CLIP crust has been modified in the
past 5 m.y. by the subducting Cocos plate and in particular by the relief that correlates
with structure and arc volcanism. The southern wide-angle transect displays the effects
of subducting a major ridge that decreased the dip of the plate interface and WadatiBenioff zone. Relief from seamounts associated with the ridge forms asperities for
earthquake rupture [41], produces local uplift along the shore [42] and corresponds to
changes in arc volcanism. Along the northern transect where sparse relief subducts, the
crustal velocity structure appears simpler and may reflect more the initial CLIP
structure than Quaternary modification. In Nicaragua, where the subduction zone is
relatively steep, the little that is known regarding crustal structure indicates some
fundamental differences. An important open question is whether this crust belongs to
the CLIP or whether it is part of the Chortis terrane as interpreted from surface
geology. The question has ramifications for volcanic activity and the release of
volatiles.
The dramatic geochemical differences between lavas of the active volcanoes in
Nicaragua and Costa Rica, and how the incoming plate and/or the upper plate structure
can be related to this observation [43, 44] are currently debated. Knowledge of upper
plate structure is too sparse to draw firm conclusions, let alone persuasive speculation.
It is not known if the Quaternary Nicaraguan volcanic front is built on Palaeozoic
basement of the Chortis terrane, or is partially or entirely on CLIP basement.
273
Therefore, a seismic wide-angle profile across the Nicaraguan volcanic arc, perhaps
augmented by receiver function studies using broadband seismic instruments and
additional potential field data could be very informative.
It has also been noted that the volume of the Quaternary volcanism differs strongly
along the arc, being about 5 to 10 times larger in central Costa Rica on either side of a
bend in the Wadati-Benioff Zone, and that volcanism has occurred in pulses during
most of the Cenozoic [45]. This bend was named the Quesada Sharp Contortion by
Protti et al. [21], but the sharpness of the feature in their data are not as obvious in the
3-D tomography of Husen et al. [39]. The contortion is opposite a subducting seamount
chain and plate boundary. One would expect a variation in crustal structure and
velocity indicating a corresponding change in the volume of intruded arc material. The
current magmatic production in Costa Rica may not be a long term or steady state
process, but may reflect present tectonism resulting from differences in the subducting
plate. Subduction erosion accelerated markedly after collision of Cocos ridge 5 m.y.
ago [46] and rates of erosion and volcanism fluctuate greatly over time. A possible
relation between volumes of debris from rates of subduction erosion and magmatism
could be investigated with crustal structural data at more locations along the arc to
estimate long term magma flux. This has been convincingly accomplished at the
Aleutian [47] and Izu-Ogasawara [48] arcs.
In summary, there are fundamental questions relevant to natural hazards and energy
resources that could be answered with further wide-angle data in Costa Rica and
Nicaragua. Currently, knowledge of crustal structure is insufficient to make meaningful
assessments of open geoscientific questions relating to crustal processes. Such
questions can be addressed in the future as more high quality data become available.
The situation is considerably worse in the rest of Central America and there is a need to
expand investigations along the arc into Panama, El Salvador and Guatemala as well.
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Chapter 11
Structural geology: From local elements to
regional synthesis
KEITH H. JAMES
Northern (or nuclear) Central America is
divided into the Maya and Chortis blocks,
separated by the Motagua suture zone of
Central Guatemala. These blocks ....... have
been assigned widely different histories by
various authors. I take the view that their
original positions were not widely
separated. T.W. Donnelly: Geologic
history of the Caribbean and Central
America; In: A.W. Bally and A.R. Palmer
(eds.): The Geology of North America,
Vol.A An Overview, pp.299321, 1989.
11.1
INTRODUCTION
Central America links North and South America at the western end of the Caribbean
Sea, separating the latter from the Pacific Ocean. In this location the area is influenced
by five plates: North and South America, Cocos and Nazca and the Caribbean, with
Central America itself lying on the western end of the last plate (Fig. 11.1).
The area is inextricably linked to the history of rift and drift between North and
South America and to the evolution of the Caribbean plate. To be properly understood,
its geology has to be seen as part of a complex of fragmented continental, oceanic and
volcanic arc crust between the large continental masses of North and South America.
Its structural geology reflects inherited lineaments (Pangean, Paleozoic/older),
fragmentation and offset during separation of the Americas and convergence with
Pacific oceanic elements.
At the same time, Central American geology has important implications for the
understanding of regional evolution. Literature popularly derives the Caribbean plate
from a Pacific origin via complex histories involving major rotations of large
continental blocks (> 50, Maya and Chortis) from the Gulf of Mexico and southwest
Mexico, of volcanic arcs (Greater and Netherlands-Venezuelan Antilles) and of the
plate itself. This chapter suggests an understanding of the structure and origins of
Central America in a simple plate-tectonic evolution that involves no major rotations or
plate migrations.
The chapter summarizes the reported structural geology of Central America,
moving from north to south, considering the major recognized tectonic blocks, their
subaerial areas and their submarine extensions, their internal structures and their
boundaries, main unconformities and volcanology (Fig. 11.1). These are related to
neighboring parts of the Pacific and the Caribbean and to the regional setting. The
integrated geology suggests a new vision of the area and its tectonic evolution. Each
section includes chronologically arranged literature extracts that show evolution of
thought, while an extensive bibliography allows the reader to make further references.
The main published structural elements, compiled from many sources (IFP-Beicip
[1], Exxon [2], GSA [3] and references quoted in this chapter), appear in Figure 11.1.
Figure 11.2a shows the locations of subsequent illustrations. Satellite topography (Fig.
11.2a) and drainage patterns (Fig. 11.3) suggest further structures. Bathymetric data
derived from satellite free air gravity anomaly inversion, and magnetic data provide
information over oceanic areas.
Lack of detailed mapping, tropical vegetation and abundant Neogene volcanic
deposits in some areas combine to make the Figure 11.1 very incomplete.
Disappointing hydrocarbon exploration results in general also result in the areas being
much less well known than the oil-rich Gulf of Mexico and northern South America.
Consequently, there is wide variation in understanding of the origins and distribution of
major blocks in the area and of the age, offset, style and role of major faults. The area
is often discussed in isolation and adherence to popular models influences
interpretation of data, introducing needless complication.
Lastly, the structural/tectonic understanding developed in this chapter requires the
Yucatn Peninsula/Maya block of southeastern Mexico and Belize to be included in
discussion.
11.2
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF RECOGNIZED MAIN TECTONIC

COMPONENTS
Schuchert [4] called the northern part of Central America Nuclear Central America
and the southeastern portion the Isthmian Link. In 1969 Dengo [5] defined Central
America as the land (and continental shelf ) between the Mexican isthmus of
Tehuantepec and the Atrato lowlands of Colombia. He subdivided Nuclear Central
America into the Maya and Chortis blocks (Fig. 11.1), highlighting differences in
basement metamorphic grade. Dengo [6] saw southern Central America as part of the
Antillean foldbelt oceanic rather than continental. In 1985, Dengo [7] subdivided
the Isthmian Link into the Chorotega and Choc blocks on the basis of gravity data.
Berrang et al. [8] referred to Chorotega and Choc as the Southern Central America
Orogen. Fisher et al. [9] recognized a Panamanian microplate; a fragment of volcanic
arc separated from the Caribbean plate, defined by active fold and thrust belts.
Maya (in this chapter, Yucatn refers to the peninsula) and Chortis are recognized
as continental blocks with Precambrian and Paleozoic crystalline sialic basement
overlain by MesozoicCenozoic red beds, carbonates, clastics, volcanic and
volcaniclastic rocks. Accreted/obducted oceanic/volcanic arc rocks are also present.
The blocks meet onshore along the curved Motagua fault zone (Fig. 11.1), a complex
of sinistral faults and north- and south-verging thrusts regarded as a suture. The NS
trending, sinistral Salina Cruz fault that crosses the Tehuantepec isthmus of southern
Mexico limits Maya to the west [10], while the EW sinistral Santa Elena fault (or
Gatn fault zone, [8]) separates Chortis from the area further south. For some authors
[8, 11, 12], this fault also is a suture.
The Chorotega and Choc blocks (Fig. 11.1) are characterized by troughs of marine
Cenozoic deposits, with volcanic and plutonic igneous rocks, above Mesozoic oceanic
Figure 11.1. Central America Main tectonic elements (Maya, Chortis, Chorotega, Choc) and related plates (Cocos, Nazca, Caribbean, North and South
America) and main structural elements.
rocks [8]. No continental rocks are known and the blocks are regarded as having intraoceanic origins [8, 13]. They share composition and history but a negative Bouguer
gravity anomaly along the Panama canal zone [14] is seen as a tectonic boundary.
Dengo [7] noted that Neogene volcanic rocks, abundant in Chorotega, are rare in
Choc and that ophiolites on Chorotega (Nicoya complex) are generally older
than those on Choc (Complejo Basal of Panama, Basic igneous complex of Colombia,
mostly Cretaceous) [13].
The southern limit of Choc is a major break, the Istmina arch, in the Occidental
cordillera of Colombia at 5S [8]. The southern part of Choc is welded to
northwestern South America and plate boundary understanding here is confused.
Offshore to the west the Middle America trench runs along the margin of Chortis to
Nicoya. It reflects subduction of the Cocos plate beneath Central America. South of the
Cocos ridge, a narrow, sediment-filled trough flanks Costa Rica. The broad Panama
basin lies south of the Panama isthmus. Its eastwest southern boundary is seen by
some as the Nazca-Caribbean plate boundary.
While Maya is seen as part of North America, Chortis, Chorotega and the northern
part of Choc lie on the western margin of the Caribbean plate. Dengo [8] argued that
the latter two blocks lie on the South American plate. There is much discussion over
the location of the southern margin of the Caribbean plate in southern Central America.
Many papers state that the Caribbean plate is subducting below the North Panama ridge
and the South Caribbean deformed belt. However, the Caribbean plate is moving
eastwards relative to South America (e.g., [15]). The ridge and the deformed belt result
from northward movement of the Panama arc and of delaminated NW South America.
For this chapter, they do not define plate boundaries. Rather, both the northern and
southern Caribbean plate boundaries are probably broad (several hundreds of
kilometers) zones of approximately eastwest distributed strike-slip [1619].
11.3
BASIC GEOMETRIC OBSERVATIONS
The N60W trend of the SW margin of the Central America parallels the Cuba,
Bahamas, Blake Spur and Carolina fault zones (Fig. 11.2b). Thus the area between the
SW Bahamian margin and the Middle America trench is bracketed by N60W trending
lineaments the direction followed by North America as it moved away from Pangea
during the late JurassicEarly Cretaceous.
Maya and Chortis both have roughly triangular form, expanding to the north, which
suggests common tectonic control. Both have considerable submarine areas. Their
eastern margins trend N15E in the south, marked by basement ridges in the offshore
east of Maya and the Providencia trough east of Chortis (Fig. 11.1). Further north the
eastern margins trend N35E.
The Motagua fault zone and neighboring mountains at the junction between Maya
and Chortis form a large, north concave curve or orocline. The pattern is repeated in
northern Chortis, west of the Guayape fault in the Sierra de Agalta (Figs. 11.2a, b).
N35E and N20W trending scarps form the northwestern and northeastern
margins, respectively, of the Campeche platform (Fig. 11.4a). The former parallel the
Ro Hondo and Guayape faults (Figs. 11.1 and 11.4b) of Yucatn and Honduras. The
latter are approximately parallel to the eastern margin of southern Mexico and the
western margin of the Florida platform.
Figure 11.2. (a) Central America relief and location of following figures; (b) interpreted structural trends.
The Nicaraguan rise (Figs. 11.1 and 11.4) comprises upper and lower parts. The
remarkably straight Hess escarpment trends N60E for more than 1,000 km along the
southern boundary of the lower rise. It parallels the general trend of the NW margin
of the Campeche platform and eastern, onshore elements of the Motagua fault zone.
The Upper rise tapers to the NE and becomes highly segmented into banks (Gorda,
Rosalind, Pedro, Fig. 11.1) and the island of Jamaica, separated by N35W trending
channels. Its visual aspect on satellite-derived bathymetry repeats the highly extended
appearance of the Bahamas platform. The Lower rise has an extremely
extended/collapsed aspect.
Figure 11.3. Drainage patterns of Honduras and adjoining Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua
(after Manton [20] reflect structure (N35E and N60W are common trends). NW trending
dextral offsets of ultramafic rocks, defined by magnetic data, are related to the ENE trending
master fault of the Cayman trend according to Pinet [21]. Repeated, parallel coastal
segments suggest that such faults are common along the N coast of Chortis. They trend more
westerly (N60E) than shown on this figure (see Fig.11.2b), and would be synthetic to the
N35E Guayape trend.
Major N35E trending faults (Ro Hondo, Guayape, and Patuca) cross both Maya and
Chortis. Chorotegua and southwest Chortis are characterized by N60W trending faults,
such as those bounding the Nicaraguan depression, parallel to the Middle America trench.
Two major faults cut N30W or N40W across Panama. Choc seems to continue the
main structural trend of Chorotega, offset to the north along these faults.
In the Pacific, fracture zones on the Cocos plate and the Cocos ridge trend N35E
where they meet Central America (Fig. 1.1). The Panama fracture zone (comprising the
Panama, Balboa and Coiba fracture zones), east of the Cocos ridge, trends NNWSSE.
Magnetic lineaments in the Colombian basin trends EW and probably reflect crustal
structure; there is no recognized oceanic fracture pattern.
In summary, NE and NW structural trends dominate Central America. They parallel
those that formed during late JurassicEarly Cretaceous rifting and drifting of North
America from Pangea. At least two major oroclines are present, associated with largescale N35E faults.
Figure 11.4. (a) Central America forms the western boundary to the Caribbean region. Its
geology has to be seen in this regional context. Areas such as the Florida-Bahamas platform
(FBP), the Nicaraguan rise (NR, Upper and Lower) and the margin of the Gulf of Mexico
(GOM) are built of extended continental crust. The Greater (GA) and Lesser Antilles (LA), a
large part of Cuba (CU) and the Chorotega (CH) and Choc (CHO) blocks (Fig. 11.1) are
generally seen to comprise volcanic arc rocks. The central Gulf of Mexico, the Cayman
trough (CT) and the Yucatn (YB), Venezuelan (VB) and Colombian (CB) basins are floored
by (generally undated) oceanic crust. There are no recognized spreading ridges or calibrated
magnetic anomalies except for the central part of the Cayman trough (Early Miocene
recent). (b) highlights N60W trending fractures in the western Atlantic and the Gulf of
Mexico and the parallel Middle America trench. The fractures record the direction of North
Americas drift away from South America. Fig. 11.2b also highlights NE and NW trending
faults of middle America. They formed during late JurassicEarly Cretaceous rifting and
drifting. The rifts on Maya and Chortis remain parallel to counterparts within continental
North and South America and show that these units have not rotated.
11.4
MAYA
11.4.1 Onshore the Yucatn peninsula

A thick carbonate platform conceals much of the deeper geology of the Maya block
and there is little regional seismic coverage over the Yucatn peninsula [22]. Dengo [7]
summarized from Bouguer gravity and seismic data that crustal thickness is 2025 km
in the north and 3040 km in the south. Rosenfeld [22] suggested that the continental
basement of Maya is stretched, since much of the block is covered by sedimentary
overburden as much as 6 km thick; impossible on unstretched continental crust at
isostatic equilibrium. Gravity and magnetic data indicate N35E and N45W deep
trends that probably reflect Triassic?/Jurassic rifting (Fig. 11.3; [2325]). The most
striking visible features are the Motagua fault zone and the associated large, concavenorth orocline in the south, and the Ro Hondo-Bacalar fault zone and related faults
in the SE (Fig. 11.5).
The remarkably straight Ro Hondo and related faults, herein referred to as the Ro
Hondo fault zone, trend N35E (note that precisely parallel faults (Guayape, Patuca,
Figs. 11.1 and 11.4) occur on the Chortis block and throughout Middle America).
Structural contours at top Cretaceous evaporite level and isopachs of the unit also
reflect this N35E trend (Fig. 11.5) [23]. De Cserna [24] suggested that the Ro Hondo
fault was the onland continuation of the Yucatn channel. Wells [1, 23], encountered
little or no Jurassic strata NW of the Ro Hondo fault (Fig. 11.5); Yucatn-1, -2 and -4
penetrated red beds between Cretaceous evaporites and basement [23]. In contrast,
Jurassic strata are common southeast of the fault.
The main structural trends of SW Maya are N60W. Blair [26] reported that
Jurassic units in western Guatemala and along the north flank of the Chiapas massif in
Mexico (Fig. 11.2a) record sedimentation over horsts and grabens (abrupt variations in
thickness and facies) associated with rifting in the Gulf of Mexico (see also [27, 28]).
These trends are parallel to and on strike with late TriassicEarly Jurassic highs and
grabens further north in Guayachil, Mexico [29].
The structural trends reactivate older lineaments. Northwest-trending
metamorphosed Paleozoic rocks in western Guatemala follow original depositional
trends. Early Paleozoic, Triassic and Jurassic rift systems are controlled by late
Precambrian and early Paleozoic lineaments.
11.4.2 Offshore east Maya

The narrow shelf east of the Yucatn peninsula (Fig. 11.4a) is the faulted margin of the
continental Maya block, probably formed during Jurassic rifting and drifting.
Baie [31] described the prominent NESW trending bathymetric high defined by
Banco Arrowsmith-Cozumel island (Figs. 11.5 and 11.6) at the northeastern point of
the Yucatn peninsula. Seaward of this lies a 1200 m deep linear depression, flanked to
the east by an elongate series of isolated bathymetric highs. They form a linear ridge
(the Outer Ridge) that continues to the western end of Cuba. They connect the two
areas both structurally and geologically. Phyllite and marble dredged from the lower
part of the continental slope between Yucatn and Cuba indicate basement of
continental crust [32].
Dillon and Vedder [33] described five seafloor ridges further south, offshore Belize
(see wells on Fig. 11.6). From east to west they are the SW Cayman ridge, the
Figure 11.5. Simple geology of the Yucatn peninsula, after Lpez-Ramos [23]. The Ro Hondo
and nearby faults trend precisely at N35E and are parallel to faults in the Yucatn channel
and to the Guayape-Patuca faults of Honduras. Wells 15 did not leave the Cretaceous or
went from Cretaceous to Paleozoic rocks; wells 69 penetrated Jurassic sections. Faults in
the southeast from Purdy et al. [30].
outer basement ridge system, the Glovers reef-Lighthouse reef system, the Turneffe
island-Banco Chinchorro ridge system and an inferred barrier-reef-Ambergrise cayshoreline trend. In the Belize lagoon there is a series of en-echelon ridges separated by
N35E trending channels [34]. Three major half grabens lie adjacent to the Belize
coast, in the centre of the lagoon and to the east. Faulting here accommodated the
Eocene Toledo formation Lara [34] recognized coast-parallel, sinistral strike-slip that
occurred between the end of the Cretaceous and the Early Eocene (cf., the Guayape
fault) and Pliocene or younger negative flower wrenching.
Figure 11.6. Structure and crustal types of the Yucatn basin, locations of wells and dredge sites.
Compiled from Rosencrantz [35] and others.
The Yucatn basin lies east of the above structures (Fig. 11.6). The structural grain in
the west parallels fracture zones on the Cocos plate next to the Middle America trench,
major faults that cross Maya and Chortis (Ro Hondo, Guayape, Fig. 11.1) and the
structural trends of the Beata ridge and the western Venezuelan basin (Fig. 11.4b).
Yucatn basin bathymetry suggests tilted fault blocks recording, rifting and extension
during basin opening [36]. The age of this area is not known. Rosencrantz [35]
described the west Yucatn basin as a Paleogene or MaastrichtianPaleocene ocean
floor pull-apart formed along sinistral strike-slip faults with an estimated 350 km of
displacement. This agrees with the conclusions of Lara [34]. However, Lewis [37]
noted that similarity of continental deposits indicate proximity of Cuba (Guaniguanico
province) to Guatemala and Yucatn in the Early Jurassic. By Oxfordian time, little
continental material was arriving in the Cuban area, indicating that offset, and therefore
spreading, had occurred by this time. This, and the parallelism of structural grain noted
above, indicates a Jurassic origin for part of the Yucatn basin.
11.5
CHORTIS
11.5.1 Onshore
The most prominent structural features of Chortis are the Motagua fault zone, which
forms its northern boundary, the Nicaraguan depression (Pacific Marginal fault zone)
in the southwest, NS trending grabens near the centre and the N35E Guayape fault
that crosses the block from the Gulf of Fonseca on the southwest margin to the
Figure 11.7. Faults of northern Chortis, after Dengo [38]. Inset strain diagram suggests that the
NS trending grabens of Honduras result from extension generated by N60E trending
sinistral stress (eastern Motagua zone). Synthetic strike-slip trends N35E and is illustrated
by the Guayape fault (Figs. 11.1 and 11.3).
Caribbean. The Sierra de Agalta mimics the oroclinal bending of the Motagua fault
zone and associated uplifts. Seismic refraction data indicate 45 km thick continental
crust north of the Guayape fault [39]. South of the fault the crust is 3035 km thick.
The Honduras depression was seen to cut across central Honduras. Dengo [7]
showed this to be a series of approximately NS aligned grabens and Struffulino and
Stiernman [40] estimated that the Comayagua valley (Fig. 11.7) is filled by sediments
to 2000 m below sealevel). Manton [20] denied that a rift extends from Gulf of Fonseca
to the Caribbean and wrote: The notion of the Honduras depression, which has
persisted over the last half century, stems from misinterpretation of the maps and
writings of Karl Sapper (e.g., 1905).

Gordon and Muehlberger [41] split the Chortis block into three segments (Fig.
11.8a):
1: A triangular wedge west of the Honduras depression, south of the Motagua fault
zone and bounded to the south by the dextral Jalpatagua fault. It suffered eastwest
extension that produces NS grabens.
2: A triangular block between the Honduras depression and the Guayape fault
characterized by strike-slip faults subparallel with Swan island fault. It is broken along
previous NW and NE fractures with resultant opening on the Honduras depression and
dextral slip on the Guayape fault. The movements reportedly reflect counterclockwise
rotation (see Chapters 8 and 13).
3: The region east of the Guayape fault including the offshore Nicaraguan rise. This
was a wide area, too large to fracture except at its narrow eastern end at Jamaica where
PaleogeneNeogene rifts separate carbonate banks (Fig. 11.1).
Rogers et al. [42] used aeromagnetic data and pre Cretaceous outcrops to define
five Chortis terranes (Fig. 11.8b). Magnetic gradients trend WNW on the central
Chortis terrane where basement of schist and gneiss of Cacaguapa group (Paleozoic?)
and Grenville orthogneiss is folded and thrusted into WNW trends. The northern
Chortis terrane is similar to the central Chortis terrane but is more variable. The eastern
Chortis terrane, east of the Guayape fault, exhibits northeasterly magnetic trends.
Northwest vergent folds and southeast dipping faults of the thin-skinned Coln
mountains, built of JurassicCretaceous continental margin rocks, parallel this
magnetic fabric [43]. The belt, which formed in the late CretaceousEocene, trends 350
km northeastwards across the Chortis block. The Siuna terrane is an oceanic arc [39]
that accreted to Chortis in the Campanian [44], driving the Coln fold and thrust belt
[43].
Rogers et al. [45] explained curvature of the Honduran Agalta range (Fig. 11.9a) as
oroclinal bending in response to 6070 km of sinistral strike-slip along the Guayape
fault. The range originated as a N60W trending AptianAlbian intra-arc rift zone
(Agua Blanca rift, [45]) that became inverted between 70 Ma (youngest deformed
rocks) and the Middle Eocene (undeformed limestones).
The NWSE trending Nicaraguan depression is an outstanding feature of southwest
Central America. Weyl [46] described it as a 50 km wide graben, 3550 m above
sealevel, that extends more than 500 km from the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica (i.e., on
the Chorotega block, Fig. 11.1) through southwest Nicaragua to the Gulf of Fonseca.
For Mann et al. [47] the Nicaraguan depression is ~75 km wide and 600 km long.
The Nicaraguan depression continues in El Salvador as a series of en-echelon Plio
Pleistocene basins (Olomega, Titihuapa, Ro Lempa, Metapn; not illustrated).
Martinez-Diaz et al. [48] summarized that mapped faults in El Salvador trend NW,
NNE and E and most are less than 30 km long. However, radar imagery reveals a
> 100 km long El Salvador fault zone (ESFZ, Fig. 11.1), oriented N90100E, extending
across the country. It deforms Quaternary deposits with dextral and oblique-slip offsets.
According to Corti et al. [49] the main active faults of El Salvador trend approximately
EW and are dextral, they are sub-parallel to and lie north of the volcanic arc. To the
southeast the feature projects towards the inverted Limn belt of Costa Rica
above/ahead of the subducting Cocos ridge (Fig. 11.2b, [50, 51]).
Dengo et al. [52] attributed the Nicaraguan depression to geanticlinal arching
resulting from compression between ocean and continent. Plank et al. [53] viewed it as
a backarc basin, formed during late Neogene trenchward migration of the Central
Figure 11.8. (a) Subdivision of the Chortis block into three units [41]. Unit 1 suffers NS
trending extension (Honduras depression) between the sinistral and dextral Motagua and
Jalpatagua faults. The central unit is rotating anticlockwise (along the Guayape fault)
between unit 1 and the large, stable block of unit 3. (b) Subdivision of Chortis into five
terranes (North, Central, East, South and Siuna, [42]).
America volcanic arc and slab rollback (perhaps as a result of the break off the slab at
410 Ma).
Carr [54] noted that Quaternary faulting in northern Central America is dominated
by transcurrency. Sinistral faults transverse to the arc could coincide with breaks in the
subducting slab while dextral faulting parallels the volcanic arc.
Molnar and Sykes [55] and White and Harlow [56] interpreted earthquake focal
mechanisms to indicate dextral slip today on trench-parallel faults such as those along
the depression and Martinez-Diaz et al. [48] reported dextral drainage offsets along the
N90100E trending El Salvador fault zone (Fig. 11.1). Burkart and Self [57]
recognized trench-parallel extension in El Salvador and Honduras bounded by the
Jalpatagua fault. Martinez-Diaz et al. [48] deduced that earthquakes along the dextral
El Salvador fault zone could be related to normal faulting in the subducting Cocos
plate.
Trench-parallel faults are not well expressed in Nicaragua (under volcanic cover?).
Instead, seismically active northeast trending faults offset the northwest faults by as
much as 10 km [58]. La Femina et al. [58] observed that if these faults are sinistral,
they also conform to the (dextral) focal mechanisms of Molnar and Sykes [55]. They
could be accommodating clockwise block rotation (bookshelf) in trench-parallel slip.
However, illustrations (Figs. 11.1 and 11.2, [58]) show the faults trending at N35E,
exactly parallel to major faults in Honduras (Guayape, Patuca). The faults could well
be sinistral, but rotation does not seem to occur.
The Central American volcanic arc follows the dextral/normal fault that forms the
southwest flank of the depression. A northwest trending chain of volcanoes indicates
continuation of the depression in Guatemala. At the southeastern end of Lake
Nicaragua the volcanic arc takes a notable dextral sidestep and dextral slip continues
along the Ballena-Celmira reverse fault (Figs. 11.1 and 11.2). This appears as the
Longitudinal fault zone of Di Marco et al. [59] (Fig. 11.1). Kolarsky et al. [50] seem to
suggest that the fault continues to the Azuero peninsula but here the sense of movement
is sinistral. Di Marco et al. [59] show the Longitudinal fault zone swinging southwards
towards the Panama fracture zone.
Other offsets in the volcanic front occur at some northeast trending sinistral faults.
These correspond to large water bodies (Lake Nicaragua, Managua lake, Gulf of
Fonseca). La Femina et al. [58] and Cowan et al. [60] showed detail of the Managua
graben, where the arc is offset by 15 km. The sinistral Estadio and Tiscapa faults trend
at around N35E, while the graben boundary faults are approximately northsouth.
Figures 11.7 and 11.10 suggest that the latter are antithetic to the N35E sinistral faults
and that they bound pull-apart depressions. The approximately NS trending grabens of
Honduras could be related to regional (Motagua) and synthetic (Guayape) sinistral
faults, while the Managua graben could be related to dextral slip along the Nicaraguan
depression.
11.5.2 Offshore north and east Chortis

The Bay islands (Guanaja, Roatn and Utila, Figs. 11.1 and 11.3a) lie off northern
Honduras on a ridge (Bonacca) that parallels the Cayman ridge. They expose a variety
of meta-igneous, metasedimentary and sedimentary rocks (greywacke, shale, chert, thin
limestone) of pre-Cenozoic (possibly Paleozoic) rocks and serpentinites and granitic
intrusions of unknown age [36]. On Roatn serpentinite intrudes fault planes. Banks,
[61] and Holcombe et al. [36] suggested that similarity of these rocks to those of the
Motagua valley (El Tambor group) indicates that fault slices of the Motagua valley area
have been carried east at least as far as the islands. Gough and Heirtzler [62] explained
juxtaposed magnetic and non-magnetic rocks on the walls of the Cayman trough in the
same manner.
Holcombe et al. [36] reported that thrust faults on Roatn suggest NS
compression, with no evidence of sinistral strike-slip. According to Ave Lallement et
al. [63] ductile structures on Roatn island formed under metamorphic conditions
during late CretaceousEarly Cenozoic left-oblique collision of the Chortis and Maya
blocks. Brittle structures formed after uplift and exhumation in late Eocene or early
Oligocene time. The Tela basin, between the island and the mainland, subsided since
the Eocene. South of the basin high, fault-bounded mountains form the north coast of
Honduras [64]. The Aguan fault (Fig. 11.1), which bounds these to the south, is
Figure 11.9. (a) Geological map of Honduras, extracted from Rogers et al. [45] (b) Geological
map of the Coln mountains, Honduras, from Rogers et al. [45]. Structures in the mountains
could be explained by compression associated with movement synthetic to the sinistral
Guayape fault. KTi: CretaceousCenozoic intrusive rocks, Kv: Cretaceous volcanic rocks,
KVA: Cretaceous Valle de ngeles formation., KA: Cretaceous Atima formation, JAF:
Jurassic Agua Fra formation, JAFM: Jurassic Agua Fra metamorphosed. Structural
interpretation of synthetic faulting and related compression this chapter.
transpressional in the west and transtensional in the east where a pull-apart basin
accommodates the wide Agua river valley.
The large Mosquitia basin of eastern Honduras contains 5000 m of Cenozoic and
2500 m of Mesozoic sediments [65]. The NE trending Coco river ridge, a reactivated
Paleozoic structure, divides the basin into two. Mills and Hugh [65] show this high
extending offshore to the Mosquitia Banks and Jamaica as the Nicaraguan rise.
Cretaceous strata of the Gracias a Dios platform and Mosquitia basin, offshore
eastern Honduras, show NWSE shortening similar to the onshore Coln mountains
[66]. Emmet [66] notes that while mafic volcanics are rare within Cretaceous strata in
onshore central Honduras they appear to be increasingly common to the east (onshore
and offshore). Some plutons intrude the sedimentary section and so are Cretaceous or
younger. Closely spaced normal faults downthrowing mainly to the southeast
characterize the Mosquitia basin. They cut thick, Eocene and younger strata but most
appear to sole-out at the top of the Cretaceous section. According to Emmet [66], a
period of regional extension in the Eocene (transtension?) appears to have been
followed by compression (transpression?) during the Neogene.
11.5.3 Cayman ridge, Nicaraguan rise and Hess escarpment.

The Nicaraguan rise is the physiographic continuation of the Chortis block into the
offshore (Figs. 11.1 and 11.4a). The Cayman trough bounds the rise to the north, while
the Hess escarpment forms the southern boundary. The Pedro fault zone, which
parallels the Hess escarpment, divides the rise into upper and lower parts (Fig. 11.1).
Much of the upper rise lies below less than 200 m of water and in places (Providencia
and San Andrs islands) it reaches sealevel.
Physiography shows that the Nicaraguan rise extends to Jamaica. While no
Paleozoic rocks are known from that island, drilling encountered platform carbonates,
which suggests continental basement. Meyerhoff and Krieg [67] observed similarity
between the Green bay metamorphic rocks of SE Jamaica and metamorphosed
Paleozoic rocks of Honduras and they also suggested that an equivalent of the Jurassic
Todos Santos formation is present.
Dengo [6] remarked that the Cayman ridge and Nicaraguan rise seem to be
structural continuations of the Sierras of northern Central America (north and south of
the Motagua fault zone). In contrast, Leroy et al. [68] saw the upper rise as a
PalaeoceneMiocene carbonate platform on Late Cretaceous island-arc rocks.
However, Holcombe et al. [36] noted that the Bay islands (Guanaja, Roatn, Figs. 11.2
and 11.3) contain a wide variety of meta-igneous, metasedimentary and sedimentary
rocks of pre-Cenozoic (possibly Paleozoic) rocks. Wells have bottomed in
metasedimentary rocks on the Nicaraguan rise as far east as Rosalind bank (Fig. 11.1).
Basement consists of andesite, granodiorite and metamorphic rocks. Tuara-1 penetrated
Palaeozoic basement and late Tithonian-early Neocomian volcanic rocks were seen in
the Caribe-1 well (Funkhouser and Gordon, pers. comm., noted by Morris et al. [69]),
east of Honduras.
According to Muoz et al. [70] crust in the northern Nicaraguan rise is up to 25 km
thick and is continental. South of the Pedro fault zone a decreasing thermal gradient
indicates transition to oceanic crust. The Miskito basin lies between the Pedro fracture
and the Hess escarpment. The south-central portion of the basin is considered to be
transitional, early Miocene continent-ocean basement where wrench-induced rift
volcanism imbricates with ophiolites towards the Hess escarpment. Muoz et al. [70]
suggested that breakdown of the major part of the platform occurred in the early
Cenozoic, along a second order, NESW fault system between the Pedro fault zone and
the Santa Elena-Hess system.
Most is known, from hydrocarbon exploration, about the upper Nicaraguan rise,
close to Honduras and Nicaragua. Rogers et al. [43] used seismic data to describe a
150 km belt of northeasterly trending JurassicUpper Cretaceous rocks in the Coln
Figure 11.10. Detail of the Managua graben within the Nicaraguan depression. The stress-strain
ellipse suggests the graben is a pull-apart, with associated dextral offset, within the dextral
depression system. Sinistral faults such as the Tiscali are antithetic to the system. Compiled
from [58, 60]. The 15 km dextral step in the volcanic arc at the NS trending Managua
graben seems to accommodate EW extension. A NW trending topographic high at the
southern limit of the graben) would be consistent with NS dextral slip along the graben
itself, while N35E sinistral slip may be internal and antithetic, albeit parallel to major faults
such as the Guayape. Northsouth trending faults, such as those bounding the Managua
graben, would fit extension strain in trench-parallel dextral strike-slip.
mountains of eastern Honduras that continues for 75 km in the subsurface of the

Mosquitia coastal plain. A belt of upper Cretaceous to Eocene rocks continues the trend
for a further 75 km on the Nicaraguan rise. The belt consists of NW verging folds and
southeast-dipping thrusts thought to have developed in the late Cretaceous to Eocene
interval.
Holcombe et al. [36] regarded the lower Nicaraguan rise as oceanic, noting that it is
characterized by abundant ridges and troughs. They proposed that dextral shear
between the Pedro fault zone and the Hess escarpment caused extension. Volcanoes
occur throughout the area and some activity is Neogenerecent. The islands of San
Andrs (carbonates on volcanic base) and Providencia (basaltic and trachyitic lavas
with diorite dykes) lie on the western end of the rise adjacent to the San Andrs
rift/Providencia trough and the Nicaraguan continental shelf.
Drilling at Site 1001 on the Hess escarpment penetrated basalt of probable midCampanian age (77 Ma) below a conformable basalt-limestone contact [71].
Vesicularity and benthic foraminifera suggest shallow origins followed by rapid
subsidence.
A carbonate megabank covered most of the modern northern Nicaraguan rise from
the late Oligocene to the Early Miocene [72]. It broke up in the late part of the late
Oligocene and foundered in the late Early Miocene [73]. The largest channel, Pedro
channel, is a pull-apart related basin related to sinistral strike-slip faults.
The carbonate platform lies at 150250 m above the adjacent basin and sheds
megabreccias into the basin [74]. One, exposed at the sea floor, has a fan shape, is
120 m thick and extends 27 km along slope and 16 km into the basin. It contains
individual blocks as large as 330 m across and 110 m high. Dredging recovered
shallow-water, skeletal grainstones and Halimeda packstones mixed with deep-water
massive chalks with shallow-water skeletal grains and chalk-block breccias.
Crust of the Haiti basin, between the Beata ridge and the Hess escarpment is rough,
block faulted and extensional [75, 76]. The highly asymmetric Beata ridge (Fig. 11.2a)
dips east from a steep, extensional western scarp with 3750 m of downthrow in the
north [76]. Half graben structures characterize its eastern flank. The ridge broadens and
deepens to the south where it is broken by northsouth trending grabens. An
unconformity overlain by neritic carbonates indicates uplift of the ridge in the
Maastrichtian followed by PaleoceneMiddle Eocene subsidence [77]. The ridge
intersects southern Hispaniola at the southern peninsula of Haiti, where basalts,
dolerites, pelagic limestones, turbidites, cherts of the Dumisseau formation could be an
ophiolite equivalent to Caribbean crust below horizon B (8890 Ma) [78].
The Cayman ridge parallels the northern boundary of the Nicaraguan rise on the
north flank of the Cayman trough. According to Malin and Dillon ([79], see also [33])
the acoustic basement of the ridge consists of continental rocks. In the west the ridge
has near-continental crustal thickness and low magnetic susceptibility, similar to the
rift blocks of the margin of Honduras.
Perfit and Heezen [80] developed a stratigraphy for the walls of the Cayman trough.
Dredges samples from the north wall show deeper, plutonic rocks and metamorphic
equivalents, with secondary amounts of volcanic, clastic and volcaniclastic rocks and
metavolcanic rocks, along with some Lower CretaceousLower Paleocene shallowwater carbonates. Clastic rocks include volcanic breccias, conglomerates, sandstone
and argillites, redbed material, graywacke and arkose. Dredges from the southern wall
of the Cayman trough recovered the same stratigraphy, but the deeper section includes
more sand clastics and graywackes, breccias, conglomerates and tuffs. Carbonates
dominate the upper section. The presence of continental basement below the Cayman
ridge and the Nicaraguan rise and of continental sediments along the walls of the
Cayman trough rule out a Pacific origin of these elements [81, 82].
11.6
THE MOTAGUA FAULT ZONE
11.6.1 Nomenclature, offsets, current understanding

The Maya and Chortis blocks meet onshore along the Motagua fault zone and most
authors agree that the boundary between the Caribbean and North America follows the
Cayman trough trend into a Central American suture between the Maya and Chortis
blocks [8386]. However, there is much discussion over the amount of offset, when
and where it occurred and the origins of oceanic and volcanic rocks found in the zone.
This chapter suggests that the Motagua zone is not a suture and that Maya and Chortis
are not terranes they are sinistrally offset elements with similar geological history
that never were separated by oceanic crust.
There are several nomenclatures for the faults in the Motagua fault zone. For
completeness, Figure 11.1 shows compound names that have been used. The text
employs most recently used terminology.

Anderson and Schmidt [87], proposed that displacement of some 1300 km occurred
along an Acapulco-Guatemala shear in the JurassicCretaceous. Dengo [7], concluded
that the North America-Caribbean boundary is not a single fault (such as the Polochic
or Motagua), but is a complex fault system exposed mainly along the Motagua river
valley and in the mountains north and south of it. According to Burkart and Self [57]
sinistral displacement across the plate boundary is distributed over major, Neogene,
arcuate faults (Polochic, Motagua, Jocotn, Guayape). The Jocotn is the major
boundary between extended Central America (grabens) south of the fault and a nonextended block between the Polochic and Motagua faults to the north. They explained
extension south of the Motagua and Jocotn faults by rotation of the trailing edge of
the Caribbean plate around the faults [57].
Guzman-Speziale et al. [88] recognized at least seven, additional, major, sinistral
faults in the Malpaso fault zone (Fig. 11.1) and interpreted the Caribbean-North
America plate boundary in Central America as a broad zone distributed over the
Malpaso and Motagua fault systems and a zone of extension to the south. Movement
occurred along different faults at different times. Some of the sierras of northern
Central America (uplifted in the late Cretaceous along with emplacement of the Santa
Cruz ophiolite) are stucturally and petrologically continuous from southern Mexico to
Honduras, across the Motagua fault. They concluded that northern Central America and
southern Mexico were a single block (Chiapas-Chortis) during the late Mesozoic
orogeny when the sierras formed [88].
Rosencrantz and Sclater [89] stated that the Polochic-Motagua-Chamelecon fault
system has been active since the Oligocene. Others suggest that sinistral movement
occurred along the Motagua zone and related faults from the Jurassic onwards,
migrating southwards (Santa Cruz fault: Jurassic; Malpaso fault: Late Cretaceous [90];
Motagua fault, mid Cenozoic [91]).
Burkart and Scotese [92] saw the faults of Guatemala and adjacent Honduras as
defining wedges rotated eastward from Oaxaca, Mexico.
Giunta et al. [86] described the Motagua suture zone as a typical flower, with north
and south vergence. Narrow valleys occur along the main faults. Plains cover
Neogenerecent pull-apart basins and uplifts of older rocks occur at restraining bends.
Shallow earthquake fault plane solutions indicate sinistral movement along the
Motagua fault, which does not continue to the west [88].
The Polochic fault crosses the isthmus in an EW direction and offsets the Middle
America trench. Burkart [92] and Burkart et al. [93] observed that the Polochic fault
offsets Laramide structures, Paleogene rivers and late Miocene conglomerates and
therefore is Cenozoic in age. Displacement occurred between 10.3 and 6.6 Ma [94] and
today the fault seems inactive. The Motagua and Jocotn faults to the south are curved,
trending ENE in the east and WNW in the west where they merge with the Polochic
fault. They lose definition in the west below pumice-filled basins. Burkart and Self [57]
thought that displacement was zero in the west and developed eastward.
Gordon [95] summarized the following active fault zones of the Chortis block from
earthquake surface breaks, earthquake hypocenters, geologic mapping, air photo
interpretation and field reconnaissance, and Landsat, Seasat radar and Shuttle Imaging
Radar. Major earthquakes (M > 7) occur along the North America-Caribbean plate
boundary faults (Polochic, Motagua, Swan, Fig. 11.1). Active fault traces are mapped
onshore by geologic studies and offshore by sonar imaging. According to Gordon [95]
faults within the Chortis block indicate that it is part of broad plate boundary zones
between the North America, Caribbean and Cocos plates. Earthquakes along the
volcanic arc are typically shallow, strike-slip events. WNW striking faults (parallel to
the arc) have dextral slip, and ENE faults have sinistral slip. Earthquakes and surface
faulting occur along north-striking grabens (such as the Guatemala city, Comayagua
grabens; Figs. 11.1 and 11.5) south of the Motagua fault. Faults in the Chortis block are
unconstrained by earthquake data but remote imagery data and aerial photographs show
fresh scarps. The La Ceiba, Ro Viejo and Agun (Figs. 11.1 and 11.8) faults are
probably active sinistral faults parallel to the Swan Islands fault. The Chamelecn fault
is active. Other possibly active faults include WNW-striking normal faults east of the
Honduras depression.
Gordon and Ave Lallement [96] used published fault offsets and estimations from
fault zone widths to summarize offsets of 130 km on the Polochic fault, up to 500 km
along the Motagua fault, 70 km along the Guayape fault [97] and 25 km along the
Jocotn-Chamelecn fault. The total (725 km) sinistral displacement does not account
for the estimated 1100 km of Cayman offset. Gordon and Ave Lallement [96]
recognized sinistral faults from the island of Roatn in the north to the Gulf of Fonseca
in the south. They proposed that distributed movement on cryptic strike-slip faults
across the entire width of the Chortis block faults accounts for the remaining offset.
Faults are more commonly exposed in Cretaceous and older rocks than the Neogene
volcanic rocks, suggesting that most slip occurred before 30 Ma.
11.6.2 Cayman trough offset, amount and age

According to Vaughan [98], Taber [99] and Schuchert [4], faulting of the Cayman
trough dated from the Pliocene and was dominantly vertical [100]. Hess [101] thought
the movement was horizontal and dated from the Late Miocene. Hess and Maxwell
[102] applied the concept of strike-slip faulting to the trough, reconstructing the
Greater Antilles using metamorphic rock distribution. Ewing and Heezen [103]
deduced from gravity data that the crust below the trough was thin. They drew analogy
between the (convergent) Puerto Rico trench and the Cayman trough but Ewing et al.
[104] later reported that the trough was extensional. Because Paleocene and Eocene
pyroclastics of SE Cuba thicken southwards these authors thought that the trough
formed in or after the Middle Eocene. Meyerhoff [105] concluded that the Cayman
crust was oceanic and formed by the late Turonian. Donnelly et al. [106] mapped faults
in SE Guatemala that were active in Albian to Maastrichtian time.
Estimates of displacement related to the Cayman trough range from 150 to 1400 km
[87, 102, 107109]. Pindell and Barrett [109] noted that 980 km of the trough are
characterized by depths typical of oceanic crust and estimated an additional 70100 km
of extension related to block faulted zones (arc or continental material) at the western
and eastern ends of the trough. The faulted eastern margins of Maya and Chortis are
offset by around 900 km [110, 111].
Rosencrantz et al. [112] proposed that Cayman trough opening provided
quantitative measures of relative plate motion along the northern Caribbean plate
boundary. Their estimates of the beginning age of trough opening (Eocene) were based
upon depth-to-basement and heat flow studies. However, Rosencrantz et al. [112]
noted that heat flow age estimates were inconclusive and stated: We suggest that the
question of Cayman trough heat flow be shelved until new and better measurements are
obtained. Rosencrantz [113] later suggested that Cayman trough opening recorded
local rather than regional plate movements and could not be used to track CaribbeanNorth American relative plate motion.
James [115, 116] summarized literature reports on the trough, highlighting what is
known and comparing this to what is often erroneously stated. The Eocene age of
Cayman trough opening has become well established in literature, following the
Rosencrantz et al. [113] publication. However, James [114, 115] shows that there have
been two main episodes of sinistral movement along the Cayman trough. The first is
recorded by data from the Atlantic ocean floor east of North and South America. The
American continent margin-Mid Atlantic ridge distance north of the Marathon/FifteenTwenty fracture zones is markedly wider (ca. 1600 km) than that at the Sierra
Leone/Doldrums fracture zones. The additional distance relates largely to Jurassic crust
in the central Atlantic that is absent in the south, together with a wider lower
Cretaceous zone [114, 115]. Sinistral offset between the continents therefore developed
largely in the late JurassicEarly Cretaceous, along with some 850 km of north-south
separation. The offset developed primarily along westnorthwest Atlantic Ocean
fractures and sinistral faults within North America (Fig. 11.2b). Related strain was
distributed over the Caribbean area. The offset of Maya from Chortis and of Chortis
from northwest Colombia correspond to the additional 1600 km of North American
offset. Thus simple geometry shows that around 600 km of Cayman offset and offset
between Maya and Chortis occurred in the late JurassicEarly Cretaceous.
A second phase of sinistral movement began when the Caribbean plate commenced
eastward movement relative to both North and South America. Fill of related pull-apart
basins along north and south margins of the plate records Oligocenerecent extension
that totals around 300 km. The distance corresponds to the extent of latest spreading in
the centre of the Cayman trough.
11.6.3 Nature of the Motagua suture

The Cayman trough and the Motagua fault zone clearly are related. However, this
chapter shows that the latter is not merely the westward extension of the trough.
Timing of movement is critical to understanding the tectonic evolution of the
Caribbean. Literature contains a great deal of discussion on these areas, with a wide
range of understanding.
Dengo [7] discussed a collision between Chortis and Maya, stated by many to
have occurred in the Late Cretaceous (Paleocene according to Schafhauser et al. [116]).
It generated rock mixtures (serpentinite, metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks,
phyllites and partially recrystallized limestones) exposed in the Motagua valley and
known as the Tambor group [61]. Dengo [7] summarized that the unit is a
metamorphosed Mesozoic ophiolite derived from an ocean segment formerly between
Maya and Chortis. The presence of serpentinites (hydrated peridotites of ocean origin?)
is taken to indicate the former presence of oceanic crust between Chortis and Maya.
El Tambor rocks extend 20 km to the south and 50 km to the north of the Motagua
fault zone. They include large serpentinite masses (covered by Eocene molasse; [86]).
Serpentinite also occurs in the Belize subsurface [25]. Sisson et al. [119] and Harlow
et al. [118] determined Tambor serpentinite 40Ar/39Ar ages of 125113 Ma south and
7765 Ma north of the Motagua zone, respectively. They interpreted these as records of
Chortis suturing first against western Mexico and then against Maya.
Rocks similar to the Tambor occur in southeast Mexico and on the Tehuantepec
isthmus ([7] and references therein), in northeastern Honduras (Sierra de Omoa, [119])
and on the Bay islands [36, 61, 80, 120, 121]. The Tambor was earlier thought to be
Paleozoic in age [61, 121] but is now seen to be much younger. The unit includes
mantle and MORB rocks whose ages range from Late Jurassic [122] to Early
Cretaceous overlain by Late Cretaceous metamorphosed limestones and phyllites (e.g.,
[86]). The contained rocks, however, do not tell when the Tambor was emplaced.
Mixtures of rocks that contain reworked material are difficult to date [81].
Donnelly et al. [25] stated that compressive suturing of the gap between the Maya
and Chortis initiated the Sepur group clastic wedge. The unit contains Paleocene and
early Eocene fossils. According to Rosenfeld [123] it came from a southern, rising
mass with fringing carbonates and locally exposed ophiolites. In Guatemala, the
Sierra de Santa Cruz ophiolite, emplaced in the post Early Eocene, overlies the Sepur
group north of the Polochic fault. The Sepur equivalent in wells drilled offshore Belize,
the Toledo formation, contains PaleoceneMiddle Eocene fossils [30]. Such dates led
James [111] to conclude that final serpentinite emplacement occurred regionally in the
Caribbean in the Eocene (see also [102, 124128]).
11.6.4 Origin of Motagua zone curvature

Maya and Chortis meet along the Motagua fault zone, a prominent structural feature of
Central America. Along with neighboring structures (Libertad arch of southern
Guatemala, Sierra de Santa Cruz, Sierra de las Minas, Sierra de los Cuchamantes), the
zone forms a major curve, convex to the south. There is an obvious temptation to
explain the curvature of the Motagua fault zone as the locus of rotation of Chortis
relative to Maya. However, the Ro Hondo (Maya) and the Guayape-Patuca (Chortis)
faults, all of which were active as normal faults during Jurassic extension, remain today
parallel to TriassicJurassic grabens in northern South America and southeastern North
America. Likewise, northwest trending Jurassic grabens of western Guatemala and
along the north flank of the Chiapas massif of Mexico are parallel to coeval grabens
[129] in Mexico (Figs 11.1 and 11.4a). Clearly, neither Maya nor Chortis has rotated.
Curvature of the Motagua fault zone and the associated oroclinal bending need a
different explanation.
Analogy suggests that bending of the Motagua fault zone and the neighboring
orocline results from sinistral strike-slip along faults of eastern Maya, such as the Ro
Hondo-eastern margin faults, in the same manner that bending of the Sierra de Agalta
occurred along the Guayape fault [45]. Straightening of the orocline requires 350 km
removal of sinistral slip, corresponding to the offset estimated by Rosencrantz [130]
along the western margin of the Yucatn basin. In both cases (Agalta and southern
Maya), NWSE shortening must have accompanied oroclinal bending. Similar strikeslip/oroclinal bending/thrusting relationships are common in northwestern South
America [131], where offset along roughly NS trending faults transforms into
contraction in the northeast and southwest. Oroclinal bending and NS shortening
associated with sinistral strike-slip characterize the western Caribbean.
If the understanding of this chapter is correct, sinistral movement along the SE
margin of Maya transforms into compression and oroclinal bending of the Motagua
fault zone. The associated serpentinites could have been dragged in from the western
Yucatn basin. They would not imply the former presence of oceanic crust between
Maya and Chortis.
11.6.5 Origin of Maya and Chortis

In separating Maya from Chortis, Dengo [5] emphasized differences in metamorphic
grade across the Motagua fault zone and set the stage for the perception that the blocks
are allochthons (even terranes). On the Maya block amphibolites and garnet
amphibolites crop out in Chiapas, central Guatemala and Belize. On the Chortis block
mainly phyllites and schists of greenschist facies occur in southern Guatemala, El
Salvador, Honduras, northern Nicaragua and the Nicaraguan rise.
Numerous illustrations/models show the Maya and Chortis blocks originating in the
Gulf of Mexico [33, 132, 133] or Maya in the Gulf [87, 92, 109] and Chortis alongside
SW Mexico [43, 134137] or west of Colombia [138]. They are shown to have rotated
clockwise or anticlockwise by as much as 80 about various poles or migrating poles to
their present locations. The variety and complexity of interpretations reflects
dominance of models over data. The most popular model relates Chortis and SW
Mexico but despite attempts to seek geologic continuity between the two areas (e.g.,
[43, 137]) it does not exist [139].
The conviction that Maya and Chortis are separate terranes impacts the way their
stratigraphic sections are interpreted. Thus Gordon [140] wrote the JurassicEarly
Cretaceous history of Chortis is Caribbean, but the block was not in the Caribbean at
that time. Donnelly et al. [23] and Gordon [140] maintained that use of the same name
(Todos Santos) for Jurassic red beds on both Maya and Chortis should be discontinued,
since these were separate plates. In contrast, Burkart and Clemens [141] observed that
the sedimentary and volcanic sequence of southeastern Guatemala is similar to that of
bordering western Honduras while Horne et al. [119] concluded that differences
between basement rocks of the Maya and Chortis blocks are not as evident as
previously believed [5]. PermianCarboniferous argillaceous strata are present in
similar relation with older and younger rock from the Altos Cuchumatanes in the west
to the Maya Mountains in the north and at least as far as the Sierra de Omoa in the
southeast (Fig. 11.2a), if not farther east towards Nicaragua. The strata may be
correlated with the Santa Rosa group of central Guatemala. Underlying rocks are
similar throughout the region. Richter (pers. comm., 2003) notes a relationship between
Cenomanian rocks of north Chortis and south Maya.
Similarity of basement, Jurassic and Cretaceous sections on Maya and Chortis
should be reason to relate the two. Models should not deny stratigraphy. The two
blocks have similar tectonic origins and similar structure. They are continental
remnants of Pangean breakup, left at the western end of the Caribbean. Maya was
sinistrally offset from Chortis when early Cayman offset developed. Neither block is a
terrane rotated into place from another location.
The major Jurassic faults on Maya and Chortis (Ro Hondo and Guayape) that
remain parallel to coeval faults in the North and South America show that no rotation
has occurred. Restoration of the blocks along the Cayman trend by re-aligning their
eastern faulted margins also results in line-up the Ro Hondo-Guayape systems.
11.7
CHOROTEGA AND CHOC (COSTA RICA-PANAMA ISTHMUS:

THE ISTHMIAN LINK)
This area includes all of Costa Rica and Panama (Fig. 11.1). It is regarded as an intraoceanic subduction arc that became welded to South America and nuclear Central
America in the Neogene [13, 142]. Its geology of troughs of marine Cenozoic deposits

with volcanic and plutonic igneous rocks above Mesozoic oceanic rocks [142]
continues along a 200 km wide belt in northwestern Colombia. Escalante [13]
described the area as one of the most complex in the Caribbean, sited at the interaction
of the Caribbean plate and the Chortis block to the northeast and north, the South
America plate to the southeast, and the Cocos and Nazca plates to the southwest.
11.7.1 Chorotega
Chorotega for the most part continues the trend of SW Chortis. The southwestern
boundary of this area is easily defined by the Middle America trench. Other boundaries
are less obvious.
Escalante [13] described the boundary between Chorotega and Chortis (the Santa
Elena suture, Fig. 11.1) as an un-named, EW trending fault, mostly covered by
sediments and Cenozoic volcanic rocks, near the Costa Rica-Nicaragua border. It
surfaces on the Santa Elena peninsula, where serpentinized peridotites crop out and
where Dengo [143] recognized several transcurrent faults. Escalante [13] related this
fault to the southern part of the Hess escarpment. Marshall and Vannuchi [14]
described an EW trending Murcilago fault zone, which crosses the Santa Elena
peninsula, as a major upper plate discontinuity separating CretaceousPaleogene
forearc sediments of the Sandino basin from Late Cretaceous ophiolitic rocks of the
Nicoya peninsula to the south.
The EW trend of the Santa Elena peninsula (Costa Rica) corresponds to
the alignment of magnetic grain [145] in the adjacent, western Colombian basin.
Christofferson [146148]) explained these as late Cretaceous spreading anomalies but
Diebold et al. [149] regarded this as unpersuasive. The anomalies continue the EW
magnetic [150] and gravity trends ([151], redrawn by [19]) that reflect a broad plate
boundary between South America and the Caribbean plate. EW strike-slip faulting
recorded as far north as 1440 by the Pecos-Flamingo faults [152, 153] (Fig. 11.4b)
suggests that this trend is common in southern Central America, reflecting a broad plate
boundary zone.
Kolarsky and Mann [154] described the geology of the Azuero and Son peninsulas
and the nearby Coiba island (Fig. 11.3). Here sinistral movement along N60W
trending faults such as the Azuero-Son accommodates oblique slip between the Nazca
plate and Panama. These faults are more or less on strike with dextral faults such as the
Ballena-Celmira (see also [50]), so opposing directions of motion must be
accommodated in the area in between. It is the topographic high northeast of the Cocos
ridge (Fig. 11.1).
For Escalante [13] and Escalante and Astorga [155], the Chorotega block was
bounded to the NE by the North Panama deformed belt and a SW dipping thrust fault
(Sistema Falla Transcurrente de Costa Rica). However, the deformed belt is a
sedimentary pile driven northwards on the Caribbean plate ahead of the Panamanian
isthmus and the SW dipping thrust shown by Escalante [13] intersects Chorotega
approximately halfway along its eastern margin.
The Chorotega/Choc boundary appears to be located somewhere near the Panama canal
zone fault (though Hoernle et al. [156] suggested a NS boundary much further west). There
appears to be a parallel fault (Parriba fault zone, Fig. 11.1) some 100 km further west (shown
on three out of six maps in GSA Special Paper 295, e.g. [12]). Lowrie et al. [157] noted that
topography, bathymetry, seismicity, hot-spring locations, faulting patterns and

gravity indicate a major tectonic discontinuity across the Panama isthmus between 79W
and 80W. This was the Miocene locus of the NS trending eastern boundary of the
Cocos plate. The boundary was further east beforehand. It arrived at the canal area
around 27 Ma and migrated westwards, following successive sinistral transform faults.
At around 8 Ma spreading ceased east of 83W and the area to the east moved 400 km
sinistrally in response to Nazca plate push [157].
Costa Rica was affected by plate convergence since the Cretaceous and by wrench
tectonics through the Cenozoic to present. Thus successive basins formed in an intraoceanic island-arc setting above E-dipping subduction of Pacific crust (with forearc
and backarc basins) and in Middle Eocene transtension and Miocene and Pliocene
transpression [158].
Di Marco et al. [13] interpreted paleomagnetic data from Chorotega to indicate an
origin close to its present latitude; there has been no significant rotation relative to
South America. In contrast, paleomagnetic data from the Nicoya complex indicate a
latitude 16 south of the Chorotega block in Late Cretaceous time, indicating a Pacific
origin. Paleomagnetic data also indicate a late Cretaceous equatorial paleolatitude for
the Golfito terrane (Azuero peninsula) and counterclockwise rotation relative to
Chorotega of 60. The Burica terrane (Burica peninsula) was at a low northerly paleolatitude in the Paleocene, slightly south of its present position. It experienced almost
90 counterclockwise rotation.
Obducted oceanic rocks extend from Nicoya and Azuero along the coast of
Panama, through Colombia and Ecuador as far as the Gulf of Guayaquil [159] and
according to Mickus [160] gravity data suggest continuation of Nicoya rocks northwest
as far as Guatemala as discontinuous or thickening and thinning ophiolitic complexes.
It is difficult to reconcile the local paleomagnetic latitudinal findings of Di Marco et al.
with such a regionally distributed unit.
Except for the Osa peninsula and parts of the Nicoya complex the Costa Rican
Pacific coast can be regarded as a collage of fragments of ocean basins, oceanic
seamounts and/or island arcs [13]. In most cases faults do not represent the original
suture of accretion but are Neogene to Recent active faults. Accretion was followed by
strike-slip.
Hauff et al. [161] summarized that the origin of oceanic igneous basement
complexes on the Pacific margin of Costa Rica (Santa Elena, Nicoya, Tortugal,
Herradura, Quepos, Osa, Golfito and Burica) is controversial. They have been
explained as MORB, Galpagos hotspot track, Caribbean plateau and as oceanic crust
formed at a mid-oceanic ridge followed by intraplate, island arc and backarc
volcanism. Moreover, dating inferred from biostratigraphy of associated sediments was
suspect since contacts are mostly tectonic or intrusive. New radiometric and
biostratigraphic data indicated formation of early Costa Rican basement in three
phases: 124109 Ma (Santa Elena), 9574 Ma (Nicoya, Herradura, Tortugal, Golfito
and Burica) and 6550 Ma (Quepos and Osa). Thus most igneous basement rock on
Costa Rica formed over a short time interval, in contrast to the much longer radiolarian
record (16484 Ma, OxfordianSantonian) of associated rocks. Hauff et al. [161] saw
Quepos and Osa as part of the Galpagos hotspot track, accreted in the Middle Eocene,
possibly causing large-scale regional deformation and uplift of Central America (this
actually was a regional event [81]). Overlying mid-Eocene olistostromes at Quepos and
the presence of middle Eocene through Miocene accretionary wedge on the trenchward
side of the Osa peninsula confine the age of accretion to the Middle Eocene. There is a
regional early to late Oligocene unconformity in the sedimentary basins of the Costa
Rican arc. Based upon trace element and isotopic similarities between the rocks of
Tortugal and Santa Elena Hauff et al. [161] proposed a NS fault boundary between
Chortis and Chorotega.
11.7.2 Choc
The southern part of the Choc block has accreted to northwestern South America. The
remaining part of the block is represented in Central America by the Panama isthmus,
where Fisher et al. [162] recognized a Panamanian microplate a fragment of volcanic
arc separated from the Caribbean plate, defined by active fold and thrust belts.
Accretionary prisms to the north and south show bipolar convergence of this area with
the Caribbean and Nazca plates. Breen et al. [163] described seismic reflection and
side-scan sonar indications of mud/melange filled parallel folds at the toe of the North
Panama deformed belt. Moore and Sender [164] presented seismic data from southwest
Panama indicating that oblique convergence has produced seaward-verging thrusts and
folds.
According to Wadge and Burke [165] and Silver et al. [166] Middle Miocene
Pleistocene collision of Choc with South America resulted in oroclinal bending of the
isthmus. According to Derksen et al. [167] convergence of South America and eastern
Panama occurred from the Oligocene onwards, driving NW sinistral faulting along
which transpressional folding and as much as 200 km offset have occurred.
Mann and Corrigan [168] concluded that Panama is moving NW away from the
zone of convergence between Choc and South America along a diffuse zone that
involves both oroclinal bending and strike-slip faulting. This produced a west-verging
thrust system (East Panama deformed belt, EPDB), accommodated by NW trending
sinistral faults in the western Gulf of Panama and onshore eastern Panama [169].
However, Trenkamp et al. [170] used GPS data to confirm the presence of a Panama
microplate, with its western margin in central Costa Rica, that is today moving east
relative to Colombia and NE relative to the Caribbean plate. They concluded that
flexing of Panama [166] or distributed sinistral slip [168] are not occurring today but
were important in the past.
For Escalante [13] the eastern margin of the Choc block is the Romeral fault of
western Colombia. However, Aspden et al. [171] state that the Romeral is a Cretaceous
suture associated with the Central cordillera, while Choc collided with Colombia in
the MiocenePliocene [172]. Kellogg and Vega [173] show the boundary as the
sinistral Atrato fault, merging southwestwards into the Isthmina fault. The Atrato fault
along the eastern limit of the accreted Serrana de Baud (rocks similar to Nicoya,
Azuero) was a former (pre late Miocene) eastern boundary to the Choc block. The
present boundary probably is a dextral fault that cuts the isthmus trending NNE across
the mouth of the Gulf of Urub (see for example [173]).
The trench west of the Choc block is filled with thick Cenozoic deposits [7],
where it overrides the Cocos plate. The northern block boundary is supposed to be the
North Panama Fold Belt. Mickus [160, 174] notes that gravity data do not indicate
subduction of Nazca beneath the Caribbean. Instead, the southern boundary of Choc is
an EW, sinistral transform contact with the easterly moving Nazca plate [175].
Westbrook et al. [176] estimated 140 km of displacement along this boundary, which is
slightly transpressional.
NW trending sinistral faults such as the Panama canal fault zone bound the Choc
block to the west (perhaps even the sinistral Azuero-Son fault zone is part of this
system). The conjugate NW sinistral and NE dextral fault pattern repeats that of
northward tectonic escape of the Bolivar block [19], bounded by NE trending dextral
(Mrida Andes) and NW trending sinistral (Santa Marta-Bucarramanga). The latter
drives fold South Caribbean deformed belt. Escape of the Panama arc drives the North
Panama deformed belt.
When the offsets described above are removed, Choc becomes the southeasterly
continuation of Chorotega.
11.7.3 Chorotega-Choc, same origin? continental crust present?

Dengo [7] remarked that although the Chorotega and Choc blocks share crustal
composition and geological history, a tectonic break along the canal zone is marked by
a negative Bouguer gravity anomaly between large positive anomalies to the east and
west [14]. Also, Neogene continental volcanic rocks that are abundant in Chorotega are
rare in Choc.
Case (1974 [14]) reported that while Bouguer anomalies of more than +120 mgal
indicate an uplifted block of oceanic crust in eastern Panama, much more negative
anomalies west of the canal zone possibly indicate the presence of continental crust.
Seismic refraction data report a crustal thickness of more than 40 km near San Jos,
Costa Rica [39]. Broadband seismic data show crustal thicknesses of 40 45 km in
Costa Rica and 30 31 km in Nicaragua [177]. These are continental thicknesses.
Sachs and Alvarado [178] reported granulite xenoliths from the Arenal volcano and
discussed findings of micaschists and amphibolites in the Talamanca range and on the
Osa and Azuero peninsulas [179181]. Deering et al. [182] and Vogel et al. [183]
suggested that high silica ignimbrites and granitoids from Costa Rica might indicate
early continental crust formation in an oceanic arc environment. Albian quartz sand
occurs on the Nicoya peninsula and the Miocene Coris formation, extensively present
in the south and southeast of the Central valley, is a quartz arenite/orthoquartzite [13].
These are indications that continental crust is present.
The Chorotega block shares a common N60W trend with Jurassic grabens of
Mexico, the Middle America trench and fracture zones in the JurassicLower
Cretaceous crust east of North America, all related to late JurassicEarly Cretaceous
rifting/drifting. It appears to be defined by continuation of the faults that bound the
Nicaraguan depression. This indicates control by rifting of continental crust.
The accreted portion of Choc in Colombia consists of the coastal Serrana de
Baud and the flanking Atrato basin, sutured along the sinistral Atrato-Istmina faults.
Westward-coarsening quartz sands within late Cretaceous turbidites in the Colombian
cordillera Occidental indicate continental basement for the Serrana de Baud [184].
Restoration of Choc makes it the southeastern continuation of Chorotega (Fig. 11.11).
Taken together, geometric, gravimetric, seismic, geochemical and sedimentary data
suggest the presence of continental crust below Chorotega-Choc, and suggests that the
blocks were sinistrally offset from the SW margin of Chortis during Late Jurassic
Early Cretaceous rift and drift. Following Miocene collision between southern Choc
and northwestern South America in the Miocene, the Panama arc became extruded
northwards, sinistrally offset from Chorotega.
Figure 11.11. (a) TriassicJurassic rifting of simple Pangean reconstruction. (b) Callovian
Berriasian drift reconstruction: seafloor spreading has propagated through the Caribbean
area, Maya has moved sinistrally west relative to Chortis (Early Cayman offset) and Chortis
has moved sinistrally NW relative to Chorotega-Choc. The latter separated from Chorotega
along the Panama canal FZ in the MiocenePliocene. Abreviations as in Fig. 11.4; large
arrows show drift of North America N60W along fractures in the western Atlantic and SW
margin of Central America.
11.8
UNCONFORMITIES
This section considers the main unconformities that seem to have Caribbean-wide
distribution and relates these to Central America, where poor access, volcanic and
vegetation cover obscure large areas and the record is less complete (see also Chapter 13).
The principal unconformities recorded by literature are Late PaleozoicMiddle Jurassic,

Early Cretaceous, Late Cretaceous, PaleoceneMiddle Eocene, Middle Miocene and latest
Miocene/Pliocene, though there are undoubtedly others (see e.g., [185, 186]). Young
unconformities specific to southern Central America relate to collision of the Panama
arc with South America and of the Cocos ridge with Costa Rica.
11.8.1 Late Paleozoic Middle Jurassic

The first unconformity covers the interval between the Permian and Middle Jurassic.
Following late Permian deformation and intrusion, TriassicJurassic uplift and rifting
occurred, followed by continental breakup, margin extension and the beginning of drift
and ocean crust formation. It is marked in Central America by the appearance of red
beds on both the Maya and Chortis blocks. Volcanic activity in Honduras occurred in
the latest Jurassic or early Cretaceous as flows beneath the Todos Santos red beds (now
called Agua Fra, [140]). Conglomerates in those beds contain angular fragments of
primary volcanic origin [188].
Sedimentary Jurassic Agua Fra over metamorphosed Agua Fra on Chortis [42]
indicates a further Jurassic unconformity.
11.8.2 Early Cretaceous

In the Caribbean region a pre-Albian unconformity coincides with a change from
primitive volcanic activity to calc-alkaline volcanism that marks the onset of
subduction [188]. AptianAlbian rifting occurred on Chortis [42] and an Aptian
Albian calc-alkalic volcanic complex (Manto formation) occurs on Chortis [45].
Subduction in Central America has been underway since at least the Albian [189]. The
unconformity is overlain by shallow-water limestones throughout the Caribbean region
[190], recording regional uplift to the photic zone. Donnelly [191] discussed Albian
Campanian platform limestones on the Maya block (Cobn/Ixcoy, Campur formations),
while Scott and Finch [192] noted that a carbonate platform developed on the Chortis
block beginning in the BerriasianAptian and ending in the Albian. On Chortis low
grade metasedimentary basement phyllites and quartzite of presumed Jurassic age
(Agua Fra) are followed by 1500 m of massive shallow marine, late Albianearly
Cenomanian Atima limestones [42], also seen offshore north east of Honduras [43].
11.8.3 Late Cretaceous

In the Late Cretaceous an angular unconformity developed on Chortis between the
marine shales of the Late Albian to Early Cenomanian Krausirpe formation and the
overlying clastics of the Late Cretaceous Valle de Angeles formation and there is a
palaeo-karst on top of the AlbianCenomanian Atima limestone [43]. The Nicoya
complex of Costa Rica includes plutonic and volcanic arc detritus recording Late
Campanian uplift and the beginning of the Laramide orogeny [193]. Late Senonian
carbonate reefs and platforms overlie the unconformity here [194]. The onset of the
orogeny coincides with the beginning of rapid convergence (> 100 km/m.y. = 10
cm/yr) of the Faralln plate with North America.
11.8.4 Paleocene Middle Eocene

A Middle Eocene unconformity is commonly seen as marking the end of
MaastrichtianPaleogene (Laramide) orogeny and is often related to collision of a
volcanic arc at the leading edge of a migrating Caribbean plate (e.g., [109]). However,
this unconformity occurs throughout the Caribbean and is one of many arguments for
the plates evolution in place [114, 115]. The unconformity records a particularly
violent event, when extremely large olistostromes, olistoliths and nappes formed
around the Caribbean area. It is overlain by regional Middle Eocene limestones [81,
190], that again record uplift to the photic zone. In Central America such limestones
occur in Costa Rica and Panama [13, 195]. Kolarsky et al. [50] described angular
basalt breccia (Tonos formation) stratigraphically overlying basaltic basement on
Coiba island, Panama. It is overlain by reefal limestone dated as Middle Eocene by
Lepidocyclina. The Middle Eocene Punta Gorda limestone occurs above deformed
upper Cretaceous on the Nicaraguan rise [45, 196] and offshore Belize an argillaceous
limestone dolomite occurs above an angular unconformity on top of the Paleocene
Middle Eocene Toledo formation [197].
Quepos and Osa were accreted in the Middle Eocene, possibly causing large-scale
regional deformation and uplift of Central America. Middle-Eocene olistostromes
overly the unit at Quepos (see Chapter 13).
11.8.5 Early Oligocene

There is a regional Oligocene unconformity in the sedimentary basins of the Costa
Rican arc [161]. In the Caribbean area a regional pulse of block faulting followed the
Middle Eocene event, marking the beginning of eastward movement of the plate
relative to North and South America [110]. It resulted in highs, capped by
unconformities, separated by pull-apart basins whose fill date the episode.
11.8.6 Middle Miocene

The MiddleLate Miocene/Pliocene is seen as the time when the Panama arc collided
with South America (e.g., [172, 198]) but Middle Miocene unconformities occur also in
the Tobago trough [100], east of Trinidad and the eastern Venezuela basin [199, 200].
11.9
PLATE TECTONICS
11.9.1 Cocos-Central America interaction, control of current structures

Control over current structural activity in Central America is logically related to
interaction with the Cocos and Nazca Plates in the west and by movements along the
north and south Caribbean plate boundaries. GPS data indicate the latter to be largely
strike-slip at around 2021 mm/yr, sinistral in the north and dextral in the south [201,
202]. Guzmn-Speziale et al. [203] used GPS measurements from SE Mexico to show
about 10 mm/yr NNE (27) directed Cocos-North America convergence. In the Pacific
things are less clear. Kellogg and Vega [173], for example, summarized numerous
models for Caribbean-Nazca-South America triple junctions (the Eastern cordillera of
Colombia; the Panama fracture zone; the Gulf of Guayaquil, Ecuador).
For Hey [204] the Faralln plate broke apart at about 25 Ma. Lonsdale [205]
published new data showing that throughout the Paleogene the Faralln oceanic plate
was episodically diminished by detachment of large and small northern regions, which
became independently moving plates and microplates. The nature and history of
Faralln plate fragmentation has been inferred mainly from structural patterns on the
western, Pacific-plate flank of the East Pacific rise, because the fragmented eastern
flank has been subducted. The final episode of plate fragmentation occurred at the
beginning of the Miocene, when the Cocos plate was split off, leaving the reduced
Faralln plate as the Nazca plate and initiating Cocos-Nazca spreading. Spreading
began at 23 Ma; reports of older Cocos-Nazca crust in the eastern Panama basin had
been based on misidentified magnetic anomalies.
A variety of proposed relative plate velocities for the Central American region
indicates that precise knowledge is still lacking. GPS data cover only very short time
intervals and are subject to some uncertainty (Mao et al., 1999, quoted by [206]).
Ninety-five percent confidence ellipses shown by Kellogg and Vega [173] indicate up
to 30 variation. The following extracts illustrate evolution of thought and differences
in understanding.
Molnar and Sykes [59] used focal mechanisms of 70 earthquakes to show
underthrusting of the Cocos plate below Mexico and Guatemala in a northeasterly
direction and below the rest of Central America in a more NNE direction. Deng and
Sykes [207] noted that different proposed Euler poles for North America-Caribbean
relative motion result from factors such as a small number of focal mechanism
solutions, short length of plate boundaries, multibranched faults and bias in selection of
slip vectors along the Middle America trench to close plate motion circuits. Slip
vectors show a Cocos-Central America pole located at 22 degrees N, 120 degrees W,
explaining subduction along the trench as well as dextral strike-slip and extension
along the Central American volcanic zone. Deng and Sykes [59] argued that slip
vectors are the strongest constraints on plate motion.
Kellogg and Vega [173] discussed GPS data that record NE convergence between
Cocos island, on the Cocos plate, and Costa Rica at 72 mm/a, and NNE convergence
between Costa Rica and San Andrs island, on the Caribbean plate, at 11 mm/yr.
Kellogg and Vega [173] suggest that the latter movement explains some of the
difference between the observed Cocos/Costa Rica convergence and the computed 91
mm/yr rate reported by DeMets et al. [208].
DeMets [206] noted that lack of data describing present-day Caribbean plate motion
precluded rigorous determination of Cocos-Central America motion (trench oblique?
partitioned? explains trench-parallel dextral faulting?). With respect to Caribbean
motion, DeMets et al. [209] presented a new model for Caribbean-North America,
based on GPS data from four sites in the Caribbean plate interior and two azimuths of
the Swan Islands transform fault (data poorly explained by previously published
models). They indicate motion 65% faster than earlier predicted (NUVEL-1A, [208]).
This is a large change based on what seems a relatively small data set (Dixon et al.
[210] earlier described motion that was twice the NUVEL-1A prediction).
The NUVEL-1A Cocos-Central America model of DeMets et al. [211] used 56
earthquake slip directions and predicted angular velocity differing from trench-normal
by only 24. DeMets [206] determined a new estimate of Cocos-Central America
relative motion by closure of a Caribbean-North America-Pacific-Cocos plate circuit. It
involved GPS data from four sites on the Caribbean plate and 139 on the North
American plate, 2 azimuths from the Swan islands transform fault, transform faults
offsetting the Pacific-Cocos rise axis and Pacific-Cocos spreading rates (quite a variety
of data). Convergence predicted by this model along the Middle America trench occurs
around 10 counter-clockwise to trench-normal. Since most horizontal slip directions
for shallow-thrust earthquakes are orthogonal to the trench, DeMets [206] concluded
the evidence that the oblique convergence is fully partitioned is compelling. In
contrast, Norbuena et al. [212] discussed new seismic and geodetic data from Costa
Rica and concluded that in the Osa region convergence is orthogonal to the trench.
The ocean fractures shown in Figure 11.1 seem to be trench-orthogonal and they
parallel ancient structures within the continental roots of Central America. It seems that
convergence between the Cocos plate (N35E) and Central America (N60W) is close
to orthogonal, so it is difficult to explain dextral movement in terms of horizontal strain
partitioning. Instead, this chapter notes the perfect fit of trench-parallel dextral
movement as antithetic strain to sinistral movement along N35E trending faults (such
as the Guayape fault).
11.9.2 Tectonic evolution

The geology of foregoing sections suggests the following plate tectonic implications
for the evolution both of Central America and of the Caribbean plate.
Central America comprises a series of continental blocks (Maya, Chortis,
Chorotega and Choc), separated during TriassicJurassic rifting and distributed along
the western boundary of the Caribbean area during JurassicEarly Cretaceous
northwesterly drift of North America away from Pangea (Fig. 11.11a, b). Maya moved
west relative to Chortis along a broad zone of distributed (geographical and temporal)
sinistral shear (the northern Caribbean plate boundary) in the Late JurassicEarly
Cretaceous and again from the Oligocene onwards. Chortis and Chorotega became
sinistrally offset along the NW trending, western Caribbean plate boundary, parallel to
the Middle America trench (along Jurassic rift faults). Convergence between first the
Faralln and later the Cocos plate and Chortis-Chorotega resulted in subduction and
related volcanicity in Central America since at least the Albian (probably Jurassic) and
caused obduction of ophiolites on the SW margin of the area. Spreading of the Nazca
plate has driven the Choc block northwards, causing it to collide with and accrete to
northwestern South America in the Miocene and driving the deforming Panama arc
northwards. Volcanicity consequently subsided in this area
Since the Oligocene the northern and southern boundaries of the Caribbean plate
have been broad zones of sinistral and dextral strike-slip along which the plate moves
eastward relative to North and South America [111, 114, 115]. The zones continue into
Central America, where no single fault defines the boundaries between the commonly
recognized blocks. Chorotega and Choc probably lie completely within the southern
boundary zone.
Convergence between the Pacific plates and Central America reactivated N15E
and N35E normal faults as sinistral faults. Areas east of these are moving
northeastwards. Drag and compression on the western side of the faults results in
oroclinal bending (Motagua, Agalta) and inversion/shortening of formerly NW
trending Triassic? Jurassic and Cretaceous depocentres. Figure 11.12 suggests that
complementary compression and oroclinal bending occur to the east at the northern
terminations of the faults. This tectonic configuration accommodates convergence
between Pacific areas and Central America. It allows net NESW shortening while
preserving linearity of the SW margin of Central American and the northern Caribbean
plate boundary.
Convergence of Cocos plate oceanic crust with Central America is largely
orthogonal to the Middle America trench. The Tehuantepec ridge trends towards the
Salina Cruz fault (Fig. 11.1). Magnetic anomaly data over the Cocos plate indicate a
ridge (here named the Guayape ridge) that trends towards the Guayape fault. The
Cocos ridge trends N35E and converges with Central America in that direction.
Spreading at the northsouth trending East Pacific rise is approximately eastwest.
Between the Central America trench and the rise fracture zones curve to accommodate
the change of directions (spreading-convergence). This implies that spreading rate
increases southwards along the East Pacific rise. It suggests that spreading at the ridge
and major fractures in the Cocos plate are influenced by long-lived fractures in the
continental crust.
In summary, Maya becomes sinistrally offset from Maya along the Motagua fault
zone in the Late JurassicEarly Cretaceous. Neither of these largely continental blocks
has rotated. Continental fragments also underpin Chorotega and Choc. They formerly
lay SW of Chortis and became left behind as Chortis drifted NW in the Late Jurassic
Early Cretaceous. Choc became sinistrally offset from Chorotega in the Miocene
recent. Chortis, Chorotega and Choc lie on the western end of the Caribbean plate,
which clearly did not migrate from the Pacific.
11.10 SUMMARY
Literature contains a wide variety of models explaining aspects of Central American
structural geology. Few of these integrate all data and fewer consider the area in its
regional setting. There is considerable variation in interpreted scale, control and timing
of fault activity and related structures (oroclines, thrust belts), origin and type of
basement and of major blocks.
The tectonic history of the area proceeded as follows:
1) Major, ancient lineaments within Pangea determined the alignment of Triassic
Jurassic rifts N35E and N60W transfer faults in the area of future southern North
America, Caribbean and northern South America.
2) Movement of North America away from South America in the Jurassic
Cretaceous occurred along transform faults/oceanic fractures that extrapolated N60W
transfer faults generated during 1). These have bracketed the area between the
diverging North and South American plates to the present day. A N35E spreading
ridge (Beata ridge, [81, 110, 115]) propagated between North and South America.
Subsidence, thinning and magmatism along the margins of continental fragments
(Maya, Chortis) followed N35E TriassicJurassic rifts. In the west, margin-parallel
(N60W) Jurassic rifts formed (now seen in Mexico-western Guatemala; possibly
further expressed by the Nicaraguan depression). The triangular forms of Maya and
Chortis developed at this time by the combination of these two trends.
A first episode (late JurassicEarly Cretaceous, [110, 115]) of Cayman trough
sinistral offset occurred as Maya moved several hundred kilometers west relative to
Chortis, formerly attached to southwestern Mexico and south Maya. Normal faulting,
related to this early offset was oriented N15E. It controlled the southern segments of
the Caribbean margins of Maya and Chortis. Chorotega-Choc became sinistrally
offset from Chortis along a N60W trend.
3) Subduction occurred at the western and eastern ends of the Caribbean area at
least as early as the Albian, producing volcanic arcs [110, 115].
4) Major sinistral movement occurred along NE trending faults such as the
Guayape, Ro Hondo, and eastern boundary faults of Maya in the Paleogene, causing
oroclinal bending of NW trending Jurassic and Cretaceous depocentres. Sinistral
movement along the faults is taken up by NE-directed contraction (NW trending
folds/thrusts) to the west. Antithetic dextral movements and related pull-apart occurred
along the southwestern boundary of Central America, manifest as the Nicaraguan
depression. Pull-apart related to both sinistral and dextral faulting generated a system
of grabens crossing Honduras. Where these trends intersect at the Nicaraguan
depression a series of depressions accommodates the Gulf of Fonseca, Managua lake,
and Lake Nicaragua.
5) Paleogene clastic deposition culminated violently in the Middle Eocene with
emplacement of nappes and large olistoliths/olistostromes.
6) Oligocenerecent eastward movement of the Caribbean plate relative to North
and South America resulted in an initial pulse of pull-apart extension and then
eastward-migrating folding and thrusting along the northern and southern plate
margins. This segmented and extended the Nicaraguan rise, separated elements along
the Greater Netherlands-Venezuelan Antilles and generated an easterly migrating
thrust/foreland basin couple along the northern margin of South America.
N35E convergence between the Cocos and Caribbean plates is the current
dominant driver of western Caribbean tectonics (Fig. 11.12). NE sinistral movement
occurs along N35E trending faults such as the Ro Hondo and Guayape. The
displacement transforms into north-concave and south-concave oroclinal bending and
compression west of the faults in Central America and east of the faults in Cuba and
Jamaica. Antithetic dextral movement occurs along trench-parallel faults such as those
defining the Nicaraguan depression.
NE convergence between the Nazca plate and northwestern South America drives
northward extrusion of the Bolivar block [131] and of the Panama arc along NE dextral
and NW sinistral faults (east and west, respectively). The South Caribbean deformed
belt and the North Panama deformed belt accretionary prisms formed ahead of these
areas. The southern half of Choc has accreted to northwestern South America and is
separated from the northern half (the Panama arc) by a NE trending dextral fault.
11.11 CONCLUSIONS
The structural geology of Central America is best explained in its regional setting at the
western end of the Caribbean. It is controlled by strain generated during Triassic
Jurassic rifting (reactivating older lineaments) and JurassicCretaceous drifting of
North America from South America. The structures have been reactivated through
subsequent history, often in a reverse sense (inversion, change of strike-slip direction).
They retain a regional integrity that harmonizes movement and deformation.
If continental crust exists beneath Chorotega and Choc, as argued in this chapter,
distinction between Nuclear Central America (Maya and Chortis) and the Isthmian
Link is inappropriate.
The boundaries between Maya and Chortis and Chortis and Chorotega are broad
zones of EW strike-slip faulting. The boundary between the Panama arc and South
America is probably a NE trending fault crossing the isthmus and running north of the
Figure 11.12. Synthesis of the current tectonic setting of Central America suggests that the
western Caribbean is dominated by convergence of the Cocos plate. Late Eocene/Oligocene
recent pull-apart-strong pattern in the centre of the Cayman trough (CT) accommodates
300 km of eastward movement of the Caribbean plate relative to North America (earlier,
JurassicCretaceous Cayman offset greyed pattern/stress-strain ellipse occurred during
drift of North America from South America). The convergence drives sinistral movement
along a series of parallel faults, such as the Ro Hondo (RF) and Guayape faults (GF), which
earlier experienced extension (greyed stress/strain ellipse). Oroclinal bending, folding and
thrusting accommodates the sinistral offset west of the faults (thus there is no sinistral offset
of the trench-parallel coast/Nicaraguan depression). The system allows net NESW
shortening while preserving linearity of the SW margin of Central America and of the
northern Caribbean plate boundary. Dextral offset along the Nicaraguan depression is
antithetic to the sinistral offsets. The Panama regions and the Bolivar block of NW South
America (not shown [131]) are moving north along NW sinistral and NE dextral faults,
driving the North Panama (NPDB) and South Caribbean deformed belts ahead of them.
Gulf of Urub. The Chorotega-Choc boundary is marked by the Panama fault zone.
The Panama area (northern Choc) is being shunted northwards over the
southwestern-most part of the Caribbean plate, driving before it the North Panamanian
fold belt sedimentary prism. The latter does not mark the northern boundary of Choc
or of Chorotega. Chorotega is fixed on the western margin of the Caribbean plate. The
southern extension of Choc is accreted to South America.
Separation of stratigraphy premised upon perceived (modeled) terranes rather
than its use to correlate between adjacent blocks should be reconsidered. Maya and
Chortis share common geology. They are joined, not by a suture where pre-existing
oceanic crust was consumed, but along a zone of sinistral shear.
The only terranes in Central America may be small, accreted oceanic areas of
western Costa Rica (Nicoya, Azuero), though reported paleomagnetic
rotations/migrations could reflect local effects of strike-slip faulting.
Chortis, Chorotega and Choc have always been at the western end of the
Caribbean area. Migration of the Caribbean plate from the Pacific was not possible.
Future investigations could seek structures that conform (or not) to the suggested
regional pattern. This indicates a systematic grid of Guayape trend faults throughout
Central America, accompanied by oroclinal bending, folds and thrusts. Systematic
sinistral/dextral fault interactions and related extension might control the spacing of
volcanoes along Central America. Knowledge of the regional structural pattern could
help understand earthquake and volcanic activity. The suggestion that Chorotega and
Choc are underpinned by continental crust should be investigated.
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Chapter 12
Seismicity and neotectonics
MARIO FERNNDEZ, EDUARDO CAMACHO, ENRIQUE MOLINA,
GRISELDA MARROQUN AND WILFRIED STRAUCH
From a scientific viewpoint, the Guatemala
earthquake
sequence
is
particularly
noteworthy because it was accompanied by
the most extensive surface faulting in the
western hemisphere since the 1906 San
Francisco earthquake. G. Plafker: Tectonic
Aspects of the Guatemala Earthquake on 4
February 1976, Science 193, 1976.
12.1
INTRODUCTION
The Central American isthmus is an Andean-type volcanic arc formed and developed
by the subduction of the Cocos plate under the Caribbean plate. This subduction has
created a volcanic chain that consists of approximately 50 active volcanoes. Since its
formation, the arc has been subjected to the compressive stresses generated at the
Middle America trench (MAT), shear stresses derived from the horizontal interaction
between the North American and Caribbean plates to the west, and the convergence of
the Cocos and Nazca plates to the south.
These stresses, especially those at the Cocos-Caribbean margin, have extensively
folded and faulted the arc and as result, many faults currently cross the isthmus. This
faulting, the subduction process and the shear zones generate a high-level of seismicity
that affects almost all the countries of Central America. In the volcanic front of all the
countries, the most active structures have been delineated using airphotos and field
work has been conducted to examine the recent faults identified on airphotos. These
investigations have involved measurement of fault scarp heights and examination of
soil horizons developed on faulted alluvium. To assess rupture potential of important
faults and their recurrence intervals and position within earthquake cycle, trenches have
been excavated in Costa Rica and Nicaragua to look for recent displacements and
stratigraphy that can constrain the age of the faulting. Soil development along faulted
surfaces and scarp morphology has been used to determine the relative deformation
rates across the fault segments.
The seismicity and seismotectonic of the region have been the subject of several
studies in recent years [112]. However, many seismogenic zones remain unexplored
despite their high seismicity. In this chapter the seismicity and neotectonics of the
region are addressed. The study presents an effort to describe the geological and
seismological characteristics of each of the most important tectonic features within the
region. The goal is to present an updated seismic and neotectonic study of the Central
American region.
As mentioned above, Central America is located on the Caribbean plate. This plate
is surrounded by four major tectonic plates: the Cocos plate to the southwest, the Nazca
plate to the south, and the North American and South American plates to the north and
southeast, respectively. The Cocos-Caribbean margin is a subduction zone whose
tectonic boundary is the MAT. Similarly, the Nazca and Caribbean plates also form a
subduction zone.
The strike-slip faults, the Polochic-Motagua-Chamalecn (PMCHFS) and the
Panama fracture zone (PFZ), serve as the boundaries between the North AmericanCaribbean plates, and the Cocos-Nazca plates, respectively. Intraplate tectonic features
of interest are the Hess escarpment, the Nicaraguan graben or depression (ND), and the
Azuero-Son fault system in southern Panama. In central Costa Rica there is very high
seismicity, which is the subject of controversy, basically because some authors
associate it with the northwestern boundary of the Panama block.
In this chapter, the structural patterns, historical and instrumental seismicity, and
focal mechanism solutions associated with each of the structures are described (Fig.
12.1a). To perform this study we have used the Central American Seismological Center
(CASC) database, with events from the 19922002 period with magnitudes larger than
M S 4.0. Fault-plane solutions are from a previous compilation [13] and from the CASC
database.
12.2
HISTORICAL AND MAJOR EARTHQUAKES IN CENTRAL AMERICA
The historical record of earthquakes in Central America is poor in the two centuries
after the Spanish conquest because the population kept no records, and because
colonial occupation was incomplete prior to the eighteenth century. The record
improves in the nineteenth century when the reports dramatically increased, creating a
more complete knowledge of old earthquakes. The current knowledge of historical
earthquakes in Central America is based on macroseismic phenomena observed by
different people and reported by newspaper and other written accounts that tell us about
earthquakes before seismic stations were installed. Seismic histories of early
earthquakes from the region are compiled in four main catalogues [1417]; the first of
these works contains more than 17,000 seismic events from the 15051992 period.
Montero and Peraldo [18] analyzed the mentioned catalogues concluding that the
database is well-organized and structured and that the historical seismicity studies in
Central America have increased since 1980.
According to the catalogues, the long-term seismicity of Central America is very
well-known and characterized by numerous, medium size earthquakes preceded and
followed by damaging shocks, causing significant death and destruction. The welldocumented medium size earthquakes from 1900 to 2001 are shown in Table 12.1 and
Figures 12.1b and 12.2a, where it can be recognized that all the tectonic environments
of Central America have generated moderate magnitude earthquakes in the past.
However, the MAT has been the main source of these earthquakes. In fact, 93% of the
total moment (for MS > 7.0 earthquakes) in Central America during 18981994 period
was released along the MAT [9]. Large and shallow earthquakes on subduction zone
plate boundaries contribute about 90% of the total seismic moment released worldwide
from 1900 through 1989 [19]. Data suggest that no earthquakes of magnitude equal or
up 8.0 occur, however, 500 years is not long enough to rule out the occurrence of such
events in the region.
The largest earthquakes in Central America since 1800 occurred in 1883 in the San
Figure 12.1. (a) Tectonic features of Central America; (b) Historical earthquakes of Central
America for 1900 through 1993. Only events of MS equal or larger than 7.0 are shown;
circled numerals indicate the event in Table 12.1. The most catastrophic earthquakes of
Central America, numerals correspond to the event in Table 12.2. Faults of the region where
trenches have been excavated are also shown. Both the location of the faults and its length
are approximately.
Bls islands, Panama, in 1942 in western Guatemala (N 23, Fig. 12.1b) and 1950 in
the Nicoya peninsula, Costa Rica (N 26, Fig. 12.1b); all of these events seem to be
related to the subducction process. The September 07, 1882 event, the largest known
earthquake in northern Panama, occurred 150200 km northeast of Panama city. This
earthquake, referred to as the San Bls earthquake, was located in a relatively active
region of the North Panama deformed belt. It had a calculated magnitude of 7.9 MS,
and a depth of 29 km. Approximately 100 people drowned in a tsunami generated by
this offshore earthquake. The magnitude 7.9 earthquake that struck western Guatemala
in 1942 caused over one million of dollars in damage and 38 casualties [9]. It was a
large event, but not too destructive, probably because its hypocenter was down to 60 km.
In spite of its depth, this earthquake was felt strongly in El Salvador and Mexico. The
Nicoya earthquake, the largest earthquake ever recorded in Costa Rica, hit the Nicoya
peninsula at 16:09 Greenwich Mean Time (UTC) on the evening of October 5, 1950.
325
The earthquakes own its name to its location. The event was a MS 7.9 thrust earthquake
of the Cocos plate that struck the peninsula, causing damage in several cities of the
country but fortunately, the damage was minor considering its size. No one was killed
by the earthquake, probably because the hypocenter was deep and the area was sparsely
populated at the time. Taking into consideration that this was the last large earthquake
in Nicoya Dixon et al. [20] consider that the accumulated strain in this seismic zone is
able to bring earthquakes whose moment magnitude is larger than 7.5.
These large earthquakes had an important impact on the economy and development
of the affected countries, but they were not the most destructive seismic events in the
region. They caused modest damage in the sparsely populated epicentral areas. The
damages were limited to cracked or fallen unreinforced masonry walls, a few minor
landslides and relatively little loss of life. This has led us to conclude that subduction
earthquakes are not the most hazardous for the region.
Table 12.1. Historical earthquakes in Central America and southern Mexico [9, 14].
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
Date UT (h m)
1900 06 21
1901 10 08
1902 04 19
1902 09 23
1903 01 14
1904 01 20
1904 12 20
1907 12 30
1915 09 07
1916 02 27
1916 04 24
1921 02 04
1921 03 28
1924 03 04
1925 12 10
1926 02 08
1926 11 05
1929 01 24
1932 05 21
1934 07 18
1935 12 14
1941 12 05
1942 08 06
1943 05 02
1944 06 28
1950 10 05
1950 10 23
1956 10 24
1962 07 26
1970 04 29
1976 02 04
1978 08 23
1982 06 19
20 58
02 16
02 24
20 18
01 48
14 50
05 42
05 26
01 20
20 21
08 02
08 22
07 49
10 07
14 14
15 18
07 55
20 36
10 10
01 36
22 05
20 46
23 36
17 18
07 58
16 09
16 13
14 42
08 14
14 01
09 01
00 38
06 21
Lat. (N) Long. (W) Depth (km)
MS
Deaths
3069
N
040
N
N
N
3069
> 70
60
3060
60
120
170
S
N
100
135
N
150
25
N
30
40
N
N+
50100
30
N
S
N
S
N
80
7.2
7.0
7.5
7.6
7.6
7.0
7.3
7.1
7.7
7.3
7.3
7.2
7.4
7.0
7.1
7.1
7.0
7.1
7.1
7.5
7.3
7.6
7.9
7.0
7.2
7.9
7.3
7.2
7.3
7.3
7.5
7.0
7.3
ND
ND
1500
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
3
ND
ND
ND
ND
Several
ND
ND
Several
ND
ND
ND
ND
2
38
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
22870
ND
43
10.6
11.0
14.9
16.5
15.0
07.0
09.2
11.1
13.9
11.0
10.7
15.0
12.9
09.8
15.5
12.9
12.3
12.8
12.8
08.1
14.8
08.7
14.8
06.9
14.3
10.0
14.3
11.5
07.5
14.6
15.2
09.8
13.3
85.5
86.5
91.5
92.5
93.0
82.0
82.8
87.3
89.6
86.0
86.0
91.0
86.8
84.7
92.5
88.7
85.8
91.0
88.0
82.6
92.5
83.2
91.3
80.4
92.6
85.7
91.8
86.5
82.7
92.6
89.2
85.6
89.4
N: Normal crust focus, N+: Focus in lower crust or down to 60 km, S: Shallow events with
macroseismic or instrumental evidence for a focus in the upper curst, ND: No data, h: hour,
m: minutes, Lat: Latitude, Long: Longitude.
Figure 12.2. (a) Seismicity of Central America in the 19922004 period. Only earthquakes with
magnitudes larger than 4 are included. Lines from AB to KL indicate the extension of the
seismic profiles performed in this study. Data from CASC database; (b) Typical fault-plane
solutions for the subduction zone and the tectonic boundaries between North AmericanCaribbean and Cocos-Nazca plates.
12.3
PLATE BOUNDARIES
12.3.1 Middle America trench

The Caribbean plate is bounded by the Cocos plate along the MAT, which is located
along the Pacific coast of Central America. This boundary extends offshore, from
Guatemala to southern Costa Rica, and is well-defined seismically (Fig. 12.2a). The
Wadatti-Benniof zone beneath the Central American volcanic front dips 6080 NE
and is illuminated by earthquakes in the subducting slab to a depth of 200 km. The
MAT shallows at its southern end. Up to recently it was thought that there was no
subduction in the southern segment of the MAT, but it has been shown that a slab is
subducting under southern Costa Rica [21, 22] at a 60 dip up to 70 km depth [22].
Figure 12.2b shows focal mechanisms typical for the MAT. Note the broad
distribution of low-angle thrust events along the entire Pacific coast of Central
America. However, there are also normal fault plane solutions that confirm the
existence of tensional stresses in the margin.
Historical evidence indicates possible interplate earthquakes for more than 500
years on the subduction zone of Central America [16]. Recent major earthquakes are
shallow-interface thrust events caused by failure of the interface between the
downgoing slab and overriding plate, shallow earthquakes caused by deformation
within the upper plate, and earthquakes seaward of the trench, caused mainly by flexing
of the downgoing plate (the 2001 El Salvador normal fault earthquake is an excellent
example of this kind of quake) or compression of the slab. These earthquakes span
the entire subduction zone from Guatemala to Costa Rica, with a noticeable exception
at the trench-arc space in Costa Rica (Fig. 12.1a).
Figure 12.2a shows that moderate earthquakes are almost uniformly distributed
along the MAT. Within the studied area, the majority of earthquakes have been located
in a rectangular area that extends from Guatemala to Nicaragua, suggesting that this is
327
currently the most active segment of the MAT. The largest earthquakes are
concentrated in the Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaraguan trench segments. The
lower level of seismicity on the Costa Rican segment of the MAT is probably due to
one or more of the following reasons: shallower subduction, poor coupling in the
central part, and weak continental crust. The epicentral distribution in the central part
of the Central American subduction zone is dominated by the 1992 Nicaraguan
earthquake and its aftershocks, which terminate to the southeast at the Gulf of
Papagayo in the Costa Rica seismic zone.
Figure 12.3. Seismic profiles perpendicular to the Middle America trench. The subducting slab
goes down deeper at the latitude of Guatemala but the subduction becomes shallower at the
southern terminus of the Middle America trench at the Panama fracture zone.
The geometry of the subducting slab varies along the MAT (Fig. 12.3). The deepest
subduction is in Guatemala, where earthquakes have occurred as deep as 250 km. In
the Costa Rica-Panama segment of the MAT earthquakes reach only 70 km depth. In
the Nicaraguan segment the maximum dip of the slab (80) is attained and decreases in
Costa Rica (60 [22]). A rose diagram (Fig. 12.4a) indicates that the compressive axis
strikes 2530 NE throughout the trench.
12.3.2 North America-Caribbean plate boundary

A set of parallel approximately eastwest trending left-lateral faults the PolochicMotagua-Chamalecn fault system (PMCHFS) is the main expression of the North
America-Caribbean plate boundary in northern Central America. Three fault systems
have been recognized: Chixoy-Polochic, Motagua (Fig. 12.1a), and JocotnChamelecn. Their activity and sense of movement have been documented by
geologic, geomorphic, and seismic evidence, with exception of the Jocotn-
Figure 12.4. Rose diagrams for the axis of pressure for the main seismic sources of the Central
American region.
Chamelecn fault system and the westernmost part of Motagua fault system [23]. The
slip rates on this plate boundary range from 1.3 to 20 mm/yr over the past years, using
geologic and geomorphic data [24], and from 9 to 34 mm/yr over the past years, using
global tectonic models [25, 26].
The general questions that have been discussed in the literature are: the continuation
of the Swan fault zone into northern Central America; the role and interactions of the
three fault systems; the westward extension of the major strike-slip faults; the location
and character of the expected North American-Caribbean-Cocos plate triple junction;
and the kinematics and implications of the internal deformation in the wedge-shaped
westernmost part of the Caribbean plate, the so-called Chortis block [27]. The
continuation of the Swan fault zone into northern Central America is apparently the
Motagua fault [26]; the connection between the Swan fault zone and the other two fault
systems is not clear. Burkart [28] proposed that the Chixoy-Polochic fault in eastern
Guatemala runs south of Izabal lake as far east as the Motagua fault, where appears to
be inactive [29].
Several authors have proposed that the westward continuation of the Motagua and
Chixoy-Polochic fault systems runs through southeastern Mexico to the MAT [29, 28],
forming a trench-trench-transform fault type triple junction. Langer and Bollinger [30]
proposed that the end of the Motagua fault lies in central Guatemala, using the
theoretical pattern of stress trajectories at the terminus of a strike-slip fault to explain
the aftershocks of the Guatemalan earthquake of 1976. From east to west, the Motagua
fault changes in strike from almost eastwest to northnorthwest in central Guatemala
and continues in that direction until meeting the Polochic fault in northwestern
329
Guatemala [31]. Other authors believe that the termination of these fault systems lies in
western Guatemala and southeastern Mexico [32, 33]. The internal deformation at the
westernmost part of the Caribbean plate is evident in eastwest extension across
roughly northsouth striking grabens, and in faulting transverse to the volcanic front.
Thirteen active Quaternary rifts have been identified in the triangular wedge defined by
the volcanic front to the southwest, the Honduras depression to the east (including the
grabens associated with this structure), and the Motagua fault to the north [33].
Various models have been proposed to explain the internal deformation in this part
of the Caribbean plate: (1) secondary extension occurs by differential movement along
the Polochic and Motagua fault zones; (2) the west corner of the Caribbean plate is
being pinned by compression between the Cocos and North American plates, and that
internal deformation is confined to the part of the plate north of the volcanic chain [23,
34]; (3) the grabens developed as fault termination structures as the Motagua fault grew
from east to west [30]; and (4) the rifting is localized extension produced as the
Caribbean plate attempts to move eastward about a continental promontory of North
America plate or a bend in the plate boundary zone [26, 35, 36]. It has also been
proposed that the region is broken into blocks, between which there are differential
movements that could explain the difference in structural styles in northern Central
America [37, 38].
In central and western Guatemala, the trends of the great strike-slip faults depart
substantially from the predicted eastnortheast trend of the relative plate motion
vectors, implying an important intraplate deformation [39]. Some models propose that
the relative motion between NA-CA plates is partly taken up by extension on these
grabens [23, 25, 38].
Recurrence time intervals for events with magnitude MS > 7.3 in the ChixoyPolochic-Motagua fault system have been estimated to be 225 50 yr [40], and > 160
yr [23]. In addition to these great magnitude earthquakes, moderate magnitude events,
5.0 < MS < 7.0, also occur along or close to this fault system. Local damage was
reported for at least 6 of these events during the 20th century. Some of the large events
in the Chixoy-Polochic-Motagua fault system usually activate nearby faulting.
Figure 12.5. (a) Part of the Motagua fault race at Gualan, Guatemala. Modified after Espinoza
[41]; (b) A drawing of (a) to better show the effect of the fault on the soccer field. These
effects were observed after the 1976 Guatemala earthquake.
The most catastrophic earthquake in this tectonic environment was the MS 7.6
earthquake that struck the country of Guatemala on February 4, 1976 (N 31, Fig.
12.1b). This event caused approximately 23,000 deaths, 74,000 injured and widespread
devastation that included the offset of railroad tracks, bridges, soccer fields [41] (Fig.
12.5) and roads. It was caused by the left-lateral Motagua fault whose rupture was
observed on the surface for a distance of over 230 km [23].
Figure 12.2a shows the recent seismic activity along the PMCHFS associated with
earthquakes of magnitudes over 4. The relatively low seismicity coincides with the
eastwest extension of the Polochic, Motagua, Chamalecn and Swan faults. The most
remarkably clustering of seismicity occurs at the landward end of the Gulf of
Honduras. The epicenters within this cluster belong to earthquakes that took place in
January 2000. Some closely related fault-plane solutions satisfy the data (Fig. 12.2b).
The majority of PMCHFS fault-plane solutions are pure strike-slip in type and have a
pressure axis trending 2560 NE (Fig. 12.4b). This is quite reasonable because the
Caribbean plate moves eastward, instead of northeast as the Cocos plate does.
12.3.3 The Panama fracture zone

The Panama fracture zone (PFZ), a dextral NS striking oceanic transform fault zone,
constitutes the plate boundary between the Cocos and Nazca plates (Fig. 12.1a). This
fracture zone is located between 82 and 83 W and extends from near the equator up
to 6 N, where it splits into a series of parallel northwest trending dextral strike-slip
faults [42, 43]. Around 7.3 N these faults meet the South Panama deformed belt
(SPDB), where they subduct obliquely at a very shallow, less than 20 angle [44, 45].
The PFZ region has high seismic activity (Fig. 12.2a) and has experienced large
(MS > 7.0) events during this century, in 1934 and 1962 (N 20 and 29, Fig. 12.1b) The
July 18, 1934 (MS 7.5, N 20 Fig. 12.1b) earthquake, with epicenter in the Gulf of
Chiriqui, is the largest Panamanian event recorded instrumentally. Important activity
near the PFZ occurred between December 2003 and February 2004 when three MW > 5
earthquakes and many aftershocks caused destruction and fear along the border of
Costa Rica and Panama. These events occurred at shallow depths and their epicenters
were located in the Caribbean plate along northsouth strike-slip faulting.
Fault-plane solutions reveal strike-slip movement northward (right lateral) but there
is not a clear sense of the cause of this activity. The nodal planes coincide with the
strike of both the PFZ and the northsouth faulting in the Caribbean plate. The
earthquakes depths are shallow and could be associated with shallow faulting or with
the subducted fractures of the PFZ. Further study is required to determine the origin of
this activity.
Focal mechanisms along the PFZ, off shore, are almost pure strike-slip (Fig. 12.2b)
and the direction of the pressure axis is 45 NE (Fig. 12.4c).
12.3.4 Caribbean-Nazca boundary

The Caribbean-Nazca plate boundary extends south of the isthmus of Panama
bordering its Pacific continental margin (Fig. 12.1a). Here the Nazca plate aseismically
converges in an oblique sense (N71 E) and with a very shallow dip angle below the
Panama block [4447]. This tectonic interpretation, based on geological and
geophysical data, can explain the Holocene active volcanism at the Bar and La
Yeguada volcanic complexes in western Panama [48] and is supported by recent
seismic monitoring studies [49, 50].
331
12.3.5 Caribbean-South American plate boundary

The eastern portion of Panama and northwestern portion of Colombia (Fig. 12.1a)
comprise a diffuse zone (the Easter Panama deformed belt) of the Caribbean-South
American plate boundary. This complex zone extends between the NPDB and the
Colombia-Ecuador trench. In this zone, EW compression has caused a diffuse and
complex faulting along NWSE trending strike-slip faults [51, 42]. The estimated
average convergence rate between the Panama block and the North Andean block is 25
mm/yr [52]. This region is considered an allochthonous terrane attached to the North
Andean block [53], and the fault zone is considered the tectonic boundary between the
aforementioned blocks [54]. Convergence between these two blocks is in the EW
direction and ranges between 10 and 20 mm/yr [55]. Large shallow events (MS > 7.0)
have occurred in this region in the past [56].
12.4
INTRA-PLATE TECTONICS
12.4.1 The Central American volcanic front

In Central America, the population, economic activities, and facilities are concentrated,
along the volcanic front, where the vulnerability to seismic hazard is the highest of the
region. The largest cities of the region are located along this volcanic axis, many of
them in valleys covered by volcanic deposits and cut by faults. In fact faults cross the
capital cities of San Salvador, Managua, and San Jos. The faults of the volcanic front
strike in three directions (NESW, NWSE, and NS); they are not too long (NP
but are active as has been demonstrated by the occurrence of historic and recent
earthquakes.
Most destructive earthquakes of Central America are located along the volcanic
axis and are crustal earthquakes of moderate magnitude (6.5) generated by shallow
faulting [6, 11, 40]. In spite of their relatively low magnitude they may be disastrous
because they occur at shallow depths and near population centers. While subduction
earthquakes may be larger than the crustal earthquakes of the volcanic axis, they are
generally not extremely catastrophic because they occur at greater depth and within
coastal areas, far from the big cities.
Table 12.2. The most destructives earthquakes in Central America.
No.
Date
1
2
3
4
5
6
1910 05 04
1972 12 23
1976 02 04
1986 10 10
2001 01 13
2001 02 13
UT (km) Lat. (N) Long. (W) Country

00 50
06 35
09 01
17 49
17 33
14 22
09.8
12.4
15.2
13.7
12.9
13.9
84.0
86.1
89.2
89.2
88.8
88.7
Costa Rica
Nicaragua
Guatemala
El Salvador
El Salvador
El Salvador
D(km)
MS
Deaths
9
<8
S
10
60
9.5
6.4
6.3
7.6
5.4
7.8
6.5
600
11000
22870
1500
844
315
S: Shallow, h: hour, m: minutes, Lat: Latitude, Long: Longitude, D: Depth.
The most destructive crustal events within Central America are shown in Table 12.2
and Figure 12.1b. The MS 6.4 Cartago earthquake killed at least 600 people. The
Managua event was generated along a strike-slip fault that crosses the city in north
south direction. Its motion in 1972 caused a MS 6.3 earthquake and 11,000 casualties.
More interesting is the San Salvador earthquake whose magnitude was 5.4, yet the
Figure 12.6. (a) Uplift of coastal areas in the Caribbean side of Costa Rica after the Limn
earthquake in 1991: The maximum uplift was almost 2 m in the affected area; The sea
bottom was exposed for several km (the photo shows the community of Cahuita; courtesy of
P. Denyer); (b) Northwest trench perpendicular to the Navarro fault, Costa Rica this is an
efficient but expensive way to examine the fault traces (photo: courtesy of G.E. Alvarado);
(c) Example of a Holocene fault in a trench along the Aguacaliente fault (photo: courtesy
G.E. Alvarado).
death toll 1500, confirming that even smaller events can be destructive when they take
place near the cities. Most of the Central American countries have been struck by
small, but destructive crustal earthquakes that have killed hundreds and even thousands
of people (Table 12.2). The only countries that have not been hit by catastrophic
earthquakes are Belize, Honduras and Panama. These countries have not had seismic
disasters because Belize and Honduras have a remarkably low seismicity and Panama
has no shallow seismic sources near populated areas. Guatemala has the largest record
of casualties due to earthquakes and El Salvador is the country most affected physically
by earthquakes in the last 20 years. Note that almost all events in Table 12.2 have a
magnitude lower than 7 and even lower than 6 as in event 4. This fact should be
seriously considered by seismologists and authorities in charge of the mitigating
seismological disasters. In our opinion, more attention should be paid to crustal
earthquakes and less time and resources should be devoted to subduction earthquakes
which could be less damaging as has been demonstrated in this chapter.
12.4.2 Epirogenic uplifts

Epirogenic uplifts of small or large areas are another feature of great importance and
interest in noetectonic analysis. They are good indicators of the active stress that
333
deform the Earths crust. There probably are small uplifts along the entire Pacific coast
of Central America due to the subduction of the Cocos plate but they are not clearly
evident. More evident and well-known uplifts can be found in northern Central
America, in the Talamanca cordillera, Costa Rica, and along the Caribbean coast of
Costa Rica and Panama.
The area comprising the northern portions of Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua
has been considered an uplifted plateau, developed in response to mantle upwelling
following the break-off and sinking of the slab [57]. Evidence for uplift comes from a
network of superimposed low-gradient and high sinuosity rivers that cut the
metamorphic and sedimentary bedrock. Based on ages of the youngest rocks cut by the
rivers, researchers [57] conclude that this uplift began during the latest Miocene.
The Talamanca cordillera is a Miocene igneous and sedimentary complex. In
response to the arrival of the Cocos ridge at the MAT about 5 Ma ago, the angle of the
subduction began to decrease, generating a rapid uplift that is currently expressed in the
3819 m elevation of Chirrip, the highest peak in Central America [58]. Uplifted
marine terraces in southern Costa Rica are further evidence of tectonic activity [58] that
probably continues to elevate the coast and the range.
Another conspicuous uplift is related to recent tectonism on the Caribbean coast of
Costa Rica, specifically to the Limn earthquake in 1991 that occurred in a reverse
fault whose trace cut the Caribbean seafloor in front of the Costa Rican coast. This
fault dips southwest and extends under the continent. During the earthquake, the
coastal block moved upward along the fault plane, elevating the coastline and exposing
the sea floor (Fig. 12.6a) for almost 100 km in Costa Rica. The maximum uplift near
the coast was 1.85 m near Limn [60]. Another interesting finding is that the Caribbean
coast of Costa Rica has been uplifted by reverse displacements in faults in historic
times. Thus, new uplifts can be expected in the future.
12.4.3 Nicaraguan depression

The Nicaraguan depression is an elongated graben subparallel to the Pacific coast and
the trend of the MAT. It extends from the Gulf of Fonseca to the low land north of
Costa Rica (Fig. 12.1a). This feature contains the Managua and Nicaragua lakes, large
faults that run parallel to the depression and smaller faults that strike perpendicular to it
[36].
The southwestern margin of the depression is delineated by a high-angle fault that
has a 70 km-long scarp. Continuous normal faulting, from the Gulf of Fonseca to the
southeastern extreme of Nicaragua, marks the northeastern boundary of the depression.
Strike-slip faults intersecting the depression at high angles are also present, the most
important of these is the Tizcapa fault, responsible for the disastrous Managua
earthquake of 1972.
The earthquakes are spread out over the entire depression from the Gulf of Fonseca
to northwest Costa Rica. The level of seismicity is relatively low and characterized by
both swarms and main-shock aftershocks sequences. Destructive earthquakes also
occur within this zone; the 1972 Managua event killed thousands of people. Seismicity
is higher in the west end of the depression, lower in the east, and is concentrated
spatially into zones that have been active in recent years.
In January 2002, a seismic sequence occurred in northwest Costa Rica, near the
southeast edge of the Nicaraguan depression. The largest event (MC 4.2) was both
preceded and followed by events with magnitudes larger than 3.0. The sequence
continued for about 2 months and produced hundreds of aftershocks before subsiding
in activity. These earthquakes were associated with slip along the Cao Negro fault,
which is a northeast-dipping fault associated with the Nicaraguan depression [61]. This
2002 sequence represents the most recent significant seismic activity within the
depression.
12.4.4 Hess escarpment

The Hess escarpment is a prominent bathymetric within the Caribbean plate. It extends
for more than 1000 km from the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua to southern Cuba (Fig.
12.1a). Toward the continent, the escarpment ends at the low terrains of Nicaraguas
Caribbean coast that are considered part of the Nicaraguan depression. The first
movements on the Hess escarpment appear to be pre-Cenozoic, but there are nearby
Neogene faults probably associated with the escarpment [36].
The Hess escarpment has been seismically quiet compared to other tectonic features
within Central America and surroundings. However, moderate activity has occurred
near Nicaragua, just in the Hess escarpment suggesting a possible association between
the seismic activity and the escarpment [12]. Figure 12.2a shows a northeast-trending
zone of earthquakes at the southwest section of the escarpment. The seismicity within
the trend is relatively diffuse and scattered, showing no tight clustering except seaward
of the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica, but that cluster is not considered part of the Hess
escarpment seismicity. Unfortunately, there are not enough fault-plane solutions for
earthquakes of this group and therefore, it is difficult to know the stress pattern and the
dominant slip on the earthquake-generating faults (Fig. 12.2b).
12.4.5 Central Costa Rica

The seismic activity of central Costa Rica (Fig. 12.1a) is high in comparison to the
continental seismic zones of Central America. In this region about a thousand
earthquakes a year are being recorded, most of them with magnitude less than 5,
although exceptionally large earthquakes have been produced in there. The area spans a
high concentration of recent subduction and crustal seismicity (Fig. 12.7). In map view,
the strongest recent activity in the area coincides with a diffuse faulted zone rather than
with a single longitudinal structure. Fernndez [62] noted that this seismicity forms a
large cluster composed of smaller clusters. Since several of these clusters occur at
depths greater than 30 km, it is possible that this seismicity is associated with
subducting seamounts.
In the vicinity of this anomalous Central Costa Rica there are two sections that are
relatively quiet compared to Central Costa Rica. One such section coincides with
Guanacaste, a seismic zone where a seismic gap has been proposed [11], but moderate
activity has in fact occurred in this area. The recent seismic quiescence may be due to
the release of accumulated tectonic stress by the large 1950 event (N 26, Fig. 12.1b);
and also to the low dip angle of the subducting slab in western Costa Rica, where little
tectonic stress is generated. The second section of presently low seismicity near Central
Costa Rica is a rectangular continental area between Central and south Costa Rica. The
area without earthquakes is aligned with a subducting slab without seamounts,
suggesting a correlation between the subducting bathymetry and the generation of
335
earthquakes. Where seamounts are absent, apparently the continental area experiences
lower stress and consequently the seismicity is low.
Epicenter locations have been related to known tectonic features by plotting the
earthquakes on an overlay of the mapped structural traces in the studied area [60, 61].
Despite the considerable concentration of earthquakes, epicenters fail to delineate any
single large fault plane. Fault plane solutions for shallow-depth events include reverse,
strike-slip and normal faulting mechanisms, indicating complex deformation within the
area and considerable variation in the sense of motion [63]. This diversity probably
reflects movements on preexisting planes of weakness, such as recent faults, that are
geometrically favorable for slip but not necessarily aligned with the planes of
maximum shear. Trends of the axis of pressure, P, in the focal mechanism solutions
indicate that the stress distribution in the region is greatly influenced by the collision of
Cocos and Caribbean plates, caused by northeastern relative movement of the Cocos
plate [63].
12.4.6 North Panama deformed belt

The North Panama deformed belt (NPDB) extends offshore with an arcuate shape from
the Panama-Colombia border northwestward to the shore northwest of Puerto Limn in
Costa Rica (Fig. 12.1a). This overthrust boundary, which originates from convergence
between the Caribbean plate and the Panama block is not a mature subduction zone.
Deformation of the Panama block has caused this wide belt of folds and thrusts north of
Panama, which are not associated with a Benioff zone or an active volcanic arc [42,
45]. This deformed belt can be explained by movement of blocks in the Caribbean plate
[42, 45]. Recent recorded seismicity in north central Panama, associated with the
convergence between the Caribbean plate and the Panama block, shows that events in
this region can reach depths of up to 70 km.
In the northwestern part of the NPDB, along the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica and
western Panama, seismicity has been very low during the instrumental period (Fig.
12.2a), but a large earthquake occurred in 1991 [43]. This earthquake (N 37, Fig.
12.1b) was shallow (23.5 km [14]) and caused by thrust faulting on a 40 80 km fault
dipping landward. An uplift that affected coastal segments of Costa Rica and Panama
occurred along 70 km of the coastline. Older uplifted shorelines suggest a recurrence
interval of 2001100 years between similar events [64].
In the central segment of the NPDB, between 80 and 81.5 W no major seismic
event has occurred in the last 500 years, and this zone presently shows little seismic
activity [65]. The eastern segment of the NPDB is the source zone of the largest
historical earthquake ever recorded on the Caribbean coast of Central America, a MS
7.9 event on September 7, 1882 (Fig. 12.1b), with epicenter 150200 km northeast of
Panama city [66].
Focal mechanisms in this region are predominantly thrust type, some with strikeslip components (Fig. 12.2b). The rose diagram of the pressure axis for some recent
earthquakes shows a 2530 northeast compression, similar to the Cocos-Caribbean
margin (Fig. 12.4). Normal faulting is more common in the eastern segment of the
NPDB [36], but there are few focal mechanisms available to characterize that area.
Southwestward convergence between the Caribbean plate and the Panama block has
been determined by [52] as 7 2 mm/yr.
A break in the Central American volcanic chain between Costa Rica and western
Figure 12.7. Seismicity of Costa Rica during the period 19842003. Small clusters within a
larger cluster confirm that central Costa Rica is very active seismic zone. Data from Red
Sismolgica Nacional (RSN: ICE-UCR) (National Seismic Network).
Panama is associated with high (approximately 4000 m) mountains and an absence of

seismicity deeper than approximately 70 km. These features indicate that deformation
is accommodated predominantly by shortening and uplift. A SW-dipping zone beneath
the Caribbean coast (identified from relocated hypocenters) may imply that the
Caribbean plate is underthrusting the Panama block [42]. The terminus of the North
Panama deformed belt in the west is still diffuse and controversial.
12.4.7 Azuero-Son fault zone

In south-central Panama lie the peninsulas of Azuero and Son, where there are a series
of active parallel left lateral strike-slip faults. In the northern part of the Azuero
peninsula there is also an inverse, north dipping EW trending fault.
A left lateral transform fault that spans the gap between the SPDB and the northern
portion of the Colombia subduction zone lies eastsoutheast of the Azuero peninsula
and south of the Gulf of Panama [67]. Between 7850 and 8030 this fault bends
landward and continues onshore with a NW strike as the wide Azuero-Son fault zone.
The Azuero region was shaken by a strong event in 1943 (N 24, Fig. 12.1b) [68].
Between the SPDB to the north and the Regina rift to the south (Fig. 12.1a) of
337
Coiba island, lies a region of very diffuse seismicity. There is, however, a distinct band
of epicenters that follows the EW trend of the Regina rift. A December 13, 1979 (MS
5.5) event located on the rift crest (5.55 N, 80.48 W) showed a left lateral strike-slip
motion [69]. Three similar focal mechanism solutions were recently reported [13].
While these observations suggest that the zone between the Regina rift and the SPDB
may be a micropolate. Recent GPS observations [52] suggest that the velocity of the
Nazca plate relative to the Panama block is consistent with left lateral slip on a fault
south of the Gulf of Panama and thus do not require the existence of a microplate on
the northern part of the Nazca plate.
12.4.8 Paleoseismology
Paleoseismology studies are a valuable resource to investigate the historical activity of
a fault. The excavation of trenches is an excellent way to find the intersection of the
faults and the surface and the distance between the faults and the structures and the
infrastructure. Then, a trench could be the best option to avoid constructing on the fault
traces and therefore, trench excavations should be carried out on all those faults that
could be located near the cities and planned structures such as roads, bridges, buildings,
etc. Unfortunately, these surveys are expensive and neither the investigators nor the
investors are willing to do this work.
In Central America, trench excavations across the Navarro, Aguacaliente, Orosi,
Longitudinal, Canoas and Aeropuerto faults (Fig. 12.1b, Table 12.3) have been
conducted in order to date the most recent ruptures and to identify periods of
dormancy. Soil development along faulted surfaces and scarp morphometry was used
to determine the relative deformation rates across the segments.
Table 12.3. Faults with paleoseismic studies in Central America.
Name
Country
Orosi
Navarro
Aguacaliente
Longitudinal
Canoas
Aeropuerto
Costa Rica
Costa Rica
Costa Rica
Costa Rica
Costa Rica
Nicaragua
Length (km)
Trenches
Fault type
14
50
28
167
15
<15
1
1
2
2
3
3
Normal
Strike-slip
Strike-slip
Reverse
Strike-slip
Oblique
A 50 m long, 3.5 m-deep trench was excaved in 1994 across Navarro and Aguacaliente
faults in order to intersect its trace (Figs. 12.6b and 12.6c). This trench shows evidence
of faulting within the unconsolidated sediment section, where sediment deformation
features are present. These features include lineaments such as small strike-slip and
reverse faults, along fault line locations mapped during field studies. Results suggest
that faulting has occurred during the Holocene, but movement is likely disseminated
over a broad zone of 5PLQVWHDGRIEHLQJFRQFHQWUDWHGDORQJDQ\VLQJOHIDXOWSODQH
The displacements suggest that at least two important events of reactivation occurred
along Navarro fault, but they could not be dated [70].
The Aguacaliente fault, located near the Central valley of Costa Rica, is a 28 kmlong fault responsible for the 1910 MS 6.3 Cartago earthquake. Two trenches were
excavated across its trace in the early 1990s to determine the fault type and its seismic
potential (Fig. 12.6c). One trench intersected a trace that offset the soil horizon by
approximately 3035 cm [71]. The apparent displacement was normal and a dated
carbonized log suggested that the last movement on this fault occurred less than 3700
years ago. The second trench did not intersect the fault trace. At the same time as
trench excavation at the Aguacaliente fault, another trench was dug across the Orosi
fault in Cartago, Costa Rica. The Orosi is a 14 km-long normal fault responsible for
present-day microseismicity. The best finding in this trench was a set of fractures
cutting all the soil units and suggesting normal dip slip, down to the east. The fractures
coincide with the steepened facet of the break in slope on the colluvial fan [71].
The Canoas and Longitudinal faults, located in southern Costa Rica, also have
paleoseismic surveys [73] that confirm their activity in the last 10,000 years. Studies in
three trenches indicate that the Canoas faults cut an alluvial fan and offset it by 1.2 km.
At least two important seismic events might have occurred on this fault in the last
centuries. The Longitudinal fault was observed at two trenches where there is evidence
of a large earthquake in the last centuries. These results confirm that both are active
faults.
At the Aeropuerto fault, one of the multiple faults that cross Managua, the capital of
Nicaragua, three trenches were excavated to determine its last seismic events and slip
rates [73]. The results indicate that the most recent earthquake in this feature occurred
sometime between the period AD 16501810. The vertical slip rate varies in the range
0.30.9 mm/yr and the horizontal one could be 5 mm/yr, however, this magnitud could
not be calculated [72].
12.4.9 Segmentation of Cocos plate

Previous works, based on morphology, volcanic activity and petrographic differences
between volcanic chains and physical offsets in linearity of the volcanic arcs [74],
hypocenters and changes in geometry [75], and normal faulting offshore [76] have
postulated that the subducting Cocos plate has lateral discontinuities that divided it into
segments. The segment boundaries have been studied in the last years to determine the
origin and find connections between segmentation and geologic and tectonic activity.
One of the best-studied discontinuity is that located off the Gulf of Nicoya in Costa
Rica, which is considered by Hey [77] as a rough-smooth boundary (RSB) that marks
the limit between the Cocos lithosphere from the East Pacific rise and that created at
the Galapgos rift. Protti et al. [21] found evidence of segmentation along the RSB
under the Costa Rican territory and proposed the Quesada Sharp Contortion as the
boundary that separates blocks of different age and bathymetry. The Eastern block is
warmer, younger and rougher than the western one. Von Huene et al. [78] suggested
several segment boundaries in the Cocos plate off Costa Rica, including the RSB. Von
Huene and Ranero [79] pointed out that large embayments in the slope reflect the
segmentation of the oceanic plate but the segment boundaries are commonly diffuse.
Regarding the difference in regional trends in Central American arc lavas, Rupke et al.
[80] stated that it is caused by a transition from deeply faulted serpentinized lithosphere
steeply subducting beneath Nicaragua to a less deeply faulted lithosphere subducting
less steeply beneath Costa Rica.
In spite of the evidence of the Cocos plate fragmentation, the distribution of
earthquakes and the compressive stress show continuity in the trench-arc space (TAS)
along MAT. For instance, the reverse fault-plane solutions are well distributed from
Guatemala to Panama along MAT. Tensional earthquakes occur in TAS sometimes
occasionally, but strike-slip events that should occur along the boundaries of the
339
proposed segments almost never take place there. This fact made it necessary to
investigate in more detail the geology and seismicity of TAS to find more evidence of
the proposed segmentation.
12.5
CONCLUSIONS
Long-term observations and historical evidence reveal a high earthquake hazard for
Central America, but so far, none of the earthquakes identified on land or offshore has
exceeded magnitude MS 7.9 in size. One implication of the largest historical events is
that M > 7.5 earthquakes with > 200 km long ruptures could rupture through the seismic
zones of Central America.
Earthquakes have affected virtually all sectors of the community, but the poor
living in low-quality buildings, have suffered the greatest number of deaths, injuries
and loss of property. Damage to man-made structures and reconstruction costs have
had a great impact on development.
The Central American subduction zone releases most of the seismic energy in the
region. Earthquakes associated with this subduction zone include bending moment
normal fault events near and seaward of the trench, interplate earthquakes, intraplate
slab events with a maximum depth of 200 km and earthquakes within the upper plate
between the seismic accretionary wedge and the volcanic area. Earthquakes are
recorded in the subducted slab to a depth of 200 km from Guatemala to Central Costa
Rica, but to only 70 km depth at the southern terminus of the MAT and the Central
Panama region. Seismicity and fault plane solutions show a continuous slab going
down under the Caribbean plate.
Intraplate seismicity confirms high activity in central Costa Rica and a lower rate of
earthquakes in the Nicaraguan depression, North Panama deformed belt, PolochicMotagua-Chamalecn fault system, and the Hess escarpment. The activity in central
Costa Rica occurs in association with subducting seamounts (see Chapter 9), therefore,
the high seismicity may be caused by the continuing collision of the seamounts against
the Caribbean plate. The intraplate deformation is caused by high stresses transmitted
from the collision zone.
For decades a significant seismic quiescence was observed within the Hess
escarpment. In recent years, however, there is an increase in activity along that
structure. This activity could represent tectonic precursors causally related to a future
main shock, or the normal background level of seismicity now detected by CASC.
Fault-plane solutions from the Central American subduction zone are dominated by
low angle thrust events with the axes of pressure trending 2530 NE. Neither the
seismicity nor the focal mechanisms clearly show segmentation of the subducting plate.
At the Panama fracture zone, Polochic-Motagua-Swan fault system and the western
end of the North Panama deformed belt, the axis of pressure strikes 45 northeast.
Focal mechanisms for events within the Nicaraguan depression suggest left-lateral
strike-slip motion along northnorthwest trending faults. This result shows that the
depression lies in a local northwestsoutheast extensional regimen with the maximum
compressive stress directed northnorthwest.
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Chapter 13
Stratigraphy and geologic history
GUILLERMO E. ALVARADO, CARLOS DENGO, UWE MARTENS,
JOCHEN BUNDSCHUH, TERESITA AGUILAR AND SAMUEL B. BONIS
We have shown that as far back as Cretaceous
time there is evidence of nuclear rocks [in Central
America], and that there was a striking
dissimilarity in the sediments and life of the
adjacent oceans to that existing to-day [sic.].
R.T. Hill: The Geological History of the Isthmus of
Panama and Portions of Costa Rica, 1898.
13.1
INTRODUCTION
Central America has a complex geology related to five plates (North America,
Caribbean, Cocos, Nazca, and South America), several blocks (Maya, Chortis,
Chorotega, Choc), and an unknown number of terranes (see Chapters 8 and 11). The
southern part of Central America exhibits stratigraphic and structural features very
different from those found in northern Central America, but in some aspects similar to
the north part of South America. These contrasting differences were first noticed by
early investigators (see [1, 2] for details), who divided the area into two distinct
geological provinces: a northern one, comprising Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and
northern Nicaragua; and a southern one, comprising southern Nicaragua, Costa Rica,
and Panama. Schuchert [3] referred to the northern part as Nuclear Central America,
and the southern as the Isthmian Link, which was later termed the Southern Central
America orogen [4, 5]. Northern Central America was later subdivided into the Maya
and Chortis blocks. No rocks of pre-Mesozoic age are known in southern Central
America, in contrast to the Chortis and Maya blocks [6]. The Chortis* block forms the
only PrecambrianPaleozoic continental part of the present-day Caribbean plate and
provides a link between the tectonic history of the Caribbean region and the cordillera
of western North America [7]. Central America contains a large number of sedimentary
basins (see Chapter 30), which are not well defined in terms of size and stratigraphy
(Fig. 13.1). Difficult access has hindered petroleum exploration in many of these
basins.
Stratigraphic columns, correlations, and related tectonic issues for Central America
have been published, by now legendary geologists K. Sapper, R. Weyl, H. Williams, A.
McBirney, and G. Dengo [811]. More local stratigraphic correlations are presented for
north Central America [1215] or south Central America [2, 1618]; by countries
alone: Guatemala [1922], Honduras [2325], Belize [26], El Salvador [27]; Nicaragua
[28], Costa Rica [29, 30], and Panama [31, 32].
_______________________________________________________________
*Mayan name of the Chorti or Chort Amerindian group still living in Guatemala and
Honduras.
346 STRATIGRAPHY AND PALEONTOLOGY
However, most of these studies do not show an integrated stratigraphic model and
the overall picture is clouded by a multitude of formal and informal stratigraphic
names. The local names in individual areas serve for local mapping, but not for
regional correlations, especially between countries. Furthermore, much of the
stratigraphic nomenclature (complex, group, series, formation, member) has been
revised since the initial studies and mapping. Lithostratigraphic units have different
names from one basin to another, or even worse from one country to the other,
although similarities in biofacies, age and/or lithofacies may be present. It is well
known that the sedimentary facies of a basin are largely controlled by the
interrelationship between tectonics, sedimentation rate, relief and dynamics of the
source area, sea-level change, etc. In addition, similar sediment types can occur in
basins of completely different tectonic origin; therefore, regional classification should
proceed based on depositional environments [33].
In the present work, stratigraphic names (from complex to informal units) have
been reduced to the most important. They are written in parenthesis, and include the
country where they are found to make the text fluent and easy to understand. In several
cases, the same stratigraphic unit includes different facies. For example, a unit
composed of parallic or shallow marine facies might change to continental or even
volcanic deposits. In such cases the name of the unit may be cited in two or more
different facies associations.
Most previous studies refer to local sedimentary successions, detailed descriptions
of biogenic and detrital components and diagnostic fossils. The main goal of the
present chapter is to focus on regional, widespread geological events, large-scale
processes and facies associations. The end member differences in the framework of
plate tectonic and sedimentary basins are presented by other authors in this book and
references therein (see Chapters 8, 11 and 30).
In contrast to previous studies, the stratigraphic correlations presented in this paper
are based on chronostratigraphy, regional unconformities, and depositional facies.
Individual basins, sediment sources and local paleoenvironments are in general not
addressed. The lithologic and temporal similarities of some units do not imply aerial
continuity of deposition but similarity of environments of deposition in a specific
period. Results of modern marine geology, sedimentology, volcanology, petrology, and
geochronology studies are discussed in detail (for additional details see Chapters 1423).
Because considerable controversy exists with respect to the nomenclature of
stratigraphic units, a stratigraphic chart based on facies is presented in a chronological
context. For the geologic time scale we used the 1996 and 2004 compilations [34, 35].
Readers wishing to learn more about specific problems, facies or geological periods
may consult the original documents and references cited therein. However, the crucial
problem with these stratigraphic interpretations and regional correlations is the poor
biostratigraphic and isotopic dating of most of the strata and the lack of detailed geological
maps. When the facies units are well constrained, we use the stage range (e.g., Albian
to Campanian), if not we use larger divisions of geologic time scale (e.g., Early
Cretaceous to Late Cretaceous).
We hope that this preliminary framework will make the stratigraphy and geologic
history of Central America more usefull to the next generation of geoscientists in the
new century.
Figure 13.1. (a) Location of sedimentary basins in Central America and major structural elements; (b) Location of Chicxulub crater, and related siliciclastic or
breccia deposits in the Yucatn peninsula.
13.2
CRYSTALLINE BASEMENT, EARLY-SEDIMENTARY AND IGNEOUS

ROCKS (MESOPROTEROZOIC TO PALEOZOIC)
The basement of the northern part of Central America is composed of distinct plutons
and metamorphic rocks representing a wide range of ages. The materials that build up
this basement are continental in nature; this is why this portion of Central America has
been called Nuclear Central America [3, 10, 36]. A coherent description of northern
Central Americas crystalline basement requires the definition of tectonic blocks,
separated by regional fault systems, in which lithology bears some kind of
homogeneity in protolith, metamorphic type, grade or age. Dengo [6] proposed two
tectonic blocks, the Maya and Chortis, separated by the Motagua suture zone (see 13.1).
This is a useful approach that will be followed here in combination with a further
division based on the major fault systems present in northern Central America:
Polochic, Motagua, and Jocotn-Chamelecn (see Chapters 8, 11 and 19).

13.2.1.1 Basement of the Maya block north of the Polochic fault (Silurian and Triassic)
North of the EW trending Polochic fault exposures of basement rocks are found
chiefly in the Cuchumatanes dome of NW Guatemala and the Maya mountains of
Belize, where metamorphic rocks consist of low-grade slate, phyllite, chloritic schist
and metaquartzite [10]. Granites intrude some of the metasediments, generating
minerals characteristic of contact metamorphism such as andalusite [14, 37, 38]. Age
constraints on basement rocks north of the Polochic fault are found mainly in the Maya
mountains. Deformed fossils within the metasediments indicate a Carboniferous
Permian sedimentation age [39, 40]. Radiometric dating of the granites by the K/Ar
method provide mostly Triassic ages, but U/Pb ages in zircon and monazite give older
crystallization ages, as old as Silurian [41]. This age discrepancy is discussed in section
13.2.1.4.
13.2.1.2 Basement of the southern border of the Maya block (Mesoproterozoic, Middle
DevonianPermian)
The area between the Motagua and Polochic faults comprises a succession of pelitic
schists, quartzofeldspathic gneisses, migmatites, amphibolites, local quartzites, and
minor marble and calcsilicate rocks (Fig. 13.2a). These rocks contain mineral
associations ranging from upper-greenschist to amphibolite facies (Chuacs [20, 42,
43]). This medium- to high-grade metamorphism seems to be absent north of the
Polochic fault. Rare eclogitic relicts within gneisses, some of which might have
reached ultra-high-pressure conditions, are also reported [43]. Another widespread
metamorphic unit located between the Motagua and Polochic fault, is composed mainly
of phyllites, pelitic schist, metasandstones, metaconglomerates and local
metacarbonaceous rocks in low greenschist facies. Deformed fossils suggest a
Carboniferous sedimentary age, at least for part of the succession (Salam [42]).
Granitic plutons in this region are conspicuous (Rabinal, Matanzas). They are primarily
associated with low-grade schists (Salam in Central Guatemala). The plutons are
locally strongly deformed and most of the observed contacts with regional
metamorphic rocks are faulted. Three groups of radiometric ages have been obtained
(Chuacs: Grenvillian U/Pb zircon upper intercept ages of about 1.051.10 Ga,
Figure 13.2. (a) Banded gneiss with quartz, feldspar and epidote (light colors) and amphibolite
(dark colors), representing high-strain events (El Chol, Baja Verapaz, Guatemala); (b)
Serpentinized periodotite cut by diabase-amphiobolite dike swam (Sta. Elena peninsula,
Costa Rica); (c) Tectonically tilted, Late Miocene flow-folded rhyolite (Ro Ciruelas in Costa
Rica); (d) Late Pleistocene tephra deposits, illustrating complex volcanic processes: ballistic,
fallout, surge, flow and epiclastic deposits (near Managua, Nicaragua); (e) Non-welded,
Pliocene pumice flow deposits overlain by Early Pleistocene andesite lava flow (near Caas,
Costa Rica); (f) Middle Pleistocene debris flow deposit resulted from the transformation of a
volcanic debris avalanche deposit by the incorporation of water in a fluvial valley (Guacalillo
beach, near Tivives, Costa Rica).
Paleozoic U/Pb zircon lower intercept ages around 345 Ma age, and Late Mesozoic
Paleogene ages mainly by K/Ar and 40Ar/39Ar in micas and amphiboles). There seems
to be agreement favoring the Paleozoic ages as metamorphic [4244]; the Precambrian
ages might be inherited from some Mesoproterozoic source [43].
13.2.1.3 Basement of the northern Chorts block, between the Motagua and the JocotnChamelecn faults (Mesoprotezoic; Late Carboniferous)
Two units constitute the metamorphic basement between the Motagua fault system in
Central Guatemala and the Jocotn-Chamelecn fault system in northern Honduras.
The first are high-grade rocks, mainly constituted of biotitic schists and gneisses
(containing variable amounts of staurolite, garnet and sillimanite), and minor
amphibolites and marbles (Las Ovejas [45]). Deformed interlayered granitic rocks are
common. The second group consists of low-grade metasediments that crop out south of
the Motagua valley. Representative rocks include gray-green phyllite, white-mica,
graphitic and chloritic schist, quartzite and slate (San Diego in Guatemala [45, 46]).
These low-grade metamorphic rocks seem to overlie the higher-grade metamorphic
rocks, but locally the units are separated by faults [14, 45]. The age of the basement in
the aforementioned region is constrained by the few radiometric ages obtained in
deformed granite samples from northern Honduras. A metaigneous rock (QuebradaSeca) has a 310 Ma Rb/Sr whole-rock-isochron age and intrudes amphibolite-facies
metasediments and metavolcanic rocks [47, 48], indicating that the age of high-grade
metamorphism is Late Paleozoic or older. The age of metamorphism of the phyllites
(San Diego) is poorly constrained: it is younger than the high-grade event registered in
the underlying schists (Las Ovejas), and younger than intrusive plutons (Chiquimula in
Guatemala). The phyllites have been correlated with slightly metamorphosed
CarboniferousPermian sedimentites north of the Motagua fault [21, 49], and with
other schists (Cacaguapa in Central Honduras; [15]). Correlation is based mainly on
metamorphic grade, since very little is known about the sedimentary protolith.
13.2.1.4 Basement of the Chorts block, south-central Honduras and northern Nicaragua
(Post-Permian?)
South of the Jocotn-Chamelecn fault system, the basement of the Chorts block is
mainly composed of low-grade metamorphic rocks, chiefly phyllites, quartz-muscovite
schists, metaconglomerate and metabasalts, and by unmetamorphosed granitic rocks
(Cacaguapa in central and south Honduras, and Las Segovias in Nicaragua;
Palacagina in Honduras and Nicaragua [48, 5052]). The metamorphic grade
corresponds to low-greenschist facies [48, 50]; higher-greenschist facies or even
amphibolite facies might have been reached locally [53], probably as inliers of higher
grade in the extensive low-grade rocks [7]. Another interesting feature is the
mylonitization of low-grade metasediments, which possess a strong lineation,
especially in central Honduras. The age of metamorphic rocks south of the JocotnChamelecn fault system is very poorly constrained. A lineated granite within highgrade inliers in central Honduras was dated by the U/Pb method, yielding an 1.0 Ga age
[54]. The intrusive relationship of the granite with adjacent high-grade metamorphic
rocks, suggests that the high-grade event is Mesoproterozoic or older. East of the
Guayape fault, Jurassic sediments grade into metamorphic schist (central-eastern
Honduras [7]), which probably have an unconformable relation with the basement. In
northern Nicaragua the intrusion of the Cretaceous batholith (Dipilto in northern
Nicaragua) indicates a pre-Mesozoic age for the low-grade metamorphic rocks. No

radiometric ages obtained directly in metamorphic rocks from Central Honduras or
Nicaragua has been published. Dengo [55] suggested that they might be the slightly
metamorphosed correlative equivalents of PennsylvanianPermian sedimentary rocks,
which are present further north in Guatemala, and therefore the metamorphic event
would have been post-Permian.

13.2.2.1 Volcaniclastic sequence (CarboniferousPermian)
Carboniferous to Permian sedimentary rocks, which probably unconformably overlie
metamorphic rocks at Maya mountains [39], consist of conglomerate containing granite
and metamorphic cobbles, micaceous sandstones, quartz sandstones, slate clay-shale,
and black shales (brachiopods) interbedded with volcaniclastic layers with volcanic
glass and radiolaria, sandstones and argillaceous beds with fossils (crinoid plates).
These sections include a distinctive sequence of interbedded greenish-gray and light
blue-gray conglomerate and sandstone, rhyolitic lavas, tuffs, and andesitic breccias, up
to 2000 m thick (Cantel, Macal, Chicol, Sacapulas, Santa Rosa in Guatemala;
Macal/Bladen or Santa Rosa in Belize [10, 39, 5659]).
13.2.2.2 Carbonates (Pre-Permian?Middle Permian)
Permian marine carbonates, some with oolitic facies, include gray limestones,
dolomites with subordinate fossiliferous black shale, mudstone and siltstones that have
a maximum thickness up to 1600 m. Highly fossiliferous zones occur, containing
abundant fusulinids (Schwagerina cf. campensis, S. gruperaensis, Parafusulina
australis), corals, brachiopods, gastropods, crinoids, sponges, echinoid spines, bryozoa,
algae, and ammonoid fauna (Tactic, Esperanza, Chchal, Tuiln in Guatemala and
Belize [10, 22, 56, 57]). Most of these rocks appear to have been deposited on a
shallow (< 50 m depth), rapidly subsiding shelf, possibly in backreef environments
[60].
13.2.3 Magmatism
13.2.3.1 Volcanic rocks (CarboniferousEarly Permian)
Interbedded in conglomerates, sandstones and crinoidal limestones (Santa Rosa in
Guatemala) are Early Carboniferous and Late CarboniferousEarly Permian volcanic
rocks. They consist of rhyolite to dacite lavas, pyroclastic and epiclastic rocks; one of
these was dated at 300 Ma (Bladen in Guatemala and Belize [10, 59]).
13.2.4 Geological history: The metamorphic history and beginning of the

sedimentary record
There is no agreement on the nature of the low-grade metasediments in the Polochic
fault region and north of it. They might be low-grade equivalents of Carboniferous
Permian sedimentary rocks [14], forming a continuous succession with the
unmetamorphosed sediments in the adjacent regions and implying a post-Permian age
for the metamorphic event. But some of the metamorphic rocks might have formed
before the Pennsylvanian, therefore, implying the existence of a regional unconformity
between the metamorphic basement and the Paleozoic sediments. A proper explanation
for the relationship between the granites and the metasediments in the Maya mountains
must be found in order to reconcile their Silurian U/Pb crystallization age and their
apparent intrusive character in probable Late-Paleozoic sediments. It is likely that
several generations of granites [61] intruded distinct metamorphic units of various ages
present in the Maya mountains, or simply that the U/Pb age is anomalous and does not
reflect the actual age of crystallization [41].
In the southern part of the Maya block the U/Pb zircon ages of metamorphic rock
are around 1 Ga and 300 Ma (Chapter 19). Numerous K/Ar ages in the 6080 Ma age
range have been also obtained (Chuacs [20, 43, 62]). The significance of each of these
ages is not fully understood.
Very few field studies have been conducted in the eastern area of Honduras and
northern Nicaragua (Terra Incognita by Horne and co-workers [51]), where
widespread exposures of metamorphic rocks occur, including greenschist facies
association of phyllites, schists, and minor quartzite and marble beds [14, 51].
Basement rocks of central and south Honduras and northern Nicaragua are low-grade
phyllites, quartz-white mica schist, chlorite bearing schist and minor marble and
quartzite, all with greenschist facies mineral assemblages. A few reports [7, 51, 53]
suggest the presence of local amphibolite-facies or other high-grade rocks in central
Honduras. Very few geological studies have been undertaken on these rocks, especially
in eastern Honduras. Age is constrained only by one U/Pb zircon age of 1 Ga, the
overlying Mesozoic sedimentary sequence, and by isotopic data on the intrusive
Cretaceous plutons in northern Nicaragua. No valid dates are available for the
sedimentary protoliths and precise metamorphic ages are unknown.
During the PermoCarboniferous some rocks were deposited in deep-sea
environments as turbidites [60, 63]. Marine carbonates appear to have been deposited
on a shallow (< 50 m depth), rapidly subsiding shelf possibly in backreef conditions
[60]. It is postulated that the volcaniclastic Early Carboniferous sequence was
deposited during the Late Paleozoic convergence of North and South America when
the Maya block may have been situated in the northern Gulf of Mexico, and later
emplaced as an accretionary prism of an island arc system [15]. Alternatively, the
Paleozoic acidic volcanics might have formed during a period of crustal extension and
magmatism [61]. The geotectonic context of the Carboniferous volcanic rocks is,
however, still unresolved.
In northern Central America (Guatemala, Belize), thick marine Pennsylvanian and
Permian platform sequences border coeval mobile belts. Tectonogenesis (Appalachian
orogeny, known also as Allegheny orogeny) at the end of the Paleozoic (Late Permian?)
deformed the mobile belts, with deformation extending into the adjacent platforms [1,
64]. This orogeny was accompanied by several granitic intrusions.
During the Late Triassic, an epicontinental siliciclastic basin developed between the
cratonic areas of South and North America as a result of the eastward migration of a
new sea [65]. However, the Late Paleozoic crustal movements resulted in uplift of the
northern part of Central America [10]. The 2000 m of Mid-Jurassic continental
sedimentary rocks filling grabens or trenches (with some marine intervals; El Plan and
Agua Fra in Honduras) can be regarded as the result of extensive tectonic extension
(see Chapter 11).
13.3
PROTO-CARIBBEAN SEA (JURASSICCRETACEOUS)
The term ophiolite, according to the Ophiolite-Manifesto, now largely accepted,

refers to a distinctive assemblage of mafic to ultramafic rocks, from botton to top:
ultramafic complex, gabbroic complex, mafic sheeted dike complex, mafic volcanic
complex and associated rock types, including overlying sedimentary section. However,
an ophiolite may be incomplete, dismembered, or metamorphosed. Although ophiolite
generally is interpreted to be oceanic crust and upper mantle, the use of the term should
be independent of its supposed origin [66].
In the Central American literature, and according to the previous definition, ophiolite
has been commonly used to refer to rocks making up local oceanic basement, including
normal and anomalous oceanic lithosphere, which sequence and origin in most of the
cases is not well established. The sections include anomalous relationships (not the
same as a typical layered structure of the ocean crust), such basalts, diabases and
gabbros intruding radiolarites, and the absence of sheeted dikes, or clear relationships
between the layered mafic rocks and the other sequences. Most of the sequences have a
tectonic contact (tectonic slice, melange, nappe), and/or an intrusive contact
(megaxenoliths, successive intrusions, magmatic breccias), in which the ages of the
radiolarites in several cases are much older than the well-constrained 40Ar/39Ar ages of
the mafic rocks (for details see Chapter 20).
13.3.1 Magmatism
13.3.1.1 Intrusive calc-alkaline rocks (JurassicCretaceous)
A calc-alkaline intrusive complex in the Maya block (granodiorites, granites, quartz
monzonites at Santa Mara intrusive, Guatemala) yields ages of Early and Late
Cretaceous (8574 Ma; [15]). In the Chortis block, a series of granitoid plutons
(biotite-tonalites, granodiorites, muscovite granodiorites, granites, quartz monzonites,
diorites, hornblende-diorites), gabbros, hornblende gabbros, and peridotites
(Chiquimula and Chinautla in Guatemala; Omoa, Mezapa, Tela, San Ignacio in
Honduras; Dipilto, Sums and San Juan del Ro Coco in Nicaragua) yield ages of
AptianAlbian (140107 Ma) to CenomanianCampanian (9972 Ma) [10, 14, 15, 24,
63, 67, 68]. An Early Cretaceous age of Berriasian (140 Ma) calc-alkaline adamelite to
tonalite intrusion with aplites, lamprophyres, pegmatites, and pegmatitic-pneumatolytic
lodes, is reported (Dipilto in Nicaragua), as one of many similar plutons distributed in
an east-northeast trend in northwestern Nicaragua [10, 51].
13.3.1.2 Island arc rocks (Cretaceous)
Basaltic andesite lava flows (Wampu in Honduras), interbedded with redbeds (Valle de
ngeles; [7, 69], define a northeast-trending outcrop belt, dated by K/Ar between 70.4
and 80.7 Ma. Calc-alkaline andesite lavas and dacitic pyroclastic flows up to 1100 m
thick (Manto in Honduras), represent also an Aptian to Albian rift- to arc-related
environment [7].
13.3.1.3 Basic igneous complex (Cretaceous)
Basic igneous complexes (often generalized as ophiolites) consist of basalts (pillow and
massive lavas, dikes, and related breccias and hyaloclastitic products), gabbros,
plagiogranites, and diabases, layered igneous rocks (gabbros, peridotites, pegmatite

gabbros, pyroxenites), which usually are tectonically or intrusively associated with
chert and siliceous limestone. The mafic-ultramafic igneous ophiolite complexes are
dismembered as slides or megablocks of: (1) serpentinized mantle peridotites intruded
by diabase-gabbro-amphibolites, locally with boudins of eclogites, jadeites, and
amphibolites (see 13.3.1.4), (2) layered igneous rocks cut by gabbros-plagiogranites,
diabases and basalts, (3) basalt-diabase-gabbros, (4) radiolarites (see 13.3.2.1) and rare
limestones, and metamorphozed and hydrothermally altered rocks (metagabbros,
metabasalts, phyllites, spillites, etc.). The ophiolitic complexes are mostly of
Cretaceous and pre-Cretaceous age (e.g., Santa Cruz, Baja Verapaz, Motagua, Juan de
Paz, El Tambor and DSDP Leg 84 in Guatemala; Siuna in Nicaragua; Nicoya in Costa
Rica; Son in Panama). While some units are of Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt (MORB)
affinity, others are of Oceanic islnd-arc Basalts (OIB) or seamount character; less
common are those of island-arc affinity ([7, 70, 71]; see Chapter 20). In northern
Nicaragua, there are calc-alkaline andesites, pillow basalts, serpentinites, cumulates,
tuffs and dolerites of Late Creteceous age [68, 72, 73]. Greenschist facies assemblages
in basic igneous complexes found in various places could be slightly metamorphosed
facies of the ultrabasic series (Panama), Siuna igneous complex [15, 72] and Rivas-1
well (all in Nicaragua) that terminated in basaltic rocks [74, 75], or in the Holes 495,
499B, 499C, and 500 (Guatemala), located 22 km seaward of the Middle America
trench [76, 77].
13.3.1.4 Peridotites
Highly deformed tectonic blocks of serpentinized peridotite bodies, containing gabbro
and amphibolite occur along the Cuilco-Chixoy-Polochic and Motagua fault zones in
Central Guatemala, in DSDP Leg 84 drill sites off the Pacific coast of Guatemala, and
in the Santa Elena peninsula in Costa Rica (Fig. 13.2b; [4, 29, 71, 78]). Patches of
mafic and ultramafic rocks are found along shear zones in Nicaragua (Sbalos locality
in the middle course of the San Juan river), and near the Caribbean Nicaragua-Costa
Rica border [79]. These rocks also occur in the Armila river and Azuero in Panama
[80]. The sequence is composed of very coarse-grained peridotite (serpentinized
harzburgite) and rare dunites [81, 82]. Serpentinite bodies and cumulate peridotites
related to oceanic arc complexes are also present at Siuna in Nicaragua and Nancite in
Costa Rica [7, 68, 70, 82].
13.3.1.5 Tholeiitic plagiogranites to gabbros (Cretaceous)
Intrusive rocks (gabbros and plagiogranites yield an 40Ar/39Ar ages of 8783 Ma) are
reported in Costa Rica and are clearly related to the basic igneous complexes [70, 83
85].

13.3.2.1 Radiolarites (JurassicCretaceous)
Carbonate-free, bedded radiolarian cherts with average bed thicknesses between 1 and
10 cm (ribbon cherts) are, rhythmically alternate with millimeter scale layers of
siliceous mudstone and crop out in association with basic igneous complexes. Most of
the radiolarite sections are made up relatively pure siliceous, biogenetic material and
Figure 13.3. (a) Early Cretaceous bedded radiolarites with thermal alteration by Late Cretaceous
diabasic intrusion (Conchal beach, Costa Rica); (b) Succession of well-rounded redbeds;
(Subinal, Guatemala); (c) Continental conglomerate, dominated by dark volcanic and
subvolcanic clast; some granite [g] and serpentine [s] fragments are present (Subinal,
Guatemala); (d) Andesitic conglomerate (debris flow) in an Eocene turbiditic sequence
(Punta Descartes, Costa Rica); (e) Tuffaceous sandstones and breccias (dark color) and tuffs
(light color) from an Early Miocene fluvial system (near Mata de Limn, Costa Rica);
(f) Miocene sandstone with a concretionary Thalassinoides (Punta Judas, Esterillos beach,
Costa Rica); (g) Miocene bedded calcareous sandstones, rich in shells (Herreria, Guatemala).
rare nonsiliceous components. The colors are mostly brownish red, but sections with
strong thermal alteration are characterized by pale colors, or even green or yellow
colors (Figs. 13.3a and 13.4). Lithofacies variations are visibly documented by variable
bed thicknesses, admixtures or intercalations (e.g., Mn laminations or nodules). Their
age is AptianAlbian [86] in Guatemala, Liassic to Santonian in Costa Rica [8789],
and Campanian in Panama [90].
13.3.2.2 Dark gray to reddish clastic sediments (Middle Jurassic)
Middle Jurassic sediments are thin-bedded, dark gray shales, alternating with banded
shales and siltstones, sandstones and poorly bedded sandstones. Some beds are more
quartziferous (including grey to red quartzites and quartz-pebble conglomerates),
fossiliferous, including oyster mounds, and local coal beds, plant-bearing shallow and
brackish water sandstones and shales. Although a broad range of ages are reported, the
data presently available suggest that most, if not all strata (up to 1700 m thick) are of
Middle Jurassic age (Figs. 13.4 and 13.5). The deposition was complex from outershelf
deposits in the lower part to nonmarine floodplain deposits, and shallow-marine
carbonates and rhythmically-bedded siliciclastic sedimentary rocks (El Plan, Plan
Grande or Agua Fra in Honduras; [7, 91]).
13.3.2.3 Continental redbeds (Late JurassicEarly Cretaceous)
Red, terrigenous, conglomeratic (arkosic) sandstone, siltstone and shale, with a
maximum thickness of 1300 m, are reported in northern Central America (Todos
Santos in Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador and Nicaragua; Ilama in Honduras;
Metapn in El Salvador; Fig. 13.4). Most of the rocks are red-brown to tan, finegrained, poorly-sorted, submature (graywacke or subgraywacke), bedded, partly
laminated and cross-bedded sandstone and red-brown, argillaceous, flaggy siltstone and
rare conglomerates. The predominant clasts are quartz, red and green schist, red-brown
siltstone, gray limestone and dolomite, gray and green chert (from granule to cobble
size), with variable amounts of volcanic detritus and poorly described volcanic rocks
[10, 22, 27, 49, 56, 92]. The red color is due to a small percentage of hematite cement;
calcite is also a common cementing material. Due to the paucity of fossils in the lower
redbed portion (continental), some uncertainty exists as to its exact age, which has been
dated from Late Triassic (?) to Late Jurassic (e.g., Idoceras sp., Waagenia sp., Halobia
sp., Anchispirocyclina henbesti [22]), while the upper part appears to be Early
Cretaceous [10]. The depositional environment was fluvial and pediment, also
lacustrine and paludal or paralic, with marginal marine interfingering [7, 22]. Locally, a
230 m thick, Early Cretaceous clast-supported conglomerate and sandstone unit
(Tepemechin in Honduras) unconformably overlie the Middle Jurassic sedimentary
rocks (Agua Fra in Honduras). It forms the base of the overlying Cretaceous carbonate
stratigraphy (Yojoa: Cantarranas and Atima in Honduras [7, 93]). Discontinuously
intercalated shallow marine carbonate strata of CampanianCenomanian age (Esquias,
Guare, Jaitique and Gualaco in Honduras) have been used as a datum to separate the
main redbeds (Lower Valle de ngeles, see 13.4.2.1 [7, 25, 94]; also see 13.6.2.1).
13.3.2.4 Epineritic to littoral marine (Late JurassicEarly Cretaceous)
This interval consists of lenticular shallow marine shales, limestone, siltstones, and
sandstones 400 m thick (San Ricardo in Guatemala). Foraminifera suggest Lower
Figure 13.4. Stratigraphic correlation of Central America from Early Jurassic to Holocene. The Pleistocene/Holocene is not at the same time scale.
KimmeridgianLower Valanginian (e.g., Iberina lussitanica) to Late Jurassic (e.g.,

Aulotortus sp.) ages. An alga considered to be Late Jurassic or Early Cretaceous (e.g.,
Cayeuxia) age is also found. The depositional environment is marginal marine: turbid
to clear-water epineritic and littoral marine [22].
13.3.2.5 Pelagic limestones (BerriasianValanginian, AptianAlbian)
Pelagic limestones and limestones breccias of BerriasianValanginian and Aptian
Albian ages are thrust onto Late Cretaceous dolomites and shales in southern Belize
[95].
13.3.2.6 Marine volcaniclastic and black shale deposits (Albian to Campanian)
Marine, volcaniclastic rocks, comprised of clay-rich radiolarite (normally poorly
preserved radiolaria), siliceous limestone, radiolarian claystone, argillites, black shale
(including metashales), volcanic (phenotrachyte/latite/rhyodacitic volcaniclastic
deposits), wackes (occasional plagioclase-rich greywakes intervals), cherts, volcanic
sandstones and breccias, and tuffaceous hemipelagic rocks range from Albian to
Campanian age (Figs. 13.4 and 13.5). Crystal fragments of zoned plagioclase, Kfeldspar, quartz, clinopyroxene and variable amounts of amphibole and biotite, among
pumice and zeolitized glass, indicate an important pyroclastic contribution from a nonMORB, possibly a primitive island arc source [7, 86, 96]. Sedimentation in fluvial to
shorefacies environments resulted in significant erosion of pre-existing rift- and arcrelated rocks (e.g., Manto and Wampu, among several other in Honduras). Volcanoturbidites, and fallout and pyroclastic flows deposits in a marine environment, represent
distal facies of volcanic events (Loma Chumico and Berrugate in Costa Rica [96, 97]),
some obducted as a sedimentary melange [86]. A loose specimen of radiolaria fauna
yielded a possible age of AptianAlbian (Tzumuy in Guatemala [86]). Lower
Cenomanian age (Jalomax in Guatemala) is based on microfossils (Hedbergella
delrioensis, H. planispira, Globigerinelloides sp., and Rotalispora evoluta). Boueina
hochstetteri and Parachaetetes texana indicate of Upper Albian and Lower Cretaceous
ages, respectively (Tayaco in Honduras [7]). Late Cenomanian foraminifera
(Rotalipora appenninica) occur in Nicaragua (1826 m deep El Ostional-1 [75, 98]), and
on Neokentroceras sp., an Albian ammonite occurs in Costa Rica (Loma Chumico, [96,
97, 99]). Cenomanian to Campanian radiolarian occurs in Costa Rica (Loma Chumico
and Berrugate), intruded by basic dikes [100], and possibly related to the preCampanian basic igneous complex.
13.3.2.7 The great reef/evaporitic event (AptianConiacian)
The Cretaceous reef-evaporitic event includes thick- or massive-bedded to wellbedded, light to dark gray limestone (micrite to biomicrite) with interlayers of silt and
bands of flint, calcareous conglomerates, dolomitic limestones, fossiliferous shales and
nodular limestones, calcarenites and calcilutites, with massive-bedded limestone
breccia, anhydrites with lesser amounts of gypsum and pumiceous marly limestone, up
to 5400 m thick. The anhydrites are up to 1000 m thick in the Petn basin (Ixcoy,
Cobn, Campur in Guatemala; Yojoa in Guatemala and Honduras; Esquas or Jaitique
in Honduras; Cobn in El Salvador and Belize; Fig. 13.4). They represent a great reefevaporitic event in north Central America. Foraminifera identified include Albian
(Orbitolina texana; [9]), Late AptianLate Albian (Orbitolina subconcava; [94]);
Figure 13.5. Summary of stratigraphic sections of sedimentary basins in Costa Rica. AD represent the four sratigraphic megasequences.
Modified after [150, 151].
359
CenomanianTuronian (Nummoloculina, Vertebralina [101]). A rudistid (Mexicaprina

sp.) is of Late Albian age [94], and Cenomanian age is based on calcareous Dasyclad
alga (Dissocladella undulate). More thinly- and smoothly-bedded limestones, shale,
siltstone and limestone breccia (lithiclast-rudist lime grainstone or packstone and
tectonic breccias), and conglomerate (Santonian or Coniacian to Early Campanian,
Campur) are also part of the thick Cretaceous carbonate blanket of the Yucatn
platform. The facies suggest inter- to peri-reef shallow carbonate shelf lagoon, shelf
margin buildups, broken by small, rudist-dominated and skeletal sand shoals (Atima in
Honduras; [15, 19, 22, 91]). In general, the facies and the occurrence of diagnostic
algae indicate a shallowing upward environment from deeper marine shelf to shallow
marine shelf lagoon [7]. Locally, clastic, thin fluvial deposits, calcareous schist,
intercalated massive limestones (NeocomianLower Aptian) with a terrigenous
component are interpreted as backreef facies (Cantarranas in Honduras) or as vestiges
of a coastal sabkha type environment (Cobn-B [101]). Some hypersaline lagoonal
deposits also occur. Thin-bedded bituminous limestones (Cenomanian; up to 650 m
thick) are interpreted as pelagic facies from the forereef (Guare and Jaitique in
Honduras [10, 23]).
13.3.3 Geological history: The Proto-Caribbean Sea and the Caribbean large
igneous province (CLIP)
Rifting occurred during the separation of North and South America and the opening of
the Gulf of Mexico accommodated Late Jurassic mixed redbed sand/volcanic sequence,
deposited in nonmarine, intermontane grabens. These deposits characterize appreciable
parts of Guatemala and Honduras, and perhaps Nicaragua. The similarity in lithology
and age of the continental redbeds implies similarity of depositional environments [1,
102, 103] associated with Late Jurassic orogenesis [10], called Nevadan orogeny.
The early Caribbean basin began as a narrow seaway between the Pacific and
Proto-Caribbean, probably after the Bajocian/Bathonian (~170 Ma), becoming better
defined about 130 Ma (Hauterivian), when oceanic crust was formed between western
Laurasia (North America) and western Gondwana (South America) [104]. Early
Jurassic pelagic limestones in southern Belize are similar in age and lithology to the
sedimentary sequence of southwestern Cuba and suggest a common depositional area
on the eastern margin of the Maya block in the Proto-Caribbean basin [95]. Extension
and subsidence created passive, Atlantic-type continental margins, on which
sedimentation continued into the Late Cretaceous. Northern Central America was
characterized by mainly carbonate platform sedimentation and the great reef/evaporitic
event of AptianConiacian age, representing a widely distribute Cretaceous
transgression (Guatemala-Belize, Nicaraguan rise).
Separation of North and South America and the formation of the Caribbean
facilitated complex movement of crustal blocks and terrains between these two
continental masses. For that reason, reconstruction of the geological history is not easy.
Since the early works by Schuchert [3], Weyl [36], and Lloyd [5], there have been
several different models about the paleogeographical and paleotectonic reconstructions
of the Caribbean-Central America history. Two different set of models are presented of
how the Caribbean plateau might have formed (Fig. 13.6) (see Chapters 8 and 11). The
allochthonous Pacific model assumes that the Caribbean plateau was formed in the
Pacific. It was subsequently transported along major strike-slip faults into a pre-
existent Jurassic Proto-Caribbean basin between the Americas, and to its present
location by significant eastward plate movements. Although this model is accepted by
most workers, there is still much debate as to the nature and origin of the components
of the Caribbean plate, and the timing and extent of movements. The alternative model
inferrs an in situ origin between North and South America as a result of the north
eastward trending spreading axis of the Jurassic Atlantic ocean and evolution of the
Caribbean crust between both Americas (for discussion see [105, 106], and Chapters 8,
11 and 20). Although further studies are still necessary, in this Chapter the Pacific
allochthonous model was adopted.
In the Cretaceous the Chortis block underwent large rotations, initially clockwise
and then counterclockwise [107]. Although the Early Mesozoic position of the Chortis
block has been the subject of much speculation, the position adjacent to the Guerrero
block (the south coast of Mexico) appears to be the most favored at this time [14, 15].
In this model, movement was initiated before 119 Ma [14], and Chortis was sutured
onto southern Mexico/Guatemala in the latest Cretaceous. Many of the post-Cretaceous
stratigraphic units of the Chortis block have been removed by erosion [7].
During the late Early Cretaceous a volcanic arc developed on the Chortis block.
After it, a Late Cretaceous Siuna island arc (now northern Nicaragua (see Chapter
11)) developed on oceanic basement and formed the leading edge of the GuerreroCaribbean island arc, accreted to the margin of southern Mexico and the Chortis block
in Late Cretaceous [7, 73]. The collision emplaced the northern subduction complex of
the Motagua valley and caused compresional deformation in Guatemala to the north of
the Motagua valley. It is also characterized by the uplift and folding of an evaporititecarbonate sequence [7].
The 124109 Ma (40Ar/39Ar) tholeiitic portions of the Santa Elena complex in Costa
Rica (including layered igneous rocks) formed in a primitive island arc setting [70, 82]
are believed to be part of the Chortis subduction zone [70]. It is interesting that
Cretaceous (?) layered igneous rocks form the Sierra de Santa Cruz in Guatemala also
show an island arc affinity [108]. In addition, similarities in trace element and isotopic
composition between alkaline rocks from Santa Elena and Tortugal (Costa Rica)
suggest that they may originate from a common source and are both parts of the Chortis
block [70].
A widening seaway opened between the Chortis block and northern South America
during the Albian (the Proto-Caribbean Sea [104]). High relative eustatic sea-level at
that time was responsible for the great advance of Late Cretaceous sequences onto the
continental margins [105]. The AlbianCampanian (11272 Ma) anoxic event is coeval
with island-arc epiclastic and volcanic rocks [7, 86, 96]. The volcanic rocks possibly
originate from the early Greater Antilles island arc [109], and from the subduction below
the Maya block (AlbianCenomanian related volcaniclastic sediments) and from the
Chortis block (AptianCampanian related volcaniclastic sediments). The exact
paleogeographical position of the source of these epiclastic rocks, now outcropping in
Central America, however, remains the subject of debate.
Carbon dioxide released during mid-Cretaceous seafloor spreading and by
volcanism of the large igneous provinces (e.g., the CLIP event) produced not only
global warming, but also created the conditions necessary for the development of ocean
anoxic events and the deposition of black shales [110, 111]. Thus, a series of regional
oceanic anoxic events (OAE; [112]), coeval with volcanism, are recorded in the Middle
Jurassic (Honduras) and the AlbianCampanian time (Guatemala, El Salvador,
Nicaragua and Costa Rica). Palaeoceanographic models suggest that improved
circulation and ventilation of bottom waters due to early opening of the North AtlanticSouth Atlantic seaway caused the end of anoxic deposition in the Campanian.
Furthermore, the end of organic deposition probably was due to the emergence of the
primitive southern Central American arc, combined with a sudden influx of oxygenated
intermediate/bottom water through the proto-straits of Panama, favored by the
deposition of siliceous limestones [100].
The Caribbean large igneous province (CLIP), also known as the Great Flood
Basalt Event or the Sill Event [14, 102], represents a period of extensive volcanism
and intrusive activity mainly between 95 and 72 Ma (with a peak at 89 Ma) that
thickened parts of the Caribbean plate into an oceanic plateau [84, 113]. In the Late
CretaceousPaleogene, serpentinite and basic/pelagic melanges formed along most of
the borders of the Caribbean plate in deformed belts. Preferential shortening directions
were controlled by diachronous, oblique and horizontal movements. Most of these
ultrabasic-basic igneous complexes represent paleoplate boundaries of the protoCaribbean plate [103, 108, 114].
The provenance of the Guatemalan ophiolites could be Atlantic ocean crust, or a
Proto-Caribbean oceanic domain in the Motagua suture zone collisional system
between the Maya and Chortis continental blocks [71]. In any case, a Late Cretaceous
collisional orogeny emplaced the ophiolites along the northern edge of the Motagua
fault zone and produced north-south shortening of pre-Cenozoic strata in eastern
Guatemala and Belize [14, 15]. It is postulated that the arcuate band of ultramafic rocks
across Guatemala were underthrusted by the southward movement of the Yucatn
platform. Resulting uplift raised a mass of peridotite to a height from which it could
slide northward to form the Sierra de Santa Cruz [81].
The lack of detrital sediments in most of the JurassicCretaceous radiolarites (164
84 Ma) suggests an open ocean environment located in the East Paleopacific Equatorial
Upwelling Ocean, which was far away from the Cretaceous subduction zone, until their
incorporation into the foldbelts fringing the Caribbean region [100, 109, 115].
In Costa Rica, sediment ages of radiolarite show systematic younging towards the
north [88]. Thus an intraoceanic accretionary prism consisting essentially of Middle
Jurassic (Callovian)Early Cretaceous (Santonian) radiolarites was intruded by Late
Cretaceous (9583 Ma: CenomanianSantonian) plateau basalts that form most of the
exposed Nicoya terrane. Compressional tectonics accompanied the emplacement of the
basic and ultrabasic igneous complexes (ophiolites) across Central American
sometime between the Cenomanian and Maastrichtian, mostly Santonian [73, 83, 116,
117]. The collision of the Chortis and Chorotega blocks occurred around 7571 Ma
[70].
13.4
PRIMITIVE IN SITU ISLAND ARC AND RELATED SEDIMENTARY

ROCKS (CAMPANIANEOCENE)
13.4.1 Magmatism
13.4.1.1 Basic igneous complex (MaastrichtianLate Eocene)
Basic igneous complexes are composed of vesiculated basalts (pillow and massive
lavas, dikes, and related breccias and hyaloclastitic products), gabbros, diabases, rare
picrites and ankaramites are usually associated with chert, tuffaceous rocks, and
siliceous limestone (Quepos, Tuln, Osa and Burica in Costa Rica: 6554 Ma; Azuero
and Coiba in Panama: 6633 Ma). Most of these sequences are tectonically
dismembered as slides or megablocks. Geochemical and isotopic data indicate a
common origin from the Galpagos hotspot through intraplate or OIB-type volcanism,
or as seamounts (E-MORB type) [70, 85, 113]. On the Caribbean side of southern
Costa Rica, breccias, pillow basalts, and basaltic andesites, occasionally with alkaline
affinities, are covered with MiddleUpper Eocene sediments [83, 118].
13.4.1.2 Early in situ-arc lavas (CampanianEocene)
The early Late Cretaceous to Paleogene arc-related lavas are poorly known and/or
poorly described in Central America. Most are rare and occur as intercalations of
andesitic and dacitic lavas and pyroclastic rocks of CampanianMaastrichtian age
(Changuinola in Panama, [119]), or andesitic dikes dated at 75 Ma (Nicaragua, Chapter
32), to PaleoceneUpper Eocene (Ocu, Maj, igneous-agglomerate, and Morti tuffs in
Panama, [10, 120, 121]). Also, unnamed volcanic rocks are present in Honduras, and
some occur as volcanic clasts in sedimentary sequences (Valle de ngeles, Honduras,
El Salvador, and Nicaragua [10]). More detailed mapping, dating and geochemical
studies are necessary.
13.4.1.3 Granitoids (MaastrichtianMiddle Eocene)
A series of Upper Cretaceous to Middle Eocene orogenic granitoides are present in
several places in northern Central America, all of these dated by K/Ar method: a 50 Ma
granitoid (Chiquimula in Guatemala), 6057 Ma granodiorites and tonalites (Las
Mangas, Piedras Negras, Minas de Oro in Honduras), and two 60 and 4950 Ma sills in
Nicaragua [10, 74]. In Panama there are also reports of intrusive rocks (Cerro Azul and
Ro Pito, Panama; quartz diorites, quartz gabbros, quartz monzonites, norites,
granodiorites), clearly of Maaestrichtian to Middle Eocene age (~6949 Ma), but more
detail is needed [10, 32, 122].

13.4.2.1 Redbeds (Campanian?Eocene)
Late Cretaceous to Eocene breccias and conglomerates (both matrix- and clastsupported) and usually well-bedded conglomeratic sandstones, siliciclastic sandstones,
and siltstones. The various lithological units range widely in color, mostly reddish but
also gray, green or tan where hydrothermally altered with shades of gray and purple
prevalent. This unit is 15003000 m thick, and rich in metamorphic detritus
(keratophyre, muscovite schist, granophyre, quartzite, and chert). It is interpreted as
submarine and subaerial debris flows deposited in intramontane basins by deltaic,
floodplain, lacustrine, and shallow marine facies (Upper Valle de ngeles in Honduras
and El Salvador). The upper redbeds are generally finer-grained than the lower ones,
and include thin-bedded laminated limestones, interpreted as hypersaline lagoonal
deposits [10, 24]. Quartz pebble conglomerate and conglomeratic red sandstone
(continental molasses), limestone cobble conglomerate, and siltstones display typical
fluvial structures, with minor andesite lava flows, volcanic arenites, and rare
occurrences of the brackish-water gastropod Lagunitis; facies, which are present in the
Chortis block, are related to strike-slip grabens [10, 63, 123]. Symmetrical ripple
marks, mud cracks, rain print casts (?), and flame structures are common in the fine-
grained redbeds [63]. Locally, a Late Campanian age continental to submarine

conglomerate consists of poorly consolidated poorly sorted and diffusely layered
reddish basaltic conglomerates and breccias (pebbly sandstones, granule flow and sand
flow deposits). It overlies the basic igneous complex (Barbudal in Costa Rica [124]).
13.4.2.2 Rudist lithosomes (Late CampanianMaastrichtian)
This is a shallow-marine clastic and related carbonate reef unit, a few meters thick,
consisting of rudists (Coralliochama, Barrettia monilifera, Parastroma sanchezi,
Biradiolites mooretownensis, Chiapasella radiolitiformis) framestones, bioclastic
grainstones and sandstones and contains the rare bivalve trigonid (Pterotrigonia sp.),
larger and small rotalids, fragments of echinoids (Conulus sp.), red algae,
dasycladacean green algae and larger foraminifera (Pseudorbitoides sp.). These rocks
(El Viejo and Colorado in Costa Rica) usually rest unconformably on the basic igneous
complex [87, 125, 126].
13.4.2.3 Arc-related flysch (Late CretaceousEocene)
The arc-related flysch comprises turbiditic slope sequences (normally 30003500 m
thick; exceptionally up to 10,000 m thick) composed of volcaniclastic sediments,
including tuffaceous shales, siltstones and sandstones (calcareous greywackes),
conglomerates, and breccias (Fig. 13.3d). In addition, there are marly shales,
calcilutites, limolites (as slope apron), calcareous sandstones and individual beds of
limestone (mostly pelites, some allodapic), most of them contain a rich planktonic
foraminiferal fauna, radiolarian cherts, and channelized conglomerates. The
volcaniclastic materials are plagioclase, pyroxene (some partly uralitized in pyroxenebearing sandstones), hornblende (in exceptional cases up to 93% of the mafic grain
fraction in hornblende-bearing sandstones), variable amounts of quartz and rare biotite.
The glass-rich matrix has a andesitic to dacitic composition. Some breccias and
conglomerates, rich in volcanic components (basalt and andesite lavas, dacitic
hyaloclastite, ignimbrites), are the product of the erosion and activity of the volcanic
arc [28, 86, 108, 127129]. Other common components are broken rudists, echinoids,
molluscs, orbitoline foraminifera, detritus of mafic-ultramafic rocks, and in some
places hypabyssal granitoid clasts (Chemal, Sepur, Lacandon, Verapaz in Guatemala;
Lacandon and Toledo in Belize, Rivas, Brito in Nicaragua; Sabana Grande,
Cur/Namb, Tuis, Machuca, Descartes and Senosri in Costa Rica; Changinola,
Bcaru, Boho, Upper Tonos in Panama). Depending on the location, size and regional
distribution of submarine canyons, complete channel-lobe (massive or graded
sandstone) sequences developed or locally derived mass-flow (conglomeratic debris
flows, slump masses, and olistostromes) deposits and thin-bedded turbidites prevailed.
Sedimentary structures suggest great variability from proximal to distal (hemipelagic to
pelagic) submarine fan environments deposition, which were in several places affected
by slumping, debris flows, grain flows, submarine slides and rockfalls [4, 10, 15, 16,
19, 86, 90, 97, 128, 130, 131].
13.4.2.4 Red limestone (Late CretaceousPaleocene)
Pelagic and hemipelagic, siliceous, dense limestone rich in Upper Cretaceous (Late
Campanian to Maastrichtian) globotruncanes (Globotruncana insignis, G. cortusa, G.
pettersi, G. linneiana, G. bulloides, G. falsostuarti, G. arca) are well distributed, at
least in the southern part of Central America (Costa Rica and Panama); others contain
Paleocene foraminifera. Shale and siltstone, with some fine-grained basaltic sands and
conglomerate, indicate the occurrence of submarine erosion contemporaneous with
deposition of limestone (Piedras Blancas and Golfito in Costa Rica [4, 16, 32, 80, 127,
132]).
13.4.2.5 Large foraminiferal platform rimmed reef (PaleoceneOligocene)
Red algae biostromes and shallow-water limestones (boundstones), as a reefoid
interval, represent a sequence composed mostly of massive carbonates and poorlysorted grainstones to packstones of dark gray to white foraminiferal limestone and algal
debris. These were deposited in different settings at different times. Rhythmically
bedded limestones, marls, breccias, and siltstones of Early Danian age are reported
from the South Petn basin [133]. Some limestones (packstones) are distinguished by
low diversity among the larger foraminifera and by the occurrence of the index fossils
Ranikothalia bermudezi, Discocyclina barkeri, and red algae Archeolithothamnium sp.
and Polystrata alba (Late PaleoceneLower Eocene, Barra Honda and biofacies
Espritu Santo in Costa Rica, and Ro Palo Blanco in Panama [16, 125, 134, 135]). The
most significant occurrences throughout the entire isthmus are limestones with large
foraminifera, commonly high diversity (e.g., Amphistegina, Helicostegira,
Lepidocyclina), and rare corals (MiddleLate Eocene; Fila de Cal in Costa Rica; David,
Tonos, Bcaro, Azuero, Clarita, El Barro, and Caimito in Panama [17, 134, 136]). The
less evolved large foraminifera-rich limestone is recognized by the fact that it contains
Miogypsinid foraminifera (Late OligoceneEarly Miocene; biofacies Punta Pelada in
Costa Rica [137]; Arusa in Panama [2]). Locally, soft clay shales contain occasional
bioherms, biostromes, oyster beds and orbitoid (Discocyclina sp.) fauna of Early
Eocene age (Reforma in Guatemala; [19]), or as light brown, thin bedded, nodular,
fossiliferous limestone, 400 m thick of Eocene age (La Libertad in Honduras). A 400 m
thick Paleocene limestone, fossil-poor facies occurs in Costa Rica and Panama (Barra
Honda and Clarita, respectively), and algal limestones associated with tuffaceous
silstones and volcanic conglomerates of Oligocene age occurs in Panama (Gatncillo,
Boho, and Caimito; [2]). Reef-derived detritus mixed with a volumetrically larger
amount of clastic debris derived from erosion of the island arc and basaltic basement
occurs in southern Central America (Punta Serrucho in Costa Rica [127], and Tonos
in Panama [17]). Olistolithic (limestone blocks 3040 m in diameter) and fragments of
discontinuous lateral extension (< 5 km) interbedded in tuffaceous turbidites are
interpreted as slides from the Barra Honda platform in Costa Rica (Sapo in Nicaragua
[74, 137]).
13.4.2.6 Calcareous/evaporitic facies (Early Eocene)
The Early Eocene shelf facies consists of gypsum, marlstones, siltstones, conglomeratic
limestones, limestone and dolomite, characterized by pelagic and planktonic
assemblages (Petn, Buena Vista, Cambio, Santa Amelia in Guatemala; Santa Amelia
in Belize). Diagnostic fauna includes Truncorotalia cf. aragonensis, Globorotalia
broedermanni, G. membranacea, Globigerina pseudobulloides, and G. primitiva,
associated with Chilogumbelina sp. [19, 122].
13.4.2.7 Tectonic and sedimentary melange (MiddleLate Eocene)

A mapable body of strongly deformed stratigraphic successions (tectonosomes) is
dominated by flysch and limestone olistostromes, cataclastites and megabreccias, with
brecciated alkaline basalts (Catica Punta Quepos, Costa Rica). Biostratigraphic age
determinations indicate reworked material of Upper PaleoceneLower Eocene age,
although the emplacement age (matrix) was MiddleUpper Eocene [118, 127].
13.4.2.8 Fossiliferous shallow marine rocks (PaleoceneEocene)
This unit consists of red shales, fossiliferous cherts (gastropods and ostracods),
calcareous sandstones, limestones and marls, with intercalations of conglomerates,
massive and stratified tuffs and tuffites (locally a lacustrine environment) and rarely
coal (Matiguas or Tema; Caracol or Teca, all in Nicaragua [138, 139]).
13.4.3 Geological history: The events through the K/T

Until the Mid-Jurassic (ca. 170 Ma) western Laurasia (North America) and western
Gondwana (South America) were connected as continental areas. The Chortis block,
which is a segment of the North American craton, acted as a bridge between South
America and North America at 155 Ma. After coming into contact with the Maya
(Yucatn) block around 148 Ma, it migrated eastward along the left-lateral MotaguaPolochic fault zone from Campanian to Oligocene times into its present position [105,
107, 109].
During the Campanian to Paleocene the main tectonogenesis, the Laramide
orogeny, began in North and South America even in the Caribbean [140]. Offshore
studies suggest that the break up of the Faralln plate and its subduction beneath the
Caribbean plate started some time close to Campanian, and that the southern Central
America arc-trench system developed due to the breakup of the East Pacific plate into
the Faralln and Caribbean plates. This was followed by subduction of the Faralln
plate beneath the Caribbean plate [104].
Evidence of volcaniclastic arc sediments (turbidites) related to a subduction zone is
reported from the Campanian [15, 117]. This subduction started as uplift, accompanied
by magmatism, flysch and continental deposition, and by strong folding (NESW trend
in northern Central America) and thrusting. The folding produced thrusting of
carbonate rocks over evaporite deposits [1, 10, 63]. The strong unconformity at the
Late Cretaceous boundary marks the upper limit of the compressional phase (Figs.13.4
and 13.5).
Andesitic volcanism had begun already in the Cretaceous, with deposition of
volcaniclastic debris in continental backarc basins related to the Soconusco volcanic
arc. The Chortis block collided with the Maya block at that time, resulting in the
development of the Motagua suture zone ([1, 15] but see Chapter 11). In the Paleogene
the Chortis block became a source of clastic turbidites, with abundant evidence of arc
activity. Coeval CampanianMiddle Eocene clastics (flysch) throughout Central
America record regional convergence event and filled inner forearc troughs. Thick
successions of volcaniclastic turbidites were deposited in the inner forearc basins,
while thin-bedded, calcareous turbidites and slump deposits prevailed in the outer
forearc basins [141].
Basaltic breccias contain several-decimeter-sized blocks of basalts and radiolarites,

indicative of coarse rockfall and debris-flow deposits, major submarine post-Santonian
erosion of basic igneous complexes (Barbudal in Costa Rica [124, 127]).
Insular shelves in south Central America were extensively colonized by rudist and
nerinean biostromes (7565 Ma) and some smaller coral patch reefs. Rudists are
common in the Central American paleofaunal province. They are not only an useful
tool for regional and trans-tethyan/Proto-Caribbean stratigraphic correlations, but also
as an indicator of tropical and subtropical conditions, with clear, turbulent, and warm
(1823 C) sea waters.
The red limestone from Costa Rica and Panama (Upper Cretaceous to Paleocene)
correlates with the regional Oceanic Oxic Event (OOE) during the Upper Cretaceous to
Paleocene/Eocene [97], a product of a global climatic cooling in the oceans, eustatic
sea-level rise, and decrease in nutrients and carbon in the oceanic waters [142].
Altered glass spherules and iridium content detected in some limestone breccias
(Latest Maastrichtian or even Early Danian age: reworked spherules?) in Belize and
Guatemala are correlated to spherules found around the Gulf of Mexico and Haiti.
These breccias could be related to the K/T impact event (Chicxulub crater, Fig. 13.1),
coincident with sea-level drop near the end of Maastrichtian [133, 143, 144]. The
breccias can also be explained by a large explosive carbon-rich gas explosion
(Verneshot event) triggered by mantle plume incubation beneath cratonic lithosphere
(about 80 km depth), and typically associated with the onset of continental rifting
[145].
Paleobathymetric studies indicate a deep water cycle from Late Cretaceous to
Middle Miocene in southern Central America [90]. The most significance occurrences
throughout the entire isthmus (particularly in Costa Rica and western Panama) are
limestones with large foraminifera of neritic environments (open platforms in the
Chorotega block), deposited in different settings at different times (from Paleocene to
Lower Miocene), suggest tropical and subtropical conditions (Fig. 13.7a). From the
Eocene through the Middle Miocene (until 11 Ma) the connection between the
Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico was across a broad shallow carbonate bank (or a
series of isolated banks) extending along the length of the Nicaraguan rise [146148].
The Quepos oceanic island and the Osa ridge, believed to have formed as part of the
Galpagos hotspot track, accreted to the active margin in the Mid-Eocene, causing
large-scale regional deformation and uplift of the Central American arc. In the Middle
Late Eocene southern Central America was affected by compressive stresses, uplifting
the marginal parts of the basins. These structural highs were sites where an extensive
carbonate platform was built during a period of volcanic quiescence toward the end of
the Eocene [149152]. Accretion of sediment in trenches depressed the upper portion
of the subducting oceanic plate and causing the trench axis to migrate seaward and
increase the arc-trench gap [153].
Although the Early Paleogene arc is poorly known and described, lava outcrops in
stratigraphic position and isotopic dating (K/Ar and 40Ar/39Ar) from the literature [10,
119121], allow reconstruction of the volcanic arc during the Late PaleoceneEarly
Eocene (Fig. 13.8a). Thus, evidence of 6050 Ma old magmatism is present at least
from Honduras to Panama, with an apparent gap in outcrops (plutons and subaerial
lavas) in Costa Rica. Only andesitic conglomerates and vulcarenites are found in this
gap, which probably represents a marine seaway. Interesting is also the dislocation in
volcanic front in the present political boundary between Honduras and Nicaragua. The
other apparent gap in the volcanism is located in Guatemala, but plutons of the same
Figure 13.6. Different plate tectonic models of the Caribbean region during the Albian (110100
Ma). Maps (modified/simplified): (a) [102], (b) [104], (d) [106,109] and (f) [7] are according
the Pacific model; (c) [105] and (e) [152] from the Caribbean or Intraplate model.
age following the almost EW volcanic arc trend from Honduras. Finally, large silicic
eruptions occurred in Central America are recorded in marine basins. One of the largest
silicic eruptions in Central America with volumes estimated to be > 100 km3 during the
Mid-Eocene about 46 Ma [154].
13.5
CONFIGURATION OF PALEO-VOLCANIC FRONT (OLIGOCENE

MIOCENE)
13.5.1 Magmatism
13.5.1.1 Calc-alkaline volcanism (Late OligoceneMiocene)
OligoceneMiocene volcanism is represented by basaltic and andesitic lavas, rare
dacite and rhyolite lavas, tuffs, volcanic breccias, epiclastic deposits (fluviatile and
debris flows), ignimbrites, and dikes. Radiometric ages (K/Ar, 40Ar/39Ar) range from
Late Oligocene (a few samples) to Miocene (Fig. 13.2c). The maximum volcanic
activity was in Miocene time [10, 27, 28, 121, 138, 155161]. These rocks represent
proximal-medial facies from extinct stratovolcanoes and domes, grouped into several
formal and informal stratigraphic units up to 1200 m thick (Padre Miguel in Guatemala
and Honduras, Matagalpa in Honduras, Morazn and Chalatenango in El Salvador;
Tamarindo, Matagalpa, Cukra, La Batea, Bluefields, and Coyol in Nicaragua,
Aguacate-La Cruz, Curea in Costa Rica; Valiente, Caazas, San Pedrito, Bas Obispo,
Pedro Miguel in Panama). The older volcanic rocks are often tilted (e.g., Matagalpa in
Honduras [24]; Coyol and Lower Coyol in Nicaragua [10, 24]; Bagaces and La Cruz in
Costa Rica [162, 163]).
13.5.1.2 Ignimbrites (Late OligoceneMiocene)
Ignimbrites (andesites to rhyolites), related to the old volcanic front or preneovolcanism, are present throughout Central America. Ash flow deposits (or
ignimbrites) are of various colors and exhibit different degrees of welding. They are
intercalated with other related explosive tephras, lavas, and sedimentary deposits
(parallic to fluvial and lacustrine). The ignimbrites are widespread in Guatemala (Padre
Miguel, Chalatenango), Honduras (Padre Miguel), El Salvador (Morazn and
Chalatenango), Nicaragua (Matagalpa, Coyol, Las Maderas and Tamarindo), Costa
Rica (Curea, Mata de Limn and Bagaces in Costa Rica), and Panama. The units are
up to 900 m thick. Radiometric dating (K/Ar, 40Ar/39Ar) yield the following age ranges:
11.68.4 Ma in Guatemala [155]; 307.1 Ma in Honduras [24, 164]; 197.9 Ma in
Nicaragua [28, 157, 165], 86 Ma in Costa Rica [156, 158], and 12.69.73 Ma in
Panama [10, 166, 167]. Older ignimbrites are commonly tilted, which differentiates
between them and the younger ones, but more field studies (facies mapping) and
accurate radiometric ages (including non-dated older ignimbrites) are needed in order
to establish a clear sequence of events.
13.5.1.3 Basic igneous complex (EarlyMiddle Miocene)
Isolated basic igneous complexes (pillow and massive lavas), represent accreted
hotspot tracks from the Galpagos hotspot (southern Azuero, Panama: ~21 Ma [113]).
13.5.1.4 Intrusive rocks (OligoceneMiocene)
There is a great variety of intrusive rocks forming batholiths and stocks in Central
America, which presents a continuous trend from gabbros to alkali granites, including
olivine-gabbros, hornblende gabbros, diabases, diorites (including hornblende, biotite
or quartz diorites), quartz monzonites, tonalites, granodiorites, hornblende granites,
granites and alkaline rocks (aplites, granites, biotite granites, leucogranites). Of these,
quartz-monzonites (adamellites) prevail as the most abundant group. Normally each
intrusive body is composed of several phases of intrusion, the youngest ones being
more acidic (Chapter 21). Generally, each intrusive body has a mineralogical
composition and texture that differs from the neighboring bodies. Intrusive ages vary
from Oligocene (La Fragua, San Juan, San Lucas, Tolimn, and Los Tablones in
Guatemala; San Pedro Sula and Pto. Corts in Honduras, Santo Toms del Nance in
Nicaragua, Talamanca in Costa Rica; Petaquilla in Panama), with a magmatic climax
during the Miocene (Los Tablones and Cerro Redondo in Guatemala; San Rafael in El
Salvador; Talamanca in Costa Rica; Cerro Colorado, Tabasara, Ro Chicon, and Del
Maj in Panama) [10, 27, 32, 122, 169, 170].

13.5.2.1 Redbeds (OligoceneMiocene)
Continental fluvial deposits consist of tuffaceous, poorly bedded breccia conglomerate
and usually well-bedded conglomeratic sandstone, siliciclastic sandstones, and
siltstones (Figs. 13.3b, c and e). Rare lignites, carbonaceous shales, diatomaceous
mudstones and lavas are also present. The beds contain a wide variety of volcanic
(basalt to rhyolite pebbles; rare ignimbrites), plutonic (hornblende quartz diorites),
metamorphic detritus (phyllites, mica schists, quartzites, serpentinites) and sedimentary
(Cretaceous limestones) fragments. The various lithological units range widely in
color, mostly reddish but also brown and maroon and gray and purple where they are
hydrothermally altered. These rocks, 10003000 m thick, were deposited in
intramontane basins (Fig. 13.4). They are interpreted as being produced by deltaic,
floodplain, lacustrine, and shallow marine facies or even fresh-water limestones
(Lacantn, Subinal in Guatemala and El Salvador; Totogalpa in Nicaragua; Pacacua
and Mata de Limn in Costa Rica; Bohio in Panama [10, 19, 24]). Massive green and
reddish tuffaceous (bentonitic) clays and siltstone of late Aquitanian age (about 21
Myr), with carbonaceous and lignitic clay, and pebble conglomerates, rich in terrestrial
vertebrate fossils are exposed in the Panama canal (Cucaracha). The fauna, including
ungulates, such the rhinoceros Diceratherium, equids Anchitherium, Archaeochippus,
oreodonts Merychochoerus and Brachycrus, are closely related to North America
faunas. There are no indications of marine deposition [171]. A more recent
megamammal fossil is the proboscidean Rhynchotherium blicki of Late Miocene age
(Early Hemiphilliam: about 78 Ma) found in fluvio-lacustrine deposits (Herreria in
Guatemala [172]).
13.5.2.2 Open marine platform and talus facies (OligoceneMiocene)
These sediments are a dominantly shaly sequence rich in foraminifera. They contain
rare thin interbeds of limestone (e.g., El Barro in Panama), and calcareous sandstone
intervals, particularly toward the upper part of some units. There are also clastic
deposits of slope aprons and neritic environment. All these facies represent upwelling
areas (Dacli, Uscari and perhaps Ro Negro in Costa Rica, Concho Point shale, Punta
Alegre, Valiente, Pes in Panama [161, 162, 173, 174]).
13.5.2.3 Dysaerobic marine sediments (Late OligoceneMiddle Miocene)
Dysaerobic sediments are dominantly a sequence of black shaly sandstones, mudstones
with thin layers of tuffs, conglomerates, pseudoconglomerates, and limestones
Figure 13.7. Paleogeographic map of: (a) Late Eocene in Central America, (b) and (c) Middle
Miocene and Early Pliocene of southern Central America, respectively.
associated with slope aprons and neritic environment (inner platform) within a closed
anoxic basin. Locally there are foraminifera, sponges, brachiopods and bryozoa
(Tranquerillas, Trraba, and Pea Negra and local facies of Punta Carballo in Costa
Rica [162]).
13.5.2.4 Arc-related flysch (Early OligoceneMiddle Miocene)
The arc-related flysch comprises a turbiditic slope sequence, normally 30003500 m
thick. It is composed of volcaniclastic sediments, such as tuffaceous shales, siltstones
and sandstones (calcareous greywackes). It also includes conglomerates, breccias,
marly shales, calcilutites and calcareous sandstones. The volcaniclastic materials are
glass shards, plagioclase, pyroxene, and basaltic to andesitic clasts (Masachapa in
Nicaragua [10]; Trraba and Caraigres in Costa Rica [162, 175177]; Valiente in
Panama [161]).
13.5.2.5 Shallow marine to parallic sediments (Miocene)
Because of its good exposure, one of the best studied geological sequences in the
southern part of the isthmus is the Miocene (see Chapters 17 and 18). Variable
depositional environments (open shelf to delta-influenced shelf, estuarine delta,
mangrove swamp, reefs, shoreline, alluvial), tectonic settings (deep-sea trench, outer
arc, forearc, interarc, pull-apart, backarc) and fossil abundance (bivalves, gastropods,
corals, echinoids, shark teeth, etc.), are represented. Transgressive and regressive
sequences are present in a given area. Sequences consisting of sandstone and
silty sandstone of greenish blue and greenish gray color, interbedded with
conglomerate, have abundant fossils (molluscs, echinoids, and trace fossils). These
units contain intervals of limestone that include bioclastic limestone, nodular
limestone, crystalline limestone, tuffites, vulcarenites, minor lignite and rare
orthoquartzite interbeds (Figs. 13.3f and g). The limestones are mostly packstones with
lesser percentages of wackestones and grainstones [134, 138, 178, 179, 161, 178180].
Depositional environments vary from terrestrial to neritic, nearshore coralline
(Montastraea, Porites, Stylophora, and Diploria) to pectinid limestones, or more
general fossiliferous limestones (Ro Dulce in Guatemala; El Carmen, Turrcares and
San Miguel in Costa Rica; Emperador in Panama). Fine- to coarse grained near-shore
deposits have a high volcanic component (tuffaceous sandstone). There are coeval
deposits of shelfal, estuarine-deltaic, and alluvial environments (Caribe in Guatemala;
El Fraile in Nicaragua; Punta Judas in Costa Rica; Culebra in Panama), and shallowmarine sandstones (Roca Carballo, Coris in Costa Rica; Alhajuela or Alajuela in
Panama). Evaporites are reported locally (Caribe in Guatemala [19]). There are facies
in the form of sandstone, calcareous sandstone, bentonitic and bituminous shale
containing foraminiferal fauna, limestone in beds or lenses (Pucro, Gatn, Chagres,
Aguagua, Santiago, Chucunate in Panama), massive blue-gray, bioturbate, marine
siltstone to fine sandstone, including tuffaceous sandstones, dark-blue sandy
limestones, pelites, conglomerates. Local lignites show terrestrial environments.
Miocene marine rocks are also particularly known for their rich molluscan fauna
(Curr, Ro Banano-Zent in Costa Rica; Bocas de Toro and Gatn in Panama), and
locally include lime-cemented barnacle and echinoid coquina interbedded with shelly
coarse sandstone, or a great deal of fossil wood (El Fraile in Nicaragua; El Carmen or
Santa Teresa, Coris and Venado in Costa Rica).
Figure 13.8. Location of the volcanic front at different epochs based on published K/Ar and 40Ar/39Ar
dating and geological maps (corresponding rocks at present location). For details, see the text.
373
13.5.2.6 Tectonic melange (Middle Miocene)

This unit (Osa-Cao accretionary complex, Costa Rica) is dominated by cataclastites
and megabreccias, olistrostromes, and brecciated basalts (tholeiitic and some alkaline)
with radiolarites, lutites, and pelagic and shallow limestones as locally important
components (millimeter to hectometer size). They are cut by later dacitic dikes.
Biostratigraphic age determinations of components range from Early Cretaceous to
Middle Miocene [16, 83, 118]. The tectonic emplacement may have occurred at the end
of Middle Miocene.
13.5.3 Geological history: The beginning of the closing of deep oceanic circulation,
and the formation of the isthmus
As suggested by the voluminous volcaniclastic deposits conformably overlying the
Eocene shallow-water limestone sequences, strong subsidence of platforms occurred
as volcanic edifices emerged in the inner arc region. Thus, throughout the Late
Eocene to Early Oligocene, uplift of the Central American island arc resulted in
extended emergent stretches within the northern and central parts of the forearc area
(Fig. 13.7a). The 3035 Ma relative sea-level drop [181, 182] enhanced this effect.
Mild volcanism in combination with relatively little subsidence produced only small
amounts of clastic debris, erosion, so that depositation did not resume until the Late
Oligocene [141, 176, 183]. As a result, the amount of subaerial exposure should have
been at a maximum, probably more than at any other time in the Cenozoic.
Therefore, during the Late Eocene to Early Oligocene, the north part of Central
America was a region dominated by erosion; whereas the southern part was an area
of little deposition (e.g., hiatus). The Eocene/Oligocene erosional surface is usually
overlain by transgressive conglomerate and reef limestone, which suggests that
shallow-marine deposition, covered a large area (Fig. 13.4). The Late Oligocene was
a time of extensive marine incursions, probably due to a combination of tectonic
subsidence and relative high sealevel stands [184].
In the southern and central part of Costa Rica and western Panama, sedimentation
of volcaniclastic turbidites continued from the Oligocene and culminated in the Early
Miocene (Fig. 13.5). Most of these sediments have a calc-alkaline trend. However,
some clasts indicate an alkaline affinity, which could either reflect alkaline volcanism
at that time (latest Oligoceneearly Middle Miocene) or erosion from an accreted
seamount in the Osa area. The NENW direction of paleocurrents in the turbidites
[176], and accretion time of the Osa melange support the latter hypothesis. The
composition of the sandstones indicates an evolution from undissected arc (Oligocene
Lower Miocene) to transitional arc (Middle Miocene), which is represented by
increased quartz content in the sandstones and a simultaneous decrease in volcanic
lithoclasts in some facies [185, 186].
There are few Oligocene intrusions in Central America; it was not until the
Miocene that magmatism began on a widescale. Largest silicic eruptions in Central
America occurred during the Early Oligocene (ca. 32 Ma) in northern Central America,
Oligocene/Miocene (23 Ma) and Mid-Miocene (813 Ma) in all Central America (see
also [154]). The ~21 Ma (Early Miocene) terrestrial fauna in the Panama canal zone
includes brachyodont browsing herbivores (oreodonts and rhinoceroses of open country
savanna communities, and Protoceratid and browsing horses of woodland or forest),
living near crocodile infested swamp and rainforest. Despite proximity to South
America, taxonomic affinities of the fauna are clearly North American. Therefore, this
portion of land seems to represent a continuous peninsula covering almost all Central
America [171], with an open seaway in the most southern part called Bolivar basin [5].
The isthmus of Panama began to close 15.213 Ma ago [187, 188]. In Costa Rica,
the coast consisted of a shallow-marine embayment during the Neogene (Fig. 13.7b). In
Nicaragua, Miocene depositional sequences indicate an open shoreline [178, 179]. In
the Late Miocene (65.3 Ma), water circulation within the Caribbean Sea may have
been diverted to the northwest as a result of the reduction in the width of the
Panamanian seaway and the extension and subsidence of the Nicaraguan rise [109].
These marine channels facilitated the presence of homogeneous mollusk assemblages
on both coasts (Caribbean and Eastern Pacific faunas) (e.g., some species of Pecten,
Chione, Natica, Malea, Conus, Turritella, Terebra [189191]).
During the Miocene, several shallow-water sedimentary basins formed in the
forearc area bounded by normal or strike-slip faults [104, 151], or by normal faults in
an embryonic rift, forming the Nicaraguan graben [151, 192]. Significant extension
occurred along the axis of the Nicaraguan rise [193]. In northern Central America, in
addition to left-lateral strike-slip motion along elements such as the Guayape fault, a
series of north trending grabens in the northwestern part of the Chortis block, suggests
EW extension ([10, 19]; see also Chapter 11). Uplift occurred during the Upper
Miocene, possibly as a response to the influx of mantle asthenosphere following the
break-off and sinking of the slab [194].
At 2725 Ma the Faralln plate broke up into the Cocos and Nazca plates separated
by the newly formed Galpagos rift zone [195197]. The increase of magmatic activity
and correspondingly high rate of volcaniclastic sedimentation in the Miocene may be
related to an increase in the subduction velocity.
The early Middle Miocene arc in Central America (2513 Ma) extends along all of
Central America. In Guatemala it was very close to its present position. In Nicaragua
the volcanic front migrated trenchward with time (about 100 km) from Late Miocene
(25 Ma) to its present position [160]. A similar situation appears to have developed in
Honduras according to our reconstruction (Fig. 13.8b). Subduction of young
lithosphere (1425 Ma [198]), could have caused migration of volcanism landward in
central and north Costa Rica. In Nicaragua it shifted towards the south-west, close to its
present position [199]. In Costa Rica there has been a 30 counterclockwise (CCW)
rotation of the arc from its Middle Miocene position close to the modern volcanic front
[158]. This occurred between 15 to 8 Ma (geographically continuous with the Coyol
arc ages [160]) and is attributed to deformation in the overriding plate (shortening in
the south coeval with extension in the NW), accompanied by trench retreat in the north
[158, 163]. In Panama, the Paleocene/Eocene volcanism migrated about 120 km
northwards away from the trench to the present position of the volcanic front due to
subduction erosion [121], or a change in the subduction angle.
Tectonic and magmatic activity during the Middle Miocene to Pliocene (Andean
orogeny) in Central America was characterized by uplift, intrusions along the inner arc,
extensive volcanism, and folding with reverse and thrust faulting. The faults dip toward
the inner arc (i.e., Panama microplate). Episodes of abundant arc magmatism are
present at 1612 Ma. Most of the plutons, 710 Ma old (Andean episodes sensu [200]),
were emplaced during an apparent gap in volcanism in Costa Rica [158]. Since 8 Ma
the arc was parallel to the modern volcanic front (equivalent in age to the widespread
circum-Pacific Fijian volcanic episodes sensu [200]), but progressively retreated to the
northeast in Costa Rica and northeast in Panama [121, 159]. Adakite volcanic activity
(K/Ar: 4.40.9 Ma) in Costa Rica and western Panama corresponds in space and time
with the subduction of a large scarp associated with a tectonic boundary off southern
Panama [163].
Subduction of the Cocos ridge affected the southern part of Costa Rica by
basement-rooted thrusting, backarc and intra-arc compression, volcanic arc extinction,
and uplift [149, 153, 183, 201]. The rise of the Talamanca range was caused by the
subduction of the Cocos ridge beneath the volcanic front [149, 183], and the collision
of the arc with the South American plate led to the development of Panama microplate
[170, 192]. The age of the Cocos ridge collision with the Middle America trench is,
however, matter of debate. A few authors claim the age of collision as early as Middle
Miocene, based on geological evidence [149], although the most accepted age at
present is around 56.5 Ma (see [202], and references therein). However, an age of the
subduction of a submarine range or aseismic ridge (whether called Cocos or not) as old
as Middle Miocene age, could explain several process at the same time: the subduction
erosion since 16 Ma [202] contemporary to the basement-rooted thrusting of the Fila
Costea [149, 175, 183], the uplift of Quepos-El Cao-Osa melanges [16, 118], and the
absence of a volumetrically extended calc-alkaline volcanism since 14 Ma in the south
part of Costa Rica [156, 158].
13.6
PRESENT CONFIGURATION OF THE ISTHMUS (PLIOCENE

QUATERNARY)
13.6.1 Magmatism
13.6.1.1 Calc-alkaline volcanism (Pliocene)
Pliocene volcanic events are represented by basaltic and andesitic lavas, rare dacite and
rhyolite lavas, tuffs, volcanic breccias, ignimbrites, and dikes. They represent
proximal-medial facies from different extinct stratovolcanoes and domes, grouped in
several formal and informal stratigraphic units (Padre Miguel and San Jacinto in
Guatemala and Honduras, Blsamo in El Salvador; Upper Coyol in Nicaragua, Grifo
Alto, Don in Costa Rica; La Yeguada and Old El Valle in Panama).
13.6.1.2 Alkaline magmatism (Pliocene)
Alkaline volcanic rocks (analcime basanites, basalts, and scarce nephelinites), usually
tilted, and related alkaline stocks, dikes and sills (gabbros, diabases, teschenites,
analcime monzonites, analcime syenites; K/Ar: 5.84.6 Ma) are mostly exposed in the
backarc of Costa Rica [118, 203205]. These are the only intrusive alkaline rocks
known in Central America. An alkaline lamprophyre has been dated (40Ar/39Ar) as 3.5
Ma in the forearc fold and thrust belt of southern Pacific Costa Rica [163]. Isolated
Pleistocene lava volcanoes and cinder cones (associated with extension, some in NS
alignments) occur along the Caribbean of Honduras, Nicaragua (e.g., Corn island), and
Costa Rica. The lavas and tephras are alkalines (basalts, analcimic basanites, picritic
basalts, leucititic basanites), with K/Ar ages between 1.2 and 0.3 Ma [24, 118, 206
208]. In other areas of Central America, lavas of alkaline affinities have also been
reported in Yojoa lake and Utila island, which are respectively in the inner and
Caribbean zones of Honduras [24]. An oceanic island alkali basalt-to-trachyte series is
reported in the Cocos island (Costa Rica), the only subaereal outcrop of the Cocos
ridge in the Pacific ocean, with K/Ar ages of 21.9 Ma old [209, 210].
13.6.1.3 Calc-alkaline intrusive rocks (Pliocene)

There is a great variety of intrusive rocks forming batholiths, stocks and dikes, which
present a continuous trend from gabbros to granites, including monzonites,
monzodiorites/monzogabbros, and quartz diorites/monzonites (see Chapter 21).
Intrusive bodies are typically composed of several phases of intrusion that differs
mineralogically and texturally from the neighboring bodies, the youngest ones being
more acidic (Chapter 21). The ages are Pliocene (Guacimal and Ro Macho in Costa
Rica; Cerro Colorado in Panama [163, 122, 211, 212].
13.6.1.4 Ignimbrites (PlioceneQuaternary)
Ignimbrites (andesites to rhyolites; rare basaltic andesites) related to the old volcanic
front and pre-neovolcanism, are present along Central America (Fig. 13.2e; see Chapter
23). The ignimbrites are of various colors, exhibit diverse degrees of welding and are
intercalated with other related explosive tephras, lavas, and sedimentary deposits
(parallic to fluvial and lacustrine). They are widespread in Guatemala (Padre Miguel),
Honduras (Padre Miguel), El Salvador (Cuscatln), Nicaragua (El Coyol), Costa Rica
(Bagaces, Liberia, Guayabo, Ato Palomo, Tirib, etc.), and Panama (La Yeguada; Ro
Mar). Radiometric dating (K/Ar, 40Ar/39Ar) yield ages of 3.30.08 Ma in Guatemala
[155, 213], Pliocene age (Honduras), as young as AD 260 in Ilopango [213], or 29,500
to about 4000 years BP in Nicaragua [214, 215], 0.324.2 Ma in Costa Rica [158, 159],
and 1.330.22 Ma in Panama [166, 167].
13.6.1.5 Volcanic-front (Quaternary)
Typical rocks from the active volcanic front are lava flows (from basalts to rhyolites;
see Chapter 22), pyroclastic (fall, flow and surge) and epiclastic rocks (lahars,
lacustrine, volcanic debris avalanche deposits; Figs. 13.2d and f). These rocks are
basaltic to andesitic in composition with rare dacites to rhyolites, which differ mainly
in their texture and relative proportions of phenocrysts (La Sierra and Managua in
Nicaragua, and several others informal and formal stratigrahic units). Dikes and
hydrothermally altered rocks are present, especially close to the central facies of the
volcanic edifices. Laterally, the medial volcanic facies are interbedded with alluvial,
lacustrine and marine facies, and the most recent ignimbrite-related caldera is coeval
with the age of the major volcanoes (San Salvador in El Salvador; Las Sierras in
Nicaragua; Colima, in Costa Rica; Ro Hato in Panama). K/Ar and 40Ar/39Ar
radiometric ages are usually less than 2 Ma [121, 156, 159].
13.6.2 Sediments
13.6.2.1 Marine sediments (PliocenePleistocene)
Marine sediments occur as exposures up to 1100 m thick, preserved only as erosional
remnants capping older units (El Salto in Nicaragua; Montezuma, Venado, Ro
Banano, including Limn, Viscaya, Quebrada Chocolate, Mon, Armuelles and Peita
in Costa Rica and Panama; Bocas/Las Bocas/La Boca in Panama). They are
characterized by beds of calcareous sandstone, coquina, calcareous conglomerate, marl,
green shale, sandy shale. There is a rich mollusca fauna locally with boulders heavily
encrusted with oysters (oyster reefs, e.g., El Salto in Nicaragua), corals, equinoids, and
cheilostome bryozoans, and biostromes consisting of bivalve Pinna (Armuelles in

Panama), usually with little volcanic influence. The marine sequence is represented by
facies association related to reef and beach environment, bay deposits, sandstone bars,
biogenetic detritus reworked by the water activity and aggradational deposits in a
marginal lagoon [14, 28, 74, 139, 173, 190, 216], or occasional lignites (Herreria in
Guatemala and Belize [15]; Venado in Costa Rica). Some of the sandstones consist
almost entirely of pumice clasts and ash (broken shards of colorless glass, sanidine,
plagioclase, pyroxene), and are locally intercalated with ignimbrites (El Salto in
Nicaragua, and Bagaces in Costa Rica).
13.6.2.2 Conglomeratic molasse (PliocenePleistocene)
Conglomerates and other coarse clastics, normally tilted at the foothills of the
cordilleras, were deposited during the tectonic and post-tectonic phase related to the
uplift of the neighboring range. Locally they reach an estimated thickness up to 2000 m
thick (Armas and Herreria in Guatemala; Barren and Gracias in Honduras; Suretka, Ro
Boquilla, El Brujo, El General in Costa Rica). The conglomerates are characterized by
a wide textural range, and constituents vary from clay particles to blocks larger than a
meter in diameter. The conglomerate usually appears in well-sorted bedded units
including sandstone interbeds and lenticular bodies of clay. Components usually are
polymictic (lavas, intrusives, ignimbrites, and sedimentary rocks; Suretka, El Brujo and
El General) or monomictic (lava boulders; Paso Real and San Vito in Costa Rica) or
acid volcanic (rhyolitic pumice and vitric ash) components (Gracias in Honduras [24]),
but debris flows, sand and redbeds are also present (e.g., Armas in Guatemala). Sand
deposits (point bars), some with climbing ripples, are from alluvial and deltaic fans
[128]. At some localities, a rich megamammal fauna is reported (Gracias in Honduras
[217]; Ro Boquilla in Costa Rica), Lower Pleistocene microfossils are also reported:
Crassoretitriletes vanraddshooveni; Lingulodinium sp., Operculodinium israelianum,
O. wallii, Polysphaeridium sp., Bombacacidites bellus, and Kuylisporites waterbolkii
(Suretka in Costa Rica [173]).
13.6.2.3 Flysch (PlioceneEarly Pleistocene)
Turbidites occur in a well-bedded turbidite sequence (very fine-grained volcaniclastic
sandstone, siltstone, and mudstone), rich in benthic foraminifera (23 km paleo-water
depths), with small channel-fill conglomerates, debris flows and large-scale
intraformational slumps. This unit ranges in thickness from 850 to 2800 m. These are
perhaps the youngest turbidite outcrops in Central America, exposed at the Costa RicaPanama boundary (Burica, Charco Azul and Punta La Chancha in Costa Rica [180,
218, 219]).
13.6.2.4 Alluvial and coastal sediments (Upper Quaternary)
Continental sediments represent several environments related to fluvial systems
(alluvial fan, terraces) and coastal environments (deltas, beaches, dunes), in more or
less graded sequences influenced by volcanic activity (lahars, debris avalanches, fallout
ash), gravitational processes (rock fall, slides), and local depositional settings (swamps,
lakes).
13.6.2.5 Lacustrine sediments (Pleistocene)

Lacustrine deposits formed behind dams of lava and ignimbrites flows, or by volcanotectonic events (e.g., caldera formation). Diatomites may be intermixed with tuffaceous
sandstones, associated with volcanic events (mainly ignimbrites or lava flows, and
tephra fallout). They usually are rich in volcanic components (ash, accretionary lapilli,
pumice and lava pebbles). Rarely, there are lignites, fresh water oolitic limestones and
silty sandtones. They have fluvio-lacustrine structures and frequently contain
megamammal fossils (Cuscatln, Cuenca de Lempa, Sisimico, and El Hoyo de la Labor
in El Salvador; Loma Camastro, Palmares, Turrcares, Ujarrs in Costa Rica; El Valle
in Panama; [27, 166, 167, 220, 221]; see also Chapter 16).
13.6.2.6 Fluvio-glacial and glacial deposits (Late PleistoceneEarly Holocene)
Different stages of moraines and fluvio-glacial deposits are recognized in some highest
regions (> 3100 m) of Costa Rica and Guatemala (see Chapters 6 and 15), or in lower
areas (< 1000 m) as striated blocks transported by fluvial systems.
13.6.2.7 Reefs (PlioceneHolocene)
Reefs are represented by massive fossiliferous limestones (e.g., floatstone, bafflestone
types), with corals (e.g., Monstratea, Porites, Stylophora, Acropora, Diploria),
bivalves, bryozoa, oysters, gastropods, ichnofossils, including sandstones and limolites,
from littoral to sub-littoral facies (Ro Banano, Quebrada Chocolate and Mon in Costa
Rica; [222, 223]; see Chapter 6). Also, there is a brown, marly, algal limestone of
Pliocene age up to 130 m thick (San Vicente in Honduras).
13.6.3 Geological history: The final closure of the isthmus of Panama

In Central America, Pliocene volcanism was concentrated in a chain of moderately
large composite volcanoes nearly parallel to, and east of, the present volcanic front
with cones that show different stages of erosion (Figs. 13.7c and 13.8c). Some still
preserve much of their constructional form or structure. Volcanic front volcanism has
been strongly episodic in southern Central America, with important eruptive peaks at
46, 12, 0.40.6 and < 0.3 Ma [121, 156, 158, 159].
At the beginning of the Pliocene, the arrival of the Cocos ridge at the trench
induced the uplift of the internal arc, producing strong erosion (molasse), and the
extinction of normal arc volcanism in the Talamanca area after 3.5 Ma [159]. During
this same period, andesitic volcanism began in the central and northern part of Costa
Rica, followed by intrusion of intermediate plutons in the paleo-volcanic front [156].
There is a widespread series of mildly to highly alkalic volcanic centers from Honduras
to Costa Rica [208].
The Panamanian landbridge barrier is well recorded by the differences in
molluskan forms in the Caribbean and Pacific sites. The Late PlioceneEarly
Pleistocene marine sediments show a clear predominance of Caribphiles and
Pacifiphiles, which is indicated by fast evolution of the mollusk species [190, 224].
Fossils from southern Central America and part of Colombia indicate that the closure
of the isthmus of Panama was almost complete at 3.73.6 Ma [216]. The final closure
allowed a land mammal exchange at 2.7 Ma [225], coincident with the glacial-induced
sea-level fall during the peak of the northern hemisphere ice-sheet growth [188]. The
Panamanian landbridge permitted the great interchange of terrestrial animals (mastodons,
saber-tooth cats, tapirs, ground sloths, armadillos, etc.) and vegetation between North
and South America. In several cases also it works as a biological filter due to
differences in topography, vegetation and climate along the isthmus [226228].
During the Pliocene the Panamanian basins filled with marine to continental clastic
sediments (fan and braided delta to alluvial fans. In the higher mountains, glaciers and
snow caps were present. Melting of this ice and snow, together with the volcanic
activity in a tropical environment, contribute to generated debris flows.
Closure of the Panamanian seaway has always been an attractive candidate for the
ultimate cause of the Pliocene intensification of the northern hemisphere glaciation
[229], although recent models suggest that the closure of the Central American seaway
does not intensify snow accumulation in high northern latitudes [230]. The last
significant change in planktonic foraminiferal assemblage occurs at 1.9 Ma related to
the last closing of the isthmus of Panama [231]. At the end of the Pleistocene,
intensification of continental glaciation resulted in sea-level changes with a stronger
amplitude [188]. Marine sediments deposited from 11,300 to 9600 years ago contain
evidence of an apparent downslope migration of some mountain forest taxa, interpreted
to reflect cooler climatic conditions during this period, especially since the deglaciation
about 10,000 yr BP [232].
In Costa Rica, the volcanoes grew mainly during the last 1 Ma, with major episodes
of cone/shield building at 0.980.85 Ma (Proto-cordillera), 0.630.40 Ma (Precordillera), and < 0.17 Ma (Neo-cordillera) separated by 0.10.3 Myrs intervals of
dormancy (erosion) and/or explosive silicic volcanism [158, 159]. Neo-volcanism
during the Middle Pleistocene to Present generated the active and dormant volcanoes
(mainly calc-alkaline, some tholeiitic) and associated ignimbrites plateaus from
Guatemala to Panama, with a 180 km-volcanic (stratovolcanoes) gap in Talamanca. In
the backarc there are small alkaline cones. Quaternary calc-alkaline volcanic rocks are
uncommon or absent in the Choc block in Central America. Some small volcanic
cones (alkaline?) are known on the Caribbean side of Panama near the Colombian
border [1].
13.7
CONCLUSIONS
Most of the ages of the metamorphic rocks (crystalline basement) are 1 Ga and 300 Ma
old. However, numerous ages around 6080 Ma probably record cooling after
important Cretaceous geologic events (Fig. 13.9).
The geological architecture of Mesozoic and Cenozoic Central America is framed
by en regional angular unconformities of Early and Late Carboniferous, Late Permian,
Late Jurassic, Albian, Campanian, Early Eocene, Early Oligocene, Middle Miocene
and latest Pliocene ages. The most recent great Phanerozoic mass extinctions (Late
Devonian: 380 and 364 Ma; Permian/Triassic: 251.0 Ma; and K/T: 65.5 Ma;
Triassic/Jurassic: 199.6 Ma), are followed in north Central America by large gaps or
discontinuities (lasting about 10, 20, 72, and 34 Myrs, respectively) in sedimentation
and magmatism (Figs. 13.4, 13.5 and 13.9).
Most of these mass extinctions could be related to the sudden CO2/CO/SO2 release
into the atmosphere by deep-lithosphere explosions (the Verneshot events of [145]).
During the Permian some rocks were deposited under deep-sea conditions as
turbidites [60, 63]. Marine carbonates appear to have been deposited on a shallow
(< 50 m depth), rapidly subsiding shelf possibly as backreef deposits [60]. A
volcaniclastic Lower Carboniferous sequence was deposited during the Late Paleozoic
convergence of North and South America, when the Maya block may have been
situated in the northern Gulf of Mexico and later emplaced as an accretionary prism of
an island arc system [15].
In the Maya and Chortis blocks, thick marine Pennsylvanian and Permian marine
platform sequences border the coeval mobile belts (Appalachian or Allegheny orogeny)
at the end of the Palezoic (Late Permian?) [1, 64].
Figure 13.9. Generalized schematic stratigraphy of northern and southern Central America with
the major discordances and orogenies (same symbology as in Fig. 13.4).
During the Late Triassic, a siliciclastic basin developed between the cratonic areas of
South and North America in response to the eastward migration of a new sea [65].
However, as a result of Late Paleozoic crustal movements the entire northern part of
the Chortis and Maya blocks became positive, resulting in a lack of marine sediments
during Triassic time [10]. Mid-Jurassic continental sedimentary rocks filled rifts that
resulted from strong tectonic extension. Several of these sedimentary sequences
laterally grade into metamorphic rocks, clearly indicating a second phase of
metamorphism that probably occurred at the end of the Mesozoic.
Continental redbeds are present in Central America from Jurassic to Pleistocene.
The lithologic similarity and age of the continental redbeds do not imply aerial
continuity of deposition but similarity of tectonic environments in tectonic depressions
resulting from uplift and continental extension.
To understand the origin of the Caribbean plate, it is necessary to identify the nature
and provenance of the basic-ultrabasic igneous complexes and related Jurassic
Cretaceous sedimentary complexes within the area. Also necessary are the recognition,
correlation, and delimiting geographic extent of Cretaceous anoxic units, old reef
deposits, as well as the petrological signature and source of the Albian to Campanian
volcaniclastic arc-like sequences. The geological history and paleogeography preMiddle Jurassic time is unresolved. But for the Late Jurassic there was almost
381
continuous sedimentation and magmatism. There are at least two models for the origin
of the Caribbean plate: a) the present Caribbean plate coming from the Pacific and b)
the formation of the Caribbean crust in an inter-American position [105, 106, 152].
Chapters 8, 11, 19 and 20 address these questions and present again the two models for
understanding the origin of Central America.
Rapid infilling (turbidite sandstones) followed by inversion basins (olistrostromes)
were frequent during CampanianMaastrichtian, MiddleUpper Eocene, Middle
Miocene and PlioceneEarly Pleistocene. Since the Miocene, turbidite outcrops have
been restricted to southern Central America. Some of the olistrostromes are
sedimentary bodies from submarine avalanches and debris flows, which collapsed from
the front of the accretionary wedge during the Late Cretaceous and Eocene. The
disruption in these bodies is related to gravity mass movements, which in turn were
related to earthquakes, sea-level changes, shallow-level tectonic deformation (e.g., off
scraping, dismembered strata, etc.), and mud diapirism. The mapable bodies of strongly
deformed stratigraphic successions could be termed tectonosomes.
It has long been suspected that the opening and closing of gateways between ocean
basins must play a major role in climate change. In view of their potential significance
for global climate change, it is remarkable how little is known ([229], and references
therein). The early Caribbean basin began as a narrow seaway between the Pacific and
Proto-Caribbean, when the last physical connection between North and South America
ended about 170 Ma. The next intercontinental connection occurred about 75 Ma ago
and lasted for about 46 Ma [233, 234], when the proto-Greater Antilles was a
landbridge between the Americas in the current position of Central America. Another
period of ephemeral landbridge in the ancestral Greater Antilles also occurred during
the Paleocene ([227, 228] and references therein).
The effect of open deep marine passage between the Americas (Chortis block and
South America) from the Late Cretaceous through the Eocene permitted the Gulf of
Mexico and Central Atlantic to be a source of warm, saline deep waters for the global
ocean [235].
MiocenePliocene marine sediments are well-developed and complex in southern
Central America. Complete separation of the Caribbean and east Pacific marine-shelf
mollusk faunas finally occurred by 3.73.1 Ma, when the Panamanian landbridge was
definitively established. Pleistocene marine deposits are more poorly constrained and
less well developed on both sides of the isthmus. The Central American marine passage
has been the subject of much study in recent years. Most authors (e.g., [236]) assume
that the closure took place in the Panama-Costa Rica region (Panamanian isthmus),
but Gartner and coworkers [237] argue that the last interchange of waters between the
tropical Atlantic and Pacific was across the isthmus of Tehuantepec, from the Gulf of
Tehuantepec into the Gulf of Mexico.
The emplacement of the oceanic plateau (CLIP: 69139 Ma) between the Americas
and interaction of the Galpagos hotspot tracks with the Central American volcanic
front (between 70 MA and present), played a fundamental role in the formation of land
bridges between the Americas during the Campanian, and Paleocene (ancestral
Antilles), and Pliocene (Central America isthmus) [113, 238]. Landbridges allowed the
exchange of terrestrial vegetation and fauna (e.g., dinosaurs, mastodons, saber-tooth
cats, ground sloths, etc.) between the Americas, and served as barriers for the exchange
of marine organisms between the Pacific Ocean, the central Atlantic Ocean and the
Caribbean Sea, and promoted new marine circulation patterns [227, 228].
In northern Central America, a belt of Cretaceous-Laramide plutons extends from
northeastern Nicaragua through southern Honduras to southern Guatemala [28].

Mesozoic plutons are located within the southern part of this region. This indicates a
shift from the northeast during the CretaceousPaleocene towards the southwest in the
Neogene [10, 24]. The migration probably was due to the development of a new
subduction zone in the Early Oligocene.
No igneous intrusive bodies of Mesozoic age have been mapped in the basins of
eastern Panama (Choc block). This is in contrast to basins in the Chorotega block,
such as the Limn-Bocas del Toro basin and the Trraba-Chiriqu basin, where igneous
intrusive bodies of various types are common. The scarcity of intrusive bodies within
the Choc block differenciated it from the Chorotega block. Pliocene calc-alkaline and
alkaline plutonic rocks have, up to now, only been found in the Chorotega block [2,
83].
Major episodes of global tectonic/volcanic activity at 8075, 63, 5553, 4238,
1614, 118, 63, and 20 Ma [200, 239], coincide with major tectonic and volcanic
pulses in Central America.
In general, the major arc or volcanic front in Central America has migrated westward
from Paleocene to the present (with the exception of Panama). During the Early
Oligocene this migration was probably due to the development of a new subduction
zone. During the Neogene, the migration was the product of slow or retrograde motion
of the upper plate and the subduction of relatively old lithosphere (> 25 Ma). This
permitted steeper subduction and seaward migration of the trench resulting in backarc
and intra-arc extension. In Costa Rica the Late MioceneEarly Pliocene (63.5 Ma)
volcanic front was, however, nearer to the coast and it migrated landward during the
Late PlioceneEarly Pleistocene (21 Ma) and Late PleistoceneHolocene (0.50 Ma).
Three major global features characterize the Pliocene and Quaternary historical
geology: (1) glaciation (including ice sheets), which are not only the result of climate
change but also a factor in forcing climate change, (2) uplift, and (3) the formation of a
very large mass of sediments (mostly residing in the deep sea), compared with the
amount of older Cenozoic and Mesozoic sediment ([229], and references therein). In
Central America, all three of these groups are well represented: (1) Glaciation is
documented at least in Costa Rica and Guatemala [10]. (2) Current coastal and
continental uplift has been reported in several areas, using different Quaternary
geology methodologies and techniques ([201, 240242], and references therein). The
most dramatic example was the uplift observed during the 22 April 1991 Limn
earthquake: 4.46 m uplift landward and 1.85 m in the Caribbean coast [242]. (3) Thick
Pliocene and Pleistocene marine and continental sediments are reported both in
outcrops [15, 128, 190, 219], and notably, in the seismic reflections and drilling of the
margins, with highest sedimentation rate in the Late Pleistocene (125 m/Myr) [17, 174,
243, 244].
Finally, a similar geological history of the Greater Antilles [109, 245] and Central
America (present work) is more than a coincidence. A regional study of the
stratigraphic correlation between these areas is necessary. This would include new
biostratigraphy and radiogenic dating, geological mapping, paleomagnetic studies,
chemical composition of the extrusive bodies, and the nature and distribution of
plutonic rocks. This would lead to a better understanding of the evolution of arc
magmatism, its paleogeography, including sedimentary sequences and synorogenic
sediments, and the major tectonic events. All these elements would provide a solid
basis for a more realistic plate tectonic reconstruction, stratigraphical correlations, and
geologic history of the region.
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Chapter 14
Onshore to offshore tephrostratigraphy and
marine ash layer diagenesis
STEFFEN KUTTEROLF, ULRIKE SCHACHT, HEIDI WEHRMANN,
ARMIN FREUNDT AND TOBIAS MRZ
In the distance raging volcanoes arise I
approach you, their oldest worthiest
monuments of time. Sitting on a high naked
summit, overviewing a wide area I can say,
here I am resting directly on a ground
reaching Earths deepest places . J.W.
von Goethe, 1784.
14.1
INTRODUCTION
In Central America, as in other regions on Earth, highly explosive, plinian volcanic

eruptions generate buoyant eruption columns capable of penetrating up to 40 km high
into the stratosphere, until they reach the level of neutral buoyancy and spread laterally.
Such eruption clouds drift with the prevailing wind and gradually drop their ash load
over areas sometimes larger than 105 km2. The resulting ash layers are best preserved in
non-erosive marine or lacustrine environments which thus provide the most complete
record of volcanic activity. Wide aerial distribution across sedimentary facies
boundaries, near-instantaneous emplacement, chemical signatures facilitating
stratigraphic correlations, and the presence of minerals suitable for radiometric dating
make these ash layers excellent stratigraphic marker beds. Marine tephrostratigraphy
provides constraints on the temporal evolution of both the volcanic source region and
the ash-containing sediment facies. The presence of chemically reactive volcanic glass
particles also affects the diagenetic evolution of the sediments.
The Central American landbridge is fairly narrow (ca. 100300 km wide), allowing
prevailing south-easterly surface and north-westerly upper level winds [1] to disperse
ash erupted at the volcanic front across marginal areas of the Pacific and Caribbean
basins (Fig. 14.1). Due to the erosive nature of the subduction process along the
western coast of Central America, ash deposited in the Pacific basin may eventually
become recycled in the subduction factory.
SFB574 scientists are investigating the products of highly-explosive eruptions
along the Nicaraguan volcanic front (NVF) in order to establish a time sequence of
subduction-zone magmatic volatile releases into the atmosphere. This approach
includes the following three methods:
Petrological/geochemical analyses of eruption products with a focus on volatile
analyses, using the volatile concentration difference between glass inclusions in
minerals and matrix glass to assess the volatile fractions released during eruption.
Regional stratigraphic correlations of tephra deposits on land and offshore with the
aid of geochemical analyses, and radiocarbon dating in order to quantify long-term

temporal changes in volcanic activity.
Mapping of the areal thickness and grain-size distribution of each deposit in order
to determine erupted magma mass, and applying volcanological modeling tools to
constrain eruption parameters such as magma discharge rate, eruption duration, and
column height.
In summary, the objectives of this study include the development of a
chronostratigraphy and understanding of the evolution of Quaternary volcanism in
Central America, in terms of composition and magnitude, and its possible implications
for climatic changes. Another aim is to establish stratigraphic correlations of forearc
sediments along the continental slope with sediments on the incoming plate. In addition
sedimentation rates can be determined and shed light on terrestrial erosion rates,
tectonic events, and slope stability. The diagenesis of ash-bearing forearc sediments
and its effect on element exchange with seawater can also be studied by using
tephrostratigraphy. Finally, these studies can lead to a better assessment of natural
hazards related to volcanic and tectonic activity.
This chapter is a review of marine tephrostratigraphic research in Central America
but also uses preliminary results from ongoing research to illustrate the methods,
applications, and implications for Central American geology of studying marine tephra
layers.
14.2
METHODS USED IN MARINE TEPHROSTRATIGRAPHY
Core drilling by the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP), Ocean Drilling Project (ODP),
and more recently by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Project (IODP) reaches deep
penetration (up to several hundred meters) into the ocean floor and is thus best suited to
extend tephrostratigraphy to great ages (in the million-year age range). Unfortunately,
its application is limited to few sites. Piston and gravity cores reach only up to 20 m
deep in soft sediments and therefore limit tephrostratigraphy to ages less than 106
years. However, they can readily be used to obtain lateral profiles or arrays of many
sections, thus providing insights into lateral stratigraphic changes or local erosion
events.
Visual identification of ash layers is easy when the ash forms mm- to cm-thick
distinct and undistorted layers. In slope settings, however, mass wasting processes
redistribute the ash and make visual recognition in core sections difficult. Core logging
techniques facilitate core description by identification of both distinct layers and
dispersed ashes in marine sediments. Standard core logging parameters include P-wave
velocity, sediment densities from gamma-wave attenuation, and magnetic
susceptibility. The most sensitive method to identify volcanic ash is magnetic
susceptibility, which is the degree to which a material can be magnetized by an external
magnetic field, and is expressed as the intensity ratio of the sediment magnetization to
an external magnetic field. The magnetic susceptibility value of natural samples is
proportional to the volume fraction of magnetic minerals [2] and is a measure of the
concentration of ash, respectively.
Basaltic ashes are most easily recognized by magnetic susceptibility because they
contain concentrations of magnetic minerals (magnetite, chromite, siderite, hematite,
titanomagnetite, franklinite, pyrrhotite) much higher than in other sediments and
therefore yield high magnetic susceptibility and density values. In contrast, felsic ash is
rich in feldspar, glass, and related weathering products which are all characterized by
low or even negative magnetic susceptibility values [3]. As a consequence, core-log
signatures of felsic ash show low or lower background magnetic susceptibility values
associated with distinct peaks in gamma density.
Petrographic and geochemical analyses are the most powerful tools in marine
tephrostratigraphic work to establish correlations between marine and terrestrial
tephras. Petrography identifies typical mineral assemblages but also textural
characteristics of the ash particles. Bulk-ash chemical analysis is done on slice samples
that are easily cut from cm-thick ash layers. Even primary fallout layers, however,
commonly contain some biogenic and clastic debris, and thin ash layers are ususally
strongly mixed with pelagic sediment. Bulk-ash analyses thus require tedious prior
separation of the volcanic material. Microanalytical techniques, in turn, can
immediately be applied to the samples except where ash thinly dispersed in sediment
necessitates prior enrichment. The most common microanalytical technique is the
electron microprobe (EMP), which determines the concentration of major, minor, and
some trace elements in volcanic minerals and glasses. Advantages of analyzing
individual glass shards include the detection of components of compositionally zoned
magmas or the identification of material from different eruptions in ash beds mixed by
reworking. Many volcanic deposits are sufficiently distinct at the major element level
and can thus be distinguished by EMP analysis of glass shards. When variations in
major elements are not sufficiently diagnostic, trace element compositions of glass
shards can be determined by Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass
Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) or by Secondary-Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS, ion
probe). Such techniques also allow to determine isotope ratios of glass shards [46].
Several trace elements and isotopes are immobile during alteration and thus are
especially well-suited for geochemical correlation [47]. K-bearing minerals can be
used for laser-fused single-crystal 40Ar/39Ar radiometric dating of ashes older than
some ten-thousand years. The ages of younger marine ash layers can be constrained by
their host sediments using established time-scales of micro fossils, oxygen isotopes,
and magnetic reversals. Another alternative is the radiocarbon (14C) dating of organic
material in correlated tephra on land. Such correlated ash layers then provide excellent
time markers across the marine and terrestrial environments. Widespread volcanic ash
and aerosols from highly-explosive eruptions provide a potential tool for correlating
stratigraphies from distant environments such as marine and terrestrial successions or
polar ice sheets. Volcanic volatiles and resulting aerosols have much longer
atmospheric residence times than ash particles and can be distributed globally, as
evidenced by sulfurous layers in polar ice sheets [8, 9].
14.3
COMPREHENSIVE MARINE TEPHROSTRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATIONS
Marine tephrostratigraphy is an excellent method that allows to connect terrestrial and

marine stratigraphic sequences in the entire region of Central America (Fig. 14.1).
Tephra studies along the Central American subduction zone extend back to the early
1980s when DSDP Leg 67 [10] was drilled off the Pacific coast of Guatemala (Fig.
14.1). Due to the rotary core drilling technique used, only ash layers in hardened
sediments (> 1520 ka) were recovered at depths down to 650 m below seafloor. Cadet
et al. [10, 11] identified 186 ash layers at seven sites of Leg 67, which can be
correlated with Central American eruptions extending back to the Early Miocene. The
397
tephra sequence from Leg 67 comprises ash layers from several prominent Guatemalan
eruptions: the 1902 eruption of Santa Maria volcano, the Los Chocoyos ash from a
source near Atitln lake, and the Pinos Altos tephra from Ayarza caldera [10, 1214].
A later study by Pouclet et al. [15] at DSDP Leg 84 (Fig. 14.1) corroborates the
observations and conclusions from near-by Leg 67. Two DSDP sites from Leg 68 (502
and 503; Fig. 14.1), located in the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea respectively,
contain Late Miocene and PliocenePleistocene ash layers which probably originated
from the Central American volcanic arc (CAVA) [16] but whose exact sources have
not yet been identified.
The Caribbean ODP Leg 165 (Fig. 14.1) revealed 2019 volcanic ash layers, which
originated from eruptions in Nicaragua, Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica, and
probably the Antilles, Mexico, and even the Andes, since the Early-Miocene [17].
Altogether, the volcanic ash layers amount to 15% by volume of the total sediment
thickness of Leg 165. These ash layers are composed almost exclusively of ryholitic
glass shards texturally resembling co-ignimbrite ash deposits on land, and are
considered to mainly represent distal fallout from major ignimbrite-forming eruptions
rather than distal plinian fallout [18]. Possible source regions include the Matagalpa
sequence (Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua), which comprises 50-m-thick
Miocene dacitic and rhyolitic ignimbrites [19]. Tentative correlations relate other ash
layers to voluminous ignimbrites and co-ignimbrite ashes of south-central Guatemala
and El Salvador, thick rhyolitic ignimbrites of the Padre Miguel group in southeast
Guatemala and Honduras, and the major siliceous ignimbrites of the Coyol group,
Nicaragua [20]. Based on the sequence at Site 999, Leg 165, Carey and Sigurdsson [1]
estimated an average ash accumulation rate of 250 cm/Myr in the marine area adjacent
to Central America. The frequency of major eruptions (c. > 10 km3 DRE = dense rock
equivalent) in the source regions is in the order of one event per 20 ka. Magnitudes of
theses eruptions, as estimated from thickness vs. distance-relationships of tephra layers,
are comparable to the largest Quaternary eruptions worldwide such as the 30 ka
Campanian ignimbrite in Italy (100 km3 DRE; [21]) or the 75 ka Toba eruption on
Sumatra (2000 km3 DRE; [22]).
Few studies have been conducted to obtain a Quaternary volcanic record in marine
sediments using piston and gravity corers to drill soft sediments. Based on minor and
trace element compositions of 128 volcanic ash samples from 56 piston cores, Bowles
et al. [23] distinguished three principal areas of ash deposition in the eastern equatorial
and southeastern Pacific Ocean. Source volcanoes were identified in Guatemala
(Tecpn-Chimaltenango basin), El Salvador (Ilopango lake), Nicaragua, Colombia, and
Ecuador. These ash layers range from < 1 cm to a maximum of 46 cm in thickness and
occur at depths ranging from 0 to 16 m. Most, if not all, of the ash layers examined are
younger than 300 ka. Based on tephrostratigraphy, Bowles et al. [23] estimated a
minimum sedimentation rate of 5.4 cm per 1000 years in the northern Pacific area near
Central America. In addition, Ledbetter [24] determined the areal distribution of eleven
tephra layers younger than 300 ka by evaluating microprobe analyses of glass shards
from more than 300 piston cores across the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and the
Pacific Ocean (Fig. 14.1). This sequence includes the two most widespread volcanic
deposits known in Central America: the Los Chocoyos ash (84 ka) and the Worzel
Layer-L (230 ka). Ledbetter [24] inferred the ages of the ash layers by comparison with
dates obtained on land, and by correlation with marine oxygen isotope curves,
foraminiferal biostratigraphy, and calcium carbonate stratigraphy. An interesting result
of this work is that ash layers can provide time markers that allow to compare age-
Figure 14.1. Map of Central America showing the CAVA volcanoes (triangles) and core
locations of ODP (solid squares), DSDP (open squares), Meteor cruise 54/2 (filled circles),
Sonne cruise 173/3 (open circles) and Ledbetter [24] (diamonds). The bold gray line shows
the extent of the Pleistocene Los Chocoyos ash from Guatemala, the most widespread tephra
covering the entire area of Central America and parts of North America.
equivalent sediments of different facies in three ocean basins.

Apart from the Los Chocoyos ash that is found all over Central America, few additional,
preliminary chemical correlations were established in this area using data from ODP and
DSDP Legs. Chemical analyses allow correlations with older tephra deposits from Guayabo
caldera found near active Rincn del la Vieja volcano in Costa Rica. Tephras from Guayabo
caldera have been correlated with marine ash layers from ODP cores and gravity cores
described by Ledbetter [24], using diagnostic trace element contents (Ti, Ca, Rb, Ba, Sr,
Zr). The youngest tephra layer (La Ese; ~600 ka; [25]) of Guayabo caldera probably
correlates with the layer I2 (core V-15-18, 13 m below seafloor; [24]). Additionally, other
marine tephras in cores from ODP Leg 170, Site 1039B (78, 88, and 133 m below seafloor),
can be correlated with Guayabo or Guachipeln volcanic deposits, e.g., chemical data from
[26]). Some of the uppermost marine tephras show similarities in componentry and
composition to deposits from eruptions of Rincn de la Vieja volcano. Time intervals between
the dated terrestrial tephras from Rincn de la Vieja volcano agree well with time intervals
between the marine ash layers inferred from average sedimentation rates within the trench
environment.
14.4
PERIODICITY AND CYCLICITY OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY IN THE

CIRCUM-PACIFIC VOLCANIC BELT
Marine tephra research leads to a more comprehensive understanding of the eruptive

history of a volcanic region. The great preservation potential of ash markers in nonerosive marine environments results in nearly complete stratigraphic records that are
optimal for studying temporal variations in volcanic activity. Eruption chronology can
then be correlated with other large-scale or global events such as climatic changes or
399
tectonic movements. Several authors have recognized variations in the frequency of ash
layers with depth in cores around the Pacific and postulated that these fluctuations
reflect changes in the frequency of explosive volcanic eruptions.
It is now widely accepted that volcanism, especially around the Pacific, operates in
large-scale temporal cycles. Kennett et al. [27] were first to recognize the episodic
nature of Circum-Pacific volcanism and identified major episodes of increased activity
at 4 Ma and during the past 2 Myr. Sigurdsson et al. [20] (ODP Leg 165) improved the
time-resolution of this first approach. These and other authors recognized peaks of
volcanic activity in the Quaternary, Middle Miocene (~1416 Ma), Late Miocene (~8
11 Ma) and latest Miocene to Early Pliocene (36 Ma) in the Northern Pacific and the
Bering Sea (e.g., [28]), the Japan trench (e.g., [29]), the Kamchatka and eastern
Aleutian volcanic front (e.g., [30]), and Central America (e.g., [10, 15, 16, 18, 26, 31]).
Similar pulses of activity recorded in several DSDP and ODP cores are shown in
Figure 14.2, which summarizes data for three major episodes of increased CircumPacific volcanism. These peaks correlate with increased subduction-related volcanism
in New Zealand (PlioPleistocene; [32, 33]) and in the western Pacific from Japan to
the Philippines (activity pulse 0.3, 0.7 Ma, and PlioPleistocene; [3436]). Pliocene
Quaternary and Mid-Miocene pulses of arc volcanism in the pacific area were also
detected by Straub et al. [37], who evaluated the tephra input into the Pacific Ocean
sediments in space and time. They estimated that approximately 1013 km3 of
volcaniclastic sediment are produced per km arc length and per million year.
Extrapolation over the life-time of major Pacific arcs and hotspot chains, combined
with a volume estimate of the distal tephra component, indicates a minimum of 9.3
106 km3 of tephra, corresponding to 23 vol% of existing Pacific oceanic sediments [37].
Since these volcanic episodes correlate with subduction related volcanism in many
other areas, Kennett et al. [27] and Cambray et al. [35] suggested that these episodes
were global in nature and related to plate tectonics. In contrast, Sigurdsson et al. [20]
pointed out that a global and simultaneous increase of explosive volcanism is too
complex and can not be explained by plate tectonics alone. These authors were not able
to recognize any ubiquitous mechanism that would be capable of exerting control on
volcanic cyclicity on a global scale. They emphasize that any subduction zone,
although principally governed by plate-tectonic movement, is also affected by regional
factors including velocity and direction of plate motion and age and composition of the
subducting slab. On the other hand, increased sediment subduction during Quaternary
time (e.g., [38]) which transports large amounts of water to depth where dehydration
of the subducted slab leads to hydration of the overlying mantle wedge and enhanced
magma production may explain the high global rate of Quaternary explosive
volcanism in support of Cambrays theory.
Understanding cyclic behavior is essential to assess broader implications of
explosive volcanism such as global climatic effects. Apart from such aspects, analysis
and correlation of marine ash layers is important for the study of individual volcanoes
or eruptions. In settings such as Central America where volcanoes are situated close to
the ocean and wind-driven ash dispersal is dominantly seaward, land-based field work
alone would provide incomplete information when it comes to quantifying volcanic
eruption processes. In the following section this is illustrated by a case study from
Nicaragua.
Figure 14.2. Eruption frequency in the Circum-Pacific area over the last 5 Ma (after [30, 35] with
data from [22]). Top: The frequency of ash layers in ODP Leg 145 near Kamchatka and the
eastern Aleutian arc increases toward the present. Bottom: Comparison of periods of
increased volcanic activity observed around the Pacific Ocean.
14.5
PRELIMINARY RESULTS FROM THE NICARAGUAN CONTINENTAL

SLOPE
14.5.1 Sediment cores and ash layers recovered on RV Meteor cruise M54/2
Sediment cores were collected in summer 2002 during cruise M54-2 by gravity coring
offshore Nicaragua near 1130N / 8730W on the lower continental slope (1200 m
water depth), and on the opposite flank of the trench (3300 m water depth), i.e., at
distances of 150220 km from the Nicaraguan volcanic front (Fig. 14.3). In autumn
2003, additional sediment cores were taken in the northern part of offshore Nicaragua
during Sonne cruise SO173/3 (Fig. 14.1). Core lengths generally extended to 3.511
m below seafloor. Cores M54-2 and M54-13, SO173-11, SO173-11.1, SO173-18,
SO173-25 and SO173-35 were taken on the Nicaraguan slope, and cores M54-11/2,
401
Figure 14.3. The Nicaraguan volcanic front (NVF, circles) and related tephra facies. White
squares show core positions of Meteor cruise M54/2 across the trench.
SO173-13.1, SO173-15, and SO173-17 were taken on the incoming plate where
average sedimentation rates are lower. Here we focus on the three M54 cores which
together contain 20 ash layers intercalated with terrigenous and pelagic sediments; the
62 ash layers in the SO173 cores are subject of ongoing analyses. Most of the ash
layers are white to grayish-pink or dark-gray to pink light-gray in color. Six dark grey
layers are of basaltic, and 14 pinkish-white layers are of rhyolitic composition. The ash
layers were named after the cores M54-11/2, M54-2, and M54-13 and the appending
depths of their occurrence in the sediment cores.
Core logging shows mafic ash layers by high magnetic susceptibility and high
density values whereas felsic ash shows low or negative magnetic susceptibility values
and high densities (Fig. 14.4). Logging identified four ash layers that were not apparent
in visual inspection of the cores. In 12 additional beds volcanic ash is dispersed in the
clastic sediment. Ash layer thicknesses range from 0.5 to 14 cm (Fig. 14.4). Most of the
layers appear to be primary fallout deposits but some are reworked. Discontinuous ash
lenses occur in the sediment sequence as well as reworked pumice clasts. The lower
contact of the ash beds is usually sharp, whereas the upper contact frequently shows a
gradual change from ash to deep marine sediment. In some cores, thin ash layers have
been disturbed by bioturbation. Admixtures of ash within terrigenous and pelagic
sediments are also frequent. Microscopic examination of light-colored ashes shows
mostly clear, colorless, volcanic glass shards and pumice fragments (Fig. 14.5a)
commonly with elongated vesicles. Each rhyolitic ash layer is characterized by a
Figure 14.4. Density and magnetic susceptibility log of core M54-11/2 from sediments on the
subducting plate offshore Nicaragua and core photographs of selected sections containing
macroscopically visible tephras. Log aberrations are due to core segment endings. Some core
disturbances are removed and indicated by a dashed line. Mafic ash layers such as (2) and (3)
are characterized by high magnetic susceptibility and density values. Felsic ash layers such as
(5) show low magnetic susceptibility values and high densities. Four of the ash layers detected
in the logging record (e.g., M54-11: 12, 128, 219 and 298 at top) had not been noted by visual
inspection of the core.
distinct modal composition and crystal/glass ratio (Table 14.1). Dark-gray ash layers consist
predominantly of a mixture of brown glass shards, black, vitreous and opaque particles and
numerous light and heavy minerals. The typical grain size of the ash-layers varies in the range of
medium silt to medium/coarse sand (< 250 m). Mineral assemblages comprise plagioclase,
pyroxene, hornblende, plus olivine in the mafic, and occasionally biotite in the most-evolved
felsic layers. Most of the glass shards in the basaltic layers have blocky shapes and are poorly
vesicular to dense (Fig. 14.5a). Mafic glass shards constitute < 40% by volume of the basaltic ash
layers, while silicic glass shards make up > 60 vol% of the felsic layers. Glass-shards in the felsic
layers have commonly pumiceous textures with elongated vesicles (Fig. 14.5a, Table 14.1).
403
Grain size of
glass Shards
(sand grades)
Glass
Crystal Mineral/ Reworked Pumice
content content % glass ratio mafic/felsic fragments
%
glass
Fluidal
structures
hbl
Felsic
M54-2-238
M54-2-290
M54-2-707
M54-13-29
M54-13-41
M54-13-59
M54-13-238
M54-13-280
M54-11/2-59
M54-11/2-68
M54-11/2-83
M54-11/2-202
M54-11/2-234
M54-11/2-311
Crystals
Possible
= many, =abundant, ?=few correlations
medium
fine-medium
fine-medium
fine-medium
fine
coarse
fine-medium
medium
medium
coarse
fine-medium
coarse
coarse
fine-medium
8090
6065
80
8090
6065
7080
7080
6070
6070
6070
6070
20
9095
7080
1015
2530
1020
1015
3040
20
2030
2030
3040
3040
20
10
510
2030
0.15
0.44
0.19
0.15
0.58
0.27
0.33
0.38
0.54
0.54
0.31
0.50
0.08
0.33
few
few
coarse
coarse
medium
medium
medium
coarse
3040
60
2030
5060
6070
6070
1020
10
1020
20
10
10
0.43
0.17
0.60
0.36
0.15
0.15
fewabundant
few
few
abundant
many
few
few
abundant
many
few
abundant
many
many
abundant
abundant
abundant
many
abund.-many
few
abundant
many
abundant
abundant
few
abundant
abundant
abundant-many
abundant
abundant
few
many
abund.-many
few
few
abundant
abundant
abundant-many
few
few-abundant
abundant
abundant-many
few
abundant
few
few
few-abundant
abundant
bi
cpx
opx
ol
M2
M1
?
?
?
M2
M1
M3
M1
?
?
M3
Mafic
M54-2-32
M54-13-350
M54-11/2-12
M54-11/2-83
M54-11/2-202
M54-11/2-267
abundant
abundant
hbl= hornblende, bi= biotite, cpx= clino-pyroxene, opx= ortho-pyroxene , ol = olivine.
?
?
M4
M4
?
Table 14.1. Petrographic features of different ash layers in cores M54-2, M54-11/2, and M54-13.
Figure 14.5. (a) Examples of the petrographic and alteration features from a felsic (left) and
mafic (right) ash layer viewed in transmitted light (top) and under crossed polarizers
(bottom); circles show altered areas in felsic ash with secondary minerals visible in polarized
light. Squares outline glass shards that appear unaltered under the microscope; (b) K2O
versus SiO2 diagram of M54 glass shards from ash layers analyzed with EMP; the ellipsoid
encircles felsic ashes which are more resistant to alteration; the arrows mark the alteration
trends in mafic tephras that contradict the optically fresh appearance in (a). A, B, C mark
compositional groups of felsic ash as identified in Figure 14.6. (Particle sizes: 0.0632 mm).
EMP major element analyses of 555 glass shards (Table 14.2) from 20 ash layers in the
3 cores yield compositions ranging from basalt to rhyolite (5179 wt% SiO2; Fig.
14.6). Analytical totals amount to 9396% in rhyolitic, and 9899% in basaltic glass
shards, probably reflecting a higher degree of hydration of rhyolitic glass (47 wt%
405
Figure 14.6. Na2O+K2O versus SiO2-diagram of M54 glass shards from ash layers analyzed with
EMP. Felsic tephras make up three compositional groups A, B, C. M1M4 identify ash
layers correlated with tephras on land in Nicaragua.
H2O) compared to basaltic glass (12 wt% H2O). Glass-shard compositions of

individual ash layers form coherent data fields in variation diagrams that can be used
for stratigraphic correlations among the cores and with deposits on land. Silicic ashes
can be divided into three compositional groups (Fig. 14.6). Group A ash is rhyolitic in
composition (7680 wt% SiO2), rich in K (3.54.5 wt% K2O; Fig. 14.5b) and
commonly biotite bearing. Group B ash is K-poor (2.53 wt% K2O; Fig. 14.5b) calcalkaline rhyolite (7377 wt% SiO2). Finally, group C ash has dacitic compositions (67
70 wt% SiO2). Overall, the chemical variations show a pattern consistent with
fractional crystallization from a range of parental compositions.
14.5.2 Identification of reworked ash

Glass shards found in the 12-cm-thick layer M54-11/2-234 also occur in small amounts
in the stratigraphically higher layers M54-11/2-202 and M54-11/2-83. Similarly, glass
shards compositionally belonging to layers M54-13-283 and M54-11/2-83 are also
found in the respective younger ash beds. These observations suggest that erosive
processes did locally rework older tephra (and sediment) that was subsequently
deposited together with new ash. Ash reworking in core M54-11/2 on the incoming
plate can be related to step-like scarps of normal bent-faults cutting the oceanic plate in
the North-Nicaraguan region of the Middle America trench (MAT) [41]. The reworked
ash occurs either as ripped-up clasts of diagenetically hardened older ash or as particle
lenses within the newly emplaced ash. We interpret these intra-clasts and ash lenses as
a result of mass wasting at nearby fault scarps occurring while deposition of primary,
new fallout ash through the water column was in progress.
Table 14.2. EMP data for tephras from Meteor cores, cores from [24], and from Nicaraguan field
study. Average data from Fontana and Upper Apoyeque pumice from [39]. All data
recalculated to 100% anhydrous total; (in parentheses: max.deviation of multiple analyses).
Sample (%)
M54-11/2-234
Los Chocoyos [22]
M54-11/2-311
G- Tephra [22]
M54-2-290
M54-13-41
M54-11/2-59
L.Ometepe
M54-2-238
M54-13-29
U. Apoyeque
M54-2-707
M54-2-32
M54-13-59
M54-11/2-83
U. Apoyo
M54-11/2-202
M54-13-350
Fontana
M54-13-238 (reworked)
M54-13-280
M54-11/2-110 (rework. part)
M54-11/2-02 (reworked)
M54-11-268 (reworked)
M54-11-12
M54-11-83
M54-11-267
SiO2
78.86
(1.66)
78.12
(1.24)
76.31
(0.82)
76.83
(0.49)
68.53
(2.46)
68.97
(2.39)
68.24
(1.33)
68.48
(2.63)
75.22
(1.41)
74.73
(1.19)
74.63
(1.28)
75.41
(0.96)
53.04
(3.45)
73.58
(1.11)
73.55
(1.71)
73.79
(0.89)
55.92
(4.13)
54.58
(6.49)
55.70
(3.89)
76.26
(0.87)
76.33
(1.16)
77.72
(0.71)
78.23
(1.54)
73.89
(1.14)
52.73
(3.29)
52.32
(1.23)
53.73
(2.85)
K 2O
3.81
(0.54)
3.92
(0.16)
4.06
(0.59)
4.24
(0.12)
2.74
(0.76)
2.70
(0.35)
2.70
(0.57)
2.68
(0.68)
2.62
(0.24)
2.66
(0.47)
2.64
(0.05)
2.82
(0.53)
1.61
(0.95)
2.59
(0.31)
2.59
(0.26)
2.64
(0.25)
1.74
(1.14)
1.50
(0.88)
1.55
(0.87)
2.87
(0.63)
2.82
(0.56)
3.79
(0.59)
3.50
(1.27)
2.68
(0.37)
1.43
(0.62)
1.55
(0.34)
1.39
(0.73)
Al2O3
12.64
(0.47)
12.77
(0.48)
13.07
(0.40)
13.25
(0.26)
15.90
(1.10)
15.96
(1.11)
16.05
(0.96)
16.04
(1.95)
13.21
(0.63)
13.57
(0.54)
13.54
(0.73)
13.54
(0.59)
14.54
(2.13)
13.99
(1.25)
14.06
(1.14)
13.84
(0.56)
15.23
(1.48)
15.26
(1.94)
15.68
(1.00)
12.96
(0.62)
13.09
(0.60)
12.81
(0.72)
12.86
(0.67)
13.80
(0.92)
14.88
(0.87)
14.37
(0.73)
15.26
(1.17)
Fe2O3
0.53
(0.29)
0.65
(0.06)
1.02
(0.43)
1.10
(0.19)
2.98
(0.78)
2.86
(0.49)
3.15
(0.77)
2.90
(0.61)
1.88
(0.49)
1.85
(0.48)
2.01
(0.23)
1.42
(0.45)
12.79
(1.93)
2.01
(0.50)
2.03
(0.59)
2.02
(0.32)
10.99
(3.09)
11.73
(3.89)
9.94
(1.35)
1.39
(0.46)
1.35
(0.32)
0.60
(0.42)
0.70
(0.36)
2.00
(0.45)
12.64
(1.63)
13.02
(1.20)
11.76
(2.60)
MgO
0.09
(0.06)
0.40
(0.12)
0.13
(0.09)
0.30
(0.23)
0.89
(0.51)
0.83
(0.42)
0.84
(0.51)
0.91
(0.39)
0.32
(0.18)
0.32
(0.17)
0.45
(0.04)
0.3
(0.11)
4.15
(1.64)
0.47
(0.26)
0.45
(0.17)
0.50
(0.09)
3.32
(1.37)
3.87
(2.55)
3.91
(1.59)
0.26
(0.23)
0.27
(0.05)
0.11
(0.11)
0.11
(0.13)
0.38
(0.16)
4.27
(1.58)
4.52
(0.60)
4.11
(1.37)
CaO
0.64
(0.25)
0.85
(0.15)
0.79
(0.15)
0.34
(0.03)
2.79
(1.15)
2.67
(0.91)
2.80
(0.76)
2.87
(1.51)
1.99
(0.48)
2.04
(0.38)
2.19
(0.34)
1.32
(0.28)
8.57
(2.47)
1.88
(0.46)
1.88
(0.42)
2.20
(0.46)
7.44
(2.51)
8.13
(3.26)
8.79
(2.05)
1.38
(0.17)
1.37
(0.12)
0.58
(0.21)
0.65
(0.40)
1.95
(0.53)
8.89
(2.10)
9.00
(1.13)
8.69
(1.68)
Na2O
2.89
(1.13)
2.99
(0.59)
3.79
(0.52)
3.26
(0.22)
5.07
(0.80)
4.93
(0.61)
4.75
(0.95)
5.12
(0.45)
3.72
(0.72)
3.75
(0.98)
3.82
(0.29)
4.17
(0.40)
3.19
(1.61)
4.46
(0.27)
4.44
(0.66)
4.28
(0.25)
3.35
(1.16)
3.22
(0.99)
2.47
(0.80)
3.81
(0.90)
3.77
(0.61)
3.76
(0.39)
3.60
(0.70)
4.20
(0.63)
3.00
(0.51)
3.05
(0.35)
3.26
(0.54)
407
Figure 14.7. The FeOt versus SiO2-diagram is particularly useful to compositionally correlate ash
layers such as M1M4, and to identify reworked ash particles mixed with primary fallout as
in M2 and M3.
14.5.3 Correlation between cores

The chemical composition of the glass shards, the modal composition of the crystal
fraction, crystal-glass ratios, and the stratigraphic order of ash layers need to be
considered when attempting stratigraphic correlations. Three white ash layers, M5411/2-59, M54-2-295, and M54-13-41, stand out in chemical variation diagrams (M1;
Figs. 14.6 and 14.7) by overlapping intermediate silica contents of their glass shards
(67.369.7 wt% SiO2; dacitic group C). Their crystal-glass ratios of 0.40.6 are
identical, as well as their modal compositions comprising plagioclase, augite, and
hornblende (Table 14.1). Layer thicknesses decrease systematically with increasing
Figure 14.8. Compositionally correlated ash layers M1 through M4 provide stratigraphic links
between the three cores M54-2, M54-13, and M54-11/2 across the trench.
distance from the volcanic front (from 8 cm through 6 cm to 3 cm). The three ash beds
thus represent a single volcanic fallout deposit (layer M1 in Figs. 14.7 and 14.8) and
hence provide a time marker across all three cores.
The younger layers M54-2-238 and M54-13-29 share compositional characteristics
such as SiO2 content in the glass (74.476.0 wt%), crystal-glass ratios of 0.15, and
plagioclase, augite and hornblende in the crystal fraction. No equivalent layer was
found in core M54-11/2. Thickness of this deposit (layer M2 in Figs. 14.7 and 14.8)
decreases from 17 cm in core M54-2 to 5 cm in nearby core M54-13, suggesting partial
erosion at the latter site.
We established a third correlation between the black-and-white ash layer M54-11/283 and the white layer M54-13-59. The black-and-white layer in core M54-11/2
contains both basaltic and rhyolitic material which is chaotically mixed. It is a primary
409
felsic ash layer mixed with several lenses of older, reworked felsic ash and up to 10%
mafic glass shards. Minor basaltic material (< 5%) is also found in the white ash layer
in core M54-13, which has a sharp lower contact but a gradual transition into the
overlying sediment and is interpreted as a primary fallout. The primary rhyolitic
material in both layers has the same chemical and modal composition (73.174.4 wt%
SiO2 in the glass, crystal-glass ratios of 0.15 and plagioclase and augite in the crystal
fraction). Thus, both layers probably originated from the same eruption (layer M3 in
Figs. 14.7 and 14.8). Another correlation (layer M4 in Figs. 14.7 and 14.8) possibly
exists between the basaltic ash layer M54-13-350 and the basaltic material in the blackand-white mixed layer M54-11/2-200, which are quite similar in chemical composition
of the glass shards.
14.5.4 Correlations with tephras on land

14.5.4.1 Quantifying explosive quaternary volcanism in Nicaragua
Onshore work in Nicaragua concentrated on the area from Len in the north to
Ometepe island in the south (Fig. 14.3), and on a time interval from 50 ka BP to the
present. We distinguished four interfingering tephra facies by their distinct stratigraphic
successions. These are, from north to south, the Momotombo facies, the Mateare
facies, the Managua-Masaya facies, and the Ometepe facies (Fig. 14.3). These
successions include products of more than 30 highly-explosive eruptions. The
composite succession of deposits from highly explosive eruptions of the Mateare and
Managua-Masaya facies is shown in Figure 14.9.
Figure 14.9. Schematic stratigraphic section showing the composite Late Pleistocene/Holocene
tephra sequence produced by highly explosive eruptions at the central Nicaraguan volcanic
front (Mateare and Managua-Masaya facies).
Eruption products range from basaltic through strongly zoned (basaltic andesite to
rhyolite) up to dacitic/rhyolitic compositions. Most are fallout deposits but ignimbrites
and pyroclastic surge deposits are also present. The most violent rhyodacitic eruptions
occurred at Apoyo caldera and the Chiltepe volcanic complex, while two mafic plinian
tephras and a voluminous surge deposit erupted from Masaya caldera. Extensive
isopach (thickness) and isopleth (grain size) mapping yielded erupted tephra volumes
Figure 14.10. Glass shard correlation of marine ash layers (from Meteor cruise M54/2) with
tephras from the Nicaraguan VF in the FeOt versus SiO2 diagram.
(calculated after [42]) that range between 2 km3 (Fontana tephra) and 7 km3 (Upper
Apoyo tephra). After subtraction of void space and lithic contents, corresponding
erupted magma masses are 2 to 7 1012 kg DRE. Using results from eruption-column
modeling [43, 44], mapping data indicate that eruption columns reached high into the
stratosphere (2538 km) at magma discharge rates in the order of 108 kg/s.
14.5.4.2 Correlations with Nicaraguan eruptions
The same procedures followed for inter-core correlations were applied to correlate
marine ash layers with tephras on land. It should be noted that chemical compositions
of marine glass shards must be compared with matrix-glass compositions of on-land
pumice, rather than bulk-rock compositions. Among the young (< 50 ka) products of
highly explosive eruptions at the central NVF (Fig. 14.9), rhyolite glass from Apoyo
caldera reaches the highest silica contents (75.275.5 wt% SiO2). Amphibole only
occurs in dacitic to rhyolitic pumices from Chiltepe and Ometepe volcanoes. Two
plinian fallout deposits from Masaya caldera have basaltic (Masaya Triple Layer, 2120
yr. BP) and basaltic-andesitic compositions (Fontana tephra, c. 50 ka).
Glass-chemical compositions (Fig. 14.10) suggest that marine ash layer M2
corresponds to the Upper Apoyeque tephra, and layer M3 to the Upper Apoyo tephra.
These correlations are supported by petrographic observations, mineral-chemistry, and
glass analyses, as well as X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (XRF) of bulk-rock
samples including trace element analysis (Table 14.3). Layer M2 shards have the same
type of strongly elongated vesicles that is typical for the Upper Apoyeque tephra, and
amphiboles in layer M2 have a composition almost identical to Upper Apoyeque
amphibole phenocrysts (Fig. 14.11). M3 is the only layer lacking amphibole, and
Apoyo pumice does not contain amphibole as a mineral phase. These two layers thus
bracket the age interval from 25 ka (Upper Apoyo) to ~12 ka (Upper Apoyeque). They
also bracket the marine ash layer M1, which most closely matches pumice from
Ometepe in both glass and mineral compositions (Figs. 14.10 and 14.11). The Ometepe
pumice in Figures 14.10 and 14.11 is the Tierra Blanca TBL3-Layer dated at
2720 60 a BP by Borgia and Wyk de Vries [40], and is thus too young to correlate
with layer M1. Layer M1 probably represents an older eruption from Ometepe which
occurred between 1221 ka but had a similar composition. Mafic layer M4 is
tentatively correlated with the Fontana tephra but this correlation needs further support
by trace element data.
411
Table 14.3. XRF whole-rock analyses of tephras on land and from offshore cores.
Sample
SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO CaO Na2O
XRF(%)
65.71 0.48 16.29 3.87 1.11 3.12 5.04
TBL3 [40]
60.56 0.57 16.96 5.05 1.68 4.41 4.49
L. Ometepe
61.25 0.48 16.66 4.95 1.37 4.26 4.74
M54-2-290
64.08 0.52 15.02 4.07 1.26 3.68 3.87
U. Apoyo
74.51 0.29 13.29 2.09 0.24 2.19 3.13
La Ese (0.6 Ma,[25])
74.92 0.24 13.43 1.91 0.63 1.84 2.69
Buena Vista [25]
Salitral (1.5 Ma, [25]) 72.70 0.38 14.37 2.96 0.63 2.28 2.96
74.75 0.38 13.73 2.39 0.60 1.74 3.21
ODP 170 Site 1039B,
78 m depth
72.63 0.33 13.80 2.17 0.74 1.54 2.85
ODP 170 Site 1039B,
88 m depth
71.60 0.34 14.10 3.49 1.08 1.77 2.83
ODP 170 Site 1039B,
133 m depth
Layer I2, ([24]; EMP); 71.75 0.51 15.73 2.56 1.12 1.88 3.07
([23]; XRF)
3.9 4.27
64.32 0.42 15.99 3.82 1.07
M54-11/2-83
ppm
Ce
La
Rb
Ba
Sr
Th
Zr
243
425
51
TBL3 [40]
196
4
537
48 1168
16
70
L. Ometepe
189
7
554
45 1179
14
56
M54-2-290
144
4
342
43 1254
14
27
U. Apoyo
163
215
73 1783
La Ese (0.6 Ma,[25])
138
299
71 1652
Buena Vista [23]
200
305
56 1657
Salitral (1.5 Ma, [25])
205
195
74 1457
ODP 170 Site 1039B,
78 m depth
135
238
101 1648
ODP 170 Site 1039B,
88 m depth
103
242
66 1876
ODP 170 Site 1039B,
133 m depth
170
210
55 1830
Layer I2, ([24]; EMP);
([23]; XRF)
137
4
378
39 1216
14
19
M54-11/2-83
82
10
107
128 1104
16
28.4
Marine Los Chocoyos
(20)
(3)
(15)
(20) (287)
(4)
(20)
[14]
67
10
103
979
115
14
51
M54-11/2-234
K2O
Total
2.60
2.14
2.03
2.05
3.82
4.25
3.56
4.01
100.58
96.33
96.06
94.84
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.89
4.65
98.82
3.69
99.01
3.49 100.00
1.88
95.84
The marine ash layers Y-8 and G in the stratigraphy of Ledbetter [24] (where Y-8
corresponds to the 84 ka old Los Chocoyos ash from Atitln volcano, Guatemala, the
most important Quaternary marker horizon in Central America) have the same glass
compositions as our group A high-silica rhyolites. They also contain biotite and
therefore potentially correlate with layers M54-11/2-234 and M54-11/2-311,
respectively. This correlation is also supported by trace element data from our XRFbulk-rock analyses (Table 14.3).
14.5.5 Role of ash layers during forearc diagenesis

14.5.5.1 Alteration of volcanic ash on the seafloor
Volatiles and fluids penetrating the forearc sediment wedge react with the sediments
and the resident pore fluids. Fluid compositions thus change in response to chemical
reactions and precipitation of diagenetic minerals which serve as transient reservoirs of
Figure 14.11. The compositions of amphibole in MgO and Al2O3 versus SiO2 diagrams support
the correlations of marine ash layers (from Meteor cruise M54/2) with tephras from the
Nicaraguan VF.
volatile components. The presence of volcanic material in the sediments, particularly of

glassy particles, can have a strong influence on diagenetic processes since volcanic
glass is highly reactive. This chapter aims to identify and quantify chemical mass
transfer and reactions between volcanic glass of various compositions and seawater
under realistic pressure and temperature conditions. Such alteration studies need to be
considered when using geochemical signatures of volcanic ash as a means of
stratigraphic correlations.
While some effort has been devoted to understand dissolution rates and alteration
mechanisms of basaltic glass (e.g., [46, 47]), only few studies have considered
intermediate or felsic ashes (e.g., [48]). Felsic ashes from highly explosive eruptions,
however, dominate the inventory of the forearc sediments off Central America and are
therefore the focus of our alteration studies.
14.5.5.2 Methodology and results
Volcanic glass as a major component of slope sediments and subducted deep sea
sediments is significantly affecting the geochemical signatures of pore water and
related diagenetic processes. New data of basaltic and felsic glass alteration were
derived from both laboratory dissolution experiments of ash and extensive field
investigations of marine tephra deposits and diagenetic processes in related pore water.
We performed alteration experiments under controlled P-T-X conditions (< 400 bar,
< 100 C, < 6 weeks) with the ashes from the marine cores of M54/2 as well as with
their respective terrestrial tephras.
Our experimental data for the very initial stage of felsic and mafic alteration prove
that the release of dissolved silica and cations such as Fe2+/3+, Mn4+, and Ba2+ is always
accompanied by a strong decrease in alkalinity and pH (Fig. 14.12). The dissolution of
ash induces an alkalinity increase due to the release and protonation of oxyanions (O2 ).
2+/3+
3+
, Al ,
In contrast, the exchange of oxidizable and/or hydrolizable cations (e.g., Fe
Ti4+) with seawater cations (e.g., Na+, K+, Mg2+) causes a decrease in alkalinity due to
the proton release during oxidation and hydrolysis. Therefore, the observed alkalinity
decrease clearly indicates that cation exchange proceeds at a much higher rate than ash
dissolution. Volcanic ash deposited in the marine environment is thus initially
equilibrated with seawater via rapid surface exchange processes accompanied by
comparably slow dissolution reactions.
413
Figure 14.12. Data from kinetic experiments with felsic tephra at three different temperatures
(24, 50, 100 C) and pressures of 200 (ac) and 1 bar (d). The y-axis shows the increase in
dissolved silica over time while the x-axis documents the strong decrease in alkalinity.
During mafic glass alteration in a marine environment, the loss of Si, Al, Mg, Mn, Ca,
Na, and K is accompanied by the active enrichment of H2O and the passive enrichment
of Fe. Microprobe data show that this very initial stage of congruent dissolution is
followed by a second stage of aging which includes the uptake of K out of the solution.
The behavior of Ca and Na does not change, still showing depletion, whereas Fe stays
immobile and becomes relatively enriched. EMP analyses indicate that alteration
results in a fragile altered shard rim which accommodates about 15 wt% of water, and
the shard progressively evolves from a basaltic composition at centre to a palagonitelike composition at the rim. The formation of such a palagonite rim can significantly
slow down alteration of the fresh glass. This is reflected by the strong gradient from
only weakly to strongly altered glass shards in the same ash layer. At more advanced
stages of alteration, element fluxes are also affected by the formation of secondary
phases such as clay minerals, zeolites, or carbonates [49].
Initial felsic ash alteration also comprises a selective extraction of elements such as
Si, Mg, Mn, Ca, Na, and K from the glass surface and the active uptake of up to 3 wt%
of H2O. Felsic tephra alteration, however, operates somewhat differently from that of
basaltic ash. Analyses of glass shards using Electron Microprobe indicates progressive
gain of usually insoluble components (Mg, Al, Mn, Fe) with ongoing alteration. At the
advanced stage of alteration, a palagonite-like interstage product is missing. Felsic
glass alteration processes result in a nearly complete dissolution of the glass followed
by crystallisation of secondary minerals (smectite, phillipsite, analcime) [50] which is
illustrated by the well-constrained composition of felsic ash layers and our
experimental data described below.
Table 14.4 summarizes the elemental exchange between felsic and mafic ash and
seawater during the two stages of alteration. Clearly, mobile elements such as Ca, Na,
Table 14.4. Chemical evolution of basaltic and felsic glass during seawater alteration.
Mafic glass
Felsic glass
UnalLeached Palago- Clay
UnalLeached Seawater
tered
glass
nite rim (smectered
glass
basaltic layer
tite)
basaltic layer
glass
(< 1 m)
glass
(< 1 m)
Chemical contents (wt%)
Chemical contents (wt%)
481)
44
precipi50
62
SiO2
55
70
SiO2
10
tation of
10
17
12
13
6.5
Al2O3
Al2O3
2.5
smectite
2.5
2.0
3.0
3.5
0.44
Na2O
Na2O
8.0
kaolinite
8.0
0.5
9.5
0.5
5.4
CaO
CaO
25
out of
25
7.0
15
2.5
17
FeO
FeO
4.8
the
4.1
2.0
3.5
0.5
5.9
MgO
MgO
0.75
solution
1.5
1.3
0.8
2.2
0.01
K 2O
K 2O
0.55
0.55
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.92
MnO
MnO
1)
Data taken from [47].
and Mg must be carefully considered when using chemical composition of ash layers to
establish stratigraphic correlations.
14.5.5.3 Discussion of results
As shown in Figures 14.12ad, seawater is enriched in silica during interaction with
volcanic glass at 1 and 200 bar. Van Capellen et al. [51] estimated the saturation
concentration of biogenic silica at 1 bar under different temperature conditions using
equation (1):
log Cs = 6.44 . (968/T)
(1)
where:
Cs = solubility of silica (mol/L)
T = absolute temperature (K)
Saturation concentrations of silica for our experiments at 1bar calculated from Equation
(1) are given in Table 14.5. Comparison of these results with our experimental data
(Table 14.5, third column) shows that Equation (1) can be used for basaltic alteration
trends. However, data for felsic alteration runs differ (Fig. 14.13). Our experimental
data emphasize that the dissolved silica concentrations in our experiments are higher
than sediments actually could achieve. Felsic ashes seem to be very reactive phases
within marine sediments and therefore need to be considered as one of the major silica
sources next to biogenic silica when sediment composition is dominated by volcanic
ashes of felsic composition [51]. Alteration trends of mafic and felsic tephra similar to
the experimental results were observed in ash layers which were recovered from
sediment cores during RV Meteor cruise M54/2. Nearly all glass shards of each
mafic tephra layer were altered and the degree of alteration was variable, but not seen
under the microscope. In contrast, felsic glass shards were generally fresh and
coexisted with only some strongly altered shards which can be identified clearly by
secondary mineralization visible in polarized light (Fig. 14.5a). Shards showing
intermediate stages of alteration are absent.
415
Figure 14.13. Data from kinetic experiments with felsic and mafic tephra from Nicaragua at
24 C and 1 bar. Note the much stronger increase in dissolved silica over time with felsic
than with mafic ash.
Most elements enriched in pore water by alteration processes are largely re-deposited
due to secondary mineralization which may also act as a sink for trace elements lost
during alteration. Lavas from Central America reflect a strong influence of variably
composed Cocos plate sediments [52]. Element ratios with large stratigraphic
variations in Cocos plate sediments (e.g., Ba/Th, U/La) indicate that marine
stratigraphy exerts some control on geochemical characteristics of the lavas. The
knowledge of glass alteration as a sink and source for REE will therefore enhance the
understanding of the chemistry of the volcanic input and output in the Central
American subduction zone.
Table 14.5. Solubility of silica (Cs) at 1 bar under different temperature conditions (after [51])
compared to our experimental data (Simax).
Temperature
Cs in mol
Simax in mol
24 C
1520
3840
50 C
2780
1230
100 C
7010
2470
14.6
CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF AN INTEGRATED MARINE AND

TERRESTRIAL TEPHROSTRATIGRAPHY IN CENTRAL AMERICA
14.6.1 Implications for eruption dynamics and event chronology

The marine tephras of the Nicaraguan continental slope extend the reconstructed areal
thickness distribution of volcanic fallout deposits from 50 km (as traceable on land) to
more than 250 km from source. Calculated erupted tephra volumes including the
marine tephra dispersal almost double the volumes estimated from terrestrial data alone
(e.g., Upper Apoyo tephra; Fig. 14.14). More precise assessments of erupted tephra
volumes (or magma masses) are essential when studying various aspects of subduction
zone volcanism such as
temporal and regional variations of magma discharge,
time-averaged magma discharge as a function of magma composition,
volatile input into the atmosphere, and
risk assessment from temporal evolution of eruption magnitudes.
Older volcanic deposits are commonly only sporadically exposed on land, leaving the
Figure 14.14. Example isopach map of the Upper Apoyo tephra illustrating the significance of
marine tephra data for the areal distribution. The inset figure shows isopach thickness versus
square-root of isopach area data from three tephras used to calculate their volumes after [42].
Note how the offshore segments of the lines contribute to the total volume. Fontana is an
eruption, coming from Masaya caldera.
stratigraphic record partially incomplete. This problem can be solved by correlation

with marine sediment cores that better preserve the stratigraphic successions. Thus, our
Meteor cores contain ash beds especially in the lower core sections for which
corresponding deposits on land have not yet been found.
Several sulfur and chlorine spikes from yet unknown sources were identified in
Greenland ice-cores (e.g., [8]). Theses peaks fall close to the time periods when
volcanoes in Nicaragua produced 2232 km high eruption columns. Our ongoing work
will show if such a correlation can be substantiated.
14.6.2 Implications of diagenesis

There is a growing interest in the interaction between volcanic glass and seawater,
especially in the Central American forearc sediments, because of the extensive
volcanism that occurs along the volcanic chain of Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Natural
waters obtain their chemical composition through chemical reactions with the
surrounding rock [45]. Therefore, the alteration of volcanic glass by seawater in the
417
Central America subduction zone can be considered as one of the most important factor
contributing to the subduction process, since altered glass is one of the major sediment
fractions that is transported down the slope and into the subduction zone, where it may
affect future subduction zone processes including arc volcanism.
14.6.3 Implications for marine sedimentation or erosion rates

Dated ash layers allow determination of time-averaged sedimentation rates for
interbedded sediments. Results obtained from single cores must, however, be regarded
with caution. In Nicaragua for example, the 2111 ka interval between M2 and M3 in
core M54-13 contains 19 cm clastic sediment; the M2 to M1 section of the interval in
core M54-2 contains 35 cm sediment, and the M1 to M3 section in core M54-11/2
contains 45 cm sediment. This would suggest that sedimentation rates are highest on
the incoming plate rather than on the continental slope. A more detailed investigation
of sediment composition and structure is clearly necessary to clarify the reasons for this
phenomenon. It seems reasonable to assume that the seemingly low sedimentation rates
on the slope reflect in fact high and locally variable erosion rates and a variable
depositional environment. On the other hand, the peculiar morphology of the incoming
plate with up to several hundred meter high scarps generated by bent-faults [41]
suggests that sedimentation rates may have dramatically increased near M54-11/2 by
mass wasting at these scarps.
In summary, marine tephrostratigraphy provides a powerful tool that can be applied
in a wide range of geoscientific fields in Central America. Results from the Meteor
cruise M54/2 at the Nicaraguan slope will be extended by more data from new cores
obtained during Sonne cruise SO173 and following research cruises along the Middle
America trench. Such interdisciplinary approaches are necessary to achieve a more
comprehensive understanding of past, present, and possibly future geologic processes
in Central America.
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Woods, A.W.: The dynamics of explosive volcanic eruptions. Rev. Geophys. 33 (1995),
pp.387414
Stumm, W. & Morgan, J.J.: Aquatic Chemistry Wiley, New York, 1996.
Berger, G., Claparols, C., Guy, C. & Daux, V.: Dissolution rate of basalt glass in silica-rich
solutions: Implications for long term alteration. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 58 (1984),
pp.48754886.
Staudigel, H. & Hart, S.R.: Alteration of basaltic glass: Mechanisms and significance for
oceanic crust-seawater budget. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 47 (1983), pp.337350.
Fiore, S., Huertas, F.-J., Huertas, F. & Linares, J.: Smectite formation in rhyolitic obsidian as
inferred by microscopic (SEM-TEM-AEM) investigation. Clay Minerals 36 (2001), pp.489
500.
49. Stroncik-Treue, N.A.: Low-temperature alteration of mafic volcanic glasses - chemical

evolution, mass-balancing and kinetics. PhD thesis, 2000.
50. Schmincke, H.-U.: Pyroklastische Gesteine. In: H. Fchtbauer (ed): Pyroklastische Gesteine.
Schweizerbartsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart, 1988 pp.731778.
51. van Capellen, P. & Qiu, L.: Biogenic silica dissolution of sediments in the Southern Ocean, I,
Solubility. Deep Sea Research Part II 44 (1997), pp.11091128.
52. Patino, L.C., Carr, M. & Feigenson, M.D.: Local and regional variations in Central American
arc lavas controlled by variations in subducted sediment input. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 138
(2000), pp.256283.
421
Chapter 15
Late Quaternary lake and swamp sediments:
Recorders of climate and environment
SALLY P. HORN
The bottoms of the lakes and their borders,
where they could be observed, are covered
with sandy and stony sediment, and in some
areas the process of infilling was noted; with
time these lakes will be converted to
peatlands. R. Weyl: Vestigios de una
Glaciacin del Pleistoceno en la Cordillera
de Talamanca, Costa Rica, A.C. Informe
Semestral JulioSetiembre, 1955.
15.1
INTRODUCTION
Paleoenvironmental investigations of the sediment records of natural lakes and

wetlands have provided information on Late Pleistocene and Holocene climates,
vegetation, fire regimes, and natural and human disturbances at sites throughout
Central America. Various sediment coring systems have been used to sample basins of
the region; these range from heavy, truck-mounted drilling rigs of use only in areas
with road access, to lightweight, manually-operated piston corers that can be hauled to
remote locations on researchers backs. Field sampling is followed by laboratory work
including description and documentation (using photography or X-radiography) of
sediment stratigraphy; analyses of water and organic contents and other physical and
chemical properties of sediments; dating using radiocarbon or other means; and the
sampling and analyses of pollen, charcoal fragments, phytoliths, diatoms, stable
isotopes, and other sedimentary components that provide information on past climate
and environmental conditions. Interpretations of stratigraphic datasets rely on
knowledge of modern environmental controls of the proxies under consideration [1, 2].
Techniques for selecting and coring sedimentary basins and for analyzing and
interpreting a large array of sedimentary proxies are discussed in the recent fourvolume series, Tracking Environmental Change Using Lake Sediments [36];
additional, highly practical guidance on sediment coring and tropical pollen analysis in
particular is available in a second recent volume [7].
15.2
CLIMATE HISTORY IN CENTRAL AMERICA
Evidence of climate history preserved in neotropical lake and swamp sediments has
revolutionized thinking on Late Pleistocene and Holocene climate. Twenty-five years
ago, members of the CLIMAP Project1) reported that sea surface temperatures in the
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1)
The Climate: Long-Range Investigation, Mapping, and Prediction (CLIMAP) project was funded by the
U.S. National Science Foundation as part of the International Decade of Ocean Exploration Program.
equatorial tropics at ~18,000 years before present (BP) during the last full glacial
period were at most 2 C cooler than those of the present outside of limited regions of
active upwelling [8, 9]. While ice had covered large areas in the higher latitudes of
North and South America, and formed small glaciers on the highest peaks of central
Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, and the northern Andes, the
neotropical lowlands were thought to have been only marginally, if at all, affected by
glacial cooling. The Holocene epoch, which began when the continental ice sheets and
glaciers last retreated, was also thought to have been characterized in the neotropics by
climate stability. The presumed long-term stability of tropical climates figured
prominently in explanations of the high biological diversity of neotropical forests [10].
Paleoclimate research over the last 25 years has led to the rejection of the
assumption of tropical climate stability and its replacement with strong evidence that
glacial-age climates of the tropical lowlands as well as highlands were distinctly cooler
than those of the present, and that the Holocene was itself a time of considerable
climate variability. Much of this evidence derives from analyses of sediment cores
from lakes and swamps. Meanwhile, the original CLIMAP ocean temperature estimates
based on proxy evidence from marine sediment cores are being reevaluated, and new
data from marine sediments and corals suggest greater oceanic cooling [9]. Evidence
from sediment cores from lakes and swamps is central to current efforts to understand
mechanisms for climate change and resulting patterns across time and space in Central
America. Lacustrine sediment records have also revealed dynamic histories of natural
and human disturbance that have shaped ecosystems throughout the region. Human
impacts and some types of natural disturbances were influenced by climate history, and
in some cases may have themselves influenced climate.
With the exception of the 18,000 yr BP date mentioned above, which is a
radiocarbon age, this chapter reports dates as calibrated ages (cal yr BP, see Appendix
at end of chapter). To facilitate comparison between records, the overview of Late
Pleistocene and Holocene climates is divided into three sections, following divisions in
the literature [1114]: the Late Pleistocene and transition to the Holocene (prior to
~11,500 cal yr BP), The Early to Mid-Holocene (~11,500 to 4000 cal yr BP), and the
Late Holocene (after ~4000 cal yr BP). Figure 15.1 shows the location of study sites
discussed below. Figure 15.2 compares major climate trends and aspects of watershed
history documented in selected Central American sediment records. Figure 15.3 shows
selected types of pollen found in Central American sediments, and Figure 15.4 shows
some of the coring sites and sediment cores described in this chapter.
15.2.1 The Late Pleistocene and transition to the Holocene

Lacustrine sedimentary sequences from modern lakes and swamps that extend into the
Late Pleistocene are less common than Holocene sequences, but analyses of securely
dated records are presently available from Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Panama. These
records, along with others from Mexico, South America, and the Caribbean,
demonstrate glacial-age cooling of ~5 C throughout the neotropical lowlands [9], and
even greater cooling in the highlands. In the Mayan area of northern Central America
and adjacent Mexico, glacial-age climates were also drier, and only the deepest lakes
held water [14]. Quexil lake in Guatemala (Fig. 15.1) has the most complete record and
is likely representative of the region [1418]. Long cores comprised of lacustrine clays
(Pleistocene age) and gyttja (Holocene) were recovered using a Kullenberg-type
Figure 15.1. Locations of sediment coring sites mentioned in text. The choice of lake or laguna in site names follows from the original publications.
425
gravity corer and a split-spoon corer operated by a professional drilling company [19].
Pollen percentages and data from geochemical and stable isotope analyses show that
the climate during the Interstadial period from ~38,00027,500 cal yr BP was moist
(but less so than the present) and supported mesic temperate forest. Paleotemperatures
calculated using estimated elevational changes for vegetation associations suggest
conditions 4.76.5 C cooler than at present. During the last glacial maximum
(~27,50016,800 cal yr BP), climate was colder and drier, and supported only sparse
thorn-scrub, grasses, and cacti. Temperatures may have been as much as 6.58 C
colder than at present, and the lake was probably an intermittent marsh. Carbon
isotopes in leaf wax n-alkanes reveal the dominance of C4 plants, likely favored by
aridity and lowered atmospheric carbon dioxide [20]. From 16,80011,400 cal yr BP,
climate ameliorated and mesic temperate oak and hardwood species expanded into the
region, although vegetation remained sparse. During the first half of this period,
temperatures were slightly warmer than during the last glacial maximum, but they
declined during the second half of this period, which corresponds to the Younger Dryas
climatic reversal [21]. Forests stopped expanding and temperatures dropped by up to
1.5 C. Charcoal deposition increased, perhaps due to increased lightning fires ignited
by more frequent or severe thunderstorms. In no part of the Late Pleistocene did pollen
from taxa of warm, mesic tropical lowlands reach detectable levels in the Quexil core
samples: extensive rain forests only developed during the Holocene.
The Costa Rican sediment records that extend into the Late Pleistocene are from
two high elevation bogs located within a few kilometers of each other on the western
end of the Talamanca cordillera. Parque Vicente Lachner at 2400 m was sampled using
a Hiller peat borer to a depth of 13 m [22]. The site is presently surrounded by montane
rain forest dominated by several species of oak (Quercus). Full glacial sediments
(~24,500 cal yr BP) are dominated by nonarboreal pollen (particularly Poaceae,
Asteraceae, and Apiaceae) with abundant spores of club moss (Lycopodium) and
quillwort (Isoetes) and only sparse pollen of Quercus and other montane forest trees. A
lower section beyond the reach of radiocarbon dating (> 38,000 cal yr BP) shows
similar assemblages, in both cases indicating the replacement of montane forest by
treeless pramo communities that would require glacial cooling of at least 3.6 C.
Pollen analysis at La Chonta bog (2310 m) has provided a more detailed record of
montane vegetation and climate change [2325]. Interpretations are based on several
cores recovered using a Dachnowsky sampler in contiguous sections 2025 cm long to
a depth of up to 11.2 m. Five principal pollen zones were recognized. The basal pollen
zone was beyond the reach of radiocarbon but estimated to correspond to the period
from ~80,00050,000 cal yr BP; it shows evidence of four warm intervals (in which the
site was located within the montane rain forest, as it is today), and three cold intervals
(during which time the site was located at or near the upper forest limit). Pollen zone 2
above it represents the last glacial interval from ~50,00015,600 cal yr BP. As at
Parque Vicente Lachner, the pollen in these glacial-age sediments indicates that the site
was then surrounded by treeless pramo; the upper forest limit is estimated to have
been at ~2100 m elevation, indicating temperatures 78 C cooler than at present. At
the beginning of the late glacial (zones 3, 4) the upper forest limit rose as high as
27002800 m, indicating a temperature increase of up to 4.6 C; precipitation may
have increased. The upper forest limit dropped 300400 m during the Younger Dryas
chronozone from ~13,10012,300 cal yr BP [24], indicating a temperature decline of
Figure 15.2. Summary of major climate trends documented in Central America sediment records, with notes on watershed vegetation and fire regimes. See text
and original references (in parentheses atop each column) for more information. Bold lines indicate relative temperature changes, and shading indicates
relative moisture conditions compared to the record as a whole. Lack of shading indicates intermediate moisture conditions or uncertainty. TBJ refers to Tierra
Blanca Joven (TBJ) eruption of Ilopango volcano, El Salvador, at 1520 cal yr BP, which resulted in depopulation and forest recovery in the area surrounding
Laguna Verde [40]. Note changes in scale after 1000 cal yr BP and before 20,000 cal yr BP. This diagram is modeled after Fig. 11 in reference [34].
427
23 C. From ~12,30011,200 cal yr BP, the subalpine rain forest was gradually
replaced by montane rain forest as both the forest limit and temperatures rose toward
present-day values.
The magnitude of full glacial temperature depression inferred at La Chonta and the
identification of a Younger Dryas (YD) climate reversal are in good keeping with the
glacial and climate history of Cerro Chirrip 50 km to the SSE, which supported small
ice caps and glaciers during the Late Pleistocene [2628] and showed a glacier advance
during the YD chronozone [27]. Reconstructions of glacial temperature depressions
from equilibrium line altitudes in the Valle de las Morrenas [27] and on the massif as a
whole [28] both showed temperatures on the order of 8 C cooler during advances
before the YD advance. However, whereas a gradual shift to Holocene climate
conditions following the YD-age event was inferred at La Chonta [25], radiocarbon
dating of basal organics in lakes sediment cores from Morrenas lakes 0A, 1, and 4
(located beneath upper, middle, and lower limits of the YD glacier in Valle Morrenas)
are very close in time, all falling within 10,240 and 9530 cal yr BP [27]. This indicates
rapid deglaciation of the valley suggestive of an abrupt shift in climate more in line
with that recorded in Greenland ice cores [29].
Lake sediments preserved in El Valle crater in Panama (floor at 500 m) were
recovered to a depth of 55 m using truck-mounted well-drilling equipment [30]. The
abundance of Quercus and other montane pollen types suggests that temperatures were
56 C lower that at present from ~16,80011,400 cal yr BP, but were somewhat
warmer prior to this period, a trend opposite that noted at Quexil lake [14].
Reconstructed lake levels indicate conditions drier than present for most of the Late
glacial period [30].
A more detailed record of Late glacial vegetation and climate is available from La
Yeguada lake at 650 m in central Pacific Panama [3134], from which two cores 13 m
and 17.5 m long were recovered and analyzed for pollen, charcoal, diatoms, phytoliths,
geochemistry, clay mineralogy, loss-on-ignition, and pigments. Results indicate that
temperatures during the Late Pleistocene (~17,10013,000 cal yr BP) were ~5 C
cooler that at present, allowing a montane forest assemblage that included Quercus and
Magnolia to exist some 900 m below its present lower altitudinal limit of 1500 m.
Finely laminated sediments suggest a strongly seasonal precipitation regime. This
period may not have been uniformly cold: peaks in diatoms that are characteristic of
elevations below 800 m and in pollen of plants from moist mid- and low-elevation
forests in the lake sediments suggest a brief warming event at ~16,800 cal yr BP.
Moisture availability begins to increase late in this period, and warming is evident by
~13,00012,500 cal yr BP, when pollen and phytoliths of lowland plants increase. A
shift to less regular laminations, the deposition of kaolinite clays, and increases in
epiphytic diatoms and aquatic macrofossils are interpreted as further evidence of
warmer and wetter conditions. From 12,500 cal yr BP to the present, pollen and
phytoliths indicate dominance by taxa of moist lowland tropical forest. The record does
not indicate Younger Dryas cooling, although the interval was a time of major
transition in watershed vegetation [21].
Pollen analysis of samples from deep cores drilled for engineering studies in the
Gatn basin of Panamas canal zone provided additional evidence of glacial-age
environments in Panama [35]. The sediments investigated were deposited in a coastal
swamp under the influence of the postglacial rise in sea-level, and the vegetation
history revealed by pollen analysis largely reflects alterations of edaphic conditions
owing to these sea-level changes. Some indications of past climate shifts were also
Figure 15.3. Pollen grains found in Central American sediments. (a) Malpighiaceae;
(b) Bombacaceae; (c) Hedyosmum; (d) Alchornea; (e) Ficus; (f) Diporate Urticales:
(g) Cyperaceae; (h) Alnus; (i) Quercus; (k) Rhizophora; (l) Poaceae. Grains are shown
magnified about 1500.
noted. Late glacial sediments contained pollen of several taxa that were believed to
only grow upslope of the canal zone, including Ericaceae, Ilex, and Podocarpus in
sediments deposited ~37,600 cal yr BP, and Ericaceae, Iriartea, Symplocos, and
429
Podocarpus in sediments deposited from 13,18010,900 cal yr BP. Assuming a

downslope migration of these taxa of 500 m and a lapse rate 5.0 C/1000 m yielded an
estimate of glacial cooling of at least 2.5 C [35]; a recent reinterpretation based on an
downslope migration of 1000 m of Iriartea and the lack of Quercus pollen in the
assemblages indicates glacial cooling of 58 C, in line with other Central American
records [9].
15.2.2 The Early to Middle Holocene

Semi-evergreen tropical forest was established at Petn-Itz lake [36] and throughout
the Mayan lowlands of northern Guatemala by ~10,000 cal yr BP [14]. Pollen and
other indicators in cores from lakes Quexil, Petn-Itz, and Salpeten document warm
and moist conditions from ~10,000 to 6500 cal yr BP [14, 20]. Between ~6500 and
4000 cal yr BP, the climate may have become drier. Vegetation around lakes Quexil,
Petn-Itz, and Sacnab became more open, with an increased representation of
savanna-like associations, and Salpeten lake showed both lower pollen concentrations
and an increase in secondary forest taxa [14, 37, 38]. The region appears, however, to
have remained primarily forested until ~4000 cal yr BP, when definite indicators of
human disturbance become prominent in all sediment cores [14]. Whether cultural
effects, rather than or in addition to climate, might explain the earlier reduction of
forest remains open to debate [14, 39].
Pollen analysis of a 9 m sediment core from Laguna Verde in highland El Salvador
(1600 m) showed that tropical plant taxa grew at higher elevations during the MidHolocene, suggesting conditions warmer and wetter than at present between ~8000
5500 cal yr BP [40]. Reductions in these taxa from ~55003500 cal yr BP are
interpreted to reflect a return to cooler, and also drier, conditions at this time [40].
Holocene pollen assemblages at La Chonta and in two undated cores from the
nearby Trinidad bog [41] that were correlated with the La Chonta record suggest wetter
conditions during the Early to Mid-Holocene (~10,7005200 cal yr BP) than the Late
Holocene, but little or no change in temperature [41]. Analyses of pollen, diatoms, and
microscopic and macroscopic charcoal in the sediments of Morrenas lake 1 (3477 m) in
the glaciated Chirrip massif of Costa Rica are consistent with interpretations of the La
Chonta and Trinidad bog profiles. These records indicate that the site has supported
treeless pramo vegetation much like that of the present since deglaciation, with no
evidence of a higher forest limit in the Mid-Holocene [42]. Overwhelming dominance
of the diatom flora by a single species of Aulacoseira suggests that the lake has always
been cold, polymictic, and very clear [43]. Charcoal peaks indicate periodic fires set by
humans or lightning [42]. High resolution macroscopic charcoal data (based on sieving
samples at contiguous 1 cm intervals) revealed especially low charcoal influx between
77004800 cal yr BP, suggesting that this period may be among the wettest of the
record [44]. Sediments of this interval also showed higher percentages of Alnus pollen
blowing upslope from montane forests [42]. Both findings are consistent with
lacustrine evidence from other sites in the wider circum-Caribbean region that suggests
that the wettest period in this region occurred between ~78005700 cal yr BP [12].
Only earliest Holocene sediments were recovered at El Valle, but these show an
increase in lowland pollen types between ~11,40010,200 cal yr BP that was
interpreted to indicate the establishment of warm, wet conditions similar to those of the
present [30]. Pollen evidence from La Yeguada lake, Panama, also documented a warm
Figure 15.4. Central American sediment coring sites and cores: (a) Setting up anchored platform
for coring glacial lake in the pramo of Chirrip national park, Talamanca cordillera, Costa
Rica; (b) Coring Machita swamp, La Selva biological station, Caribbean lowlands of Costa
Rica; (c) Edge of La Chonta bog, Talamanca cordillera, Costa Rica, showing portion of bog
surface and surrounding montane rain forest; (d) Near-surface sediments from Morrenas lake
1, Talamanca cordillera, collected in a plastic tube; (e) Portion of sediment core from
Cantarrana swamp, La Selva biological station. Finger points to macroscopic charcoal dated
to 3200 cal yr BP.
and wet Early Holocene, but a relatively drier phase between ~92006600 cal yr BP
was inferred from geomorphic and phytolith evidence of lower lake levels [34, 45].
Wetter conditions and higher lake levels returned at ~6600 cal yr BP.
431
The continued presence of Iriartea pollen in Gatn basin sediments deposited near
sea-level from ~10,9008100 cal yr BP (accompanied by Ericaceae and Symplocos in
the first half of this period) suggests that the cooler conditions of the late glacial period
may have persisted into the Early Holocene at this site [35]. Sediments deposited
between ~81004800 cal yr BP contained abundant pollen of two genera (Ilex and
Myrica) that were believed to grow only in areas that were higher in elevation and drier
than the Gatn core sites. The presence of these pollen types was interpreted as
evidence of more pronounced seasonality along the Caribbean coast during the MidHolocene. However, this interpretation has been called into question by a recent study
of pollen assemblages in the Changuinola swamp in Panama [46], in which modern
surface sediments deposited at sea-level were found to contain both Ilex and Myrica
pollen.
Sediment characteristics, pollen, and phytoliths were examined in two cores drilled
in lacustrine and underlying sediments of the Monte Oscuro crater (floor at 10 m) on
the central Pacific coast of Panama. Results show that deciduous forest expanded into
the crater during the Early Holocene, following an arid period prior to lake formation
when the dry lake bed and surrounding slopes supported savanna-like vegetation [47].
This earlier period has not been dated, but should correspond to the latest Pleistocene if
there is no hiatus in sedimentation.
15.2.3 The Late Holocene

A trend toward distinctively drier climates beginning ~3200 cal yr BP has been noted
in the circum-Caribbean region [12], but considerable variability is apparent in the
timing and magnitude of the increased aridity. Sediments of La Chonta and Trinidad
bogs also indicate drier conditions during the Late Holocene [41], marked by the
increased dominance of Quercus in surrounding forests and of Hypericum on the edges
of La Chonta bog. High charcoal influx at Morrenas lake 1 and at Lago Chirrip in an
adjacent glaciated valley appears to signal drying as well as possible human impacts
[42, 44]. Two distinct lenses of macroscopic charcoal in Lago Chirrip argue for two
periods of reduced lake level at ~2400 cal yr BP and ~1100 cal yr BP [48]. These
periods coincide with two of three dry periods identified from analyses of oxygen
isotopes and geochemistry in sediment cores from lakes of the Mexican Yucatn, and
from analyses of these and other proxies in lake and marine cores from sites in the
Caribbean and northern South America [49]; the dry periods reflect century-scale
climatic variability that may be explained by solar forcing [49]. The most recent of the
drought intervals evident at Lago Chirrip corresponds to the demise of the classic
Maya civilization, believed to be in part a consequence of a severe Holocene drought
[12, 19, 39, 4951].
At Wodehouse lake, Panama, diatom assemblages suggested three possible Late
Holocene dry phases when lake level was reduced: the first from 41904040 cal yr BP,
the second from 36602610 cal yr BP, and the last from 1850 cal yr BP to the present
[52]. Interpreted as local events, they are out of phase with drought intervals noted at
Lago Chirrip and in the Yucatn and wider circum-Caribbean region [49]. The La
Yeguada lake, Panama, record indicates relatively moist conditions throughout this
period, with a possible drop in lake level at ~2000 cal yr BP [34]. This drop in lake
level may be associated with a coeval shift toward less intensive agricultural use of the
watershed, possibly triggered by land degradation [33].
15.3
HUMAN USE AND MODIFICATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Sediment records from natural lakes and wetlands in Central America have provided
key evidence for understanding how both pre- and post-Columbian human societies
used and modified their environment. Pollen and charcoal records document forest
clearance, burning, and agriculture beginning ~40003000 cal yr BP or earlier in the
Mayan lowlands of Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras [14, 5357] and the Mexican
Yucatn [17]; in the uplands of Guatemala [58]; in both upland and lowland sites in El
Salvador [40]; and at low- to mid-elevation sites on both the Pacific and Caribbean
slopes of Costa Rica [5964] and Panama [33, 34, 47, 52, 6567]. An early review
paper [68] correctly anticipated that this long history of agricultural landuse would
complicate efforts to reconstruct climate from the records, as the environmental
impacts of pre-Columbian agriculture might in some ways mimic impacts of climate
change. It has indeed proven difficult to untangle climate and human impact signals in
many Central American pollen records, but multi-proxy and multi-site efforts are
refining our ability to do so [14, 19]. It is moreover becoming increasingly clear that
we are seeing in the evidence of human impacts not simply a compromising factor
[68] for paleoclimate studies, but human responses to Holocene climate variability and
change [19, 39, 69], that may have themselves in turn influenced climate.
Sediment records documenting fluctuations in charcoal influx and in the proportion
of pollen from forest trees, agricultural weeds, and cultigens complement and extend
archaeological research in Central America by providing information on the nature,
timing, and spatial patterns of human settlement and subsistence. Such records
frequently reveal past human activities for which archaeological evidence has not been
preserved or has yet to be discovered; they generally provide the only available
continuous long-term records of human interaction with the environment [70].
Each lake or swamp site investigated tells a slightly different story of human
settlement and landuse, but a common pattern is one in which pollen spectra
suggest an interval of forest clearance and agriculture (low tree pollen percentages,
high values for grasses and weedy herbs, and the presence of pollen of maize (Zea
mays subsp. mays), followed by abandonment or lessening of agricultural activity and
forest regrowth (rise in tree pollen). Some pollen records begin with high tree pollen
percentages, suggesting initially forested surroundings; some show cycles of
agricultural landuse and regrowth, and recent (European) as well as pre-Columbian
forest clearance. Phytolith evidence, where available, generally complements pollen
evidence of agricultural activity, often documenting the presence of cultigens and other
plant taxa not represented in pollen assemblages [33, 34, 66]. Evidence of burning in
the form of charred phytoliths, microscopic charcoal in pollen preparations, or larger
(macroscopic) fragments of charred material often accompanies other indicators of
agricultural activity. However, not all fires in sedimentary records indicate agricultural
fires set intentionally to clear or prepare cultivation sites. Charcoal in sediment layers
that lack pollen or other evidence of agriculture may reflect fires set locally to improve
hunting, ignited by lightning or volcanism, or carried from distant fires of either human
or natural origin. In addition, some charcoal in settled areas may derive from cooking
fires.
High rates of inorganic sedimentation often accompany or follow periods of
agricultural activity. This is particularly notable in lakes in the lowlands of northern
Central America, almost all of which contain a thick inorganic layer referred to as
Maya clay that is believed to reflect severe soil erosion resulting from widespread
433
deforestation [19, 71]. High rates of inorganic sedimentation associated with preColumbian agriculture also have been detected in sediment cores from Lagunas Verde
and Cuzcachapa in El Salvador [40], and at Lagunas Bonillita [59] and Zoncho [62] in
Costa Rica. Diatoms in lake sediment cores can reveal changes in lake trophic status,
lakewater salinity, and pH [19] that can be influenced by watershed disturbance by
agriculturalists as well as by climate variability and change. While downcore shifts in
diatom assemblages at lakes La Yeguada and Wodehouse, Panama were interpreted to
primarily reflect climate variations [34, 52], diatom shifts at Laguna Zoncho, Costa
Rica, are strongly correlated with pollen and charcoal evidence of agricultural history
and may largely reflect human impacts in the watershed [72]. Stable carbon isotopes in
sediment records can similarly indicate human as well as climate history, by revealing
shifts in watershed vegetation from C3 tropical forest trees to fields of maize (C4) and
C4 agricultural weeds and other ruderals [73].
In most areas of Central America, sediment analyses not archaeological
excavations have provided the oldest evidence for maize cultivation. In El Salvador,
for example, ~3700 cal yr BP maize pollen in Laguna Cuzcachapa predates by 500
years the earliest archaeological evidence of human occupation in the surrounding area,
and by 900 years the earliest well-dated macrofossil evidence of maize agriculture in El
Salvador [40]. In Costa Rica, pollen grains of Zea mays subsp. mays deposited ~2720
cal yr BP in both Laguna Bonillita [59] and Machita swamp [61] constitute the oldest
evidence for maize cultivation in the Central Atlantic Watershed archaeological
region. Maize pollen at the base of the ~3200 cal yr BP pollen record from Laguna
Zoncho constitutes the oldest botanical evidence for maize cultivation in both the
Diqus archaeological region and in adjacent western Panama [62], predating by a
millennium or more macrofossils from the Las Brisas archaeological site in Costa Rica
[74] and Zea pollen in lake sediments from Laguna Volcn, Panama [67]. The earliest
maize grains at Zoncho apparently also predate archaeological evidence of maize
cultivation in either area [75]. Evidence of much older maize has been reported from
central Pacific Panama, where phytoliths and pollen in preceramic archaeological
deposits at the Cueva de los Ladrones rock shelter may indicate the presence of maize
at ~7700 cal yr BP [76], and phytoliths in lake sediment at Monte Oscuro are
interpreted to signal Zea cultivation as early as ~83007800 cal yr BP [47]. These and
other data pointing to early maize cultivation in northern South America are not
universally accepted by archaeologists, and have generated debates in the literature
[7778]. Additional studies of lake sediment records of prehistoric agriculture in the
Americas may help to resolve these debates.
Maize is a fully domesticated plant that requires human action to persist on the
landscape, so the presence of corn pollen or phytoliths is definitive evidence of human
presence. But other microfossils may indicate human presence and impacts on
vegetation prior to maize cultivation. Researchers in Panama have interpreted evidence
from charcoal, pollen, and phytoliths to indicate human disturbance of lowland forests
as early as the Pleistocene/Holocene transition. A steep increase in charcoal at ~13,000
cal yr BP at La Yeguada lake, Panama was interpreted to indicate the use of fire by
early hunters and gatherers, and changes in all three proxies at ~7800 cal yr BP at this
site and between ~83007800 cal yr BP at Monte Oscuro were interpreted to represent
significant forest clearance for slash and burn cultivation [3134, 47].
15.4
NATURAL DISTURBANCE
Sediment records also document natural disturbance of Central American forests and
grasslands owing to tree falls, storms, lightning fires, landslides, and volcanism. At
Laguna Hule in Costa Rica, high percentages of pollen of the successional tree
Cecropia in the absence of other agricultural indicators reflect natural forest succession
following periodic slips on the steep crater walls of the maar that holds the lake [79].
Sediments of Laguna Negra on the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua reveal two
paleohurricane events, at least one of which was followed by natural fires [80].
The Laguna Negra and other cores from low-lying swamps in Central America
document changes in sedimentation (e.g., marl vs. peat) and vegetation owing to sealevel changes, regional or local tectonics, and climate changes, as well as to
successional processes within the swamps themselves [35, 46, 5355, 71, 80]. Pollen
analysis at Laguna Negra documented the conversion of an initial upland forest to a
coastal swamp due to sea-level rise ~89008600 cal yr BP; subsequent changes in
swamp community composition may have been driven by water level changes resulting
from local tectonics [80]. The palm Raphia taedigera once thought to have been
introduced from Africa during post-Columbian slave trading [81] was present at
Laguna Negra prior to ~4500 cal yr BP [80] and has dominated the La Unin swamp
since ~2900 cal yr BP [82]. Although the palm has been regarded by some ecologists
as an early successional species, the pollen data from Laguna Negra and La Unin
demonstrate that it can form long-lasting communities.
Tephra layers provide evidence of volcanic eruptions that can have profound effects
on human communities, in some cases resulting in abandonment of agricultural
settlements, as demonstrated by lake-sediment analyses at Laguna Volcn, Panama
[67] and at Lagunas Verde and Cuzcachapa, El Salvador [40]. Tephra layers in lake
sediment cores may assist volcanological investigations by revealing eruptions for
which terrestrial evidence is sparse or equivocal [63]; they benefit paleoenvironmental
analyses by providing stratigraphic markers that can assist in correlating records
between lakes and with archaeological excavations [40, 83, 84]. Additional research on
the ages and geochemical signatures of widespread tephra units in Central America
would improve paleoenvironmental reconstructions from lacustrine sediment records.
15.5
LESSONS FROM PALEOENVIRONMENTAL RECORDS
Paleoenvironmental records derived from the study of lake and swamp sediments are of
value to broader society for the lessons they offer about climate change, ecosystem
dynamics and human-environment interactions, and natural hazards. This chapter
closes with a review of some of the actual and potential contributions of
paleoenvironmental research to issues of social importance.
Past climate dynamics are the key to the present and future. Year by year and month
by month, new analytic results become available that demonstrate the extent of modern
anthropogenic climate change and its likely (and likely difficult) consequences for
human and natural systems. Yet global political will to confront and manage future
global change continues to vacillate. Our only defense against future change and our
only means to cope with it is knowledge knowledge that can inform our actions, and
lead to understanding and sufficient political will to act intelligently and decisively.
Tropical climate dynamics are crucial to our understanding of global dynamics, yet
they remain poorly understood. Sediment-based research on past climate in Central
435
America is increasing our understanding of the Late Pleistocene and Holocene

dynamics of key components of the climate system and of their responses to solar
forcing on different time scales. Efforts to develop climate records in Central America
and to derive meaningful information from them are among activities in the
paleoenvironmental sciences that can have the broadest of possible impacts for human
society.
Understanding natural disturbance regimes and how they have been affected by
humans is critical to efforts to manage natural resources in the face of global change.
More and more people wish to visit national parks and reserves in Central America, but
human impacts associated with increasing visitation in combination with real or
threatened ecosystem change owing to anthropogenic impacts on climate leave
managers struggling to develop appropriate management policies. What are we
managing for? What degree of change in a system can be expected or tolerated?
Paleoenvironmental data can provide important perspectives for management decisions
in protected areas of Central America, by elucidating the long-term histories of plant
habitats and communities. Pollen and charcoal assemblages from the Chirrip pramo
of Costa Rica revealed that the treeless pramo that has occupied the massif since
deglaciation has been affected by periodic fires for ten thousand years, but that these
fires did not appreciably alter long-term vegetation patterns [42, 44]. These results do
not obviate the need for park managers to monitor and attempt to control some pramo
fires, but they argue that management plans should consider fire as a natural part of the
pramo ecology, rather than as a disturbance associated only with modern human
society [85].
Stratigraphic records of pre-Columbian forest clearance and crop cultivation
throughout the Central American lowlands can similarly inform conceptions and
management of neotropical forests. The remote forests of the Darin peninsula of
Panama have long been regarded as untouched wilderness, yet the sediments of
Wodehouse lake and nearby Cana swamp [52, 66] revealed forest disturbance and crop
cultivation at both sites as recently as ~350 cal yr BP. Pollen analysis at Cantarrana
swamp [60] at La Selva biological station on the lower Caribbean slope of Costa Rica
showed that this virgin forest was also subjected to considerable prehistoric
disturbance, with maize cultivation as recently as ~300 cal yr BP [61]. But within one
to three tree life times, the forests around Cantarrana swamp as well as those of the
Darin lake sites had recovered enough to appear pristine [52]. This does not mean that
modern humans can despoil at will, but it does indicate that rain forest can survive
sustained disturbance if the disturbance is constrained, rather than wholesale, e.g.,
cultivation of small fields that are allowed to revert to forest during fallow periods as
opposed to clear cuts [52].
Lake sediment analyses in Central America also have a role to play in hazards
assessment. The documentation, through lake sediment analyses, of the history of
volcanic events and their impacts on prehistoric peoples contributes to the assessment
of modern-day volcanic hazards in Central America [86]. Lake sediment studies may
also contribute to assessing the potential for catastrophic overturn of CO2-charged
volcanic lakes, a phenomenon which resulted in the deaths of 1700 people at Nyos
lake, Cameroon, in 1986 [87]. Robert Hecky, who has studied lake sediment cores from
another African lake, Kivu, believes that his Kivu cores preserve fossil evidence of a
series of past catastrophic overturn events at this lake ([88]; R. Hecky, pers. comm.
2003). The coring and analysis of sediments in volcanic lakes of Central America may
reveal similar histories, and reasons for concern.
APPENDIX: This chapter reports ages in calibrated calendar years before present (cal yr BP) rather than in
radiocarbon years (14C yr BP). If original publications reported dates and age ranges in calibrated years, these
dates were used; if necessary, they were converted from a BC/AD time scale to the BP time scale by adding
1950 years to BC dates and by subtracting AD dates from 1950. Radiocarbon dates of up to 20,265 14C yr BP
(24,000 cal yr BP) were calibrated using version 4.3 of the CALIB radiocarbon program [89] and the INTCAL
98 dataset [90]. For radiocarbon dates that calibrate to more than one calendar year, the average of the youngest
and oldest date was used. Calibrated ages for radiocarbon dates between 20,265 and 27,120 14C yr BP were
estimated using a linear conversion that assumed corresponding calendar ages of 24,000 and 30,470 cal yr BP,
respectively. For radiocarbon dates older than 27,120 14C yr BP, a second linear conversion was used that
assumed that radiocarbon and calendar ages converge at 50,000 14C yr BP [9]. In all cases these estimated
calibrations may be less accurate than those determined with the CALIB program. For ease of reading, error
ranges were not included on calibrated dates. Most calibrated dates reported were rounded to the nearest 100 or
more years in keeping with the precision of the BC/AD or radiocarbon ages reported in the original publications.
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Chapter 16
Vertebrate paleontology
SPENCER G. LUCAS, GUILLERMO E. ALVARADO, RAMIRO GARCA,
EDGAR ESPINOZA, JUAN CARLOS CISNEROS AND UWE MARTENS
In the Pleistocene, as now, Central America
was the heartland of faunal mingling. We
firmly believe that further paleontological
investments in this area will pay valuable
dividends toward our understanding of the
history of the Great American Faunal
Interchange. D.S. Webb and S.C. Perrigo:
Late Cenozoic vertebrates from Honduras
and El Salvador, 1984.
16.1
INTRODUCTION
Central America connects two vast land areas, the continents of North and South
America. When this connection was established, during the Pliocene, a wholesale
exchange of vertebrate animals took place between the two continents the great
American interchange [13]. Interest in the vertebrate paleontology of Central
America has largely been driven by scientific study of the dynamics of this
interchange. Which animals moved south, which moved north, when and how did they
move, and what evolutionary events did and did not take place in Central America?
These are questions typically asked of the Central American vertebrate fossil record.
As a result, most of the research on the Central American vertebrate fossil record
focuses on Pliocene and Pleistocene fossil mammals. Nevertheless, earlier records of
Oligocene and Miocene fossil vertebrates are also known from Central America. This
chapter provides an overview of the vertebrate fossil record of Central America (Fig.
16.1; Table 16.1) and briefly discusses its significance.
16.2
OLIGOCENEMIOCENE
In Costa Rica, Geochelone costarricensis is a tortoise from the OligoceneMiocene of

Peralta de Limn that represents an early immigrant from North America [46]. It also
represents the oldest land-vertebrate fossil known from Central America.
Miocene records of fossil vertebrates from Central America are of mammals and
fishes. The proboscidean Rhynchotherium blicki from the Miocene of the Carboneras
river in eastern Guatemala is the oldest vertebrate fossil known from Guatemala [7].
Honduras has the most stratigraphically extensive record of fossil vertebrates of any
Central American country. Especially significant is the Mid-Miocene assemblage of the
Gracias formation of western Honduras, approximately the same age as the Corinto
fauna of El Salvador, which includes fossils of bony fish, a frog (Rana), a mud turtle
(Rhinoclemmys) and a tortoise (Geochelone), a dog (Osteoborus), the gomphothere

Rhynchotherium, the horses Hipparion and Pliohippus, the rhinoceros Teleoceras, a
peccary (Prosthennops), the camels Protolabis and Procamelus and the gelocid
Pseudoceras. These are mammals of North American affinity, though the horse species
Pliohippus hondurensis is endemic to Honduras [8]
EDENTATA
Dasypodidae
Dasypus
Pampatherium
Glyptodontidae Glyptodon
Glyptotherium
Megalonychidae Megalonyx
Meizonyx
Megatherium
Megatheriidae
Eremotherium
Mylodon
Mylodontidae
Paramylodon
Glossotherium
Scelidotherium
RODENTIA
Hydrochoerus
Hydrochoeridae Neochoerus
LAGOMORPHA
Leporidae
CARNIVORA
Felidae
Canidae
Ursidae
Procyonidae
NOTOUNGULATA
Toxodontidae
Felis
Smilodon
Canis
Tremarctos
ARTIODACTYLA
Tayassuidae
Camelidae
Cervidae
Bovidae
X
X
X
?
X
?
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
S America
N America
Panama
Nicaragua
El
Salvador
Costa Rica
X
X
?
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Sylvilagus
X
X
X
X
X
?
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Tapirus
Equus
X
X
?
X
X
X
Dicotyles
Camelops
Mazama
Odocoileus
Bison
X
X
Toxodon
Mixotoxodon
PROBOSCIDEA
Gomphotheriidae Cuvieronius
Haplomastodon
Mammut
Mammutidae
Mammuthus
Elephantidae
PERISSODACTYLA
Tapiridae
Equidae
X
X
X
Honduras
Guatemala
Taxon
Belize
Table 16.1. List of Pleistocene mammal genera from Central America. Last two columns indicate
whether the genus is of North American or South American origin.
X
?
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Figure 16.1. Regional distribution of principal fossil vertebrate localities.
445
In El Salvador, the Corinto locality of Late Miocene (Hemphillian) age yields the dog
Osteoborus, the gomphothere Rhynchotherium, the horses Cormohipparion and
Pliohippus and the camelid Procamelus [8]. The locality of San Juan Buenavista was
referred to the Upper Miocene and Pliocene, however, it yielded only unidentified
proboscidean and artiodactyl remains [9].
In the Panama canal zone, the Cucaracha formation of Middle Miocene
(Hemingfordian) age yields fossils of turtles, a crocodile, the rhinoceros
Diceratherium, the horses Anchitherium and Archaeohippus, the oreodont
Merycochoerus and a protoceratid [10]. The overlying Middle Miocene Gatn
formation is marine strata with an extensive assemblage of selachians (including
Carcharodon, Galeocerdo, Dasyatis, Myliobatis) and bony fishes (including Acipenser
and Lepisosteus) [11)] This fish assemblage closely resembles contemporaneous
ichthyofaunas from the Caribbean and from North Carolina, U.S.A.
Laurito [1214] documented selachian-dominated icthyofaunas from the Mio
Pliocene of Alto Guayacn in Costa Rica. These ichthyofaunas, from the Carribean
coast of Costa Rica, not surprisingly are similar to coeval assemblages from Panama
and the Dominican Republic.
16.3
PLIOCENE
Very few fossil vertebrate sites in Central America can be assigned a Pliocene age with
certainty. Osborn [15, 16] documented an incomplete upper molar of a proboscidean
from the Upper Pliocene of Chinautla, Guatemala, which he named Serridentinus
guatemalensis. This species has been subsequently referred to Gomphotherium [17].
In El Salvador, the rich PliocenePleistocene Barranca del Sisimico localities have
yielded poeciliid fish, frogs (Rana), the tortoise Geochelone, a bat (Pteronotus),
megalonychid sloths (Megalonyx and Meizonyx), the gomphothere Cuvieronius, the
toxodont Mixotoxodon, the giant sloth Eremotherium and a cervid, in addition to
several invertebrates and plants [8, 1821]. The ground sloth species Meizonyx
salvadorensis and Megalonyx obtusidens from Barranca del Sisimico are endemic to El
Salvador [8, 21, 22].
16.4
PLEISTOCENE
Most Central American fossil vertebrate records are of Pleistocene age, and postdate
the interchange. In Guatemala, Pleistocene sites include Usumacinta river, Santa
Amelia, Jutiapa, Huehuetenango, Estanzuela, Petn, Guatemala, Julumaje y Tulumajllo
and Salam [23, 24]. The collective mammal fauna encompasses the armadillos
Dasypus and Pampatherium, a glyptodont (Glyptodon), the sloths Megalonyx,
Megatherium, Mylodon and Paramylodon, the capybara Hydrochoerus, the cat Felis,
the toxodont Mixotoxodon, the gomphothere Cuvieronius, the mammoth Mammuthus,
the tapir Tapirus, the horse Equus, the peccary Dicotyles, a camel, the deers Mazama
and Odocoileus and a large bovid (Table 16.1).
Czaplewski et al. [25] recently reported Late Pleistocene bats from Cebada cave in
westcentral Belize. Earlier, Miller [26] had reported a skeleton of the extinct bear
Tremarctos floridanus from the same cave system. These are the only fossil vertebrates
now known from Belize. The only other Central American record of fossil bats is from
Figure 16.2. Representative fossils of Pleistocene mammals from Central America: (a) Last
lower molar of the gomphothere Cuvieronius from Tambla, Honduras; (b) Last lower molar
of the capybara Neochoerus (holotype of Hydrochoerus robustus Leidy) from Jalapa,
Nicaragua; (c) Two upper molars of the horse Equus from Jalapa, Nicaragua; (d) Last lower
molar of the toxodont Mixotoxodon from Jalapa, Nicaragua; (e) Last lower molar of the
Columbian mammoth Mammuthus columbi from El Palmar, Nicaragua; (f) Lower jaw of
Haplomastodon waringi from the Nacaome river, Costa Rica.
447
the Lower Pleistocene (or Upper Pliocene, [27]) of El Salvador [8]. Most Honduran
vertebrate localities postdate the interchange and include Yeroconte and Orillas del
Humaya, sites of Pleistocene age [2831]. They yield a typical post-interchange
mammal assemblage that includes the armadillo Pampatherium, glyptodont
Glyptotherium, the sloths Eremotherium and Megalonyx, the capybara Hydrochoerus,
the rabbit Sylvilagus, the toxodont Mixotoxodon, the cat Felis, the horse Equus, the
elephantid Mammuthus, the mastodont Mammut, the gomphothere Cuvieronius (Fig.
16.2a), the peccary Dicotyles, the camel Camelops, the deer Odocoileus and the bovid
Bison.
In El Salvador, the Upper Pleistocene (Rancholabrean) locality of El Hormiguero
yielded remains of the tortoise Geochelone, glyptodonts (Glyptotherium), the capybara
Neochoerus, the megatheriid Eremotherium, the cat Smilodon, the horse Equus,
unidentified camelids, the toxodont Mixotoxodon, the gomphothere Cuvieronius and
the bison Bison [8, 32]. Bison remains from El Hormiguero are the southernmost record
of this taxon in the Western Hemisphere.
A molar of the mammoth Mammuthus was recovered at the Nueva Granada locality
in El Salvador [32]. Several other Pleistocene localities have been recorded in El
Salvador [8, 18, 32]. New discoveries at Tomayate river include Pleistocene rodents,
crocodiles, birds and abundant Cuvieronius, among others, and are currently (2004)
under study by Cisneros.
Figure 16.3. Reconstruction of the common Central American Pleistocene gomphothere,

Cuvieronius (after Osborn [16]).
Leidy [33] first reported fossil vertebrates from Central America when he described a
small collection of Pleistocene mammals found near Jalapa in northern Nicaragua (Fig.
16.2bd). Other than a marine mammal (Pliocene whale) locality at San Rafael de Sur
in western Nicaragua, all other mammal localities in Nicaragua are of Pleistocene age
[34]. These are sites at Jalapa, El Bosque, Tolar, Sbaco, Las Banderas, Jinotepe and El
Palmar, scattered from north to south along the interior highlands, the Nicaraguan
depression and the Pacific coastal plain (Fig. 16.1). They yield the sloth Eremotherium,
a procyonid, the capybara Neochoerus (Fig. 16.2b), the toxodont Mixotoxodon (Fig.
16.2d), the elephantid Mammuthus (Fig. 16.2e), the gomphothere Cuvieronius
(includes a specimen previously misidentified as Stegomastodon), the horse Equus
(Fig. 16.2c), a camelid, the deer Odocoileus and a bovid (possibly Bison or Symbos).
The best known Nicaraguan Pleistocene mammal site is El Bosque, published as a
locality where human artifacts (stone tools) were supposedly associated with extinct
Pleistocene mammals [35]. However, the tools are merely broken cobbles of rhyolite in
the debris flow deposit at the site, so no association of human artifacts with Pleistocene
mammals has been documented in Nicaragua [36].

Segura [37], Alvarado [3840], Hurtado de Mendoza and Alvarado [36], Laurito
[22] and Lucas et al. [41] reviewed the Costa Rican fossil mammal record, which
comes from at least 43 localities of Pleistocene age. Proboscideans (especially
Cuvieronius hyodon; also see [42, 43]) dominate this record (Fig. 16.3), which includes
megatheriid [44] and mylodontid ground sloths, glyptodonts, the horse Equus, the
toxodont Mixotoxodon larensis, the coyote Canis latrans, the gomphothere
Haplomastodon (Fig. 16.2f) and the tapir Tapirus sp. cf. T. terrestris. A single
occurrence of Mammuthus columbi is the southernmost mammoth record. Most of
these taxa are of North American origin, and none are endemic to Central America.
None of the Costa Rican Pleistocene mammals is directly associated with human
artifacts or remains [36, 41].
In Costa Rica, a teleost fish and the mud turtle Rhinoclemmys are known from the
Pleistocene of Nacome river [45, 46]. Alvarado [40] documented fishes, including
Cyclasoma turrucarensis, from the Pleistocene paleo-lake of Turrcares.
Gazin [47] reported two Pleistocene assemblages from Panama, the El Hatillo fauna
(from Pese) and the La Coca fauna (from Ocu). They include the turtle Pseudemys, a
duck (Cairina), sloths (the megatheriid Eremotherium and the mylodontids
Glossotherium and Scelidotherium?) as well as a glyptodont (Glyptotherium), the
toxodont Mixotoxodon, the gomphothere Cuvieronius, the horse Equus, a peccary and a
cervid (Odocoileus).
16.5
SIGNIFICANCE
The fossil land vertebrates of Central America indicate a mosaic of mostly forested
habitats during the Neogene. However, the presence of least limited savanna
(grasslands) is indicated by fossils of grazing mammals, such as horses, camels and (as
far south as Costa Rica) mammoths. Indeed, the Central American distributions of
some large mammals may suggest distinct environments. For example, in Nicaragua
the relative rarity of the common Central American gomphothere Cuvieronius and
relative abundance of Mammuthus may suggest a greater prevalence of savanna in
western Nicaragua during the Pleistocene than in other Central American countries.
The paleobiogeographic significance of the Central American record of fossil
vertebrates lies mostly in its ability to determine the timing and nature of the Neogene
connection of North and South America. MiocenePliocene selachian-dominated
ichthyofaunas from Costa Rica and Panama are of Caribbean affinities and support the
concept of a marine Tertiary Caribbean faunal province [24, 48, 49].
An OligoMiocene tortoise from Costa Rica and Middle to Late Miocene landmammal assemblages from Panama, Honduras and El Salvador predate the great
American interchange and yield taxa of North American affinities (canids,
proboscideans, horses, rhinoceroses, camels and cervids). They demonstrate that the
paleobiogeographic affinities (and land connections) of Central America prior to the
interchange were with North America. However, after the interchange (after
approximately 3 Ma), mammals of South American affinity first appear in the Central
American vertebrate fossil record (Table 16.1).
The post-interchange (mostly Pleistocene) mammal fauna of Central America
contains numerous North American taxa (rabbits, canids, felids, horses, tapirs,
proboscideans, camels, deer and bovids) and includes a good number of South
449
American immigrants (armadillos, sloths, glyptodonts, capybaras and toxodonts).

Indeed, on an updated list of Pleistocene mammal genera, it is an equal mixture of 16
genera of North American affinity, and 15 of South American affinity (Table 16.1).
There is no evidence that Central America was an endemic center of mammal evolution
after the interchange. Furthermore, no association of extinct Pleistocene mammals and
human artifacts or remains has yet been demonstrated in Central America.
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451
Chapter 17
Invertebrate paleontology
RUDOLF FISCHER AND TERESITA AGUILAR
No matter what the paleogeography may
have been at various times during the
Tertiary, the faunal similarity between
present Caribbean-Atlantic and Pacific
areas needs to be taken into account in
reconstructing the paleogeography and the
bearing on land connections between North
and South America. W.P. Woodring:
Distribution of Tertiary marine Molluscan
faunas in Southern Central America and
Northern South America, 1977.
17.1
INTRODUCTION
The first descriptions of Central American fossil invertebrates were published in the
second half of the 19th century, when the geological exploration of the isthmus area
began [13]. Later, a certain number of descriptions appeared, about particular
localities, individual fossil finds, and also, occasionally, about complete fossil faunas
(see references in [4, 5]). Systematically, a preferential treatment was given to
mollusks; stratigraphically, to the Miocene, and regionally to Panama and Costa Rica,
with other Central American countries remained relatively ignored by invertebrate
paleontologists. Reasons are manifold: the former impassability of wide parts of the
area, the often deep weathering of host rock and fossil remains by a tropical, humid
climate, a lack of scientific infrastructure, and, last but not least, the preference for
protist fossils as biostratigraphic tools. The regional focus on southern Central America
has increased by the activities of the Panama Paleontology Project (PPP), managed by
the Smithsonian Institution (e.g., [6]) and of the Escuela Centroamericana de
Geologa, founded in 1970 at San Jos, Costa Rica.
Within the Caribbean faunal province, of which Central America is a part, the
situation is different: although Neogene mollusks remain the center of interest, many
monographs on other groups of fossil invertebrates have appeared and a good
geographical dispersion is represented (Gulf of Tehuantepec, Cuba, Jamaica,
Dominican Republic, Haiti, Venezuela, Colombia: [4, 5]).
17.2
THE DISEQUILIBRIUM OF THE FOSSIL RECORD
The Central America invertebrates fossil record is very inconsistent, besides that, there
is a lack of research in this field. No information about skeletal sponges, non-anthozoan
coelenterates, annelids, non-crustacean arthropods, poly- and monoplacophorans, and
non-echinozoan echinoderms is available. A few papers concerning cephalopods,

scaphopods, brachiopods and trace fossils exist. The diversity of Neogene bryozoans is
well documented, but a systematic presentation is still lacking. Monographs exist on
gastropods and bivalves, but are nearly exclusively on Miocene and Pliocene
occurrences. In spite of the exposed marine sedimentary deposits of Permian to
Cretaceous ages in Central America, only restricted information about fossil
invertebrates of those ages, and even of the Paleogene, are available. Nicaragua, El
Salvador, Honduras, and to a lesser degree Guatemala, are no-mans-land with respect
to fossil invertebrates, a very different situation from Costa Rica and Panama, the
source of nearly 98% of paleontological information.
17.2.1 Studies on Central American invertebrate fossils

Until the last decade of the 20th century, paleontologists described particular species or
faunas, giving information about ancient biodiversity and the stratigraphy of fossil
bearing horizons. It was only during the recent two decades when more general works
began to recognize the fundamental influence of the formation of the Central American
isthmus on the evolution and the biology of marine (and terrestrial, as well) biota. That
paradigm change is considered below.
17.2.1.1 Sponges
Information on sponges is extremely scarce. Parachaetetes texana is reported from the
Cenomanian of Honduras, and isolated siliceous sponge spicules were found in the
Albian Atima formation [7]. Fragments of siliceous sponge skeletons are known from
the Oligocene Tranquerillas member of Costa Rica [8] and are associated with Plio
Pleistocene reef facies in Limn, on the Caribbean side. A more continuous record is
documented for borings of clionid sponges, preserved in Neogene carbonate substrates
of Costa Rica [9].
17.2.1.2 Corals
The stratigraphically oldest known coral genus of Central America is Eomontipora
from the Cretaceous of Honduras [10]. Euphyllia is reported from the Paleogene Barra
Honda limestones of Costa Rica [11]. A branched coral species that is not specifically
identified is mentioned from the Middle Miocene Turrcares formation of Costa Rica
[12]. A more detailed monograph exists for reef-forming corals of the Neogene of
Central America and of additional parts of the Caribbean [13]. Subrecent fossil corals
were reported from raised reefs near Limn, Costa Rica [14]. A study of the evolution
of the reef building genus Montastrea in the Caribbean [15] includes Central American
finds. Studies of the stratigraphic distribution of Neogene reef corals [16] and of
azooxanthellate corals [17], are accompanied by extensive lists of species and genera.
Descriptions of entire reefs and reef faunas have been given for a Costa Rican Late
Oligocene to Early Miocene patch reef [1820] (Fig. 17.1a, b). The biodiversity and
paleobiological aspects of reef coral assemblages were studied with the help of
Pliocene to Pleistocene reefs from the Costa Rican Limn area [21]. Several extinction
events are documented in the region during the Late OligoceneEarly Miocene and
PlioPleistocene [16].
Figure 17.1. (a) Antiguastrea cellulosa, Punta Pelada formation, OligoceneEarly Miocene,
Costa Rica; (b) Antiguastrea cellulosa (detail); (c) Glottidia sp., Bagaces formation,
Miocene, Costa Rica; (d) Crab, Portunidae family, Pliocene, Costa Rica; (e) Echinolampas
woodringi Durhan, Turrcares formation, Miocene, Costa Rica; (f, g) Schizaster
costaricensis Dirham, Turrcares formation, Miocene, Costa Rica; (h) Dentalium sp., Charco
Azul formation, Pliocene, Costa Rica; (i) Icnofsil, Punta Judas formation, Miocene, Costa
Rica.
17.2.1.3 Bryozoa
A monographic description of Miocene bryozoa from the Panama canal zone [22] was
for a long time the only information available for this group of invertebrates. Thanks to
455
the efforts of the Panama Paleontology Project (PPP), the known diversity of Neogene
cheilostome [23] and cyclostome [24] bryozoan species in Central America and the
entire tropical America was extremely amplified. The completeness of this record
enabled further and more general evolutionary and phylogenetic studies [25]. The
existence of four species of ctenostome bryozoans in Miocene oyster shells from the
Costa Rican Venado formation [26] has been demonstrated by their borings.
Cheilostomata colonies also are well represented in the Tranquerillas and Brazo Seco
Costa Rican localities of Oligocene and Pliocene ages, respectively [27, 28].
17.2.1.4 Brachiopoda
Fossil Brachiopoda are reported only from Costa Rica: Kingena wacoensis and
Grasirhynchia aff. martini are reported from the Campanian to Maastrichtian Barbudal
formation of Costa Rica [29]. The terebratulid Liothyrella ? inexpectata was found in
fine grained sandstones of the Oligocene Tranquerillas member (Pacacua formation) of
Costa Rica [30]. Inarticulate brachiopods belonging to the genus Glottidia, were
recently found in the Pliocene Bagaces formation of Costa Rica [31] (Fig. 17.1c).
17.2.1.5 Polychaeta
The calcareous tubes of the serpulid worm Rotularia clymenoides described from the
Eocene of Costa Rica [32] are the only documented fossils of this diverse class.
17.2.1.6 Arthropoda
In Central America, fossil Arthropoda are represented only by members of the class
Crustacea. Decapod crustaceans were first described in a monograph on Miocene fossil
crabs from the Panama canal zone [29] and later additional finds [30]. Miocene crabs
also are known from Costa Rica [12] (Fig. 17.1d). Shells of the balanid Cirripedia
appear in the Miocene of Panama [35] and central Costa Rica [12, 36, 37]. Permian
Ostracoda give evidence of a significant faunal relationship between Guatemala, South
China and the Russian Platform during that period [38]. Ostracods from the Tertiary of
Guatemala [39], the Miocene of the Panama canal zone [40, 41] and of Costa Rica
[42], and the Pliocene and Quaternary of the same region also have been documented
[4346].
17.2.1.7 Echinodermata
From the very varied phylum Echinodermata, only fossil echinoids and crinoids are
described from Central America. Pygurostoma pasionensis is known from the Upper
Cretaceous of Guatemala [47]; all other material derives from the Tertiary of Panama
and Costa Rica. With the exception of some Paleocene species [44], all fossil
echinonoidea were found in Miocene strata. Monographs treat species of the Panama
canal zone and Atlantic Costa Rica [45] and of the Central valley of Costa Rica, where
the Turrcares formation is rich in irregular and regular sea urchins [12, 50, 51] (Fig.
17.1eg). An isolated find of echinoids from Costa Rica is known from the San Miguel
formation [37]. Some horizons with hitherto undetermined sea urchins of the family
Melittidae characterize the Punta Judas formation on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica
[52, 53]. From other classes of echinoderms, only Pentacrinites fragments are
mentioned from the limestones of the Costa Rican Paleocene Barra Honda formation
[54].
Figure 17.2. (a) Inoceramus sp., Cur formation, Late Cretaceous, Costa Rica; (b) Flabellipecten
sp., Pea Negra formation, Miocene, Costa Rica; (c) Macrochlamys pittieri Dall, San Miguel
formation, Miocene, Costa Rica; (d, g) Mallea camura, Punta Judas formation, Miocene,
Costa Rica; (e) Olivella goliath, Ro Banano formation, Miocene, Costa Rica; (f) Clementia
dariena (Conrad), Punta Carballo formation, Miocene, Costa Rica; (h) Ostrea sp., El Salto
formation, Pliocene, Nicaragua; (i) Fossiliferous sandstone, Ro Banano formation,
Pliocene, Costa Rica.
457
17.2.1.8 Molluscs other than bivalves and gastropods

Relative to the outstanding record of fossil bivalves and gastropods, other molluscan
classes are poorly known. Scaphopods are described only from the Oligocene of
Jamaica and the Costa Rican Pliocene [55] (Fig. 17.1h). Cephalopods also are rare
finds. Nautilids are known from the Eocene [56] and the Miocene of Panama [57].
Aturia peruviana has been reported from central Costa Rica [58]. The earliest
ammonites derive from the Bathonian of Honduras [59]. Early Cretaceous ammonites
are known from Honduras (ValanginianHauterivian: [59]) and from Costa Rica
(Albian: [60]), where Upper Cretaceous ammonites also were found (youngest
Campanian: [29], Maastrichtian: [61]).
17.2.1.9 Bivalves and gastropods
Bivalves and gastropods are the most common fossils of the Caribbean in general and
of Central America in particular (Fig. 17.2). Although both classes are reported in
Honduras since the Jurassic [62], more detailed information is available for Upper
Cretaceous and younger units. The Upper Cretaceous is characterized by a wide
distribution of rudist limestones in parts of Central America. Rudists are mentioned
from Guatemala [6367], Costa Rica [29, 68], and Honduras [7, 6567, 6971], where
the stratigraphic distribution of mid-Cretaceous rudist reefs was studied and a reef
model was developed [72]. In general, common genera are Coralliochama, and
Mexicaprina (Caprinidae), Barretia and Parastroma (Hippuritidae), and Biradiolites,
Chiapasella, Tampsia and Sauvagesia (Radiolitidae). These genera comprise a fauna
that is very similar to the Campanian to Maastrichtian rudist assemblages of the
Caribbean and Mexico [68, 73, 74]. The composition of the rudist fauna of the
Caribbean enables recognition of the beginning of the Caribbean faunal province [75],
in some cases in association with inoceramiids and nerineids The bivalve Pterotrigonia
(Pterotrigonia) sp. was found in Costa Rica, providing evidence for faunal interchange
with the Tethys Sea [76] (Fig. 17.3).
Little information about bivalves and gastropods exists for the Central American
Paleogene. Some species of gastropods and bivalves from Late Eocene Bcaro
formation of Panama are reported [77]. A pycnodontoid oyster of presumed Oligocene
age was described from Costa Rica [78], and additional bivalves and gastropods are
associated with an OligoceneEarly Miocene coral reef from Costa Rica [19, 20]. In
contrast, Neogene bivalves and gastropods are well documented mainly from the
southern part of Central America, i.e., from Costa Rica and Panama. Early papers
describe fossils collected by authors [1, 2, 7981] or hosted in collections [8284]. In
the first half of the past century, descriptions of individual species [85, 86] and
monographs of entires faunas were published [87, 77]. Much progress was made by the
exemplary presentation of the molluscan fauna of the Panama canal zone by Woodring
[57, 8892]. This work formed the base for general paleo(bio)geographic
considerations [9395] and for the reconnaissance of the Paleocaribbean [96] as the
predecessor of the Caribbean faunal province [94].
Active fossil collection in the region also caused Central American material to be
included within systematic monographs about particular bivalve taxa (Noetinae: [97],
Spondylidae: [98], and Glycymeris: [99]). A series of descriptions of mainly Miocene
faunas from the Costa Rican Central valley [12, 37, 100] and other parts of Costa Rica
[101103] came about after the Escuela Centroamericana de Geologa in San Jos,
Costa Rica was founded. Rich molluscan faunas of the Middle Miocene Punta Judas
formation from the Pacific coast of Central Costa Rica have been reported but no
detailed description is available [52, 104]. The fauna contains many new species, one
of them described by Jung [105] as Judaphos imparabilis; others are in preparation by
the authors of this chapter.
Collections in Costa Rica and Panama also led to descriptions of Pliocene to
Quaternary bivalves and gastropods. Initial contributions concerned collections of
bivalves and gastropods from the Pliocene of the Costa Rican Caribbean [106] and of
Panama [107]. The extensive lists of mollusks from Miocene and Pliocene series of the
same area made by Amann [108] were expanded by the much more complete lists of
the PPP [109]. Neogene fossils were described from Burica, a Pacific peninsula
between Costa Rica and Panama [77]. Late? Pliocene to Late Pleistocene mollusks of
the Montezuma formation near the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica, reflect changing sealevel positions ([110], systematic remarks by [111]). Subrecent to recent mollusks from
a Costa Rican kitchen midden [3] provide information on prehistoric diet.
Figure 17.3. Localities with reported: (a) Rudists; (b) Trigoniids; (c) Amonites; (d) Inoceramiids
and Nerineids.
The stratigraphic range of the Neogene sedimentary series of the Panama canal
zone and of the Costa Rican Caribbean plain was clarified using modern
micropaleontological studies (part I in [6]), so that the formerly mollusk-based
stratigraphy can be well correlated with the International Standard Neogene Zonation
[112].
17.2.1.10 Ichnofossils
Only very recent papers pay attention to ichnofossils and their sedimentological and
paleobiological significance. Studies on the ichnofossils present in the Punta Judas
Section (Pacific Costa Rica) point out the importance of burrowing structures and of
borings as indicators for sedimentary processes, changes and interruptions [52, 53, 104]
(Fig. 17.1i). Similar aspects were covered in ichnological studies within the
neighbouring Miocene El Carmen formation of Costa Rica [113]. Biological and
sedimentological aspects are discussed by means of borings by pholadid bivalves [33]
and clionid sponges [9].
459

17.2.2 Lack of knowledge

In summing up the state of knowledge of Central American invertebrate fossils, several
gaps are apparent. The scarcity of information about pre-Upper Cretaceous
invertebrates does not permit even preliminary inferences to be drawn about early
biodiversity in Central America. Every new find and study of Jurassic to Lower
Cretaceous material will lead to significant new knowledge in systematics,
paleodiversity and paleobiogeography, and will strengthen the basis for discussion of
the younger evolution of marine faunas within the area.
Despite the similarity of Central American rudist reefs [67, 68, 72] with
contemporaneous bioconstructions of Mexico and the Caribbean, further studies of
rudist communities, the composition and diversity of the associated guilds, and their
paleobiological interactions is desirable.
Studies of foraminifera as preferred biostratigraphical tools prevail in Paleogene
units. Despite the few favorable facies for the existence of invertebrate fossils in the
Paleogene rocks (foraminiferal limestones, turbidites), some discoveries can be
expected especially from Costa Rica and Panama. These fossils should illuminate the
Early Paleogene evolution of mollusks and the reorganization of coral reefs after the
K/T extinction event.
In Nicaragua, the Miocene El Fraile and the Pliocene El Salto formations [114] are
richly fossiliferous. We expect that new field studies will provide information about
gastropods and bivalves, which compose more than 95% of the fauna, as well as other
invertebrates. Mollusks could provide more detailed insight into the iniation of
diversification of the Caribbean and Pacific shallow marine faunas, caused by early
stages in the closure of the Central American seaway. Finally, we should mention the
highly fragmentary knowledge of terrestrial invertebrates. Their biota are relatively
small and temporally patchy. Despite the resulting scattered occurrences, lacustrine
sediments, which are reported from nearly all Central American states [115], might
deliver the necessary fossil finds.
17.3
NEOGENE BIOTA: THE CENTRAL AMERICAN ISTHMUS AND ITS

INFLUENCE ON EVOLUTIONARY CHANGES
Vertebrate paleontologists recognized very early the significance of the Central

American landbridge for the distribution and migration of mammals (and other land
vertebrates) [116]. Faunal differences between pre-Isthmian North and South America
were very conspicuous, as was the initiation of faunal migration and interchange that
was concurrent with the closure of isthmus. For a long time, the fact that formation of
the isthmus led to profound global change in oceanographic and climatic conditions
was ignored. Additionally, orographic changes produced in marine environments
through alteration of morphology and other characters of the sea bottom, depth, water
energy, sedimentation, water chemistry and other ecological factors were ignored.
Finally, it was only in the last 30 years, that the idea that all those changes led to a
profound reorganization of all biota, and thus strongly influenced the evolution of
marine organisms [117119]. Based on these new ideas, paleontological work in
Central America obtained new direction and new objectives, principally followed by
the team of scientists of the PPP (list of participants in [6]).
Naturally, it was known long ago that the invertebrate faunas of the eastern Pacific
are different from those of the Caribbean and that those differences did not exist in
Miocene times (e.g., [94, 96, 120]) but developed during the course of the Neogene
(e.g., [120]). But in the light of new ideas, known data had to be revised and new data
gathered. Therefore, nearly all published results of the PPP (main contributions in [6,
121] and in the Journal of Paleontology 25, 2001:[15, 24, 127, 132]) are based on new
field studies that include taphonomical work. Those data, together with a high quantity
of samples, guarantee a representative composition [122] of fossil associations. Finally,
a commonly used data model [123] facilitates the distribution of information between
the scientists who participate in the PPP.
A second prerequisite for further advancement was improved biostratigraphic
control. Age estimates have attained greater precision than ever before [124], based
mainly on planktonic foraminifera [125] and nannofossils [112], but also on
paleomagnetic studies [126]. Taxonomic determinations of fossils, a time consuming
process, is the third prerequisite for new interpretations. First lists of invertebrate
species were published on corals [16, 17, 21], bryozoans [23, 24, 122], ostracods [46]
and mollusks [109]. The papers reflect an admirable progress in the understanding of
evolution. For the first time, the species richness of skeleton bearing invertebrate
fossils approximates comparable numbers for extant communities and is, in the case of
reef corals, even higher than today [16]. New insights emerged on the existence and
development of extant sympatric Caribbean species, on geminate species, and amphiAmerican species from pre-isthmus times [127]. This new work differs remarkably
from earlier information [120]. The faunas of reef corals [16, 128], deep water corals
[129], bryozoans [23, 24, 130], ostracods [46], and mollusks [127, 131, 132] reflect
ecological and evolutionary changes [23, 24, 46, 129], including changes in the
preferred growth form of corals and bryozoans [16, 121]. The influence of changing
external conditions on the evolutionary process is reflected not only in the invertebrate
species level, but also in a higher taxa level. For instance, the evolution of the
gastropod superfamily Tonnoidea reflects a gradual Miocene to Pliocene uplift of the
isthmus, as well as intermittent marine connections between the already separated
Pacific and Caribbean. This event occurred during Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene
interglacial periods of sea-level highstands [132]. Further conclusions about evolution
and paleobiology are to be expected from the description of fossil faunas and of a
greater number of hitherto unknown species of invertebrates.
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Chapter 18
Micropaleontology
LAUREL S. COLLINS
Had deep marine connection existed across
the Isthmus of Panama in Tertiary time there
should surely be preserved in the region
some rocks indicative of other than shallow
deposition within this hypothetic channel.
Future observers may find them, but the
experience of those of the past have not been
fruitful in this direction. R.T. Hill: The
geological history of the Isthmus of Panama
and portions of Costa Rica, based on a
reconnaissance made for Alexander Agassiz:
Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative
Zoology at Harvard College 28:5, pp.151
285, 1898.
18.1
INTRODUCTION
Micropaleontological studies of Central America have investigated groups as diverse as

foraminifera, radiolarians, ostracods, coccoliths, dinoflagellates and pollen, from rocks of
Permian to Pleistocene age. Marine micropaleontology has been applied to the
chronologic relationship of sedimentary rocks (biostratigraphy) and their geographic
distribution across shallow-water habitats and oceanic water depths, and to the
investigation of local to regional paleoenvironments and paleoclimatic change.
Terrestrially related micropaleontology has used fossils of diatoms and pollen; pollen
studies have primarily addressed regional climate changes over time. This chapter
summarizes the distribution and paleoenvironmental or paleoclimatic implications of
these diverse groups for Central America by summarizing previous studies that have
listed or described the taxa. Publications that have investigated biostratigraphy
exclusively are not included herein, as this subject is addressed in Chapter 13. The
microfaunas and microfloras are discussed below by their stratigraphic units in
chronological order, within the sections on the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras, and the
Paleogene and Neogene periods of the Cenozoic era. The distribution of the
stratigraphic units referred to below is shown in Figure 18.1.
18.2
PALEOZOIC (PERMIAN) MICROPALEONTOLOGY
Late Paleozoic marine sedimentary rocks crop out in northern Central America.
Foraminifera as old as Permian are found in a shale and limestone belt that is exposed
at the surface discontinuously from Chiapas, Mexico, through central Guatemala and
northward to central Belize. The belt consists entirely of deposits of warm (tropical to
subtropical), shallow-water platform carbonates.

Early Permian fusulinids from the Macal shale group of central Belize [1] may be
the oldest microfossils recovered from Central American outcrops. The abundant
fusulinids include Schwagerina gruperaensis Thompson and Miller, which also occurs
in the Chochal limestone of Guatemala [2]. The next oldest microfossils from this belt
are Early Permian (Sakmarianearliest Artinskian) fusulinids of the Guatemaltecan
Esperanza formation of the Purulh area, Baja Vera Paz province, Guatemala [3].
Levenella, a primitive genus of the Verbeekinoidea, is principally known from the
eastern Paleotethys, confirming an Early Permian migratory corridor between
Paleotethys and America. Slightly younger, late Early Permian (ArtinskianKungurian,
approximately equivalent to the American Leonardian age) fusulinids, typical smaller
American foraminifera (e.g., Tetrataxis, Pachyphloia, Climacammina), red algae (e.g.,
Parachaetetes centurionis, Gymnocodium bellerophontis) and green dasycladacean
algae (e.g., Epimastoporella likana, Mizzia yabei, Connexia slovenica) from the
Chochal formation across Guatemala were described by Vachard et al. [4], who noted
the transtethyan distribution of Connexia and the fusulinids Skinnerella and Skinnerina.
The Chochal limestone overlying the Santa Rosa formation near Purulh, central
Guatemala, is as young as Guadalupian (Middle Permian), as indicated by fusulinids
such as Schubertella muellerriedi [2].
18.3
MESOZOIC MICROPALEONTOLOGY
As Gursky [5] has mentioned, the oldest sedimentary rocks of southern Central
America (Panama, Costa Rica, and southern Nicaragua) are Early? Jurassic radiolarian
cherts of the Nicoya ophiolite complex, Costa Rica. The radiolarites may also contain
the oldest Mesozoic microfossils in Central America. Other surface exposures of this
ophiolite basement are Callovian to Paleocene in age, and found along the Pacific and
Caribbean coasts of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. The radiolarian taxa are found
in exotic blocks of siliceous and calcareous sedimentary rocks included in basalt
sequences, and have been used to determine the ages of the different basalt
subcomplexes [68]. The occurrence of radiolarians in the Nicoya complex, together
with the absence of foraminifera or other calcareous microfossils, indicate that the
submarine basaltic sheet flows were formed at abyssal to lower bathyal water depths,
below the carbonate compensation depth (which increased from the Early Jurassic at
approximately 2100 m to the Early Cretaceous at about 5000 m; [5]). In general,
abundant and richly diverse faunas of radiolarians, such as occur in the Tithonian
Valanginian Brasilito subcomplex ([6]; Pessagno in [9]), indicate relatively highnutrient surface waters, either associated with upwelling zones or possibly interoceanic
islands delivering large inputs of siliciclastic sediments.
In Guatemala and Honduras, middle Cretaceous foraminifera indicate mostly
shallow carbonate platform depositional settings. The lower member of the Cobn
formation, Guatemala, consists of Aptian and Albian units that recorded, in
chronological order, a shallow carbonate facies, a transgression of a deep-sea facies
rich in planktonic foraminifera (possibly low-oxygen, suggested by high organic
carbon content), and a return to a shallow carbonate facies characterized by miliolids
and larger benthic foraminifera such as Orbitolina (Mesorbitolina) texana [10].
Similarly, the CenomanianTuronian part of the upper Cobn formation is a shallowwater limestone, possibly reefal, with miliolids (e.g., Pseudorhapydioniona
Figure 18.1. General localities and ages of stratigraphic units with microfossils used in paleoenvironmental or paleoclimatic studies.
469
chiapanensis and Dicyclina schlumbergeri) and rudistid bivalve fragments [10].

The Albian Yojoa group (undifferentiated) of southeastern Guatemala (terminology
extended from Honduras) contains smaller benthic foraminifera from a deep-sea
environment in its lower part, and larger foraminiferan Orbitolina from a neritic,
carbonate-rich environment in the upper part [11]. Albian horizons of the Atima
formation within the Yojoa group of Honduras have yielded miliolids, Textularia,
Spiroplectammina, Cuneolina, Orbitolina and Nummoloculina, among others,
indicating a shallow reefal to subreefal facies [12]. In the Guare formation of
Honduras, which is equivalent to the Yojoa group of Mills et al. [12], large numbers of
planktic foraminifera and radiolarians, and other taxa such as Saccocoma sp. and
Calcisphaerula innominata, suggested a deeper, forereef facies of Albian to
Cenomanian? age to Mills et al. [12]. However, additional samples containing miliolids
and molluscan fragments from this unit, which is equivalent to the Guare member of
the Jaitique formation of Finch [13], were interpreted by Pessagno (in [13]) as shallowwater, probably less than 50 m water depth, and of definite Cenomanian age. Following
the reefal phase of the Yojoa group, Late Cretaceous Laramide orogenesis and block
faulting created grabens and basins in Honduras, one of which was filled by a marine
transgression that deposited the more argillaceous limestone of the Middle AlbianLate
Cretaceous Esquas formation [14]. The Esquas microfauna is scarce, but the presence
of Cuneolina and Nummoloculina suggest a shallow, carbonate-rich environment [12].
Horne et al. [14] interpreted this further, on the basis of the petrology and biofabric, as
lagoons and partly restricted marine embayments.
In southern Central America, Late Cretaceous foraminifera have been reported from
Costa Rica and Panama. The Senonian, or TuronianMaastrichtian [15] to Early
Paleocene [16] Rivas formation of southern Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica
contains foraminiferal faunas from several different facies. From the upper part of the
formation on the Nicoya peninsula, Pacific Costa Rica, diverse planktic and benthic
Campanian foraminifera were identified by Thalmann (in [17]) from a possible outer
neritic to bathyal facies. In contrast, a Campanian shallow carbonate facies in the upper
part of the formation on the Santa Elena peninsula, Pacific Costa Rica, is indicated by
larger foraminifera such as Pseudorbitoides israelski and Sulcoperculoina dickersoni
[15, 18]. CampanianMaastrichtian larger benthic foraminifera are also reported in
clasts within bathyal, mass-flow deposits from northwestern Costa Rica [19], and from
a large rock on the Santa Elena peninsula [20]. The Campanian, mostly limestone
Basal complex of southern Pacific Costa Rica (Osa-Burica-Golfito-Quepos region)
yielded Pseudorbitoides sp., indicating a shallow carbonate-rich environment [21].
Larger benthic foraminifera, radiolarians and rudistid bivalves of the Maastrichtian
Eocene Tuln formation, central Pacific coast of Costa Rica [22], are also from this type of
environment. In far northwestern Panama, an isolated outcrop of the Upper Campanian
Lower Maastrichtian Changuinola formation limestone was interpreted as moderately
deep to bathyal, on the basis of only planktic foraminifera with a few probable tests of
benthic foraminifera [23]. The gap between Central America and South America,
sometimes called the Panama seaway, extended to abyssal depths, as indicated by
an assemblage of radiolarians from the San Bls complex of far eastern Panama
[24].
In northern Central America, Late Cretaceous microfossils have been identified
from several regions of Guatemala. The species Praechubbina ovoidea and P. obesa,
with type localities in northern Guatemala, were recently described [25] from the
shallow carbonate platform that extended into Chiapas, Mexico. The Maastrichtian?
Lacandon formation of northern Guatemala yields a mostly larger benthic foraminiferal

fauna, including Vaughanina cubensis, Orbitoides palmeri and Sulcoperculina globosa
[26], indicating a carbonate shelf facies [27]. Recently, this formation has been equated
to the Campanian? Campur formation of central Guatemala, a rudistid bivalve limetone
that contains larger foraminifera such as Orbitocyclina minima and Sulcoperculina cf.
dickersoni in the lower member, and planktic foraminifera (e.g., Globotruncana gr.
linneiana and Globotruncanita gr. calcarata) and dinoflagellate cysts (e.g., Pithonella
ovalis and P. sphaerica) in the upper member [28]. In central Guatemala, foraminifera
from several sections spanning the Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary were identified to
evaluate the origin of a latest Maastrichtian limestone breccia of the Sepur formation.
This unit is inner neritic, as indicated by larger foraminifera (orbitoids,
praerhapydioninids and Chubbina) and smaller foraminifera dominated by miliolids
such as Quinqueloculina spp. [29]. Earliest Paleocene (planktic foraminiferal
biostratigraphic zone P1a), smaller benthic foraminiferal faunas in sediments overlying
the limestone breccia show an abrupt depositional change (interpreted as representing a
hiatus) to deeper depths, including middle to outer neritic at two sections and outer
neritic or upper bathyal at the other two sections. Overlying sediments show a decrease
in water depth to middle to outer neritic (zone P1a), then an increase by zone P2 to
upper bathyal to flysch environments. These changes may reflect Early Paleocene
(Danian) sea-level fluctuations. The faunas and lithologies suggest a long-term origin
of the Guatemala breccias related to regional tectonics, and a short-term impact or
volcanic event [29].
In summary, most of the described Mesozoic microfossil faunas are foraminiferal,
and, aside from the deep-sea radiolarites, most of these are the types that reflect
widespread shallow, carbonate platforms.
18.4
PALEOGENE MICROPALEONTOLOGY
Paleocene localities of microfossils are found along the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and
Panama. Lower Paleocene microfossils have been found in the Barra Honda formation
of the Tempisque river area, Guanacaste. Thalmann (in [17]) identified Dano-Montian
smaller benthic foraminifera including Miliolidae, and the dasycladacean alga
Lithothamnium, that are common to shallow neritic, carbonate-rich environments.
Mora [16] also described miliolids (Triloculina and Quinqueloculina), radiolarians
(e.g., Spumellaria), planktic foraminifera and ostracods from this formation. Jaccard et al.
[19] have described sections from this region combined under the name Barra Honda
platform. The platform sediments contain taxa such as the squamariacean alga Ethelia
alba; larger foraminifera Discocyclina, Amphistegina, and alveolinids; the smaller
benthic formanifer Thalmannita madrugaensis, and the planktic foraminifer
Morozovella velascoensis, which is restricted to the Upper Paleocene. Taken together,
all of the above taxa suggest an Early Paleocene shallow carbonate platform, including
restricted and high-energy, open-marine facies, with coral and red algal reefs.
As mentioned above, the Rivas formation in northwestern Costa Rica extends from
the Cretaceous to MiddleUpper Paleocene, and Rivier [30] listed planktic foraminifera
such as Globorotalia uncinata that are Paleocene indicators. In central Costa Rica, an
Upper Paleocene or, at youngest, Early Ypresian (Eocene) microfauna rich in larger
foraminifera (e.g., Neodiscocyclina barkeri and Ranikothalia bermudezi) and
containing age-diagnostic planktic foraminifera (e.g., Morozovella velascoensis) is
471
found at Punta Quepos [31]. This is part of the Quepos basal complex, which appears
to have been part of a basalt island derived from submarine volcanism and emergent
during the Early Paleocene [22, 32]. In Panama on the Burica peninsula, a
discontinuous and unnamed limestone unit overlying a basaltic basement contains a
larger foraminiferal assemblage of Late PaleoceneEarly Eocene age (Robinson in
[33]). This suggests a shallow-water, carbonate-rich setting.
The LowerUpper Eocene Brito formation of Pacific Costa Rica and southwestern
Nicaragua, where the type locality is located, displays several biofacies. From the
Baha Junquillal area of northwesternmost Costa Rica near the Nicaraguan border, a
rich fauna of Late Eocene larger benthic foraminifera, including Nummulites
striatoreticulatus, Lepidocyclina montgomeriensis and Operculinoides ocalanus, as
identified by Harrison [15], and by Thalmann and Malavassi (in Dengo, [17]), indicates
a shallow carbonate environment. Further south, in the Tempisque river region, Early
Middle Eocene planktic foraminifera are probably from a deeper facies [30], although
Jaccard et al. [19] identified larger foraminifera such as Neodiscocyclina barkeri from
the Barra Honda carbonate platform in the same region, indicating a neritic facies.
Much further south, near the Panama border, MiddleLate Eocene larger benthic
foraminifera such as Lepidocyclina macdonaldi and Operculinoides trinitatensis
(identified by Frost in Yuan, [34]) from the Brito formation indicate a shallow
carbonate paleoenvironment.
Probable Early Eocene (but as old as Late Paleocene) radiolarians (e.g., Podocyrtis
papalis and Theocampe mongolfieri) are found in Osa peninsula outcrops (SchmidtEffing in Lew, [35]). These are indicative of higher nutrient, deep-sea waters off the
Pacific coast.
A Middle Eocene carbonate platform that crops out along the Pacific Costa Rican
coast unconformably overlies the Nicoya ophiolite complex. The Lutetian (lower
Middle Eocene) Parritillia formation [36] has a rich assemblage of larger foraminifera
(e.g., Amphistegina lopeztrigoi, Lepidocyclina antillea and Nummulites floridensis) and
calcareous algae (e.g., Archaeolithothamnium sp.). The diverse assemblages indicate an
open-ocean to locally restricted, neritic, carbonate-rich environment. Previously, from
one of the same outcrop areas and presumably the same formation, Cole (in [37]) and
Malavassi [18] identified the Middle Eocene larger benthic foraminifer Nummulites
macgillary. A rich, Early Eocene larger foraminiferal assemblage was described by
Azma et al. [31] from the Punta Quepos area. Middle Eocene larger foraminifera have
also been identified by Butterlin from the southernmost Nicoya peninsula (in [38]) and
central Burica peninsula (in [39]). Late Eocene deep-water radiolarians are in rocks
exposed at Punta Quepos [6].
The Upper EoceneUpper Oligocene Las nimas formation crops out in the
Turrialba area of Caribbean Costa Rica. Diverse facies are suggested by the
microfauanas. In parts dated as Upper Eocene, abundant larger benthic foraminifera
such as Lepidocyclina macdonaldi and Operculinoides ocalanus and calcareous algae
such as Lithophyllum sp. [4042] suggest shallow-water, carbonate-rich, reefal
sediments. However, the co-occurrence of the planktic foraminifera Globorotalia nana,
G. opima opima and G. siakensis [43] indicate a Late Oligocene age, and the associated
smaller benthic foraminifera (e.g., Lagenonodosaria sp. and Cibicides mexicana)
suggest deeper, outer neritic to upper bathyal conditions. An assemblage of ostracods
(e.g., Krithe trinidadensis and Bairdia cassida) from the Quebrada Grande area of
Turrialba includes species with Eocene to Oligocene ranges; this may also be from the
Las nimas formation [44].
Southward, in Pacific Panama, shallow-water Eocene carbonate deposits with rich

assemblages of larger benthic foraminifera are also seen, although they are not as
continuous through time. The type section of the Upper? Eocene (Lohmann in [45])
David formation of southwestern Panama has yielded the larger foraminifera
Lepidocyclina panamensis, L. duplicata and L. macdonaldi [46, 47], and the probable
extension of this limestone unit to near the border with Costa Rica contains a richer
assemblage (Vaughan in [46]). Further east, in the Azuero peninsula, the Upper Eocene
Bcaru formation also contains larger benthic foraminifera (Vaughan in [46]). This unit
may be equivalent to the Late Eocene Tonosi formation of the same area, which
contains mostly larger foraminifera (e.g., Operculinoides bullbrooki) and the red alga
Lithothamnium [48]. In the central Panama canal area, larger foraminifera-bearing
limestones are intercalated with shales of the Gatuncillo and Tranquilla formations.
Coryell and Embich [49] interpreted the Upper Eocene Tranquilla shale to be a
shallow-water deposit, although the abundance of the smaller benthic foraminifers
buliminids, bolivinids and lenticulinids suggests outer neritic to upper bathyal depths.
Rich assemblages of orbitoidal larger foraminifera overlying these shales and in the
Early to Upper? Eocene Gatuncillo formation ([50], Vaughan in [46]) indicate intervals
of development of shallow carbonate shelf conditions. Bandy [51] interpreted these
different facies to be an Early Eocene abyssal or deep bathyal facies containing a
Pleurostomella-Nuttallides smaller benthic foraminiferal fauna with abundant
radiolarians that shallowed to Late Eocene sediments containing larger foraminifera. In
far eastern Panama, the Darin formation contains Early to Middle Eocene radiolarians
indicating bathyal deposition [24].
Late Oligocene microfaunas of Panama are found in the central region. Larger
benthic foraminifera from the Upper Oligocene Caimito formation, Panama canal area,
are from shallow-water, carbonate-rich sediments [52, 53], although Woodring [54)
suggests an additional deeper water facies on the basis of mollusks. Late Oligocene
larger foraminifera were also listed from an unnamed formation in the Pearl islands, off
the Pacific coast of eastern Panama [55].
The Oligocene Masachapa formation of southwestern Nicaragua-northwestern
Costa Rica also displays different types of facies and foraminiferal assemblages. On the
Nicoya peninsula, a shallow-water, reefal assemblage of larger foraminifera (e.g.,
Miogypsina (M.) antillea) are found in the central part (Thalmann and Malavassi in
[17]), and a bathyal assemblage of smaller foraminifera (e.g., Karreriella bradyi) is
located to the south (Thalmann in [17]).
The OligoceneMiocene Trraba formation of southwestern Costa Rica includes a
range of paleoenvironments and microfossil assemblages. Early Oligocene smaller
benthic foraminifera from the lowermost part of the formation indicate outer neritic
upper bathyal depths. Within this same region, corals and larger foraminifera such as
Lepidocyclina (Nephrolepidina) vaughani [56] and Heterostegina antillea (Frost in
Yuan, [34]) are from a Late Oligocene shallow reefal setting. However, other Late
Oligocene outcrops containing the benthic foraminifera Melonis pompilioides and
Cibicides crebbsi indicate deeper, upper bathyal depths [34]. The upper Trraba
formation is Lower Miocene. It yields Late Aquitanian, and Early and Late
Burdigalian, upper bathyal faunas ([56], McNeely in [34]). Thus, it appears that except
for a Late Oligocene reef, bathyal depths existed in this area from Early Oligocene to
late Early Miocene time.
On the Caribbean side of Costa Rica, Late Oligocene foraminifera in the
Reventazn river region are found in an algal-foraminiferal limestone unit that includes
473
larger foraminifera such as Heterostegina antillea and Lepidocyclina (L.)

waylandvaughani [43, 57]. This is succeeded by Late Oligocene, upper bathyal
sediments with smaller foraminifera such as Stilostomella verneuilii and Sphaeroidina
bulloides [43, 42], and deeper water assemblages continue throughout the Miocene.
The sequence indicates subsidence of the depositional basin at the end of the
Oligocene.
In the terrestrial realm, pollen, spores and fungal palynomorphs have been
described from the Eocene Brito formation and Oligocene Masachapa formation of
southwestern Nicaragua [58]. They all suggest a warm, humid climate at the time of
deposition. The presence of the colonial microalgae Botryococcus and Pediastrum
indicate a freshwater influence in this marine basin. Identified from the Panama canal
area are palynomorphs such as spores of Ceratopteris and pollen of Podocarpus from
the Early to Late? Eocene Gatuncillo formation [59]. Interestingly, there is only an 11%
similarity between the two. The difference may be attributed to depositional facies or
regimes, elevation or landscape differences. Pollen (e.g., Proxapertites operculatus) is
abundant in coal seams of the Late Eocene Tonosi formation, Azuero peninsula,
Panama, where it indicates a paleoenvironment of freshwater coastal swamp [48].
In summary, during the Paleogene, a large PaleoceneEocene shallow-water
carbonate platform extending from at least southern Nicaragua to central Panama is
indicated by the widespread occurrence of rich larger benthic foraminiferal
assemblages. A deeper, perhaps bathyal, facies is also suggested in the Panama canal
area, and bathyal depths were present in Darin, near the Colombian border in Eocene
time. Oligocene marine faunas include larger benthic foraminiferal faunas indicative of
algal-coral reefs and carbonate sediments, but just as many deeper, bathyal facies are
found in southern Central America. These may have resulted from local basin
subsidence or down-dropped grabens, since sea-level generally fell during the
Oligocene epoch.
18.5
NEOGENE MICROPALEONTOLOGY
Early to Late Miocene foraminifera and ostracods have been described from Bocas del
Toro, northwestern Panama. Foraminifera listed from a well in this region [46] may
also be Miocene. Burdigalian (Early Miocene) foraminifera of the Punta Alegre
formation are lower bathyal, and Early Miocene faunas of the Valiente formation are
middle and upper bathyal [60]. Late Miocene foraminifera ([61, 62]; Fig. 18.2) and
ostracods [63] of the Nancy Point formation are upper bathyal. Like the Uscari
formation faunas of Costa Rica (see below), the Bocas del Toro assemblages recorded
the uplift associated with the rise of the southern Central American isthmus.
The Early Miocene Culebra formation (called La Boca formation in part) of the
Panama canal area yields mostly bathyal foraminifera [64], but it also contains the
shallow-water Emperador limestone with larger and smaller foraminifera such as
Amphistegina and Quinqueloculina [65], as well as terrestrial elements such as
palynomorphs (Fig. 18.3). The late Early to early Late Miocene Gatn formation of the
Panama canal area has been well studied for its microfaunas. Ostracods (e.g., Puriana
rugipunctata) were described by Coryell and Fields [66] and van den Bold [67], who
found them to be similar to those of the Caribbean side of central Costa Rica. The
smaller benthic foraminifera were studied by Cushman [65] and Collins et al. ([68],
Fig. 18.2), who noted that the depositional water depth of 2540 m meant that the
Figure 18.2. Fossil foraminifera and coccoliths of Central America: (1)(9) Benthic foraminifera;
(a) Siphonina pulchra Cushman, from Lower Pleistocene Mon formation, Costa Rica [62];
(b) Trifarina occidentalis (Cushman) bella, from Lower Pleistocene Mon formation, Costa
Rica [62]; (c) Marginulinopsis marginulinoides (Ges), from Lower Pliocene Shark Hole
Point formation, Panama [61]; (d) Bolivina tongi Cushman filacostata (Cushman and
McCulloch), from Toro member of Late Miocene Chagres formation, Panama [68];
(e) Bigenerina irregularis (Phleger and Parker), from Late Miocene (upper) part of Gatn
formation, Panama [68]; (f) Asterigerina pettersi Redmond, from Late Miocene Chagres
formation, Panama [68]; (g) Cibicides colombianus Tolmachoff, from Late Miocene Chagres
formation, Panama [68]; (h) Cassidulina corbyi Cushman and Hughes, from Late Miocene
Chagres formation, Panama [68]; (i) Siphogenerina lamellata Cushman, from Late Miocene
Nancy Point formation, Panama [61]; (j) and (k): Coccoliths, from Early MioceneLate
Pliocene Venado formation, Costa Rica [78]; photographs from S. Chiesa [78], contributed by
G.E. Alvarado; (j) Coccolithus sp.?; (k) Cruciplacolithus tenuiforatus.
475
Panama seaway was closed in the area at this time. The overlying Late Miocene
Chagres formation includes deeper water foraminifera such as Cassidulina corbyi
([51], Fig. 18.2), indicating basin subsidence, probably caused by regional faulting.
Foraminiferal and nannofossil assemblages were recently recorded from the
Miocene of the Darin, eastern Panama [69]. In the main (Chucunaque river) basin,
Early Miocene smaller foraminifera are lowermiddle bathyal in the Clarita formation,
and are succeeded by middleupper bathyal taxa of the Tapaliza formation and
Membrillo formation, innerouter neritic taxa of the Tuira formation, and mostly inner
neritic taxa of the Yaviza formation, successively. This sequence tracks regional uplift,
which caused closure of the remaining Caribbean-Pacific strait between Panama and
Colombia in the Early Pliocene. At the top of the sequence, benthic foraminifera of the
Chucunaque formation are from upper bathyal-outer neritic waters, indicating a
deepening in the central basin.
A few other Miocene microfaunas are known from Pacific Panama. Late Miocene
or Early Pliocene foraminifera of the Pearl islands include taxa such as Siphogenerina
transversa that indicate upper bathyal depths [55]. The Miocene (undifferentiated)
Santiago formation of the Azuero peninsula appears to contain a similar fauna [48].
Microfossils from the latest OligoceneLate Miocene Uscari formation (previously
called the Amoura shale) of southeastern Costa Rica have been well studied. Olsson
[70] first mentioned the paleoenvironments of the underlying Oligocene shallow-water
carbonates that include larger foraminifera (e.g., Lepidocyclina), and the deeper water
lower Uscari formation that contains smaller benthic foraminifera such as Nodosaria.
Palmer [71], Goudkoff and Porter [72] and Malavassi [42] also listed smaller benthic
foraminifera from parts of the Uscari formation. Van den Bold [67] described Uscari
formation ostracods, recognizing them as deep-water taxa, and gave their time ranges
[44]. Cassell and Sen Gupta [57] studied the foraminiferal faunas in detail up section
from the base, which is uppermost Oligocene, to the Early Miocene part. In the early
Miocene, parts of the basin were lower bathyalabyssal and middle bathyal in depth.
By the late Early to Early Miocene, outer neritic to upper bathyal assemblages were
present. Collins et al. [62] listed smaller benthic foraminifera from the Late Miocene,
upper part of the formation, which were also upper bathyal. Thus, the thick formation
documents shallowing of the basin caused by uplift through the entire Miocene epoch.
Further inland from the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica (Reventazn river),
microfaunas of the Early Miocene Pea Negra formation include the radiolarian
Spumellaria sp. and foraminifera [73]. In the Valle Central, the Coris formation has
yielded Early Miocene foraminifera such as Lenticulina sp. and deeper dwelling
planktic foraminifera such as Globorotalia fohsi robusta [74], suggesting waters deeper
than 50 m.
In central northern Costa Rica (San Carlos basin), Early and Late Miocene
foraminifera [7476], dinoflagellates [77], coccoliths ([78], Fig. 18.2) and ostracods
[44] of the Venado formation include shallow, nearshore forms such as Ammonia and
Elphidium (foraminifera; [75]). These clearly indicate that during this period, a
shoreline existed in this area and was probably part of a northern Costa Rica AtlanticPacific strait. This strait may have extended into the Lake Nicaragua region. Van den
Bold [44] listed EarlyLate Miocene ostracod species from the El Fraile formation,
southwestern Nicaragua.
Little is known of the Neogene marine micropaleontology of northern Central
America. Ostracods from the Caribe formation of Guatemala, dated as Early Miocene,
were listed by van den Bold [44].
In Panama, Pliocene and Pleistocene foraminifera ([61], Fig. 18.2) and ostracods [63]
are recorded from the following formations of the Bocas del Toro group: the Lower
Pliocene Cayo Agua and Shark Hole Point formations, Upper Pliocene Escudo de
Veraguas formation, and Pleistocene Swan Cay formation. They reflect a variety of
relatively shallow paleoenvironments, from outer neritic to middle neritic depths, and
siliciclastic to reefal sediments.
In Caribbean Costa Rica, a similar pattern of shallower Pliocene to Pleistocene
microfossils that succeeded deeper Miocene assemblages is seen in the Limn group.
Dinoflagellates (e.g., Crassoretitriletes vanraddshooveni) were reported from the
fluvial coastal deposits of the Lower Pliocene Suretka formation [77]. Foraminifera
([79, 62], Fig. 18.2) and ostracods [67, 44, 63] were recorded from the innermiddle
neritic, Lower Pliocene Ro Banano formation and outer neritic and middle neritic
reefal parts of the Lower Pleistocene Mon formation. The latter two distinctly different
facies represent muddy flanks of a reefal, bathymetrically higher buildup.
On the Pacific coast of southern Central America, Pliocene and Pleistocene
microfossils are reported from the Burica, Osa and Nicoya peninsulas, and from
Nicaragua. Foraminifera and calcareous nannofossils of the Lower Pliocene Penita
formation, Upper PlioceneLower Pleistocene Burica formation and Lower Pleistocene
Armuelles formation have been reported by Coryell and Mossman [80], Corrigan et al.
[33] and Collins et al. [62] from Panama. The benthic foraminifera have recorded an
unusual sequence of water depths: innermiddle neritic depths (shown by, for example,
Ammonia beccarii) of the Early Pliocene gradually deepened with basin subsidence to
the lower bathyal (sediments containing, for example, Uvigerina senticosa); then, with
regional uplift, depths gradually shallowed to the upper bathyal before rapidly
shallowing to the inner neritic. In Costa Rica on the Osa peninsula, middle Pliocene
foraminifera of the Punta La Chancha formation are upper bathyal. On the southeast
coast of the Nicoya peninsula, the Montezuma formation yields middle Pliocene outer
neritic, and Early Pleistocene, middle neritic, rich faunas of foraminifera [81, 82] and
ostracods [67]. This sequence also recorded regional uplift. In Nicaragua, the Pliocene
El Salto formation has yielded a few taxa of ostracods [44].
Terrestrial studies of Miocene pollen include the Venado formation of central
northern Costa Rica [77] and Gatn formation of Panama. Pollen and spores from the
Gatn formation (Fig. 18.3) have been cited as Pliocene [83]; however, more recent
biostratigraphy has shown the formation to be Miocene [68]. Gatn palynomorphs such
as Rhizophora and Casimiroa indicate the first appearance of substantial quantities of
grass, a more fully developed and extensive tropical dry forest, and possibly the first
indication of developing wetter Atlantic and drier Pacific provinces in southern Central
America [83].
In Guatemala, several pollen types representing north-temperate trees (e.g., Picea
see Fig. 18.3, Pinus and Quercus) are present in the MioPliocene Padre Miguel group
and the Pliocene Herreria formation (e.g., Pinus and Ulmus, [84]). They apparently do
not occur at this time further south in the Pliocene of Costa Rica [77, 85]. Early
Pliocene pollen from the Ro Banano formation (Fig. 18.3), east central Costa Rica,
indicates modern precipitation levels but less seasonality, and agrees with a late
appearance of dry habitat and moderate paleoelevations near the Caribbean coast. A
comparison of Pliocene pollen of Veracruz, Mexico, northeastern Guatemala and
northern South America suggests the appearance of a temperate element later in the
south than in the north, consistent with the appearance of highlands in southern Central
America and northern South America in the Pliocene [86].
477
Most palynological studies of Central America are Pleistocene to Recent studies of

lake cores. Pollen from northern Guatemala [87] was used to track Late Pleistocene
Recent temperatures. About 36,00024,000 years ago, the areas climate was cooler
and drier than at present, and 24,00012,000 years ago it became more extreme, with
temperatures of 6.58.0 C less than modern temperatures and extremely arid.
However, with the onset of deglaciation 12,500 years ago, these trends reversed (see
also Chapter 15). The PlioPleistocene flora from the Sisimico river valley, El
Salvador, was deposited in a freshwater lake and is so similar to the recent flora of El
Salvador that Ltschert and Mdler [88] assumed that the flora was little influenced by
Pleistocene glaciation. Late Pleistocene pollen and phytoliths (siliceous inclusions of
land plants) of the Pacific coast of central Panama show an expansion of a savanna-like
vegetation [89]. Latest Pleistocene to Recent pollen of the Gatn basin in the Panama
canal area indicate that at 12,000 years ago, temperatures were at least 2.5 C cooler
than today, but by 7300 years ago, temperatures were as todays with a drier, more
seasonal climate than before [90]. These and other palynological studies of Central
America have primarily tracked changes in local conditions during the glacial and
interglacial stages of the Pleistocene epoch.
Reported occurrences in Costa Rica of Pliocene to Quaternary diatom taxa have
been summarized by Mathers [91]. The diatoms are closely associated with volcanic
deposits, and evidence indicates that they are all of lacustrine origin. Taxa such as
Nitzshia, Gomphonema and Epithemia are listed from several places of Costa Rica.
18.6
CONCLUSIONS
The micropaleontology of Central America, in addition to its application to

biostratigraphy, has addressed a wide variety of environment- and climate-related
questions. The main conclusions of the paleoenvironmental research are listed below:
Late Paleozoic (Permian) microfossils from northern Central America indicate the
warm, shallow seas, abundant reefs and carbonate sediments of a large carbonate
platform. At that time, southern Central America had not yet formed.
In the Mesozoic Era, similar conditions were present and had extended to southern
Central America by the Late Cretaceous, as indicated by microfossils from Costa
Rica to northwestern Panama. At this time, a wide seaway still existed between the
southeasternmost extension of Central America and northwestern South America.
A large, early Paleogene, shallow-water carbonate platform extended from at least
southern Nicaragua to central Panama, and a deep-sea facies existed from the
Panama canal area to northwestern Colombia.
Sequences of Neogene marine microfossils and the water depths at which the
different species are found have been used as a record of the uplift of southern
Central America, the last part of Central America to emerge from the sea. More
localized uplift, basin subsidence and sea-level change have also been interpreted
from microfossil assemblages.
Sequences of fossil pollen in southwestern Nicaragua indicate that warm, humid
conditions prevailed during the Paleogene. The first indication of developing wetter
Atlantic and drier Pacific provinces in southern Central America may be indicated
by pollen of the Upper Miocene Gatn formation of Panama. During the Pliocene,
temperate plants may have appeared later in the south than the north, consistent with
Figure 18.3. Photographs of fossil pollen from Central America; dimensions of specimens given
as either maximum or length width: (a) Picea (Pinaceae, spruce), from MioPliocene Padre
Miguel group, Guatemala [84], 5530 microns; (b) Alchornea (Euphorbiaceae), from
Pliocene Ro Banano formation, Costa Rica [92], 25 microns; (c) Faramea (Rubiaceae),
from EarlyUpper Eocene Gatuncillo formation, Panama [59], 2730 microns; (d) Ilex
(Aquifoliaceae), from Lower Miocene Culebra formation, Panama [93], 32 microns;
(e) Pelliceria (Pelliceriaceae), from Lower Miocene La Boca formation, Panama [94],
50 microns; (f) Rhizophora (Rhizophoraceae, mangrove), from Lower Miocene La Boca
formation, Panama [94], 2018 microns; (g) Cnemidaria (Cyatheaceae, fern), from Upper
Miocene part of Gatn formation, Panama [83], 45 microns; (h) Gramineae (grass), from
Upper Miocene part of Gatn formation, Panama [83], 40 microns. Photographs contributed
by Alan Graham, Missouri Botanical Garden.
the appearance of highlands in southern Central America and northern South

America. Changing proportions of pollen species in Pleistocene deposits allow
interpretation of warm versus cold and moist versus dry conditions that changed
during glacial and interglacial stages.
479
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483
Chapter 19
Metamorphism and metamorphic rocks
UWE MARTENS, CARLOS ORTEGA-OBREGN, JULIANA ESTRADA AND
MARVIN VALLE
The basement presents two areas of
different metamorphic grade, essentially
separated along the Motagua fault zone in
central Guatemala. For the purpose of this
discussion the area north of the Motagua
fault zone will be referred to as the Maya
block, and the area to the south of it as the
Chortis block ... G. Dengo: Problems of
tectonic relations between Central America
and the Caribbean, 1969.
19.1
INTRODUCTION
The metamorphic basement of Nuclear Central America [1] extends from northern
Nicaragua to Chiapas and Yucatn in Mexico, being significantly exposed in Honduras
and Guatemala [2]. The most prominent exposures are located in the Sierra de los
Cuchumatanes, Sierra de Chuacs, Sierra de Las Minas, and the mountain ranges
southeast of the Motagua valley in Guatemala; Maya mountains in Belize; Sierra de
Espritu Santo, Sierra de Omoa, the Comayagua region, Montaas del Yoro, a vast
portion of the northeastern departamentos (administrative districts) of Olancho, Coln
and Gracias a Dios, and the Bay islands in Honduras; exposures of metamorphic rocks
in Nicaragua are located in the northern departamento de Nueva Segovia near the
Honduran border [3] (Fig. 19.1, Table 19.1; for localities cited in the text refer to Fig.
19.2). To present a coherent set of metamorphic units, it is worth considering the main
tectonic blocks that constitute Central America. Dengos [4] proposal for the definition
of the Maya and Chortis blocks will be followed. However, as is demonstrated below,
establishing limits between the units that compose the metamorphic basement of
Central America is complex, and the advance of ideas might require the definition of
additional subordinate blocks, especially in the region comprised between the Polochic
and Jocotn fault systems (see for instance [5, 6]).
The Maya block includes Guatemala north of the Motagua suture, Belize and a
portion of southeastern Mexican territory [3]. The Chuacs complex [7], a succession
of medium- to high-grade metamorphic rocks containing eclogitic relics, has been
considered the southern portion of this block [4]. However, it was recently discovered
that the northern border of this complex is separated from sheared granitic plutons,
low-grade schists and phyllites by the Baja Verapaz shear zone [8], suggesting that the
Chuacs is a fault-bounded terrane between the Maya and Chortis blocks [6]. While
low-grade lithology and plutons are ubiquitously present, a very small number of cases

486 IGNEOUS AND METAMORPHIC PETROLOGY
of medium- to high-grade metamorphic rocks have been reported north of the Polochic
fault [9]. Low-grade metasediments in north-central Guatemala and Belize might be in
part the metamorphosed equivalent of the Santa Rosa group, but some were intruded by
Paleozoic granites and were probably deposited previous to Santa Rosa beds [6, 10].
The Chortis block is coupled to the southern part of the Maya block along the
Motagua suture zone, which broadly corresponds to the Motagua fault system in its
location. Lithologically the suture is constituted by a melange [11] containing blocks of
ophiolitic fragments and metamorphic rocks such as amphibolite, eclogite, albitite and
jadeitite. South of the Motagua fault, amphibolite-facies gneisses, migmatites and
metamafic rocks comprise the Las Ovejas complex [12], which is associated to the
low-grade San Diego phyllites. In central Honduras an extensive unit of low-grade
rocks with local high-grade inliers has been called Cacaguapa schists [5, 13], and its
likely equivalent in northern Nicaragua is the Las Segovias complex [14]. The latter is
the southernmost exposure of Chortiss metamorphic basement. Correlation of
metamorphic rocks in the Chortis block is problematic; different exposed metamorphic
units may not correlate throughout the block, suggesting it might be constituted by a
collage of diverse smaller crustal fragments [3, 5].
The southern limit of the Chortis block has not been adequately defined, but it is
assumed to be situated close to the Nicaragua-Costa Rica border [15]. South of it, the
basement of Isthmian Central America, also described with the tectonic term Chorotega
block, is constituted by thickened oceanic crust that might contain a metamorphic
component [16]. Metamorphism in rocks from this segment of Central America is very
rare: (1) minor amphibolite bodies occur in mafic-ultramafic complexes that suffered
partial low-grade metamorphism; (2) few high-grade xenoliths ascended through
volcanic conduits, and were deposited along with recent tephra; and (3) one white-mica
+ andalusite schist locality is known in Costa Rica.
This contribution is intended as a compendium of the present knowledge about
metamorphic rocks in Central America. It mainly includes descriptions on low- to highgrade orogenic-metamorphic units, as well as deformed and recrystallized rocks from
mafic igneous complexes. Metamorphism in various tectonic contexts is discussed
where prominent or where current knowledge is detailed. Extensive discussion on
peridotites and their serpentinized equivalent has not been included.
The description follows from north to south, in segments that take into account the
principal tectonic features of Central America. An exception to this is the report on
metamorphic rocks that crop out north of the Polochic fault; since it is based on the
presentation about metamorphic units occurring between the Motagua and Polochic
faults, the latter will be presented first.
19.2
METAMORPHIC ROCKS BETWEEN THE POLOCHIC AND THE

MOTAGUA FAULTS
19.2.1 Metamorphic rocks in the Sierra de Chuacs

The Sierra de Chuacs is a mountain range situated north of the Motagua valley, where
metamorphic rocks in Guatemala were first described [2, 1719]. Similar metamorphic
rocks have been reported in the Huehuetenango area [20] and the Sierra de Las Minas
[21], forming a wide EW-elongated metamorphic belt that crosses central Guatemala
from the Mexican border to the Caribbean coast.
Figure 19.1. Metamorphic map of northern Central America. Adapted from [5, 43, 78], and an unpublished map by one of the authors.
487

Table 19.1. Description of units of Figure 19.1.

Unit
Principal area of
exposure
Lithology
Age
Low-grade
metasediments and
local hornfelses from
the Maya block
(partly Santa Rosa
group metamorphosed
to low grade)
Maya mountains,
Sierra de los
Cuchumatanes, Salam
region
Slate, phyllite,
chloritic schist,
quartzite,
metasandstones and
minor meta-calcareous
rocks. Andalusite,
garnet and chloritoid at
contacts with intrusive
plutons
Probably two
metasedimentary units.
One intruded by
Silurian and
Carboniferous (?)
plutons, other contains
Carboniferous
Permian fossils
Chuacs complex
Sierra de Chuacs,
Sierra de las Minas,
Huehuetenango area
Pelitic schists, quartzfeldspar-mica gneisses

that eventually contain
garnet and kyanite,
migmatites,
amphibolites, local
quartzites, marbles and
calcsilicates; Local
mafic eclogites and
eclogitic relicts
Paleozoic or
Cretaceous
metamorphic age and
inherited
Mesoproterozoic
material
Motagua suture rocks Motagua valley, and

adjacent mountain
and adjacent
ophiolites: SM South ranges
Motagua unit, NM
North Motagua unit,
JPZ Juan de Paz unit,
BVP Baja Verapaz
unit, SSC Sierra de
Santa Cruz unit
Peridotites, partly or Cretaceous

completely
serpentinized;
Subordinate basalts
and metamorphosed
equivalents; SM
contains blocks of
lawsonite eclogite;
NM has blocks of
zoisite-eclogite; BVP
is chiefly composed of
fresh peridotite; SSC is
peridotite, gabbro,
amphibolite and basalt
Metamorphic rocks present in the Sierra de Chuacs include phyllites,

metagreywackes, metaconglomerates, granitic mylonites, pelitic schists, quartzfeldspar-mica-epidote gneisses that eventually contain garnet and kyanite, migmatites,
amphibolites associated with gneisses, strongly lineated amphibolites associated with
ultramafic rocks, local quartzites, marbles and calcsilicates [7, 22, 23]. Metamorphic
grade varies between low-greenschist and almandine-amphibolite facies [2224],
although relic eclogite-facies assemblages are preserved within some of the gneisses in
the core of the mountain range [7].
The variety of metamorphic rock types in the Sierra de Chuacs can be reasonably
grouped into one or more geologic units of regional extent. Similar names have been
used for contrasting definitions, leading to a confusing nomenclature. McBirney [22]
adopted that rocks bearing brown biotite or garnet were part of the Chuacs series,
whereas rocks with lower-grade parageneses were the metamorphosed equivalent of
the Santa Rosa group. In contrast, van den Boom [23] postulated the existence of a
single metamorphic unit, the Chuacs group, in which the transition between the
chlorite, biotite and garnet zones of a conventional Barrovian belt could be identified.
Table 19.1 (continued).

Unit
Principal area of
exposure
Lithology
Las Ovejas complex

and San Diego
phyllites
Southeastern
Guatemala, Sierra de
Omoa-Merendn
Poorly constrained
Biotitic schists and
Paleozoic or Mesogneisses locally
containing staurolite, proterozoic age
garnet, sillimanite and
rarely K-feldspar,
banded biotite-garnet
gneisses, amphibolites,
marble and calcareous
schists, gray-green
phyllites, and minor
thin quartzites and
slate layers
Cacaguapa schists in
central Honduras
Comayagua and El
Rosario regions,
northern Honduras
Pre-Jurassic
Quartz-muscovite
schists, locally bearing
graphite, chlorite
schists, phyllites and
minor marble and
quartzite
Inliers of gneiss and

minor pelitic schist
within Cacaguapa
schist
Mesoproterozoic or
El Progreso-Yoro area Greenschist- to
older
amphibolite-facies
transition, and intruded
by Mesoproterozoic
lineated granites;
Possible correlation
with Las Ovejas
complex rocks (?)
Cacaguapa schists in Nueva Segovia,

eastern Honduras and eastern Olancho and
Gracias a Dios
Las Segovias
metamorphic complex
in Nicaragua
Quartz-muscovite
schists, locally bearing
graphite, pelitic schist,
greenschists, phyllites
and minor marble
Age
No radiometric ages
available;
metamorphic age postJurassic (?) and preCretaceous
Low-greenschist rocks would, therefore, constitute the chlorite zone of the group
separately from basal formations of the Santa Rosa group. Donnelly et al. [3] dismissed
this subdivision by metamorphic zones, stating that abundant faulting significantly
disturbed the Chuacs group juxtaposing rocks of diverse metamorphic grade. OrtegaGutirrez et al. [6, 7] introduced the term Chuacs complex for the high-grade schists
and gneisses with eclogitic relicts that constitute a block between the Motagua fault
zone and the Salam-Rabinal area, where the Chuacs is truncated by the 5 km-wide
Baja Verapaz shear zone [8], separating it from clastic metasediments intruded by the
Paleozoic Rabinal granite. A younger succession of metasediments of Mississippian
age that occurs in the same area was considered the metamorphosed equivalent of the
basal Santa Rosa group.
The term Chuacs complex will be used here in the restricted sense of OrtegaGutirrez et al. [6, 7], apart from low-grade metasediments in the Salam-San GabrielRabinal area (Fig. 19.1). Peridotites, their serpentinized equivalents and directly
associated garnet-hornblende amphibolites will not be considered as part of the
Chuacs complex. Early studies [22] included these as part of the Chuacs series, but
at present these mafic and ultramafic rocks are considered part of the allochthonous
Mesozoic El Tambor group [25].
489
19.2.2 The Chuacs complex in the Sierra de Chuacs

The average Chuacs complex schist or gneiss in the Sierra de Chuacs (e.g., in the El
Chol-Palibatz area, Fig. 19.3a) distinctively contains quartz + albite + white mica +
epidote/zoisite garnet biotite sphene rutile amphibole (barroisite / taramite /
pargasite) omphacite calcite allanite chlorite (Fig. 19.3b), whereas K-feldspar,
chloritoid and staurolite are rare, perhaps restricted to single outcrops [7, 22, 23].
Gneisses and quartzites near Palibatz contain spectacularly large garnet and kyanite
crystals [23]. It is common to find extensive regions where muscovite is a very
abundant mineral in the rock, forming crenulated muscovite schists with or without
biotite and garnet, the latter usually as abundant large porphyroblasts [26].
A series of banded and refolded migmatites (Fig. 19.3c) crop out in El Chol and its
surroundings [22, 23]; they contain dark mafic bands composed of omphacite +
amphibole + garnet + biotite + epidote/zoisite + albite + Ti-phases + apatite, which
alternate with leucocratic bands with quartz + phengite + albite + epidote/zoisite [7].
Strongly banded but not folded gneisses (maybe migmatites) with abundant ductile
shear bands (Fig. 19.3d) are found in the El Progreso quadrangle, SW of Morazn and
W of El Mojn, close to the Motagua valley [27]. Their mineral assemblages are
similar to those in the El Chol area, except for their lack of omphacite. The mafic bands
contain a large amount of pale-green-to-green amphibole and garnet, minor white mica,
plagioclase, rutile sometimes surrounded by sphene coronas, zoisite, biotite and
chlorite. The felsic bands are composed of albite, zoisite, white mica and quartz,
sometimes with additional garnet and opaques. It is not known whether this banded
gneiss exposure is due to an erosional window of the Chuacs complex, or if they are
boulders tens or hundred of meters in size contained within the melange in the Motagua
suture zone [27].
Calcsilicates and marbles occur sporadically in the Sierra de Chuacs. A prominent
exposure is located south of Rabinal, adjacent to the road that leads to El Chol, where
rocks primarily containing calcite and minor white mica + tremolite/pargasite + zoisite
(up to 10 cm long) + quartz (Fig. 19.3e) are associated with poorly foliated
amphibolites [7, 26]. Other isolated marble units tens of meters in size occur in the
southwestern corner of the El Chol quadrangle, and they extend as far as the eastern
Sierra de Las Minas.
All considered, the mineral assemblages indicate upper-greenschist- to amphibolitefacies conditions: the very common quartz + albite + white mica + biotite + epidote +
garnet paragenesis is indicative of upper greenschist facies, whereas the quartz +
plagioclase + white mica + garnet + kyanite paragenesis in Palibatz indicates
almandine-amphibolite facies conditions [22, 23]. Mineralogical and textural features
indicate that the peak metamorphic condition could have been as high as 650 C at total
pressure of 11 kbar [24].
Some of the gneisses in the Sierra de Chuacs and farther east in the Morazn area
have a very subtle foliation or none at all (Fig. 19.3f), and have been erroneously
regarded as granulites. The macroscopic appearance of these rocks indeed resembles
some granulites, but thin sections do not contain granulitic mineral assemblages
whatsoever. The mineral association is equal to that of the above-mentioned gneisses
and a better term to name these rocks is probably granofels.
The extent of retrogression of El Chol-Palibatz gneisses to low-greenschist facies is
difficult to assess [22] but it seems to be restricted to replacement of kyanite by white
mica, chloritization of garnet along crevices, and epidote replacing plagioclase along
Figure 19.2. Map with localities mentioned in the text.
491
cracks [24]. Retrogression is only intense in the southwestern corner of the El Chol
quadrangle, where pseudomorphs of chlorite aggregates after garnet porphyroblasts in
white-mica-garnet schist are conspicuous. The retrogression event presumably took
place during the Chortis-Maya collision and the contemporaneous emplacement of the
El Tambor allochthon [28] during the Maastrichtian [29].
Quartz + albite + white-mica pegmatites with accessory tourmaline and rutile are
frequent in the Sierra de Chuacs, and are associated with the medium- and high-grade
gneisses. Pegmatites are usually parallel to the main foliation of the host rock but some
are discordant [24]. McBirney [22] proposed that they originated from partial melting
of high-grade Chuacs rocks as evidenced by widespread migmatites in the El Chol
area, van den Boom [23] considered the pegmatites a product of a regional
granitization process, and Machorro [24] suggested a deep crustal anatectic origin. The
source of magma for pegmatite formation is still disputed and more geochemical data
on the gneisses, migmatites, granites and pegmatites from the Sierra de Chuacs are
required in order to adequately constrain the relations they bear among each other.
Eclogitic relicts were discovered recently in rocks from the El Chol-GranadosPalibatz area, containing the diagnostic garnet + omphacite + rutile + quartz mineral
association; the pyroxene contains up to 45% jadeite/acmite molecule, whereas garnet
is essentially an almandine-grossular solid solution [7]. Other high-pressure phases
present include phengite, rutile, kyanite, zoisite, epidote and probably aragonite. These
distinctive high-pressure mineral associations are rather common, and were partly
reported in previous work, although not recognized as indicative of eclogitic conditions
in those writings [2, 23, 24].
Geothermometry of the garnet-biotite, hornblende-plagioclase, garnetclinopyroxene, and garnet-phengite pairs, yielded temperatures between 685830 C at
an assumed pressure of 20 kbar. The garnet-phengite thermometer rendered a
temperature of 738 20 C which was used to calculate a maximum pressure of 23.2
kbar by means of the garnet-phengite-omphacite barometer. The P-T range obtained
lies within the eclogite facies at high temperatures. Eclogitic phases were replaced
partially or totally by minerals formed after decompression and local partial melting of
eclogitic rocks proceeded [7]. A retrogression point was obtained at 592 C and 13.6
kbar using the stable association of garnet + phengite + taramitic to Fe-pargasitic
hornblende + sphene + zoisite + albite. This P-T point lies within the eclogite facies but
is very close to the epidote-amphibolite facies.
Rocks of the El Chol-Palibatz unit might have been subjected to ultra-high pressure
(UHP) conditions [7]: radial fractures around quartz inclusions contained in garnet and
kyanite, coronas of garnet around green omphacite and apatite, lamellar inclusions of
rutile/ilmenite in eclogitic phases, and up to 0.12 wt% Na2O content in garnet, are some
of the features suggestive of UHP metamorphism. Nevertheless further studies to find
actual coesite or definite geobarometric calculations are required to confirm whether or
not exceptionally high-pressure conditions were reached.
19.2.3 The Salam metasediments

Van den Boom [23] called Salam schist the series of phyllites, sericitic schist
chlorite, metagreywackes, meta-arkoses, metaconglomerates (Fig. 19.3g), quartzites,
epidote-actinolite schists, minor muscovite-stilpnomelane schist and recrystallized
calcareous rocks that he grouped into the chlorite zone of the Chuacs group. It is
Figure 19.3. Photographs of metamorphic rocks from the Sierra de Chuacs, Guatemala:
(a) Photomicrograph of usual gneiss from the El Chol-Palibatz area, crossed polars;
paragenesis includes amphibole, white mica, plagioclase, calcite, garnet, rutile, titanite and
epidote; (b) Typical biotite gneiss from the El Chol-Palibatz road; (c) Refolded leucosome in
migmatites from El Chol; (d) Banded gneisses from Santa Gertrudis, in the El Progreso area,
exhibiting abundant shear bands; (e) Marble containing white mica and tremolite (not shown)
from the Rabinal-El Chol road; crossed polars; (f) Quartzofeldspathic granofels with
amphibole, phengite, garnet and epidote (not visible) from the Morazn area; (g)
Metaconglomerate NE of Salam; probably metamorphosed Santa Rosa beds; (h) Strongly
milonitized Rabinal granite; crossed polars.
493
characterized by the quartz + albite + chlorite + sericite + epidote + actinolite +

stilpnomelane mineral assemblage, indicative of low-greenschist-facies conditions. For
the aforementioned author, rocks comprising the Salam metasediments are the lowgrade part of a continuous Barrovian metamorphic belt along with the higher-grade
gneisses and migmatites in the Sierra de Chuacs. This is in sharp contrast to the ideas
of other authors [3, 26, 3032] who considered the low-grade metasediments north of
the Motagua valley separately, and interpreted them as the slightly metamorphosed
equivalent of the Santa Rosa group. Recent evidence suggests the existence of two
different metasedimentary units in the Salam area: an older clastic and metavolcanic
succession intruded by the Rabinal granite, and a younger clastic and calcareous
succession that is probably part of the Santa Rosa group [8].
Actual limits have been proposed that separate Chuacs complex gneisses and
Salam metasediments. McBirney [22] postulated a transition zone at least 1 km wide
separating biotite or garnet bearing rocks from low-grade metasediments. Requena [26]
presented a regional reverse fault in the northern slope of the Sierra de Chuacs
separating garnet-bearing gneisses from slightly-metamorphosed sediments. OrtegaObregn et al. [8] proposed a shear zone up to 5 km-wide with reverse kinematics and
a left-lateral component juxtaposing high-grade Chuacs gneisses and metasediments
intruded by the Rabinal granite. The continuations of this shear zone in western and
eastern Guatemala are unknown, but ongoing research by scientists of the Mexican
National University will hopefully help to clarify this issue.
The sedimentary age of the younger part of Salam metasediments is constrained by
fossil relicts. Van den Boom [23], referring a verbal communication by Nicolaus
(1969), reported an Early Carboniferous age for deformed crinoids within recrystallized
calcareous rocks, and Ortega-Obregn et al. [8] found Mississippian (Tourniasian)
conodonts in recrystallized limestones. These ages suggest correlation with the Santa
Rosa group. The age of a separate succession of older metasediments in the Salam
region is constrained by the intrusive Paleozoic Rabinal granite [8].
19.2.4 The sheared Rabinal granite

Along with orogenic-metamorphic rocks, the northern Sierra de Chuacs bears granitic
rocks some of which are strongly sheared. The most characteristic of these plutons is
the Rabinal granite [22]. Unfoliated samples of the granite principally contain coarsegrained K-feldspar (3060%) with unmixed plagioclase, plagioclase crystals (1030%),
quartz (1030%), chlorite formed due to alteration of biotite, abundant secondary
epidote and white mica, and accessory apatite and zircon. The granite was mylonitized
along shear zones, where microscopically intracrystalline deformation of minerals,
recovery and recrystallization are conspicuous (Fig. 19.3h).
Ideas on the genesis of the granite are diverse and contrasting. According to
McBirney [22], the granite formed during the last stages of an anatectic process in the
Sierra de Chuacs that is related to the formation of migmatites in El Chol. Van den
Boom [23] postulated that the generation of the granite was associated with a
granitization process, which is noticeable in the Salam metasediments due to feldspar
growth, evident in the El Chol migmatites, and ends up with the formation of the
granite. On the other hand, Donnelly et al. [3] noted that the above-mentioned granite
is an intrusive rock, instead of a granitization product of pre-existing rocks. The
transitional contact between the Rabinal granite and adjacent siliciclastic rocks was
interpreted by Requena [26] as generated by increasing recrystallization of a common

protolith, and the Rabinal granite was regarded as a meta-arkose. In the outskirts of
Rabinal, the granite is a fault-bounded unit that probably originated by plutonic igneous
processes due to its xenolith content, and is characterized by intensive mylonitization,
especially at its margins. There, ultramylonites are common and tectonically
interleaved with mylonitized low-grade pelitic metasediments in extensive ductile shear
zones. Both the sheared granite and metasediments have a very similar appearance, a
feature that most likely led previous authors to consider a gradual transition instead of a
tectonic contact, and to classify wide zones of mylonitized granite as meta-arkoses.
19.2.5 The Chuacs complex in eastern Guatemala

The Chuacs complex extends eastward and builds up a good portion of the Sierra de
Las Minas [21, 33, 34] (Fig. 19.1). In the San Agustn Acasaguastln-Ro Hondo area
the arrangement of rocks and structures is quite complex; rocks attributed to the
Chuacs complex consist of garnet-mica schists, marbles, mylonitized augen gneiss,
migmatites and amphibolites, which are tectonically interleaved with allochthonous
mafic and ultramafic rocks. The main units that build up the Chuacs complex in
eastern Guatemala are the mylonitized San Agustn orthogneiss, the Jones formation
and the San Lorenzo marble. No particular name has been given to a series of
granofels, banded gneiss and phengite gneiss within the Chuacs complex in the El
Progreso area.
19.2.6 Mylonitic orthogneiss in the San Agustn Acasaguastln-Ro Hondo area

In the San Agustn Acasaguastln area an eastwest elongated augen orthogneiss with
composition that ranges between quartz-monzonite and granodiorite, has mylonitic
foliation, strong lineation and exhibits abundant ductile shear zones (Fig. 19.4a). It is
associated to migmatites and strongly banded gneisses that occur in the Hondo river
(Fig. 19.4b) and Pasabien river (Fig. 19.4c). This unit has been called San Agustn
formation [33, 35], though the name retrograde cataclastic gneiss was used in a study
by Newcomb [36], who classified the most sheared part of the gneiss based on the
degree of recrystallization as proto-, blasto- or ultramylonite.
In spite of the diverse structures and textures present in the rock, the mineralogy is
quite homogeneous in the Ro Hondo area, chiefly quartz + microcline + oligoclase +
biotite + chlorite, which are igneous relics, and the product of recrystallization and
retrogression induced by strong shearing. Based on the minerals present, Newcomb
[34, 36] stated the debatable idea that retrogression accompanying shearing would be
more extensive in the Chuacs group than previously thought.
In contrast, Bosc [33] found high-grade minerals and nebulitic banding in the
gneisses along the Teculutn river. There the mineral parageneses is microcline +
quartz + biotite + muscovite + garnet epidote sillimanite, which indicate that the
area reached amphibolite-facies conditions, ranging from the staurolite-almandine
subfacies to the quartz-sillimanite-almandine-orthoclase subfacies. An irregular vein
network crosses the gneiss, deformed dark xenoliths occur and mylonitization along
shear zones are very common features (Fig. 19.4a). Teculutn river rocks bear striking
similarities with high-grade gneisses described in the Sierra de Chuacs. Nonetheless
interesting differences exist, such as the existence of sillimanite, the relative abundance
495
of K-feldspar, and the apparent absence of high-pressure phases in gneisses from the
Sierra de Las Minas. It is not known what particular conditions favored the growth of
sillimanite and abundant K-feldspar in the San Agustn area, nor any attempt to
meticulously look for high-pressure phases has been undertaken there.
Roper [21] postulated that the orthogneiss would be the lowest basal unit of the
Chuacs group. Newcomb [36] disagreed on this point and considered that the
stratigraphic position of the mylonitic gneisses near San Agustn remained unclear.
19.2.7 The Jones and San Lorenzo formations

The Sierra de Las Minas holds the complex metasedimentary Jones formation [34],
which is constituted chiefly by pelitic schists and phyllites, minor quartzite, and
marble. Composition of the Jones formation changes along strike. In the Ro Hondo
quadrangle it is characterized by dark folded phyllites (Fig. 19.4d) associated with
high-Ca marbles that grade southwestwards into mica schists in the San Agustn
quadrangle. North of this town quartz + albite + white mica garnet schists occur
along with extensive marbles (Fig. 19.4e) that eventually reach the top of the range.
Green actinolitic bands occur interbedded in the Jones formation. This rock sequence,
with the addition of some micaceous gneisses, continues as far as the El Progreso [37]
and El Chol quadrangles.
Newcomb [34] also defined the San Lorenzo formation, which is a very pure, finegrained marble that crops out in the central and eastern parts of the Sierra de Las
Minas. Its color ranges from black to white and its mode of presentation is mainly
massive, although fine banding is locally present. The marble occurs within the Jones
formation and forms a good marker horizon of the Chuacs group throughout the Sierra
de Las Minas range [37]. Marbles containing minor garnet, green mica flakes and
tremolite needles are found NE and NW of San Agustn and in the El Progreso
quadrangle [33]. In the Gualn area, Johnson [38] found dolomitic marble in the San
Lorenzo formation.
Future work should address whether the Jones formation is composed of two
discrete units, or if there is an actual transition of metapelitic rocks. White-mica-garnet
schists ascribed to this unit resemble those in the El Progreso and El Chol quadrangles,
which are associated to high-grade gneisses and are usually regarded as part of the
Chuacs complex. In contrast low-grade phyllites that crop out near Jones seem to have
been metamorphosed at lower grade and might correlate with El Tambor
metasediments.
19.2.8 Garnet-amphibole-phengite gneiss in El Progreso

Another interesting rock unit located in the El Progreso-San Agustn region is a
homogeneous medium- to coarse-grained amphibole + phengite + garnet + epidote
gneiss or granofels, sometimes with felsic dikes, that is conformable with and grades
into phengite gneiss with interbedded mica schists, e.g., in Comaja and Cerro El
Matochal [21, 27, 37]. It has a very subtle fabric or none (Fig 19.3f) and it is one of the
rocks that has been given the inappropriate name granulite. Associated rocks in the
Comaja river are strongly banded garnet-biotite-amphibole gneisses that show
subvertical NESW foliation and left-lateral shear (Fig. 19.4f). Other common Chuacs
complex rocks in this area are schists containing quartz + garnet + white mica + biotite
Figure 19.4. Photographs of metamorphic rocks from the Sierra de Las Minas, Guatemala:
(a) Strongly mylonitized orthogneiss along shear zone, in the Teculutn river; (b) Folded
leucosome and mafic gneiss, Hondo river; (c) Migmatites from the Pasabien river; (d) Dark
phyllites showing folded bands, near Jones; (e) Banded marble (left) associated to garnetwhite-mica schist (right), north of San Agustn Acasaguastln; (f) Banded garnet-biotiteamphibole gneisses from Comaja; Note banding and delta object on lower-left.
+ plagioclase and commonly chloritoid, sporadic kyanite-bearing schists, and

pegmatites holding large rutile and tourmaline crystals [21, 33]. These rocks bear a
close resemblance with those of the Sierra de Chuacs.
19.2.9 The Chuacs complex in western Guatemala

Metamorphic rocks present in the Huehuetenango area include paragneisses, muscovite
gneisses, banded schists, marbles, graphite schists, chlorite gneisses and interbedded
497
orthogneisses, which were grouped into a single unit designated Western Chuacs
group [20]. Widespread white-mica schists that grade into gneisses typically contain
quartz + albite + muscovite along with minor K-feldspar, epidote, biotite, titanite,
chlorite, calcite and iron oxides. Another important unit is the Pucal marble [20], which
is composed of calcite + quartz + muscovite + albite with minor chlorite + epidote +
graphite and iron oxides, and serves as a stratigraphic marker in western Guatemala.
Contrasting rock types are associated with the Pucal marble: a 300 m wide calcitechlorite banded gneiss, minor interlayered quartzite, and graphite schist containing
quartz + muscovite + chlorite + graphite + epidote garnet tourmaline.
Banded gneisses in southwestern Guatemala contain the same mineral species as
the above-mentioned white-mica schist, but differ in their larger grain size and
presence of layering from 2 mm to 1 m. Another notable disparity is the existence of
large 24 mm biotite flakes randomly oriented with respect to the main foliation of the
rock, which were probably formed due to thermal overprint.
Synmetamorphic intrusions of quartz-monzonite composition occur associated with
gneisses and schists [20]. Minerals in the metaigneous rocks are quartz + albite + Kfeldspar (microcline) with smaller amounts of biotite + hornblende + epidote + chlorite
+ titanite + apatite and iron oxides; muscovite is mostly absent, and leucocratic
minerals occur as lens-shaped porphyroblasts making up 60% of the rock.
West of Huehuetenango, the metamorphic basement consists chiefly of gneiss,
schist, amphibolite and metaigneous rocks, which show extensive deformation features
due to their position close to the Polochic fault. Anderson et al. [31] reported mylonitic
gneiss developed from hornblende granodiorite and tonalite northeast of Santa Brbara.
Their description of rocks southwest of Colotenango resembles mylonite, although this
is not explicitly stated in their paper. Fractured, but otherwise unaltered metamorphic
rocks southeast of Huehuetenango contain for the most part quartz + feldspar + biotite
formed at staurolite-almandine subfacies of an almandine-amphibolite-facies
metamorphic event. The mentioned descriptions of metamorphic rocks from western
Guatemala south of the Polochic fault certainly resemble those from the southern flank
of the Sierra de Chuacs, e.g., the region between Salam and the Motagua valley,
adjacent to CA-14 road and east of it, where retrograded gneisses and white-mica
schists containing chlorite pseudomorphs after garnet, marbles, and chlorite-graphite
marbles are exposed. This similarity supports the idea of the western continuation of
the Chuacs complex. Nevertheless, some minerals as rutile, kyanite, and garnet, which
are common in the Sierra de Chuacs (e.g., in the Palibatz area), are scanty or absent in
western Guatemala. No adequate comparison between amphiboles is possible at this
stage, since no indication on the type of amphibole is given in Kesler et al.s work [20].
Therefore, it would be interesting to re-analyze the metamorphic basement south of the
Polochic fault in the western portion of Guatemala, in order to further evaluate if
similarities with central Guatemala allow a regional correlation. Finally, it should be
mentioned that Kesler et al. [20] considered that amphibolites are slightly more
abundant in the Sierra de Chuacs than in western Guatemala. This difference might be
attributable to the fact that then no distinction was made between El Tambor
amphibolites and metamafic rocks of the Chuacs complex.
19.2.10 Age of the Chuacs complex and Salam metasediments

There are numerous reports informing that the PennsylvanianPermian Santa Rosa
group rests unconformably over the metamorphic basement of the Sierra de Chuacs,
implying a prelate-Paleozoic metamorphic age for the latter [2, 3, 23, 3941].
However, this argument should be used with caution: the unconformable field relation
seems to be interpreted and not actually observed, and, generally, workers have not
stated whether the relation occurs with Salam metasediments or Chuacs complex
gneisses. Fossil relics found in metacarbonaceous rocks suggest correlation of part of
the low-grade rocks in the Salam-Rabinal area with the base of the Santa Rosa group,
and imply a post-Carboniferous metamorphic age for that metasediments [8, 23]. An
older unit of sheared metasediments in the same area was deposited previous to the
intrusion of the Rabinal granite, of probable Paleozoic age.
Gomberg et al. [42] published U/Pb data in which 7 aliquots of zircon separated
from a biotite-albite-epidote gneiss, a biotite-albite-quartz gneiss and a sample of the
Rabinal granite, rendered a good dischordia; the upper and lower intercepts yielded
1075 25 Ma and 345 20 Ma respectively (ages may vary slightly when taking
current decay constants). Ortega-Gutirrez et al. [7] analyzed three single zircon
crystals and two small populations from the leucosome of a refolded migmatite
collected in El Chol. When taking only the three single crystals a very well constrained
chord is formed with intercepts with the Concordia curve at 1048 10 Ma and 302 6
Ma, similar to Gomberg et al.s result. Both authors agree that the Proterozoic upper
intercept is the age of inherited material from a Precambrian source, whereas the
Carboniferous lower intercept represents the age of metamorphism. Since the
leucosome of the dated migmatite was folded twice along with high-pressure
melanosomatic bands, the ~ 300 Ma would also constitute a minimum age for a first
high-pressure event of the Chuacs complex [7]. It should be noted that Gomberg et
al.s chord includes both Chuacs complex gneisses and Rabinal granite samples, two
rock units for which genesis in a common event is debatable. However, all points
considered, the chord is rather well aligned, leading Gomberg et al. [42] to interpret
that the Carboniferous age is not only the age of metamorphism of Chuacs gneisses
but also the age of intrusion of the Rabinal granite. An alternative but unlikely way of
interpreting the available U/Pb data is to consider that the Chuacs complex was
metamorphosed during the Mesoproterozoic and that severe thermal perturbation
associated with the intrusion of the Rabinal granite during the Carboniferous would
have caused partial loss of Pb in the gneiss zircons [42].
Numerous K/Ar and 40Ar/39Ar ages in the 7850 Ma range have been obtained in
Chuacs complex lithology [7, 22, 28]. Hornblende from Chuacs garnet amphibolites
gave 40Ar/39Ar ages in the 78.066.5 Ma range, white micas in the 76.366.9 Ma range,
and biotites in the 67.263.7 Ma; the older ages were interpreted as the closest
approximation to the time of collision between the Maya and Chortis blocks that
resulted in the interleaving of the El Tambor group and the Chuacs complex [28].
Ortega-Gutirrez et al. [7] obtained an age of 73 Ma for taramitic amphibole, 7661
Ma ages for fuchsite and muscovite from pegmatites, and 7269 Ma for retrograde
phengites from high-pressure gneisses using K/Ar systematics; these Late Cretaceous
ages were interpreted as a burial and reheating event either due to the collision of the
Chuacs complex with the Greater Antilles, or between the Chortis and Maya blocks.
A 238 Ma 40Ar/39Ar age obtained from a Chuacs amphibolite and a 124 Ma K/Ar age
obtained in biotite from gneisses in the Teculutn river (unpublished ages by Sutter,
referenced in [3] and [33] respectively) are anomalous or refer to poorly known events.
499
19.3
METAMORPHIC ROCKS NORTH OF THE POLOCHIC FAULT SYSTEM:

THE MAYA MOUNTAINS AND THE SIERRA DE LOS CUCHUMATANES
The principal regions with exposures of metamorphic rocks north of the Polochic fault
are the Cuchumatanes dome in northwestern Guatemala, and the Maya mountains in
Belize (Fig. 19.1). Minor exposures are located in Tucur and Telemn, along the San
Julin-Panzs road in the Polochic valley [43]. Reports of metamorphic rocks from the
mentioned locations include primarily low-grade metasediments and local hornfelses.
The few basement metamorphic rocks obtained from wells drilled in this region
exclusively exhibit low-grade parageneses, e.g., quartz-chlorite schist, slightly
metamorphosed quartzite, and phyllite ([3] and references therein). Metamorphic rocks
north of the Polochic fault also occur in the Sierra de Santa Cruz, but these will be
described in the section on Guatemalan ophiolites.
19.3.1 The Cuchumatanes anticlinorium

The scanty studies that deal with metamorphic rocks from the core of the
Cuchumatanes anticlinorium in western Guatemala coincide in that they are composed
predominantly of low-grade slate, phyllite, chloritic schist and metaquartzite ([39] and
references therein), which are interpreted as slightly metamorphosed equivalents of the
basal Santa Rosa group [3, 31]. Chiastolite-bearing schists in the Cuchumatanes might
have formed by the thermal action of nearby plutons; thermal effects could be very
extensive since the whole region might be underlain by intrusives [31]. Several authors
informed that the Cuchumatanes core also contains higher-grade rocks, such as semipelitic and quartz-feldspathic gneisses, schists and some amphibolites, which might be
correlatives of the Chuacs group [9, 44] or a poorly known basement unit of the Maya
block. Lindsey et al. [44] reported that the base of the Santa Rosa group covers these
higher-grade rocks unconformably. Litke [45] reported a succession of low-grade
metasediments including radiolarian cherts, shales and conglomerates in the
Cuchumatanes, discussing a possible correlation with the El Tambor formation, an
allochthonous dismembered ophiolite that will be discussed below. However, this
doubtful correlation is not currently accepted and rocks from the Cuchumatanes are not
considered part of El Tambor [25, 46].
19.3.2 The Maya mountains

Metamorphic rocks in the core of the Maya mountains in Belize are restricted to lowgrade metasediments, which might be the correlatives of the Santa Rosa group from
Guatemala, and their local thermal-metamorphic equivalents [47].
Dixon [48] defined two groups of metamorphic rocks in the Maya mountains: the
Maya series, composed of an assemblage of strongly folded rocks bearing medium- to
high-grade metamorphic minerals as garnet, and the Macal series containing lowergrade Pennsylvanian to Permian metasediments overlying unconformably the Maya
series. This division was refuted in subsequent studies [30, 49, 50], because neither
considerable differences in metamorphic grade, mesoscopic structures, nor an
unconformity separating both units were found. The terms Maya series and Macal
series were therefore abandoned.
The low-grade character of the metamorphic event that transformed Paleozoic

sediments in the Maya mountains is evidenced by the occurrence of sericite and

chlorite in metasandstones, the growth of abundant sericite in meta-argillaceous rocks
that were transformed into phyllites, and recrystallization of limestones. Studies of
foliation at mesoscopic and microscopic scales revealed two different phases of
deformation; a conspicuous well-developed cleavage (S1), and local crenulation
cleavages (S2) [30, 47]. Based on the finding of Paleozoic fossils it was concluded that
the low-grade gray-colored slates and quartzites from the Mountain Pine ridge area are
correlatives of the Santa Rosa group in Guatemala [30, 47, 50].
In the vicinity of the intrusive Mountain Pine ridge granitoid, contact metamorphic
porphyroblasts of andalusite (up to 15 cm long) and chloritoid have grown forming a
hornfelsic texture that overprints the rocks foliation [30, 47, 51]. Andalusite is
extensively altered to sericite aggregates. Other minerals attributed to the thermal event
are sparse lathes of sillimanite associated with altered andalusite, little garnets,
euhedral staurolite and biotite [30]. Tourmaline grains are common among the
metasediments; hornfelses contain euhedral brown-tourmalines, apparently formed
simultaneously to other thermal-metamorphic minerals.
19.3.3 Age and remaining issues

Constraints on the age of the low-grade metasediments from the Maya mountains are
provided by fossil content. Dixon [48] found paleontological evidence of a
PennsylvanianMid Permian age for the Macal-series but he was unable to classify
distorted fossils from the Maya series. Fossil localities found later within Dixons
[48] Maya-series exposed very similar fauna of CarboniferousPermian age [30].
This age coincides with that of the Santa Rosa group and is probably a very strong
argument that supports a correlation with it [3, 30], thus implying that the metamorphic
events were post-Permian. Initial radiometric ages obtained from plutons in the Maya
mountains using K/Ar systematics, mostly in biotite, cluster around 220 15 Ma ([10]
and references therein); these data supported the view of many investigators that
intrusion took place after CarboniferousPermian sedimentation ([3] and references
therein). However, U/Pb zircon and monazite ages obtained later indicated Late
Silurian crystallization at about 410420 Ma of, at least, some of the plutons in the
Maya mountains [10]. This posed a great problem: Silurian granites could not have
intruded and generated a contact aureole in sediments believed to have been deposited
at a later time. To reconcile a probable crystallization age predating sedimentation,
Steiner and Walker [10] offered three plausible explanations: (1) their U/Pb data are
not valid and the plutons were indeed injected into Santa Rosa sediments; (2) the
sediments that show thermal metamorphism are not Santa Rosa but a preLate Silurian
succession; (3) the thermal alteration of adjacent metasediments is not contact
metamorphism but the result of a later hydrothermal event registered by the K/Ar ages,
a scenario favored by the above-mentioned authors. Weyl [39] had stated that there was
no consensus on the origin of the lower-grade rocks north of the Polochic fault; they
could be the slightly metamorphosed correlatives of Upper Paleozoic sediments, an
idea that is widely accepted, or simply part of an older crystalline basement. More than
two decades later this issue is still unresolved as is clearly demonstrated by the
apparent contradiction between recently-obtained U/Pb ages of plutons, fossil ages,
mineral content of metasediments, and interpreted field relations between granitic rocks
and metasediments.
501
19.4
METAMORPHISM OF ROCKS IN THE MOTAGUA SUTURE ZONE AND

OF ADJACENT OPHIOLITES
19.4.1 The Motagua suture zone, and its metamorphic/metasomatic-rock

occurrences
The Motagua suture zone corresponds to a serpentinite melange containing pieces of
ancient oceanic lithosphere developed between the Maya and Chortis blocks, which
eventually became thrust faulted over the margins of the two blocks when they collided
during the Maastrichtian/Paleocene [3, 4, 46]. Dismembered ophiolitic pieces,
emplaced on the southern part of the Maya block and the northern margin of the
Chortis block, constitute the El Tambor group, which has been subdivided into five
principal units [25, 46]: the South-Motagua unit (SM), the North-Motagua unit (NM),
the Juan de Paz unit (JPZ), the Baja Verapaz unit (BVP), and the Sierra de Santa Cruz
unit (SSC) (Fig. 19.1). The BVP and SSC are located north of the Motagua valley,
contiguous to the Polochic fault system. The SM, NM and JPZ are located adjacent to
the Motagua fault zone and constitute the actual melanges associated with the suturing
event. The ophiolitic bodies in the Motagua valley are composed predominantly of
brecciated peridotite/serpentinite (Fig. 19.5a) holding ellipsoidal blocks of diverse
origin a few to tens of meters in size, e.g., garnet amphibolites, eclogites, jadeitites,
albitites, among others. Geochemical studies on the metamorphic blocks contained in
the melange did not show conclusively if they were all part of the same ophiolitic
sequence [52] and their provenance is not definitely resolved, but two different belts
can be differentiated north and south of the Cabaas fault based on metamorphic grade
of eclogites and geochronologic data [53, 54].
19.4.2 The El Tambor allochthon

The term El Tambor formation was coined by McBirney and Bass [55] to describe a
group of rocks representing what was then called a geosyncline. Currently the unit is
called El Tambor group and it comprises the dismembered ophiolitic sheets emplaced
on the southern part of the Maya block and the northern margin of the Chortis block.
As was pointed out before, these ophiolites include extensive mantle peridotites that are
abundantly serpentinized and bear blocks of eclogite and jadeite in the Motagua valley
region. In addition the El Tambor group includes low-grade metasediments (Fig.
19.5b), mylonitized gabbros (Fig. 19.5c), pillow-lavas and amphibolites (Fig. 19.5d)
[25, 56].
Low- to high-grade metamorphism of original volcanic rocks is a prevalent feature
in the El Tambor group. Olivine and volcanic glass were extensively replaced by
pumpellyite associated with chlorite and sometimes calcite in pillow lavas and diabases
from the Motagua valley. These volcanic rocks were subjected to regional prehnitepumpellyite-facies metamorphism, which formed albite, chlorite and principally
pumpellyite in notable amounts, without accompanying deformation [11]. One case of
abundant prehnite associated with calcite was observed in a metadiabase sample, but
clear definition of the characteristic prehnite + pumpellyite + chlorite association was
not possible by means of standard petrographic examination.
Beccaluva et al. [25] detected hydrothermal transformations and metamorphism
among the ophiolitic rocks of the El Tambor group as well, such as saussuritization and
prehnitization of plagioclase, and development of chlorite and actinolite after pyroxene.
Figure 19.5. Photographs of El Tambor group and metamorphic rocks of the Motagua suture
zone, Guatemala: (a) Large outcrop of tectonized serpentinite from the North Motagua unit.
Road El Rancho-Cobn; See person for scale; (b) Folded white-mica + chlorite schist of El
Tambor group, south of the Motagua fault, on the Guatemala-El Rancho road;
(c) Mylonitized/brecciated gabbro from the Sierra de Santa Cruz; plane-polarized light; (d)
Strongly lineated garnet-amphibolite from the North Motagua unit, collected on the southern
flank of the Sierra de Chuacs; plane-polarized light; (e) Photomicrograph of lawsoniteeclogite collected south of the Motagua fault; (f) Photomicrograph of zoisite-eclogite
collected north of the Motagua fault.
Interestingly they reported rocks with MORB affinity from the NM containing green
hornblende and calcic plagioclase, suggestive of high-grade amphibolite facies. The
SSC also contains scarce amphibolitic lenses. The upper portion of the SM contains
phyllitic metasiltites, marbles and dark metacalcarenites, which are intensely deformed.
At least two penetrative deformation phases are present: the first is an axial plane
foliation along isoclinal folds and the second is a crenulation cleavage involving the
former.
503
19.4.3 La Pita complex

In the vicinity of the Los Amates quadrangle a series of metabasaltic oceanic fragments
and pelagic metasediments associated and tectonically mixed with the Juan de Paz unit
were grouped into the La Pita complex [57]. La Pita lithologies are restricted to a thin
band, some tens of meters thick, containing crenulated greenschists, lineated
amphibolite and marble along the contact with serpentinized ultramafic rock of the
Juan de Paz ophiolite. Amphibolite containing thin marble layers and associated with
serpentinite thrust sheets northwest of El Rancho are probably part of the unit in the El
Progreso area.
A characteristic feature of the La Pita complex is the centimeter to meter-scale
interlayering of metamafic and siliceous marble, and presence of quartzite, which is
probably metamorphosed chert. Mafic schists from La Pita complex contain barroisitic
hornblende + garnet + epidote + albite + white mica. Albite is poikiloblastic and
includes abundant epidote hornblende sphene quartz. Major oxides geochemistry
indicates a tholeiitic nature of the metamafic rocks.
19.4.4 Jadeitites and associated metasomatic rocks north of the Cabaas fault
One of the most interesting features of the Motagua suture zone is the presence of
dismembered tectonic blocks of jadeitite that occur sporadically within the vastly
sheared serpentinite matrix of the melange. Guatemala is one of the few localities in the
world where such lithology occurs. Its importance is not merely geological but
archaeological, since the Motagua suture zone probably constitutes the source of jade
that was mined by pre-Columbian Meso-American indigenous cultures [57].
First reports of Guatemalan jadeitite date back to the 1950s when Foshag and Leslie
[5961] published a series of papers reporting the discovery of jade pebbles in
Manzanotal (or Manzanal) in the northern part of the Motagua valley. Jade from
Manzanal is a nearly monomineralic rock composed of clinopyroxene with
composition between the ideal formulas of jadeite and diopside [62]. Nowadays
jadeitites are known from several localities in the El Progreso-Zacapa areas, especially
near San Cristbal Acasaguastln, Usumatln and the Uys river [63]. Jade has also
been found in the southern portion of the Motagua valley, associated to lawsoniteeclogites [53].
Detailed petrologic description has shown that fresh samples of jadeite jade from
the northern part of the Motagua valley consist of jadeitic pyroxene with minor
paragonite phengite phlogopite, omphacite, albite, titanite, zircon, apatite and
graphite. Jadeitite was formed at relative high pressures and low temperature,
presumably in the 100400 C and 511 kbar ranges [63]. Jadeitites show various
degrees of alteration by sodic plagioclase that range from sparse alteration restricted to
rims to almost complete replacement [63, 64]; albitites associated with jadeitites are
thought to be the product of retrograde replacement of the latter. Other rocks associated
with jadeitites include albite-mica schist, omphacite-amphibole rocks (amphibole is
composed by similar quantities of taramite and Fe-pargasite), omphacitites, actinolite
rock containing interstitial chlorite, talc-carbonate rocks and antigorite schist.
Metasomatism has been commonly invoked to explain the formation of these
jadeitites, given that no rock on earth is known to match its monomineralic
composition. Fluid inclusions, rock texture and rhythmic zoning of jadeitic pyroxene
indeed indicate that an aqueous fluid was involved in the formation of Guatemalan
jadeitites [63]. Isotopic compositions of 18OH2O DH2O shows that the fluid involved in
metasomatism was probably seawater, which was either present within former minerals
or as pore fluid. Water interacted with the serpentinites or its former protolith, and
formed the jadeitites and albitites [65].
19.4.5 Contrasting eclogites from the Motagua valley: southern lawsonite-eclogite

and northern zoisite-eclogite
On the southern part of the Motagua valley, McBirney et al. [62] discovered cobbles of
eclogite in the gorge of the El Tambor river. A Franco-Guatemalan expedition recently
inspected the same area, and found several pebbles of eclogite and one pebble of jade,
composed almost entirely of jadeite with tiny quartz inclusions, and minor rutile and
sphene. No phases indicating retrogression of jadeitite were found, a feature that
differentiates them from jadeitic rocks from the northern border of the Motagua valley
[58]. Sisson et al. [66] postulated a wider distribution of jade in the Motagua valley
than previously recognized, remarking the existence of lawsonite-eclogites and other
high-pressure assemblages within serpentine bodies adjacent to the Chortis block, south
of the valley.
Lawsonite eclogites contain garnet + omphacite (up to 80 mol% jadeite) +
lawsonite + rutile + quartz glaucophane phengite as the peak metamorphic
assemblage (Fig. 19.5e). In some of these eclogites the pyroxene has a very rich jadeite
component. Texture and thermobarometry indicate that they experienced unusually
low-T high-P (300450 C, P = 2.02.5 GPa) prograde eclogite-facies metamorphism
[54, 67]. Eclogites probably formed in a cold subducting slab adjacent to the Chortis
block and infiltration of an H2O-rich fluid played an important role for their formation
[53, 67].
Eclogites north of the Cabaas fault in the Motagua valley have been found to
register dissimilar metamorphic conditions and age when compared to those in the
south [53, 54]. Amphibolitized paragonite-bearing zoisite-eclogites in antigorite schist
north of the Cabaas fault contain the garnet + omphacite + zoisite + phengite +
epidote + rutile + quartz mineral assemblage (Fig. 19.5f). Garnet porphyroblasts
display two discontinuous stages of growth, with cores formed at eclogitic conditions
and rims formed in equilibrium with amphibolite-facies hornblende + clinozoisite +
pargasite. Hornblende with glaucophane rims replacing omphacite evidences later
overprint at blueschist-facies conditions.
19.4.6 Age of the El Tambor group and high-pressure belts from the Motagua
valley
El Tambor group was formerly considered pre-Santa Rosa group, i.e. Paleozoic [55],
but Bosc [33] observed that field relations were mainly faulted, not allowing a definite
conclusion on the age.
The earliest radiometric age obtained in El Tambor group rocks is the 40Ar/39Ar vs.
40
K/36Ar isochron by Bertrand et al. [68], in which isotopic concentrations of whole
rock pillow lavas, amphibole and whole rock of garnet-amphibolite, and whole rock
albitites were used to construct an isochron that yielded 58.7 3.7 Ma (2). Even
though interpretation of an isochron using rocks that are not necessarily cogenetic is
ambiguous, ages obtained later from samples located north of the Cabaas fault are
505
very similar. Sutter [28] presented several 40Ar/39Ar ages obtained in amphiboles from
garnet-amphibolites and micas from Chuacs schists. All ages range between 63.7 to
78.0 Ma and are interpreted as an approximation of both the age of collision between
the Maya block and Chortis block, and the age of emplacement of El Tambor rocks.
The rather small age differences between the variety of dated minerals that have
closure temperature differences of at least 200 C suggests a very rapid uplift.
Recently Harlow et al. [53] obtained a group of 40Ar/39Ar integrated ages from
jadeite, albitite, white-mica rocks and altered eclogites within the Motagua suture
ranging between 7765 Ma for the northern high-pressure belt, and 125113 Ma for the
southern belt. The dated mineral was phengitic mica in most cases. Ages from the
northern jadeitites and albitites record their formation time, and ages in the southern
eclogites record the time of late fluid infiltration. Therefore the two age clusters
probably reflect the time of blueschist metamorphism in each area. This implies that
the two high-pressure units found in the Motagua suture were formed at different times.
Harlow et al. [53] postulated that the southern HP belt formed during the Early
Cretaceous (Aptian) collision of the Chortis block with western Mexico, while the
northern belts age records the collision of an extension of the Chortis block with the
Maya block during the Maastrichtian. Juxtaposition took place later due to the relative
strike-slip displacement along the Motagua fault system. It should be emphasized that
this fault has produced a relative displacement of at least a few hundred kilometers
[69], and the two high-pressure belts may have been originally located very distant
from each other.
19.5
METAMORPHIC ROCKS SOUTH OF THE MOTAGUA FAULT IN

GUATEMALA AND NORTHWESTERN HONDURAS
19.5.1 Las Ovejas complex and high-grade rocks in north and northwestern
Honduras
The term Las Ovejas migmatites was first coined by Bosc [33] to denote metamorphic
rocks cropping out along the Las Ovejas river and El Tambor river in the San Agustn
Acasaguastln quadrangle near the Motagua valley. Schwartz [12] argued in favor of
naming Las Ovejas complex the succession of high-grade rocks south of the Motagua
fault system, which includes metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks represented by
biotitic schist and gneiss, migmatite, amphibolite usually without garnet, marble, and a
group of deformed metagranitic rocks. Exposures of the Las Ovejas complex in
Guatemala have been reported from the El Progreso and San Agustn Acasaguastln
quadrangles [33, 70], the Zacapa and Ro Hondo quadrangles [12], and the San Pedro
Ayampuc quadrangle (cited by Schwartz [12] as an unpublished work by Montgomery
with no further information).
The most significant prograde mineral assemblages found in the gneisses and
schists are:
Biotite + muscovite + staurolite + garnet + quartz + opaque + tourmaline zircon
apatite (Fig. 19.6ab)
Biotite + garnet + plagioclase + quartz + opaque + zircon + apatite tourmaline
Biotite + muscovite + garnet + sillimanite + plagioclase + quartz + opaques +
zircon apatite tourmaline
Biotite + sillimanite + plagioclase + K-feldspar + quartz garnet + opaques +
zircon allanite.
Figure 19.6. (a) Photomicrograph of garnet-staurolite-two-mica gneiss from the Las Ovejas
complex, collected south of Huit (Guatemala); plane-polarized light; (b) Snowball garnet
with quartz and plagioclase inclusions, in garnet-mica schist collected at same locality as (a);
crossed polars; (c) Boudinaged band of lineated granite within two-mica schist, southeast of
Huit (Guatemala); (d) Crenulated Cacagupa schist from southern Olancho, Honduras;
(e) Photomicrograph of Cacaguapa schist composed of white mica + quartz + actinolite +
epidote exhibiting crenulation cleavage; crossed polars; (f) Photomicrograph of greenschist
collected in Olancho, Honduras; plane-polarized light The mineral assemblage is
indicative of greenschist facies; (g) Crenulated schist from Nueva Segovia, Nicaragua;
(h) Metaconglomerate with elongated pebbles of metavolcanic rock, from Ocotal, Nicaragua.
507

Amphibolites composed of hornblende (5070%) + plagioclase (up to 48%) biotite

quartz build up approximately 15% of the Las Ovejas complex in southern Guatemala.
The minor marble and calcsilicate beds contain calcite + quartz + diopside garnet
K-feldspar plagioclase titanite clinozoisite magnetite zircon.
Metaintrusives occurring along with metasediments (Fig. 19.6c) and metavolcanics
are deformed diorite, tonalite, granodiorite and minor gabbros, which are older than the
Chiquimula pluton [12]. Contacts between these are mostly concordant on outcrop
scale. Additionally a series of metamorphosed dikes composed of quartz + plagioclase
+ garnet + muscovite + biotite occur intruding some of the metaigneous lithology.
The mentioned mineral assemblages from the Las Ovejas complex correspond to
almandine-amphibolite-facies conditions; metamorphic grade of rocks containing
staurolite increases towards the northwest where a sillimanite zone can be identified
[71]. Schwartz [12] placed the northern boundary of the Las Ovejas complex in
Guatemala at the Cabaas fault, the southernmost segment of the Motagua fault
system, and the southern limit in the Zacapa quadrangle at a north-dipping fault that
separates the complex from the El Tambor group.
The Las Ovejas complex extends eastwards into the Sierra de Omoa and Sierra de
Espritu Santo in Honduran territory [3, 12], where it has been called informally older
sequence [41]. Metamorphic grade and mineral assemblages found there are
noticeably similar to those present in southern Guatemala [12, 55]. This allows
grouping of the mentioned high-grade metamorphic units into a single entity, forming
an EW trending belt south of the Motagua fault, which could be designated Las
Ovejas complex for its full extension (Fig. 19.1).
High-grade rocks present towards the north and west of San Pedro Sula in the Sierra
de Omoa, are hornblende amphibolites, garnetiferous gneiss, staurolite schist, garnet
two-mica schist and marble. In those rocks hornblende, calcic plagioclase and epidote
are widespread, garnet and staurolite are present locally, and aluminium silicates are
absent. The southwestern portion of the Sierra de Omoa also contains
quartzofeldspathic mica schist with epidote, and interlayered hornblende-andesinetremolite amphibolites [41]. Deformed intrusives have been reported from the northern
sierras of Honduras as well; their composition ranges from gabbro to granite [55], and
they are similar to the deformed granitic rocks that Schwartz [12] mentioned within the
Las Ovejas complex in Guatemala. Rogers [5] postulated that abundant unmapped
shear zones affect the metamorphic and igneous basement of this part of Honduras.
In the view of Horne et al. [41] and Weyl [39], the Honduran extension of the Las
Ovejas complex and the Chuacs complex show great similarities, such as comparable
metamorphic facies and the presence of migmatites; the bulk of both metamorphic
complexes is indeed composed of rocks in the upper-greenschist and amphibolite
facies, however considerable differences exist: (1) staurolite and sillimanite are
common phases in the Las Ovejas complex, while restricted to very local occurrences
in the Chuacs; (2) relics of eclogitic mineral assemblages are conspicuous in the
Chuacs [7], while no high-pressure phases have been reported in the Las Ovejas
complex; (3) petrographic examination of amphiboles from metamafic rocks in the Las
Ovejas shows lineated hornblende, different from the poikilitic poorly-foliated Nabearing amphiboles from the Chuacs [7, 12, 23]; (4) Las Ovejas gneisses contain
bands of lineated fine- or medium-grained garnetiferous metaigneous rocks, whereas
the Chuacs contains dikes or concordant bands of unfoliated white-mica pegmatites
without garnet. Metamorphic histories of the Chuacs and Las Ovejas complex are just
beginning to be understood and correlation, if possible, should proceed with caution.
19.5.2 San Diego phyllites

Lawrence [70] called San Diego phyllite a group of low-grade metasediments that crop
out south of the Motagua valley in the Sanarate area. These rocks had been studied by
Clemons [72], who correlated them with Santa Rosa rocks, without giving them a
particular name. Other places south of the Motagua valley where this kind of lithology
is known include the Jocotn [73], Timushn [74], and Zacapa [12] quadrangles in
Guatemala.
The San Diego phyllites consist of lustrous gray-to-gray-green phyllite, and minor
thin quartzite and slate layers [12]; metaconglomerates and metacalcareous rocks are
not known in the Guatemalan portion of the unit. A distinct characteristic of San Diego
rocks is the conspicuous presence of pyrite cubes and yellow tourmaline in heavy
mineral separates [3].
Thermal overprint of slates and phyllites near the Chiquimula pluton in the Zacapa
quadrangle produced cordierite and andalusite [72], and caused the rock to acquire a
spotted appearance due to very-fine-grained muscovite that grew perpendicular to the
main foliation [12].
Outcrops of low-grade greenschist-facies metamorphic rocks are known from the
southern and southwestern portions of the Sierra de Omoa as well, namely calcareous
phyllite, white-mica chlorite schist, graphitic schist and slate, all of which were
grouped into a unit named younger sequence by Horne et al. [41]. Its structural
history seems to have been simple: its foliation coincides with the last phase identified
in the higher-grade rocks of the mountain range. Lower grade rocks appear to mantle
the higher-grade amphibolites, and an original unconformable relation between the
older and younger sequences has been suggested [41]. On the other hand the
succession of low-grade metasediments is unconformably covered by overlying
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks in southeastern Guatemala [3, 9].
Clemons [72] and Burkart et al. [75] originally considered the San Diego phyllites
to be correlatives of Santa Rosa group sedimentary rocks, in analogy to correlations of
low-grade metasediments north of the Motagua fault system. However, no
paleontologic or geochronologic support was given for this idea. Correlation with
Cacaguapa schists south and east of the Jocotn-Chamelecn fault system is plausible,
especially considering the similar low-grade character of both units and its likely
continuous character; e.g., Burkart [9] postulated that both Cacaguapa and San Diego
phyllites are the same unit but are known with a different name in Honduras and
Guatemala respectively.
19.5.3 Probable metamorphic age of Las Ovejas complex and San Diego phyllites
Existing radiometric ages for the Las Ovejas complex were obtained principally in
deformed granitic plutons in Honduras, but they are probably valid for metaintrusives
from southern Guatemala as well. Horne et al. [41] obtained a 300 6 Ma (2) Rb/Sr
whole-rock isochron for the Quebrada Seca metaigneous complex (original age was
305 12 Ma, which was recalculated using newer decay constants; see [76] and
references therein for further detail). Field evidence shows that the foliated pluton
intrudes amphibolite-facies metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks. It is not clear if
this age is igneous or metamorphic, but it evidences that the metamorphism of the highgrade rocks is CarboniferousPermian or younger. An undeformed stock in the San
Marcos area was dated at 150 13 Ma using the same method; the pluton intrudes
509
undifferentiated phyllites and schists. For the younger sequence the above-mentioned
authors propose an age between the two isochrons, i.e., preLate-Jurassic and postCarboniferous. Other less satisfactory isochrons and some model ages were published
together with the above-mentioned data and will not be further discussed here (see [41,
76]).
Additional dated rocks from northwestern Honduras include a 222 8 Ma mica schist
dated by the K/Ar-biotite method and a metagranodiorite that gave 224 17 Ma by the
K/Ar-plagioclase method. These ages probably reflect a Triassic thermal event. All
other known ages from this region are Cretaceous or younger, and reflect the time of
extensive intrusions and probable post-Mesozoic metamorphism in the northern part of
the Chortis block ([5] and references therein).
19.6
METAMORPHIC ROCKS OF CENTRAL AND SOUTH HONDURAS, AND

NORTHERN NICARAGUA
South and east of the Jocotn-Chamelecn fault system, in central, eastern and southern
Honduras, and northern Nicaragua, metamorphic-basement rocks predominantly
consist of low- and medium-grade metasediments, chiefly phyllites, quartz-muscovite
schists, and minor metamafic rocks, although other low-grade rock types have been
reported locally (Fig. 19.1). In Honduras the name Cacaguapa schist, which had been
coined by Fakundiny [13], is the most commonly used for these rocks, though other
names are ordinary in the literature as well. For instance the term Las Maras member
has been used extensively (e.g., [77]) and the name Cacaguapa group has been used
in recent work [5, 78].
Information on higher-grade metamorphic rocks in central and eastern Honduras is
very scarce and vague; this is why we decided to split our discussion, presenting
metamorphic rocks in north and northwestern Honduras separately. This does not
necessarily imply that there is an abrupt geologic change in the metamorphic basement
at the Jocotn-Chamelecn fault, although this should be tested in future works.
Anonymous [78] include high-grade rocks from northwestern Honduras in the
Cacaguapa group, and maps by Rogers [5] would imply that the Las Ovejas complex,
San Diego phyllites and Cacaguapa schists would constitute a single pre-Mesozoic
basement unit between the Motagua and Guayape faults. More work is required before
an adequate differentiation of metamorphic units in Honduras can be attempted.
Many different names have been given to low-grade metavolcanic and
metasedimentary rocks exposed in northern Nicaragua, which are the southward
extension of Cacaguapa schists. Palacagina formation or schist has been used
extensively, but currently the names Nueva Segovia schists and Las Segovias
metamorphic complex [14, 79] are the most accepted among Nicaraguan geologists;
the latter is therefore adopted here.
19.6.1 Cacaguapa schist Central Honduras

Early reports on metamorphic rocks from central Honduras include Carpenters [80]
definition of the Petn formation in the El Rosario and San Juancito regions composed
of sericitic and graphitic schists, and minor quartzite (the name Petn is unrelated to the
departamento de Petn in Guatemala). Similar low-grade rocks are discussed in the
report on the geology of the El Rosario sheet [13], a work that includes one of the
larger descriptions of metamorphic rocks in central Honduras. The above-mentioned

author coined the name Cacaguapa schists for the metamorphic rocks in the El Rosario
region and further subdivided them into two members: the Humuya and the Las
Maras.
The Humuya member consists of sheared black schist with quartz augen, and
metaconglomerates containing metamorphic boulders. Mylonitized and boudinaged
felsic meter-scale igneous bands are interbedded along the schists. The mineral
assemblage found in Humuya-member rocks is not indicative of the metamorphic
conditions.
The Las Maras member crops out in the Comayagua mountain (Montaa de
Comayagua) region. It is more widespread than the Humuya member in the area
studied by Fakundiny [13] and elsewhere in Honduras. In the western flank of the
mountain, quartz-muscovite schists locally bearing graphite, greenschist, phyllites and
minor marble and quartzite compose the unit. Rocks are strongly foliated and
crenulated (Fig. 19.6de), quartz lenses are common, and the mineral parageneses
indicates greenschist-facies conditions (Fig. 19.6f). Quartz-muscovite-graphite schists
are common on the northern flank of the mountain, where orthoamphibolites have been
reported [13]; it is not clear from existing information whether or not amphibolite
facies conditions were actually attained or if these rocks are foliated plutons.
South of El Rosario, Everett [77] found muscovite and chlorite schists, phyllites,
and minor quartzite, which he correlated with Fakundinys Las Maras member. The
mineral association found indicates that metamorphic conditions were not higher than
greenschist facies.
Simonson [81] presented a complete description of the El Porvenir sheet, in which
he defined five metamorphic units: three metasedimentary and two metaigneous. It is
interesting to note that his garnet schist unit is composed of rocks containing garnet +
chlorite + biotite + sodic plagioclase + chloritoid, an assemblage that is typical of
higher greenschist facies. If the association proves to be metamorphic and not
composed of partial detrital material, as suggested for phyllitic rocks in the Catacamas
region [76], these would constitute the highest-grade rocks described in central
Honduras. Higher-grade rocks might exist, as in the Precambrian gneiss inliers
mentioned by Rogers [5] but so far their mineral assemblage has not been studied in
detail.
Metaigneous rocks of the El Porvenir sheet are mylonitized metagranitoids and
augen gneisses [81]. The metagranitoid unit includes intensively sheared and
recrystallized granites and tonalites in which the original igneous mineral species
probably remained unchanged. The gneiss contains microcline and recrystallized quartz
augen surrounded by anastomosed aggregates of white mica and biotite. Field
relations indicate that the protolith of this gneiss is older than the protolith of the
metasediments.
The Catacamas valley in central Honduras has some outcrops of metamorphic rocks
that were studied by Gordon [76]. These are similar to Fakundinys Las Maras
member and were therefore classified as Cacaguapa schists. Due to its weathering
resistance the most prominent metamorphic rocks are those containing abundant quartz.
Thin sections show quartz, white mica and chlorite, a mineralogy that is not ultimately
indicative of the metamorphic conditions, but greenschist facies was assumed. Gordon
[76] also reported phyllites enclosing higher-grade metamorphic detrital minerals as
garnet, titanite and biotite. He considered that the protolith of these rocks were marine
sediments formed in a basin that had been surrounded by an emerged metamorphic
511
terrain which provided the metamorphic detritus. Gordon suggested that the highergrade garnet-bearing rocks studied by Simonson [81] have regional importance since
they might be the source of detritus contained in the Las Maras member.
South of Montaas de Yoro, Rogers [5] presented a series of small gneissic units in
his map of Honduras, which were interpreted as higher-grade inliers of older
metamorphic rocks within Cacaguapa schist (Fig. 19.1). One of these inliers is located
east of El Progreso, a town situated on the eastern wall of the Sula graben, where
lineated granites intruded a succession of massive to banded quartzofeldspathic rocks
with minor interlayered pelitic schist. The pelitic schists exhibit mineral assemblages
including chlorite + biotite and biotite + garnet indicative of the greenschistamphibolite-facies transition [82].
19.6.2 Las Segovias metamorphic complex QRUWKHUQ1LFDUDJXD
The Las Segovias metamorphic complex is the only regional exposure of metamorphic
rocks on Nicaraguas surface. The complex constitutes a 140 km-long and up to 50 km
wide arc-shaped belt that extends from west to east in northwestern Nicaragua, close to
the Honduran border (Fig. 19.1), comprising most of the land-area of the
departamento de Nueva Segovia [83]. Calc-alkaline plutons, known as Nueva
Segovia granitic batholith [84] or Dipilto batholith [14, 79], show intrusive relation
with the metamorphic belt.
Pioneer work by Zoppis-Bracci and del Giudice [8486] resulted in a series of local
geological reports on the mineralization of rocks in northwestern Nicaragua; this gave
insight into the geology of Nueva Segovia. They included short descriptions of
microfolded quartz-muscovite schist (Fig. 19.6g), graphitic schist, and gray phyllites.
Based on their study along the gorge of the Coco river, they proposed that the schists
are the metamorphic equivalent of Cretaceous sediments that crop out nearby [87].
Reports on metasedimentary rocks in the San Juan de Telpaneca (or San Juan del
ro Coco) area [88] mention the existence of phyllites, quartz-sericite schists and
graphitic schists. Thin sections of phyllites show alternating bands of sericite and
chlorite, up to a few mm wide.
A study conducted on the low-grade metamorphic rocks in the surroundings of
Ocotal by Figge [89], focused on the sedimentary character of the protolith. He stated
that a succession of conglomerates, separated by calcareous horizons, minor tuffs, and
interbedded sandstone and shales, were metamorphosed to quartz-mica schists, whitemica-chlorite schists, sericitic phyllites, calcareous-sericitic or chloritic schists,
quartzites, and marbles. The mineral assemblage includes chlorite + epidote +
clinozoisite + albite + quartz + muscovite + apatite + tourmaline, which are indicative
of greenschist-facies conditions.
Engels [90] found microfolded phyllites sometimes graphite bearing, deformed
conglomerates with elongated boulders (Fig. 19.6h), quartzites, siliceous slate, sericitic
and chloritic slate, marbles, and metamorphosed diabase and tuffs in the Nueva
Segovia area. Local hornfels and andalusite-bearing rocks were also reported. He
identified three metamorphic events that formed the complex structures present in the
aforementioned rocks.
According to Valle [14], the metamorphic belt from northern Nicaragua was
formed from a succession of argillaceous sediments interbedded with minor
sandstones/conglomerates and volcanic material metamorphosed to greenschist-facies
conditions. Deformed and folded metamafic rocks preserve features of their original
volcanic protolith. Metamorphic grade and the widespread occurrence of pelitic rocks
allow correlation between the Las Segovias metamorphic complex and the low-grade
rocks from central Honduras.
Foliations of the metamorphic complex show northwest strike and southwest dip,
varying between 1738. In the San Juan de Telpaneca area, intrusion of plutons
determined a change in the trend of the metamorphic belt, mainly by shifting its strike
to an almost east-west direction, and augmenting the dip angle. Quartz veins crosscut
the metamorphic succession through faults and fractures, especially where the
metamorphic belt shows strong folding. This intense folding was imprinted after the
foliation developed, during the main regional metamorphic event.
19.6.3 Age constraints and correlations

Stratigraphic relations in Honduras suggest that the age of the Cacaguapa schist is preMesozoic. The oldest unmetamorphosed sedimentary unit known in Honduras is El
Plan formation, which contains Jurassic fossils [91]. According to Carpenter [80] the
observed contact between these sedimentary rocks and the metamorphic basement is
invariably faulted, though the absence of metamorphism in the former suggests an
unconformable stratigraphic relation. Everett [77] postulated an unconformity between
metamorphic rocks and Mesozoic sediments in the Comayagua region of central
Honduras. We are not aware of radiometric ages obtained from low-grade Cacaguapa
schist in central Honduras, but some authors have extrapolated previously discussed
ages obtained in the Sierra de Omoa, therefore considering the Cacaguapa schist a
Paleozoic unit [5, 78].
A Proterozoic concordant zircon age at 1.0 Ga was obtained from lineated granites
that intrude mica schist east of El Progreso in the Yoro valley area [82]. This age
applies to inliers of orthogneiss in Paleozoic Cacaguapa schists [5]. Regional
correlations have been proposed, though field relations are poorly known. According to
Manton [82], the Mesoproterozoic age obtained in central Honduras implies that rocks
configuring the basement of the Chortis block are the continuation of the truncated
Oaxaca complex from southern Mexico. This view is supported by similarities in postJurassic features of both the Oaxaca terrane and the Central Chortis terrane [5]. But the
bulk of the Chortis block does not exhibit high-grade metamorphic basement, while the
Oaxaca complex is clearly high grade, with granulite-facies rocks [92]. No systematic
lithologic comparison between southern Mexico and the poorly known basement of the
Chortis block has been attempted and correlations should be done with caution. A
chronologic correlation seems plausible but a lithologic correlation would require better
field constraints and should account for the sharp change in metamorphic grade.
In northern Nicaragua, the age of the regional metamorphic event is constrained by
the overlying Upper-Cretaceous Totogalpa formation, composed chiefly of terrigenous
red conglomerates and sandstones [89]. The similarities between the stratigraphic
column presented by Figge [89] for the metasediments in Nueva Segovia and the
column for the Albian Metapn series by Drr and Stober [93], added to the probable
transitional character between sediments and schists [87], led to the idea of a
Cretaceous metamorphic event for northern Nicaragua. Nevertheless, Levy [88] found
xenoliths of metamorphic rocks in the plutons from Nueva Segovia, indicating its
intrusive character into the schists. Zoppis-Bracci and del Giudice [84] reported an
513
83 3 Ma radiometric age obtained on the intrusive pluton of Nueva Segovia, which is

therefore a minimum age for the metamorphic event (the publication does not state
clearly whether the age was obtained by the Rb/Sr or K/Ar method, nor the mineral
species separated for the analysis). Donnelly et al. [3] informed about an unpublished
Rb/Sr whole-rock isochron age of 140 15 Ma for the Dipilto batholith. Two
additional K/Ar ages obtained in the same intrusive are also Cretaceous: 110 1.2 Ma
in biotite, and 115 1.5 Ma in hornblende ([79] and references therein). Reports of
biotitic hornfels that developed during the thermal event from schists further support
the idea of a metamorphic age previous to the Cretaceous intrusion of plutons in Nueva
Segovia. Petrographic analysis of samples from the gorge of the Dipilto river indeed
show textures typical of thermal metamorphism, imposed over a preexisting foliation.
By correlating the low-grade metasediments present in northern Nicaragua with
those farther north in Central America, Dengo [83] suggested a Paleozoic sedimentary
age, probably in the PennsylvanianPermian interval, but no information on fossil
content or radiometric ages have been published that could support this view. Rogers
[94] observed the transition from sandstones and shales of the Jurassic Agua Fra
formation to greenschist facies phyllites and quartzites in the Jamastrn valley region
of Honduras, east of the Guayape fault. He further interpreted that this age constraint
was valid for all low-grade metasedimentary rocks east of the Guayape fault in
Honduras and in northern Nicaragua [5]. The metamorphic age of the Las Segovias
metamorphic complex could be therefore post-Jurassic and preLate-Cretaceous.
19.7
ISTHMIC REGION: COSTA RICA AND PANAMA
The Chorotega block, which builds up the Central American isthmus, contains scarce
instances of metamorphic rocks: minor bodies of amphibolite devoid of garnet have
been reported from within mafic and ultramafic complexes in the Santa Elena and Osa
peninsulas in Costa Rica [95], and the Son and Azuero peninsulas in Panama [96];
low-grade non-deformational metamorphism affected rocks from the Mesozoic Nicoya
peninsula, the Paleogene of the Talamanca cordillera, and the Neogene of the Cerros
del Aguacate [97]; a few isolated blocks of andalusite-bearing schist were found in the
Talamanca cordillera [98]; and mafic granulitic xenoliths occur within tephra formed
during recent volcanism [16, 99].
19.7.1 Amphibolites from the Santa Elena peninsula

Harrison [100] presented the first report mentioning foliated rocks in the Santa Elena
mafic-ultramafic complex. Desmet et al. [101, 102] pointed out that most serpentinized
peridotites in the peninsula are undeformed, and that foliations and lineations in
mylonitic ultramafics were only developed in tectonic zones.
Tournon and Alvarado [95] described dolerites that recrystallized in narrow shearzones into foliated amphibolites that contain pyroxenite lenses; their original igneous
texture was completely obliterated. Bulk chemical composition of these metamafic
rocks suggests a metasomatic origin. Tournon [98] informed about sinusoidal veins
composed of unfoliated green hornblende and plagioclase that indicate the injection of
mafic fluids after deformation. Therefore, foliated rocks from Santa Elena are more
adequately interpreted as the product of ocean-floor metamorphism along shear zones
with posterior injection of magma, rather than the product of deformation associated
with the emplacement of the mafic/ultramafic complex. Bellon and Tournon [103]
obtained an 88.8 4.5 Ma K/Ar age in hornblende separates from the amphibolites.
Alluvial boulders of foliated amphibolites are also known from the Osa peninsula
[104]. Arias [105] studied the petrology of the mafic and ultramafic rocks from the
Nancite Bay stratified complex. Her description on alteration of igneous minerals
seems to correspond to a hydrothermal metamorphism, as indicated by the
transformation of plagioclase (An>45 in most samples) into albite, sericite, calcite or
zeolites, and notable actinolite/tremolite growth after clinopyroxenes. Fibrous
hornblende-actinolite and actinolite are common, especially within the basaltic dikes.
Microprobe analyses of amphiboles revealed mostly Mg-hornblende in the cores that
grade into Fe-actinolite/actinolite in the rims. The latter were considered metamorphic
phases, product of high-temperature hydration of pyroxenes, whereas the hornblende
core may or may not have been a primary igneous phase.
It is plausible to hypothesize that mafic and ultramafic rocks composing the bulk of
Santa Elena peninsula were partially transformed by ocean-floor metamorphism under
greenschist- or amphibolite-facies conditions, but no detail studies on this have been
carried out.
19.7.2 Low-grade metamorphism of Pre-Quaternary volcanics

Secondary, low-grade-metamorphic minerals as zeolites, calcite, chlorite, quartz, albite,
epidote, and prehnite, were found in volcanic rocks from the Cerros del Aguacate,
Talamanca cordillera, and Nicoya peninsula. Basaltic rocks, and basaltic fragments
within volcanic greywackes, were altered to spilites and acid volcanic rocks to
keratophyres [97].
Zeolite to prehnite-pumpellyite-facies minerals are common in the Neogene Cerros
del Aguacate, whereas only prehnite-pumpellyite-facies phases predominate in the
Paleogene from the Talamanca cordillera [97]. Mafic and abyssal sedimentary rocks
from the Nicoya peninsula show widespread zeolites, and were subjected to extensive
greenschist-facies ocean-floor metamorphism and shearing; penetrative deformation is
best evidenced in radiolarites, whereas basalts show brittle/ductile behavior [106].
Petrographic examination of gabbros from the Nicoya peninsula revealed the
presence of metamorphic albite + epidote after plagioclase, and actinolite + chlorite
after clinopyroxene, minerals which are usually regarded as alteration products
(saussuritization, uralitization) when emphasis is given to the igneous character of
rocks. Fe-gabbros and basaltic dikes contain metamorphic albite + epidote + chlorite +
actinolite, the typical greenschist-facies assemblage in metamafic rocks, while retaining
most of the igneous textures. Veins within the gabbros are filled with calcite, quartz,
epidote, zeolites, prehnite and pumpellyite. Some gabbros exhibit mylonitic character
as flaser textures. Metamorphic grade attained was low, between zeolite and
greenschist facies [106].
Reactions in Nicoya complex rocks that produced prehnite, pumpellyite and low
greenschist-facies minerals with no clear preferred orientations, are attributable to
ocean-floor metamorphism, whereas foliation in metaradiolarites is interpreted as the
result of ductile shearing [106]. Greenschist facies was only reached in Nicoya, not in
Talamanca or the Cerros del Aguacate; in the later localities burial metamorphism
seems plausible to explain the generation of the low-grade assemblages [97].
515
19.7.3 Other extraneous reports of metamorphic rocks from Costa Rica

Two peculiar occurrences of metamorphic rocks in Costa Rica are worth mentioning:
blocks of andalusite-bearing schists are known from the Talamanca cordillera and
mafic granulitic xenoliths have been found within tephra expelled by the Arenal and
Iraz volcanoes.
Gabb [107, 108] was the first author to point out the existence of cobbles of
metamorphic schists in the Con river, Talamanca. In the nearby Alto Chinagucha, Fila
Bug (Con basin), Tournon [98] found blocks of quartz-muscovite schist with
abundant sulfides, some containing small idiomorphic andalusite. The blocks show
metamorphic schistosity, especially due to the orientation of muscovites, although
somewhat larger crystals of this species are oblique to the main foliation, suggesting a
second recrystallization stage. A 4.95 0.17 Ma K/Ar muscovite age was obtained
from Talamanca schists [95]. Two scenarios are plausible to explain the age: it can
reflect the moment of formation of the schist due to thermal metamorphism under
differential stresses during the intrusion of the extensive plutons in Talamanca, or it
simply may record the age of thermal re-homogenization of an older enigmatic
metamorphic unit present in Chorotegas basement [95].
Mafic granulitic xenoliths collected from within lavas and tephra produced by
Arenal, Pos and Iraz volcanoes are exotic examples of metamorphic rocks in Costa
Rica. In the case of Iraz, olivine-bearing xenoliths of intrusive rocks show textures
and mineral parageneses that indicate subsolidus instability of minerals during cooling
in the interval between the liquidus temperature of the basaltic parent and the upper
limit of an amphibolite or granulite facies metamorphism [99]. Tephra of Arenal
volcano contains pyriclasitic xenoliths with a mineral assemblage composed of
clinopyroxene (En43Fs12Wo45) + plagioclase (An95) + pargasite + spinel, along with
rhyolitic glass, which is interpreted as a quenched accompanying partial melt within
Costa Ricas basement. These rocks exhibit high temperature deformation and
compositional layering [16].
19.7.4 Pacific peninsulas in southern Panama

Metamafic rocks from the Azuero and Son peninsulas on Panamas Pacific coast
constitute the only known metamorphic localities from Panama. Initial descriptions
mentioned ultramafic greenschists associated with basalts [109111], which were
interpreted as recrystallized picritic basalts in fracture zones. Indeed outcrops of locally
microfolded schistose metamafic rocks occur in the mentioned peninsulas, but not
greenschists [96]. These metamafic schists are associated with unmetamorphosed
picritic pillow basalts and doleritic dykes that cut the other lithologies.
Metamorphic rocks include metatuffs, metabasalts and amphibolites that typically
contain chlorite, white mica, albite, quartz, colorless or pale green amphibole, prehnite,
pumpellyite, epidote, sphene and opaque minerals. Geothermobarometry studies done
on Son peninsula rocks indicate a prograde anti-clockwise P-T path, from greenschist
facies at moderate pressures to plagioclase-amphibolite facies; some points indicate
retrogression through low-pressure greenschist facies conditions ([96] and written
comm. by Tournon, Feb 6th, 2003).
CampanianMaastrichtian foram-bearing calcareous rocks overly unconformably
the doleritic dykes in Panama, constraining the age of unmetamorphosed igneous rocks
to be older than the Late Cretaceous. An unpublished K/Ar Eocene age has been

obtained from igneous rocks that cut the amphibolites in the Azuero peninsula. Some
of the basalts and crosscutting dolerites might be equivalent to Nicoya complex rocks
in Costa Rica, implying a pre-Nicoya complex age for the metamorphism [96].
19.8
METAMORPHISM OF SAMPLES COLLECTED DURING OFFSHORE

DRILLING
DSDP recovered amphibolitic rocks underlying Eocene sediments from Site 569A of
Leg 67 (1256.31N; 9050.35W) south of Guatemalas Pacific-coast, which were
described by Bourgois et al. [111, 112]. Petrographic examination of least retrogressed
samples showed the typical Mg-hornblende + plagioclase (An5882) + ilmenite
amphibolite-facies mineral association. A number of samples showed an oriented
fabric. A posterior low-temperature event, probably hydrothermal, generated zeolites,
actinolite, prehnite and natrolite, obliterating most of the high-grade metamorphic
minerals and textures. Based on chemical analyses, the above authors suggested
tholeiitic basalts as protolith to the amphibolites, which were enriched with Na and Ca
during the posterior low-temperature retrogression and metasomatism.
Other samples from DSDP Leg 67 showed evidence of low-grade metamorphism of
ocean floor basalts offshore the Pacific coast of Central America. Basalts from sites
495 and 500 show alteration under alkaline non-oxidizing conditions at temperatures of
about 100 C (not strictly metamorphic). Transformations at higher temperature
equivalent to lower-greenschist facies might have occurred in basalts drilled in Hole
499, as is suggested by the corrensite + chlorite + amphibole + laumontite + albite
mineral association [114]. Maury et al. [115] reported metamorphic minerals as
actinolite, epidote and chlorite in basalts from Hole 494-A, without giving any further
information.
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521
off Guatemala). Ofioliti 9:1 (1984), pp.2742.

113. Bourgois, J., Desmet, A., Tournon, J. & Aubouin, J.: Mafic and ultramafic rocks of Leg 84;
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Chapter 20
Oceanic igneous complexes
KAJ HOERNLE AND FOLKMAR HAUFF
I will not here attempt to come to any
definite conclusions, as the species have not
been accurately examined; but we may infer,
that, with the exception of a few wanderers,
the organic beeings found on this
archipelago [Galpagos] are peculiar to it;
and yet that their general form strongly
partakes of an American character.
C. Darwin: The Voyage of the Beagle, 1839.
20.1
INTRODUCTION
Mafic and ultramafic igneous complexes, often referred to as ophiolites in the

literature, crop out along much of the Pacific margin of Central America and occupy
large parts of the Central American forearc (Fig. 20.1). The best studied of these
complexes occur along the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and Panama, although there is
some evidence that they may extend into the forearc of Nicaragua and Guatemala. The
oceanic igneous complexes in Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama are from
NW to SE: (1) Motagua fault, (2) DSDP Leg 67 and 84 in the Guatemala forearc, (3)
Nicaragua forearc, (4) Santa Elena, (5) Nicoya, (6) Tortugal, (7) Herradura, (8)
Quepos, (9) Osa, (10) Golfito, (11) Burica, (12) Son, (13) Azuero, and (14) Serrana
del Sapo (Darin) (Figs. 20.1 and 20.2).
The major igneous components of these complexes are Cretaceous tholeiitic pillow
lavas, sheet flows, dikes, sills, gabbroic and plagiogranitic intrusives. The tholeiitic
rocks are commonly associated with Jurassic through Cretaceous radiolarian cherts,
with the contacts between the tholeiitic igneous rocks and the cherts generally being
tectonic, intrusive or extrusive (e.g., chert blocks in basalt). Only in rare circumstances
sedimentary contacts (e.g., intra pillow sediments) are observed. Minor amounts of
mid-Cretaceous through Miocene transitional to alkalic volcanic rocks, commonly
erupted under shallow water to subaerial conditions, also occur.
Since most of these igneous complexes are located in the forearc of the Central
American arc, their age and origin (e.g., accreted N-MORB type ocean crust, oceanic
plateau, seamount or uplifted insitu forearc basement) provide important information
about the origin and tectonic evolution of this convergent plate boundary. Based on
paleontological, geochronological, geochemical, paleomagnetic and sedimentological
studies, a wide array of diverse and often contradictory models have been proposed to
explain the magmatic origin and geodynamic setting of these complexes. Pichler et al.
[1] and Goossens et al. [2] interpreted the Nicoya complex and other basaltic
complexes in Costa Rica, Panama and northwestern South America to be oceanic
basement or mid-ocean-ridge tholeiites. It was proposed that the Santa Elena
peridotites, the intrusives of the northwestern Nicoya peninsula and the extrusives and
radiolarian cherts of northern and southern Nicoya formed a single ophiolite complex
[35]. Thereafter more complex models were developed for the Nicoya and other mafic
igneous complexes along the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and Panama, favoring a multistage geodynamic evolution (often within single complexes) that included formation at
a mid-ocean ridge, followed by intra-plate, island arc and backarc basin volcanism [6
10]. Most recent models favor accretion of portions of the Galpagos paleo-hotspot
tracks [1118] and accretion and uplift of Caribbean oceanic plateau crust to explain
the origin of the Costa Rican and Panamanian mafic igneous complexes [1222].
Figure 20.1. Overview map of the Caribbean (modified from [22]).
The wide array of proposed models for these mafic igneous complexes primarily
reflects the difficulty in obtaining reliable age and geochemical data. Since contacts
between sediments and igneous rocks are predominantly tectonic or intrusive,
biostratigraphic ages of associated sediments provide only limited constraints on the
age of the igneous rocks. Considering the high degree of alteration of most outcrops
and the low K content of the rocks, radiometric age dating has also proved difficult [23,
Figure 20.2. Location of oceanic igneous complexes in Costa Rica and Panama.
24]. 40Ar/39Ar age dating and comprehensive modern geochemical analyses of the same
samples, however, have provided valuable new insights into the origin of these igneous
complexes [14, 16, 18, 22].
20.2
REGIONAL GEOLOGY, AGES AND COMPOSITION OF THE OCEANIC

IGNEOUS COMPLEXES
Below we summarize the regional geology, age and composition of the mafic igneous
complexes along the Pacific coast of Central America. Throughout the text
stratigraphic ages are taken from Gradstein et al. [25]. A summary of published
40
Ar/39Ar ages of oceanic igneous complexes in Central America is provided in Table
20.1.
20.2.1 Costa Rica mafic igneous complexes

20.2.1.1 Northwestern Pacific coast: Santa Elena peninsula
The Santa Elena peninsula forms a south to southwest verging nappe structure [9, 26]
that places a strongly serpentinized peridotite complex above an igneous-sedimentary
unit (Fig. 20.3a). The footwall of the Santa Elena thrust is subdivided into three
lithological subunits which are exposed along the southern coast and in a tectonic
window (Potrero Grande) in the center of the peninsula (see [16] for summary). The
radiolaria biostratigraphy of Unit I on Santa Elena ranges from Callovian to
Cenomanian (164.793.5 Ma) and reworked faunas are as old as Pliensbachian (189.6
183.0 Ma) [2729]. Late Pliensbachian non-reworked faunas however are also
described [30]. Due to poor fossil preservation and the lack of primary contacts
525
Table 20.1. Summary of published 40Ar/39Ar age data of oceanic igneous complexes in Central
America. Data sources and details are found in [14, 16, 18, 22, 43].
Panama
Costa Rica
Sample number
Santa Elena
SE2
SE6
Nicoya
AN8
AN10
AN3
AN34
AN40
BN-22
AN86
NC93-3
NC93-2
NC93-20
NC93-18
NC93-34
BN6
NC93-14B
NC93-26
Tortugal
1-15-12-94
Herradura
AH1
JC93-1
Quepos
AQ66
QP93-1
BQ32
Osa
OS6
OS4
Burica
BUR5
Azuero
AZ69-1
AZ55-1
AZ66-1
AZ104-1
G42
AZ59-4
AZ39-1
G46
AZ103-2
AZ67
G33
G22
AZ72-1
Son
G54
Coiba
G63
$JH0D
Rock type
Dated material
References
gabbro
basalt
plag
matrix
124 2
109 1
[16]
[16]
pillow glass
pillow glass
pillow glass
pillow glass
pillow glass
basalt
basalt
basalt
basalt
basalt
basalt
basalt
plagiogranite
plagiogranite
plagiogranite
fresh glass
fresh glass
fresh glass
fresh glass
fresh glass
matrix
matrix
matrix
matrix
matrix
matrix
matrix
plagioclase
plagioclase
plagioclase
139 1
138 2
133 2
119 1
118 2
110 1
95 1
93 5
90 3
90 3
90 2
88 1
88 1
84 1
83 1
[22]
[22]
[22]
[22]
[22]
[22]
[16]
[14]
[14]
[14]
[14]
[14]
[16]
[14]
[14]
picrite
plagioclase
89.7 1.7
[43]
basalt
basalt
matrix
matrix
86 1
84 2
[16]
[14]
basalt
basalt
gabbro
matrix
matrix
plagioclase
65 0.4
64 1
59 1
[18]
[14]
[16]
basalt
basalt
matrix
matrix
62 1
55 2
[16]
[18]
basalt
matrix
64 1
[18]
basalt
basalt
basalt
basalt
basalt
basalt
basalt
basalt
basalt
basalt
basalt
basalt
basalt
matrix
plagioclase
matrix
matrix
matrix
plagioclase
matrix
matrix
plagioclase
matrix
matrix
matrix
plagioclase
66 1
63 1
62 1
61 1
59 0.3
56 2
54 2
53 1
52 1
52 1
33 1
21 1
21 2
[18]
[18]
[18]
[18]
[18]
[18]
[18]
[18]
[18]
[18]
[18]
[18]
[18]
basalt
matrix
71 2
[18]
basalt
matrix
38 2
[18]
Figure 20.3. (a) Published 40Ar/39Ar age data for the Santa Elena [16] Nicoya [14, 16, 22],
Tortugal [43] and Lower Herradura [14, 16, 22] igneous complexes. Tentative lithologic
column for Santa Elena, Nicoya and Quepos modified after [16]); (b) Published 40Ar/39Ar
age data for the Quepos [14, 16, 18], Osa [16, 18], Burica, Son, Coiba and Azuero [18]
igneous complexes.
resulting from severe faulting, dating of the igneous rocks through biostratigraphic
means is not possible. This lithological section has been interpreted to represent a
tectonic mlange within a subduction zone [31]. Unit I consists of vesicular, alkaline
pillow lavas, massive basalts, rhyolites, radiolarites, radiolarite breccias and alkaline
dikes. Dikes and vesicular pillow lavas have tephritic, trachy-basaltic and phonotephritic compositions (Fig. 20.4). Highly incompatible elements are strongly enriched
relative to less incompatible elements (e.g., (La/Yb)N = 15.9, (Nb/La)N = 1.2; subscript
N denotes that element contents have been normalized to primitive mantle values),
whereas Pb is markedly depleted (Fig. 20.5a). These characteristics are similar to
modern ocean island basalts (OIBs). Less radiogenic (143Nd/144Nd)in = 0.51264 and
radiogenic (87Sr/86Sr)in = 0.7035, indicates derivation from a long-term enriched mantle
(EM) source (Fig. 20.6a), while initial Pb isotope ratios (e.g., (206Pb/204Pb)in = 18.8)
have intermediate compositions (Fig. 20.7a). The isotopic composition of the Unit I
alkaline volcanic rocks are unique in Costa Rica with the exception of alkaline dikes
from Tortugal (see below and Fig. 20.2 for location).
527
Figure 20.4. Total alkali versus SiO2 (TAS) diagram, for Cretaceous and Cenozoic intraplate
volcanic rocks in Central America with fields for the different mafic igneous complexes.
Data sources are [13, 14, 1618, 44, 70, 71].
The Unit I Santa Elena rocks have been interpreted to be a seamount/ocean island
complex, accreted sometime between the Cenomanian (99.693.5 Ma; age of the
youngest radiolarites) and the Late Campanian (~7570.6 Ma; reef carbonates growing
on top of the exhumed peridotites) [7, 9, 31]. Some volcanic rocks and intrusives from
the Central cordillera in Colombia (9389 Ma [32]) have similar incompatible element
and Nd isotopic compositions to the alkaline volcanic rocks from Tortugal and those
from Unit I at Santa Elena. Kerr et al. [32] proposed that the similarity in geochemistry
between the Tortugal and the Colombian alkaline to transitional basalts indicated the
presence of a yet unidentified EM-type component within the source of the CLIP. In
light of the more extensive distribution of this component in the CLIP, it is necessary to
consider a CLIP origin for the Unit I Santa Helena rocks also. It is interesting to note
that the Unit I Santa Elena, Tortugal, Central cordillera, and Gorgona transitional to
alkaline basalts also have similar compositions to the volcanic rocks from the seamount
province of the Galpagos hotspot track presently subducting beneath Central Costa
Rica, suggesting that this enriched component (termed the Northern Galpagos
component; [33]) may have been within the Galpagos plume throughout its history.
Alternatively the aforementioned complexes could represent unrelated, accreted
igneous terranes not directly related to the CLIP or the Galpagos hotspot.
The second structural unit (II) is exposed in the Murcilago islands, which
predominantly consists of tholeiitic pillow lavas, except for peridotites on Pelada and
Colorada islands. An aphyric pillow basalt from Cocinero island (Fig. 20.3a, Table
20.1) gives a 40Ar/39Ar total fusion isochron age of 109 1 Ma [16]. An intrusive
complex forms the third tectonic unit and crops out in the eastern half of the peninsula
at Playa Nancite. Plagioclase from a layered gabbroic complex yielded a 40Ar/39Ar total
fusion isochron age of 124 2.1 Ma [16], consistent with the gabbro representing a
deeper structural level of the footwall as was also deduced from field observations (Fig.
20.3a, Table 20.1). The peridotite hanging wall contains abundant doleritic dikes which
are best exposed in the western half of the peninsula at Playa Gringo. Some dolerites
are completely recrystallized to amphibolite in narrow shear zones and a K/Ar
crystallization age of 88.8 4.4 Ma was obtained on metamorphic hornblende [34].
Evidence for nappe emplacement between 99 Ma and 71 Ma comes from the youngest
radiolarites (Cenomanian) within the footwall section and Late Campanian reef
Figure 20.5. Primitive mantle normalized multi-element diagrams of oceanic igneous complexes
in Central America. (Modified from [16]).
limestones built on top of the exhumed peridotites. In contrast to the alkaline

compositions of Unit I, pillow lavas and dikes from Units II, III and IV have tholeiitic
to basaltic andesitic and basaltic-trachyandesitic compositions (Fig. 20.4a) [16]. On
multi-element diagrams of incompatible trace and minor elements (Fig. 20.5b), these
529
Figure 20.6. 87Sr/86Sr versus 143Nd/144Nd isotope correlation diagram showing fields for the
different oceanic igneous complexes in Central America. The fields represent the present
source composition obtained through calculation of initial isotopic ratios (=source
composition in the past) and modeling the source evolution until present using average
parent/daughter ratios of the Galpagos plume (see [17] for details). Data sources are [16,
18, 33] and references therein. Galpagos field and Pacific MORB after [86].
rocks display a general depletion of the most incompatible elements (e.g., (La/Yb)N =
0.30.6; (Nb/La)N = 0.30.5). They also show relative enrichment of fluid-mobile
elements such as U, Pb, Ba, K and Sr compared to more fluid-immobile elements such
as Nb, Ta and the rare earth elements (REE), resulting in low Nb/U = 617, Ce/Pb = 6
20 and high Ba/La = 2452 and K/La = 6302000 [16, 35], similar to those of primitive
subduction zone magmas such as those of the Marianas (e.g., [36]) (Fig. 20.5g). On the
other hand the depletion in light rare earth elements alone is consistent with an origin
from an N-MORB type mantle source [21]. Less radiogenic initial Pb isotope ratios
[16] ((206Pb/204Pb)in = 18.018.3, (207Pb/204Pb)in = 15.4615.49, (208Pb/204Pb)in = 37.6
37.8), radiogenic initial 143Nd/144Nd (0.5130) isotope ratios and high (Sm/Nd)N (> 1)
indeed indicate derivation from a long-term depleted mantle source that overlaps the
field of Pacific MORB [16] (see Figs. 20.6a, 20.7a and 20.8a). Initial 87Sr/86Sr (0.7029
0.7031) is weakly radiogenic but can reach 0.7047 in the gabbros. In conclusion, the
isotope and trace element characteristics of the tholeiitic to basaltic andesitic and
basaltic trachy-andesitic rocks on Santa Elena are consistent with their generation in a
subduction zone environment [16]. The precise nature of this arc volcanism such (e.g.,
supra subduction zone?) is yet unclear. Nevertheless, the depleted trace element and
Nd/Pb isotopic signatures of the Unit II, III and IV Santa Elena volcanic rocks indicates
that the inferred mantle wedge resembled Pacific N-MORB mantle [16, 20, 21].
20.2.1.2 Nicoya peninsula, Herradura peninsula and Tortugal
The Nicoya basement largely consists of aphyric basaltic sheet flows and pillow basalt
sequences, which are locally intruded by gabbros and plagiogranites in the
northwestern part of the peninsula. Dismembered radiolarite sequences of up to ~100 m
thickness range from Callovian to Santonian (164.783.5 Ma; e.g., [7, 37, 38]), with the
Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous cherts being primarily restricted to northern Nicoya. The
predominance of intrusive and tectonic contacts between fossiliferous sediments and
the basaltic rocks preclude accurate determination of formation ages of the igneous
rocks through biostratigraphy in most areas, but foraminifera of intrapillow sediments
Figure 20.7. 208Pb/204Pb versus 206Pb/204Pb isotope correlation diagrams showing fields for the
different oceanic igneous complexes in Central America. The fields represent present source
composition. See Figure 20.6 for details. Data sources same as in Figure 20.6.
at Montezuma in southwestern Nicoya indicate a Cenomanian/Touronian (93.5 Ma)

age of eruption [39, 40].
K/Ar whole rock ages from the basaltic rocks range from 1786 Ma (summary in
[23, 24]) and are likely to reflect minimum ages due to 40Ar loss as a result of extensive
alteration and the growth of younger secondary K phases such as clays. Sinton et al.
[14] carried out 40Ar/39Ar step-heating analyses of igneous rocks from the Nicoya
peninsula and obtained plateau ages between 88.0 0.7 Ma and 92.5 5.4 Ma for
seven extrusive rocks, whereas two intrusive rocks produced plateau ages of 83.8 1.1
Ma and 83.2 1.3 Ma (Fig. 20.3a, Table 20.1). Hauff et al. [16] published 40Ar/39Ar
total fusion ages of 94.7 0.9 Ma for a basalt from Playa Tambor agreeing well with
the biostratigraphic age of 93.5 Ma for intrapillow sediments from southern Nicoya
[39, 40], and 87.5 0.7 Ma for single plagioclase crystal analyses from a plagiogranite
in northern Nicoya (Fig. 20.3a, Table 20.1). Fresh glass of pillow rinds from the
northern coast of Nicoya produced 40Ar/39Ar total fusion isochron ages of 139.1 1.1
Ma, 137.6 1.8 Ma and 132.9 1.5 Ma a whole rock pillow sample from the
northwestern coast of Nicoya an age of 110.6 0.9 Ma, and two glass samples from the
central western coast ages of 119.4 1.1 Ma and 118.2 1.8 Ma [22] (Fig. 20.3a,
Table 20.1). Incremental plateau ages of 137 2 Ma and 118 5 Ma agree within error
of the total fusion results from the same samples. In summary, available 40Ar/39Ar age
data indicate formation of the Nicoya igneous rocks over 56 Myrs (83139 Ma),
overlapping much of the age range of the radiolarites (164.783.5 Ma). The Herradura
oceanic igneous complex lies immediately southeast of the Nicoya peninsula and
stretches up to 40 km into mainland Costa Rica. Late Campanian through Maastrichtian
(~7565.5 Ma) radiolarites and globotruncana faunas occur on Herradura [4042], but
the contact relationships to the volcanic rocks are unknown. Based on recent mapping
and stratigraphic work the Herradura complex has been subdivided into a lower unit
that mainly crops out along the Pacific coast and an upper unit, the so called Tuln
formation further inland [42]. Within the lower Herradura complex a massive tholeiitic
basalt from Playa Jaco produced an 40Ar/39Ar incremental plateau age of 83.4 1.3 Ma
[14], in good agreement with a laser 40Ar/39Ar total fusion isochron age of 86.0 1.0
Ma for a tholeiitic whole rock sample from the same area [16] (Fig. 20.3a, Table 20.1).
The ages of the Lower Herradura lavas overlap with the ages of the Nicoya intrusions,
indicating that magmatism in both areas was contemporaneous.
531
The relatively small Tortugal igneous complex (50 km2) is located east of the
Nicoya peninsula just across the Gulf of Nicoya (Fig. 20.2) and consists of a picritic
basal complex, intruded by alkali basaltic dikes and tholeiitic gabbros [16, 43, 44]. This
lower intrusive complex appears to be overlain by basaltic flows of alkaline and
tholeiitic composition, but clear contacts are not exposed. Therefore the overall
volcanic structure and stratigraphy remains somewhat enigmatic [44]. It is also not
possible to unequivocally determine whether the lavas erupted under subaerial or
submarine conditions. Some hints for at least partly subearial deposition comes from
reddish, oxidized matrix of plagioclase-phyric basaltic trachy-andesites and
accretionary lapilli tuffs [44]. The picrites contain large (up to 1.5 cm) rounded olivine
crystals (3060%), Ti-augite (1020%), orthopyroxene and spinel. The magnesium rich
(MgO 2629%) olivine-phyric picrites were originally described as komatiites based
on their chemistry [43, 44]. Hauff et al. [16] pointed out the dominance of olivine
cumulate textures and concluded that the overall holocrystalline-hypidiomorphic
character of these rocks indicate a subvolcanic origin. Alkali basalt dikes crosscutting
the picrites are either aphyric or contain fresh clinopyroxene or hornblende
phenocrysts. The igneous rock sequence is discordantly overlain by Late Campanian
(~7570.6 Ma) litoral sedimentary rocks of the Barbudal formation [45], providing a
minimum age of the volcanic rocks. Plagioclase from one of the picrites yielded an
40
Ar/39Ar plateau age of 89.7 1.7 Ma [43] (Fig. 20.3a, Table 20.1). Although the age
lies within the range of Nicoya and Herradura volcanic rocks, high magnesium rocks
and alkaline lavas have not been reported from Nicoya and Lower Herradura.
Volcanism from Nicoya, Lower Herradura and Tortugal is dominated by tholeiitic
lavas (e.g., SiO2 = 4953 wt% and MgO = 311 wt% in whole rock samples) (Fig.
20.4a) [16, 17]. The variations in major and trace elements can be explained through
alteration and fractional crystallization of olivine+plagioclase Cr-spinel [13]. Glasses
from pillow rinds and hyaloclastites exhibit excellent correlations of Na2O and K2O
with other major elements, demonstrating that K and Na in the glasses have not been
affected by alteration [13]. Incompatible elements of the glasses form flat patterns on
multi-element diagrams with relative depletions in Cs, Ba, Th, K, Pb and Sr [22].
Immobile elements from the whole rock samples form similar patterns (Fig. 20.5c).
Initial Nd isotope ratios from Nicoya and Herradura are very uniform with
(143Nd/144Nd)in = 0.51291 2 (N=26; [16, 17, 22]). Initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios of most
unleached samples lie between 0.7030 and 0.7036, but some are as high as 0.7057.
Severe acid leaching in hot aqua regia on a sub-set of samples did not lower 87Sr/86Sr
significantly [16]. The 87Sr/86Sr of the glasses however is surprisingly uniform at
87
Sr/86Sr = 0.703060.70315, suggesting that the elevated Sr isotope ratios in the whole
rocks are the product of seawater alteration. Despite the large range in measured Pb
isotope ratios ((206Pb/204Pb)m = 18.9319.90, (207Pb/204Pb)m = 15.5515.62,
(208Pb/204Pb)m = 38.5739.84), initial Pb isotope ratios tightly cluster with
(206Pb/204Pb)in = 18.7218.96, (207Pb/204Pb)in = 15.5315.57, (208Pb/204Pb)in = 38.37
38.61 (Fig. 20.7a). The measured Pb isotope data from the glasses shows considerably
less variation ((206Pb/204Pb)m = 19.0619.24, (207Pb/204Pb)m = 15.5415.58 and
(208Pb/204Pb)m = 38.6738.89) than the more crystalline whole rock samples [22],
consistent with seawater alteration having affected the parent/daughter ratios of the Pb
isotope system in the whole rock samples [17]. The glasses have initial Pb isotopic
compositions overlapping the initial Pb isotopic composition of the least radiogenic
whole rock samples. Tholeiitic basalts and gabbros from Tortugal have flat
incompatible element patterns (Fig. 20.5a) ((La/Yb) N = 0.810.99, (143Nd/144Nd)in =
Figure 20.8. 143Nd/144Nd versus 206Pb/204Pb isotope correlation diagram showing fields for the
different oceanic igneous complexes in Central America. The fields represent present source
composition. See Figure 20.6 for details. Data sources same as in Figure 20.6.
0.512880.51298 and (206Pb/204Pb)in = 18.7418.79) (Fig. 20.8a) almost identical to

tholeiites from Nicoya and Lower Herradura [16]. The uniform incompatible element
and initial Nd and Pb isotope signatures of the tholeiitic rocks from Tortugal, Nicoya
and Herradura indicate derivation from a common source. The positive anomaly for Nb
and Ta and negative anomaly for Pb observed on multi-element diagrams (Fig. 20.5a,
d) provide clear evidence that these rocks were not generated in an arc setting [16]. On
the other hand less radiogenic Nd and more radiogenic Sr-Pb isotopic compositions
than Pacific MORB of similar age (Figs. 20.6a, 20.7a and 20.8a) are inconsistent with
derivation from depleted MORB-source upper mantle. The chemical characteristics are,
however, similar to other mafic igneous complexes of similar age that occur throughout
the Caribbean and northwestern South America and are often referred to as the
Caribbean large igneous province (CLIP) (e.g., [16, 32, 46, 47]).
Alkali basaltic to trachy-basaltic dikes and picrites enriched in incompatible
elements occur only at Tortugal. The picrites and alkaline rocks at Tortugal have
steeply-inclined incompatible element patterns (Fig. 20.5a, e.g., (La/Yb)N = 3.89.5)
with depletion of highly incompatible elements such as U and Th relative to Nb and Ta,
similar to modern OIB [16]. The picrites have the lowest incompatible element
concentrations, but incompatible element ratios very similar to the alkali basalt dikes,
consistent with formation of the picrites through olivine accumulation (Fig. 20.5a).
Uniform initial Nd ((143Nd/144Nd)in = 0.51272 7) and Pb isotope compositions (e.g.,
(206Pb/204Pb)in = 18.96 0.17; (207Pb/204Pb)in = 15.5715.60 with elevated
9.3) suggest assimilation of marine sediment or derivation from an enriched mantle
(EM2-type) source. The less radiogenic Nd isotope composition of the alkaline rocks
and picrites precludes that they originated from the same source as the tholeiitic rocks.
We, however, note the similarity between the incompatible element patterns and
isotopic compositions of the Tortugal picrites and alkaline rocks with the alkaline rocks
from Santa Elena (Figs. 20.5a, 20.6a, 20.7a and 20.8a), Gorgona [48, 49] and the
Central cordillera in Colombia [32]. As noted above, these rocks suggest that the
Northern Galpagos component (c.f., [33]) may have been present in the CLIP, in
addition to the Central and Southern plume components as has been demonstrated with
combined Nd/Hf/Pb isotope data [50]. Therefore, the three enriched plume components
observed in the recent Galpagos plume [33, 51, 52] may have also been present during
its earlier history.
533
The volcaniclastic deposits of the Loma Chumico formation outcrop on the Nicoya
peninsula and at Tortugal on both sides of Nicoya bay. Albian (112.099.6 Ma)
ammonites [53] have been identified in the Loma Chumico formation. The mineralogy
of the volcaniclastic deposits, primarily the presence of amphibole phenocrysts, and the
presence of primary pyroclastic deposits, such as volcanic tuffs, has led to the
interpretation that these deposits were derived from Albian arc volcanism [54].
Therefore the Loma Chumico formation provides additional evidence for subduction in
northwestern Costa Rica in the mid Cretaceous consistent with the results from Santa
Elena [16]. Accordingly, the southern boundary of the Chortis block subduction zone is
likely to have been south of the Nicoya peninsula [16], and the Nicoya peninsula is
likely to have been a part of the forearc of the Chortis block subduction zone in the mid
Cretaceous [21, 22]. It follows that the St. Elena (Unit I) and Tortugal alkaline and
picritic rocks (as well as the Central Cordillera and Gorgona transitional and alkaline
rocks in Colombia) may be accreted fragments of intraplate volcanism unrelated to the
CLIP.
20.2.1.3 Central and southern Costa Rica: Upper Herradura, Quepos, Osa, Golfito and
Burica
The Tuln formation forms the upper stratigraphic unit of the Herradura igneous
complex and mainly consists of vesicular pillow lavas, picrites, gabbros and
interlayered epiclastic sediments with abundant juvenile volcanic fragments [42, 55].
Biostratigraphic data suggests that the Tuln formation formed between the Late
Maastrichtian and Early Eocence (~6748.6 Ma). Geochemical data [42], indicates that
the basalts formed from an OIB type mantle source (e.g., (La/Yb)N = 3.3). More
detailed geochemical and 40Ar/39Ar data are, however, needed in order to fully
constrain the relationships to the Lower Herradura complex (8684 Ma).
Quepos, located southwest of Herradura (Fig. 20.2) is the smallest mafic igneous
basement complex along the Pacific coast of Costa Rica. Although heavily tectonized,
the inferred volcanic stratigraphy provides evidence for the emergence of a submarine
volcanic edifice above sea-level and the formation of an ocean island [9] that became
accreted to the Costa Rican continental margin [13, 14, 16, 17]. The Quepos lavas
contain varying amounts of olivine and clinopyxroxene phenocrysts (520%) and small
plagioclase laths are sometimes also observed. Intrapillow sediments contain Danian
(65.561.7 Ma) pelagic foraminifera [37, 56]. 40Ar/39Ar ages of 63.9 0.5 Ma (plateau
age) from a basaltic whole rock [14], 59.4 0.9 Ma (total fusion) for plagioclase of a
gabbroic pebble from the apron facies of the island [16] and 65.0 0.4 Ma (total
fusion) from a volcanic whole rock [18] agree well with the presence of Danian
foraminifera and indicate that the ocean island volcano was active for at least 56 Myrs
(Fig. 20.3b, Table 20.1). The presence of Middle Eocene (~48.640.4 Ma)
olisthostromes overlying the seamount/ocean-island section [37] indicate that accretion
of the ocean island complex to the Pacific continental margin occurred within ~20
Ma of its formation.
Quepos lavas have transitional tholeiitic compositions, although tholeiitic gabbros
and picrites also occur [13, 16]. Decrease of CaO, Cr, Ni and increase of Al2O3, Sr, Ba
with decreasing MgO indicates fractionation of Ol + Cpx Cr-spinel at pressures
> 5 kb, consistent with the observed phenocryst assemblage of the lavas. Characteristic
features of ocean island basalts are enrichment of highly incompatible elements (e.g.,
La/Yb)N ZLWKWKHJUHDWHVWUHODWLYHHQULFKPHQWRI1EDQG7DHJ1E/D N > 1),
and depletion of Pb relative to other incompatible elements on multi-element diagrams

(Fig. 20.5d) [13, 14, 16]. Tholeiitic gabbros from Quepos show slight depletion in
LREE ((La/Yb)N = 0.8; Fig. 20.5) [16]. The Quepos lavas have similar initial
143
Nd/144Nd (0.51288 1) and slightly more radiogenic initial Pb (e.g., (206Pb/204Pb)in =
19.08 0.05) (Figs. 20.6b20.8b) compared to Nicoya, Lower Herradura and Tortugal
tholeiitic complexes indicating derivation from a similar, but slightly more enriched
mantle plume source. The higher incompatible element concentrations of the Quepos
transitional tholeiites could reflect lower degrees of melting as suggested by greater
average depths of melting and lower melting temperatures (~1300 C) than estimated
for the Nicoya tholeiites [13]. The Sr/Nd/Pb/Hf isotopic compositions of the Quepos
volcanic rocks suggest derivation from a source similar to the Central Domain volcanic
rocks from the Galpagos islands and hotspot tracks [33, 50, 57]. Pristine olivine
separates of two Quepos picrites gave nearly identical high initial 3He/4He (11.4 and
11.7 0.3 R/RA (RA being the atmospheric ratio of 1.39 106)) [16]. The He isotope
ratios are considerably higher than observed in MORB (79 R/RA) and endmember
HIMU-type OIB but are within the range for the Galpagos islands (723 R/RA; [58]).
The elevated 3He/4He ratios (> 9R/RA) found in the Quepos picrites and Galpagos
lavas suggest that some of the plume material originates from the lower mantle,
possibly the core mantle-boundary.
The Osa peninsula to the southwest of Quepos (Fig. 20.2) consists of tectonized
aphyric basaltic pillow lavas, sheet flows and picrites intruded locally by gabbroic
intrusions [16]. Minor volumes of pelagic sediments consist of micritic limestones,
radiolarites and argillites [59]. Some of these sediments contain dateable Late
Cretaceous through Middle Eocene radiolarites and planktonic foraminifera [60, 61].
Ambiguous contact relationships with the volcanic rocks however do not permit dating
of the magmatism. The sedimentary facies however provides evidence for deposition in
a deep-water environment, but above the Carbonate Compensation Depth (CCD) and
remote from major landmasses [8]. K/Ar ages of 17 basaltic whole rock samples give a
mean value of 60.2 7.6 Ma [59]. Pillow basalts from Osa yield whole rock 40Ar/39Ar
total fusion isochron ages of 62.1 0.8 Ma [16] and 54.5 1.5 Ma [18], in good
agreement with the range in the K/Ar ages (Fig. 20.3b, Table 20.1). These data confirm
earlier interpretations of non-contemporanous submarine volcanism on Osa and Nicoya
[37] and emphasizes that the oceanic basement of Costa Rica should no longer be
referred to as the Nicoya complex, since the Upper Herradura, Osa and Quepos
peninsula volcanic rocks are clearly younger, as well as volcanic rocks from Burica,
Son and Azuero (see below). Detailed mapping of southwestern Osa reveals the
existence of an accretionary complex, containing Eocene through Miocene sediments
[60, 61]. By volume, 95% of this mlange zone is made up of strongly deformed
turbidites, hemipelagic and pelagic sediments with minor occurrences of oceanic
basalts [60, 61].
Lavas from the Osa peninsula are tholeiitic and have flat incompatible element
patterns with (La/Yb)N = 0.95 (Fig. 20.5e) [16, 17]. Some samples however show
depleted patterns with (La/Yb)N reaching values as low as 0.26. The Osa lavas have
more radiogenic Nd ((143Nd/144Nd)in = 0.512930.51309) and less radiogenic initial Pb
isotope compositions ((206Pb/204Pb)in = 18.418.9) than the Quepos rocks, consistent
with the more depleted trace element characteristics of these lavas (Figs. 20.6b, 20.7b
and 20.8b) [1618]. Tholeiitic samples from the Cocos and Carnegie aseismic ridges
[33, 57] of the Galpagos hotspot tracks (Fig. 20.1) have incompatible element and
initial Nd and Pb isotopic ratios similar to Osa (Figs. 20.6b, 20.7b and 20.8b),
535
indicating a possible common origin as aseismic ridges [16]. The samples with
depleted trace element compositions could also be derived from accreted depleted
ocean crust.
Golfito and Burica form the southernmost exposures of basaltic terranes along the
Pacific coast of Costa Rica and are separated from the Osa basement by a NS trending
fault east of the Golfito inlet (Fig. 20.2). Golfito consists of aphyric basaltic pillow
lavas and doleritic dikes. Late Campanian (~7570.6 Ma) pelagic limestones
concordantly overlie some pillow lavas [61], which provides a minimum age of ~70
Ma for these basalts. Two K/Ar age dates from a single locality give a weighted mean
of 56.1 3.3 (Berrang et al., 1989), suggesting that at least some of the basalts
postdate the Campanian limestones. The Burica peninsula consists of heavily-faulted,
aphyric basaltic pillow lavas and sheet flows. Di Marco [61] reports intrapillow
sediments with Campanian (83.570.6 Ma) radiolarite faunas. Facies analyses of the
overlying Paleocene to Mid Eocene sediments suggests deposition in a carbonate
platform environment, possibly on an isolated seamount or plateau, not influenced by a
nearby continental land mass [61]. A basalt from the Burica peninsula produced an
40
Ar/39Ar total fusion isochron age of 64.2 1.1 Ma [18], similar to the K/Ar ages from
Golfito (Fig. 20.3b, Table 20.1). Accepting the biostratigraphic and radiometric age
results, it appears that parts of the Golfito and Burica basaltic igneous basement
complexes were formed in the Cretaceous (> 70 Ma ago), placing these basalts within
or slightly below the age range observed at Nicoya, Tortugal and Lower Herradura.
Other basalts appear to be younger, having ages within the range determined for the
Quepos, Osa, Golfito and Azuero (see below) basaltic complexes.
The Golfito and Burica basalts range from tholeiites to basaltic andesites (SiO2 =
4856, MgO = 39) [16]. REE patterns are chondritic to slightly LREE-depleted with
(La/Yb)N = 0.831.0. Initial 143Nd/144Nd isotopic compositions range from 0.51290
0.51297 and are thus within the range of the Osa tholeiites. Initial Pb isotopic
compositions of the Burica/Golfito lavas are however slightly more radiogenic (with
206
Pb/204Pbin = 18.5718.90, 207Pb/204Pbin = 15.5415.56 and 208Pb/204Pbin = 38.20
38.51) than observed in the Osa volcanic rocks but are similar to those from Quepos. It
has been proposed that the Quepos, Osa, Golfito and Burica mafic igneous complexes
are accreted parts of the paleo-Galpagos hotspot tracks consisting of ocean islands
(Quepos) and aseismic ridges (Osa, Golfito and Burica) [16, 18].
20.2.2 Panama
20.2.2.1 Southwestern Panama: Azuero and Son peninsulas and Coiba island
The southern parts of the Azuero and Son peninsulas, primarily south of the leftlateral Son-Azuero fault zone, and Coiba island consist of abundant mafic igneous
rocks, ranging from alkalic to tholeiitic basaltic pillows, sheet flows, sills and dikes and
gabbroic intrusives. The tholeiitic basalts are most commonly aphyric but sometimes
contain plagioclase, whereas the alkali basalts contain varying proportions of olivine,
clinopyroxene and plagioclase. The following observations indicate that the alkali
basalt samples were often erupted under shallow water to subaerial conditions: (1)
Pillow basalts with large vesicles up to 2 cm in length, (2) association of pillow basalts
with corals and carbonates containing shell fragments, (3) volcaniclastic breccias with
rounded oxidized, reddish cobbles, (4) lava flows and highly vesicular and oxidized,
reddish bombs and agglutinates. The tholeiitic pillow basalt sequences on the other
hand are nonvesicular throughout, suggesting deep water eruptive conditions. In many
areas, the deep water sequences (nonvesicular tholeiitic pillow basalts and cherts), are
in fault contact with the shallow water or subaerial alkalic volcanic sequences.
A K/Ar age of 98 Ma has been reported for a pillow basalt near Playa Venado [62].
Tholeiitic sheet flows and pillow basalts unconformably overlie and locally enclose
Coniacian cherts at Torio on the western coast of the Azuero peninsula providing a
maximum age of 8986 Ma for these submarine volcanic rocks. Late Campanian to
Maastrichtian (~7565.5 Ma) pelagic limestones overlie the basaltic rocks, further
constraining the age of the submarine volcanic rocks to the Late Cretaceous (~ 86
71 Ma).
Thirteen samples from southern Azuero peninsula, one from southern Son
peninsula and one from Coiba island with ocean island basalt (OIB)-type chemistry
(see below) have been dated using the 40Ar/39Ar technique [18]. The Azuero samples
have the following ages (Fig. 20.3b, Table 20.1): (1) alkali basalt lava flow, plagioclase
step-heating age of 20.8 1.8 Ma, (2) tholeiitic pillow lava, matrix total fusion age of
21.2 1.0 Ma, (3) alkali basalt agglutinate, matrix step-heating age of 32.8 0.5 Ma,
(4) alkali basalt lava, matrix step-heating age of 51.9 1.3 Ma, (5) tholeiitic lava
boulder, plagioclase step-heating age of 52.1 0.8 Ma, (6) alkali basalt lava flow,
matrix total fusion age of 52.6 0.6 Ma, (7) tholeiitic pillow lava, matrix step-heating
age of 54.4 1.5 Ma, (8) tholeiitic lava boulder, plagioclase total fusion age of 56.0
1.7 Ma, (9) alkali basalt lava boulder, matrix total fusion age of 58.6 0.3 Ma, (10)
alkali basalt lava, matrix step-heating age of 60.7 1.1 Ma, (11) alkali basalt lava,
matrix step-heating age of 61.7 1.2 Ma, (12) alkali basalt lava boulder, plagioclase
total fusion age of 63.2 0.6 Ma, (13) alkali basalt lava, matrix step-heating age of
66.0 0.7 Ma. Tholeiitic pillow lavas from Coiba island and the Son peninsula
produced 40Ar/39Ar matrix total fusion ages of 38.2 2.4 Ma and 71.3 2.1 Ma
respectively.
The 7121 Ma igneous rocks from southern Son and southwestern Azuero
peninsulas and Coiba island have higher highly incompatible element concentrations
and Pb isotope ratios but lower Nd isotope ratios than Pacific oceanic crust (Figs. 20.5b
through 20.8b). They also have trace element characteristics distinct from subduction
zone volcanic rocks, including relative enrichments of Nb and Ta and relative
depletions of Pb on multi-element diagrams (Fig. 20.5f) [18]. The major and trace
element and Sr/Nd/Pb isotopic compositions (normalized to a common age) of the
samples, however, are strikingly similar to those of volcanic rocks from the Galpagos
islands and hotspot tracks and the CLIP (Figs. 20.6 to 20.8), consistent with
their origin from the Galpagos hotspot. The incompatible element signatures of the
tholeiitic pillow lavas are strikingly similar to basalts from the Cocos, Coiba, Malpelo
and Carnegie ridges of the Galpagos hotspot track, whereas the alkali basalts closely
resemble the trace element characteristics of the seamount domain of the Galpagos
hotspot track on the Cocos plate [16, 18, 33, 57, 63]. In summary, the structural,
volcanological and geochemical characteristics of the tholeiitic pillow lavas and sheet
flows are consistent with these volcanic units belonging to accreted aseismic ridges
similar to the Cocos, Carnegie, Coiba and Malpelo ridges and the Galpagos plateau, as
has also been proposed for the Osa, Golfito and Burica mafic igneous complexes [18].
The alkalic pillow lavas, lava flows, bombs and agglutinates are interpreted to be
accreted seamount and ocean island volcanoes similar to the seamount domain
volcanoes of the Galpagos hotspot track on the Cocos plate (Fig. 20.1), as has also
been proposed for the Quepos mafic igneous complex [18].
537
20.2.2.2 Southeastern Panama: Serrana del Sapo (Darin) complex

Mafic igneous rocks of the Serrana del Sapo (Darin) complex cover much of
southeastern Panama extending from the Gulf of San Miguel across the Colombian
border (Fig. 20.2). In the southern part of the Gulf of San Miguel, these rocks consist
primarily of monotonous sequences of aphyric pillow lavas and/or sheet flows up to
several meters thick. The pillow basalts often contain small pockets of cherts, usually
no larger than 12 m in length, and at many localities are in fault contact with chert
sequences. Gabbros are relatively rare and in places they have intrusive contacts with
the cherts. In the vicinity of Baha Pia aphyric tholeiitic pillow basalts, sheet flows,
gabbros and radiolarian cherts occur. Here tholeiitic dikes and sills commonly intrude
into the radiolarian chert sequences. The field relationships of the mafic igneous rocks
and cherts on the Pacific coast of Darin are very similar to the CLIP sequences on
Nicoya and Herradura. 40Ar/39Ar ages range from 8469 Ma for tholeiitic basalts from
Baha Pia (P. van den Bogaard, unpub. data) and lie within the age range of CLIP
found in Golfito, Burica, Sona and Azuero. The mafic igneous Serrana del Sapo
complex along the Pacific coast of Darin continues into Colombia where it forms the
Serrana de Baud complex with an 40Ar/39Ar age range determined thus far of 72.5
0.4 Ma to 77.9 1 Ma [14, 47], within the age range for the Serrana del Sapo complex
in Panama. Lower Miocene arc-related basaltic through dacitic rocks intrude and
overlie the CLIP rocks near Punta Patio in the Gulf of San Miguel and behind the
Tropic Star Lodge at Baha Pia (P. van den Bogaard, unpub. data).
20.2.3 Nicaragua-Guatemala: Forearc basement

A wide continental shelf extends along the Pacific margin of Central America from
northwestern Nicaragua through El Salvador to Guatemala. Seismic wide-angle
measurements across the shelf of Nicaragua and Guatemala show surprisingly high
seismic velocities (4.86.0 km/s) below the forearc basin and continental slope
sediments. Therefore it is unlikely that the basement of the shelf is an accreted
Neogene sediment complex or composed of continental crust [64, 65]. These velocities
and analyses of the gravity field (2.62.9 g/cm3) instead imply that the forearc
basement is composed of mafic igneous rocks similar to the CLIP basement exposed on
Nicoya [66]. This dense and high-velocity basement was drilled during DSDP Legs 67
and 84 off the coast of Guatemala (see Fig. 20.1) and is composed of igneous rocks
underlying slope sediments of Late Cretaceous age [67, 68]. Furthermore basaltic rock
samples have been dredged from outcropping basement on the lower slope off
Nicaragua [69]. Drilled basement rocks from four DSDP Sites of Leg 84 (567, 566,
569, 570) and one DSDP Site of Leg 67 (494A) consist of mafic and ultramafic rocks
including basalts, dolerites, gabbros and serpentinized peridotites. Some rocks show
metamorphic overprints up to the amphibolite facies [70]. K/Ar age determinations of
four mafic samples from site 567 yield ages of 79 4 Ma for a basalt, and 91 5, 132
7 and 169 8 Ma for alkaline basalts [71]. The alkaline basalts have pyroxene and
plagioclase phenocrysts [71]. The major and trace element contents of four alkaline
basalt samples are characterized by low V/Ti ratios (0.0100.017) and higher contents
of Th, Ba, Ta and the light rare earth elements (LREE) than found in Pacific midocean-ridge basalt (MORB), such as basement samples obtained from the Cocos plate
at sites 495, 499 and 500 [72], but are similar to intraplate lavas from the Galpagos
islands. The basalt with the youngest K/Ar age of 79 Ma has a high V/Ti ratio,
pronounced depletion in Ta, and relative enrichment in Ba, K and Sr, favoring a
subduction-related origin. The alkaline Guatemalan forearc basement samples are
compositionally intermediate to the enriched plume-related CLIP lavas from Nicoya
and enriched alkaline rocks from the Santa Elena peninsula in western Costa Rica and
DSDP Site 151 in the central Caribbean [13, 16, 17, 70, 71]. Considering the apparent
compositional similarity based on the limited available data and a potentially similar
age of the alkaline Guatemalan basement and the alkaline Santa Elena Unit I rocks, it is
possible that both represent earlier stages of accreted CLIP magmatism or other
compositionally similar but unrelated accreted intraplate magmatism. The 79 4 Ma
tholeiitic sample, which resembles the subduction-related Santa Elena Unit IIIV
compositions, could represent a relict of the Chortis block subduction system.
20.2.4 Guatemala: Motagua fault

A series of ophiolitic fragments occur within the Motagua fault; a still active Miocene
sinistral strike-slip fault separating the Maya and Chortis continental blocks. Here, five
ophiolitic units are identified [73, 74]: Sierra de Santa Cruz (SSC), Baja Varapaz
(BVP), North Motagua faults (NMF), Juan de Paz (JPZ), and South Motagua fault
(SMF). All these units are either thrust northward onto the Maya block (SSC, BVP,
NMF, JPZ) or southward onto the Chortis block (SMF) and thus appear related to the
closure of JurassicCretaceous ocean basins [73]. Serpentinized harzburgites, layered
gabbros, dolerites, basalts and minor andesites dominate the SSC, BVP and JPZ.
Available major and trace element data of the lavas indicate an arc origin, possibly in a
supra-subduction zone environment [73, 74]. The NMF and SMF on the other hand
consist of primarily serpentinized peridotites, foliated gabbros and pillow basalt. Based
on preliminary geochemical data, the basalts are interpreted as mid ocean ridge
tholeiites [73, 74]. The Motagua oceanic igneous complexes hold important
information for the evolution and kinematics of the Caribbean plate, but the lack of
reliable age information and detailed geochemical data for these magmatic rocks
inhibits more detailed interpretations on their origin at present.
20.3
EVOLUTION OF THE PACIFIC MARGIN OF CENTRAL AMERICA:

ORIGIN OF MAFIC IGNEOUS COMPLEXES
The mafic igneous complexes along the Pacific margin of Central America can be
divided into distinct groups based on age, location and geochemistry. The major
division is spatial, representing the division between the Chortis and Chorortega
tectonic blocks. The oldest rocks have thus far been found in the mafic igneous
complexes in the Guatemala forearc (~16979 Ma; [68]) and in northwestern Costa
Rica (Santa Elena: 124109 Ma, [16]; Nicoya: 13983 Ma, [14, 16, 22]; Tortugal: 89
Ma, [43]). The 79 Ma sample from the Guatemala forearc and the 124109 Ma Santa
Elena rocks appear to have subduction-related trace element signatures, consistent with
their formation as part of the Chortis block subduction zone volcanism [16]. The
Aptian Loma Chumico volcaniclastic rocks could also be derived from the Chortis
subduction system.
The alkaline basalts from the Guatemala forearc (16989 Ma), Santa Elena and
Tortugal and the tholeiitic basalts from Nicoya and Tortugal (13983 Ma) have
intraplate or ocean island basalt (OIB)-type geochemical characteristics. They could be
539
Figure 20.9. Histogram of 40Ar/39Ar age data from the Galpagos hotspot tracks, accreted paleohotspot tracks in Central America, and the CLIP (modified from [22]).
CLIP terranes derived from the Galpagos hotspot [13, 14, 16, 17, 21, 43] or other
intraplate igneous complexes that were accreted to the forearc of the Chortis block
subduction system [22]. Thus far all published 40Ar/39Ar ages from samples with CLIP
geochemistry older than 94 Ma come from the Nicoya complex (Fig. 20.9; Table 20.1).
The Nicoya age data possibly extend the history of the Galpagos hotspot into the
Early Cretaceous and suggest that the CLIP did not form by a single short-lived mantle
plume head, but rather by multiple plume heads or by pulsing of the Galpagos hotspot
during its early history [22]. Fragments of the older CLIP (Galpagos) history may
have been preserved in the Chortis block forearc, as a result of the Chortis block being
located further south or the Galpagos hotspot being located further to the north in the
Mesozoic. At present these possibilities are, however, not well constrained and require
additional age and geochemical (especially isotopic) data from the Guatemala forearc
basement before firm conclusions can be drawn.
The boundary between the Chortis and Chorortega blocks is likely to lie just south
of the Nicoya peninsula [16, 22]. The exact nature of this boundary is unclear. It is
however interesting that the CLIP complexes along the Pacific coast south of the
boundary (Lower Herradura, Golfito, Burica, Sona, Azuero, Serrana del Sapo and
Serrana de Baudo) appear to be younger with an age range of ~8669 Ma (with the
possible exception of the 98 Ma whole rock K/Ar age from Azuero) than the CLIP (or
other intraplate) terranes north of the boundary (on the western margin of the Chortis
block: Nicoya, Unit 1 Santa Elena, Nicaragua-Guatemala forearc) with an age range of
> 16983 Ma. We speculate that some of these CLIP complexes on the western edge of
the Chorortega block (south of the boundary) represent uplifted, in situ pieces of the
western edge of the CLIP formed when the plateau passed over the Galpagos hotspot,
whereas others may have formed on the incoming Faralln plate (representing the
beginning of the Galpagos hotspot track) and were subsequently accreted to the
western margin of the CLIP. Igneous rocks from the (Upper) Herradura, Quepos, Osa,
Golfito, Burica, Son and Azuero peninsulas and Coiba island have younger ages of
6621 Ma but similar geochemistry to some of the CLIP rocks. The wide difference in
age of the mafic igneous complexes along the Pacific margin of Central America
emphasizes that the complexes should no longer be collectively referred to as the
Nicoya complex. The 6621 Ma alkaline to tholeiitic mafic igneous complexes
extending from Quepos to Azuero have been interpreted to primarily consist of
accreted seamount and ocean island and aseismic ridge terranes belonging to the
subducted paleo-Galpagos hotspot tracks on the Pacific ocean floor [11, 13, 14, 16
Figure 20.10. Cartoon illustrating the temporal evolution of the Costa Rican margin. Modified
from [16, 18].
18], filling in much of the intermediate history of the Galpagos hotspot and thus
providing a direct link between the Galpagos hotspot and the CLIP [18]. The
fragments of the paleo-Galpagos hotspot tracks appear to have been accreted to the
western margin of the oceanic plateau formed during the major CLIP phase centered at
~89 Ma. At present it is not clear how much of the late CLIP volcanism (~8369 Ma
with a peak at ~76 Ma) (see Figure 20.9), which outcrops along the Pacific margin of
Costa Rica and Panama, is in situ or was accreted to the western margin of the ChocoChorortega block.
Rocks with subduction-related geochemical signatures occur on the Son and
Azuero peninsulas and Coiba island, extending as far back as the Tertiary/Cretaceous
boundary (e.g., [75]). The oldest arc volcanic rocks in central and southern Costa Rica
and Panama however occur in northeast Panama and are interbedded with Late
Campanian to Lower Maestrichtian limestones [76], indicating that subduction on the
western edge of the Chorortega block most likely had began by ~75 Ma ago.
In summary, the Pacific margin of Central America contains three major oceanic
igneous complexes: (1) subduction-related volcanic rocks extending into the Lower
Cretaceous (> 124 Ma), formed by subduction along the western margins of the Chortis
and Chorortega blocks, (2) CLIP igneous rocks formed above the Galpagos hotspot
between ~14080 Ma with almost all rocks older than ~86 Ma occurring along the
western margin of the Chortis block, and (3) ~8020 Ma old accreted portions of the
paleo-Galpagos hotspot tracks. Some of the mafic igneous terranes along the western
Central American and Colombian margins may represent accreted intraplate igneous
terranes not related to the Galpagos hotspot (e.g., geochemically-enriched alkaline
complexes in the Guatemala forearc, St. Elena peninsula, Tortugal and Colombia) and
thus may represent a fourth type of oceanic igneous complex.
541
20.4
THE DISPUTED ORIGIN OF THE CARIBBEAN PLATE
Based on seismic and geochronological studies [15, 77, 78] the existence of an oceanic
flood basalt province within the Caribbean plate is now widely accepted. Considerable
debate exists, however, whether it formed in the Pacific realm or in-between the
Americas. Most plate tectonic reconstructions locate the Caribbean in the eastern
Pacific over the Galpagos hotspot at 10090 Ma [12, 79] whereas extrapolation of
present day, westward directed absolute plate motions of North America, South
America and the Caribbean yields an inter- or near American position, distant from the
Galpagos hotspot [80, 81]. Seismic studies in the eastern Caribbean sea [77] and
petrological studies of igneous complexes in Cuba [82] add even more complexity,
because they suggest the existence of an older, pre Cenomanian (> 99 Ma), oceanic
plateau within the Caribbean plate. The nature of the pre-existing igneous basement
(pre-CLIP) is also largely unknown because it is nowhere demonstrably exposed. The
only hint are ENEWSW trending magnetic anomalies of unknown age in the
Venezuelan basin that are interpreted to mirror the intra Caribbean paleo-spreading
center [83], which according to plate reconstructions [79] is as old as Mid-Jurassic (165
Ma).
In this respect, the circum Caribbean exposure of Jurassic through Late Cretaceous
radiolarites appears consistent with continued opening of the Caribbean sea, except for
Pliensbachian (195 Ma) radiolarites in Puerto Rico. Because these radiolarites posess
Pacific faunal affinities and are older than the separation of the Americas they must
have originated from outside the Caribbean [84]. The facies of the radiolarian sequence
in Puerto Rico records almost 100 Myr of continuous sedimentation in an open marine
environment at equatorial Pacific latitudes (0 20). This sequence is thought to have
accreted along the western margin of the Proto Caribbean from where it subsequently
migrated eastwardly into its present position [85]. Radiolarites of similar age and facies
are also reported from Hispaniola and Guadeloupe [85] as well as from Nicoya and
Santa Elena. In conclusion the extensive ~100 Myr chert record with Pacific faunal
affinities is inconsistent with a marginal basin setting and strongly favors a Pacific
origin of the Caribbean basement.
For several reasons it is still an open question whether the CLIP is indeed related to
the Galpagos hotspot. First the present Galpagos islands are derived from a plume
consisting of at least 4 chemically distinct mantle domains [86]. Consequently a unique
chemical fingerprint is difficult to constrain. Second the oldest parts of the Galpagos
hotspot track presently being subducted off the coast of Central and South America are
2520 Ma [63], thus leaving a temporal gap of at least 50 Ma to the CLIP lavas. As
shown above, extensive 40Ar/39Ar age dating in conjunction with modern geochemical
data of accreted ocean island complexes in Panama has filled this temporal gap [18]
and considerably strengthened arguments for a continuous activity of the Galpagos
hotspot since at least 90 Ma. Below we briefly summarize our preferred model in
which the Galpagos hotspot system appears to play a major role in the evolution of the
Caribbean plate and the Central American plate margin (Fig. 20.10).
Based on 40Ar/39Ar age data, geochemistry and plate tectonic reconstructions, the
main parts of the CLIP are believed to have formed as multiple oceanic plateaus above
a pulsing Galpagos hotspot between 83 Ma [22, 77] (Fig. 20.10). These oceanic
plateaus were transported towards the Greater Antilles subduction zone located
between the Americas by NE directed plate motion. Portions of some of these older
plateaus were accreted to the Chortis block subduction zone, located north of the
Greater Antilles subduction zone. The main CLIP oceanic plateau was formed at ~89
Ma and subsequently drifted to the northeast. Upon reaching the Greater Antilles
subduction zone in the Late Cretaceous, the young, buoyant plateau was not able to
subduct and clogged the Greater Antilles subduction zone. In response, subduction of
the Faralln plate began along the western margin of the ~89 Ma CLIP oceanic plateau
at ~80 Ma and caused a reversal in polarity of subduction beneath the Greater Antilles
from east to west dipping subduction [12, 16, 18, 22]. Westward-dipping subduction
beneath the Greater Antilles arc allowed the CLIP to be inserted between the Americas
during the Tertiary. It has been proposed that insertion of the 89 Ma CLIP oceanic
plateau between the Americas resulted in the formation of a landbridge between the
Americas from the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene [18]. Subduction along the western
margin of the CLIP resulted in arc volcanism along and the accretion of fragments of
the paleo-Galpagos hotspot track to the western CLIP margin, ultimately causing the
formation of the Pliocene to present Central American landbridge [18].
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547
Chapter 21
Intrusive rocks
LINA C. PATINO
Much more radiometric and field work
must be done before a clear picture can be
drawn of the plutonic history in Central
America, H. Williams and A.R. McBirney: Volcanic History of Honduras, 1969.
21.1
INTRODUCTION
There has been very little work done on the intrusive rocks from Central America since
the 1970s [13], so the advances that have been made on the understanding of the
evolution of the volcanic rocks are not comparable to the knowledge of plutonic rocks.
The most recent and extensive studies were done in the southern part of Central
America [4] on the Talamanca range, Costa Rica [5]. This chapter is based on Weyl [1]
and summaries of other reviews.
Plutonic rocks are found throughout Central America (Fig. 21.1), from Guatemala
to Panama, and they range in age from the Precambrian, in northern Central America
(Chortis block), to the Pliocene, in Costa Rica and Panama (Chorotega block) (Table
21.1, Fig. 21.2). Some generalities are known about the plutonic rocks in Central
America. The plutonic and volcanic rocks of the calc-alkaline series in Central America
have similar chemical compositions [6]. The rocks range from gabbrodiorites to
granites (Fig. 21.3); these associations are commonly explained by fractionating
processes. The age of the intrusive rocks, not related to oceanic crust, increases to the
north and from the Pacific to the Caribbean coasts (Table 21.1) [2]. The older plutons,
from the Paleozoic and older in Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and Nicaragua, have
been affected by regional metamorphic events, whereas the plutons of Laramide age
(between Late Cretaceous and the end of the Paleocene) and younger have not been
exposed to metamorphic conditions. The intrusive bodies along with metamorphic
rocks form the basement of the continental Chortis block in central Guatemala,
northern Honduras, and northern Nicaragua [1, 7]. In southern Central America, the
earliest plutonic rocks, from the Cretaceous, are associated with obducted oceanic
terranes [1, 8, 9]. The later phase of magmatic intrusions, in the Neogene, is associated
with the volcanic front and takes a calc-alkaline affinity [10].
Most of the petrologic studies of intrusive rocks are associated with ore deposit
investigations. Although, some have negated the association between ore deposit and
plutons [11], others [12, 13] show convincing geochemical evidence for a close
association between ore deposits and plutonic rocks in Central America. Small plutonic
bodies that intrude Cretaceous sediments in central Guatemala, Honduras and
Nicaragua are closely related to gold and silver ore deposits [12]. Furthermore, it has
been noted that there is a geographic variation in the composition of ore deposits and
plutonic rocks in Central America [13]. Lead-zinc deposits are present in the
northernmost sections of Central America (Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua) and

gold and/or copper deposits are more common in the southern section of Central
America (Costa Rica and Panama). These variations are also seen in the element
content of the intrusive rocks [13]. Plutons from Guatemala and Honduras have higher
concentrations of Pb and lower concentrations of Cu, and plutons from Panama have
higher concentrations of Cu and lower Pb [13]. This regional pattern in the composition
of ore deposits and intrusive rocks is likely due to the interaction of the ascending
magma with the surrounding rock [13].
21.2
PRE-JURASSIC PLUTONS
The oldest plutonic rocks, Precambrian to Paleozoic, north of the Jocotn-Chamelecn

fault have been modified by extensive regional metamorphism. In Guatemala, intrusive
rocks are found north of the Motagua fault and are part of the Maya block in the North
American tectonic plate [2]. Rabinal and Matazanas biotite granites, in Guatemala,
have been dated using zircons at an age of 345 Ma (Table 21.1). Also on the Maya
block, three plutonic bodies are found in the Maya mountains in Belize: Mountain Pine
ridge, Hummingbird, and Cockscomb [14]. The Mountain Pine ridge batholith consists
of medium grained granites and potassic quartz monzonites [14]; this pluton has been
dated recently at 418 3.6 Ma (U/Pb zircon dating) [15]. The two other batholiths in
the Maya mountains, Hummingbird (410420 Ma) [15] and Cockscomb are muscovite
granodiorites [14]. Younger ages for these intrusive bodies, from 336 to 226 [16], seem
to be the result of resetting the K/Ar system during metamorphism [15].
21.2.1 Sierra de Omoa

Horne et al. [17] give information on plutonic rocks from the Sierra de Omoa region, in
the northeastern border of Honduras with Guatemala (Fig. 21.1); what follows is a
summary of their results. The Sierra de Omoa is the northernmost continental section
of a series of metamorphic and plutonic rocks found between the Motagua and JocotnChamelecn faults. The intrusive rocks from Sierra de Omoa are divided into two
groups based on the degree of metamorphism. The oldest rocks have been subjected to
extensive metarmorphism (complete recrystallization), while the youngest plutons have
not been deformed. Rocks of plutonic origin were found in 5 areas: Baaderos,
Quebrada Seca, San Isidro, San Marcos, and San Pedro de Sula. The oldest rocks are
found in the Baaderos and Quebrada Seca areas. In Baaderos, there are
metagranodiorite, metatonalite, and metadiorite dated at 720 260 Ma (crystallization
age), assuming an initial 87Sr/86Sr of 0.7032 (the large errors in the age determination
reflect the low number of samples analyzed and their low Rb content). In Quebrada
Seca, metatonalites, metadiorites, and quartz monzonite gneiss were found. Their Rb/Sr
age was determined at 305 12 Ma, with an initial 87Sr/86Sr of 0.7027, a low ratio for
such old rocks [17].
In the San Isidro area, there is a batholith with an area of 100 km2. The composition
of this batholith ranges from granodiorite to tonalite and it is weakly deformed in some
sections and other parts do not have any evidence of deformation. The San Isidro
batholith intruded low-greenschist-facies metapelites in the early Mesozoic. This
intrusion event is subsequent or contemporaneous with the latest regional
metamorphism events in the region [17].
Figure 21.1. Principal intrusive bodies. For more details and ages see Table 21.1.
551
21.3
JURASSICMIDDLE EOCENE
Younger intrusive rocks in Central America are found south of the Motagua valley and
north of the Cenozoic volcanic chain. These plutonic bodies have a wide range of
compositions and have not been deformed by metamorphic processes. For example, in
San Marcos, Sierra de Omoa, a stock ranging in composition from quartz monzonite to
granodiorite intrudes metamorphic rocks; the stock itself is not foliated. The Rb/Sr age
of these plutonic rocks is 150 13 Ma, assuming an initial 87Sr/86Sr of 0.7050 [17]. A
trondhjemite (two-mica oligoclase diorite) near Chinautla, Guatemala, was dated at
92 Ma (Table 21.1; Fig. 21.1) [2]. Plutonic rocks near the San Juan del Ro Coco, in
northwestern Nicaragua [18, 19], form a rectangular intrusive body, with an area
of ~52 km2; they consist of hornblende peridotites, hornblendites, hornblende
gabbrodiorites, hornblende diorites, biotite tonalites, biotite granodiorites, and
muscovite granodiorites. Peridotites are poikilitic with large hornblendes replacing
pyroxenes. In the more silicic plutons, K-feldspar grows at the expense of plagioclase,
and biotite replaces hornblende. This intrusion is interpreted as resulting from
gravitational crystallization in a tabular magmatic body. The age of hornblende diorite
has been calculated at 112 1.5 Ma (in [1] as anonymous 1972). The Jurassic and
younger plutons can be divided into two groups: basic and ultrabasic complexes
associated with oceanic crust and evolved plutons associated with continental and arc
sections (ranging in composition from gabbros to granites) (Fig. 21.3).
21.3.1 Oceanic rocks: Basic and ultrabasic intrusive bodies

Ophiolite complexes of similar age, Cretaceous, are found around the Caribbean plate
in Cuba, Venezuela, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Guatemala. The ophiolites
from Costa Rica and Guatemala have been studied in greater detail thanks to their
better exposures in the field. Thus, the summary in this chapter will concentrate on
describing these well studied ophiolites (see also Chapters 13 and 20).
Cretaceous ophiolites, including eclogites and amphibolites, are found in the
boundary between the Maya and Chortis block in northern Central America [16]. The
ophiolites from Guatemala are classified by [20] as cordilleran complexes because of
their association with metamorphic subduction complexes. This type of ophiolites are
tectonically emplaced onto or juxtaposed against continental margins. The polygenetic
terranes are accreted to the continental margin, putting together parts of the arc,
subduction complexes, melanges, and volcanoclastic products.
The ophiolites in Guatemala are exposed along the eastwest trending Motagua
fault in Morazn, Los Amates, Sanarate (Tambor group), and Sierra de Santa Cruz [16].
However the relationship among these different outcrops is still not clear. Donnelly
et al. [16] describe the Tambor group as a Cretaceous ophiolite consisting mostly of
serpentinite, but pillow basalts and diabase dikes are also present; less abundant are
gabbros, plagiogranites, and serpentinized peridotites, and dunites. These rocks in some
areas are metamorphosed to amphibolites and eclogites. There is disagreement on the
age of the Tambor group. Based on radiometric dates (K/Ar), some argue that the
ophiolite sequence is 58.5 Ma [21]. More recent work [22] shows that the rocks from
the Tambor group represent two age groups. Preliminary 40Ar/39Ar dating of phengite
in serpentinites from the northern part of the formation reveals ages ranging from 77 to
65 Ma; whereas the rocks from the southern section display older ages, 125116 Ma
[22]. These dates would suggest that the El Tambor group is formed by the combination
Figure 21.2. Distribution of radiometric ages for plutonic rocks along Central America from
Guatemala to Panama (distances are approximate for each country, zero is at the border
between Mexico and Guatemala). Note the logarithmic scale for the age.
of ophiolite and two sets of exhumed serpentinite [22]. The older serpentinite was
emplaced into the Chortis block and the younger into the Maya block. Furthermore,
recent work shows that the two serpentinite bodies followed different P/T paths and
thus have different mineralogical compositions [23]. Serpentinized peridotites from north
of the Motagua fault zone consist of dunites to harzburgites, and likely they do not
represent an ophiolite sequence but the serpentinite-matrix melange [21]. The
metamorphic facies observed in the rocks from the northern section includes
greenschist-facies altered basalts, amphibolites, and albite inclusions in serpentinite
[21]. The rocks from south of the Motagua fault consist of eclogite and blueschist
blocks in sheared serpentinite and metasomatized ultramafic rock matrices. Thus El
Tambor group combines a low-pressure ophiolite sequence and serpentinite bodies that
host high-P/T assemblages [23]. The relation between these two groups of rocks has
not been discerned [23].
Basic and ultramafic complexes younger than 205 Ma represent the oldest intrusive
rocks in Costa Rica and Panama. The oldest plutonic rocks are from Santa Elena
peninsula (Fig. 21.1), a layered gabbro was dated by 40Ar/39Ar at 124.0 4 Ma [24].
The intrusive rocks in Santa Elena form nappes, have multiple dike injections [9], and
are grouped into two major units [8]. The first unit consists of peridotites, plagioclase
rich peridotites, and dunites, crossed-cut by dikes and enclosed by pyroxenitic layers.
This unit reaches a thickness of up to 500 m in the southern area [9]. The second unit,
overthrust by the peridotites, is a layered complex composed of cumulates, gabbros and
plagiogranites [8].
The peridotites are mostly spinel-diopside harzburgites and lherzolites, but spinelplagioclase peridotites are also found. Within the peridotite, residual dunitic lenses are
found displaying irregular contacts [8]. In the spinel peridotites, the olivine (Fo90) is
commonly serpentinized, orthopyroxene contains thin lamella of clinopyroxene,
clinopyroxene crystals (diopside) are fresh, and spinel is interstitial [8]. The plagioclase
bearing peridotite contains pseudomorphs of plagioclase (An90) in clots and surrounded
by Al-poor spinel [8]. The dunites are rarer, totally serpentinized, and contain euhedral
spinel.
553
Figure 21.3. Illustration of the ranges in composition of intrusive rocks in Central America in
A(alkali)Q(quartz)P(plagioclase) space. The symbols are meant to represent the type of
samples present. Data is a combination of petrographic and geochemical data.
The dikes (< 0.5 to 10 m thick) that cross cut the peridotites consist of ultramafic
cumulates, pegmatitic gabbros and dolerites [8, 9]. The dikes are generally
recrystallized into low to intermediate temperature facies [9]. The dolerite dikes are the
most abundant and their mineralogy consists of plagioclase, clinopyroxene surrounded
by amphibole, and ilmenite. The age of metamorphism of the dikes was determined by
K/Ar using secondary amphiboles at 88.8 4.5 Ma [25].
In the gabbros from the layered mafic complex, olivines (Fo84) are partially
serpentinized, orthopyroxene is not zoned, clinopyroxene is diopside, amphiboles are
strongly zoned, oxides are rare, and plagioclase is anorthitic (An93) [8]. Olivine and
clinopyroxene form cumulus phases, and orthopyroxene and plagioclase are
intercumulus [9]. In the plagiogranites the mineral content is very different, with
abundant quartz, plagioclases of intermediate composition (An57), and scarce green
amphibole [8].
The origin of these intrusive rocks from Santa Elena is controversial. It is argued
that the Santa Elena sequence does not represent the classical sequence of an ophiolite
[8], because it is missing the upper part. It is proposed that the ophiolitic sequence was
intruded by island arc tholeiites, and subsequently obducted. An alternative
interpretation on the origin of the intrusive rocks from Santa Elena is that they
represent uplifted segments of the mantle wedge from the Chortis subduction zone
[24]. This interpretation is based on the trace element composition of the rocks;
depletion of high field strength elements (HFSE, like Nb and Ta) and enrichment of
large ion lithophile elements (LILE, like Ba and K) are observed in samples from the
layered gabbros and the doleritic dikes [24].
The largest and most studied sequence of mafic intrusions in Costa Rica is that of
the Nicoya complex (Fig. 21.1) [9, 24, 26]. These rocks have been dated (40Ar/39Ar))
between 83.2 1.3 [27] and 87.5 1.8 Ma [24]. The Nicoya gabbros and plagiogranites
intrude a large sequence of lava flows [9, 24]. The minerals present in the gabbros
include clinopyroxene (augite-ferroaugite), plagioclase, opaques; the most evolved melts
have hedenbergite (in plagiogranites) and fayalite (in gabbros). Based on trace element
composition, it is concluded that these gabbros from Nicoya are the westernmost
representation of the Caribbean large igneous province [24].
In the southern part of Costa Rica, intrusive tholeiitic bodies (gabbros and dolerites)
are found in the Osa peninsula, Golfito, and Burica [9] and are thought to be obducted
sea mounts chemically associated with the Galpagos hotspot [24]. The age of these
intrusive bodies, ~60 Ma [24, 27], is younger than any other mafic intrusion in Costa
Rica. Del Giudice and Recchi [28] report picrites, pyroxenites, metagabbros, and gabbros
in the Azuero peninsula and Son peninsula in Panama (Fig. 21.1); a complex similar to
that in the Nicoya peninsula in Costa Rica. In addition, there are equigranular,
hornblende-quartz diorites [3]. The minerals from these intrusive rocks have yielded
radiometric ages (K/Ar) that range from 65 to 48 Ma [3].
21.3.2 Continental and arc related evolved plutons

The granitc plutons, < 138 Ma, are found throughout Central America. As stated
earlier, most of these plutons are associated with ore deposits in the region and none of
the intrusive bodies have been modified by regional metamorphism.
In the Baaderos area, Sierra de Omoa northwest Honduras (Fig. 21.1), a quartz
monzonite (adamellite) stock is found intruding metagranodiorite, metatonalite, and
metadiorite [17]. Assuming an initial 87Sr/86Sr of 0.703, the Rb/Sr age inferred is of
60 Ma, similar to other undeformed plutonic rocks from the region. The Rosario mine,
in Honduras contains quartz veins associated with a dacitic intrusion in shaly-sandy
sediments of Jurassic age. This site is ore for galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and
silver. Reports on the Agalteca iron ore deposit (Honduras) indicate that it is located on
the contact between the Cretaceous Atima limestone and a diorite intrusion of
Laramide age [12].
The Dipilto pluton in northwestern Nicaragua, bordering Honduras [6] (Table 21.1;
Fig. 21.1), is an 83 Ma old pluton that consists of biotite granite, quartz diorite,
quartz monzonite, and granodiorite [29] (Fig. 21.3). Other authors report significantly
older ages for this pluton, for example, 140 Ma (Rb/Sr whole rock) [16]. Zoppis de Sena
[30] and Bengoechea [31] document that in the Monte Carmelo iron ore in Nicaragua
Cretaceous sediments are intruded by granitic magmas. Bengoechea [31] reports gold,
silver, copper and iron deposits in NE Nicaragua associated with granites, syenites
to diorites. Intrusion of a Cretaceous granitic batholith into metamorphic rocks formed
Au, Ag, W, Mo ore deposits in Nueva Segovia province [32]. Dioritic to granitic
intrusions (8067 Ma) into sediments form the metalliferous province of North-Atlantic
coast with deposits of Au, Ag, Cu, Pb, Zn [32]. Parsons Corporation [33] reports that
intrusive rocks parallel to the Nicaraguan depression are associated with Cinco Pino,
Achuapua, San Juan de Limay, and La Flor mining districts. In La Libertad mining
area [34], there are reports of intrusive bodies such as dikes, sills, and plugs.
21.3.2.1 Chiquimula pluton, Guatemala
The Chiquimula pluton (Guatemala), one of many plutons that forms a chain across
central Guatemala and northern Honduras (Fig. 21.1) has been studied in detail [35]. It is
555
Table 21.1. Intrusive bodies and ages.

Intrusive body (dated material)
Rf.
Age
N Honduras
1 Baaderos, Sierra Omoa, metaigneous (whole rock)
1 Quebrada Seca, Sierra Omoa, metaigneous (whole rock)
1 San Marcos, Sierra Omoa, granodiorite (whole rock)
San Ignacio stock, adamellite (biotite)
2 Tela batholith, cordillera Nombre de Dios,
augite tonalite (hornblende)
augite tonalite (biotite)
augite tonalite (biotite)
2 Piedras Negras, cordillera Nombre de Dios,
tonalite (hornblende)
2 Mezapa pluton, cordillera Nombre de Dios,
tonalite (biotite)
1 Baaderos, Sierra Omoa, adamellite
3 Minas de Oro stock, granodiorite (biotite)
San Francisco stock, porphyritic dacite (biotite)
3 Minas de Oro stock, granodiorite (biotite)
2 Las Mangas batholith, cordillera Nombre de Dios,
tonalite (muscovite)
2 Piedras Negras, cordillera Nombre de Dios,
tonalite (biotite)
4 San Pedro Sula, Sierra Omoa, granodiorite (biotite)
5 San Pedro, Puerto Corts, granite (biotite)
17
17
17
58
58
720 260 Ma(Rb/Sr)

305 12 Ma (Rb/Sr)
150 13 Ma (Rb/Sr)
114.0 1.8 Ma (K/Ar)
93.3 1.9 Ma (K/Ar)
58
80.5 1.5 Ma (K/Ar)
58
73.9 1.5 Ma (K/Ar)
58
72.2 1.5 Ma (K/Ar)
58
71.8 1.4 Ma (K/Ar)
17
58
58
58
58
60 Ma (Rb/Sr)
60.6 1.3 Ma (K/Ar)
58.6 0.7 Ma (K/Ar)
58.2 1.8 Ma (K/Ar)
57.3 1.1 Ma (K/Ar)
58
56.8 1.1 Ma (K/Ar)
17
11
35.9 0.7 Ma (K/Ar)

27.0 2.7 Ma (K/Ar)
2
22
2
354 Ma (U/Pb)
125116 (40Ar/39Ar)
99.7 Ma (K/Ar)
36
59
35
35
22
35
11
11
11
11
36
2
95.0 1 Ma (Rb/Sr)
92 Ma
84.6 1.7 Ma (K/Ar)
83.9 1.7 Ma (K/Ar)
7765 Ma (40Ar/39Ar)
50 5 Ma (Rb/Sr)
35.0 Ma
24 0.5 Ma
22.0 Ma
19.7 Ma
15.7 0.6 Ma (K/Ar)
13.8 Ma (K/Ar)
9.0 Ma (K/Ar)
8.5 Ma (K/Ar)
112.1 1.5 Ma (K/Ar)
1
19
32
1
1
107.4 2.2 Ma (K/Ar)

83.0 3.0 Ma
8067 Ma
60.8 1.0 Ma (K/Ar)
28.6 0.4 Ma (K/Ar)
Guatemala
6
7
6
6
6
8
9
9
9
Rabinal Granite (zircon)

Tambor group (phengite in serpentinites)
Ro Hondo, north side of Motagua valley, gneissoid
biotite-rich granite or monzonite
Chiquimula (biotite-whole rock isochron)
Near Chinautla, trondhjemite
Chiquimula, granite (biotite)
Chiquimula, granite (biotite)
Tambor group (phengite in serpentinites)
Chiquimula (isochron of main rock sequence)
Los Tablones, Zacapa, tonalite (hornblende)
South of La Fragua, granite (biotite)
Los Tablones, Zacapa, tonalite (biotite)
Cerro Zacapa, monzonite (quartz-biotite)
Cerro Redondo, near Santa Rosa caldera, granite (biotite)
Santiago bay, Atitn lake (probably reheated),
mafic quartz-diorite (hornblende-biotite)
San Juan, Atitln lake (probably reheated),
quartz diorite (hornblende-biotite)
San Lucas Toliman (probably reheated),
quartz monzonite (hornblende-biotite)
Nicaragua
10 San Juan del Ro Coco stock,

hornblende diorite (hornblende)
Cerro Sumus stock, biotite granite (biotite)
11 Dipilto pluton, granodiorite
11 Nueva Segovia province, dioritic to granitic intrusions
Cerro el Diablo stock, pyroxene diorite, (plagioclase)
Santo Tomas del Nance stock, granodiorite
Costa Rica
12
12
13
13
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
15
16
17
14
Santa Elena, Layered gabbro (plagioclase)

Santa Elena, Dolerite dike (secondary amphibole)
Nicoya-Plagiogranite (plagioclase)
Nicoya
Talamanca, Tholeiitic group, gabbro
Talamanca, Dominical, gabbro (plagioclase)
Talamanca, Tholeiitic group, gabbro
Talamanca, Puerto Nuevo formation, gabbro (plagioclase)
Talamanca, Cerro de la Muerte, gabbro (plagioclase)
Talamanca, Tapant, gabbro
Talamanca, TIS, Quartz monzonite
Talamanca, TIS, granodiorite
Talamanca, Division, gabbrodiorite
Talamanca, TIS, quartz monzonite
Northern Talamanca, granitoid
Talamanca, TIS, gabbro
San Isidro, Talamanca, monzodiorite
Talamanca, Buenos Aires, granodiorite (K-feldspar)
Talamanca, TIS, diorite
Talamanca, Candelaria, granodiorite (biotite)
Talamanca, Division, granodiorite (K-feldspar)
Talamanca, Santa Mara de Dota, granodiorite (K-feldspar)
Talamanca, Candelaria, granodiorite (K-feldspar)
Talamanca, Santa Mara de Dota, granite (K-feldspar)
Talamanca, Santa Mara de Dota, granodiorite (biotite)
Talamanca, San Gerardo, granodiorite (biotite)
Talamanca, TIS, diorite
Talamanca, San Gerardo, granodiorite (hornblende)
Guacimal pluton
Escaz pluton
Guayacn formation, near the Reventazn river
Talamanca, Ro Grande de Orosi, gabbro (hornblende)
Talamanca, Ro Macho, granodiorite (K-feldspar)
Talamanca, Ro Mancho, granodiorite (biotite)
124.0 4 Ma (40Ar/39Ar)
24
25
88.8 4.5 Ma (K/Ar)
24
87.5 1.8 Ma (40Ar/39Ar)
27
83.2 1.3 Ma (40Ar/39Ar)
4
31.65 2.00 Ma (K/Ar)
54
17.5 0.1 Ma (40Ar/39Ar)
5
16.9 0.3 Ma (40Ar/39Ar)
54
12.8 0.1Ma (40Ar/39Ar)
54 11.70 0.2 Ma (40Ar/39Ar)
60
11.45 0.05 Ma
4
11.05 0.31 Ma (K/Ar)
4
10.37 0.21 Ma (K/Ar)
57
10.3 0.5 Ma
4
10.22 0.22 Ma (K/Ar)
25 10.1 0.58.5 0.4 Ma (K/Ar)
4
9.83 0.23 Ma (K/Ar)
60
9.6 Ma
54
9.859.5 Ma (40Ar/39Ar)
4
9.3 0.18 Ma (K/Ar)
54
9.30 0.3 Ma (40Ar/39Ar)
54
10.69.2 Ma (40Ar/39Ar)
54
8.98.65 Ma (40Ar/39Ar)
54
8.98.6 Ma (40Ar/39Ar)
54
8.88.6 Ma (40Ar/39Ar)
54 8.62 0.02 Ma (40Ar/39Ar)
54
8.30 0.2 Ma (40Ar/39Ar)
4
7.81 0.31 Ma (K/Ar)
54
7.8 0.1 Ma (40Ar/39Ar)
45
7.23.9 Ma
41, 51
6.32.2 Ma
48
4.5 Ma
54
4.20 0.3 Ma (40Ar/39Ar)
54
4.13.6 Ma (40Ar/39Ar)
54 3.89 0.02 Ma (40Ar/39Ar)
Panama
18
19
20
21
22
23
Azuero peninsula, quartz diorite (hornblende)

Cerro Azul (hornblende)
Ro Pito, quartz porphyry (hornblende)
Petaquilla, quartz monzonite (hornblende)
El Bar plutonic group, diorite
Cerro Colorado, granodiorite (biotite)
3
3
3
3
4
3
64.87 1.34 Ma (K/Ar)

64.58 0.70 Ma (K/Ar)
48.45 0.55 Ma (K/Ar)
36.41 2.06 Ma (K/Ar)
31.15 2.25 Ma (K/Ar)
3.34 0.05 Ma (K/Ar)
N: Reference number in Figure 21.1; Rf: Reference.
located between the Central cordillera and the volcanic highlands, with the Motagua
fault to the north and the Jocotn fault to the south. Field evidence led the researchers
to conclude that the pluton was emplaced at a shallow depth, between the Late
Cretaceous and Middle Tertiary (95 to 50 Ma) [35]. The shape of the pluton is irregular
and covers an area of approximately 300 km2. The composition is heterogeneous
around the pluton, from alkali granites (alaskite) on the east, to granodioritic in the
center, and to hornblende diorite on the west. Quartz monzonite, granite, granodiorite,
and diorites outcrop in the center, and gabbros in the deeper parts in the north.
Gabbros, diorites, and granodiorites make up 80% of the outcrops and at least 95% of
557
the volume of the pluton. Most of this intrusive body is extensively weathered, with
most of the primary mineralogy replaced by pseudomorphs [35].
Gabbros are medium to coarse-grained with euhedral plagioclase surrounded by
anhedral hornblende and interstitial quartz [35]. These rocks appear to grade into
diorites both upwards and to the sides. Diorites are the most common rock type along
the southern and eastern parts, and grades into granodiorites. Different types of diorites
are recognized by the differences in texture and mineral abundance. A few examples of
tonalites are also present with abundant plagioclase, biotite, and hornblende, and with
minor amounts of pyroxene and K-feldspar. Granodiorite is the most common rock in
the pluton with fine- to medium-grained texture. The composition ranges from diorites
to quartz monzonite (adamellite); common mineral assemblages are quartz, K-feldspar,
plagioclase, hornblende, and biotite. Trace minerals are opaques, apatite, zircon, and
pyroxene. Quartz monzonite is a fine- to medium-grained rock, with plagioclase being
more abundant than K-feldspar. It also contains biotite, hornblende, and trace amounts
of muscovite, zircon, apatite, tourmaline, garnet, and opaques. Granites, common in the
northwest, are medium- to coarse-grained. They contain anhedral quartz, subhedral Kfeldspar, subhedral plagioclase, biotite, and small amounts of muscovite, hornblende,
zircon, apatite, tourmaline, magnetite, and titanite; graphic intergrowths are common.
The range in composition from gabbro to granodiorite is assumed to result from
differentiation. Dikes cut the pluton in different parts. A fine-grained granite porphyry
dike cuts the pluton in the northern part, and sugary aplite dikes are common in the
granite and quartz monzonite.
The gabbros, diorites, and granodiorites give an Rb/Sr age of 50 5 Ma with an
initial 87Sr/86Sr of 0.7060. However, the granite and the quartz monzonite do not fall on
the isochron delineated by the other rocks, and display enrichments in Rb and 87Sr
compositions. It is inferred that the granite and the quartz monzonite could be blocks of
older intrusions that were incorporated by the Chiquimula magmas [35].
21.4
OLIGOCENEPLIOCENE
The youngest intrusive rocks in Central America are mostly associated with the calcalkaline volcanic front from Guatemala to Panama [6]. However, recent magmatic
intrusive events have also been documented away from the volcanic front in Honduras
and Guatemala [2, 36].
In the southern and central parts of Honduras, the plutons are relatively small stocks
of MiocenePliocene age [1, 2]. Intrusive rocks are found near the Gulf of Fonseca
(Concepcin de Mara, Corpus, Aramecina); these are quartz diorite, granodiorite, and
quartz monzonite. Near Danl, there are biotite-quartz monzonites, highly weathered
biotite- and quartz-rich granodiorite, quartz monzonite, and uralitized gabbro. More to
the north, plutons are found near the Minas de Oro, Agalteca and Comayagua. The
Minas de Oro pluton covers an area of about 6 km2, it is a massive hornblende-biotite
quartz diorite. The Agalteca pluton is a hornblende diorite stock with associated
economic deposits of hematite and magnetite. Northwest of Comayagua there is a small
hornblende-biotite quartz diorite. Another important region of intrusive rocks is found
in the Rosario mining district. These granodiorites were emplaced at shallow depths
and may have been the feeders to lava flows and ignimbrites. The youngest intrusive
rocks in the Sierra de Omoa, in northwest Honduras, are those from the San Pedro de
Sula region. The tonalite batholith was emplaced in the Early Oligocene; radiometric
dates are not precise enough to be more specific on its age.

Miocene to Pliocene age plutons are found on the Ro Madre Vieja and Alotepeque
mining district in Guatemala. In southeast Guatemala, intrusive rocks, 15.7 Ma, are
reported [36] near the Santa Rosa de Lima caldera (Table 21.1; Fig. 21.1). The youngest
reported intrusive rocks [2] associated with the modern arc in Nicaragua are quartz-bearing
norites and diorite porphyries that cut Eocene rocks on Cerro Abejonal, south of
Nandaime [3739]. Plutonic rocks have also been found associated with the Matagalpa
(Oligocene) and Coyol (Miocene) formations in Nicaragua [2].
There is no evidence for Pre-Cenozoic plutonic rocks in El Salvador [2], and no
radiometric dating has been done in plutonic rocks from this region, but most of these
magmatic bodies intrude Tertiary volcanic rocks in the northern part of the country [37,
40]. The Dulce Nombre de Mara pluton, close to Ro Lempa, consists of quartz-rich
hornblende-biotite granodiorite, calc-alkaline granites, aplites, leuco-quartz
monzonites, and hornblende diorite (Fig. 21.3) [37]. In the border between El Salvador
and Honduras, is a chain of stocks of graphic hornblende-biotite quartz monzonite
composition [1]. Another region with several intrusive bodies is the Metapn mining
district in northwestern El Salvador, which consist of biotite quartz diorite, and
hornblende biotite quartz monzonite. West of Metapn, gabbros have been reported
[1].
In Costa Rica the recent plutonic activity is widely reported and has generated rocks
of varied compositions (Figs. 21.1 and 21.3) [41, 42]. In the Late Miocene, magmatic
events related to the Aguacate group ended with the emplacement of plutonic bodies in
northern Costa Rica [43, 44]. The Guacimal pluton, Late MiocenePliocene (Fig. 21.1),
covers an area of 200 km2, and it is composed of quartz-diorite, quartz-monzonite,
granites and differentiated granophyres [4145] (Table 21.1; Fig. 21.3). The granites
are inferred to be the youngest based on the cross-cutting relationship of
diorites and granites [44]. In the Guacimal pluton, the quartz-diorites have
hypidiomorphic-granular textures with plagioclase laths (An7530), uralitized amphibole
with associated biotite, interstitial K-feldspar and quartz [44]. Sometimes pyroxene is
found within amphibole and graphic intergrowth sometimes borders plagioclase;
accessory minerals include apatite, zircon, opaques and rutile. Quartz-monzonite and
granite are less common, with similar mineral content to the quartz-diorites but
amphiboles are rare and the anorthite content of the plagioclase is lower (An5520).
Based on the chemical composition of the Guacimal pluton [42], it can be concluded
that these rocks represent a relatively evolved part of the Neogene island arc. The texture
of the rocks varies from porphyritic to graphic, and plagioclase, orthoclase, quartz, and
hornblende are common minerals. Reports of K/Ar dates ranging from 7.2 to 3.9 Ma
can be found in [45]. The mineralization and alteration patterns in the Costa Rican
Gold belt are closely associated with the emplacement of the Guacimal pluton and
faulting in the region [44].
Near the Reventazn river, Costa Rica, teschenites (hypabyssal) have been reported
(Table 21.1; Fig. 21.1) [46, 47], as well as monzonites and syenites with analcime [9].
These are the only plutonic rocks, reported in Central America that contain feldspathoids;
the mineralogy consists of plagioclase, analcime, orthoclase, augite, olivine, hornblende,
magnetite, with rare nepheline and biotite. One sample was dated by K/Ar at 4.5 Ma [48].
The intrusive rocks from Escaz (Fig. 21.1) consist of gabbros, monzogabbros and
monzonites (Fig. 21.3) [49], poor in quartz and with large biotites [50]. In the case of
559
this magmatic body, the gabbros are youngest and the monzonites older, the age range
is from 6.3 to 2.2 Ma [41, 49, 51]. In addition, there are reports of gabbroic bodies
in other regions: Ro Alumbre (south of San Jos); on the margins of SanCarlos river
(northern plains) [9]; and in the Fila Costea, stocks, which were dated at 14.811.1 Ma
[51].
The intrusive rocks from Panama have a similar age and composition as those from
Costa Rica. The older rocks are associated with Mesozoic basic igneous complexes, and
the younger plutons are associated with intra arc events [3]. The youngest intrusive
rocks in Panama, granodiorites, are found in Petaquilla, Cerro Colorado (Table 21.1;
Fig. 21.1), Chorca, and Bocas del Toro in the western part of the country and near
Ro Guayabo in the east [3]. The granodiorites from the latest intrusive events have
undergone different degrees of alteration and mineralization and are closely associated
with the porphyry copper deposits in Panama [3]. The K/Ar ages of the intrusive bodies
associated with arc magmatism ranges from 36 to 3 Ma [3].
21.4.1 Talamanca range
The Talamanca intrusive suite has been the subject of the most complete petrologic
studies; no other intrusive system in Central America has received such attention in the
last 20 years in search of porphyry deposits [52, 53]. A comprehensive geochemical
data set for Talamanca range can be found in [4, 5, 51]. Abratis [5] investigated the
magmatic evolution of the range and related the compositional variations to the
collision of Cocos ridge. He concludes that the age of plutonic complexes in the
Talamanca range decrease to the northwest from 12 to 8.5 Ma, inversely correlating
with the height of the mountains [5]. A detailed geochronologic study of igneous rocks
from southern Costa Rica lead MacMillan et al. [54] to correlate the plutonic activity
in the Talamanca range with a period of oblique convergence between the Caribbean
and the Cocos plates.
The Talamanca plutons are dominated by quartz monzonite, but gabbros,
gabbrodiorites, diorites, quartz diorites, quartz monzodiorites, granodiorites, granites,
aplite granites (alkaline rocks) are also present (Fig. 21.2) [1, 4, 5, 41, 51, 55]. Granites
and aplite granites are common in the upper section and gabbros in the lower section.
The silica content ranges from 46 to 72 wt%, and they have medium to weak calcalkaline character. There has been some controversy on the age of the plutons from this
region. Weyl [53] and Pichler and Weyl [56] argue for a Late Miocene age, whereas
Dengo [57] points out that the intrusive rocks are from the Lower Miocene. More
recent information [45, 51, 54] give ages that range from 21.6 to 3.5 Ma, with the
majority of the samples in an age range from 12 to 8 Ma. More important, these authors
relate the age of the intrusive rocks to their composition, the granites are the youngest
and the gabbros the oldest.
The igneous rocks from Talamanca are divided into 4 groups based on their
petrologic characteristics [4, 51]: (1) tholeiitic gabbros, (2) Bar group, (3) calcalkaline plutons (Talamanca intrusive suite), and (4) undifferentiated volcanic group.
The tholeiitic gabbros (olivine bearing) are from Late Eocene to Late Oligocene (35.6
to 25.7 Ma) with equigranular texture [3, 4, 45]. These rocks have an arc affinity with
LILE enrichment and HFSE depletion [4, 51]. El Bar plutonic rocks, from the MidOligocene (31.15 Ma), are found in western Panama and consist of hornblende granite,
augite-hornblende-biotite diorite, and hornblende gabbro [4]. These rocks are of

similar composition to those from the Talamanca group, but with negative Zr anomaly.
[4].
The calc-alkaline plutons from Talamanca are of Miocene age (11.05 to 7.81 Ma)
[4, 5, 45, 51, 54]. Individual epizonal stocks were emplaced into a sequence of volcanic
rocks and volcaniclastic sediments. The intrusive rocks, high-K calc-alkaline magma
series, range in composition from hornblende gabbro to granites, and due to their
similarities in composition, the plutonic bodies may have a common source at depth, or
form a batholith [4, 51]. According to [4], the calc-alkaline intrusive bodies consist of
about 12% gabbro, 30% diorite, 6% tonalite, 28% granodiorite, 18% quartz monzonite,
and 6% granite. The more felsic rocks (monzonites and granites) are finer grained with
micrographic intergrowths of quartz and alkali feldspar, indicating low-pressure
quenching of near-solidus eutectic material during ascent. Mafic silicate minerals
include hornblende and biotite, with lesser amounts of augite, and rare orthopyroxene.
Many outcrops have mafic enclaves of two types: (1) basaltic enclaves, indicating
mingling of synplutonic basaltic dikes, (2) angular gabbroic cognate inclusions,
indicating the order of crystallization between gabbros (hornblende-biotite diorites and
hornblende gabbros) and granites. The composition of the intrusive rocks is arc-like,
with LILE enrichment and depletion of HFSE, but with positive Zr anomaly [4, 51].
Based on major and trace element modeling, it is concluded that the Talamanca
intrusive series results from fractionating plagioclase, hornblende, biotite, and Timagnetite from a gabbroic parental composition [4]. In order to produce the whole
magmatic series, gabbro-diorite-granodiorite-quartz monzonite-granite, about 94%
fractional crystallization must have occurred.
The most recent igneous activity in the Talamanca range is represented by basaltic
and andesitic volcanism that occurred between 4 and 1 Ma [4, 5]. The nature of this
magmatic activity is different from that represented in the older intrusive and volcanic
rocks in the region. The younger volcanics in Talamanca are of adakitic affinity and
are interpreted to represent slab melts near a slab window. Some argue that the slab
window was produced by the subduction of the Cocos ridge [5], while others argue that
the slab window was produced by the subduction of the northern Cocos Nazca
spreading riftEast Pacific rise boundary [54].
21.5
CONCLUSIONS
There is a long history of intrusive activity in Central America ranging from the
Precambrian to the Pliocene. The older plutonic rocks are found in Guatemala and
Honduras (Chortis block), and the youngest examples for intrusive activity are found in
Costa Rica and Panama (Chorotega block). The older suites of intrusive rocks, preLaramide, have undergone extensive metamorphism as the Chortis block tectonically
moved to its present position. The post-Laramide plutonic rocks do not have this
metamorphic overprint and have been exposed as a result of local tectonic activity. The
composition of the younger intrusive magmatic bodies resembles that of the volcanic
rocks that have been associated with subduction zone magmatism.
Even though the plutonic rocks cover a wider time range and are closely associated
with ore deposits, these rocks have not received the scientific attention that volcanic
rocks have received in the last 30 years. Most of the ages of the plutonic rocks listed in
this chapter are K/Ar ages, a less precise technique when compared to 40Ar/39Ar. Many
561
of these ages are of whole rock or minerals that can be easily reset by metamorphic
processes making the ages reported in this paper not state-of-the-art. In addition, there
is limited geochemical information on most of the instrusive rocks from Central
America, particularly ubiquitous is the absence of high quality trace element, radiogenic
and stable isotopes, and mineral compositions. The geologic history of Central America
can only be fully understood through the acquisition of high quality geochronological
and geochemical data of plutonic rocks.
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Chapter 22
Petrology and geochemistry of lavas
MICHAEL J. CARR, LINA C. PATINO AND MARK D. FEIGENSON
This continuity disappears, however, if one
considers individual parts of the [Central
American] chain and examines separate
groups of volcanoes within a restricted
volcanic field. It then becomes apparent that
the continuity of the province as a whole is
the result of grouping excessively large
segments of the chain. A.R. McBirney:
Compositional variations in Cenozoic calcalkaline suites of Central America. Intern.
Upper Mantle Sci. Rept. 16, 1969.
22.1
INTRODUCTION
Since the elegant summary of Central American geology by Weyl [1] in 1980,
petrological and geochemical studies unveiled large variations in the Tertiary and
Quaternary volcanics both along the volcanic chain and across it. The active volcanoes
define an abrupt volcanic front, located 165 to 190 km inland from the Middle America
trench (MAT). The front consists of 39 distinct centers or clusters of vents that occur in
100 to 300 km long lineaments or segments. Most of the active volcanic centers are
complexes constructed primarily of basaltic to andesitic lavas. Several centers include
calderas that erupted extensive silicic fall and flow deposits. Throughout most of
Central America, the active volcanoes lie on the trenchward side of an extensive
plateau of Tertiary volcanics, comprising primarily voluminous ignimbrite sheets that
dominate the Tertiary topography. Mafic composite volcanoes, the predecessors of the
active volcanic front, are recognizable in many areas and should ultimately be useful
for defining the past positions of the volcanic front. Relatively few studies of the
Tertiary volcanics have expanded the stratigraphic and petrologic knowledge base
since Weyls review in 1980.
This chapter will first describe the tectonic and geologic settings of the diverse
Quaternary volcanoes of Central America. Some aspects of their petrology and
petrography are then reviewed. In 1969, McBirney [2] recognized a few regional
variations in petrology and geochemistry but advances in analytical instruments
allowed us to define a large number of geochemical variations both along the
Quaternary volcanic front and across it. Reviewing these geochemical results is the
primary focus of this chapter. Finally, the chapter briefly describes advances in Tertiary
volcanic stratigraphy and new geochemical and geochronological studies of the
Tertiary volcanics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica.
Figure 22.1. Volcanological framework of Central America. The letters refer to backarc
volcanos; CM is Cerro Mercedes, AZ is Aguas Zarcas, GU is Guayacn and TO is
Tortugero.
22.2
TECTONIC AND GEOLOGIC SETTING OF VOLCANOES
The historically active Central American volcanoes occur above the convergent plate
boundary between the subducting Cocos plate and the overriding Caribbean plate,
whereas, the volcanoes in Panama are the result of Nazca-Caribbean plate convergence
(Fig. 22.1). Because the volcanoes of Panama are derived via a different plate
convergence process from the rest of Central America and because they have very little
recent activity, they are not considered in detail here. However, substantial progress has
been made on the tectonic setting and geochemistry of Panamanian volcanoes. De Boer
et al. [3] defined the plate tectonic setting of the Tertiary and Quaternary volcanoes of
western Panama and provided evidence for active subduction below western Panama.
The geochemistry of the volcanism in western Panama reveals strong similarities to
central Costa Rica but is distinguished by the discovery of adakitic rocks in several
localities in western Panama [4]. Recently, the similarities between the volcanism in
western Panama and the northernmost segment of the Cascades arc were related to the
subduction in both areas of young and hot lithosphere [5].
Figure 22.2. Locations of volcanic centers and subalkaline BVF fields. The dark grey areas show
approximate extents of the BVF volcanic fields with subalkaline and high-TiO2 character.
The Cocos-Caribbean plate convergence that gives rise to the highly active and closely
spaced Central American volcanic front is bounded by tectonically complex areas that
obscure the triple junctions required by simple plate tectonic theory. To the northwest,
a zone of strike-slip faults, cutting across Guatemala, separates the Caribbean and
North American plates, but the curvature of the faults is opposite what would be
expected from the North American-Caribbean pole of rotation. Volcanism ceases as the
strike-slip fault zone disappears near the volcanic front at the Mexico-Guatemala
border. There is no convincing explanation for why volcanism ends near this plate
boundary or for the long volcanic gap that extends all the way to El Chichn volcano in
Mexico.
At the southeast end of the Central American volcanic front, the subduction of the
Cocos ridge coincides with the substantial volcanic gap between central Costa Rica and
western Panama (Fig. 22.1). Buoyant hotspot tracks commonly cause gaps in
volcanism and so the termination of volcanism here is qualitatively explained by
subduction of relatively dry and over-thickened oceanic crust and by reduction in
thickness of the mantle wedge. However, the detailed plate boundaries in the area from
central Costa Rica to western Panama are not universally agreed on because of the
development of microplates fragmenting the overriding Caribbean plate.
The geochemistry of Central American lavas varies substantially with changing
tectonic setting along and across the plate margin. Current understanding of the
relationships between tectonics and volcanism indicate three distinguishable volcanic
567
systems (Figs. 22.1 and 22.2). The two major ones, the volcanic front and the backarc,
appear to form by substantially different melting processes and both have substantial
geochemical zonations. The discussion of petrology and geochemistry below will focus
on the regional and local variations in geochemistry discovered within both the
volcanic front and the backarc.
Along the Cocos-Caribbean plate margin, the majority of volcanic output occurs at
a narrow volcanic front comprising 39 distinct clusters or centers with overlapping
volcanoes. Most centers are complex massifs with multiple cones, domes, calderas and
numerous minor vents. Only a few centers are simple cones (e.g., Agua in Guatemala).
The Cocos-Caribbean volcanic front is divided into distinct lineaments, 100 to 300 km
long, a pattern that was pointed out by Dollfus and Montserrat [6] more than 100 years
ago. Most of the lineaments or segments are separated by right steps of 10 km to 40
km, marked with Os in Figure 22.3. At several of these breaks in the arc, there are
changes in strike as well as the right-stepping offsets. The southeastern Guatemala
segment is separated from the El Salvador segment to the southeast only by a change in
strike (S in Fig. 22.3), even though there is also active transverse faulting along the
volcanic front at this break [7]. A minimum in volcanic output (M in Fig. 22.3) occurs
at the Arenal-Chato-Los Perdidos volcanic center in Costa Rica. This complex is in the
middle of substantial gaps in the Upper Quaternary volcanism that separate the Central
cordillera volcanic range to the southeast and the Guanacaste volcanic range to the
northwest. Both of these ranges are made of large volcanic centers that overlap each
other, so the gaps surrounding Arenal are pronounced. Geochemically, Arenal appears
to belong with the Central cordillera range [8, 9].
Estimates of the volumes of the active volcanic centers [10] indicate that the
majority of volcanic products have been basaltic to dacitic lavas and related epiclastic
deposits of various types. The volume estimates (Fig. 22.3) are biased in favor of the
more erosion resistant lavas and so the actual amounts of lavas and tephras may be
comparable. The volumes of the volcanic centers are lognormally distributed, as has
been found in other arc settings [12]. The mean spacing between volcanic centers is
about 30 km, but there is no regular periodicity. Instead, the spacings between
volcanoesKDYHD3RLVVRQGLVWULEXWLRQZLWKDRIDERXWNP7KLVIDFWDUJXHVIRUD
random distribution, which may be the result of multiple generations of diapirs rising
independently [13]. However, by considering volcanic production as well as location, a
regular pattern emerges. In Figure 22.3, there are several regular progressions from
very large volcanic centers to small ones. The seven largest centers are all flanked on
one or both sides by progressively smaller centers whose spacing becomes closer as
their size decreases. This distribution suggests that the volcanic centers have different
ages, proportional to size. First came an initial generation of seven centers, which are
now the largest ones, with an average spacing of 150 km (the range is from 100 to 190
km). Subsequent generations emerged adjacent to the previous generation but at
smaller spacing. The later generations have a smaller area to draw magma from and are
substantially smaller. Geochronological tests are currently underway to determine if the
oldest lavas at progressively smaller volcanic centers are in fact progressively younger.
Regardless, there are profound differences in the rate of volcanic production on a
150 km wavelength.
In addition to the volcanic front, there are a few volcanoes of similar morphology
(large, polygenic composite cones) and geochemistry (calc-alkaline with a significant
LIL enrichment and Nb depletion) that are located 20 to 75 km behind the volcanic
front (Fig. 22.1). This secondary line is weakly developed in Central America and has
Figure 22.3. Distribution of Quaternary volcanic production along the volcanic front. Upper
panel shows volumes of 39 volcanic centers. The large volcanic centers that are labeled may
represent the earliest generation of volcanoes in the Quaternary volcanic episode. The lower
panel shows the distribution of major Quaternary cones and calderas. The bars point to
abrupt changes in the distribution of volcanoes along the front; either right-stepping offsets
(O), changes in strike (S), minima in the volume distribution (M) or the ends of the volcanic
chain. These breaks in the volcanic chain define eight volcanic segments.
not been the site of any historic eruptions. It is not yet well studied, although some
results for Zacate Grande volcano in Honduras are available [14].
A much more robust volcanic system occurs behind the volcanic front in areas of
extensional tectonics. These volcanoes, termed behind the front (BVF) by Walker
[15], are a type of backarc volcanism. The major focus of BVF volcanism is the Ipala
graben region of Guatemala and El Salvador (Fig. 22.2). Smaller examples of this type
of volcanism include Tegucigalpa, Honduras [14], and Estel, Nicaragua [16]. Most of
the backarc volcanism in northern Central America occurs in areas of obvious EW
extension. A major cause of the extension is the strike-slip plate boundary between the
Caribbean and North American plates that extends through Guatemala [17]. In
Honduras, near this strike-slip boundary, there are two alkaline volcanoes, one at Yojoa
and another at Utila island (Fig. 22.1). However, in most of northern Central America
the backarc volcanism is subalkaline and the dominant morphologic feature is a cinder
cone with its associated lava field. In the Ipala region, more than 100 cinder cones have
been identified [18, 19]. Ipala also includes several obsidian domes and flows all of
which are nearly identical in chemical composition [20]. Less obvious are several
shield volcanoes with very low slopes that are not visually striking but make a
substantial contribution to the volcanic production. Several of the Ipala cinder cones
could be Holocene based on their morphology and lack of weathering.
The backarc volcanism in southern Central America is substantially different.
Along the Caribbean coasts of Nicaragua and Costa Rica there are scattered
occurrences of backarc alkaline volcanism (Fig. 22.1). In Costa Rica, Pliocene alkaline
569
magmatism of the Guayacn formation (5 Ma) occurs near the volcanic front east of
Turrialba volcano [2124]. Similarly, at Platanar volcano, Quaternary cinder cones
with shoshonite affinity occur just north of the volcano [25] and a few shoshonitic
lavas have been sampled on the volcanos north flank [26]. Other alkaline vents in this
region include Cerro Tortugero and Lomas Azules [27]. Cerro Mercedes, an eroded
alkaline volcano, located along the San Juan river and the border with Nicaragua, is
especially notable because its lavas have abundant ultramafic xenoliths of dunite,
lherzolite and pyroxenite (e.g., [28]).
22.3
PETROLOGY AND PETROGRAPHY OF VOLCANIC FRONT LAVAS
The petrology of Central American volcanics has been much less studied than the
geochemistry but several stratigraphic studies of volcanic sections demonstrate the
importance of crystal fractionation, magma mixing and assimilation in creating
substantial change in major elements. Stratigraphic sections of exposed lava piles have
been sampled at many volcanoes with highly variable results. At Santa Mara volcano
in Guatemala, a section of the caldera wall formed in the massive Plinian eruption of
1902 revealed a progressive increase in SiO2 with higher stratigraphic position [29]. A
substantially different evolutionary pattern for SiO2 occurs at Izalco volcano, a small
composite cone that erupted nearly continuously for 200 years after its first eruption in
1770. The SiO2 contents of Izalcos lavas vary with the level of preceding eruptive
activity [30]. After periods of low activity, lavas have higher than average SiO2
content, whereas after periods of high activity, lavas have lower than average SiO2
content. The walls of the deep crater of Boquern volcano revealed yet another pattern,
a change from calc-alkaline fractionation style at the base of the section to a tholeiitic
fractionation style (FeO enrichment) at the top of the section and in the historic flank
eruptions [31]. Separating the two lava sequences is a thick tephra section which
suggests that a major explosive period led to the creation of a shallow magma chamber
that, in turn, generated the tholeiitic fractionation.
The three stratigraphic sections described above can be explained by simple
fractional crystallization and magma mixing involving a single source. Physical
mechanisms, such as the time interval between eruptions or the depth of fractionation
provide plausible explanations for the variations discovered. The three sections above
are the most comprehensive stratigraphic sections available that appear constructed
from the same or very similar magma batches. Each is unique, which suggests that the
variety of patterns of magmatic evolution is very large in Central America.
The stratigraphy of Fuego volcano in Guatemala adds a different level of
complexity. Lava sections at Fuego appear to consist of several similar but slightly
different magma batches, perhaps derived from the same source but with different
degrees of melting [32]. Distinct magma batches from a common source but with
different incompatible element contents that indicate different degrees of melting are
likely present at all the Central American volcanoes and await discovery through
careful sampling and modern high resolution trace element measurements.
Compared with other arc systems, there have been relatively few detailed
mineralogical studies and no experimental studies. One prominent exception is the
remarkable definition of the detailed history of mineral growth prior to and during the
1974 eruption of Fuego volcano in Guatemala [33]. Arenal volcano in Costa Rica has
phenocryst rich lavas and a variety of mafic inclusions that have been interpreted as
remnants of buried oceanic crust by Cigolini and Kudo [34] and as comagmatic
inclusions by Beard et al. [35]. Sachs and Alvarado [36] describe lower crustal
xenoliths of mafic metaigneous rocks and made a preliminary crustal model based on
Arenal xenoliths. Substantial petrologic data exists for individual volcanoes, including
Iraz [37], Concepcin [38] and Arenal [39]. Tournon [23] obtained petrologic results
for several Costa Rican volcanoes, making this thesis an excellent starting point for
understanding the petrology of Costa Rican lavas.
The volcanic front is characterized by an abundance of phenocrysts of plagioclase,
pyroxene, magnetite and olivine [40]. The phenocrysts typically contain complex
zoning, including reversed zones and bands of disturbed growth with abundant
resorption features. Cerro Negro volcano in Nicaragua has erupted lavas and
pyroclastics with particularly large and abundant phenocrysts. One reason may be the
high water content of the pre-eruptive magma. Roggensack et al. [41] found preeruptive water contents as high as 5% in glass inclusions within olivine phenocrysts.
High water content lowers magma viscosity and helps increase crystal growth rates.
Sisson and Lane [42] measured high water contents in melt inclusions from
phenocrysts erupted by Fuego volcano in Guatemala in 1974 using infrared
spectroscopy. Roggensack [43] examined melt inclusions from small crystals in
Fuegos 1974 tephra to recover some of the degassing history of that eruption.
The high percentages of phenocrysts commonly found in volcanic front basalts in
Central America are, in some cases, clearly the result of phenocryst accumulation.
Cerro Negro lavas from eruptions during 1950 to 1962 have unusually high FeO and
MgO contents, consistent with accumulation of pyroxene and olivine [44]. Volcanics
with very high Al2O3 (20 wt% or more) are likely caused by plagioclase accumulation.
Fuegos 1974 eruption is a good example of such phenocryst sorting during a single
eruption [45]. In this case, the less dense plagioclase phenocrysts were abundant in the
earliest phase of the eruption, whereas olivine and pyroxene were more abundant in the
last stage of the eruption.
Magma mixing and mingling occurs in a variety of scales in Central American
lavas. Typical lavas contain complexly zoned phenocrysts of plagioclase that have a
large calcic core and two or more layers of normal zoning, separated by resorbed and
inclusion rich zones. Several specific instances of magma mixing have been
documented in the active volcanoes that have long series of historic flows or
stratigraphically related flows. Reagan et al. [46] described an early Al2O3 rich phase
of the ongoing eruption of Arenal. This magma is similar to the lavas that erupted
during the previous eruption of Arenal and appears to be a remnant of that previous
episode. The subsequent lavas at Arenal are remarkably uniform in major elements but
have subtle changes in incompatible elements that have been explained by ongoing
magma mixing [39, 46, 47]. The stratigraphic history of Masaya volcano includes
oscillatory variations in both compatible and incompatible elements that can be
explained by a combination of continuing crystal fractionation coupled with fresh input
of two magma types; a basalt, rich in TiO2, like those found at the nearby Nejapa and
Apoyo vents, and a calc-alkaline basalt [48].
The magma mixing described at Arenal and Masaya is cryptic and elucidated
primarily by high precision chemical analyses. More obvious mixing occurs at Iraz
volcano [37] which has a variety of magma combinations, ranging from well mixed to
obvious blends that are better described as commingled. For example, the most recent
eruption of Iraz, during 19631965, was a basaltic andesite that is a combination of
two separate magmas present in the pre-eruption tephra and lava stratigraphy [37].
571
These tephras contain bimodal distributions of plagioclase and phenocrysts of olivine

that are reacting with the groundmass. The two plagioclase populations can be
recognized in thin section and microprobe analysis.
Throughout Central America, the most obvious examples of mingled magmas occur
in the large silicic tephras that occur all along the arc. Upon close examination, most
silicic tephras will have at least some dark colored component, either basaltic or
andesitic. It is common to find individual blocks with the two magmas interswirled.
Examples of mingled magmas or the co-eruption of two distinct magmas have been
described at almost all the large caldera complexes: Atitln [4951], Coatepeque [52],
Ilopango [53, 54], Apoyo [55]; at several of the stratovolcanoes; Santa Ana [52],
Rincn de la Vieja [56], Arenal [46], Platanar [26], Iraz [37] and El Valle [57]; and
even at the small cones of Nejapa and Granada [58].
Representative thin sections of Central American lavas are shown in Figure 22.4.
Rock sample Gu-C33 (Fig. 22.4a) shows a lava from a BVF vent with an olivine
phenocryst in a groundmass dominated by plagioclase laths. BVF lavas are
characterized by nearly aphyric texures with some small olivine and plagioclase
phenocrysts. Rock Sal-SV4 (Fig. 22.4b) shows a typical pyroxene andesite from San
Vicente volcano in El Salvador with a high percentage of plagioclase, pyroxene and
magnetite phenocrysts in a pilotaxitic groundmass. The glomeroporphyritc clot of
pyroxene and magnetite is a common feature of basaltic andesites and andesites. Rock
Sal-II4 (Fig. 22.4c) is from the 18791880 eruption of the Islas Quemadas dome in the
Ilopango caldera in El Salvador. It is a mixture of a rhyodacite (below) and a basaltic
andesite. Highly corroded plagioclase crystals, like the one near the magma contact and
just above the center of the image, are common. Mafic clots in generally silicic
magmas, like the example shown, are not particularly common in Central American
lavas.
Rock samples Nic-AP3 and Nic-AP5 (Figs. 22.4d and 22.4e) are lavas exposed in
the wall of the Apoyo caldera in Nicaragua. Sample Nic-AP3 (22.4d) is an example of
a high-TiO2 basalt and, like many examples of this magma type, it has few phenocrysts
and a fine grained texture. The larger phenocrysts are pyroxenes and olivines, whereas
plagioclase is present in smaller laths. Sample Nic-AP5 (4e) is highly porphyritic and
contains crystal clots and large corroded plagioclase phenocrysts. Not surprisingly, it
has a high Al2O3 content (> 20 wt%).
The rock sample Cr-AR82 (Fig. 22.4f) is from a vesicular basaltic andesite lava
erupted in 1982 from Arenal volcano in Costa Rica. Note the zoned plagioclase crystal
in the upper left. Plagioclases with multiple zones of corrosion and subsequent growth
are common throughout Central America, especially in the typical, low-TiO2 lavas.
22.4
GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE VOLCANIC FRONT
The mantle and crustal sources for Central American volcanism (Figs. 22.5 and 22.6a)
are outlined by two arrays in Sr and Nd isotope space [8]. Most of the volcanic front
samples (closed symbols) define an array with an unusual positive slope. At the upper
right end of this array are lavas from the volcanic front of Nicaragua that have Nd
isotopes similar to MORB, but are elevated in 87Sr/86Sr because of incorporation of Sr
from marine sediment. The sediment has both high 87Sr/86Sr (0.7090) and high Sr (1200
ppm). Mixing a small amount of fluid derived from this sediment with the mantle
creates a horizontal array of increasing 87Sr/86Sr with virtually no change in
Figure 22.4. Thin sections of Central American lavas imaged in plain polarized light: (a) GuC33; (b) Sal-SV4; (c) Sal-II4; (d) Nic-AP3; (e) Nic-Ap5; (f) Cr-AR82. The long axis of each
panel is 2.8 mm.
143
Nd/144Nd. The lower left end of the positively sloping array intersects the MORBOIB mantle array. The second array has the negative slope of the MORB-OIB mantle
trend and is composed primarily of backarc samples from Guatemala and Honduras
(open circles and triangles respectively) with a few volcanic front samples from
western Guatemala (filled circles). The existence of a depleted-MORB mantle
signature in the wedge is indicated by the isotopic composition of lavas from behind
the volcanic front (BVF) in Guatemala and Honduras, which trend toward low 87Sr/86Sr
and high 143Nd/144Nd. A crustal isotopic signature is apparent in many lavas from
Guatemala and Honduras, whose isotopic ratios fall along the mantle array toward low
Nd and high Sr isotopic values. These samples plot along mixing lines between
depleted-MORB source mantle and metamorphic or granitic basement. The isotopic
data show that crustal contamination is significant just in the areas that have Paleozoic
basement: the volcanic front in central and western Guatemala and in some backarc
regions of Guatemala and Honduras.
The unusual array with a positive slope that is defined by most of the volcanic front
data (filled symbols) reveals a variable subducted component, whose upper right end
573
Figure 22.5. Cross section through Nicaragua showing plausible melt sources. Possible triggers
for melting in the mantle wedge include; a hydrous fluid from the slab interior, a silicic
hydrous melt from the sediments at the top of the subducting plate and decompression
(upwelling) in the backarc. A flux derived melt (black) and a decompression derived melt
(white) are shown in the mantle along with possible paths to the volcanic front. The dotted
line shows schematic mantle flow into and then away from the wedge corner.
has a strong sediment signature. Although the Sr and Nd arrays outline the basic
structure of the mantle and crustal sources of Central American volcanism, Pb isotope
data (discussed below) will reveal an additional component in southern Central
America which has OIB characteristics.
Central American magmas come from at least three distinct melting processes. The
dominant magma type at the Central American volcanic front has the LIL-enrichment
and HFS-depletion typically found at convergent margins [60]. The low contents of
heavy REEs and TiO2 imply a high degree of melting. Furthermore, the samples with
the highest degree of melting also have high values for subducted sediment tracers,
such as Ba/La. The combination of high degree of melting and high sediment signal
indicates that a flux rises into the mantle wedge and triggers extensive melting. At
many volcanic centers there is a second magma type that has elevated HREEs and TiO2
and modest, if any, LIL enrichment. This magma appears to form in a separate melting
process where decompression melting plays a significant or dominant role. Figure 22.5
is a cartoon showing three different melting triggers. Two separate fluxes evolve from
the descending slab, one from the sediment at the upper surface of the slab and another,
dominated by water, from the slab interior, as suggested by Ruepke et al. [59]. These
flux derived melts combine and rise towards the volcanic front. Another melt originates
in the region behind the volcanic front where asthenosphere is drawn inward and
upwards toward the mantle wedge corner. Decompression melting occurs because of
the upward component of asthenospheric movement. In Nicaragua, where the slab dip
is very steep, the flux and decompression melts are mingled because they commonly
erupt from the same vent. In the rest of the arc, a less steep dip of the slab appears to
allow separation of flux derived melts into the volcanic front and decompression melts
into the backarc.
22.4.1 Regional variations

McBirney [2] outlined regional variations in geochemistry along the Central American
volcanic front using major element data. He found that alkalis decreased from
Figure 22.6. (a) Sr/Nd isotopes for Central American volcanics: Most volcanic front samples
(solid symbols) show a positive correlation (except for crustally contaminated Guatemalan
lavas); backarc samples trend along the mantle array Nicaraguan samples are displaced
farthest from the array, showing the maximum influence of subducted slab components;
(b) 206Pb/204Pb versus distance along the Central American volcanic front: distance is
measured from the Guatemala/Mexico border; all samples are from the volcanic front.
206
Pb/204Pb decreases from Guatemala to a minimum in Nicaragua there is a notably
abrupt increase in NW Costa Rica, marked by an arrow.
Guatemala to Nicaragua and that silicic tephras are rhyolite in Guatemala, dacite in
Nicaragua and ferrodacite in Costa Rica. The first comprehensive regional study based
on trace elements and isotopes [60] defined strong gradients in Sr and Nd isotope ratios
and in Ba/La and La/Yb. The discovery of high 10Be/9Be in Nicaragua [61] and
regional gradients in this ratio that paralleled those of Ba/La and La/Yb, made clear
that Central America is an excellent place to examine the role of subducted input in arc
magmagenesis. The discovery of strong regional gradients in geochemistry both along
and across the Central American volcanic chain is the major development in petrologygeochemistry since 1980.
Many of the spatial geochemical variations discovered in Central America are
reproduced in Figures 22.6b, 22.7 and 22.8 and Table 22.1 is a brief overview of the
more robust margin-wide variations. Most of these regional variations are attributed to
a subducted origin, primarily from the subducted Cocos plate sediments. However, a
variation in Pb isotopes (Fig. 22.6b) and a corresponding change in LIL and REE
geochemistry in central Costa Rica is caused by the occurrence of OIB source material
in this area.
22.4.2 Anomalous mantle in central Costa Rica

Unusual trace element contents and isotopic ratios occur in volcanic rocks from central
Costa Rica and northern Panama. The magmas of central Costa Rica are distinct from
those of the rest of Central America and have ocean-island basalt (OIB) character [25,
65, 69, 70]. Specifically, lavas in this region have geochemical similarities to lavas
from the Galpagos hotspot. The distinctive trace element feature is a steep REE
profile that contrasts sharply with the much flatter profiles found elsewhere along the
margin and interpreted as evidence for a MORB source mantle [71]. Reagan et al. [61]
showed that the distinction between the central Costa Rican lavas and the lavas in
western Costa Rica and Nicaragua was clear in U-series isotopes as well.
575
Table 22.1. Regional geochemical variations along the length of the volcanic front.
Crustal origin
alkalies
Na2O
FeO and CaO
Sr, Nd isotopes
^0F%LUQH\>@VXJJHVWHGWKHORZHUDONDOLHVDWDFWLYHYROFDQRHVLQ
Nicaragua were related to the more extensive Tertiary volcanism that
occurred there.
^&DUU>@IRXQGWKDW1D2O decreases from Guatemala to a
minimum in Nicaragua and then increases into central Costa Rica.
He correlated this to crustal thickness and proposed greater
differentiation where the crust was thicker.
^3ODQNDQG/DQJPXLU>@IRXQGWKDW)H2YDULHGLQYHUVHO\WR1D2O.
They attributed the regional variation in these elements to variable
degrees of melting caused by crustal thickness. Thus high Na2O and
low FeO occur where the crust is thicker because partially molten
mantle diapirs have less room to rise and therefore melt to lower
degrees.
^1:DFURVV*XDWHPDOD)HLJHQVRQDQG&DUU>64] found increasing
Sr and decreasing Nd isotopes that correlated with increasing crustal
thickness and the presence of Paleozoic rocks beneath the volcanic
front and attributed this to small amounts of crustal contamination.
Mantle or subducted
plate origin
^)URP&HQWUDO&RVWD5LFD&HQWUDOFRUGLOOHUDDQG1:DWOHDVWDV
far as Arenal, recent volcanics have an OIB signature similar to the
Galpagos (approaching HIMU). Many hypotheses compete to
explain this fact (see [8] for a recent summary).
Subducted plate origin
Ba/La and La/Yb
B/La
10
Be/9Be
Ba/Th, U/Th
Sr, Nd isotopes
Mo, Cu
Iodine
^%D/DSHDNVLQ1LFDUDJXDDQGGHFUHDVHVWRWKH1:LQWR*XDWHPDOD
and to the SE into Costa Rica. La/Yb variation is inverse to Ba/La.
Carr et al. [60] attributed high Ba/La to increased slab sediment
component that led to higher extents of melting and lower La/Yb.
^%/DFRUUHODWHVSRVLWLYHO\ZLWK%D/DDQGKDVDODUJHUUDQJHRI
variation [65].
^10Be/9Be correlates positively with Ba/La but traces recent mantle
metasomatism given the short half-life of 10Be [61].
^7KHVHUDWLRVFRUUHODWHSRVLWLYHO\ZLWK%D/D>@
^2XWVLGHRI*XDWHPDODWKHUHLVDQXQXVXDOSRVLWLYHFRUUHODWLRQ
between Sr and Nd isotopes, furthermore, these Sr and Nd isotopes
correlate positively with Ba/La [64].
^1ROOet al. [67] show that siderophile and chalcophile elements
show regional variation similar to that of Ba/La.
^)URP,RGLQHLVRWRSHV6Q\GHUDQG)HKQ>@LQIHUUHGWKDWWKH
volcanic zone returns subducted Iodine, making the volcanoes an
important part in the overall marine cycle of iodine and similar
elements.
The volcanoes with clear OIB character are the volcanoes of the Central cordillera;
Iraz, Barva, Pos, and Platanar. The northwestern boundary of the OIB geochemical
region has not been definitively located because it varies with the geochemical data
used. If the REE pattern is the standard, then Arenal, which lies between the Central
cordillera and the Guanacaste range lacks the OIB signature. This places the
OIB/MORB mantle boundary between Arenal and Platanar. On the basis of U-series
isotopes, Reagan et al. [61] make a strong case that this boundary is gradational across
northwestern Costa Rica and possibly may extend into eastern Nicaragua. However, in
Pb isotope space, the boundary appears sharp (Fig. 22.6b). Most Central American
Figure 22.7. Geochemical variations along the Central American volcanic front. Crustal
thickness was estimated from the regional variation in Bouguer gravity measurements. All
the geochemical samples are from the volcanic front. Na52 is Na2O content of lavas with SiO2
contents between 48 wt% and 55 wt%, corrected to 52% SiO2 via Na52 = Na2O - (SiO252) 0.14. The symbols in the U/Th diagram are the same as those in Figure 22.6a. The depth
to the seismic zone beneath the volcanic front is not well determined but the several existing
estimates seem to agree that the depth beneath the volcanoes is greatest in Nicaragua and
decreases to the NW and SE.
lavas have 206Pb/204Pb values between 18.4 and 18.7, similar to MORB-source mantle.
In central Costa Rica, 206Pb/204Pb values are sharply higher from Arenal to Iraz, with
values of 18.8 to 19.3. For Pb isotopes, the boundary between the OIB-like mantle in
central Costa Rica and the MORB-like mantle in the rest of the margin to the northwest
appears to lie between Arenal and Tenorio volcanoes [8].
Most studies of central Costa Rican magmas agree that the mantle source has OIB
or Galpagos hotspot characteristics, but there are many ideas on how that source gets
into the present volcanic system. These hypotheses are not mutually exclusive and most
cannot be ruled out using existing evidence. Herrstrom et al. [70] cite S-wave splitting
evidence for mantle flow parallel to the Andes that brings unusual mantle from the
southeast. Abratis and Wrner [72] cite a window in the subducting Cocos plate,
inferred from plate reconstructions [73] that allows Galpagos mantle to rise into
central Costa Rica. The Galpagos signature is present in Eocene to Quaternary lavas
in easternmost Nicaragua and on islands in the Caribbean well behind the arc [8], such
as La Providencia (Fig. 22.1). Wherever the Galpagos signature occurs in young
volcanoes, it coincides with the track of the Galpagos hotspot during the last 133 Ma
[74, 75]. Feigenson et al. [8] conclude that the hotspot added its geochemical signature
to the mantle that passed over it and Galpagos-like magma erupts where this mantle is
currently involved in melting.
577
Figure 22.8. Fundamental geochemical variation along the Central American volcanic front. The
inverse relationship between Ba/La, an indicator of slab flux, and La/Yb, an indicator of
degree of melting, strongly argues that higher concentrations of flux (Ba/La) cause higher
degrees of melting (lower La/Yb) in a regionally systematic manner.
22.4.3 Subducted component

At the volcanic front, there is a pronounced gradient in the strength of the slab signal
that varies in a symmetric pattern centered on a maximum located in western to central
Nicaragua. U/Th (Fig. 22.7) and Ba/La (Fig. 22.8) show this regional variation most
comprehensively and clearly. These ratios are both nearly constant throughout the
Cocos plate sediment stratigraphy. Ba/La has a lower variance in the sediment column
and is therefore considered a more precise tracer of the strength of the slab signal [10].
Other ratios that show this pattern are listed in Table 22.1. The maxima in this regional
variation occur in Nicaragua between Telica volcano, which has the maximum Ba/La,
and Masaya volcano, which has the maximum 10Be/9Be and maximum 87Sr/86Sr,
outside of Guatemala. The intensity of the slab signal varies by at least a factor of four
in Ba/La. Ba/La and U/Th correlate positively (r > 0.80) with 10Be/9Be and therefore
are unambiguous, easily measured indicators of subducted sediment.
The working hypothesis for the regional variation in intensity of slab signal is based
on one central observation. There is a positive correlation between slab signal
(estimated by Ba/La) and apparent degree of melting (estimated from the slope of REE
patterns). The mirror image in the along strike variations of La/Yb and Ba/La (Fig.
22.8) shows a regionally consistent, positive correlation between slab signal and degree
of melting. The La/Yb plot has a log scale to allow for the anomalously high La/Yb
values in central Costa Rica derived from the Galpagos-like mantle in this area. Even
excluding the central Costa Rican data (crosses at distances of 1000 km and greater in
Fig. 22.8), there is a convincing mirror image between La/Yb and Ba/La. The positive
correlation between slab signal and degree of melting may be explained by a more
concentrated flux producing higher degree melts [60].
Carr et al. [60] proposed an additional constraint; a crude negative correlation
between degree of melting and volumes of erupted volcanics. Nicaragua, which has the
lowest La/Yb and thus the highest degree of melting, also has smaller volcanoes; just
the opposite of what would be expected. A major problem with this proposal is lack of
knowledge of the ages of the volcanoes, much less their actual eruption rates. Recent
extensive dating of Costa Rican volcanics [7678] proves that the Costa Rican
volcanoes are substantially older than Carr et al. [60] or Patino et al. [66] assumed, 1.0
to 0.5 Ma instead of 0.1 Ma. Therefore, this proposal does not hold and elemental flux
calculations [66] need to be redone after obtaining extensive geochronological control
on the ages of Central American volcanoes.
22.4.4 Geochemical variations within volcanoes

Many Central American volcanic centers have geochemical variations that indicate
different sources (isotopically different mantle domains or different mixes of subducted
sources). These geochemical variations within one volcanic center can be very
substantial, as at the relatively small Telica volcanic center [66], or limited, as is the
case for the lavas at the very large Masaya volcanic center, where magma mixing plays
a substantial role in homogenizing the volcanic output [48]. Qualitatively, the greatest
extremes in geochemical end members (isotope ratios or incompatible element ratios)
are found at small volcanoes with multiple vents. Large centers with few vents seems
to have greater probability of maintaining large, long-lived magma chambers that
obscure the diverse magma types that feed into the system. Two separate types of
intravolcano geochemical variations are commonly found: the first concerns TiO2 and
HFS elements and the second concerns U/La and Ba/Th, ratios that emphasize the end
member compositions of the subducted Cocos plate sedimentary section.
22.4.5 Bimodal distribution of TiO2 and HFS elements in volcanic front lavas
Throughout Central America there are many examples of volcanic centers; e.g., Telica
[66]; Platanar [26] or individual vents Iraz [37]; Turrialba, [79] that erupt two or more
distinct magma types that cannot be related via fractional crystallization but instead
require a different source and/or different degree of melting. The major element that
most consistently separates different magma types in Central America is TiO2. Figure
22.9 shows the persistence of a bimodal distribution of TiO2 along most of the arc. The
distributions of the high and low-TiO2 groups overlap so they can not be uniquely
separated. In general, the mode of the low-TiO2 lavas is < 1.0 wt% and the mode for the
high-TiO2 lavas is > 1.0 wt%. In each segment of the arc, the proportion of samples
with higher TiO2 is small. There is no consistent field observation that allows one to
predict what lava will have elevated TiO2. However, in some instances, the lavas with
high-TiO2 are distinctly low in phenocrysts and in a few cases the lavas have a
pahoehoe texture, suggesting high temperature and low viscosity. These characteristics
may have allowed a small sampling bias in favor of the high-TiO2 lavas.
On the global spectrum of basaltic volcanism, the Central American high-TiO2
lavas actually have normal TiO2 contents. It is only in comparison with the more
abundant calc-alkaline arc magmas, most of which are derived by high degrees of
melting and have the characteristic arc depletion in HFS elements, that the high-TiO2
magmas are notable.
The lavas with low-TiO2 appear derived by a high degree of melting from a MORB
source (e.g., [66]). During differentiation of these magmas by fractional crystallization,
TiO2 is extracted by phenocrysts of titaniferrous magnetite, which are common at the
volcanic front. Therefore, there is no increase in TiO2 as there is in the tholeiitic style
of differentiation [80].
The lavas with high-TiO2 vary considerably along Central America [10]. In general,
they appear derived by lower degrees of melting. In many instances, especially in the
backarc, where most lavas are the high-TiO 2 type, the high-TiO2 magmas appear
derived by decompression melting with either a small or a negligible component of
slab-derived flux [14, 24, 46, 81, 82]. The origin of the most extreme high-TiO2 lavas,
the Nejapa-Granada basalts (NG basalts), is controversial. Reagan et al. [61] emphasize
sequential melting processes and derive the high-TiO2 lavas from the same source as
579
the low-TiO2 lavas. Walker et al. [83] explain the high variability in the NG basalts
using variable contributions from the subducting slab.
In Guatemala and El Salvador the separation between the low-TiO2 mode and the
high-TiO2 mode is not large. In eastern Nicaragua, the largest volcano, Masaya, is
extensively sampled and is interpreted as a mixture of low-TiO2 and high-TiO2 magma
types [48]. Therefore, in the southeastern Nicaragua panel of Figure 22.9 the Masaya
lavas obscure the bimodal distribution that occurs in the smaller volcanoes. At this
time, no high-TiO2 lavas have been discovered in the northwestern Costa Rica
segment, the Guanacaste range.
22.4.6 Local variations in magma type and in flux composition

Patino et al. [66] discovered a binary mixing array at individual volcanoes that is
parallel to the mixing array between the two sediment layers on the subducting Cocos
plate. The apparent mixing arrays for volcanoes Telica and Arenal are shown in Figure
22.10. One endpoint has high Ba/Th and low U/La, similar to the carbonate sediments
or to a hydrous fluid that interacted with altered MORB [84]. The very high Ba/Th
found at this endpoint suggests that both these components are present. The other
endpoint has low Ba/Th, high U/La and slightly elevated K2O. These characteristics
suggest a substantial contribution from the uppermost stratigraphic layer on the Cocos
plate, the hemipelagic sediments. Geochemical models of this endpoint [66, 81, 85] are
not definitive but must include several components. First, a hemipelagic component is
essential to bring in 10Be and K2O but can be either a hydrous fluid or a melt. A
hydrous fluid that interacts with subducted MORB is essential to explain the elevated
Sr contents but only mildly elevated Sr isotopes; low oxygen isotopes in olivine
crystals imply a serpentinite source for some of the water [86], possibly from deep
fractures in the subducted Cocos plate [87]. Finally, a contribution from the subducted
carbonate sediments is allowed but may not be required.
The local array varies along the arc. At Arenal, where the sediment signal is small
the array is closer to typical mantle values. At Telica, where the sediment signal is
strong, the array is further from typical mantle values and closer to the bulk sediment
mixing line, which lies outside the figure. The local array at Telica may not reach the
most extreme possible endpoints but it does cover most of the possible range. At
Arenal, the hemipelagic contribution to the mixing array is much less than at Telica,
suggesting a much reduced hemipelagic contribution to the Arenal products.
The local array suggests that two fluxes emerge from the subducted slab and
subsequently mix, one from carbonate plus MORB and another dominated by the
hemipelagic muds. Moreover, the local arrays for different volcanic centers, such as
Telica and Arenal, are subparallel. This indicates that, at any individual volcano, the
two fluxes have similar magnitude, that some overriding process delivers the two
components in consistently the same proportions. Reagan et al. [61] argued for a
similar requirement of consistently similar mixing proportions between a fluid
dominated component and a melt dominated component. Their data showed that slab
tracers, presumed the result of fluid transport, correlated well with Th addition, even
though Th should be immobile in a hydrous fluid.
Several possibilities can be proposed for the two components needed for the local
arrays. The carbonate end likely involves a hydrous fluid from the subducted MORB
that interacted with some of the carbonate section. The hemipelagic end may be a melt
Figure 22.9. Histograms of TiO2 contents of lavas. Most segments of the Central American
margin have a bimodal distribution of TiO2 with a dominant low-TiO2 mode and a small
secondary mode with somewhat higher TiO2. Samples shown have SiO2 contents between 46
and 56 wt%.
or a hydrous fluid. There may be two hydrous fluids, one from the devolatilization of
the subducted sediments and MORB and another from devolatilization of mafic and
ultramafic rocks deep in the subducted plate [59], especially in areas where the
lithosphere underwent through going fracturing as it bent into the trench [87]. Did the
two fluxes originate together or at distinctly different times? The U-series patterns of
Central American lavas [61, 88] suggest several different time scales for producing
Central American lavas.
22.5
PETROLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SUBALKALINE BACKARC

LAVAS
The subalkaline BVF volcanism in northern Central America [14, 15, 89] has a simple
581
mineralogy that can be explained by rapid eruption of magma after a period of storage
that allowed phenocrysts to effectively separate from the remaining liquid. The great
majority of these lavas are aphyric except for rare, small phenocrysts of olivine and,
occasionally, plagioclase. Clinopyroxenes are not usually found. However, a suite of
these lavas that spans a moderate range of fractionation shows CaO/Al2O3 decreasing
with MgO. The positive correlation of these two parameters implies that clinopyroxene
was being fractionated prior to eruption, probably during deep storage, where the
olivine primary phase volume is shrunken by pressure. The subsequent crystallization
of only olivine and plagioclase can be explained by a rapid rise to shallow pressure
where the stability fields of these two minerals expands at the expense of pyroxene
[15].
Figure 22.10. Local or intravolcano geochemical variation. Low-TiO2 lavas at Arenal and Telica
volcanoes define arrays that are subparallel to the array defined by the Cocos plate sediment
section. The Arenal samples (Xs) are closer to the mantle and thus have a lower subducted
sediment component. The Telica samples (diamonds) are closer to the sediment array which
lies outside the diagram.
22.6
GEOCHEMICAL VARIATIONS TRANSVERSE TO THE ARC
Halsor and Rose [11] provided several examples of short (< 10 km) cross-arc volcanic
lineaments in northern Central America along which there are substantial physical and
geochemical gradients. These lineaments, called paired volcanoes, are within the
volcanic front. The general pattern is for the volcano closest to the trench to be more
explosive and have lower incompatible elements and higher Ba/La, indicating a higher
degree of melting and a higher input of flux from the subducted slab. The volcano on
the backarc side of the center has a higher proportion of lavas than ash and a higher
level of incompatible elements, consistent with less water and a lower degree of
melting. Ba/La is also low, suggesting less flux from the subducting plate. One way of
looking at this gradient is that flux triggered melting in the mantle wedge creates the
seaward volcano, whereas the volcano closest to the backarc has a substantial
component of backarc magma caused by decompression melting that has a lower
degree of melting and a lower flux component [10]. The cross-arc gradient described
above is common but by no means universal. At Pos volcano in Costa Rica, the more
TiO2 and incompatible element rich lavas, which would be expected on the backarc
side of the volcano, instead appear on the trenchward side [90].
Extensional tectonics has allowed the eruption of extensive fields of recent
monogenetic volcanism in southeastern Guatemala (the Cuilapa region) and along the
Guatemala-El Salvador boundary (the Ipala region). A less well preserved but equally
extensive area of backarc volcanism occurs near Tegucigalpa, Honduras and there are
smaller, less well investigated areas of backarc volcanism, like the flows just north of
Estel, Nicaragua. Table 22.2 summarizes several studies of cross-arc variations in
geochemistry. All these studies focus on the two areas where cross arc traverses are
possible, the southeast Guatemala-Ipala graben traverse and the Gulf of FonsecaHonduras traverse. Both cross-arc traverses include the volcanic front and backarc
fields of monogenetic volcanism. The Honduras traverse [14] is richer because there
are two second line volcanoes, El Tigre and Zacate Grande, and the distal alkaline
volcanic field at Yojoa lake.
Table 22.2. Geochemical variations across the arc.
Element or ratio
Interpretation
^/RZ-K subalkaline basalts occur at the arc; moderate-K

subalkaline basalts occur just behind the arc and alkaline basalts
occur well behind the arc. No systematic change in K2O content
occurs with depth to the seismic zone [91].
Ba/La
^&XLODSDDQG,SDODJUDEHQ%D/DGURSVVKDUSO\LPPHGLDWHO\EHKLQG
the volcanic front but does not change across the backarc region
[89].
Honduras: some evidence for progressive change across the volcanic
front and into the backarc [14].
10
^+RQGXUDV10Be/9Be decreases across the Gulf of Fonseca [14].
Be/9Be
Sr, Nd isotopes
^+RQGXUDV6U1GLVRWRSHUDWRVGHFUHDVHDFURVVWKH*XOIRI)RQVHFD
[14].
Pb isotopes
^&uilapa and Ipala graben: Pb isotopes become more radiogenic
across the arc because of assimilation of increasingly older
continental crust [89].
Ba/La in melt inclusions ^&XLODSDDQG,SDODJUDEHQDGHFUHDVHLQ%D/DDFURVVWKHEDFN-arc
region [83]. Apparently, a subtle decrease in a subduction signal.
alkalies
The available evidence suggests that the volcanic front [11] and second line [14] have a
gradient of decreasing slab signal with distance behind the volcanic front, a feature
found in many arcs. In contrast, the backarc subalkaline volcanic fields extend from
the volcanic front to distances well behind the current Wadati-Benioff zone but show
no obvious internal gradients in isotopic or incompatible element ratios that would be
expected if a flux from the descending slab was the main trigger for melting. The only
exception is a cross-arc decrease in Ba/La in melt inclusions hosted by olivine crystals
in a few Ipala graben cinder cones [83]. These subalkaline volcanic fields do have a
definite subduction signal [89], which is substantially below that of the volcanic front
and somewhat higher than the Yojoa lake basalts that appear to have very little
subduction related component [14].
The volcanic front and second line are made of composite volcanoes with calcalkaline fractionation style. Within these groups there are cross arc decreases in
subduction component and in degree of melting with distance from the trench. The
subalkaline monogenetic fields have a subduction component but show little evidence
of change in that component proceeding away from the volcanic front.
22.7
TERTIARY VOLCANISM
The current framework for the Tertiary volcanic stratigraphy in Central America was
clearly described in Salvador [92] and summarized by Weyl [1]. Reynolds [93] found
the same stratigraphic sequence in southeast Guatemala and proposed a regional
stratigraphic framework by including previous studies from Honduras, Nicaragua and
other areas of Guatemala. Ehrenborg [94] proposed that some formations in central
583
Nicaragua could be subdivided on the basis of volcanic facies. This approach is useful
in regions of mafic volcanism as highly eroded cones may lack mapable layers, but can
be divided into different proximal and distal volcanic facies.
Much remains to be learned about the timing and extent of Tertiary volcanism. The
ability of field geologists to define separate units suggests a discontinuous production
of magma. McBirney at al. [95] used K/Ar dating and estimates of the volumes of
volcanic units to propose pulses in magma production with a time scale of roughly
5 Ma in Central America. In contrast, the distribution of silicic tephras in Caribbean
cores offshore of eastern Central America [96] show that volcanic productivity has
distinct peaks in the Eocene (50 Ma) and the Middle Miocene (15 Ma). For
stratospheric winds, the Caribbean sites are downwind of Central American volcanoes.
In contrast, the prevailing winds in the troposphere are to the west, driving small, low
ash plumes into the Pacific. Thus, the Caribbean cores predominantly record the history
of very large silicic eruptions.
Rogers et al. [97] propose a tear in the subducted Cocos plate that results in a gap in
the downgoing plate, through which aesthenosphere rises, causing heating and uplift of
the Tertiary volcanic plateau. The argument for substantial uplift is based on
hypsometry and on extensive entrenched river channels that cut the Tertiary ignimbrite
plateau. New seismic tomography for the region shows the descending Cocos plate as
an inclined high velocity region extending from the surface to a depth of about 200 km
[97]. Below this is a region that lacks the high velocities expected for a subducting
slab, creating an apparent gap of 300 km. At a depth of about 500 km, tomography
again images high velocities consistent with a descending slab. The late Tertiary uplift
is directly above the apparent gap in the slab, suggesting a tear in the slab caused by the
arrival of young, hot and buoyant oceanic crust from the East Pacific rise (EPR). This
buoyant crust formed during a period of very fast EPR spreading in the interval
between 19 and 10 Ma. The age of the uplift, though not well constrained, is between
about 4 Ma and 10 Ma.
The degree of continuity in magma production remains an important problem. The
land record and the marine record agree that there were major increases in the Middle
Miocene and Eocene. Are the smaller scale pulses described by McBirney et al. [95]
real or are they a function of sparse and unrepresentative sampling? The answer will
come after much more extensive study of the Tertiary geology.
22.7.1 Tertiary geochemistry

Plank et al. [98] built on the work of Nystrm et al. [99] to define the first along arc
variation in incompatible element ratios for Tertiary lavas. They found opposite results
for Ba/La and U/Th, the two ratios that best define the modern, subduction related
variations along the arc. For Ba/La, the late Tertiary (Miocene and Pliocene) regional
variation in Nicaragua was identical to the modern variation pattern. However, the
regional variation in U/Th, which is parallel to Ba/La in recent lavas, is absent in the
late Tertiary lavas, which have low and constant U/Th, near the normal magmatic
value. The Ba/La and U/Th subduction signals originate in the sediment section, but the
sediment has changed drastically with time [66]. Prior to about 10 Ma, the sediments
were carbonate oozes. A change in marine geochemistry in the eastern Pacific, called
the carbonate crash [100] resulted in a profound change in marine sedimentation.
From 10 my to the present, the dominant sediment near the Middle America trench has
been hemipelagic mud. The U content of this mud has increased over time. For at least
the last 5 Ma, the U content of subducting sediments has been high and the U/Th ratio
has been anomalously high, about 1.5. Subduction of these U rich sediments is the
cause of the elevated values of U/Th that define the modern regional variation. The
lack of a regional variation in this ratio in the late Tertiary is simply a reflection of the
very different sedimentary input.
The similarity between late Tertiary and modern Ba/La values reflects the near
constancy of the Ba content and Ba/La ratio over the last 20 Ma in the Cocos plate
sediment section [66]. The extremely high Ba content of these sediments is the result of
continuously high biological productivity in this subtropical region. For the Tertiary
volcanics, the regional variation in Ba/La discovered in Nicaragua has been extended
northwest across El Salvador [101] and southeast across Costa Rica ([69] and Gans,
pers. comm., 2003). The temporal stability of the regional variation in Ba/La is quite
surprising given the large shifts in the volcanic front over time [98]. This clearly is an
important problem to guide future study of the mafic lavas in the Tertiary.
22.8
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF VOLCANISM AND

GEOCHEMISTRY
Central America is one of the best places in the world to study volcanoes because there
are many volcanic centers and they are closely spaced and easy to reach. The level of
volcanic activity is high, allowing a mixture of investigations on time scales ranging
from the active process to the long term geological and geochemical evolution of the
arc.
Volcanism is concentrated in a narrow volcanic front that extends approximately
1100 km and includes 39 volcanic centers. Volcanism extends across the volcanic front
to as much as 200 km into the backarc. The backarc volcanism allows assessment of
cross-arc geochemical variations and provides insight into the components mixing in at
the roots of the volcanic centers. In general, the volcanic front has phenocryst rich
lavas, high Al2O3 contents and high ratios of fluid mobile/fluid immobile elements.
These characteristics imply a water-rich flux as the cause of most volcanic front
magmas. The backarc lavas have moderate to quite low contents of slab-derived
elements. Their eruption sites are primarily in areas of crustal extension, suggesting
that the major factor causing melting is decompression. The separation between
decompression melts in the backarc and flux melts at the volcanic front is by no means
rigorous; there is much overlap.
Remarkable regional variations in geochemical parameters make Central America a
useful testing ground for theories for the origin of many features of arc geochemistry.
Nicaraguan lavas have some of the globally highest levels of slab tracers such as
10
Be/9Be and Ba/La. The area of high slab signal extends across Nicaragua between the
volcanoes Cosigina and Masaya. Northwest of Cosigina, the slab signal decreases
gradually across El Salvador and Guatemala. In contrast, the slab signal drops
precipitously to the southeast from Masaya to Concepcin volcanoes. Across Costa
Rica, the slab signals are low and an isotopically distinct source occurs between Arenal
and Iraz volcanoes in central Costa Rica.
The fundamental geochemical variation along the Central American volcanic front
is the inverse relationship between Ba/La, an indicator of slab flux, and La/Yb, an
indicator of degree of melting. Higher concentrations of flux (Ba/La) cause higher
585
degrees of melting (lower La/Yb) in a regionally systematic manner. The underlying

tectonic cause of this variation has not yet been convincingly explained.
An apparent binary mixing array, the local array, occurs at most volcanic centers in
U/La versus Ba/Th space. These two ratios provide maximum separation between the
two sediment layers on the Cocos plate; the lower carbonate section and the upper
hemipelagic section. The array found in the volcanoes is parallel to the mixing array
between the two sediment layers. The local array varies along the arc. Where the
sediment signal is small, the array shrinks and moves closer to typical mantle values.
Where the sediment signal is strong, the array expands and moves closer to the bulk
sediment mixing line. The local array suggests that two fluxes emerge from the
subducted slab and subsequently mix, one that has MORB-carbonate input and another
that has an additional strong input from the hemipelagic sediments. Moreover, the local
arrays for different volcanic centers are subparallel, indicating that, at any individual
volcano, the two fluxes have similar magnitude, as if some overriding process delivers
the two components in consistently the same proportions.
The methodology recommended by McBirney [2] to consider individual parts of the
volcanic chain and examine separate groups of volcanoes within a restricted volcanic
field has proven to be the key to uncovering the diversity of Central American magmas
and discovering their remarkable geographic variations.
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Chapter 23
Petrogenesis of ignimbrites
THOMAS VOGEL, LINA C. PATINO, GUILLERMO E. ALVARADO AND
WILLIAM I. ROSE
The formation of approximately 10,000 km3
of acid magmas, which built up the
ignimbrite covers of Central America, is a
petrogenetic problem which still has not
been solved. The discussion on the origin
of the Central America ignimbrites in fact
reveals that, as more data are gathered, so a
solution to the problem becomes even more
difficult to find. R. Weyl: Geology of
Central America, 1980.
23.1
INTRODUCTION
The regional geochemical studies of volcanic rocks in Central America have been
focused on the chemical variation of Pliocene to Holocene lavas [14] and Cretaeceous
to Miocene accreted mafic to ultramafic rocks (ophiolites s.l.) [57]. In contrast,
studies of the silicic ignimbrites and related deposits are not common, and studies
integrating the variation of silicic volcanic deposits throughout Central America have
not been done. Understanding the spatial geochemical variation of silicic volcanic
deposits along the recent and old volcanic fronts is important to better constrain
evolution of Central American arc volcanism. This understanding will lead to better
models for this dangerous type of volcanic eruptions.
This chapter focuses on silicic deposits, predominantly ignimbrites and related
deposits, of Miocene to Holocene age in Central American from Guatemala to Panama.
In Belize there are no reports of ignimbrites and in Panama little has been published. In
this chapter we use the definition of ignimbrites given by Cas and Wright [8] as the
rock or deposit formed from pumiceous pyroclastic flows irrespective of the degree of
welding or volume.. Data from obsidian flows are not included in this review because
they tend to be low-volume deposits when compared to the voluminous ignimbrite
eruptions in Central America. This review gives an overview of what is known about
the occurrence, age, distribution and chemical characteristics of the silicic ignimbrites
and related pyroclastic deposits. We then place them in a regional tectonic framework
and explore the origin of these silicic magmas. For our purposes, silicic magmas are
defined as those with silica content greater than 65 wt%.
Central America has been divided into four main tectonic blocks of different crustal
origins: the northern Maya and Chortis blocks and the southern Chorotega and Choc
blocks [9]. An important contrast for the origin of silicic igimibrites is that the Maya
and Chortis block consist of a basement of crystalline Paleozoic rocks (evolved
continental basement), whereas in the Chorotega and Choc blocks there is no
crystalline Paleozoic basement. The Chorotega and Choc blocks are made up of an
over-thickened oceanic crust, the Caribbean large igneous province (CLIP), which was
emplaced in the Cretaceous [9]. Although there is no consensus on the location of the
boundary between the Chortis and the Chorotega blocks, it is important for this study to
note that in contrast to the northern part of Central America, the southern part of
Central America is not underlain by old evolved continental crust (> 200 Ma).
23.2
IGNIMBRITE CHARACTERISTICS
The ignimbrites and related deposits in Central America contain the full textural
spectrum of ignimbrites that occur worldwide. They vary laterally from very welded,
displaying eutaxitic texture, to unwelded. In general, the Quaternary ignimbrites of
Guatemala are unwelded, whereas welding is a common characteristic of ignimbrites
elsewhere in Central America. Rheomorphic textures are present in some outcrops. The
thickness of individual composite flow units can be as large as 100 m or more (e.g., Ro
Liberia tuff, Costa Rica), but are typically only meters to tens of meters thick. The
deposits are commonly massive, but occasionally stratified. Co-ignimbrite lag breccias
are common (e.g., La Ese, Costa Rica). Prismatic jointing, degassing pipes, vapourphase crystallization (lithophysae structures), and devitrification (e.g., Tirib tuff, Costa
Rica) are common. Ground surges or lithic rich ground layers, are commonly present.
Ash cloud surges are a conspicuous feature of the Los Chocoyos ash but are uncommon
in other Central American ignimbrites, and the ash cloud falls are usually only
preserved on the marine or lacustrine basins. The Los Chocoyos ash, Guatemala is
found all over northern Central America, into Mexico and in ocean cores from the gulf
of Florida, including the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea and the Equatorial Pacific
as far south as Ecuador [10]. Ignimbrites occur as valley-filling deposits, but ignimbrite
plateaus are common in northern Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Honduras. Concentrations
of lithic fragments, pumice fragments and crystals vary locally, as do charcoal trees
(Los Chocoyos ash, Guatemala and Tirib tuff, Costa Rica). Accretional lapilli are also
common.
23.2.1 Geographic and age distribution

Large volume silicic volcanic deposits occur from Guatemala to Panama. Although
most PleistoceneHolocene volcanism has been concentrated near the active volcanic
front, MiocenePliocene ignimbrites cover a wide area of the interior, especially in
central Honduras and northwestern Nicaragua [9, 11]. The geographic and age
distribution of the ignimbrites of Central America are shown in Figure 23.1. In the last
15 Myr, there have been three periods of intensive volcanic activity in Central America
[2]. The first occurred at about 14 Ma, the second between 6 and 3 Ma, and the third
between 1 and 0 Ma. The compositions of the volcanic products during these periods
range from basalt to rhyolite. The most vigorous period with respect to both, in volume
and activity, occurred during the Middle Miocene, peaking at 14 Ma [2, 12, 13].
23.2.2 Cretaceous submarine ignimbrites

Albian to Campanian pumice-rich deposits, interbedded in radiolarites, siliceous
Figure 23.1. Distribution of ignimbrites in Central America.
593
limestones, black shale, volcanic sandstones and wackes are locally interpreted as
ignimbrites deposited in a marine environment. They are exposed in isolated outcrops
found on the Nicoya peninsula [14]. Similar-appearing isolated outcrops are present in
other areas throughout Central America, but studies to characterize these deposits have
not been done.
23.2.3 OligocenePliocene ignimbrites

The earliest records of large silicic eruptions in Central America are in cores from
marine basins by the Ocean Drilling Project (ODP). The ODP cores have recorded two
of the largest silicic eruptions in Central America with volumes estimated to be
> 100 km3 [13]. The first was Mid-Eocene (~46 Ma) to Early Oligocene (~32 Ma),
which correlate with the Matagalpa and Morazn formations in Guatemala, El
Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua [15], although recent 40Ar/39Ar dates for the
Matagalpa formation in Nicaragua are too young to support this correlations (see
below) [16]. The second was Oligocene/Miocene (~23 Ma) to the Mid-Miocene, which
has been correlated with the Chalatenango, Padre Miguel and Coyol groups in
Guatemala-El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua, respectively [15]. Also, ignimbrite
boulders occur in Eocene marine conglomerates (turbidites) at Punta Descartes in Costa
Rica (Fig. 23.1).
Older ignimbrite stratigraphy and geochemistry in Central America are poorly
known. Weisemann [17] described the Morazn formation as the Oligocene to Middle
Miocene volcanics in El Salvador. Reynolds [18, 19] summarized the stratigraphy of
the Miocene to Pliocene ignimbrite units in northern Central America. Reynolds notes
two formations, one from the Middle to Upper Miocene (Chalatenango) and a younger
one from the Pliocene (Cuscatln). The Chalatenango formation consists of largevolume rhyolitic welded tuffs and lavas. The source of large-volume tuffs is from the
Santa Rosa de Lima caldera (34 26 km), Guatemala [19]. This unit is contemporaneous
with the lowest formation in the Padre Miguel group in Honduras and the Coyol
group in Nicaragua [15].
Newhall [20] described the ignimbrite eruptions from the Atitln region in
Guatemala. The Atitln caldera (15 25 km) formed by three cycles of stratavolcano
growth, each with multiple silicic eruptions before caldera formation. The first cycle,
Atitln I occurred 14 to 11 Ma, the second cycle, Atitln II occurred 10 to 8 Ma, and
the third cycle, Atitln III occurred from 1 Ma to ~30 Ka (see Pleistocene Holocene
section). The large-volume silicic deposits of Atitln I consist of at least five or more
voluminous and lithologically similar tuffs, informally named the Mara Tecn tuffs.
Only the uppermost Mara Tecn tuff has been dated with a K/Ar biotite date of 11.6
0.5 Ma [20]. These Atitln I tuffs are exposed over a large area in the western
Guatemalan highlands with a composite thickness of more than 1 km and in general
they contain as much as 50% phenocrysts consisting of quartz, plagioclase, sanidine,
biotite and hornblende [20].
The large-volume silicic deposits of Atitln II, the San Jorge tuff, consists of 3 to 4
km3 of dense rock equivalent (DRE) and an additional 10 to 15 km3 is represented by
the caldera fill [20]. An unknown volume of the tuff has been eroded away from the
areas outside the Atitln II caldera. K/Ar whole rock age for a dike cutting the San
Jorge tuff is 8.4 0.4 Ma [20]. Large volume silicic deposits from Atitln III will be
discussed in the next section.
Oligocene to Pliocene ignimbrites in Honduras are widespread but poorly studied

and are best known through the work of Williams and McBirney [11]. However
Sigurdsson and coworkers are currently investigating these units [21, 22]. These have
been roughly divided into two groups: (1) an older, more voluminous group of
Miocene age, which occupies a large portion of the central highlands and (2) a younger
group, probably of Late Miocene to Pliocene age that occurs in the region bordering the
Gulf of Fonseca. Ignimbrites of the older group tend to form extensive plateaus,
whereas those of the younger group tend to form the caps of mesas y cuestas (tables
and slopes) adjacent to the Gulf of Fonseca. Based on the limited data available to us
the ignimbrites from Honduras are mainly rhyolite, but many samples plot near the
dacite-trachydacite boundary (on the TAS classification [11, 23]). The mineralogy of
the ignimbrites is dominated by quartz, sanidine, plagioclase and biotite. In most
rhyolitic units, phenocrysts of quartz and alkali feldspar are more abundant than
plagioclase. In some units pyroxene and hornblende are common. Many of the
ignimbrites reported are crystal rich, containing twenty-five percent or more
phenocrysts [11]. Only 14 chemical analyses are available for the silicic ignimbrites
[11]. Rhyolites are the most abundant composition in this group. There are no studies
that identify the caldera sources for the ignimbrites. The Padre Miguel group [11] refers
to an ignimbrite sequence that occurs over much of western Honduras and
southwestern Guatemala. The ignimbrites may come from several caldera sources and
were deposited over a considerable time (5 to 30 Ma [24]). Estimated thickness of this
group is 300 to 1000 m [11]. In the Platanares area of Honduras the maximum
thickness is 310 m with K/Ar age constraints that range from 14.2 to 14.7 Ma [24]. In
this region there are at least eight units, all but one is unwelded. The unwelded units
range in thickness from 5 to 70 m with 5 to 20% phenocrysts of quartz, sanidine and
fewer amounts of plagioclase, biotite, hornblende and ilmenite. Sources for the tuffs of
the Padre Miguel group at Platanares are not known, but they extend southward to a
probable caldera complex 20 km south of Platanares and it is likely that there are
multiple sources for the Padre Miguel tuffs [24].
In Nicaragua there are only limited data for the Oligocene to Pliocene ignimbrites.
These ignimbrites and associated volcanic rocks in Nicaragua have been divided into
the Matagalpa and Coyol groups [15]. The Matagalpa group is characterized by
rhyolitic to dacitic ignimbrite [15] and most ages fall between 18 and 31 Myr (both
K/Ar and 40Ar/39Ar dates) [16], although they report one 40Ar/39Ar date as 17.61 0.24
Ma. The Coyol group has been divided into two groups, a lower and an upper unit [25],
and this sequence has been reinterpreted [15] to represent repeated stratigraphic
sequences. The middle part of the sequence is dominated by dacitic to rhyolitic
pyroclastic flows and Viray [26] has been able to divide these units based on pumice
fragment chemical compositions of the pumice fragments (Table 23.1). One of the
sources of the ignimbrites from the Coyol group is El Limn caldera in Nicaragua [15]
and it is located behind the Neogene volcanic front. The Coyol group has been dated by
40
Ar/39Ar whole rock method as 18.5 0.4 m.y. [15]. The Coyol groups contain
phenocrysts of plagioclase, clinopyroxene with occasional orthopyroxene and Fe-Ti
oxides [26].
The Miocene to Pliocene silicic ignimbrites of Costa Rica are among the best
studied in Central America. The earliest Miocene record of silicic volcanism in
northern Costa Rica is the voluminous Carbonal dacitic lava flow (7.8 0.16 Ma [27]),
which contains plagioclase, clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene, along with Fe-Ti oxides.
The Santa Rosa plateau, an extensive ignimbrite sequence (ca. 2400 km) overlies the
595
Table 23.1. Summary of silicic ignimbrites in Central America.

Country/unit
Source
Volume
Age
I2-I4 fall
Los Chocoyos and H fall
W fall and pyroclastic flow
San Jorge tuff + pumiceous
caldera fill
Mara Tecn tuffs
Atitln III
Atitln III
Atitln III
Atitln II
7 km3
250280 km3
510 km3
1319 km3
> 40 ka [34]
84 ka [34]
158 ka [34]
8.45 Ma [20]
Atitln I
11.6 Ma [20]
9 units (L, Z1Z5, T, E)

Pios Altos-Tapalalapa
Mixta
Custcatln (~ upper Padre
Miguel)
Chalatenango Fm. (~ lower
Padre Miguel and Coyol)
Matagalpa
Amatitlan
Ayarza
Ayarza
?
Up to 1000 m
thick
6080 km3
2 km3
< 1 km3
?
Santa Rosa de
Lima
?
15.79.4 Ma [15, 19]
Oligocene [15]
Pliocene [11]
MiddleUpper Miocene[11]
Coatepeque
Coatepeque
Coatepeque
?
Ilopango
Ilopango
?
6 km3
17 km3
0.4 km3
?
1520 km3
?
?
56.9 ka [34]
72 ka [34]
77 ka [34]
0.35 Ma [34]
430 yr AD [34, 36, 42]
< 56 ka [34]
Oligocene Mid-Miocene [17]
Guatemala
< 23191 ka [34]

23 ka [34]
27 ka [34]
4 Ma [19]
Honduras
Upper formations, Padre
Miguel group
Lower formation, Padre
Miguel group
El Salvador
Congo
Arce
Bellavista
Empalizada
TBJ (Tierra Blanca Joven)
TB2TB4
Morazan (~Matagalpa)
Carbonal flow and occurs in the Pacific water-sheds of the Guanacaste range. The
Santa Rosa plateau (Bagaces formation) is of Upper Miocene to Late Pliocene age [28].
It consists of a series of ignimbrites with minor interbedded lava flows and terrigenous
sediments [27, 29]. The Bagaces formation incorporates numerous deposits of highly
welded to unwelded deposits. The mineralogy of these units are variable all have
plagioclase phenocrysts, most contain biotite, but a few flows contain hornblende and
pyroxene and no biotite. Preliminary dates indicate that they may be less than 8 Ma
[28]; dating of these flows is in process (Gans, pers. comm. 2003). The volume of the
Bagaces ignimbrite sequence is about 100 40 km, DRE of silicic material. A second
and third episode of ignimbrite eruption occurred at 4.1 and 2.06 Ma [30], both with
unknown caldera sources and informally named the Sandillal and Montano units,
respectively. The phenocrysts in both these flows are dominated by plagioclase and
biotite. Occasionally, hornblende occurs. In the Tilarn cordillera known eruptions
occur at 6.0 and 1.5 Ma, but have not been studied in detail [30].
There are few studies of ignimbrites in the Miocene to Pliocene age range in
Panama. Defant and coworkers [31, 32] have studied the ignimbrites and other silicic
volcanic rocks associated with the El Valle volcano and the La Yeguada volcanic
complex. The La Yeguada formation is a series of ignimbrites, breccias and tuffs. It has
K/Ar ages between 10.03 to 12.84 Ma [31]. Silica content for these silicic rocks vary
between 65.9 and 74.6 wt%. With plagioclase, quartz, Fe-Ti oxide, with biotite

Country/unit
Source
Volume
Age
Apoyo
Apoyeque
?
Monte Galn
Malpaisillo/San
Fenando?
Malpaisillo/San
Fenando?
Malpaisillo/San
Fenando?
Malpaisillo/San
Fenando?
El Limon
Calderas near
Condega
?
10.7 km3
?
?
?
?
23 ka [45]
6193 7520 yr [47]
PliocenePleistocene [15, 26]
PliocenePleistocene [15, 26]
12.318.4 Ma [15, 16, 26]
12.318.4 Ma [15, 16, 26]
12.318.4 Ma [15, 16, 26]
12.318.4 Ma [15, 16, 26]
?
?
12.318.4 Ma [15, 16, 26]

12.318.4 Ma [15, 16, 26]
17.632.1 Ma [16]
Barva
?
Guachipeln
?
?
?
25 km3
125 km3
25 km3 (DRE)
?
?
100 40 km3
0.322 Ma [52]
0.565 Ma [30, 89]
1.311.47 Ma [30, 89]
2.06 Ma [30, 89]
4.15 Ma [30, 89]
4 Ma [30, 57, 89]
El Valle
El Valle
La Yeguada
La Yeguada
La Yeguada
?
?
?
?
?
0.22 Ma [32]
1.33 Ma [32]
9.73 Ma [31]
10.53 14.70 [31]
Miocene [31]
Nicaragua
Apoyo
Apoyeque
Las Sierras
Monte Galn
San Rafael
Ostocal
Guanacaste
Las Banderas
Las Maderas
Coyol
Matagalpa
Costa Rica
Tirib
Alto Palomo
Guachipeln
Montano
Sandillal
Bagaces
Panama
India Dormida
El Hato
El Satro
La Yeguada
Mano de Palon
reported in one sample [32]. Also associated with this is the Mano de Pelon silicic lava
flow with an age of 9.73 0.49 Ma. It is part of the older group of volcanic deposits
[31]. The La Yeguada formation occurs in an area just north of the Azuero peninsula
and its possible equivalent has been recognized along the western extension of the
Serrana de Tabasara [33]. Defant and coworkers [31] defined a younger group in
which the silicic deposits are dominated by silicic domes. Two K/Ar dates have been
reported as 4.47 0.23 Ma and 1.38 0.08 Ma and two Pleistocene to Holocene dates
(discussed below) [31]. The Guacamayo dacitic lava flow is associated with the El
Valle volcano with a K/Ar age of 10.19 0.37 Ma and a silica content about 67 wt%
[31].
23.2.4 Pleistocene to Holocene ignimbrites

Large ignimbrite deposits cover Pleistocene volcanic structures in Guatemala and El
Salvador. However, younger, Holocene volcanic structures sit on top of a silicic
ignimbrite (Los Chocoyos Ash [10, 34]), which is stratigraphic marker dated at 84 5
ka. In the southern part of the volcanic front, ignimbrites underlay the Pleistocene
volcanoes [2].
597
The spacing between the rhyolitic volcanic calderas in Guatemala and El Salvador
averages 90 km; in Costa Rica the spacing is 50 km. In contrast, overall in Central
America the basaltic-andesitic centers have a spacing of 25 km [2]. In Guatemala and
El Salvador, five major rhyolitic volcanic centers (calderas) are offset from the
volcanic front, behind the modern arc [34], and silicic ignimbrites cover large areas in
these countries [35, 36]. Estimates for Central America volcanic production rate is of
3162 km3/Ma/km-arc [37]. Conservative estimates for volume of the silicic
ignimbrites and related deposits are between 300 and 500 km3, which are less than 200
ka, are similar to the estimated volume of andesitic and basaltic lavas erupted from the
youngest volcanic front volcanoes [34].
Rose and coworkers [34] presented high-resolution stratigraphy of silicic volcanism
during the Late Pleistocene to Holocene (< 200 ka) from 5 calderas from Guatemala
and El Salvador: Atitln, Amatitln, Ayarza, Coatepeque, and Ilopango (Table 23.1).
The most voluminous unit of recent eruptions from the Atitln caldera, Guatemala,
formed in the Atitln III cycle and resulted in the Los Chocoyos eruption consisting of
150160 km3 of tephra fall and 100120 km3 of silicic ignimbrite [20]. The tephra-fall
unit is a stratigraphic marker for almost all of Central America [34]. The silicic
pyroclastic units from Atitln III commonly contain phenocrysts of plagioclase, quartz,
and biotite, with lesser amounts of hornblende, cummingtonite, orthopyroxene and
clinopyroxene, along with trace phases of Fe-Ti oxides, apatite and zircon. Usually the
samples contain biotite or hornblende, but not both [38]. The Amatitln silicic
pyroclastic deposits consist of a series of 9 units that erupted between 300 and 23 ka
with a volume of at least 70 km3 [39]. These silicic pyroclastic units contain
phenocrysts of plagioclase and sparse quartz, biotite and/or hornblende, and rare
sanidine and orthopyroxene [39]. The two pyroclastic deposits from Ayarza are
relatively small volume (2.1 km3), but are important because of the spectacular basaltrhyolite magma mingling character of the oldest eruption [40]. Ages of the two are 27
1.6 ka and 23 0.5 ka. The silicic end member contains phenocrysts of plagioclase and
biotite along with trace amounts of Fe-Ti oxides [40]. Eruptions from Coatepeque have
produced approximately 24 km3 DRE of pyroclastic material and are associated with
three major and one minor eruption (Bellavista, Arce, and Congo deposits) [34, 41].
Active geothermal exploration by Comisin Ejecutiva Hidroelctrica del Ro Lempa
has refined the stratigraphy and age relationships for these deposits [34]. Ages for the
Arce tephras based on K/Ar sanidine are 70 2 ka and a minimum age of 40 ka for the
Congo tephras based on limits of the 14C method [34]. Ilopango consists of four
pyroclastic events and that constrained to the last 56 ka years based on stratigraphic
relations [34]. The youngest silicic pyroclastic eruption (AD 429 20 years [42]) is
from Ilopango caldera in El Salvador, which consists of air falls and ignimbrites with a
volume estimated between 15 and 20 km3 (DRE) of material. The phenocrysts of this
unit consist mainly of plagioclase and hornblende with lesser amounts of hypersthene,
clinopyroxene and opaques [36]. The most recent silicic eruption from Ilopango caldera
occurred in 1880 when dacite dome erupted that contained impressive evidence of
mingling with a mafic magma [43].
No Pleistocene to Holocene ignimbrites have been reported in Honduras and in
Belize.
In Nicaragua there are three ignimbrite shields [44]. The northern Malpaisillo shield
has little topographic expression, whereas the southern most Las Sierras shield is nearly
1 km above sea-level. The Malpaisillo ignimbrites outcrop around the Monte GalnMomotombo area. The most recent ignimbrites come from the Monte Galn caldera
Figure 23.2. Frequency distribution (in percent) of wt% SiO2 in lavas from the active arc and
ignimbrites (unshaded) for each country in Central America (Panama and Honduras are
omitted because of the lack of data for ignimbrites). Number of samples is shown in each
diagram.
and older ones probably from the Malpaisillo and San Fenando structures [44]. A large
ignimbrite shield volcano dominates the volcanic front south of Momotombito with the
main caldera enclosing the Masaya volcano. Ignimbrites from this caldera occur 50 km
from the center, and have filled valleys near Las Maderas in the Nicaraguan depression
[15]. The upper layer of this ignimbrite, near Diramba, has been dated from a carbon
sample at 29,500 yr BP [45]. The pyroclastic deposits of the Nicaraguan depression
have been divided into two sections: an upper section, informally named the Managua
group and a lower section that includes a series of ash-flow tuffs named the Las Sierras
group. Las Sierras group includes ash-flows tuffs of Pleistocene age [45], however their
ages are poorly constrained and may be older [46]. These tuffs are located to the west
of the modern volcanic front. Viray [26] has shown there are at least two distinct ashflow units within the Las Sierras group and has informally named one of these the
Monte Galn tuff (Table 23.1). The Las Sierras group correlates with the Cuscatln
formation, Guatemala, and the Upper Padre Miguel, Honduras. Detail radiogenic dating
and fieldwork are needed to estimate the age and volume of the different units.
The most recent eruption in the Managua sequence is the Apoyeque pyroclastic
deposits that erupted 6193 to 7520 years ago based on carbon dates [47] with an
unknown volume, but most likely less than 5 km3. The Masaya volcano lies within the
Las Sierras caldera where the present active volcano is enclosed within the 2000 to
4000 year old Masaya caldera, which was formed during an 8 km3 ignimbrite- and
surge-producing eruption [48]. Ignimbrite and pumice fall erupted from Apoyo
23,000 yr BP with a volume of 11 km3 [45].
Most of the Pleistocene to Holocene units in Nicaragua are crystal poor, containing
599
Figure 23.3. Normative albite (ab) + anorthite (an) quartz (Q) orthoclase (or) and albite (ab)
orthoclase (or) anorthite (an) triangular diagrams for the ignimbrites of Central America.
phenocrysts of plagioclase, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, with occasional crystals of

hornblende [26, 46]. Only one unit contains abundant hornblende phenocrysts, the
upper Apoyeque unit [46].
In Costa Rica the youngest silicic deposit in the north is La Ese member that ranges
in age from 0.63 to 0.89 Ma [27, 30] and is associated with the Guayabo caldera, the
precursor to Miravalles volcano. It is a crystal-poor unit containing phenocrysts of
plagioclase, quartz, clinopyroxene and hornblende with occasional xenocrysts of
olivine. Three other episodes of ignimbrite eruptions in northern Costa Rica have been
recognized from field relationships and radiogenic dating. The youngest is an unnamed
silicic flow dated at 1.18 Ma. The next episode is tentatively associated with the
Guachipeln-Alcantaro caldera, a precursor to Rincn de La Vieja volcano [27, 28],
with ages of ash-flow tuffs within this episode ranging from 1.31 to 1.47 Ma [30]. This
is a crystal-rich unit containing phenocrysts of plagioclase, quartz, biotite, hornblende,
clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene. The next episode is a biotite-rich flow that is a
marker unit and often directly overlies the Bagaces formation (see above). This unit is
one of the largest known ignimbrite eruptions in the Pleistocene (1.41.80 Ma) in
Guanacaste [27, 28, 30, 49]. It is a crytal-rich ignimbrite with phenocrysts of
plagioclase, quartz, biotite, hornblende and occasionally orthopyroxene, which covers
an area of ca. 4000 km2 (corresponding to 34 km3 of ignimbrite erupted volume).
In the Central valley region of Costa Rica, the Tirib formation represents the latest
example of silicic volcanism and has been dated at 0.322 0.02 Ma and is the beststudied ignimbrite in Costa Rica [5052, 61]. It is chemically zoned from 55.4 wt% to 68.4
wt% SiO2. Crystal content varies based on silica content. The lowest silica samples
contain plagioclase, clinopyroxene and small amounts of olivine and Fe-Ti oxides. The
high-silica samples are crystal-poor rhyolites, and are nearly aphyric, with crystals
consisting of plagioclase, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, rare alkali feldspar and
magnetite. It covers about 500 km2 and has a volume of about 25 km3 (15 km3 DRE;
[50, 52]).
The Alto Palomo unit [53] in central Costa Rica consists of a series of non-welded,
dacitic to rhyolitic ignimbrites that range from 0.44 to 0.57 Ma [30], and consists of at
least two ignimbrites. One is the Alto Palomo formation (0.57 Ma), which contains
phenocrysts of plagioclase, clinopyroxene, hornblende and Fe-Ti oxides and is
characterized by mingling of basaltic magma as small streaks and clots in the pumice
Figure 23.4. Na2O + K2O versus SiO2 classification diagrams for ignimbrites [23]: (a) All of
Central America showing ignimbrites > 4 Ma with those < 4 Ma; (b) Guatemala ignimbrites;
(c) Honduras ignimbrites; (d) El Salvador ignimbrites; (e) Nicaragua ignimbrites; (f) Costa
Rica ignimbrites. Panama omitted because of small number of analyses for ignimbrites.
Closed symbols are PleistoceneHolocene, open symbols are MiocenePliocene; In Costa
Rica crosses are northern Costa Rica; triangles are central Costa Rica (Tirib Fm.).
samples. The other is the Palmito unit (0.44 Ma), which contains phenocrysts of
plagioclase, hornblende, biotite and quartz; its distribution and volume are very poorly
known. In Panama there have been only two references (Table 23.1) to Pleistocene
Holocene silicic ignimbrites and associated deposits and these occur at El Valle
volcano [32] and LaYeguada volcanic complex [31]. At El Valle volcano the age of the
domes is 1.55 0.25 Ma (SiO2 66.268.7 wt% SiO2) and the India Dormida ignimbrite
is 0.22 0.07 Ma (65.5 wt% SiO2) [32]. Dacite domes associated with La Yeguada
volcanic complex range in age from 1.38 to 0.22 Ma [31]. These younger silicic rocks
associated with both El Valle volcano and La Yeguada complex have high Sr and low
Y concentrations, which Defant et al. [31, 32, 54] interpreted to be melts of the hot,
601
young subducting slab, distinguishing them from other silicic rocks in Central America.
These will be discussed further in the next section.
23.3
VARIATION ALONG THE ARC
23.3.1 Mineralogical trends along the arc

Most ignimbrites are dominated by plagioclase as the most abundant phenocryst phase.
A common assemblage contains subordinate amounts of sub-calcic augite, hypersthene
and occasionally amphibole. In some assemblages the mafic minerals are hydrous
ferromagnesian minerals such as amphibole or biotite, or both. These hydrous minerals
and quartz are not common in Nicaragua [26], nor in the Tirib formation, the youngest
unit in Costa Rica [50]. In addition, Fe-Ti oxides, apatite and quartz are common in
most ignimbrites. With the exception of Honduras [11] alkali feldspars are generally
rare in Central American ignimbrites [2, 26, 50].
The calderas that produced the large volume of silicic deposits in Central America
erupted material that ranges in composition from basalt to rhyolite. Early workers [2,
55] thought that the ignimbrites became more mafic (dacitic) southward along the
volcanic front. However, recent work has shown that rhyolitic ignimbrites and
associated deposits are common in Nicaragua and Costa Rica [15, 26, 30, 45, 49, 53,
56, 57].
23.3.2 Chemical trends along the arc

In comparing the compositional variation of the ignimbrites and related deposits with
the lavas from the modern volcanic front, the ignimbrites are dominated by high-silica
compositions (Fig. 23.2). Histograms of silica weight percent for all of the erupted
deposits along the Central American arc show a bimodal distribution with a mode at 55
wt% SiO2, for the lavas, and a mode at 69 wt% SiO2, for the ignimbrites and related
deposits (Fig. 23.2). Although the high-silica compositions are dominant in all of the
ignimbrites and related deposits, significant low-silica compositions occur within these
deposits in Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. However, in
Costa Rica, there are few low-silica compositions, and these are confined to one unit,
Tirib formation in Central Costa Rica. For the arc as a whole, the silicic portions of the
ignimbrites and related deposits (> 65 wt% silica) form a relative tight compositional
distribution, which can best be observed in normative triangular plots of quartzplagioclase-orthoclase and anorthite-albite-orthoclase (Fig. 23.3).
In comparing Oligocene to Pliocene ignimbrites with Pleistocene to Holocene
ignimbrites, in general the overall major-element compositions overlap (Fig. 23.4a).
The field for older ignimbrites and related deposits is nearly identical to the field for
younger deposits. The data set for the silicic volcanic rocks from Costa Rica and
Nicaragua covers the widest time range (0.023 Ma to > 18 Ma); the data set for
Guatemala and El Salvador covers only the most recent events (< 0.2 Ma) (Figs. 23.4b
e). The data from northern Central America do not allow us to make inferences about
temporal - composition variations along the volcanic front. The high alkali area shown
in the PleistoceneHolocene field is due entirely to the Tirib formation in Costa Rica (Fig.
23.4f). Only in Nicaragua is there a significant difference between the older and
younger ignimbrites (Fig. 23.4e), however, data for older (Oligocene to Pliocene)
ignimbrites from Guatemala and El Salvador are limited (Figs. 23.4b and d). The data
for Honduras are limited to few published analyses as shown in Figure 23.4c [11]. In
Panama the older ignimbrites are more silica rich than the Pleistocene to Holocene ones
[31, 32].
Figure 23.5. Ce/Pb versus Ba/La for the Central America ignimbrites (symbols) compare to the
lavas (pattern) from the active arc: (a) MiocenePliocene ignimbrites; (b) Pleistocene
Holocene ignimbrites; note the similarity of trends in the ignimbrites compared to the lavas.
Carr and Stoiber [3] and others (see references in [4]) have shown that there are
geochemical variations along the volcanic front in the modern lavas from Central
America, and these are due to changes in slab dip and slab input. Geochemical
variations also in occur in silicic ignimbrites along the volcanic front, and with respect
to key trace element ratios (see below) these variations are similar to the lavas [26, 30].
Pushkar [55] and others [1, 2, 55] have made a similar observation based on a more
limited dated set. The along-arc variation of trace-element ratios in the silicic volcanic
products in Central America resembles the along-arc variation in the modern basalticandesitic lavas. This similarity of trace-element ratio variation between the modern
basaltic-andesitic lavas and the silicic ignimbrites is important and demonstrates a
genetic connection between the ignimbrites and the lavas from the modern volcanic
front. This will be discussed further below. Sources of the magmas and involvement of
sediments from the subducting slab have been inferred from trace element ratios of
recent lavas [58, 59]. For example in southeastern Nicaragua and northwestern Costa
Rica samples from the modern volcanic front (basalt to andesite) have low Ce/Pb, and
high Ba/Nb, Ba/La and U/Th ratios, indicating a large input from slab fluids. The
ignimbrites mimic the variation in the lavas from the volcanic front. Figure 23.5a and b
show the variation of Ce/Pb versus Ba/La for the PleistoceneHolocene and Miocene
Pliocene ignimbrites compared to lavas from the volcanic front for Central America
(Panama not included in this comparison). In Central Costa Rica, samples from the
modern volcanic front (basalt to andesite) have high Ce/Pb and low Ba/Nb ratios,
indicating a smaller input from the slab. In the silicic ignimbrites, these ratios mimic
those of the lavas from the volcanic front and this is illustrated by Figure 23.6, which
shows Ba/La versus distance along the volcanic front of the ignimbrites compared with
the lavas from the active front. In Nicaragua, Plank and coworkers [59] interpreted the
change in U/Th ratios from Miocene to recent in the volcanics as reflecting the changes
in the nature of organic matter content in the sediment input. The slab contribution for
the older magmas had low U content, reflecting low organic matter in the sediments.
For the younger magmas, the U in the slab component increases due to the higher
organic matter content in the sediments. Our data for U/Th are also consistent with the
603
data from the lavas with the oldest ignimbrites having the lowest U/Th ratios and the
youngest ignimbrites mimicking the lavas from the modern volcanic front (Figs. 23.7a
and b). A major point is that the trace element ratios in the ignimbrites show the same
variation with time as the lavas.
Figure 23.6. Regional variations of Ba/La of ignimbrites compared to lavas; note that the
maximum value of both occur in western Nicaragua.
There are few radiogenic isotopic analyses of ignimbrites from the Central America arc
all are whole-rock analyses. Pushkar [55] reports 87Sr/86Sr ratios for samples from
Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua that range from 0.7035 to 0.7175, higher than for
calc-alkaline lavas from the region. The largest variations observed were from
Honduras, 0.7045 to 0.7175, with the ignimbrites from Guatemala ranging from 0.7044
to 0.7070, and Nicaragua ranging from 0.7035 to 0.7053. In Guatemala a low ratio
(0.70373) is reported from the rhyolite pumice clasts from Ayarza, similar to those of
the mafic scoria in the same unit [40]. Kempter [57] reported three whole-rock Sr and
Nd isotopic analyses of ignimbrites from Guanacaste province of Costa Rica with
values ranging from 0.70386 to 0.70394, and from 0.51301 to 0.51304 respectively.
Hannah [50] reported on four whole-rock pumice samples from the Tirib formation,
Central Costa Rica with Sr and Nd isotopic values of 0.703720.70374, 0.512946
0.512950) respectively values similar to the isotope ratios of Holocene lavas from
the same region (0.70358 to 0.70373 and 0.51288 to 0.51299) [60]. These samples
form two trends when Sr and Nd isotopes are combined (Fig. 23.8).
Figure 23.7. Regional variations of U/Th of ignimbrites compare to the U/Th values in western
Nicaragua: (a) Quaternary ignimbrites; (b) Tertiary ignimbrites; note that in western
Nicaragua the U/Th ratios ignimbrites are similar to the Quaternary and Tertiary
concentrations.
The majority of the mafic samples from the volcanic front show a positive correlation
between these two isotopic systems, which has been explained as the result of mantle
metasomatism with fluids derived from the slab [60]. The other trend is from the
northwestern part of the volcanic front and displays a negative relationship between Sr
and Nd isotopes, which has been interpreted as evidence of crustal contamination [60].
Pushkar [55] also reported Sr isotope ratios for the basement rocks in the northern part
of the arc and found a wide range (0.70370.7481), as expected from a large diversity
of rock types and ages. Magmas derived from the basement rocks from the southern
section of Central America should not be enriched in Nd or Sr isotopic ratios because
of the young age and mafic composition of these rocks.
Figure 23.8. 143Nd/144Nd versus 87Sr/86Sr for lavas and silicic pyroclastic flows and related
deposits along the Central America volcanic front: Trends of lavas are shown by thick
arrows, silicic pumice samples are shown by pluses. Various mantle end members are also
shown (Dmmb = depleted MORB mantle; HIMU = high values; BSE = bulk silicate Earth;
EMI = enriched mantle [90]).
Oxygen isotopic variations of the pyroclastic deposits in Nicaragua and Costa Rica
have recently been studied [61]. Oxygen isotope ratios of phenocrysts (clinopyroxene,
orthopyroxene and magnetite) from ignimbrites and related deposits show an increase
LQ/182IURPQRUWKZHVW1LFDUDJXDWR&HQWUDO&RVWD5LFDRIH[FHSWIRUDORZ/18O
H[FXUVLRQ LQ QRUWKHUQ &RVWD 5LFD :KROH URFN PDJPD /18O values (calculated
assuming equilibrium with the phenocrysts) increase from 5.2 in Nicaragua to 6.7
LQ FHQWUDO &RVWD 5LFD 7KH /18O whole rock (magma) values in Nicaragua are lower
than or equal to oceanic basalt but increase to more normal or higher than oceanic
basalt values in central Costa Rica [61, 62]. Fractionation of primitive magmas would
SURGXFHDVXEWOHLQFUHDVHLQ/18O whole rock vs. SiO2, however this is not the case
WKHUHLVQRFRUUHODWLRQRI/18O with SiO2YDULDWLRQ>@7KH/18O variation of the silicic
samples may be characteristic of the source rock. Incompatible trace element ratios
described above (Ba/La and U/Th), used as indicators of fluid flux from the slab, show
QHJDWLYH FRUUHODWLRQV ZLWK /18O, whereas Ce/Pb (not shown), used as an indicator of
FRQWULEXWLRQIURPWKHPDQWOHGLVSOD\VDSRVLWLYHFRUUHODWLRQZLWK/18O [61].
23.4
PETROGENIC MODELS
It is widely accepted that subduction processes at converging plate boundaries play an

important role in adding juvenile material to the crust, but even though there has been
over 30 years of work on crustal growth models, our understanding of this process is
605
still obscure [63]. Central America provides a unique laboratory for understanding
these processes because the basement varies from old evolved continental crust in the
northwest to modified oceanic plateau in the southeast. If evolved continental crust has
a major role in the evolution of silicic magmas, the chemical characteristic of the silicic
magmas should reflect this variation. In continental arcs, where old evolved continental
crust occurs, it is commonly thought that interaction of mantle-derived magmas with
this evolved crust produces silicic magmas. However, in settings, such as oceanic arcs,
without old and evolved continental crust, the production of silicic magmas has long
been an enigma The absence of silicic magmas in these settings has been generally
attributed to the absence of continental crust [64, 65]. Recently abundant silicic
volcanic in non-continental arc settings have been recognized in the Izu-Bonin arc [64,
66] and in the Kermadec arc [65]. Many workers have documented that abundant silicic
volcanic rocks occur in southern Central America [1, 9, 11, 21, 30, 34, 35, 38, 6769],
however, the petrogenesis of these rocks has not been addressed.
Figure 23.9. K2O/Na2O versus K2O + Na2O of the Central American ignimbrites compare to
some experimental fractional crystallization data. Ignimbrites that are plotted have SiO2
weight percent greater than 65%: Curve 1 is fractional crystallization of hydrous basalt from
MELTS (http://www1.gly.bris.ac.uk/cetsei/melts/Melts.html) runs [76]. The next three
curves are similar MELTS runs with some crustal assimilation added. Curve 2 has
amphibolite plus 3% H2O; curve 3 has tonalite plus 3% H2O. Curve 4 has biotite gneiss plus
3% H2O; All runs are isoenthalpic, QFM at 10 kbar (diagrams modified from Bergantz, pers.
comm., 2005).
One of the major conclusions of this chapter is that in Central America the presence of
evolved continental crust has little effect on the overall chemical trends in the younger
silicic magmas. For example, silicic magmas in Costa Rica, where there is no old
continental crust, are similar to those in Guatemala where evolved Paleozoic crust
occurs. Trace-element patterns and isotopes of the younger silicic magmas in Central
America are affected little by the presence of continental crust. However the nature of
the material being subducted has a large effect on the trace-element composition of
basaltic lavas along the volcanic front. Sources of the magmas for the basaltic lavas and
involvement of the subducting slab have been inferred from trace element ratios [58
60]. The silicic pyroclastic products follow a pattern similar to that in the basaltic
volcanic products. There is no evidence based on trace elements and isotopes that any
of the silicic magmas along the volcanic front in Central America were produced by
large involvement of evolved continental crust. Panama is a unique situation with the
chemical composition of the younger silicic magmas related to melting subduction of
the Nazca plate [31]. Along the volcanic front the similarity in trace element variation
of the silicic ignimbrite and related deposits to the basaltic lavas is a major constraint
Figure 23.10. K2O/Na2O versus K2O + Na2O for basalts (dashed area) and silicic (> 65 wt%
SiO2) pyroclastic flows and related deposits. Dashed area is lavas with 4865 wt% SiO2
some high-Ti lavas from Nicaragua and backarc lavas have been omitted.
for the origin of the silicic ignimbrites. Two major processes are possible to explain the
origin of silicic magmas that mimic the trace element variation observed in the active
volcanic front: crystal fractionation of mantle derived, subduction related magmas, or
partial melting of previously emplaced calc-alkaline magmas. These will be discussed
in detail below.
Crystal fractionation of subduction-related, basaltic magma has been proposed by
many workers (for example [70]) for the generation of silica-rich magmas in arc
environments. In these systems there is a continuous variation of compositions from
mafic to silicic, with olivine, clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene crystallizing early and
plagioclase dominating late, which drives the liquid to silica-rich compositions. Others
[71, 72] propose a two-step process in which late-stage liquid is separated from a
highly crystalline magma. One major problem in the origin of Central American silicic
rocks is the high K2O/Na2O ratios of these rocks (Fig. 23.9). Patio Douce [73, 74]
recognized, based on a review of experimental studies, that the compositions of many
subduction-related silicic magmas are not easy to explain without the contribution from
an evolved source the high K2O/Na2O ratios observed in calc-alkaline silicic rocks
are difficult to produce by melting or fractional crystallization of low-K basaltic
607
material without an evolved crustal assimilant. Others [7578] have shown that low-K
basaltic or low-K andesitic material cannot be a source for these high K2O/Na2O calcalkaline magmas. However, using more evolved basaltic starting compositions. Sisson
and others [79] have recently shown that partial melting or advanced fractional
crystallization can produce liquids with these high K2O/Na2O ratios.
Figure 23.11. (a) Melting experiments for a variety of primitive basaltic and primitive andesitic
starting material: open triangle is Mg-rich andesite at 0.1 MPa; closed triangle is Mg-rich
andesite at 100 MPa, open squares are Medicine lake basalts at 200 MPa [77]; close squares
and closed diamonds are primitive basalts from Mt. Shasta with 3.8 and 5.0 wt% H2O
respectively [76]; pluses with solid line are fractional crystallization of tholeiitic basalt at 1.0
GPa [78]; the last liquid represents about 3.5% liquid remaining and has the highest
K2O/Na2O; the conclusion is that by fractional crystallization of tholeiitic basalts or Mg-rich
andesites cannot produce the high K2O/Na2O ratios observed in the silicic samples; (b)
Experimental data from Sisson and others for melting high-K basalts [79]: solid symbols are
the starting material; open symbols are the experiments under various conditions and
amounts of melt produced; percent liquid in the experiments varied from 34 to 12%; the area
enclosed in solid line is all basaltic lavas associated with the Central America volcanic front;
the area enclosed by the dotted line is all the silicic pyroclastic samples.
The Central American silicic deposits have high alkalis and high K2O/Na2O ratios (Fig.
23.9). On Figure 23.10 are the silicic ignimbrites and related deposits (> 65 wt% SiO2)
from Central America compared to basaltic lava samples (4853 wt% SiO2). Figure
23.11 is a compilation of recent melting experiments on Mg-rich andesites and
primitive basalts [7678, 80]. The line in Figure 23.11a is experimental data from
nearly perfect fractionation (liquid is less than 3.5%) with liquids approaching dacite in
composition [78]. A conclusion from these experiments is that without an evolved
source, it is difficult to produce liquid with high alkalis and high K2O/Na2O ratios by
partial melting of Mg-rich andesites or primitive basalts. However, Sisson and others
[79] using evolved basalts in melting experiments, produced melts that were very
similar to the alkalis and K2O/Na2O values observed for the ignimbrites and related
deposits in Central America (Fig. 23.11b). Although the starting material is more
evolved than the basaltic lavas in Central America, these experiments show that high
K2O/Na2O liquids can be produced by partial melting of crystallized high-K basaltic
magma or extreme crystal fractionation of high-K basaltic magmas and that these
compositions are similar to the most abundant silicic magma types that occur in Central
America.
Despite the limited Sr and Nd isotopic data set, some preliminary conclusions can
be drawn about the contribution of a continental contaminant from the available
radiogenic isotope data (Fig. 23.8). The silicic pumices from Central America are not
Figure 23.12. Sr concentrations for selected ignimbrites. Most values for the highest silica
composition are > than 100 ppm, which precludes large amounts of plagioclase fractionation.
Coatepeque is the exception.
products of large contamination by old continental crust. Not even the samples
collected from Guatemala have isotopic compositions that would indicate that they
originated from melts from the Paleozoic continental crust that is present in that part of
the arc. The ignimbrites from Central Costa Rica and Guatemala plot along the mantle
array, with the lower Sr isotope ratios in the samples from Guatemala consistent with
some assimilation of older continental crust. Also notice that the ignimbrite samples
from northern Costa Rica are pulled away from the mantle array to higher Nd and Sr
isotope ratios. A similar trend is observed in the lavas from the modern arc, which has
been interpreted to indicate a larger contribution from slab material. The limited Sr and
Nd isotopic data can be used to reject any significant contamination of old continental
crust.
In applying simple fractional crystallization processes to Central America
ignimbrites, it is worth noting that in Central America the silicic compositions dominate
in all of the ash-flow tuffs except the Tirib formation in Costa Rica (Fig. 23.2) and
there is not a continuous trend from mafic to silicic compositions except perhaps in the
Tirib formation and this variation has resulted from mixing and/or mingling between
two magma types [50]. When mafic compositions are present the compositional frequency
distribution is bimodal (Fig. 23.2), which is not consistent with crystal fractionation
609
Figure 23.13. (a) K2O/Na2O versus K2O + Na2O of the Central American ignimbrites (stippled
field) compared to the composition of lavas from the active arc (dots); ignimbrites that are
plotted have SiO2 weight percent greater than 65%; there is some overlap of silica-rich lavas
and ignimbrite and these may be produced by the same process that produced the
ignimbrites; Many ignimbrites contain higher values of K2O/Na2O than the lavas for the
same alkali content; (b) Normal probability plots of Nb/Ta of three ignimbrite units from the
Liberia tuff: see text for explanation of normal probability plots; each of these units contains
distinctly different Nb/Ta distributions, which we interpret as representing different magma
batches.
from a mafic magma. In addition, all of the silicic magmas contain plagioclase as the
dominant phenocrysts phase, and most have significantly lesser amounts of
clinopyroxene. If crystal fractionation from a mafic magma were the dominant
mechanism for the origin of these silicic magmas, large amounts of plagioclase
fractionation would be required. This would have produced large decreases in the Sr
concentration in the silicic magmas. Some of the chemical variations in the ignimbrites
may be due to fractionation of plagioclase, however, in general the Sr concentrations
are much too high for this process to be dominant in the evolution of these silicic
magmas (Fig. 23.12). A few high-silica samples in Coatepeque approach 10 ppm, and
these indeed may be due to fractionation. However, the majority of high-silica samples
in Central America contain more than 100 ppm Sr. Silicic magmas that are generated
by large amounts of plagioclase and/or K-feldspar fractionation, such as the Bishop
tuff, contain Sr concentrations at very low levels (~2 ppm). Some of Sr variation in the
Central American ignimbrites may have been produced by plagioclase fractionation but
these data, along with the alkali data, are not consistent with crystal fractionation as the
dominant process that produces silicic magmas from mafic magmas.
There are few detailed petrologic studies of ignimbrites in Central America. One of
these is the study of the Tirib formation in Costa Rica [50, 61]. The ignimbrite is chemically
zoned from mafic to silicic. In these studies trace-element and oxygen isotope data
were used to conclude that the mafic magmas and silicic magmas had distinct sources,
and are not related by fractional crystallization. The trace elements for the mafic and
silicic magmas plot along distinct trends [50], and the /18O data of clinopyroxene and
magnetite are not consistent with fractionation of mafic magma to produce silicic
magma [61]. Evidence for magma mingling and mixing was common.
Based on the data discussed in the above sections, we argue that fractionation of
calc-alkaline basalts or hydrous basalts alone cannot produce the high-silica, highalkali, high K2O/Na2O and high-Sr ignimbrites and related deposits that are associated
with the volcanic front in Central America. At a minimum there must be a two-stage
sequence to explain the chemical variation of the high-silica magmas. The first is
Figure 23.14. Spider diagrams of incompatible elements normalized to concentrations estimated

for the upper crust [88]. These distributions are all with one order of magnitude.
generation and fractionation of magmas generated from the mantle wedge overlying the
subducting slab; the second is reprocessing (e.g., melting or melt extraction) of silicic
magmas after emplacement of these mantle-derived, calk-alkaline magmas an idea
first discussed by McBirney for the origin of silicic volcanic deposits in Central
America over thirty-five years ago [69] and refined later by others [6466, 69, 81].
611
Either of these (remelting or melt extraction) would have the same effect they would
produce silicic magmas without continuous variation of magmas from mafic to silicic.
Reprocessing of previously emplaced, subduction-related plutons would be consistent
with the trace-element pattern in silicic magmas being similar to the trace-element
patterns in the basaltic lavas from the volcanic front. The key condition for this second
process is that mantle-derived magmas stall (crystallize) in the lower crust either
because they are water saturated [64, 82], or they stall at a level where they reach
neutral buoyancy [65] (and references therein). In continental arcs, the lighter, more
evolved, continental crust forms density traps. As the crust evolves with time, influx of
mantle-derived magmas causes the crust to thicken, and the more evolved, low-density
magmas concentrate in the upper crust because the depth of neutral buoyancy increases
[83]. Melting is due to heat transfer from the emplacement of younger mantle-derived
magmas [64, 82]. Residual melt extraction of silicic liquid from a magma body with
greater than 4550% crystals (rheologically a solid) has recently been evaluated [81] as
a possible mechanism to produced silicic magmas. Remelting of hot plutons or residual
melt extraction is energy efficient and is consistent with the similarity of patterns in
selected trace elements ratios between the silicic and basaltic magmas in Central
America.
The similarity in the Sr and Nd isotope composition of the ignimbrites and related
deposits and the Holocene mafic lavas from the volcanic front (Fig. 23.8) has lead
several authors [40, 50, 55] to conclude a genetic relationship between these two
volcanic products (see above for discussion of Nd and Sr variations). However, in
young orogenic arcs, it is difficult to use these radiogenic isotopes to evaluate models
because the contrast between the mantle and crust is small. Partial melting of mafic
rocks has been invoked in a number of cases for the origin of silicic magmas (Mount
St. Helens dacite [84], Chilliwack batholith [85], Guadal dacite [86], dacite of San
Pedro volcano [87]). The relationship of alkalis during experimental partial melting of
a wide range of starting materials (tholeiitic basalts to high-Mg andesites) under both
water saturated and dehydration conditions is shown in Figure 23.11a. The melts
produced from these experiments contain lower amounts of alkalis and lower
K2O/Na2O than the silicic magmas of Central America. Nevertheless, if the starting
material is a high-K basalt the melts contain higher alkalis and higher K2O/Na2O values
[79], which are similar to the silicic ignimbrites that occur in the Central America[79].
For comparison the K2O/Na2O versus total alkalis for both lavas and ignimbrites are
shown in Figure 23.13a. Many of the high K2O/Na2O lavas that occur associated with
the volcanic front would also be difficult to produce by melting of these basalts or
andesites. However, one of the problems in evaluating partial melting versus fractional
crystallization is that partial melting is far less well constrained than fractional
crystallization because the mineral assemblage and proportions must be assumed and
because the protolith is rarely available for study. In contrast to melting conditions, the
nature of the protolith appears to have a large effect on incompatible trace element
ratios of the melts [87]. Another important effect on incompatible trace element ratios
is the amount of melt fraction produced.
In Costa Rica and Nicaragua at least 19 distinct ignimbrites have been studied [26,
30]. One of the characteristics of these ignimbrites is that the trace element ratios
define distinct populations on cumulative frequency diagrams. The chemical
differences among the ignimbrites are best illustrated by comparing frequency
distributions of ratios of incompatible trace elements. Niobium (Nb) and tantalum (Ta)
are chosen because they are similarly incompatible with all phases in the silicic
magmas. However, other incompatible ratios also have unique distributions for
different ignimbrites. For example, the means of Nb/Ta ratios for three Biotite units
from the Liberia tuff erupted from the Guachipeln caldera (Table 23.1) from northern
Costa Rica are 4.3 ( 0.65), 10.2 ( 1.50) and 14.6 ( 0.50) (numbers in brackets are
one standard deviation). These units are similar with respect to major-element
composition and mineralogy. These cumulative frequency distributions are best
examined using normal probability plots (Fig. 23.13b), which are just a quantitative
method of analyzing frequency distributions (cumulative frequencies are plotted on the
vertical access on a log scale). Assuming that our sampling is not biased, the frequency
distributions should represent normal distributions (a straight line on a normal
probability plot) if a single process (such as crystal fractionation, partial melting with
similar melt fractions, magma mixing) causes the variation among the samples within
an ignimbrite. If the source rocks for different ignimbrites were different, the normal
probability plots would be different. In addition, if melt fractions are small, different
amounts of melting will produce different incompatible trace element ratios. On a
normal probability plot the slope of the line represents the dispersion of the data (the
line becomes vertical as the standard deviation approaches zero). The normal
probability distributions Nb/Ta from pumice from closely related erupted units are
distinct and represent different populations. We use ratios of equally incompatible
elements because they should be equally fractionated in the melt by crystal
fractionation, however the first liquids produced by partial melting should be controlled
by the ratio in the protolith. Magma mixing and/or mingling of magmas of different
ratios would also change the ratio. Fractional crystallization could not have produced
this variation among the units, but partial melting is consistent with these chemical
variations.
In Costa Rica and Nicaragua a major conclusions based on a large number of
geochemical analyses and age determinations of silicic rocks [30] is that partial melting
of (or melt extraction from) previously emplaced, evolved, calc-alkaline plutons
produced the silicic magmas.
23.5
IGNIMBRITES AND CONTINENTAL GROWTH
As discussed above specific trace-element ratios (e.g., Ce/Pb, Ba/La, U/Th) that are
used to indicate influence of fluids from the slab or nature of the mantle vary from
Guatemala to Costa Rica in both the active front mafic lavas and silicic ignimbrites
DQG UHODWHG GHSRVLWV 7KH /18O of the ignimbrites shows negative correlation with
Ba/La and U/Th, used as indicators of fluids from the slab, whereas Ce/Pb, used as an
indicator of contribution from the mantle, displays a positive correlation with /18O
[61]. Radiogenic isotopes (Nd and Sr) show relatively minor variations in the silicic
ignimbrites along the volcanic front in Central America. These observations are
consistent with the proposal that the old evolved continental crust in Guatemala and El
Salvador, does not significantly contribute to the composition of the silicic magmas
little assimilation of the continental crust can be recognized. The trace-element and
isotopic variations are controlled by the composition of the mantle-derived calcalkaline magmas, which can be seen in the patterns of key trace-element and isotopic
ratios in the silicic magmas along the volcanic front that are similar to lavas. This can
be seen in the alkali content of the silicic ignimbrites. The highest alkali content of the
lavas from the volcanic front is in central Costa Rica and this is also true for the silicic
613
deposits from central Costa Rica.

If silicic magmas were produced without the involvement of old continental crust,
does this result in the production of new continental crust? One way to evaluate this is
to compare the composition of the silicic magmas to the continental crust [88] using
normalize incompatible element spider plots. We show this in a series of diagrams for
Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Guatemala where we have the best data (Fig. 23.14).
With few exceptions, the ignimbrites have compositions within one order of magnitude
of the composition of the continental crust between 0.1 and 10 on the normalized
continental concentrations. Our conclusion is that silicic magmas were produced by
partial melting of mantle derived calc-alkaline plutons (or melt extraction from
partially consolidated plutons) and this process produced new continental crust.
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Chapter 24
Hydrogeology
DAVID BETHUNE, CATHRYN RYAN, MARCELINO LOSILLA AND
JIR KRSN
Generally, the highlands of the watersheds
are comprised of volcanic aquifers, which,
due to their location and extension, are the
principal source of potable water supply,
irrigation and groundwater to the [Central
American] region. These aquifers are also
the most vulnerable to pollution due to their
porous soils and their exposure to human
influence. Their location coincides with the
most densely populated areas which
increments the risk of contamination due to
urban growth over recharge areas. UNDP:
Segundo Informe sobre Desarrollo Humano
en Centroamrica y Panam, 2003.
24.1
INTRODUCTION
The Central America region is naturally blessed by a humid tropical climate and
plentiful water resources including large lakes, mountain-fed rivers and deep aquifers.
Although water resources are abundant in Central America compared with most of the
world (Table 24.1), they are variable ranging from 71,111 m3 per capita in Belize to
3415 m3 per captita in El Salvador, which is small and densely populated. Additionally,
about two-thirds of the Central American population lives in the Pacific watersheds,
which have only about one-third of the total water resources. Aside from El Salvador,
locally very high population densities tend to be found in the valleys and watersheds
where the major cities are located.
Central American aquifers are among the most productive and best quality in the
world and the vast majority of the regions population depend on them for their potable
water supply, irrigation water and industrial water supply. Groundwater currently
provides an estimated 8090% of the potable, irrigation and industry water supply for
the Central America region [1]. This compares to a groundwater usage in the range of
3050% for most other regions of the world. The relatively high groundwater
dependence in Central America reflects the resources natural high quality, relative
protection from contamination, easy and cheap access, and year-round reliability (especially
during the annual dry season, and also in drought periods). Surface waters (streams,
rivers and lakes) are often contaminated (especially downgradient of urban areas) and
suffer from low flows during the dry season. The use of surface water for drinking is mainly
limited to a few large cities with perennial rivers nearby (e.g., San Jos and
Tegucigalpa). In rural areas, families capture springs or dig very shallow wells (which
666 HYDROGEOLOGY AND GROUNDWATER RESOURCES
are often contaminated). Although groundwater usage is highest (i.e., > 90%) in rural areas,
most Central American cities depend either entirely (Managua) or mostly on
groundwater (Guatemala city, San Pedro Sula, San Salvador, and San Jos) for their
potable water supply (Table 24.2).
This chapter will present a review of the major aquifer types in Central America
including the physical and chemical hydrogeology, groundwater quantity and quality
issues, and priorities for groundwater protection and management.
Table 24.1. Water resources in Central America [2].
Country
Belize3)
Guatemala
El Salvador
Honduras
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
Renewable water resources1)

(m3 per capita)
71111.1
8788.4
3814.6
13513.2
35142.0
26447.1
46578.5
Total renewable water

resources2) (km3/year)
18.56
111.27
25.23
95.93
196.69
112.40
147.98
1)
Renewable water resources per capita gives the maximum theoretical amount of water
actually available, on a per person basis, for each country. In reality, a portion of this water
may be inaccessible to humans. Actual renewable water resources are defined as the sum of
internal renewable resources (IRWR) and external renewable resources (ERWR), taking into
consideration the quantity of flow reserved to upstream and downstream countries through
formal or informal agreements or treaties and possible reduction of external flow due to
upstream water abstraction.
2)
Internal renewable water resources (IRWR) are comprised of the average annual flow of rivers
and recharge of groundwater (aquifers) generated from endogenous (internal) precipitation.
Even though IRWR measures a combination of surface and groundwater resources, it is
typically less than the sum of the two because of overlap water resources that are common
to both surface and groundwater. External renewable water resources (ERWR) are the
portion of the countrys renewable water resources which is not generated within the country.
The ERWR include inflows from upstream countries (groundwater and surface water), and
part of the water of border lakes or rivers. Per capita water resources are calculated by WRI
using 2004 population estimates from the United Nations Population Division.
3)
Although Belize is very rich in surface and groundwater resources, at present, renewable water
resources cannot be evaluated accurately because the existing data are limited, in particular
with respect to groundwater availability.
24.2
REGIONAL HYDROGEOLOGIC CONDITIONS
The Central American isthmus extends diagonally from northwest to southeast and
separates the Pacific Ocean from the Caribbean Sea (Fig. 24.1). At its widest (along the
Honduras-Nicaragua border) the isthmus is 480 km across, whereas in the area of the
Panama canal it narrows to only 65 km [3].
24.2.1 Geology
Cenozoic volcanic rocks are the most abundant rock type and are found mostly on the
Pacific side of the isthmus but extend through much of southern Honduras, northcentral Nicaragua, and western Panama. Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic
sedimentary rocks, formed in shallow seas and coastal environments, are found mostly
throughout Belize and northern Guatemala, but are also in southern Nicaragua, eastern
Costa Rica and eastern Panama. Paleozoic metamorphic rocks are found throughout
central and northern Honduras as well as northern Nicaragua. More recent alluvial
materials are found in elevated intermontane valleys, coastal valleys, and in coastal
plains as river channels, alluvial fans and outwash plains. Lacustrine (clay) materials
are also found in low-lying areas, especially in the Nicaraguan depression.
Figure 24.1. Generalized hydrogeologic map (adapted from [1]) and hydrogeologic crosssections of Central America (vertically exaggerated).
There are four principal geological fault zones: (1) Motagua, extending across southern
Guatemala, at the fracture zone between the North American and Caribbean plates; (2)
the Pacific highlands, which are characterized by much geological activity related to
the shifting of the Cocos plate; (3) the Nicaraguan depression, which forms the lakes
Xolatlan (a.k.a. Lake Managua) and Cocibolca (a.k.a. Lake Nicaragua), and the
San Juan river basin; and (4) the Chagres river basin in Panama. These last two fault
zones represent the final point at which plates joined to form the Central American
landbridge. In the last 30 years at least four major earthquakes have affected Guatemala,
El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, causing thousands of deaths and millions of
dollars in damage.
24.2.2 Physiography
The convergence of the tectonic plates has resulted in a region of sharp topography,
with varied landforms from plains near sea-level to peaks rising over 4000 m [9].
Hillsides and highlands comprise 77% of Central America.
The highland landforms consist of many mountain ranges, volcanoes, valleys and
high plateaus. Mountainous regions are continuous from Guatemala and northern El
Salvador through Honduras and Nicaragua. They are interrupted in the lowlands of
northern Guatemala and Belize as well as the area of the Nicaraguan depression and the
San Juan river, which forms part of the Nicaragua-Costa Rica border. The depression
FRQWDLQV WKH WZR ODUJHVW ODNHV LQ &HQWUDO $PHULFD 0DQDJXD ODNH DND /DJR GH
Xolatln) and Lake Nicaragua (a.k.a. Lago de Cocibolca). The chain of volcanoes
begins with the highest Central American peaks, Guatemalas western volcanoes
Tacan (4093 m) and Tajumulco (4211 m), and ends in the cordillera de Talamanca,
which begins near central Costa Rica and extends into western Panama. Intermontane
valleys are found high up within the mountains and are filled with alluvial fans comprised
of coarse sands and gravels mixed with finer grained layers.
Table 24.2. Groundwater usage of Central American countries and major cities1).
Population2)
(millions)
Groundwater usage
(%)3)
Belize
Belize city
Guatemala
Guatemala city
Honduras
San Pedro Sula
Tegucigalpa
El Salvador
San Salvador
Nicaragua
Managua
Costa Rica
San Jos
Panama
Panama city
0.270
0.070
12.599
2.227
7.205
0.901
0.851
6.881
1.475
5.487
1.281
4.327
1.045
3.232
1.335
< 50
ND
> 60
90
60704)
60705)
< 104)
> 80
60
95
100
906)
647)
50
ND
Total
40.0018)
7090
Country/city
1)
2)
Includes surrounding metropolitan area; Population data from: Countries [4]; Cities [5];
3)
Groundwater usage expressed as a % of total water supply for human consumption (a.k.a.
drinking water supply). Groundwater usage source data from [2] except as indicated; 4)[6];
5)
Enamorado. C.: pers. comm., 2004; 6) [7]; 7) [8]; 8) Estimated based on usage percentage for
each country (weighted for total population); ND: no data.
Narrow plains and alluvial valleys border the Pacific coast from Mexico to eastern
Panama. Interior lowlands known as the Nicaraguan depression extend diagonally
southward from the Gulf of Fonseca across the Central American isthmus to the coastal
plain of northeastern Costa Rica (see Chapters 1 and 3). The coastal plains and valleys
are formed by long-term weathering of the mountains forming extensive alluvial fans
comprised of coarser materials near the mountains and finer materials further away.
There are lowlands on the Pacific side between the isthmian spine and Costa Ricas
Nicoya and Osa peninsulas and western Panamas Azuero peninsula; in eastern Panama
there are lowlands inland from the Gulf of San Miguel in the Darin near Colombia.
On the Caribbean side, low limestone tableland sloping northeastward to the Yucatn
peninsula forms the Petn region of Guatemalan and northern Belize, which has a
broad coastal zone to the Gulf of Honduras. The remainder of the Carribbean coast is
comprised of broad alluvial plains.
The largest Central American cities tend to be located in higher elevation (> 800
m.a.s.l.) intermontane valleys where air temperatures are cooler (Guatemala city, San
Salvador, Tegucigalpa, and San Jos). Cities are also found on lower elevation coastal
plains (Belize city, Panama city), coastal valleys (e.g., San Pedro Sula) or a geologic
depression (Managua).
Figure 24.2. General Geologic Section of western Nicaragua: Coastal province and Nicaraguan
depression (see Table 24.4 for a description of the geologic units; from [9]).
24.2.3 Climate
Central America is influenced notably by its location between two oceanic climates, its
chain of high mountains and its highly heterogeneous physiography. There are three
major climatic zones in Central America: (1) the tropical lowlands of the Caribbean
region, which have a tropical humid climate (hot and humid), receiving rain all year
round; (2) the interior uplands of the isthmus with a temperate climate (cool and
humid); and (3) the lower Pacific slope and coastal plains, which have a tropical
savanna climate (hot and dry), except for intermittent periods of heavy rain between
May and November [3]. The annual average precipitation tends to increase from north
to south and from west to east. In the Pacific region, there are distinct wet (May
November) and dry (DecemberMay) seasons, whereas the dry season is mostly absent
in the Atlantic region. Along much of the Caribbean coast (especially Costa Rica)
significant rainfall occurs 12 months per year.
During the dry season, weather systems emanate solely from the Caribbean Sea,
whereas during the wet season, moist winds blow from both oceans providing almost
daily (afternoon) rainstorms. During September and October, larger tropical storms and
hurricanes may emanate from the Caribbean Sea leading to high amounts of
precipitation often occurring over several days. Locally climates can vary from semiarid near the Pacific coast, which receives only 400 mm of precipitation a year (and are
thus prone to drought) to areas of cloud forest near the Atlantic coast with annual
precipitation up to 7500 mm.
24.2.4 Aquifer types in Central America

Most Central American aquifers can be classified into the following types based on
geologic origin (listed in order of relative importance to the regions water supply):
volcanic, alluvial, sedimentary and igneous/metamorphic materials.
In general, volcanic aquifers tend to be important in the higher elevation watersheds
of the central Pacific volcanic belts. In the intermontane valleys and lower elevation
coastal plains and valleys, the shallower alluvial aquifers prevail. Older sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks underlie a vast part of northern Central America and can be
locally productive aquifers where karst conditions are found or the rock is extensively
fractured. Illustrative cross-sections showing the relative location of the major aquifer
types in Central America are presented in Figure 24.1 and a summary of the
characteristics of each aquifer type is presented as Table 24.3. These aquifer types are
described in the sections that follow.
Table 24.3. Hydrogeologic properties of various aquifer types in Central America.
Aquifer type
Geology
Fractured and
porous ignimbrite,
tuff, ash, lapilli,
pumice, lava
Porous silt, sand
Alluvial
and gravel
Sedimentary Fractured/karst
dolostone,
sandstone,
shale
Metamorphic/ Fractured
metasediments,
igneous
gneiss, shale,
granitic rocks
Volcanic
K (m/day)
6.8
(average)
T (m2/day)
1173370
337000
ND; very low to moderate
depending on amount and type
of fracturing
karst-can be very high
ND; very low to moderate
depending on amount an type of
fracturing
1530
Ss
253000 6 1040.24
0.180.24
ND; very low
except for
karst (very
high)
ND; very low
Ref.
[1115]
[1618]
[19]
[19]
Notes: K: hydraulic conductivity, T: transmissivity, Ss: specific storage, ND: no data

available for Central America region; Ref: reference.
24.2.4.1 Volcanic aquifers

Volcanic aquifers supply the vast majority of water supply to Central America and are
formed mainly by thick sequences of Quaternary and MiocenePliocene fractured basalts,
andesites and ignimbrites inter-bedded with lower permeability tuff/ash aquitards. The
geologic layering of highly permeable and less permeable materials can be highly complex.
Depending on the mutual position of the permeable and impermeable volcanic materials,
either preferential groundwater flow in partly confined aquifers of the saturated zone or
perched groundwater bodies over aquitards above the regional water table in the unsaturated
(vadose) zone can occur. Secondary fracturing also controls groundwater flow in volcanic
aquifers and transmissivity values can increase significantly in highly fractured areas. The
volcanic units of the Managua and the Nicaraguan depression [9, 20] are summarized in
Table 24.4 and illustrated in Figures 24.2 and 24.3.
The most comprehensive assessment of the transmissivity of Central American
volcanic aquifers was a compilation of well pumping tests [1115] (Figs. 24.4 and
24.5). Transmissivities were mostly in the 25 to 3000 m2/d range, although they varied
over four orders of magnitude (from < 1 m2/d to < 10,000 m2/d). Based on the saturated
aquifer thickness (of 296 wells), the mean hydraulic conductivity was estimated to be
6.8 m/d (7.9 105 m/s). Regional distribution of T can be significantly influenced by the
topographic or morphologic position (e.g., bottom of valleys, slopes; [2123]). For
example, transmissivity values in the Len-Chinandega (Nicaragua) plain increase
significantly with increasing elevation [18]. Coarser grained alluvial and volcanic
materials tend to be deposited in the near flanks of volcanoes with finer grained
materials deposited at greater distances towards the coast. High transmissivity values
are also observed in regional groundwater discharge zones (e.g., Managua lake near the
communities of Nagarote and Sabana Grande, and along the western bank of Lake
Nicaragua in the Granada area). This may indicate a higher incidence of fracturing
and/or a greater distance from volcanoes.
Figure 24.3. Geologic cross-section of Managua aquifer and Laguna Asososca (see Table 24.4
for a description of the geologic units; from [20]).
Significant groundwater storage in volcanic aquifers is derived from high porosity and
secondary fracturing, with correspondingly high values of specific storage (for
confined aquifers) and specific yield (for unconfined aquifers). Observed values range
from as low as 6 104 to as high as 0.24 indicating both confined and unconfined
(water table) conditions [24, 25].
24.2.4.2 Alluvial aquifers
Alluvial materials are deposited by water processes in areas of active erosion. The
combination of high precipitation in the mountains and easily eroded (weathered) volcanic
and sedimentary basement rocks lead to very active alluvial processes and high rates of
alluvial material deposition. In Central America, alluvial aquifers are found in
intermountain valleys, coastal valleys and coastal plains. The resulting stratigraphy is a
highly heterogeneous mix of unconsolidated to semi-consolidated gravel, sand, silt and clay
size materials. Alluvial materials are often found interlayered with tuffs, forming complex
minor aquifer-aquitard systems with significant vertical heterogeneity. Several clear
stratigraphic units were observed at three drilling locations in an alluvial aquifer in LenChinandega, Nicaragua [26]. Groundwater flow in the alluvial aquifers is dominated by
porous (intergranular) flow and well yields tend to be low to moderate.
Transmissivity in alluvial aquifers can be highly variable (337000 m2/day; [12]),
indicative of very low permeability silt/clay and volcanic ash, to very permeable sand
and gravel. The observed range of specific yield (0.180.24; [16]) is typical of
unconfined alluvial systems in many parts of the world.
Table 24.4. Geologic units in western Nicaragua (adapted from [9]).
1. Quaternaryrecent
1A: The Managua sequence: Plinian airfall, base surge, mudflow from Apoyeque, Masaya
and Apoyo volcanoes, alluvial sand and gravel.
1B: The Managua volcanics: All the ignimbrite units here include sedimentary and tephra
strata and soil layers that may alter their hydrogeologic properties.
2. Las Sierras formation
2A: Pre-ignimbrite Las Nubes volcano: Basalt-dacitic lavas, scoria, tuffs, lahare.
2B: Pre-ignimbrite Las Nubes volcano epiclastic unit: Lahars, alluvium (coarse-medium
grained), soils. Possible lacustrine component to north and east of Managua.
2C: Las Nubes volcano ignimbrite unit: Massive ignimbrites and tephra units. Associated
alluvial and mudflow strata.
2D: Post ignimbrite Las Nubes volcano unit: Airfall tuffs, alluvium in Managua. Lavas and
pyroclastics at Las Nubes.
2E: Pre Mateare fault lacustrine and ignimbrite unit: Waterlain ignimbrites with muds, silts
and sands composed of volcanic and organic material. Coarse sedimentary material higher
in the sequence as fault develops.
2F: Ro Jesus ignimbrite unit: Very massive, thick ignimbrite.
2G: Late ignimbrites: Thick ignimbrites interwoven with sands and gravels to the south and
lake sediments to the north and east. Base surge tuffs and possible lavas on the NejapaMiraflores alignment.
2H: El Crucero co-ignimbrite unit: Thick co-ignimbrite ash deposits, extensively reworked
by wind action (loess deposits) and strongly weathered.
2I: Masaya-Ventaron airfall and pyroclastic flow unit: Basaltic scoria beds and pyroclastic
flow units, predominantly at Las Nubes.
3. El Salto formation and Late Pliocene Nicaraguan depression sediments
3A: El Salto Fm: Marine conglomerates and limestones interfingered with 2B and 2C.
3B: Late Pliocene Nicaraguan depresssion sediments: Fluvial and lacustrine deposits from
the erosion of the interior highlands and the Pacific hills of Nicaragua.
4. Tertiary rocks
4A: El Fraile, Masachapa and El Brito formations: Marine sediments, shales, turbidites and
limestones, some intrusive rocks.
4B: El Coyol, Tamarindo, Matagalpa groups: Volcanic rocks, in the Managua area only
Tamarindo/Coyol is present but here is classified as part of El Fraile.
5 Pre-Tertiary
5A: Rivas formation: Deep water sediments.
5B: Pre-Rivas: Crustal basement, deep water sediments on opiolite and/or metamorphic
continental crust.
24.2.4.3 Sedimentary rock aquifers

Cretaceous and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks underly most of the region. They are
typically of minor importance for water supply when compared to volcanic and alluvial
aquifers with the exception of karst limestone, which provides a significant water
supply source in Belize and parts of Honduras. Although sedimentary aquifers have the
potential to store and transmit large quantities of groundwater, and represent a major
water supply source in many parts of the world, they do not tend to be exploited in
Central America since suitable water supplies are more readily available from volcanic
and alluvial aquifers or surface waters. In the future, as the easily accessible water
sources become increasingly contaminated and/or depleted, there will be a growing need to
look at other potential water resources such as sedimentary aquifers. One important
Figure 24.4. Map of regional groundwater flow in the Pacific groundwater province (from [12]).
limitation on the use of deeper sedimentary aquifers for water supply is high levels of
mineralization (especially iron, sulfate and boron) associated with the active volcanic
zones of the Pacific side of the continent (e.g., [26]).
Low production sedimentary aquifers: These aquifers of minor importance occur
throughout the region. Although their productions are low (between 0.5 and 5 l/s) they
can provide an important sole-source water supply to small settlements all over the
region. In Costa Rica, examples of these aquifers are found in the Punta Carballo
formation, Aguacate group, and Pacacua formation. They are especially important in
the Talamanca mountain range, Costa Rica. A little-known deep aquifer comprised of
highly fractured Cretaceous limestone in the Guatemalan altiplano has yields ranging
from 1 to 35 l/s [27].
Karst aquifers: The flat coastal plain areas of Belize and northern Honduras are
underlain by near-ground surface carbonate rocks (dolostones). These rocks are highly
fractured and faulted and have been exposed to global sea-level changes over millions
of years which have both flooded and exposed the dolostones to naturally acidic
rainwater, resulting in the formation of extensive inter-connected networks of fractures,
faults, caves, dolines and sinkholes (cenotes) throughout Belize. Rainwater-fed
recharge percolates down through the dolostone following existing fractures and faults
(which form the paths of least resistance), forming channels. The result is very high secondary
porosity and transmissivity likened to a flow system of underground rivers and lakes.
Karst systems can be highly heterogeneous depending on fracture size and density. Zones
with few or no fractures yield little or no water, in contrast to dense fracture zones that can
potentially supply abundant water. Water can also be perched under solution depressions
above the water table or it may be discontinuous if the permeability is principally fracturecontrolled [28]. Due to unusually high permeabilities and the periodic flooding associated with
most karst regions, the water table exhibits correspondingly drastic fluctuations. Intense storm
events result in subsurface flooding, and because the existing conduit system is not of
sufficient size to handle excessive infiltration rates, backfilling of caves and solution channels
are formed [29]. The water table in karst rock is frequently difficult to define (especially in
free-flow carbonate aquifers that display a complex network of enlarged open conduits), and
can occur at considerable depths below the land surface, especially in mountainous regions,
due to lack of low permeability confining layers.
Karst aquifers are notable for very high production rates and high vulnerability to
contamination from landuse activities as they typically have little or no lowpermeability geologic materials overlying them to protect them. These aquifers are
recharged in both higher elevations and lower elevations. Water infiltrates rapidly
through the soil zone to the water table and then travels very rapidly in the groundwater
zone to wells, springs, rivers, lakes, coasts or other discharge locations.
24.2.4.4 Metamorphic and igneous intrusive rock aquifers
Metamorphic and igneous intrusive rock formations are found in the northern
mountains of Nicaragua and Honduras. Metamorphic rocks (e.g., gneiss, schist, slate,
marble) are most abundant with minor igneous intrusive rocks (e.g., granite). These rocks
are generally of low primary transmissivity and storage, thus groundwater flow is primarily
through secondary fracturing. Well production rates are usually very low and, at best, only
suitable for single-family domestic use.
24.2.5 Regional groundwater recharge, flow and discharge

The highest amounts of groundwater recharge occur at higher elevations where there is
significantly more rainfall (i.e., > 2 m/yr) and lower evaporation rates. In Central
America, the highest elevations are often very steep leading to high amounts of surface
water runoff especially during high precipitation events. Surface water is quickly
funneled into drainages and creeks and the majority of recharge occurs where the
slopes begin to flatten. Recharge Factors (Rf expressed as a percentage of mean annual
precipitation) of over 30% are found in the higher elevations [30]. At middle
elevations, the Rf in general gradually decreases but can be very high (> 50%) where
geologic materials are very permeable such as alluvial fans. At lower elevations, the Rf
decreases to < 10% as evaporation rates are high, geologic materials are often of low
permeability (except beach deposits) and the water table can be very close to ground
surface (leading to direct groundwater evaporation). As is typical of mountain
watersheds, recharge high up in mountain areas feeds deeper groundwater flow systems
with travel times in centuries or millennia. Lower altitude recharge feeds shallower
groundwater flow systems and, where the water table is at a higher elevation than the valley
bottom, discharge as springs or groundwater baseflow to creeks and streams [31]. In
Figure 24.5. Map of prevailing transmissivity magnitude in the groundwater subprovince of the
Nicaraguan graben (from [12]). Compilation based on statistical treatment of samples of
transmissivity data from aquifer tests.
some areas, shallow groundwater discharge occurs as springs at moderate elevations

(e.g., Guatemala city) and in other areas such conditions are not found at all because
the water table is too deep below ground surface (e.g., Managua). The interaction or
relationship between shallow groundwater and drainages can be very complex and
variable over short spaces and from rainy to dry season (e.g., Central valley, Costa
Rica). Recharge amount increases with elevation as precipitation rates increase [30].
The majority of groundwater recharge occurs in the mountainous areas and these
hydrologically important areas are known as critical aquifer recharge areas and their
identification is key to ensuring they remain forested and protected to ensure recharge
rates are maintained and contamination does not enter the aquifers. To some extent, the most
critical recharge elevations occur on the upper flanks of volcanoes where agricultural
and forestry activities are limited. Unfortunately, many of these recharges areas are
increasingly threatened in much of Central America as de-forestation, urbanization/
settlement, and agricultural landuse continuously expands upslope.
Perennial rivers, fed by groundwater discharge (baseflow), are common in older
geologic terrain where many years of erosion has lowered valleys below the water
table. At higher elevations, ephemeral rivers emerge in the rainy season. These rivers
may be alternatively gaining or losing as they lose elevation [32]. The river valleys
may be high above the water table thus leaking downward recharging the aquifer or
may cut into an aquifer and thus be fed by groundwater discharge.
Intensive landuse activities tend to be located mainly in the lower elevations where
shallow groundwater flow systems can be the most impacted in terms of water quality.
Groundwater use tends also be to more common in the lower elevations where urban
and agricultural areas are located. Since the aquifers are productive at shallow depths,
the wells tend also be shallow, with resultant water quality problems (see below). The
deeper aquifers are thus protected from landuse activities partly by low-permeability
geologic materials, but also because they tend to have groundwater recharged at higher
elevations. In the future, deeper aquifers will gradually be exploited more and more and
thus efforts to maintain forest-cover on the mountain slopes would be well advised.
Urbanization leads to a significant loss of forest-cover which can result in lower
groundwater recharge rates and higher surface water runoff leading to dropping water
tables (which leads to reduced flow in springs and streams during baseflow periods)
and increased vulnerability to flooding. Urbanization is particularly problematic in the
higher elevation intermontane valleys with the loss of forest cover (thus recharge) in
aquifer recharge areas that feed deep regional aquifer systems (e.g., San Jos and
Guatemala city).
24.2.6 Natural groundwater chemistry
The geologic materials in the Central America region are relatively permeable (i.e.,
relatively fast flowing groundwater) and this is reflected in a low amount of dissolved
materials in groundwater. Total dissolved solids (TDS) levels are particularly low in
groundwater fed by higher elevation recharge areas. Typically, TDS increases
gradually with groundwater travel time and the highest levels are thus found in the
discharge areas (coast). In Central America, groundwater travel times can be relatively
fast and thus TDS levels only increase marginally between recharge and discharge. The
lithological characteristics of the aquifer materials (Table 24.5) also have an important
influence on groundwater chemistry. The other major impact on groundwater chemistry
is the large area of active volcanism in the Pacific flank. Groundwater in this zone can
be highly mineralized with dissolved ions such as iron, sulfate, and boron.
In general, the natural water quality in Central America is excellent, however, there
are some areas where concentrations of aesthetic (non-health related) parameters are
elevated (e.g., iron, hardness, sulfate, total dissolved solids) and some areas with health
parameters (e.g., arsenic) are exceeded due to the influence of volcanism and the
formation of ore bodies [33]. The presence of naturally occurring arsenic in the Sbaco
valley (Nicaragua) was been identified with water well surveys. In the volcanic and
alluvial aquifers, major ion content is dominantly bicarbonate-calcium-magnesium or
bicarbonate-magnesium-calcium type water [17, 34, 3638]. A gradual change to
bicarbonate-sodium along groundwater flow lines has been observed indicating
contamination or evaporation (e.g., [38]) or saline intrusion (in the lower coastal areas
including various inland water systems; e.g., [39]). Elevated iron and boron levels are
associated with deeper thermal waters in the volcanic aquifers. Natural levels of nitrate
in Central American groundwater (e.g., [26]) appear to be typical of groundwater in
other parts of the world.
Table 24.5. Natural water chemistry of various aquifer types found in Central America.
Aquifer type Geology
Water type
1)
Ignimbrite, tuff, Normal

ash, lapilli, lava
Silt, sand and Normal except
Alluvial
gravel
NaCl in coastal
areas
Sedimentary Fractured
Variable- Ca/Mg
dolostone,
or SO4 can be
sandstone,
elevated in
shale
carbonate aquifers
Fractured
Igneous/
Variable-high SO4
metamorphic granite, gneiss, in areas of
slate, marble
mineralization
Volcanic
TDS
Metals
Fe, Boron in hydrothermally active areas

Rare and only related
to mixing of deeper
volcanic groundwater
Variable depending Fe/Mn common
on Ca/Mg and SO4
Generally very low
< 500 mg/l
Generally very low
250600 mg/l2)
Variable
Fe/Mn common,
As, Pb in areas of
mineralization
1)
Normal water type is defined as HCO3-Ca-Mg or HCO3-Mg-Ca without a predominance of
any particular parameter. 2) [26].
There have been a number of good isotope studies on Central American aquifers
conducted by the International Atomic Energy Agency (e.g., [34, 35, 3941]). 18O and
2
+DUHVLJQLILFDQWO\GHSOHWHGHJ/18O < 1 per mil) in Central American aquifers with
increasing depletion indicating a higher elevation of recharge (e.g., [26]). This
tendency is more pronounced on the Pacific coastal mountains where rainfall mainly
emanates from the Pacific Ocean than the interior mountains where rainfall emanates
from both oceans (e.g., [32]). 14C and 3H indicate that groundwater systems are very
dynamic with relatively short transit times (travel time tens of years in shallow
groundwater flow systems and hundreds of years in deeper systems; [39]).
24.3
GROUNDWATER QUALITY AND QUANTITY ISSUES
24.3.1 Groundwater quality impacts

While aquifers are in general less vulnerable than surface waters to contamination, there is
increasing evidence of water quality impacts to Central American aquifers due to
human activities [26, 30, 32, 34, 36, 4253]. Recent decades of rapid population
growth and associated intensive agricultural, urban, and industrial landuse have put an
enormous pressure on the quality and quantity of the regions water resources. This is
especially evident on the Pacific side of the isthmus where degradation of surface water
quality has been evident for decades, with almost all major surface water courses near
all major urban areas of the region clearly contaminated. Groundwater, on the other hand,
can be naturally protected from contamination by surficial soils and geologic materials,
which can ideally retard downward migration of contaminants or simply increase the
time for arrival to the groundwater zone. Once groundwater becomes contaminated,
however, it is very difficult (if not impossible) to clean-up and may take hundreds or
thousands of years to naturally clean itself once the source of contamination no longer
exists [29].
Groundwater contamination is difficult to assess, requiring a combination of an
understanding of the subsurface geology and hydrogeology, and sampling from
springs, wells or piezometers. Most of the groundwater quality assessments in the
region have been conducted by water well surveys which sample existing excavated
and drilled wells. Unfortunately, domestic water wells can be unreliable sources of
information about the state of the aquifer as they are often poorly protected from
direct surface water contamination and often sample water from different depths in
the aquifer. The water well surveys do, however, provide a general indication of the
health of the aquifer and of what the inhabitants are drinking and, if carefully
interpreted, they can prove insightful. Groundwater samples are ideally obtained from
small monitoring wells (or piezometers), which are designed to take samples at specific
depths in the groundwater zone.
In Central America, the major threats to groundwater quality are urbanization,
agriculture, industry and intrusion of seawater or contaminated surface water. These
introduce a variety of contaminants to groundwater including pathogens, nitrate,
pesticides, phosphorous, industrial solvents/cleaners, hydrocarbons and saline water.
24.3.1.1 Urbanization
Domestic wastewater is a significant source of water quality degradation in the Central
American region. Only a fraction of the Central American population (< 5%) has
sewage treatment, and raw wastewater is thus typically discharged to the subsurface
either directly via pit toilets (pozos septicos) or indirectly via unlined sewage canals
and/or from sewage-contaminated rivers and lakes. Sewage contains a variety of
pathogens (e.g., E-coli) and nutrients (e.g., nitrate and phosphate) that can pose a high
risk to human and ecosystem health. Industrial wastewater and storm water are
typically disposed of in a similar manner to sewage and present additional water quality
concerns.
Although relatively few groundwater quality studies have been conducted in
Central America, there is growing evidence that groundwater quality impacts from
urban wastewater is common. This is indicated by pathogen indicators such as fecal
coliform bacteria, nitrate and chloride (e.g., [33]). Increasing nitrate concentrations in
municipal water supply wells in San Jos (Costa Rica) suggest the problem has been
increasing with time since 1986 [4446]. While bacteria and chloride can indicate
water quality impacts from human or animal sewage, nitrate also emanates from
chemical nitrogen fertilizers. It can be somewhat difficult to differentiate between the
two nitrate sources (e.g., [32, 46]).
24.3.1.2 Agriculture
Given the importance of agriculture in the region, it is not surprising that water quality
impacts by agricultural activities are increasingly apparent. An estimated 75% of Costa
Rican aquifers are impacted by industrial (agricultural or chemical) or sewage (human
or cattle) contamination [47]. Agricultural is a mainstay of the Central American
economies (see Table 24.6). While subsistence farming and livestock grazing occurs
over much of the region, large areas of the region have been dedicated to monoculture
agriculture since the 1950s. Cotton, sugar cane, and bananas are cultivated at lower
elevations in the large Pacific and Caribbean coastal plains and coffee is grown at
higher elevations. Monoculture agriculture can use relatively large amounts of
fertilizers and pesticides which can leach to groundwater and/or to surface waters.
Agrochemicals (fertilizers and pesticides) were introduced in Central America (as in
other parts of the world) in the 1950s. Monoculture agriculture in Central America
became significantly more productive with the application of organochlorine pesticide
compounds such as toxaphene, dieldren and DDT. Organochlorine pesticides highly
persistent in the environment (persistent organic pollutants or POPs) and highly
toxic to human and ecosystems. Although few studies have been conducted in Central
America on the effects of POPs on human health there is some evidence that higher
levels of these compounds are found in the inhabitants of the region compared to
inhabitants of industrialized countries [50].
Table 24.6. Agricultural landuse in Central America [48].
Country
Agricultural land
Agricultural portion of
(% of total land area) GNP (%; 1999)
Irrigated agricultural land

(%)
Guatemala
Belize
El Salvador
Honduras
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
41.6
6.1
77.4
32.0
62.3
55.7
28.6
23
19
10
16
32
11
7
6.6
3.4
4.4
3.7
3.2
25
4.9
Central America
43.4
16.8
7.3
The most comprehensive study of pesticides in groundwater was in Nicaragua where

the water supply systems of most of the major rural and peri-urban municipalities of
western and central Nicaragua were sampled and tested for all major organochlorinated and organo-phosphate pesticide compounds [43]. The study found
significantly higher frequency of pesticide detections in the Len-Chinandega region
compared to the other areas. The Len-Chinandega region is one of Central Americas
largest agricultural areas and was under intensive cotton cultivation from the 1950s to
the 1980s. The study sampled 60 wells in this region and found that 27% had
detections of 10 different organochlorine pesticides and one organophospate pesticide.
The most frequently detected compound was dieldrin. Most of the pesticides detected
in groundwater are associated with cotton cultivation that, for the most part, ceased
over twenty years ago. A comparison of the above Nicaraguan study to large-scale
water well surveys in the United States (Table 24.7) shows that, in general, the
frequency of detection and percent above U.S.-EPA drinking water standards is
significantly greater in Len-Chinandega compared to the United States. Pesticide
concentrations in most of these studies, although fairly frequently found, are low (well
below the drinking water limit), and spatially and temporally variable.
24.3.1.3 Industry (non-agricultural)
Apart from agriculture, Central America is not a highly industrialized region. Industry
is mainly found in isolated industrial areas in or near cities. By far the most
industrialized city is San Pedro Sula, Honduras, which is located above a very large
alluvial aquifer system that supplies about half of the city with water. The major nonagricultural industries in Central America include oil refining, petrochemical, chemical
manufacturing and storage (e.g., paints, solvents and pesticides). There can be a
significant amount of environmental contamination associated with these areas and the
surface and groundwater below industrial zones can be highly contaminated with
synthetic organic chemicals, which for the most part, are highly persistent and mobile
in the environment. Some of hydrocarbon compounds (e.g., the BTEX group) are
reasonably biodegradable in the sub-surface environment [28] and thus do not pose as
much as a threat. The chlorinated solvents pose the highest threat to groundwater, as
Table 24.7. Summary of surveys of detections1) of organochlorine and organophosphate

pesticides, and nitrates in water wells in the departments of Len and Chinandega
(Nicaragua) compared to two U.S. studies. 2)Percentage and 3)Standard deviation is
shown in parentheses. Adapted from [26].
Study
(reference)
N Number of
wells with
pesticide
detections2)
Nicaragua
63 37 (58.7)
[53]
60
27 (45)
[44]
[35]
23 23 (100)
[36]
70 41 (58.6)
[52]
17 13 (76.5)
[54]
9
7 (77.8)
[37]
23 14 (60.9)
U.S.A.
[55] > 11000
18
[56]
1300 4.27)/10.48)
% above EPA
pesticide
drinking water
standard4)
Number of
n Average
wells with
NO3-N
concentration NO3-N
(mg/l) in wells3) (mg/l)2, 5)
Number of
wells with
NO3-N
(mg/l)2, 6)
100
33.3
100
51.4
70.6
77.8
60.9
n/a
n/a
37
36
17
27
23
n/a
n/a
8.4 (11.0)
7.5 (9.6)
8.1 (3.4)
7.0 (3.2)
5.5 (4.1)
n/a
n/a
9 (24.3)
10 (27.8)
7 (41.2)
6 (22.2)
2 (8.7)
n/a
n/a
31 (83.8)
27 (75.0)
17 (100)
26 (96.3)
18 (78.3)
n/a
0.6
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
N: total number of wells sampled for pesticides; n: total number of wells sampled for nitrates;
na: not analyzed; n/a: information not available; 1)Detection is defined as above the
particular method detection limit for each compound; 4)source: [56, 57]; 5)Above EPA water
guidelines (10 mg/l as N) [56]; 6)Above background concentration in groundwater, 2 mg-N/l
[58]; 7)Domestic wells; 8)Community wells.
they are highly persistent, mobile and toxic at low concentrations [19].
A relatively weak institutional and legal framework is ineffective at controlling
industrial contamination of groundwater in Central America. Government agencies have
little capacity to investigate or abate industrial contamination and environmental legislation
is typically non-existent, vaguely written, or not enforced. Both industry and
government are generally reluctant to significantly address the issue due to fears of
environmental controls affecting the viability and profitability of industries that are
important for the new economies of the region. Municipalities, which supply water
from wells in urban areas, do not regularly monitor for industrial contaminants and will
only test for such contaminants if there presence is strongly suspected.
The few groundwater studies that have been conducted on Central American
industrial areas are generally unpublished as they were conducted for private
companies Evidence of industrial contamination entering Laguna Asososca via
groundwater flow has been presented [30, 42]. Laguna Asososca is an important water
source for the city of Managua. Managuas industrial area is located 200 m north of
Laguna Asososca and it was speculated that the over 50 years of pumping had drawn
down the water level in the Laguna to a level such that the normal direction of
groundwater flow was reversed and contaminated groundwater from below the
industrial area could then enter the Laguna [38, 41]. The study [30, 42] detected several
volative organic contaminants in Laguna Asososca and concluded these compounds
represented the leading edge of a multi-contaminant plume migrating from the
industrial area. The city of Managua responded by reducing pumpage of Laguna
Asososca significantly and letting the water level recover such groundwater flowed in
the normal direction again.
24.3.1.4 Intrusion of seawater or contaminated surface water

Intrusion of saline ocean water into inland fresh-water aquifers occurs when sea water
flows inland due to tidal or storm surges or when coastal aquifers are pumped heavily,
as they are in certain areas of the Pacific coast of Central America. Coastal estuaries
can bring saline water significant distances inland, making the issue more
geographically extensive. Saline intrusion constitutes a threat for the groundwater
along the Pacific coast of Nicaragua in the Chinandega, Len and Nagarote regions due
to the excessive groundwater extraction near the coast [37]. Well water chloride
concentrations as high as 867 mg/l have been reported [37, 59]. The region of the
Estero Real estuary (northwestern Nicaragua) is highly predisposed to the seawater
intrusion as groundwater level is typically very close to the surface, causing extensive
wetlands. The high rates of evaporation in these wetlands in the dry season leads to a
removal of non-saline surface water and its replacement by up-welling deeper saline
water.
24.3.2 Water quantity issues

The vast majority of Central America has a tropical humid climate and thus abundant
precipitation and plentiful water resources (Table 24.1). There are, however, a few
areas on the Pacific side that have semi-arid conditions (e.g., Guanacaste, Costa Rica
and Jinotega, Nicaragua). The amount of groundwater recharge in a particular location
is mostly related to the amount of precipitation. Groundwater recharge rates can be
very low (i.e., < 5% of precipitation) in these dry areas and special care must be taken
to ensure local aquifers are not depleted. The remainder of the region has moderate to
high recharge rates (i.e., 1530% of precipitation).
In Costa Rica, the watertable is apparently being lowered due to human activities in
80% of the interior region aquifers and at least 35% of the coastal aquifers [47]. It is
clear that localized over-pumping and reduced recharge due to deforestation is having
an impact, however, the impact of climate change (especially reduced precipitation) on
groundwater recharge is less certain. In the following, water quantity issues are discussed
in the context of over-pumpage, deforestation and climate change.
24.3.2.1 Over-pumpage
Over-pumpage is defined as well pumping at a rate that cannot be sustained by an
aquifer over a long period of time. It is also known as groundwater mining or overexploitation. It is generally accepted that an aquifers sustainable yield should not
exceed the average long-term rate of recharge; however, locally there may be other
limitations on pumpage rate (e.g., geology, contamination concerns). Over-pumpage
can cause induced infiltration of contaminated surface water and this is an issue where
aquifers are directly connected to contaminated rivers (e.g., San Jos) or large municipal
water wells are located too close to contaminated lakes (e.g., Managua) or rivers (e.g., San
Jos or San Pedro Sula).
In Central America, aquifers are starting to show signs of over-pumpage in areas of
high groundwater usage from large well fields supplying large cities (e.g., [60]),
however, there are very few water level monitoring programs and almost none with
long-term uninterrupted data sets. A large data set was compiled in 1996 for the
Managua aquifer extending back to 1925 when pumpage first began (of Laguna
Asososca) to the mid-1990s when over 100 wells were being pumped for municipal
water supply [61]. This study concluded there was no evidence of over-exploitation of
the Managua aquifer at that time.
24.3.2.2 Deforestation
Deforestation is a very significant environmental issue in Central America as logging,
urbanization or tree cutting for fuel is gradually reducing forest cover in critical
groundwater recharge areas. The loss of vegetation reduces the ability of the land to
retain precipitation and thus surface runoff is increased (with associated erosion and
flooding) and groundwater recharge is reduced which leads to lowered aquifer levels
and lowered groundwater baseflow (discharge) to rivers and lakes. The only situation
where urbanization can potentially lead to higher groundwater recharge rates is in the
case of older urbanizations which are known to leak large quantities of water from
broken or leaky water distribution pipes (e.g., Managua: [52]).
Deforestation in Central America is a particularly important issue in the upper
elevations of key watersheds where the majority of groundwater recharge occurs. There
are several large urban centres in the region (Guatemala city, San Pedro Sula, San
Salvador, Managua and San Jos) that are partially located above groundwater recharges
areas. These cities are thus posing a significant threat to the long-term sustainability of
their water supplies.
24.3.2.3 Climate change
Climate change can positively or negatively affect groundwater recharge (and thus
water table depth) depending on whether precipitation and temperature increases or
decreases. Precipitation is directly related to groundwater recharge, whereas,
temperature changes indirectly impact recharge through changes to evapotranspiration
rates. In Central America, climate change models predict that changes in the global
temperature may have an effect on the intensity and frequency of tropical storms
affecting Central America. Changes in the Intertropical Convergence Zone, and in the
speed and seasonality of the trade winds may also be expected. A modification in these
systems would change the actual climate regime of Central America [62].
24.4
CONCLUSIONS
Central Americas groundwater resources are amongst the best in the world in terms of
abundance and good natural quality. The majority of Central American aquifers are in
fractured volcanic rocks (lavas or welded tuffs). Of secondary importance are the
alluvial sand and gravel aquifers found in high intermontane valleys and valleys
feeding large coastal plains. These geologic materials are relatively young and groundwaters
are not highly mineralized except for local hydrothermal waters in the volcanic belt.
Although in general groundwater is naturally protected from contamination by soils and
overlying geologic materials (aquitards), in Central American aquifers are often not
well-protected naturally and have a moderate to high vulnerability to anthropogenic
water quality impacts.
Urbanization, industrialization and intensive agriculture has lead to significant
environmental degradation in Central America. The resultant impacts on groundwater
quality and quantity are only gradually being recognized. Central Americas rural poor
are particularly dependent on groundwater but often use poorly constructed shallow
wells drawing water from the water table which is often slightly contaminated where
shallow or unprotected naturally. Deeper groundwater is more often of good quality but
too expensive for most rural families and communities. Population density directly
impacts groundwater resources as watersheds (recharge areas) are deforested,
municipal wells are over-drawn and compete for the same groundwater and sewage, and
agricultural/industrial/urban runoff gradually seep into aquifers. The long-term water
supply solution for rural and urban populations is to reduce the number of small
shallow water wells and instead supply the populations with larger deeper communal
wells that together pump as much as the particular aquifer can sustain in the long-term.
Impacts of pumping must be monitored and understood. This is the model followed by
industrialized countries with high groundwater dependence and high population density
such as in the U.S. and Europe.
The water policy framework of Central American countries must reflect the
regions particular groundwater conditions and high dependence for all its water
supply needs. Government agencies must be set-up to collect, store and disseminate
groundwater information, and create hydrogeologic mapping on themes such as
groundwater depth, hydraulic head distribution, aquifer recharge/discharge,
groundwater vulnerability to contamination and drought. In addition, municipalities
need hydrogeologic assistance to ensure their municipal wells are protected through
policies focused on municipal wellhead protection and watershed management. In the
past decades, such groundwater management and long-term protection strategies have
been implemented in groundwater dependent areas of the U.S., Canada and Europe and
much has been learned that the Central America region could use to save much future
grief. Central Americas precious groundwater resources are wonderful reservoirs of
fresh water but require very careful long-term management and protection.
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Krsn, J.: Classification of transmissivity magnitude and variation. Ground Water 31:2
(1993), pp.230236.
Krsn, J.: El mapa hidrogeolgico de la Zona Pacfica de Nicaragua. Memora del 3er
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Calderon, H.: Numerical modelling of the groundwater flow system in the sub-basin of the
Leon-Chinandega Aquifer. MSc Thesis, University of Calgary, 2003.
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Weyl, R.: Geology of Central America. Berlin, Gebrder Borntraeger, 1980.
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zones de linfiltration et du drainage. Mm. Assoc. Intern. Hydrogeol. 10:1 (1974)
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desarrollo lechero Chiltepe. MS Ministerio de Desarrollo Agropecuario y Reforma Agraria,
Managua, 1982.
Proconsult Ingenieros, S.A.: Estudios hidrogeolgicos y costos de extraccin de agua
subterrnea, del rea del Proyecto Los Brasiles Programa Alimentario Nicaragense. MS
MIDINRA, Managua, 1984.
Delgado, V.: Groundwater flow system and water quality in a coastal plain aquifer,
northwestern Nicaragua. MSc Thesis, University of Calgary, 2003.
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Altiplano Central de la Repblica de Guatemala, Guatemala, 1995.
Fetter, C.W., Jr.: Applied hydrogeology. Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, Columbus,
OH, 1980.
Versey, H.R.: Karst in Jamaica. In: M. Herak & V.T. Springfield (eds): Karst: Important Karst
Regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Elsevier, Amsterdam and New York, 1972.
Bethune, D.N.: Field and Modelling Studies of Laguna Asososca, Managua, Nicaragua. MSc
Thesis, University of Waterloo, Canada, 1991.
Durazo, J. & Farvolden, R.N.: The ground water regime of the Valley of Mexico from historic
evidence and field observations. Journal of Hydrology 112 (1989), pp.1190.
Marchand, G.: Surface water-groundwater interaction and source of nitrate in municipal water
supply, San Jos, Costa Rica. MSc Thesis, University of Calgary, Canada, 2001.
33. Losilla, M.: Explotacin, Uso y Gestin del Agua Subterrnea en Panam. Centro Agronmico
Tropical de Investigacin y Enseanza (CATIE), Panam, 1986.
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Sustentable de los Recursos Hdricos Subterrneos en reas Urbanas. Informe de Nicaragua:
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Report, Managua, 1999.
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Concentrations in Groundwater at Posoltega, Len-Chinandega Plains, Nicaragua. MSc
Thesis, Lund University, Lund, Sweden. LUTVDG/TVTG-5077-SE, 2002.
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MS INETER Managua, Nicaragua, 1987.
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Final Proyecto NIC/8/004 de OIEA, Vienna, 1992.
40. Payne, B.R. & Yurtsever, Y.: Environmental Isotopes as a hydrogeologic tool in Nicaragua.
Isotope Techniques in Groundwater Hydrology vol I, pp.193202, IAEA, Vienna, 1974.
41. Plata, B.A.: Riesgo de contaminacin de la Laguna de Asososca. Final report of project
NIC/8/002 of IAEA/OIEA, Vienna, 1987.
42. Bethune, D.N., Farvolden, R.N., Ryan, M.C. & Guzman, A.L.: Industrial contamination of a
municipal water supply lake by induced reversal of groundwater flow, Managua, Nicaragua.
Ground Water 34:4 (1996), pp.699708.
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water distribution systems of the Pacific region, Nicaragua. Final report CIDA Awards for
Canadians, 1985.
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Environment International 21:1 (1995), pp.7179.
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Costa Rica. 1996.
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volcanic soils in the Central Valley, Costa Rica. In: Proc International Symposium on Nuclear
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Preservation, 1995, pp.549559.
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http://www.fao.org/landandwater/aglw/aquastat/dbase/indexesp.stm
50. Lacayo, M.: Pesticidas organochlorinados no leite humano de maes Nicaraguense. MSc
Thesis, University of Brazilia, Brazilia, Brazil, 1995.
51. CIRA: Diagnstico de la Calidad Toxicolgica de las Aguas y Suelos y Calidad Bacteriolgica
de las Aguas del Municipio de Posoltega. Proyeccin y Efectos Potenciales en la Salud y el
Medio Ambiente. Final report, 1999.
52. Alvarez, A.: Niveis de Contaminacao das Agues da Bacia do Rio Atoya por Residues Pesticides
Organoclorados e Organofosforados Aplicados na Cultura do Algodao. Bacia do Rio Atoya,
Chinandega, Nicaragua, America Central. MSc Thesis. Universidade Federal do Para. Belem, 1994.
53. Centro Humboldt: Caracterizacin Hidrogeolgica, Hidroqumica, Bacteriolgica y de
Plaguicidas en las Aguas Subterrneas del Municipio de Posoltega. Managua, Nicaragua, 2002.
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California. J. Soil and Water Cons. 45 (1990), pp.253255.
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Current Drinking Water Standards, 2002.
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Priority Toxic Pollutants. In: National Recommended Water Quality Criteria Correction.
EPA 822-Z-99-001, 1999.
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U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1136, 1996.
59. INETER (by Fenol): Estudio de la instruccin marina en acuferos costeros de la regin LenChinandega. Instituto Nicaragense de Estudios Territoriales, Managua, 1983.
60. Krsn, J. & Lpez, A.: Ms agua para Managua. Pero de dnde? Consideraciones sobre
estrategia del abastecimiento futuro de la capital nicaragense dentro del contexto regional. MS
INETER, Managua, Nicaragua, 1988.
61. Cruz, O.: Modelaje del Acufero Managua y su Rendimiento Sostenible. MSc Thesis,
University of Costa Rica, San Jos, Costa Rica, 1997.
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Assessment. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 1990.
Chapter 25
Water availability, use and valuation
JOHN C. BERGSTROM AND HUGO CARDONA
... the Central American region is directed
toward long-term economic development
and a permanent increase in productivity
and employment. In order to achieve these
results, individual Central American
countries need to inventory available
indigenous resources and make effective use
of those that can be developed. These
resources including land, energy, minerals,
water, and people, must be used wisely for
the development of agriculture, industry, and
trade. C.G. Cunningham et al.: Earth and
Water Resources and Hazards in Central
America, U.S. Geological Survey, 1984.
25.1
INTRODUCTION
The Central American region has experienced a series of historical events guided by
political turmoil in the context of the cold war. As a result, more than 60% of the rural
population lives under the poverty line and around 40% lives under the extreme
poverty line. In both rural and urban areas in Central America, lack of adequate water
quantity and quality contributes to poor human health and constrains economic
development. Thus, water resources are essential to any attempt to improve basic
human health, the economy and standards of living in Central America. In order to
efficiently and effectively manage water resources, there is a need to better understand
geographic, institutional and economic factors influencing the availability, use and
valuation of water resources in Central America. The primary purpose of this chapter is
to provide a broad overview of some of these factors. In Section 25.2, some geographic
and institutional perspectives and problems related to Central American water supply
and demand are presented including a discussion of the general availability and use of
ground and surface water in Central America. In Section 25.3, more detail on various
services provided by water and techniques for estimating the economic value of these
services are discussed. Implications and conclusions are provided in the final section.
25.2
GEOGRAPHIC AND INSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVES AND PROBLEMS
Some general characteristics of Central American countries, which drive water demand
in the region, are shown in Table 25.1. A more detailed description of Central
American countries is provided in Chapter 1. In total area, the largest countries are
Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua. The smallest are Belize and El Salvador, with Costa
Rica and Panama in between. Guatemala has the largest population (12,036,000) and Belize
has the smallest (251,000). The populations of other Central American countries are in
between these two countries and are roughly similar. With respect to water resources,
population density is often a better indicator of where institutional and economic pressures
on the water supply and demand are likely to be most intense now and in the future. El
Salvador is the most densely populated country in Central America (304.90
inhabitants/km2) and Belize is the least (10.93 inhabitants/km2). The population densities of
Costa Rica and Guatemala fall in about the middle between El Salvador and Belize. The
population densities of Nicaragua and Panama are smaller, falling in between Belize and
Costa Rica and Guatemala. The distribution of total population between rural and urban
populations across all Central American countries is very similar.
12036
6505
5531
110.5
2003
251
130
121
10.9
27
Nicaragua
2104 13000
910 2161
6781 6415
3716 2587
3065 3828
60.5 304.9
780
781
5335
2295
3040
41.0
395
Panama
2296 11209
102 1428
El Salvador
Honduras
10889
1905
Costa Rica
Total area (1000 ha)

Cultivated area (arable land and
permanent crops) (1000 ha)
Total population (1000 inhab.)
Rural population (1000 inhab.)
Urban population (1000 inhab.)
Population density (inhab./km2)
Total economically active
population in agriculture
(1000 inhab.)
Belize
Guatemala
Table 25.1. General characteristics of the Central American region, by country (Source: [1]).
5110
525
7552
695
4094 3064
1630 1324
2465 1740
80.1 40.57
250
326
Population densities and the relatively even distribution of total population between
rural and urban areas in Central America suggest the need for comprehensive and
integrated water resource analysis and policy. For example, on the demand side, urban
areas place large demands on water resources for industrial uses and drinking and other
household uses. In rural areas, large demands are placed on water resources for
agricultural uses and drinking and other household uses (see Table 25.1 for figures on
cultivated land and people active in agriculture in Central America). From a supply
side, the ultimate sources of water are by-and-large located in rural areas. Thus, human
activities in rural areas (such as deforestation) can impact the quantity and quality of
water available to both rural and urban populations. Therefore, analysis and policy
related to water availability, use and valuation in Central American countries needs to
be nationwide and should cover both rural and urban areas in a country and the
interrelationships between these areas.
In addition to being nationwide and comprehensive of both rural and urban areas
within a country, analysis and policy related to water availability use and valuation
must cut across Central American countries since these countries share many important
river basins. The many shared river basins in Central America are documented in Table
25.2. There are shared river basins within two or three Central American countries, and
there are also some river basins, that are shared with countries outside the region, such
as Mexico and Colombia. At the country level, river basin shares account for 70% of
Guatemalas territory, 59% of El Salvadors, 22% of Honduras, 37% of Nicaraguas,
35% of Costa Ricas and 5% of Panamas (Plan de Accin para el Manejo Integrado
del Agua en el Istmo Centroamericano, PAMIAIC, published in 1999 [1]).
Table 25.2. Shared river basins (Source: [1]).
Bi-national and tri-national river basins
River basin
Suchiate river
Lempa river
Paz river
Ostua river and Guija lake
Goascoran river
Choluteca river
Negro river
Usumacinta river
Hondo-Azul river
Mopan-Belice river
Moho river
Sarstun river
Motagua river
Coco or Segovia river
San Juan river
Sixaola river
Changuinola
Countries
Guatemala and Mexico
Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador
Guatemala and El Salvador
Guatemala and El Salvador
Honduras and El Salvador
Honduras and Nicaragua
Guatemala and Mexico
Guatemala, Mexico and Belize
Guatemala and Honduras
Nicaragua and Costa Rica
The many shared river basins in Central American provide the need and opportunities
for integrated water resource analysis and policy across Central American countries.
For example, Central American countries sharing the same river basin could pool
resources to conduct a comprehensive assessment of water supply, demand and values
in the basin. Based on the results of this assessment, an integrated river basin policy
involving all countries sharing the basin could then be developed to help manage water
supply and demand in the basin.
Although the presence of shared river basins enriches the likelihood of integrated
water resource analysis and policy over time, it also generates sources of potential
conflict if cooperation is not fully sought after and attained. Many efforts have been
devoted to that purpose. The PAMIAIC [1] reports that there are many regional
initiatives and projects that are attempting to promote integrated water resource
analysis and policy in Central America, including:
The Regional Committee of Hydraulic Resources, CRRH in Spanish, created in
1966 with the purpose of coordinating the activities in meteorology, hydrology and
hydrological resources.
The Regional Coordinating Committee of Institutions of Potable Water of Central
America, Panama and Dominican Republic, CAPRE in Spanish, created in 1979,
functioning as a coordinating and technical consultants office to help in the
fulfillment of the goals to guarantee the potable water supply and cleaning.
The Council of Electrification of Central America, CEAC in Spanish, created in
1985; its objective is to identify and to promote more efficient forms to generate, to
transmit, to distribute and to use the electrical energy between member countries.
The Coordination Center for the Prevention of Natural Disasters in Central
America, CEPREDENAC in Spanish, created in 1987 to coordinate the prevention
689
process and mitigation of disasters in Central America.

The Central American Agricultural Council, CAC in Spanish, created in 1991 to
support the participation of the farming sector in the process of regional integration.
The Central American Bank of Integration, BCIE in Spanish, created in 1961 to
promote the integration and the balanced economic development of the Central
American countries.
The Trifinio Plan, created in 1987 and financed by the European Union. It shares
the border zone between Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras around the reserve
of the La Fraternidad biosphere, which includes the high part of the Lempa
river basin, which is shared by these three countries.
The Project of Integrated Management of Hydraulic Resources and Sustainable
Development of the San Juan river basin and its coastal zone, which is been
implemented by the governments of Costa Rica and Nicaragua.
The Gulf of Fonseca Project between El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua. It aims
to develop coordination mechanisms to gain the necessary consensuses for the
territorial ordering and the program of sustainable development in the region.
Regional Project of Sustainable Development of Border Zones of the Central
American isthmus which is financed by OAS. Its purpose is to obtain national
agreements for the institutionalization of the Project of the Gulf of Honduras
(Guatemala, Honduras), as well as Plan of Action for Integrated Management of
Water Resources in Central America.
PROARCA/COSTA is a component of the PROARCA project, financed by AID. It
tries to promote the coastal zone management in four high-priority areas: Gulf of
Honduras, Gulf of Fonseca, Cayos Misquitos and Gandoca-Bocas del Toro.
PROARCA includes a component of environmental legislation and prevention of
contamination, to support the establishment of national regulations of water, air and
soil quality.
In the context of shared river basin work, these and other related institutions may play
an important role in the management of such resources. However, according to the
PAMIAIC [1], current efforts to integrate water resource analysis and policy across
Central American countries are not well coordinated and a more cooperative
framework appears to be needed. This framework should have two primary goals: (1)
provide an objective assessment of shared river basin water supply and demand
following state-of-the-art scientific analysis procedures, such as the economic valuation
methods discussed later in this chapter, and (2) develop an integrated science-based
policy for protecting water quantity and quality in the basin and allocating water to
different people and uses in and perhaps outside the basin.
25.3
WATER AVAILABILITY AND USE
The Central American region is very fortunate in that the feasibility of integrated water
resource analysis and policy is greatly enhanced by the relative abundance of water
resources in the Central American region. When water resources are very scarce,
integrated and cooperative water resource analysis and policy is more contentious and
difficult as has been the case in many water-scarce regions of the United States of
America. In Central America, both surface and groundwater are considered to be
strong natural assets supporting agricultural, industrial and household uses as well as
nonmarket environmental and ecosystem services.
Figure 25.1. Water availability and use parameters by country (data from [2]).
With the exception of El Salvador and Belize, all other countries in the region have an
average volume of precipitation above 150 109 m3/year, with Nicaragua having the
greatest volume, beyond 300 109 m3/year and El Salvador having the lowest average
volume of precipitation, below 50 109 m3/year (Fig. 25.1a). At the per capita level,
however, there is an interesting difference as the small country of Belize has the highest
availability of per capita water resources. Belize has more than 70,000 m3/inhab/year,
while again, the lowest value of per capita availability goes to El Salvador, with 3900
m3/inhab/year. Per capita total renewable water resources available are beyond 25,000
m3/inhab/year for Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Panama, while in the neighborhood of
10,000 m3/inhab/year for Guatemala and Honduras (Fig. 25.1b).
Figure 25.1c, shows the percentages of water withdrawals per country per sector, as
691
a proportion of total withdrawals. While in Belize withdrawals for industrial purposes

account for almost 74% of total withdrawals, domestic withdrawals only account for
6% and 20% for agricultural uses. The picture is completely different in other countries
such as Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua where agricultural water withdrawals
represent 80% or more of total withdrawals, while for industrial use, withdrawals are in
the neighborhood of 10% for Guatemala and Honduras; and only 2% in Nicaragua.
Only in Panama are water withdrawals for domestic consumption larger than other
uses, accounting for 67% of all withdrawals, while water for agriculture represents only
28% and industrial purposes accounts for only 5%.
As for the allocation of water withdrawals per capita (Fig. 25.1d), Belize and Costa
Rica show the highest values with per capita water withdrawals of around 600
m3/inhab/year. These values are, on average, more than three times larger than per
capita withdrawals for the rest of the countries in the region. Total water withdrawals
as a proportion of total renewable resources are shown in Figure 25.1e. All countries
have water withdrawals below 5% of total renewable water resources, which is again a
good indicator of relatively high water availability in the region.
Table 25.3. Trends in water availability in terms of total renewable water resources per capita.
19831987
19881992
Guatemala
Belize
Honduras
El Salvador
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
19931997
19982002
20032007
9244.77
73924.30
14146.73
3932.97
36867.85
27454.81
48296.34
8788.41
71091.95
13513.03
3814.64
35142.04
26447.06
46578.53
m3/inhab/year
Country
13693.08
107877.91
21571.62
5175.38
55172.51
39494.03
65246.91
12080.12
94668.37
18569.30
4744.26
48601.43
34798.76
58909.24
10563.94
82834.82
16090.07
4282.80
42000.85
30752.39
53211.08
Source: [2].
Figure 25.1f and Table 25.3 show trends in water availability in terms of total
renewable water resources per capita. It clearly shows that as population grows, water
availability per capita goes down. There has been an average reduction of water
availability per capita of 30% for all countries from 1983 to 2002 and it is estimated
that there will be a reduction of 33% by the year 2007. There is an estimated reduction
of water availability per capita of 1.59% per year, with the greatest yearly reduction
being at the rate of 1.81% for Honduras, and the lowest for El Salvador at a rate of
1.26%. Groundwater produced internally by country is presented in Figure 25.1g, with
Nicaragua having the largest values at the level of 59 109 m3/year, and El Salvador
showing the lowest value of 6.15 109 m3/year.
Information such as presented in this section focusing on physical water availability
is essential for integrated and informed water resource analysis and policy. The
availability of water, however, is only one part of the analysis and policy picture. Also
needed is information focusing on the services and values provided by available water.
Concepts and tools for assessing the useful services and economic values provided by
water quantity and quality are discussed in the next section.
25.4
WATER VALUES
Groundwater and surface water are part of the natural capital of Central America.
Natural capital is an input into the provision of useful outputs or services of value
to people. For example, natural groundwater supplies are an input into the provision of
drinking water to rural and urban populations in Central America. The quantity and
quality of a natural capital output or service (e.g., drinking water in a private household
or public municipal well) is a function of the quantity and quality of the natural capital
input (e.g., groundwater from the aquifer supplying water to the private household or
municipal well). The economic value of the natural capital service (e.g., drinking
water) to people is a function of the quantity and quality of the service and ultimately
the quantity and quality natural capital supporting the service (e.g., aquifer).
In order to define and inventory the economic values of water to Central America,
we need to consider the basic relationships between natural capital, and natural capital
inputs, services and values discussed above and illustrated in Figure 25.2. Natural
capital in Central America includes the various natural aquifers, rivers and lakes found
throughout the region. Chapter 24 in this book provides detailed information on the
physical characteristics of aquifers in Central America and describes the
hydrogeological interrelationships between aquifers and surface rivers and lakes.
The natural system of aquifers, rivers and lakes in Central America provides two
basic types of natural capital inputs; groundwater and surface water. Information and
data discussed in previous sections and in Chapter 24 indicate that Central America as
a whole is endowed with relatively abundant supplies of groundwater with high
quality. The total availability of ground- and surface water as a renewable natural
capital input on a per capita basis by Central American country is shown in Table 25.3,
presented earlier in this chapter. As shown in this table, water as an available natural
capital input is very unevenly distributed across Central American countries. This
uneven distribution implies that water services and values are also likely to be unevenly
distributed. This uneven distribution of ground- and surface water services across
Central American countries is partially indicated by the per capita consumption of
ground- and surface water supplies shown in Table 25.4.
Table 25.4. Per capita consumption and source of water supply.
Surface water
Urban
Urban
Rural
Country
Guatemala
Honduras
El Salvador
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
Groundwater
Rural
m /inhab/year
23
40
65
N/A
N/A
8
90
78
80
N/A
8
78
77
60
33
N/A
N/A
92
10
22
20
N/A
93
22
N/A: not stated; Source: Pan American Health Organization. Mid-Decade Evaluation of Water
Supply and Sanitation in Latin America and the Caribbean, Washington, [3].
We turn now to a discussion of the natural capital services provided by ground- and
surface water. Groundwater and surface water provide many valuable services to
people. Table 25.5, adapted from Bergstrom et al., [4], summarizes the natural capital
services provided by ground and surface water and whether or not these services are
currently being utilized in Central America. An important service provided by groundand surface water in Central America is provision of drinking water. Figure 25.1c
shows domestic water withdrawals in Central America. Domestic water withdrawals
693
predominately support drinking water services which in Table 25.5 would include human
consumption, cooking and bathing. In most Central American countries, domestic water
withdrawals are less than 30% of total water withdrawals. The exception is Panama where
domestic water withdrawals account for almost 70% of total withdrawals. Except in El
Salvador and Nicaragua where almost all drinking water is disinfected, large percentages of
the population in Central America drink water that is not disinfected (Table 25.6).
Table 25.5. Services provided by ground- and surface water in Central America.
Service
Provision of drinking water
Provision of water for crop irrigation
Provision of water for livestock
Provision of water for food product processing
Provision of water for other manufacturing
processes
6 Provision of heated water for geothermal power
plants
7 Provision of cooling water for other power plants
8 Provision of water/sod support system for
preventing land subsidence
1
2
3
4
5
9 Provision of erosion and flood control

10 Transport and treatment wastes and other byproducts of human activity
11 Support of commercial fishing, hunting, trapping,
plant gathering
12 Support of recreational swimming, boating,
fishing, hunting, trapping, plant gathering
13 Support of on-site observation or study of fish,
wildlife and plants for leisure, education or science
14 Support of indirect, off-site fish, wildlife and plant
uses (e.g., viewing wildlife photos)
15 Provision of passive or non-use services (e.g.,
existence or bequest motivations)
16 Provision of clean water through support of living
organisms
17 Provision of clean air through support of living
organisms
18 Regulation of climate through support of plants
Groundwater
Surface water
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes, but
constrained
in some areas
Yes, but
constrained
in some areas
Yes
Yes
Yes, indirectly
Yes, indirectly
Yes
Yes, indirectly
Yes
Yes, indirectly
Yes
Yes, indirectly
Yes
Yes, indirectly
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes, indirectly
Yes
Yes, indirectly
Yes
Yes, but
constrained
in some areas
Yes
N/A: not stated; Source: chapter authors.
In most Central American countries, agricultural water withdrawals account for more
than 50% of total water withdrawals (Fig. 25.1c). The exceptions are Belize and
Panama where agricultural water withdrawals are less than 30% of total water
withdrawals indicating relatively smaller agricultural water demand in these two
countries as compared to other Central American countries. Agricultural water
withdrawals support the services of provision of water for crop irrigation and livestock
listed in Table 25.5. In most Central American countries, industrial water withdrawals
account for less than 20% of total water withdrawals (Fig. 25.1c) because of the
relatively undeveloped industrial sectors in these countries. The exception is Belize
where the relatively large industrial sector accounts for over 70% of total water
withdrawals. Industrial water withdrawals support the following services listed in Table
25.5; provision of water for food product processing, provision of water for other
manufacturing processes, provision of heated water for geothermal power plants, and
provision of cooling water for other power plants.
Table 25.6. Percentage of population who receives disinfected water on a regular basis [3].
Percentage of population receiving disinfected water
Country
Guatemala
Honduras
El Salvador
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
Urban
45
51
97
96
50
86
Rural
28
5
44
Natural capital services 17 listed in Table 25.5 supported by domestic, agricultural and
industrial water withdrawals are considered extractive water services because water is
taken out aquifers, rivers and lakes to support these services and not immediately (or in a
relatively short period of time) returned to these sources of water supply in similar
quantity and quality. Natural capital services 818 in Table 25.5 are considered
nonextractive water services since it is not necessary for people to take water out of
aquifers, rivers and lakes to support these services. An important service provided by
undepleted aquifers is provision of water and sod support for preventing land subsidence.
Aquifers can become depleted directly by water withdrawals from aquifers and indirectly
by water withdrawals from rivers and lakes since there is less water in rivers and lakes to
recharge aquifers. When aquifers become depleted because of water withdrawals from
aquifers, rivers and lakes to support consumptive natural capital services, land subsidence
can result. This subsidence or sinking of the land can reduce the ability of the land to
support human infrastructure including roads, bridges, and buildings.
When rain falls, it is captured by rivers, lakes and other smaller surface water
bodies (e.g., small streams, ponds). Some of the water captured in surface water bodies
then percolates down into aquifers. When this hydrologic cycle is operating properly,
the interrelationships between ground- and surface water bodies help to provide the
service listed in Table 25.5 of erosion and flood control. When this hydrologic cycle in
not operating properly, say because of human disturbances, excess surface water runoff can occur resulting in erosion and flooding. In several areas of Central America,
broad landscape changes due to clearing of trees and other vegetation to support human
subsistence and development has disrupted the normal hydrologic cycle constraining
the ability of ground- and surface water to provide the service of land subsidence and
erosion prevention (see Chapter 24).
In both developed and undeveloped countries, ground- and surface water provide the
service listed in Table 25.5 of transporting and treating wastes and other by-products of
human activity. For example, agricultural and industrial wastes and by-products are
discharged into aquifers, rivers and lakes for transport to other places and natural
treatment in other words, these water bodies provide waste disposal and treatment
services. Rivers, for example, may eventually transport wastes and by-products to
lakes, wetlands and the ocean and to aquifers by seepage for permanent storage.
Natural processes in aquifers, rivers, lakes, wetlands and the ocean will naturally treat
695
some wastes and by-products thereby removing some of these wastes and by-products
from permanent storage.
Ground- and surface water bodies have some ability to transport and treat wastes and
other by-products of human activity in a way that maintains adequate water quality for
consumptive services such as drinking water. However, if the natural ability of groundand surface water bodies to safely transport and treat wastes and other by-products of
human activity is exceeded, water quality may not be adequate for consumptive
services such as drinking water. Unsafe drinking water supplies due to excessive use of
ground- and surface water supplies for transport, disposal and treatment of wastes and
other by-products of human activity is a major problem in many areas of Central
America as discussed in Chapters 1 and 24. For example, Table 25.7 indicates that the
percentage of urban sewage treated before discharge into water bodies is very low in
the Central American countries listed in the table. This large amount of untreated
sewage discharged into water bodies indicates high use of natural water bodies for
waste disposal services.
Table 25.7. Percentage of sewage treated before discharge.
Proportion of
urban sewage
treated before
discharge (%)
Country
Guatemala
El Salvador
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
9
1
21
3
Proportion of treated
waste by level (%)1)
Proportion of waste
discharge in rivers, lakes
and sea (%)2)
14
-
54
54
67
19
98
80
-
1
2
1)
P: Primary treatment, S: Secondary treatment, O: Others, 2)R: River, L: Lake, S: Sea.

Source: [3].
When aquifers, rivers and lakes are ecologically healthy, these water bodies support a
great diversity of plants and animals. Although some living organisms are found in
aquifers, the contribution of aquifers to the diversity of plants and animals supported by
water is primarily through recharge of surface rivers and lakes. Plants and animals
supported directly or indirectly by ground- and surface water support the services listed
in Table 25.5 of commercial and recreational fishing, hunting, trapping and plant
gathering. These plants and animals also support indirect, off-site fish, wildlife and
plant services such a viewing wildlife photographs in books, magazines and videos.
Plants and animals also are the source of passive or non-use services such as existence
or bequest benefits (Table 25.5). Existence benefits are the value people place on just
knowing that plants and animals (such as an endangered species) continue to exist.
Bequest benefits are the value people place on passing on opportunities to future
generations to gain benefits from plants and animals that continue to exist.
Services 1618 in Table 25.5 represent broad ecological services supported by groundand surface water. Living organisms in aquifers, rivers and lakes also help to provide clean
water through ecological processes that naturally filter and treat wastes and other byproducts of human activity. By supporting healthy plant growth, ground- and surface water
also help to provide clean air through oxygen generation. Plants supported by ground- and
surface water also help to regulate climate, for example, by absorbing carbon dioxide.

25.5
ECONOMIC VALUATION PROCESS
As illustrated in Figure 25.2, natural capital services (e.g., water services) generate
natural capital values (e.g., water values). The general process for estimating economic
values of ground- and surface water services is illustrated in Figure 25.3.
Figure 25.2. Linkages between natural capital inputs, services and values.
The first step is to monitor Central American natural capital in the form of aquifers, rivers
and lakes to determine the current or baseline quantity and quality of ground- and surface water
in Central America. Working from the baseline, the next step is to determine the reference
levels of ground and surface water quantity and quality over time. The reference levels
generally represent water quantity and quality over time if the status quo continues into the
future (e.g., current patterns of population growth, economic development, natural resource
use, and public policies continue into the future).
Figure 25.3. Water valuation process (adapted from Bergstrom et al., [2] and Bergstrom et al.,
[5]).
The next step, again working from the baseline, is to determine the subsequent level
of ground- and surface water quantity and quality over time. The subsequent level
generally represents water quantity and quality over time if the status quo changes; for
example, a new water policy is implemented by the government in a Central American
697

country. Once the reference and subsequent levels of water quantity and quality are
determined, the difference between these levels defines the change in water quantity
and quality of interest.
The steps and tasks illustrated in Figure 25.3 for estimating a change in water quality
and quantity primarily involve the interrelated work of hydrologists, geologists,
engineers, ecologists and other physical and biological scientists [4, 5]. For example, the
discussion in Chapter 24 provides an assessment of aquifers in Central America and the
current or baseline levels of groundwater quantity and quality in Central America. Their
discussion also gives an idea of the reference levels of groundwater quantity and
quality in Central America; e.g., the levels of groundwater quantity and quality in
Central America in the future if status quo conditions continue. Working from the type of
information provided in Chapter 24, physical and biological scientists could determine
the subsequent levels of groundwater quantity and quality that may result over time in
Central America if the status quo conditions changed; for example, a new policy is
implemented to protect critical groundwater recharge areas from over-development.
A change in water quantity and quality over time will result in a change in water
services over time (Fig. 25.3). To determine the full range and scope of changes in
water services, an assessment would need to be done of how the predicted change in
water quantity and quality would affect the quantity and quality of water services listed
in Table 25.5. The predicted change in the water quantity and quality may have small
or large effects on different services listed in Table 25.5 in particular Central American
countries. Estimation of these effects would involve the integrated work of physical
and biological scientists and economists and other social scientists. Changes in water
services over time lead to changes in economic values or benefits derived from water in
Central America over time (Fig. 25.3). Estimation of changes in economic values or
benefits involves primarily the work of economists [4, 5].
25.6
ECONOMIC VALUATION TECHNIQUES
As shown in Table 25.8, there are many potential economic valuation techniques for
water services. The market price/demand function approach would use market price
and quantity data to observe and estimate the price of water directly, or to estimate a
market demand function. The estimated demand function could then be used to
estimate the marginal price of water and total consumer surplus (or net benefits) of a
given quantity of water demanded or consumed. Application of the market
price/demand function approach in Central America is dependent on the existence of
markets for water in Central American countries.
Table 25.8. Economic valuation techniques for water services.
Service
1 Provision of drinking water
2 Provision of water for crop

irrigation
Valuation techniques
Market price/demand function; Supply or cost function;
Producer/consumer cost savings; Contingent
valuation/contingent choice; Averting behavior; Hedonic
price; Benefits transfer
Market price/Demand function; Supply or cost function;

3 Provision of water for livestock Market price/demand function; Supply or cost function;
4 Provision of water for food
product processing
5 Provision of water for other
manufacturing processes
valuation/contingent choice; Benefits transfer
6 Provision of heated water for
geothermal power plants
7 Provision of cooling water for Market price/demand function; Supply or cost function;
other power plants
8 Provision of water/sod support Market price/demand Function; Supply or cost function;
system for preventing land
subsidence
9 Provision of erosion and flood Market price/demand function; Supply or cost function;
control
10 Transport and treatment wastes Market price/demand function; Supply or cost function;
and other by-products of human Producer/consumer cost savings; Contingent
activity
11 Support of commercial fishing, Market price/demand function; Supply or cost function;
hunting, trapping, plant
gathering
12 Support of recreational
swimming, boating, fishing,
valuation/contingent choice; Travel cost method;
hunting, trapping, plant
Benefits transfer
gathering
13 Support of on-site observation Market price/Demand function; Supply or cost function;
or study of fish, wildlife and
plants for leisure, education or valuation/contingent choice; Travel cost method;
Benefits transfer
science
14 Support of indirect, off-site
fish, wildlife and plant uses
(e.g., viewing wildlife photos) valuation/contingent choice; Benefits transfer
15 Provision of passive or non-use Market price/demand function; Supply or cost function;
Producer/consumer cost savings; Contingent valuation/
services (e.g., existence or
contingent choice; Travel cost method; Benefits transfer
bequest motivations)
16 Provision of clean water
through support of living
organisms
17 Provision of clean air through Market price/demand function; Supply or cost function;
support of living organisms
18 Regulation of climate through Market price/demand function; Supply or cost function;
support of plants
N/A: not stated; Source: chapter authors.
699

The supply or cost function approach can be used to estimate the value or benefits to
firms who supply water to customers. Given sufficient data on the costs of providing
drinking water, the firms supply or cost function for providing different quantities of
drinking water could be estimated. This supply or cost function could then be used to
estimate producer surplus (or net benefits) to the firm of providing different quantities
of, for example, drinking water to customers. Some general water production and
provision cost data are provided in Tables 25.9 and 25.10. The numbers reported in
these tables indicate that both urban and rural water costs are quite varied across
Central America.
Table 25.9. Water costs and tariffs (Source: [3]).
Country
Truck (US$/m3) Bottled

water
(US$/liter)
Marginal
urban
areas
Average cost
of water
production
(US$/m3)
Average tariff
(US$/m3)
Urban Rural
Urban
Rural
(US$/m3)
Urban
Rural
0.05
0.10
0.26
-
0.23
1.00
0.16
0.48
0.23
0.10
0.05
5.37
0.26
0.84 0.11
1.63 0.19
2.25
2.85
-
2.85
-
0.14
0.39
0.19
0.05
-
Guatemala
El Salvador
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
0.20
1.00
0.80
0.40
The supply or cost function approach can also be applied to estimate the value or
benefits to firms who use water as an input into their production processes. For
example, consider a food processor that uses relatively large quantities of water in its
production process. Given sufficient data, the food processors supply or cost function
could be estimated which includes a water input variable. The estimated supply or cost
function could then be used to estimate the incremental value of water to the food
processors production process and food product output.
Table 25.10. Unit US$ per person costs (Source: [3]).
Water supplies
Country
House
connection
Guatemala
El Salvador
Costa Rica
Panama
180
130
208
121
Sanitation
Standpost
Rural
40
120
160
58
65
Sewerage Septic tank

connection
260
80
231
192
58
129
Rural
25
150
46
30
The producer/consumer cost saving approach would measure the value or benefits of
changes in water quantity or quality in terms of costs saved by producers or consumers.
For example, a water project that provides a greater quantity of water to manufacturing
firms may reduce their costs of production by reducing what they previously had to pay
in order to obtain sufficient water for their manufacturing processes. A policy or
project that improves the quantity and quality of drinking water to households may
reduce costs that households previously had to pay to obtain adequate quantities of safe
drinking water. A case study in the region is presented as an example by IUCN, [6].
The contingent valuation method is a survey-based approach in which people are
asked willingness-to-pay questions for proposed changes in water quantity and quality.

For example, in a survey questionnaire, residents of a city may be asked how much
they would be willing to pay in a monthly water bill to gain an increase in the quantity
and(or) quality of their household drinking water supplies. This type of question would
measure household use values for water. Another example would be asking people in a
survey questionnaire how much they would be willing to contribute to special
conservation fund to protect water quantity and(or) quality to ensure the continued
existence of rare or endangered plants and animals in a particular area. This type of
question would capture nonuse or passive use values supported by water such as
existence and bequest values. The contingent valuation method has been applied in
many cases in the region; for example, see Salgado [7], and Valera [8].
The contingent choice approach is a survey-based approach similar to the
contingent valuation method. In this approach, rather than asking people willingnessto-pay questions, survey participants are asked to rank packages of goods and
services in order of preference. The levels of goods and services are different across
these packages. For example, survey participants may be asked to rank water policy or
project packages that differ in the levels of various water services listed in Table 25.5.
In addition to the levels of water services varying across water policy or project
packages, the costs of different water policies or projects to individuals or households
would vary across packages. The resulting data showing how people rank different
water policies or projects can then be analyzed statistically to determine the
incremental value of changes in water services.
The averting behavior approach uses information on actions people take to avoid
harm or discomfort to estimate the value of a particular good or service. For example,
households may spend money on water filters or bottled water to avoid potential harm
or discomfort from drinking contaminated private or public water supplies. The amount
of money they spend on these defensive expenditures indicates the incremental
economic value of safe drinking water from public or private water supplies. Defensive
expenditures at a larger community or country scale in Central American are indicated
by the water supply and sanitation investments shown in Table 25.11.
Table 25.11. Investments in water supply and sanitation during the period 19901995.
External
Percentage of
Total Contributions total external
(Mio US$)
contributions
Sector investment (millions US$)

Country
Guatemala
Honduras
El Salvador
Nicaragua
Panama
Water
71
200
118
111
38
Sanitation
9
85
22
N/A
4
80
285
140
111
42
28
218
116
74
9
35
82
83
66
21
N/A: not stated; Source: [3].
The hedonic price approach uses property value data or wage rate data to estimate the
value of water quantity or quality. For example, property that has access or rights to
abundant and safe water supplies will likely be worth more and sell for more as
compared to property that has relatively scarce and unsafe water supplies. Given
sufficient data on property values or prices with access to varying levels of water
quantity and quality, statistical models, termed hedonic price models, can be estimated
which in turn can be used to compute the contribution of water quantity and(or) quality
to property value or price. The contribution of water quantity or quality to property
701

value or price is a measure of the incremental economic value of changes in water

quantity or quality.
The travel cost method has been heavily and almost exclusively used to measure the
economic value of recreation. The method, for example, would use data on travel
behavior and expenditures to estimate demand functions for trips people make to
recreation sites in Central America. The estimated demand function for recreation trips
often includes measures of site quality, such as the amount and quality of water
available say for swimming, fishing, and boating. In such cases, the estimated
recreation demand function can be used to estimate the effects of changes in water
quantity and quality on the recreation demand function which in turn can be used to
estimate the incremental economic value of changes in water quantity and quality. The
travel cost method has been applied to evaluate important sources of recreation in the
region [911].
All of the valuation approaches discussed above require primary data. In many
cases, it is not possible or practical to collect the primary data necessary to implement
these approaches. For example, conducting the surveys necessary for implementing the
contingent valuation method and contingent choice method are very time consuming
and expensive. When primary data collection is problematic, the benefits transfer
method may be used to value water quantity and quality. This approach uses secondary
data or off-the-shelf numbers to estimate the economic value of water quantity
and(or) quality for a particular application. For example, suppose we are interested in
estimating the economic value of a water project that will increase the quality of water
in a particular Central American city. The benefits transfer method would involve
finding previous estimates of the value of water quality improvements that could
legitimately be transferred or applied to the project and city of interest.
More detailed information on the above economic valuation techniques can be
found in several sources [5, 12, 13]. Application of the above valuation techniques
generally results in measures of the economic value of water quantity and quality in
terms of willingness-to-pay (WTP) per individual or household or per some physical
unit (e.g., gallon, liter). To estimate aggregate economic value, WTP per unit must be
multiplied by total units (e.g., population, total households, total gallons or liters used).
Information on water use per sector in Central America such as shown in Figure 25.1c
provides useful baseline data for estimating aggregate economic values of changes in
water quantity. The aggregate economic value of a change in water quality is
generally determined by multiplying WTP per individual or household by the
population or total number of households affected by the change in water quality
(Bergstrom et al., [5]). An inventory and analysis of 15 non-market-based valuation
studies in Central American and Caribbean countries, is presented by Shultz [14].
25.7
IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
The relative abundance of water resources combined with democratic governments in

all Central American countries provides a good starting point for countries working
together towards integrated water resource analysis and policy leading to better
protection and use of the available water resources. Extreme whether conditions typical
of Central America (see Chapter 1), such as hurricanes or severe droughts, reveal the
lack of appropriate and well defined policy and legislation towards preventing and
managing devastating water-related events. Over time, this lack of integrated and

cooperative water resource management effort can impose very high costs on the
citizens, governments and private sectors of Central America. In 2005, while this book
chapter was being written, hurricane Stan caused severe destruction in the region, with
more than 3.5 million impacted persons in Guatemala alone.
Despite the relative abundance of water resources in Central America, water has not
been properly allocated to satisfy basic human needs, nor has it been properly used to
induce or enhance productive activities that would allow for faster economic growth as
a means to develop the region. A low level of access to good quality drinking water
supplies as well as very low levels of access to sewage services has a very high impact
on human health in the region. This phenomenon in turn, imposes very high costs on
the provision of health services, low levels of economic productivity and so on.
The many shared river basins in Central America offer opportunities to work together
toward an integrated management of water resources in the region. These shared basins
also provide potential for conflicts as water quantity or quality becomes more and more
scarce. For example, conflicts within and across countries could develop over allocation
of water between more extractive uses such as agriculture and industry, and less
extractive uses such as recreation and tourism. There are many important recreation and
tourism areas in Central America directly supported by water resources. These areas
provide opportunities to promote tourism and ecotourism as a means to diversify and
enhance the income generated by these economic activities while protecting the water
resources upon which these activities are based. However, Central American countries
may place different priorities on protecting water resources for non-extractive uses such
as recreation and tourism according to how dependent their economies are on recreation
and tourism expenditures, especially from international visitors.
In addition to differences in water use priorities, differences in politics and
socioeconomic factors such as income and education across Central American
countries are constraints to integrated water resource analysis and policy that need to be
considered. For example, although at this time all Central American countries have
democratic governments, the strength of these democracies may vary over time. Also,
within any democracy, major differences in opinion may exist between individuals and
political groups over all types of issues, including water use and valuation. Some of the
differences in opinion related to water use and valuation within and across Central
American countries may be due to significant differences in education and income.
When education and income levels are very different across groups or countries,
agreement on water resource analysis and policy may be more difficult to obtain.
As this book was being written, the Dominican Republic-Central American Free
Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA) was in the process of final approval by participating
countries. This agreement imposes the need for rethinking the way water resources are
assessed and managed in Central America, as water resources are part of the agreement
and special provisions are included related to water use, policy and legislation. Policy
and legislation affecting water allocation to different geographic areas and human uses
necessarily involve tradeoffs; that is, some people gain and some lose. The information
provided in this chapter and the rest of this book provide the framework for
determining baseline physical conditions and the economic values of changes in
physical conditions and associated water services brought about by changes in water
policy and allocation. Economic valuation of water resources in Central America
should consider both economic efficiency and equity or distributional concerns. For
example, economic values and willingness-to-pay for water resources are very sensitive
703

to income disparities within and across countries. Economic value estimates of changes
in water use and services that show both the magnitudes and distribution of value
changes across populations, space and time will help inform and promote more
efficient and hopefully equitable water policy and allocation decisions.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Sistema de Integracin Centroamricana: Plan de Accin para el Manejo Integrado del Agua en
el Istmo Centroamericano (PAMIAIC), Secretara General, 1999.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO): AQUASTAT, Internet Site:
http://www.fao.org/landandwater/aglw/aquastat/dbase/indexesp.stm (accessed in 2005).
Pan American Health Organization: Mid-Decade Evaluation of Water Supply and Sanitation in
Latin America and the Caribbean. Washington, D.C., 1997.
Bergstrom, J.C., Boyle, K.J., Job, C.A. & Kealy, M.J.: Assessing The Economic Benefits of
Ground Water for Environmental Policy Decisions. J. of the American Water Resources
Association 32:2 (1996), pp.27991.
Bergstrom, J.C., Boyle, K.J. & Poe, G.L.: Economic Value of Water Quality: Introduction and
Conceptual Background. In: J.C. Bergstrom, K.J. Boyle & G.L. Poe (eds): The Economic Value
of Water Quality, Chapter 1. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA,
U.S.A., 2001.
IUCN: Using effect on production techniques to value the role of cloud forests in water supply
in Guatemala. Internet Site: http://www.waterandnature.org/value/cases/c5.html (accessed in
2005).
Salgado, A.: Valoracin Econmica del Agua para Uso Urbano, proveniente del Parque
Nacional La Tigra, Honduras. CATIE, Costa Rica, 1996.
Valera, M.: Valoracin Econmica de los Recursos Hdricos de la Cuenca del Ro Grande
de Tarcoles, Costa Rica. Costa Rica, 1998.
Pape, Y.E.: Valoracin Econmica del Lago Petn Itz, Guatemala. FLACSO, Guatemala,
2001.
Romero, M. & Cardona, H.: Valoracin Econmica del Lago Atitln, Guatemala. Working
paper, Guatemala, 2005.
Tobias, D. & Mendelsohn, R.: Valuing Ecotourism in a Tropical Rain-Forest Reserve. Ambio
20:2 (1991), pp.9193.
Champ, P.A., Boyle, K.J. & Brown, T.C. (eds): A Primer on Nonmarket Valuation. Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London, 2003.
Freeman, A. M. III: The Measurement of Environmental and Resource Values: Second Edition.
Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C., 2003.
Shultz, S.: Non-market-based valuation of natural and environmental resources in Central
America and the Caribbean. CATIE, Costa Rica, 1996.
Chapter 26
High and low enthalpy geothermal resources
and potentials
PETER BIRKLE AND JOCHEN BUNDSCHUH
Central American governments have
already started to realize the need, as well
as the feasibility, of increased geothermal
power generation. Development has already
occurred in the past two or three years at a
quickened pace, and is likely to continue into
the next decade. E.E. Kim: Geothermal
power in Central America. Sustainable
Energy Term Paper, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, 2000.
26.1
INTRODUCTION
Due to their location within the Pacific Rim volcanic zone, all Central American
countries with the exception of Belize are endowed with large geothermal
potentials that total about 13,210 MW (advanced technology potential, [1]). The
geothermal systems of Central America are so-called convective systems, related to
the active volcanic belt discussed in Chapter 4, and derive their heat from magmatic
bodies at shallow to intermediate levels. Such geothermal systems provide a natural
source of energy for many developmental activities. In Central America, the countries of
Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica have begun utilizing these sources
for power generation, and Guatemala alone is utilizing them for direct applications, but
none are using them to the extent possible.
Geothermal resources can be divided into two groups: (1) high-temperature
resources with a temperature greater than 170 C, which are suitable for electricity
production using conventional techniques, and (2) low-temperature resources with a
temperature less than 170 C, which can be used for direct applications, or if their
temperature is over 100 C for electricity generation using the binary fluid technique.
The potential of geothermal energy resources in Central America is vast. In most
Central American countries, the geothermal potential is not well known, and only
estimates are available, and these vary by country. Since they are based on differing
criteria, e.g., with different applied technologies in mind and hence different required
temperatures, they cannot be directly compared and so there have been calls for future
standardization of estimation criteria. A country-by-country study of geothermal
potentials was published in 1999 by the Geothermal Energy Association (GEA) in
Washington D.C. [1]. Data for the different countries and estimates by the respective
national authorities are given in Table 26.1, together with data on electrification,
energy demand growth, and installed geothermal capacity. However, the role of
geothermal resources in regional and national electricity generation past, present and

706 GEOTHERMICS AND GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES
future, its social and economic value, and the opportunities for national and regional
development for increased future use will be discussed, together with a detailed
environmental benefit evaluation, in a separate chapter (Chapter 29).
Estimates made by the national authorities do not consider the use of binary fluid
technology, which lowers the minimum resource temperature suitable for electricity
generation from about 170 C to about 100 C. Doing so will double estimates of
energy available for electricity generation.
Costa Rica
52
6
80
4.8
6.1
2900
3320
65
4.1
7.35
990 2210
3340
10003)
98.35)
4006)
11008)
7)
8)
29
4)
151
77.5
9009)
163
10)
Total
Nicaragua
50
710
El Salvador
56
8
Panama
Installed geothermal capacity in

the year 2004 (MW)
Honduras
Electrification (% of population)1)
Electricity demand growth rate
forecast 20002020 (%/year)1)
Estimated economic available
geothermal potential (MW)2)
National estimates (MW)
Guatemala
Table 26.1. Central American geothermal energy reserves and other related data.
67
6
59
6
450
13210
na
3498.3
420.5
1)
from Bundschuh [2], 2)advanced technology potential; [1]; 3)from Lippmann [3]; 4)from Roldn
[4]; 5)from Eppler et al. [5]; 6)from Campos [6]; 7)from Rodrguez and Herrera [7]; 8)from Ziga
Mayorga [8]; 9)from Moya et al. [9]; 10)from Manieri [10]; na: not available.
These estimates do not consider the yet-to-be-identified geothermal resources. Stefansson [11]
estimated both identified and yet-to-be-identified geothermal resources of the world by region.
That study used the distribution of active volcanoes as an indication of high temperature
resources, and then used an empirical relation between the frequency of high- to lowtemperature resources to estimate low-temperature resources. The author calculated that the
ratio between total and identified resources is a factor of about 5 to 10. This suggests that
the Geothermal Energy Association (GEA; [1]) values are a low-end estimate and that in
reality geothermal reserves average depending on the region 5 to 10 times higher than
estimated by GEA [1]. The studies of Gawell and Stefansson [1, 11] generally agree in respect
to regional distributions of geothermal resources for electricity production. However, how
applicable this relation between identified and yet-to-be-identified resources is to the Central
American region requires further discussion and evaluation.
Since over the next decades energy demand will grow exponentially in many
developing countries that currently depend on fossil fuels, with their attendant costs
and uncertainties of supply, alternative and more sustainable energy resources must be
considered. One alternative is the use of high-enthalpy geothermal resources, which are
mostly located in young volcanic regions. Heretofore, only a very few such resources
have been exploited or been considered for exploitation in coming decades.
Since low-temperature geothermal resources, which are suitable for direct-use
purposes cover much wider areas and are not restricted to active volcanic zones, as are
most high-temperature resources, their potential is consequently much greater. Also the
development time for direct-use projects is much shorter and requires less capital than
electricity projects. Despite these advantages of direct-use opportunities, in developing
countries such projects are rarely implemented aside from bathing and tourist purposes.

Figure 26.1. Examples for geothermal development in Central America: (a) Amatitln
geothermal field (Guatemala), (b, c) Geothermal plant of Momotombo (Nicaragua); (df)
Miravalles geothermal field (Costa Rica). Photos courtesy: (a) G.E. Alvarado, (b, c) A.
Zuiga, (df) Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad.
Possibilities for future geothermal energy use in Central America should be assessed in
light of several trends: (1) the costs for electricity generation from geothermal
resources will become reduced, (2) over the next decades improved binary fluid
technology will be available to use low temperature resources (~100170 C), which will
double the previously quantified geothermal resources for electricity generation, (3)
low temperature resources will also be available for direct use, and (4) the exploitation
of hot dry rock (HDR) resources will become cheaper and commercially viable.
In this chapter, the sites of geothermal resources in Central America will be discussed in
their regional and local geological contexts, along with the history of exploration and
commercial exploitation (if any) of the respective geothermal prospects. The hydrochemical
characteristics of the geothermal fluids and gases will be discussed separately in Chapters
27 and 28, respectively. Following those chapters, Chapter 29 will deal with the role
of Central American geothermal resources in the framework of social, economic, and
environmental development benefits.
26.2
COMMERCIAL GEOTHERMAL ACTIVITIES THROUGH THE PRESENT

Initial assessment studies of geothermal resources were performed by national
authorities in the 1960s in Costa Rica (1966) and El Salvador. As a consequence of the
oil crisis of 1973, evaluations of the technical-economic potential of geothermal
resources in other Central American countries (except Belize) were made in the 1970s.
These studies were performed by the national authorities and were supported by
international or bilateral institutions for technical cooperation or financing including
the United Nations (UN), the Interamerican Development Bank (IDB), the
Organization of Petroleum Export Countries (OPEC), the Latin-American Energy
Organization (OLADE), the United Nations ROCAP/AID program, the European
Community (EC), and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). During these
studies, numerous geothermal prospects were identified. The locations of the most
important ones are shown in Figure 26.2.
The commercial development of geothermal resources in Central America was and
remains strongly influenced by the changing interests and energy priorities of the
different countries, and successive governments within single countries, as well as by
the restructuring of the energy sector including shifts from public to private energy
institutions. Currently, only Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica rely on
commercial geothermal exploration, which started in 1998, 1975, 1983, and 1994,
respectively. In 2002, geothermal electricity generation, as a proportion of the national
total, amounted to 4% (Zunil and Amatitln, Guatemala; Fig 26.1a), 22% (Berln and
Ahuachapn, El Salvador), 6% (Momotombo, Nicaragua; Fig 26.1b,c) and 14%
(Miravalles, Costa Rica; Fig 26.1 df), making El Salvador the world leader in
covering its electricity needs with geothermal energy. That high proportion of geothermal
electricity generation in El Salvador may further increase in years to come, as new power
plants in San Vicente and Chinameca are built, and as Berln and Ahuachapn are
further developed.
26.2.2 Guatemala
Estimates of geothermal resources in Guatemala range from 800 to 4000 megawatts
(MW) capacity, and are most likely approximately 1000 MW [3]. As the countrys
current installed electricity generation capacity comprises 1700 MW, geothermal

Figure 26.2. Map of Central America showing principal sites of geothermal resources.

energy could play a significant role in meeting future electricity demands [12]. The
installed geothermal capacity and produced geothermal electricity in Guatemala is only
1.7% and around 3%, respectively, of the total national demand [4]. A first assessment of
the geothermal resource potential of Guatemala was made in the early 1970s by the
Overseas Technical Cooperation Agency (OTCA, now JICA), assisting the Instituto
Nacional de Electrificacin (INDE). Moyuta was the first site to be studied, in 1972,
followed later by Zunil and Amatitln [12]. Since 1983, INDE and the Bureau de
Recherches Gologiques et Minires (BRGM, France) performed exploratory surveys in
13 potential geothermal areas in Guatemala, under a co-financing agreement between
INDE and OLADE [13]. Ranking the geothermal potential of individual sites, Zunil
(district of Quetzaltenango), Amatitln (district of Guatemala), and Totonicapn, with
temperatures ranging from 230 to 300 C, were given highest priority for further
development, followed by San Marcos and Tecuamburro with slightly lower potential,
evidenced by hot springs or high temperatures in shallow wells [14]. Lower priorities
(third category) were assigned to Los Achiotes, Moyuta and Ixtepeque-Ipala, and lowest
priority (fourth category) to Palencia, Retana, Ayarza, Atitln and Motagua where hot
springs are absent or scarce [12, 15] (Fig. 26.3). As a result of the study, proven and
estimated capacities of 58 MW and 398 MW, respectively, were proposed [16].
In October 1998, the first 5 MW geothermal power plant in Guatemala was
installed at the Amatitln geothermal area by ICA (Ingenieros Civiles Associados). In
October 1999, the company ORZUNIL-1 S.A. initiated geothermal electricity
production at Zunil I with a 24 MW binary cycle power plant [12, 16]. In 2003, longterm testing of two new production wells in Zunil-II were to include sending steam
from production wells to a 5 MW backpressure turbine [12]. More recently, the private
company Bloteca drilled four exploratory wells in the southeast part of the Amatitln
field as a step toward installing a binary power plant [17]. The company Agroindustria
La Laguna is operating a direct-use plant to dry fruit, and Bloteca is using dry heat to
dry concrete blocks [17]. As of 2004, approval of the new federal law Incentives for
the Development of Renewable Energy Projects (No. 52-2004) allows tax exemptions
for technological imports and 10 years of geothermal field production. In January 2003,
an agreement between the Guatemalan government and IADB/GEF was signed for the
development of a Program for Exploitation of the Geothermal Resources in
Guatemala for Electricity Generation Projects. As part of this collaboration, the
installation of 50 MW is planned for the Amatitln field in the next five years [4].
Private investors are encouraged by the Guatemalan government to develop renewable
resources projects [18].
Efforts for geothermal development in Guatemala are limited by a decrease of
professional personnel in governmental institutions (from 20 persons in 1995 to 12 in
1999), but a slight increase among foreign aid programs and private industry (from 2
persons in 1995 to 6 in 1999).
26.2.3 Honduras
Geothermal exploration programs have been conducted in Honduras since the late
1970s, when Geonomics, Inc. began geologic investigations of hot spring sites in the
Pavana region [19]. Further studies funded by the United Nations Development
Program (UNDP) and conducted by GeothermEx, Inc. [20] noted the abundance of hot

Figure 26.3. Principal geothermal zones in Guatemala (modified from Lima et al. [12], Roldn
and Palma [16]).
springs throughout Honduras and defined six primary sites (Azacualpa, Platanares, San
Ignacio, Pavana, Sambo creek, El Olivar) and four additional sites (Isla de Agua
Caliente, San Francisco de Ojuera, El Cajn dam, Agua Caliente) with geothermal
potential, where preliminary geochemical analyses indicate reservoir base temperatures
high enough to hold potential for electricity power generation [21, 5] (Fig. 26.4).
From 19851987, the National Company of Electrical Energy (ENEE) developed two
parallel evaluation projects of geothermal resources in Honduras. Supported by the U.S.
Agency for International Development, the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), and
the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), ENEE conducted reconnaissance studies and
examined six previously identified areas. A second LANL/USGS project with the
assistance of UNDP focused on the central region of Honduras [22]. Drilling of temperature
gradient boreholes in all three areas in 1988 indicated that Platanares in the western part of
Honduras shows the greatest potential, with measured temperatures of 160 C at a shallow
depth of 250 m, followed by the Azacualpa and San Ignacio fields in central Honduras [23].
Platanares, San Ignacio and Azacualpa have the necessary combination of high temperature,
sufficient flow of fluids, easy access, and proximity to potential energy customers. A fourth
site, Pavana, may be a source of direct-use heat. Sambo creek and El Olivar have either
logistical problems that would impede further investigation and development, or base
temperatures and flow rates that are too low to warrant detailed investigation [5]. Recently,
Honduran energy demand has been covered 50% by hydroelectric resources and 50% by
diesel and fuel oil without installed geothermal capacity. Geothermal plants are
considered a good complementary means for Honduras to diversify away from oil and
hydroelectric capacity, to provide a steady source of electricity [24].
In general, geothermal reservoirs identified in Honduras derive from deep-circulation

Figure 26.4. First- to third-order potential geothermal zones in Honduras.
systems related to extensional faulting structures, and not to young volcanism. Surface
manifestations of the hydrothermal systems of Honduras are associated with late Neogene
faults and crustal extension [25].
26.2.4 El Salvador
El Salvador, like Costa Rica, is one of the pioneering countries in Central America in
developing geothermal energy. Geothermal energy is a abundant resource in El Salvador,
presently providing 22% of electricity for the countrys total population of about 6.3
million [7, 26]. The geothermal contribution to national electric output is actually 24%, as 9%
of total electricity is imported. The history of development of geothermal energy production in
El Salvador is documented in Rodrguez and Herrera [26], Rodrguez [27], Campos [6, 28],
and Vega [29]. Power generation from the Ahuachapn and Berln geothermal facilities
increased from 400 gigawatt-hours (GWh) in 1995 to 966 GWh in 2003, mixed with 1140
GWh from hydroprojects, 1805 GWh from thermoelectric operations, and 430 GWh of power
imports from Guatemala. Recently, 119 MW of geothermal energy is being produced by the
fields of Ahuachapn (63 MW) and Berln (56 MW), from a total of 161 MW of installed
geothermal capacity (95 MW at Ahuachapn, 66 MW at Berln). The average market price of
generated power in El Salvador after transmission losses and other charges was about
$55 per megawatt-hour in 2003. In September 2002, El Salvador interconnected with
Honduras via a 230 kV transmission line, establishing a Central America grid for the Regional
Electricity Market (MER) stretching from Guatemala to Panama [7, 26]. The locations of
major geothermal fields in El Salvador are shown in Figure 26.5.
The national electricity reform legislation of 1996 aimed to open up the energy
market, moving from a state-owned monopoly in the form of a national electric
company Comisin Ejecutiva Hidroelctrica del Ro Lempa (CEL) to an open,
competitive market with price regulated by forces of supply and demand [27]. In 1999,

Figure 26.5. Principal hydrothermal areas and geothermal fields in El Salvador (modified from Campos [6]).
geothermal assets were transferred to LaGeo, S.A. de C.V. (formerly called GESAL
Geotrmica Salvadorea), owned by CEL, and ENEL SPA, Italy, to compete in an
open energy market with CEL and private generators. Since 2002, international project
shares and privatization favor the development of new geothermal projects, such as the
potential installation of a third condensing unit in Berln, and well-head generation at
the Cuyanausul geothermal field, east of Ahuachapn, by ENEL GreenPower SPA.
GESAL estimated an increase of the effective capacity by about 50 MW between 2004
and 2007 with the following projects: the addition of a new 28 MW condensing unit in
Berln, the reinstallation of a 10 MW wellhead power plant from Berln into the
Cuyanausul geothermal field, and a 12 MW upgrade of Ahuachapn installations [26].
A first comprehensive description of 70 thermal areas in El Salvador was given by
Meyer-Abich in 1953 [30], followed by a detailed geothermal survey in the 1960s by
CEL personnel and United Nations experts, that selected 18 thermal areas of primary
importance for further geothermal feasibility studies [28]. Initial attempts to estimate
the total amount of available thermal energy, in the 1980s, resulted in a figure of
16,100 MW yr, or 644 MW for 25 yr from 12 identified intermediate temperature (90
150 C) systems with 0.23 1018 J of producible heat. The most promising reservoirs
for electricity production are Ahuachapn, Berln, Chipilapa and San Vicente, and
subordinately Chinameca [28]. Early geothermal exploration efforts began in the mid1960s with the drilling of well AH-1 in the Ahuachapn field, located in the
westernmost part of El Salvador, in 1968. The single-flash unit 1 with a 30 MW
capacity was installed in 1975, followed by unit 2 (30 MW) in 1976, and double-flash
unit 3 (35 MW) started up in 1981. In the eastern part of El Salvador, the geothermal
field of Berln started development with the drilling of several wells in the 1970s to a
reservoir depth between 2000 m and 2300 m. During the 1980s, civil conflicts and
financial crisis in the country stopped further development of geothermal projects. The
installation of a small backpressure unit in 1992 (two 5 MW units) reinitiated
geothermal development, followed by a 56 MW (two 28 MW units) condensing facility

in 1999, developed with funding from the Interamerican Development Bank (IADB).
In 2001, SIGET awarded concessions to ORMAT International, Inc. to develop a 50 MW
geothermal power plant in the San Vicente and Chinameca geothermal field. Recently,
GESAL has been planning to add a 28 MW condensing unit at Berln, to reinstall the 10
MW wellhead power plant from Berln at the Cuyanausul geothermal field, and to
perform a 12 MW upgrade in Ahuachapn. Positive results from experimental reservoir
fracturing in Berln by Shell International may allow extensive use of Hot Dry Rock
(HDR) and/or Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS) methods at other geothermal sites
to produce electricity with small power plants [26]. New projects in Cuyanausul, San
Vicente, Chinameca, and Obrajuelo would increase geothermal generation to 1350 GWh
in 2006, or about 27% of the projected demand [7].
26.2.5 Nicaragua
A large number of active volcanic mountains in the Los Marrabios cordillera, located
in the western part of Nicaragua, represent a high-potential zone with priority areas for
geothermal exploitation. Geothermal exploration in Nicaragua began in 1966 with
geothermal investigations by the Italian company Electroconsult (ELC). A detailed
regional research program covering western Nicaragua, including geological and
geochemical mapping and geophysical measurements as well as local drilling of
geothermal gradient wells in Momotombo, was carried out between 1969 and 1971 by
Texas Instruments Incorporated, authorized by the government of Nicaragua [31, 32].
Based on the results, the geothermal zones of Momotombo and San Jacinto, both
located in the central part of the country, were given highest priority. From 1972 to
1973, geological and geophysical surveys were restricted to these priority zones, and
proved the existence of small geothermal fields of 10 and 7 km2, respectively, with
estimated bottom temperatures above 230 C. At the end of 1973, ELC (followed by
Energticos S.A. and California Energy Company) was contracted by the National
Power Company (ENALUF) to continue technical and economical feasibility studies
for electricity generation in Momotombo by drilling exploratory wells. From 1975 to
1978, 28 wells were drilled to depths between 320 and 2250 m. Also, organizations
such as the International Engineering Company (IECO) and the Latin America Energy
Organization (OLADE) performed geothermal surveys in Nicaragua during the early
1980s [31]. The geochemical survey from IECO in 1978 included sampling of 43
springs and 192 wells in an area of 20,000 km2 [33]. From 1980 to 1983, a feasibility
study for a second geothermal unit of Momotombo was performed by ELC. The
commercial exploitation of Momotombo started in 1983, when the first 35 MW
geothermal flash power plant began operating; the second, 35 MW unit was
inaugurated in 1989, assigned to the Italian group GIE. Due to over-exploitation of the
field and a total lack of reinjection during the 1980s, a rehabilitation program to
improve reservoir management as well as to sustain stable operation was started in June
1999 under the new administration of ORMAT Momotombo Power Company [34].
Reinjection of 83% of waste geothermal fluid allowed stabilization of the electrical
output of the flash plant at around 29 MW. Additionally, a 7.5 MW ORMAT binary
energy converter was installed in November 2002, raising generation capacity to nearly
35 MW in Momotombo. In 2003, geothermal energy comprised 9.77% (270.70 GWh)
of the total energy of 2771.68 GWh produced in Nicaragua. The installed geothermal
capacity of 77.5 MW represents 11.19% of total installed electric capacity [8].

In 2001, as part of the Geothermal Master Plan for Nicaragua, the geothermal
resource potential was assessed for 13 potential fields and prospects in the country
(from north to south: Cosigina volcano, Casita-San Cristbal volcano, El Bonete,
Telica-El ajo volcano, San Jacinto-Tizate volcano, El Hoyo-Monte Galn,
Momotombo volcano, San Francisco Libre, Managua-Chiltepe, Tipitapa, MasayaGranada-Nandaime, Zapatera and Ometepe islands; Fig. 26.6). Besides Momotombo
and San Jacinto, the most promising geothermal areas (very high priority) are El
Hoyo-Monte Galn, Managua-Chiltepe and Masaya-Granada-Nandaime, with
estimated field capacities of 200, 150 and 200 MW for 30 years, respectively [8].
Managua and Masaya-Tipitapa have been classified as high priority areas, Zapatera
island as medium priority, and Ometepe island as a lower priority region [31].
From 1993 to 1997, the Instituto Nicaragense de Energa granted exploration leases
to the Trans-Pacific Geothermal Corporation (TGC) to explore the El Hoyo-Monte Galn
area, for Unocal Geotrmica Nicaragua to assess the El ajo-Santa Isabel zone, and the
Nicaraguan-Russian consortium Intergeoterm to explore the San Jazinto-Tizate area. In
the San Jazinto-Tizate geothermal area, seven exploration-production wells were drilled
with total depths between 724 and 2335 m (19931995), encountering temperatures
between 264 and 289 C. A proven capacity of 25 MW was demonstrated by production
tests [35]. In October 2003, the government of Nicaragua granted an exploitation
geothermal concession to San Jacinto Power to develop the San Jacinto geothermal field
to achieve 66 MW. Two backpressure turbines were to be installed in 2004 [8].
Figure 26.6 Principal areas of geothermal interest in Nicaragua (modified from Ziga [8],
Martnez et al. [31]).
The approval of a national geothermal law and policies by the National Assembly in
November 2002 established a mechanism to attract local and foreign investment in
geothermal projects. The main aspects of the law include exploration areas up to 100
km2 with a two-year period of concession, and an exploitation period of 25 years within
a maximum area of 20 km2. The holder of an Exploration Concession will be the owner
of the power produced from the geothermal steam. As a direct consequence, the
regulatory entity INE planned to open international geothermal bidding in 2004 to
explore and exploit the fields of Hoyo Monte Galn and Managua Chiltepe. In March
2004, the president of Nicaragua approved the first energy policy for the country with
the principal objective of devolving Nicaraguas energy sector. The decree prioritizes
the use of renewable energy resources within the national development plan [8].

26.2.6 Costa Rica

In Costa Rica, evaluations of geothermal resources were first performed in 1961. In
1975, studies of the geothermal areas of the Guanacaste cordillera, and reconnaissance
and prefeasibility studies for Rincn de la Vieja, Miravalles, and Tenorio geothermal
areas, were finished in 1976. As a consequence of these studies, the development of
Miravalles geothermal field began and the first nine exploratory wells were drilled
between 1979 and 1986, followed by a feasibility study in 1987. The positive results
led to commercial development of the Miravalles prospect, and in 1994 the first
commercial power plant was installed. Since the installation of Miravalles unit 1 in
1994 (55 MW), others followed: a wellhead unit (1995, 5 MW), unit 2 (1998, 55 MW),
unit 3 (2000, 29 MW), and unit 5 (19 MW). By 2004 the installed capacity had grown
from 55 to 163 MW, while generation rose from 341 to 1204 GWh/year [36],
producing about 14% of the electricity generated in Costa Rica.
Between 1989 and 1991, the national electric utility (Instituto Costarricense de
Electricidad, ICE) using its own funds and funds from the Italian government
carried out a national geothermal reconnaissance study, which was managed by the
United Nations Development Program (UNDP). This study resulted in 1991 in a
ranking of Costa Ricas geothermal prospects, and indicated that the total geothermal
potential is about 900 MW [37]. The identified geothermal prospects are grouped
according to their potential: (1) very high: Miravalles, Tenorio, and Rincn de la Vieja;
(2) high to medium: Platanar-Pos; (3) middle: Poco Sol, Cerro Pelado, IrazTurrialba, and (4) low: Barva volcano area (for locations see Fig. 26.2).
Besides Miravalles, the areas of Rincn de la Vieja, Tenorio, and Poco Sol are the
most studied. The results from two exploratory wells drilled at Tenorio (1345 m and
2472 m deep) in the period 19992000 were negative, since they revealed only zones
of low temperatures (up to 160 C) and low injectivity indices (up to 0.5 (l/s)/bar) [9].
During the 20012004 feasibility study of the Las Pailas geothermal prospect (in the
Rincn de la Vieja volcano area), five exploitation wells were drilled.
Poco Sol was identified [38] as one of the best prospects of Costa Rica, with a
potential of 186 MW, a magnitude similar to the Miravalles geothermal reservoir.
26.2.7 Panama
The Institute of Hydraulic Resources and Electrification (Instituto de Recursos
Hidrulicos y Electrificacin, IRHE), the former governmental electric utility,
published several nationwide hydrologic inventories of major hot spring areas as
potential geothermal areas (Fig. 26.2). Those studies included detailed information on
the hot springs, whose maximum temperature is 72 C, and chemical analyses. It is
important to note that the major springs are located on the southern, more accessible
side of the continental surface water divide between the Pacific and the Caribbean.
The Bar-Colorado volcanic complex (known originally as the Cerro Pando prospect) was
the first prospect selected for detailed geothermal exploration. There, six gradient wells with
depths between 100 and 949 m were drilled between 1976 and 1977. The moderate results
generally showed temperature gradients of less than 90 C/km. These studies were followed
by a program that included geological mapping, geochemical sampling and analysis, and a
geophysical survey. After reviewing all data acquired nationwide, the United Nations
concluded in 1978 that there is low potential for high-enthalpy resources in Panama.

During the 1980s exploration continued under a joint venture between IRHE, the
Latin American Energy Organization (OLADE) and the Interamerican Development
Bank (IDB). IRHE was designated by the Panamanian government to be responsible
for geothermal exploration and to evaluate previous work. Geological and geochemical
studies were performed at each prospect known in the country and geophysical studies
were extended to the Chitra-Calobre and El Valle de Antn regions, leading to a plan to
drill a 1000 m deep slim hole to test the El Valle de Antn geothermal site. However,
the Panamanian political crisis at the end of the 1980s stopped all geothermal
development activities in the country, including bidding for the geothermal slim hole at
El Valle de Antn.
It was not until 1995 that IRHE restarted its geothermal program, with the goal of
drilling a well to 15002000 m depth at the El Valle de Antn site. IRHE was assisted
by a joint venture between two geothermal companies, the West JEC from Japan and
GeothermEx from the U.S.A. The aim in drilling this well was to obtain direct evidence
from the Valle de Antn area and to evaluate the areas geothermal potential. IRHE
prepared all infrastructure needed to complete the well (geothermal drilling platform,
small dam for water, road access, etc.) plus all requirements involved for the task, like
an environmental impact study, that were required by the governmental authorities.
At the same time, IRHE was restructured to become a private company. This process
divided the utility into eight companies, (three generating, four distribution and one
transmission company), and from then on the geothermal portion became the responsibility
of the transmission company, Empresa de Transmisin Elctrica S.A. (ETESA). ETESA
took over the former roll of IRHE in drilling the deep well at the El Valle de Antn site. All
environmental permits were approved and the bid for drilling was made. ETESA was
constructing a cement curtain of 70 m depth around the place where the drilling platform
was going to be installed to prevent contamination of shallow aquifers. But with the advent
of the new government in 1999, all work being performed at the El Valle de Antn site was
suspended because of claims of environmental risk by the national environmental
authorities (Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente, ANAM), who revoked the permit that had
already been issued by the same institution. Subsequently the new authorities decided to
move to another geothermal prospect in Panama, and all geothermal activities at El Valle de
Antn were stopped. The El Valle de Antn area is still considered one of the best prospects
of Panama, but it will have to await a future government decision to complete exploration,
before its geothermal potential can be known.
In 2000, with the support of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA),
ETESA began a new campaign to re-evaluate geothermal sites in Panama, but this new
exploration program was designed for a period of three years in the areas of BarColorado, Chitra-Calobre and Tonos. The idea was to use new isotopes techniques to
improve understanding of the potential of low- to medium-enthalpy prospects for future
development. ETESA performed a completely new exploration of the Bar-Colorado
area, reviewing all information available, since there remained a number of doubts
regarding earlier conclusions. After reviewing the available existing information, in
2001 ETESA initiated a field campaign for geological verification that was to have
included geochemical sampling (water and gas samples for chemical and isotopic
analysis) and a geophysical survey for 280 gravity and magnetic stations and 28 MT
stations. Unfortunately, ETESA decided to discontinue that program, so yet again
geothermal research suffered a setback. The pullback of ETESA from continuing the
exploration switched funds that had been earmarked for this project to other activities

more important to the company, effectively stopping the geothermal exploration

program in Panama once more.
26.3
HIGH-ENTHALPY SITES IN EXPLOITATION OR FEASIBILITY STAGES
26.3.1 Zunil (Guatemala)

26.3.1.1 Location
The Zunil geothermal system is located 10 km southeast of the city of Quetzaltenango
in the municipality of Zunil, and 200 km west of Guatemala city (Fig. 26.3). The
mountainous nature of the terrain is reflected by an average elevation of 2000 m a.s.l.
The geothermal area can be divided into two sections: the older Zunil-I field on the
west side of the Samal river, and the younger Zunil-II field on its eastern side (Fig.
26.7). The Zunil-II area is subdivided into two systems, one around the Paxmux area
and the other around the Azufrales-Fuentes Georginas area [39]. The geothermal field
is associated with the volcanic activity of the southern part of the Quetzaltenango basin
and is part of the hydrothermal system related to the active Santa Maria volcano and
the lava domes of Cerro Quemado[15].
Zunil is located close to the boundary between the Cocos and Caribbean plates, where
rotational movement caused extensional faulting and fragmentation of several
lithospheric segments [39]. Active subduction of oceanic crust beneath Guatemala has
generated both volcanism that produces heat for the Zunil geothermal system, and
regional and local tectonic fractures to circulate hydrothermal fluids [40].
Zunil is located on the southern margin of the Quetzaltenango depression,
interpreted as a remnant of the Quetzaltenango caldera by geological mapping and
satellite-image analysis [40]. Ages between 1.8 Ma and 2.5 Ma for volcanic rocks
outside the caldera [42] may represent the major caldera-forming eruptions. A
formation age between 1.8 and 1.0 Ma for the caldera was proposed by Lima and
Palma [39]. Younger volcanoes and calderas with reported dates from 660,000 year up
to recent (1818 AD) filled the caldera depression with resurgent domes and lava flows
[40]. Paxmux dacitic and rhyolitic lavas were extruded 0.3 to 0.2 Ma and formed small
lava domes [39]. During the late Pleistocene (0.2 to 0.1 Ma), silicic volcanism was
active along the southeastern rim of the semicircular structure. Geothermal activity in
the Zunil area is concentrated in the areas adjacent to the caldera.
Northeast trending, generally northwest dipping subparallel faults represent the
major structural elements of the Zunil area [43, 39] and were interpreted as
predominantly of left-lateral strike-slip motions [44]. Several volcanoes, such as the
Santiaguito, Santa Mara, vents of Cerro Candelaria and Cerro Quemado, river courses,
fumaroles and regional fracture systems are aligned within the northeastern trend (Fig.
26.7) [45, 42]. The offsets of the shear faults may range up to several hundreds of
meters, and they form a complex series of horsts and grabens [40]. The faults have
created fractured zones in both the Quaternary volcanic lavas and the granitic
basement. On a local scale, circular and curved faults, formed as parts of volcanic
craters or small caldera collapses, can be observed in the Zunil-I and Zunil-II areas
[39]. EW trending faults are important for defining the geothermal system in Zunil-II.
Gravity measurements identified the horst structure that separates Zunil-I and Zunil-II.

Figure 26.7. Locality of geothermal wells and surface manifestations in the Zunil-I and Zunil-II
geothermal areas, structural features and proposed water flow directions (modified from
Lima and Palma [39], Foley et al. [40], Giggenbach et al. [41]).
In addition, a horst structure subdivides the Zunil-II area into northern (Samal and
Pachamiya rivers) and southern zones (Azufrales-Fuentes Georginas) [39].
The granodioritic basement was confirmed at a depth of 569 m, 313 m and 385 m
during drilling of wells Z-19, Z-20 and Z-21A, respectively [39]. The proximity of the
basement causes the high temperature of the reservoir [46], which in turn is
unconformably overlain by a thick sequence of relatively low-permeability lava flows
and ash-flow tuffs [47, 48]. These can be subdivided as follows [40]:
Pleistocene Galpagos andesite with a maximum thickness of 200 m in wells ZCQ-5
and 6.
A thick succession (max. 800 m in well ZQC-3) of Pleistocene dacite lava flows,
interbedded ash-flow tuffs and andesite lava flows of the Almolonga volcanics [49].
The upper lithic-rich tuff and lower welded dacite ash-flow tuff of the Pliocene
Green tuff unit, the latter probably associated with the Quetzaltenango caldera.
Old Zunil lava of up to 200 m, thinly interbedded andesite and dacite flows of
Pliocene age, forming the oldest well unit.
Throughout most of the area, the volcanic sequence is covered by a thin layer of
alluvium, pumiceous deposits and recent landslides [40]. Hydrothermal alteration
ranges from 872 to 1310 m in depth, and generally increases downward. Argillic
hydrothermal alteration is restricted to the upper 100200 m of the wells and includes
smectite, illite-smectite, kaolin, quartz, chalcedony, calcite and zeolites. The underlying
propylitic zone can be divided into the upper (epidote, calcite, quartz, clays) and lower
propylitic zones, the latter characterized by epidote-bearing veins at depths below 500
to 600 m. In the wells ZCQ-5 and ZCQ-6, hydrothermal breccia at the top of the
propylitic zone was formed in Galpagos andesites, and in dacite flows at the top of the

Almolonga volcanics in well ZCQ-3 [40]. Lima and Palma [39] distinguished a
montmorillonite zone at shallow levels (thickness: 50150 m), and a boundary between a
chlorite-montmorillonite and chlorite zone at elevations of 1800 to 1900 m. The distribution
of hydrothermal alteration is reconfirmed by electrical and gravity measurements, indicating
the existence of an upwelling zone in the western part of the field [40]. EW trending, low
resistivity zones are found near Paxmux and centered at Chuitziquina [39]. The cover of the
geothermal reservoir consists of a 500600 m thick lava complex [15].
26.3.1.4 Reservoir exploration
Exploration and field development was initiated in 1973 with the surface exploration
program of the Instituto Nacional de Electrificacion (INDE). Reconnaissance geology,
geophysics and geochemistry studies from INDE and the Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA) within a 310 km2 area led to the drilling of 11 slim thermal
gradient holes and subsequent drilling of six large-diameter wells (ZCQ-1 to ZCQ-6) in
19801981 within a delineated area of approximately 4 km2 on the east slope of the
Cerro Quemado complex [15, 46, 50] (Fig. 26.7). Maximum bottom temperatures of
257 C were measured in well Z-2 at a depth of 646 m [15]. In 1980, INDE performed
regional gravity measurements over an area of 195 km2 [39]. Reservoir tests on the
drilled wells indicated a production capacity of at least 7.3 MW [51] with maximum
temperatures of 288 C in well ZCQ-6 and a maximum depth of 1310 m [40]. Of the
four production wells, ZCQ-3 and ZCQ-6 have a heat production of 1000 kJ/kg, while
wells ZCQ-4 and ZCQ-5 produce dry steam with a heat value of 2700 kJ/kg.
Mathematical modeling determined a potential exploitation of 15 MW over a time
period of 20 years in the Zunil area [15]. From 19912004, INDE drilled five new
wells in Zunil-I and two exploration wells in Zunil-II. Currently, of the 11 production
wells in Zunil-I, six are used for production and two for reinjection [52].
In 1987, a contract to develop a 15 MW power plant (Zunil-I) was awarded to MK
Engineers, MK Ferguson Co. and Cordon y Merida Ings. [50]. In 1992, a Power
Purchase Agreement was entered with the firm ORZUNIL to build, operate and own
power facilities of 27 MW installed capacity (Zunil-II) [39]. In August 1999, the
company ORZUNIL I S.A. started electricity production with a 24 MW binary cycle
power plant in the Zunil-I geothermal field [16]. Prefeasibility studies of Zunil-II were
performed by CyM-MKF [53], and West-JEC (Japan) - Telectro S.A. (Guatemala) [54,
55]. Zunil-I with temperatures of up to 300 C has a proven capacity and estimated
capacity of 24 and 50 MW, respectively; Zunil II with 240 C has 4 MW and 50 MW
of proven and estimated capacity [55]. A recent simulation of the Zunil-II reservoir
indicates a power potential between 25 and 45 MWe for 25 years [52].
26.3.2 Amatitln (Guatemala)
26.3.2.1 Location
The geothermal field of Amatitln is located approximately 30 km south of Guatemala
city, surrounded by the small communities of Amatitln, San Vicente Pacaya and Villa
Canales (Fig. 26.8). A zone of about 16 km2 in the southern part of the field is
considered to represent the most promising area, where the main upflow is located [14].
The elevation of the study area varies from 1188 m a.s.l. (level of Amatitln lake) to
above 1800 m a.s.l. (Calderas lake) [56]. Average annual temperature is 22 C with an

average precipitation and potential evapotranspiration of 1400 mm and 800 mm,

respectively. Hot springs are located near the southern shore of Amatitln lake,
whereas fumaroles and hydrothermally altered rocks are mainly distributed from the
southern edge of the lake through the Laguna de Calderas region [15].
Amatitln is found in the extreme southern part of the Guatemala graben within an
early Quaternary caldera structure, the center part of which has recently filled with
water forming Amatitln lake. The area of greatest geothermal interest is located where
beds of less resistivity lie within the volcanotectonic depression of Amatitln and the
northern part of the Pacaya dome complex, an area limited structurally on the west by
the Mixco fault, on the east by the Santa Catarina Pinila fault, and on the north by the
Amatitln fault [15]. A system of major faults (Malpaso, Laguna Seca, Los Humitos
and others) cross the geothermal area NS [56].
Figure 26.8. Main calderas, domes, tectonic structures, potential geothermal area, and location of
deep exploration wells in the Amatitln geothermal area (extracted from Roldn [17], Tobias
[57], Palma and Garca [14]).

The basement of the Amatitln area is formed by Late Cretaceous granitic intrusions.
This igneous unit is separated by a discordance from the overlying Cenozoic volcanic
sequence, which consists of andesitic lavas, basaltic andesites, lahars, and intermediate
lavas. A geological cross section through the geothermal area from north to south is
shown in Figure 26.9.
The Amatitln area is characterized by Quaternary basaltic to andesitic
stratovolcanoes and calderas. The formation of the main caldera (Villa Canales caldera

in Figure 26.8) was followed by phreatomagmatic activity that formed the Amatitln caldera,
and subsequently a third collapse in the area was produced by the San Vicente-Pacaya caldera
[17]. The rhyodacitic domes of El Limn and La Mariposa, located in the southwest section of
the lake, are probably remnants of magmatic chambers and are potentially heat sources for the
geothermal field [57]. Andesitic stratovolcanoes rose at the southern flank of the San Vicente
Pacaya caldera, with the formation of Pacaya volcano the most recent event.
Figure 26.9. Stratigraphic cross-section of the principal geothermal zone of Amatitln (modified
from Roldn [56], Tobias [57]).

Initial geovolcanological, geochemical, and geophysical investigations of this
geothermal area were performed by the unit of Geothermal Developments of INDE
(Instituto Nacional de Electrificacin) from 1977 to 1979 within an area of 170 km2.
Systematic studies began in 1980 to reach prefeasibility level [15]. Preliminary
feasibility studies were performed by INDE with financial assistance from IDB
(Interamerican Development Bank) from 1992 to 1995. Subsequently, West Japan
Engineering Consultants (West Jec) drilled four exploratory wells (AMF-1 to AMF-4)
to depths between 1500 and 2058 m (Fig. 26.8). Exploration drilling started in late
1992 and finished in October 1993. Temperature values range from 230 to 300 C
within the production zone at a depth of about 1110 m [14]. Short-term tests indicated
that the wells AMF-1 and AMF-2 were capable of producing fluids with an estimated
capacity of 12 MW [5861]. Test flows of the well AMF-1 in 1994 proved
stable production conditions of about 5 MW [14]. The third well showed excellent
permeability but strong temperature reversals, and the fourth exhibited good
temperatures but low permeability conditions [12]. AMF-3 and AMF-4 were used for
reinjection and monitoring, respectively [17]. The exploratory wells confirm the
existence of a geothermal reservoir of commercial potential, suitable for generating
electricity [14]. The field could easily produce energy to generate on the order of 25 to
30 MWe for 30 years. In October 1998, the first 5 MW backpressure geothermal power
plant in Guatemala was built in the Amatitln geothermal area, and operated by the

company Ingenieros Civiles Asociados (ICA) for three years (it was dismantled in
November 2001) [12, 17]. In 2001, INDE bought the dismantled power plant from CFE
(Comisin Federal de Electricidad, Mexico) and began electric generation in January
2003 for a time period of 18 to 25 months, producing an average of 2.9 GWh per
month [4, 12].
In 1998, JICA financed an effort by INDE to define the extent of the Amatitln
geothermal reservoir. Geological, geophysical and geochemical studies included the
siting and drilling of the new wells AMF-5J and AMF-6J during 1999 and 2000
[6264]. Short-term flow tests indicated a total steam production equivalent to 7 MW.
Since 2002, ORMAT Industries, Ltd. has been gradually installing power plant
modules with a total planned capacity of up to 50 MW by the end of 5 years [12].
Recently, the private company Bloteca has drilled four exploratory wells in the
southeastern part of the field. Temperatures around 200 C at 200 m depth indicate the
existence of a second geothermal reservoir independent of the reservoir recently
exploited by INDE [65].
26.3.3 Ahuachapn (El Salvador)

26.3.3.1 Location
The water-dominant Ahuachapn reservoir is located in the western part of El
Salvador, 80 km west of San Salvador and 15 km from the border with Guatemala, and
close to the cities of Ahuachapn and Atiquizaya-Turn (Fig. 26.5). This geothermal
resource is distributed within an area of 200 km2 at a depth between 600 m and 1500 m.
The Ahuachapn field is located in the northwestern sector of the Laguna Verde
volcanic complex, on the southern flank of the Central Salvadorian graben [66]. By
2001, 45 wells had been drilled in Ahuachapn within a 4 km2 area [67]. Ahuachapn
and its neighboring field of Chipilapa probably constitute the most-studied geothermal
area in El Salvador.
The Ahuachapn geothermal field (ACB in Fig. 26.10) is related to the AhuachapnCerro Blanco graben system, whereas the Chipilapa field, about 3 km east-northeast of
Ahuachapn, forms part of the Cuyanausul-El Tortuguero graben system (Fig. 26.10).
The two fields are separated by the uplifted Chipilapa block, which forms a triangularshaped wedge between the Ahuachapn-Cerro Blanco and the Cuyanausul-El
Tortuguero graben systems [68]. The intersection of the Central graben of El Salvador
with the main axis of a sinking transversal tectonic structure favors the rise of deep hot
fluid through a marginal set of faults [69]. Four principal structural systems are
described for the Ahuachapn area: the NWSE aligned Mesas del Llano system with
SE-ward-tilted blocks and nearly vertical planes; the Molina system aligned NWSE
affecting the andesitic basement of the Sierra de Tacuba; the semicircular Cuanausul
system with a NNWSSE trend, and the youngest NS system with regional
characteristics related to the faulting of the Ipala graben [70]. SSWNNE-aligned
faults, such as the Escalante fault running from Cerro Laguna Verde to well CH7bis,
seem to define the eastern limit of the Chipilapa geothermal field [71] (Fig. 26.10).
Two EW trending zones with anomalies in 222Rn, He, He/Ar, N2/O2 and
N2/Ar ratios of discharging gases suggest the movement of gases along a vertical

Figure 26.10. Regional structural-tectonic map of the Ahuachapn, Chipilapa and Cuyanausul-El
Tortuguero geothermal areas, including selected fumarole and hot spring sites and calderas.
Proposed flow directions of cold and hot fluids are shown from the southern recharge areas
toward the principal discharge area in the north (information from Matus et al. [67],
Montalvo et al. [73], Torres et al. [74], Laky et al. [75]).
permeable zone and the existence of buried, EW striking faults associated with the formation
of the Central graben. The San Carlos, San Jos, and Agua Shuca fumaroles seem to be
related to the southern EW trend, and El Playn fumarole to the northern EW trend [72].
Pyroclastic products discovered at the northern limit of the study area (Mesas del
Llano-Ro Paz) [7678] were linked to the formation of a caldera extending from
the Ahuachapn geothermal field to the Ro Paz-Mesa del Salitre [79]. Based on
drilling cores, the local stratigraphy was divided (from top to bottom) into surface lavas
and tuffs, young volcanic breccias, Ahuachapn andesites, and older breccias [66,
80, 81]. Detailed mapping and structural studies from Gonzlez et al. [82, 83], Garduo
et al. [84], and Balcazar [85, 86] in the 1990s postulated the Concepcin de Ataco caldera

as the eruption center of pyroclastic material.

Local basement consists of andesitic-basaltic lavas and breccias, with one age
determination of 7.37 0.73 Ma for andesite [68, 70, 87]. Ancient pyroclastic rocks of
the Blsamo formation fill the Central graben [79, 88]. Three phases of volcanic
activity can be distinguished:
Pre-caldera volcanism: The pre-caldera volcanoes Cuyanausul, Apaneca and
Empalizada emitted 17 km3 of basaltic-andesitic lava during the Early to Middle
Pleistocene (1.7 to 0.7 Ma) [87].
Caldera volcanism: The collapse of the Concepcin de Ataco caldera (5 3.5 km)
was caused by the evacuation of pyroclastic products, such as breccias, surges and
ignimbrites. The Asisno-Sisinipa river carves its bed into this depression. Gonzlez
et al. [68] presented the distribution of the proximal and distal fall deposits within
an area of 484 km2. Petrological and geochemical studies revealed a daciticrhyolitic composition with calk-alkaline tendencies and formation temperatures of
approximately 650 50 C for the evacuation of pyroclastic material [89].
Post-caldera volcanism: The post-caldera phase is characterized by the emission of
local pyroclastic products with 25 m of thickness, called Zebra pyroclastics, at the
northeastern flank of the caldera, forming a small Holocene caldera (1.5 km
diameter) in the Himalaya area [68]. A young magma chamber less than 100,000
years in age caused the formation of the youngest dacitic to andesitic domes, which
partially border the collapses and form the internal part of the caldera.
Postmagmatic hydrothermal activities are indicated by brecciated products of the
explosion craters of Cerro de Oro, Las Ninfas, and Laguna Verde. Hydrothermal
activity is exposed in zones of surface alteration with temperatures of clay
mineralization close to 100 C.
Former descriptions divide the sequence into four lithological units, from top to bottom
(modified after Aunzo et al. [90]) (Fig. 26.11):
Epiclastics: Colluvium, and series of altered pyroclastics and lavas.
Young volcanic breccias: Pyroclastics and andesites with thicknesses of 300800 m;
the highly fractured and hydrothermally altered bottom presents the most permeable
horizon.
Ahuachapn andesites: Thicknesses from 200600 m.
Older volcanic breccias: Dense breccias and andesites with low matrix
permeability but some fracturing.
A more detailed geological and lithological description is given in Gonzlez et al. [68, 70],
Aunzo et al. [66], Laky et al. [75], Aumento et al. [80], Electroconsult [88], Cuellar et al.
[91], and Romagnoli et al. [92]. A detailed petrological and mineralogical description of
drilling cores from the CH-A well is given in Gonzlez et al. [93]. Clay minerals and their
use as geothermometers are described in Beaufort et al. [94]. Results of geophysical studies
include gravity [95, 96, 97], D.C. (direct current) resistivity [98104], magnetotellurics
[105, 106], and passive seismic monitoring [71, 107, 108].
Geothermal investigation of the Ahuachapn project started in 1965 with exploration
and aid from the United Nations and funding from the World Bank [26]. Geological,
geochemical and geophysical studies culminated in drilling of the first well AH-1 in
1968 to a depth of 985 m and maximum temperatures of 220 C [69, 111]. Up to 1995,
six Chipilapa exploratory wells (CH-A, CH-1, CH-7, CH-7B, CH-8, CH-9) had been

drilled in the northern slope of Cerro Cuyanausul to depths between 985 m (CH-1) and
2700 m (CH-A), a few kilometers east of the Ahuachapn well field [111] (Fig. 26.10).
Unit I with 30 megawatts was commissioned in 1975, unit 2 (30 MW) in 1976, and unit
3 (35 MW, double-flash) started in 1981. In 2000, the Ahuachapn geothermal field
had 16 production wells with a total flow capacity of 783 kg/s. Calculating utilization
energy (exergy) at wellhead conditions resulted in a utilization efficiency of 41% for
the Ahuachapn condensation system [112].
Figure 26.11. Geological-structural profile from the well AH-10 in the north-northwest towards
AH-18 in the south-southeast of the Ahuachapn geothermal field with major lithological
units. Also shown are main aquifer systems of the geothermal reservoir with modeled flow
directions, dependent on major faults (fault names are given as numbers). Location of crosssection is shown in Figure 27.11 in Chapter 27 (data from Montalvo et al. [73], Aunzo et al.
[66], Ripperda et al. [109, 110], Laky et al. 1989 [75]).
Several reservoir engineering and reservoir modeling studies have been performed on
Ahuachapn to analyze its response to production and injection, and to determine the capacity
of the system [69, 90, 91, 109, 113119]. Optimal production rates for the wells AH-4, AH-17
and AH-18 were simulated by Monterrosa [120]. Ahuachapn was the first geothermal field
that utilized large-scale reinjection of waste water [119]. The injection of residual water was
initiated in 1975 by using well AH-2, followed by the mobilization of the injection wells AH-8,
AH-29, and AH-17 in 1976. Well behavior during production and reinjection is described in
Campos [115] and Riviera et al. [69]. In April 1983, a total of 159.090 106 tons of water has
been extracted from the reservoir, of which 37.592 106 tons of waste brine has been
reinjected through those four wells [69, 113]. Modeling studies indicate that reinjection during
the period 19761982 significantly helped maintain reservoir pressures [90]. Reinjection
stopped in November 1982, and all waste brines from then until 1999 were allowed to flow
via gravity to the Pacific Ocean along a 71 km long concrete channel [114].
Post-1999, 70% of the separated fluids were reinjected into the nearby Chipilapa
reservoir, with the remainder channeled to the ocean. In the Chipilapa field, rather low
reservoir temperatures (180220 C) of exploration wells suggested their possible
utilization as reinjection sites [121]. Since May 2004, 100% of separated hot fluids
have been reinjected into three Chipilapa wells (CH-7, CH-7Bis, CH-9) as part of the
Ahuachapn Total Reinjection Project to maintain reservoir sustainability [7, 122].
Modeling results from Ripperda et al. [109] indicate that the reservoir can support
50 MW for 30 years, requiring five or fewer additional production wells. A constant
electrical power output of 90 MWe can be maintained for only about 20 years.

Predictions with the TOUGH2 simulator give a recovery pressure of 2.3 bar, assuming
an extraction of 618 kg/s from the Ahuachapn reservoir and reinjection of 420 kg/s in
Chipilapa during 12 years of continuous operation [113]. Large-scale reinjection of
waste water in the Chipilapa section could cause a 20% improvement of geothermal
production [123].
In 1994, as reservoir pressure dropped rapidly, power output was cut back from the
installed 95 MW to only 48 MW [27]. Pressure in the outer area dropped from 40 to 30
kg/cm2, while the exploitation zone changed from 34 kg/cm2 in 1975 to 23 kg/cm2 in
1983 and 19.5 kg/cm2 in 1993, due to the inherent over-exploitation of the reservoir
[69, 113, 114, 124]. The pressure drop is equivalent to a decrease in water level of
180 m [113]. Significant temperature changes were observed during the 19751986
exploitation period, with the most dramatic cooling of 1015 C in the Ahuachapn
andesites in the upper part of the reservoir [114]. The temperature drop in the reservoir
is due in part to the phase conversion of fluids, rather than to reinjection only [124].
Observed pressure stabilization without reinjection is mostly dependent on the higher
enthalpy originating from more extensive biphase conditions in the area [115]. The
cooling of well AH-5 from 232 C to 203 C between June 1975 and August 1982 is
caused by the reinjection of cooler waste water in AH-29 [124]. Of the 95 MW of
installed geothermal capacity in Ahuachapn, only 63 MW are available. A 12 MW
upgrade of Ahuachapn installations and the reinstallation of the 10 MW wellhead
power plant from Berln into the Cuyanausul geothermal field were recently planned by
Geotrmica Salvadorea (GESAL) [26], as well as a 4.5 MW binary plant that was
scheduled for late 2005 [7].
A prominent 1 8m anomaly associated with graben structures and elevated
geothermometer temperatures from fumaroles indicates the existence of a geothermal
reservoir in the Cuyanausul area, about 8 km east of Ahuachapn [26] (Fig. 26.10).
Based on magnetotelluric studies, Romo et al. [105] proposed two alternative areas for
future exploratory studies: (1) north of the Laguna Verde volcano, an area controlled
by NNWSSE trending fault systems and also indicated by a cluster of seismic
hypocenters between 1.5 and 4.5 km depth [71]; and (2) an area defined by the El
Tortuguero graben. Balcazar and Gonzlez [125] performed radon studies in Chipilapa,
finding peak anomalies at places of natural discharge and at fault intersections. Caceres
[126] describes the performance variations of separation equipment at the Ahuachapn
geothermal field.
26.3.4 Berln (El Salvador)

26.3.4.1 Location
The Berln geothermal field is located in the eastern part of El Salvador, approximately
112 km east-southeast of the capital San Salvador and 4 km north of the town of Berln
on the northern slope of the Berln-Tecapa volcanic complex at elevations between 600
and 900 m a.s.l. (Fig. 26.5). The exploited area covers an area of about 5 km2.
Hydrothermal manifestations, such as fumaroles and steaming grounds at El Tronador,
El Tronadorcito, Blsamo, Zapotillo, and TR-6, and hot springs at Los Lavaderos and
Agua Caliente, are associated with structural features (Fig. 26.12). The geothermal
field has been managed recently by Geotrmica Salvadorea S.A. de C.V. (GESAL)
[127].


The geothermal reservoir is located in the northern side of the Berln Tecapa volcanic
complex, within a structure known as the Berln caldera [127]. The northern part is
controlled by a system of normal faults, mainly aligned NWSE, that form the Berln
graben. This structure is part of the Central graben and crosses nearly all of Central
America [127]. The stratovolcano of Berln emerged about 1.4 Ma ago within a
conjugate NWSE and NESW fault system in the southern part of the EW-oriented
Central graben [128, 129]. Main tectonic structures are annular faults formed by
caldera collapses, as well as a NNWSSE trending, 34 km wide graben [130] (Fig.
26.12).
Figure 26.12. Locations of surface manifestations (fumaroles and springs) and geothermal wells
of the Berln geothermal field shown within the tectonic-structural context of the Berln
caldera (modified from Lpez [127], Barrios et al. [128], Montalvo et al. [133], Montalvo
and Axelsson [130], DAmore and Mejia [131], and Mejia et al. [134]). Also shown is the
location of section I-I (Fig. 27.12 in Chapter 27).
Distensive tectonic activity associated with subduction of the Cocos oceanic plate
under the continental west margin of the Central American-Caribbean plate produces
andesitic magmas that rise and accumulate in structurally weak crustal zones. In the
final stage of major andesitic volcanism at the Berln-Tecapa volcanic complex (0.1
Ma), the ejection of large volumes of ignimbrites led to the collapse of the volcano and
the formation of the Berln caldera [131]. The Berln caldera by now has been largely
filled with more recent lavas and pyroclastics [121], and the smaller Blanca Rosa
caldera formed subsequently within it (75 ka) [128]. The Berln-Tecapa volcanic
complex is considered to be active, since the last phreatomagmatic explosions occurred
700 years ago (crater Hoyn) [132].


The Berln geothermal reservoir is formed of andesitic to andesitic-basaltic lavas and
tuffs belonging to the Tertiary basement, with an estimated thickness of 1000 m. In
detail, four units can be distinguished [128]: unit I with lava deposits associated with
recent volcanism, with an intermediate aquifer at the base; unit II with grey ignimbrite
and scoria deposits and thin andesite layers; unit III of silicified lithic tuff acting as cap
rock to the reservoir; and unit IV with andesitic to basaltic-andesitic flows interlayered
with lithic tuffs and dikes as the main reservoir formation. Fracture permeability range
is about 100 mD [132] with an average porosity of 10.7% [135]. A low injectivity and
productivity index 1 to 2 (l/s)/bar and 0.4 to 3 (kg/s)/bar, respectively as well as
low transmissivity values of 1 D m (meters per day) point to overall low permeability
of the reservoir formations. However, analysis of field response suggests a reservoir
transmissivity on the order of between 25 and 35 D m [121]. Complete thickness of the
reservoir is not known, but the top of the geothermal aquifer lies at a depth of ~2 km
(1000 m a.s.l.), with maximum measured temperatures of 305 C. The reservoir
occurs within the propylitic zone of andesitic lavas of unit IV with temperatures above
220 C, whereas the phyllitic zones with abundance of chlorite form the cap rock of the
system [130, 136]. Andesitic rocks prevail in the southeast portion of the field, while
less permeable tuffaceous intercalations are more widespread in the northwest portion
[136]. Sulfide- and electrum-bearing aluminum-rich amorphous silica is deposited with
base sulfides as scale deposit in the wells, and altered pipe fragments with As-Sbearing iron oxide-hydroxide grains have formed at the surface in vapor lines [137].
Geothermal exploration in Berln started in 1962, when the Geological Survey of El
Salvador carried out heat loss surveys. From 19651970, United Nations (UN) and
Comisin Ejecutiva Hidroelctrica del Ro Lempa (CEL) performed a variety of
preliminary geological, geophysical (sensitivity, gravity), and geochemical studies as
well as shallow gradient holes [128]. In 1968, the first deep exploratory well (TR-1)
intercepted a 230 C hot geothermal reservoir at a depth of 1458 m [128, 130]. During
the period 19681981, a total of 32 wells were drilled within a 6 km2 area [121]. Well
locations are shown in Figure 26.12. During 19781979, a saline reservoir was
identified at a depth of 1800 m during drilling of TR-2 and TR-3 that had temperatures
of 300 C. In 19801981, a geothermal potential of 512 MWe was obtained by
drilling wells TR-4, TR-5, and TR-9 to a depth of 2300 m [128]. Feasibility studies
were initiated in 1981 by Electroconsult (ELC) with the assistance of the Inter
American Development Bank (IDB).
After an exploration hiatus due to national political riots in the 1980s, CEL began
installing geothermal infrastructure with two 5 MWe backpressure units (19901992)
[130]. Exergy analysis resulted in a utilization efficiency of 21% for the backpressure
system [112]. From 19921994, one well-head unit was on line, using TR-2 as
producer well and TR-9 as injection well. During the 19941999 period, two-phase
fluids were extracted from TR-2 and TR-9, while residual water was reinjected into the
new wells TR-8, TR-10, and TR-14 [128]. In 1993, feasibility studies of Electroconsult
were continued, including volcanological surveys and corrosion studies, and proposals
were made for new drilling sites for production and reinjection wells.
Geochronological, stratigraphic, fluid geochemistry, and scaling potential studies were

completed by Geothermal Energy New Zealand Limited Company (GENZL) during

1994 and 1995. In the same year, CEL started meteorological and microseismic
monitoring, detailed gravity and Schlumberger resistivity DC surveys, tracer tests, and
analysis of stable isotopes.
From 1997 to 1999, 18 new wells were drilled: 6 for production with depths to
19932246 m (TR-4A, 4B, 4C, 5A, 5B, 5C), and 12 wells in the reinjection area,
located north of the production zone with depths ranging between 504 and 2500 m
(TR1-A, 1B, 1C, 7, 8A, 11, 11ST, 11A, 11B, 11C, 12, 12A). Hot deep injection is
performed north (TR1-A, B, C, TR-8, TR11ST, TR-14) and west (TR-3, TR-4A) of
the production area, and cold injection into the intermediate aquifer in the northern and
eastern areas (TR-11A, TR-7) [128]. To date, two pipeline networks, one a high
pressure and one a low pressure system, with six reinjection wells each, are injecting a
total of 350 l/s by gravity into the reservoir. Injection at elevated pressures of 80110
bar proved to be an alternative to drilling dedicated injection wells operating under
gravity feed [138]. Diminished adsorption capacities caused by silica scaling and/or
saturation of the zone, as observed in some injection wells, requires the application of
remediation techniques such as acid stimulation, use of inhibitors, hydrofracturing, and
injection of fresh cold water [128]. Reinjection lines are mainly affected by scaling
deposits of amorphous silica, whereas magnetite, hematite, pyrite and pyrrhotite
accumulate in surface installations [139]. In September 2002, injection of high-pressure
water for hydraulic stimulation at well TR-10A triggered microseismicity but did not
fracture the matrix sufficiently to improve permeability of the stimulated interval as
much as expected [140]. Several earthquakes, and a high concentration of hypocenters
at the well zone, reflect the elevated seismicity of the region [141].
A single-flash condensing facility with an installed capacity of 2 28 MW was
installed in July 1999, financed by IDB, and 2 5 MW well-head units were
simultaneously shut down [7]. Currently, eight wells are used for a gross and net
generation of 53 and 51 MW, respectively, producing 919 kg/s of steam and 2151 kg/s
of residual water. Residual water is disposed of by ten reinjection wells, triggering local
stress releases along the fault planes as shown by microseismic data [128, 132, 133].
Resource assessment studies and numeric modeling by Barrios et al. [128] showed a
minimum exploitation potential of 55 MW and a high probability of the existence of at
least 100 MW [121], or an estimated potential of 85 MWe. Based on numerical
modeling, the field should be able to sustain another 30 MW for 20 years [136].
Electricity generation in the Berln field began in 1999, with a current installed
capacity of 66 MW, which represents 6.5% of the total installed capacity of electrical
generation of El Salvador. At present, 31 wells have been drilled in Berln: ten of them
supply steam to a 28.1 MW power unit, and eleven are reinjection wells with depths
between 700 and 2800 m [127, 142]. To date, two units of 28 MWe from a single flash
condensing power plant produce 56 MWe [139]. The field is currently producing
440 kg/s of fluid (120 kg/s steam and 320 kg/s liquid) under pressure conditions of 13 MPa
(at 1200 m a.s.l.) and temperatures of 300 C [136]. Enel Green Power has drilled
confirmation wells and carried out feasibility studies for installing a third condensing
unit of 40 MW. Also, a 5.5 MW binary cycle plant is scheduled for Berln by late 2005
[7]. Inlet and outlet temperatures of 184 and 140 C, respectively, could power a binary
plant of 11 MWe (gross). Acid dosing of the brine in order to maintain a pH between
5.5 and 6.0 could be sufficient to control silica polymerization and silica scaling [143].
LaGeo, S.A. de C.V. (formerly GESAL) has developed a risk management program

to manage potential damage by hydrothermal explosions and heat in fumarole areas,

landslides, rockslides, and floods, and has initiated voluntary programs for community
development [127]. As a result of the performance of the Integrated Management
System (IMS), which includes an environmental management system and a nascent
community assistance program, the Berln power plant won the National
Environmental Award in 2002 [144].
26.3.5 Momotombo (Nicaragua)

26.3.5.1 Location
The Momotombo geothermal field is located on the southwestern slope of the
Momotombo volcano, the southernmost volcano of the Marabios range of northern
Nicaragua, with an elevation of 1200 m a.s.l. (Figs. 26.2 and 26.6; Fig. 27.18 in
Chapter 27). Its position is near the northwestern shore of Managua lake, about 80 km
northwest of Managua city. The field, with an area of 12 km2, represents the first case
of industrial-scale development of a high enthalpy geothermal reservoir in Nicaragua,
partly because of its accessibility via highways.
A tectonic graben, which encompasses the region between the Pacific coast and the spurs of
the central plateau, was formed by step faulting of the rift valley during an extension phase
from 10 to 2 Ma [31, 145]. This so-called Nicaraguan depression is partly occupied by the
Managua and Nicaragua lakes, and includes the massive outpourings of Quaternary
volcanics from the Los Marrabios cordillera [8], which formed during the final stages of
faulting. The five most important volcanoes of the mountain range are (from northwest to
southeast) San Cristbal, Telica, Santa Clara, El Hoyo and Momotombo (Figs. 26.2 and
26.6). A tectonic structure, oriented 130, is related to the active axes of the cordillera and
with the four major volcanic complexes of Momotombo-Galn, El Hoyo-Las Pilas, Cerro
Rota-Mata de Caa and Telica-Santa Clara. A second major tectonic feature is oriented
NESW, and is related to the formation of more modest volcanic features (La Lagua-Cerro
Montoso, Laguna de Asososca-Lomas Las Tacaticas, Cerro Negro-Loma de Guadalupe,
Cerro Amapola-Cerro El Cacao) transverse to the main tectonic trend. The long-term
persistence of important volcanic phenomena along a 4050 km wide strip indicates the
existence of a large regional thermal anomaly. The location of anomaly maxima coincides
with the active volcanic axis of the graben, and therefore with the zone of geothermal
interest [31]. NWSE and NESW fault systems (boundary fault of the Puerto Momotombo
graben and Puerto Sandino fault, respectively) are correlated tectonically at a regional scale
with the Nicaragua graben, whereas more local faults extend to the center of Momotombo
volcano between NS alignments. Most productive wells are located at intersections
between these various fault systems [34].
The lithology of the Momotombo geothermal field has been subdivided into six
lithological units [31, 34]: (1) Quaternary andesitic and andesitic-basaltic lava flows,
interlayered with scoria, epiclastics and lake sediments (depth: 0260 m b.s.l.); (2)

PlioPleistocene yellow palagonite tuff alternating with basaltic to andesitic lava flows
(260 to 600800 m b.s.l.); (3) mainly Late Miocene volcanic products in the eastern
part of the field that change to sedimentary deposits (sandstones and agglomerates)
westward (600800 to 15001700 m b.s.l.); (4) tuffaceous deposits of ignimbrite type,
with minor lava flows (16001700 to 2000 m b.s.l.); (5) intercalations of lutite/argillite
with Middle Miocene fossiliferous marl sediments (thickness of the Lower Coyol
formation: 360 m); and (6) clastic tuffs and andesitic lava flows as part of a volcanic
and volcaniclastic sequence at the bottom of the drilling profiles (> 2355 m b.s.l.). The
hydrogeological conceptual model of the Momotombo reservoir (Fig. 27.19 in Chapter
27) incorporates a schematic lithological profile of the geothermal site under
discussion. The main tectonic structures of the Momotombo area are shown in Figure
27.18 in Chapter 27.
Permeability of the reservoir layers is estimated to range between 5.44 1013 and
1.0 1020 m2, and porosity values between 0.08 and 0.2 [34]. The hydrothermal
petrology of the lithology of four wells (MT34, MT35, MT36, and MT37) is described
in Combredet et al. [146].
Agencies cooperating in the exploration and exploitation of the Momotombo geothermal
field include Electroconsult (1966, 1980), Texas Instruments (196970), the United
Nations (1971), Electroconsult-Foramines (197376), California-Energticos (197579),
Electroconsult-GIE-SPEG (198183), and DAL-INTESA-GIE (19861989), all of them
in cooperation with INE. Exploratory drilling at Momotombo was performed in two
phases from November 1974 to August 1978, and from October 1982 to October 1984
[31]. As a part of the prefeasibility stage, geophysical studies were carried out in the
1970s and early 1980s, such as dipole mapping surveys and electromagnetic soundings
by Texas Instruments in 1970, Schlumberger VES soundings and constant depth profiling
by the UNDP in 1973, and additional Schlumberger VES soundings in 1975 [147]. In
1976, results from an ELC-feasibility study inferred the existence of a shallow reservoir
(300400 m), and showed a production potential of 30 MW for the drilled wells [148].
Initial wells were used for interference tests and static bottom-hole pressure
measurements in 1977 [149]. A six-month production test at Momotombo, after the
completion of 27 wells (Fig. 27.18 in Chapter 27), indicated a limited field capacity of 35
MWe [150], less than the previously recommended operation of a 105 MW power plant
by California Energy Co., Inc. in 1978. A decline of vapor production by 44% during the
test indicated that wells outside the source fracture should not be considered when
estimating geothermal potentials [150]. Numerical models of the Momotombo
geothermal system were developed in 1983 by ELC-Electroconsult [151] and 1989 by
DAL SpA, and recommended drilling at least four new production wells in deeper zones
in the northwest of the field in order to maintain steam production for 70 MW of
generation. The most recent model in 1994 suggested 100% reinjection of the separated
water, and generation at 7 MW per well (an increase of 20 MW at that time) [152]. The
most recent geophysical surveys (self-potential, gravimetric, aeromagnetic, microearthquake monitoring) from DAL SpA [153] and TRANSPACIFIC in 2000 defined a
recharge zone in the northwestern part of the area. In 2004, three-dimensional numerical
modeling of more than 20 years of production and injection was performed with
AUTOUGH2 and iTOUGH2 simulators [34].

The field was developed originally by the National Institute of Energy (INE) and
the Nicaraguan Electric Company (ENEL) from the commissioning of the power plant
in 1983 through 1999, and then by ORMAT Momotombo Power Company which
continued the development and exploitation of the field. The first power plant, installed
in September 1983, had a production capacity of 35 MWe. To date, 47 wells have been
drilled in four stages (197478, 198185, 199296, and 20002002) to final depths
ranging from several hundred meters up to 2839 m [34]. A list of producing-well data
is given in Martnez Tiffer and Arcia Lacayo [154]. The production wells discharge a
mixture of liquid and steam in a proportion of 19 to 76% [154]. Separated water has been
partially reinjected through five injection wells (RMT-2, MT-6, MT-10, MT-15, MT-18).
The installed capacity of 70 MWe is provided by two condensing units of 35 MWe.
During the first five years of production, the following phenomena were observed:
(1) a gradual change from liquid- to steam-phase conditions, (2) a production decrease
of 5%, and (3) an increase of non-condensable gases from 0.5% to 0.75% [154]. Since
1994, reservoir pressure has dropped by 2 bars per year, inducing extensive boiling in
the shallow reservoir and the intrusion of low-temperature water into the reservoir
[155]. Pressure drawdown and calcite scaling resulted in a drastic generation decline,
down to 8 MWe in 1999. A rehabilitation program to improve reservoir management
started in June 1999, including the cleaning of calcite scaling in several production
wells and mechanical repair of failures, which increased power output to more than 20
MWe, plus an additional 7 MWe from the installation of a combined cycle unit. Only
one well, OM-53 (85 t/h steam), resulted successfully from a series of four new wells
drilled in the western part of the field [34].
26.3.6 San Jacinto-Tizate (Nicaragua)
26.3.6.1 Location
The San Jacinto-Tizate geothermal field is located in the northwestern part of the
Quaternary volcanic chain, 115 km from Managua (Fig. 26.6).
The area is characterized by a series of normal faults that form the regional San Jacinto
graben structure, 10 km long (SWNNE) and 2.53 km wide [156]. The graben is filled
mainly with volcanic and sedimentary products of OligoceneQuaternary age. Other
features related to regional structure include thermal manifestations on the margins of
the graben, SE-aligned faults, the volcanic chain of Los Marrabios, and radial faults.
Three active volcanoes (Santa Clara, San Jacinto, and Rota) and one inactive, partially
eroded collapse caldera (El Chorro-Tizate-La Bolsa) surround the geothermal field
(Fig. 27.20 in Chapter 27). The EW and NESW aligned fault systems, especially, are
related to the geothermal reservoir of the Tizate field [157].
Pyroclastic and epiclastic deposits, altered and unaltered volcanic rocks of andesitic
and andesitic-basaltic composition, partially brecciated materials, and pumiceous
deposits of Late PleistoceneHolocene age form the upper 250 m of the stratigraphic
sequence. A second unit of Pleistocene andesitic lavas is found between 250 and 950 m,
whereas volcano-sedimentary rocks of Late to Middle Miocene age are found at

depths of 950 to 2000 m. Deeper strata (20002300 m) are formed of volcanomictic

sandstones and gravel deposits, with minor organic components. A microdioritic body
was intercepted at 450 m depth in the central part of the field [157].
Prefeasibility studies, including geological, hydrogeological, geochemical and
geophysical (magnetometric, gravimetric and geoelectrical) surveys, were completed
by OLADE from 1979 to 1982 [158]. CO2 anomalies manifested in soil gases, as
surveyed by INTERGEOTERM during 19931994, facilitated the definition of
potential sites for geothermal prospecting. Based on exploratory surveys by
INTERGEOTERM, five deep wells were drilled in the Tizate geothermal field during
19931994. Four (SJ-1, SJ-3, SJ-4, and SJ-5) of five wells presented favorable thermal
conditions with temperatures between 189 and 284 C at depths from 550 to 2280 m
[156] (Fig. 27.20 in Chapter 27). Production tests demonstrate the commercial utility of
the Tizate area: drilled wells can supply steam sufficient for 21 MWe [157]. In 1995,
multi-well interference tests and transient tests showed that the highest transmissivity
values occur around well SJ-4 [157].
26.3.7 Miravalles (Costa Rica)

26.3.7.1 Location and regional geological setting
Miravalles geothermal area is located near the town of Guayabo in the Guanacaste
mountain range, northwest Costa Rica, a chain of andesitic Quaternary stratovolcanoes
trending NWSE. Regional stresses resulted in a number of different complex
structural systems, the most important of which comprise NWSE, NESW, and NS
oriented fault systems.
The Miravalles geothermal reservoir, located on the southwestern flank of
Miravalles volcano (2028 m a.s.l.) at 720 m a.s.l., is characterized by an active
hydrothermal system within a caldera-type collapse structure about 15 km in diameter
(Guayabo caldera) (Fig. 26.13). It is a liquid-dominated reservoir with temperatures of
230255 C [159]. The reservoir is located at a depth of about 700 m below the
surface, and has a thickness of about 10001200 m [160]. The proven reservoir area
covers about 13 km2 [159], with another 15 km2 identified for further development
[161]. Through February 2005, 53 wells had been drilled, of which 32 are used for
production and 14 for gravity injection of residual waters [10]. Miravalles is the beststudied geothermal area in Costa Rica.
26.3.7.2 Structural geology
Within the Guayabo caldera, four structural systems form a series of horst and graben
structures (Fig. 26.14), all of which contribute to the hydraulic permeability of the
geothermal reservoir [162]. In order of decreasing age, they are oriented NWSE, NS,
NESW, and EW (Fig. 26.14) [162]. The NS trending La Fortuna graben (Fig.
26.13) was reactivated in a subsequent phase during the Late Quaternary [163] and
contributes to a lateral discharge of reservoir fluids [162]. The youngest EW fault
system is surficially expressed as hydrothermal alterations, sulfataras, mud volcanoes
and hot springs (e.g., Las Hornillas at Hornillas fault; Fig. 26.13).

Figure 26.13. Geological-structural map of Miravalles geothermal reservoir and well field
located in Guayabo caldera (modified from Vega et al. [162]). The map section of Figure
26.16 is enclosed by a black frame.

In the area of Guayabo caldera, surface geological mapping combined with lithological
descriptions from the 53 deep wells reveal 10 stratigraphic units [162]. Three phases of

volcanic activity are distinguished, and the units can be grouped accordingly into precaldera, concurrent, and post-caldera formations (modified after Vega et al. [162]):
Pre-caldera volcanism (Pliocene to Lower Pleistocene):
Deep lava unit (DLU): A pre-caldera (possibly related to a paleo-volcanic arc),
predominantly andesitic lava flow sequence, the DLU is interpreted as the local
basement and is probably associated with rocks of the Aguacate group.
Ignimbrite unit (IU): Pyroclastic deposits (tuffs and ignimbrites) with some
andesitic lava flow intercalations; maximum thickness of 1087 m in well 15. This
unit is correlated with the pyroclastic rocks of the Bagaces formation.
Lava-Tuff unit (LTU): This unit, which forms the main aquifer of the geothermal
reservoir, consists predominantly of andesitic lavas (but includes a few pyroclastic
deposits such as tuffs and ignimbrites). The thickness of this unit increases toward the
south and west of the geothermal field, where the thickness is between 260 and 1190 m.
Ro Liberia formation (RLF): This pumiceous pyroclastic series of rocks is
composed of at least four flows, which together form a regional ignimbrite shield
averaging 60 m thick. Ages range from 1.29 0.03 to 1.83 0.03 Ma [164].
Caldera volcanism: The collapse of the Guayabo caldera was caused by the evacuation
of ignimbrites. The following rock units can be related to that phase:
Volcano sedimentary unit (VSU): The VSU corresponds to the material emitted
during the Guayabo caldera collapse and its refilling. This unit comprises
pumiceous pyroclastic flows, tuffs, epiclastic deposits, lacustrine sediments, and
occasional lavas. In wells, the VSU has a thickness ranging from 255 to 1050 m.
Dome flow unit (DFU): This unit, which was only found in the northern part of the
geothermal field, comprises rocks of dacitic composition that were emplaced in
dome-flow form during the final phase of the VSU. The emplacement was favored
by the distensive EW structural system.
Post-caldera volcanism:
Cabro Muco andesitic unit (CMAU): This unit is predominantly composed of lavas
(andesites and basaltic andesites) originating from the post-caldera Cabro Muco-La
Giganta volcanic complex, which developed in the southeastern part of the
Guayabo caldera. The rocks of this unit date to 0.4 0.1 Ma [165] and can be found
in most deep wells, where the units thickness ranges from 50 to 1000 m [162].
Post-Cabro Muco unit (PCMU): This unit comprises lavas, pyroclastic rocks, and
epiclastic deposits from the Paleo-Miravalles and Miravalles volcanoes. The
epiclastic deposits include materials from debris avalanches, lahars, and lacustrine
sediments. These deposits are related to eruptive phases of Miravalles volcano and
to volcanic collapse events. The major avalanche deposits were deposited at 9000
years BP [166], and cover most of the modern surface of the Guayabo caldera.
Fluvio-lacustrine unit (FLU): This unit reflects a low-energy deposition regime and
is predominantly composed of clays and silts, with intercalations of fine sands, and
ranges in thickness up to 3 m in surface outcrops.
Recent deposits unit (RDU): This unit comprises soils and colluvium.
26.3.7.4 Reservoir temperature distribution compared with mineral alteration
distribution
Information on water-rock interactions and resulting hydrothermal alteration, obtained
from the 53 deep wells, was used to infer the temperature distribution in the geothermal
field [162]. Three partly overlapping temperature zones could be distinguished: (1) a

Figure 26.14. Geological-structural cross sections through parts of the Miravalles geothermal
well field: (a) from well 51 in the south to well 58 in the north, and (b) from the well 58 in
the northwest to well 64 in the southeast. Also plotted are the 220 C isotherm estimates, as
obtained from direct temperature measurements in the wells and from the first occurrence
(from the earths surface) of the minerals illite and epidote. Locations of the cross-sections
are shown in Figure 26.13 (modified from [162]).
smectite zone (< 165 C); (2) a transition zone (140220 C) [167, 168] which is
characterized by the appearance of mixed-layered clay illite/smectite, rare epidote (type I;
[169, 170]) and other minerals whose base is near the top of the geothermal reservoir; and
(3) an illite zone (> 220 C) characterized by the presence of illite and higher concentrations of
epidote (types I, II, III) [162, 169, 170]. The location of the 220 C isotherm can be
ascertained from direct temperature measurements in the wells, or from the position of the first
appearance of the minerals illite and epidote (due to its rapid response to temperature change,
illite reflects current environmental temperature [162]). Comparison of directly measured
temperature with the first occurrence of illite and epidote shows good agreement (Fig. 26.14).
Exceptions occur in some areas along hydraulically permeable faults of the NESW and EW
structural systems, where fluid circulation disturbs the static temperature field. The highest
temperatures are found in the north of the production zone, indicating that (1) the heat source
is related to the Paleo-Miravalles and Miravalles volcanoes, and (2) that fluid movement is
generally north to south [162]. This provides the conceptual model of Miravalles geothermal
reservoir shown in Fig. 26.15. To the east, south, and west of the production zone, temperature
decreases as can be observed in Figure 26.14.
26.3.7.5 Reservoir exploration and exploitation
Preliminary exploratory studies in 1975, of geothermal areas in the Guanacaste
mountain range, identified the Miravalles geothermal area as the most promising field.
The national electricity utility ICE used its own and IDB funds to drill the first three
wells (197980), which were estimated to be able to produce 15 MW, indicating
commercial viability of geothermal exploitation at Miravalles. As a consequence,
development activities continued (drilling of additional wells, construction of
infrastructure such as generating facilities, pipelines, transmission lines, etc.) and the
first commercial unit (Miravalles unit 1) was installed, a 55 MW single-flash plant that
started generating electricity in March 1994. In November 1994 ICE installed a 5 MW

wellhead unit, followed by two more temporary 5 MW wellhead units (09/1996 and
04/1997), which operated until 08/1998 and 01/1999, respectively [36]. In August
1998, the 55 MW Miravalles II plant (unit 2) started operation, followed in March 2000
by Miravalles III (a 29 MW single-flash private plant, unit 3), followed in 12/2003 by
the commissioning of Miravalles unit 5, a 19 MW binary plant that utilizes the heat of
residual water for electricity generation, increasing installed capacity to 163 MW [36]
(for locations see Fig. 26.16).
Figure 26.15. Conceptual model of Miravalles geothermal reservoir, with a heat source related to
Miravalles volcano. Also shown are main aquifer systems of the geothermal reservoir with flow
directions, which are influenced by major faults (e.g., Las Hornillas fault). Location of the crosssection is shown in Figure 26.13 (modified from [162]). For legend see Figures 26.13 and 26.14.
The field-wide data for total mass extraction, broken down into steam and liquid
categories (Fig. 26.17a), show a linear increase in the steam production rate from about
350,000 tonnes/month in March 1994 to 820,000 tonnes/month in August 2000. From
that point through February 2001 steam production decreased, mainly due to maintenance
of units 1, 2 and 3. From March 2001 until the end of 2002, steam extraction rates
remained constant at 775,000 tonnes/month and then decreased slightly through June
2004. The curves of liquid mass and total mass extraction parallel the curve of steam
production. Extractions of total mass increase from about 1,000,000 tones/month in
March 1994 to 4,900,000 tonnes in August 2000 (liquid mass rate: 4,100,00
tonnes/month). After the aforementioned maintenance period, the values of total mass
extraction stabilized at around 4,600,000 tonnes/month (liquid mass extraction stabilized
at 3,900,000 tonnes/month) and then declined slowly between the end of 2002 and June
2004 [36]. Residual liquids are reinjected into the reservoir in the E, W, S, and SW areas
of the geothermal field (Fig. 26.16). Since most of the residual fluids are injected in the
southern injection sector, the curve of injected mass in this area determines the curve of
total injected mass (Fig. 26.17b). The curves of total extraction (Fig. 26.17a) and total
injected mass show similar behaviors through time [36]. Chemically, the waters are
sodium chloride rich with a pH of 5.7 (for details on hydrochemistry see Chapter 27).
Especially in the southeast of the field (Fig. 26.16), they have a tendency to promote
carbonate scaling. In the east part of the field (Fig. 26.16) the waters are acidic (pH 2.3
3.2). Both types of reservoir waters require special treatment, e.g. as described in [9].

26.3.7.6 Reservoir response to exploitation

The exploitation of Miravalles geothermal field, which has been ongoing since 1994, has
caused due to the extraction of hot fluids and the injection of colder residual fluids
significant changes in reservoir pressure, chemical composition and thermodynamic
characteristics. Changes of different parameters over time can be observed, including
changes in reservoir pressure, chloride concentration, magnesium content, enthalpy,
temperature, Na/K ratio, silica content, and Cl/B ratio (e.g., [9, 159]). The present chapter
will only address changes of temperature, enthalpy, and reservoir pressure.
Figure 26.16. Miravalles geothermal field: Delimitation of production and injection zones, as
well as the areas where the geothermal reservoir is characterized by the occurrence of acidic
and of carbonate-rich waters, respectively (for location of this map section see Fig. 26.13;
modified from [10]).
Reservoir pressure: Pressure data obtained from several observation wells indicates
that the reservoir pressure has declined significantly since operation started in 1994
(Fig. 26.17c). The gradients of the extraction rate curves are in concordance with the
increases of generation, reflecting when new units began operating (Fig. 26.17c). So in
the first phase, when only one unit operated, the pressure decline was 12 bar/year,

whereas after the addition of units 2 and 3, the rate increased up to 4.4 bar/year (Fig.
26.17c).
Enthalpy and temperature changes: Since the beginning of commercial exploitation
of Miravalles geothermal reservoir, temperature data have been obtained from direct
borehole measurements and enthalpy data estimated from the well production curves.
Figures 26.18 and 26.19 show the respective distributions within the production zone
of the geothermal field at different times. Due to exploitation since 1994 and the
addition of more units (corresponding to different production scenarios), the natural
distributions of enthalpy and temperature have undergone continuous changes.
Situation 1 (March 1994; Figs. 26.18a and 26.19a): The 1994 temperature and
enthalpy contour maps (Fig. 26.18a, 26.19a) show the natural state of the reservoir
(only a few months after commissioning of 55 MW unit 1). In this quasi-natural state,
the highest enthalpies (> 1050 kJ/kg) and highest temperatures (> 240 C) are found in
the north and east of the geothermal field (in the direction of Miravalles volcano, where
the principal heat source is presumed to be located). The highest enthalpy (> 1150
kJ/kg) is at well 10 in the northern part of the field, while the lowest values were found
in the southern part of the field (wells 20 and 21 with < 1000 kJ/kg; [9]).
Situation 2 (August 1997; Figs. 26.18b and 26.19b): This situation corresponds to
nearly the end of exploitation scenario 1 (March 1994August 1998), in which steam was
supplied to one condensing power plant and two backpressure power plants (65 MW). In
the first exploitation scenario, 12 production wells (11, 05, 10, 01, 31, 17, 03, 45, 46, 20,
12, and 21) and six injection wells (02, 22, 24, 16, 26, and 04) were functioning. Situation
2 reflects the state of the field after 3 years and 5 months of geothermal exploitation. At
that point, the hot fluid exploitation and reinjection have significantly changed the
thermodynamic characteristics of the geothermal reservoir. Two opposing processes can
be distinguished: (1) the exploitation has increased the inflow of hotter fluids from the
north and east (where the principal heat source of the reservoir is located), increasing the
enthalpy in the central, northern, and eastern parts of the field; and (2) the reinjection of
colder residual water (~165 C) into the reservoir to the west of the production field
(injection wells 22 and 24), together with the extraction in the production field, have
caused a return flow of cooler fluids toward the production wells, decreasing their
enthalpy and temperature. So, in the western part of the production field two entries of
cooler water can be observed: (1) one related to injection in well 22, which is supposed to
be affecting production wells 05, 08, and 42; and (2) another related to injection in well
24 and also probably related to injections in the southern part of the injection zone (Fig.
26.16), which is the likely cause of observed reductions (since 1994) in temperature and
enthalpy values in production wells 12, 20, and 49.
Situation 3 (November 1999; Figs. 26.18c and 26.19c): During the second
exploitation scenario (August 1998March 2000) the exploited steam was processed by
two condensing power plants (units 1 and 2) and one backpressure power plant (120
MW). During this second exploitation scenario, four additional production wells (42,
08, 43, and 49) and three injection wells (28, 51, and 56) were used.
The most significant change from situation 2 to situation 3 was caused by increased
production (wells 08, 42, and 43 of the new unit 2), along with strongly increased injection
in the southern part of the injection field (Fig. 26.16). The rate of injection into this zone
had increased considerably, from 310 kg/s (situation 2) to 1300 kg/s (situation 3; [9]). The
influence of the western injection field on the production field decreased relative to

Figure 26.17. Miravalles geothermal field: (a) field-wide extracted mass, (b) total injection, and
(c) changes of reservoir pressure in selected observation wells (a and b modified from [171],
(c) modified from [172]).
situation 2. The reason for that was the reduced volume of fluids injected there, which
were instead reinjected in wells 22 and 24 [9].

Figure 26.18. Directly measured reservoir temperature (C) and its changes with time due to
exploitation and reinjection of colder residual waters. The map area includes the production
zone, with the exploitation wells shown as triangles (for map segment location see Figure
26.16). The injection zones are located to the west and south of the area shown. For better
visibility of changes through time, the area with temperatures above 240 C is shaded darker
(modified from [159]).
Situation 4 (November 2000, September 2002; Figs. 26.18de and 26.19de): In the
third exploitation scenario (March 2000November 2003) extracted steam fed three
condensing power plants (units 1 to 3; 138 MW). During the period of the third
exploitation scenario, three additional production wells in the northern part of the
production field (wells 14, 60, 62 of unit 3) came on line. This increased exploitation,
and reinjection in the southern injection field, increased the return of cooler fluids
toward the southern portion of the production field and decreased the temperature

Figure 26.19. Enthalpy of Miravalles geothermal field (kJ/kg) and its changes with time due to
exploitation and reinjection of colder residual waters. For better visibility of the changes
through time, the area with enthalpies over 1050 kJ/kg is shaded darker. For further
explanation see Fig. 26.18 (modified from [159]).
and enthalpy in most of the wells there, with the exception of wells PGM-10 and PGM-05,
where they increased. The new unit 3 wells, located in the northern part of the field,
resulted in an increased inflow of warmer water from the east, increasing the enthalpy
and temperature in parts of the northern production field. From November 2000 to
September 2002, practically no changes of enthalpy isolines occurred, whereas slight
changes can be observed for the temperature isolines.
Situation 5 (January 2004; Figs. 26.18df and 26.19df): The temperature of residual
waters reinjected from the binary plant of Miravalles unit 5 is lower than that from the
other units (136 C compared to 165 C) [159], and hence it further contributes to a decrease
of temperatures and enthalpies.

26.3.8 Las Pailas-Borinquen (Costa Rica)

The geothermal areas of Borinquen and Las Pailas, and a third prospect located
between them, are found in the northwestern section of the Guanacaste volcanic range,
where a variety of geothermal prospects are located along the southern flank of the
Rincn de la Vieja volcano (Figs. 26.2 and 26.20).
Figure 26.20. Geological-structural map of the Las Pailas and Borinquen geothermal areas
located at Rincn de la Vieja volcanic complex (modified from [173]).
26.3.8.2 Structural geology and local stratigraphy

Rincn de la Vieja is an andesitic stratovolcano and the only active volcano of
Guanacaste cordillera (northwest Costa Rica), with a peak elevation at Santa Mara of
1916 m a.s.l. Its complex structure comprises a large stratovolcano with seven to nine
nested craters, and defines a NWSE aligned caldera rim of the Alcntaro-GuachipelnCaas Dulce caldera, which dates to the PliocenePleistocene boundary, the result of a

collapse following several pyroclastic flows [173]. Subsequently, a large lake (at least
96 km2) filled the volcanotectonic depression, followed by the extrusion of 6 domes
and finally by the growth of the Rincn de la Vieja volcano (1895 m a.s.l., 400 km2,
250 km3) in the Middle Pleistocene. The latter is still active, having produced
phreatomagmatic to phreatic eruptions in recent centuries [174]. The subsurface
geology, structural features, and volcanological evolution of the Borinquen-Pailas area
have been reported in very good detail by Zamora et al. [173]. Petrological studies
were carried out by Kempter et al. [175].
Several geothermal manifestations occur along a northwest-trending lineation at the
base of Rincon de la Vieja (Azufrales, Las Pailas, Las Hornillas, Borinquen) as well as
to the north of the actual volcano (Volcancito, Aguas Tibias) (Fig. 26.20).
The largest and most important parts of the identified geothermal field include areas
located in the Rincn de la Vieja national park (Fig. 26.20), which was established
after the geothermal assessment studies were performed. These new landuse
restrictions made it necessary to reassess the prefeasibility study, so an updated
prefeasibility study was completed in the second half of 1999 [9]. The results indicated
two areas as the most promising geothermal prospects for drilling exploratory wells
and carrying out feasibility studies: Borinquen and Las Pailas. After completing
environmental impact studies, in the second half of 2000 ICE obtained permits from
the Ministry of Environment and Energy (MINAE) to drill exploratory wells in the Las
Pailas geothermal area.
Las Pailas geothermal area: The Las Pailas geothermal area is located on the
southern slope of Rincn de la Vieja volcano (Fig. 26.20). Feasibility studies,
completed during August 2003, were carried out by GeothermEx Inc. and West JEC.
Both studies indicated enough potential to install a 35 MW unit outside of Rincn de la
Viejo national park [176]. A deep exploratory well program was started in 2001 as part
of the feasibility study. In total, five wells (PGP-1 to PGP-5) were drilled into the
reservoir, which turned out to be liquid-dominated (with some vapor-phase fluids
present) and filled with pH-neutral, Na-Cl waters (Fig. 26.20). Together with results of
a detailed magnetotelluric measurement program, the test borings allowed construction
of geological cross-sections through Las Pailas geothermal reservoir [177]. In a profile
through wells PGP-5, PGP-4, and PGP-2, the first 200300 m with 15 P DUH
correlated with lahars, superficial lavas, and tuffs. The next 500600 m are of low
electrical resistivity (1 P DQG DUH LQWHUSUHWHG WR EH WKH VHDOLQJ OD\HU RI WKH
geothermal reservoir, which reaches a depth of 700900 m [177]. Below the presumed
sealing layer, resistivities increase. The other cross-sections indicate a similar general
structure of the subsurface. The magnetotelluric cross soundings show that the location
of the sealing layer of the geothermal reservoir is deeper in the south and southeast of
Las Pailas geothermal field, making this area less promising for geothermal
exploitation. The principal geothermal aquifer, which is characterized by temperatures
between 230 and 250 C, is located approximately between 300 and 800 m a.s.l. It
corresponds to andesitic lavas and tuffs of the Aguacate group.
First down-hole measurements in the deep wells indicate temperatures of
approximately 240 C, enthalpy values close to 1100 kg/kJ and total flows of 40
100 kg/s [176]. Temperature data and other information obtained in the wells are
summarized in Table 26.2. The horizontal distributions of static temperatures obtained

from measurements in the wells are shown in Figure 26.21 for different depths. Both
indicate a general temperature increase towards the northeast. Thus the lowest
temperature maximum, 168 C, is found in the southwest near the caldera border (PGP05) but maxima increase toward the northeast and Rincn de la Vieja volcano, reaching
227240 C at wells PGP-01, PGP-02 and PGP-04, and 243 C at PGP-03, which is
located near the Las Pailas fumaroles at the boundary of Rincn de La Vieja national
park. The observed temperature distribution is apparently stable, as it is confirmed by
the corresponding zonal distributions of the clay minerals illite and smectite [177], and
correlates with the geological structure, in particular with the vertical position of the
sealing layer, which suggests that the top of the geothermal reservoir is located
topographically higher towards the northeast. Current plans call for the Las Pailas
geothermal unit to be on line in 2010, which would require construction to begin in
2007. ICE is studying several alternative financing and construction schemes for the
unit, but as of June 2006 a final decision had not been made [176].
Table 26.2. Well parameters at Las Pailas geothermal area [176].
Well No. Depth
Max. T
Inj. Index W.T. Enthalpy
(m)
(C)
(l/s)/bar
(m)
(kJ/kg)
Flow
(kg/s)
Est.
Output
(MWe)
PGP-01
1418
240
8.3
420
1079
108.8
9.0
PGP-02
1764
240
< 1.4
450
NA
NA
NA
PGP-03
1772
244
4.7
480
1140
44.2
4.3
PGP-04
1418
229
2.1
380
971
58
3.5
PGP-05
1827
168
NA
320
NA
NA
NA
Inj. Index: Injectivity index; W.T: Depth of water table; Est. Output: Estimated output; NA: Not
available.
Borinquen geothermal area: The second geothermal field in the region of Rincn de la
Vieja volcano is Borinquen (Fig. 26.20). Drilling of well PGB-01 was started there in
March 2003. At a depth of 2594.6 m, the down-hole temperature was 276 C and the
injectivity index was less than 1.4 (l/s)/bar [176], indicating low permeability. Another
well, PGB-03, was drilled to a depth of 1210 m in March 2005, encountering low
temperatures and low permeability to that point (Table 26.3). Between the two well
sites, a NS tectonic structure seems to form a hydrologic barrier for reservoir fluids
coming from the northeast, which would explain an anomaly observed during the
magnetotelluric studies, a low-resistivity zone between wells PGB-01 and PGB-03
[178]. The implication is that the most promising area is on the side with well PGB-01.
Magnetotelluric soundings indicate that the reservoir cap extends from the earths
surface to levels between 100 and 300 m a.s.l. Temperatures of the reservoir (liquiddominated with vapor present) range between 250 and 275 C.
Table 26.3. Well parameters at Borinquen geothermal area [176].
Well No. Depth
Max. T
Inj. Index W.T. Enthalpy
(m)
(C)
(l/s)/bar
(m)
(kJ/kg)
Est.
Output
(MWe)
PGB-01
2594.6
276
< 1.4
370
1150
20
NA
PGB-03* 2082
193*
NA
300
NA
NA
NA
* July, 2005; Inj. Index: Injectivity index; W.T: Depth of water table; Est. Output: Estimated
output; NA: Not available.
Flow
(kg/s)

Figure 26.21. Horizontal distributions of static temperatures obtained from measurements in the
wells of the Las Pailas geothermal area (modified from [177]).
Area between Las Pailas and Borinquen: This property was bought by Unocal with the
intention of developing a private geothermal project [176]. Unocal was expecting that
the law regulating electricity generation would be changed so as to facilitate private
geothermal projects. Since there is no expectation that any such changes will occur (at
least not in the near future), and thus no mechanism for developing a private
geothermal project on that property under current law, Unocal decided in December
2004 to donate the property to the nongovernmental organization Guanacaste Dry
Forest [176]. The goal of ICE is to determine whether geothermal phenomena beneath
this property are part of a single geothermal anomaly that extends between Las Pailas
and Borinquen, or whether Las Pailas and Borinquen represent two different,
unconnected geothermal reservoirs. For several years, ICE has asked for permission to
study the area, but authorization has been denied, first by Unocal and then by the
Guanacaste Dry Forest organization [176].
26.3.9 Tenorio (Costa Rica)
Located at the southeastern end of the Guanacaste volcanic range between Miravalles
and Arenal volcanoes, Tenorio (1916 m a.s.l.) is a dormant basaltic-andesitic
stratovolcanic structure composed of numerous cones, domes, and phreatomagmatic
craters, aligned NNWESE (Figs. 26.2 and 26.22). The area is characterized by
surficial geothermal manifestations such as hot springs.
26.3.9.2 Structural geology and local stratigraphy
The Tenorio volcanic complex rests atop a Pliocene to Lower Pleistocene regional

basement of andesitic to basaltic lavas and continental sediments (Fig. 26.22). The
Tenorio eruptions resulted in alternating deposits of lavas and pyroclastics, whose total
thickness amounts to several hundred meters.
Figure 26.22. Geological map of Tenorio geothermal area (modified from [179]).


The creation of Tenorio national park, which incorporated a large part of the Tenorio
geothermal prospect area, occasioned a delay of the prefeasibility study. Only after
completion of an environmental impact study, which was required for obtaining
permits from the Ministry of Environment and Energy (Ministerio de Ambiente y
Energa, MINAE), could construction of infrastructure begin. Finally, in 19992000,
two exploratory wells with depths of 1345 and 2472 m were drilled into the Pleistocene
volcano-tectonic structure, which is characterized by significant geophysical anomalies
associated with the most important geochemical manifestations in the area [9]. However,
the results obtained from those two wells were negative, since they revealed only low
temperatures (maximum 160 C) and low injectivity indexes (maximum 0.5 (l/s)/bar),
effectively eliminating the Tenorio area from further consideration as a potential
geothermal field.
26.4
OTHER PRINCIPAL HIGH-ENTHALPY SITES
26.4.1 San Marcos (Guatemala)

In general, very little publicly available information on the geothermal development of
small-sized geothermal sites in Guatemala has been published, other than Roldn and
Palma [16]. The San Marcos geothermal site is located close to the Mexican border,
250 km west of Guatemala city, at elevations ranging from 1900 m (Cimarrona hot
springs) to the 4200 m summit of Tajumulco volcano [180] (Figs. 26.2 and 26.3).
Preliminary geo-volcanological and geochemical studies within an area of 85 km2 were
carried out by INDE as part of a country-wide geothermal reconnaissance study, based
on regional studies by OLADE in 1981 [13]. As part of the Geotergua joint venture
between the European Community and INDE, a prefeasibility study of the geothermal
potential of the San Marcos area was carried out between 1993 and 1997 [181]. The
results indicate a convective capacity of 16 to 24 MW at reservoir temperatures
between 225 and 255 C. Economic evaluations suggest probable costs of US$ 41.6
million, US$ 43.7 million, and US$ 52.3 million for installation of a 25 MW single
flash unit, 5 5 MW back pressure units, or 7 3.6 MW binary modules, respectively
[180]. The highest-priority area, as defined by the Geotergua project, is located along
the Palatz river from its headwaters down to the Cimarrona hot springs (Fig. 26.23).
The San Marcos volcano-tectonic depression represents the main structural and
morphological feature of the area, an elliptical depression of 13 km by 9 km (Fig.
26.23). The caldera is located between two lithologic segments that cut through the
Pacific ridge of the Caribbean plate. Strong pyroclastic eruptions formed the caldera
during the PliocenePleistocene transition. Post-pyroclastic acid eruptions partially
filled the original depression and produced further collapses along the rim. Later
volcanic episodes included the emplacement of coalescent lava domes in the southern
part of the San Marcos caldera. A fractioned crystallization process within a shallow
magma chamber is indicated by geochemical evolution from dacite to rhyolitic
composition. Besides annular caldera-related structures, EW, NWSE and NESW

trending normal fault systems cut across the caldera, and NESW trending graben
systems intersect the San Marcos caldera [180].
The stratigraphic series includes an intrusive regional basement of diorite at depths of
several kilometers below the San Marcos depression. The overlying Tertiary volcanic
sequence is formed by andesitic-basaltic and basaltic flows with subordinate
pyroclastic agglomerates and lahars, for a total thickness of several hundreds to
thousands of meters. Quaternary pyroclastics (ignimbrites and lahars) and breccias
reach a thickness of several hundred meters in the center of the depression [180].
Figure 26.23. Tectonic structure of the San Marcos caldera and fault systems, location of NaHCO 3, Ca-HCO3 and Na-Cl spring discharges, and outline of the main potential geothermal
area and adjacent surroundings (modified from [180, 182]).
26.4.2 Moyuta (Guatemala)

The Moyuta area is located in the eastern part of the country (Figs. 26.2 and 26.3).
Preliminary regional surveys were initiated in 1972 by INDE (Instituto Nacional de
Electrificacin) over a 1000 km2 region, followed in 1974 by prefeasibility
investigations over an area of 330 km2 [15]. Complementary studies were carried out
by Electroconsult in 1975, including the drilling of 12 slim holes [183]. A possible
geothermal reservoir is located within the basic andesite unit with a thickness
ranging from 300 to 600 m [15]. Low bottom temperatures maximum 114 C [184]
of two production-size wells (INDE 1 and 2) with depths of 797 m and 1000 m,
respectively, diverted the focus of exploration work to the Zunil and Amatitln sites
[12, 14]. Gases from major fumaroles suggest bottom temperatures around 200 C [6].

Related geoscientific studies determined the existence of an anomaly perhaps 10 km2 in

area with a thermal gradient above 2.5 C/10 m around the hydrothermally active zone
of the Cerro Caliente rim [185]. Promising sites were selected during a reevaluation of
the Moyuta geothermal system by INDE and LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory)
in 1990 [12], and high probabilities of finding potentially commercially exploitable
geothermal systems were claimed [16]. Temperatures of about 210 C are inferred for
the subsystem on the northern flank of the Moyuta volcanic complex, and 170 C for
the subsystem on the southern flank. Sites along fractures and fault zones between
Moyuta volcano and fumaroles on its northern flank are proposed for exploratory
drilling [14].
26.4.3 Tecuamburro (Guatemala)
The potential geothermal site of Tecuamburro is located about 60 km southeast of
Guatemala city, on the flank of the homonymous volcano (Figs. 26.2 and 26.3). In
1982, a preliminary geochemical survey was carried out by the Organizacin
Latinoamerica de Energa, indicating that chloride waters issuing along the Ro
Esclavos originate from a reservoir with temperatures below 160 C [186]. Later work
by Giggenbach [187] confirmed that H2S-containing gases venting near Tecuamburro
volcano are related to higher-temperature, magmatic sources. In 1988, the Los Alamos
Laboratory (LANL), using ROCAP/USAAID funds, the U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS), and the Instituto Nacional de Electrificacin (INDE) initiated an integrated
set of investigations to assess geothermal energy potential within an area of about 400 km2
around Tecuamburro volcano [186, 188]. The geology of the region was mapped
in detail by Duffield et al. [189, 190]. Radon manometry was used to detect structural
features [191]. Preliminary regional geochemical exploration was done by Goff et al.
[192] and Janik et al. [193], and geoelectrical studies were carried out on a 16 km2
area around Laguna Ixpaco [194]. As a culmination of the LANL/USGS/INDE geothermal
exploration study, the TCB-1 slim borehole was drilled in 1990 on the northern flank of
Tecuamburro (location shown in Fig. 27.7 from Chapter 27). Maximum measured
temperatures were 238 C at the bottom of the 806 m deep hole [12, 186]. TCB-1 fluid
geochemistry is discussed in Goff et al. [188]. Based on the prefeasibility studies, a potential
field capacity of 50 MW was estimated [186]. Gas and fluid geothermometry suggests a
reservoir temperature estimate of 300 C [14].
The geothermal area is located within a N-trending, 20 km-wide graben also called
Tecuamburro graben and bounded to the north by the NW-trending Jalpatagua
strike-slip fault system. NW-aligned faults, fissures, and alignments of volcanic vents
represent the main structural features within the Tecuamburro graben [189].
Tecuamburro volcano itself is an andesitic composite cone of Late Pleistocene age
(< 0.04 Ma), with andesitic domes and flows interbedded with breccias and landslide
debris (Fig. 27.9 in Chapter 27). The highland in the north-central part of the graben is
composed of fractured and eroded andesitic and basaltic edifices that were active from

1.2 to 0.8 Ma. Slightly older andesitic centers (Ixtuahn and Pueblo Nuevo Vias; 1.2
2.6 Ma) are exposed to the east and west of Tecuamburro graben. Flows and laharic
breccias of Ixhuatn andesitic rocks are exposed in the deep canyon of the Ro Los
Esclavos east of Tecuamburro [189]. Structural relations, depths and thicknesses of
Mesozoic carbonate basement rocks beneath the Cenozoic volcanic sequence of the
Tecuamburro region are unknown.
26.4.4 Totonicapn (Guatemala)
Preliminary geological, geochemical and geophysical research was initiated during
1996 by INDE in collaboration with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
In 1997, geological and geochemical analyses indicated favorable reservoir conditions
for electricity production [195]. Gravity and magnetometric surveys were carried out in
1998. Widespread hydrothermal alteration, the presence of a caldera structure, and
recent volcanism indicate optimal conditions for upward migration of hot geothermal
fluids [12]. Studies of the potential geothermal field stayed at a prefeasibility level,
although estimated geochemical temperatures range between 200 and 230 C, with
expectations of even higher temperatures [196].
26.4.5 Los Achiotes, Ixtepeque-Ipala, Palencia, Retana, Ayarza, Atitln and
Motagua (Guatemala)
The sites of Los Achiotes and Ixtepeque-Ipala were given lower priority during the
exploratory survey by OTCA in the 1970s, with estimated geothermometric
temperatures of 180 C in the latter field [14]. Palencia, Retana, Ayarza, Atitln and
Motagua were given lowest priority, as geothermometry was not reliable, but
geological features suggest favorable geothermal conditions [12, 14]. In general, little
information or continuing studies are available on those sites in the southwest part of
Guatemala (Figs. 26.2 and 26.3).
26.4.6 San Vicente (El Salvador)

26.4.6.1 Reservoir exploitation
The San Vicente geothermal field was identified during exploratory studies in
promising areas from 1976 to 1980, performed by the Comisin Ejecutiva
Hidroelctrica del Ro Lempa (CEL) [28]. Within the framework of that activity, an
exploration well (SV-1) and some shallow boreholes were drilled in the San Vicente
volcano area. The well revealed the existence of favorable reservoir conditions with a
geothermal gradient of 0.4 C/m and favorable temperatures of 250 C at a depth of
11001300 m [197]. Abandoned in the 1980s due to political instability in El Salvador,
CEL decided to resume geothermal exploitation in the 1990s. New preliminary studies
by CEL [198, 199] confirmed gravimetric and geoelectric anomalies in the area. In
1993, scientific cooperation between CEL and the Universities of Palermo and Pisa
(Italy) intensified geological [200], volcanological, and geochemical research [201] in
San Vicente. Since 2002, the San Vicente and Chinameca fields are planned for
development with a 50 MW geothermal power plant each, and the concessions awarded
to ORMAT International, Inc. [7, 26].

26.4.6.2 Geological framework

The volcano Chichontepeque (San Vicente) is one of nine recently active volcanoes in
the El Salvador sector of the Central American volcanic belt. Its elevation (2183 m)
and the volume of emitted products (130 km3) reflect its position as the second most
important volcano in El Salvador [200]. Eruptive activity from a Tertiary structure,
known as the tholeiitic Carbonera phase, was followed by the opening of the Central
graben, which led to the collapse of the structure and the generation of a caldera during
the Quaternary. Formation of the recent andesitic stratovolcano has occurred during
that time [201].
26.4.7 Chinameca (El Salvador)
During 19761980, a total of 2500 km2 in the San Vicente, Berln, and Chinameca
areas was examined by geological, geochemical, and geophysical studies.
Temperatures less than 200 C at depths of 760 and 2500 m in two exploratory wells
relegated the Chinameca project to second priority [28], but in May 2001 a concession
for geothermo-electrical exploitation was awarded to Orpower7 to install 50 MW [7].
26.4.8 Platanares (Honduras)
Platanares is located in the westernmost part of Honduras, 16 km from the city of Santa
Rosa de Copn and 30 km east of the border with Guatemala (Figs. 26.2 and 26.4). The
region around Platanares is mountainous and deeply dissected. Thermal manifestations
are located along N-, NE-, and NW-trending extensional faults [202] in tuffs,
tuffaceous sedimentary rocks, and lavas of the Padre Miguel group, as well as between
the Paleozoic basement and the Padre Miguel group rocks [5] (Fig. 26.24).
Prefeasibility studies were carried out by the Los Alamos National Laboratory
(LANL), the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the National Company of Electrical
Energy (ENEE), including detailed geological and structural mapping, geochemical
and geothermometric analyses of water, geophysical surveys, slope studies, and an
economic evaluation [22]. Platanares was chosen as the best site for geothermal
development in Honduras because of relatively high estimated subsurface reservoir
temperatures (225 C), the large natural discharge of hot spring systems (3300 l/min),
and a well-defined structural setting [203, 204]. Since 1986, additional geologic and
geochemical studies, and gravity, self-potential, and resistivity surveys have been
completed [25, 204207]. Results from fluid inclusions and hydrothermal alteration are
reported by Bargar [208, 209].
In late 1986 to mid-1987, three temperature gradient wells (PLTG-1 to PLTG-3)
were drilled at Platanares to depths of 650, 428, and 676 m, respectively. Fractured
zones in PLTG-1 at 252, 574, and 625644 m individually produce as much as 300
l/min of hydrothermal fluids. Large water entries were encountered at 26 m (> 200
l/min), 459 m, and 622635 m in well PLTG-2 [21, 203]. Two of them produced
superheated water under artesian pressure conditions of 5 atmospheres at a discharge of
515 l/min from red siliciclastics of the Valle de Angeles group. Maximum temperatures
of 165 C were reached, although estimated subsurface temperatures reach 225 C but
require wells more than 1200 m deep [210]. The third well yielded dry conditions with

a temperature gradient reaching 139 C by a depth of 400 m [22]. Thermal power maxima
of 3.1 MW and 5.1 MW were estimated for wells PLTG-1 and PLTG-3, respectively, based
on flow data [21, 203]. A potential thermal power capacity of 45 MW was calculated by
Goff et al. [210] with an estimated surface discharge of 3150 l/min under reservoir
conditions of 225 C. A reservoir storage capacity of about 9.7 106 l/(kg/cm2) was
calculated from data for each bore, using a simple fracture-dominated, volume-impedance
model [21]. The outcome of a short-term feasibility study for the shallow reservoir could
confirm the potential of 10 MW or more of geothermal capacity with a probability greater
than 50 percent. The net expected monetary cost of development of the deeper reservoir at
Platanares would be US$ 42.4 million including approximately US$ 10 million for test-fordiscovery wells and a feasibility study [24, 211].
The Platanares geothermal area is highly faulted and fractured and occupies a structural
graben trending northwest. The La Bufa fault marks the northern limit of hot spring
activity, and the Quebrada del Agua Caliente fault zone provides the discharge of
95% of the hot springs in the area [203]. Four types of faults and fractures systems,
aligned EW, NWSE, NESW, NS (listed oldest to youngest) are found in the
Platanares area. Hot springs are aligned along a N45oW trend, so this set of fractures
may provide the main conduits for thermal water rising from depth and issuing at the
surface along relatively young and open NW-trending fractures, and NE- and NSaligned faults [202].
Rocks in the Platanares area consist of a metamorphic sequence of highly deformed
and sheared metaquartzites, schists, and phyllites [25, 202] (Fig. 26.24). In the north,
the Paleozoic sequence is juxtaposed along La Bufa fault against Oligocene to Miocene
andesites (Matagalpa formation), basin-fill sedimentary rocks (Subinal formation), and
tuffs and tuffaceous sedimentary rocks (Padre Miguel formation) to the south [21]. Late
Cretaceous to Eocene redbeds and conglomerates of the Valle de Angeles group lie in fault
contact with both Paleozoic and Tertiary rocks west, east, and northeast of the geothermal
area. During drilling 500 to 600 m of redbeds (siltstone, sandstone, conglomerates)
were penetrated near the center of the geothermal area [212]. The minimum
thickness of the Valle de Angeles group is 1000 m, and may exceed 3000 m [25, 204].
Mid-Tertiary andesites of the Matagalpa formation were penetrated by geothermal
gradient wells PLTG-1 and PLTG-2 to thicknesses of 556 and 263 m, respectively (Fig.
26.24). An 80120 m thick redbed sequence (Subinal formation) overlies lavas of the
Matagalpa formation. The Subinal formation crops out along the west wall of the upper
Quebrada de Agua Caliente and is penetrated by the wells PLTG-2 and PLTG-3. Tuffs
and associated minor lavas and sedimentary rocks of the Padre Miguel group crop out
over most of the Platanares geothermal area with a maximum thickness of 310 m. In
addition, silica sinter deposits and conglomerates unconformably overlie tuffs and lavas
along the Quebrada del Agua Caliente [25, 202, 204].
Intense alteration of argillic to phyllic grade occurs in mining areas (San Andrs, El
Quetzal), along the Quebrada del Agua Caliente fault zone, along the Ro Lara and
other faults within the structural graben, and within the PLTG-1 and PLTG-3 core
holes [25, 203, 204]. At least two hydrothermal events have affected the area. The first

event is associated with Au, Hg, Sb, As and Cu mineralization, and quartz veins in the
mine areas. The second hydrothermal event is associated with modern hot springs and
hydrothermal fluids and is apparently responsible for calcite veins that cut quartz veins
as observed along the Quebrada del Agua Caliente and some calcite veins in cores from
holes PLTG-1 and PLTG-3 [21]. More detailed geologic and mineralogical description
of the lithological units is given in Heiken et al. [25, 202, 204].
Figure 26.24. Cross section of Platanares geothermal site with conceptual hydrogeological model
of groundwater migration (modified after Goff et al. [21]).
26.4.9 Azacualpa (Honduras)

The Azacualpa site is located in the central part of western Honduras on the
Jaitique river, 10 km south-southwest of the Yojoa lake, and approximately 100 km
northwest of Tegucigalpa [213] (Fig. 26.4). Two temperature gradient slim hole wells
were drilled to a maximum depth of 650 m. The producing zone of well Az No. 1 was
encountered at a depth between 100 and 350 m with a temperature of 139 C, and is
composed of massive micritic limestone of the Cretaceous Atima Superior formation.
Extrapolating the geothermal gradients observed in drill holes Az No. 1 (5 C/100 m)
and Az No. 2 (15 C/100 m), a reservoir temperature of 185 C is estimated at a depth
of 1750 m and 1050 m, respectively [22] (Fig. 26.25). A potential power output of
13 MW is calculated based on temperature conditions of 185 C and a discharge volume
of 1200 l/min [210]. Based on flow rates and temperatures of 18 hot springs, a thermal
power output of 4421 kW and 22,260 kW was estimated for the central and peripheral
parts of the Azacualpa site, respectively [213].
The terrain in the vicinity of Azacualpa poses significant problems for completing
and interpreting the results of geophysical surveys, and the presence of thick layers of
the Valle de Angeles shale complicates the interpretation of resistivity surveys [5].
Resistivity surveys along a northsouth line parallel to the Zacapa fault are
recommended in order to verify any anomaly associated with the Jaitique structure.
Gravity surveys are recommended to define the nature of the Atima formation/Valle de
Angeles contact [213].


The Azacualpa zone is located in the extreme southwest of the Santa Barbara depression
and is clearly affected by faulting associated with regional extension [22, 213]. Although
northeast- and northwest-trending faults are common throughout the region, younger northtrending normal faults dominate the structure [213]. The main hot springs are controlled by
the northsouth trending Zacapa fault along fractures of the Atima formation [5]. That fault
is a N20E-trending, high-angle (70 to sub-vertical) fault with a minimum vertical
displacement of 1200 m in the vicinity of the geothermal site (Fig. 26.25). The fault was
active in Pliocene time and probably later [213, 214]. Permeability seems to be related to
the development of solution caves in the Atima formation [5].
A sequence of low-metamorphic rocks, predominantly dark phyllite with lesser
amounts of schist, quartzite, carbonate, and intrusive rocks, forms the Paleozoic
basement of the Chortis block [215, 216]. The basement rocks are overlain by a
sequence of clastic units of Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous age, including the El Plan,
Todos Santos and Agua Fra formations. Up to 1400 m of dark, thick-bedded limestone
of the Atima formation, and locally the Mochito shale and the Cantarranas formation,
represent a Lower to Upper Cretaceous sedimentary sequence of the Yojoa group (Fig.
26.25). Red clastic strata with conglomeratic layers of the Valle de Angeles group
(Late CretaceousPaleogene) overlie the Yojoa group. Volcanic activity during the
Neogene is documented by the deposition of basaltic lavas of the Matagalpa formation
and tuffs of the Padre Miguel group (MiocenePliocene).
Figure 26.25. Conceptual hydrogeological model of the Azacualpa area with rising geothermal
fluids from the Atima formation (modified from Flores [22]).
Youngest units in Central Honduras are PliocenePleistocene clastic sediments and

reworked tuffs of the Garcias formation and alluvium [213]. In the Azacualpa area, the
predominant exposed rock types are limestones of the Atima formation and red clastic
strata of the Valle de Angeles group, with minor volcanic rocks of the Matagalpa
formation and an intrusive microdiorite of Tertiary age [214].

26.4.10 San Ignacio (Honduras)

San Ignacio is found about 65 km north-northeast of the capital city, Tegucigalpa (Fig. 26.4).
Surface discharge is estimated at 1250 l/min at reservoir conditions of 190 C with a
potential thermal power capacity of 14 MW [210].
Located about 100 km to the east of Azacualpa, hot springs in the San Ignacio region
are aligned along a NW-trending fault scarp at the edge of the Siria valley [5]. The
Siria valley is an asymmetric graben that forms part of a system of normal faults, with
the Arenal fault being the most prominent [22].
Paleozoic metamorphic rocks are overlain by patches of the Padre Miguel tuff and
alluvial deposits. Movement along several faults at spring sites continued into the latest
Quaternary, as indicated by faulted alluvial fans (Figs. 27.15 and 27.16 in Chapter 27)
[217].
26.4.11 Pavana (Honduras)

This site is located in the southern part of Honduras, close to the border with Nicaragua,
two hours (by car) south of Tegucigalpa (Fig. 26.4). The hot springs of the main
geothermal site issue from Tertiary gravels that are included in an alternating sequence
of andesites and rhyolites, exposed northeast and southwest of the spring site. Although
conduits were not observed, it seems likely that thermal water is ascending along
southwest-trending faults. The Pavana site shows some potential for development as a
source of direct-use heat [5]. Discharge is estimated to comprise 1000 l/min at a base
temperature of 150 C, and a potential thermal power capacity of 8 MW [210].
26.4.12 Sambo creek (Honduras)

Access to the main spring site of Sambo creek is an approximately 30 minute drive east
of La Ceiba along a rough dirt road in northern Honduras. Steep jungle terrain
precludes access by truck-mounted equipment without additional road construction.
Further investigation will be hampered by terrain, climate, and inaccessibility of the
site to heavy equipment. Water reaches the surface under boiling conditions along
high-angle faults that cut Paleozoic schistose rock and intrusives [5]. Discharge is
estimated to comprise 2000 l/min at a base temperature of 155 C, for a potential
thermal power capacity of 17 MW [210].
26.4.13 El Olivar (Honduras)

The El Olivar site is located in the central portion of the Sula graben, and on the
northern side of Yojoa lake (for location see Fig. 26.4). Thermal waters discharge
at the base of prominent normal faults trending N30E. The springs are surfacing along

normal faults related to the formation of the graben [5]. Discharge is estimated to
comprise 200 l/min at a reservoir temperature of 120 C, for a potential thermal power
capacity of 1.3 MW [210].
26.4.14 Cosigina volcano (Nicaragua)
INE, supported by the European Community and the U.N. Economic Commission for
Latin America and the Caribbean, planned a pilot project on geothermal rural
electrification and direct application in the Cosigina volcano area (location shown in
Fig 26.6). Low-enthalpy fluids could be intensively used to dry grains, in fish farming,
and in greenhouses [35].
26.4.15 Telica-El ajo volcano (Nicaragua)
The El ajo geothermal field is located in northwest Nicaragua, about 90 km from
Managua (Fig. 26.6). The field forms the northern slope of the active Telica volcano at
an altitude of 200250 m near the San Jacinto-Tizate geothermal field. During the
regional exploration program by the U.S. Agency of International Development (1969
1971), the El ajo field was identified as one of the most promising in the country.
Additional geoelectrical investigations were carried out by the United Nations in 1973
[218]. Several zones of low resistivity were encountered through dipole-dipole
measurements by Phoenix Geophysics Inc. in 1976 [219]. Geochemical studies on
some thermal manifestations by OLADE from 1979 to 1982 estimated reservoir
temperature at 230240 C [158]. In 1994, INTERGEOTERM, S.A. performed a
prefeasibility study on the 17 km2 El ajo area, including geological and geophysical
(magnetotelluric, frequency soundings, soil-gas surveys) methods [218]. In 1997, INE
granted a 100 km2 exploration lease in the El ajo-Santa Isabel geothermal area to
Unocal Geotrmica Nicaragua for demonstrating commercial viability of the area.
Several projects including geological mapping, geochemical studies, and geophysical
surveys were performed in 1997 [35].
The principal volcanic chain in the country, Los Marrabios, is aligned with a deep
regional NW-trending fault system, and is intersected by NNE-striking transverse
faults. The El ajo geothermal field is located in one of these active zones on the
northern slope of Telica volcano. NE, NNWNNE and some SE-trending faults are
accompanied by thermal manifestations and strong anomalies of soil CO2 [218].
Holocene lavas and pyroclastics of the Telica volcano and alluvial-proluvial deposits of
the Nicaraguan depression are exposed on the surface of the El ajo region. Based on
geophysical investigations and drilling in the neighboring San Jacinto geothermal field,
three main lithological units can be identified [218]: (1) Holocene deposits from Telica
and San Jacinto volcanoes, including andesitic and basaltic lavas and tuffs, as well as
4060 m thick alluvial sediments filling the Nicaraguan depression; (2) andesitic and

andesitic-basaltic lavas with intercalations of tuff and sedimentary rocks of Pleistocene

age (the thickness of this strongly altered unit increases from 700800 m to 1000
1500 m towards the north); and (3) Neogene volcanic and sedimentary rocks of the
Coyol formation (see also Figure 27.21 in Chapter 27).
26.4.16 El Hoyo-Monte Galn (Nicaragua)
After the Momotombo field, the El Hoyo-Monte Galn region is considered the most
promising geothermal site in Nicaragua (its location is shown in Fig. 26.6). The El
Hoyo-Monte Galn volcanoes are located along the main NWSE aligned eruption
axis, adjacent to the Momotombo area [31]. A prefeasibility study by OLADE
(Organizacin Latinoamerica de Energa) in 1982 indicated the high enthalpy potential
of this geothermal resource. A strong thermal anomaly, with temperatures of 300 C
based upon geochemical data and temperatures of 135 C at 80 m depth, a wide
anomaly of low resistivity, and geostructural and hydrogeological similarities to the
Momotombo field suggested the likely economic exploitation potential of the El HoyoMonte Galn geothermal field [154]. In December 1995, the Instituto Nicaragense de
Energa (INE) granted an exploration lease to Trans-Pacific Geothermal Corporation
(TGC) to determine the possibility of generating 50150 MW in the El Hoyo-Monte
Galn area. From January 1996 to February 1997, TGC performed a series of studies
including geological mapping, gas geochemistry, interpretation of aerial and satellite
images, microseismic studies, magnetic reconnaissance, and geophysical MT and AMT
studies. Based on their results and on shallow seismicity, fumarole activity, surface
fractures, and high subsurface temperatures, TGC estimated an economically
exploitable potential between 150 and 200 MWe [35].
The El Hoyo-Monte Galn volcanoes are fed by superficial magmatic chambers (San
Juan, Galn, La Pelona) at a depth of 68 km. The calderas were formed by collapse after
eruptions of large volumes of a variety of ejecta products [31]. The volcanic and
geochemical aspects of the plinian eruption of the Galn caldera indicates interactions
between differentiated magmas, ascending from the magma chambers, with relatively
deep aquifer systems [148] (see Figure 27.22 in Chapter 27 for details).
The deepest part of the graben is filled with a Tertiary lava sequence (Matagalpa, Cayo
Inferior, Coyol Superior), which is overlain by lacustrine deposits and by recent
sedimentary and volcanic series.
26.4.17 Managua-Chiltepe and Tipitapa (Nicaragua)
The high-potential area of Managua-Chiltepe is located 18 km NW of the capital, Managua.
Estimations of the geothermal resources indicate a possible electrical generation capacity
of 150 MW over 30 years. From 2001 to 2004, the International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA) also conducted isotopic studies at Tipitapa, southeast of the capital [8].

26.4.18 Masaya-Granada-Nandaime (Nicaragua)

The Masaya-Granada-Nandaime region is located close to northwestern shore of Lake
Nicaragua, 2025 km southeast of Managua, and has an estimated geothermal potential
of 200 MW over 30 years [8]. This field could be the largest geothermal field in
Nicaragua, but the depth of the prospect (25003000 m) makes exploitation expensive
[154]. The Masaya caldera complex has been one of the most active volcanoes in
Central America since the time of conquest in 1524 [220], and has been the site of
violent plinian eruptions of basaltic composition (in prehistoric time). The caldera
collapse has been interpreted as the result of a single, large-volume eruption of
ignimbrites and pyroclastic surges, again of basaltic composition [221].
26.4.19 Zapatera and Ometepe islands (Nicaragua)
Ometepe island was chosen by INE as a pilot project to generate electricity using lowand medium-enthalpy fluids to demonstrate their use for reducing dependence on oil
products [35].
26.4.20 Poco Sol (Costa Rica)
The Poco Sol geothermal area (for location see Fig. 26.2) is located in the Poco Sol caldera
(380800 m a.s.l.), which has a diameter of 11.3 km and includes an internal caldera of
5 km diameter (Fig. 26.26). These calderas are crossed by the NESW striking extensional
Peas Blancas fault, along which various geothermal springs (of Na-Cl waters) rise and
discharge into the Peas Blancas river, which follows the fault line. This fault, along with
the volcanic-tectonic structure of the concentric calderas, increases the underground
permeability and so results in good geothermal reservoir conditions [38].
In 2002, the Poco Sol geothermal area was investigated by Vargas [38]. His studies
built on information obtained from the Peas Blancas hydroelectric project (e.g.,
regional and local geology, geophysics), and included geological mapping,
volcanologic, petrographic, hydrogeological, and hydrogeochemical investigations, the
last with the aim of improving understanding of geothermal surface manifestations.
The Poco Sol geothermal reservoir lies stratigraphically within the Aguacate group,
which is composed predominantly of olivine basalts and lava breccias. This forms the
local basement, with an inferred thickness of several kilometers. The Aguacate group is
overlain by the Monteverde formation (Early Quaternary). The lower unit of the
Monteverde formation comprises acid pyroclastic flows (thickness: several hundreds of
meters), and the upper unit is built of andesitic volcanic cones (Fig. 26.26).
Vargas [38] characterizes the Poco Sol geothermal area as a liquid-dominant, hightemperature geothermal field, whose temperature measured directly surpasses 151 C
(Hg thermometer), and indirectly (Na-K geothermometer) equals 224 C. The
hydrogeologic-geothermal conceptual model developed by this author proposes a
recharge area on the andesitic volcanic cones located on the Monteverde reservation,
where high permeabilities allow infiltration, percolation and recharge of deep aquifers
within the basaltic basement (Fig. 26.26).
Observations from drillings for the nearby Peas Blancas hydroelectric dam project
indicate high hydraulic permeability of the rocks, where the Poco Sol geothermal
reservoir is supposed to be located. Based on the observed geological structures and the

geochemical indicators, Vargas [38] estimates a geothermal area of 23.4 km2, and an
assessed geothermoelectric potential of 186 MW. These data make the Poco Sol
geothermal area one of the most promising geothermal prospects in Costa Rica [38].
Figure 26.26. Geological map of Poco Sol geothermal area (modified from Vargas [38].
26.4.21 El Valle de Antn (Panama)

The El Valle de Antn geothermal area is located about 80 km west of Panama city on
the Pacific side of the continental water divide (for location see Fig. 26.2). It is
characterized by a complex Quaternary volcanic structure, underlain by the Tertiary
volcanic basement of the Panamanian mountain chain.
The volcanic eruption history at El Valle de Antn is very complex. Confirmed by
radiometric dating, it is inferred that volcanic activity started about 1.5 to 2 Ma ago.
During its initial phase, activity was dominated by effusive production of lava and
pyroclastic flows, indicating plinian explosive eruptions. This initial phase was
followed by two volcanic structural collapses leaving behind two calderas, La Mesa
caldera and El Valle caldera (Fig. 26.27). The older one, La Mesa caldera, is now an
elevated plain with a smooth terrain, situated about 300 m above, and cut into by, the
younger El Valle caldera. The El Valle caldera is a well defined morphological
depression with walls up to 200 m in height.
Following the formation of the El Valle caldera about 1 Ma ago the eruptions of
three volcanic domes (Pajita, Gaital and Carocoral) started inside the caldera. The final
two eruptions can be identified: (1) a very explosive phase, known as the Ro Mar
eruption (material from the eruption was found at Ro Mar beach 28 km away, hence
the name), erupted from Gaital dome about 45,000 years ago; and (2) an eruption from
a vent about 1 km northeast of El Valle de Antn, known as the Mata Ahogado
eruption, whose age is about 35,000 years. The geological setting of El Valle de Antn
suggested the possible existence of a geothermal reservoir, which encouraged the
authorities to investigate and to prepare a plan for more detailed exploration.

Hydrochemical sampling and analysis was performed for major ions and isotopes,
sampling for mercury was done in a soil survey, and gases from thermal springs were
analyzed. The results showed that thermal spring waters are of the chloride-hydrogencarbonate type with a high sodium content. The geochemical temperature using several
geothermometers indicated reservoir temperatures between 140 and 180 C [2]. Since
all analyzed waters showed a high degree of dilution by shallow waters, the reservoir
temperature estimates were questioned. The mercury soil analysis survey showed
abnormal values in two regions of the caldera, one related to the Ro Antn fault at the
south of the caldera, and the other to the northeast toward the town of Mata Ahogado
that has not yet been explained [2].
Figure 26.27. Geological and gravimetric interpretation of El Valle de Antn geothermal field
(modified from Bundschuh et al. [2]).
Geophysical studies were carried out at El Valle de Antn including an electrical resistivity
survey (SEV) and gravimetric and magnetic studies [2]. The results of these investigations
helped to better define the structure of the caldera but raised uncertainties about the
geothermal reservoir location. The reservoir might be located at the bottom of the caldera,
from where geothermal fluids and gases try to reach the surface through the Ro de Antn
fault. Both SEV and magnetic survey results support this hypothesis. Another hypothesis is
based on strong anomalies that were found to the northeast of El Valle de Antn caldera in
the Mata Ahogado area, which suggest the possible existence of a geothermal reservoir in
that direction. Due to lack of sufficient information this hypothesis could not be proved.
Depending on the results of a slim hole planned to be drilled at El Valle de Antn, another
geophysical survey was recommended for the Mata Ahogado zone including more gravity
and magnetic stations plus some MT surveys around the area to more fully analyze this
potential geothermal prospect.
26.4.22 Bar-Colorado (Panama)
Geothermal investigations at the Bar-Colorado region (Fig. 26.2; Fig. 26.28) started in
the 1970s and were interrupted in the mid-1980s. During that period several

Figure 26.28. Simplified geovolcanological map of the Bar-Colarado geothermal area (modified
from Bundschuh et al. [2]).
geovolcanological, geochemical, and geophysical investigations were carried out, and

six shallow slim holes were drilled in the Colorado area, resulting in a number of
interpretations and conclusions [2].
The first studies from the 1970s indicated the presence of a possibly high-enthalpy
geothermal reservoir with temperatures around 180 to 220 C, whose position could

not be located based on the investigations performed up to that time. However, these
uncertainties led in the 1980s to a new investigation to improve on the results.
The new investigations in 1984 used methods recommended by the Latin American
Energy Organization (Organizacin Latinoamericana de Energa, OLADE), which
suggest the following criteria for the presence of a promising geothermal site: (1) a heat
source young enough, (2) a zone of permeable rock capable of storing a geothermal
reservoir of commercial proportions, and (3) an impermeable covering layer that
prevents the dissipation of heat to the surface. With these criteria in mind, new
geovolcanological and geochemical investigations were carried out, and a geophysical
survey was planned in the area between Bar and Colorado volcanoes [2].
The geovolcanological studies demonstrated that Bar volcano has been active for
more than 1 m.y. (oldest rock dated at 1.32 Ma). The most recent eruptions, pumice
flows on the western flank, date to 700800 year BP. These findings divided the
volcanos activity into two main phases, an older phase with ages over 0.5 Ma, and a
younger one with ages below 0.5 Ma.
The Colorado area is a stratigraphic sequence of effusive and explosive eruption
products, modified by one or several volcanic structural collapses, leaving behind a large
horseshoe-shaped caldera open to the southwest. The eruptive phases of the Colorado
complex were dated and range from 1.66 Ma to 0.52 Ma. The Tertiary basement in this
region seems to be fragmentary in origin (volcanic breccias), which leads to the assumption
that it is not susceptible to developing secondary permeability, i.e., that it is not permeable.
Additionally, the basement is assumed to be shallow. Both aspects leave little likelihood
that it is able to store a confined aquifer big and hot enough for developing a geothermal
field for electricity generation. However, in the southern part of the Colorado complex, the
investigations delimited a tectonically created lava sink, which is crossed by an EW fault
dipping 70S. This raised the possibility that enough of the associated rock may have
accumulated at depth, because of the inclined paleosurface due to pre-volcanic tectonics, to
be later capped by the first Bar lavas (which baked the clay soils already developed on the
Colorado lavas). The volume of the sink is estimated to be on the order of 1.52 km. This
was considered to be a positive result of the geothermal exploration and, together with
outcrops of the basement lava at the localities of Bambito and Cerro Punta, improved
expectations of finding a possible geothermal reservoir in the area of El Hato del Volcn,
between the volcanic centers of Bar and Colorado [2].
The initial geophysical studies, which were carried out in the mid-1970s in the zone
close to the main thermal springs of Cotito and Catalina, showed a typical volcanic
structure where three layers could be discerned [2].
The upper 20 to 30 m thick layer had resistivity values greater than 20 m, which
were associated with unaltered volcanic rocks saturated with meteoric water.
A conductive 160 to 650 m thick layer with resistivities between 2 PSUREDEO\
associated with saturated volcanic breccias and geothermal chloride-rich fluids.
A lower, non-conductive layer seemed to be associated with a rock of prophylitic origin
with chlorite and epidote alterations at depth. This layer was found below a depth of 200 m
in the area of Los Pozos and Cotito and below a depth of about 700 m at Catalina.
2Q WKH RWKHU KDQG UHVLVWLYLW\ YDOXHV EHORZ PH[WHQGDERXWRQHNLORPHWHUWRWKH
QRUWKRIWKHWKHUPDOVSULQJVWRDQDSSDUHQWGHSWKRIP9DOXHVXQGHU PZHUH
also found to the north and south of the thermal springs at an apparent depth of 500 m.
From this it may be inferred that the region of low resistivity values is open to the
north and west (where no survey was performed) suggesting that the altered, hot-fluid

zone may extend deeper in those directions. These results suggest a need to perform
additional geovolcanological and geochemical studies so as to evolve a
hydrogeological model for the area.
In 1985 investigators concluded that the probable zone where a geothermal reservoir
could be located must lie between the two eruption centers of Bar and Colorado. But this
hypothesis leaves uncertain the extent, both horizontally and vertically, of the impermeable
zone that prevents influx of cold fluids into the reservoir. However, the absence of thermal
manifestations in the area suggested that an impermeable zone that prevents the discharge
of thermal fluids at the Earths surface must exist.
These 1985 conclusions led to a new geophysical campaign (gravimetry and electric
resistivity, not yet performed) on a 15 km long stretch about 4 to 5 km northwest of Cerro
Punta and southwest of Nueva California, as well as around the thermal manifestations of
Cotito and Los Pozos. The purpose of this new program is to define the depth and grade
of rock fracturing at bedrock level, to determine possible water circulation due to tectonic
movements associated with ENEWSW faults, and to define the geometry, depth, and
presence of resistivity anomalies within the Colorado lava formation [2].
The investigation will also cover the zone of thermal manifestations of Los Pozos.
The purpose of this is to verify the shape and depth of the bedrock and to compare
these new data with the logs of previous boreholes of the area, because previous results
suggested the existence of a conductive layer above the basement.
Overall the inferences were not very clear. After the Mt. Saint Helens eruption, the
panel in charge of the program concluded that the Colorado caldera did not result from
collapse of an emptied magmatic chamber, but mainly from a volcanic debris
avalanche of one of the upper sides of the caldera, giving it its horseshoe shape. This
kind of eruptive sequence can also give rise to subsequent domes within it, as is the
case with the Colorado caldera. These conclusions caused the entire geothermal
program to be transferred to and concentrated among other companies in this region
from OLADE in 1985 [2].
The former IRHE, the institution in charge of developing these studies in Panama,
was unimpressed with the above decision and continued with additional investigations.
All the consultants who investigated this area emphasized that the geophysical program
should be ended and that the models based on the Mt. Saint Helens eruption should not
be applied to Bar-Colorado. These assertions raised doubts about the final conclusions
for Bar-Colorado made by IRHE personnel [2].
With the help of the International Atomic Energy Association (IAEA), in 2001
ETESA received a budget for reviewing all geovolcanological studies previously
performed, for sampling all thermal manifestations, creeks, and rivers influenced by
past geothermal activity, and for carrying out a geophysical program that had been
planned earlier with the help of the Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE) [2].
In 2001 the geovolcanological review portion of these new investigations was
completed including fieldwork and re-examination of previous work. The main
findings were that there is no evidence from surface outcrops regarding the breccia
composition of the basement. Only cores from previous drillings cut into volcanic
breccias, at depths between 20 m and 220 m in the areas of Cotito and Los Pozos,
beneath andesitic lavas of the Colorado complex. As the region has been strongly
affected by tectonic movements, it is not too clear whether the bedrock is breccia or
lava. The outcrops at Bambito and Cerro Punta suggest it is lava. Only at Boquete was
the existence of volcanic breccias verified as part of the basement composition.

However, some outcrops in that area showed that the bedrock there includes lavas as
well. The partial lava composition of the basement in this zone was not reported in
previous studies (198485) and called into question the hypothesis that the whole of the
areas basement is of breccia composition.
Similarly, between 1988 and 1994 some consultants concluded that the drilling cores
containing volcanic breccia are of Quaternary and not of Tertiary age, as previously
assumed, raising new doubts. If this is true, the bedrock could be deeper, giving us a better
scenario from a geothermal point of view. The new interpretation would imply that the
temperatures measured in the slim holes, ranging from 70 to 120 C, are associated with
radial heat outflows coming from a deep reservoir of unknown location, possibly between
the two volcanic centers of Bar and Colorado. A temperature inversion, which would be
explained by lateral outflow from a main reservoir, was found in the first 100 m of holes
number 4 and 5 from Catalina and Cotito, respectively, followed by a normal conductive
temperature gradient down to 306 m and 580 m respectively.
So far, many investigations have been done in the area, but altogether they have yet
to allow developing a model to help understand the geothermal situation at BarColorado. As of 2002, ETESA was expecting to clear up remaining uncertainties, based
on expected results of a new water sampling campaign, isotopic studies, and
geophysical investigations and to finally develop a geothermal model.
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Chapter 27
Hydrogeochemical and isotopic composition of
geothermal fluids
PETER BIRKLE AND JOCHEN BUNDSCHUH
Unfortunately, of all of the numerous mineral springs I became aware of in Costa
Rica during several years of residence, only
one, Aguacliente near Cartago, was ever
chemically analyzed. A. von Frantzius: Die
warmen Mineralquellen in Costarica, N. Jb.
Min. Geol. Pal., 1873.
27.1
INTRODUCTION
The previous Chapter 26 provided an overview of the principal geothermal areas of

Central America, their actual stages of exploration and exploitation, and their
geological settings. Now, the chemical and isotopic composition of geothermal fluids,
which are available from geothermal surface manifestations such as hot springs
and fumaroles, or in some cases, as deep reservoir fluids from drilled geothermal wells,
will be discussed. Chemical water types and their variability within the region as well
as in specific sites which reflects the influence of different environments for waterrock interaction processes and the correlation of the water chemistry with existing
geological structural features, such as volcanic ring calderas, sealing horizons, oriented
faults and lithological variations, are analyzed. Furthermore, the chemical and isotopic
character of surface manifestations, such as hot springs and fumaroles, are used to
derive information on primary reservoir conditions and to identify secondary chemicalphysical processes which occur during the ascent of the geothermal fluids. Conceptual
models of hydrogeochemical and isotopic evolution are presented for different
geothermal systems. Geothermal gases will be discussed separately in Chapter 28.
27.2
ZUNIL (GUATEMALA)
27.2.1 Hydrochemical composition

Chemical compositions of reservoir fluids are reported in Michels [1], Adams et al. [2,
3], Roldn [4] and Giggenbach et al. [5]. Fluids from production wells are generally
classified as NaCl-type [2, 6]. A wide range in enthalpy or chemistry, such as the
difference in chloride (768 mg/l to 1367 mg/l) in fluids from Zunil wells ZCQ-6 and
ZCQ-5 (Table 27.1), indicate that the production wells tap different horizons [3]. Site
locations are shown in Figure 26.7 (Chapter 26). The Zunil field does not consist of a
single aquifer extending throughout the subsurface [7]. Chloride-enthalpy relationships
indicate that the least diluted fluids are produced by wells ZCQ-3 and ZCQ-6 [2].

Estimated fluid temperatures of the northern Zunil-II reservoir based on

geothermometers are around 210 C for neutral-chloride springs, and more than 300 C
for Fumarola Negra [8]. Cl-enthalpy relationships suggest that deep fluids may have
temperatures as high as 335 C and a chloride concentration of up to 1550 mg/l [2].
Spring discharges from the Zunil area are predominantly composed of Na-HCO3SO4 to Na-SO4 waters based on data collected from 70 springs [2, 4]. The interaction of
magmatic vapor with local groundwater at shallow levels causes the formation of acid
sulfate waters, which are discharged on the flanks of the volcanic structure [5]. At
lower temperatures magmatic CO2 mixes with near-surface groundwaters making them
bicarbonate-rich [7]. The existence of three water types (NaCl, HCO3, SO4) reflects
three distinct environments of water-rock interaction and variable degrees of waterrock equilibrium [5].
Na/K geothermometer calculations indicate maximum reservoir temperatures near
290 C, which is close to the 288 C measured during the drilling of wells ZCQ-5 and -6
[2]. The distribution of K, Mg and Na, as well as high acidity and sulfate content reflect
the immaturity of spring waters [2]. Two aquifers have been found, a deep aquifer with
geothermometer temperatures near 260 C and a shallower 210 C aquifer [9].
27.2.2 Isotopic composition
Isotopic characteristics of Zunil geothermal fluids are described in Roldn [4], Adams
et al. [2, 3], Giggenbach [10, 11], Giggenbach et al. [5], and Fournier et al. [7]. Figure
27.1 shows a summary of 18O and D isotopic data from production wells, rain water,
acid springs, and cold and hot springs. Deep geothermal fluids from Zunil have a
restricted D range of 76.6 to 78.2 and show apparent positive 18O-shifts between
2.2 and 5 relative to the local meteoric water [2, 3, 5]. The lower deuterium values
for shallow groundwaters relative to production-well fluids reflect a distinct recharge
source for the reservoir fluids. The similarity in deuterium of Samal river water
(between Zunil and Quetzaltenango) and geothermal fluids suggests that recharge may
originate several km NE of Zunil in the upper Samal river basin [2]. Fournier and
Hanshaw [12] concluded that reservoir recharge was local. HCO3-type surface waters
(SW in Fig. 27.1) plot close to the meteoric water line, suggesting that they are made
up of local groundwater as represented by analyses of regional river waters (LG
composition in Fig. 27.1). Much of the positive oxygen isotope shift and the linear
18O/D relationship of the acid springs and geothermal well waters is explained by a
mixture of surface water and shallow groundwater with an andesitic water
component that has a 18O value of +10 2 and a D value of 20 10 [5].
Tritium concentrations between 0.02 and 0.32 T.U. indicate a primary old water
composition for the Zunil reservoir water (Table 27.1) [2]. Applying mixing models,
Adams et al. [3] suggest a residence time of approximately 200 years, and Goff et al.
[13] a maximum mean age between 500 and 7500 years. Most spring waters (0.716.23
T.U.) are of recent age, whereas the hot spring near Samal river (0.16 T.U.) is
composed of older waters [3].
27.2.3 Hydrochemical-isotopic model
Figure 27.2 shows a summary of various hydrochemical-hydrological conceptual
models of the Zunil reservoir, as postulated by Asturias [14], Giggenbach et al. [5],

Figure 27.1. 18O and D isotopic data from Zunil production wells, rain water, acid springs, and
cold and hot springs (Giggenbach et al. [5], Adams et al. [3], Fournier and Hanshaw [12]), as
well as mixing trends between local groundwater (LG) and andesitic water.
Menzies et al. [15, 16], Adams et al. [2], and West Jec [17, 18]. In general, the
favorable geothermal condition of the Zunil reservoir is reflected by: (1) the structural
margin of the caldera, (2) a fracture network with elevated permeability along the Zunil
fault zone, (3) an adjacent heat source related to the Cerro Quemado domes and lava
flows, and (4) a hydrological gradient [2] from the young heat source [19]. The Zunil-I
zone shows a deeper (below 1000 m), more permeable reservoir at liquid conditions
within a granitic formation at temperatures below 300 C. The contact with overlying
volcanic horizons (1100 m a.s.l. for Zunil-I, 1800 m a.s.l. for Zunil-II) represents a
permeable horizon at Zunil-I. The main upflow of fluids in the Zunil-I zone is located
in the western part of the field. A second heat source appears in the SE area of Zunil-II,
indicating an upflow of fluids and discharge by faults near the Samal river. An EW
trending geothermal system is indicated for Zunil-I and II; along permeable fractures
associated with the caldera margin of the Zunil volcano in Zunil-II. Both systems,
Zunil-I and Zunil-II, seem to meet beneath the Samal river, which is a potential
location for outflow [14]. The highest temperatures (288 C) were recorded in ZCQ-5
and ZCQ-6 at a depth of approximately 1000 m [20]. In the drilling area, convective
circulation exists in permeable levels between 14001600 and 10001200 m a.s.l.
[6]. Mapping showed that the upwelling center is located within an intersection of
major NE- and NW-trending faults near Z-11 with high fracture permeabilities [19].
The heat source for the geothermal activity in Zunil-II is represented by the Paxmux
domes (for the Paxmux area) and a magma pocket beneath Zunil volcano (for the
Azufrales-Fuentes Georginas area). Zircon morphology indicates temperatures of 700 C
at the top of the magma pockets, whereas temperatures of reservoir rocks near the Zunil-I
heat source vary from 360 to 400 C according to the carbon isotope geothermometry.
779

Geothermometry temperatures of Cl-type hot springs range between 270 and 300 C,
exceeding 300 C at Fumarola Negra [8]. Chemical and isotopic relationships of fluids
from wells and springs in the Zunil region define the upflow of high-temperature,
sodium-chloride water in the western part of the field (east of the Samal river in Fig.
27.2), which then travels south and east through the overlying volcanics, boils, and then
mixes with shallow steam-heated water [2].
The proportion of original andesitic magmatic water in the deep Cl-waters is estimated
to be 20% [5]. The extent of the deep body of high temperature waters is probably
delineated by the occurrence of hot springs and vapor discharges to the NW by Los
Vahos discharges, and to the N by the Almolongo bicarbonate springs [5]. Steam and gas
derived from upwelling fluids has produced secondary steam-heated water [21]. The high
Cl concentrations in earlier testing of well ZCQ-4 are explained by evaporation, indicating
the extensive separation of steam from liquids in some volcanic rocks [1]. Vapor released
from deep hot waters feeds the fumaroles and steam-heated pools [5]. Periodic geyser-type
discharges from well ZCQ-4 reflect the influence of at least five inflow zones with little
interzonal connectivity in altered rubble zones between layered volcanic rocks [1].

Figure 27.2. Flow and hydrochemical model, and recharge and discharge areas of the Zunil
geothermal field (modified after Lima and Palma [8], West JEC [17, 18], Giggenbach et al. [5]).
Surface discharge occurs in the form of high sulfate waters at the slopes of the El
Azufral dome, and bicarbonate-rich thermal springs are primarily found along the
Samal river [2, 5, 7]. Acid waters are heated by geothermal steam under relatively low
temperature conditions [8]. Along the upper slopes of El Azufral dome vapors, released
from deeper primitive waters, reach the surface from a shallow SO4 reservoir and lead
to the formation of steaming grounds, the deposition of elemental sulfur, and the
formation of acid sulfate water (Fig. 26.7 in Chapter 26, Fig. 27.2). Most of the neutral
Cl-waters are encountered in the deeper wells and do not contact the surface [5].
Hot HCO3 waters in the Zunil-I area are steam-heated or heated by conduction. The
condensation of steam and CO2 in shallow groundwater has produced a steam-heated

cap above the geothermal system with local illitization and vein deposition. The
numerous albite-bearing veins in the western part of the field (ZCQ-3, 5, 6 and Z-11)
reflect its close proximity to the upwelling center of the geothermal system, whereas
intense illitization is abundant in the volcanic and granodioritic sequence of well ZCQ-1
[21]. The widespread occurrence of younger illite veins suggests that secondary steamheated fluids are well developed in Zunil and are currently migrating downwards.
Numerical modeling supports the upflow of hot fluids close to well ZCQ-6 (and
between ZCQ-3 and ZCQ-2) and lateral distribution towards the ENE and SE [16].
Major ENE-directed subsurface flow is indicated by temperature gradients [16], and
mercury and radon anomalies [4, 8]. Reservoir permeabilities range from 0.01 mD
(millidarcies) to 10 mD with a natural flow rate of about 50 tons/hour. Low effective
porosities of 0.2 to 0.3% indicate a very low storage capacity for the Zunil reservoir
[16]. Interference tests indicate good communication within the center of the field in
the vicinity of wells ZCQ-1, -3 and -4, but there is no definite communication of these
wells with ZCQ-5 and -6 [15]. The calculated transmissivities and storativities from
pressure buildup tests and interference data range from 1600 to 8500 mD m
(millidarcy meter) and from 0.01 and 0.024 m/ksc, respectively, which is typical of high
temperature geothermal fields [15].
27.3
AMATITLN (GUATEMALA)

Springs are concentrated in certain sections of the Amatitln area, basically along the southern
part of the Amatitln lake, within the Michatoya river valley, and close to the Laguna Calderas.
Figure 27.3a shows the location of the principal springs in the area.

Figure 27.3. Amatitln area: (a) Locality of principal springs in the Amatitln area (modified
from Giggenbach [10]); (b) Triangular Cl-HCO3-SO4 classification diagram with
composition of Amatitln surface manifestations (modified from Giggenbach [10]).
781
Tc pH
Sample
Water type
Zunil (Guatemala)
Geothermal well
Geothermal well
Hot spring
Acid spring
Cold spring
ZCQ-6
ZCQ-5
Z-17
Fum. Negro
Chicha
Na-Cl
83.2 278
Na-Cl
41 255
HCO3-NaCl-SO4 74.4
94.7
SO4
14.9
HCO3
Amatitln (Guatemala)
Geothermal well*
Hot spring
Hot spring*
AMF-2
AM-8
AM-1
Na-Cl
Na-Cl
HCO3
91.0
72.0
San Marcos (Guatemala)

Cold spring
Cold spring
Hot spring
19
6
5
Ca-HCO3
Na-HCO3
Na-Cl
15.0
23.9
87.0
7 5.5
7 8.92
8 475
6.4
6.2
17
Tecuamburro (Guatemala)
Cold spring
Neutral-chloride spring
Acid-sulfate spring
Steam-heated spring
F. Chupadero (25)
TM6 (9)
L. Ixpaco (4)
F. El Silencio (29)
HCO3-Ca-SO4
Na-Cl
SO4
SO4-Ca-HCO3
21.3
70
77
58.1
Ahuachapn (El Salvador)

Cold spring
F724
Mixed with steam cond. F720
Hot spring (Type 1)
F717
Hot spring (Type 2)
F740
HCO3
HCO3
HCO3-Na-Cl
Cl-HCO3-Na
30.3
28.3
62.3
37
Berln (El Salvador)

Geothermal well
Geothermal well
Shallow well
Hot spring
Na-Cl
Na-Cl
Na-Cl-SO4
Na-Cl
138 296
138 302
150
98
TR-3
TR-5
PBL-1
F-126
Na
9 433
6 805
8 313
5 50
7 8.5
Ca Mg
K Cl HCO3 SO4 SiO2
6.1 0.3 83 768

0
18 <.01 128 1367
50
40 40 32 186 665
50 23 12 7.3
0
20 11 4.5 4.4 98.8
11
40
18.9
202
344
12.7
Br
291 16 2.6
470 28 5.1
195 5.6 0.5
160 <0.1 <0.1
68 <0.1 <0.1
/' /18O
Ref
72 7.4 0.32
78 8.1
83 11 0.16
65 7.2
87 12 6.35
[2, 3]
[2, 3]
[2, 3]
[2, 3]
[2, 3]
30 1000 193
-
55a 4.0a
53 6.2 0.90
61 8.7 0.00
[22]
[4]
[4]
2.9
3.1
1.1
2.6 0.8
47 0.75 59.6 n.d.
2.8 0.4 55.5 2.01 89.1 n.d.
24 549 227 132 196 22
81 11
78 11
65 8.8
[23]
[23]
[23]
7 14.6 53
8 598 55
2 70 180
6 62 115
15
1.3
87
32
2.5 2.5
25 796
6.2 <0.4
9.1 4.1
152 110 79 <0.02

156 236 95 17
0 3560 288 0.3
195 376 200 0.1
01
62
9 7.41
52 6.5 0.65
22 2.55 1.67
58 8.4 4.85
[24]
[24]
[24]
[24]
9 22.6
8 24
8 201
8 229
12
9.2
3.6
10
5.6 6.5
5.6 9.6
23 75
39 342
156
122
461
244
57 7.9
51 7.1
51 7.2
51
7
[46]
[46]
[46]
[46]
25
21
14
28
6 3243 132
6 1727
3
- 650 40
- 630 142
- 600 3470
- 1420
- 166
-
8
750
12.5 90
20.6 92
29.9 143
19.9 133
0.1
0.2
2.7
6.5
7 521 113
0.1 640 5604 856
6 612 79
0 455 3148 568
0.9 23 500 260 539 278 25
31 20 1057 36.4 240 120 28
- 41.1* 2.6*
- 43.4* 3.4*
-
- [47, 48*]
- [47, 48*]
[49]
[49]

Tb
Water type
Table 27.1. Representative chemical and isotopic compositions of geothermal reservoir fluids and surface waters at geothermal sites. Units: Major elements [mg/l],
/182DQG/'>@7ULWLXP>78@ ([WUDSRODWHGGDWDIURPJUDSKVa data from AMF-6J.

Sample
Water type
Tb
Berln (cont.)
Hot spring
F-20
Na-ClSO4-HCO3
Cl-HCO3
63
27
Cold spring
F-5
Tc pH
-
Na
- 262
- 16.4
Ca Mg
71
23
25
18
K Cl HCO3 SO4 SiO2

9.6 301
15 230
Br
4.8
0.1
1.9 370 4849 30.8 56.8 374

1.9 6.8 2.4 116 70.8
40
7 0.9
0 325 300
17 6.7 14 214 11.9 70
79
0.1
0.4
0.1
0
0.2
3.9
8
3
72
0.2
0.2
0
16
30
33
36
1.6
30 478
29 496
33 171
2.6 45.7
206 263
201 248
238 277
110 22
14
14
16
0
8 302 19
7 31 316
0.4
15
25
2
28
3.5
115 499 203

173 730 34
112
458
376
118
SV-1
Na-Cl
L. Infernillos F573 HCO3-SO4-Na
Agua Agria F322b SO4
F256
HCO3
Geothermal well
Geothermal well
Hot spring
Cold spring
PLTG-1
PLTG-3
PL-3
PL-9
- 160 6.1d 271

NaCl-HCO3-SO4
- 165 6.0d 272
NaCl-HCO3-SO4
- 9 305
Na-SO4 -HCO3 100
- 7 10
SO4-Ca-HCO3 26.7
Hot spring
Cold spring
AZ-6
AZ-3
SO4-Na-HCO3
SO4-Ca-HCO3
101
28

Hot spring
Hot spring
Mixed spring
Cold spring
SI-1
SI-32
SI-10
SI-35
Na-SO4-HCO3
HCO3-Na-SO3
HCO3-Na-SO4
HCO3
99
94
30.9
25.5
- 10 330
- 8 278
- 7 260
- 6 16.9
0.8
6.7
14
21
0.1
1
1.5
6.7
26
23
23
1.4
75
69
68
3.4
Pavana (Honduras)
Hot spring
Cold spring
PV-3
PV-6
SO4-Na
HCO3
102
29.3
8 237
6 28
21
43
0.1
6.4
Sambo creek (Honduras)

Hot spring
SC-3
Cold spring
SC-4
SO4-Na
HCO3
99.5
31
8 135
7 15
7.1
12
0.1
2.1
7 2520 160
7 46.9 26
2 60.5 14
6 43.6 25
Tb - Surface temperature [C]; Tc - Reservoir temperature [C]; 6.0d - Downhole pH (calculated).
/' /18O
- 42.6* 6.3*
- 48.6* 7.0*
197 256 160

185 5.3 107

Geothermal well
Hot spring
Acid spring
Cold spring
- 245
73.4
92
29.3
Ref
- [48*, 49]
- [48*, 49]
[50]
[50]
[50]
[50]
46 6.6 0.52
48 6.5 0.34
42 6.2 0.09
43
7 5.5
[90]
[90]
[89]
[89]
1.6
0.1
32
5 0.04
29 4.1 7.62
[89]
[89]
140 214
167 163
171 140
20.3 40
3.8
3.1
3.5
0.7
49
0
7
52 7.2 0.16
48 6.4 0.81
45 6.7 4.54
[89]
[89]
[89]
[89]
9.9
4.2
67 34.2 438 128

5.7 231 3.4 79
1.4
0.1
44 7.2
0
39 6.3 2.55
[89]
[89]
6.4
0.3
35 31.7 149 133

9.9 69.5 4.6 33
0.1
0
28
5
19 3.7 4.23
[89]
[89]
Water type
783
Sample
Water type
El Olivar (Honduras)
Hot spring
EO-7
HCO3-Na-SO4
67.8
Momotombo (Nicaragua)
MT-231)
Geothermal well
NaCl
Geothermal well
MT-242)
NaCl
Hot spring
Lake water
Obraje
Managua lake
HCO3-SiO2-SO4
-
San Jacinto-Tizate (Nicar.)

Geothermal well
SJ-3
Geothermal well
SJ-4
NaCl
Tc pH
Ca Mg
K Cl HCO3 SO4 SiO2
Br
38
44 122 1290 217 101
7.8
187 215 7.8 1580 55 0.04 315 3015 41.4 15.6 535 35.2
314
202 210 7.8 2016 96 0.02 320 3719 38.2 42.8 471 39.0
272
- 156 94.2 65.7 33.2 170 482 200 234 2.9
7
Na
7 600
- 194 8.3
- 257
213 8.0
282
5.3
Ref
37 2.8 0.05
[89]
46 3.5 6.00 [97, 98]
46 2.6
28 4.5
[99]
14 1.8 <1.0 [98, 99]
[97, 98]
- 30.9
- 1784
- 33.7
- 93.1
[100]
- 26.3
- 2637
- 13.2
- 75.0
[100]
Tb - Surface temperature [C]; Tc - Reservoir temperature [C]; 6.0d - Downhole pH (calculated); 1) 29-05-1980; 2) 30-05-1980.
/' /18O

Tb
Water type
Table 27.1. continued.

Based on their chemical and isotopic compositions, the springs in the Amatitln area
were classified into three categories [6, 10, 22, 25, 26]:
NaCl-type waters along the southern shore of Amatitln lake,
HCO3-type waters around the El Limn dome and along the valley of Michatoya
river, and
diluted cold springs scattered over the area recharged by rainwater from the area
north of Amatitln lake.
Figure 27.3b shows the anionic (Cl-HCO3-SO4) differences between the local spring
waters from Amatitln lake (NaCl-type) and spring waters from the Michatoya river
valley (HCO3-type). NaCl waters along the Amatitln shore line can reach Clconcentrations of up to 1450 mg/l and surface temperatures above 90 C (sample AM-8
in Fig. 27.3b). Bicarbonate waters around the El Limn dome and along the Michatoya
valley show HCO3-concentrations of almost 750 mg/l and temperatures ranging
between 40 and 70 C. OLADE [9] provides a depth-related explanation for differences
in water chemistry: NaCl-type waters from the lake area are related to deep reservoir
conditions with temperatures of about 200 C, whereas bicarbonate-type waters belong
to a shallow aquifer system with temperatures near 100 C. ELC [25] assumes the
existence of deeper aquifer systems with original fluid temperatures of up to 300 C.
Waters from exploration wells are slightly more concentrated than NaCl-type
springwaters. Discharges from wells AMF-2 and AMF-6J reach chloride
concentrations of 3470 and 2780 mg/l, respectively [22]. These represent chloride
type waters in Table 27.1. The wide range of Cl/B ratios (8.863.5) indicates both
volcanic (< 20) and granitic host reservoir rocks. High and variable Cl/B ratios (> 20)
can also be explained by variable B losses during steam separation or absorption into
clay minerals.
A better estimation of reservoir conditions can be derived by geothermometers. On
the triangular Giggenbach Na-K-Mg1/2 diagram data points representing NaCl-type
springs, and some HCO3-springs are located within the area of partially mature waters,
possibly reflecting variable mixtures of deep waters (200250 C) with shallow waters.
Similar temperatures were calculated with the silica geothermometer (TSiO2 = 240245 C).
None of the surface samples are derived directly from the reservoir. On the other hand,
the silica and cation temperatures (TSiO2, TNa-K, TNa-K-Ca) of 272300 C for hot water
from the deep well AMF-6J are consistent with calculated stabilized temperatures
based on measured borehole thermometry (263 C and 300 C) and nearly reflect full
chemical equilibrium at about 300 C [10, 22].

Stable isotope compositions of surface cold springs at Amatitln lie close to the Global
Meteoric Water Line (GMWL, Fig. 27.4). In general, bicarbonate springs in the
Michatoya river area are similar in isotopic composition to local rainwater, whereas
NaCl springs from the Amatatiln lake area are slightly separated from the GMWL
)LJ 7KH KLJKHU /18O values of the AM-8 spring are explained by processes of
dilution with high altitude rainwater (Case 1 in Fig. 27.4), 18O-fractionation resulting
from water-rock interactions at temperatures greater than 300 C (Case 2), dilution by
low elevation rainwater (Case 3) [10], or minor mixing with a portion of magmatic
water (15%) (Case 4 in Fig. 27.4) [27]. Similar processes can explain the origin of deep
well fluids (AMF-1, AMF-3, AMF-5J, AMF-6J), which are slightly enriched in 18O and
785

deuterium. The most probable explanations are: (1) mixing of a major portion of meteoric water
with a minor portion of magmatic water, and/or, (2) water-rock interaction under elevated
WHPSHUDWXUHFRQGLWLRQVZKLFKFRXOGDOVRFDXVHWKHVOLJKWSRVLWLYHVKLIWLQ/18O values.

Figure 27.4. 18O and deuterium compositions of spring waters south of the Amatitln lake
(mainly NaCl-type) and within the Michatoya river valley (mainly HCO3-type), as well as
well fluids [10, 22]. Ranges of andesitic and magmatic water components are taken from
Giggenbach [28], the assumed magmatic end member for the Amatitln area from
Roldn et al. [27].
Tritium values for NaCl-springs vary between 0.5 T.U. (AM-44) and 0.9 T.U. (AM-8)
[10]. Springs with low mineralization, such as AM-76, AM-70 and AL-2, and elevated
tritium concentrations of 13.2 T.U. (AM-69) should be interpreted as remnants from
nuclear bomb tests from the 1960s.
Reservoir waters of the Amatitln reservoir appear to be derived from a common
parental fluid with various amounts of reservoir boiling and steam separation as
indicated by enthalpy vs. Cl correlations [22]. The degree of steam separation in the
AMF-1 well is higher than that found in AMF-2 (Fig. 27.5) and AMF-6J (not shown in
Fig. 27.5) fluids. The gaseous components are almost completely equilibrated in the
liquid water reservoir, although discharge fluid from AMF-5J is almost pure steam. An
initial temperature of 330 C and Cl-concentration of 2500 mg/l is estimated for the
parent fluid, which is composed of shallow meteoric water from two separate regions
the Cerro Chino (D = 65) and Lake Amatitln areas (D = 45), along with a
minor contribution of magmatic fluid (< 15% with D = 8) [10, 22, 29] (Fig. 27.5).
The relative amounts of helium, nitrogen and argon in samples from Amatitln lake
and Laguna Calderas fumaroles suggest a common magmatic origin diluted with
nitrogen and argon from surface water [10]. For the well AMF-5J, the gas chemical
temperatures (TCO -H S-H -CH , TH -Ar, TCO -Ar) of 264 to 287 C are consistent with the
2

Na-K geothermometer temperatures for liquids (256281 C) and homogenized

temperatures of fluid inclusions near the bottom of the well (230281 C).
Variations in the AMF-6J fluid chemistry are explained by the existence of two
separate fluids from a common source: a shallow (1140 m), low-temperature (TSiO2 <
283 C), high-chloride (> 2780 mg/l), and high enthalpy (large vapor fraction) aquifer,
and a deeper reservoir (15401590 m), with a high temperature (TSiO2 > 291 C), low
enthalpy, low chloride (< 2660 mg/l) fluid.
Similar isotopic and chemical compositions of well fluids such as D-values
between 51 and 53 reflect the mature stage of mixing processes between recharge
components as part of a hydraulically connected, uniform reservoir system.

Figure 27.5. Hydrochemical-hydraulic flow model of the Amatitln reservoir with the chemicalisotopic composition, distribution and flow direction of recharging water components, as
well as temperature gradients of the reservoir (data from [10, 22, 29]).
27.4
SAN MARCOS (GUATEMALA)

As part of a preliminary reconnaissance study by OLADE in 1981, water and gas
samples from most of the significant thermal discharges in the area were obtained by
Fournier and Hanshaw [12, 30] and Giggenbach [10]. According to these
investigations, a deeper circulation system with temperatures of 240270 C and Clconcentrations close to 600 mg/l is separated from a shallow circuit with temperatures
of 200 C and Cl-concentrations of ~500 mg/l.
As part of a prefeasibility study by the Commission of the European Community
and INDE in 1994 named Geotergua 60 water samples were collected, of which
37 are from thermal springs with temperatures of 2394 C. Ca-HCO3 type waters were
collected from 20 cold springs and from two shallow boreholes with temperatures
787

between 12 and 20 C, suggesting circulation in shallow aquifer systems (Fig. 26.23 in

Chapter 26). Representative analytical data from two cold springs and one hot spring
site are shown in Table 27.1. Twelve springs and two Palatz river samples in the
central part of the San Marcos caldera are characterized by a Na-HCO3 composition,
mainly found at an elevation of 20402280 m a.s.l. Temperatures between 23 C and
50 C with PCO2 ranging from 0.001 to 0.03 bar indicate water heating by
conductive heat transfer, or with higher PCO2 (0.09 to 0.28 bar) heating by input of
geothermal vapor or gases [23]. Na-Cl type discharges, such as La Cimarrona and La
Castalia, can be found in the SE part of the caldera at elevations between 16702040 m
a.s.l. Temperatures ranging between 37 and 94 C and the abundance of trace elements
(Si, B, Li, K, NH4, SO4, F) reflect its origin from a relatively deep, high-enthalpy
geothermal reservoir. Correlation plots of conservative elements Cl and B show a
distribution of Na-Cl waters along a linear mixing trend between Cl- and B-rich waters
of La Cimarrona and Cl-, B-poor, Ca-HCO3 and Na-HCO3 waters. Attainment of
mineral-solution equilibrium is reported for the La Cimarrona and La Castalia springs,
whose Na-K-Mg-Ca compositions reflect a thermodynamically stable mineral
assemblage (comprising chalcedony, albite, K-feldspar, muscovite, clinochlore, Ca-Alsilicate, calcite) (Fig. 27.6a).
Both springs plot close to the full equilibrium curve at temperatures of 220240 C
and 170 C, respectively. Other Na-Cl discharges plot along a trend between those of
La Cimarrona and La Castalia. Relative Na and K concentrations reflect deep
equilibrium conditions, but higher Mg/Ca ratios and lower Cl-concentrations indicate
mixing with shallow water and subsequent water-rock interaction. Thermal water from
La Castalia and La Cimarrona springs are well-equilibrated waters coming from two
separate geothermal reservoirs, characterized by distinct temperatures, CO2 pressures
and hydrothermal mineralogy [23].

Fournier and Hanshaw [12, 30], Giggenbach [10] and Marini et al. [23] report
discrepant D and 18O-values for San Marcos springs. Ca-HCO3 and Na-HCO3 types
plot close to the Mean World Meteoric-Water Line (MWL), reflecting their shallow
origin (Fig. 27.6b).
The NaCl-type discharges plot to the right of the MWL, because of either water-rock
oxygen isotope exchange within a high temperature reservoir and/or mixing with arc-type
magmatic water [28]. Scattering around the mixing line in D vs. Cl and 18O vs. Cl plots,
especially at high Cl-concentrations, is probably caused by maximum steam loss [23].

Chemical and isotopic data indicate the existence of a 240 C temperature geothermal
reservoir beneath large sectors of the San Marcos volcano-tectonic depression,
consisting of well-equilibrated Na-Cl fluids with D- and 18O-values of 66.5 and 9,
respectively. The main geothermal reservoir has developed within the dioritic
basement, along faults and subvertical fractures [31]. Reservoir fluids with more than
500 mg/l of Cl feed La Cimarrona and La Castalia springs (Fig. 26.23 in Chapter 26),
which are directly connected with the reservoir. Springs with lower Na-Cl

Figure 27.6. San Marcos area: (a) Plot of 10 CK/(CK + CNa) ratio versus 10 CMg/(CMg + CCa) with
Ci in mg/kg for San Marcos spring water. The full equilibrium line comprises water that has
attained equilibrium with the thermodynamically stable mineral assemblage of chalcedony,
albite, K-feldspar, muscovite, clinochlore, Ca-Al-silicate and calcite (modified after Marini
et al. [23]); (b) D and 18O diagram, showing the isotopic composition of water discharges
from the San Marcos area (modified after Marini et al. [23]) and the Mean World MeteoricWater Line (MWL).
concentrations (Cl: 260550 mg/l) are produced through dilution of deep geothermal
water and different degrees of re-equilibration at lower temperatures and steam loss
during its ascent. Cl concentrations below 200 mg/l in Na-Cl fluids are formed through
dilution without significant re-equilibration, suggesting a relatively quick ascent of this
liquid [23].
27.5
TECUAMBURRO (GUATEMALA)

Janik et al. [24] studied the chemical and isotopic composition of 120 thermal and nonthermal water samples and 25 gas samples from the Tecuamburro volcano region. Data
from samples collected in 1990 are reported in Goff et al. [32]. Several types of surface
manifestations can be distinguished [24]:
Active low-pressure fumaroles with temperatures close to boiling are encountered
789

Figure 27.7. Topographic map with location of surface manifestations in the Tecuamburro
volcano region, Guatemala (modified from Janik et al. [24]).
in the Tecuamburro volcano summit area (Fig. 27.7).

Hot acid-sulfate fumaroles and mud springs are concentrated around the acidic (pH = 3),
thermal (T = 28 C) Laguna Ixpaco, about 5 km NNW of the Tecuamburro summit (Fig.
27.7). All acid-sulfate manifestations in the vicinity of Laguna Ixpaco are located within
the 5-km-wide Chupadero depression, which represents a possible collapse structure [33,
34]. All of them are characterized by high concentrations of NH4 and SO4 (components
associated with steam heating), and low concentrations of F and Cl (components
associated with magmatic volatiles or high temperature water/rock-interaction).
Neutral-chloride hot springs discharge mainly along Los Esclavos river with
maximum density near Colmenares. Water chemistry shows relatively high
concentrations of elements associated with high-temperature fluid-rock interactions
(Li, Rb, Sr, As, B), and moderate concentrations of SO4 and HCO3 compared to
steam heated waters. B to Cl ratios are nearly constant for Colmenares springs,
indicating that dilution by cold groundwater is a major hydrological process in the
area. All Colmenares springs arise from fractured andesitic rocks, thus chemical
variation between North and South Colmenares water must reflect differences in
flow paths, mixing processes, or reequilibration processes. Both are fairly

immature volcanic Cl-SO4 waters with volcanic origin (Fig. 27.8), with South
Colmenares being the more volcanic and less mature. Both are affected by mixing
of a 180 C source fluid with cold water, as indicated by maximum geothermometer
temperatures of 180 C at Colmenares neutral-chloride springs. The addition of
HCO3 results from the reaction of CO2-charged fluids with host rock along the flow
path. Neutral Cl-springs SE of Tecuamburro volcano and E of Los Esclavos are of
the HCO3-Cl type.
Major steam heated springs are located in the andesitic highland of the north-central
part of the Tecuamburro graben with the boiling Infernito fumarole as the principal
feature (Fig. 27.7). These springs are similar to sulfate springs, Cl content is very
low, HCO3 and SO4 is variable (Fig. 27.8).
Cold meteoric water springs are distributed all over the Tecuamburro region with a
typical HCO3-composition (Fig. 27.8)
Typical examples for the chemical-isotopic composition of each water type (cold,
neutral-chloride, acid-sulfate, steam-heated) are provided in Table 27.1 and schematic
chemistry in Figure 27.8.

Figure 27.8. Cl-SO4-HCO3 classification of surface manifestations in the Tecuamburro volcano

region, Guatemala (modified from Janik et al. [24]).

A local meteoric water line where D = 7.6 18O + 6.7 was defined using meteoric water
samples collected from 20 locations. The 18O/latitude slope of 0.30 per 100 m for the
Tecuamburro region is similar to values calculated for the Valles caldera region in New
Mexico [35] and Nicaragua [36], which produced slopes of 0.32 and 0.26 per 100 m,
respectively. Most waters in the Tecuamburro region have D values between 35 and
65. Acid sulfate waters at Laguna Ixpaco define an evaporation trend with a slope of
about 3. A single general source area for the cool mixing water component of the
Colmenares waters is reflected by a relatively narrow range in D values (47 to 54).
Background levels of tritium contents were estimated from precipitation values,
791

ranging between 3.1 and 3.5 T.U. Springs in the Colmenares area have the highest
chloride and lowest tritium concentrations ( 78 7ULWLXPFKORULGH FRUUHODWLRQV
indicate that groundwaters of varying ages have mixed with thermal water. Mixing
with water of intermediate age (1520 years) is indicated by one dilute warm spring in
the southern Colemares group with tritium concentrations over 8 T.U. Tritium
concentrations of 1.7 and 2.9 T.U., obtained from two acid-sulfate springs at Laguna
Ixpaco, reflect the mixture of near-surface groundwater with steam from a boiling
reservoir at depth. Steam-heated water contains a large proportion of low-tritium water,
but may be seasonally recharged by younger water [24].
A conceptual model (Figure 27.9) was produced by Janik et al. [24], based on a
combination of hydrogeochemical data with geological information [34] and lithology
and temperature/depth logs from TCB-1 [37, 38].

Figure 27.9. Geological cross-section (modified from Duffield et al. [33, 34]) with a conceptual
hydrological flow model of the Tecuamburro volcano region, Guatemala, based on
geochemical and isotopic data from surface manifestations (modified from Janik et al. [24]).
TCB-1 stratigraphy is extracted from Goff et al. [38]. Location of cross-section is shown in
Figure 27.7.
Two major reservoirs, the Tecuamburro and Infernitos geothermal systems, are
separated by a NW-trending fault (Ixpaco fault), which exhibits abrupt southern
boundaries to the Colmenares group of chloride-rich springs (Fig. 27.9). All acidsulfate features occur south of the fault in the Laguna Ixpaco area. Both hydrothermalconvection systems are typical liquid-dominated reservoirs overlain by vapor-rich
zones and steam-heated groundwater. Reservoir temperatures of 310 C have been
calculated using gas-geothermometry of Laguna Ixpaco fumarolic discharges. The
reservoir is located in a zone between the Laguna Ixpaco and Tecuamburro summit, as
indicated by the similarities in gas composition. The best sites for geothermal
exploration of the Tecuamburro reservoir are probably close to the TCB-1 core hole

(Fig. 27.7), where a conductive geothermal gradient of 230 C/km was measured at an
estimated reservoir depth of 1.0 to 1.5 km [38]. The Infernitos system is located in the
andesitic highland, beneath the Infernitos fumarole area with estimated reservoir
temperatures of 105 to 190 C. Natural discharge is provided by the Colmenares
springs ( P3/s), resulting from a major set of vertical fractures, that trend
northward toward the Infernitos reservoir.
27.6
OTHER POTENTIAL GEOTHERMAL SITES IN GUATEMALA
Other potential sites, such as San Marcos and Moyuta, have had limited geochemical
monitoring during the period 19952000. More extensive research studies were
performed exclusively in the Totonicapn geothermal field by INDE in cooperation
with IAEA during 19952000 [39].
27.7
AHUACHAPN (EL SALVADOR)

In the vicinity of Ahuachapn city, geothermal surface manifestations are spread over
an area of more than 100 km2, with high-temperature fumaroles and steaming grounds
on the northern slopes of volcanoes in the southern part of the area, and hot springs
(40100 C) on a valley north of Ahuachapn. Major fumaroles are Cuyanausul on the
northern slopes of Cerro Cuayanausul volcano, El Sauce on the northern slope of
Laguna Verde volcano, Agua Shuca, and Playn de Ahuachapn near the wellfield [40,
41] (Fig. 26.10 in Chapter 26). The chemistry of the El Salitre hot spring, located north
of Ahuachapn with an original discharge of 1300 l/s and 6870 C water, indicates
mixing of fluids from an overlying aquifer (Regional Saturated Aquifer) with 1020%
of geothermal fluids [42]. The flow rates and salinities of the hot springs have
decreased considerably as a result of field exploitation [41]. Representative cases for
the chemical-isotopic composition of cold and hot springs, as well as steamcondensated mixed waters in the Ahuachapn region are given in Table 27.1. Based on
chemical characteristics, Nieva et al. [43] distinguished three main groups of surface
manifestations: high salinity, medium salinity, and sulfated waters. The aquifers are
attributed to lithological units as follows [41, 44, 45] (Fig. 26.11 in Chapter 26):
Shallow Aquifer in the upper 100150 m of surface material, that responds
quickly to precipitation. The calcium-sodium water type shows low mineralization
(< 0.4 g/l). Temperatures in this aquifer range from 40 to 100 C, with decreasing
temperatures towards the north.
Regional Saturated Aquifer within a 300800 m thick sequence of young
pyroclastics and andesites. The young volcanic breccias contain a regional aquifer of
calcium-sodium carbonate type with residues generally below 0.4 g/l. It is
recharged by direct infiltration, but its response is much slower than that of the
Shallow Aquifer and is affected by seasonal variations in precipitation. The
temperature decreases from 110130 C in the wellfield towards 46 C in the
exploratory hole M-1, about 3 km N of well AH-10.
Saline Aquifer at a depth of 500800 m is encountered in the Ahuachapn
andesites, a highly fractured 200600 m rock unit, which corresponds to the main
geothermal reservoir. Recharge is derived from the volcanic belt of the Laguna
793

Verde, Cerro de las Ranas, and Las Ninfas volcanoes. Waters are of sodium
chloride type and of high salinity (up to 22 g/l). Measured reservoir fluid
temperatures range from 214 to 240 C with inferred minimum reservoir conditions
of 245 to 250 C.
The profile in Figure 26.11 (Chapter 26) illustrates the zonation of the Ahuachapn
aquifer systems. The initial fluid chemistry in Ahuachapn indicated mixing in the
reservoir between a more saline, high-temperature water, and cooler less-saline water.
Hydraulic heads are lower in the Saline Aquifer, and therefore, there is a tendency
for cooler water influx into the reservoir from the overlying Regional Saturated
Aquifer [41]. The cold (< 130 C) water originated from the Regional Saturated
Aquifer that overlies the geothermal reservoir. Geothermometer data and chloride
contents indicate that the geothermal brine becomes cooler and more dilute towards
Chipilapa [46, 51]. The existence of deep reservoir brine in the eastern part of the
system (Chipilapa) with lower salinities, but otherwise similar temperature and isotopic
composition to the Ahuachapn brine is postulated by Nieva et al. [46]. From Na-K-Ca
temperatures and other geochemical analyses of Ahuachapn well fluid, Steingrimsson
et al. [52] reported pre-exploitation reservoir temperatures ranging between 239 and
260 C, and salinity concentrations between 6900 and 8600 mg/kg. After exploitation,
temperatures in 1987 fell to 228260 C and salinities to 59008300 mg/kg [51].
Mixing between geothermal brines and inflow water from the Regional Saturated
Aquifer are most pronounced in the center and eastern parts of the field, but minor
dilution is observed in the western region. Fluids from wells in the north (AH-5, AH-20)
and center of the field (AH-1, AH-26) have shown the greatest chemical variations
during the exploitation period [52]. Simulations of calcite scaling, using the reactive
geochemical transport code TOUGHREACT agree with observations collected at depth
in the borehole AH-33B. Increases in the precipitated calcite volume fraction over time
were detected close to the wellbore, suggesting increasing mineral saturation over time
from increases of CO32 due to boiling and loss of CO2 [53].
Average isotope values of 4.3 for 18O and 46.4 for D were reported for water
samples from Ahuachapn production wells [54]. Radioactive tracer tests showed
hydraulic connections between wells AH-20, AH-22, and AH-2 in the northeastern part
of the field. Since 1985, most production wells have been diluted by fresh water
infiltrating into the reservoir due to exploitation induced pressure decreases [40]. A
local meteoric water line described by the equation D = 7.966 18O + 10.66 and a
mean recharge elevation of 1043 m a.s.l. were determined by Matus et al. [40]. The
isotopic compositions of surface manifestations (hot springs and fumaroles) are
provided by Matus et al. [40], Torres et al. [55], and Nieva et al. [46]. Fumarole
samples are described as steam originating from a single reservoir at 250 C with an
isotopic composition of 18O = 4.1 and D = 46 [46]. These studies indicate that
most fumaroles are formed by steam separated from diluted geothermal fluid under
temperature conditions of 160175 C (Chipilapa, La Labor), 190210 C (Agua
Caliente, Agua Shuca, El Playn), and 210230 C (Tortuguero, Termopilas,
Cuyanausul) (Fig. 27.10). The relatively negative isotope values of the fumaroles
located in San Carlos, San Jos, El Zapote, Ausolitos and Santa Teresa are explained as
secondary steam separated from heated local groundwater [40].


Figure 27.10. 18O vs. D correlation of Ahuachapn geothermal well fluids, fumaroles, and hot
springs from the geothermal zone and its surroundings. Also shown are hot springs and
fumaroles from the northern discharge zone and the calculated local meteoric water line
(LMWL) (data from Matus [40], Torres et al. [55]).
Based on stable isotope and chemical data collected from surface manifestations, four
discharge zones can be distinguished [55] (Fig. 26.10 in Chapter 26): (1) Adiabatic cooling
and steam losses form sulfate enriched, low-chloride water as a mixture of steam,
geothermal, and meteoric waters. These discharges are located north of Turn (SULFzone); (2) Minor geothermal influences occur in the discharge area near the town of Turin
(Turin-zone). The Agua Caliente fault forms a natural hydraulic barrier between two
groundwater systems; (3) Groundwater from the area west of the fault (MS zone) shows
the most homogeneous isotopic and chemical composition of the surrounding discharge
zones [55]; (4) High salinities and a wide range of isotopic values on the eastern side of
the fault (HS zone) seem to result from fluid mixing from various sources. Isotopic
variations of discharging fluids are slightly affected by the elevation effect. Cold springs
have a typical meteoric composition, whereas warmer springs (2260 C) show a slight
trend towards higher isotopic values due to evaporation and/or geothermal effects [55].
27.7.3 Hydrochemical-isotopic conceptual model
Hydrogeological conceptual models of the Ahuachapn reservoir were presented by
various authors, such as Torres et al. [55], Gonzlez et al. [56], Montalvo et al. [57],
Parini et al. [58], Aunzo et al. [41], Steingrimsson et al. [52], and Laky et al. [44].
795

27.7.3.1 Ahuachapn Host rock and reservoir conditions

Pyroclastic material of the Concepcin Ataco caldera, covering an area of 372 km2,
forms the sealing caprock of the hydrothermal system. The pyroclastic unit is up to 700 m
thick in the interior of the caldera, has an estimated thickness of 300 m in the
Ahuachapn field, and thins to approximately 70 m in the Chipilapa area. Underlying
andesites from the Blsamo formation represent the host rock for the geothermal fluids
[56, 59]. Much of the fluid recharging the system flows through a deep rock unit, the
Older agglomerates [41]. Highly permeable Ahuachapn andesites and partially
the underlying older volcanic breccias serve as the main reservoir unit for lateral
fluid flow [41] (Fig. 26.11 in Chapter 26).
The heat source of the geothermal field is mainly related to a magma chamber
situated below the volcanic complex Laguna Las Ninfas-Laguna Verde, some 3 km
south of the exploited field (Fig. 26.10 in Chapter 26) [58]. An upflow of saline fluid
with reservoir temperatures above 250 C occurs underneath the volcanoes, southeast
of the present wellfield, along deep reaching faults, probably pertaining to the regional
EW/WNWESE-system [41].
27.7.3.2 Temperature conditions
Parini et al. [58] proposed a reservoir temperature of 230240 C in the center of the
exploited Ahuachapn area, with increasing temperatures towards the deeper parts of
the SE-sector. Gassy fluids from the deepest part of the reservoir represent the highest
temperatures of the system (~300 C). Initially, the reservoir was under liquid
conditions, with the exception of a two phase steam cap in the NW-zone around AH-17
[58]. Drilling records and temperature and pressure logs indicate temperature
inversions in the wells, suggesting a relatively shallow reservoir outflow with a
maximum measured temperature of 220 C. Fluid inclusion homogenization
temperatures indicate that natural convection has led to high temperatures at shallow
depths [41]. Below the temperature inversions, the deeper wells from Chipilapa (CH-A,
CH-7, CH-8, CH-9) have extremely low permeability characteristics (therefore they are
not used for production) [60].
The temperature history of the Ahuachapn reservoir is influenced by (1) the gradual
cooling of the upper part of the reservoir due to boiling resulting from a pressure decline,
(2) progressive cooling of the liquid region in the main production area of the
Ahuachapn andesites reservoir due to the recharge of boiling two-phase fluids to the
production area, (3) temporal cooling in the vicinity of injection wells during the
reinjection period, (4) cooling in the northern and deep western part due to increased cold
water recharge in response to drawdown, and (5) heating in the southeastern part of the
field due to increased geothermal fluid recharge to the production area. For instance, cold
reservoir recharge is the only possible cause for the temperature change observed in well
AH-7 [52]. Cooling due to mixing with cooler waters entering the reservoir from above is
supported by downhole fluid collections [61].
27.7.3.3 Reservoir recharge
Torres et al. [54], Aunzo et al. [41], and Laky et al. [44] proposed northward directed
recharge of the geothermal field, flowing from the area of Laguna Verde volcano (southeast
of well AH-18) towards the Ahuachapn-Chipilapa system de Ataco caldera (Fig. 26.10 in
Chapter 26). The migration is mainly controlled by NS directed fault systems and is

limited towards the north and west [41]. The production area is fed by two separate
channels (Fig. 27.11): The main recharge is through fault 6, where the fluids are boiling
before entering the production area. The boiling location is close to well AH-19 where
the Ahuachapn andesites are found at shallow depths. Relatively cold, low-salinity
water seeps through the second recharge channel into the reservoir from the north
through fault 4, feeding the area around the wells AH-7 and AH-31. The main inflow of
cold (< 130 C) water occurs through the top of the reservoir, probably through fault
6 [52, 62]. Cold water recharge from the Regional Saturated Aquifer is the main
source for dilution and cooling [57] (Fig. 26.11 in Chapter 26).
27.7.3.4 Discharge
Based on chemical and isotopic data, waters from the Ahuachapn field seem to feed
the western part of the discharge region, and waters from the Cuyanausul-Tortuguero
field discharge in the area east of the Escalante-Agua Caliente fault systems (Fig. 26.10
in Chapter 26) [55]. The entire caldera structure is considered by Gonzlez et al. [56] to
represent the main reservoir area for the hydrothermal system with Ahuachapn, the
discharge area of a still unexplored geothermal system, located in the northeastern section
of the Concepcin de Ataco caldera. Communication between the deep reservoir and host
fluids is facilitated by structural features, such as ring calderas, horst-graben structures,
and fractured domes. The thermal manifestation El Salitre, about 7 km N of Ahuachapn,
represents the main outflow for the system [44] (Fig. 26.10 in Chapter 26). This spring
discharges 10001500 l/s of 6870 C water, with an estimated 1020% of geothermal
fluid. The discharge is a mixture of geothermal and Regional Saturated Aquifer (see
Chapter 27.7.1) fluids and mixing occurs in the vicinity of the spring [41]. The hot springs
on the plain north of Ahuachapn are at elevations below 580 m a.s.l., generally producing
fluids from the Regional Saturated Aquifer [42].
27.7.3.5 Petrophysical conditions
In Ahuachapn, well logging data indicate a static water level depth of 525 m and a
main production zone at a depth of 554 m. A maximum temperature of 225 C was
measured in well AH-1 [63]. Maximum log temperatures in the Ahuachapn field
approached 250 C with maximum wellhead pressures and flow rates of 4285 kg/cm2
(300 psi) and 70 kg/s, respectively [64]. The average permeability of the Ahuachapn
andesites within the well field is estimated to be 100 mD, and 50 to 250 mD in the
external section [65]. Horizontal and vertical permeability of the Ahuachapn andesites
is estimated to be 80 mD and 16 mD, whereas values for the older volcanic breccias
are estimated to be 20 mD and 4 mD, respectively [41]. The analysis of interference test
data and the long term pressure decline data (19691988) indicate an average reservoir
transmissivity of 30 Dm and storativity of 3.5 106 m/Pa. The natural state modeling
supports an average transmissivity of 2535 D m and a system recharge with 255 C hot
water at a rate of 225 kg/s. The total thermal outflow for the Ahuachapn system is
estimated to be about 250 MWt. Most of these fluids discharge in El Salitre springs
(170 kg/s), but significant energy is also lost through surface springs in the
Ahuachapn/Chipilapa area (60 MWt) and through conduction to the ground surface
(20 MWt) [66].
797

Figure 27.11. Structural-hydraulic model of principal migration of cold and hot water flow, as
well as boiling fluids in the local Ahuachapn geothermal reservoir. Flow migration depends
on the orientation of principal fault systems. Fault names are given in numbers (modified
from Aunzo et al. [41], Steingrimsson et al. [52], Ripperda et al. [65, 67]). Location of cross
section I-I shown in Figure 26.11 (Chapter 26.3.4).
27.7.3.6 Specific Chipilapa conditions

The Chipilapa reservoir, located NE of the Ahuachapn field, is more than 1500 m deeper
than those of Ahuachapn [68]. From a geochemical point of view, the geothermal fluids
seem to have a common deep origin in both reservoirs [46]. Uplifted block structures
in the Chipilapa area represent a hydraulic barrier between the Ahuachapn geothermal
field and the Cuyanausul and El Tortuguero zones [55] (Fig. 26.10 in Chapter 26).
This seems to be confirmed by the abundance of commercially unproductive
geothermal wells in the Chipilapa area. Low wellhead pressures (< 56 bar) and low
temperatures (180220 C) of several exploitation wells exhibit production

characteristics of marginal interest. Several high injectivity Chipilapa wells (CH-7, CH5) are used for reinjection of Ahuachapn residual waters. Significant differences
between isotherms from Chipilapa and Ahuachapn fluid inclusions suggest a more
complex thermal history with heating periods followed by cooling in the Chipilapa area
[68]. Magnetotelluric studies indicate recharge of the Chipilapa and La Labor hot
springs from the south, southwest, and east [69]. High permeability is concentrated around
main fractures, as indicated by seismic activity around the Escalante and Agua Shuca
faults in the eastern and northeastern limit of the Chipilapa reservoir, respectively (Fig.
26.10 in Chapter 26). Few of the seismicly active faults are related to the Chipilapa
geothermal system, such as the faults located east of the Escalante fault. Seismicity is
effectively linked to fluid circulation, but permeability is concentrated around the main
fractures, which were not intersected by the Chipilapa wells [70].
The salinity range from 2000 mg/l Cl in wells CH-7 and CH-8 to 3700 ppm in CH7B and CH-9 is considerably smaller than that of the Ahuachapn fluids (70008000 mg/l)
[51], and is reconfirmed by the geochemical model of Nieva et al. [71]. These
observations indicate a possible outflow of Ahuachapn fluids towards Chipilapa [60].
Measured temperatures in the northern outflow zone lie within 160220 C and are
consistent with calculated reservoir fluids inferred from cationic geothermometer [71].
27.8
BERLN (EL SALVADOR)

Chemical and isotopic data have been presented by Raymond et al. [72], DAmore and
Mejia [47], CEL [73], Parini et al. [74], Anderson et al. [75], and Campos [49].
Production-induced chemical changes as well as the evolution of production
characteristics were modeled by Montalvo and Axelsson [76] and Parini et al. [74].
Typical fluid characteristics are average TDS-concentrations of 7000 to 11,000 mg/l,
chloride concentrations between 3000 and 6000 mg/l [47, 77], and maximum silica
concentrations of 700 mg/l (660900 mg/l in Barrios et al. [78]) with a pH around 6
[49, 74]. The temporal increase in chloride concentration of production fluid, such as
for well TR-2 between 1994 and 1996, is interpreted as an effect of reinjection (in well
TR-9) or more likely (as reflected by some decrease in non-condensable gases) due to
increased boiling caused by production [76]. The Cl-SO4-HCO3 composition indicates
a mature geothermal water type for the reservoir fluids. Full equilibrium conditions
of the NaCl water with rock at about 320 C are reflected in the Na-K-Mg diagram
[48]. Differences in water chemistry can be explained by cooling of well TR-5 water
(valid for TR-1 and TR-4), or by direct boiling with steam loss of TR-5 water to
produce concentrated brine (affecting TR-2, TR-3, TR-9). The fluid of well TR-3, in
particular, is a residual concentrated brine. The chemical and isotopic compositions of
TR-3 and TR-5 geothermal fluids are provided in Table 27.1; the location of the wells
and water types are provided in Figure 26.12 (Chapter 26).
Spring waters of the Berln area can be classified as: (1) NaHCO3-waters of shallow
meteoric origin, located in the northern section, (2) SO4-waters with surface oxidation
of H2S (Spring 83 and Laguna de Alegra), and, (3) NaCl-waters with high SO4 and
maximum temperatures of 125 C (spring F-20) (see Table 27.1 and Fig. 26.12 in
Chapter 26). The observed alteration mineral assemblages of microcline, low-albite,
muscovite, wairakite, prehnite, zoisite, epidote, quartz, and pyrite are in equilibrium
with the geothermal waters in the Berln area [47].
799


The local meteoric water line was defined with monthly average rainfall data from the
Ilopango station, San Salvador [79], producing a linear regression equation of D =
7.92 18O + 9.34 [48]. TR-5 well water is considered to be the most representative of
the deep geothermal water, resulting from mixture of meteoric water with isotopically
heavier, andesitic-type water (Table 27.1). A primary isotopic composition of D =
43.4 and 18O = 3.4, with an enthalpy of 1300 J/kg is expected for geothermal
fluids under reservoir conditions. Recharge waters are meteoric and have estimated
isotopic values of D = 49.0 and 18O = 7.0, respectively. Boiling during ascent
causes an increase in salinity (Cl: from 3000 to 4400 mg/l) and more positive D
(40.0) and 18O (2.0) values as indicated by data from wells TR-2, TR-3, and
TR-9 [48].
Isotopic monitoring data collected since 1995 shows no evidence that injected
fluids reach the production zone, and there is no apparent hydraulic connection
between the Berln system and hot springs [76]. There is also no evidence for mixing
processes between surface water and the deep reservoir water [78]. Based on the 18O
data the recharge area is estimated to be at an elevation of 1300 m a.s.l. [76]. The
geochemical evolution a decrease in gas/steam ratio and increase in 18O and Cl
content as well as the tendency of the El Hoyon fault to act as a deep conductor,
indicates a SENW directed upward flow of geothermal fluids [77].
Conceptual models of the Berln geothermal reservoir were developed by Arias et al.
[77], de Henrquez and Zaide-Delfin [80], Barrios et al. [78], Montalvo and Axelsson
[76], DAmore and Mejia [47], CEL [73], and Parini et al. [74]. Figure 27.12 shows a
conceptual model of the regional hydrological cycle of the Berln caldera with data
from de Henrquez and Zaide-Delfin [80], Barrios et al. [78], and Montalvo and
Axelsson [76]. The proven extension of the Berln reservoir area (by drilling) covers a
surface of 1.9 km2, but possible sections within the NNWSSE directed graben can be
extended to a surface encompassing about 20 km2 [74]. The high-enthalpy field surface
is approximately 9 km2, but might extend further southward [77].
Three main reservoir processes occur in the Berln geothermal area: (1) conductive
cooling, (2) infiltration of cool waters through the caprock near the systems boundary
and close to the TR-14 area, and (3) possible boiling (TR-5, TR-3) [80]. The principal
heat source of the geothermal system resides within the Berln caldera with upflow of
the geothermal fluids underneath the Tecapa volcano in the southern part of the field
with a minimum temperature of 305 C, as measured in wells TR-2, TR-4 and TR-5
[47]. Probably the circular faults of Blanca Rosa and Berln caldera (Fig. 26.12 in
Chapter 26) represent major hydraulic conduits [78]. Northward directed lateral flows
reach the geothermal field close to well TR-5, and pass through the main reservoir zone
along the NNWSSE directed graben, towards an outflow zone to the north of the Berln
field [76]. Temperatures on the order of 240 C in wells TR-1, TR-8, TR-10 and TR-14
indicate cooling towards the northern part of the production zone [47].
The deep reservoir is a liquid dominated system with temperatures ranging from
270305 C in 1900 to 2400 m deep wells [78]. It consists of propylitic andesitic lava
(unit IV) with a mean porosity of 7% and a primary and secondary permeability of < 0.45
mD and 60 mD, respectively, based on core measurements and well production tests

respectively [77]. The top of the deep aquifer with ~300 C neutral-chloride brines lies
at 800 to 1200 m a.s.l. [80]. The geothermal aquifer, with a minimum depth
of 2 km, is overlain by two shallower aquifers: (1) A shallow aquifer with HCO3
water at a depth of 80130 m (at 1000 m a.s.l.), recharged by local precipitation,
and (2) an intermediate NaCl-aquifer near sea-level (100 to +150 m a.s.l.) with
intermediate temperatures (180200 C) and a total thickness of about 250 m [76, 78].
Meteoric water permeates the Berln caldera through circular faults and recent volcanoes
of Cerro Peln, Loma Alta and Laguna de Alegra with an estimated infiltration rate of
25 m3/s (Fig. 27.12) [78]. Regions of the volcanic complex with elevations of 12001300 m a.s.l.
are considered to represent major recharge areas for the deep reservoir [81].

Figure 27.12. Hydrogeological cycle of the Berln geothermal reservoir with principal aquifer
layering, temperature zonation and direction of water migration (modified from de Henrquez
and Zaide-Delfin [80], Barrios et al. [78], and Montalvo and Axelsson [76]). Surface location
of section is given in Figure 26.12 (Chapter 26).
Nine tracer tests with Iodine-131 (19921997) provided no evidence for hydraulic
communication between the reinjection and production zones; thermal breakthrough seems
to be unlikely [82]. No increase in tracer concentration was observed in surface springs
[76]. In contrast, a total radiotracer recovery of 14.25% (I-131) in 2000 suggests hydraulic
connections between the injection well TR-12A and the production wells TR-4C, TR-5B,
TR-9 and TR-5A. Fluids are expected to migrate from north to south through fault fractures
[83]. Fluid of well TR-3 is residual brine produced by boiling from the original parent
water, which gives rise to the fluid produced from well TR-5. Fluid inclusion studies
confirm the presence of hot fluids (~300 C) flowing along the deep aquifers of wells
TR-5, TR-5B and TR-5C without any indication of temperature reversals or an influx of
cooler water. Fluid inclusions from well TR-14 show evidence of an old hydrothermal
system with deep fluid temperatures of ~330 C and apparent chloride concentrations of
~21003200 mg/l (melting temperature Tm of 0.2 to 0.3 C), not related to the present
Berln geothermal system. Future production well drilling should focus mainly south of
the TR-5 area where the postulated upflow seems to be located [80].
801

The drop in pressure, quartz temperatures, pH values, and chloride content, as well
as increasing enthalpy in the northern part of the reservoir, are caused by exploitation
in the shallow production zone. Natural recharge from the east partially compensates
for local effects [47]. A decline in adsorption capacity of well TR-1A, observed in
simulations with the reactive geochemical transport code TOUGHREACT, is due to the
increase in the mostly amorphous silica fraction [53].
27.9
SAN VICENTE (EL SALVADOR)
The principal geochemical research in the San Vicente geothermal area, located in the
central region of El Salvador, occurred in 1993 as part of the scientific collaboration between
CEL and the universities of Palermo and Pisa (Italy) [50] (Figs. 26.2 and 26.5 in Chapter
26). Thirty-seven water samples from surface manifestations and two samples from
exploration well SV-1 were collected along the northern flank of San Vicente volcano.
Geothermal water from well SV-1 (250 C) collected at depths of 1000 m to 1300 m has
a classic chloride-sodium chemistry (Cl: 28474849 mg/l), similar to that of most
geothermal reservoir fluids (Table 27.1). Warm carbonate springs (25 in all) represent the
main discharging feature at the surface, and have slightly elevated temperatures (23.7
38.5 C) and low salinities (conductivity: 2111842 S/cm). In these waters relatively
high earth-alkaline metals suggest a meteoric origin. Sulfate acid springs and chloridesulfate acid waters are found in two narrow valleys, Agua Agria and Los Infernillos
Ciegos (850 m a.s.l.), respectively, on the northern slope of the volcano. In Agua Fria, springs
with maximum sulfate concentrations of 1292 mg/l, as well as minimum pH-values of 1.8,
indicate condensation of fumarolic steam in a superficial aquifer (steam-heated
groundwater) (Sample F322b in Table 27.1). Condensed vapor dilutes the chloride-enriched
residual liquid in the Los Infernillos shallow aquifer system. Chemical and isotopic
characteristics of representative surface manifestations are presented in Table 27.1.
Figure 27.13. Plot of 10cMg/(10cMg + cCa) vs. 10cK/(10cK + cNa) of thermal spring water and one
exploration well from the San Vicente geothermal field (modified from Aiuppa et al. [50]
and Giggenbach [84]). Ci: concentrations in mg/l; AC: average crust; BA: basalts;
GR: granite.

Rock solution releases cations in proportions close to those of the parent rock (shaded
area in Fig. 27.13) [84]. Thermodynamic equilibrium between the fluid and mineral
phase is reflected by the position of datapoints from well SV-1 above the rock equilibrium
line (Fig. 27.13). Los Infernillos waters such as sample F573 in Table 27.1 occupy
an intermediate position between shallow, immature waters and deep reservoir water,
confirming mixing between both components. Na-K ratios as well as geothermometer
temperatures of ~250 C for Infernillo spring water suggest hydraulic continuity with
the reservoir. Agua Fra manifestations show strong influences of ascending fumarolic
gases with high N2/CH4 ratios. Geochemical evidence supports the existence of an
extensive geothermal reservoir on the northern flank of San Vincente volcano. Gas
geochemistry of Los Infernillos fumaroles suggests the possible existence of a deeper,
hotter aquifer than that intercepted by well SV-1 [50].
27.10 PLATANARES (HONDURAS)
More than 100 thermal springs with temperatures ranging from 35 to 100 C discharge
near both the Quebrada del Agua Caliente and Lara rivers, all within a 0.5 to 1.0 km
wide, NW-trending fault and fracture zone [85]. All boiling springs are depositing
sinter [86]. Heiken et al. [87] studied temperature, flow rate and pH conditions of 28
thermal springs. As a result, a total thermal output between 0.7 and 1.0 MW and a total
surface discharge between 174 and 270 l/min were estimated. No single hot spring
has a flow rate exceeding 150 l/min, but the combined hot spring discharge averages
3300 l/min [86]. Geothermometer reservoir temperatures of 225240 C, with an
estimated natural discharge of 3300 l/min, and a potential electricity production of
45 MW, represent maximum values for the studied Honduras sites [13, 88]. Thermal
waters are dominated by Na, K, HCO3, SO4, and Cl, with low concentrations of total
dissolved solids (about 1100 mg/kg) (Table 27.1). Anomalous concentrations of B, SO4,
and NH4, as well as a 13C-CO2 signature of 11% indicate that the geothermal reservoir
water is in chemical equilibrium with redbeds of the Valle de Angeles group [86].
Similar to those at San Ignacio, Azacualpa, and El Olivar, the thermal waters from
Platanares have a strong sedimentary influence, as indicated by high ratios of B/Cl, and
total HCO3/Cl [89].
In general, the presence of moderately high 3He/4He ratios (0.63 times atmospheric
ratios) suggest recent volcanic activity as the heat source for hot springs in Honduras,
but there is no other evidence for this relationship from fluid compositions or
geological relations [89]. In Platanares, stable isotope data indicate that recharge of the
geothermal reservoir is derived from local precipitation and may come from regions of
high elevation towards the north and northeast [86, 90]. Tritium data suggest that
percolation is relatively slow. Assuming a 100% well-mixed reservoir, a mean
residence time of about 450 years can be estimated for the reservoir fluid [90].
Seven thermal springs in the Platanares area show isotopic ratios between 5.93 and
6.44 (/18O), 41.0 and /' 7.69 to /13C), and 0.09 to
803

T.U. tULWLXP7DEOH >@7KH/182DQG/'FRPSRVLWLRQLVYHU\FORVHWRWKH

local meteoric water line (Fig. 27.14).

Boiling waters are most abundant along a northwest trending structure that parallels the
Agua Caliente stream. Numerous faults act as conductors for the ascent of hot water
[91]. Hot springs of the Platanares site discharge primarily from a section of Padre
Miguel tuffs, but the underlying redbeds of the Valle de Angeles group seem to govern
the chemistry of the thermal water [89]. The stratigraphic correlation of the Platanares
reservoir aquifer is shown in Figure 27.15, and the reservoir stratigraphy and
conceptual flow pathways in Figure 26.24 (Chapter 26). Temperatures of surface
manifestations range between 35 and 100 C, pH from 7 to 9, and dissolved solid
contents are low (~1100 mg/l) [91]. More than 95% of reservoir fluids discharge
along the northwest trending Quebrada del Agua Caliente fault zone [90]. The La Bufa
fault forms the northern limit of the hydrothermal system. Thermal gradient data
suggest a minimum depth of 1.5 km with possible reservoir temperatures of 225 C.
Fluids with temperatures of 160 to 165 C from the PLTG-1 and PLTG-2 wells
originate from fractured andesite and metaconglomerate along the Quebrada del Agua
Caliente fault zone [86]. Dilute (TDS PJODONDOL-chloride reservoir fluids are
produced from fractured Miocene andesite and Cretaceous to Eocene redbeds that have
been hydrothermally altered [90]. Heating of groundwater by deep circulation and
convective rise in strongly fractured areas is plausible at Platanares because of the
regionally high heat flows and existing evidence of an older, buried, NW-trending fault
system. On the other hand, the abundance of silicified tuffs and hydrothermally altered
andesite at the San Andres mine indicates the existence of a fossil geothermal system
related to a recent geothermal system active over millions of years [87]. Dates on
calcite veins by the U/Th disequilibrium method suggest the maximum age of the
geothermal system to be 250 ka, indicating that the present hydrothermal system has
been active for the last 0.25 m.y. [90].

Figure 27.14. 18O and D ratios of hot water from thermal springs at several potential
geothermal sites in Honduras (data base from Truesdell et al. [89]).

Two reservoir systems can be distinguished for the Platanares reservoir: A shallow
reservoir with an average temperature of 165 C, and a deeper reservoir at a depth of
12001500 m with equilibrium temperatures between 225240 C [86] (Fig. 26.24 in
Chapter 26). Assuming a thickness of 3000 m for the Valle de Angeles group, the
maximum thickness of the reservoir could be 2400 m [92]. The reservoir appears to
underlie an area of at least 3.5 km2. When residence time (40 years) is combined with
surface discharge data, the volume of the Platanares reservoir water is estimated to be
km3. Downward continuation of the conductive thermal gradient in PLTG-2
(139 C/km at 400 m and 104 C) would suggest that the depth to a 225 C reservoir is
roughly 1.2 to 1.5 km. Fractures with elevated permeabilities of 300 to 1500 mD occur
sporadically throughout the depth interval from 250 to 650 m and porosities vary from
2 to 6% over the same interval [90].
27.11 AZACUALPA (HONDURAS)
The total natural discharge of all heat sources in the area reaches 3340 l/min with
temperatures between 5 and 115 C and a pH between 7 and 9. Geothermometric
chemistry indicates conservative temperatures of 185 C in the reservoir, with
maximum temperatures possibly as high as 200 C [91]. Eppler et al. [93] distinguished
16 spring sites within the Azacualpa area (AC-1AC-16) and two external sites (AC17AC-18) with temperatures between 39 and 99 C, a pH value between 6.8 and 8.2,
and a total discharge flow of 1091 l/min (internal) and 8300 l/min (external). The
chemical and isotopic compositions of two representative fluids from hot and cold
spring sites in the Azacualpa area are presented in Table 27.1. Azacualpa thermal water
has higher concentrations of SO4 than of total HCO3, suggesting dissolution of gypsum
and the precipitation of calcite in the sedimentary reservoir. Similar to San Ignacio,
Platanares, and El Olivar, high CO2 pressures exist in the sedimentary reservoirs so that
Na and HCO3 ions are produced by the reaction with rock minerals [89].

Five thermal springs in the Azacualpa area (AZ-4, AZ-6, AZ-12, AZ-23, AZ-24) show
isotopic ratios between 5.03 and 6.23 (18O), 32.1 and 36.4 (D), 4.29 to
8.12 (13C), and 0.08 to 2.8 T.U. (Tritium) [89]. Similarity between these 18O and
D ratios and that of local meteoric water (Fig. 27.14), as well as elevated tritium
concentrations (max. 2.8 T.U.), indicate recharge of the Azacualpa hot springs by modern
meteoric water.

Adequate thickness and permeability of the limestones of the Cretaceous Atima
formation indicate its potential as a reservoir host rock (Fig. 27.15). Clastic rocks of the
overlying Valle de Angeles group probably serve as a reservoir seal [91]. The main
branches of the Zacapa fault and their subsidiary fractures serve as conduits for thermal
waters discharging into the gorge of the Jaitique river [93] (Fig. 26.25 in Chapter 26).
805

27.12 SAN IGNACIO (HONDURAS)

La Tembladera represents an important group of boiling thermal springs, controlled by
the Arenal fault, and probably associated with the rise of a rhyolitic dome (Fig. 27.16).
The natural discharge of springs reaches a maximum of 1200 l/min, temperatures range
from 30 C to boiling, and the dissolved solids concentrations range from 900 to
1000 mg/l. Hydrochemical analyses indicate a potential reservoir temperature of 200 to
210 C [91]. The Na-HCO3 water type suggests elevated CO2 pressures as part of the
CO2-rock-water-reaction processes. Features such as high B/Cl and total CO2/Cl ratios
of San Ignacio fluids, as well as the elevated NH3 content of gases, resemble those of
waters originating from the Valle de Angeles group and from sedimentary reservoirs.
Fluid chemistry is similar to that of the Platanares areas, although the surface is entirely
Figure 27.15. Correlation of reservoir aquifers from local geothermal sites (Pavana, Azacualpa,
Platanares, San Ignacio, El Olivar, Sambo creek) to specific stratigraphic units in Honduras
(modified from Truesdell et al. [89]).
covered by high-grade metamorphic rock of the Cacaguapa schist [89, 94]. Examples
for the chemical composition of cold and hot springs in the San Ignacio area are
provided in Table 27.1. Geothermometer calculations indicate reservoir temperatures
greater than 200 C, as indicated by Na/K [94] and gas geothermometers, and possibly
as high as 230240 C, as indicated by the sulfate isotope geothermometer [89].


The 18O and D ratios of San Ignacio hot spring water are the lowest of the studied
thermal sites; ratios vary between 5.25 to 7.22, and 48.1 to 53.5, respectively
(Fig. 27.14, Table 27.1). Possible changes due to boiling are masked by the effect of
CO2 loss and CaCO3 precipitation. 13C values of surface springs vary between 6.8
and 9.8. Tritium concentrations range from 0 to 0.43 T.U. for thermal waters and
0.61 to 1.08 T.U. for mixed waters [89].
Data collected from a drilling hole located 1.5 km SSW of the La Tembladera spring
indicate that the Siria valley area does not provide regional geothermal potential. The
hot springs of the La Tembladera area are fed by vertical circulation along faults, but
have developed outside of the graben. Thermal springs are related to a deep
hydrothermal system originating in the metamorphic basement where temperatures
range between 200 and 210 C (Figs. 27.15 and 27.16) [91]. Water chemistry indicates
the influence of sedimentary layers (e.g., Valle de Angeles group) with limestone or
calcite providing high CO2 to react with rock and form Na-HCO3-type waters [89].

Figure 27.16. Conceptual hydrogeological model of the San Ignacio valley with uprising
geothermal fluid from the metamorphic basement (modified from Flores [91]).
27.13 OTHER HONDURAN SITES (PAVANA, SAMBO CREEK, EL OLIVAR)

The chemistry of the thermal sites is correlated to distinct geological settings: The Pavana
springs originate from San Padre Miguel volcanics, Sambo creek from the Cacaguapa
schist, and El Olivar springs originate from Atima limestone (Fig. 27.15). Thermal water
from Pavana and Sambo creek shows igneous/metamorphic influences with low B, HCO3,
and NH4 concentrations. The high He concentrations and the low N2/Ar ratios of Sambo
creek gases indicate a radiogenic He and Ar component originating from the old
metamorphic reservoir rocks. Sambo creek water has Cl concentrations of less than 40 mg/l,
Pavana < 80 mg/l, and El Olivar waters have Cl concentrations of approximately 120 mg/l.
These concentrations are lower than that expected from the leaching of Quaternary volcanic
rocks. A chemical and isotopic comparison of specific thermal and low-temperature sites in
the Pavana, Sambo creek, and El Olivar areas is provided in Table 27.1.
Total HCO3 concentrations are relatively high in El Olivar, suggesting elevated
pressures of CO2 in the sedimentary reservoir as a result of the thermal metamorphism
of limestone-bearing rocks in, or below, the geothermal reservoir. El Olivar water
807

chemistry is dominated by Na and HCO3, suggesting that CO2-rock-water-reactions affect

the cold and thermal waters. HCO3 concentrations are moderately low in Pavana and
Sambo creek. Thermal waters from Pavana and Sambo creek have higher concentrations of
SO4 than total HCO3, which may result from the oxidation of pyrite [89]. Isotopic values of
the PV-3 hot spring in the Pavana area are 7.16 for 18O, 43.8 for D, 5.86 for
13C, and 0.0 T.U. for tritium, whereas cold waters (PV-2, PV-6) show values between
6.26 and 6.30 (18O), 38.9 and 44.9 (D), and 2.55 T.U. for tritium. The SC-3 hot
spring from Sambo creek has isotopic ratios of 4.97 (18O), 27.7 (D), and cold
waters from SC-4 and SC-7 are defined by values between 3.66 and 3.8 (18O), 12.7
and 19.2 (D), and 3.45 to 4.23 T.U. (tritium) [89]. The relatively positive 18O-values
(2.79 to 3.14), and the nearly complete absence of tritium (0.050.31 T.U.), indicate a
fossil origin for hot spring water from El Olivar (EO-1, EO-7) (Fig. 27.14).
Figure 27.17. Hydrochemical characteristics and water types of surface manifestations in western
Nicaragua (modified after Martnez et al. [95, 96]).
27.14. GEOCHEMISTRY OF NICARAGUAN SITES

A good summary of the localization of water types in western Nicaragua is given in
Martnez et al. [95, 96]. As shown in Figure 27.17, most bicarbonate-earthy-alkaline
manifestations are located in the external part of the NWSE directed volcanic
mountain range, and are formed by the leaching of rocks by meteoric water. Salinity
ranges between 3 and 19 meq/l and temperatures vary from 20 to 32 C. Sodiumbicarbonate springs originate from the shallowest aquifers of the graben sediments,

mainly in the Masaya-Tipitapa region along the SE-coast of the Managua lake.
Chloride-sulfate springs are found in the most NW- (Cosigina) and SE-parts (Laguna
Apoyo-Mombacho) of the volcanic range and have salinities between 27 and 66 meq/l
and temperatures from 30 to 55 C. There is a similar distribution of sulfate-earthyalkaline springs with salinities between 10 to more than 50 meq/l and temperatures
from 24 to 49 C. Sodium-choride manifestations are distributed all over the central
volcanic belt, from Cosigina, San Cristbal Casita, El Hoyo, Momotombo, MasayaTipitapa towards the Masaya-Granada-Nandaime region. High geothermometric
temperatures between 140 and 230 C, and a high boron content for NaCl-waters in the
zone between San Cristbal and Momotombo, indicate affinities with reservoir water,
such as that found at Momotombo. Sodium-sulfate waters are exclusively found along
the eastern shoreline of the Managua lake [96]. An overview of the limited published
chemical-isotopic data of geothermal fluids in Nicaragua, especially from Momotombo
and San Jacinto-Tizate, is provided in Table 27.1.
27.15 MOMOTOMBO (NICARAGUA)
Fumaroles with the highest temperatures (800 C) are located in the eastern part of the
Momotombo crater, whereas fumarole temperatures in the western section range
between 100 and 500 C [99]. Data collected from several springs at Momotombo
indicate subsurface temperatures between 153 and 200 C [97]. The Momotombo
geothermal reservoir is liquid-dominated and characterized by its elevated sodiumchloride concentration (max. NaCl concentration: 6400 mg/l) [97]. Homogenization
temperatures in fluid inclusions of hydrothermal quartz crystals range from 160 to
275 C without any indication of boiling during the formation of the geothermal
system. The fluid is assumed to be pure water of meteoric origin [101]. Field
measurements of several wells (MT-1 to MT-14) in the initial phase of field
exploration resulted in temperatures between 187 and 327 C with an average range
from 215 to 235 C (Fig. 27.18). Enthalpies measured for five wells ranged from 1089
to 1256 kJ/kg [102]. Tonani and Teilman [97] reported the chemical composition, pH,
and well head temperatures from eight well fluids (MT-9, 12, 19, 20, 23, 24, 26, 27)
with the following concentrations (in parenthesis): Na (17402440 mg/l), Cl (2990
4109 mg/l), Ca (25.096.0 mg/l), HCO3 (22.6649.56 mg/l), SO4 (15.662.6 mg/l), and
SiO2 (428728 mg/l).
From 1989 to 1994, the isotopic composition of well fluids has become more similar to
the local meteoric water line, favoring the hypothesis of cold water infiltration [98].
Condensates of lower-temperature fumaroles are isotopically similar to lake waters or
mixed water types (seawater and local meteoric water). High-temperature condensates
(600790 C) show a considerable enrichment in 18O, caused by the 18O-exchange
between waters and basalts from the magma chamber [99]. Lake water has probably
infiltrated into deeper sections of the volcano, as isotopic values are similar to
magmatic and fumarolic steam from andesite-dacite volcanoes located in continental
margins and island arcs. The exchange reaction between H2S-SO2 at one side, and H2O-S2
809

Figure 27.18. Location of geothermal wells in the Momotombo geothermal field, main structural
features, proposed potential recharge and upflow zones as well as interpreted lateral flow
migration (modified after Porras et al. [107], Goldsmith [108], Cordon [103]).
on the other side, causes a 34S shift from +4.2 at 790 C to +6.8 at 535 C. The
composition of elemental sulfur at Momotombo volcano is 3.8. High temperature
metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate series in contact with the magma chamber
creates 13C-values of CO2 between 0.5 and +2.2. In general, the stable isotopic
compositions of Momotombo fumaroles indicate an important sedimentary
contribution. The monitoring of Momotombo volcano from 1982 to 1985 has revealed
a gradual increase in fumarolic temperatures from 748 C in 1978 to 860 C in 1985,
accompanied by changes in 18O (in H2O), 13C (in CO2) and ratios between S/Cl, C/S,
H2S/SO2, CO/CO2, and H2/H2O, as well as an increase of H2S, SO2, H2, and CO
contents. These changes are interpreted as possible indicators of forthcoming eruptions
[99]. Elevated tritium concentrations around 6 T.U. in well fluids close to the lake (MT23, MT-27, MT-31) indicate the storage of older precipitation water in a deep lake layer
and its infiltration into the geothermal reservoir [98].


Conceptual models of the Momotombo field were developed after each exploration
stage, and include [103]: (1) subsurface rocks, faults and lineaments and a hot water
reservoir at 1500 m depth as described by Texas Instruments (1971), (2) an upflow of
thermal water to shallow, permeable layers [104], (3) limitation of the field to an area
of 2 km2 with an inferred heat source [105], (4) stable isotope analysis suggested the
existence of two reservoirs with recharge from an area about 10 km to the south [102],
(5) characterization of a fault intersection as a major zone of upflow [106], and (6)
detailed descriptions of fluid migration at the Momotombo reservoir by the
International Engineering Company [103]. A conceptual hydrogeological section
including the principal existing hypothesis of flow migration in the Momotombo
reservoir is provided in Figure 27.19.
The drilling of 33 wells has shown that ignimbrites to the west and east of the
graben are unfractured and impermeable, hence, no production has been possible in the
area outside of the graben [108]. Drilling results have shown the presence of high
temperature systems at different depths [107]: 200230 C at 200400 m b.s.l., 250
290 C at 8001700 m b.s.l., and a deep zone (> 2000 m b.s.l.) with temperatures above
325 C. The first geothermal unit is fed by steam vapor from shallow wells at depths
between 310 and 821 m, and is heated by a deep reservoir at depths below 1500 m. The
second unit is being fed by steam originating partly from shallow wells and partly from
deep reservoir wells [109].
Hydrogeological modeling of the reservoir indicates major upflow related to NE
SW trending faults below the western part of the field (Process No. 2 in Fig. 27.18),
then lateral flow in the permeable zones at depths from 800 to 1400 m b.s.l., and
towards the SE at depths from 200 to 400 m b.s.l. (Process No. 3 in Fig. 27.18) [110],
as shown in the hydrogeological profile in Figure 27.19. Goldsmith et al. [108]
describe the ascent of a thermal plume through the western fault-fractures, and a
subsequent eastern flow through fractured, thin basaltic lava flows at a depth between
300 and 700 m. The Momotombo reservoir is predominantly a secondary system, as
it is heated exclusively by steam seeping into a fracture system, which extends laterally
from a narrow NS source fracture zone towards the ESE. Therefore, eventual
production should concentrate primarily within the source fracture zone in the western
part of the field [111].
Momotombo is not a geothermal reservoir heated by conduction processes, but
rather forms part of a hydrothermal convective system [108]. Production wells in the
eastern part of the field are fed by shallow lateral inflow (Process No. 3 in Fig. 27.18).
The inflow of cold fluids in the southeastern part of the reservoir is indicated by
temperature profiles of shallow wells (Process No. 1 in Fig. 27.18) [107]. The decrease
in silica content by precipitation processes in interstitial spaces and fractures is based
on the influx of cooler waters in the central and eastern portion of the field, sealing
existing pore space [111].
Production declines of 13 and 70 percent in the eastern and western wells,
respectively, indicate an inadequate recharge to sustain production. A number of hot
springs and fumaroles became inactive after drilling operations began [108]. The shift of
fluid characteristics towards those of chemically immature waters (Na-K-Mg diagram)
indicates the encroachment of cold water in the reservoir without sufficient time to reach
chemical equilibrium [98]. Upflow zones indicated by isothermal lines of 275 C are
located near wells MT-36 and MT-11 (Fig. 27.19), whereas low temperature intrusions are
811

present in the east (well MT-30). The Bjornsson fault is a predominant hot structure from
600 m b.s.l. and deeper, whereas a circular upflow zone is located in the central portion
around well MT-04 at a depth below 1300 m b.s.l. [107]. Potential recharge from an area
10 km south of the Momotombo graben is indicated by major geophysical anomalies
beneath Managua lake, warm water springs (83 C) at the bottom of the lake, and
elevated boron contents (Process No. 1 in Fig. 27.18) [108].

Figure 27.19. Conceptual hydrogeological model of the Momotombo geothermal reservoir,
including temperature isolines, flow directions, proposed reservoir location, and a simplified
lithological column of the formation units (modified after Porras et al. [107], Cordon [103],
Goldsmith [108], California Energy Company, Inc. [106], Electroconsult [102], Einarsson
[105], UNDP [104], Texas Instruments [112]).
27.16 SAN JACINTO-TIZATE (NICARAGUA)

Discharge fluids from the San Jacinto-Tizate wells are neutral to slightly alkaline (7.8
8.28) with homogeneous chloride concentrations from 1700 to 2700 mg/l. Noncondensable gas concentrations are relatively low (0.180.26 wt%).
Negative anomalies in temperature and CO2 concentrations in the central part of the
study area indicate the possible division of the geothermal reservoir into two sections:
San Jacinto and El Tizate [113]. Thermal upflow conditions are estimated to be
190 and 290 C in San Jacinto and Tizate, respectively (Fig. 27.20). The lower
temperature reservoir of San Jacinto may be used for reinjection. Two permeable levels


Figure 27.20. Conceptual hydrogeological model of the San Jacinto-Tizate geothermal field,
including reservoir zonation and aquifer distribution, temperature isolines, and proposed
directions of fluid migration (modified after Ostapenko et al. [100]).
of Pliocene-Quaternary volcanic rocks were found at San Jacinto at a depth of 350680 m

and 8801080 m. At the Tizate area, a shallow reservoir of PlioceneQuaternary
volcanic units is located at depths from 550 to 1200 m, and a deep reservoir of Oligocene
Miocene volcanic-sedimentary rocks is located at depths of more than 1600 m. Both
represent water-dominated reservoirs with an upflowing zone close to wells SJ-4 and
SJ-5, as the highest temperatures (270290 C) have been measured in these wells.
Two phase conditions exist in the upper part of the reservoir. Some cooler fluids are
flowing throughout the reservoir along NWSE directed faults. Na-K-Mg
geothermometers (240290 C) indicate a partial equilibration of geothermal fluids.
Cl/Ca ratios between 100 and 170 indicate a lower degree of meteoric water mixing in the
SJ-4 and SJ-5 wells, compared to the SJ-3 and SJ-6 wells. The flow of cooler fluids
throughout the reservoir along regional, NWSE directed faults is confirmed by a low
Cl/B ratio in fluids from well SJ-3. Regional, NWSE oriented faults permit some
cooler fluid to flow throughout the reservoir [100].
As a part of interference tests in 1995, well SJ-5 responded to the production of
well JS-4, whereas well SJ-4 did not show any reaction to the production of SJ-6.
During injection and interference, a respective transmissivity of 0.6 1012 D m and
13.55 1012 D m was calculated for well SJ-3, and 3.0 1012 D m and 11.00 1012 D m
for well SJ-5. Highest values were obtained for well SJ-4 (17.0 1012 D m). Storativity
values range between 2.1 m/Pa (SJ-5) and 2.9 m/Pa (SJ-3) [100].
27.17 COSIGINA VOLCANO (NICARAGUA)

Surface waters from the Cosigina region show a bicarbonate composition similar to
that of waters from the Managua region and the eastern volcanic belt. Sodium chloride
and/or sulfate water types are typically enriched in B and are similar to Momotombo
water. They are derived from deep aquifers and contaminated by shallow aquifers.
High enthalpy conditions for the region are indicated by geochemical temperatures of
140230 C, and calculated gas temperatures of up to 300 C [95]. Sulfate-earthalkaline and chloride sulfate springs are found in the Cosigina region [96].
813

27.18 CASITA-SAN CRISTBAL VOLCANO (NICARAGUA)

Thermal springs east of Casita volcano, striking NWSE toward Villa Salvadorita,
show anomalously high B, B-B/Cl, and Cl ratios relative to surrounding cooler waters
(Fig. 27.17). Geochemical indicators suggest fractionation of volatiles from subsurface
boiling into the shallow groundwaters. High conductance zones encircling the CasitaSan Cristbal volcanoes on the northern, eastern and western flanks have been found in
geophysical reconnaissance surveys. The penetration of saline water from the Gulf of
Fonseca into permeable formations may cause the northward directed increase in
conductance [114].
27.19 TELICA-EL AJO (NICARAGUA)
Six thermal manifestations exist inside or near the border of the El ajo graben, just
one is situated in the western part of the field (El Coral-Santa Helena). Gas analysis of
one of the fumaroles resulted in a calculated geothermometer temperature between 243
and 276 C [115]. Cation mixing models reflect subsurface temperatures ranging
between 171 and 207 C. Cooling by conduction during ascent to the surface and
Figure 27.21. Conceptual flow model of the El ajo geothermal field (Nicaragua) (modified after
Ostapenko et al. [115]).
chemical re-equilibration of fluids with volcanic sediments explains the low

equilibrium temperatures of 60 to 90 C for the cation geothermometer [114]. Positive
anomalies of measured soil CO2 at a depth of one meter were used to trace the fault
zones, which were previously detected using geological and geophysical methods. A
first anomaly is connected to the El ajo graben; the second one is located in the Santa

Elena area in the western part of the field [115]. Warm springs and wells north of the
Telica volcano area are characterized by high Cl, B, SiO2, NH3, and TDS
concentrations.

The combination of low resistivity geoelectrical anomalies, soil CO2 anomalies,
fumaroles with surface temperature up to 100 C, and calculated reservoir temperatures
between 240 and 280 C, confirms the existence of a high enthalpy reservoir at the El
ajo field. According to geophysical indications of low resistivity geoelectrical units, a
shallow reservoir is located at a depth of 3001000 m and 10001700 m in the southern
and northern parts of the field, respectively. The deep reservoir is associated with
faulting zones in the eastern (El ajo graben) and western part (Santa Elena area) of
the field at depths below 1000 m (south) and 2000 m (north) (Fig. 27.21). Effusive and
pyroclastic rocks of Pleistocene age form the principal lithostratigraphical reservoir
unit. Proposed deep exploration wells will confirm the potential of the El ajo graben
in the east and the Santa Elena area in the west [115].
27.20 EL HOYO-MONTE GALN (NICARAGUA)
Several aquifers are separated by impermeable levels in shallow levels of the
depression, as confirmed by numerous drillings. These aquifers are incorporated
within permeable Tertiary volcanic units, and are recharged from the eastern edge of
Figure 27.22. Hydrogeological profile of the El Hoyo-Monte Galn-Momotombo region,

Nicaragua (modified after Martnez et al. [96]).
the graben through recent volcanic structures. The phreato-magmatic characteristics of

hydromagmatic surge components, as part of plinian eruptions of the Galn caldera,
indicate the presence of aquifers (Fig. 27.22). Hydrothermal circulation is caused by
the fracturing of lava formations. Secondary meteoric alteration decreases the initial
elevated permeability of the pyroclastic levels and its transformation into totally
impermeable horizons. Hydrothermal alteration causes silification and propylitization
of the rocks; elevated rock densities favor fluid temperatures above 300 C.
815

Geochemical data indicate the presence of high temperature conditions along the axis
of the cordillera, where chloride and sulfate waters are probably related to a deep
thermal system [96]. Na-Cl and Cl-SO4 alkaline water types with maximum
temperatures of 52 C are described for the El Hoyo region by Martnez et al. [95, 96].
27.21 MASAYA-GRANADA-NANDAIME AND MANAGUA-CHILTEPE
TIPITAPA (NICARAGUA)
The sodium-bicarbonate (salinity 522 meq/l, T 2436 C) and sodium-chloride type
(salinity 33110 meq/l, T 3095 C) springs are predominate in the Masaya-Tipitapa
region [96]. Waters with anomalous high proportions of SiO2, TDS, Cl, B, and NH3 with
some NaCl mixing occur along a series of NNE striking en echelon faults along the
Santiago/Masaya-Tipitapa volcanic trend. NH3/Cl and B/Cl ratios suggest a gas or steam
component of undetermined origin. Reservoir temperatures between 200 and 215 C
were calculated with cation geothermometers. The chemical analysis of surface water
samples indicates the abundance of Na-Cl and Na-HCO3 water types in the flanks of
Chiltepe, whereas the caldera Masaya region is characterized by alkaline HCO3-waters
[95]. The Santiago-Masaya volcanic complex is considered to represent the main
recharge area with a subsequent northward directed flow along faults, which are
probably vertically connected with a deeper geothermal reservoir.
A major geophysical anomaly from a depth of 20004000 m between the towns of
Masaya and Nandaime characterizes the geothermal reservoir. Water samples from
wells immediately above this anomaly (< 300 m) indicate no mixing of thermal water
with shallow aquifer water, suggesting the potential reservoir is overlain by an
impermeable cap rock layer. The lava lake at Masaya volcano reveals the presence of a
shallow magma chamber as a heat source, but self-sealing directly above the system
may explain the lack of surface thermal manifestations [114]. The average flux of 1275
t/day of SO2 and 830 t/day of HCl represents the largest reported sustained, noneruptive
volcanic release of these species in the world. Masaya contributed 7% of the total SO2
estimated to have been released by volcanoes worldwide in 1981. Direct consequences
of these releases are acid rain with pH conditions as low as 2.63, a population exposed
to SO2 concentrations far above maximum values recommended by the WHO, and an
impacted downwind area of 500 km2 [116].
27.22 MIRAVALLES (COSTA RICA)
27.22.1 Hydrochemical composition of geothermal surface manifestations
In the area of the Miravalles geothermal field (Figs. 26.1326.16 of Chapter 26), two
hydrochemical types of geothermal springs and cold shallow groundwater and surface
waters can be distinguished.
The first group of geothermal springs consists of thermal waters with a roughly
neutral pH, is found within the Guayaba caldera along a NS striking stripe, and
coincides with the La Fortuna graben (Fig. 26.13 in Chapter 26). This group includes the
Salitral Bagaces (Sb), Salitral (Sa), and Salitral Abajo (Sj) springs. Of these springs, only
Salitral Bagaces (Sb) is highly mineralized (TDS 6386 to ~6656 mg/kg) and contains
high concentrations of Cl and Na (2600 and 2100 mg/l, respectively) and its water can
be characterized as Na-Cl-HCO3 water (Fig. 27.23) [117]. This, together with a surface
temperature of about 60 C, indicates that this water is a product of the cooling and
dilution of geothermal reservoir water by cold, local meteoric waters [117, 118]. In

Figure 27.23. Cl-SO4-HCO3 classification of surface manifestations in the Miravalles geothermal

area (modified from [117]).
contrast to Sb, the Salitral (Sa), and Salitral Abajo (Sj) (=San Bernardo Abajo) springs
are much less mineralized (TDS 429 6 and 999 7 mg/kg, respectively), are of the
Na-HCO3-Cl type (Fig. 27.23), and have lower temperatures of 43 and 48 C,
respectively [117]. This indicates that they are a product of the extensive dilution of
geothermal reservoir waters by local cold shallow groundwater. To this group of
bicarbonate waters also belongs the Agua Caliente (U1, U3), La Unin (UN), and Santa
Rosa (SR) (Fig. 27.23) springs, whose temperatures range from 2353 C.
Springs belonging to the second group are characterized by their sulfate-rich acid
thermal waters and are found at higher topographic elevation towards the east along the
slopes of Miravalles volcano and adjacent mountains (Fig. 27.23). The thermal Las Pailas
(Lp), Las Hornillas (Hn), Guayabal (Gb), and Herrumbre 1 and 2 springs (H1 and H2) belong
to this group (Fig. 27.23). The waters of the Las Pailas (Lp) and Las Hornillas (Hn)
springs are predominantly formed by the process of steam-heating. This is indicated by their
low pH values (1.82.1), high temperatures (7392 C), and very low chloride contents (2.54.8
ppm). In contrast, the Guayabal (Gb), and Herrumbre 1 springs have much higher chloride
concentrations (~700 ppm and 143 ppm, respectively), which indicate a greater contribution
of the geothermal reservoir component [117]. The spring water of Herrumbre 2 shows
only moderately acidic waters (pH 5.86.2), is enriched in HCO3 (~120 ppm), has low
temperatures (2227 C), all in all indicating neutralization at lowtemperature
conditions [117]. Aluminum makes up 4097% of the principal cation component of waters
from the Las Pailas (Lp), Las Hornillas (Hn), and Guayabal (Gb) springs. The high
aluminum concentrations are due to isochemical dissolution of rocks [119], as confirmed
by the observed argillitic alteration around the spring outlets.
The waters of the cold springs and streams, are of low mineralization, are about
neutral, and are of the HCO3-type (Fig. 27.23), indicating little or no influence by
volcanic processes or the mixing of geothermal waters.
817

27.22.2 Hydrochemical composition of the reservoir fluids

The water samples taken at the wellheads of the Miravalles geothermal field are highly
mineralized and correspond predominantly to sodium-chloride waters (Cl 26883493
ppm; Na 15712075 ppm) as can be seen in Figure 27.23 [117]. The SO4 and HCO3
concentrations are relatively low (2163 and 580 ppm, respectively) [117]. The pH
value of most of the waters is roughly neutral (6.58.3, measured at 25 C) in samples
taken from the wellhead, which is different from the unflushed reservoir water
(reservoir conditions), which has a pH ranging between 5.4 to 6.0 [117]. Corrected total
carbonate carbon concentrations ranged between 5005800 ppm (expressed as HCO3)
[117]. These data indicate that the geothermal reservoir fluids can be classified as ClNa-HCO3 to HCO3-Cl-Na-types (on equivalent basis). The silica content is
approximately 430 ppm (at reservoir conditions) [117]. In the wells, the reservoir
waters show evidence of carbonate scaling [120]. This high potential for calcite
deposition was present before exploitation of the field began [120]. As a consequence,
the degree of calcite saturation was evaluated for each production well and it was found
that the pre-flashed reservoir fluids with a neutral pH are below calcite saturation levels
[120]. This precipitation of calcium carbonate minerals from geothermal fluids can be
explained by two possible mechanisms [121]: (1) hydrolysis, and (2) boiling [120].
According to Moya et al. [120], the second process affects the output of the production
wells of the Miravalles geothermal field. To maintain fluid production, each production
well is equipped with a calcium carbonate scale inhibition system, which eliminates, or
at least significantly reduces, scaling. In April 2005, there were 22 continuously
operating inhibition systems at Miravalles.
27.22.3 Acid reservoir fluids

Five of the wells (PGM-02, PGM-06, PGM-07, PGM-19, and PGM-64; for locations
see Fig. 26.16) produce extremely acid fluids with pH-values between 2.3 to 3.2 and
SO4 concentrations of about 690 ppm. All of these acid wells are located in the NE
portion of the Miravalles geothermal field (Fig. 26.16), indicating the existence of an
acid geothermal sub-reservoir. Since April 2005, only two acid wells (PGM-19 since
February 2000 and PGM-07 since October 2001) have been incorporated into
the commercial operation, and they utilize a neutralization system at depth [120]. Here
the acidic fluids are neutralized by adding a solution of sodium hydroxide to the
geothermal fluid.
A local meteoric water line where D = 8.718O + 14.38 was defined with meteoric
water samples collected from numerous locations (surface waters, cold springs) of the
geothermal areas of Miravalles, Tenorio, and Rincn de la Vieja [117].
The D/18O diagram (Fig. 27.24) shows the isotopic composition of water
samples, which are grouped according the same classification scheme presented in
Figure 27.23. The hydrothermal water samples from the geothermal wells fall between
the andesitic magmatic component [122] and the meteoric water line, indicating an
enrichment in 18O of 23 with respect to the meteoric water line (Fig. 27.24).
Of the geothermal springs, the pH-neutral Salitral Bagaces is the only one with an

Figure 27.24. 18O and D isotopic data from the production wells of the Miravalles geothermal
field, rain water, acid springs, cold and hot springs (modified from [117]), as well as mixing
trends between local groundwater and andesitic water.
isotopic composition similar (but slightly diluted by meteoric water) to the geothermal
well water (Fig. 27.24) [117]. The other pH neutral geothermal springs show an isotopic
composition similar to that of local rainfall, indicating no influence of boiling or
exchange with host rocks, thereby suggesting that these waters correspond to shallow
groundwaters, which were heated by conduction and low steam-flux from below. Of the
steam-heated acid sulfur springs, Las Pailas (Lp), Las Hornillas (Hn), and Guayabal (Gb),
Lp and Hn are isotopically affected by the steam-heating, whereas Gb is not affected
[117]. The water samples from Las Pailas (Lp) and Las Hornillas (Hn) display a similar
behavior, all falling along a similar slope with a value of about 2.6 indicating enrichment
in D and 18O, which is primarily due to surface kinetic evaporation [117].
The detailed chemical and isotopic evidence of geothermal fluids presented by
Gherardi et al. [117] suggests that the waters from Miravalles geothermal reservoir are
predominantly coming from the north (Figs. 26.13 and 26.16). The main recharge area
seems to be located on the northeastern side of the Guanacaste cordillera. Based on
isotopic investigations, these authors state that about 20% of the reservoir water
corresponds to arc-type magmatic derived water, and the rest corresponds to regional
groundwater. The acid reservoir waters found in the wells in the NE portion of the
geothermal field (Fig. 26.16), are explained by the uptake of volcanic-magmatic vapors
and inflow of immature volcanic waters into the reservoir waters in the vicinity of
Miravalles volcano.
819

27.23 RINCN DE LA VIEJA (COSTA RICA)

27.23.1 Hydrochemical and isotopic composition of geothermal surface
manifestations
The area of the Rincn de la Vieja volcanic complex, which comprises both geothermal
prospects Las Pailas and Borinquen (see Chapter 26), exhibits numerous geothermal
surface manifestations. Most of them are found along the WNW-flank of the volcanic
complex (Fig. 27.25). The geothermal springs in this area are grouped as Aguas
Calientes and comprise the springs of the localities Borinquen (without Salitral Norte
springs), Las Pailas, Azufrales, and St. Mara (Fig. 27.25). Another two areas with
Figure 27.25. Geothermal surface manifestations in the Rincn de la Vieja geothermal area and
hydrochemical characterization of the three different groups of geothermal springs, the water
of the lake of the active crater, and cold springs and rivers (data derived from [123], data of
Salitral Norte from [124]).
geothermal springs, but of less importance compared to Aguas Calientes, are found on
the northern flank of Rincn de la Vieja volcanic complex, named Aguas Tibias, and
further to the north, the so-called Volcancito springs (Fig. 27.25) [123]. The springs

Figure 27.26. Cl-SO4-HCO3 classification of surface manifestations in the Rincn de la Vieja

geothermal area (data from [123], data of Salitral Norte from [124]).
of Salitral Norte, near Borinquen form another small group of hot springs [124].
These three areas with geothermal springs (Aguas Calientes, Aguas Tibias,
Volcancito, and Salitral Norte) display significant variations in temperature, pH-values,
grades of mineralization, and hydrochemical compositions, which indicates a different
origin for each spring. Additionally, distinct groups are formed by water from
the lake of the active crater and waters from the cold springs and rivers. In total 6
groups of waters can be distinguished for the region (Figs. 27.25 and 27.26) [123, 124].
(1) The waters of the cold springs and rivers (T < 27 C) are of the Ca-HCO3-type, of very
low mineralization (TDS 39294 mg/l), and are approximately neutral (pH 6.28.0) [123].
(2) Compared to all other water groups, the water of the active crater lake is the
most acidic (pH 0.31.1), and has the highest grade of mineralization (TDS 23,278
154,216 mg/l). The water is of the Ca(Mg)-Cl(SO4)-type and its temperature ranges
between 31 and 47 C. The water is further characterized by extremely high Cl/Na+
ratios of 1126 (calculated on meq/l basis) and high F contents (3702350 mg/l).
(3) The Aguas Tibias geothermal springs are characterized by their Ca-SO4(Cl) waters,
a moderate temperature (2738 C), a relatively low mineralization (7831260
mg/l), and moderate acidic conditions (pH 3.54.2) [123].
(4) Volcancito waters are of the Ca(Mg)-Cl(SO4)-type, have higher temperatures (59
63 C), higher mineralization (TDS 38904100 mg/l), and higher pH-values (5.6
6.1) as compared to Aguas Tibias waters [123].
(5) Aguas Calientes springs have a Ca-SO4 composition, relatively high temperatures
(3796 C), low to moderate mineralization (TDS 1112092 mg/l), and tend to be
very acidic (pH 2.25.4) [123].
(6) Salitral Norte springs are of the Na-Cl type, are about neutral (pH 6.4), have relatively
high chloride (29603035 ppm) and Na (16171663 ppm) concentrations, high
mineralization (TDS 55655675 ppm), and high temperatures (6973 C). Sulfate
contents are 6768 ppm and hydrogencarbonate concentrations are in the range of
265280 ppm [124].
821

With the exceptions of Rincn de la Vieja crater lake and Las Pailas Hornillas
(fumaroles/mud pots), all water surface sam ples have D/18O ratios that correspond
to the meteoric water line. In the D/18O diagram (Fig. 27.27a) the active crater and
two samples from Agua Calientes (Hornillas Las Pailas) seem to be aligned along the
evaporation line, presumably masking any isotopic signature derived from magmatic
waters represented by the andesitic water field [123, 125].
27.23.2 Hydrochemical composition of the reservoir fluids
Las Pailas geothermal area: Samples from the deep wells PGP-01, PGP-03, and PGP04 (for location see Fig. 26.20) show that the reservoir fluids are of Na-Cl type, are
about neutral (7.5 S+KDYHDKLJKVDOLQLW\20,200 S/cm), and have a
low gas content (4.730.7 mmoles/kg of total gases). PGP-04 has a higher calcium
content and lower silica content than PGP-01 and PGP-03. This can be explained by its
location at the margin of the reservoir, which leads to lower formation temperatures,
which produces higher concentrations of dissolved calcium and the re-equilibration of
silica [125]. These three wells belong to the same aquifer, which is located between
300 and 800 m a.s.l. The aquifer waters contain 47004800 ppm chloride, 3703
3829 ppm Na, < 5 ppm HCO3, and < 50 ppm SO4. It should be noted, that wells PGP02 and PGP-05 are possibly influenced by previously reinjected geothermal waters
[125], and are therefore, excluded from the previous discussions.
Since Na/K Fournier and Na/K/Ca geothermometry calculations produced higher
reservoir temperature estimates (Na/K 269280 C; Na/K/Ca 255267 C) than direct
temperature measurements in the wells, it is possible that the actual wells are located
along the periphery of the geothermal reservoir [125], whose center is located more to
the NE within the Rincn de la Veja national park. At present, the Rincn de la Veja
national park cannot be accessed for geothermal exploitation (however, there is a new
law submitted to the Costa Rican parliament (2006), which shall allow and regulate
geothermal exploration within protected areas such as national parks).
Borinquen geothermal area: As of March 2006, only well PGB-1 (for location see
Fig. 26.20) was sampled. The hydrochemical data indicate a geothermal reservoir with
nearly neutral (pH 7.8), highly mineralized (TDS 11,770 ppm), Na-Cl waters (Na 3676
ppm, Cl 6310 ppm) with low concentrations of HCO3 (< 100 ppm) and SO4 (< 50 ppm),
which is quite similar to that of Las Pailas geothermal reservoir [126].
The isotopic composition of the Las Pailas wells PGP-01, PGP-03, and PGP-04 is
very homogeneous with 18 O values of 3.9 to 4.0 and D values of 32.4 to 33.4.
This isotopic composition is also very similar to that of the Miravalles geothermal field
samples [125]. As of March 2006, only one sample from Borinquen reservoir had been
isotopically analyzed. Oxygen and hydrogen isotope values for the Borinquen reservoir
waters were 4.7 and 43.5, respectively. The 18O offset from the meteoric water
line is 1.6 for the Las Pailas reservoir, compared to offsets of 1.9 for Miravalles,
and 2.0 for the Borinquen geothermal reservoirs.
27.23.3 Hydrochemical model
The different geothermal surface manifestations of the Rincn de la Vieja volcanic
complex are a result of the mixing between shallow neutral, poorly-mineralized
meteoric ground- and surface waters. Two processes can be distinguished:

(1) The water of the crater lake is recharged by rain water and is directly fed by
magmatic fluids as indicated by the extremely high Cl/Na+ ratios, high F contents,
and extremely low pH of the crater lake water, which indicates a permanent influx of
HCl (Fig. 27.27b); (2) The waters from the geothermal springs on the flanks of the
volcanic complex originate from different interactions between geothermal fluids and
volcanic fluxes with shallow meteoric waters, which result in the aforementioned
different groups of geothermal waters.
In the Cl/Na+ diagram (Fig. 27.27b), the water samples from the Aguas Tibias
geothermal springs fall on a mixing line, where the waters from the crater lake and the
cold meteoric waters form the respective end-members. This indicates that the Aguas
Tibias geothermal waters are a mixture of shallow meteoric groundwater, and water
from the crater lake, which percolates through the northern flank of the Rincn de la
Vieja volcanic complex and mixes with the shallow groundwater. This is also
supported by the moderate temperatures of these springs.
Figure 27.27. Characterization of different water groups of the Rincn de la Vieja surface
geothermal manifestations and identification of mixing processes (data from [123, 125]):
(a) 18O and D isotopic data. All surface water samples plot on the meteoric line the only
exceptions are the waters from Las Pailas and Hornillas (2 samples from [123] and 2 from [125]),
and those of the crater lake, which fall on a evaporation line; (b) Cl/Na+ ratios.
In contrast, the geothermal springs of Aguas Calientes, which have much higher
temperatures compared to the previous group, seem to receive their magmatic
component from deep magmatic fluids, which mix with a shallow aquifer before
discharging as springs. The Ca-SO4 composition and the low pH value are explained by the
influx of H2S steam.
The Volcancito geothermal waters, which emerge about 6 km north of the Aguas
Tibias waters (Fig. 27.25), probably originate from the same source as the Aguas Tibias
waters. However, the longer flow-path in the aquifer from the northern flank of the
volcano, where the percolating crater water mixes with meteoric groundwater, towards
the outlets of the Volcancito springs results in significant water-rock interactions along the
flow-path [123]. This explains the higher pH value and the higher mineralization of the
Volcancito springs compared to the Aguas Tibias waters, but it does not explain why
the temperatures of the Volcancito waters are higher than those of the Aguas Tibias
waters.
823

Since no surface spring with Na-Cl waters exists in the Las Pailas area, which
indicates the absence of natural surface discharge of Na-Cl Las Pailas geothermal
reservoir fluids, Chavarra et al. [125] assume that the reservoir fluids discharge directly
into the Pacific Ocean. The only Na-Cl springs, which were found in Rincn de La
Viejo area, and are the only representatives of the geothermal reservoir fluids, are those
of Salitral Norte in the Borinquen area. Therefore, the springs of Salitral Norte are
considered as (the only) surface discharges of the Las Pailas and possibly the
Borinquen geothermal reservoirs. Geothermometry of these springs, after Giggenbach
and Fournier, resulted in reservoir temperature calculations of 230 and 216 C,
respectively.
27.24 BAR (PANAMA)
Initial geochemical investigations, which were carried out in the 1970s, showed that the
thermal springs from Los Pozos and Cotito were of chloride origin and have high
concentrations of sodium and a pH-value close to neutral (6.5). The water temperatures
reached 72 C at Cotito, 59 C at Los Pozos, and 33 C at Catalina spring (Fig. 26.28).
A geochemical model using the results of the chemical analyses suggests that water
from the deep geothermal reservoir with an initial temperature around 180 C mixes
during the ascent to the surface with meteoric water. In contrast, shallow drilling holes
did not find high temperatures below the ground (Catalina 5 drilled in 1977 at a depth
of about 500 m produced temperature measurements of 7080 C, but Catalina 6
drilled at 1000 m resulted in 110120 C). Consequently, it was concluded that the
probability of finding high reservoir temperatures is low and reservoir temperature were
estimated to be around 70 to 80 C, despite the relatively high spring water temperatures.
In addition, the isotopic investigations have also produced contradictory
conclusions. Hydrogen and oxygen isotope data suggest that reservoir water could be
recharged from higher altitudes than the meteoric water of the zone (7.3 18O and
48 D) and are then fractionated to 2.5 18O through water-rock interactions.
Although this hypothesis was already discarded by Bath and Williamson [127], other
consultants maintain that it is possible.
Another interpretation of the isotopic data that has been proposed is that the water
from the geothermal reservoir has obtained its isotopic composition through
fractionation occurring during evaporation and steam loss. This leads to an isotopic
enrichment in the remaining liquid. Slopes between 3 and 5 in the D and 18O
diagram suggest the isotopic fractionation of the liquid phase through evaporation. On
the other hand, 18O values around 7.3 measured on meteoric waters from
other low elevation areas in Panama suggest that water in the reservoir could come
from a lower altitude than Bar (1000 m lower). This indicates that the recharge zone
could be located at a lower elevation than the discharge zone. There also was a
suggestion that the groundwater recharge for the Bar-Colorado area is located at a
lower altitude than the town of El Hato del Volcn and that this water travels deep into
the reservoir and discharges at higher altitudes like that found in the case of the
aforementioned springs. These controversial interpretations highlight the need for
further studies of the Bar-Colorado geothermal prospect.

27.25 SUMMARY OF SPECIFIC FEATURES OF GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIRS IN

CENTRAL AMERICA
The chemical and isotopic composition of thermal fluids in Central America have been
reported for the active geothermal fields of Zunil, Amatitln (Guatemala), Ahuachpan,
Berln (El Salvador), Platanares (Honduras), and Momotombo (Nicaragua) as well as
from the prospective sites of San Marcos, Tecuamburro (Guatemala), San Vicente (El
Salvador), Azacualpa, San Ignacio, Pavana, Sambo creek, El Olivar (Honduras), San
Jacinto-Tizate, Cosigina volcano, Casita-San Cristbal volcano, Telica-El ajo, El
Hoyo-Monte Galn, Masaya-Granada-Nandaime, and Managua-Chiltepe Tipitapa
(Nicaragua). Deep reservoir fluids from drilled geothermal wells are available
exclusively from Zunil, Amatitln, Ahuachpan, Berln, San Vicente, Platanares, and
Momotombo. A summary of the chemical-isotopic composition of representative samples
of water types for each of the geothermal sites is presented in Table 27.1 (Costa Rica
and Panama sites are excluded from the present discussion.)
In all of the aforementioned fields, the wide variety of chemical water types reflect
the influence of water-rock interaction processes and exhibit a strong correlation
between water chemistry and existing structural features, such as volcanic ring
calderas, sealing horizons, oriented faults, and lithology. The chemical and isotopic
characterization of discharging surface manifestations, such as hot springs and
fumaroles, can be used to reconstruct primary reservoir conditions, as well as to trace
secondary chemical-physical processes during the ascent of the fluids.
When thermal surface manifestations are compared across Central America, some
characteristic geochemical features can be observed throughout most fields. Most of the
prospective zones can be characterized by the abundance of cold HCO3 springs around
the external part of the geothermal area, which are formed by the atmospheric input of
CO2. Hot HCO3-waters in the central part of the prospective geothermal fields are
typically formed by the condensation of steam and CO2 in shallow groundwater
systems, producing a steam cap above the geothermal system. The interaction of
magmatic vapor with local groundwater at shallow levels causes the formation and
discharge of acid sulfate springs at the surface. Less often, permeable tectonic
structures form vertical pathways, allowing the direct rise of saline reservoir fluids
towards the surface. A required pre-condition for the maintenance of the geothermal
reservoir is recharge by infiltrating meteoric water.
In the exemplary case of the Zunil geothermal field in Guatemala, two local
recharge areas are feeding two independent geothermal reservoirs (Zunil I and II) with
surface water and shallow groundwater. The waters have a residence time of about 200
years and a maximum mean age of 500 to 7500 years, indicated by mixing models and
measured tritium concentrations ranging from 0.02 to 0.32 T.U. As a second
component, an estimated contribution of 20% andesitic water to the deep Cl-fluids is
hypothesized. Temperatures of the reservoir rocks range between 360 and 400 C
(Carbon geothermometer), and the adjacent thermal fluids around 290 C (Na/K
geothermometer and measured downhole temperatures). The structural margin of the
caldera, a fracture network with elevated permeability characteristics along the Zunil
fault zone, and the adjacent shallow heat source of the Cerro Quemado domes represent
favorable conditions for the existence of an active geothermal convective system. The
interaction of magmatic vapor with local groundwater at shallow depths causes the
formation of acid sulfate waters.
Much like Zunil, the Amatitln reservoir is hypothesized to be composed of two
separate fluids from a common source: a shallow (1140 m), low-temperature (TSiO2 <
825

283 C), high-chloride (> 2780 mg/l), and high enthalpy (large vapor fraction) aquifer,
and a deeper reservoir (15401590 m), under high temperature conditions (TSiO2 >
291 C) with low enthalpy and Cl-concentrations (< 2660 mg/l). In the case of the San
Marcos fluids, no direct data from deep fluids are available, but saline NaCl-springs
(La Cimarrona, La Castalia) are connected directly with the reservoir with estimated
temperatures of 240 C and well-equilibrated Na-Cl fluids. Discharge is produced
through the dilution of deep geothermal water, various equilibration stages at lower
temperatures, and eventual steam loss during ascent. Especially low concentrations of
Na-Cl (Cl < 200 mg/l) indicate a relatively quick ascent without significant reequilibration. The Tecuamburro geothermal site is divided by the Ixpaco fault zone in
two separate, liquid-dominated reservoirs (Tecuamburro, Infernitos) with independent
convective hydrothermal systems, which are then overlain by vapor-rich zones and
steam-heated groundwater. Estimated reservoir temperatures range between 310 C
beneath the Laguna Ixpaca fumaroles and 105190 C at the Infernitos fumarole area.
The Ahuachapn geothermal zone in the western part of El Salvador covers an
extensive area of more than 100 km2, with abundant outcrops of fumaroles and hot
springs, representing what is probably the most extensively studied geothermal field in
Central America. The saline reservoir aquifer forms the lowermost horizon of a threelayer groundwater system, flowing within the highly-fractured Ahuachapn andesites
at depths from 500 to 800 m. The NaCl-type waters are highly saline (up to 22 g/l), and
have minimum reservoir temperatures falling between 245 and 250 C. The magma
chamber below the volcanic complex Laguna Las Ninfas-Laguna Verde represents the
main heat source of the reservoir and causes the upflow of saline fluids southeast of the
present well field. Lateral flow towards the present well zone occurs along the older
volcanic breccias and Ahuachapn andesite units. Atmospheric recharge seeps through
fault zones towards the top of the reservoir and an intermediate aquifer (Regional
Saturated Aquifer) feeds the underlying reservoir with cold water. As a consequence
of extensive exploitation, gradual cooling effects have been measured, (1) for the upper
part due to boiling resulting from pressure decline, (2) in the main production area due
to the recharge of boiling two-phase fluids, (3) in the vicinity of injection wells during
reinjection, and (4) in the northern and deep western part due to induced cold water
recharge in response to drawdown.
The adjacent high-enthalpy field of Berln, has a much smaller extension (9 km2)
than the Ahuachapn field. Principal hydraulic processes are: (1) the uprise of chloride
waters (30006000 mg/l) from the main heat center underneath the Tecapa volcano
with minimum temperatures of 305 C, and, (2) its northward directed lateral flow
towards the andesitic reservoir zone at a depth between 1900 and 2400 m. Recharge
occurs by the infiltration of meteoric water from the Cerro Peln area in the northern
section towards the uppermost portions of the stratified three aquifer systems found
within the Berln zone. There is no isotopic evidence for meteoric recharge of the
deepest aquifer, which represents the main reservoir aquifer. One major production
problem in this area is the precipitation of amorphous silica, which causes a decline in
the adsorption capacity of injection wells.
Warm bicarbonate springs, as well as sulfate acid and chloride-sulfate acid waters,
around the San Vicente geothermal zone indicate the presence of steam-heated
groundwater resulting in the condensation of fumarolic steam in a shallow aquifer. NaCltype geothermal fluids (similar to Berln fluids) from well SV-1 at a depth of 1000 to
1300 m are in thermodynamic equilibrium with the mineral phase at around 250 C.

In the case of Honduras, Platanares contains the most potential thermal sites with more
than 100 thermal springs. The total discharge of the Platanares springs is 3300 l/min along
the NW-trending fault and fracture zones. Redbeds of the Valle de Angeles group seem to
govern the chemistry of thermal water. Thermal waters originate from Miocene andesites
and CretaceousEocene redbeds at a minimum estimated reservoir depth of 1.5 km and
temperature of 225 C. Again, the stratification of two isolated reservoirs, a shallow
reservoir with temperatures of 165 C and a deeper one at depths from 1200 to 1500 m, is
hypothesized. The abundance of silicified tuff and strongly altered andesite indicate the
existence of a fossil hydrothermal system, which has been related to the present system for
millions of years. U/Th equilibrium dates calculated using material collected from calcite
veins suggest a minimum active period for the present geothermal system of 0.25 m.y.
In general, most waters from thermal sites in Honduras, such as Platanares, San
Ignacio, Azacualpa, and El Olivar have a strong sedimentary influence, as indicated by
the high ratios of B/Cl and HCO3/Cl. Reaction with the formation causes the
production of Na and HCO3. In the case of the Azacualpa area, the dissolution of
gypsum and precipitation of calcite explains the elevated SO4 concentration of spring
waters. The geothermal potential of the Azacualpa zone is reflected by the natural
discharge of 3340 l/min for all heat sources with temperatures between 5 and 115 C.
Fluid chemistry of the San Ignacio site is similar to that of the Platanares fluids,
although the surface is covered by metamorphic rocks of the Cacapuaga schist. In both,
the San Ignacio and El Olivar zones, the presence of Na-HCO3 water types suggests
elevated CO2 pressures as part of the CO2-rock-water interaction processes.
Geothermometer calculations indicate reservoir temperatures as high as 230240 C.
The thermal fluids from Pavana and Sambo creek are somewhat unique, with low B,
HCO3 and NH4 concentrations, and display metamorphic influences.
Nicaraguan thermal sites are oriented along the NWSE oriented volcanic mountain
belt with typical bicarbonate-earth-alkaline waters in the external part, and sodiumbicarbonate, sulfate-earth-alkaline, sodium-chloride, and sodium-sulfate type-waters in
the central part of the volcanic range. The Momotombo geothermal site is related to a
graben zone within a still active volcanic area. The ascent of thermal plumes, indicated
by isothermal lines of 275 C near the wells MT-26 and MT-11, is related to NESW
trending faults. Production wells in the eastern part of the region are fed by shallow
lateral inflow. Production wells extract NaCl waters from the water-dominated
reservoir with natural recharge about 10 km to the south, below Managua lake. The
San Jazinto-Tizate site is divided into a shallow reservoir at 5501200 m depth and a
deep volcanic-sedimentary reservoir at depth more than 1600 m. Measured well
temperatures of 270290 C in the upflowing zone indicate similar reservoir conditions
as found around Momotombo. The discharge of NaCl, SO4, and Cl-SO4 type surface
water in the vicinity of the Cosigina volcano and El Hoyo-Monte Galn area indicates
their derivation from deep aquifer systems, as do the anomalously high B, B-C/Cl
ratios from thermal springs at the Casita-San Cristbal volcano. The existence of CO2
soil anomalies, fumaroles with surface temperatures up to 100 C, and calculated
reservoir temperatures between 240 and 280 C confirm the existence of a high
enthalpy reservoir at the El ajo field. In the case of the Masaya-Granada-Nandaime
site, differences in water chemistry between shallow wells and deeper wells indicate
the sealing of the deep geothermal reservoir by an impermeable cap rock layer. The
lava outflow at volcano Masaya reveals the presence of a shallow magma chamber as a
potential heat source for the geothermal system.
827

27.26 COMPARISON OF ISOTOPIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THERMAL FLUIDS

IN CENTRAL AMERICA
Figure 27.28 shows graphically the 18O and D-composition of characteristic samples
of warm surface springs and deep reservoir fluids from geothermal sites in Guatemala.
Hot NaCl-springs in the Zunil field are located close to both the Global Meteoric Water
Line (GMWL) and the local Western Guatemala Meteoric Water Line (WGMWL),
indicating little influence from ascending fluids. Deep well fluids and acid springs
show a positive trend and enrichment in both D and 18O, and are interpreted as
mixtures between surface water and small fractions of andesitic water. Geothermal
fluids and hot springs from the Amatitln reservoir are even more enriched in D and
18
O than Zunil fluids. The separation of hot spring fluids (from Amatitln lake) from
the GMWL is explained by water-rock interaction processes at temperatures above
300 C, the dilution by precipitation water from lower elevations, and/or mixing with
minor portions (15%) of magmatic water. Tritium concentrations between 0.5 and 0.9
T.U. indicate a relatively short circulation period of the saline fluids underground.

Figure 27.28. Isotopic composition of reservoir fluids and surface manifestations from the Zunil and
Amatitln geothermal fields in Guatemala, as well as from the potential thermal sites of San Marcos
and Tecuamburro (data extracted from Adams et al. [2, 3], Marini et al. [23], Janik et al. [24]).
Low-temperature, Ca-HCO3- and Na-HCO3-type springs of shallow origin (not shown in

Fig. 27.28) and Na-Cl springs with temperatures between 37 and 94 C in the SE-part of the
caldera of the San Marcos field plot slightly to the right of the GMWL. They are affected
either by water-rock oxygen isotope exchange within a high temperature reservoir, or
less likely, by mixing with arc-type magmatic water. Steam-heated springs from the andesitic
highland of the Tecuamburro volcanic region are characterized by a very low Cl content, and
variable HCO3 and SO4 concentrations. The very positive stable isotope values for acid
sulfate waters from Laguna Ixpaco result from evaporative processes. Tritium valaues

of 1.7 and 2.9 T.U. from two acid-sulfate springs reflect the mixture of near-surface groundwater
with steam from a boiling reservoir at depth. Neutral-chloride hot springs from Colmenares
are affected by the dilution of 180 C source fluid with cold groundwater.
Geothermal fluids from presently exploited geothermal reservoirs in El Salvador
Berln and Ahuachapn are very similar in their isotopic composition (Fig. 27.29).
Both fluids are strongly enriched in D and 18O in comparison to the primary meteoric
composition of the region, which indicates mixing with a magmatic component and/or
enhanced water-rock interaction processes. Based on 18O-isotopic data, the elevation of
the recharge area is estimated to be 1300 m a.s.l. at the Berln geothermal field. In the
case of the Berln field, hydraulic connections between production wells and injection
wells, as well as between surface springs and reservoir aquifers, have not been
confirmed by isotopic monitoring [76, 78]. No tritium data are available in order to
quantify the influence of recent atmospheric recharge.

Figure 27.29. Isotopic composition of reservoir fluids from the geothermal reservoirs of Berln
and Ahuachapn, El Salvador, as well as adjacent surface manifestations of cold and warm
springs (data extracted from Nieva et al. [46], Torres et al. [55], Mejia et al. [48]).
The close proximity of hot spring water to the local meteoric water line indicates the
dominance of near-surface processes in their formation.
Figure 27.30 presents a summary of isotopic data from cold surface manifestations
and hot springs from different thermal sites in Honduras, as well as the composition of
geothermal fluids from the Platanares wells. As a general trend, hot springs and cold
waters are closely related to the isotopic composition of the local meteoric water line
(Honduras Meteoric Water Line), indicating deep circulation of meteoric water is a
major component of the thermal discharge. Additionally, rock leaching processes in the
convective cycle are suggested by a ten times chemical enrichment of thermal waters in
comparison to cold meteoric water. Hot springs from the El Olivar site show an
exceptional enrichment of both isotopes, indicating favorable thermal conditions
underground. Recharge probably occurred from higher elevations, as indicated by
lower deuterium values of thermal sites than present cold water outcrops.
Published isotopic data from thermal sites in Nicaragua are limited to geothermal
wells and surface manifestations at the Momotombo geothermal field, and to individual
data from some lakes and isolated hot springs. Figure 27.31 shows the composition of
829

Figure 27.30. Isotopic composition of cold and hot springs from several potential thermal sites in
Honduras, as well as geothermal fluids form the geothermal reservoir of Platanares (data
extracted from Goff et al. [90], Truesdell et al. [89]).
six geothermal wells in Momotombo during the initial phase of production in 1989, as
well as adjacent surface manifestations. The position of geothermal fluids close to the
GMWL, as well as elevated tritium concentration around 6 T.U. [98], indicate reservoir
recharge by cold fluids. The further shift of the values towards the GMWL during
production (until 1994) supports the hypothesis of meteoric water infiltration. The
Obraje hot spring and the Apoyo caldera lake are very close to the common meteoric
composition, whereas Lake Managua waters show a slight positive isotopic shift,
probably due to evaporation processes.

Figure 27.31. Isotopic composition of reservoir fluids and surface manifestation from the
Momotombo field in Nicaragua, and surface water from Obraje hot spring and Managua and
Apoyo lakes (data from Verma et al. [98], Menyailov et al. [99]).
Comparing the isotopic composition of thermal fluids in Central America, some

interesting features should be pointed out: Reservoir fluids from Guatemala (Zunil,

Figure 27.32. Summary of the isotopic composition of reservoir fluids and surface manifestations
from thermal sites in Guatemala and El Salvador.
Amatitln) and El Salvador sites (Berln, Ahuachapn) plot far from the local meteoric
water line, indicating the dominance of mixing processes of surface water with
magmatic fluids and/or temperature induced water-rock interactions (Fig. 27.32). All
geothermal fluids are enriched in both hydrogen and oxygen isotopes in comparison to
their adjacent hot water springs, except for the Berln geothermal field, which displays
an exclusively positive /18O-shift.
Hot water and acid springs from adjacent surface manifestations (also including the
thermal springs from San Marcos and Tecuamburro in Guatemala) are located parallel
to the Western Guatemala Meteoric Water Line (GMWL) with a broad range from
lowest values in Zunil towards most positive values in Tecuamburro. The proximity of
thermal surface manifestations to a meteoric water composition reflects their
atmospheric origin. More negative hydrogen and oxygen isotopic ratios in Zunil
springs can be partially explained by the high altitude of the zone (2000 m a.s.l.) and
locally cooler climatic conditions, whereas sites such as Berln are isotopically enriched
due, in part, to their lower elevational positions (600 m a.s.l.). Some of the geothermal
fluids and hot springs in the Zunil zone show a common isotopic composition,
indicating the vertical hydraulic contact of isotopically enriched spring fluids with the
geothermal reservoir.
Comparing the isotopic composition of thermal sites in Honduras and Nicaragua,
most thermal springs are characterized by a typical meteoric composition, located close
to the GMWL (Fig. 27.33). Some springs in El Olivar (Honduras) and Momotombo
(Nicaragua) with an extreme positive isotopic shift probably represent steam-heated,
fumarole-derived fluids. A large range of 18O and D-values for hot springs around
the Momotombo geothermal field support the heterogeneous character and origin of
surface manifestations. Similar to the geothermal zones in Zunil, Amatitln, and
831

Figure 27.33. Summary of the isotopic composition of reservoir fluids and surface manifestations
from thermal sites in Honduras and Nicaragua.
Ahuachapn, mixing of infiltrating water with a magmatic component probably causes

the isotopic enrichment of Momotombo geothermal fluids. As an exception to the
geothermal sites studied, reservoir fluids from Platanares (Honduras) are isotopically
very close to meteoric-type waters and similar to their adjacent surface springs.
In general, the homogeneous hydrogen and oxygen isotopic compositions of
geothermal fluids from El Salvador (Berln and Ahuachapn) indicate a common origin
for both reservoirs, although Ahuachapn is located in the western part of the country
and Berln in the SE. Similar geothermal fluids with D and 18O-enrichment are also
encountered in Momotombo (Nicaragua), which can be related to similar volcanotectonic conditions in El Salvador and Nicaragua along the NWSE directed
Occidental cordillera. Recharged by isotopically depleted meteoric water, reservoir
fluids from Guatemala are generally less enriched in stable isotopes in comparison to
fluids from El Salvador and Nicaragua thermal regions. In contrast, the site of greatest
geothermal potential in Honduras, the Platanares geothermal reservoir, is probably
formed by direct infiltration and convective heating of meteoric water.
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Chapter 28
Gas geochemistry of volcanic and hydrothermal
fluids
TOBIAS P. FISCHER, ALISON M. SHAW AND DAVID R. HILTON
It is, therefore, pertinent to inquire how the
kind and amount of components of the gas
are related to the specific volcano, to the
chemistry of its eruptive products, to the
fumaroles location relative to volcanic
features such as vents or flows, and how the
chemical data and time of collection relate
to the eruptive cycle of the volcanoes.
R.E. Stoiber and W.I. Rose: The
Geochemistry of Central American Volcanic
Gas Condensates, 1970.
28.1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter focuses on the volatile systematics of the Central American volcanic front
(CAVF) highlighting the current state of knowledge regarding the chemical and
isotopic characteristics of volcanic and hydrothermal gas emissions. The region has an
illustrious history of pioneering volcanic gas studies, starting with Stoibers work on
gas condensates in the 1960s [1]. In the 1970s, SO2 flux measurements at seven Central
America volcanoes resulted in the first estimates of global volcanic SO2 emissions [2].
Since that time, the high level of activity of Central America volcanoes [3] has
continued to provide opportunities to develop and test new ideas about volcanic
processes and volcanic gas emissions.
The key to understanding the distribution of gas emanations in Central America lies
with the distribution of active volcanoes. Figure 28.1 shows the locations of active
volcanoes along the CAVF. The average spacing of the volcanoes is only 25 km,
considerably less than the 4070 km found between volcanoes at other subduction
zones [4]. Numerous publications are available describing types and locations of
volcanic activity in the region and the occurrence of associated hydrothermal activity.
The reader is directed to the following sources for a general description: Mooser,
Meyer-Abich and McBirney [5], Waring [6] and Simkin and Siebert [3]. However,
there are also reports of behind-the-front hydrothermal activity, particularly in
Honduras [7]; therefore, degassing of magmatic volatiles is not restricted to the
volcanic front region, but also occurs in the backarc region, albeit to a lesser extent.
It should be noted that volcanic gases are released both during active eruption
periods (active degassing when volcanoes are actively ejecting lava and/or tephra
during eruptions) and during periods of apparent volcanic quiescence (passive
degassing as illustrated by Masaya volcano in Fig. 28.2a). Due to the relatively short
duration of volcanic eruptions, the amount of volatiles degassed during quiescent
Figure 28.1. Volcanoes of Central America. The average spacing of active volcanoes along the
CAVF is only 25 km.
periods exceeds that released during eruptions by approximately one order of

magnitude [8]. The means by which volatiles are lost from volcanoes include direct
outgassing from magma bodies, and transfer of magma-derived gases to hydrothermal
systems and subsequent transfer to the surface via various hydrothermal manifestations
(e.g., fumaroles, thermal springs, mud pots; see examples in Figs. 28.2b and 28.2c).
The scope of the present contribution includes a review of published literature on
the chemical and isotopic compositions of volcanic and hydrothermal gas discharges
from the Central America arc and any associated estimates of gas fluxes. The
methodology of resolving fluxes into component parts is described in detail. The goal
of such studies is to identify and quantify the contribution of volatiles derived from the
subducting slab, the mantle wedge and the overlying crust. In this way, the issue of
volatile mass balance (input along the trench and output through degassing volcanoes)
along the CAVF can be addressed. The utility of volatile chemistry in resource
management strategies, particularly as they relate to geothermal energy, is also discussed.
Power production from geothermal energy plays an increasingly important role in
many American countries (details about geothermal energy in Chapters 26, 27 and 29)
and volatile studies represent an integral part of the development of this widely-available
natural resource. Volatiles are also extremely useful in assessing natural hazards, and
monitoring studies aimed at identifying changes in volcanic activity are described. Finally,
the chapter concludes by focusing on some of the unresolved issues associated with Central
American volatile studies.
28.2
SUMMARY OF PRIOR WORK
28.2.1 Studies of gas chemistry

Early studies of volcanic emissions in Central America focused on fumarole
condensates and showed that high temperature gases are dominated by chlorine (up to
Figure 28.2. (a) Masaya volcano, Nicaragua a consistently passive degassing volcano of
several thousand tons of SO2 per day; (b) Fumaroles (~300 C) at Cerro Negro volcano,
Nicaragua; (c) bubbling mudpots at Rincn de la Vieja, Costa Rica; (d) Momotombo
volcano, Nicaragua has persistently high temperature fumaroles (> 800 C) in its crater and
has been the site for pioneering studies in gas geochemistry since the 1980s; (e) Pos volcano
(Costa Rica): The gases discharging from fumaroles have very low N2/He ratios,
characteristic of upper mantle derived volatiles, with only minor additions from subducted
sediments Pos crater also contains an acid lake that shows dynamic changes in water
level, pH and temperature and serves as a natural condenser of magmatic volatiles and
heat; (f) Geothermal power plant at the foot of Momotombo volcano (Nicaragua). Geothermal
energy production in the CAVF is often very closely associated with active volcanism.
841
7300 ppm at Cerro Negro) and sulfur (generally in the 10s of ppm range) [1]. Stoiber
and Rose [9] identified over 40 different minerals, mostly sulfates, at approximately
100 high temperature fumaroles associated with Central American volcanoes. This
work, together with those of Naboko [10, 11], was the first comprehensive study of
fumarole incrustations that related mineralogy to variations in temperature, gas
composition and oxygen partial pressure of the emitted gas flux.
Related studies of the volcanic gas phase, often conducted in parallel, continued
through the 1970s and 1980s with important time-series measurements of hightemperature fumaroles at Momotombo (Fig. 28.2d) [12] accompanied by associated
thermodynamic evaluations of gas species equilibria [13]. Gas compositions and fluxes
of explosive volcanoes were first determined for Fuego, Guatemala using a variety of
techniques including direct gas sampling and remote sensing. These studies resulted in
an estimate of magma degassing rates. The magma degassing budget clearly showed
that much more magma is degassed than erupted [14]: a fact that is now widely
recognized at many explosive volcanoes as the excess sulfur problem [1517]. The
flux of halogen gases from active volcanoes was determined at Masaya, Nicaragua,
with variations in SO2 flux and the S/Cl ratio being shown to reflect the greater
solubility of HCl in the magma compared to that of SO2 [18]. In the late 1980s and
early 1990s, several gas geochemistry studies focused on lower temperature,
hydrothermal systems (e.g., [19, 20]).
Table 28.1 shows the locations and characteristics of identified volcanic and
hydrothermal features that have free gas discharges. High temperature samples are
found at Pacaya, Momotombo, Cerro Negro, San Cristbal and Pos. These gases are
dominated by water, CO2, SO2 and HCl, with very low CH4, as is typical for high
temperature discharges (e.g., [21, 22]). Low temperature (boiling point) gases contain
mostly water, CO2, H2S, H2 and CH4 characteristic of more reduced hydrothermal
systems (Table 28.2). Using geochemical and isotopic evidence, Giggenbach and
Corrales [19] showed that discharging geothermal fluids in Guanacaste, Costa Rica
have significant deep magmatic contributions in addition to the expected meteoric and
shallow groundwater components. Their study was one of the first regional studies that
included the complete chemical composition of gas and water discharges, as well as
oxygen and hydrogen isotope data of the fluids. The hydrothermal systems of the
Guanacaste range include Rincn de la Vieja, Miravalles, and Tenorio, with each
showing surface manifestations such as vapor discharges, steam-heated pools and low
temperature SO4-Cl and neutral Cl springs on the flanks of the volcanoes (see also
Chapter 27 for chemical-isotopic fluid description). While chemical and isotopic evidence
suggests that these waters are dominantly of meteoric origin, they also contain magmatic
volatile constituents transferred to the groundwaters during deep circulation. Rising waters
boil and the separated vapors feed the fumaroles and steam-heated features at the surface.
The general uniformity of the gas and water compositions suggests that the individual
hydrothermal systems are linked at depth to form a large continuous geothermal reservoir
with maximum temperatures of 248 C [19]. In Guatemala, the Tecuamburro region is
characterized by non-boiling acid sulfate springs, mudpots and steam-heated pools (see
Chapters 26 and 27). Maximum geothermometer temperatures applied to the neutral
chloride waters are 180 C and reservoir temperatures up to 310 C are inferred by gas
geothermometry [20]. Hydrogeochemical data suggests that there are two separate
hydrothermal convection systems, separated by a major NW-trending structural boundary,
the Ixpaco
fault [20]. Other geothermal systems located along the volcanic front include
2
Pacaya and Zunil in Guatemala, Ahuachapn in El Salvador, and Momotombo in
Nicaragua. While most hydrothermal activity is concentrated along the arc, the backarc
Figure 28.3. N2/He and CO2/He of gas discharges (modified from Hilton et al. [25]). MORB data
(squares) are from Marty and Zimmermann [26]. Costa Rica gases have consistently lower
N /He ratios than other arc-related emissions.
region (behind-the-volcanic-front) can also be an important source of volatiles, thus

providing further insight into subduction zone processes. The Platanares hydrothermal
system, located in the backarc region of Honduras, is the most well-studied backarc system
in Central America. The region is tectonically active and characterized by extensive
extensional normal faulting and graben formation in the Neogene [23]. The geothermal
reservoir at Platanares is hosted in Miocene andesite and altered Cretaceous to Eocene
sedimentary rocks and has deep fluid temperatures of 200245 C [23] (see site
description in Chapter 26). Geochemical and isotopic indicators suggest that high
temperature (> 225 C) fluids ascend, and then cool conductively, forming the lower
temperature (160165 C) shallow reservoir that has been observed using test wells (see
hydrochemical-isotopic model in Chapter 27). Contrary to the volcano-hosted systems
along the arc, Platanares fluids do not receive a significant magmatic input. The thermal
activity results from the deep circulation of meteoric waters into hot rock that has been
heated by conduction from below [23], although elevated 3He/4He ratios indicate a
nominal mantle volatile contribution [24].
The chemical and isotopic compositions of volcanic and geothermal gases from
Central America show a wide range of values, overlapping with the range found at arcs
world-wide [25] and in mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB) [26]. Figure 28.3 shows the
CO2/He and N2/He ratios of arc gas emissions and MORB glasses. The CO2/He and
N2/He ratios of arc-related gases are generally several orders of magnitude higher than
values found in MORB. Costa Rica, however, shows consistently lower N2/He ratios
than the rest of the Central American arc (Nicaragua, Guatemala, El Salvador) and
other arcs world-wide. CO2/He ratios, on the other hand, fall within the typical range
for arc volatiles. The low N2/He ratios of Costa Rica volatiles (as sampled by Pos
volcano, Fig. 28.2e) have been attributed to off-scraping of the upper-most hemipelagic
layer in the subducted sedimentary package [27]. Therefore, Costa Rica gas discharges
sample volatiles that are typical of the upper mantle. The most recent studies of
843
Table 28.1. Geothermal and volcanic features with gas emissions.

Latitude
Longitude
T (C)
Type
14 46.693
91 30.542
93
nd
nd
94.7
14 28.590
90 52.816
87.7
14 28.395
14 27.074
14 24.695
90 36.140
90 38.572
90 35.807
93.8
76.4
steam
S
S
W
14 11.577
14 09.129
90 25.394
90 24.871
77.8
93.1
S
F
14 03.215
14 00.541
90 05.831
90 06.068
85.9
80.7
F
M
14 4149.9
87 04 35.7
89.3
14 45 73.5
15 46 49.6
15 36 18.7
15 08 13.4
14 43 09.9
15 06 37.6
88 55 17.5
86 37 18.0
87 10 08.2
87 52 25.5
88 08 11.5
87 57 03.6
94.5
99.1
77.5
79.9
73.4
69.4
S
S
S
S
S
S
15 36 18.7
87 10 08.2
77.4
13 23 57.7
87 19 06.9
100.1
13 37 26.1
88 51 04.8
93.7
13 56 04.4
89 47 15.3
59.7
13 54 17.0
89 49 06.9
78.4
13 54 03.9
89 45 53.8
95.1
13 54 49.8
89 45 23.3
96.1
13 50 57.1
89 37 42.5
400
13 48 51.9
89 37 58.8
69
13 30 30.4
13 30 09.9
88 21 34.0
88 19 39.6
97.5
97.8
F
M
13 12 10.3
87 43 02.6
98.6
13 30 48.8
13 31 16.8
88 30 48.6
88 30 29.9
97.6
W
F
Guatemala
Zunil
San Marcos
La Cimarrn
Fuego volcano
crater
Amatitln-Pacaya
Lake Shore
Hot water dyke
Laguna de caldera
Tecuamburro
Laguna Ixpacho
Sulfur mine
Moyuta
Las Guineas
Mirram El Volcn
Honduras
San Ignacio
Platanares
Quebr. Del Agua Caliente
Sambo creek
Ro Aguas Caliente
El Olivar (Rancho Chico)
Isla de Agua Caliente
Laguna Agua Caliente
La Masica
Agua Caliente
San Lorenzo
La Pavana
El Salvador
San Vicente geothermal area
La Carbonera
Ahuachapn La Labor
flank location
Agua Shuca
flank location
Cuyanaul volcano
flank location
El Tortugero
flank location
Santa Ana volcano
crater
Izalco volcano
summit
Chinameca
La Viejona
Los Hervideros
Meanguera
Infiernillos
Berln geothermal area
TR2
TR7

Latitude
Longitude
T (C)
Type
11 50.055
85 58.942
110.4
11 59.945
12 12.182
86 9.043
86 5.524
72.5
70.3
F
S
12 13.860
86 19.362
71.4
12 25.455
12 24.013
12 26.420
12 29.902
86 32.325
86 33.208
86 36.807
86 16.685
747
~300
47.2
86.1
F
F
W
W
12 30.415
86 42.091
310
12 37.687
12 34.902
86 49.673
86 46.756
78.5
84.6
F
S
12 42.120
87 0.240
95.6
12 57.877
87 29.623
42.2
10 01.156
83 45.937
89.6
9 59.723
83 47.308
88.5
10 11.883
84 13.719
92.8
10 21. 072
10 21. 072
10 21. 087
84 13. 279
84 13. 279
84 40. 534
46
46
59.5
S
S
S
10 28. 692
10 29. 720
10 28. 996
84 44. 110
84 21. 804
84 40. 830
34
n.a.
41.1
S
S
S
10 42.777
10 42.349
84 10. 638
85 11.630
88.6
233
S
W
10 46.372
10 48.588
85 20.652
85 24.782
65.3
99
S
S
Nicaragua
Mombacho
crater
Masaya
Cerro el Comolito
Tipitapa
Xiloa
lake
Momotombo
Summit crater
Ormat power plant
La Chistata
San Francisco Libre
Cerro Negro
crater
Telica
Summit
San Jacinto
San Cristbal
crater
Cosegina
La Vatidora
Costa Rica
Turrialba volcano
crater
Iraz volcano
flank
Pos volcano
crater
Chacosuela-Platanar volcanic system
Recreo Verde
La Marina
Poco Sol
Arenal volcano
Quebrada Lava
Quebrada Naranja
Baldi Thermal Resort
Miravalles volcano
Hornillas
Miravalles power plant
Rincn de la Vieja
Las Paillas
Borinquen
Type: F = fumarole; S = bubbling spring; M = mudpot; W = geothermal well; n.d. not

determined; n.a. not stated.
volcanic and hydrothermal gas studies (e.g., [28, 29]) have focused on linking the
chemical and isotopic compositions of volatiles to subduction zone forcing functions
such as slab dip, crustal thickness, composition of subducted sediments and/or thermal
regime of the subducted slab. The topics of volatile provenance and mass balance
within the subduction zone are discussed in more detail below.
845
28.2.2 Volatile flux studies

Correlation spectrometers (COSPEC) are the standard instruments used to measure SO2
fluxes from volcanoes. These instruments were first developed in the 1960s to measure
pollution emitted from industrial and chemical plants (as SO2 and NO2), but their utility
for volcanic flux measurements was recognized shortly thereafter. The COSPEC was
first used at Mt Mihara volcano, Japan, in April 1971. Today, COSPEC measurements
remain the basis for the majority of global volcanic volatile flux estimates [25] and
provide the most extensive data set regarding volcanic gas fluxes [30].
The first SO2 flux measurements of the CAVF were made by Stoiber and students
from Dartmouth College [2, 31]. These early measurements included Santiaguito,
Fuego and Pacaya in Guatemala [31]; San Miguel in El Salvador and San Cristbal,
Telica and Masaya in Nicaragua [32] (Table 28.3). The first global estimate of the
annual contribution of SO2 to the atmosphere by non-erupting volcanoes was
exclusively based on measurements of the CAVF [2]. Stoibers estimate of 10 Tg/a is
very similar to much later estimates of 15.2 Tg/a [8], 18.7 Tg/a [33], 20 Tg/a [34] 13
Tg/a [30] and 13.4 Tg/a [25]. This suggests that the gas fluxes from the CAVF are, to a
certain extent, quite typical of active volcanoes located in subduction zone settings
worldwide. The first direct gas samples from a volcanic eruption cloud were collected
at Pacaya, Fuego and Santiaguito volcanoes (Guatemala) in 1978 [35]. These unique
samples showed that most of the water in volcanic eruption clouds is of meteoric origin
and that volcanic clouds contain large amount of SO2, HCl, HBr, HF and SO24.
Samples were also collected in evacuated stainless steel canisters for measurements of
H2S, COS, CO2, CO and SO2 by gas chromatography [35]. These early results have
been subsequently confirmed by studies of volcanic plumes using remote sensing
spectroscopic techniques such as Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectrometry [36]
and Differential Optical Absorption Spectrometry (DOAS) [37]; however, these recent
studies are much more focused on detecting one or only a few species in volcanic
plumes.
Crater lakes act as efficient natural condensers of magmatic volatiles and
investigations of lake chemistry reveal important information on the heat and volatile
budget of volcanoes. A study of Pos crater lake (Costa Rica, Fig. 28.2e) by Brantley
et al. [38] in the late 1980s showed that the volcano releases 0.79 Gg/a of fluorine,
15 Gg/a of chlorine and 13 Gg/a of sulfur into the lake. The power output from the
volcano during passive degassing in 19881989 was equivalent to 200 MW. Because
volcanic lakes are dynamic systems, temperature, pH and water levels change over
time [39]. The lake level at Pos dropped rapidly over a two-year period up to April
1989 when only scattered boiling mud pots remained. During that time, large bodies of
molten sulfur were observed at the former lake bottom. This was the first reported
observation of terrestrial sulfur lakes [40] a feature now widely recognized at
volcano-hosted acid lakes around the world. Besides Pos, Santa Ana and Tecapa
(El Salvador) and Rincn de la Vieja (Costa Rica) have acid crater lakes.
Sulfur dioxide flux data measured at individual volcanoes can be combined with
measurements of elemental ratios (SO2/x where x = CO2, N2, H2O, He, etc.) to provide
flux data for species, which cannot be measured directly (see [25]). This method
assumes that the gas composition measured at fumaroles is representative of the gas
emitted by the volcanic plume. Since COSPEC measurements can only be made on
large flux volcanoes (i.e., those with a discernable plume), it is necessary to account for
the contribution of smaller flux volcanoes to estimate a total flux for a given arc. One
Table 28.2. Volcanic and hydrothermal gas composition from Central America.
T
H 2O
CO2 St
SO2 H2S
HCl
Volcanic
1)
Ar
H2
O2 N2
CH4
CO
90.0 4.76
92.6 5.20
68.8 26.80
12.5 48.40
95.0 1.35 2.8
/ /18O /13C Ref.
mol% total gas

0.00015 0.0473 0.023 0.693 4.3 0.00024
0.308
0.470 0.34 0.380 0.007
0.300
0.002
0.017
0.006 0.002
0.015
4.3
38.830
0.250 0.050
0.002
0.380 0.015
0.900
0.1 0.0004
0.02
0.012
16.6 4.96 3.1

11 6.8 2.2
26
129
12
12
12
130
mol% dry gas
Hydrothermal
Tecuamburro (GT)
L. Ixpaco5)
Zunil (GT)6)
Rincn de la Vieja (CR)7)
Rincn de la Vieja (CR)8)
Miravalles (CR)9)
Platanares (HN)10)
Berln (ES)11)
San Vicente (ES)12)
Ahuachapn (ES)13)
He
94.7
93
96
98
136
98.5
300
97
255
89.61
98.59
93.2
97.5
96.7
85.55
81.9
97.5 .17
86.8
7.28
7.20
3.52
1.49
0.76
2.13
6.53
12.1
0.028
0.00035
0.00014
0.0003
0.00033
0.00011
0.0006
0.0015
0.0005
0.0056
0.0056
0.036
0.003
0.02
0.082
0.065
0.075
3.02 0.0047
0.192 <0.002 0.69 .020 <5 ! 10
5
0.41
2.7 0.061
0.39 0.002 0.5 0.042 <0.0048
0.33
1.7 0.011
0.029
3.4
0.76 <0.0048
0.333
0.016
2.277 0.200
0.052 0.00019
0.126
0.05
0.03 0.013
3.3
20
10
74
19
74
20
87
90
7
Mean composition of 3 fumaroles, isotopes from 790 C vent, 2)1-CN sample of Menyaylov et al. [12], 3) 11-SC sample of Meyaylov et al. [12], 4)Highest
temperature sample collected, 5) Highest temperature location (frying pan), 6)Sample collected at fumarole in geothermal field, Fischer unpul. results,
7)
Borinquen thermal area, mudpot, 8) Las Pailas LV locality, 9) Well PGM1, 10)PL 27 (boilg hot spring) of Janik et al., 11)Well TR-2 sampled in 1995;
temperature is reservoir temperature, 12) Los Infernillos hot spring, 13 )Average from wells collected using steam separators.
GT Guatemala, HN Honduras, ES El Salvador, NI Nicaragua, CR Costa Rica.
Pacaya (GT) 1992

342
Momotombo (NI) 19821) 535790
Cerro Negro (NI) 19852)
310
San Cristbal (NI) 19853)
637
Pos (CR) 19814)
940
HF
847
approach assumes that volcanic emissions for any arc segment follows a power law
distribution [41] which can be used to estimate a total flux.
In the case of N, Fischer et al. [27] applied this approach to the Central American
arc and calculated an excess N flux of 2.9 108 mol/a (i.e., non-atmospheric N),
assuming a total SO2 flux of 2.1 1010 mol/a, a SO2/N2 ratio of 12.6. Likewise, Hilton
et al. [25] used this method to estimate a total CO2 flux of 5.8 1010 mol/a for the CAVF.
An alternative method of deriving fluxes at arcs is to assume that the primordial 3He
flux is constant at all arcs and combine this estimate with measurements of x/3He. For
example, Shaw et al. [29] calculated a CO2 flux of 7.1 1010 mol/a for the CAVF
assuming an average CO2/3He ratio of 2.3 1010 and a global 3He arc flux of 92.4
mol/a [25] scaled to the length of the CAVF (using a trench length of 1450 km [42],
relative to the global trench length of 43,400 km [43]).
There are a number of caveats associated with both flux calculation techniques
including the uncertainty of global 3He arc flux estimates, the large variation in
measured SO2/x ratios for a given arc and the error associated with individual COSPEC
measurements (estimated at 1040% [32]). However, despite these caveats, comparison
of the two techniques in the case of CO2 yielded remarkably similar results (5.8 1010
mol/a vs. 7.1 1010 mol/a [29]).
Magmatic volatiles are also released through soil on the flanks of volcanoes and
along fault zones. Quantification of diffuse soil degassing has been the focus of
numerous recent studies (see [44] for a review). Salazar et al. [45] performed a detailed
study of the spatial and temporal variations of diffuse CO2 emissions from the Santa
Ana-Izalco-Coatepeque volcanic complex, El Salvador and showed that the CO2 flux
varies at diurnal and semi-diurnal frequencies. The total CO2 flux from the complex
was estimated at 600 tons/day (7.8 109 mol/a) with observed short-term temporal
variations apparently controlled by variations in barometric pressure and wind speed.
At Ilopango caldera, El Salvador, Lopez et al. [46] used a double boundary layer model
to estimate the CO2 flux from the lake and the soils of the caldera. Their CO2 flux of
approximately 6401100 tons/day is similar to that of Santa Ana, yet significantly
lower than what was measured by Perez et al. [47] at nearby San Salvador volcano,
El Salvador (~4000 tons/day).
Diffuse CO2 emissions from other Central American volcanoes obtained using the
same techniques are: ~100 tons/day at Pos, ~2800 tons/day at Cerro Negro and 28,800
tons/day at Masaya [47]. At San Salvador volcano, the source of the CO2 is constrained
by the measured C isotopic composition, and < 1% (~40 tons/day or 5.2 108 mol/a) is
estimated to be of magmatic origin [47]. Therefore, although the soil CO2 flux greatly
exceeds the flux degassing from volcanic vents, only a small proportion of that flux
(< 1%) is believed to be of magmatic origin the overwhelming majority of the CO2
is derived from the degradation of organic matter.
28.3
SOURCES OF VOLATILES
There is compelling evidence from melt inclusions [4850] and volcanic gas studies
[22, 51, 52] that magmas originating from the sub-arc mantle have higher relative
abundances of H2O, CO2 and N2 than magmas derived from mid-ocean ridges (see also
Fig. 28.3). It has been argued that addition of these volatiles to the MORB-like mantle
wedge underlying arcs is caused by devolatilization of sediments and oceanic crust
subducted into the mantle [5357]. Considerations of metamorphic devolatilization
Table 28.3. SO2 flux measurements at Central American volcanoes.

Early measurements
SO2 flux
Mg/d
Andres & Kasgnock, 1998 [30]

SO2 flux
Mg/d
Mmol/yr
Guatemala
Fuego
Santiaguito
Pacaya
1001)
25015002)
640
230
510
3647
1311
2906
20
20
114
114
790
590
84
73
4502
3362
479
416
500
110
2849
627
El Salvador
Izalco
Santa Ana
Nicaragua
Masaya
San Cristbal
Telica
Momotombo
15020003)
5020004)
Costa Rica
Pos
Arenal
1)
calculated flux for 24 hr period including eruptions.

non-eruptive from Stoiber and Jepsen [2] and Stoiber and Bratton [31].
3)
non-eruptive from Williams et al., 1980, cited in [32].
4)
non-eruptive from Hazlett 1977, cited in [32].
2)
reactions and associated H2O and CO2 budgets support the idea of massive release of
volatiles from the subducting slab into the mantle wedge [5860]. Since volatile
components are an integral part of volcanic systems, understanding how they are
cycled through subduction zones is fundamental to arc-related studies. Most of the
volatile components in arc magmas are derived from sedimentary components;
however, altered oceanic crust, as well as the mantle wedge and the crust through
which the magmas ascend, can also contribute volatiles. A key approach to quantifying
the contributions of volatiles from subducted sediments, oceanic crust and the mantle
wedge is to combine C, N and He isotopic studies with the chemical composition of the
gas discharges.
28.3.1 Approaches to resolving volatile provenance

Through studies of high temperature gas emissions from Momotombo (Nicaragua),
Allard [61] was the first to recognize that the C-isotope composition of CO2
discharging from arc volcanoes had a signature that is characteristic of subducted
sedimentary carbonates. Based on this realization, he combined measured SO2/CO2
ratios with SO2 flux estimates, to suggest that Momotombo recycles 2.5 to 3 1010 g/a
of subducted sedimentary CO2. He noted that this flux was similar to the flux of
carbonate-derived CO2 subducted annually along a 2 km long segment of the Cocos
plate. More detailed investigations of carbon provenance in arc volatiles have built on
this pioneering work by using a three-component mixing model [55] involving carbon
derived from (1) subducted limestone and/or marine carbonate (L), (2) subducted
sedimentary organic-derived carbon (S), and (3) the mantle wedge (M). Using the
following equations, the relative contributions (expressed as fractions f) from the
849
Figure 28.4. (a) CO2/3He and 13C of Central American gas discharges: The mixing lines
connecting the endmembers are calculated using the approach of Sano and Marty [55]; see
text for references and discussion; (b) N2/He and 15N of Central American gas discharges
(from Fischer et al. [27]); see text for discussion.
various sources can be determined:

(13C/12C)obs = fM(13C/12C)M + fL(13C/12C)L + fS(13C/12C)S
(1)
1/(12C/3He)obs = fM/(12C/3He)M + fL/(12C/3He)L + fS/(12C/3He)S
(2)
fM + fL + fS = 1
(3)
13
Endmember compositions used in prior studies [52, 53] are M: C = 6.5,

C/3He = 1.5 109; L: 13C = 0, 12C/3He = 1013; S: 13C = 30, 12C/3He = 1013.
Using this model, the compositions of Central American volatiles are shown in Figure
28.4a. Although samples show contributions from all 3 sources, it is noted that the
origin of C in most samples is dominantly from L and M sources. Guatemalan
emissions show the strongest sedimentary organic C signal, which is consistent with N
isotope studies (see following section).
There are two potential problems with the 3-component mixing approach [25, 62]:
(1) the effect of crustal volatiles is not considered, and (2) the 13C value of organic
matter (30) may be unrepresentative since it may be fractionated to heavier values
upon subduction [6365]. In order to circumvent the first problem, He isotopes can be
used to identify those samples which have been significantly modified by crustal
contamination. The He isotopic signature of gas discharges is particularly suited to
identify crustal contamination because the upper mantle (as sampled by MORB) has a
3
He/4He signature of 8 1 RA (where RA is the 3He/4He ratio of air: 1.4 106), whereas
crustal He is characterized by a 3He/4He ratio which is significantly lower ~0.010.05
RA [66]. Gas emissions from volcanic arcs world-wide have a mean 3He/4He ratio of
5.37 1.87 RA and in many localities approach MORB values. Therefore, samples that
have 3He/4He ratios less than that of the world-wide arc average should be considered
contaminated by crustal He and treated with caution when investigating the sources of
mantle volatiles (see [25, 29, 62]). The second point is somewhat problematic since the
behavior of organic matter at depth is poorly known. However, if the relative
contributions of C from the various sources for a given sample are recalculated using a
higher 13C value, the proportions do not change drastically since the 13C of organic
12
matter (including the extreme equilibrium value of 12 [67]) is significantly lower

than that of either the L (0) or M (6.5) endmembers.
Potential N sources in volcanic arcs include the mantle wedge, subducting
sediments, and air [68]. Generally high N2/He ratios (8008000 in arcs vs. 10150 in
MORB; [26, 52, 68, 69]) have been ascribed to the addition of N from subducted
marine sediments [27, 52, 70, 71]. Addition of sedimentary N to arc volcanoes is
further supported by isotopic evidence showing that arc nitrogen has higher 15N/14N
ratios than air [27, 68]. With reference to air (15N = 0.0), mantle nitrogen, as
measured in fresh MORB glass samples, has an isotopic composition of 5 (15N/14N
in per mil notation; [69]) whereas marine sediments are +7 4 [68, 72, 73].
Nitrogen provenance in subduction zones can be resolved into component parts
using a three component mixing model following the approach of Sano et al. [68]:
15Nobs = fM 15NM + fS 15NS + fA 15NA
(4)
1/(N2/He) = fM/(N2/He)M + fS/(N2/He)S + fA/(N2/He)A
(5)
fM + fS + fA = 1
(6)
where obs is the observed value, and M, S, A are the contributions from mantle, marine
sediments, and air, respectively.
Figure 28.4b shows the N2/He and 15N values for Costa Rica and Guatemala gas
discharges, and highlights the different contributions to the N budget along the arc.
Guatemala volatiles are characterized by high N2/He, typical of arcs, and positive 15N
values, characteristic of subducted oceanic sediments. Costa Rica, on the other hand,
has N2/He similar to MORB mantle with negative 15N values. The contribution of N
from subducted sediments is up to 90% in Guatemala, whereas Costa Rica volatiles
sample primarily the mantle wedge without significant sedimentary input from the
subducting slab [27]. Possible explanations for the low contribution of N from
subducted sediments in Costa Rica have been proposed by Fischer et al. [27] and
Zimmer et al. [74] and include: (1) underplating of the uppermost section of the
sediment column, (2) forearc devolatilization of N from clay-rich marls, due to the
potentially warmer thermal regime of the subducted slab adjacent to Costa Rica. This
results from a shallower slab dip in Costa Rica than in the rest of the arc, and (3) limited
fluid availability per unit mantle off Costa Rica and therefore limited N release from
subducting sediments.
28.3.2 Sediment recycling of volatiles

28.3.2.1 Evidence of recycling
There are several lines of evidence in support of subducted sediment recycling through
the CAVF: these are mainly based on the geochemistry of arc lavas (e.g., B, Ba/La,
10
Be [4, 7578]). With the notable exception of Allards work at Momotombo [61],
there have been relatively few reports of the application of volatile studies to
investigate recycling processes along the CAVF. This situation is now changing, and
there are several recent studies involving N [27, 74, 79] and C [28, 29] systematics in
hydrothermal fluids (fumaroles, bubbling hot spring, and geothermal well gases),
851
which are providing new insight into how sedimentary components are recycled
through the Central American subduction zone.
The CAVF is the ideal site to investigate C recycling since the subducting sequence
on the down-going plate is relatively homogeneous along the strike of the arc and the
lithology is particularly carbonate rich (~26.55 wt% [42]). CO2/3He ratios measured in
geothermal fluids along the arc [28, 29] are high relative to mid-ocean ridges (CO2/3He =
2 109 [55]), likely due to CO 2 release from the subducting slab (from both the
sediments and the altered oceanic crust). In addition, the observation of high 13C
values (mostly > 3) in the volcanic output [28, 29] is consistent with derivation of
the CO2 predominantly from a slab component, either limestone or marine carbonate
(13C = 0) (see also Fig. 28.4a).
Although there is evidence for C recycling along the entire arc system, there are
significant along strike variations. For example, based on combined CO2/3He and 13C
systematic of volatiles in Nicaragua and Costa Rica, Shaw et al. [29] calculated a
higher contribution of C from slab related sources (limestone-marine carbonate (L) and
sedimentary organic C (S)) to mantle (M) components for Nicaragua (average (L+S)/M =
16), as compared to Costa Rica (average (L+S)/M = 10). This was attributed to a higher
slab flux in Nicaragua, due to a cooler thermal regime, or to sediment loss off Costa
Rica by underplating. Likewise, Fischer et al. [27] found striking differences between
the N isotope characteristics of geothermal fluids from volcanic centers in Guatemala
and Costa Rica. Despite the similar sedimentary sequences being input at the trench,
based on deep sea drill sites off Guatemala (Deep Sea Drilling Project, DSDP; site 495
[80]) and Costa Rica (Ocean Drilling Project, ODP; site 1039 [81]),
N isotopes indicate enhanced sediment recycling in Guatemala (15N up to +6.5)
relative to Costa Rica (15N as low as 3). In addition, N2/He ratios are high in
Guatemala (up to 25,000) and low in Costa Rica (maximum = 1483), consistent with a
higher proportion of sedimentary-derived N in the volcanic output in Guatemala, as
compared to Costa Rica.
In summary, N and C volatile studies seem to show a similar pattern to other
subduction tracers: a relatively high sediment signal in Nicaragua, a low signal in Costa
Rica and an intermediate contribution in Guatemala.
28.3.2.2 Efficiency of recycling

A fundamental goal of subduction-related studies is to determine the fate of subducted
material by assessing what proportion is recycled back to the Earths surface through
the arc versus how much is transported into the deep mantle (beyond the zone of arc
magma generation). Resolution of volcanic discharges into the various contributing
sources allows for the quantitative assessment of the recycling efficiency of individual
species such as CO2 and N2 through subduction zones. In the case of the CAVF, the
input parameters are well characterized based on knowledge of subduction rates, the
mass of sediment being subducted and the sediment lithologies on the incoming Cocos
plate (based on DSDP drill site 495 off the Guatemala/El Salvador margin and ODP
drill site 1039 off the Costa Rican margin). The output parameters are constrained by
volatile flux estimates and volatile provenance studies (see sections 28.2.2 and 28.3.1).
Using this approach, the recycling efficiency of CO2, N2, and H2O can been assessed.
In the case of CO2, Hilton et al. [25] and Shaw et al. [29] estimated total CO2 inputs
along the Central American margin (including CO2 derived from subducting carbonate
sediments, organic matter, and altered oceanic crust) to be on the order of 3.7 1011 mol/a.
The amount of slab derived CO2 being output along the arc, however, represents only
~1418% of this input flux. In contrast, Snyder et al. [28] estimated that only 0.3 to
3.3% of the subducted C is released via the arc. The discrepancy between the two
estimates reflects differences in the assumed behavior of C and He in subduction zones
with Snyder et al. [28] calling for elemental and isotopic fractionation of these species
from assumed starting compositions. Irrespective of the actual percentage of recycled
C, both studies are consistent in reporting recycling efficiencies significantly less than
unity for the CAVF. The imbalance between input and output parameters may be
attributed to C loss in the forearc region, or retention of C on the down-going slab as a
result of: (1) incomplete decarbonation of limestone/marine carbonate during
subduction, (2) limited availability of melt-inducing fluids to accommodate the influx
of slab C.
A recent study by Fischer et al. [27] assessed N mass balance along the arc and
found that unlike C, N is efficiently recycled through the CAVF. For example,
assuming a N concentration of 0.01 wt% in the uppermost hemipelagic portion of the
sedimentary pile and input parameters from [42], Fischer et al. [27] calculate an input
of 2.3 108mol N/a. This value closely matches the estimated N output flux along the
arc (2.9 108 mol N/a), calculated using flux estimates of SO2 (see section 28. 2.2) in
conjunction with SO2/N2 measurements and considering only sedimentary-derived N
fluxes. This finding, if applicable to subduction zones in general, suggests that it is
difficult to subduct sedimentary N into the deep mantle. Clearly, such a conclusion has
important implications for the nitrogen budget of the terrestrial mantle.
Another major volatile of interest at subduction zones is water given its
fundamental role in generating arc magmas. Hilton et al. [25] estimate that the total
amount of water output via the Central America arc is a factor of 11 times greater than
that input at the trench (excluding porewater). This excess water has been attributed
to contributions from the mantle wedge, the arc crust and/or meteoric waters.
Identifying the source of this excess water is difficult, however, the isotopic
composition of the water (D/H and 18O) may provide some clues [54] and should be
the focus of future studies (see also Chapter 27).
28.3.3 Geothermal resources: volatile studies

Geothermal energy represents an important power resource throughout Central
America (see Chapters 26 and 29). The principal geothermal fields in the region are
Miravalles and Las Palas-Borinquen (Costa Rica), Ahuachapn and Berln (El Salvador),
Amatitln and Zunil (Guatemala) and Momotombo (Nicaragua, Fig. 28.2f). The contribution of these resources to the total power production in individual countries varies between 4% (Guatemala) and 20% (El Salvador) [82] (see also geothermal escenario in
Chapter 29). Volatile studies have played an important role in the exploration of these
resources as well as in reservoir characterization and monitoring stages once the
geothermal power plants have come into production. In turn, the power plants have
become a valuable source of additional volatile data.
28.3.3.1 Application of gas geochemistry to geothermal resources
Geothermal gases form by a number of different processes: thermal breakdown of
volatile-rich components in reservoir rocks, by reactions of circulating fluids with
reservoir rocks, by contributions from degassing magma bodies and by contributions
from air-saturated meteoric waters [7]. Separating these various contributions to the
853
total gas chemistry can be achieved through isotopic studies or by characterizing

empirical gas relationships such as relative N2-He-Ar abundances [83]. Information on
the origin of gases and the factors controlling their abundance (and speciation) can be
used to great advantage in geothermal studies. With particular reference to selected
studies in Central America, gas chemistry has been exploited in the following ways:
As a source of information on the type of thermal resource: As anticipated for the
above-named fields which have been developed (and which are situated along the
strike of the volcanic arc), the heat source is overwhelmingly magmatic as shown
by magmatic (MORB-like) 3He/4He ratios at each locality [28, 29]. Helium isotope
ratios at a number of undeveloped, behind-the-arc geothermal prospects in
Honduras also show evidence of magmatic inputs particularly at El Olivar (6.7
RA) but the signal is heavily diluted at most localities [24].
As geothermometers: The empirically-derived gas geothermometer of DAmore
and Panichi [84] uses relative elemental abundances of CO2-CH4-H2-H2S to derive
subsurface temperatures from fumaroles and hot springs, and has been extensively
used in exploration phases of Central America geothermal resources (e.g., at
Tecuamburro, Guatemala, [20] and at Miravalles, Costa Rica, [85]). Other
geothermometers involving gas chemistry include H2/Ar [86] which has also been
used in Guatemala [20].
To trace reservoir characteristics and evolution: As different contributory sources to
the total gas inventory are characterized by different chemical and isotopic
signatures, they can be readily identified and exploited to map the areal extent of
geothermal inputs. At Tecuamburro, Janik et al. [20] differentiated localities with
predominantly air-like N2/Ar ratios, which revealed mixing with air-saturated
waters, from other localities with high relative He which were considered to have
long (crustal) residence times. In this way, different regions of the geothermal
resource could be mapped. In the same vein, gas chemistry can reveal information
on the evolution of a fluid system if time-series data are available to follow mixing
trends between different components. Such trends can be used to follow the
maturation history of a particular resource (e.g., Miravalles, [85]).
28.3.3.2 Case studies
Berln geothermal field is located on the slope of the Berln-Tecapa volcanic complex,
approximately 112 km east of San Salvador, El Salvador. Berln is a liquid-dominated
field and the exploited area currently covers about 5 km2. It has four producing wells
(7.5 MW) with a range in depth between 1.5 and 2.4 km. Detailed site descriptions are
given in Chapter 26. The gas chemistry (Table 28.2) is characteristic of geothermal gases,
dominated by CO2 , N2, H2S, H2 and CH4; acid components (SO2, HCl, HF) are absent.
The geochemistry of the fields fluids has been investigated by DAmore and Maija [87]
who used the gas compositions from the production wells to estimate reservoir parameters
(temperature, steam fraction and PCO2) at initial production conditions. The maximum
reservoir fluid temperature, calculated using the CO2-CH4-CO-H2S-H2 system, is 310 C
with a steam fraction of 0.038 and a PCO2 of 2.5 MPa. Isotope geothermometers give a
wider range of temperature estimates from 200 to 350 C.
The Miravalles geothermal field is located in the Guanacaste province, northwestern Costa Rica, approximately 150 km from the capital San Jos. Miravalles is a
liquid-dominated field and covers an area of about 15 km2 along the south-western
slopes of Miravalles, a Quaternary strato-volcano. Electricity generation started in 1994
Figure 28.5. (a) Plot of log (xCH4/xCO2) vs log (xCO/CO2); The theoretical temperature grid is
calculated assuming that redox condition in the gas and liquid equilibration zones are
governed by the FeO-FeO1.5 rock buffer [88, 89]; (b) Plot of log (H2/Ar) vs. log (xCH4/xCO2).
The theoretical temperature grid is calculated assuming that gases and liquids are in
equilibrium with the rock buffer [88, 91]; Data are for geothermal systems discussed in the
text.
with the installation of a 55 MW condensing power plant. A second power plant was
installed in 1998, increasing the power output to about 120 MW (see Chapter 26). As at
Berln, the main gas constituent is CO2, followed by N2, H2S, H2 and CH4 (Table 28.2).
Ghereardi et al. [85] investigated the geochemistry of the deep fluids at Miravalles and
showed that CO2/H2S ratios in fumaroles are higher than in the wells by a factor of
about 10. This observation is consistent with the idea that H2S is removed from the
steam in the upflow zone due to oxidation by O2 transported in downward percolating
meteoric waters. The result is the formation of acid SO4-rich waters that are observed
throughout the geothermal field.
Gas samples collected in geothermal fields, either at naturally occurring fumaroles
or from wells using steam separators, are commonly used to estimate deep reservoir
temperatures. Using the theoretical temperature grid considering the rock-buffer and
H2S-SO2 gas buffer by Giggenbach [88], Chiodini et al. [89] calculated equilibrium
temperatures in the system CO2-CH4-CO (Fig. 28.5a). All data points from Central
American geothermal systems indicate equilibrium within the liquid-dominated field of
the diagram. Fumaroles and springs from San Vicente, El Salvador [90] and Rincn de
la Vieja, Costa Rica [74] show the highest reservoir temperatures (350400 C).
Samples collected from wells at Berln [87] and Miravalles [74] have lower equilibrium
temperatures, ranging from ~200 to 350 C (fluid chemistry and geothermometry is
presented in Chapter 27). One sample collected at a fumarole in the Zunil geothermal field,
Guatemala (Fischer, Hilton unpubl. res.) shows a equilibrium temperature of ~240 C.
Equilibrium temperatures can also be assessed by the relative amounts of CO2, CH4,
H2 and Ar [91]. Data points of samples collected at geothermal wells again lie in the
liquid field, consistent with the liquid-dominated nature of the systems (Fig. 28.5b).
Miravalles gases [85] indicate temperatures from ~220 to 280 C whereas Berln
samples [87] plot between 270 C and 320 C. The Zunil fumarole plots at ~320 C
and the sample from Rincn de la Vieja at ~280 C. For the gases collected from
geothermal wells (Berln and Miravalles), temperatures are in good agreement between
the two geothermometers. This is consistent with the idea that the fluids at depth as
855
sampled by the geothermal wells are in geochemical equilibrium with a rock buffer as
proposed by Giggenbach [88]. Fumarole samples on the other hand, show large
discrepancies (up to 100 C) in equilibrium temperatures between the two geothermometers. This observation suggests that these gases are affected by shallow processes such
as oxidation of CO (Zunil) or addition of Ar from air saturated ground water
(Rincn de la Vieja). Therefore, in order to assess the geothermal potential of an
area, it is critical to use gas geothermometers in combination with water and isotope
geothermometers.
28.3.4 Hazard assessment and monitoring with volatiles

Volcanic gas emissions can provide valuable real-time insights on the processes
occurring in the magma chamber. Because of the different solubilities of various
volatile species (i.e., CO2 is less soluble than S and HCl), an increase of the CO2/HCl
or CO2/SO2 ratio may indicate injection and degassing of a new batch of magma into
an existing magma chamber or an increased effect of the hydrothermal system
absorbing the more water soluble species (HCl and S) [9294]. Variations in the
relative amounts of H2O, CO2, S, and HCl at White island volcano, New Zealand
clearly showed that the magmatic and hydrothermal gas compositions reflect processes
occurring at depth, such as heating of the volcanic-magmatic system or continuous
depletion of volatiles from the magma [88]. However, the main problem with using
volatiles to monitor volcanic activity is directly related to sampling frequency. Because
access to fumaroles is often difficult and dangerous, there are only a few examples of
time-series data that cover a range of volcanic activities [12, 89, 9499]. Although the
information gained from a few samples often provides key insights into the magmatic
system, successful monitoring must include continuous and automated sampling.
Remote sensing of volcanic plumes has provided valuable information on degassing
processes and contributed to the development of associated models. Arenal volcano
(Costa Rica) is an example where such measurements showed that large variations in
SO2 fluxes were directly related to seismic events [100]. Volatile flux studies at other
volcanoes (Etna, Galeras and Soufrire Hills) show that the amount of gas emitted from
volcanic craters reflects the overall activity of the volcano [101103]. Short term
variations (over minutes, days, weeks) have been observed at Karymsky and Galeras
and are probably common at volcanoes in arc-related settings [104, 105]. Studies of
HCl/SO2 emissions using remote sensing FTIR show promising results that reveal
variations in gas compositions directly related to volcanic activity [106].
In Central America, considerable attention has been focused on Masaya volcano in
Nicaragua (Fig. 28.2a) due to its close proximity to the capital city, Managua. A small
explosive eruption occurred at Masaya on 23 April 2001. This eruption was preceeded
by a distinct change in the SO2/HCl molar ratio in the plume. Open-path Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy measurements made between April 2000 and
April/May 2001 show that the SO2/HCl ratio increased from 1.8 to 4.6. The SO2 flux
decreased during this period from 11 to 4 kg/s (950 to 350 tons/day). Duffell et al.
[107] interpret these changes to be the result of scrubbing of water-soluble magmatic
gases (in particular HCl) by a rejuvenated hydrothermal system within the volcano. A
series of M 5 earthquakes, with epicentres about 7 km from the volcano, occurred in
July 2000 and may have altered the fracture permeability close to the magmatic
conduit. These changes may have triggered the phreatic explosion that occurred in
April 2001. Duffell et al. [107] conclude that their study shows the potential for
continuous monitoring of gas chemistry and fluxes at suitable volcanoes and that such
monitoring can provide useful information in support of eruption prediction and
forecasting. Similar studies are currently being carried out at numerous other localities
in Central America [108].
In addition to remote sensing techniques applied to volcanic plumes, automated and
continuous monitoring of diffuse soil degassing has great potential for the forecasting
of earthquakes and volcanic crises. Salazar et al. [109] measured a significant (25%)
increase in diffuse CO2 degassing on the flanks of San Vicente volcano, El Salvador, 8
days prior to the M 5.1 earthquake that occurred on 8 May 2001 at a distance of 25 km
from the volcano. Strain changes and/or fluid pressure fluctuations in the crust prior to
the earthquake were interpreted as the cause for the observed increase in gas emissions.
28.4
FUTURE STUDIES
Central America has been and continues to be the site of pioneering studies regarding
volatile studies of active volcanoes. This can be largely attributed to the fact that
volcanic activity is high in this particular arc, volcanoes are closely spaced and
accessible, and the subduction zone forcing functions show intriguing variations along
the strike of the arc while subducted sediment compositions remain constant. For
example, the crust is relatively thin in Nicaragua (~32 km) and thickens both
northwestward and southeastward, attaining its maximum thickness in western
Guatemala (~48 km). The slab dip also changes along the strike of the arc from a steep
angle beneath eastern Nicaragua (75) to shallower angles under Guatemala (40) and
eastern Costa Rica (30) [4]. These conditions make Central America an ideal location
to test new ideas, make new measurements and develop new techniques and models.
Two exciting research areas that show great potential for advancing our
understanding of magmatic degassing, magma mixing and element cycling through arc
systems are: (1) melt inclusion studies, and (2) remote sensing techniques. Both of these
research areas are complementary to volcanic and hydrothermal fluid studies and have
the potential to expand our understanding of volatiles in magmatic systems.
28.4.1 Melt inclusion studies

With recent developments in microanalytical capabilities [110, 111], the isotope
geochemistry of small samples, such as melt inclusions (Fig. 28.6), can be studied.
Melt inclusions are considered to represent pre-eruptive melts, and thus offer the
possibility of characterizing the composition of sub-arc partial melts. Since it is
assumed that inclusions remain isolated after entrapment, they are thought to better
preserve the characteristics of primitive melts than erupted lavas. They are also likely
to be less influenced by modifying processes such as degassing, assimilation and posteruptive alteration. A complement to geothermal studies would be the measurement of
13C and CO2/3He ratios in pre-eruptive melts preserved as inclusions. This would
allow for an independent evaluation of volatile sources and a critical assessment of
whether degassing processes affect volatile characteristics. In addition to C and He,
there are a number of other tracers preserved in melt inclusions which can be utilized to
investigate subduction processes. Of particular interest are water, sulfur, boron, and
857
lithium, where abundances as well as isotopes (D, 34S, 11B, 6Li) can yield insight
into the origin of sub-arc melts and the processes that control and influence partial
melting in subduction zones. Each system is unique and can be used to trace different
aspects of the subduction process, such as sediment and fluid contributions, seawater
additions, and dehydration of the slab. The following sections describe the salient
features of each of these potentially powerful subduction zone tracers.
28.4.1.1 Water
High water contents found in melt inclusions from Fuego volcano in Guatemala (up to
6.2 wt%, [48]) and Cerro Negro volcano in Nicaragua (up to 6.1 wt%, [49]) have
reinforced the notion that water plays a key role in melt production. Recent work on
melt inclusions from the backarc region of Central America by Walker et al. (2003)
[112] shows that water contents remain relatively high (up to 2.5 wt%), unlike
incompatible fluid mobile elements which show progressive depletions with slab depth.
The high water contents of melts are maintained due to dehydration of the slab downdip, to depths of at least 150200 km [58].
Given the apparent imbalance between input and output parameters (see section
28.3.2.2), identifying the origin of the water expelled via volcanic systems is a major
goal. While hydrogen isotope measurements on melt inclusions still present major
analytical challenges, such measurements could potentially be used to trace water
sources since mantle sources (D = 70 to 85 e.g., [113]) have values that are
significantly different from seawater (D = 0).
28.4.1.2 Sulfur
After CO2 and H2O, SO2 is the most abundant volatile species emanating from
volcanoes. However, unlike other volatiles, its flux can be directly measured at
volcanoes using a correlation spectrometer (COSPEC see section 28.2.2). SO2 fluxes
measured at individual volcanoes can be integrated over entire arc segments to derive
total fluxes [25]. By combining COSPEC flux estimates with SO2 compositions in preeruptive melts, the present-day volume of melt being generated beneath the arc (i.e.,
crustal growth rates) can be calculated and compared to estimates determined by
calculating the volume of lava extruded over time (e.g., [114]).
Wide ranges of 34S values have been reported for lavas erupted in arc settings,
ranging from mantle-like (~0) up to +21. Enriched 34S signatures of arc lavas
have been explained by either fractionation associated with degassing [115] or by the
addition of a seawater or marine sediment component to the magma source [116].
Modern seawater and SO4-bearing marine sediments have 34S values of +20, and it
has been suggested that between 10% and 100% of the S in lavas from the Mariana arc
can be ascribed to recycled marine sulfur [116]. Because melt inclusions have
presumably suffered less degassing than erupted lavas, S isotopes would provide useful
means to assess the relative contribution of a recycled sedimentary component, in a
fashion analogous to nitrogen isotopes [27].
28.4.1.3 Boron
Boron is an excellent geochemical tracer of subduction related processes since it has
high concentrations in oceanic sediments and altered oceanic crust relative to depleted
mantle [76, 77]. Boron enrichments along the Central American arc have been
Figure 28.6. Examples of melt inclusions hosted in olivine crystals from Mariana arc lavas
(courtesy of Robert Stern, UT Dallas). These tiny drops of melt were trapped during crystal
growth. Upon eruption and cooling, the melt was quenched to a glass, trapping magmatic
volatiles. Analyses of these volatiles provides important insights into the primary
composition of the magma.
attributed to the addition of a fluid phase derived from the subducting slab [76]. Boron
isotopes in sediments are variable (11B = 15 to 4), but generally low compared to
MORB (11B = 6 to 2) and altered oceanic crust (11B = +6). During slab
dehydration, the residue will evolve to progressively lighter 11B compositions due to
isotopic fractionation [117, 118]. Therefore, by combining B concentration data with
11B values, a better understanding of the source of the fluid phase in subduction zones
can be gained. In addition, across-arc B isotope studies have the potential to elucidate
the process of progressive slab dehydration.
28.4.1.4 Lithium
Lithium is potentially a key tracer of subduction related processes since, like B, it is
concentrated in marine sediments and altered oceanic crust [119]. Chan et al. [120]
showed strong correlations between Li and other fluid mobile constituents (i.e., LILE,
B, 10Be, U, As) in lavas from Central American arc. Lithium isotopes measured along
the arc showed similar correlations, with 6Li values ranging from 6.4 to 4.5.
The authors concluded that these results represented mixing between a mantle endmember (4) and slab fluids (10 to 8 [121]).
Because the crust can be a significant source of Li, both Li contents and 6Li values
of arc magmas can be modified during magma storage and ascent. By analyzing the
pre-eruptive Li characteristics in melt inclusions, any potentially complicating effects
associated with these late-stage processes should be recognized.
859
28.4.2 Remote sensing techniques

Although SO2 fluxes from many of the worlds most active volcanoes have been
measured using COSPEC, there are still several arcs for which minimal or no flux data
is available: these include Marianas-Izu-Bonin, South Sandwich, Cascadia, East Sunda,
Vanuatu and Tonga [25]. COSPEC measurements, in conjunction with field-based
geothermal fluid sampling, are essential in order to improve estimates of global gas
fluxes. Several new ground-based remote sensing instruments have begun to emerge
over the last few years including GASPEC (used to directly measure CO2 fluxes), miniDOAS (mini-Differential Optical Absorption Spectrometer), FTIR (Fourier Transform
Infrared spectrometer see [36]) and FlySPEC (a small UV correlation spectrometer).
Several of these instruments have been tested most extensively at Central American
volcanoes. For example, the mini-DOAS was successfully tested at Masaya, Nicaragua
[122, 123] and new data on SO2/HCl and HCl/HF were obtained in the Masaya plume
using Open Pathway FTIR [124]. Because these instruments have clear advantages
over traditional COSPEC methods, including cost, portability and power consumption,
they will likely revolutionize the manner in which ground-based remote sensing
measurements are made.
In addition to ground-based remote sensing techniques, satellite measurements of
volcanic degassing can provide valuable information, particularly during active
eruptive phases. Satellite-based remote sensing techniques can monitor the SO2 flux
from volcanoes up to 2 times per day using either UV (ultraviolet) or IR (infrared) SO2
absorption bands. The UV instruments, including TOMS (Total Ozone Mapping
Spectrometer see [125], GOME (Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment) and
SCIAMACHY (Scanning Imaging Absorption Spectrometer for Atmospheric
Cartography), are particularly useful for identifying SO2 fluxes from remote volcanoes
and for quantifying fluxes of large eruptions. These instruments, however, can only
detect SO2 from volcanic clouds in the upper troposphere and stratosphere. In contrast,
the infrared instruments such as MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer) and ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and
Reflection Radiometer) can provide more detailed information on passively degassing
volcanoes since they can effectively resolve SO2 fluxes in the troposphere. At the
tropospheric boundary layer, MODIS has a detection limit of ~175 tons of SO2 in the
cloud and ASTER can detect down to 1.4 tons of SO2 [126]. These detection limits
should enable the observation of pre-eruptive gas flux variations at active volcanoes,
and will, therefore, be suited for the forecasting of eruptions. A major benefit of all
satellite-based instruments is their ability to acquire data over long time periods,
allowing for temporal flux variations to be critically assessed.
28.4.3 Summary of major questions to be addressed

Although tremendous progress has been made since the pioneering studies of Stoiber
and Rose [1], Allard [61], Menyailov et al. [12], Rose et al. [35] and Stoiber et al. [18],
in terms of understanding both the compositions and fluxes of volatiles from volcanoes
to the atmosphere, there still remain many unresolved issues. These include questions
such as:
How representative are volcanic and hydrothermal gas emissions of volatiles
dissolved in magmas? To date, there is no systematic comparison of melt inclusion
volatiles to volcanic gas emissions.
How large is the volatile flux away from volcanic centers? There are studies based
on magma emplacement rates that indicate the amount of CO2 (and other volatiles)
degassing from plutons is larger than that degassing from volcanic-magmatic
centers [127]. This would have a significant impact on mass balance calculations.
What is the relationship between geochemical tracers such as B, Be, Li, Pb and Ba
to other volatile tracers (CO2-N2-He)? Do both approaches give the same
information on the sources of elements in subduction zones?
What is the variability of volcanic gas fluxes over time? In order to properly assess
the mass balance issue in subduction zones, it is important to understand the
variations in volatile flux and compositions from individual volcanic centers and
the arc as a whole. This would require automated remote sensing systems as well as
continuous measurements of fumarole gas emissions.
The Central American volcanic front with its tightly-spaced, highly-active yet easilyaccessible volcanoes, abundant hydrothermal systems, persistent volcanic plumes and
high temperature fumaroles will continue to provide scientists with the opportunity to
test new ideas, methods and instrumentation. The high population density of many
Central American countries, their industrial and agricultural resources many located
dangerously close to the active volcanic centers, requires that future studies of volcanic
gases continue to improve the forecasting of volcanic eruptions.
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867
Chapter 29
Geothermal resources for development
valuation, present use and future opportunities
JOCHEN BUNDSCHUH, PETER BIRKLE, ASBJRN AAHEIM AND
Continued [geothermal] development
will contribute to the diversification of the
regions [Central America] energy base,
saving millions of dollars by reducing the
need to import oil and gas for electricity
generation. D. Sussman: In: Energy and
Mineral Potential of the Central AmericanCaribbean Region. Springer Verlag, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 1995.
29.1
INTRODUCTION
In Central America, growing population, expanding economies, and new markets will
contribute to an increase in electricity demand at an annual growth rate of about 6%
through the year 2020. This, together with the vulnerability to fluctuations in the world
energy markets, will require the development of reliable, environmentally sound,
domestic electrical systems to reduce the number of power blackouts and the need to
ration electricity. It will be important to encourage the development of renewable
domestic energy resources in order to mitigate vulnerability to world energy markets.
Additionally, the integration of the electricity systems to develop a regional wholesale
market is required. The large investments required for this purpose call for a
partnership between the public and private sectors; at present private investments in the
regions electricity system vary from country to country, and in general have been on
the increase.
Geothermal energy represents an alternative source of domestic, environmentally
friendly energy for Central America and provides, at the same time, many advantages
compared to increasing imports of fossil fuels. The potential for development of
geothermal energy systems is largely underexploited in Central America, with the
exception of Belize and Panama, although all energy sources could theoretically be
substituted by geothermal energy. The enormous geothermal potential of about 8.8 GW
using todays technology, and about 13.2 GW capacity using enhanced technology
[1] exceeds the entire installed electric capacity of about 6.5 GW in 2003. In 2003, only
0.4 GW and 0.002 GW was used for power generation and direct use, respectively.
Fifty percent of Central American electricity was produced by hydroelectric projects,
followed by thermal (41%) and geothermal (7%). The energy mix for the year 2000
(i.e., installed capacity and electrical generation), which is similar to those of 2003 is
shown in Figure 29.1. Based on the experiences from the 1980s droughts, which

affected the security of electricity supply, the share of thermoelectric generation was
increased during the 1990s. This was done in spite of the absence of significant oil and
gas fields in the region. Guatemala is the only country with oil resources. All fossil
fuels must be imported, mostly from Mexico and Venezuela.
Instead of accelerating the development of local, renewable energy resources, El
Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua have become more dependent on imported fossil
fuels to support their growing electricity demand. On the other hand, Guatemala is
focusing on significant increases of hydroelectric power production, and Costa Rica is
depending on a hydroelectric power program. This makes both countries very
vulnerable to droughts and other natural phenomena. Geothermal energy, an alternative
to hydropower and independent on climatic events, has yet not received the attention it
deserves.
Figure 29.1. Sources of installed capacity and electricity production in 2000 (percentage values
rounded to full %).

Economic, social, and environmental benefits of geothermal energy will be compared

with fossil fuel resources in this chapter, but also to other renewables as hydropower,
wind energy and solar energy. Social costs and benefits of geothermal energy
production are analyzed, and factors that explain why the public sector and especially
the private sector may avoid investments in geothermal energy production although the
investments are beneficial in a social perspective. The purpose of this chapter is to
analyze the possibilities, opportunities, obstacles and needs of promoting domestic,
environmentally friendly geothermal energy for sustainable economic and social
development of the Central American region. In this chapter, geothermal progresses
from the past to the present as well as further opportunities are discussed. Special focus
is drawn to the discussion of why beneficiary geothermal projects may or may not be
implemented. Possibilities of lowering the barriers for geothermal projects are
additionally analyzed, including incentives for potential private and public investors in
order to perform socially beneficial projects. These issues are addressed in the frame of
ongoing regionalization, deregulation and related increase of private sector
participation, taking into consideration the national demand and energy plans of the
different countries. Thereby, not only large-scale power generation, but also rural
electrification based on small geothermal plants and direct-use opportunities are
considered.
29.2
INTEGRATING ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT IN THE VALUE OF

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
The prospects for the future in Central American countries and the entire region are
inevitably linked to the possibilities of economic growth. These possibilities critically
depend on the availability of energy. Experience tells us, however, that abundant
energy resources do not guarantee welfare for ordinary people. People in many
countries suffer from poverty and severe pollution, despite a national level of energy
use similar to that of the high-income regions of the world. Thus, energy has to be
managed as a scarce resource, not only because many countries have a short supply,
but also because a waste of energy may cause severe, but avoidable problems.
Increasing energy demand may always be covered by importing fossil fuels, but it
makes countries vulnerable to shifts in world energy markets, which have oscillated
vigorously over the past 35 years. Developing countries seldom possess the stable
economic foundation that is required if the dependency of energy imports increases.
The challenge is to find sources that can be provided domestically without large
environmental impacts. Within a process of development, the alternative energy
sources cannot be evaluated only with reference to expected monetary costs and
benefits. One must also take into account that stable supply of energy is a key factor in
the transition from a high-risk, low-income country to a developed, economically better
integrated place in the world economy, but probably more challenged with respect to
environmental issues.
Without integration of these factors, alternatives to increased imports of fossil fuels
will usually be based on pure economic comparisons, that is, the cost of developing
alternative energy sources and risk evaluations. In this respect, the combination of high
capital costs and uncertain energy prices often disfavors locally-produced, clean energy
resources, such as renewable or geothermal energy. Being an alternative to fossil fuels,
the value of clean energy resources will be subject to uncertainties in the world market
871

for fossil fuels. In addition, there are numerous uncertainties related to new
technologies that investors tend to emphasize.
Although we would like to draw attention to the importance of integrating a wider
scope of social impacts when evaluating alternative energy sources, the importance of
monetary costs and benefits of investments in developing countries should not be
underemphasized. Developing countries are often faced with financial restraints,
uncommon to developed countries. It may thus not be sufficient to point out social benefits
of clean energy sources, even when tangible, such as in the case of reduced dependency of
energy imports if these benefits do not enter into the accounting of the fundraiser.
Among the social benefits of alternative non-conventional energy resources,
enhanced security of the energy supply and restricted environmental impacts may be
pointed out as particularly important. In a purely economic sense, the risk of increased
dependency on energy imports may be translated to uncertainty in the price of fossil
fuels. In a national context, the consequences of a sudden shortage of energy supply
that leads to a rapid increase in prices may, in addition, have serious indirect impacts
on the total economy, especially if subject to financial restraints.
This became particularly evident during the rise of oil prices in the 1970s, when
most countries of the world ran into a trade deficit. The lowest-income countries
suffered the most, however, because these economies were less able to apply
alternative energy or adjust their activities to a less energy intensive mode. At the same
time, the loss of export income as a result of the general slow-down of global economic
growth accelerated the initial problems originating from more expensive energy. The
social dynamics of these problems made it very difficult for developing countries to
recover. Ten years later, the drop in energy prices did not have the reverse effect,
neither on the world economy nor as an impulse to growth in developing countries.
The difference between the perspectives of private investors and public authorities
is striking. To a private investor, the uncertainties in the fossil fuel markets mean
uncertain cost of imports, but, at the same time, a corresponding uncertainty in the
value of the non-conventional alternative. If fossil fuels are expensive, the value of
the domestic alternative is high. But if the world market price of fossils is low, the
domestic alternative has also a low value. Therefore, fluctuations in world markets for
fossil fuels do not necessarily affect the relative values between fossil fuels and other
energy sources because they are all affected by the same uncertainty. But other factors,
which are important to investors, may turn out to be disadvantageous to the domestic
alternatives. These factors include high capital intensity of alternative energy
production, which involves a considerable risk to the investor, and uncertainties about
the performance of the technology.
On the other hand, importing of fossil fuels involves disadvantages to the national
authorities, which private investors may disregard. In a national context, high prices of
fossil fuels in the world markets are in most cases considered disadvantageous to the
national economy. High prices may lead to long-term recession, which is reinforced if
the economy is dependent on energy imports. Therefore, domestic energy resources
may contribute to stabilizing the domestic energy market. At the same time, it is harder
to believe that low prices in the world market spur development impulses, because all
countries are subject to low prices. Countries depending on energy imports do not gain
from low energy prices relative to other countries. Hence, the interpretation of good
news and bad news are likely to be opposite for a private investor and an agent that
makes decision on behalf of a nation. This explains why energy supply securing may

be considered a separate issue on the national level.

In addition, national authorities have to consider the impacts of fossil fuel
consumption. The quality of the environment, air quality in particular, is closely related
to the use of fossil fuels. A poor environmental standard does not necessarily affect the
economic performance of industries directly, but may impose substantial costs to the
society in terms of poor health, and damage to vegetation and buildings. The usual
proposal to make private agents act in an environmentally acceptable manner is to
impose restrictions on the sources of pollution, for example through monetary charges.
However, such restrictions are quite uncommon in developing countries. This is easy to
understand because major polluters are often the large industries, which represent the
main potential for future economic growth. To charge these industries for their selfcaused pollution is considered a threat to growth. By turning to cleaner energy, one
may avoid the political impossibility of putting restrictions on the use of fossil fuels,
and at the same time improve the quality of the environment. To assess the potential of
such an option, all the effects throughout the society need to be integrated.
Geothermal resources can provide a stable supply of energy, in contrast to many
alternative domestic renewable energy resources, such as hydropower. Although the
importance of a stable energy supply is considered to be limited in developed countries
with a highly coordinated transmission system, it may be vital to developing countries.
In comparison to thermoelectric plants, geothermal power plants require less
maintenance and hence less interruption of production resulting in elevated output.
Over the past decade, awareness of global environmental issues, notably climate
change, has been rapidly increasing particularly in the wealthy part of the world.
Developing countries are clearly more concerned about their current problems. Most of
them are reluctant to take an active part in the mitigation of climate change because
they regard it as a problem created mainly by developed countries. On the other hand, it
is recognized that global warming cannot be mitigated unless developing countries also
take an active part, not at least because of the substantial future growth of greenhouse
gas emissions in these countries.
29.3
ECONOMIC, ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL BENEFITS
29.3.1 The geothermal potential

Central American countries have enormous, economically-accessible geothermal
reserves with an actual potential of at least 6820 MW [1]. National estimates (see
Chapter 26) are more conservative, with about 1000 MW in Guatemala, 100 MW in
Honduras, 400 MW in El Salvador, 1100 MW in Nicaragua, and 900 MW in Costa
Rica, totalling 3500 MW (no data available for Panama). The estimate of Gawell et al.
[1] corresponds to a geothermal electricity production of 42,000 GWh/year, and is
equivalent to the burning of 3.7 million tons of fuel oil/year or 7.1 1012 m3 /year of
natural gas. This potential geothermal generation is about 2 times higher than the
power consumption of the region, which comprises 8090 GWh/year in 2000.
Considering an energy demand growth rate of 6% per year, these reserves would be
able to cover the power demand of the region for the next two decades solely. The
future introduction of the binary fluid technique, which makes geothermal resources of
lower enthalpy suitable for power production, would double this potential. Additionally
it must be considered that the aforementioned geothermal potential comprises
exclusively the actual known geothermal reserves, whereas the real regional resource
873

potentials are expected to be even higher. At present, the sustainable development of

the regions large geothermal energy resources, both for power generation and direct
use, is far from complete. In 2000, only 7% of Central American electricity was
produced by geothermal plants (Fig. 29.2).
Figure 29.2. Central America: Geothermal electricity generation and power demand in the year
2000 compared to future demand forecasts and estimated maximum geothermal potentials;
1)
Geothermal potentials are calculated from estimates from Gawell et al. [1] and a plant
capacity factor of 0.7.
29.3.2 The economic asset value of geothermal energy

Geothermal power plants use indigenous renewable energy resources, whereas almost
all fossil fuels consumed in Central America must be imported. The development of the
regions geothermal resources could help reduce the growing trade deficit and external
debts. Both will become bigger as the demand for electricity continues to increase,
unless the energy mix for electricity production (presently about 41% based on fossil
fuels) is changed towards alternative energy resources.
To estimate the economic asset value of geothermal resources in the region, the
presently known geothermal energy reserves are calculated in terms of fuel oil and
natural gas equivalents. Table 29.1 illustrates the importance of geothermal energy as a
national and regional energy resource in Central America. Using a fuel oil price of
110 US$/ton, the annual economic asset value of Central American geothermal
reserves is about 1.2% of the regions Gross Domestic Product (GDP). This value will
increase with rising prices for fossil fuels.
The important economic benefits of geothermal energy development can be shown
for the case of Nicaragua, the lowest-income country of the region. Nicaragua spends
about US$ 95,000,000 per year to import oil for electricity generation, which amounts
to about 4% of its GDP (73% of the installed capacity corresponds to thermal plants).
Geothermal power plants could promptly displace all thermal plants and improve the
countrys foreign trade balance. The development of Nicaraguas geothermal resources
would not only solve its energy supply problems, but would also allow the export of

electricity to the rest of Central America. This option would benefit from the construction
of the Central American electrical interconnection line (SIEPAC) from Guatemala to
Panama. Another example is Guatemala, which could replace its thermal plants with
geothermal units and export the locally produced oil, or use it to refine transportation fuel,
to improve its foreign trade balance.
Table 29.1. Central American geothermal energy reserves and their economic value.
13210
Economic available geothermal capacity1) (MW)
81004
Potential geothermal production2) (GWh/year)
7.11
Fuel oil equivalent (106 tons/year)3)
8.35
Natural gas equivalent (109 m3/year)3)
781
Asset value (106 US$/year)4)
21.0
Asset value per capita (US$/year)5)
1.15
Asset value as percentage of GDP
1)
Maximum advanced technology potential [1]; 2)based on a plant capacity factor of 0.7; 3)fossil
fuel heat value 11.4 MWh/t fossil fuel; natural gas 9.7 103 MWh/m3 natural gas [2];
4)
based on a fuel oil price of 110 US$/ton; 5)based on 2001 population and 2001 GDP
numbers given in Chapter 1.
29.3.3 Benefits through emission reduction

29.3.3.1 Emission reduction potential
Geothermal is a clean energy source, which could significantly contribute to the
reduction of greenhouse and other gas emissions by replacing fossil fuels. The
emissions of CO2, sulfur oxides (SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) from a geothermal
plant, are less than 2% of the emission from an oil-fuelled power plant [3]. On average,
a geothermal plant emits 0.893 kg CO2/MWh, whereas an oil-based plant, 723 kg
CO2/MWh (diesel fuel emission factor; [3]). For SOx these values are 0.16 kg/MWh
and 4.99 kg/MWh for geothermal and oil fuelled plant, respectively [3].
The corresponding economic value and importance of the emission reduction for
the Central American countries and the present and future emissions of thermal power
plants were estimated to determine the emission reduction potential [4]. Forecasts for
electricity production are based on the national energy plans and, where these are not
available, predictions are made assuming an annual growth rate, no change of the
source mix, and the same technologies as presently used. The results for the 20002020
period are given in Figure 29.3. The figure clearly shows exponential growth in gas
releases. Under the assumption that CO2 emissions in the region will increase at an
annual rate of 6%, they will grow from the present (about) 10 million tons to 30 million
tons and 96 million tons in 2020 and 2040, respectively.
Figure 29.3 indicates the geothermal potential of all the countries in the region,
clearly showing that fossil fuels used for power production could be completely
substituted. One should remember that forecasts of electricity demand growth are quite
reliable, but that uncertainties associated with the regional projects like the planned
Central American SIEPAC electricity interconnection and long-distance gas pipelines, may
significantly change the type of fuels used by the different countries and the region.
The planned El Hoyo-Monte Galn geothermal development in Nicaragua (see also
Chapters 26 and 27) illustrates the potential reduction in CO2 emissions. During the 38
year lifetime of the project (annual generation: 520,000 MWh), carbon dioxide releases
875

to the atmosphere would be reduced by 14 million tons when compared to a fossil fuel
fired plant with similar capacity [3].
Figure 29.3. Present and future thermal electricity production and corresponding CO2 emissions.
1)
Based on the energy plans of the individual countries; 2)based on a 6% annual growth in
power demand and generation, and assuming that the energy mix will remain constant;
3)
maximum advanced geothermal technology potential [4].
29.3.3.2 Economic evaluation of emission reduction/Local environmental impacts

The socio-economic impacts of reduced air pollution (e.g., by using geothermal energy
resources) depend on a variety of factors, and cannot be assessed on a general basis.
Important factors include the composition of pollutants and the density of exposed
recipients. Hence, pollution may affect the health standards; it may cause material
damage and lead to agricultural losses. Case studies indicate that the socio-economic
value of savings related to improved air quality may be substantial, especially in
countries with a combination of relatively high energy intensity and low income per
capita. These countries are often characterized by a high background level of air
pollution, which makes people as well as materials sensitive to changes in the air
quality. Most of the concern for air pollution has been concentrated on cities with high
emission rates. In recent years, however, increasing attention has been paid to the
secondary effects of air pollution, such as tropospheric ozone and secondary particles,
which spread out over much larger areas. It is thus recognized that the effects of
emissions beyond areas close to the sources may be larger than previously thought. The
benefits from reduced air pollution depend on a wide range of factors, including the
background level and composite of pollutants, the size and concentration of the population,
and the cost of abatement measures. Estimates of the benefits of reduced air pollution are
therefore highly uncertain, but some seemingly general patterns can be traced.
First, the largest benefits of using geothermal energy are related to improvements in
health. In a case study of Hungary, Aaheim et al. [5] found that the health benefit from
reduced air pollution from fossil fuels amounted to 6 times the benefits of reduced
damage to materials, while the impact on crops were marginal. Impact on crops outside
Hungary may be considerable, but is not included.

Second, the bulk of the health benefit is due to a reduction in the frequency of
chronic bronchitis. Acute respiratory symptoms and asthma are also reduced
substantially, but the social costs related to these diseases are smaller. More serious
consequences, such as lung cancer and death, are also reduced but to a much lower extent.
Because of the substantial cost related to these cases, the total savings are, however,
comparable with the total value of improvements from the reduction in acute
respiratory symptoms and asthma. Point estimates from Chile [6], Brazil [7] and
Mexico [8] indicate that the social benefits of health effects from energy saving
measures displays a similar distribution as in the Hungarian case.
Third, estimates of the health benefit depends a lot on the methodological approach.
The Hungarian case study in Aaheim et al. [5] compared three approaches. One
alternative is to restrict benefits to the measurable economic cost savings only
(Approach 1). Benefits to materials and crops were calculated by the reduction in
maintenance cost and increased market value, respectively, while health benefits were
calculated as a combination of increased labor productivity from affected people and
reduced labor costs in the health sector. This approach disregards the possibility that
the welfare gains exceed the current market values of improvements, which is a rather
arbitrary assumption since air quality is not traded in markets. To take possible net
welfare gains into account, one may instead base the evaluation on estimates of the
willingness to pay for better air quality (Approach 2). Apart from considerable
problems in making estimates of willingness to pay, this approach also suffers from the
fact that it provides only a point estimate at the current level of pollution, but does not
take into account that the readiness to participate will be reduced if the air quality
improves.
To account for the latter problem, the value of improved health standards was also
implemented within an economic model, where estimates for the willingness to pay
were used to parameterize demand functions for health (Approach 3). The estimates of
the three approaches are displayed in Table 29.2. The costs of the energy saving
measures were estimated to 66.4 million US$.
Table 29.2. Economic benefits of improved air quality from reductions of 1 TWh from coal fired
power plants in Hungary calculated from three alternative approaches. Source: [5].
Total benefit
Marginal benefit
Approach
Million US$
US cents/kWh
1. Reduction in economic damages
141.5
0.8
2. Willingness to pay for improved air quality
645.0
3.6
3. Macroeconomic assessment
43.5
2.6
The Table 29.2 shows that the benefits of clean electricity production may be large if it
replaces fossil fuels. The marginal benefit ranges from 0.8 cents to 3.6 cents per kWh,
whereas the model based estimate is 2.6 cents. Notice also that the total benefit for the
model-based assessment is substantially lower than the two other estimates. The reason
is that the estimates of economic damages and the willingness-to-pay are only partial
assessments, for which all benefits accrue to the project in question. The
macroeconomic assessment takes into account that the resources in the entire economy
are utilized effectively. Hence, only a part of the savings accrue to the energy sector.
The GDP increased by approximately 380 million US$ in the macroeconomic
assessment approach. This amounts to 6 times the cost of the energy-savings in the
Hungarian study.
877

When comparing fossil fuel electricity plants with geothermal plants, it must be added
that also geothermal energy utilization may have negative environmental impacts. Development of geothermal resources affects landuse, for example through vegetation loss and
soil erosion, and may have considerable impacts on water resources [9, 10]. Also, in this
case, the extent of the impact depends largely on local conditions. Compared with the
extensive environmental problems related to the use of fossil fuels, the negative impacts
of geothermal energy must, however, be regarded as small and can be resolved by using
closed production cycles under a strict environmental legislation.
29.3.3.3 The Clean Development Mechanism
Climate change, in many countries, has received more attention by policy makers than
any other environmental problem. So far, only developed countries are subject to
proposed emission targets, but the Kyoto Protocol is open to participation from
developing countries through the so-called Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).
The idea is that developed countries can pay developing countries to reduce emissions,
and thereby obtain a credit on their own emission targets. The motivation for the
developing country to become involved lies in the fact that their emissions of
greenhouse gases have suddenly been given a value, and may be traded. The emission
cuts paid by the developed country will most likely comprise technology transfers to
developing countries. Hence, the CDM provides foreign investors with additional
motivations, and relaxes the financial restraints that seem to hamper the development
of geothermal energy in many developing countries.
There are a lot of practical problems related to the initiation of the CDM. It is, for
example, difficult to determine the emission cuts of a particular project, because it
requires a counterfactual assessment of future emissions. Moreover, the design and
thereby the project cost are clearly subject to conflicts of interest between the investing
country and the host country. Investing countries are concerned about emissions, while
host counties are concerned about development. This also points to an inherent
contradiction within the whole mechanism, because, if successful, it may contribute to
growth, which encourages demand for energy, including fossil fuels. This generates
emissions, while the initial aim was to reduce emissions. The Parties of the Convention
are fully aware of this contradiction, recognizing that development in a large part of the
world is necessary if the climate change is to be mitigated in an effective way.
It is difficult to predict the importance of the CDM at least over the next 1015
years, although it creates an incentive for producing energy without greenhouse gas
emissions, and thereby contributes to enhancing the value of non-carbon energy.
Equally promising is that some of the above mentioned obstacles for investment in
domestic energy production in developing countries are reduced as a consequence of
potential contributions from foreign interests. Financial constraints may become less
limiting, since the investing country is to pay the full additional cost of the clean
alternative. Moreover, the uncertainties related to the technical performance of new
technologies may be reduced, partly because investing countries in some cases may be
familiar with it, and partly because the responsibility for operation and maintenance
can be shared between the two countries. Thus, the development of clean energy
seems to fit particularly well with both aims of the CDM by reducing emissions of
greenhouse gases and, as a consequence, reducing important obstacles for development
in developing countries.
After the U.S.A. withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol, the price of emission quotas in
the international marked is not expected to exceed 5 US$/ton CO2. On the basis of the

forecasts given in Figure 29.3, the region may reduce its CO2 emissions by 30 million
tons by the year 2020, if geothermal units substitute conventional thermal plants.
A quota price of 5 US$/ton CO2 may result in direct financial benefits (not including
ancillary benefits) of US$ 150 million or 0.16% of the regions GDP. The 2020 GDP is
calculated from the 2002 GDP (Table 29.1) assuming an average annual GDP growth
rate of 1.3% and a CO2 allowance cost of US$ 5 per ton.
The CDM may at least reduce barriers to investing in capital-intensive geothermal
plants. One of the uncertainties for investors is the uncertainty of the credit amounts to
be achieved by investing in CDM projects. Ideally, CDM projects ought to replace
existing sources of emissions as it is difficult to predict to what extent a new plant adds
or replaces existing capacity. Hence, the investors may not get a full emissions credit,
as this may partly depend on how important the Conference of the Parties of the UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change will consider the development aspect of the
CDM mechanism in comparison to aspects of greenhouse gas emission.
Despite its obvious advantages, geothermal energy has not attracted much attention as
an opportunity for CDM projects so far. There are several relatively small AIJ (Activities
Implemented Jointly)/CDM projects on renewable energy related to hydropower and wind
energy. Only Nicaragua applied for a geothermal AIJ project (i.e., El Hoyo-Monte Galn
geothermal field); it was approved but had to be cancelled [4].
The reasons for low investor interest may partly be related to elevated development
costs of the field. As pointed out earlier, additional reasons could be overcome with an
improved management of energy resources, not only from the national governments
side, but also in the context of managing CDM projects in the international stage. In its
present premature phase, the CDM is predominantly a matter of bilateral cooperation
between the investor and the host country. The international involvement applies
mainly to the verification and control of projects. Thus, the full risk of each project is
imposed on the investor and the host country. This puts a particular burden on
unconventional options, such as geothermal energy. This obstacle could, however, be
reduced by pooling more and less uncertain CDM projects under the administration of
a clearing house, with the aim of reducing the risk of single projects. Over time, the
importance of international mechanisms similar to the CDM is likely to improve, also
as an incentive for the development of clean energy resources. Despite current
uncertainties about the willingness of many countries to take part in the Kyoto
Protocol, one must expect that targets will be tightened and more countries will be
subject to emission targets in the future. The price of quotas, and thereby the value of
CDM projects, may increase as a result. An improved system for managing bilateral
agreements may emerge, and thereby reduce obstacles for implementing geothermal
energy.
29.3.4 Benefits of geothermal versus hydroelectric power generation

29.3.4.1 Climate related risks, environmental and social impacts
A number of Central American countries, especially Guatemala and Costa Rica, plan to
build large hydroelectric projects in spite of some uncertainties regarding the future of
hydropower in the region (Table 29.3). There are concerns over the viability of these
projects in areas prone to heavy rain and flooding. For example, in September 1999
after two weeks of rainfall and flooding, 100,000 persons had to be evacuated from
areas downstream of the El Cajn hydroelectric project in Honduras. On the other
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hand, period of droughts or low and variable rainfalls can greatly reduce hydroelectric
outputs and send power prices higher during times of peak demand. This calls into
question the reliability of hydropower as a continuous, base-load energy source.
The susceptibility of these projects to climatic events is one of the dangers of relying
too much on hydropower supply for electricity needs of a country or region (e.g., El Cajn
generates 60% of Honduras electricity and Honduras has suffered from electricity
rationing in recent years).
In El Salvador, hurricane Mitch caused a landslide that hit a two-phase pipeline between
two wells in the Berln geothermal field, but the pipeline suffered no damages. The greatest
damage occurred to the downstream region, where a hydropower plant and dam could have
been affected during maximum water flow, although the construction remained intact.
Table 29.3. Comparison of potential impacts and risks associated with hydroelectric and
geothermal power projects.
Large hydroelectric projects
Geothermal projects
Critical construction
Dam, lake
Wellfield, power plant
components
Vulnerability, risks
Seismic, dam failure,
Volcanic and seismo-tectonic
landslides, high climate
dependency
Designed project lifetime
About 40 years, but possible up 2540 years or more (under
to 100 years (or more)
sustainable exploitation)
Microclimate change (heat
Environmental and social
Micro- and macroclimate
emission into atmosphere);
impacts
change (evaporation);
air quality change (H2S, CO2,
large extension; visual impact
(positive/negative);
steam emissions into
flooding of agricultural or
atmosphere); visual impact,
natural sensitive areas;
small extension (positive)
destruction of large-size natural
habitats with endemic fauna and
flora; relocation of local population; contributes to development of tourism (fishing, boating,
windsurfing, recreation) and
provides jobs for local and
national population
Considering these facts, Central Americas energy sector should reduce instead of
increase its vulnerability to climate-related phenomena and natural disasters such as
hurricane Mitch that struck the region in October 1998. This calls for the promotion of
geothermal energy, which is more reliable and would lead to a well-balanced
renewable energy mix between hydroelectric and geothermal sources.
The building of hydroelectric dams has been criticized because of negative effects on
the environment and local population. Hence consideration of environmental and social
impacts in the evaluation and planning of hydroelectric projects becomes increasingly
important. This is especially true for large hydroelectric projects, which may require
the displacement of local populations and the flooding of agricultural areas, forests and
other ecologically sensitive lands. The latter tends to affect surface and subsurface
water flow regimes and quality, and may create or increase water-borne diseases.
The lakes formed behind dams contribute positively to the development of tourism
and irrigation systems, create new employment and contribute to develop the
infrastructure of remote areas. However, sedimentation in those lakes may significantly
reduce the lifetime of hydroelectric projects.

Compared to large hydroelectric projects, geothermal projects have much less

environmental and social impact and generally are not affected by hurricanes, droughts,
flooding and heavy rains. Additionally, geothermal installations occupy much less area
than hydroelectric projects. Because geothermal is a more constant and reliable energy
source than hydropower, it can be used optimally to supply base-load. Geothermal
power has traditionally been used for base-load operation only, as modulation would
require throttling wells in real time or venting steam into the atmosphere. Modulation
of geothermal plants in order to follow a load curve would require more research for
the types of valves that could be used to throttle two-phase flow and be controlled
remotely.
It should be noted that the use of geothermal energy is not without possible
environmental and social impacts. The extraction of deep thermal fluids, which often
are highly mineralized, may affect soils and shallow aquifers if they are not properly
handled at the surface [911]. This impact is minimized by re-injecting the cooled
waste geothermal waters back into reservoir at depth. Re-injection may produce microearthquakes, but recharges the reservoir and reduces ground subsidence. Emissions
from geothermal plants are low compared to those of conventional fossil-fuel fired
plants, but might locally change the air quality and produce acid rain. However, the airmonitoring program at the Miravalles (Costa Rica) geothermal field shows that this
effect is negligible.
In some areas, the development of geothermal resources may require special
considerations. Many high-enthalpy sites are in volcanic zones that may include natural
parks and other protected areas of interest to tourists. This is especially true in Costa
Rica, where these areas cover about 25% of the country (i.e., nearly its entire main
mountain range which comprises volcanoes of geothermal interest). The Rincn de la
Vieja and Tenorio volcanoes are two examples. The first one is the most promising site
for geothermal exploration in Costa Rica with most of its geothermal resources located
within a national park (see also Chapters 26 and 27). Therefore ICE, the national
electrical utility, has decided to restrict its exploration and possible geothermal
exploitation activities to areas outside the boundaries of the national park.
Another concern is the visual impact of geothermal surface installations, especially
the network of pipelines and roads. This is of special importance in the case of highenthalpy areas located in sensitive natural areas of tourist interest. On the other hand,
geothermal development outside volcanic regions, especially those of lower
temperature, might be located near urban areas. In all cases, the visual impact of
geothermal activities can be significantly reduced by taking appropriate mitigating
measures.
29.3.4.2 Volcanic and seismic hazards
Because of the high growth in energy demand in Central America, i.e. on the average
of 6% per year, new plants are installed with increasing risks of volcanic and seismic
events affecting the regions energy projects. Many Central American geothermal areas
are located in zones of active volcanism and seismicity. There is no complete
compendium and record of the regions historic and prehistoric volcanic and seismic
activity. Only during the last two decades (especially in the past few years) geological
and neotectonic investigations have provided information on past violent geologic
events. Several studies and reviews, including evaluations of historic records, allowed
to developing a relative crude picture of the Holocene (the last 11,000 years) geological
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history of Central America.

Although the probability of volcanic eruptions during the lifetime (less than 100
years) of a given geothermal plant is very low, the possible affect of volcanic hazards
must be adequately evaluated. The possibility of hydrothermal explosions within the
geothermal fields should also be studied. Detailed tephrastratigraphic investigations,
mapping and geochronological dating of volcanic deposits, and the preparation of
volcanic hazard maps assuming different scenarios should be part of the studies made
during the prefeasibility and/or feasibility stages of a geothermal project.
With respect to earthquake related hazards, in Central America the probability of
seismic events is similar for geothermal and hydroelectric projects. Dams are usually
constructed in tectonic valleys or gorges, while many geothermal projects are located in
very active volcano-tectonic areas. Even if the probability of a seismic event is similar,
the social and economic consequences for geothermal and hydroelectric projects are
quite different. The downstream flooding (very low probability) caused by a dam
failure may cause high losses in life and property, whereas those associated with the
collapse of a geothermal plant are expected to be much smaller.
The El Salvador earthquake of January 13, 2001, with a magnitude of 7.6, produced only
minimal damage to geothermal plants. The only damage reported was a cable disconnection
between two transformers in Berln, and a perimeter wall around Ahuachapn power plant
that fractured in some places. Thermal and hydro plants also reported minimal damage, but
some substations and transmission lines suffered severe damage during the earthquake. Also
during the last earthquake series in Costa Rica between 1990 and 1993 (at least five strong
earthquakes), the hydroelectric and geothermal power plants did not suffer any damage.
This indicates that geothermal power plants can be built at least as sturdy as any
other plant, and the risks of catastrophic damage from natural phenomena are not
greater than for hydro or thermal plants.
29.3.5 Geothermal surface manifestations promote tourism industry
Even though there are numerous areas of hot springs in the region, these resources are
mainly used for washing, bathing and swimming by the local population. Guatemala is
the only Central American country with successful commercial direct-use projects
curing concrete blocks and fruit dehydration [12]. Even though the region is showing
an explosive increase in tourism, especially in Costa Rica (see Chapter 34), the
commercial development of numerous hot springs in form of thermal baths has been
minimal. In the future, this could change as ecotourism becomes continually more
popular. Establishing thermal spas in the region would create investment opportunities,
especially for the private hotel industry. This topic is discussed in Chapter 34 in
relation to geological heritage and geological resources for recreation and tourism.
29.4
COSTS, RISKS AND FINANCING ISSUES
29.4.1 Costs
Under present market conditions, the development of renewable energy resources can
only take place if they are cost-competitive. In Central America, geothermal has to
compete against fossil fuels and hydropower, which at present are used to generate
about 41% and 50%, respectively, of the electricity of the region.

Figure 29.4. Comparison of installation costs, electricity costs and plant factors for different
renewable energy sources for the years 2000 and 2010 ([4] data sources: [13, 14]; costs for
hydropower are based on Costa Rican conditions).
In Central America, the present costs per installed kilowatt are similar for geothermal
and hydro energy, but by 2010, the installation costs (capital costs) for geothermal
plants will be about half of those of hydroelectric projects [13] (Fig. 29.4). In addition,
geothermal plants have a much higher capacity factor (around 0.87 or more) than
hydroelectric plants (about 0.55, but often lower). In Central America, the overall cost
of the electricity produced by geothermal plants is lower than that from hydroelectric
plants and will become much cheaper in the future (Fig. 29.4).
The cost of installing fossil-fuelled power plants is lower than that of geothermal
and hydroelectric plants. Depending on the type of fuel being burned and the size of the
plant; cost vary between 300 and 900 US$/kW. By 2010, the installation costs for
geothermal plants will be significantly reduced (Fig. 29.4).
With energy production costs of about 0.05 US$/kWh, fossil fuel plants are similar
to hydropower plants and more expensive than geothermal plants.
Comparing geothermal energy with other renewable sources, solar energy will not become
economically competitive during the next decade. Wind energy has lower installation costs,
and the cost of the generated electricity is similar to that of hydropower. However, for both of
these energies the corresponding costs are higher than those for geothermal.
A disadvantage of wind energy projects is their short lifetime of about 15 years,
which is less than half of geothermal and hydropower plants. Also one should keep in
mind, that the potential of the region for wind generated electricity is very low (around
0.3; Fig. 29.4) compared to other power plants, especially geothermal.
The case of Miravalles (Costa Rica) illustrates the economic viability of geothermal
projects. Between 1994 and 2000, the sale of electricity generated by Miravalles unit 1
amounted to US$ 188.96 million [15]. Based on these numbers, the initial investment
of US$ 248.8 million will be returned during 2004. This example shows that
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investment costs for a geothermal plant, not considering the cost of capital and
devaluation, can be returned in about 10 years. Considering capital costs of US$ 4500 per
installed kW for the Miravalles unit 1, being about half as much in 2002 and expected to be
about a quarter in 2010, the time of investment return will be correspondingly decreased.
As mentioned above, the cost of geothermal energy consists mainly of capital costs,
which often constitute more than 90%. Capital costs can be divided into exploration
costs, cost of development of the steam field, and construction cost of the plant. Figure
29.5 shows an approximate distribution of capital cost through the various phases of
development. To the cost of deliveries, one has to add transmission costs and
distribution to consumers, which are also predominantly capital costs. While the cost of
the power plant constitutes around 60% of total capital cost independent of the size of
the plant, the relative cost of exploration and steam field development varies
considerably. This is mainly because total exploration costs are relatively independent
of the plant size, while the total cost of the steam field increases according to the scale.
Summarizing, geothermal energy production has a number of advantages over
fossil fuels and other renewable energies, and should be the primary energy source of
choice for the Central American region.
Figure 29.5. Distribution of capital unit costs of geothermal power plants (after [16]).
29.4.2 Investments from the perspective of private agents

The advantage with capital-intensive geothermal electricity production is that future
costs may be regarded as relatively certain, and the plant may be operated at low cost
once it is financed. Compared with fossil fuel power plants, for example, this implies a
relative gain in times of high fossil fuel prices. Also an absolute gain may arise when
the fossil prices are high because energy prices tend to follow the prices of fossil fuels.
Similarly, a relative loss may occur if the price of fossils drops. From such a
perspective, it is therefore difficult to say what should be preferred.
On the other hand, large investments imply that a high share of the costs are fixed
in the future. Thus, if energy prices become lower than expected one can only hope to
cover a part of the capital costs by running at full capacity. Alternatives with low
investments may rather be shut down, and losses may thereby be avoided. In other
words, owners take a much higher risk if investing in a capital-intensive geothermal
plant than in a less capital intensive fossil fuel plant.

A simplified example may illustrate this point. Assume the costs in the fossil plant
entail only operating costs, such as purchase of fuel, and that the expenses of the
geothermal plant are due to investments only. The price of electricity is 5.1 cents/kWh
in the first period, and at full operation, both plants can produce at a unit cost of
5 cents/kWh in this first period. The price of fossil fuel is uncertain in the second
period, and for simplicity, assume that the unit costs in the fossil fuel plant will be
either 5.3 or 4.7 cents/kWh. That is, the expected price of fossil fuels in the second
period is equal to the price in the first period, but in contrast with the geothermal plant,
the fossil plant may run into deficit in the second period. In that case it is better to shut
the entire plant down. This will cause no income for the owner, but he will not lose
either, because all the costs become zero once the plant shuts down. The expected gain
in the second period is therefore the average between the earnings at low fossil fuel
prices and no income.
Figure 29.6. Value of alternative power plants with uncertain price of fossil fuels.
Figure 29.6 displays how the expected value of the two alternatives changes with
increasing uncertainty about fossil fuel prices in the second period. Each plant is
assumed to produce 25 GWh/year under full operation. Despite the fact that expected
costs and income are equal in the two alternatives, the net benefit of the uncertain fossil
alternative will never be lower, but may be higher than the certain geothermal
alternative. This is due to the fact that the fossil plant may be closed down in the
second period if fuel prices turn out higher than expected. The same argument applies
if the price of electricity is uncertain, but with the difference that the geothermal plant
then may end up with a deficit, while the fossil plant avoids the loss.
29.4.3 Investments in a socio-economic perspective
Private investors are known to choose the alternative that gives the highest expected
profits. This may be a relevant description for decision making in many countries, but
it does not necessarily lead to the best social decisions. In the following, we take a
closer look at some factors that explain why decisions at a social or national level may
885

differ from the decisions that private agents make.

One reason is that the uncertainty that faces private agents is of a very different
kind than the uncertainty of the society. In a social context, uncertain fossil fuel costs
constitute just one element of the uncertainty in a spectrum of social and economic
activities. Low energy prices are clearly unattractive to the owners of a geothermal
plant, and they may therefore prefer a fossil plant to reduce the risk. In a social context,
however, low energy prices means that most other economic activities can be produced
at lower cost, and the potential losses in geothermal plants are easier to bear in times
when the prospects for most other economic activities are gloomy. If an economic
slow-down is due to high energy prices, the geothermal plant may actually represent a
light in the dark. In this sense, they may very well contribute to stabilizing the
economy. Hence, a drawback from the point of view of the private plant owners may
be of advantage to the society [17].
This aspect of uncertain energy prices may explain why many countries consider
self-sufficiency in energy to be important, even though it is difficult to finance
domestic projects. How important this is depends on factors such as the dependence on
energy imports and state of diversification of the national economy. The ideal would be
to neutralize uncertainty completely by diversification of assets. This is not the case in
most countries, and it becomes less realistic the smaller the economy is. Thus,
developing countries are likely to be far from the ideal, and thereby very vulnerable to
uncertain fossil prices. In these countries, domestic energy plants based on alternatives
to fossil fuels are most likely to be negatively correlated with fluctuations in other
branches of the economy.
Financial constraints in many developing countries, together with the evaluation of
risk by private investors, represent significant barriers to investment in capital-intensive
activities, including geothermal energy production. High capital cost implies that a
country may not be able to afford to choose the best alternative. One way to overcome
this barrier is for the country to take the social aspect of risk into consideration, and
provide incentives for investment. In addition, one may try to attract foreign investors
by compensating for social benefits beyond those arising from the production of
energy. One cannot expect private companies to take the social attitude to uncertainty,
although multinational companies may be better diversified than small developing
countries. Moreover, financial constraints may be considered a result of foreign
investors reluctance to invest in developing countries, and indicates a requirement of
reimbursement in return.
29.5
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IN THE FRAMEWORK OF NATIONAL ENERGY

DEMAND AND EXPANSION PLANS
The commercial development of geothermal resources in Central America from past to

today, was discussed in Chapter 26. Now, we will address geothermal energy in the
framework of national electricity demand and expansion plans.
According to a study by the Interamerican Development Bank (IDB) from 1998,
Central Americas annual growth rate of the electricity demand will range between 6 and
9%. As a result of deregulation and privatization trends, coherent national energy plans
do not exist. In addition and due to the present trend toward regional planning and the
construction of proposed natural gas pipelines, forecasting the future use of different energy
sources in individual countries is restricted. This is especially true for countries where the

Figure 29.7. Historical and forecasted growth of installed capacity and electrical generation in
Costa Rica and El Salvador, by source. Forecasts for El Salvador were obtained assuming an
average 6% annual growth in demand; those for Nicaragua are based on data from the
national energy plans developed by the National Energy Commission (Comisin Nacional de
Energa 2001) [4].
privatization process is most advanced as in El Salvador, Guatemala and Nicaragua.

In Costa Rica, geographical constellations and the abundant rainfall have permitted
the construction of several large (and small) hydroelectric projects.The total electricity
production in the country reached 6718 GWh in 2001 (Fig. 29.7). The main energy
source for electrical generation was hydropower (84.6%), followed by geothermal
(12.2%), and wind (2.7%). Thermal plants, which are used predominantly for
peak load, produced the balance (i.e., 0.5%). Approximately 80% of the Costa Rican
population has access to electricity. According to ICEs estimates, the countrys power
sector needs investments of about US$ 3000 million by 2011, to satisfy the demand
which is forecasted to grow at an annual rate of 4.8 to 6.1% during the 20002020
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period. Costa Ricas National Energy Plan calls for the installation of 29 new power
plants, predominantly hydroelectric projects, resulting in an extremely high dependence
on hydropower. According to ICEs predictions, Costa Rica will maintain its present
energy mix for the next 15 years or so.
At the end of 2001, El Salvadors installed generating capacity connected to the
high-voltage grid was 1117.6 MW (395.8 MW hydroelectric; 161.2 MW geothermal;
560.6 MW thermoelectric). During that year, 3973 GWh were generated (47.8%
thermal, 29.5% hydro and 22.7% geothermal) (see also Chapters 26 and 27). CEL
estimated that the electricity demand in El Salvador will grow in the next 15 years at an
average annual rate of 4.1 to 7.35%. Since deregulation started, no organization has
produced a national energy plan, but historic data can be obtained from SIGET, UT,
and DGE. Figure 29.7 shows the historic and future development of installed capacity
and electricity production in El Salvador. The forecasts are based on the assumption of
none significant changes of the abundance of different energy sources in the future.
However, most electricity plants, announced by private companies are thermoelectric
installations to be built in El Salvador or neighboring countries to generate power for
export to El Salvador. This is mainly due to short-term financial reasons than fundamental
economics, and may cause an increase in the price of power in El Salvador in the near future.
Figure 29.8. Nicaragua Installed capacity (2002) and energy expansion plans by source ([4];
based on data from the Comisin Nacional de Energa [18]).
In 2002, the installed capacity in Nicaragua accounted for 653 MW (15.8%

hydroelectric; 70.4% thermoelectric; 13.8% geothermal). The total electricity generated

in 2001 amounted to 2522 GWh (81.5%; 7.9% hydroelectric; 7.9% geothermal). As no

significant investments were made in the energy sector during the 1980s and most of
the 1990s, presently only 52% of the population have access to electricity. All over the
country, adequate capacities lack for electrical power generation. INE estimated a 6%
per annum growth in electricity demand over the next two decades. To satisfy this
demand and increase electricity generation capacity to 1179 MW, at least US$ 1800
million need to be invested. A 1998 IDB loan is being used to promote the
development of renewable generation projects in areas not connected to the national
grid. In late 1998, work initiated on a 232 MW geothermal plant in western Nicaragua,
with support from Germany, the United States, and Russia. Spains company Iberdrola
is developing a 22 MW, US$ 25 million wind power project south of Managua. A
Geothermal Master Expansion Plan for the countrys power generation system was
developed by the National Energy Commission.
By 2005, Nicaraguas installed capacity will increase from 653 MW to 725 MW,
reducing thermoelectric contribution by 14 MW, and increasing geothermal energy by
86 MW [18]. This will significantly increase the contribution of geothermal energy to
the power mix (i.e., from 14 to 24%, in terms of installed capacity). In addition, a
15 MW biomass power plant will be installed. For the period 20062010, Nicaragua
has developed a number of scenarios for future energy projects assuming the use of
different energy sources. The amount and type of sources to be used depend primarily
on the execution of two projects, the construction of the SIEPAC electricity
interconnection line and the natural gas pipelines projects from Guatemala or
Colombia/Panama. (Fig. 29.8). With the SIEPAC project (scenarios I and II) and
without it (scenarios III and IV), the contribution of geothermal electricity to the
countrys total installed capacity will be quite similar (i.e., in the 2228% range).
However, the percentage of installed capacity will noticeably change for thermoelectric
and hydroelectric projects (Fig. 29.8). The most sustainable energy solutions are
scenario II (with SIEPAC) and scenario III (without SIEPAC), which would increase
renewable energy (i.e., geothermal plus hydro) capacity from 30% in 2002 and 38% in
2005 to about 65% in 2010. On the other hand, scenarios I and IV would increase
sustainable energy capacity only to 49 and 39%, respectively.
In 2002, Guatemala had an installed electric power capacity of 1231 MW (47.3%
thermoelectric; 45.2% hydroelectric; 5.1% biomass; 2.4% geothermal). The amount
generated in 2001 comprised 2545 GWh (48.5% thermoelectric; 40.3% hydroelectric;
7.8% biomass; 3.4% geothermal). The projected annual growth rate is 8% up to the
year 2020. The government plans significant capacity increases and private investment
in the electricity sector which suffers from the effects of periodic droughts that reduce
hydroelectric output and increases prices during peak demand periods. Guatemala also
plans to increase electrification efforts, as only 56% of the population has access to the
electrical grid. It is planned to install 12 hydroelectric plants, one geothermal plant, and
two 120 MW thermal plants. This would make Guatemala even more dependent on
hydropower, whose availability is strongly affected by climate events.
In 2001, Honduras electricity consumption reached nearly 4300 GWh, which had been
increasing at an average annual rate of 7% to 10%. Hurricane Mitch (August 1998) was a
devastating blow to the economy and caused a temporary reduction in energy demand. The
growth in demand returned to its earlier trend as soon as the large consumers of electricity
recovered from the disaster (i.e., by the year 2001, the growth rate was 8%).
Honduras has an installed electrical generating capacity of 987.8 MW. Hydropower
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contribution is 44%, most of it coming from the 300 MW Francisco Morazn (El
Cajn) project. One percent of the capacity corresponds to cogeneration based on
biomass, the rest (55%) to traditional thermal plants (private companies own 52% of
these plants). Until 1993, more than 90% of electricity generated in the country came
from hydropower projects. However, economical and financial problems of the
national utility prevented the expansion of the countrys hydroelectric installed
capacity to keep up with the growth in demand, and taking into consideration that in
December 2001 only 57% of the population had access to electricity, Honduras needs
to develop strategies to increase its electrical capacity and output using all available
resources. Geothermal could contribute significantly to those plans if adequate policies
are established.
Honduras electricity consumption annual growth rate is 14%; demand was
approximately 600 MW before hurricane Mitch. The total installed power generating
capacity is 720 MW (60% hydroelectric; 40% thermoelectric). In addition to the
extensive damage caused by hurricane Mitch, a fire took El Cajn hydroelectric plant
off line in February 1999, thus reducing Honduran generating capacity by 300 MW, or
40% of the total. Thermal plants and electricity imports filled the power generation gap
while repairs took place.
Electricity generation accounts for most of Panamas domestic energy production,
whereby hydroelectric generation alone accounts for 75% of the countrys total energy
production. Electricity demand is expected to grow significantly in the coming years,
and new projects are planned to help meet the demand. Since the break-up of IRHE, the
Panama city area has faced power shortages. To deal with this, Panama has turned to
the private sector, namely Minova Generating of Germany, in partnership with U.S.based Noresco and Wartsila, for a 60 MW, fast track power supply project. In March
2001, a construction contract for the Esti hydroelectric project was awarded to
Swedens Skanska. The 120 MW plant is scheduled for completion in November 2003.
Other possible hydroelectric projects include Ro Cocle del Norte (18 MW), Ro Indio
(25 MW), and Indio-Gatn (10 MW). In June 2000, neighboring Colombias Senate
approved a bill allowing natural gas exports, which previously had been banned. This
clears the way for the possible construction of a gas pipeline from offshore Colombian
gas fields directly into Panama.
In May 2000, the Interamerican Development Bank (IDB) approved its first project
in Panama. The bank will loan US$ 59.8 million to IGC/ERI Pan Am Thermal
Generating Limited (PATG) for the construction and operation of a 96 MW, US$ 92million thermal electric plant near Panama city. Construction of AESs US$ 200million, 132 MW Esti hydroelectric project in Panamas Chiriqui province began in
August 2000. Esti is made up of two hydroelectric plants, Guasquitas and Canjilones,
on the Chiriqui river. By September 2002, ETESA (Empresa de Transmisin Elctrica
S.A.) is expected to ask for bids for the construction of a US$ 144-million transmission
line to connect the Esti project with the national electrical grid. According to existing
plans, the emphasis on hydroelectric projects and thermal power plants will not change
in Panama during the next two decades.
29.6
GEOTHERMAL RURAL ELECTRIFICATION AND DIRECT USE OF

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
In spite of Central Americas enormous potential for direct uses of low temperature

geothermal resources, there are no developments of this type in the region. Currently,
direct uses are mostly restricted to tourism and bathing purposes. Only in Guatemala,
geothermal heat is used commercially for drying agricultural products and for other
industrial purposes.
Additionally, geothermal energy can be used in rural electrification by installing
small (less than 5 MW) power plants that could help improve the development of the
region. These smaller plants would be an economic alternative to the costly extension
of national grids. They could also improve rural micro- or mini-grids, which classically
are based on small generators that burn diesel. This type of fuel is expensive and
sometimes not available due to a lack of an appropriate infrastructure, especially roads
that are impassable during rainy seasons. Both, the promotion of direct use and rural
electrification based on geothermal resources, require the implementation of pilot
projects to help popularize these opportunities.
In Guatemala, direct and low enthalpy geothermal energy is used at the Amatitln
geothermal field (see Chapter 26) in two industrial plants. The first is the Bloteca plant that
produces construction blocks. Since 1998, the plant has used geothermal energy in the
form of steam to cure its concrete products. The installed capacity is 1.60 MW and the
annual energy use is 40.4 TJ corresponding to 11.2 MWh per year (plant capacity factor
0.77). Replacing diesel fuel with geothermal energy saves US$ 24,000 per month. The
second industrial operation using directly geothermal energy is the Agroindustrias
La Laguna fruit dehydration plant. Initially it represented a demonstration pilot project,
but later it became a commercial enterprise. A downhole heat exchanger with an estimated
installed capacity of 0.5 MW (12.1 TJ/year or 3.4 GWh/year) is used. During the
development of the project, the owners decided to introduce a green product, called
Eco-Fruit, to the local market. It was a great success showing that consumers prefer
products related to clean technologies, e.g., drying fruit using geothermal energy.
Geothermal electricity generation in rural and isolated zones reduces their
dependence on oil and diesel fuels, which often must be transported over long
distances, and sometimes over environmentally sensitive areas like Lake Nicaragua.
Currently, fuel is shipped to Ometepe and other lake islands to supply diesel
generators. A spill could harm the unique fauna of Lake Nicaragua.
CNE, Nicaraguas national entity responsible for rural electrification, is in charge of
studies prioritizing the use of the geothermal resources in rural areas. On the other
hand, private developers could exploit these resources for direct uses as well.
29.7
OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
In Central America, geothermal energy resources for both direct use and for power
generation are underused market opportunities, which hence call for development. This
lack of development is due to regulatory, institutional, economic and financial barriers
and persists despite the huge available resource and the social, environmental and
economic benefits that geothermal development offers to the Central American region.
Compared with the alternative of fossil fuels and other renewables, geothermal
energy has substantial advantages in a social context. The most important are, first, that
it may provide a stable, domestic supply of energy in developing countries, and second,
that it is a clean source of energy. Although it is difficult to foresee exactly how these
advantages weigh against with the obstacles of uncertainty, attached by private
investors as well as public entities and their financing institutions, studies strongly
891

indicate the availability of options for more extensive development.

Geothermal resources are widespread. With the exception of Belize and Panama, all
Central American countries could use enormous geothermal potentials to satisfy large
portions of their present and future electricity needs. In addition, geothermal energy has an
elevated potential to be used in direct application and for rural electrification projects.
In order to exploit the potential gains of geothermal energy by increasing
applications of geothermal resources for electricity generation, the countries must
overcome these barriers and create or improve policies on sustainable renewable
energies. They must integrate geothermal energy in their development plans, and
decisions should not be taken exclusively from a purely market point of view. The
national authorities will have to be confident in their use of available instruments. Two
domestic targets may be pointed out in this respect. One is to prepare for an extensive
coordination of the national electricity markets and to develop a regional wholesale
electricity market. This limits the negative impacts of uncertainties, both, with respect
to the markets and to technological performance. The second is to internalize the social
costs of the so-called negative externalities of energy production. One way to do this is
to charge activities that contribute to air pollution. The social advantage of clean
energy thus becomes visible.
The true potential of renewable energy sources will only be successfully harnessed
to satisfy an increasing percentage of the fast growing energy demand, if governments
prepare an institutional and regulatory framework that can overcome the present
economic obstacles associated with geothermal projects. In the framework of
deregulation of the national and regional electricity markets, Central American
governments should use the restructuring process as an opportunity to promote
geothermal energy and other clean energy sources.
Despite uncertainties about the costs and benefits to the environment, the social
gains of geothermal energy may be substantial. The Hungarian case study shows that
the marginal benefits of clean energy production may be as large as the total
developing cost for a large, modern geothermal power plant. However, to take into
account the environmental improvements in decision-making, the national authorities
in developing countries will have to introduce incentives for private investors and for
public electricity institutions and their financing entities to obtain the required
international loans. Regulations, laws and market instruments must be developed.
Clean energy projects may be promoted by tax incentives, subsidies and investment
guarantees. On the other hand, investments in environmentally unsound projects must
be made unattractive through special taxes, like charges on fossil fuels, including use
taxes and higher import taxes. Only such incentives will ensure that low fossil fuel
prices do not result in public and private investments in conventional thermoelectric
plants and thereby become an obstacle for sustainable, renewable energy development.
Without incentives, investors will select projects with the highest benefits from the
purely market-economic value.
Privatization or private sector participation in the energy sector is becoming more
and more dominant. Private investment in the geothermal sector is very important due
to the high costs and risks of exploration and the high initial costs to develop a
geothermal field. It must be considered that due to the introduction of new and
improved technologies, the costs associated with geothermal projects is declining and
will continue to do so. Alternative energy sources vary widely in terms of cost,
economies of scale, production properties, and the externalities of production. These

properties are likely to be regarded differently depending on whether a private investor

or a public authority makes the decision. In order to make private investors act in
accordance with social interests, it is important, and may become even more important
in the future, to find appropriate incentives for private investors.
A review of the economic properties of the geothermal energy production indicates
that private investors may be reluctant about development, especially in developing
countries. This can to some extent be confirmed from observations. High capital costs
make the economy of geothermal energy plants more vulnerable to uncertainties in the
energy market and to technology performance than alternative plants. Whereas
the uncertainties in the energy markets affect all alternatives, the uncertainty about the
technology, or performance of the plant, is probably considered larger for geothermal
plants than for more traditional alternatives, such as thermoelectric energy production.
It is well known from other sectors that this uncertainty determines significantly the
choice of technology.
Additionally, one may also point at the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto
Protocol (CDM) as one instrument that might encourage further development of
geothermal energy. The CDM accounts at least for some of the positive environmental
properties of geothermal energy. Moreover, it represents one possible way out of the
constraints imposed by financial requirements. However, also to the investors in CDM
projects, the uncertainties seem to represent an obstacle for active involvement. These
uncertainties might be reduced if the technology becomes better known, but may also
diminish if the management and co-ordination of CDM projects are lifted up to an
international level.
Finally, capacity building and popularization of geothermal energy will be required
to create awareness and acceptance of geothermal energy by politicians and decision
makers. There is need for institutional strengthening, human resources formation and to
consider geothermal projects as AIJ/CDM opportunities by lowering electricity
generation costs (an important incentive for private investors).
Regarding the national energy policies of the distinct countries, following
recommendations are given: Costa Rica is using predominantly renewable energy
resources to generate electricity and pursues the most sustainable energy policy of the
region. The country is recommended to substitute their few thermal plants and to
reduce its over-dependence on hydropower with its seasonal weather related problems.
During the next decades, Costa Rica should favor increased geothermal energy
development; the electricity energy mix should tend towards a 1:1 relationship between
hydropower and geothermal energy. Unfortunately, El Salvador, Panama, Nicaragua
and Honduras are planning to satisfy most of their future electricity demand using
fossil fuels. On the other hand, for the same purpose, Guatemala is expanding its
hydroelectric sector. These countries should integrate renewable energy sources in their
future electricity development plans and implement sustainable energy policies that
provide incentives to all renewable sources, including geothermal resources and
achieve a sound mixture of different renewables by reducing fossil fuels consumption
to a minimum.
The application of all these measures would improve the economic and sustainable
development of the countries and the region by considering all ancillary benefits of
geothermal energy, including the social development of the region.
893

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Gawell, K., Reed, M. & Wright, P.M.: Preliminary Report: Geothermal Energy, the Potential
for Ciean Power from the Earth. Issued April 7, 1999 by the Geothermal Energy Association,
Organisation of Americas States: Environmental Protection and Integrated Sustainable
Management of the Guarani Aquifer System GAS Geothermal Project Component: An
Assessment of Opportunities for Geothermal Energy utilisation. Organisation of American
States, Contract No. R-20226, 10th June 2001, Washington D.C., U.S.A., 2001.
UNFCCC: El Hoyo-Monte Galn Geothermal project. United Nations Framework Convention
of Climate Change, USIJI Uniform Reporting Document: Activities Implemented Jointly under
the Pilot Phase; http://wwwunfccc.int/program/aij/aijact/nicusa01.html. (accessed May 2004),
Bonn, Germany, 1997.
Bundschuh, J., Alvarado, G.E., Rodriguez, J.A., Roldn, A.R., Palma, J.C., Zuga, A., Reyes,
E. & Castillo, G.: Resources and Policy of Geothermal Energy in the Central America. In: D.
Chandrasekharam & J. Bundschuh (eds): Geothermal energy for developing countries.
Aaheim, H.A., Aunan, K. & Seip, H.M.: The value of the environment. Is it a matter of
approach? Integrated Assessment 1 (2000), pp.4961.
Cifuentes, L.A., Sauma, E., Jorquera, H. & Soto, F.: Preliminary Estimation for the Potential
Ancillary Benefits for Chile. Ancillary Benefits and Cost of Greenhouse Gas Mitigation,
OECD, 2000.
Sera da Motta, R., Argioni Ortiz, R. & de Freitas Ferreira, S.: Health and Economic Values for
Mortality and Morbidity Cases Associated with Air Pollution in Brazil. Ancillary Benefits and
Cost of Greenhouse Gas Mitigation, OECD, 2000.
Borja-Abutto, V.H., Rosales-Castillo, J.A., Torres-Meza, V.M., Corey, G. & Olas-Fernndez,
G.: Evaluation of Health Effects of Pollution. Ancillary Benefits and Cost of Greenhouse Gas
Mitigation, OECD, 2000.
Birkle, P. & Merkel, B.: Environmental impact by spill of geothermal fluids at the geothermal
field of Los Azufres, Michoacn, Mexico. Water, Air & Soil Pollution 124:3/4 (2000), pp.371
410.
Birkle, P. & Merkel, B.: Mineralogical-chemical composition and environmental risk potential
of the evaporation pond sediments at the geothermal field of Los Azufres, Michoacn, Mxico.
Environmental Geology 41 (2002), pp.583592.
Brown, K.: Environmental aspects of geothermal development. International Geothermal
Association (ed), Pre-Congress Courses, World Geothermal Congress, Pisa, Italy, 1995.
Lund, J.W. & Freeston, D.H.: World-wide direct uses of geothermal energy 2000. Proc. World
Geothermal Congress 2000, Japan, MayJune 2000, pp.121.
Energy Information Administration (EIA): Assumptions to the Annual Energy Outlook 2000,
With Projections to 2020 National Energy Modelling System. Energy Information Agency,
Energy Department of Energy, U.S.A., DOE/EIA-0554(2000), 2000.
Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad: Plan de Expansin Elctrica, Periodo 20022016.
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Moya, P. & Fernndez, J.M.: Rentabilidad de las Unidades 1 y 2 en el Campo geotrmico
Miravalles (19942000). Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad, document presented on the
meeting No 19 of the panel of consultants of Miravalles, San Jos, Costa Rica, 2001.
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April 2004).
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Comisin Nacional de Energa CNE, Managua, 2001.
Chapter 30
Petroleum geology
CARLOS A. DENGO
For a developing country whose physical
resources have not yet been evaluated, the
possibility of finding oil and natural gas in
useful quantities will be tempting mainly if
other energy resources do not offer better
prospects. G. Dengo, 1965.
30.1
INTRODUCTION
All of the Central American countries have undertaken petroleum exploration activities
since the early 20th century; however, few commercial discoveries have been made.
These poor results are inherent in the geologic history of the region, which is generally
detrimental to the generation and accumulation of oil and gas. The main requisites for
commercial petroleum accumulations are abundant and rich source rocks, porous
reservoir rocks, adequate seals and effective traps. These elements of the petroleum
system are most commonly present in or adjacent to mature, tectonically stable areas.
In tectonically active areas, oil and gas are less likely to be present in commercial
amounts due to the destruction of the petroleum system.
The genesis of most Central American basins is underpinned by a complex and
active tectonic history related to transcurrent and convergent plate margins. This led to
the formation of restricted pull-apart basins, and a regionally extensive volcanic arc,
with the associated forearc and backarc basins of an east-dipping subduction zone.
Overprinting of structural styles, basin inversion, and active faulting in this
environment tends to degrade trap and seal integrity. More over, volcanic-derived
sediments and high rates of sedimentation, common especially in the southern portion
of the region, tend to dilute source rock richness and destroy reservoir quality.
Although reservoir rocks may have fair porosity, permeability may be poor for
migration efficiency.
Guatemala is the only country in Central America that produces small amounts of
crude oil, approximately 22,000 barrels of oil per day, most of which is either sent to
the United States for refining or consumed locally. Natural gas is not produced in any
of these countries. Estimated resources for the region are small, and are given only for
Guatemala, at approximately 530 million barrels of oil [1]. There is no estimate for the
undiscovered resource potential of the region. For example, in the U.S.G.S. global
assessment, a source of information widely used by the petroleum industry and others,
the petroleum potential of Central America is so small that no number has been
represented in the assessment of Region 6 Central and South America [2].
Published literature that describes the petroleum geology for the whole region is
limited. In a summary of Central American and Caribbean petroleum geology,
including statistics of exploration activity and known assessed resources to that date,
the Petn basin of Guatemala is highlighted as the only productive basin [3]. Most

896
subsurface information resides in oil company and government files, or publications

specific to individual basins or countries (reviewed as appropriate in this chapter). At
this time countries like Guatemala and Nicaragua are taking full advantage of modern
information systems, such as government websites on the Internet, to provide an ample
amount of technical and commercial information to interested parties.
Depth to basement, and consequently total sediment fill and its composition, is a
critical parameter to understanding the history of a basin and is indicative of the
hydrocarbon generating potential of a particular portion of the region. For Central
American basins, total sediment fill has been determined largely on the basis of
unpublished industry aeromagnetic and gravity surveys. Long-offset seismic reflection
data, or seismic refraction data, would provide additional control on crustal and basin
architecture, but these data are largely missing. Therefore, total sediment fill maps are
not commonly available, and in many basins the character of sediment fill is not well
known. Sediment fill information used herein is taken from the Exxon Production
Research Company Tectonic Map Series of the World [4].
Not all basins in the region have been sufficiently explored to understand their
petroleum potential. In comparison to actively explored basins elsewhere in the world,
much of the seismic data available from Central America is older vintage 2-D data, and
modern 3-D seismic data is lacking. For example, at this time, Guatemala, which is the
most thoroughly investigated Central American country, has only 450 km2 of 3-D
seismic data [5].
Significant work remains to be done to reach a fundamental geologic understanding
of many basins, from the regional to petroleum play scale. A contributing factor to the
lack of further analysis and exploration has been past civil and political unrest in some
countries. In addition, there has been a lack of sustained investment incentives such as
a hydrocarbon law and/or regulatory and fiscal framework that promotes exploration
activity. In recent years countries in the region have taken positive steps to create more
favorable and competitive investment conditions. It is still to be determined if these
changes will lead to increased exploration activity.
The scope of this chapter is a synthesis of the petroleum geology and exploration
results of this region. The focus is to place the key sedimentary basins of the area (Fig.
30.1) into a geologic framework to explain their relative prospectivity. This chapter
will hopefully serve only as an introduction to anyone interested in pursuing petroleum
exploration activities in these countries.
30.2
TECTONIC SETTING AND CONTROLS ON HYDROCARBON

OCCURRENCE
Essential to understanding the petroleum geology of any basin is its tectonic history,
since source and reservoir rock deposition, hydrocarbon maturation and migration as
well as seal and trap types are the result of the plate tectonic evolution of the area.
North of the Polochic-Motagua fault system in Guatemala (Fig. 30.1) the area is part of
the North American plate, and inherits a more stable geologic setting prone to creating
the right elements for commercial hydrocarbon accumulations. South of the PolochicMotagua fault system and northwest of the Romeral suture zone in Colombia, the
region forms part of the Caribbean plate (Fig. 30.1) with a more active and less stable
geologic setting. The plate tectonic history of the Caribbean plate with respect to the
cratonic North and South American plates and oceanic Cocos and Nazca plates in the

Figure 30.1. Map of Central America showing crustal blocks, key tectonic features, and sedimentary basins described in this chapter [3, 4, 68].
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898
Figure 30.2. Summary of general stratigraphic information for the Maya, Chortis, Chorotega, and
Choc blocks of Central America ([6, 7, 12, 13]; Chapter 13).
Pacific has been studied extensively and excellent summaries exist ([9, 10], among
others; Chapter 8). The regional geology and plate tectonic setting of Central America
is sufficiently well understood to provide an appropriate geologic framework for the
basins described herein [6, 11, 12].
Central America can be further divided into four crustal blocks with different
tectonic histories and crustal types (Fig. 30.1). As originally defined [11] and
subsequently described by others [7, 12, 13, among many] northern Central America is
divided into the Maya and Chortis blocks which are composed of continental crust of
possibly Precambrian age, while southern Central America is divided into the
Chorotega and Choc blocks which are composed of accretionary oceanic crust of
Cretaceous age (Fig. 30.1). General stratigraphic information and time equivalent rock

Figure 30.3. Schematic regional cross sections showing the location of sedimentary basins
relative to the Middle America trench. (a) Transect across northern Central America
extending from the Pacific coast across the Polochic-Motagua fault systems and northern
Guatemala showing the relative position of the Tehuantepec and Petn basins. (b) Transect
across southern Central America extending from the Pacific coast across the Talamanca
cordillera in Costa Rica showing the relative position of the Trraba-Tempisque and LimnBocas del Toro basins (modified from [14]).
units across all four blocks are provided in Figure 30.2. The basins of Central America
can be grouped into genetic types, most of which have as a frame of reference the
Middle America trench along the Pacific coast (Figs. 30.1 and 30.3). Crustal
composition controls the distribution of these basin types. The Petn basin and its
extensions into Belize, known as the Corozal and Southern Belize basins, are passive
margin/foreland basins that formed on the more stable Maya block. These are older,
mature basins with the appropriate combination of hydrocarbon play elements adequate
to the accumulation of hydrocarbons, although a limiting factor may be the extent and
richness of the source rocks. Similarly, the Mosquitia basin has elements of a passive
margin, although its tectonic origin is not clearly understood. This basin may offer
attractive opportunities since it is areally extensive; however, much is still unknown
about the petroleum geology of this region.
Pull-apart basins are exemplified by the Amatique, Tela and Southern Belize
basins. These basins are highly deformed, relatively small and not likely to contain
significant volumes of hydrocarbons. The Ulua-Olancho basin has affinities to an
interior sag basin. Its prospectivity is lowest in the region since key reservoir intervals
are exposed at the surface. The Limn-Bocas del Toro basin is a moderately to highly
deformed backarc basin with potentially attractive traps and source rocks although
reservoir quality may be a limiting factor. Finally, the Tehuantepec, Trraba-
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Tempisque, and Tuira-Chucunaque basins are forearc basins originating from

subduction of the Cocos and Nazca plates beneath the Caribbean plate. These are
young, moderately deformed, with generally poor source rocks and highly variable
reservoir quality.
In general, Central American basins have experienced two distinct tectonic phases
that provide primary controls for hydrocarbon accumulations. The first is a Jurassic
Cretaceous rifting and subsequent passive margin phase associated with the breakup of
North and South America. This phase is recorded in the basins associated with the
Maya block (Petn, Corozal, and Southern Belize), where JurassicCretaceous
sediments, with affinities to southeastern Mexico, lend themselves to creating a more
robust petroleum system. Elsewhere, all basins are located on the Caribbean plate and
the majority have a Pacific affinity, originating in the Mesozoic. Hence, these are
unlikely to contain the petroleum system attributes found in the Maya block and in a
relative sense should be considered less prospective. Although basins on the Caribbean
plate contain Cretaceous and Tertiary source rocks, most tend to be thin and
discontinuous, are poor to fair in richness, and subject to rapid facies changes.
The second tectonic phase occurred from the Late Cretaceous to the recent and is
associated with the eastward migration of the Caribbean plate relative to North and
South America and the development of a subduction zone along the Pacific margin of
Central America. Volcaniclastic-rich sediments derived from the magmatic arc
dominate many of the Pacific and Caribbean margin basins, lending themselves to
deposition of poor reservoir quality rocks and source rocks, though locally some source
rocks can have high total organic content values. The strong deformational overprint
produced by this tectonic phase may also limit trap and seal integrity.
30.3
BASINS OF THE MAYA BLOCK, NORTHERN CENTRAL AMERICA
The Maya block (sometimes referred to as the Yucatn block) includes the Yucatn
peninsula, the portion of Mexico east of the isthmus of Tehuantepec, Belize, and the
portion of Guatemala north of the Polochic-Motagua fault system (Fig. 30.1). The
Maya block is separated from the Chortis block by the Polochic-Motagua fault system,
from the Oaxaca block in Mexico by the Salina Cruz fault, and from the Yucatn basin
by the Belize fault (Fig. 30.1). The Maya block preserves the autochthonous Jurassic
Late Cretaceous passive margin sediments that make the basins on this block the most
prolific in Central America. Basins on the Maya block are the Petn basin of
Guatemala and its extension into Belize, known as the Corozal and Southern Belize
basins [1518]. A small pull-apart basin, the Amatique basin, is largely offshore within
Belize, Guatemalan and Honduran waters (Fig. 30.1).
The continental crust of the Maya block is 2025 km thick on the northern part of
the Yucatn platform and increases to 3040 km towards the south [6, 19]. Most of the
Petn basin is thought to be floored by metamorphic basement of the Chuacs group
(Fig. 30.2) [13, 2022]. The Maya mountains of Belize represent outcrops of this
metamorphic basement. Overlying the basement are Middle Permian rocks composed
of interbedded continental to lagoonal rocks (unconformably) overlain by interbedded
marine shales and carbonates. In Guatemala these are known as the Santa Rosa group
while in Belize their equivalent is the Macal series (Fig. 30.2). Little is known about
the tectonic setting into which these Paleozoic rocks were deposited. Paleogeographic
reconstructions [12, 23] indicate the presence of a basin that extended between the

Figure 30.4. Map of the Petn, Corozal, Southern Belize and Amatique basins. Contours for total
sediment fill are in thousands of meters [4]. Fold and thrust fault axes indicate general
structural trends in the Petn basin. Well locations are from [5, 8, 17, 26]. Key oil fields in
the Petn basin and key wells referenced in text are annotated.
Chiapas massif-Central cordillera of Guatemala to the south, the Maya mountains to

the east and highlands to the north of the Yucatn platform. The Santa Rosa group
forms the economic basement of the Petn basin. Middle Permian carbonates (Chchal
formation, Fig. 30.2) cap the Paleozoic sequence.
The Paleozoic rocks are moderately to strongly deformed and metamorphosed. This
deformation is time synchronous with the Appalachian orogeny [12]. The Maya block
was uplifted during Triassic time and no stratigraphic record exists of the Late Permian
through Early Jurassic. Seafloor spreading in the MiddleLate Jurassic opened the
Gulf of Mexico and caused the southward movement of the Maya block relative to
North America. Redbed molasse deposits and evaporites (Todos Santos formation, Fig.
30.2) of Late JurassicEarly Cretaceous age uncomformably overlie the Paleozoic.
These rocks are equivalent to those found in southern Mexico. By the end of Jurassic
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time, and possibly extending into the Neocomian, the Maya block reached its present
position relative to the Oaxaca block of Mexico. The Chortis block continued to be
displaced southeastward relative to the Maya and Oaxaca blocks. The Lower
Cretaceous is characterized by thick limestones, dolomites and anhydrites (Cobn
formation, Fig. 30.2) overlain by Upper Cretaceous limestones of the Campur
formation. Widespread regional folding and thrusting occurred during the Late
CretaceousEarly Eocene accompanied by flysch deposition (Sepur formation, Fig.
30.2). Many of the fault-ramp folds are cored with evaporites. Uplift and additional
faulting and folding at the end of the Miocene is due to the transcurrent movement
along the Polochic-Motagua fault system, along the southern edge of the block.
30.3.1 The Petn, Corozal and Southern Belize basins (Guatemala and Belize)
A comprehensive review of the petroleum geology and stratigraphy of the Petn basin
is provided by several authors [17, 24, 25]. The corresponding stratigraphic
nomenclature used in Belize as well as detailed accounts of exploration history and
petroleum play elements for the Corozal and Southern Belize basins is provided in an
excellent summary compiled by the Ministry of Science and Technology and
Transportation of Belize [26]. The Petn basin covers a major part of onshore northern
Guatemala and has total sediment fill of up to 12,000 m (Fig. 30.4).
During Jurassic time the Maya mountains of Belize were highlands and these
plunge towards the westsouthwest in the present day Petn basin, giving way to a
buried high named La Libertad arch. This arch separates the Petn basin into the North
and South Petn basins (Fig. 30.4). This division is primarily structural and not
stratigraphic. The North Petn basin is the continuation of the Yucatn platform, which
is an area of low structural relief. The South Petn basin, bounded on the south by the
Polochic fault, has been affected by several tectonic phases and is moderately to
strongly deformed [17]. The Maya mountains separate the continuation of the Petn
basin in Belize into the Corozal and Southern Belize basins (Fig. 30.4).
The Jurassic is a significant time period for the petroleum geology of the Petn
basin. Rifting of the Maya block away from adjacent continental areas created the
initial architecture of the basin; characterized by basement-involved normal fault
blocks filled with continental sediments, evaporites, and marine sediments of the Todos
Santos formation. The Todos Santos is also known as the Margaret creek formation of
Belize. Evaporite facies of the Todos Santos are only known in the Petn basin from
the Caballos-1 well, where anhydrites and salt were penetrated. The uppermost portion
of the synrift Todos Santos sediments are faulted against the La Libertad arch. The
Todos Santos formation shows marginal marine influence and may reflect a gradual
transition into the restricted marine conditions prevalent in the Cretaceous during
deposition of the Cobn formation [24].
Analyses of source rock data from the Petn basin [27] indicate that source rocks
are not widely distributed stratigraphically but are concentrated in the Cobn B and C
members of the Cobn formation (Fig. 30.2). These are thin and discontinuous. Total
organic content values ranging up to almost 4% have been analyzed from the Cobn B.
Visual kerogen examination suggests the source is oil prone with some terrigenous
organic input. Oil gravity ranges from 1536 API.
Reservoirs are also primarily in the Cobn B and C members (Fig. 30.2). The
Cobn B member comprises a thick sequence of dolomites, limestones and anhydrites.

Figure 30.5. Generalized cross section across the South Petn basin (modified from [18]). Faultramp folds, cored by evaporites, are common trap types (see Table 30.1). Lateral
stratigraphic facies variations in the Cobn formation also provide stratigraphic trapping
potential.
The Cobn C member comprises massive anhydrite with thin carbonates, principally
dolomites forming the reservoirs. Although fracture porosity enhancement is observed,
typical porosity in these reservoirs is low, about 020%. Permeabilities also tend to be
low and values in the order of 10 millidarcies are of common occurrence.
The initial rift history of the basin and superimposed compressional deformation,
aided by salt halokinesis has created multiple play types (Fig. 30.5; Table 30.1) [17,
18]. Anticlinal traps formed on the hangingwall of thrust faults, many of which are saltcored, are common trap types in producing fields (Table 30.1).
Exploration in the Petn basin began in the late 1930s and more than 70 wells have
been drilled [5, 16]. It was not until 1972 that the Shenandoah Group made the first
commercial discovery in Guatemala, at Rubelsanto (Fig. 30.4). The South Petn basin
has produced oil from seven fields, all completed in various zones of the Cobn C
member (Table 30.1). Rubelsanto and Chinaja Oeste (Fig. 30.4) account for almost
90% of all oil in place. Additional information on the discovered fields, including two
small discoveries in the North Petn basin, is provided in Table 30.1.
Approximately 56 wells have been drilled in Belize [26]. At the time of this writing,
no commercial discoveries have been made in Belize although 22 wells had oil shows
(Fig. 30.4). In the Southern Belize basin seeps have been reported in Upper Cretaceous
limestones and there have been live oil shows in many wells testing 3239 API oils
from the Cretaceous Yalbac formation. The Yalbac dolomite in the Corozal basin
represents the principal reservoir, with porosities of 520% and permeabilities in
the 50 millidarcy range. Reservoir quality rocks are also present in the fluvial facies of
the Todos Santos and the Late Cretaceous Campur formations (Fig. 30.2). The first
well drilled was the Yalbac-1 by Gulf in 1957 to a depth of 2745 m T.D. A signifincat
well in Belize was drilled offshore by Dover in 1996 (Gladden #1, drilled to a depth of
2483 m. T.D.). This well attempted to test a new play concept within the Gladden pullapart basin [28] pursuing the fractured Cobn formation, but with disappointing results.
The play is along the intensely active strike-slip margin.
903

904
Table 30.1. Summary of oil fields discovered in the Petn basin, Guatemala. Refer to Figure 30.4
for location of these.
FIELD
STATUS
PRODUCTIVE
RESERVOIR
TRAP
Rubelsanto
Productive
Cobn C
(8 horizons)
Cobn C
(7 horizons)
Cobn C
(1 horizon)
Cobn C
(1 horizon)
Cobn C
(2 horizons)
Cobn C
(1 horizon)
Cobn C
(3 horizons)
Upthrusted, salt-cored anticline
Cobn B
(1 horizon)
Cobn B
(1 horizon)
Thrust-related, hanging wall

anticline
Low-relief anticline
South Petn basin
Chinaja Oeste Productive

Caribe
Productive
North
Petn
basin
Tierra Blanca Suspended

San Diego
Productive
Tortugas
Suspended
Yalpemech
Suspended
Chocop
Productive
Xan
Productive

Thrusted, salt-cored anticline
Hanging wall, north dipping normal
fault
Salt-flank closure
Anticline, footwall of thrust fault
30.3.2 The Amatique basin (Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras)

The Amatique basin is a pull-apart basin extending from Izabal lake into the Caribbean.
It formed primarily by left-lateral strike-slip motion on the Polochic-Motagua faults
and their extension into the Caribbean (Figs. 30.1 and 30.4). Appropriate geologic
conditions for petroleum generation are apparently absent in this basin. The Amatique
basin includes the Caribbean offshore where Cretaceous carbonates comparable with
those of the Petn basin are overlain by a thick Tertiary clastic/carbonate sequence of
variable thickness. The Centram # 1 Manabique well (Fig. 30.4) drilled over 300 m of
Lower Cretaceous porous fractured shelf carbonates in the Gulf of Honduras [29].
Source rock quality, maturity and kerogen composition analyses indicate that the very
small amounts of organic matter present are only capable of generating minor amounts
of methane and wet gas [30].
30.4
BASINS OF THE CHORTIS BLOCK, NORTHERN CENTRAL AMERICA
The Chortis block consists of southern Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, most of

Nicaragua, and extends east under the Caribbean Sea as the Nicaraguan rise [6, 12, 13].
Crustal thickness has been estimated at 3540 km for the onshore portion of the block
while it varies between 2530 km in the Nicaraguan rise [31, 32], where seismic
velocities indicate an oceanic to transitional continental crustal composition. The early
geological history of the Chortis block is difficult to reconstruct due to paleogeographic
considerations in the interpretation of the pre-Mesozoic geological history. By the end
of the Mesozoic the Chortis block had been sutured to the Maya block along a
westward extension of the paleo Motagua-Polochic system, most likely by a
combination of plate convergence and translation. Metamorphic rocks are extensive

Figure 30.6. Map of the Ulua-Olancho, Tela and Mosquitia basins. Contours for total sediment
fill are in thousands of meters [4]. Well locations and information are from [8, 35, 36].
and widespread on the Chortis block and represent the only known pre-Mesozoic rocks
on the Caribbean plate [6, 13]. The overlying stratigraphy is not well understood. Plantbearing shallow and brackish water sandstones and shales of Late Triassic to Early
Jurassic age were deposited in localized low-lying areas. These are the El Plan
formation of Honduras and the Metapn formation of El Salvador which have been
correlated with the Todos Santos formation of western Guatemala (Fig. 30.2) [33, 34].
During the Early Cretaceous most of the Chortis block was in a shallow marine
environment leading to the deposition of a massive and widespread sequence of carbonates
named the Yojoa group [33]. By the Late Albian the Chortis block was regionally uplifted.
Extensional deformation produced a basin and range type physiography of normal fault
blocks. During the Cenomanian, carbonate platforms once again developed.
The Late Cretaceous history of the Chortis block is not well documented. Late
Cretaceous/Early Tertiary tectonic events are expressed as folds and granitic intrusives.
A second sequence of redbeds, the Valle de Angeles [33] was probably deposited
during a period of tectonic quiescence for the entire Chortis block. The Tertiary is
characterized by Eocene and older rocks, restricted marine sediments on the Caribbean
side and extensive and thick lava flows. Renewed regional extension characterizes the
Cenozoic. In offshore Honduras and Nicaragua a generally flat lying lagoonal
environment persisted through the Tertiary with numerous paleocoral cays and banks.
Two basin complexes dominate the area; the Ulua-Olancho basin onshore Honduras
and the Tela-Mosquitia basin, predominantly in the offshore of Honduras and
Nicaragua (Figs. 30.1 and 30.6).
905

906
30.4.1 The Ulua-Olancho basin (Honduras)

The Ulua-Olancho basin in Honduras (Figs. 30.1 and 30.6) is perhaps the only basin in
the region that does not have a clearly definable tectonic origin, and is best described as
an interior sag, or intracratonic basin. Total sediment fill in the basin is poorly
constrained and may be as much as 3000 m based on gravity modeling [35]. Most of
the basin sequence is exposed in anticlinal structures that generally trend northeast. The
exposed rocks, mostly Cretaceous in age, are intensely folded and faulted. Although oil
seeps have been reported, the hydrocarbon potential must be considered low, since the
potentially prospective Cretaceous section is exposed. The Cretaceous Yojoa group
(Fig. 30.2) is favorable for the generation and accumulation of hydrocarbons. The
Yojoa group is divided into four formations [33] and two of these may have source
rock potential, as identified onshore. These are the AptianAlbian age Atima formation,
which is a massive carbonate and age equivalent to the Cobn formation of the Petn
basin and the Cenomanian Upper Guare formation, which is a thin-bedded
petroliferous and argillaceous limestone. Six wells have been drilled in the UluaOlancho basin in the period from 1921 to 1983 and all have been dry holes (Fig. 30.6).
30.4.2 The Tela-Mosquitia basin (Honduras and Nicaragua)
The Tela-Mosquitia basins lie mostly offshore Honduras and Nicaragua and are
discussed together (Figs. 30.1 and 30.6). The Tela basin is a Tertiary half-graben, most
likely a pull- apart associated with the offshore extension of the Motagua fault system.
The Mosquitia basin extends from onshore Honduras and Nicaragua to offshore on the
Nicaraguan rise (Figs. 30.1 and 30.6). The Mosquitia basin is bounded to the southeast
by the Hess escarpment (Fig. 30.6) and to the northwest by a complex deformation
zone associated with opening of the Cayman trough. The limits of the Mosquitia basin
are poorly defined and herein a limit of the 200 m bathymetric contour has been used.
Sediment thickness in the Tela basin exceeds 1000 m whereas in the Mosquitia basin it
may reach from 8000 m to 10,000 m in local fault-bounded depocenters (Fig. 30.6)
[35].
Neither the Tela or Mosquitia basin has any proven hydrocarbon plays at this
time. A series of grabens characterize the structural style of both basins. More detailed
mapping of the Mosquitia basin [37] suggests that Tertiary-age strike-slip deformation
influenced the basins structural style. Diapirs of unknown composition are present in
the Mosquitia basin [38, 39]. Five wells have been drilled in the Tela basin, all dry,
although one had oil shows. More than 30 wells have been drilled in the Mosquitia
basin, some with oil and gas shows (Fig. 30.6). Stratigraphic columns from five wells
drilled in the upper Nicaraguan rise indicate Paleocene to Eocene sediments
uncomformably overlying diorite and metamorphic basement [37, 40, 41]. No dated
strata older than Cretaceous have been reported from wells penetrating the upper
Nicaraguan rise. The oldest section penetrated just offshore Nicaragua in the Waterford
Touche-1 well (Fig. 30.6) is composed of Paleocene calcareous shales. Evaporites are
present locally near the coast of Honduras. The Miocene is represented by marine
strata, which are marly to gypsiferous. Along the coast of Honduras the Miocene facies
changes from continental/near shore sandstones to biogenic carbonates [37, 40]. The
main source rock is believed to be the Lower Eocene marine, oil prone, Touche
formation. Fluid tests show oils varying from 21 to 45 API. Dry gas has also been
found. Various play types exist that combine a range of structures including drape folds

Figure 30.7. Map of the Tehuantepec basin. Contours for total sediment fill are in thousands of
meters [4]. Well locations are from [8, 42] and the stratigraphic cross section extending from
the Madre Vieja well in Guatemala to the Corvina #2 well in Nicaragua is from [42].
and reef structures sourced by Lower Eocene, oil prone, marine argillaceous carbonates
with principal reservoirs being Tertiary shelf carbonates. Porosities in the range of 5%
to 20% have been measured.
30.4.3 The Tehuantepec basin (Southern Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador,
Honduras and Nicaragua)
The Tehuantepec basin extends along the Pacific margin from southern Mexico to the
northern part of Costa Rica, where it is bounded by the Nicoya peninsula, which
coincides with the boundary between the Chortis and Chorotega blocks (Figs. 30.1 and
30.7). The basin is limited by the Middle America trench as its western margin and the
volcanic front inland towards the east. The Tehuantepec basin is a forearc basin
resulting from Miocene subduction of the Cocos plate beneath the Chortis block.
Sedimentary thickness are poorly constrained, but may be as much as 7000 m (Fig.
30.7). The Physiographic and structural data from the Middle America trench and slope
area indicate a structural style towards the trench inner slope characterized by
compressional thrust faults and fault-ramp folds that become progressively older and
more steeply dipping in landward direction [43, 44].
Two wells have been drilled in the northern part of the basin (one offshore
907

908
Guatemala) and five wells in the southern portion, mostly offshore Nicaragua (Fig.
30.7). Offshore Nicaragua two wells had gas shows. One poor quality oil show was
found in the Tritn #1 well (Fig. 30.7). In addition to these wells, Mexicos State Oil
Company, Pemex, drilled 3 offshore exploratory wells in the Mexican portion of the
Tehuantepec basin without successful results (also see [45]). Legs 67 and 84 of the
Deep Sea Drilling Project drilled scientific wells offshore Guatemala across the Middle
America trench [46, 47].
A stratigraphic correlation along strike of the basin (Fig. 30.7) indicates the oldest
section penetrated to be Upper and Middle Eocene volcaniclastic deepwater sediments.
Potential source rocks could be OligoMiocene in age with possible reservoirs present
in the OligoMiocene and Eocene section. Leg 67 of the Deep Sea Drilling Project
encountered gas hydrates within stratigraphic sequences containing high-porosity
sediments [48]. Leg 84 further documented gas hydrates offshore Guatemala and
encountered these also offshore Costa Rica, documenting this phenomenon to be
characteristic of the Middle America trench [47, 49]. A study of the hydrocarbon
potential of the organic matter recovered from Leg 67 drill sites indicates that marinederived amorphous organic matter dominates the trench sediments in and around the
Middle America trench. Sediments contain, on average, 1% to 2% total organic carbon
and are immature for the generation of oil [50]. The gas encountered in DSDP Leg 67
cores must have migrated from a more mature section at depth or be of biogenic origin.
30.5
BASINS OF THE CHOROTEGA AND CHOCO BLOCKS, SOUTHERN

CENTRAL AMERICA
The basins of southern Central America differ in their tectonic setting from those to the
north primarily because they are built on thickened oceanic crust with sediments filling
linear, narrow restricted basins. Crustal thickness for the Chorotega block is 1725 km
and for the Choc block 1530 km [51, 52]. Although they share similar crustal
composition and geologic history, a left-lateral strike-slip fault system extending from
the Colombia trench separates the Choc and Chorotega blocks in the vicinity of the
Panama canal zone [6, 7]. The Chorotega block is separated from the Chortis block by
the Santa Elena suture, whose offshore continuation appears to be the Hess escarpment,
in the Caribbean (Fig. 30.1). The North Panama deformed belt separates these blocks
from the remaining Caribbean plate, and the Middle America trench separates both
blocks from the Nazca and Cocos plates, respectively (Fig. 30.1).
A comprehensive summary of the geology of southern Central America and a
detailed description of its stratigraphy indicates that no rocks of pre-Mesozoic age are
known in this part of Central America [7]. The earliest geologic reconstruction that can
be made indicates the development of a prototectonic magmatic phase that developed
during the Jurassic to Early Cretaceous forming a large oceanic plateau. The basement
complex of southern Central America is largely composed of an ophiolitic sequence
originally described as the Nicoya complex [53] and subsequently studied by others
[5457]. Radiolaria and other fauna indicate the Nicoya complex to range in
age from Early Jurassic to MaastrichtianEocene in its uppermost units [7, 58]. Prior to
Late Cretaceous, but after consolidation of the Nicoya complex, uplift and accretion of
Pacific oceanic crust against the Chortis block to the north took place, emplacing the
Chorotega block along the Santa Elena suture. During this time accretion of oceanic
crust against cratonic South America emplaced the Choc block along the Romeral

Figure 30.8. Map of the Trraba-Tempisque, Limn-Bocas del Toro, and Tuira-Chucunaque
basins. Contours for total sediment fill are in thousands of meters [4]. Key well information
is from [8].
suture in Colombia. Late Cretaceous marine sedimentation, with minor volcanic

activity, may have been widespread but is now only preserved along the Pacific margin
of Costa Rica and western Panama and a restricted part of the Caribbean coast of
Panama. During latest Cretaceous time uplift of the Chorotega block occurred [53].
Uplift and accompanying down-faulting has been attributed to the process of a
convergent plate margin which includes formation of forearc basins along the Pacific
coast, a magmatic-volcanic arc inland, and backarc basins on the Caribbean margin.
On the Chorotega block the most significant of these backarc basins is the LimnBocas del Toro basin along the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica and Panama (Figs. 30.1
and 30.8). Along the Pacific margin, forearc basins formed, most notably the TrrabaTempisque basin along the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and the Tuira-Chucunaque basin
that covers most of southern Panama (Figs. 30.1 and 30.8). The Chorotega block has
been the site of a volcanic arc since the Late Cretaceous. The Choc block became
defined later as the Central American arc collided in the Middle Miocene with South
America. A total of ten basins are described for the area covered by Costa Rica and
Panama, including the offshore [7]. Several of these are small, never have been drilled,
and have not been given a formal name. Six basins in Costa Rica have had some
exploration activity [59] and three in Panama [8].
30.5.1 Limn-Bocas del Toro basin (Costa Rica and Panama)

The Limn-Bocas del Toro basin is the largest basin of southern Central America, with
approximately two thirds located in Costa Rica and the remainder in Panama (Fig.
30.8). The Limn basin is divided into the Limn Sur and Norte sub-basins by the
Moin high (Fig. 30.8). Poor quality seismic data does not permit an accurate
understanding of the Moin high. Eocene and older rocks are folded over the high into a
broad, domal uplift with an unconformity separating Upper Eocene rocks from an
onlapping section of Lower Oligocene to Lower Miocene rocks. Off the crest of the
Moin high seismic data indicate the development of a fringing reef. The Limn Sur
basin is bounded by the volcanic front, and extends northward to coincide probably
909

910
with the boundary between the Chorotega and Chortis blocks [7]. Total sediment fill is
approximately 7000 m. Large parts of the Limn-Bocas del Toro basin remain virtually
unknown and unexplored. The stratigraphic section for the basin is illustrated in Figure
30.2. Both the Limn Sur and Norte basins developed during the Late Cretaceous in a
backarc setting, subject to later uplift and inversion. Both sub-basins formed on the
trailing edge of an oceanic plate and, therefore, continental influenced sediment sources
are absent. The Limn-Bocas del Toro basin is filled with arc-derived volcaniclastic
wedges, which intercalate towards the east with carbonate rocks. The result of the
predominant volcanic fill is to greatly affect reservoir quality and thus downgrade the
prospectivity of this basin.
The stratigraphy of the Limn-Bocas del Toro basin consists of clastic and
carbonate turbidites with interbedded deep water shales. Miocene age carbonates are
found locally. Several source rock intervals are present. The Miocene Uscari formation
(Fig. 30.2) and Eocene shales could have total organic content as high as 15% [8] but
these are thermally mature only in the deeper parts of the basin. Geochemical analyses
prepared for state company RECOPE of Costa Rica indicates total organic carbon
values between 0.5 and 1% in the Eocene and Lower Miocene [60]. Organic-rich Late
Cretaceous marine shales, with total organic content of about 4%, are also viable
source rocks. Little is known about the areal distribution of the source rocks and the
potential for richer source rocks to be present. Traps in the Limn Sur sub-basin are
predominantly Late Miocene compressional structures developed as a result of the
deformation associated with the Panama deformed belt. These are dominantly faultramp folds that appear to detach above the Cretaceous [61]. Stratigraphic traps in the
Oligocene reefs and fringing facies flank the Moin high in the Limn Norte sub-basin.
A most detrimental condition in the search for commercial accumulations of
hydrocarbons in the Limn Sur sub-basin is the presence of extensive and complex
shale diapirism in the more complex structures. This condition is exemplified by the
results obtained in some wells drilled in the area which have indicated a much younger
age at T.D. than that of the top of the well.
The Limn-Bocas del Toro basin is the most explored basin in Costa Rica with 22
exploration wells drilled in the period between 1954 and 1988, most near the border
with Panama [62]. Total sediment fill is in excess of 7000 m (Fig. 30.8). All of the
wells have been commercial dry holes with 16 of these containing hydrocarbon shows
(Fig. 30.8). The Cocoles #2 well drilled in 195556 by Union Oil Company is the only
well to have had a significant show. Approximately 1300 barrels of oil per day were
recovered from an andesitic hypobisal intrusive in Miocene age sedimentary rocks.
Only one offshore well has been drilled; the Moin #1 drilled in 1975 to a depth of 2059
m T.D. by Elf (Fig. 30.8). Additional accounts of exploration history and potential for
the Limn basin, as well as other basins of Costa Rica, are offered by various authors
[59, 61, 6365]. In the Panama portion, eight wells have been drilled from the
period 1918 to 1962 (Fig. 30.8) with all wells being dry.
30.5.2 The Trraba-Tempisque basin (Costa Rica)
Several small basins, not formally described, exist along the Pacific margin of Costa
Rica with the most prominent one being the Trraba-Tempisque basin, located inland
(Figs. 30.1 and 30.8). These are Cretaceous to recent forearc basins. Total sediment
fill exceeds 7000 m. The stratigraphic sequence [7, 59, 64] is composed of Upper

CretaceousEocene gray and black shales with sandstone interbeds and reefoid
carbonates, Oliogocene and Lower Miocene deepwater turbidites, and Middle and
Upper Miocene deltaic and beach tuffaceous sandstone, shales and conglomerates.
Pliocene age conglomerates and coarse clastics derived from the adjacent Talamanca
cordillera complete the sequence. Oil seeps and bituminous shales have been
encountered throughout the Pacific margin basins of northern Costa Rica [66], yet,
there is an absence of drilling and accurate subsurface information. Structures in the
basin are complex and represent the superposition of extensional block-faulting and
transpressive strike-slip faulting [67]. In local areas along the Nicoya peninsula,
pockets of very rich Cretaceous source rocks have been found overlying ophiolitic
basement, with total organic content as high as 54%, derived from marine organic
material (type II kerogen) [59]. The lack of good quality reservoir rocks and the
complex deformation would indicate an overall low prospectivity for these basins.
30.5.3 The Tuira-Chucunaque basin (Panama)

The Tuira-Chucunaque basin is located in southern Panama extending from onshore to
the offshore in the Gulf of Panama (Fig. 30.8) and includes the Darin and Samb subbasins. Much is still unknown about the Tuira-Chucunaque basin. It is a composite
forearc island-arc depositional system structured in Middle Miocene to Early Pliocene
by oblique subduction and collision of the Choc block with the South American plate.
The basin is floored by Campanian age basalts. Marine strata in excess of 5500 m have
been measured with a stratigraphic section that is divided into six major formations
(see generalized columnar section in Fig. 30.2) [7]. The oldest unit consists of
predominantly Eocene sandstones, shales and limestones capped by a distinctive
limestone known as the Clarita formation (Fig. 30.2). The overlying Oligocene consists
of calcareous and foraminiferal shales, thin sandstone interbeds, and carbonaceous
shales. Potential source rocks are most likely associated with the Oligocene shales, but
their development, kerogen type and total organic content are very poorly documented.
The Miocene comprises a heteregeneous unit of shales, conglomerates, sandstones, and
sandy limestones. The overlying Lower Gatn and Pucro formations (Fig. 30.2) have
thick-bedded crossbedded sandstones. These Miocene sandstones and possible regionally
more extensive OligoMiocene volcaniclastic turbidites are the potential reservoir
rocks in the basin. Traps are complex faulted anticlines created by the subduction and
collision of the Panama arc beneath the South American plate.
Well known seeps in the western part of the basin have attracted exploration since
the early 1920s and although close to 20 wells have been drilled (Fig. 30.8) no
commercial hydrocarbon accumulations have been discovered. The limiting element in
the Tuira-Chucunaque basin is most likely the lack of adequate source rocks.
30.6
SUMMARY
A summary of the key petroleum system elements for the Central American basins is
provided in Table 30.2. Central America is located between two of the worlds most
prolific petroleum systems, these being found in southeastern Mexico and in northern
South America (Venezuela and Colombia). The Petn basin in Guatemala has affinities
with southeastern Mexico, yet source rock distribution and quality may be the limiting
911
912
BASIN
NAME
BASIN
TYPE
SEDIMENT
THICKNESS
(M)
RESERVOIR
TYPE/AGE
SOURCE
TYPE/AGE
TRAP
TYPE
MAYA
Petn
Passive
margin;
foreland
12000+
Cretaceous
carbonates of
Cobn Fm.
Potentially
Jurassic Todos
Santos Fm.
Cretaceous
carbonates of
Cobn B and C
members
Thrust-related
70
salt cored
anticlines;
inverted normal
fault blocks;
stratigraphic traps
Limited source [3, 5, 12,

rock extent and 1416,
quality
23]
Corozal and Passive

Southern
margin;
Belize
foreland
6000
Upper Cretaceous Tertiary shales

Yalbac Fm. and of Toledo Fm.
Hillbank Fm.
Tilted fault
56
blocks; superimposed strikeslip deformation
Limited source [12, 24, 26]

rock extent and see also
quality
Chapter 13
Amatique
Pull-apart
4000+
Lower Cretaceous Not well

fractured
documented
carbonates
Tilted fault
blocks; strikeslip faulting
Lack of source
rock
TelaMosquitia
Pull-apart;
rift passive
margin
1000
10000
Cretaceous reefal Aptian deepNormal fault

5
limestone of
water shales of blocks; Possible (Tela)
stratigraphic traps
Atima Fm; Eocene Mochita Fm;
reefal carbonates Albian
33
limestones of
(Mosquitia)
Atima Fm.;
Eocene and
pre-Cretaceous
coals
CHORTIS
NUMBER OF KEY
WELLS
GEOLOGIC
DRILLED
RISKS
KEY
REFERENCES
Source rock
[12, 31, 34,
extent and
37, 41]
quality not well
known

CRUSTAL
BLOCK
Table 30.2. Summary of key elements of the petroleum geology of Central American basins.
Interior sag 3000+
Black shales
within Guare
and Esquias
Fms.
7000
OligoceneMiocene and
Eocene. Poor
quality
volcaniclastic
Not well
Fault-ramp folds, 7*
documented gas stratigraphic traps
hydrates
Backarc
7000+
Oligocene
Eocene,
fractured reefs and Miocene Uscari
sandstones,
Fm.
Eocene deepwater
volcaniclastic
turbiditesUpper
Cretaceous
dolomites
TrrabaForearc
Tempisque
7000+
Oligocene
Extensional fault -Cretaceous
Miocene
Loma Chumico blocks, strike-slip
deepwater and
deformation
Fm.
deltaic sandstones
Poor reservoir [7, 56,

quality, lack of 57, 64]
widespread
source rock
TuiraForearc
Chucunaque
5500+
Miocene sandstones of Gatn

and Pucro Fms.,
OligoMiocene
turbidites
Lack of source
rock
Tehuantepec Forearc
CHOROTEGA LimnBocas del

Toro
CHOC
* Does not include Deep Sea Drilling Project wells.
Not well
documented
Large surface
anticlinal
structures
Limn Sur basin: 22

Foreland and
fault-ramp folds.
Limn Norte
basin: Broad
basement-related
arches and
normal faults
Faulted anticlines 20
Potential
[12, 31, 33]
reservoir largely
exposed of
surface
Lack of source
rock
[41, 4346]
Poor reservoir
quality
[7, 56, 57,

59, 64]
[7]
Cretaceous
limestones of
Atima Fm.
Potential Jurassic
El Plan Fm.

UluaOlancho
913

914
factor in Guatemala. The remaining Central American basins appear to have one or
more limiting geologic elements that do not lead to the generation and accumulation of
commercial amounts of hydrocarbons. This is mostly due to the complex tectonic
history of the region that has been detrimental to the deposition of widespread and rich
source rocks and adequate quality reservoir rocks. The regional volcanic front, in
particular, has negatively impacted the petroleum system elements of the basins in
southern Central America and along the entire Middle America trench basins floored
by more stable continental crust of the Maya and Chortis blocks (northern Central
America) have greater potential for active petroleum systems that could yield commercial
discoveries, compared to those floored by oceanic crust of the Chorotega and Choc
blocks (southern Central America). An understanding of much of the Central American
basins is limited by a lack of sufficient modern subsurface data. While the remaining
undiscovered hydrocarbon potential appears very limited for the region, the offshore
portion of the Mosquitia basin may represent the most promising under-explored basin.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
U.S. Department of the Interior Energy Information Administration: Internet Site:

www.eia.doe.gov (2003).
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Chapter 31
Coal and peat resources
LUIS GMO. OBANDO AND KENNETH BOLAOS
a systematic campaign to evaluate the
carboniferous beds of Central America
should be carried out The results of such a
program would have a high value for a
regional evaluation. O. Bohnenberger and
G. Dengo: Coal Resources in Central
America, 1968.
31.1
INTRODUCTION
A review of the information on carbonaceous resources in Central America reveals the

presence of coal (lignite, sub-bituminous coal and bituminous coal) in all countries
except Belize and peat mainly in Costa Rica, Panama and Belize. There are no reports
of significant past or any recent commercial production in any of these countries.
This chapter summarizes the results of coal exploration conducted throughout the
region, and of peat exploration in Costa Rica and Panama. Because coal and peat are
reported to be formed in all of the countries of Central America, more deposits likely
exist than are mentioned in this chapter; however, other deposits have yet to be
explored.
In Costa Rica, the available information on peat and coal resources corresponds to
15 years of exploration activity (1979 to 1993). For Honduras and Guatemala there are
reports of carbonaceous sedimentary rocks, which are locally distributed. Recent
reports are available for Panama, but little information is available for El Salvador.
Nicaragua has the least information available.
Except in Costa Rica, the information available reveals an emphasis on proximate
analyses of coal samples by government agencies. Analysis techniques are never stated,
and descriptions of the locations of coal outcrops are generally imprecise. Almost
nothing is presented concerning related geologic factors such as thickness of
overburden, extent of the deposit, type and rank of coal, average thickness of the coal
beds, structure of the coal bearing beds and moisture content.
Studies of peat resources in Central America have been initiated recently.
Preliminary scientific studies have been restricted to Costa Rica and Panama, and, to a
much lesser extent to Belize. Peat deposits have been found in Costa Rica and Panama,
as well as in Guatemala and Honduras. All deposits discovered to date can be placed in
one of three sedimentary environments or geomorphic types: back-barrier, flood plain
and mountain [1].
However, other types of settings for potential peat resources remain to be
discovered. In countries such as Guatemala, where no peat resource studies have been
undertaken, peat may occur in geological conditions very different from those in Costa
Rica and Panama [2]. For instance, in Guatemala, Honduras and Belize there is a high
potential to find peat in caves or old ponds and lakes associated with karst processes.

918 FOSSIL FUEL AND MINERAL RESOURCES
31.2
COAL DEPOSITS
31.2.1 Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks

No coal beds have been found in the regions oldest sedimentary rocks, which are dark
colored shales, siltstones and sandstones of Late Pennsylvanian to Early Permian age
found in central Guatemala [3].
In Honduras, sedimentary rocks lithologically similar to the Paleozoic rocks of
Guatemala are assigned to the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic based on plant fossils
[4]. This sequence, known as the El Plan formation [4], contains coal beds in different
localities. There is a possibility that older metasedimentary rocks exist in eastern
Guatemala and Honduras, where Paleozoic graphitic schists are known. These may
contain some sheared or faulted coal beds, but there is little hope of finding a
continuous bed in these metamorphosed rocks. In Honduras, coal beds occur in the El
Pataste and El Chile localities. Fossils found at El Pataste suggest that they may date to
the Paleozoic [3]. However, regional correlation of the reported lithology of the coal
sites suggests that these sedimentary rocks belong to the Middle Jurassic El Plan
formation. If the assignment to the El Plan formation is correct, the oldest coal beds in
Central America are in Honduras, and they are of Early to Middle Mesozoic age.
31.2.1.1 Guatemala
From 31 different coal localities reported in Guatemala, 58 samples of coal have been
described. Regardless of the exact number of reported coal localities, the coal resources
of Guatemala seem to deserve further investigation. In recent decades, recurring
interest has been expressed in the possibility of utilizing these coal resources [5].
Coal beds range in age from Jurassic(?) through Cenozoic. The only known
occurrence of a Jurassic coal bed is near San Jos Ojetenan in the San Marcos
department [3, 6]. Lignite coals associated with Cretaceous sedimentary rocks are in
the departments of Huehuetenango, Quiche and Alta Verapaz [3].
The Cretaceous strata in Guatemala are predominantly carbonate rocks, and thus
claims that carbonaceous beds occur in the Cretaceous are questionable. Regardless of
their age, some of these lignite beds were evaluated for local use by a mining company
about four decades ago and were found to be noncommercial. They are included in the
listed localities because some of them warrant a new appraisal. The proximate analyses
realized in some of them are summarized in Table 31.1.
31.2.1.2 Honduras
Coal beds reported in Honduras are Mesozoic to at least (Late?) Cenozoic in age and
are located in the Yoro, Olancho, El Paraso and Francisco Morazn departments [3].
Their thicknesses range from 0.5 m in Yoro to 3.54 m in Olancho, where the coals are
interbedded with shales. The Olancho sequence contains three beds of coal, 1.27 m,
1.37 m and 0.9 m thick, respectively. The coal is interbedded with shale, silty
sandstones, and sandstones. Other reports describe metamorphic rocks, limestones,
black thin-bedded limestones, shales (red rocks), conglomerates, sandstones, and
volcanic rocks [4].

Figure 31.1. Coal, lignite and peat localities in Central America (compiled from [13, 7]).
919

31.2.2 Cenozoic sedimentary rocks

An important group of lignite beds occurs mainly in Neogene clastic sedimentary rocks
of marginal marine to continental depositional environments in northeastern Guatemala
and in Costa Rica and Panama. These rocks range in age from Late Oligocene to
Pleistocene [3] (Table 31.1).
Table 31.1. Coal quality (average values) in Central America (compiled from [3]).
Age/Country
Mesozoic
Guatemala
Honduras
Cenozoic
Guatemala
Guatemala
Honduras
El Salvador
Volatile
matter
(%)
Fixed
carbon
(%)
Ash
(%)
Sulfur
(%)
Age
37.19
18.19
39.23
31.80
15.27
38.90
1.43
Mesozoic
Mesozoic
33.15
27.63
25.10
-
34.11
46.65
43.30
-
14.99
17.08
20.60
65.89
5.46
1.80
-
Miocene
PlioPleistocene
PlioPleistocene
PlioPleistocene
There are no data from Nicaragua and Panama. For Costa Rica data see Table 31.2.
During the late volcanic history of Central America, probably during the Pliocene and
Pleistocene, local intermontane basins were formed by block faulting or by a
combination of tectonic events and volcanic eruptions [3]. In some of these basins,
organic material accumulated along with volcanic ash with siliceous precipitates. Thus,
many occurrences of so-called coal beds are reported in the volcanic regions of Central
America. These very young lignite beds, or lignite ash beds, are thin, lenticular, and of
only local extent. Some localities, however, warrant a systematic evaluation; in this
category we include the localities of Sabana Grande (Francisco Morazn) and Las
Flores (Yoro), both in Honduras. These lignite beds are the only ones in Central
America not deformed, and they should be investigated systematically [3].
31.2.2.1 Guatemala
Cenozoic age lignites are found in the Izabal department, near the Caribbean coast and
near the potential inland waterways of Dulce river, Golfete lake, and Izabal lake, where
21 localities with coal beds were reported [3]. These very young lignites (probably of
Pliocene and Pleistocene age) were deposited together with volcanic ash or with
siliceous precipitates. The lignites are generally thin and lenticular.
Additionally, coal beds have been reported in the departments of El Progreso,
Sacatepequez, Chimaltenango, Quezaltenango, Baja Verapaz and Jalapa [3]. Numerous
thin lignite beds are described interbedded with siltstone, sandstone and mudstone of a
unit to which no formal name has been given. The consensus is that these rocks range
in age from Late Miocene to Pliocene. The main problem for exploitation, aside from
the difficult access, is the intense local deformation of the lignite beds. Areas must be
sought where folds are gentle and cutoffs by faults are rare.
In Izabal there is a small area of Miocene lignite. The thickness of individual strata
generally does not exceed 30 cm (the thickest bed observed was 1.5 m) but collectively
the strata have a total thickness of more than 15 m [8]. The lignite and carbonaceous
shales are generally well exposed where they have not been mined and seem to be little
affected by weathering processes. Approximately five million cubic meters of lignite

could be mined. Macroscopically, the lignite beds consist of monotonous thin

laminations of dull black layers with a few intercalations of semi-bright laminae. The
fossil assemblage in the carbonaceous facies is entirely non-marine [8]. The
monotonous thin laminations and the carbonized grass-like fragments that characterize
the lignite beds are suggestive of a deposit formed in reed swamps with grasses and
probably ferns, but not forest vegetation. The high ash content observed in the lignites
and the presence of shell-rich partings and carbonaceous shales are also suggestive of a
deposit where rearrangements of plant remains or peat took place repeatedly during
flooding events (hypautochthonous) [8].
31.2.2.2 Honduras
Coal has been reported from about 20 different locations in Honduras [5]. Very young
(Pliocene and Pleistocene) lignites are present in the departments of Francisco Morazn
(max. thickness reported is 1.80 m), Valle, Yoro and Ocotepeque [3].
31.2.2.3 El Salvador
Seventeen different localities in El Salvador have been reported to have coal, but many
of the areas are very small and the coals are of low grade. Therefore, the resource
potential is considered to be small. However, the true potential will remain unknown in
the absence of definitive studies [5]. Very young lignite beds are found in the
departments of Santa Ana, Cuscatln, Cabaas, San Miguel, Morazn and La Unin
[3]. No thicknesses are given. High ash content is also reported.
31.2.2.4 Nicaragua
At least 10 coal locations (in 5 departments) are reported for Nicaragua. In the
localities of Chinandega, Len, Estel, Madriz and Chontales, very young lignite beds
are present. No further information is available and, therefore, further investigation is
needed [3].
31.2.2.5 Costa Rica
To place the coal deposits of Costa Rica in geographic context, they will be described
by sedimentary basin. The South Limn basin includes the coal deposits of Zent and
Uatsi (Volio), and the San Carlos basin includes the deposits of Venado and Upala (San
Carlos). The Central basin includes the Tablazo, Puriscal and Tempisque sub-basins,
(Fig. 31.1) [9].
31.2.2.5.1 Coal deposits of the South Limn basin
The coal deposits of the South Limn basin are Upper Miocene in age and are located
in the Ro Banano formation (Upper Miocene to Pleistocene) [1, 10]. This formation is
composed of volcanogenic sandstones, shales, mudstones and conglomerates
associated with deltaic and deltaic fan environments [12]. Mudstone sequences are
characteristic at the base of the formation, whereas coal-bearing sandstone sequences
are common in the middle section. In the upper part, conglomerates intercalated with
shales are more common. The total thickness is about 1800 m [13].
Coal is present in the middle member of the Ro Banano formation, which has a
thickness of 940 m and is characterized by an intercalation of shales, coarse to fine
921

sandstones and fine-grained conglomerates in continuous beds and some lenses as

channel deposits [10, 11]. Sandstones are fine to coarse, gray and bluish gray with a
strong volcanic influence and a muddy matrix. The coal unit has a thickness varying
from less than a meter to 320 m and the coal is represented as seams of different
thicknesses, coal fragments and dispersed organic material [14].
In the region of Uatsi, coal seams are located within an area of 144 km2. This is a
structurally complex area, where rocks are folded and faulted making correlations very
difficult. Therefore, during exploration, the coal seams were treated as individual
entities for their correlation [7, 11]. The area of Baja Talamanca (Uatsi) was divided
into three different basins: Carbn Volio, Sand Box and Carbn Uno (Quebrada
Carbn) [11]. The exploration program included field geology, drilling (around 30 drill
holes) and trenching in order to correlate the coal seams found and calculate the reserves
associated in the three areas. The coal found is subbituminous C and B (Table 31.2).
Table 31.2. Coal reserves and average quality data of Costa Rica (compiled from [7, 11, 15]).
Area
Rank of coal
Subbituminous C
and B
Lignite A to
Zent
Subbituminous B
and C
Venado Lignite A to
Subbituminous C
Tablazo Lignite
Uatsi
Ash
(%)
Volatil
matter
(%)
Sulfur
(%)
Organic Thickness
matter
(%)
13.9
37.71
1.70
centimeters2.1 m
12.15
27.24
0.98
0.652.2 m
10.0
31.62
1.22
centimeters3 m
1.63
68.8
Total
milimeters1 m
Total
reserves
(million
metric
tonnes)
32.5
17.06
2
51.56
Reserves until 1989, ASTM classification.
Coal in the Zent area (32 km SE of Limn) is found in an area of 268 km2.
Structurally the area is complex, although, some parts of the area are relatively stable
and the coal bearing sequence is dipping gently to the NE. This has permitted reserve
calculations for an area suitable to be exploited of 0.4 km2. In this area the coal-rich
member has a thickness of 100 m with four coal seams with thicknesses of 0.65 to
2.2 m [9, 15]. The sequence has conglomerates, fine sandstones and shales, with the
typical bluish gray colors of the middle member of the Ro Banano formation. The
reserve calculation for this area is of 14.9 million metric tonnes of lignite A to
subbituminous C with low sulfur content (Table 31.2).
31.2.2.5.2 Coal deposits of San Carlos basin
The Venado deposits are located 44 km northwest of Ciudad Quesada (San Carlos), in
an area of at least 186 km2. Coal seams are distributed in the Venado formation [16] of
Middle Miocene to Pleistocene age, composed of two main lithologies, limestones and
muddy sandstones. Overlying the limestones, a coal-bearing sequence is found. This
sequence is intercalated with fine to coarse sandstones influenced by volcanic activity.
The colors are typically gray-green and bluish. Clastic fragments, feldspars, pyroxenes
and amphiboles indicate that the volcanic influence is greater than in other areas of the

country (Zent, Uatsi). The fine-grained rocks are represented by gray and bluish-green
shales with abundant organic material and fossils such as bivalve shells concentrated in
layers of _ cm thickness. Leaf impressions are also very common in the sediments.
Conglomerates and breccias are the least abundant rocks and are intercalated with
sandstones and shales. The coal-bearing member is about 400 m thick. It seems that
favorable conditions for deposition of peat and then coal beds were repeated several
times during the deposition of the sequence. Therefore, coal seams are distributed
along the total sequence, which is intercalated with more marine layers.
In contrast, in the Zent and Uatsi area the rocks are dipping more gently, permitting
a detailed study of coal seams where the lateral continuity is relatively good. An
unfavorable factor is that overburden is composed of recent and old lahars (Buena
Vista formation) as well as pyroclastics from Arenal volcano. The muddy nature of
these materials has caused many landslides in the region, covering important outcrops.
The lateral correlation of the seams and, therefore, the reserve calculations, are
difficult.
More than 27 coal seams crop out mainly along the Muerte, Pataste, Catanurio and
Buro rivers and tributaries (Venado in Fig. 31.1). The thickness of the seams varies
from several centimeters up to 3 m (including interlaminated mudstones); the average
is 0.8 m. The beds are well defined, but not always continous [16]. Coal from Venado
is mainly lignite A; until 1986 there were proven reserves of 2 million metric tons [17].
31.2.2.5.3 Coal of Central valley
The Tablazo deposits are located near Higuito (south of San Jos). Coal seams (0.3 to 1 m
thick) are intercalated with thick beds of quartz-rich sandstones and organic-rich shales
of Middle to Upper Miocene age. The quartz sandstones, known as mollejn, are
medium to coarse grained with parallel laminae; partiality massive beds can reach up to
50 m thickness and color varies from light gray to reddish with iron oxide laminae.
These sequences are intercalated with volcaniclastic sandstones and lithic arenites
which are dark gray to brown, fine to medium grained with quartz, feldspar and lithic
fragments. Some of the levels are completely bioturbated. The coal-bearing sequence
also contains volcaniclastic sandstones, tuffs and shales.
Coal from El Tablazo was exploited during the First World War (around 1914) and
the remains of the mining activity are still observable as narrow tunneling and some
marks on the hard quartz sandstones against which were set wood supports in the
tunnels. The coal is lignite of a low calorific value with a lot of ash, sulfates and sulfur
impregnations (Table 31.2). Thickness varies from several centimeters up to 1 m near
the Orosi, Tablazo and Jorco rivers.
31.2.2.5.4 Other areas
During exploration conducted in the 1980s, other coal localities in Costa Rica were
sampled. Unfortunately, the literature did not report the exact location of the coal beds.
Therefore, even when there was knowledge about locations such as Puriscal and San
Carlos rivers, no information is available for adjacent areas. In the case of Esparza,
exploration showed thin coal seams along the upper part of the Barranca river.
However, the spatial distribution is not well known. In the Upala area in the
northwestern part of Costa Rica, the coal seams are similar to the ones found in
Venado. Later investigations conducted by the Escuela Centroamericana de Geologa
(Universidad de Costa Rica) revealed carbonaceous manifestations (coaly shales, leaf
923

impressions, etc.) in the Coto Brus river (Trraba valley) and Golfito (southern Costa
Rica) [7].
31.2.2.6 Panama
Lignite in Panama is of Cenozoic age, in which the Tertiary is well represented by a
fairly complete succession of fossiliferous dated sediments. In this sequence, the
lignites and lignitic siltstone are interbedded in argillaceous and sandy sediments. The
lignite beds belong to the Gatn formation of Miocene age [3]. The beds have been
found in six provinces. In the Bocas del Toro province, lignite occurs on the islands of
Laguna Chiriqu and in the upper Changuinola river basin. In the province of Veraguas,
lignite is known from sites near La Mesa and Santiago. In the Herrara province, lignite
beds in Oligocene and Miocene sediments are located near Parita. Lignite beds also
occur near Bombacho in the province of Los Santos, Capira in the Panama province
and at Indio river just west of the Panama canal zone in the province of Coln
[3, 6, 18].
Coal has been reported from a minimum of fifteen localities in Panama, but an area
of primary interest is in the province of Bocas del Toro [5]. The coal-bearing rocks in
Bocas del Toro are extensions of the coal-bearing rocks of the South Limn basin,
Costa Rica. Much of the general stratigraphic and structural information in Costa Rica
is directly applicable to the adjacent coal-bearing rocks in Panama.
Particular interest in the coal resource potential of the Bocas del Toro area has been
expressed for three reasons: (1) If coal of sufficient quantity and quality is present and
recoverable it could be used as a substitute for imported oil that is now used to generate
electricity in the farming area around Changuinola, in the Chiriqu Grande area, and for
other electricity needs as that part of Panama is developed in the future; (2) Knowledge
of the resource potential of the area is required for regional and local planning; for
example preliminary planning has been done for 11 or more dam-reservoir sites and at
this time the locations can not be evaluated relative to potential coal resources; and (3)
As population increases, deforestation can become a problem; the suggestion is that
coal might be a potential substitute for fuel wood at some future time [5].
The coal resource potential of the entire country should be evaluated, but the area of
highest priority may be the Bocas del Toro area, because of the proven resources in the
Ro Banano formation of adjacent Costa Rica border.
31.3
PEAT DEPOSITS
Swamps have developed in different regions of Costa Rica (Fig. 31.1). Most are located
in the Caribbean region, in flat coastal areas with poor drainage (areas behind sand
bars, as Tortuguero, Mon and Aeropuerto peat deposits) or alluvial plains frequently
flooded by the meandering rivers of the region (El Cairo, Tortuguero and Medio Queso
peat deposits) [7].
Some other deposits are found in small intermountain basins in the magmatic arc
(Talamanca cordillera mainly). Here, poor drainage, little basins, cool and humid
conditions, have facilitated the development of swamps of different size and shape in which
organic matter and then peat accumulates (La Chonta in San Isidro de El General) [19].
The most extensive swamps in the country are located in the plains of the Caribbean
coast. Zones like Barra del Colorado, Tortuguero, Parismina, Mon and Bocas del Toro

have swamps with great economic potential that need to be investigated and evaluated
in detail. Other interesting areas have been observed in the plains of the northern part
of the country near the border with Nicaragua, Medio Queso and Cao Negro rivers
[19, 20]. In the alluvial areas of the Pacific coast, Sierpe, Naranjo, and Tempisque
rivers might have some potential even though the geologic and structural conditions
may make these locations economically less attractive [7].
Preliminary studies to date indicate peat thicknesses between 0.5 and 15 m (for
instance El Cairo [20]). Figure 31.1 and Table 31.3 summarize results of available
studies. Significant peat exists in the freshwater swamps of the Caribbean coast, which
can be identified by the presence of the palm Raphia, known locally as yolillo.
31.3.1 Back-barrier type

31.3.1.1 Aeropuerto peat deposit (Costa Rica)
The Aeropuerto peat deposit, located south of Limn in front of the main airport, has
an elongated shape and is a typical back-barrier sand deposit with an area of 3 km2. The
deposit is drained though the Cieneguita inlet and the Westfalia creek. Vegetation is
mostly yolillo, which has been reduced significantly by cattle grazing.
This deposit could be utilized for electric power generation, as well as agricultural
and horticultural purposes [20] (Table 31.3).
31.3.1.2 Tortuguero peat deposit (Costa Rica)
Extending from the northern border of Costa Rica to the Parismina river in an area of
approximately 830 km2, this deposit occurs in meandering river floodplains and behind
sand bar deposits [7, 20]. The deposit has not been exploited. Only 12 samples were
taken and there are no reserve calculations; chemical characteristics are shown in
Table 31.3.
31.3.1.3 Mon peat deposit (Costa Rica)
This deposit is located north of Limn, approximately 4 km from the refinery of
RECOPE covering an area of 34 km2. It is of strategic importance because of its
proximity to the RECOPE petroleum refinery, Mon power plant, Mon port, Limn port
and the airport. The deposit is located behind a sand bar, drained by small rivers and an
artificial channel. Most of the vegetation is yolillo, with mangrove vegetation at the
channel sides. Tropical hardwoods, including some timber-yielding trees, and a diversity
of other vascular plants and bryophytes, also occur at the site. Eighty five samples were
analyzed from 17 boreholes (Table 31.3) [20]. Due to the fact that the petroleum refinery
is nearby, the development of the deposit has been considered for electrical energy
production to substitute for part of the fuel oil utilized in the refinery processes.
31.3.1.4 Changuinola peat deposit (Panama)
There has been intensive exploration of peat deposits in Panama, especially those in the
area of Changuinola. The deposit sampled at Changuinola is similar to the one
found at the Caribbean coast. In fact, the possibilities of developing such a deposit
are the same as described for Costa Rica [21]. The Changuinola peat deposit
925

Table 31.3. Peat deposits of Costa Rica and Panama (compiled from [1921]).
Peat deposits
Tortuguero Mon
El Cairo Aeropuerto
Boreholes
Samples
Thickness
(max, m)
Area (km2)
Peat resources
(dry million
metric tons)
2.0
12.0
1.5
17.0
85.0
2.1
> 70
No data
34.0
12.85
2.0
1.30
3.0
5.40
5.5
1.02
175.0
38.50
82
72.16
3929
3862
2468
4695
2975
4277
5560
16.46
16.18
10.34
19.67
12.46
17.92
23.29
17.50
12.50
14.60
11.33
11.16
83.60
22.93
29.14
27.26
43.84
49.00
30.14
21.60
24.79
40.14
30.40
26.74
50.00
< 2.5
62
37.16
17.00
16.42
46.80
17.22
21.27
34
0.43
1.50
0.20
0.64
0.33
0.23
5.0
187.0
15.0
2.0
14.0
1.5
Medio Talamanca Changuinola

Queso
53.0
264.0
2.0
54
5.0
240
29.0
1.3 8 (average)
Quality (average, dry basis)

Calorific value
(kcal/kg)
Calorific value
(kJ/t)
End moisture
(wt%)
Ash (wt%)
Volatil matter
(wt%)
Fix carbon
(wt%)
Sulfur (wt%)
<2
is an example of a back-barrier deposit. It is located on the northwestern coast of

Panama near its border with Costa Rica, just southeast of the Changuinola river (Fig.
31.1). The peat formed over unconsolidated sediments behind, and roughly parallel to
a beach barrier feature that extends for about 10 km to the southeast [1, 21].
The geometry of the peat deposit is roughly rectangular and oriented with its
longest axis parallel to the beach-barrier shoreline. The peat deposit is colonized by
tropical hardwoods and palms at its margins and by sparse herbaceous and shrub
vegetation toward its center. The peat interfingers at its northwest boundary with
freshwater sands and clays from the Changuinola river. Sediments from Baha
Almirante cover an undetermined portion of the peat deposit to the southeast. The peats
composing the deposit are all of freshwater type, except for a few lenses of mangrove
peat that interfingers with the other types near Baha Almirante. This deposit covers an
area of 82 km2 with an average thickness of 8 m [21] (Table 31.3). It is low in sulfur and
ash content and has a high potential to be used as energy source, for agriculture or
industrial purposes (industrial chemicals) [4].
31.3.2 Flood plain type
31.3.2.1 Medio Queso peat deposit (Costa Rica)
The Medio Queso peat deposit occupies a floodplain along the Medio Queso river,
west of Los Chiles, Alajuela province. In the rainy season the deposit is covered by 1 to
2 m of standing water. The plain of Medio Queso is well defined and the change to
the flat areas is strong [20]. The peatland has no trees, except along the river.
Vegetation is characterized by different grass types (juncos and navajuelas typical of
the area), other herbs, and shrubs. Soils in these flat areas of Medio Queso have been

used for cattle grazing and cultivation of beans; the settlers have constructed several
channels for drainage, and in the summer fires are common. These frequent fires
have caused strong oxidation and carbonization of the superficial organic matter
or organic-rich mud, yielding a typically black surface color. Petrographic studies have
shown that the peat is composed primarily of ferns, water lilies (calla), grasses, rushes
and Sagittaria [19]. This is in contrast to other localities, such as those along the Caribbean
coast, where the predominant plant is the yolillo palm.
The Medio Queso river itself has influenced the organic matter content of the
deposit. The ash content is always high (Table 31.3) and most of the cores show organicrich sediments (2540% ash) [20].
For energy uses this deposit is limited to an area of 5.48 km2 where the total
reserves of peat are 1.024 million dry tonnes (Table 31.3) [20]. This organic matter is very
suitable for agricultural purposes, horticultural and biogas (CH4) production.
31.3.2.2 El Cairo (Ro Silencio) peat deposit (Costa Rica)
Located east of Gucimo, 11 km north of the village of Herediana, the El Cairo peat
deposit (2 km2) is located within a small alluvial plain, drained by submeandering
rivers, the Silencio and the Salto. The area is characterized by a jungle vegetation full of
yolillo (Raphia) and small trees (Fig. 31.1).
In this deposit, systematic sampling has been very difficult due to the fact that drill
holes have to reach depths of 15 m or more, a rarity in Costa Rica where most peat
deposits are less than 2.5 m deep [20]. A total of 187 samples were taken (Table 31.3).
Although the evaluation has been directed toward horticultural uses associated with
ornamental plant cultivation, some of the peat could be extracted for energy
production.
A paleoenvironmental study of the El Cairo peat deposit showed evidence of cycles
of destruction and regrowth of the swamp vegetation caused by explosive volcanic
eruptions from the Turrialba volcano about 2000 and 3370 years ago [22].
31.3.3 Intermountain basin type
31.3.3.1 Talamanca peat deposit (Costa Rica)
These deposits are located in the highlands of the Talamanca mountain range
(paramount histosols type). A national park located at northnortheast from the town
of San Isidro (Fig. 31.1). Peat deposits in this region are poorly studied, partly due to
the difficult access. In the area most of the deposits are in elongated small closed
basins. Since clouds cover the mountains at this altitude for most of the year, the soils
remain moist and cool. This accounts for the ability of peats to develop in blanket-like
deposits over much of this area. The dominant plants producing the peats are grasses,
sedges, other herbs, Sphagnum and other mosses, ferns, bamboo, and other small
shrubs [19]. The deposits are poorly developed and their transverse sections are quite
irregular [7].
927

31.4
COAL AND PEAT END USES
End uses for coals have been investigated only in Costa Rica in order to reduce the
energy dependence on hydrocarbons. These coals are a feasible energy alternative.
Basically, these coals could be used as fuels in power plants and industry kilns (for
example, cement plants). In the case of Uatsi and Zent coals, plans were made to use
them in industrial plants of the country in a power plant of about 40 to 60 MW capacity
(Zent) and 60 to 80 MW capacity (Uatsi [17]).
On the other hand, the rocks of the El Plan formation in Honduras have been under
the influence of large and repeated tectonic stresses and thus are strongly folded and
faulted in most areas [3, 4]. Because of these unfavorable conditions, the total
Mesozoic (possibly Paleozoic) coal resources do not exceed 200,000 metric tons [3].
The reconnaissance studies farther north, in Yoro department, showed that El Plan
formation type sedimentary rocks occur there and are less strongly deformed. This
opens up possibilities of exploring for coal to the north, away from the main tectonic
deformational axis of central Honduras.
In the case of peat resources, there are 13 possible uses for the peat in Costa Rica,
based on costs, technical risks, pay balance, national priorities and needs [23]. If in the
rest of Central America the peat resources are similar to those in Costa Rica and
Panama, their use may be similar. These uses could be grouped as follow:
Steam boilers with fluidized beds.
In situ small scale production of bio-gas.
Low calorific value gas production by gasification.
Ethanol and methanol production.
Gasoline (methanol) production.
Ammoniac production.
Electric generation at 40 MW power plants.
CO2 production and refrigeration.
Activated carbon.
Soil conditioner for horticultural purposes.
Peat for plantations.
There were some considerations established for the utilization of these materials as
fuels for electric generation. The reserves estimated are enough to project a 30 MW
power plant located next to the peat area. Milled peat is the most common peat mining
method used today to produce fuel peat. In this method the peat bog is drained, leveled
and air dried. The top few centimeters of peat are then removed by grinding the
surface. Milled peat can be used in both suspension-fired and fluidized bed boilers with
no further drying [23].
Wet mining is a method that has been examined for mining the peat areas in
Jamaica. The first step in wet mining peat is to remove the peat using a clamshell
dredge. The peat is ground into a slurry and pumped in a pipeline to the power plant
where it is put through presses similar to those used in paper manufacturing. This step
reduces the water content of the peat to approximately 70%. It must be dried further,
using flue gases and steam from the boilers, before being sent either to a suspension
boiler where the water content must not exceed 45% or to a fluidized bed boiler where
the water content is expected to be about 55% [23].

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San Jos, 1983.
Bolaos, K. & Salas, M.: Coal resources of the Baja Talamanca Area of Costa Rica. In:
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Taylor, G.D.: The geology of the Limn Area of Costa Rica. PhD Thesis, Lousiana State
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929

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22. Obando, L.G. & Soto, G.: Turbera del Ro Silencio (El Cairo, Siquirres, Costa Rica):
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Central 15 (1991), pp.4148.
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Chapter 32
CARL E. NELSON
Years had sped on at Santo Domingo; and
the time approached when I should be set
free from the worries and responsibilities
attending the supervision of gold mines, the
products of which were just at that
tantalising point, on the verge between profit
and loss, that made their superintendence a
most irksome and anxious duty. T. Belt:
The Naturalist in Nicaragua, 1874.
32.1
INTRODUCTION
Central America is host to a variety of metallic mineral resources including gold, silver,
copper, lead, zinc, nickel, cobalt, antimony, tungsten, and aluminum. Currently, the
mineral endowment of Central America totals 34 million ounces (Moz) Au, 276 Moz
Ag, 15.3 million tonnes (Mt) Cu, 2 Mt Pb+Zn, 0.9 Mt Ni, 0.09 Mt Sb, and 130 Mt Al.
Past production and known resources are summarized for each country in Figure 32.1.
Precious metal production comes mainly from epithermal quartz vein (e.g.,
Talavera, Bonanza, and La Libertad, Nicaragua), epithermal quartz stockwork (e.g.,
Marlin, Guatemala), and, in years past, from skarn deposits (e.g., La Luz, Nicaragua).
Base metal production comes mainly from skarn and replacement deposits (e.g.,
Mochito, Honduras). Most of Central Americas copper endowment is hosted by two
large undeveloped porphyry districts (Cerro Colorado and Petaquilla, Panama). In
addition, weathering and erosion have led to the formation of alluvial gold, lateritic
nickel, and bauxite (aluminium) deposits.
Representative metallic mineral deposits of Central America are described below.
Tables are used to compile past production and current (2004) resource information for
additional economically significant examples of each deposit type along with
references to the literature. Figures show deposit locations and the distribution of host
rocks (prospective exploration terrain). Location and resource information is from
CBMap, a continually-updated GIS database for mineral occurrences of the Caribbean
basin (www.cbmap.net). Resource figures quoted in this chapter can be expected to
change in response to continued exploration and changing metal prices. One or two
new metallic mineral discoveries are announced every year.
The deposit descriptions included in this chapter are intended to supplement the
descriptions provided in Weyls summary of ore deposits of Central America [1].
Consequently, this chapter is largely devoted to deposits that were discovered during
the past 25 years. Readers interested in more detail for particular deposits should
consult the references provided in the tables that accompany this chapter. Good
summaries of the regional metallogeny of Central America include Weyl [1], Levy [2],

Figure 32.1. Precious metal (Fig. 32.1a) and base metal (Fig. 32.1b) production and resources for
Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. Belize has no
known metallic mineral resources.
Roberts and Irving [3], Ferencic [4], Kesler [5], and Nelson [6]. Summaries of metallic
mineral deposits by country are provided in Machorro et al. [7] and UNDP [8] for
Guatemala; Anonymous [9] for Honduras; McNamee [10] for El Salvador; Arengi and
Hodgson [11] and Darce [12] for Nicaragua; USGS [13], Anonymous [14], Cigolini
and Chaves [15], and Kussmaul [16] for Costa Rica; and, Wleklinski [17] for Panama.
Most of the important new discoveries of the past quarter century are bulk mineable
epithermal gold deposits. These deposits were put into production in response to higher gold
prices and improvements in processing technology. Bulk mineable epithermal deposits (e.g.,
Marlin and Cerro Blanco, Guatemala; San Martn and San Andrs, Honduras; Bellavista and
Crucitas, Costa Rica; Santa Rosa and Remance, Panama) now account for a substantial part of
the regional gold endowment. In addition, new resource information has been published for
some of Central Americas porphyry copper deposits (e.g., Petaquilla, Panama).
Placer deposits, for which accurate production and resource figures are not
available, are not included. However, it is worthwhile to note that placer deposits
represent a significant portion of historic gold production, particularly in Costa Rica
and Panama. The Golfo Dulce placer deposits on the Osa peninsula of southern Costa
Rica have produced almost 1 Moz Au [1820] and, during the 1980s, contributed more
to Costa Ricas annual gold production than did lode deposits [10].
32.2
EPITHERMAL GOLD DEPOSITS
Epithermal gold deposits formed throughout the 80-million-year volcanic history of

Central America. Many deposits are hosted by an early, tholeiitic island arc (e.g.,
Bonanza, Nicaragua). However, epithermal gold systems are also found in the younger,
calc-alkaline island arc (e.g., Marlin, Guatemala).
Figure 32.2 shows the distribution of epithermal gold deposits in Central America

Figure 32.2. Epithermal gold deposits and porphyry copper deposits. See Tables 32.1 and 32.2 for past production and current resources.
933

relative to the older and the younger island arcs. Table 32.1 compiles information on
past production and current resources. Because there are > 1000 known epithermal gold
occurrences in Central America, only the largest deposits are included in Table 32.1
deposits with combined past production plus current resources of at least 0.5 Moz Au.
Two types of epithermal gold mineralization are commonly encountered in Central
America. Steeply-dipping, crustiform-banded, bonanza veins formed along structural
conduits, deep within fossil geothermal systems and at temperatures of 200 to 300 C.
Bonanza vein deposits are generally mined by underground methods and are
responsible for the bulk of past gold production in the region. Mushroom-shaped, hot
spring-related, stockwork and disseminated deposits formed at shallower levels and at
temperatures of 100 to 200 C. Hot spring-related stockwork and disseminated deposits
are well represented among the regions newly-discovered gold resources and benefit
from the economic advantages offered by bulk mining methods; they will be
responsible for most of the regions future gold production.
32.2.1 Epithermal Bonanza vein deposits
Throughout Central America, epithermal bonanza vein deposits cluster in districts that
mimic the spacing of active volcanoes. Many of these deposits have produced > 1 Moz
Au and district resources can be > 5 Moz Au. Discoveries made during the last quarter
century include the Minitas underground deposit in the El Dorado district of El
Salvador and the Talavera underground mine in the El Limn district of Nicaragua.
Both are classic bonanza vein deposits.
Bonanza vein deposits are also found in porphyry copper districts. Examples
include the Espritu Santo breccia pipe and the North deposit in the Cana district
(2 Moz Au) of Panama and the Molejn deposit (0.5 Moz Au) in the Petaquilla district
of Panama. Deposit descriptions for bonanza vein deposits are provided below. Table
32.1 provides past production and current resource information and references to the
literature for more of Central Americas bonanza vein deposits.
32.2.1.1 Bellavista deposit, Miramar district, Costa Rica
Within the Costa Rican gold belt, production during the past 25 years has come from
three open pit deposits (Veta Vargas, Ro Chiquito, and Santa Clara) and a number of
underground deposits (e.g., Moncada, Tres Hermanos). Another open pit deposit, at the
site of the old Bellavista mine, is currently under construction. The open pit deposits
were discovered by local exploration teams looking for bulk mineable deposits in Costa
Ricas bonanza vein districts. The discovery of Bellavista in the Miramar district
demonstrates that bonanza vein districts can also host bulk mineable gold resources.
Host rocks at Bellavista include tuff breccias and minor andesite flows of the Mio
Pliocene Aguacate group, part of a calc-alkaline volcanic rock package. Mineralization
consists of veins and stockworks that occupy the hanging wall of a steeply-dipping
fault. Andesitic host rocks are propylitically altered (quartz-pyrite-sericite-chloriteepidote-calcite). Phyllic envelopes with sericite and illite enclose the major veins.
Veins contain coarsely crystalline quartz with lesser adularia and calcite. Locally, the
veins are crustiform-banded and chalcedonic.
Gold in the Bellavista deposit is very fine-grained electrum, ranging in size up to
one micron, and containing 35% silver. Associated minerals include chalcopyrite,
sphalerite, galena, arsenopyrite, and pyrite [21].

Table 32.1. Epithermal gold deposits (containing > 0.5 Moz Au).
Deposit
Past product1) Current resource
Geologic setting
Fossil hot spring system

in a volcanic dome field
none
Cerro Blanco, GT
on the margin of a graben
0.12 Moz Au
San Andrs, HN
34.9 Mt at 0.86 g/t Au Fossil hot spring system
Rosa, S. Martn, HN 0.1 Moz Au
Bonanza vein district
0.75Moz Au none
San Juancito, HN
in a dacite stock
129 Moz Ag
0.5 Mt at 5 g/t Au,
0.5 Moz Au
Yuscarn, HN
28.5 Moz Ag 690 g/t Ag
0.07 Moz Au 4 Mt at 6.7 g/t Au,
El Dorado, ES
and fossil hot spring
0.35 Moz Ag 49 g/t Ag
system
11.3 Mt at 1.7 g/t Au, Fossil hot spring system
none
Coco Mina, NI
25 g/t Ag
3.145 Moz Au 0.230 Mt at 7.61 g/t Au Bonanza vein deposit
Bonanza, NI
0.6 Moz Ag
Bonanza vein deposit
none
1.8 Moz Au
El Limn, NI
4.0 Moz Ag
none
0.6 Moz Au
Santa Pancha, NI
0.5 Moz Ag
1.2 Mt at 7.17 g/t Au Bonanza vein deposit
0.4 Moz Au
Talavera, NI
0.24 Moz Au 2.6 Mt at 8.57 g/t Au Bonanza vein deposit
La India, NI
0.267 Moz Ag
2.1 Mt at 7.8 g/t Au
none
La Mestiza, NI
0.17 Moz Au 14.1 Mt at 2.2 g/t Au Epithermal vein and
Cerro Mojn, NI
vein stockwork deposit
Bonanza vein and vein
87000 oz Au 11.24 Mt at 1.54 g/t
Bellavista, CR
stockwork deposit
Au, 2.5 g/t Ag
93 Mt at 1.03 g/t Au, Hot spring deposit in a
none
Crucitas, CR
volcanic dome field
3.45 g/t Ag
Sacra Familia, CR 0.484 Moz Au 0.12 Mt at 5.83 g/t Au Bonanza vein deposit
8 Mt at 2.2 g/t Au
none
Molejn, PA
in a porphyry copper
district
12.4 Mt at 1.49 g/t Au Hot spring deposit in a
0.1 Moz Au
Santa Rosa, PA
volcanic dome field
Bonanza vein and breccia
none
2 Moz Au
Cana, PA
pipe above a porphyry
copper deposit
Marlin, GT
none
53.9 Mt at 1.7 g/t Au,

28 g/t Ag
21.7 Mt at 2.3 g/t Au,
16 g/t Ag
20.5 Mt at 1.1 g/t Au
Ref.
[3538]
[58]
[30]
[59]
[11, 29,
46]
[60]
[6163]
[22, 23
28]
[22, 23
28]
[22, 23
28]
[63]
[63]
[6368]
[21]
[69]
[70]
[43]
[15, 33,
71]
[31, 32]
1)
Until December 2003; Mt: million tonnes, GU: Guatemala, HN: Honduras, ES: El Salvador,
CR: Costa Rica, PA: Panama.
32.2.1.2 Talavera deposit, El Limn district, Nicaragua

The Talavera mine in the El Limn district of Nicaragua was discovered in the early
1990s. Because the veins are not exposed, the ore deposits were discovered only
recently. Production from the Talavera mine began in 1995 and already exceeds 0.4
Moz Au. Production from the nearby El Limn and Santa Pancha open pit mines (now
closed) dates back to the 1870s and totals over 2.7 Moz Au and 4.5 Moz Ag according
935

to Darce [22]. Talavera demonstrates that bonanza vein districts of Central America
still hold potential for important new high-grade vein discoveries.
Figure 32.3. Geologic map of the El Limn district, Nicaragua, modified from Ehrenborg [27].
Host rocks for bonanza vein ore in the El Limn district include mafic to intermediate
volcanic rocks and overlying dacite tuffs and tuff breccias. Flow-banded dacite flows,
domes, dikes, and plugs form prominent topographic features and intrude the same
structures that host gold mineralization. Regional propylitic alteration grades inward into
phyllic alteration adjacent to mineralized structures. Auriferous quartz+calcite veins strike
both EW and NS. These steeply-dipping, crustiform-banded veins are locally as wide as
20 m. Gold occurs as electrum and the sulfide content is low (less than 1 volume %).
The El Limn district is described in a series of studies sponsored by the Swedish
Geological Company [2326]. Geologic mapping by Ehrenborg at both a regional and
a local scale [27, 28] shows the geologic setting and was used to prepare the map
provided in Figure 32.3.
32.2.1.3 El Dorado district, El Salvador
The El Dorado district of El Salvador is very similar in terms of geologic setting and
style of bonanza vein mineralization to the El Limn district of Nicaragua. Host rocks
for bonanza vein ore include andesite flows and pyroclastic units of the Morazn
formation locally intruded by a biotite-bearing volcanic flow-dome complex of
rhyodacite composition. Rock units in this otherwise typical Central American bonanza
vein district also include silica sinter; silica sinter marks the paleosurface at the

(presumed) time of mineralization. Bonanza vein mineralization occurs on steeplydipping structures and consists of crustiform- to colloform-banded chalcedonic quartz
containing 1 to 2% pyrite. Bonanza veins and hydrothermal breccias also contain adularia,
sericite, acanthite, electrum, native gold, native silver, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and galena.
Figure 32.4. Geologic map of the El Dorado district, El Salvador, modified from Johansing [28].
Past production from the El Dorado district (19481953) came from an underground mine.
Most of the resource listed in Table 32.1 is located immediately beneath the old workings.
However, at least thirty veins have been recognized in the El Dorado district by Johansing
[29] and hydrothermal alteration covers some fifty square kilometers (Fig. 32.4).
32.2.1.4 San Juancito deposit, Honduras
The San Juancito deposit, one of Central Americas most important silver producers, is
a bonanza vein deposit. Production reached 129 Moz Ag and 0.75 Moz Au from 7 Mt
of ore mined during the period 1882 to 1954, sufficient to launch the Rosario Mining
Company which, for many years, dominated metallic mineral exploration and mining
in Central America.
Host rocks for bonanza veins at San Juancito include a bedded section of
sedimentary and volcanic rocks overlying a crystalline metamorphic basement and
intruded by a series of at least five distinct porphyritic plutonic rocks. Most of the ore is
hosted by biotite-bearing dacite porphyry. Carpenter [30] recognized that at least some
of the intrusive rocks were deposited by surface volcanism.
937

Mineralization consists of steeply-dipping veins enveloped by strongly sericitized

and pyritized wallrock. Ores contain quartz, pyrite, rhodonite, and calcite with a sulfide
suite consisting of sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and galena plus lesser argentite, stephanite,
ruby silver, native silver, and native gold.
32.2.1.5 Cana district, Panama
The Spanish produced an estimated 1 Moz Au (0.25 Mt ore) from the Cana district
between 1665 and 1727. An English-French consortium recovered an additional 1 Moz
Au from 1 Mt of ore during the period 1887 to 1907. Modern exploration efforts in the
district include porphyry copper exploration (16 drill holes) in the 1970s and
epithermal gold exploration (40 drill holes) in the 1980s.
Figure 32.5. Geologic map of the Cana district, Panama, modified from Nelson [32].
Bonanza veins and breccias from the South mine (Espritu Santo) breccia pipe
produced most of the gold that was recovered from the Cana district. The pipe
measures 25 m in diameter and plunges S30W at an angle of 70 degrees. Workings
had reached a depth of 270 m and gold was being produced at an average grade of
45 g/t when the mine was closed by a combination of caving and flooding in 1907.
Woakes [31] provides an entertaining account of the mining history of the district.
A coarsely fragmental, vuggy breccia fills the Espritu Santo pipe with angular
fragments that are encased by concentric bands of pyrite, sphalerite, galena, visible
gold, and quartz plus calcite. A drill campaign conducted in the 1970s encountered
deep chalcopyrite-bearing quartz veins and hydrothermal alteration characteristic of a
porphyry copper deposit, but grades were too low to justify further exploration. A
second drill campaign conducted between 1985 and 1988 defined a small gold resource

(92,400 oz) at the North mine. Neither of the modern drill campaigns targeted the old
Espritu Santo breccia pipe and, elsewhere in the Cana district, a number of attractive
gold-in-soil targets remain to be tested.
Host rocks for bonanza vein ore in the Cana district include propylitically altered
andesite flows and fragmental volcanic rocks (Fig. 32.5). Two porphyritic intrusive
bodies cut the older andesite sequence. Hydrothermally altered, fine-grained, crowded
feldspar porphyry is cut by relatively unaltered, coarser grained, hornblende porphyry.
Hydrothermal alteration is centered on the intrusive porphyries and is characterized by
a core of phyllic, and locally potassic, alteration.
The bonanza vein deposits of the Cana district have been shown by drilling to
overlie porphyry copper mineralization. The Molejn deposit of Panama is another
example of bonanza vein mineralization in a porphyry copper district (Petaquilla).
Although porphyry copper deposits have yet to be developed in Central America,
associated bonanza veins and breccia deposits have been an important source of gold.
32.2.1.6 Exploration for new bonanza vein deposits
Epithermal bonanza vein camps represent a challenging, but potentially rewarding,
exploration target in Central America. The deposits, although high-grade, are typically
small in size and may have very little surface expression. Veins at the Talavera deposit
do not crop out at the surface and were discovered only after 100 years of mining from
the surrounding El Limn district. In the Cana district of Panama, the Espritu Santo
breccia pipe, which measures only 25 m in diameter, is responsible for the bulk of past
production (2 Moz Au). Small and poorly-exposed targets are difficult to locate in any
environment, especially a tropical rainforest.
More bonanza vein deposits will certainly be found in the numerous historic gold
districts of Central America (Fig. 32.2). The most important of these districts are El
Dorado (1.3 Moz Au) and San Sebastin (2.9 Moz) in El Salvador; Trifinio (2.9 Moz)
in Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador; El Limn (3.2 Moz), La India (1.4 Moz),
Libertad (1.2 Moz), and the Golden Triangle (6.7 Moz gold, 4 Moz silver, and 0.5 M
tons copper, lead, and zinc) in Nicaragua; and the Gold Belt (3.7 Moz) of Costa Rica.
Epithermal bonanza vein deposits are also found in porphyry copper districts.
Examples include the Molejn deposit (0.5 Moz Au) in the Petaquilla district of
Panama and the Espritu Santo deposit (2 Moz Au) in the Cana district of Panama.
Finally, epithermal bonanza deposits hold potential for silver as well as for gold. San
Juancito, Honduras produced 129 Moz Ag and, in conjunction with surrounding
deposits, is host to almost 2 Moz Au.
Given the tendency for bonanza vein deposits to form in clusters, exploration might
also look to emerging districts. These are isolated bonanza vein deposits where
exploration has yet to uncover multiple high-grade orebodies. Examples include the
Yuscarn deposit in Honduras and the Topacio and La Reina deposits in Nicaragua.
New discoveries in bonanza vein camps are likely to be high-grade underground mines
(e.g., Talavera) but may also include bulk-mineable deposits. The Bellavista deposit in Costa
Rica is a bonanza vein and stockwork deposit that will be mined by open pit methods. It was
found at the site of an old underground mine. Finally, high-grade bonanza veins and breccia
pipes are the most likely bedrock source for many placer gold occurrences in southern Central
America. For example, no bedrock source has yet been identified for the Cocuyo deposit, the
largest placer gold occurrence in Panama.
939

32.2.2 Hot spring stockwork and disseminated deposits in volcanic dome fields
Hot spring stockwork and disseminated gold deposits are associated with volcanic flow-dome
complexes throughout Central America. The volcanic domes vary in composition from basalt
to rhyolite and tend to form clusters along regional structures such as the Nicaraguan
depression. The Nicaraguan depression runs parallel to the Central America trench and
measures 60 to 80 km in width. The margin of the Nicaraguan depression, and the margin of
grabens that formed as the Caribbean plate drifted east relative to the North and South
American plates (Fig. 32.2), have long been recognized as fertile ground for gold exploration.
Hot spring stockwork and disseminated deposits hosted by volcanic dome fields
include Crucitas in Costa Rica, Santa Rosa and Remance in Panama, and San Andrs in
Honduras. Emerging districts hosted by volcanic dome fields include the Trifinio
district (2.9 Moz Au) near the border of Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador and the
Marlin district (3 Moz Au) of western Guatemala. A few hot spring-related deposits
have been found in non-volcanic rocks (e.g., San Martn, Honduras).
Preferred host rocks for gold mineralization in volcanic dome fields include
permeable aprons of pyroclastic ejecta and a distinctive sequence of thinly-bedded
carbonaceous sedimentary rocks and epiclastic tuff breccias. These rock units surround
volcanic domes and are a characteristic part of the volcanic stratigraphy in the
Veraguas Gold Belt of Panama, described below.
Hot spring stockwork and disseminated deposits also tend to form near a regional
unconformity that separates lower, propylitically-altered andesites from overlying,
unaltered volcanic rocks of the same composition. The unconformity is not marked by
a change in volcanic rock composition, but rather marks the emergence of the island
arc above sea-level. Weak, regionally-extensive, propylitic alteration (quartz-chloritecalcite) of the lower andesites and the presence of pillow textures (e.g., Veraguas Gold
Belt of Panama) indicate interaction with seawater. Overlying volcanic rocks erupted in
a subaerial environment did not interact with sea water and, consequently, are
unaltered. Shallow water depth and near-surface volcanism provides an explosive
environment for hydrovolcanic eruptions, volcanic dome emplacement, hot spring
activity, and related gold mineralization.
32.2.2.1 Veraguas Gold Belt, Panama
Gold mineralization in the Veraguas Gold Belt of Panama is hosted by calc-alkaline
volcanic rocks of Mid-Miocene age [33]. The host rocks range in composition from
basalt to rhyolite and include dikes, plugs, and volcanic domes of the same composition
(Fig. 32.6). Pyroclastic aprons surround the domes and host the gold ore deposits. The
Remance mine, consisting of auriferous veins and stockworks, has produced gold
intermittently for more than one century. Santa Rosa, with both stockwork and
disseminated gold mineralization, went into production in 1995.
Gold mineralization at Santa Rosa formed in a hot spring setting along the margin
of a hydrovolcanic (maar) crater. The Santa Rosa crater, now eroded, measures roughly
2 km in diameter. Remnants of silica sinter are preserved outside of the crater margin.
Near the crater wall, the pyroclastic apron is coarsely fragmental (Figs. 32.7af). Some
pyroclastic units exhibit reverse graded bedding and cross bedding, which suggest
emplacement by a base surge mechanism. Host rocks for the ore deposits include lithic
lapilli tuff breccias and interbedded carbonaceous epiclastic sedimentary rocks.
Intrusive rocks in the Santa Rosa mine area include an exogenous dacite dome, a

basalt porphyry plug, a basalt dike, and a flow-banded dacite dike. Field relations show that
both basaltic and dacitic intrusions triggered hydrovolcanic eruptions. The resulting vents
focused hydrothermal fluid movement and became centers of hot spring activity and gold
mineralization. Ore discovered to date is located along the northern margin of the Santa
Rosa crater, particularly within hydrovolcanic vent breccias, which are poorly sorted,
coarsely fragmental, and heterolithic (Figs. 32.7g and h). They contain occasional silicified
fragments and exhibit a muddy matrix of finely comminuted rock flour. The margin of the
vent is an irregular, but steeply dipping, contact with surrounding flows. Ore is distributed
as a funnel-shaped envelope centered on the vent breccia. One of the vent breccias is
underlain by and contains clasts of a flow-banded dacite dike. This observation indicates
that intrusion of the dacite dike was the probable trigger for hydrovolcanic eruption.
Figure 32.6. Geologic map of the Veraguas Gold Belt, Panama, modified from Nelson [33].
Feldspathic (adularia) alteration at Santa Rosa is confined to mineralized faults and
hydrothermal conduits. Most of the ore is accompanied by quartz-siderite-pyrite
alteration that is zoned away from the orebody, through surrounding argillic alteration
to an outermost weak regional propylitic assemblage consisting of carbonate, chlorite,
and quartz. Silver, arsenic, mercury, and antimony are elevated in the gold orebodies.
Base metals are typically at background levels except for a few uncommon anomalous
values in veins and hydrothermal breccias.
Veins throughout the Veraguas Gold Belt strike north to northnorthwest and dip
steeply [33, 15]. Faults and dikes with other orientations are present, but they are not
mineralized. Gold-bearing veins are as wide as 2 m and are typically filled by
941

crustiform-banded chalcedonic quartz and a few percent pyrite. Veins can be observed
across the entire 40-km Veraguas Gold Belt (Fig. 32.6) and, drainages throughout the
belt reveal visible gold in panned concentrate stream sediment samples.
Exploration efforts in the Veraguas Gold Belt have led to the discovery of two gold
deposits, at Santa Rosa and Remance. Both deposits were operating during the 1990s but
were unable to survive the downturn in gold prices that came towards the end of the decade.
32.2.2.2 Cerro Crucitas, Costa Rica
Cerro Crucitas is a hot spring stockwork and disseminated gold deposit located in a
volcanic dome field near the northern border of Costa Rica (Fig. 32.2). Concessions
were first staked during 1991 in an area of no known mineral occurrences and no prior
prospecting activity. A local exploration group followed the margin of the Nicaraguan
depression into Costa Rica, collected panned concentrate stream sediment samples with
visible gold grains, moved upstream, identified anomalous gold in soils and in outcrop,
and made the lode discovery. The deposit is located at the margin of the Nicaraguan
depression and adjacent to the on-land projection of the Hess escarpment.
Host rocks for the ore at the Cerro Crucitas deposit are rhyolite volcanic domes that
belong to a Miocene calc-alkaline volcanic belt. The dome field covers 50 km and
extends for an unknown distance into Nicaragua (Fig. 32.8). Several of the domes are
mineralized and two (Cerro Crucitas and Conchudita) have established gold resources.
Mineralization at Cerro Crucitas consists of electrum and finely disseminated native
gold, and is accompanied by 1 to 2% disseminated pyrite. Quartz and adularia occur both in
veins and as replacements of the rhyolite volcanic domes. Argillic alteration surrounds the
silicified core of the orebodies. Roughly one-third of the ore deposit is oxidized.
32.2.2.3 Marlin, Guatemala
The largest gold discovery in Central America during the last quarter century is the
Marlin deposit, a hot spring stockwork deposit located in western Guatemala. Marlin
was discovered in 1998 by an exploration team that followed the Motagua fault zone
across Guatemala into the Tertiary volcanic highlands of western Guatemala and
southern Mexico (Fig. 32.2).
Mineralization at the Marlin deposit consists of a blanket of milky to cream-colored
quartz stockworks. Quartz psuedomorphs after calcite are common; sericite and
adularia have been confirmed in thin section. The measured and indicated resource at
the present time is almost 3 Moz Au (53.8 Mt at 1.7 g/t Au and 24.4 g/t Ag with a 1 g/t
Au mining cutoff grade). Gold and silver production is scheduled to begin in 2005.
Host rocks for the Marlin deposit include well-stratified tuffs and epiclastic rocks
overlain, and locally intruded, by plagioclase-hornblende porphyry (Fig. 32.9). This
section, known as the Marlin complex, is host to a blanket of stockwork mineralization.
Underneath the stockwork deposit, propylitically-altered andesite basement is cut by
steeply-dipping feeder veins. Pyroclastic units in the Marlin complex exhibit base surge
textures, suggesting a nearby vent, and the plagioclase-hornblende porphyry is a
volcanic dome or shallow intrusion. The mineralized section is exposed within an
erosional window through overlying Quaternary ash flow tuff that covers much of the
Central cordillera of Guatemala and neighboring Honduras. Exploration of other
erosional windows in the Tertiary volcanic highlands of Guatemala, Honduras, and

Figure 32.7. Veraguas Gold Belt, Panama: (a) Cerro Viejo crater from Santa Rosa deposit
(looking north); (b) Tullido crater from Remance deposit (looking south); (c) Lithic lapilli
tuff breccia with fragments of carbonized wood from high in the pyroclastic apron at
Remance; (d) Coarsely-fragmental tuff breccia from the base of the Remance pyroclastic
apron with dome fragments and rare silicified clasts; (e) Interbedded tuff breccia and
epiclastic carbonaceous sediment from Santa Rosa deposit, Panama; (f) Interbedded tuff
breccia and epiclastic carbonaceous sediment from Pueblo Viejo district, Dominican
Republic; (g) Matrix-supported hydrothermal vent breccia with abundant silicified clasts
from Remance deposit; (h) Heterolithic hydrothermal vent breccia from Santa Rosa deposit.
943

Figure 32.8. Geologic cross section for the Cerro Crucitas gold deposit, Costa Rica, modified
from Pease [69] and Vanessa Ventures Inc. [34].
southern Mexico is certainly recommended. References to the geology of Marlin

include Schuster [35] and Robertson [36, 37].
Structural control on precious metal mineralization at the Marlin deposit is exerted
by steeply-dipping faults that strike at 70 and at 330. Interestingly, mineralized
breccias and stockworks also occur between low-angle, southerly-dipping faults. Three
styles of mineralization have been identified at the Marlin deposit: quartz stockworks,
large quartz veins, and silica flooded zones. Electrum is occasionally visible in hand
specimen and silver-rich sulfide minerals (acanthite, argentite) are common. Most of
the gold is fine-grained and associated with minor pyrite (1 to 3%) although free gold
has been observed in quartz veins. Elements typically associated with hot spring gold
deposits (arsenic, antimony, and mercury) are only weakly anomalous at Marlin.
Figure 32.9. Geologic map of the Marlin deposit, Guatemala, modified from Montecinos [38].
Alteration is zoned from a central core of strong silicification outwards through argillic
alteration to propylitic alteration. Oxidation extends to a depth of 50 to 100 m. Nearby
gold prospects, identified after Marlin was discovered, include San Bartolo, Los
Chocoyos, La Hamaca, Coral, and Jesse.
32.2.2.4 Exploration for new hot spring stockwork and disseminated deposits
Hot spring stockwork and disseminated gold deposits associated with volcanic dome
fields represent an important target for exploration in Central America. Recent

discoveries include deposits with resources > 1 Moz Au, but the upside potential for
these deposits is an order of magnitude higher. The Pueblo Viejo deposit in the Dominican
Republic is hosted by a volcanic dome field [39] and contains an estimated 40 Moz Au in past
production plus known resources (at a 1 g/t Au mining cutoff grade). The Yanacocha district
in Peru contains a similar resource [40] and also occurs in a volcanic dome field [41].
Exploration for hot spring stockwork and disseminated deposits should focus on
major structures, such as the Nicaraguan depression and the Motagua fault zone,
especially where these features cut volcanic rocks. At a local scale, exploration should
focus on volcanic dome fields and associated hot spring systems. The unconformity that
marks the emergence of the island arc from the ocean is, throughout Central America, a
favorable volcano-stratigraphic interval for hydrovolcanic activity and hot spring-related
stockwork and disseminated gold mineralization. Volcanic dome fields, in particular, provide
an environment conducive to the formation of these bulk minerable precious metal deposits.
32.3
PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS
Porphyry-related copper mineralization in Central America is associated with calcalkaline intrusions of Late Cretaceous to Pliocene age. In southern Central America,
these intrusions represent the roots of stratovolcanoes that formed in a volcanic arc that
was, throughout most of its history, separate from the rest of Central America. A high
cordillera in western Panama exposes plutons that range in age from 36 Ma (Petaquilla)
to 6 Ma (Cerro Colorado). Intrusive activity in eastern Panama and on the Azuero
peninsula is older. Plutons and associated porphyry mineralization range in age from
65 Ma (Cerro Azul, Panama) to 49 Ma (Ro Pito, Panama).
Table 32.2. Porphyry copper deposits.
Deposit
Past product1)
Cerro Chorcha, PA none

Cerro Colorado, PA none
Botija, PA
none
Petaquilla, PA
none
Vega, PA
none
Current resource
Geologic setting
Ref.
162 Mt at 0.63% Cu,

0.08 g/t Au
1300 Mt at 0.76% Cu,
0.08 g/t Au
588 Mt at 0.53% Cu,
0.1 g/t Au
447 Mt at 0.47% Cu,
0.06 g/t Au
183 Mt at 0.47% Cu,
0.06 g/t Au
Calc-alkaline quartz
diorite pluton
5.9 my calc-alkaline
granodiorite pluton
granodiorite batholith
[32]
[32, 42,
72]
[32, 42,
43]
[32, 42,
43]
[32, 42,
43]
1)
Until December 2003; GU: Guatemala, HN: Honduras, ES: El Salvador, CR: Costa Rica, PA:
Panama.
Known porphyry copper systems in Central America are shown on Figure 32.2. Porphyry
copper resources are compiled in Table 32.2. Essentially all of the known resources are
located in Panama and are divided among three deposits Cerro Colorado, Cerro Chorcha,
and the Petaquilla district. Nelson [32] and Kesler [42] provide more descriptions for porphyry
copper deposits in Central America and references to the literature. The Petaquilla district was
the subject of a thorough study by Speidel et al. [43] and is described below.
945

32.3.1 Petaquilla district, Panama

The Petaquilla district is located in the Coln province of Panama, close to the
Caribbean coastline. It was discovered in 1967 during a regional stream sediment
geochemical program sponsored by the United Nations Development Program
(UNDP). Anomalous copper (> 200 ppm) was found in the minus 80-mesh fraction of
stream sediment samples collected as far as 15 km downstream of the copper deposits.
The highest values from 232 stream sediment samples collected during the UNDP
survey were 2000 ppm Cu and 125 ppm Mo. Regional background is 95 ppm Cu and
3 ppm Mo.
Stream sediment anomalies were followed up by soil sampling over an area of
28 km. Anomalies were identified at Ro Medio, Botija, Botija Abajo, and Quebrada
Vega. Ten core holes were drilled in 1968 and 1969 by the UNDP. A consortium of
Japanese companies won an international bidding competition in 1971 and completed
fifty core holes leading to the first resource estimate. A junior Canadian company
acquired the district in 1991 and, by 1994, had completed an additional 20,000 m of
drilling. The geologic resource, divided among three deposits, is now 1218 Mt at an
average grade of 0.5% Cu and 0.08 g/t Au [43]. Some of the deposits contain
significant gold concentrations (e.g., average of 0.64 g/t Au in the Botija Abajo
deposit). A stand-alone epithermal gold deposit (0.57 Moz Au) was discovered at
Molejn during the evaluation of the porphyry copper district.
The Petaquilla district is underlain by a composite calc-alkaline batholith of
granodiorite, quartz monzonite, and dacite porphyry. Kesler [44] reported a K-Ar age of
36.4 Ma from a hornblende mineral separate collected in the Ro Botija area. This date
provides a good estimate of the age of the batholith. A 31.4 0.3 Ma 40Ar/39Ar date on
secondary biotite collected from the Petaquilla deposit [45] provides a good estimate of the
age of mineralization. Mineralization in the Petaquilla district consists of chalcopyrite,
molybdenite, and minor bornite, with pyrite in both an outer propylitic and inner potassic
alteration zone. Phyllic alteration is thought to be superimposed on these alteration zones
and magnetite is associated with zones of higher gold content (Fig. 32.10).
32.3.2 Exploration for new porphyry copper deposits

Porphyry copper exploration in southern Central America should focus on the known
districts and their projection across adjacent terrain. For example, a belt of porphyry
copper deposits in the Talamanca cordillera of Costa Rica was identified by regional
stream sediment surveys conducted during the 1970s and early 1980s. Those surveys
stopped at the border with Panama, but the porphyry belt likely continues across
western Panama to connect with the Cerro Chorcha and Cerro Colorado deposits (Fig.
32.2). Another belt of porphyry copper deposits occurs along the northern coast of
eastern Panama where future exploration will have to win approval by the local Kuna
Yala Indian population.
Porphyry copper deposits in nuclear Central America (Guatemala, Belize,
Honduras, Nicaragua, El Salvador) are few in number and small in size, perhaps a
result of their formation in a volcanic arc that, throughout most of its history, was
separate from the arc that underlies Panama and Costa Rica. Even the reported
porphyry deposits (e.g., Mataquescuintla, Guatemala) are not reliably assigned to this
deposit type. Exploration efforts for porphyry copper deposits in nuclear Central

Figure 32.10. Geologic map of the Petaquilla district, Panama, modified from Speidel et al. [43].
America should focus on areas with base and precious metal skarn mineralization (e.g.,
Minas de Oro district, Honduras) and on areas where clusters of epithermal gold
deposits may signal underlying porphyry potential (e.g., northwestern Nicaragua and
adjacent Honduras).
32.4
COPPER SKARN AND BASE METAL REPLACEMENT DEPOSITS
In nuclear Central America, the Maya and Chortis blocks are composed of Paleozoic
igneous and metamorphic rocks unconformably overlain by Mesozoic platform
carbonates and redbeds. The carbonate rocks are host to a variety of skarn and
replacement deposits. Copper, molybdenum, and gold skarn mineralization is reported
at Minas de Oro, Honduras [46] and has been mined at the Siuna (La Luz) and Rosita
deposits in Nicaragua [47]. Base metal replacement districts in Guatemala and
Honduras have produced significant silver, lead, and zinc. The largest deposit of this
type in Central America is the Mochito mine of Honduras. Iron skarns (e.g., Monte
Carmelo, Nicaragua and Agalteca, Honduras) have small resources, but have never
produced significant amounts of ore. Available information on size and grade is
compiled in Table 32.3; Figure 32.11 shows the location of these deposits.
32.4.1 Mochito deposit, Honduras
The Mochito deposit was discovered in 1938 and put into production in 1948. One
production and one service shaft access the mine workings. A 2000 ton per day circuit
produces separate lead and zinc concentrates that are trucked to Puerto Corts (115 km)
for shipment. Production (1948 to 1992) totals > 100 Moz Ag, 0.3 Mt Cu, 0.5 Mt Pb, and
0.75 Mt Zn [48]. The Mochito deposit was described by Weyl [1] but, because it
947

Table 32.3. Skarn and base metal replacement deposits.

Deposit
Past product1)
Caquipec, GT
0.4 Mt at 298 g/t Ag,

1.3 Moz Ag,
0.016 Mton Pb, 13.6% Pb, 25.4% Zn
0.019 Mton Zn
a) Ballena
0.1 Mt at 34.5 g/t Ag,
1.5% Pb, 5.83% Zn
b) La Ermita
0.7 Mt at 45.4 g/t Ag,
0.65% Cu, 0.71% Pb,
5.45% Zn
c) Penasco
0.7 Mt at 43.5 g/t Ag,
1.4% Pb, 5.6% Zn
2.36 Mt at 280 g/t Ag
none
Concepcin Las
Minas district, GT
El Ocote, HN
Mochito, HN
Minas de Oro
district, HN
Opoteca, HN
Quita Gana, HN
100 Moz Ag, 3.4 Mt at 78 g/t Au,

0.3 Mton Cu, 1.9% Pb, 6.8% Zn
0.5 Mton Pb,
0.75 Mton Zn.
Minas Viejas
2.2 Mt at 0.8 g/t Au,
0.82% Ag
Montecielo
3.3 Mt at 0.9 g/t Au,
0.9% Cu
Tatanacho
6.2 Mt at 0.7 g/t Au,
0.76% Cu
1.3 Mt at 0.17 g/t Au,
none
123 g/t Ag
none
0.06 Moz Ag
San Juan, ES
La Luz (Siuna), NI 2.27 Moz Au
Rosita, NI
Current resource
0.17 Moz Au,

2.75 Moz Ag,
0.12 Mton Cu
none
1.5 Mt at 55 g/t Ag,

2.17% Cu, 2.46% Zn
none
0.13 Mt at 8.2 g/t Au,
1.48% Cu
Rosita East
11.9 Mt at
1.29% Cu
Rosita NW
0.85 Mt at 3 g/t Au,
1% Cu
Geologic setting
Ref.
Replacement deposit in [73]

platform carbonate rocks
Skarn deposit in redbeds [12, 74,
and platform carbonates 75]
Skarn deposit in redbeds [12, 74,
and platform carbonates 75]
Skarn deposit in redbeds [75]
and platform carbonates
[46]
Replacement deposit
(breccia pipe) in platform
carbonate rocks
Skarn deposit in platform [1, 48]
carbonate rocks
[76]
Skarn deposit near a
quartz-feldspar porphyry
granodiorite pluton
[76]

granodiorite pluton
[76]
Replacement deposit
(manto) in platform
carbonate rocks
Skarn deposit
[46]
Skarn deposit
Skarn deposit associated
with andesite dikes
Skarn deposit and calcalkaline granodiorite
pluton
[11]
[47, 63,
77]
[47, 63,
77]
[47, 63,
77]
[73]
[47, 63,
77]
1)
Panama.
remains the premier example of skarn and replacement mineralization in Central

America, its description is updated here. A longitudinal section is provided in Figure
32.12. Host rocks at the Mochito mine are patch-reef limestones of the Atima
formation, part of the Cretaceous (AptianAlbian) Yojoa group. The Atima limestone
consists of massive, locally fossiliferous, dark grey micrite and biomicrite with shale

Figure 32.11. Skarn and base metal replacement deposits. See Table 32.3 for past production and current resources.
949

intervals. It is overlain by redbeds of the Valle de ngeles formation. Ore bodies at

Mochito consist of a series of chimneys (San Juan, Nspero, Nia Blanca, Yojoa, Nueva,
Main) that measure as much as 1000 m from top to bottom and are rooted in stratigraphicallycontrolled mantos (Nacional, Salvavida). The Nacional manto contains 1.8 Mt at an average
grade of 11.74% Zn, 0.79% Pb, 0.15% Cu, and 84 g/t Ag. The Nacional deposit formed at the
contact with the underlying Todos Santos formation, a Jurassic molasse that conformably
underlies the Yojoa group. Although no intrusive rocks have been found in the Mochito mine
area, the mineralogy of the ore includes assemblages typical of carbonate-hosted skarn
deposits. Skarn mineralization (garnet, clinopyroxene, epidote) is paragenetically early relative
to oxide (magnetite) and massive sulfide replacement assemblages (pyrite, chalcopyrite,
sphalerite, galena). Gangue minerals consist of quartz, calcite, and chlorite. The ores were
deposited at temperatures of 350 to 500 C; stable isotope compositions indicate that a mixture
of magmatic and meteroric water was responsible for mineralization [48].
Figure 32.12. Longitudinal section for the Mochito deposit, Honduras, modified from Weyl [1]
and from Vzquez et al. [48].
32.5
VOLCANOGENIC MASSIVE SULFIDE AND RELATED DEPOSITS
This group of mineral occurrences exhibits geologic characteristics transitional

between epithermal vein and stockwork deposits and volcanogenic massive sulfide
deposits. Many are associated with volcanic dome fields. The largest, San Sebastin in
El Salvador, has reported gold production of > 1 Moz Au. Deposit locations are shown
on Figure 32.13; Table 32.4 provides a list of known resources.
The Pueblo Viejo district in the Dominican Republic is the largest deposit of this
type in the Caribbean basin. It has been described as both a hot spring deposit [49] and

Figure 32.13. Volcanogenic massive sulfide and related deposits. See Table 32.4 for past production and current resources.
951

Table 32.4. Volcanogenic massive sulfide and related deposits.

Deposit
Past product1)
Current resource
Geologic setting
Ref.
Oxec, GT
unknown
1.0 Mt at 2.62% Cu
[74, 78]
San Sebastin, ES
1.1 Moz Au
none
Cyprus-type massive
sulfided
Dacite porphyry dome
Las Minas, PA
0.05 Moz Au
none
Cerro Quema, PA
none
La Pava
Quema
3.8 Mt at 1 g/t Au
[1, 3,
11, 53]
[79]
Massive sulfide deposit

in a primitive island arc
Dacitic volcanic vents in [54]
a primitive island arc
Dacitic volcanic vents in [54]
a primitive island arc
1)
Until December 2003; GU: Guatemala, HN: Honduras, ES: El Salvador, CR: Costa Rica.
as a volcanogenic massive sulfide deposit [50]. The Pueblo Viejo district occurs in a
Cretaceous volcanic dome field [39] and is host to a precious metal deposit roughly
equal in size to the entire precious metal endowment of Central America. Deposits with
characteristics similar to Pueblo Viejo have also been classified as high sulfidation
deposits and related to underlying porphyry copper deposits [51, 52]. However, in
Central America as in the Greater Antilles, these mineral occurrences are sometimes
linked more closely to massive sulfide deposits than to porphyry copper deposits.
Regardless of their classification (epithermal gold, high sulfidation, porphyry copper,
or volcanogenic massive sulfide), the extraordinary size of deposits that belong to this
group (e.g., Pueblo Viejo and Yanacocha) ensure continued attention from the
exploration community.
32.5.1 San Sebastin, El Salvador

San Sebastin in El Salvador has recorded production of > 1 Moz Au [39]. Weyl [1]
describes the deposit as related to a monzonite vein that he interprets as an
apophysis of a deeper intrusive stock. However, the monzonite vein reported by
Weyl [1] is described by Wuensch [53] as exhibiting ample evidence that it was
formed near the surface. Wuensch [53] goes on to describe trachytic host rocks at San
Sebastin (Weyls monzonite vein) that piled up close to the vent and covered only a
small area.. Given these observations, the host rock at San Sebastin is probably best
described as a volcanic dome. A geologic cross section is provided in Figure 32.14.
Propylitic alteration in the basaltic country rocks at San Sebastin is zoned around
strong silicification and argillic alteration within the volcanic dome field and near the
veins. Mineralization consists of gold-bearing pyrite along with quartz and minor
calcite. Accompanying minerals include chalcocite, pyrolusite, barite, and gypsum plus
lesser calaverite, tetrahedrite, bornite, molybdenite, and enargite.
32.5.2 Cerro Quema, Panama

Cerro Quema is located on the Azuero peninsula of Panama, an accreted fragment of
oceanic crust and primitive island arc. The deposit was discovered in the early 1990s
by an exploration team that followed up anomalous copper values identified by a
UNDP-sponsored stream sediment survey. Ore-grade gold was found in outcrop and,

Figure 32.14. Geologic cross section of the San Sebastian deposit, El Salvador, modified from
Wuensch [53].
by 1994, Cerro Quema had an established resource of 10 Mt of 1.26 g/t Au [54]. Host
rocks at Cerro Quema include porphyritic hornblende dacite domes and pyroclastic
units that form a belt measuring 1.5 km in width and > 10 km in length. These dacites
are interbedded with epiclastic marine sedimentary rocks of intermediate to mafic
composition. All of these rock units are part of one of the oldest island arcs (and
adjacent forearc basins) in Central America; intrusive rocks on the Azuero peninsula
are Late Cretaceous to Paleocene in age.
Cerro Quema, an oxidized gold and copper deposit typical of this transitional group,
shares characteristics of both epithermal and volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits.
One of the orebodies is underlain by a phreato-magmatic vent filled by fragmental
dacite porphyry breccia. Mineralization in the sulfide zone consists of chalcocite,
covellite, pyrite, and chalcopyrite. Mineralization in the oxide zone consists of vuggy
silica, alunite, dickite, illite, kaolinite, pyrophyllite, barite, limonite, and goethite [54].
Gold deposits like Cerro Quema also have potential for copper ore. The oxide gold
deposit at Cerro Quema is underlain by a sulfide-rich zone that contains pyrite,
chalcocite, covellite, enargite, and chalcopyrite. More copper-gold deposits may occur
along the 10-km length of a belt of dacitic rocks that hosts the Cerro Quema deposit.
Exploration efforts on the Azuero peninsula of Panama and in volcanic dome fields
elsewhere in Central America are likely to turn up new gold and copper resources in a
similar geologic setting. Volcanic dome fields represent the most useful tool for
identifying prospective regions for new discoveries of deposits transitional between the
epithermal gold and the volcanogenic massive sulfide environment.
32.6
OROGENIC GOLD DEPOSITS
Paleozoic igneous and metamorphic rocks are the oldest rocks in Central America. In
nuclear Central America, this crystalline basement is separated into the Maya and
Chortis blocks by a former collisional zone, known as the Motagua suture zone.
Subduction of proto-Caribbean oceanic crust ended in the Late Cretaceous; since then,
activity along the Motagua suture zone has been dominated by left-lateral strike-slip
motion as the North American plate drifts westward relative to the Caribbean plate.
This structural boundary marks the northern margin of the Caribbean plate and is
953

almost 100 km wide. Within the Motagua suture zone, and across the Greater Antilles,
blueschist facies metamorphic rocks record Late Cretaceous subduction and closing of
the ocean basin that once separated the Chortis and Maya blocks.
Orogenic gold deposits along the Motagua suture zone are hosted by rocks of the
Tambor group, a sequence of marine siltstone, basalt flows, volcaniclastic rocks, and
limestone that accumulated in the arc-trench gap. Orogenic gold deposits have not
previously been described from Central America, although several small gold resources
are known and one deposit (Vueltas del Ro in Honduras) has reached production.
Figure 32.15, a map of orogenic gold occurrences in Central America, shows prospect
locations relative to major structures and relative to crystalline basement. Available
information on the size and grade of these deposits is compiled in Table 32.5.
Table 32.5. Orogenic gold and antimony deposits.
Deposit
Past product1)
Current resource
Geologic setting
0.009 Moz Au, 5 Mt at 2.6 g/t Au and Near the Polochic fault,
Anabella and
Motagua suture zone
Los Lirios, GT 0.027 Mt Sb
Near the Motagua fault,
3 Mt at 2.84 g/t Au
Tambor district, GT none
Motagua suture zone
Near the Jocotan fault,
6 Mt at 1.67 g/t Au
none
Chaparales, HN
Motagua suture zone
None
575 t Sb
El Quetzal, HN
Vueltas del Ro, HN 0.04 Moz Au 2 Mt at 2.5 g/t Au
Motagua suture zone
none
Zopilote, HN
Motagua suture zone
Guayape suture zone
0.02 Moz Au 0.08 Mt at 17 g/t Au
San Albino, NI
Ref.
[56, 80]
[1, 3]
[81]
[82]
1)
Until December 2003; GU: Guatemala, EN: Honduras, ES: El Salvador, CR: Costa Rica, PA:
Panama.
32.6.1 Ixtahuacan district, Guatemala

The Anabella and adjacent Los Lirios deposits in the Ixtahuacan district of western
Guatemala have been in production since 1958. Total production is estimated at 27,000
tonnes of antimony and 600 tonnes of tungsten. Remaining antimony resources are
estimated at 187,000 tonnes at an average grade of 10% Sb at Los Lirios and 93,000
tonnes at 5.92% Sb at Anabella [55]. There was also minor gold production (8700 oz)
from gold-bearing arsenopyrite between 1990 and 1998.
A drill program conducted in 1999 [56] defined a gold resource of 1.5 to 2.0 Mt at
5.4 g/t Au and 2.3% Sb at Los Lirios and 4 to 5 Mt at 2.6 g/t Au and 0.5% Sb at
Anabella. Both deposits are located just north of the Polochic fault, one of three subparallel strike-slip faults that together define the northern margin of the Caribbean plate
(Motagua suture zone). Host rocks include a thick section of Pennsylvanian to Permian
marine sedimentary rocks. Rhythmically interbedded siltstone, sandstone, and
limestone are overlain by massive limestone and dolomite (reef deposits).
Transpression across the northern margin of the Caribbean plate, caused by the
westward drift of the North American plate, produced a 100-km-wide belt of
northwest-trending synclines and anticlines. These broad folds are cut by northweststriking thrust faults. The thrust faults host mineralization consisting of arsenopyrite,
arsenian pyrite, stibnite, and scheelite in a gangue of quartz and calcite. Sulfide content
ranges from 1 or 2 vol% to as much as 15 vol%. Stibnite occurs in quartz-ankerite

Figure 32.15. Orogenic gold and antimony deposits. See Table 32.5 for past production and current resources.
955

veins and as massive lenses; scheelite occurs locally as replacement of limestone

horizons; gold-bearing arsenopyrite occurs in quartz-ankerite veins and is disseminated
in thinly bedded siltstone, shale, and sandstone. Within the Motagua suture zone,
metamorphic grade is higher and gold mineralization is associated with syn- to postmetamorphic quartz veins. High grade gold intercepts have attracted the recent
attention of the exploration community. Exploration efforts might profitably be
extended to a similar belt of orogenic gold occurrences in northern Nicaragua, where
another probable suture zone parallels the Guayape fault (Fig. 32.16).
32.7
LATERITIC NICKEL AND BAUXITE DEPOSITS
Lateritic nickel and bauxite deposits form by weathering; none are currently in
production in Central America although important nickel producers are found in Cuba
and the Dominican Republic. In the case of nickel deposits, prospective terrain is
limited to former subduction zones that host slices of mafic oceanic crust and
ultramafic upper mantle. Such areas include the Motagua suture zone in Guatemala and
the Santa Elena peninsula in Costa Rica. Figure 32.16 provides a map of lateritic nickel
and aluminum deposits in Central America as well as major structures and obducted
fragments of oceanic crust and upper mantle. Available information on the size and
grade of lateritic mineral deposits is compiled in Table 32.6.
Table 32.6. Lateritic nickel and bauxite deposits.
Deposit
Past product1) Current resource
El Estor, GT
0.14 Mt Ni
Ro Negro, GT
none
Sechol, GT
none
Can, CR
Cerro Abejonal, CR
Gucimo, CR
Paraso, CR
Ro San Pedro, CR
San Isidro, CR
none
none
none
none
none
none
Geologic setting
25 to 30 Mt at 1.5% Ni Ultramafic fragment in

the Motagua suture zone
Ultramafic fragment in
40 Mt at 1.25% Ni,
0.04% Co
Ultramafic fragment in
37 Mt at
1.39% Ni, 0.08% Co
40 Mt at 30 to 35% Al
40 Mt at 35 to 40% Al
40 Mt at 30% Al
12 to 15 Mt at 44% Al
118 Mt at 31.5% Al
152.4 Mt at 3540% Al
Ref.
[74]
[73]
[73, 83
85]
[70]
[70]
[70]
[57, 70]
[70]
[70]
1)
Panama.
The only established nickel resources in Central America are located in eastern
Guatemala where mining began at the El Estor deposit in 1977. Falling nickel prices
resulted in suspension of activity in 1983. Remaining nickel resources include 25 Mt at
1.5% Ni at El Estor, 35 Mt at 1.39% Ni at Sechol, and 40 Mt at 1.25% Ni and 0.04%
Co at Ro Negro. Undeveloped lateritic aluminium (bauxite) deposits are found in
Costa Rica. Resources vary in size between 12 and 152 Mt at grades that vary between
30% and 45% Al.

Figure 32.16. Bauxite deposits and lateritic nickel deposits. See Table 32.6 for current resources.
957

32.7.1 Sechol, Guatemala

The Sechol nickel laterite deposit is located in eastern Guatemala, not far from the El
Estor deposit that was mined by INCO from 1977 to 1983. Sechol is a fairly typical
nickel laterite deposit, formed by weathering of ultramafic rocks. The host rocks at El
Sechol include dunites and pyroxenites. These rock units belong to a fragment of
Cretaceous seafloor and upper mantle that was emplaced during Late Cretaceous
subduction along the present-day Motagua suture zone.
The laterite horizon at Sechol grades with depth through a limonite cap into a
transition zone, followed by saprolite and, finally, unweathered bedrock. The best
nickel values are found in the transition zone and in the saprolite where nickel is
accompanied by magnesium oxide values in excess of 10%. An atmospheric chloride
leach process is being considered to deal with the high magnesium content.
32.7.2 Paraso de Cartago, Costa Rica
The Paraso de Cartago bauxite deposit formed in a deeply weathered basaltic andesite
lava flow [57]. Gibsite, the major aluminium-bearing mineral, is concentrated in a
laterite that measures at least 10 m in thickness. Alumina content averages 44% (30%
extractable) and the deposit is estimated to contain between 10 Mt and 15 Mt. This and
other Costa Rican bauxite deposits developed in Pleistocene time.
32.8
CONCLUSIONS
Metallic mineral deposits in Central America are host to both base and precious metals and
span a broad range of deposit types. The most valuable deposits over the years have been the
epithermal gold deposits followed by copper skarns and base metal replacement deposits.
Some of these deposits have been in production for more than 80 years. Porphyry copper and
lateritic nickel deposits, some quite large, have yet to be developed.
Mineral exploration in Central America is still in its infancy. Nevertheless, new
discoveries are being made; new mines are under development; and, with each new
discovery, understanding of the regional metallogeny improves. In those countries that
choose to encourage mining, the next decade should see a number of exciting
developments.
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961
Chapter 33
Industrial minerals
FERNANDO ALVARADO AND BYRON MOTA
In non-metallic mineral activities we have
made considerable progress, and we hope to
expand this field and to balance the import
of some minerals by local production. J.M.
Dengo: Opening Remarks. In: Miller et al.
(eds): Energy and Mineral Potential of the
Central American-Caribbean Region, 1995.
33.1
INTRODUCTION
Industrial minerals (commonly referred to as non-metallic minerals) are broadly

defined as any rock, mineral, or other naturally occurring substance having economic
value, exclusive of metallic ores, mineral fuels, water and gemstones. Because of their
enormous range of physical and chemical properties, industrial minerals are a primary
source of raw materials for a great diversity of industrial applications, essential to every
aspect of modern life. Their national and regional availability is a key factor for
industrialization, economic progress and development, aspects not always clearly
understood by governments and consumers, in general.
There is a great diversity of industrial minerals widespread throughout the Central
American (CA) region but most have been poorly investigated and characterized, or are
of a relatively poor grade and/or have limited reserves. The information available on
existing resources is very scarce and what information there is needs to be updated. This
is due to the fact that, historically, most of the national and international mineral
exploration efforts in the region have been oriented towards metallic minerals.
Industrial minerals are classified very simply into two important sectors based on
their intended industrial application: the construction and the non-construction (highpriced) sectors.
The construction sector, the largest consumer of industrial minerals, has shown a
dramatic increase in demand over the last two decades particularly related with the
construction of new tourism infrastructure. To ensure an economical supply, most raw
materials are extracted from sources close to population centers as in the case of
limestones, common clays and pozzolanic materials for cement, common clays for
ceramic, sand and gravel, hard rock quarries and more.
On the other hand, non-construction (high-priced) industrial minerals (e.g., salt,
kaolin, bentonite, diatomite, dolomite, limestone, silica sand, fluorspar, talc, barite,
feldspar, and others) are extracted on a significantly smaller scale. However, they stand
out for their value and contribution as raw materials in the manufacturing of such
diverse items as fertilizers, ceramics, glass, plastic, mineral pigments, paints, abrasives,
fillers, filters, adsorbents and absorbents, fluxes, foundry sand, refractory minerals,
well drilling fluids and more.

Lack of development within the industrial minerals, particularly non-construction

(high-priced) industrial minerals sector, and stringent physical/chemical industry
standards, result in a severe regional reliance on imports of processed and refined
commodities to the detriment of regional trade. With few exceptions, this dependency
has resulted in increased imports, even of raw materials which potentially could be
supplied locally or for which suitable substitute commodities could be found.
Furthermore, the external market potential for regional industrial minerals has not been
sufficiently explored or exploited.
The CA region is passing through one of the best stages in its history, and many
mining opportunities still remain unidentified. Regional governments should be
encouraged to fully investigate the economic potential of domestic industrial minerals.
Such goal would help to meet domestic demand for high quality raw materials (valueadding), would go far in replacing high-priced imports (import substitution) and
exports may well be developed.
The systematization and dissemination of technical information oriented toward
potential markets is essential to future investment and industrial mineral development.
This chapter examines details of the current status of some of the most important
industrial minerals commodities in the Central American region and looks at ways to
develop their potential.
33.2
INDUSTRIAL MINERALS DOMAINS
The origin and mode of occurrence of industrial minerals is quite diverse. In the
Central American countries of Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua,
Costa Rica and Panama (hereafter CA), a large variety of industrial mineral resources
are present because of the complex and varied geological setting, tectonic evolution
and mineral genesis.
The geology of CA is discussed in greater detail and from diverse viewpoints in
other chapters of this book. To avoid repetition and to address the geology of industrial
minerals using a simplified, more pertinent approach, the concept of industrial mineral
domains was adopted, based on rock types and secondarily on age, as modified from
Mathers [1] (Fig. 33.1). Domain refers to an area of similar or consistent geology in
which a distinct and predictable assemblage of industrial minerals can be anticipated.
There is an underlying connection between the geology of the region and the
potential presence of industrial minerals. In light of this fact, the CA region has been
conveniently sub-divided into six major industrial mineral domains, each one
characterized by a particular industrial mineral assemblage, summarized as follows:
Basicultrabasic intrusives, Mesozoic-Paleogene. Restricted to northwest Costa
Rica and present in Guatemala (lenses); including ophiolite complexes with
moderate development in the Central highlands of Guatemala, and along the Costa
Rica and Panama coastlines.
Acidintermediate intrusives, plutons and associated pegmatite dikes, veins and
granitic rocks of various ages.
Metamorphic rocks, Paleozoic-Mesozoic. Regional metamorphism well developed
in Guatemala, Honduras and north of Nicaragua.
Sedimentary rocks (marine and terrestrial), Paleozoic; Mesozoic and Cenozoic.
Paleozoic rocks present in the Maya mountains of Belize and the Central highlands
of Guatemala; Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks, well developed especially in the


Figure 33.1. Central American industrial mineral domains (modified after [1]).
lowlands of Guatemala (Petn), in Costa Rica and Panama.

Volcanic rocks, Miocene to Quaternary. Widespread mainly on the Pacific flank
throughout CA, dominant in El Salvador and Nicaragua, absent in Belize.
Sediments (unconsolidated, mainly on-going sedimentation). Pliocene to
Quaternary. Present in all CA, especially along the coasts, major river valleys and
intermontane basins.
The following section reviews industrial minerals in CA for each of the six major
domains mentioned above, with particular attention to their location, use and includes
the potential resources for each (for deposit locations see Figs. 33.2, 33.3 and 33.4).
33.2.1 Basicultrabasic intrusives, including ophiolite complexes
33.2.1.1 Peridotite and serpentinite
Peridotite and its altered equivalent serpentinite are members of ophiolite ultrabasic
rock assemblages. These dimension stones are highly desirable for their aesthetic,
physical and mechanical characteristics. There are outcrops of these rocks along the
Motagua-Polochic faults in Guatemala [2]; associated with the Jocotn-Chamelecn
fault in Honduras (N. Diaz, oral commun., 2003); on the Santa Elena peninsula in
Costa Rica; and on both the Caribbean and Pacific coasts of Panama. They are
accompanied by small quantities of magnesite, talc, chrysotile asbestos, olivine and
other minerals of no commercial potential. During the 1970s and 1980s, Guatemala
exported significant quantities of peridotite and serpentinite, usually mined in large
blocks. After slicing and polishing, these dimension stones are used to cover the
exterior and interior walls of important buildings in most CA countries. Currently, the
only active quarries are in Guatemala; mostly operated by Guatemarmol and

Sambomar, both local companies. However, because there are large supplies of similar
rocks especially from India, as well as abundant artificial substitutes, the result has
been a reduced demand for these rocks on the market.
33.2.1.2 Chromite
Peridotites and serpentines characterized by a complicated structural relationship are
the host rocks for small chromite deposits in CA. This is the sole commercial source of
chromium, and is usually mined for use by the ferroalloy industry, particularly for the
metallurgical market, although these applications will not be included in this chapter.
Non-metallic applications for chromite involve mostly the chemical, foundry and
refractory sectors [3].
Chromite was mined in Guatemala some decades ago; and a few mining and
exploration rights still exist, but the logistical complications associated with extraction,
will likely impede their exploitation, except for very small extractions for use as a
coloring agent in glass manufacturing (green). Minor occurrences have also been
reported in the Santa Elena peninsula, Costa Rica [4]. Nevertheless, at the present time,
chromite can not be considered a mineable resource in CA.
33.2.1.3 Jade
Jade is the general name given to occurrences of jadeite (and also nephrite, which was
not yet found in CA) found as blocks in some serpentine masses, characteristic of zones
of high pressure-low temperature metamorphism. The sole producer of jade and by far
the most important regionally is Guatemala, with well-known deposits along the
northern and southern limbs of the Motagua suture zone, the boundary zone between
the Caribbean and North American plates [5].
Jade eroded from its encasing serpentinite bodies is collected from alluvial sources
along the foothills of the Motagua valley, in Guatemalas southern plains. Since the
Olmec occupation (1300600 BC), jade has been used for lapidarian purposes. Later the
Mayas (1000 BC1500 AC) excelled in the manufacture of animal and anthropomorphic
figures. Nowadays, Jades S.A. and Casa Del Jade are the major CA producers of jade
jewelry. Despite the high price of the resulting gems, common jade boulders have been
traded locally for as little as US$ 0.13 per pound. Recent rediscovery of the source of the
Olmec blue jade [6] has renewed exploration interest.
33.2.1.4 Magnesite and attapulgite
Both minerals have significant applications in the chemical industry and occur solely in
Guatemala associated with ultramafic rocks derived from the Izabal Sierra de Santa
Cruz. There is an active mine in this area located in the northern part of the Izabal lake
basin where a 30 m thick magnesite lens is intimately mixed with red and white
attapulgite beds [7]. Magnesite (MgCO3) still remains the most significant source of
magnesia worldwide. For most of the past century the refractory industry has been the
principal user of magnesite, either dead burned or caustic-calcined. The current reduced
supply of refractory fused magnesite from China, the world leader in production [8]
may boost development of this deposit in the future. In CA it is used as a soil pH
corrector in agriculture. It has some metallurgical applications, but requires further
processing to obtain more valuable market products.

Figure 33.2. Principal industrial minerals deposits in Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras
(modified after Mathers [1]).
World wide, several companies like Skye Resources, Jaguar Nickel, Nichromet, and
BHP Billiton, are currently developing hydrometallurgical processes to produce nickel
from laterite sources. Should they be successful, large amounts of magnesium
by-products should be available in the near future, creating an enormous oversupply.

Attapulgite is the common name of a clay mineral in the palygorskite-sepiolite

group that is not yet completely understood. In Guatemala attapulgite was largely
considered a waste rock until recent years. Successful trial tests have been carried out
to heat-activate it for use as an adsorbent or molecular sieve (L. Mosheim, written
commun., 2002).
33.2.2 Acidintermediate intrusives, plutons and associated pegmatite dikes, and
granitic rocks
33.2.2.1 Granite
Many varieties of granite are used by the dimension stone and aggregate industries.
Worldwide acid to intermediate intrusions of diverse scales took place concurrently
with regional uplift in every CA country. The Belize Government conducted a survey
of the granite occurrences in the Pine ridge region of the Maya mountains and along the
Hummingbird highway [9] and geotechnical drilling south of San Ignacio also showed
encouraging results (R. Alvarado, oral commun., 2005). Enormous resources with
considerable commercial potential have been identified in the Talamanca range in
Costa Rica [10]. However, most CA occurrences do not have sufficiently interesting
physical (color, texture, uniformity, and hardness) and architectural properties to make
development of a regional dimension stone industry plausible (refer to 33.4.1.3).
Granite resources are not commonly extracted as an aggregate because of the
remote location of the source rocks, or their location within reserves or national parks
where mining activities are prohibited. The primary reason, however, has been the
relatively good availability within the region of alternative aggregate sources,
commonly volcanic rocks, and to a lesser extent, limestones.
Despite the high quality and plentiful resources of Costa Rica, only small volumes
of granite as sand and gravel have been intermittently exported through the nearby
Caribbean port of Limn to the U.S.A. and the Caribbean area (refer to 33.2.6.1).
33.2.2.2 Barite
Barium sulfate (BaSO4) is a relatively soft, chemically inert and inexpensive mineral.
Barite production from the region is mainly for use as a weighting agent (mud) in oil
well drilling operations. Non-drilling applications continue to provide a low volume
outlet (filler and extender for chemicals, glass, paint and ceramics). Occurrences of
barite are reported in the northern section of CA. A small Belize occurrence in the
Maya mountains (see [1]) was proven to be uneconomical. There are still several mining
rights in Guatemala (Huehuetenango and Baja Verapaz) that have been sporadically
produced since 1960, especially for local oil-drilling projects. The poor reserves and
complicated shape of the ore bodies seriously have impeded commercial development.
Pockets of barite also occur in Mesozoic sediments at Portillo de Siales in the
Francisco Morazn region of Honduras, but their potential is unknown [11].
33.2.3.1 Garnet
Garnet is a generic term applied to a group of silicate minerals (Fe, Mn, Mg, Al, Cr
silicates) common in metamorphic rocks. Garnet is used mostly as a high-quality

Figure 33.3. Principal industrial minerals deposits in Nicaragua (modified after Mathers [1]).
abrasive for sandblasting, polishing and cutting, due to its sharp, angular fracture, high
hardness and resistance to chemical attack. Small quantities are used as a filtration
medium or as gemstones and mineral specimens. Deformed, low gem-quality, hard-tomine garnets are present in various sections of the Chuacus mountains in Guatemala,
especially near the Motagua fault. The availability of extremely low priced specimens
from India, suggest the exploitation of these resources would not be economically
successful, even for tourist-oriented artisan crafts (M. Ridinger, oral commun., 2003).
33.2.3.2 Marble
In the dimension stone terminology, the word marble includes true marbles,
metamorphosed limestones, but also any recrystallized calcareous rock with little or no
metamorphic signature, capable of taking a polish. Thus, marble grade limestones
and even travertine may also be included within this commodity. The structure of
natural marble reflects its diagenetic and metamorphic signatures, resulting in different
characteristics such as variation in hardness and texture. In the production of polished
slabs, joints frequently occur, making it suitable only for marble chips. These are used
for terrazzo and for various forms of reconstituted stone, including synthetic marble
bonded with resin. Marble may be used in some climates for exterior applications, but

tends to be restricted to indoor uses.

There has been a long tradition of dimension stones use in CA, particularly a few
decades ago during the 1970s and 1980s (refer to 33.4.1.3). There are marble deposits
scattered throughout CA, although deposits of economic significance are restricted to
specific areas. A Korean company is evaluating the feasibility of quarrying marble
from the hills of Georgeville, in the Cayo district of Belize (E. Wade-Garca, written
commun., 2003). Marble is mined in the Guatemalan eastern highlands and at the
almost depleted San Lorenzo quarry in Zacapa owned by Guatemarmol, the best known
successful operation with small exports to the CA region and beyond. In Honduras, the
marbles within the Cacaguapa group, and Mesozoic limestones outcropping in Corts,
Yor and Santa Brbara departments have been extracted on a commercial scale,
including limited exportations to U.S.A. [1]. In the north and northeast of El Salvador
(Metapn), an important variety of resources found in contact with intrusives have been
extracted. Additionally, waste ground marble is milled for use as a filler in many
construction industry products, especially for ceiling and wall mortars (M. Alonso, oral
commun., 2005). In Jalapa, Intel, Nicaragua, there are of 98,000 metric tons of marble
reserves [12] that have been scarcely extracted. Some of the enormous reserves of
Barra Honda limestones in Costa Rica have historically been sold as marble in the local
market [13]. The Sapo limestones in southern Nicaragua (1.6 million metric tons) [12]
have very similar characteristics and could have a comparable potential.
Travertine was a popular ornamental facing stone used on buildings in the capital
city of Costa Rica a few decades ago [14]. The material has been extracted from a local
source in Navarro (Cartago, Costa Rica), with reserves of several million tons of dark
travertine. Nevertheless, because of the maintenance required and deterioration
suffered by the stone, it is no longer used.
Marble resources in the region are very large, while by comparison production and
exports are very small. The CA market for marble and other similar stones has stagnated,
because of a regional slow-down in the dimension stone industry. The potential for
development of marble resources in CA as dimension stone is limited due to an
excessive supply from traditional producers (Brazil, India, and China) and the abundant
synthetic man-made substitute materials.
33.2.4.1 Limestone
Worldwide, limestone is one of the most versatile and widely used industrial minerals.
It is difficult to imagine how industry today could operate successfully without a secure
supply of calcium carbonate or its by-products: cement, aggregates, dimension stone,
fertilizers, lime, paints, plastics, rubbers, ceramic, glass, paper, adhesives, light
abrasives, sealants, household products, and pharmaceutical products to mention some
important applications.
Historically, limestone production stands out among other industrial minerals in CA
because of its plentiful resources and applications. Considerable variations in chemical
composition and characteristics result in profound effects on its industrial competitiveness as a raw material. A wide range of superb Mesozoic and Cenozoic limestone
resources are available, except in El Salvador, where resources are limited to the northwest of the country. Paleozoic limestone deposits occur only in Guatemala within the
Chochal formation but they are not commercially exploited.

Figure 33.4. Principal industrial minerals deposits in Costa Rica and Panama (modified after
Mathers [1]).
Since the Olmec and Mayan civilizations (1300 BC1500 AC) limestone has been an
important natural resource used in construction. Heavy blocks of limestone taken from

local quarries were cut and carved using primitive hand tools (rocks) and fashioned into
graves and sculptures. Limestone blocks cemented with a primitive lime mix facilitated
the construction of pyramids and ceremonial temples. This is most evident in many
northern CA Pre-Columbian cities such as Caracol in Belize, El Mirador and Tikal in
Guatemala. Similarly, during the Spanish conquest, limestone blocks were joined with
different types of cementing materials in the construction of churches, forts and
battlements (Fig. 33.5a).
Nowadays, as with many other industrial mineral commodities, the demand for
limestone and limestone products depends to a great extent on the construction sector.
Cement manufacturing accounts for the vast majority of limestone production. For each
ton of cement produced, the average raw material consumption is around 1.3 tons of
limestone. Unsurprisingly, limestone production has increased to meet the growing
demand for cement during the last decades. Important quarries have been developed in
Guatemala (Guatemala city and Guastatoya), Honduras (San Pedro Sula and
Comayagua), El Salvador (Metapn), Nicaragua (San Rafael), Costa Rica (Guanacaste
and Cartago), as well as in Panama (Panama and Coln). The open bench cut method is
commonly used during extraction.
Limestone usually produces good quality aggregates for the concrete and asphalt
industries; and is particularly valued in Belize and other areas in CA (e.g., Guanacaste,
Costa Rica) because there is a lack of alternative rocks. Nevertheless, the use of some
types of crystalline limestone for asphalt road surfaces may pose a threat to traffic,
given their poor skid resistance characteristics, especially under wet conditions [15].
Significantly smaller volumes, commonly of high purity limestone, are used regionally
in an important variety of non-construction manufacturing processes, including filler to
reduce costs (paint, plastic, rubber, soap, pharmaceutical products, animal feed, foam,
carpet backing); reacting agent (glass, sugar refining); pH regulating in metallurgical
processes; leather industry; soft abrasive (household products); as lime in fertilizers;
ornamental stones and for landscaping (horticulture, water features). In these applications,
limestone is extracted from sources associated with the cement manufacturing industry or
from small quarries elsewhere.
The use of limestone as a raw material for filler in CA industries is as common as in
the rest of the world (refer to 33.4.2.1). Many manufacturing processes often have
quality restrictions especially related to the purity and grain size distribution of the
limestone powder. For instance, limestone with very low iron content is required in the
colorless glass manufacturing process. Very fine grained (600 mesh) limestones
originating from Guatemala are traded within CA for use as filler in paints and other
similar applications. In Panama, the glass industry depends on high purity limestone
imported from Colombia. Therefore, there is considerable opportunity for the raw
materials to gain added value per unit volume through these applications [16].
Because of the economic importance of agriculture in the region, limestone is pulverized
in small mills and used to correct the pH of the predominantly volcanic soils. Increasing soil
pH reduces concentrations of aluminum and iron to nontoxic levels. As soil pH rises, some
nutrients become more soluble and thus more available to plants. Limestone is industrially
milled by Agromsa in Guatemala; Quimical and Prodim in Metapn, El Salvador; Piedracal in
Sapo, Nicaragua; Carbo Azul in Turrialba, Costa Rica and sometimes exported (e.g., Costa
Rica exported around 5000 t/yr of calcium carbonate powders for the fertilizer industry of
Panama between 20012004; E. Prez, oral commun., 2006).
However the most effective and fastest way to correct soil acidity is by liming. On

Figure 33.5. Examples of industrial minerals deposits and uses in CA: (a) Coralline limestones in
Spanish fortification (1630): San Lorenzo, Panama (foto F. Alvarado); (b) Permian gypsum
deposits: Chixoy, Guatemala (foto courtesy N. Rodrguez); (c) Gypsum-clay secuence: Santa
Rosa del Pen, Nicaragua (foto F. Alvarado); (d) Volcanic activity, source of construction
materials: Arenal volcano, Costa Rica (foto F. Alvarado); (e) Welded tuffs in Pre-Columbian
construction: Copn, Honduras (foto F. Alvarado); (f) Pozzolanic deposit for cement
manufacturing: Santa Brbara, Honduras (foto courtesy N. Rodrguez); (g) Alluvial
extraction of aggregates for construction: Peas Blancas river, Costa Rica (foto F. Alvarado);
(h) Seawater brines for solar salt production: Baha de Salinas, Costa Rica (foto F. Alvarado).

burning, pure limestone theoretically looses 44% of its weight and any impurities
within the limestone almost double in the resulting lime. Therefore, pure limestones are
preferred for lime manufacturing [10].
High scale industrial production of lime has only been reported by Horcalsa in
Guatemala, and Quimical and Prodim in El Salvador, where the use of slaked lime in
building mortars and whitewash is very popular. Sugar mills, both in Guatemala and El
Salvador, as well as gold mines in western Guatemala, also purchase special grade
limes. Lime is also produced in simple kilns (wood fired) in many towns throughout
the region, specifically in areas like San Rafael and Sanarate in Guatemala; Taulab in
Honduras; Metapn in El Salvador; Sapo, Rivas and San Rafael in Nicaragua; La
Palmera and Patarr in Costa Rica and Tonos in Panama. Some of these small
operations also produce ground limestone, primarily for agricultural use and fowl feed.
Limestone and lime sectors have been adversely affected by the prevailing low prices
in agricultural products on international markets, aggravated by the severe drought in
the northern section of CA (refer to 33.4.2.2).
Limestones in CA are likely limited to domestic consumption within the region.
Nevertheless, considering the benefits derived from these resources and in view of their
diverse usage and the relatively low level of capital investment required, future
exploration emphasis should be directed towards the systematic identification and
delineation of reserves based on specific end use. Limestone occurrences with strategic
location (close to seaports), accessibility, reserves, and physiochemical characteristics
could have good export potential. For example, the vast resources of the Barra Honda
limestone in the northwest region of Costa Rica have an important potential as a highvalue raw material, even for the very demanding paper industry market [16].
In CA there are massive limestone resources that have been scarcely exploited
because of their remote location and consequent transportation difficulties to potential
markets. These include for instance, extensive areas of Belize; northern Guatemala and
southern Costa Rica. However, this situation could change in future years as
industrialization proceeds. Mining of some of these resources is prohibited, since they
are within the boundaries of natural reserves or national parks.
33.2.4.2 Dolomite
Dolomite is usually formed by the action of magnesium-bearing fluids on existing
limestones. Theoretically, pure dolomite contains 45.7% MgCO3 and 54.3% CaCO3.
Any material with less than 15% MgCO3 is referred to as magnesium limestone. The
most important uses of dolomite are in the manufacturing of refractory bricks, high
magnesia lime, special cements, and flux for ferroalloys, paper production, and water
treatment.
In CA pulverized dolomite is mainly used as a source of magnesium and as a soil
pH corrector (refer to 33.2.4.1). The application of limestone or lime from very pure
limestone may affect some physical properties of soils; cause an unbalanced Ca/Mg
ratio, and disturb the health of crops, unless dolomite is used to supply magnesium.
Dolomite is preferred by artisan lime makers due to the lower temperature required to
decarbonate and its quicker effect on soils.
Fertilizer companies pelletize dolomite to use it as filler in their products. The final
product is sold as a physical blend and is cheaper than chemical fertilizers (see
33.4.2.2).
Another interesting use of dolomite in CA (i.e., Guatemala) is for manufacturing

slaked lime for the construction industry (building mortars and whitewash). The
resulting lime, if not properly hydrated, may have discouraging results, since
magnesium hydration is relatively slow and late hydration usually means expansion
cracks. Dolomite also has some limited glass, metallurgical and chemical applications.
Deposits of economic value occur as discrete pockets in the northern portion of CA,
and are mined in Belize, Guatemala and to a lesser extent in Honduras. Dolomite has only
been exported outside CA to the Caribbean islands by a company in Punta Gorda,
Belize. Costa Rica and El Salvador import gypsum-dolomite blends from Guatemala
and low grade dolomite from Honduras, for agricultural purposes. In the Costa Rican
agricultural sector, for example, soil liming is estimated at: 70% powdered limestone,
10% lime and 20% dolomite. On a regional scale, the agriculture sector is in a serious
crisis arising from low international prices for traditional products, especially crops like
bananas and coffee. Therefore dolomite trade within CA has been significantly reduced
for these commodities.
33.2.4.3 Gypsum
Worldwide the principal markets for gypsum (CaSO4&Db+2O) are the plasterboard
(wallboard), cement and agricultural industries. In CA it is mostly used in cement
manufacturing as a set retardant. A small percentage is used for ceramic and sanitary
ware mould manufacturing, as a source of sulfur for amber glass manufacturing, in
agricultural applications to correct pH and aluminum-iron toxicity, but the latter market
has been drastically reduced.
Commercial gypsum deposits are typically found in some sedimentary sequences in
the north of CA. Gypsum may occur in the Permian strata of the Maya mountains
between Belize and Guatemala. Gypsum from Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits with a
high content of bentonitic clays, occur in Belize in the Miocene Red Bank formation, in
the neighborhood of El Cayo and Spanish Lookout. Also in Belize, a very high-purity
gypsum lens, within the Paleocene Cayo formation, is exposed on the banks of the
Macal river, across from the town of Cristo Rey. Similar deposits have also been
reported on the Guatemalan side (J.C. Amado-Garzaro, written commun., 2001). In
Guatemala, it is extracted from El Palacio, Santa Elena and other outcrops along the
Chixoy fault, between Huehuetenango and Alta Verapaz (Fig. 33.5b). These
occurrences are usually mixed with dolomite, limestone, clay, and shale, and reserves
are estimated at 94 million tons [17]. Impure gypsum also occurs and has sporadically
been mined in Chiquimula, Guatemala. In Honduras the largest gypsum deposits occur
at Cerro Grande in the Ocotepeque department where reserves have been estimated at
2 million tons (see [1]). In Nicaragua, near Santa Rosa del Pen, north of Managua
lake, gypsum deposits (up to 3 m thick) of variable quality are extracted with some
difficulty from the fine interstratified gypsum-bentonite lacustrine evaporite sequence
of the El Charco formation (Fig. 33.5c), where reports of gypsum reserves are variable
between 5.7 million metric tons [12] and 7.7 million metric tons [18].
In El Salvador, Costa Rica and Panama no occurrences of commercial gypsum are
reported; the local industries depend on imports, especially the cement industry (around
US$ 70/tone). Currently, the El Salvador cement industry depends on sources from
Guatemala and to a lesser extent Nicaragua. Costa Rica imports gypsum from Mexico
(Baja California) and the United States, and imports gypsum-dolomite blends from
Guatemala for agricultural purposes (see 33.2.4.2). The cement industry of Panama is
importing gypsum from Dominican Republic and Spain (G. Pinilla, oral commun., 2005).

Production was estimated at 50,000 metric tons in 1996 mostly for the cement industry
[17]. Exports from Guatemala to the region are variable. Gypsum, meeting higher
quality industrial standards required for many manufacturing processes, is commonly
imported by most CA countries from Mexico, Colombia and especially the U.S.A.
33.2.5 Volcanic rocks
33.2.5.1 Lava flows and dikes
These rocks are typically associated with the predominant volcanic chain along the
longitudinal axis of the CA territory. The construction industry widely uses materials
derived from lava flows and dikes to manufacture aggregates for concrete and asphalt
mixes and to a lesser extent as dimension stone (facing and walling stones), in
sculptures and craft work. Basaltic and andesitic lavas have been an important natural
source for construction even before the Spanish Conquest. This was particularly true in the
southern section of CA (Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama), where blocks of rock were
cut and carved to erect ceremonial temples, roads, graves and sculptures, including the
singular perfect round spheres of southern of Costa Rica. After the conquest, lavas
continued to be an important source of building material in the entire region, used as
blocks joined with some type of mortar, especially for the construction of sidewalks,
roads, bridges, government buildings and churches.
Today, the vast majority of aggregate operations (quarry and alluvial mining)
mostly extract and process volcanic-derived materials given their large availability.
There are small and large scale commercial operations closely related to the markets in
metropolitan areas everywhere in CA, except in Belize (refer to 33.2.4.1). The best
volcanic aggregates are related to lava flows and dikes of basaltic and andesitic
composition. Dacite and rhyolite flows sometimes produce aggregates that do not fall
within industry standards because of their higher porosity and potential reactivity with
cement. Quality strongly depends on porosity, weathering and age [15].
Characteristics such as complex stratigraphy and morphology, in addition to lateral
and thickness variations are difficult to determine in lava flows. These characteristics
affect the appraisal value of resources and may cause problems during extraction and
processing of a consistent quality aggregate. Sometimes, mining processes must be
selective in order to extract material meeting the required characteristics.
33.2.5.2 Scoria cones and tuffs
Quaternary rhyolitic to andesitic pumice ash falls or flow deposits (tuffs), as well as
scoria cones are widespread along the volcanic chain in CA (Fig. 33.5d), except in
Belize. Most extractive operations of these volcanic products tend to be located close to
local markets where they are utilized in construction and to a much lesser extend on
non-construction applications. Particularly in the north of CA, during the Maya
civilization tuffs and ignimbrites were cut into blocks for building construction (Fig.
33.5e) and carved using primitive hand tools to produce elaborate sculptures (Copn in
Honduras and Tazumal in El Salvador). Nowadays, artisans in Copn, Honduras are
masters at reproducing these sculptures using tuffs. Similarly, blocks of tuff are cut for
the manufacture of building blocks, particularly in El Salvador, Honduras and
Nicaragua.
A substantial quantity of sand is produced from naturally condensed lithic

fragments and crystals from tuff and volcanic ash near composite volcanic structures.
Many construction operations satisfy their need for fine aggregates used in concrete
and asphalt mixes from these sources. Most small-scale or occasional builders are
satisfied with naturally occurring sand size grading for concrete applications, without
regard to final strength, or ultimate cement requirement. The specific weight of these
sands may be a misleading indicator of their quality, since the large amount of feldspar
crystals add mass to the materials, but their perfect cleavage reduces the strength of the
resulting concrete.
In the future, some deposits with a high content of lithic fragments may be
processed to separate the pumice, crystals, lithic fragments, and fine ash, to meet more
rigorous building industry standards. Most sand used for construction in the
metropolitan areas of El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, was obtained from
processed tuffs, until a few years ago. However, in most CA countries, alluvial mining
operations are increasingly becoming the main source of high quality and relatively
low cost sands (refer to 33.4.1.2).
Manufactured sands are also obtained from scoria crushing processes, however,
most scorias are used as base and sub-base materials for road foundations and drainage
ditches. Red scoria is increasingly being used as an ornamental and landscaping stone
in gardens. Tuffs and ash deposits are used for road base and for drainage-cover
materials in some CA countries.
Some thick volcanic sequences may contain significant amounts of pumice
depending on the composition of the original magma and transport history. These are
present on the CA Pacific flank, predominantly in Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua
and Costa Rica. Pumice is mainly used as a lightweight aggregate for non-structural
concrete products (building blocks, mortars and plasters), for thermal insulation, as a
carrier for agrochemicals, and as pozzolan material for cement.
Understanding the morphology of these deposits, the type of eruption that caused
them, their manner of emplacement and cover material is of utmost importance before
attempting to mine these resources. In some countries large areas have been dug up and
turned into man made wastelands, resulting in erosion and sedimentation problems
downstream.
33.2.5.3 Pozzolanic materials
A pozzolan is a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material which in itself possesses
little or no cementitious value but will, in finely divided form and in the presence of
moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form
compounds possessing cementitious properties (ASTM C 618-99 in [20]). Most CA
cement plants produce pozzolan-modified cements, a worldwide trend derived from the
lower manufacturing cost (energy savings), environmental considerations, and better
performance in the presence of aggressive environments and alkali-reactive aggregates.
For the production of pozzolanic cement the most common clinker replacement by
pozzolan is around 15% (refer to 33.4.1.1).
Many tuffs, pumice, scoria and lava deposits have been tested as pozzolans
throughout CA; their inconsistent quality is an important concern. Acidic, vesicular,
volcanic glasses show the most desirable pozzolanic activity. The most typical
pozzolan sources include tephra and ash fall deposits from the Molino and Sumpango
groups in Guatemala [19], the Padre Miguel tuffs in Guatemala and Honduras (Fig.
33.5f) and the pyroclastic deposits from the Cuscatln and San Salvador formations in

El Salvador. Additionally, there are important tuffaceous pozzolanic deposits in

Nicaragua (Las Sierras group), some tuffs in the Iraz volcano and the Bagaces
formation in Costa Rica, as well as dacites in Panama (El Valle volcano).
33.2.5.4 Perlite
Perlite is a generic term applied to naturally occurring siliceous rocks, usually a
volcanic glass or lava with high silica content (7175% SiO2) and around 2 to 5%
combined water in the crude rock. When properly heated, the water allows the perlite
to expand up to twenty times its original volume. Similar results may be obtained by
expanding some clays, slates, shales, diatomaceous shales and obsidians. Perlite has
many applications as a lightweight aggregate, horticulture, filler, filter aid and thermal
insulation, among others.
The occurrence of important perlite deposits can be expected throughout CA,
mostly within (acidic) Neogene volcanic rocks. However, the deposits have not been
evaluated yet, except for a non-conclusive appraisal in El Salvador [20] and very
preliminary testing in Guatemala, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. There are no commercial
extractions in CA. This apparent disinterest in perlite is caused by the high cost of
crushing, grading and expanding the rock and the relative abundance of pumice. Perlite
cannot be effectively replaced by pumice in specific masonry and horticultural
applications. A few customers in CA import limited amounts of expanded perlite to
satisfy their needs. When good pumice deposits are no longer locally available, and
applications requiring the unique properties of perlite increase, a renewed interest in
this commodity should arise.
33.2.5.5 Sulfur
Sulfur represents one of the oldest industrial minerals exploited in CA. The mineral
was known to native Central Americans for its therapeutic benefits, and was used by
priests and shamans for complex ceremonial cures. The Spanish used it for gunpowder
and later the more spectacular application in fireworks became popular. Today it is a
very important industrial mineral used as a raw material in many major industrial
complexes. Worldwide, it is a primary ingredient in the manufacture of sulfuric acid,
textiles, pulps, pigments, insecticides, pesticides, herbicides, dehydrating and bleaching
agents, gunpowder, medicines, glass manufacturing (amber color) and soil
conditioning.
Volcanogenic elemental sulfur deposits are widespread in the CA volcanic ranges;
however, most occur in sub-economic concentrations. Two major interesting prospects
are located at the caldera clays at Ixpaco lake, southwest of Guatemala city, with
around 0.5 million tons of sulfur and the widespread mineralization in Quaternary
volcanic rocks in northern Costa Rica, of the Gngora river and Fila Chocosuela
deposits [11]. The latter has reserves of more than 8 million tons of elemental sulfur.
Currently no active production of sulfur from native sources exists in CA. In all cases,
important economic, logistic and environmental issues restrict extraction. Future
shortage in the supply of sulfur may make current marginal and sub-economic
resources viable. Virtually all sulfur consumption in CA is covered by imports from
Mexico, Venezuela and other countries. Only a small amount of gypsum derived sulfur
is used as coloring agent in amber glass manufacturing in Guatemala.

33.2.5.6 Zeolites
Zeolites are a wide variety of hydrated calcium-potassium-alumino-silicate minerals
with many industrial applications, including adsorption, catalysis, ion exchange,
fertilizers, molecular sieving, gas storage, deodorant, desiccants, animal feed, and
many others. Natural zeolites are also used as pozzolans in cement manufacturing, with
impressive results. Synthetic zeolites show a greater uniformity but are considerably
more expensive. Small occurrences of zeolites are widespread within the volcanic
terrains in CA and are collected as mineral specimens. However, zeolite potential has
been investigated in detail only in Nicaragua with no commercial results. There are
reports of clinoptilolite in Guatemala and Panama [1] and of mordenite and
clinoptilolite in Nicaragua [21]. The latter paper suggests that the best zeolite prospects
in Central and South America may be associated with ash and tuffs altered in lacustrine
environments, where smectite is commonly present.
33.2.6 Unconsolidated sediments

33.2.6.1 Sand and gravel
Rivers are an increasingly important source of sand and gravel valued by the
construction sector for manufacturing aggregate used in concrete and asphalt mixes or
in their crude form. Quaternary alluvial deposits are readily available, particularly at
lower elevations where stream energy decreases in active river channels and associated
terraces (Fig. 33.5g). A significant number of mining concessions are spread
throughout CA, however at many locations alluvial mining is usually intermittent or
occurs only for brief periods (illegal sites).
Large volumes of volcanic resources are extracted from sites near principal
geographical markets. These are mostly distributed along the Pacific coastline of the
isthmus in Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador and Nicaragua, and on both the
Caribbean and Pacific coasts of Costa Rica and Panama. Sediments derived from
sedimentary (especially limestones) and metamorphic rocks are dominant in Belize and
intermittently exported in small volumes. Similarly, a volume of around 100,000 m3
(E. Prez, oral commun., 2006) of excellent quality sand and gravel derived from
intrusive rock have been exported to the U.S.A. and the Caribbean area (particulary
San Andrs between 1996 and 2000) from plentiful resources along the Caribbean
coast of Costa Rica. Marine aggregate dredging has occurred only in Belize and
Panama, the only countries in CA where this activity is legal.
Concrete and asphalt mixes typically require large volumes of fine aggregates.
Alluvial sources produce high quality sand aggregates (preferred for their grain size,
shape, and mechanical strength), usually have low production costs and do not involve
the technical considerations and difficulties associated with sand manufactured from
crushed rocks (refer to 33.2.5.2).
In some alluvial mining operations, it is common practice to selectively extract the
sandy fractions and discard the coarser-grained material in the active channel. This
results in a substantial coarsening of the riverbed sediments at the mining site and
downstream, with serious effects on aquatic habitats. However, these negative effects
could be minimized by using large boulders (> 60 cm) to strengthen and stabilize
riverbanks. The selective extraction of coarse-grained material or over-exploitation of
deposits also poses serious environmental threats [22].

33.2.6.2 Common clays, kaolin, ball clay, refractory clay and bentonite
Widespread in all CA countries, clays provided the basic raw material for the ceramics
industry, even centuries before the Spanish Conquest. Clays are derived mainly from in situ
weathering or hydrothermal alteration of rocks. Common clay deposits normally consist of
several clay minerals mixtures with varying proportions of non-clay minerals, the most
common of these being quartz, feldspar, carbonate minerals and organic material. The fact
that clays contain diverse combinations of materials is confirmed by the considerable
variation in mineralogy and chemistry of the resulting products. This emphasizes the
relevance of careful assessment to ensure their suitability for end uses.
Common clays are used in the cement industry (around 20% for clinker production,
as a source of Si, Al, and Fe). A comparatively small amount of common clays is
extracted for production of structural products (simple and ornamental bricks), drainage
pipes and siphons, tiles, pottery and ceramic walls, arts and crafts, for artisan
workshops and for family-owned business (i.e., Rabinal in Guatemala; Las Pilas and
Masaya in Nicaragua; Agua Caliente and San Vicente de Nicoya in Costa Rica).
More valuable clays like kaolinite (soft white plastic clay, with coarse well-ordered
crystals) and ball clays (very plastic, fine grained disordered kaolinitic clays) are
present in most CA countries and some are extracted. Kaolinite deposits are usually
associated with in situ alteration and hydrothermal alteration of feldspar minerals in
igneous rocks. These deposits are quite variable in mineral and chemical composition,
rather irregular in shape and most have limited reserves. Deposits are frequently
inconsistent as to quality and color due to high iron oxide and pyrite content. Iron and
titanium minerals, though not often present in large amounts, may have serious impact
on the use of the clay and the color, a vital selling property of the resulting products.
This implies additional processing, hindering large scale industrialization and
exportation to the high quality ceramic industry. In Belize they also contain fine
muscovite [see 1] and in Guatemala they contain titanium impurities [17]. The kaolinite
clays in Momotombo (San Carlos, Nicaragua) with reserves of 700,000 metric tons
[12] and the kaolinite clays around Tabln (Cartago, Costa Rica) contain iron [10].
A few medium sized companies in several countries are producing tiles with
important technical improvements using domestic and imported raw materials to
produce a more consistent quality. Imported kaolins have been successfully substituted
in Nicaragua and Costa Rica (see 33.4.2.3).
Halloysite, a dense, porcelaneous clay of hydrothermal origin, occurs at several
locations in Purulha (Baja Verapaz, Guatemala). These deposits are mostly used by
Incesa Standard to manufacture sanitary ware and on a very minor scale by the local
artisan ceramic industry.
Bentonite clays (Ca-montmorillonite) are used in civil engineering/containment
(sealant), for iron ore pelletization, animal feed, pet litter, moisture absorbents, as
binder in foundry moulds, metal casting and well drilling, the principal market.
Although the market for bentonite drilling muds has diminished by the development of
synthetic and polymer enhanced muds, it remains a cost effective material under many
drilling conditions. Water drilling companies prefer the use of bentonite-bearing mud
over pure clay, mostly because of cost concerns.
Bentonite with high wet strength and low dry strength, a result of in situ weathering
of volcanic products or reworked deposits, has been located in several countries. There
are low quality bentonite deposits in Chiquimula, Guatemala used in local drilling

operations. Some bentonite beds of the Padre Miguel formation in the south and west
of Honduras seem to offer promise for the future [1]. A green poor quality bentonite up
to 7 m thick is mined in Campo Leonor, Dario, Nicaragua with reserves of around
475,000 metric tons [12]. These resources are locally mined (20004000 t/yr) to be
used for drilling fluids, soap filler, as binder in foundry molding sand and carrier for
insecticides [see 1]. There are additional bentonite deposits in Matigus and Matagalpa
in Nicaragua. Several non economic-sized deposits of low grade bentonite in Costa
Rica [23] are associated to lacustrine caldera-infill sequences (Palmares and Loma
Camastro), but like many others in CA they are of little economic interest.
33.2.6.3 Diatomite
Diatomite consists of irregularly shaped microscopic diatom fossil frustules with a
wide size range (50150 microns). The almost pure amorphous silica skeletal structure
precipitated by these unicellular aquatic organisms is softer than other forms of silica and
is generally chemically stable. These basic characteristics result in a series of properties
such as high porosity and permeability, low bulk density, high absorption, very large
surface area, mild abrasive qualities, chemical inertness, low thermal conductivity and
moderate refractory behavior. Great care is taken during the milling and processing
stages to preserve the distinct particulate skeletal diatom structure, since this is the
physical property that sets diatomite apart from other forms of silica.
Diatomite is a very unique raw material particularly suited as a filtering aid for
water, beer, wine, oils and other liquids. Besides filtration media, diatomite is also used
in CA as a mild abrasive (toothpaste), filler (matches, paints, rubber) and as an anticaking agent for fertilizer pellets [24]. In agriculture, diatomite is directly impregnated
with agrochemicals and sprayed to protect the surface of such fruit as watermelon and
cantaloupe from sun radiation (see 33.4.2.2).
Diatomite usually shows an impressive hydraulic activity in the presence of lime,
thus making it a remarkably good pozzolan. Its suitability for use in pozzolan-modified
Portland cements is usually limited by its intrinsic small particle-size of less than
20 microns. Even with careful separate grinding and later blending, diatom skeletons
break into smaller pieces. The resulting cements tend to have a high water demand, one
of the most deleterious factors affecting concrete quality. The admixture of diatomite to
lime-based mortars and paints may be advantageous, since its reaction with lime
greatly improves the performance of these products.
Diatomite is a relatively low priced raw material. However, heat or acid activated
diatomite is comparatively expensive. Calcining diatomite involves the loss of water
and organic residues. The structure shrinks and hardens and part of the amorphous
silica is transformed into crystalline form, mostly cristobalite. This operation requires
specialized cooling and filtering equipment, since cristobalite if inhaled, can produce
serious lung disease. Acid-activated diatomite is used as an aid in filtering and
clarifying edible oils.
The CA region contains significant resources of diatomite as pockets in lacustrine
deposits within Pliocene to Pleistocene volcanoes of intermediate to acidic
composition. In Guatemala, interesting high quality diatomite outcrops, mostly of
lacustrine origin in Cantel (Quetzaltenango), Aquinn (near Guatemala city), and
Culima (Jalapa) [17]. There has been only minor extraction from the Tacajalb deposit
(Totonicapn), with total reserves estimated at several million cubic meters. Reported
occurrences in El Salvador are classified as low quality (moler), the most prominent

outcrop being in the Sisimico river valley (see [1]) and the Laguna de Metapn
(M. Alonso, oral commun., 2005). In Nicaragua there are reserves of 110,000 m3 [12]
in Apans, east of Isabella range. In Costa Rica, reserves of a particularly good
quality material may reach over 8 million metric tons, especially in Loma Camastro,
Guanacaste, which probably account for 10% to 20% of the total known reserves in
Central and South America [24].
The development of a diatomite industry to produce high-priced products in CA
would require significant investment in equipment and know-how, a scarce
combination within the region. One exception was the German-backed, Industria de
Filtrantes Naturales in Costa Rica that produced about 1500 tons per year of calcined
products for the German filtration market between 1999 and 2003. However, the plant
has suffered various setbacks and production was stopped in 2003. The vast diatomite
resources existing in the leading producing countries and the commercial availability of
higher performance synthetic substitutes are additional limiting factors to the
development of the CA deposits.
33.2.6.4 Silica sand and feldspar (glass industry)
The production of clear glass requires very high purity SiO2, usually in the form of silica
sand, iron being the most deleterious and limiting contaminant. Feldspar, an aluminum
silicate mineral, is used as flux for glass and ceramics, due to its Na and K content.
Additionally, the alumina (Al2O3) enhances the workability of molten glass; improves
inertness, hardness, durability, folding and thermal shock resistance (see 33.4.2.4).
Silica sand meeting the standards required by the glass-making industry is produced
only in Guatemala and Costa Rica. All important silica sand operations in CA are in
some way associated with the Mexican Grupo Vitro and beer manufacturers. A factory
installed in Panama imports all raw materials, especially from Colombia.
The operation in Guatemala (SICASA) mines weathered Mesozoic leucocratic
granite in Pochuta, Chimaltenango (included within this industrial mineral domain due
to its weathering). Potassic feldspar, a cheaper by-product of the beneficiation
operation, is produced in amounts larger than locally required by the glass and sanitary
ware industries. The surplus is exported to other CA countries, including Costa Rica.
Sodic feldspar derived from pegmatite dikes also occurs within the Central highlands
of Guatemala [1] and is mined for Incesa Standard.
Silica sand in Costa Rica (SICORSA) is mined from the siliceous sandstone of the
Miocene Coris formation. Interestingly, the by-product clays and waste resulting from
processing these sandstones were proven to be an extremely useful raw material for
brick, pipe, and tile manufacturing. A tile industry investigation was started in 2002
before the holding capacity of several tailing ponds collapsed [25]. The resulting tile
industry has just started exporting its products to CA (refer to 33.4.2.3). Feldspar
required for glass manufacturing is imported from Guatemala. Other raw materials
needed for this operation, such as soda ash and pigments, are not available within the
region and are imported particularly from the U.S.A. and Spain.
Several additional prospects for the production of high-purity silica sand have been
evaluated without mineable results. Potential resources include sand from weathered
granites in El Salvador and Nicaragua, beach sands in Nicaragua and the Lower
Pleistocene Liberia tuff in Costa Rica that contain considerable amounts of quartz
crystals and feldspar [1].

33.2.6.5 Silica and siliceous sands (non-glass industry)

Sandstone normally used as raw material for the glass industry, is also used as
ornamental stone for facing and walling, as refractory for lime kiln lining and
sharpening stone. Waste sand from the glass industry is commonly used for
sandblasting and as foundry molding sand. An application of growing importance for
siliceous sand deposits in Guatemala and Costa Rica are pre-mixed traffic resistant
mortars for tile joints. In this limited market, high sphericity and roundness of the sand
particles are the most important characteristics determining final product quality.
Important deposits of alluvial siliceous sands derived from intermediate to acid
intrusives, cherts, graywackes and rhyolitic rocks exist throughout CA. Usually, they
are exploited for concrete aggregates and road base materials.
33.2.6.6 Salt
Salt is used regionally in many different applications, including the chemical and
leather industries, for metallurgical processing, as a source of sodium and chlorine and
for animal feed (saltlicks). Other high salt consumers include households for cooking
and the food preservation/processing industry.
With the exception of uneconomical mines in Huehuetenango and Quich,
Guatemala, all produced salt comes from progressive evaporation of seawater in open
ponds, using solar heat and wind (solar salt). All operations are located along the
Pacific Ocean (e.g., Jiquilisco bay, El Salvador; El Tamarindo, Nicaragua; Salinas bay,
Costa Rica and Parita gulf, Panama), where the predictable prolonged dry season
promotes evaporation (Fig. 33.5h). Production of salt has been cyclical. There was a
period of dramatic development in production during the last two decades and most of
CA countries were self-sufficient. However since one decade ago, there is a strong
tendency to import from larger producers from outside the region, especially from Mexico
and Colombia. In some cases (e.g., Nicaragua and Costa Rica), the same companies
and cooperatives that produced salt, are now the main importers. The lagoons are now
dedicated to shrimp production in Costa Rica. Furthermore, hurricane Stan damaged
many evaporation ponds in Guatemala and El Salvador; as consequence salt prices
duplicated by the end of the year 2005.
33.2.6.7 Bauxite and laterite
Composed principally of the oxides and hydroxides of iron, aluminiun and impurities,
these residual deposits are formed in tropical regions from the weathering and leaching
of rocks in localities with flat topography and good drainage. Bauxite and aluminous
laterite are composed of gibbsite Al(OH)3 and boehmite AlO(OH), or mixtures of these
minerals. Both are the principal ore of aluminium and serve a number of nonmetallurgical markets, such as refractory, abrasives, cement, steel-making, and
chemical sectors, with specific restrictions for alumina, silica, iron and titania content.
In relative volumetric terms these markets are totally eclipsed by demand for the
mineral in the metallurgical sector (Bayer process) which absorbs around 90% of world
production. In CA, bauxite and aluminous laterite deposits occur in some areas of Costa
Rica (Valle del General, San Carlos) and Panama (east of David), covering many
square kilometers of a gently undulating surface of reddish color. Thickness may vary
from one to several tens of meters. A few decades ago, some CA prospects for the
production of bauxite were evaluated without mineable results.

33.3
INDUSTRIAL MINERAL MANAGEMENT
Central American countries are significantly different with regard to their political and
economic circumstances. Belize has had more frequent association with the United
States, the Caribbean Community and England because of its former colonial status.
The paucity of roads connecting Guatemala and Mexico, the low population density
and poor development in Petn (Guatemalas border region), language incompatibility,
and Guatemalas claims over Belize self-determination, have further contributed to the
isolation of Belize from Guatemala and the rest of the isthmus. Panama, on the other
hand, has somehow remained isolated from the rest of the region. This is particularly
true after the United States orchestrated independence from Colombia (1903), and the
ensuing long term association stemming from the canal operations. The rest of the
countries on the isthmus gained independence from Spain in 1821.
Despite some evident differences in governmental administrative structures among
CA countries, there is some degree of parallelism regarding mining activities. All CA
countries, including Belize (originally Spanish territory, UK associated territory since
the 18th century until its independence in 1981), share mining laws derived from
colonial Spanish legislation. This means that mineral resources are constitutionally
considered to be owned by the state and the land-owner has no specific, direct rights
over them. This approach has not been as successful for the mining sector as the one
derived from British legislation, where the land-owner can, in most cases, also own the
mineral rights.
As state property, industrial minerals in CA are only available for exploration and
subsequent exploitation by the granting of a permit (concession or license) to
individuals or corporations, in compliance with the terms of the general mining and
environmental laws, and the provisions of the regulatory agencies in each country.
Mineral rights or concessions ranging from the right to prospect on a site, to long-term
mining concessions are usually administered by governments through the Ministries of
National Resources, Energy and Mines, or the Ministries of Industry or Economy.
Applications for mining concessions or licenses usually require a relatively intricate
and slow but inexpensive process and there is little need to demonstrate capability for
carrying out the task. Once a mining exploration right is duly obtained in good faith,
subsequently, the applicant is entitled to acquire the long-term exploitation right,
provided he has observed all the formalities required.
Diverse levels of financial and technical international assistance to assess industrial
mineral potential has been received mostly from Czechoslovakia (Belize), Taiwan, Japan,
and Korea (Guatemala), Germany (El Salvador), France (Honduras), Sweden and
Czechoslovakia (Nicaragua), the United Kingdom (Costa Rica) and Sweden (Panama).
Very scarce information on the national inventories of existing resources has been
published, with the exception of El Salvador (early 1980s) and Costa Rica (early 1990s).
Therefore, these inventories need to be assessed and updated. The same is also true on a
regional level, where very little information on industrial minerals has been published or
is even available. Doan [26] and Velasco [27], provide some mining statistics (see 33.5).
The best CA regional industrial mineral assessment is given by Mathers [1].
Investment in mining industrial minerals and the industrial sectors associated with it
are typically represented by operations on a highly varied scale in CA. These can range
from one-man production units, artisans to cooperatives and international corporations
producing in excess of 1 to 2 millions tons per year. Production on such a large scale is

limited to companies which produce construction materials, where there is little overall
participation from local entrepreneurs.
During the last two decades, the increasing commitment of CA governments to
environmental protection has had a profound effect on mining activities. All mining
operations require environmental impact studies, and must take into account such
aspects as landuse, landscape, exploitation methods, transportation systems, wildlife,
surface and groundwater quality, noise and dust generation, the social-economic impact
of the activity, environmental recuperation schemes, to mention a few. Mining
proposals can be delayed or stopped by local controversy or restrictions on landuse.
Fortunately, the characteristics of modern non-metallic or industrial minerals
operations using small open pits, simple processing, reduced and relatively inoffensive
waste have commonly lead to the approval of most operations.
The participation of state-owned companies in industrial mineral exploration and
exploitation is variable. This scheme is especially strong in Belize and Nicaragua, but
has not been very successful. At the present time, the trend is for government
participation to be smaller, in line with international privatization models.
33.4
INDUSTRIAL MINERALS AND INDUSTRY
On a worldwide basis, industrial minerals surpass metallic minerals in terms of both

tonnage produced and total product value, have a more rapid growth rate and prices are
more stable. The value of industrial minerals is based on their functional properties:
physical and chemical characteristics or a combination of both. In the case of sand and
gravel, hard rock quarries, dimension stone, and to a certain extent asbestos, diatomite,
graphite, kaolin, and mica, their value is related to their physical properties. In these
(minerals or rocks), the physical characteristics persist essentially unchanged from
exploitation to end use. To the contrary for industrial minerals such as sulfur, salt,
limestone, fluorspar and potash, their value is based on the chemical elements they
contain, and the associated reactivity resulting from processing. Moreover, both
physical and chemical properties are important when an industrial mineral (e.g.,
limestone) is used as filler in the manufacturing process of many products including
paints, plastic or paper. Particle size distribution and purity are crucial and directly
affect the quality and the final cost of these commodities. With technological
developments some industrially processed artificial materials have replaced naturally
occurring substances (e.g., lightweight materials, artificial zeolites and diatomites).
Because of their enormous range of properties, industrial minerals are a primary
source of raw materials for a great diversity of industrial and domestic applications:
fillers, abrasives, ceramics, fertilizers, industrial chemical products, electronic and
optical applications, filters, adsorbents and absorbents, fluxes, foundry sand, glass,
plastic, paper, mineral pigments, paints, household products, refractory minerals, well
drilling fluids, and the list goes on. Not surprisingly, the construction industry is the
largest consumer of industrial minerals.
Contrary to metallic minerals, industrial minerals usually have a relatively low
medium unit value (value per ton) and high place value. This concept derives from
the fact that a large portion of the commercial value of industrial minerals results from
its geographic location and cost of delivery from the supply source to the processing
plant or the end user. This is one of the fundamentals for success within the industrial
minerals business since overland transport is expensive and few raw materials can

justify the cost. The exceptions are those minerals with a certain rarity value, or those
specialist grades with an added value.
Of the industrial minerals, most construction raw materials, particularly concrete
and asphalt aggregates or some limestones used to manufacture cement, have a very
low intrinsic or unit value. For this reason it is often considered too costly to transport
them over long distances (high place value). As a consequence, these commodities and
many others with similar characteristics are of little commercial interest, unless they
are available in the vicinity of the market. Typically they are extracted in large
quantities from surface or near surface quarries, with processing plants located very
close to the source of raw material.
The source location becomes proportionately less significant for non-construction
or high-priced industrial minerals with higher unit value, such as asbestos, sheet mica,
graphite, diatomite, bentonite and talc. These are usually extracted in smaller
quantities, and processed using more sophisticated techniques, in order to meet the
specific quality standards of many manufacturing processes.
Industrial minerals are classified very simply into two important sectors based on
their intended industrial application: the construction and the non-construction (highpriced) sectors, described below.
33.4.1 Construction industry
The construction sector has achieved a position of pre-eminence in the CA domestic
marketplace as witnessed by the dramatic growth and strengthening it has experienced
in recent years. The cement and aggregates industries are the most important regional
consumers of raw materials and by far dominate not just the volume but the value of
CA industrial mineral production. This is perhaps a surprising statement, in view of the
fact that most of the commodities and products related with the construction sector
have a low or very low commercial unit value. The region has a large number of
extraction operations with massive production of an important variety of construction
raw materials, practically all supplied from domestic sources. Exports from this sector
are relatively small.
The construction business is usually cyclical, and has a strong correlation with the
Gross National Product (GNP). It is therefore a reflection of the economic health of CA
countries. In terms of its structure, the regional construction sector is not very
fragmented and most companies are privately owned. In fact, it is dominated by a few
large private companies, commonly concentrated around metropolitan areas, which
control the principal markets. Most of the major corporations carry out mineral
exploration and processing. They produce the basic aggregates as well as the final
manufactured asphalt mixes, concrete mixes (dry or wet), blocks, slabs and beams, to
mention a few. Quite apart from these major suppliers there are several medium sized
businesses and a multitude of small companies, cooperatives and artisans which cater
primarily to very specific sectors and the rural area markets.
The construction sector is heavily dependent on energy prices (electricity and
hydrocarbons), stable markets, the cost of delivering raw materials/products and an
efficient infrastructure for large volume transport. Nowadays, some of the smaller
business are working at borderline solvency and tend to disappear with time, as a
consequence of very high energy prices and the aggressive expansion and overlapping
markets of major companies. Only those who have better quality materials, efficient

extraction technology, and marketing expertise would still find it profitable to continue
producing.
Material standards and quality testing procedures established by major companies
are increasingly imposed on all operations and are starting to affect final prices on raw
materials and products. Usually they follow the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM). Although standards are not applied rigorously, they are used as a
general guide for the evaluation of aggregates for a particular purpose [22].
Domestic raw material supplies are adequate to meet demand in all CA countries.
Major construction raw material reserves occur in the vicinity of metropolitan areas:
Belmopan in Belize; Guatemala city and Quetzaltenango in Guatemala; Tegucigalpa
and San Pedro Sula in Honduras; San Salvador, Santa Ana and La Libertad in El
Salvador; Managua and Len in Nicaragua; San Jos and Alajuela in Costa Rica and
Panama city and Coln in Panama. At present time, detailed and careful land planning
for use of resources and reclamation schemes have now become an integral part of the
construction business. With the steady implementation of environmental regulations
and the growth of population centers, only those operations with sound planning and
compliance with environmental regulations will survive in the future [28]. Systematic
national and regional inventories and exploitation should be properly planned and a
strategy to make optimum future use, availability and conservation of the resources
must be developed. These aspects are likely to play an important role in future largescale development.
33.4.1.1 Cement
In its basic formulation, Portland cement is commonly produced from co-grinding
cement clinker (about 96%) using gypsum (4%) as a setting retardant. In the
manufacture of cement clinker, a significant amount of heat (1400 to 1650 C) is
required to decarbonate the limestone (80%), and promote the reaction of the resulting
lime (CaO) with the other raw materials, including clays (19%) as a source of silica and
iron oxide (1%) as a composition corrective.
Cement plants exist throughout the region, mostly located in the vicinity of major
markets (metropolitan areas), except in Belize. Cement consumption in CA has reached
some 7.5 million metric tons per year of clinker (around 10% is imported from outside
the CA region). Cement production is mainly related to the size of national markets, with
minor exports within CA and elsewhere.
Perhaps one of the most fundamental indicators of industrial and economic
development worldwide is per capita cement consumption, a key indicator of the
degree of development. Since generalized Portland cement manufacturing began
(1952), in CA this index has changed from 18 kg to almost 200 kg during the last decade
[29]. Demand has been driven by the significant amount of spending on housing projects
(largely state-funded), office buildings and large scale projects such as the building of
reservoir dams for hydro-electric power generation and irrigation projects. But during
the last few years, in most CA countries, emphasis has been on construction for the
tourism sector. Furthermore, as a consequence of natural disasters in the region
particularly hurricanes in some countries, the per capita consumption rose sharply (e.g.,
in Belize it was 316 kg in 2002 [29]).
Over the last decade, following a global trend towards consolidation, Cemex, Holcim, and
Lafarge, the largest cement manufacturing companies in the world, have invested in
significant numbers of shares in the regional cement market, either by partial or total purchase

of existing plants. Cemex has aggressively sought full control, while Holcim has made total
and partial acquisitions, with significant participation by local and regional investors. Lafarge
owns Industria Cementera Hondurea (Incehsa) based near Comayagua, Honduras.
In line with another worldwide trend in the modern cement industry, basically
because of its cheap price, most CA cement plants are producing pozzolan modified
cements (PM) or pozzolanic cements (see 33.2.5.3). Pozzolanic cement should
ideally be a mix of around 75% clinker and 25% other raw materials distributed as
follows: 1020% pozzolans, 010% limestone and 4% gypsum. In very exceptional
applications clinker is mixed with pozzolan on a scale ranging from 0% to 40% or may
contain up to 15% limestone as filler (MC), such is the case for masonry cements.
Compared with conventional Portland cements, Pozzolanic cements have the
benefit of being more dense, more resistant to chemical attack by corrosive agents and
inert to reactive aggregates. They are also easier to work, have lower hydration heat,
better long term resistance, and represent a significant reduction in energy consumption
during the cement manufacturing process.
Besides basic Portland cement, most cement plants in CA, produce Pozzolanic
cements. For instance, in El Salvador, production is around 70% Portland cement to
30% Pozzolanic cement, while in Costa Rica the proportion is around 60% Portland
cement to 40% Pozzolanic cement.
The current world shortage of cement combined with high freight prices, suggest
that the feasibility of installing clinker grinding plants near marine ports on the isthmus
may prove successful. However, clinker import and grinding may not be profitable,
unless associated with established local manufacturers. For instance, Global Cement, a
grinding station (Mexican clinker), started operations in San Jos Port, Escuintla in
southern Guatemala in mid 2005 (purchased by Cemex in October, 2005). Another
grinding plant recently installed in the Gulf of Fonseca in Honduras (Cemar, Cemento
Uno), was purchased by Lafarge, after exhausting its initially cheap clinker supplies.
Holcim Costa Rica is expanding production to supply clinker to a grinding plant in
Nicaragua. In spite of the availability of significant domestic raw materials, a Holcim
grinding station in Panama imports clinker from Mexico, Colombia and other countries
(G. Pinilla, oral commun., 2005). In Belize, despite the existence of domestic raw
materials, the small local demand has been a limiting factor for the government project
to install a cement plant or a clinker grinding station. Cement is imported into Belize
mostly from Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador.
Considering the close relationship between raw material consumption and cement
production, it is not difficult to arrive at a best estimate of raw material requirements
for cement manufacture (Table 33.1) based on 2002 clinker production data [29] and
other references.
Since several decades ago, nearly all cement producers listed in Table 33.1 carry
out raw materials exploration [30] and operate their own quarries in the vicinity of their
plants, to supply the vast majority of their demand for raw materials (limestone,
common clays and pozzolanic materials). El Salvador, Costa Rica and Panama depend
on gypsum imports from Guatemala, Nicaragua, Mexico, Dominican Republic, Spain
and mostly the U.S.A. Iron oxide is routinely imported from the U.S.A. and Mexico;
while El Salvador imports hematite from Guatemala.
In recent times, most cement plants (dry process plants) have undergone aggressive
modernization and environmental upgrading. The most commonly utilized fuel is
petroleum coke, imported from Venezuela and Texas. However, most plants are equipped

with burners and systems capable of handling multiple fuels (coal, spent lubricant oils,
heavy fuel oil, and even car tires). Panama is importing coal fly ash from Colombia. At
the present time, energy represents around 40 to 45% of the final price of cement;
therefore any increase in energy costs is easily reflected in cement prices in all CA
countries. As recently as one decade ago, cement prices were fixed by governments.
However, more recently a free market policy has prevailed.
Table 33.1. Clinker production/consumption, and best estimate of raw material requirements.
Holcim (t/yr)
Cemex
(t/yr)
Clinker consumption as
imported cement 170000
Guatemala Cementos Progreso (20%
owned by Holcim)
18000001)
Lafarge
(t/yr)
Limestone Common
t/yr (80% clay t/yr
of clinker) (20% of
clinker)
Pozzolanic
material
t/yr
Belize
2376000
594000
194400
Incehsa
Ro Bijau (15% owned by
470000
Holcim; 15% owned by
Cementos Progreso)
630000
El Salvador Cementos Cessa
10000002)
Cementos
Nicaragua Grinding plant
Canal4)
350000 imported
430000
Costa Rica Holcim Costa Rica.
Cemex
6000002)
6000002)
Panama
Cementos Panam
Cementos
grinding plant;
Bayano
640000 imported3)
4500003)
1452000
363000
99000
1320000
330000
90000
567600
141900
70200
1584000
396000
108000
594000
148500
98100
Total
7893600
1973400
659700
Honduras
5190000
Grinding
plant
360000
imported
1840000
470000
This data assumes clinker composition at 80% limestone and 20% clay. The limestone
decarbonization factor is assumed at 35%. Cement production in all cases is estimated at
50% Portland cement to 50% Pozzolanic cement. Pozzolanic raw material has been assumed
to be 18% of the final composition for the Pozzolanic cement. 1)Data estimated by the author
Mota (2005); 2)Data estimated by the first author in 2005; 3)G. Pinilla, oral commun., 2005;
4)
Formerly called Nicacem S.A.
33.4.1.2 Aggregate industry

The high level of demand makes aggregate extraction by far the largest mineral industry
in CA, based primarily on integrated and varied industries which blossomed dramatically
during the last two decades. Major companies have an important presence and have
greater market participation. Nowadays, total regional aggregate output is estimated at
around 37.5 million tons per year (Table 33.2).
Enormous resources, mainly of volcanic rock are commonly available from an important
diversity of sources, widely distributed throughout the more developed CA Pacific
flank, except in Belize where limestones are prevalent (see 33.2.4.1).
Sand and gravel from alluvial sources (dredged) and hard rock quarries (blasting
and quarrying) are extracted and subsequently crushed and classified by size into a
great variety of grades and fractions.

From the geographic distribution of resources, it is apparent that aggregates exploitations

are, for most part, located in proximity to the consuming industries which they serve.
Economic factors make it necessary for aggregate sources to be located close to
markets, mainly in the proximity of the metropolitan areas of capitals and major cities.
Since both construction industry and populations are concentrated in these areas,
environmental issues (dust, noise, landscape destruction, among others) and landuse
limitations are consequently becoming increasingly critical [15].
Traditional quarry operations tend to disappear as output from these quarries gradually
decreases and reserves are progressively depleted or taken over by ever the increasing
need for space of growing populations. The location of adequate mineral sources for
the future construction sector will increasingly become a matter of concern, especially
in many densely populated areas.
Aggregates are used directly as construction material or as processed raw materials
in asphalt and concrete mixes. In some instances, especially in the case of quarries,
aggregates are wet processed to eliminate clay and other contaminants detrimental to
their final quality. Additionally, unprocessed aggregates are used directly as construction
material.
Rivers are an important source of aggregates, especially for fine-grained aggregates
(sands) of high value for the construction sector (see 33.2.6.1). There are very
small sporadic producers, mostly illegal artisans, as well as medium sized and largescale (well established) commercial enterprises operating in river beds (active channel
and terraces) everywhere in CA.
As in the case of quarries, alluvial mining operations are closely related to the
magnitude and continuity of demand on a local scale. For instance, in Honduras a large
volume of aggregates was extracted from Hondo river, close to the capital city of
Tegucigalpa for reconstruction work after hurricane Mitch in 1998. Similarly, significant
amounts of sand and gravel are continually extracted from rivers in the Jiboa area,
close to the capital city of El Salvador. These metropolitan alluvial mining operations
commonly require washing procedures, given the associated pollution of the aggregates
by undesirable material, usually organic matter.
However, because of limited resources, contamination from aggregate and environmental
concerns, alluvial extraction tends to be located outside metropolitan areas, despite the
additional freight required. In Guatemala, around 80% of alluvial extraction is
concentrated along the southern coast, the Altiplano and the Motagua valley [31]. In
Costa Rica an increasing amount of sand and gravel (estimated at 30% of total
consumption) is currently extracted from rivers in the Gupiles area, some 60 km north
of metropolitan markets. For the most part alluvial mining is normally associated with
important environmental issues including the generation of substantial quantities of silt
and clay wastes, changes in river morphology, scour, flood-risk, and many others [28].
Statistics on aggregate production in CA are scarce or tend to underestimate real
values. It is often difficult to assess what is being produced because of the small size
and the intermittent character of many operations, especially in rural areas.
Nonetheless, considering the indirect relationship between aggregate consumption and
cement requirements, Table 33.2 summarizes the best estimate for aggregate
production based on 2002 clinker consumption data, after De Las Cuevas and Salom
[29] and other references.
Aggregate requirements are exceptionally critical for everyday operations in the
regional construction sector. Estimated values for regional aggregate production from

Table 33.2 should be considered conservative, in view of the fact that total output data
has been estimated from clinker consumption without taking into account the
significant volume of unprocessed aggregate employed in the construction of
secondary unpaved roads, replanish and drainages, particularly in rural areas.
Table 33.2. Best estimate of aggregate production in CA.
Estimated
Total clinker
(national consumption) aggregate
(t/yr)
extraction
(million m3)
Estimated
quarry output
(60% of total)
(million m3)
Estimated sand &

gravel extraction
(40% of total)
(million m3)
Clinker consumption as imported

cement: 170000 t/yr
2160000 t/yr
Guatemala
0.85
0.51
0.34
10.80
6.48
4.32
Honduras
1100000 t/yr
5.50
3.30
2.20
El Salvador
1000000 t/yr
5.00
3.00
2.00
Nicaragua
780000 t/yr
3.90
2.34
1.56
Costa Rica
1200000 t/yr
6.00
3.60
2.40
Panama
1090000 t/yr
5.45
3.27
2.18
Total
7500000 t/yr
37.50
22.50
15.00
Belize
Aggregate production was estimated from clinker consumption. Total aggregate output was
estimated at 60% from quarries and 40% from sand and gravel extraction.
In view of the progressive evolution of cement per capita consumption from 18 kg in

1952 to 316 kg in 2002 (case of Belize [29]), aggregate production capacity has dramatically
increased in all CA countries. Nevertheless, in general terms, available aggregate
resources are considered sufficient to ensure stable long term raw material availability
to satisfy local and regional demands well into the next decades.
33.4.1.3 Dimension stones
The term dimension stone refers to stone used in the construction, monument and funeral
headstone industries (the general term ornamental stones includes semi precious stones
as well). For many centuries, dimension stones have traditionally been considered a
durable, aesthetically beautiful, high quality, expensive, prestigious stones used for
construction. The advantages of natural stones over concrete or brick include its attractive
appearance, greater strength, toughness, hardness and resistance to environmental
damage, although it does tend to be more expensive.
Dimension stones are commonly mined in large blocks and later sliced and polished.
For a deposit to be suitable for use in the production of dimension stones it must have
multiple characteristics including good quality, accessibility, significant reserves and
minimum fracturing. A high frequency of jointing is a detrimental factor in the
production of polished slabs. Therefore, some marble chips are bonded together using
polyester resin for reconstituted stone including synthetic bonded marble (terrazzo). On
the other hand, selection of a dimension stone by an architect or owner depends on a
number of factors including practicality, physical properties, aesthetics, fashion,
availability, and price. Price tends to play a much less important role in the choice of a

dimension stone than it does with other industrial minerals.

Rock value is related to its aesthetic or decorative appeal, color pattern, grain size,
uniform texture, good polishing characteristic and resistance to weathering. Rocks like
granite are chosen for their durability, particularly their physical and chemical stability,
strength, hardness and aesthetic appeal. Granite is used to cover walls, as flooring, for
tombstones and recently in the growing market for kitchen cabinet tops. Granite is
particularly useful for exterior applications where a hard high density rock with good
resistance (physical and chemical) is required. Marble on the other hand, because of its
lower resistance to environmental attack, is used mainly for interior work where color
and texture are more relevant. It is frequently used in bathrooms, kitchens and in the
lobbies of prestigious office buildings and hotels, often in conjunction with granite.
Physical properties are of great importance in dimension stones selection, but it is
the attractive appearance and prestigious status of the material which governs its
marketability. For instance, for exterior use the rock must have a color, tone and texture
compatible with the surrounding buildings, which will suit the height and shape of the
building and current architectural trends. Therefore, the greatest influence in choosing a
stone rests on factors such as fashion and the preferences of the architects and designers.
This is particularly difficult to predict in each country and even in each city.
Dimension stones resources in the CA region are large, particularly in the case of
some rocks, including varieties of peridotite, serpentinite, granite, true marble, metamorphosed
limestone, limestone, travertine, lava and silica sandstone, described in detail in the first
part of this chapter. From the 1960s to the 1980s the use of dimension stones was popular
(mainly true marble, travertine, crystalline limestone, serpentinite and silica sandstone) as
a decorative element in the cladding of exterior and interior walls on government
buildings and high level office buildings in some countries. It was also used for
monuments and tombstones. Guatemala has been the most important regional source of
dimension stones, despite the resources available in most of the other countries.
In comparison with other sectors of the regional construction industry, dimension
stones production lacks technology and market expertise. Today, there are active quarries
only in a few areas in the region, mostly operated by small local companies. The output is
usually very small and cyclical. For example, in a given locality or region, a decision to
build several hotels could boost consumption for a few months.
In CA cities, rocks for external applications must be able to withstand the tropical
climate and pollution. Although marble and other carbonates are fairly hard and
resistant to chemical attack, granite is even more so. The mechanical and chemical
properties of granite, while positive in many ways, increase the cost of production and
dressing. This has acted as a deterrent to its commercial use in CA where there is no
evidence of granite extraction for dimension stones despite the vast resources available.
In view of the high cost of maintenance and damage to dimension stones, particularly
the carbonaceous materials, the regional market today tends towards more residential
indoor uses, such as flooring and wall cladding in bathrooms and kitchens.
Internationally, dimension stones are now available in a variety of textures and colors,
and most importantly at an affordable price. International production has increased
through the use of modern equipment and techniques allowing stone to be quarried and
cut faster, more accurately, and in thinner slabs. There is an excessive supply on the
market of dimension stones from traditional producers especially Brazil, India and
China, and the abundant artificial cheaper substitutes. Because of technological advances
in producing synthetic materials, natural stone is facing tough competition from man

made alternatives, such as sophisticated cements, brick cladding and ceramic tiles.
Regionally, the production and export of dimension stones is very limited and most of
the reduced market is currently covered by imports from more traditional markets.
33.4.2 Non-construction industry

In contrast with construction materials, non-construction (high-priced) industrial minerals
receive less attention in terms of exploration, exploitation and processing for potential
industrial development in CA. Dolomite, diatomite, silica sand, feldspar, magnesite,
barite, clays (common, bentonitic, kaolinitic and ball clays), solar salt, limestone and
gypsum, and many other commodities are extracted on a significantly smaller scale
than construction minerals. However, they stand out for their value and contribution as
raw materials in the manufacturing of such diverse items as glass, paints, pigments,
absorbents, foundry, ceramics, refractory products, abrasives, drilling muds, food
processing/preservation, chemical industry, fertilizers, household products and more.
In order to obtain a marketable commodity, raw materials must usually undergo
several value-added processes (beneficiation) including crushing, milling, blending,
screening, drying and calcining. Industrial minerals processing must meet stringent
physical and chemical standards for specific applications resulting in a higher unit
value with a larger competitive distribution radius and potential new markets. As with
most industrial minerals, there is intensive competition for markets and substitutes
throughout the entire spectrum of industrial mineral applications.
In CA most producers of domestic non-construction (high-priced) industrial minerals
are involved in processing, and play an important role in industrialization. In some
cases processing is left to industrial customers, who then beneficiate the raw materials
according to their own specific requirements. The processor would like to utilize his
mineral product for a wide range of industrial applications, with consistent physical and
chemical quality. The industrial customer is commonly interested in cost, availability,
purity and consistency in composition as major considerations. Cost is commonly
determined by negotiation between the producer and consumer. Nevertheless, product
performance, for the particular industrial process, is the ultimate deciding factor for
many specific manufacturing industries and markets.
An interesting aspect of the industrial minerals business in the region is the
dominance by a single producer, sometimes a family enterprise, in the supply
of individual minerals. At the same time a number of smaller companies make only
small contributions to the overall production. Producers are highly vulnerable to any
changes in production and market situations; particularly in the case of increased
energy and raw material transportation costs, that result in higher prices and insecurity
of raw material supply. Climate has had an important impact on energy costs for
processors, a number of which employ sun-drying for part of the year (diatomite,
pumice, salt, sand).
Nowadays, the most common processing techniques in CA are particle-size reduction,
drying and classification. After extraction and initial breaking many industrial minerals
are usually size-reduced (usually to less than 0.2 mm) by means of communition. This
process consumes high quantities of energy, with energy requirements proportional to
the surface area created or, more simply, to the amount of fines produced. After
classification a raw material can result in a series of products and by-products, but

rarely in quantities proportionate to industry demand. Additional processing is only

justified to the extent that the resulting incremental value-added is truly positive. For
instance the incremental increase in unit value from additional processing must be
greater than the associated incremental unit cost. This is particularly important
considering factors such as energy costs, availability of skilled labor and technology,
availability of infrastructure and processing requirements, especially water processes
and ore processing capability.
Over the last few decades the regional non-construction (high-priced) industrial
minerals market has developed considerably. However, industry shows a strong
dependency on imported, processed and refined raw materials. Unfortunately this
dependency has been on the increase during the last few years with serious consequences
to trade. There is also an evident need to fully investigate domestic resources and to
upgrade beneficiation/recovery technologies to produce higher quality raw materials from
lower grade deposits. This will not only add value to the products but also expand the
market.
It is, of course, impossible to cover all the highly diversified uses of raw materials
in this sector. Nevertheless, the following section gives an overview of the principal
industrial applications in the region.
33.4.2.1 Fillers
Many non-construction (high-priced) industrial mineral commodities in CA are used as
natural fillers. Historically, the primary purpose of fillers has been as a substitute for
more expensive ingredients in industrial applications (extenders). But the role of the
filler has evolved to become the so-called functional filler. Fillers enhance the basic
performance of feedstock in many manufacturing processes by adding color, stiffness,
opacity, gloss; reducing creep and shrinkage; improving its ability to be processed; modifying
flow, specific gravity, electrical conductivity, and resistance to heat [16]. For example,
calcium carbonate is used as filler in carpet backing to reduce the amount of expensive
latex binder required, but also to add weight and body.
Filler selection is based primarily on the desired result (performance) and final cost.
Filler combinations are frequently utilized to achieve a number of desirable modifications.
Consumer industries demand strict chemical and physical standards for functional
fillers resulting in increased prices as standards become more stringent [16].
In CA functional fillers and extenders are abundantly employed in the manufacturing
of such products as soaps (bentonite), rubber (limestone), paints (limestone, kaolin,
talc, mica, diatomite), plastics (limestone), carpet backing foam (limestone), toothpaste
and matches (diatomite) [1], as well as animal feed (limestone), household abrasive
products (limestone), fertilizers (limestone, dolomite), rubber (clays), pharmaceuticals
(limestone, talc), cosmetics and soaps (limestone, talc). In the future, some other
commodities have the potential to be produced or substituted, if new technology or
further raw material processing techniques are developed.
Important local and regional raw materials utilized as filler include Guatemalas
deposits of talc, dolomite, diatomite, barite, kaolin and limestone exported to some CA
countries; as well as marble (chips) deposits in Metapn, El Salvador; the bentonite at
Dario, Nicaragua, especially used in soaps; and the high purity Barra Honda limestone in
Costa Rica. Despite the existence of domestic resources within CA, the vast majority of
regional needs for talc, diatomite and kaolin are met by imports from various sources [1].

33.4.2.2 Fertilizers/agrochemicals
Since the beginning of the seventeenth century, CA economies have been dependent
on large scale production and marketing of coffee, bananas and sugar cane. More
recently non traditional products like pineapples, vegetables, fruits and flowers have been
produced as well. Although more than 40% of the CA population relies on agriculture
for a living, large scale migration away from rural areas has been caused by low
productivity and profitability in this sector. Despite present difficulties in agriculture (high
price of fertilizers, inadequate investment loans, free trade, absence of subsidies and
climatic conditions), it remains one of the most important sectors of the regional economy.
The vast volume of fertilizer required for agriculture is met by two basic fertilizer
NPK manufacturing processes: (1) the chemical manufacturing process, dominated
by FERTICA (part of a major El Salvador corporation), with two plants one in El
Salvador and one in Costa Rica. The ammonium nitrate imported from Russia is mixed
with other chemical components and pelletized after drying or (2) the physical blend
of raw materials (predecessor to the chemical process) is present in most CA countries.
This is a much simpler process because it requires less equipment, expertise and maintenance.
However, weighing and mixing systems are extremely important, raw materials must
be closely matched in particle size (616 mesh), materials should be compatible to
prevent them from reacting with each other and transport and storage systems should
be designed to minimize segregation. Companies like Abopac and Disagro are
especially strong in most countries besides Fenorsa in Honduras, as well as Abonos
Superior and Cafesa in Costa Rica.
Both the physical and chemical fertilizer manufacturing processes require such raw
materials as phosphate rock, potassium salts, ammonium nitrate, ammonia sulfate,
potassium sulfate, potassium chloride, urea (46% N), and sulfuric acid. The vast
majority of raw materials are imported from the U.S.A., Venezuela and Russia. Small
volumes of domestic limestones and dolomites are commonly incorporated as
functional filler in fertilizer mixes.
The demand for fertilizers is directly related with the agricultural characteristics of
each country. For example, in Costa Rica with a domestic market in the range of
370,000 metric tons per year, where agriculture is highly diversified, NPK formulations
are very diverse (including 12-24-12, 10-30-10, 15-15-15, 18-5-15 + Mg + B). To the
contrary in El Salvador with a domestic market of some 240,000 metric tons per year
and a less diversified agriculture, NPK formulations are far more limited. In order to
provide the fertilizer required by a specific crop at the right time, flexibility in composition is important in the manufacturing of fertilizers. This is especially true for developing
regions like CA where crop output data are usually not available and it is variable over
time due to unpredictable climate changes.
Rising costs are making it ever more difficult for developing countries to increase
food production and therefore artificial fertilizers are required. However, the impact
of artificial fertilizers on soils has to be carefully studied, specifically with regard to
the physical and chemical nature of the soil, as well as the hydrological regime and the
ecosystem at large. While the formula for commercially available fertilizers adds
the major nutrients N, P and K, most people usually ignore the need to replenish minor
nutrients and trace elements into the highly leached soils of the tropics. One solution is
to use locally available fine ground rock dust, for instance crushed basalts, containing
at least part of the necessary ingredients and to let nature do the rest. Evidence from

re-mineralization of soils in Europe and Asia provides some justification for their use
since they feed micro-organisms in the soil; cause sturdier, faster growth and larger
plants; increase root systems considerably; greatly increase the nutritive value of crops,
fruits and vegetables, and improve the individuality of their tastes. In addition, they
increase the capacity of the plant to withstand climatic extremes; appear to develop
immunity to disease and to pests in the plants and increase the resistance of the plant or
tree to pollution and acid rain.
The efficacy of different rocks (and minerals) as additives depends on the optimum
grain size, where the economic cut-off lies in the energy-intensive process of grinding,
what soils are most conducive to such treatment and what species of plants can most
efficiently extract their nutrition from this natural geological source.
Today, more expensive direct-application petrofertilizers are commonly produced
on a local level throughout CA. Limestone, dolomite, travertine and lime are
manufactured in most countries, besides the calcined magnesia present only in
Guatemala. Dolomite and gypsum are exported as fine-grained material to most of the
region from Guatemala and, to a lesser extent, from Honduras. It is extremely unlikely
that potassium salt will be found in economic concentrations; however investigation of
phosphate rock within the marine Mesozoic and Tertiary deposits (particularly in Costa
Rica and Panama), zeolites and the potential of rocks for direct-application in
petrofertilizers are recommended [1].
Almost all agrochemicals (pesticides, insecticides, etc.) are imported as finished
products, ready-to-use form from the U.S.A. and Europe [1] (see 33.4.2.8). Some
agrochemicals are impregnated into locally produced fine-grained pumice or diatomite,
which acts as a carrier, enabling slow release and more widespread even spreading. In
Costa Rica diatomite has been used as an anti-caking agent for coating fertilizer prills
or pellets [24] and is directly used to protect the surface of exported fruit from sun
radiation, especially watermelon and cantaloupe.
33.4.2.3 Ceramics
Throughout all CA countries artisan businesses and workshops produce a wide variety
of many ceramic clay products, basic components in the building and construction
industries, including bricks, tiles, roof tiles, pipes, pottery and crafts all usually
consumed by domestic markets (see 33.2.6.2). In all CA countries, particularly in
Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica an important quantity of small
crafts (souvenirs) is sold domestically and exported to satisfy an increasing CA tourism
market. In El Salvador and Nicaragua a small proportion of manufactured clay products
(estimated in 30%), especially roof tiles and bricks are exported to markets close
related with border countries and U.S.A.
The appropriate plasticity, strength, shrinkage and firing characteristics required
(extruded clays or hand-made pieces), commonly results from the blend of two or more
local plastic clays, in combination with non-plastic raw materials (silica and feldspar).
The physical properties of manufactured products can be adjusted by altering the
standards established for raw materials. In this way, a raw material suitable for bricks
can be modified and alternatively used for tiles. A small portion of high-priced clays is
consumed in the manufacturing of paints and rubber.
In Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama, some medium sized
companies produce tiles partially utilizing local clays. Clay deposits usually exhibit
problems in consistency of quality, poor color, impurities and require additional

processing. This constitutes a hindrance to large scale industrialization of high-quality

ceramics. These operations are highly dependent on imported raw materials, amounting
to close to a quarter of the basic raw materials, including ball clays, pigments from
Mexico and Spain and enamels (feldspars), present in Guatemala solely (see
33.2.6.4). Similarly, a significant volume of other minerals including glazes and
wollastonite (with fibrous crystals) to strengthen wall tiles, are imported in ready-touse form [1]. However, the development of good quality domestic kaolin deposits in
some countries has boosted domestic industry. For instance, in Nicaragua a significant
portion of imported kaolin has been successfully substituted by processing the Puertas
Viejas deposits [1]. In Costa Rica kaolinitic clays in the form of fined-grained mineral
slurry, which only a few years ago was considered a waste product from the processing
of silica sand for glass manufacturing [25], is now a valuable raw material for the
production of tiles (consumption of 50,000 tons per year). In February 2004 using state
of the art Italian technology, the Florentina Industry, part of the VITRO group (glass
making), started producing 4000 square meters of floor tiles per year for local and
regional markets (CA countries, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic and eventually
U.S.A.). The company is currently exploring for new reserves to assure needed raw
materials. Regional tile production is facing strong competition from products imported
from Venezuela, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Brazil and Spain.
In Guatemala, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, subsidiaries of the American Standard
Company produce sanitary ware for the CA and North American markets. Basic
sanitary formulations include kaolin (30%) and ball clay (20%) as plastic materials and
feldspar (30%) and silica (20%) as non-plastic materials. Commodities produced within
the region include kaolinitic clays (Guatemala, Nicaragua and Costa Rica) and ball
clays (Guatemala), gypsum for sanitary ware moulds (Guatemala), sodic and potassic
feldspars as fluxes (Guatemala) and silica sand for strength, extracted both in
Guatemala and Costa Rica. However, due to problems with local materials, especially
the consistent quality, most raw materials are imported from the U.S.A. and Europe.
The demand for common clay and some high-priced clays (kaolin, ball clays) is
very much dependant on fluctuations within the construction sector. In general, there
has been a marked decline in the consumption of ceramic manufactured products, due
to the advent of plastics, PVC and other imported products not available in local
markets.
33.4.2.4 Glass
Colored and colorless container glass (soda-lime-silica glass) is produced in several
plants in CA utilizing a wide variety of domestic and imported raw materials following
very stringent standards. The main formulation in glass manufacturing basically requires
silica sand (around 70%) as a silicon dioxide source. With a melt point of over 1700 C,
silica is difficult to melt and work since its viscosity soon becomes too high. In
consequence, the most common bulk additives to silica in glass production are
limestone and soda ash. High purity limestone acts as a source of calcium (around 5
10%) and provides chemical durability. Soda ash (Na2CO3), the most expensive
ingredient (around 15%), is a source of sodium used to sufficiently lower the viscosity
to allow working of the silica at temperatures as low as 600 C (also an energy saving).
This soda-lime-silica mix accounts for over 90% of glass raw materials, but lacks
resistance. Feldspar (around 1.52%) as a source of alumina (Al2O3) enhances the
workability of molten glass and improves glass chemical resistance and strength

characteristics. Additionally, there are slight variable amounts of sodium sulfate helpful
in the release of bubble and to prevent scum on the surface of molten glass. The mix
also contains other additives including numerous refining, coloring, decoloring and
opacifier agents.
Two plants VIGUA in Guatemala and VICESA in Costa Rica subsidiaries of the
Vical Group (part of Vitro Mexican Group) and some of the CA beer manufacturers,
consume most of the raw materials from domestic sources. Both factories depend on
imports of soda ash and other minor elements, especially from the U.S.A. VICESA is also
importing feldspar from Guatemala. VIPASA (started in 1995) another glass
manufacturing company located in Panama, has a relatively smaller operation, and
imports all raw materials, mostly from Colombia and the U.S.A.
Recycled glass or cullet is a growing source of raw material for all plants. All
recycled glass is treated the same as primary raw materials in that it is accurately
weighed and must conform to established standards. In Costa Rica, cullet glass (around
1900 tons/month from local sources, CA and South America), represents an estimated
20% of the colorless glass and 40% of the colored (amber and green) glass produced
with important savings in raw materials and especially energy. Glass factories pay
around US$ 30 per metric ton for cullet glass at their plants. The culture of recycling in
CA (glass, plastics, metal) is incipient and involves high collection costs. Additionally
light weight containers, a combination of better design and better glass distribution,
have been around for quite a while.
VIGUA and VICESA supply CA and some of the Caribbean markets, as well as
Africa, Europe and U.S.A. Similarly, VIPASA in Panama shares in the CA and the
Caribbean markets. All factories in CA face strong competition from Mexico and
Colombia glass industries. Glazing glass and other glass products such as car
windshields are imported from Mexico and the U.S.A. [1]. An increasingly higher
volume of windshields are imported as second hand spare parts.
33.4.2.5 Paints
Most of the regional paint markets are controlled by large international firms present in
most countries: Reca Qumica, S.A., affiliated with HB Fuller (Minnesota, U.S.A.); Sur
Qumica, S.A. (Italian corporation); Vasta Lux and Lanco. The market share is
distributed among many small factories throughout all of CA (e.g., in Costa Rica, there
are around 30) with less quality and lower prices. In addition, there is a significant
amount of imported paints manufactured in North America, especially the U.S.A. The
paint manufacturing process is relatively simple. It is basically a mix of water or
mineral spirits, pigments, resins, antifungal agents, polymers and thickeners. These
compounds and other required raw materials are imported as ready-to-use components
including titanium oxide, mica, kaolin, wollastonite, talc, diatomite, and silica. Only
very fine powdered domestic limestones are used as filler in all paints. Costa Rican
consumption alone is estimated between 300 and 400 metric tons per month.
33.4.2.6 Drilling fluids
Bentonite required for drilling fluids is almost totally imported, with the exception of
the production of small volumes of relatively low quality deposits in Guatemala
(Chiquimula) and Nicaragua (Dario). There is a clear correlation between the number
of active drilling rigs and bentonite consumption in drilling fluids. Significant amounts
are utilized in mineral exploration drilling, especially in El Salvador, Panama and, to a

lesser extent, in Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua, and in geothermal energy

drilling projects in El Salvador (Aguachapn, Berln, San Vicente), Nicaragua
(Momotombo) and northwest Costa Rica (Miravalles, Borinquen, Las Pailas). Due to
environmental considerations, bentonite has an increased market share as compared to
many new imported synthetic biodegradable polymers, introduced into the regional
market a few years ago. Barite is mainly imported, although a small volume has been
produced for local drilling projects in Huehuetenango and Baja Verapaz, Guatemala
and even exported to Mexico.
33.4.2.7 Food processing/preservation
Several raw materials such as lime are used to modify pH to precipitate impurities in
sugar refining. Salt (commonly solar salt) is used as a preservative or condiment in
many different applications for human consumption. Processed diatomite is imported
from the U.S.A. and Mexico, especially for filtration of beer and sugar solutions,
although, this seems unnecessary given the existence of several good quality deposits
within CA (refer to 33.2.6.3). Similarly, high quality bentonite (requiring acidactivation) is imported to help clarify oils and fats [1].
33.4.2.8 Household products
Many household cleaning products including soaps, abrasive liquids, waxes, creams, to
mention just a few, are manufactured by small businesses throughout CA. The latter
mainly require imported ready-to-use chemicals and commodities (soda ash, borates,
phosphates) incorporating very few domestic raw materials as functional fillers and
extenders (limestones, bentonite, talc).
33.4.2.9 Chemicals
Almost all chemicals are imported into the region in manufactured form [1]. The main
transnational chemical companies with local representation in CA are Singhenta,
Monsanto, Basf, Dow and Duwest and Bayer. The last two have processing plants in
Guatemala (Guatemala department) and consume chemicals imported from the U.S.A.,
Europe and Asia.
33.4.2.10 Others
Diverse industrial sectors within the region depend almost entirely on imports of small
quantities of industrial diamonds, pigments, refractor products, abrasives, chemicals
and filter-aids [1].
33.5
INDUSTRIAL MINERAL STATISTICS
It is quite difficult to obtain an overall regional or even nationwide picture of

construction and non-construction industrial mineral output and the associated mining
structure, in view of the absence of information. Consumption statistics, resources,
reserves and import/export figures are still scant, particularly in Belize and Honduras.
Precise figures on industrial mineral production and consumption levels are usually
scarce or virtually non existent and when available, highly unreliable and even
contradictory. Information in the region is not properly reported, collected and

organized on a systematic or routine basis for analysis. Official trade statistics do not
convey very much because under official coding systems, current figures on
commodity production are grouped under the same code and must be split up into more
manageable units to understand all the different products involved to avoid
considerable overlap, as a consequence information can only be inferred.
With the exception of cement, production figures issued by public institutions tend
to underestimate the volume and value involved, due to imprecise data gathering
systems and manipulation of the information by the mining license owners in an
attempt to avoid sales taxes and royalty payments [22].
Table 33.3 gives some overall average industrial mineral production figures for the
period between 19982002, according to Velasco [27]. This is the most recent period
for which annual production data is available.
Table 33.3. Industrial mineral extraction (metric tons unless otherwise specified; average
between 1998 and 2002).
Guatem. Belize
Barite
Bentonite
Clays (for cement)
Clays (for products)
Clays unspecified
Diatomite
Dolomite
Feldspar
Fertilizer (phosphatic)
Fertilizer (other)
Gypsum
Gypsum and anhydrite
Iron oxide pigments
Kaolin
Lime
Limestone unspecified
Limestone (cement)
Limestone (other uses)
Marble/limest. (block)
Marble (chips/pieces)
Marl
Pozzolan
Pumice
Rhyolite
Sand and gravel
Sandstone
Salt
Silica sand
Stone (crushed)
Talc
Hondur. El
Nicar.
Salvador
Costa
Rica
Panama
-971)
-45100
---4929
-7300
-3179
--#
#
#
#
#
-#
#
#
3500
#
#
#
#
-- 417600 276840
--21000 541636
--62900
-#
-24342
-#
-433)
14859
-- 2727270
--22500
---17225
--#
13600
-#
-#
#
-56500
-#
#
-52912
-5600
--134900
26782
----------- 706372)
----#
-#
1498
-57105
-1230
9480
4068723
# 2872724
-- 960544
---- 1025244
4509995
--- 2715581)
------- 2478101)
--- 408727
--#
-- 95000 m2
#
10155 m3
#
-#
---189653
------- 1021999
--#
-- 1889822)
#
#
#
-#
-8000
#
221477
#
---- 336932)
-- 1443635
--# 1177817
-2867270 347272
#
----- 2993088
----37000
25276
49600
25000 594142
---#
-137091
--# 9064041) 321818
#
50000
#
----9484)
---
Modified after Velasco [27]; # Current mining activity, with no statistics reported; 1)Average
19992002; 2)Average 20002002; 3)Average 19992000; 4)Average in 1998.
The reader is advised to rely upon the United States Geological Survey (U.S.G.S.) pages
on mineral statistics. Doan [26] and Velasco [27], both from the U.S.G.S., provide the
most recent production figures. Nevertheless, as previously mentioned, any available
data must be carefully evaluated because of the unreliability of data sources. For

example, Velasco reported 88,948 metric tons of salt in El Salvador for 1998 and more
than 700,000 in following years (19992002). These data are likely to be flawed. There
is also an inconsistency in lime production for Guatemala, estimated by Velasco as
4396 metric tons in 1999, nevertheless, for the same year Doan reported 74,000 metric
tons.
33.6
INDUSTRIAL MINERALS CURRENT STATUS
Both in individual countries and throughout CA, mining activity is ranked as small to
medium sized by world standards. According to scarce official statistics, the mining
sector (metallic and non-metallic minerals) is estimated to contribute less than 1% to
the total value of goods and services produced or the Gross National Product (GNP).
Nevertheless, this value would likely increase two to three-fold, if current government
systems for compiling mining information were to be more realistically organized
(see 33.5). Furthermore, abundant informal, illegal and uncounted small-scale
operations need to be included, especially those associated with industrial minerals and
particularly those used in the construction sector. Better use of the potential mining will
no doubt increase its contribution to the regional economy.
The worldwide per capita consumption of industrial minerals has a strong
correlation with per capita income [32]. The regional economy is subject to
fluctuations, which in turn depend mainly on the global economy, local private
investment, government public works policy and energy prices in particular. As
developing nations, each CA country is experiencing its own specific level of economic
progress, industrial development and industrial mineral utilization. Guatemala, El
Salvador, Costa Rica and to a lesser extend Panama, have better infrastructure and,
relatively speaking, substantial industrial development. In Honduras and Nicaragua, the
countries with the most indebtedness in the region, industrial development is less
advanced, despite evident improvement bolstered by international aid and support
programs. In contrast, industrial minerals mining and development is almost absent in
Belize.
Table 33.4 summarizes the CA regional industrial mineral sector based on
information derived from Mathers [1], personal experience of the author, and some
other sources. The Table is a general overview of existing industrial minerals,
including (1) those being exploited (e.g., volcanic aggregates, limestone, salt) and
manufactured products (e.g., cement, lime, ceramics); (2) those not extracted but with
proven reserves (e.g., sulfur); those considered potentially exploitable, if the quality
were to be improved (e.g., kaolinitic clays); or those where extraction has occurred in
the past; and (3) those with geological evidence of potential resources or reported as
occurring in non-economic deposits. Export/import data on industrial minerals is also
listed.
Table 33.4 shows an important range of mining and trade activity with respect to
CA industrial minerals resources and associated industries. Industrial minerals are
utilized as raw materials for manufacturing products of higher value (value-added), for
export to foreign markets (mostly within CA) and to replace high-priced commodities
formely required by the industries (import substitution). Deposit locations are plotted in
Figures 33.2, 33.3 and 33.4.

Table 33.4. Industrial mineral extraction, resources, and exports/imports.

Raw material
extracted or
manufactured
products
Belize
Hard rock quarries
(limestone), sand and
gravel, limestone, common
clays, dolomite, marble,
marl and lime
Guatemala
Hard rock quarries
(lava, tuff, scoria,
limestone), sand and
gravel, limestone, gypsum,
pozzolanic materials,
schist, pumice, common
clay, kaolinitic and ball
clays, bentonite, dolomite,
silica sand, siliceous sand,
potassic feldspar, solar and
rock salt, magnesite, barite,
talc, ornamental and
dimension stone (marble,
obsidian, jadeite, jasper,
peridotite, serpentinite,
tuff), garnet, diatomite,
cement, lime, glass, paints,
sanitaryware, ceramics and
fertilizers raw materials
Honduras
Hard rock quarries
schist, pumice, common
clay, kaolinitic and ball
clays, bentonite, dolomite,
solar salt, dimension stone
(marble, tuff), iron oxide,
cement, lime, paints,
ceramics and fertilizers
raw materials
El Salvador
Hard rock quarries
(lava, tuff, scoria), sand
and gravel, limestone,
pumice, common clay,
siliceous sand, solar salt,
dimension stone, cement,
lime, paints, ceramics and
Existing
reserves,
potentially
exploitable
resources
Geological Raw
evidence
materials or
of resources products
exported
Raw materials or
products imported
Dimension
stone
(granites),
kaolin (ball
clay) and
gypsum
Dolomite,
sand and
gravel
Cement from
Mexico, Venezuela,
Colombia,
Honduras,
Guatemala, and El
Salvador
Volcanogenic Dimension
stone
sulfur and
(granites),
chromite
perlite,
quartz
crystals,
muscovite,
saltpeter
(K2NO3) and
zeolites
Bentonite,
kaolin/ball
clay,
dolomite,
feldspar,
dimension
stone
(marble,
peridotite and
serpentinite,
jadeite),
pumice, talc,
gypsum,
silica sand,
hematite and
limestone
Sulfur, bentonite,
kaolin/ball clay,
feldspar, dimension
stone, mica, talc and
diatomite
Dimension
stone
(granite),
manganese
minerals,
diatomite,
asbestos and
obsidian
Dimension
stone
(marble),
gypsum,
dolomite (low
grade) and
cement
Sulfur, asbestos,
dimension stone,
talc, diatomite,
Fertilizers (NPK),
lime, salt and
sodium chemicals
Clay
manufactured
products,
cement
Sulfur, bentonite,
kaolin/ball clay,
dolomite, feldspar,
dimension stone,
talc, gypsum, silica
sand, abrasives,
diatomite, calcium
carbonate (different
Kaolinitic
and
bentonitic
clays,
diatomite
(moler), silica
sand,
feldspar,


Nicaragua
Hard rock quarries
kaolinitic clays, bentonite,
dolomite, siliceous sand,
solar salt, dimension stone
(tuffs, lavas), cement, lime,
paints, sanitaryware,
raw materials
Costa Rica
Hard rock quarries
gravel, limestone,
kaolinitic clays, silica sand,
siliceous sand, solar salt,
dimension stone (marble,
limestone, travertine,
lavas), diatomite, cement,
lime, glass, paints,
sanitaryware, ceramics and
Panama
Hard rock quarries
gravel, limestone, common
clay, solar salt, cement,
lime, glass, paints,
raw materials
sulfur, perlite,
cristobalite
forms) and fertilizer

raw materials
Silica sand, Phosphates? Clay tile

roofs and
Perlite
kaolin and
bricks
other ceramic
clays,
diatomite,
zeolites,
pumice,
pozzolanic
materials and
ornamental,
semi-precious
and
dimension
stone
(marble)
Fertilizers
(phosphates,
potassium salts),
manufactured
chemicals (sulfuric
acid, soda ash and
borates), salt,
abrasives, diatomite,
wollastonite, kaolin,
talc, graphite and
cement clinker
Volcanogenic
sulfur,
manganese,
bauxite and
dimension
stone
(granite,
travertine)
Bentonite,
perlite,
barite,
feldspar,
phosphates
and zeolites
Sand and
gravel,
dimension
stones,
diatomite,
limestone,
cement
Gypsum, fertilizer
raw materials
(phosphates,
potassium salts),
dolomite,
manufactured
chemicals, salt,
sulfur, feldspar,
dimension stone,
abrasives, kaolin,
ball clay, talc,
bentonite, diatomite,
mica, graphite and
clay tile roofs
Manganese,
pozzolanic
materials
Sulfur,
zeolites
Negligible
Fertilizers, basic
chemicals (soda ash,
sodium sulfate,
sulfuric acid),
diatomite, feldspar,
gypsum, silica sand,
limestone and
cement clinker
During the last two decades it is evident that there has been a significant expansion in
consumption of raw materials by the regional construction sector, almost totally supplied from
domestic resources (low commercial unit value): aggregates (sand and gravel, hard rock
quarries and lightweight aggregates); raw materials for cement manufacturing (limestone,
clays, gypsum and pozzolanic materials) as well as structural clay products and dimension
stone. This enormous demand for construction raw materials is scarcely supplemented by
commodities imported from North America and elsewhere including dimension stones,
additives for cement and ceramic manufacturing and more. Some of these commodities are
present in the region, but not in the price, quantity and quality required.
Mathers [1] suggests that key opportunities for exports from the region in the
construction sector include cement, aggregates, pumice, dimension stones and possibly
perlite. At the present time, cement and aggregates, to a lesser extent, are the only

commodities exported on a continuous basis and in significant amounts. These supply

major coastal construction projects in Florida, the Gulf of Mexico and California, as
well as many small Caribbean islands with supply problems.
In the non-construction (high-priced) industrial minerals sector, there has been a
steady but slow growth in demand during the last two decades. Regional trade in this
sector shows an extremely negative balance, with a near absence of exports and a
severe regional reliance on imports of processed and refined raw materials or
manufactured products. These imports include commodities such as mica, fertilizer raw
materials, talc, manufactured chemicals, asbestos, abrasives, wollastonite, graphite, and
more; as well as other raw materials or manufactured products present in CA but not
available in the price, quantity and quality required: diatomite, salt, gypsum, different
forms of calcium carbonate, kaolinitic clays, ball clays, bentonite, sulfur, feldspar,
silica sand, and others.
Traditionally, regional industry particularly the non-construction (high-priced)
industrial mineral sector, has relied heavily on a considerable amount of imported
resources for use as raw materials. This dependence has caused significant
disproportion in regional trade with consequent substantial adverse economic impact.
For example, in Costa Rica the value of imports was about 25 times greater than its
exports, about US$ 5.8 million per annum over the period 19801987 [10]. Also
currency fluctuations in CA countries, although helpful for exports, make imports
expensive and affect the balance of trade.
Mathers [1] supplied statistics regarding dependence on non construction (highpriced) industrial minerals in the following terms: chemicals (manufactured form) more
than 95%; agriculture and agrochemical sector (NPK, raw materials for fertilizers)
around 90%; high quality drilling muds (barite and bentonite) around 80%; food
processing/preservation (diatomite, bentonite) around 50%; glass making (soda ash and
pigments) around 25%; and fillers (talc, diatomite, barite, kaolin, mica), around 10%.
At present time, in view of the scarce data available, accurate estimates on regional
output, demand and the volume of exports/imports on non construction (high-priced)
industrial minerals have proven impossible to calculate. Nevertheless, evidence
suggests that regional dependency on imports in this sector has been on the increase
over the last few years, unfortunately even in some commodities for which the region
had achieved relative self-sufficiency in the past. For instance, in the case of salt, after
a decade of rapid development in production (during the 1990s), characterized by selfsufficiency and even exports from some countries (Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa
Rica), trade has been declining steadily over the last decade basically because of low
priced imported salt from countries outside the region (see 33.2.6.6).
In the non-construction (high-priced) industrial minerals sector, few individual
efforts have been made to eliminate or at least reduce CA dependence on imported
commodities for specific applications. However, there are some exceptions. In Puertas
Viejas, near Managua, Nicaragua imported kaolin is being replaced by domestically
processed resources [1]. Since 1995, total silica sand imports for the glass industry in
Costa Rica (VICESA) have been replaced by processing local very rich silica
sandstone at the SICORSA plant. Additionally, treated and blended by-product waste
kaolinitic clays from the SICORSA operation have been used as raw material for tile
manufacturing at Cermica Florentina in Costa Rica since 2004 (see 33.4.2.3).

33.7
INDUSTRIAL MINERALS OBSTACLES TO DEVELOPMENT
Historically many obstacles on a regional and international level have inhibited

development of domestic industrial minerals in general, most particularly those in the
non-construction (high-priced) industrial minerals sector. Considering these drawbacks,
in many instances it is more cost-effective for CA national industries to import, rather
than develop domestic resources or even establish any trade within the isthmus. The
most significant problems facing regional industrial mineral development are:
Lack of education: Worldwide, government authorities and consumers in general,
are not aware of the essential role of mining in modern life. The regional mining sector
has received very few government development incentives, particularly in the case of
industrial minerals, key factors for economic progress. It is somewhat incongruous that
the very minerals that could most contribute to development of the regions
infrastructure and standard of living, are precisely those currently receiving the least
attention.
Lack of information: There is an evident absence of relevant and systematic
technical information and statistics on industrial minerals including such aspects as
geology, resources, quality, extraction, processing, industrial usage, demand, markets
and trade. Information is scattered throughout very scarce reports and publications,
while statistics, in general, are insufficient and unreliable.
Limited research: There are still large areas of the region that have not been
explored. A large portion of known deposits (poorly characterized) have been
identified from surface outcrops, but to date there has been no systematic assessment of
resources and reserves. Complicated geology, structural relations (serious faulting),
overburden, weather patterns and topographic problems require further studies to resolve
serious exploration related problems and to ensure the level of reserves at some
potential and active mineral deposits. This situation is further aggravated, because
government mining administrations do not have organizations specifically responsible
for industrial mineral research and development.
Environmental pressure: There is increasing environmental awareness and
intervention by a civil society pressuring for environmental protection. In general, CA
governments are promoting strict control of extractive and industrial activities to assure
harmony with their major objective: investment in tourism development. The
irresponsible behavior of some operators, who ignore good mining practices, generates
a negative perception of mining activities. Consequently, governments are urging
environmental legislation and restrictions, especially regarding the use of land and
water in surface mining.
Administrative and infrastructure problems: In general, the mining sector in CA
countries is lacking in mining tradition, financial support and stable polices. Decisions
in some controversial court cases, especially those related to environmental conflicts
are often reached based on political rather than technical criteria. Contrary to the aim of
encouraging development and modernization in all sectors, including the mining sector;
mining laws in general, are too bureaucratic and are stifling the development of mining
operations.
Political instability: Some CA countries were involved in local (civil wars) and
regional conflicts for several decades, with enormous financial losses and subsequent
instability.
Lack of integration policies: As a consequence of internal conflicts and those in
neighboring states, most countries within the region were basically isolated for several

decades from a political and commercial point of view.

Small market: Regional integration is a key factor in joining the competitive, ever
changing international industrial minerals market. The concepts of economies of scale
and markets play an extremely crucial role in the potential for investment in industrial
minerals exploration, exploitation and processing.
Limited know-how: It is evident that the region has limited know-how and
technological expertise regarding industrial minerals. There are very few local
professionals and technicians (geologists, chemical engineers, market researchers) and
laboratories (equipment) to carry out proper site identification, detailed characterization
as well as extraction, processing, market appraisal, handling and transportation with
regard to raw materials and products. Most of the few existing laboratory facilities are
associated with specific manufacturing processes in the private or academic sectors.
Lack of investment and technology: Industrial mineral potential is underdeveloped
due to a lack of investment capital and technology coupled with the fact that industrial
mineral processing plants usually require significant investment of capital and a long
development period. Today foreign and local investment in CA countries is still low
because the general risks associated with an unknown region, besides the inadequate
legal and fiscal environment. Inflation makes it difficult to raise money, even from the
local banking system. Consequently, some ventures have been started using family
capital or from the pockets of individual partners.
Low quality of domestic raw materials: Rigid specifications of manufacturing modern
methods demand raw materials of high quality. In very few cases the in situ
characteristics of industrial minerals meet the raw materials industrial requirements. It is
essential to know the mineralogical composition of the deposit for ascertaining its ultimate
use and for selecting suitable process technology (particularly impurities selection). Since
no two sources of material are identical and every source has certain variability, the specific
quality and quality consistency required for certain manufacturing processes are difficult to
obtain. The lack of information, experience and suitable processing facilities, in many cases,
has caused quality problems for processed raw materials.
Strong traditional markets: There appears to be some difficulty for the growth of
domestic prospects, since markets for specific products are mature and there is
competition from alternative sources. Also, industry personnel are accustomed to
working with a certain type of product and are reluctant to change to alternative raw
material sources. Some investors may be interested in beneficiating local minerals, but
information on reserves is uncertain and, unless they are proved to be sufficient, no
further progress will ensue. Due to the scarcity of available information, it is
impossible for producers to forecast demand far enough in advance with reasonable
accuracy. Consequently, users of non-construction (high-priced) industrial minerals in
particular, prefer to pay the unusually high prices of imported manufactured raw
materials (U.S.A. or European), in order to protect the end quality of their products.
Lack of rural infrastructure: Although the region possesses important mineral
resources, they mostly occur in less developed and uninhabited areas. Despite their
mining potential, these areas suffer from the combined drawbacks of remoteness from
markets, lack of energy, poor water supplies and general infrastructure problems.
High electricity costs: Electrical generation, transmission and distribution systems,
key factors for raw material extraction and processing, are at differing stages of
development in CA countries. Hydroelectric power has dominated the CA electricity
sector (especially in Costa Rica and Panama), with an increasing dependency on

fuel-derived power generation in most countries. Belize is currently importing

electricity from Mexico.
The situation is further aggravated by the relatively low geographic coverage
offered by these systems and the high dependence on hydrocarbon generation. Table 33.5
provides general figures on the CA electrical sector.
Table 33.5. Installed capacity, cost and electrical coverage in Central America.
Installed capacity
(MW, 2003)
Belize
Guatemala
Honduras
El Salvador
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
?
1843.8
1051.5
1196.9
685.7
1939.0
1633.8
Average cost
(US$/kWh, 2002)
?
0.1296
0.863
0.1121
0.1140
0.738
0.1122
Coverage
(%, 2003)
Approx. 80
86.7
62.0
80.2
48.5
97.0
84.0
According to CEPAL [33]; Belize data estimated from 1998 values.
In addition, processing plants often use electrically inefficient second hand equipment
imported from North America. In the interest of resolving some of these problems,
special electrical prices and timetables have been negotiated for industrial processes in
some countries. The project for interconnecting regional electrical systems is slowly
progressing (plan to finish in 2008). Eventually, electricity generated in Colombia from
gas combustion, may contribute to the regional system.
High oil prices: All CA countries rely entirely on imported hydrocarbons, particularly
final products (gasoline, diesel, etc.) from Venezuela and Mexico. The only domestic
refineries are in Acajutla, El Salvador (private) and Mon, Costa Rica (state-owned) and
provide a minor portion of local requirements. There are some plans to establish a regional
refinery with support from Mexico. Guatemala with its own heavy hydrocarbons (sulfur
and asphalt rich), exports all domestic production to Louisiana for specific refinery
processes. Significant increases in current oil prices have further complicated delivery of
raw materials and finished products and have contributed to increased inflation across the
isthmus. In response, the governments of the CA region have implemented stopgap energy
policies such as restricting the circulation of vehicles and gas-saving measures.
Poorly linked transportation systems: Under current conditions, scarse investment,
inefficiency and high operating costs are long-standing problems that have plagued the
regional transportation infrastructure for many years roads, railroads and ports.
Governments are unable to find the necessary funds to meet these infrastructure
demands. Throughout CA, roads connecting quarries and processing plants are
commonly in poor condition (unpaved) and in most cases railroads are not a viable
alternative. Improved transportation through mountainous regions is essential, if bulk
industrial minerals are to be transported at reasonable costs. Table 33.6 shows some
interesting figures about the characteristics of the road system in CA.
On the other hand, high volume maritime commerce is difficult. Overall distances
are too short to use large vessels and port facilities are deficient (wharves, berths,
refueling docks, access roads, dredging, water and power supplies). Low installed
capacity usually causes expensive delays and consequent penalties estimated at US$ 40
million (2004) only in the case of Costa Rica, where 80.2% of international commerce
is maritime. The advantages offered by CAs strategic location in relation to important

markets, the relative proximity to oceans and the near-by Panama canal are currently
outweighed by the need for investment in transportation infrastructure. Promotion and
improvement of short distance coastal trading among small CA ports is urgently
needed.
Table 33.6. Investment in road infrastructure in Central America [34].
Roads (km)
Belize
Guatemala
Honduras
El Salvador
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
Investment per year

(million US$)
?
234.6
60.0
130.6
4.3
81.3
136.9
?
14044
16644
5834
18658
35883
11985
Annual investment
US$/km
?
16705
3605
22386
230
2267
11422
Complex transportation logistics: Any industrial mineral operation within the region
faces strong challenges given comparatively low prices on international markets,
overwhelming transportation costs, the poor conditions of supply lines and the complex
intricacies of crossing borders. Table 33.7 illustrates some transportation logistical
difficulties in CA.
Table 33. 7. Comparison of trucks transportation costs of Central America vs. Europe.
Rome to Paris
Distance (km)
Freight cost (US$)
Travel time (hrs)
Average truck circulation (km/yr)
Truck maintenance costs as % of total
transportation costs
1400
1072
42
120000
12%
Guatemala city to
San Jos, Costa Rica
1300
2275
75
35000
41%
According to IDC [35].
33.8
INDUSTRIAL MINERALS FUTURE STATUS
Although in the future industrial mineral development in CA will face serious

challenges and many problems need to be overcome, a steady increase in raw material
extraction and consumption is predicted for the construction sector and to a lesser
extent the non-construction (high-priced) industrial minerals sector. The major
influences on this trend will be growth in population and markets, political stability,
regional integration, extra regional trade agreements, a more mature stage of
industrialization, better infrastructure, better standard of living and economic
revitalization. As the economy moves from low income levels to higher income levels,
industrial mineral consumption rates increase rapidly [32].
After several decades of political and commercial isolation, there are some signs of
decisiveness with regard to integration of CA governments, such as the PueblaPanama Plan (PPP) and the CA Logistical Corridor (excluding Belize and Panama)
proposed by the CA Economic Integration Secretariat (SIECA) and CA Institute for
Business Administration (INCAE). The political stability of the region will be an
important factor in risk assessment by potential investors.

Integration efforts within CA and between CA and stronger economies, especially

the United States, may be associated with economic and commercial revitalization. The
proposed signing of the Dominican Republic-CA Free Trade Agreement (excluding
Belize and Panama) with the United States (DR-CAFTA), will lead the region towards
greater international commerce. This agreement has engendered great expectations
as well as concerns, particularly with regard to the balance of trade of raw materials,
future investment, privatization, sovereignty and environmental protection. If current
plans are at least in part realized, then the pattern of CA economies will evolve into
something very different in just a few decades.
Today, the region is unquestionably at a critical stage in its development;
consequently it is difficult to make forecasts on such a dynamic situation. In keeping
with current world trends away from government control and in an effort to encourage
foreign investment and promote industrialization, important changes are occurring.
Some countries are adopting measures such as flexible exchange rate policies,
elimination of most price controls, reduction of excessive tariff protection, promotion
of special incentives and rationalization of regulations for investment and exports. In
the mining sector policies include amendments to tax and mining legislation, sector
deregulation, simplification and/or elimination of bureaucracy, and promotion of the
small and medium size mining sector. These changes are part of the prevailing general
scheme to privatize some of the remaining government-owned mining industries and
organizations.
In the construction sector, population growth and tourism development will
promote an even more aggressive domestic demand for construction materials for more
and better infrastructure projects. Despite improvement over the last decade, the regional
transportation infrastructure still needs significant investment. The private sector is
playing an increasing role in the expansion, upgrading, maintenance and management
of roads, ports and railway systems in most countries. Some of the ongoing and future
infrastructure projects are beltways around metropolitan areas to by-pass capital cities in
Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama; plans to
develop and improve roads linking CA countries as proposed in the PPP, development
of infrastructure work in response to destruction from natural disasters such as
hurricanes, floods and earthquakes particularly in Guatemala, El Salvador and
Honduras; probable future expansion of the Panama canal; construction of a new
highway (dry channel) across Nicaragua, between Monkey Point on the Caribbean
coast and Corinto or Rivas on the Pacific coast or similar projects between the
Caribbean and Pacific of Guatemala and Costa Rica. Diverse CA governmental
initiatives also include programs to improve ports and roads and particularly the
development of regional tourism facilities (hotels, airports, roads). All of these labor
intensive projects will require a large work force and will have profound implications
on regional migrations.
Construction sector exports are currently limited to cement and aggregates to major
coastal cities in the U.S.A. and to Caribbean islands with their supply problems. This is
further proof of the technical and economic feasibility of such shipments. Although
availability and export of construction materials as raw materials is of great importance to
regional development, it has limited contribution towards the economy of the region due
to its general low unit value, relative low value-added and abundance in other regions.
In marked contrast to construction materials, CA non-construction (high-priced)
materials have had modest growth and show high dependence on imported

commodities, some of which are present in CA. This dependence is true even in those
commodities which had achieved a relative level of self sufficiency in the past (e.g.,
salt). Despite the goal to eliminate or at least reduce this high dependence and to
promote exports in this sector, many domestic raw materials have been under utilized.
This is caused by problems associated with poor grade of domestic resources;
limitation or uncertainty of reserves; lack of investment, appropriate technology and
know-how; processing costs; limited performance; rigorous industrial standards and
quality problems, particularly with regard to consistency. Additionally, markets for
specific commodities are now mature and there is strong competition from alternative
sources. Few efforts towards developing domestic non construction (high-priced)
industrial minerals have been successful. All evidence suggests that these initiatives
have limited prospects, at least in the short term.
In the long run, the non-construction (high-priced) sector has considerable scope for
expansion. Evidently, there is a need to investigate and ensure needed mineral reserves
and to upgrade mineral processing technologies to meet the demand for high quality
raw materials (value-added). Furthermore CA countries need to reduce dependence on
imported refined commodities (import substitution) such as diatomite, kaolinitic clay,
ball clay, bentonite, gypsum, sulfur, dolomite and more and eventually develop their
potential for exporting to international markets. Mathers [1] indicated for example that
commodities with export potential include diatomite for filtration, high-purity
limestone for filler and volcanogenic sulfur may become economically viable as traditional sources of supply become depleted.
The enhancement of national value-added products through processing of local raw
materials is a highly desirable objective, particularly in developing countries [32], in
order to add value to final products, maximize economic benefits from national resources,
limit the volume of commodity imports, reduce foreign currency expenditures, provide
employment and income, and improve the countries capacity for obtaining good quality
raw materials for new marketable products, for local consumption and exportation.
In order to enhance the value and develop the industrial minerals sector, as done
in many other developing regions, CA governments should encourage the operation of
small and medium sized mining enterprises and specialized raw materials
manufacturing plants. Focus should be on fully processed high-value, export-orientated
industrial minerals and products (value-added), always keeping in mind the potential
market. The establishment of small and medium scale mineral operations will
economically produce marketable commodities in the more remote areas. This will
provide opportunities for greater national and regional integration through gradual
creation of basic infrastructure and employment opportunities in distant rural areas.
More refined minerals imply better added value, more efficient handling and
transportation possibilities. With regional integration in place, updated mining laws,
and foreign investment welcomed, it would be easier to persuade foreign investors to
commit the required capital toward investigating resource potential and allowing access
to their processing technology.
However, effective promotion of investment in industrial minerals requires the
availability of basic information on such aspects as occurrence, geology, resources,
reserves, quality, production, demand, processing and beneficiation methods, possible
extraction rates, industrial usage and specifications, potential substitutes, exports and
imports, local and international market appraisal and opportunities as well as factors
affecting investment (local laws, royalties, tariffs, costs and income taxes).

Before any development can be possible, all CA countries must perform and update
national industrial minerals inventories to identify, and hopefully evaluate, industrial
mineral potential. There is good reason to believe that with a better understanding of
the geology and processing methods, new commodities will be discovered, particularly
in many large isolated areas of CA, and the mining industry will thus develop. These
new targets should avoid fundamental environmental controversy.
Governments should find new instances for technical assistance and private
investment, both domestic and foreign, to prospect new areas, re-evaluate known
deposits and apply new processing (upgraded) techniques. However, the expansion and
establishment of any industrial mineral activity must be done selectively and
intelligently so that priority is given to those commodities which most benefit the
nations. Mining and exploration must accommodate the effects of the ever-changing
supply and demand characteristics of the international markets.
An important step forward improving regional exports will be further development
of the infrastructure particularly port facilities and taking best advantage of savings
resulting from large scale production and bulk mineral shipments. Freight prices can be
brought to levels where CA can take advantage of marketing aspects derived from its
unique favorable geographical position, in relation with the North/South America and
the Caribbean markets, a powerful argument for the production development and
exporting of industrial minerals within the region and elsewhere. This seems to fit
rather well with CAs often stated government policies of becoming more market
orientated economies.
33.9
CONCLUSIONS
The CA region has experienced a steady growth in the consumption of both

construction and non-construction (high-priced) industrial minerals, during the last few
decades. This trend is likely to continue in the future, as a consequence of increasing
population and tourism, better infrastructure and standard of living, political stability,
regional integration, extra-regional trade agreements, major markets, economic
revitalization and a more mature level of industrialization.
With its pre-eminent position in all CA countries, the construction sector has shown
a dramatic increase in demand during the last two decades. Demand is driven by
significant infrastructure reconstruction as a consequence of natural disasters
(hurricanes, floods, earthquakes) and construction of facilities for the growing tourism
sector in most countries. Raw materials and manufactured products are almost totally
supplied from local sources such as aggregates (sand and gravel, hard rock quarries),
cement raw materials (limestones, clays, pozzolanic materials, gypsum), structural clay
products, and to a lesser extend lightweight aggregates and dimension stones.
The construction sector has a slight dependence on imported commodities and
products such as gypsum, cement additives, cement and dimension stones, in part met
by domestic resources, especially from the northern section of CA. Exports are
basically restricted to cement and to a lesser extent aggregates in demand by major
coastal construction projects in Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, California and many small
Caribbean islands, where there are supply problems. Although the availability and
exportation of construction materials and products are of great importance for regional
development, there is limited export potential because of their relative abundance in
other regions. Furthermore, in view of the low unit value of these raw materials, they

only make a modest contribution towards the regional economy.

Non-construction (high-priced) industrial minerals show a steady but slow growth
in demand during the last two decades. They are extracted and processed, on a small
scale, even in the more developed CA countries (Guatemala, El Salvador and Costa
Rica). Nevertheless, they make an important contribution as raw materials for a great
variety of manufacturing processes including ceramic, glass, paints, pigments,
absorbents, foundry, refractory products, abrasives, drilling muds, fertilizers, food
processing/preservation, chemical industry, just to mention a few.
Despite the presence of some domestic non-construction (high-priced) industrial
minerals, in order to meet stringent physical and chemical standards for specific
applications, regional industries are highly dependent on imports of refined
commodities. These imports include raw materials and manufactured products such as
mica, fertilizer raw materials, talc, manufactured chemicals, coloring and decoloring
agents, abrasives, wollastonite, graphite, asbestos, and more; as well as other
commodities present in CA but not available in the price, quantity and quality required:
diatomite, salt, gypsum, different forms of calcium carbonate, kaolinitic clays, ball
clays, bentonite, barite, sulfur, feldspar, silica sand, and others. Trade among CA
countries is minor, restricted mainly to dolomite, bentonite, gypsum and feldspar
especially from Guatemala. Exports outside the region in this sector are scarce.
During the last decade, imports dependence on non-construction raw materials has
been extended even to some commodities in which the region had previously achieved
a relative self-sufficiency (e.g., salt). The regional outlook with regard to this
dependence remains bleak, due to many factors such as the low grade of domestic
resources, lack of processing technology and know-how, low investment, small
markets, high energy costs (electricity and hydrocarbons), high raw materials
processing and transport costs, complicated transportation logistics on a domestic and
regional level, quality problems particularly consistency, trade-off between price and
product performance on their particular industrial process (quality) and abundant
general international availability of raw materials. Against all goals to eliminate or at
least reduce dependence on imports in this sector, efforts to develop regional domestic
commodity sources have so far proven largely unsuccessful, with the exception of
some kaolinitic clays projects for the ceramic industry in Nicaragua and Costa Rica,
and silica sand for the glass manufacture in Costa Rica.
Potential growth for exports has been identified in the CA industrial minerals sector
for such raw materials and products as aggregates and cement as well as construction
finishing products (tiles, slabs, beams), diatomite for filtration, high-purity limestone
for filler, and eventually volcanogenic sulfur.
Government policies and private investment should be encouraged to identify and
evaluate the real potential, to prospect new areas, re-evaluate known deposits and apply
new processing (upgraded) techniques. CA countries need to fully evaluate the economic
dimensions of domestic resources/reserves vis--vis external/internal demand, and assess
the optimum amount of capital in order to upgrade beneficiation/recovery technologies.
This is particularly true in the domestic non-construction (high-priced) industrial minerals
sector, in order to produce higher quality raw materials from lower grade deposits. Unless
the industry can produce standard-grade raw materials and value-added products, exports
of CAs industrial minerals will remain very limited.
The systematization and dissemination of technical information oriented toward
potential consumption markets is an essential key factor to investment opportunities

and future industrial mineral development. Better market awareness would not only
help to meet domestic demand for high quality raw materials (value-adding) and
replace valuable imports, but would also be an export product, highly desirable
objectives for many social and economic reasons.
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Chapter 34
Geology-related tourism for sustainable
development
JOCHEN BUNDSCHUH, PETER BIRKLE, RICHARD C. FINCH, MICHAEL DAY,
JUAN ROMERO, SERGIO PANIAGUA, GUILLERMO E. ALVARADO,
PROSUN BHATTACHARYA, KAROLA TIPPMANN AND DAMARIS CHAVES
The narrow land of Central America,
uniting two continents and separating two
oceans, presented the Spanish explorers with
an exuberant scene of volcanoes, lakes and
sierras, a rich variety of tropical species,
and climatic and telluric phenomena that
made significant contributions to the limited
understanding of the natural sciences in
Renaissance Europe. Jaime Incer: Viajes,
Rutas y Encuentros 15021838, 1990.
34.1
INTRODUCTION
Tourism has become one of the worlds largest industries [1]. In Central America the
income from tourism in 2001 was 3124 million US$, corresponding to 14% of the total
exports of Central America (21,940 million US$), whereas in 1990 the share was only
9% [2] (see also Chapter 1, Table 1.6). More importantly, ecotourism (defined as
tourism based on scenic and unusual natural features, including wildlife) is the fastest
growing sector of the tourism industry [1]. Continued growth is expected, making
many developing countries with beautiful natural features, thus far unspoiled by
development, increasingly attractive as tourist destinations. Central America is ideal for
sustainable tourism development. The variety of geology, topography and climate have
led to the development of different landscapes and ecosystems, ranging from beaches
and coral reefs, to deserts, and to tropical rain forests, which harbor a diversity of species,
some unique in the world. This abundance of natural resources forms a tremendous
potential for ecotourism in the Central American countries, which (with the exception of
Costa Rica) remains largely untapped. When combined with the diversity of cultural
heritages (indigenous and European), historical treasures (pre-Columbian archeological
sites and colonial sites), and other features of tourist interest, the total opportunity for the
growth of the tourism industry in Central America is great.
The countries of Central America offer many and varied natural features within a
relatively small geographic area: rain- and cloud-forests with their rich biodiversity,
intermountain desert areas, sandy beaches, coastal morphology, mangrove forests, coral
reefs and features more specifically geologic such as active volcanoes, caves, waterfalls
and erosional pinnacles (hoodoos). Much of the geological patrimony of Central
America specific geologic features (e.g., caldera lakes) and also regional landscapes
(e.g., karst, canyons) is potentially attractive to national and international tourists,

1016 GEOLOGICAL HERITAGE RESOURCES
Figure 34.1. Principal geology-related tourism destinations in Guatemala, Belize and western
parts of Honduras and El Salvador.
especially nature lovers. Indeed, much of the current tourism in Central America is
due to the extraordinary geological heritage of the region, most especially the volcanic
landscapes with their cones (whose slopes often exhibit important biodiversity),
beautiful and dramatic calderas and crater lakes, and volcanic manifestations like hot
springs, boiling mud pots, and fumaroles (Chapter 4). The Figures 34.1 to 34.4 show
landforms and the principal sites and localities mentioned in this chapter.
Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica are the countries with the most
volcanic assets. Honduras features a few extinct or inactive (but nonetheless scenic)
cones in the Gulf of Fonseca region, and a group of small cinder cones at the north end

Figure 34.2. Principal geology-related tourism destinations in Nicaragua and eastern parts of
Honduras and El Salvador.
of Yojoa lake. Panama includes two principal volcanoes which are important for
tourism.
Karst regions containing caves, travertine pools and waterfalls, natural bridges,
and other scenic features constitute major areas of actual and potential tourism.
Belize and Guatemala feature extensive karst regions which attract visitors to explore
caverns on land and dive in submarine caves. Guatemala currently has at least six caves
that are being promoted for tourism, including developed (with trails and lighting) and
undeveloped (natural state) caves. At present, Honduras features two caves lighted and
open to the public, but there is potential for more in the widespread karst areas of
Honduras. Caves with tourist infrastructure are also found in Costa Rica (Chapter 5).
Other geology related tourism features include coral reefs (see Chapter 7) and the
glacial landforms in Guatemala and Costa Rica (Chapter 6). Exotic erosional features,
such as the Riscos of Momostenango, Guatemala, also constitute local tourist
attractions. Finally, there are museums in some Central American cities and towns, which
include geological displays and attractions, such as those of San Jos in Costa Rica (Jade
museum, Gold museum), and the paleontological museum of Estanzuela, Guatemala.

Figure 34.3. Principal geology-related tourism destinations in Costa Rica and western Panama.
On the one hand, increasing ecotourism makes the countries of Central America more
vulnerable to environmental impacts, but on the other hand it presents them with the
opportunity to develop a huge potential of socially and environmentally sound tourism.
Worldwide there are numerous examples of natural attractions that have been preserved
by tourism. Properly promoted and regulated, ecotourism encourages more effective
conservation of protected areas and benefits local people by providing jobs. At its best
and most sensitive, where there is an Amerindian population, ecotourism utilizes
indigenous skills to provide not only jobs, but also to foster a genuine cultural
exchange between the local population and visitors. Thus ecotourism can become an
important tool to alleviate the poverty and isolation of local, mostly rural populations.
For these reasons ecotourism, conservation, and local community development must be
considered as forces reinforcing each other.
As ecotourism has soared in popularity among the worlds travelers, there are many
expectations of what ecotourism can offer for a particular locality, as well as for larger

Figure 34.4. Principal geology-related tourism destinations in eastern Panama.
regions and for the global environmental movement. It is to everyones advantage that
nature-based tourism operations move increasingly towards adoption of ecotourism, to
ensure that sensitive natural areas are adequately protected so that the benefits to local
communities and cultures are maximized.
Most of Central Americas protected areas are not designed or managed to receive
large numbers of visitors (defined as more than 10,000 visitors in 2002). Costa Rica
and Belize are the exceptions. Costa Rica has 15 highly visited protected areas:
Guayabo, R.F.B. Nio, R.V.S. Junquillal, Santa Rosa, Tortuguero, Tapant Cerro de la
Muerte, Cahuita Puerto Vargas, Cahuita Playa Blanca, Corcovado, Manuel Antonio,
Carara and the following 4 of volcanological interest: Pos, Iraz, Arenal, and Rincn
de la Vieja national parks [3].
The government of Costa Rica recognized two decades ago the importance of its
rich natural resources. Costa Rica was the first Central American nation to create an
extensive system of protected ecological zones and natural features and promote them
as tourist areas, conserving them for future generations and contributing to the
sustainability of both the protected areas themselves and the tourism economy. Costa
Rica has created a system of national parks and protected areas whose development and
maintenance is self-financed by park entrance fees. Development of similar parks and
protected areas is now proceeding throughout Central America.
In Belize 15 protected areas receive over 10,000 visitors per year. These areas
include the karst sites of Blue Hole national park, Ro Bravo conservation and
management area, Xunantunich archaeological reserve, Cahal Pech archaeological
reserve, Blue Hole natural monument (reef), Hol Chan marine reserve (reef) and other
protected areas such as the Cockscomb basin wildlife sanctuary, Crooked Tree wildlife
sanctuary, and Altun Ha archaeological reserve. In contrast, the number of highly
visited protected areas is low in the rest of Central America: Nicaragua (1; Masaya),
Guatemala (2; Pacaya national park, Tikal national park), Honduras (2; Copn ruins,
reefs of the Bay islands), Panama (2; Bocas del Toro islands, San Bls islands).

34.2
ECOTOURISM IN CENTRAL AMERICA: OPPORTUNITIES AND

OBSTACLES
Sustainable tourism can be a principal key for the economic growth and social
development of all the Central American countries. Three distinct factors favor tourism
as a major economic component of the national and regional economies:
The countries are relatively small and therefore basic infrastructure improvements
allow tourists to reach the various attractions. (Small size also implies limited
mineral resources, meaning that manufacturing and heavy industry are never likely
to become dominant economic factors).
The Central American nations feature a large number and wide variety of sites of
archaeological, cultural, and natural interest, as well as varied and beautiful
landscapes ranging from beaches to mountains.
The region benefits from an excellent geographic location, near enough to be
convenient to the largest source of tourists in the world the United States of
America yet far enough away to be viewed as an exotic destination.
As of 2004, areas declared as protected by the governments of Central America
comprised in total 22.4% of Central Americas land surface (Table 34.1). These
protected areas include complex ecosystems ranging from cloud forest to marsh land,
savannah, rain forest, mangrove systems, and coral reef, and contain extraordinary
biodiversity. In most parks it is possible to see several different habitats within the
course of a day. Ecotourism, particularly with nature trails, and adventure tourism in
the rain forests and mountain forests are particularly important. Geological attractions,
particularly volcanoes, crater lakes and geothermal activities are very significant (Table
34.2).
Notwithstanding that all the Central American countries feature officially protected
areas and numerous other natural attractions, the degree of actual protection (as
opposed to legislated or de jure protection, which is usually not matched in practice),
development, management, and use for ecotourism is quite different from country to
country, for reasons which are as varied as they are complex.
Nature-related ecotourism is least developed in El Salvador, Nicaragua, and
Guatemala, although the last has a long-standing tourism industry based on its mixed
Amerindian/Spanish cultural heritages. In these three republics development of
protected areas and the ecotourism such areas generate has been retarded by civil strife
and the negative international reputations derived from such turmoil. Violent crime and
other security problems exacerbated in the wake of civil strife continue to trouble
Guatemala and El Salvador. Increasing crime rates and lack of security especially
affect the volcanic regions of Guatemala, El Salvador and the northern part of
Nicaragua. Security problems create a bad image and hinder especially U.S. travelers,
and to a lesser extent European tourists, from visiting.
Inadequate infrastructure (roads, public transportation, and communication) are also
deterrents to ecotourism in many areas of Central America, especially Nicaragua.
Problems of public sanitation and insufficient medical services may also retard the
growth of ecotourism. As a consequence, many of Central Americas most interesting
volcanoes and other geological heritage sites are not visited by tourists, or only by a
relatively few hardy individuals to whom roughing it is part of the experience.
Nicaragua has one advantage compared to the northern Central American countries: its

1979.4 629.7 528.9

4.7
18.1 28.4
15
20
48
922.9 355.7 396.9
39
16
32
1056.5 274.0 132.0
19
23
92
795.1 422.4 1815.9
Total1)
2.2
Panama
20.8
Costa Rica
47.5
Nicaragua
Honduras
25.3
El
Salvador
Belize
Protected areas, 2003

percent of total land area
IUCN1) categories IV3)
area (1000 ha)
% of total area
IUCN categories Ia, Ib and II3)
number
area (1000 ha)
IUCN categories III, IV, V3)
number
area (1000 ha)
IUCN categ. VI and other3)
number
area (1000 ha)
World Heritage sites4) (2004)
number
area (1000 ha)
total land area3) (1000 ha)
Guatemala
Table 34.1. Central Americas terrestrial protected areas by number, area, and share of total
national territory covered.
21.8
23.8
19.5
22.4
0.0 777.1 476.9 483.0

9.2
6.0
6.5
0.0
4875
9.3
22
4
9
1
119
3.2 320.3 453.7 470.7 2923.4
61
1
2.0 456.8
45
23.3
8
202
12.1 2989.9
91
23
24
62
334
40.4 2033.0 729.2 971.3 6807.3
35)
2
1
45)
1
1
15
3
-- 591.5 804.08) 2049.4
-57.66) 96.3 500.07)
10889 2296 11209 2104 13000 5110 7552 52160
1)
Calculated from countrywide values; 2)IUCN (World Conservation Union) Category: Ia strict
nature reserve, Ib wilderness Area, II national park, III natural monument, IV habitat/species
management area, V protected landscape/seascape, VI managed resource protected area;
3)
Source: [2]. El Salvador data of protected land areas IUCN levels IV, III, IIIV were
modified by the authors by including El Imposible national park (level II) and Montecristo
national park (level IV); 4)Source: [4]; 5)One of the World heritage sites is shared by Costa
Rica and Panama; This site is tallied under both countries; 6)Comprises only the Tikal
national park; 7)Comprises only the Maya site of Copn ruins; 8)Comprises only the Darin
and the Panamenean part of the La Amistad national park.
border with Costa Rica allows tourists primarily visiting Costa Rica easy and
economical land access to Nicaragua, and encourages travelers to make a combined
visit to both countries. Similarly, in recent years, international cooperation between the
governments of Guatemala and Honduras has resulted in greatly improved access by
land and by air from Guatemala to the Copn ruins in Honduras, encouraging a growth
of cross-border tourism from Guatemala into Honduras, to the benefit of the Copn
area of Honduras as well as to a section of eastern Guatemala which is not on the
normal tourism circuit.
In 1987, the signing of the Arias Peace Treaty provided the basis and impetus for
ending the political and military conflicts (those between Sandinistas and Contras in
Nicaragua) that had afflicted the Central American region since the 1960s. In 1990
democratic elections were held in Nicaragua, resulting in the demobilization of rebel
forces in that country and in neighboring Honduras. The government of El Salvador
signed an agreement with the armed opposition to end the Salvadoran civil war in
1992, and a peace settlement in 1996 terminated the civil war in Guatemala. This
regional peace process brought back stability to Central America and created a political
climate in which the tourism industry can develop and grow.

Table 34.2. Geology-related protected zones from north to south.

Name1)
GT Atitln
GT Pacaya
volcano
GT Ipala volcano
GT Chicabal
volcano
ES Cerro Verde
NI Yal volcano
NI Cosigina
volcano
NI San CristbalCasitas VC
NI Casita
volcano
NI Telica-Rota
VC
NI Pilas-El
Hoyos VC
NI Momotombo
VC
NI Tiscapa lake
NI Asososca lake
NI
NI
NI
NI
Mecatepe lake
Nejapa lake
Tisma lake
Masaya
volcano
NI Apoyo lake
NI Mombacho
volcano
NI Zapatera
archipelago
NI Concepcin
volcano
National2) and IUCN- Geological and non-geological attractions and

category3); Since
available infrastructure facilities;
(year); Area (ha)4)
Coordinates (N/W)
/private share (%)5)
NP III (1955)
62500
NP
Caldera lake with volcanoes. H, WS. 1441/9112
Visitors center, entry fee, maintained trails, sanitary

facilities, rangers.
Primitively developed and is regulated. Trail up to
the crater lake, small visitors center, guards.
Primitively developed. Small and crude visitors
center, entry fee, maintained trails to the crater lake.
NP II
Volcanoes: Izalco, Sta. Ana (500 m deep crater
lake), Cerro Verde (crater lake). H, R, WS, LP, good
tourist facilities, trails to: Izalco (4h), St. Ana (3h).
NR IV (1991)
Extinct volcano; Habitat management area.
3500
1316/8608
NR IV (1983)
Cosigina volcano, caldera of 2 km diameter; Hike
12420
up to the crater rim; panoramic view over the gulf of
Fonseca. 1258/8734
NR IV(1983)
Nicaraguas highest volcano; Periodic eruptions of
17950
gases. 1241/8659
NR IV NM6) III
See San Cristbal-Casitas volcanic complex.
1241/8659
(1983) 1658
Near the Hervideros de San Jacinto fumaroles;
NR IV(1983)
Potential site for future thermal-therapeutic tourism.
9088
1235/8650
Crater with exhalations of fumarolic gases (El
NR IV(1983)
Hoyo); Panoramic view. 1229/8641
7422
Momotombo volcano, geothermal plant at the foot;
NR IV(1983)
From the peak of Momotombo volcano half of
8500
Nicaragua can be viewed. 1226/8633
Crater lake; LP, very popular place with discoteque,
NR IV(1991)
restaurant and canopy. 1209/8616
40
Crater lake, which supplies Managua with drinking
NR IV(1991)
water. 1208/8619
140
NR IV(1983) 1200 Various small lakes; Near to Agua Agria village.
Crater lake, used for water supply. 1207/8618
NR IV(1991) 220
NR IV (1983) 10295 Crater lake. 1205/8557
Masaya volcano, 200 m deep 500 m wide active
NP II (1979)
crater Santiago; fumaroles, lava caves; Nearby:
5100
Masaya caldera lake; Road up to crater rim, R, P,
CA, tracks, visitor center, volcanological and
anthropological museum. 1159/8609
Caldera lake 8 km wide, 90 m deep, 19 km2. Clear
NR IV (1991)
3500
salty water, numerous fish species, water sports,
bathing, scuba diving, underwater mounts.
1155/8601
NR IV (1983)
Mombacho volcano, crater view, fumaroles, thermal
2487
springs. Las Isletas: Numerous (354) islands of
volcanic origin; Biological station, tracks, road up to
1100 m; Nearby: canopy; Boat trip through islands;
Near Granada tourist center. 1150/8557
NP II (1983)
Zapatera volcano (600 m wide lagoon);
5227
Archeological relicts. 1144/8550
NR IV (1983)
One of the most perfect stratovolcanoes in Central
2200
America; Panoramic view of Ometepe island.


Name1)
National2) and IUCN- Geological and non-geological attractions and

category3); Since
available infrastructure facilities;
(year); Area (ha)4)
Coordinates (N/W)
/private share (%)5)
NI Maderas
volcano
CR Rincn de la
Vieja
NR IV (1983)
4100
NP II (1973)
14084 (0%)
CR Miravalles
PZ VI (1981)
12416
NP II (1995)
12819 (24%)
NP II (1991)
12060 (35%)
CR Tenorio
volcano
CR Arenal
volcano
CR Juan Castro NP II (1992)

14258 (100%)
Blanco
CR Pos volcano NP II (1971)
5600 (36%)
NWR IV
CR Bosque
843
Alegre
CR Barra Honda NP II (1974)
2296 (50%)
NP II (1955)
CR Turrialba
1577
volcano
NP II (1978)
CR Braulio
45899 (13%)
Carrillo
CR Iraz volcano NP II (1955)
2309 (42%)
CR Chirrip
PA Bar
NP II (1975)
50150
NP II (1976)
14325
Maderas volcano, view of nearby Concepcin

volcano; Waterfall, lagoon. 1126/8531
Large volcanic complex; Numerous thermal springs,
fumaroles, boiling mud pots. H (4), many trails,
hiking, canopy, waterfalls. 1048/8519
Miravalles volcano, geothermal plant; Swimming
pool with thermal water; H. 1044/8508
Near to Celeste river; Walking tours. 1040/8500
Volcano bordered by the scenic lake, permanent
volcanic activity, thermal springs; Numerous H,
partly with thermal water, trails, windsurfing,
horseriding, fishing, canopy. 1031/8449
Platanar volcano and Cerro Viejo volcanic relict;
Waterfalls, trails. 1016/8419
Shield volcano, fumaroles, crater lake. R, LP, few
trails, visitors center, cater accessible by car.
1012/8414
Hule lake: Maar caldera (2 km in diameter) with
volcanic lake; Cabins.
Limestone caverns; Anthropological relicts.
1011/8521
Caldera with three craters, visitors can descend in
two of the craters; Walking tours, in dry season
accessable by 4 cars; Near to Turrialba town
Barva volcano and old volcanic landscapes.
Rainforest tram, canopy tours, trail to Barva
volcano; 20 km from San Jos.
Shield volcano craters and crater lakes, moonscape
aspect; Day tour from San Jos; Crater can be
reached by car; trails very limited. 1010/8403
Glacier landform, glacier lakes; Subalpine flora.
930/8329
Bar volcano; Boquete town: many H, R, tourist
center. 847/8231
14)
Source: [5]; 5)Source: [6]. Facilities: H: Hotel, R: restaurant, P: picnic facilities, CA: camping,
WS: water sports, LP: lookout platform, VC: volcanic complex; 2)national classification: NP:
national park, NWR: national wildlife refuge, NR: nature reserve, NM: national
monument; 3)IUCN (World Conservation Union) Category: Ia: strict nature reserve, Ib:
wilderness area, II: national park, III: natural monument, IV: habitat/species management area,
V: protected landscape/seascape, VI: managed resource protected area; 6)In memorium to the
over 2000 fatalities caused by hurricane Mitch landslide in 1998, Casta volcano national
reserve was converted from national reserve to a national monument. GT: Guatemala, HN:
Honduras, ES: El Salvador, NI: Nicaragua, CR: Costa Rica, PA: Panama.
In spite of the return of peace and increased political stability in these countries, there
remains at the present (2006) a significant impediment to the growth of tourism in the
form of negative impressions abroad, especially among potential visitors from the U.S.
For example, many would-be visitors think of El Salvador and Guatemala in terms of
guerrilla fighters and death squads, in spite of the fact that the 12-year Salvadoran civil
war ended 14 years ago, and the 30-year conflict in Guatemala has been over for ten

years. Democratically elected governments have been functioning in both countries

since the mid-1980s.
If El Salvador is successful with its recent attempts, (1) to install a new civil police
force to reduce the crime that has flourished since the war ended, (2) to reduce its huge
environmental contamination problem, and (3) to improve conservation, management
and infrastructure of natural and cultural/archaeological heritage sites, it could someday
become a ecotourist magnet like Costa Rica has become, and as Honduras and
Guatemala are becoming.
The same applies to Nicaragua which has had, since 1990, a democratic government.
For many potential international visitors, Nicaragua is synonymous with endless civil
war. This negative reputation in combination with the past U.S. economic blockade deters
many visitors, especially from the U.S., although visitor numbers have increased during the
last several years. In comparison to Honduras and Guatemala, in which ancient monuments
and temples are principal tourist targets, Nicaragua offers few such traditional tourist
attractions. Natural geologic heritage sites are the sites of primary interest in Nicaragua,
along with attractive Spanish colonial sites such as Granada and Len.
34.2.1 Costa Rica as an example
Costa Rica, though not directly involved in civil wars for the last 57 years, has been
nonetheless impacted by the negative image of the Central American region as a whole.
However, Costa Rica was discovered during the global ecotourism boom of the late
1980s, and achieved worldwide recognition as a peaceful vacation country during this
period, an image greatly enhanced by the award of the Nobel Peace prize to Costa
Rican President Oscar Arias on December 10, 1987 for his efforts to stop the civil war
in neighboring Nicaragua (the Arias Peace Treaty was signed by all Central American
state presidents on August 7, 1987).
Since ~1990, Costa Ricas volcanic areas and ecological reserves have become
major destinations for environmentally conscious tourists from throughout the world.
Due to the improvement of tourist infrastructure and the establishment of numerous
protected areas with good accessibility, millions have visited the countrys rain forests
and volcanoes. In 2002 alone, of the 934,000 visitors to Costa Ricas system of
protected areas (SINAC: Sistema Nacional de reas de Conservacin) 48% (average
for 19922002: 50%) visited volcano national parks such as Pos, Iraz, Arenal, and
Rincn de la Vieja (Fig. 34.5; [3]).
In 2002, 55% of all visitors (average 19922002: 56%) were Costa Rican residents,
and 45% were international tourists (Fig. 34.5). In regard to the visitation of volcano or
non-volcano national parks, there is a slight preference on the part of Costa Rican
residents for volcano national parks compared to international tourists: in 2002, 52%
(average 19922002: 55%) of all visits to national parks from Costa Rican residents
and 43% (average 19922002: 44%) from international visitors were to volcano
national parks (Fig. 34.5).
These data show that the numbers of Costa Rican and international visitors to
SINAC sites are similar. Volcano national parks are of interest to both groups, but
ecological reserves are of greater interest to international than national visitors. All in
all the figures clearly show the importance to the national ecotourism industry of
national parks that are developed and accessible to large numbers of visitors.
National and international tourists are not only interested in nature and ecology,

Figure 34.5. Visitor numbers and origin to Costa Ricans protected areas SINAC (Sistema
Nacional de reas de Conservacin) and the principal volcanic national parks (data: [3]).
combined with the recreational and health benefits of relaxing in hot springs and/or
volcanic mud baths, but are also attracted by the educational aspects of visits to

volcano parks and other conservation areas. Millions of visitors come to Costa Rica to
observe and learn about its volcanoes, rain forests, and wildlife.
There exist a great number of books (in English and Spanish) designated for the
study of tourism and preparation of tourist guides; tourism can be studied in several
universities of Costa Rica.
In any country, a large influx of tourists, both national and foreign (but especially
the latter), will have an impact on the local societies and cultures, and the impact will
have both positive and negative aspects. Costa Rica wisely recognized both the positive
aspects (creation of sustainable employment, increased foreign exchange, more people
from Costa Rica learning foreign languages and improving their knowledge about the
history and nature of their own and foreign countries) and the potential negative effects
(degradation of over-used visitor sites or other forms of over-exploitation of ecotourism
resources, introduction of new behaviors and diseases) of ecotourism and began in
~1990 to protect intensively the national environmental patrimony through legislation.
Rather than profit from destructive exploitation of its rainforest for wood products
(which do not significantly contribute to the foreign trade balance of Costa Rica; see
also Chapter 1), Costa Rica chose to set aside the rainforests as a magnet for the
emerging ecotourism market. By 2004, more than 23% of the national territory was
protected in several categories of conservation areas (not all of which are state
controlled: private conservation areas, purchased with charitable donations from all
over the world, contribute to the total system). As a result of governmental and private
preservation efforts much of Costa Ricas natural patrimony is protected, and tourism
has grown to be a principal industry of the nation, contributing 7.8% of the GDP [2].
34.2.2 Regional protected areas legislation
With a total land area of about 521,600 km2 (Table 34.1) and a population approaching
40 million in 2004, pressures on natural resources in Central America are severe.
Nonetheless, most nations, including the countries of Central America, now recognize
the importance of resource protection for environmental, economic and social reasons.
Protected areas legislation is highly variable throughout Central America as a result of
the multiplicity of sovereign nations, government agencies and non-government
organizations involved. The Central American Commission on Development and the
Environment (CCAD) is one regional arbiter of conservation strategies, but the levels of
participation by the seven countries is variable. All have adopted both the UN
Convention for the Protection of World Natural and Cultural Heritage and the UNESCO
Man and the Biosphere Program (MAB). Several of the Central American countries have
cooperated in establishing protected areas that cross international political boundaries.
For example, in 1982 Costa Rica and Panama signed the Basic Convention for Creation
of the Park (Convenio Bsico de Creacin del Parque), a binational agreement for the
establishment of the La Amistad Transfrontier Park. Costa Rica and Nicaragua have also
cooperated to create a protected areas system between their countries [7], yet the
establishment of the intended protected area remains incomplete. Costa Rica, Guatemala
and Honduras participate in the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)s Latin
American Network Program, which aims to coordinate the activities of participating
countries, to assist in the implementation and functioning of a coherent and effective
national system of protected areas in each country [7].
Some Central American countries inherited colonial legislation restricting certain

activities in designated areas, but this was largely intended to protect economic rather
than environmental interests, in particular, timber production and mining activities.
However, most protected areas legislation is of post-independence vintage, with the
majority of Central American countries adopting in the late twentieth century
constitutional provisions for the designation of protected areas.
Regionally, the pattern of protected areas legislation is uneven, with varied levels of
protection reflecting population, economic, and political pressures. Furthermore,
application and enforcement are often minimal. There is considerable scope regionally
for the continued development and implementation of effective protected areas policies
and enforcement [8], and there is a pressing need for environmental monitoring.
International non-governmental and inter-governmental organizations also play a
role in the proposal, identification, establishment and management of protected areas.
Organizations involved nationally and regionally include the International Union for
the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the World Wide Fund for
Nature (WWF), Conservation International (CI), the Nature Conservancy (TNC) and
the International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP).
34.3
VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC LANDSCAPES USE AND PROTECTION
34.3.1 General
The greatest numbers of volcanoes of interest to tourists are in Guatemala, El Salvador,
Nicaragua, and Costa Rica; Panama has only two principal volcanic areas, Honduras
has no active volcanoes, and Belize has no volcanoes at all. Although many of
the Central American highlands are covered with volcanic deposits and constitute
volcanic landscapes, for tourism, the high-value volcanic attractions are primarily the
well-formed, Quaternary stratocones. These majestic cones Agua, Fuego,
Acatenango in Guatemala; San Miguel, San Vicente in El Salvador (Fig. 34.6); and
Momotombo, Concepcin in Nicaragua (Figs. 34.7 and 34.8), to name a few have
great scenic value and are popular for climbing. There are also a handful of smaller
cones that are significant tourist attractions because of their activity (e.g., Pacaya in
Guatemala, Cerro Negro and Masaya/Santiago in Nicaragua, and Arenal in Costa Rica;
Figs. 34.634.9). Another volcanic landscape of significant tourism potential is crater
and caldera lakes (e.g., lakes Atitln and Ayarza in Guatemala, lakes Coatepeque and
Ilopango in El Salvador; Fig. 34.6). Adjunct tourist attractions associated with
volcanoes and volcanic landscapes are hot springs, fumaroles, and mudpots which can
be and have been developed for tourist, recreational and therapeutic uses.
Major differences exist from country to country regarding the use of volcanoes as
tourist attractions. Costa Rica is the country with the greatest number of tourists
visiting volcanoes and volcanic landscapes, even though it is not the country with the
greatest number of volcanoes. The reasons for this seeming anomaly are easy
accessibility (favored by the small country size) and the good infrastructure in the
principal volcano areas in Costa Rica. Lack of accessibility limits visitation of
volcanoes in the other Central American countries. A striking example of this is the
extent of tourism of the two caldera lakes Atitln and Ayarza in Guatemala. Beautiful
and dramatic Atitln lake, easily accessible by paved roads from three directions, and
blessed with ample hotel and restaurant facilities, is one of the most popular
destinations in Guatemala, heavily visited by both national and international travelers.
In contrast, another very beautiful caldera lake, Ayarza lake, is difficult of access, and

remote from lodging and dining facilities; as a consequence it receives little national
tourism and is virtually unknown outside of Guatemala.
Another reason for the under-utilization of volcanoes as tourist sites is security
problems in volcano areas. Significant security concerns exist in Guatemala and El
Salvador. Accessibility to and security in volcano areas depend predominantly on
national policies and legislation for the conservation, administration and management
of the protected areas, in cooperation with local governmental and non-governmental
agencies. Tourist infrastructure (lodging, restaurants, sanitary facilities, trails, guide
services) commonly is also predominantly developed through governmental endeavors,
but may also result from non-governmental efforts. The full implementation of
protection and conservation, and the full realization of the ecotourism potential of
Central Americas volcanoes and volcanic landscapes depends on cooperation of
national governments with municipal and provincial authorities, NGOs, the private
sector, and international conservation organizations to develop and effectively
implement conservation and tourism policies.
While existing legislation is very different in the seven Central American countries,
all of these nations are legally committed, either in the national constitution and/or by
national environmental laws, to consider of national interest the conservation,
protection, and improvement of their natural heritages through the establishment of
inalienable protected areas. These mandates include volcanoes and volcanic
landscapes. Unfortunately, to date, the level and effectiveness of protection of volcanic
natural resources is very uneven and in some countries, very inadequate.
34.3.2.1 Guatemala
The volcanoes of Guatemala, which are the highest of Central America, with altitudes
ranging up to 4220 m a.s.l. (Tajumulco volcano), are, with a single exception, only
nominally protected. Although the peaks and upper slopes of these magnificent cones
were officially declared restricted zones in 1956, in practice there has been little
protection until recently. To date one Guatemalan volcano has been declared a national
park and developed for tourism, and at least three others are partially developed and
protected by local agencies. The soaring Guatemalan volcanic cones provide visitors
both ordinary tourists and also travelers who have come specifically for reasons of
ecotourism spectacular scenic backdrops to tourist centers such as colonial Antigua
Guatemala and Atitln lake (Fig. 34.6a). Furthermore, many of the volcanoes can be
more or less easily climbed, partly using long-established trails. However, many of
them are currently active, implying a hazard for the tourists (Fig. 34.6b).
The most frequently climbed volcanoes are: Pacaya (tens to hundreds of persons per
day) (Fig. 34.6c, d), Agua (Fig. 34.6e), Acatenango, Cerro Quemado, and Siete Orejas.
However, with few exceptions, no infrastructure is provided by Guatemalan national
authorities. In Antigua, numerous local travel agencies offer guided trips to Pacaya, a
very popular excursion, and a number also offer hiking excursions to Agua,
Acatenango and Fuego. Pacaya volcano national park was created on paper in 1963,
but not effectively developed in any way until the 1990s. As of 2005, the park features
an entrance fee, a maintained access trail, rest areas and basic toilet facilities. The trail
and facilities are watched over by guardabosques (rangers). The climb up Pacaya is
non-technical and relatively easy. Depending on the degree of activity, visitors may

Figure 34.6. Volcanic landforms of Guatemala and El Salvador: (a) Atitln lake with volcanoes;
(b) Santa Mara and Santiaguito explosion craters; (c) and (d) Pacaya volcano; (e) Agua
volcano; (f ) Cerro Verde (left) and Izalco (right) volcanoes; (g) Izalco volcano; (h) Laguna
Verde. Photos: ad courtesy Rutahsa Adventures; fh courtesy D. Lopez.
stand on the crater rim and peer into the smoking vent, or may be required to maintain
a safer distance while enjoying the spectacle of strombolian explosions, which are

particularly dramatic at night (many commercial day trips to Pacaya are timed to
ascend in the afternoon and descend at night) (Fig. 34.6c).
Climbing Pacaya volcano has become a very popular day trip, primarily by tourists
from the nearby colonial city of Antigua Guatemala, where approximately 65 agencies
offer Pacaya trips. The park administration reports over 20,000 visitors per year.
In Quetzaltenango, at least one organization (Quetzaltrekkers) offers overnight trips
to Tajumulco and to Santiaguito. A short distance west of Quetzaltenango lies extinct
Chicabal volcano with its mist-enshrouded crater lake, long a site of worship for the
local indigenous population. Recently, the municipal authorities of the small town of
San Martn Sacatepquez have begun to encourage tourism of this site. An access route
has been developed, with some signage; an official parking area has been established,
and a small entry fee is charged.
In the Maya town of Santiago Atitln, guided hikes of the three volcanoes towering
over the spectacular Atitln caldera lake (Fig. 34.6a) have been available for several
years through the management of Posada Santiago. More recently, one of these three
cones, San Pedro volcano, has been declared a municipal park by the town of San
Pedro La Laguna. With the help of the Nature Conservancy, trails and guide services
have been formalized for San Pedro. Elsewhere in Guatemala, hikers must (should
for reasons of safety as well as contributing to the local economy) find and hire local
guides on their own. Experienced guides or knowledgeable locals willing to act as
guides are generally available in the villages nearest the volcanoes.
The security of volcano hikers with respect to criminal assaults and armed robberies
is of significant concern, to the extent that the U.S. State Department and
corresponding government authorities of the European countries (the sources of most
international visitors to Guatemala) have issued permanent warnings regarding the
dangers of hiking Guatemalan volcanoes. This unfortunate situation and the widely
publicized warnings obviously do nothing positive towards enhancing ecotourism in
Guatemala.
Pacaya volcano was the site of numerous serious assaults in the early 1990s. This
security problem has been brought under control with the development of park
facilities and the employment of rangers and police for security. However, with the
exception of Pacaya volcano national park, Guatemalan authorities do not appear to see
a pressing need to improve conservation and infrastructure in regard to volcanoes. This
may be because Guatemalas tourism patterns are different from those of the other
Central American countries.
For many decades Guatemala has been a tourist destination due to its numerous
Mayan ruins (especially Tikal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site), together with a
friendly Mayan population with their culture and traditions so fascinating to
international visitors. Thus, both the Guatemalan government and the national tourism
industry have logically focused predominantly on this target group of tourists. In
respect to conservation of natural areas, Guatemalas protected areas policies focus on
forest conservation and no volcano other than Pacaya is included in the list of national
parks.
The situation of El Salvador, with many well-formed stratovolcanoes, is similar to that
of Guatemala in respect to the lack of conservation and administration of volcano areas
through national or local authorities. Ascending Salvadoran volcanoes presents the

Figure 34.7. Volcanic landforms of Nicaragua: (a) Casita volcano with landslide from 1998; (b
d) Masaya volcano national park with Nindir crater and the Cruz de Bobadilla (b) and the
visitors center (c, d); (e) Ometepe island with Concepcin (left) and Maderas (right)
volcanoes; (f ) horseback riding at the foot of Mombacho volcano; (g) Cosigina volcano
from the air; (h) Laguna Apoyo. Photos: a, e, g courtesy J. Incer.
same security issues as in Guatemala. Also as in the case of Pacaya in Guatemala, there
is one Salvadoran exception to these generalizations, Cerro Verde national park, the

only one of El Salvadors three national parks that is based on a geologic feature. The
park has good infrastructure, including an access road to the Cerro Verde crater lake
(2030 m a.s.l.), where a visitors center, hotel, restaurants, water sports, lookout
platforms, and views of the active Santa Ana volcano (2365 m a.s.l.) and the Izalco
volcano (1910 m a.s.l.) are all available (Fig. 34.6fh). The park protects and provides
access to Izalco volcano, and to a lesser degree, Santa Ana volcano, both of which are
attractions that can be reached in a few hours from the park entrance. Active Santa Ana
is El Salvadors highest volcano, features a water-filled summit crater 500 m deep and
1 km in diameter, that spews out clouds of sulfuric vapor. Izalco volcano has earned a
bad reputation for security problems.
Another easily accessible Salvadoran volcano is Boquern (1880 m a.s.l.). A road
leads up to its crater rim. It is a volcano complex, which provides a view of San
Salvador. Due to its proximity to the capital city, this site has the highest potential in all
of El Salvador to be developed for geotourism. However, at the present time, no tourist
infrastructure such as hotels or restaurants exists at this site.
34.3.2.3 Nicaragua
Nicaragua has some of Central Americas most well-formed stratocones and numerous
lagoons and lakes of volcanic origin. All are found in western Nicaragua in a relatively
small area, giving Nicaragua the nickname Land of Lakes and Volcanoes. These
volcanoes and lakes attract numerous visitors to enjoy their scenic landscapes, and
some visitors also come for volcano hiking.
By 2003, 89 areas of Nicaragua had been legally protected, covering 21.8% of the
national territory [2] (Table 34.1). Four of these protected areas, including two volcano
areas, are national parks of IUCN category II. However, most (61) are natural reserves
of IUCN category IV and III, or other management categories of protected areas of the
same or lower IUCN rank (Table 34.1). Included in the category IV class are 12 areas
of volcanoes and 6 crater or caldera lakes. Included in the category III designation is La
Casita volcano (Fig. 34.7a), which became a national monument in memorium to the
over 2000 fatalities that occurred when a part of the flank of the volcano collapsed into
a catastrophic debris flow during hurricane Mitch (1998).
In spite of the legally designated protected status of these 89 areas, the actual
protection of these areas can be better shown by classifying the areas according to
their infrastructure and the personnel provided by the national authorities for
management and conservation. Unfortunately, only 12 of the areas, including the
volcanoes Masaya (Fig. 34.7bd), Maderas (Fig. 34.7e), and Mombacho (Fig. 34.7 f ) ,
are actively managed by permanent staff provided by the central government; 23 areas
are managed on minimum or preventive protection basis; and 41 areas are legally
protected but without any planning and management [9]. Management plans have been
implemented in only seven areas including Masaya national park. Management plans
have been drawn up for four other areas, including the Maderas and Concepcin
volcano natural reserves, but not yet implemented, and management plans are in
preparation (2004) for 16 other areas including Cosigina volcano natural reserve (Fig.
34.7g) [9]. It is remarkable that none of the aforementioned volcano reserves contain
any of the six volcanic crater or caldera lakes that are specifically designated as
reserves. Some of these lakes are used for weekend leisure activities, water sports and
bathing (e.g., Laguna Apoyo; Fig. 34.7h). Other supposedly protected lakes are
anthropogenically contaminated. For example, Tiscapa lake (Fig. 34.8a), has been

Figure 34.8. Volcanic landforms of Nicaragua: (a) Laguna Tiscapa; (b) Las Isletas in Lake
Nicaragua; (c) Momotombo volcano; (d) old lava flow at Momotombo volcano; (e) San
Cristbal volcano; (f) Cerro Negro volcano; (g) San Jacinto volcano with fumaroles; (h) El
Hoyo volcano. Photos: courtesy J. Incer.

fouled by two wastewater discharge pipes permitted by the government in the 1980s,
and to date there is no plan by municipal or national government to stop or remediate
this contamination [10]. In sum, the legally protected volcanic lakes are not effectively
protected.
The best overall tourist infrastructure in Nicaragua is found in the south Pacific
zone, from the Costa Rican border to the city of Masaya and Lake Nicaragua. It is not
only the most accessible part of the country, but also contains the most popular tourist
attractions. For these reasons, coupled with its proximity to Costa Rica, it is the most
visited region of the country. Volcanology-related tourist destinations are numerous in
this region: (1) the Masaya volcano national park, (2) the Mombacho volcano natural
reserve, (3) the Isletas, an archipelago of more than 300 small islands in Lake
Nicaragua, (4) Ometepe island in Lake Nicaragua with the twin volcanoes Madera and
Concepcin, (5) the 90 m deep Laguna Apoyo, an 8 km wide volcanic caldera lake, and
(6) Laguna Xiloa with its tourist complex and water sports facilities.
Masaya volcano national park (635 m a.s.l.), is one of only three national parks in
Nicaragua and is the only volcano in Nicaragua whose crater is accessible by paved road
(Fig. 34.7bd). Located just 28 km from Managua and provided with excellent
infrastructure (paved access, museum, sanitary facilities, parking at the crater rim, scenic
viewpoints, and trails) it is the most visited volcano in Nicaragua, receiving approximately
90,000 visitors annually. From the rim of Santiago crater, the only active crater of the
volcanic complex (which has been built by the two volcanoes Masaya and Nindiri), visitors
can look into the 500 m wide and 200 m deep crater, which emits wisps of steam and
sulfurous gases. Before it was closed off for safety reasons, it was possible to follow a trail
along the rim to a viewpoint from which the visitor could look down into the glowing throat
of the pit crater in the floor of the main crater. Other trails lead visitors to volcanic summits,
lava flows and lava tunnels. The lava tunnel system, perhaps the only such system in
Central America, is over 600 m long, a portion of which (the approximately 100 m long
Tzinancanostoc cave or Bat cave) is open to the public.
Granada (45 km southeast of Managua) is the oldest city of Central America and
therefore a tourist center for reasons of its historic significance and architecture. The
peninsula and archipelago of small islands of volcanic rock known as Las Isletas are
located just five minutes outside Granada, and are a popular tourist attraction,
especially for national tourists, featuring restaurants and boat rides (Fig. 34.8b). The
arcuate peninsula and hundreds of islets are almost certainly the hummocky remains of
a prehistoric debris avalanche that descended the northeast flank of Mombacho volcano
(see Chapters 4 and 38).
The Mombacho volcano natural reserve is located just 10 km outside of Granada,
which provides both a source and a base for tourists wanting to visit the Mombacho
reserve (Fig. 34.7f ) . The reserve is co-managed with a NGO, and features sufficient
infrastructure to allow the access of relatively large numbers of visitors. Trails from the
biological station (1150 m a.s.l.) lead to one of the four craters and some fumarole
vents, but not to the volcanos highest peak (1345 m a.s.l.). Ecotourism is beginning to
have some impact in the Lake Nicaragua area, with increasing numbers of visitors
coming to Ometepe island (Fig. 34.7e), which became recently easily accessible by the
introduction of a car ferry, but which to date has only limited and moderate
accommodation facilities. Viewed from afar, Ometepe island, with its twin volcanoes
rising up out of Lake Nicaragua, is a sight of unsurpassed beauty. The southern cone,
Maderas volcano (1390 m a.s.l.) is dormant and heavily wooded. The northern cone,

Figure 34.9. Volcanic landforms of Costa Rica: (ac) Arenal volcano; (d) Pos volcano; (e, f) Iraz
volcano; (g, h) Turrialba volcano. Photos: ac courtesy O. Aragn; dh courtesy R. Mora.
Concepcin volcano (1610 m a.s.l.) is partially bare, as it is still active, and it is

considered to be one of the most perfectly formed volcanic cones in all Central
America. The beauty of the island, the warm waters of the lake, and the contrasting
scenery and ecosystems on the inactive and active cones make Ometepe an ideal

destination for volcano viewing and hiking. Unfortunately, despite the fact that both
volcanoes are legally protected areas, no formal infrastructure exists within these
reserves and visitors must search for local guides to hike these volcanoes.
Other legally protected volcanic areas in Nicaragua are Cosigina (859 m a.s.l.)
(Fig. 34.7g), Momotombo (1280 m a.s.l.) (Fig. 34.8c) with its homonymous geothermal
plant as its foot (see Chapter 26) and the San Cristbal-Casitas volcanic complex (Fig.
34.8e) which includes Nicaraguas highest cone (1745 m a.s.l.). However, these volcanoes
lie in the north Pacific zone of Nicaragua, which, like most of the rest of Nicaragua, suffers
from a lack of accessibility due to inadequate infrastructure.
The lack of accessibility and the lack of effective protection and management leave
much of Nicaragua a land of natural, scenic and ecological attractions that remain
undiscovered and unvisited by most travelers, national and international.
34.3.2.4 Costa Rica
The total protected area considered as a percentage of national territory in Costa Rica
(23.8%) is quite similar to that in Nicaragua (21.8%). However, the protection
category, administration, and therefore the actual protection and infrastructure are at
higher and more effective levels in Costa Rica than in the other Central American
countries. Some 8.9% of Costa Ricas land surface is covered by national parks (IUCNcategory II or conservation areas of category I); only 0.5% are conservation areas of
category IIIV and 14.3% of lower category (Table 34.1, [2]). Costa Ricas national
parks include two parks declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO [4]. And Costa
Ricas parks and reserves have the huge advantage (compared to the rest of Central
America) of being mostly easily accessible from anywhere in the country. Costa Rica is
the Central American country with the best public access to natural scenic and
ecological destinations, access so essential for the successful use of these destinations
in an ecotourism industry that contributes in a significant fashion to the national
economy.
In Central America, Costa Rica is the country with the greatest number of volcano
areas that are strictly protected by national parks of IUCN category II: Rincn de la
Vieja, Arenal (Fig. 34.9ac), Pos (Fig. 34.9d), and Iraz (Fig. 34.9e, f ) volcanoes,
plus two parks with little tourist infrastructure: Tenorio, and Turrialba (Fig. 34.9g, h)
volcanoes (six volcano parks in total, all IUCN category II). Miravalles volcano was
outlined as a protected zone, and Bosque Alegre (Laguna Hule) was outlined as a
national wildlife refuge (IUCN category VI and IV, respectively). Other national parks
like those of Braulio Carrillo (Barva volcano), Juan Castro Blanco (Platanar and
Porvenir volcanoes) protect biological habitats around volcanoes and feature
infrastructure to facilitate the access to these volcanoes.
Pos volcano national park (2708 m a.s.l.; Fig. 34.10) is the most famous and popular volcano national park of Central America and was visited in 2002 by 212,458 persons
(average 19922002: 208,218), of which 45.5% were international visitors (average
19922002: 42.6%) [3] (Fig. 34.5). These visitor numbers correspond to 57.0% of all
visits to volcano national parks of Costa Rica and to 27.7% of all visits to SINAC (year
2002). The main attraction at Pos is the active crater of the three, 1.3 km wide, and 300 m
deep, filled with a sulfurous, hot crater lake and fumaroles. In popularity, Pos national
park is followed by Iraz volcano national park, whose stratovolcano towers 3432 m
a.s.l. Visitors can drive close to the summit, visit a moonscape area, and view the

Figure 34.10. Pos volcano national park with its tourist facilities. The grey area indicates the
effects of acid rain on the forest (courtesy: Joint Project CENAT/NASA, Carta Mission
2003, Costa Rica).
principal of Irazus craters, which contains a crater lake, characteristically green to

yellow in color. Iraz national park was visited in 2002 by 122,024 persons (average
19922002: 123,875), 22% were international visitors (average 19922002: 27.7%)
(Fig. 34.5). These visitor numbers correspond to 30.4% of all visits to volcano national
parks and to 14.6% of all visits to SINAC sites. The national parks of Pos and Iraz, like
Masaya volcano in Nicaragua, are among the few places in the world where visitors
can drive up to the crater rim of an active volcano. Both Pos and Iraz volcanos have
the advantage that they are near to the national capital San Jos (Pos 52 km, Iraz 54
km), and hence may be visited in a half-day trip from there.
Arenal volcano national park is an example and model for ecotourism, including a
strong component of sustainable rural development. The key feature of this national
park is the impressive and majestic Arenal volcano, an almost perfect active stratocone
(1650 m a.s.l.). Arenal is also one of the worlds most active volcanoes, whose frequent
small eruptions offer some of the most extraordinary and awe-inspiring natural sights
in Costa Rica, which, of course, is why Arenal attracts many visitors.

Arenal national park was visited in 2002 by 27,661 persons (average 19952002:
26,888); 54.8% were international visitors (average 19952002: 40.9%) (Fig. 34.5).
The visits to Arenal national park amount to 6.2% of all visits to volcano national parks
in Costa Rica and to 3% of all visits to SINAC sites in 2002. When comparing these
visitor numbers with those of the Pos and Iraz, it must be considered that the Arenal
area is actually visited by many more people than indicated by the visitor numbers
registered at the national park. The reason for this is that Arenal volcano can be visited
without entering in the park itself, something that is not possible at Pos and Iraz (or
Rincn de la Vieja) national parks where the attractions are found within the national
parks themselves. In 2003, the town of Fortuna, at the foot of Arenal volcano, located
only 7 km from the active crater, and from which it is easily possible to observe the
volcano, received 80,000 visitors, roughly three times the number of visitors that
actually entered Arenal national park. One can readily infer from these figures that the
economic benefits of ecotourism are not restricted to the park area alone and that the
region around Arenal park derives significant income from the tourist influx.
Another example of Costa Ricas efforts to create ecotourism projects that
contribute to sustainable development in rural areas is the Rincn de la Vieja national
park. Located in northwest Costa Rica (264 km or about five hours by automobile from
San Jos), at the base of Rincn de la Vieja volcano, it offers volcanoes, geothermal
manifestations including mudpots, hot springs, and fumaroles, combined with a rich
flora and fauna. At the border of the park, three hotels, one with hot natural thermal
water pools and volcanic mud baths, provide good tourist facilities for visits of multiple
day duration. Due to its distance from San Jos, Rincn de la Vieja park is less visited
than Pos and Iraz volcano parks. In 2002, Rincn de la Vieja park was visited by
28,711 persons (average 19922002: 21,975), 68.8% of whom were international
visitors (average 19922002: 61.9%) (Fig. 34.5). The visits to Rincn de la Vieja park
constitute 6.4% of all visits to Costa Ricas volcano national parks and to 3.1% of all
visits to SINAC (year 2002), being hence quite similar to Arenal in visitation.
34.3.2.5 Panama
In Panama, about 19.5% of the national territory is protected in 14 national parks, more
than a dozen forest reserves and 10 wildlife refuges. Panama has protected one of its
principal volcanic areas, the Bar volcano, as a national park. This park, in Chiriqu
province near to the Costa Rican border, protects a geological and ecological landscape
that contains significant biodiversity. The relatively cool climate makes the park a
pleasant destination. The ascent to the top of the Bar volcano, 3475 m a.s.l., can be
made in a 4-wheel drive vehicle or by foot (around 4 hours).
Because it is near the town of Boquete (which has itself become one of the main
tourist destinations in Panama, especially attracting national tourists wishing to escape
from the heat of Panama city), Boquete and Bar national park is one of the most
visited tourism destinations in Panama. The main deterrent to greater tourism at Bar
park is its considerable distance from Panamas most populated areas. From Panama
city it is a 1-hour flight or a 6-hour drive to David, followed by a 30-minute 40 km trip
by car to Boquete.

34.4
GEOLOGICAL RESOURCES FOR THERMALISM AND THERAPEUTIC

TOURISM
34.4.1 Introduction
In ancient times, notably during the Roman Empire, geothermal waters were used for
relaxing the body and soul as well as for curative treatments based on the real or
supposed therapeutic properties of the waters. Since the early 20th century, in different
parts of the world but especially in European countries, balneology and medical
hydrology have been incorporated into scientific medical advances, and have moved
beyond their previous empiricism. The study of mineral waters, specifically their
therapeutic benefits and their effects on organs and functions in both healthy and sickly
organisms, have allowed balneology and medical hydrology to find a place among the
legitimate branches of medical knowledge.
Balneology has been shown to be useful and effective, although in many instances
medication and surgical therapies have been given priority over balneology cures. The
principal resources for thermalism and therapeutic tourism are thermal and mineral
waters, peloides, and micro-algae, and the environments in which these agents are
formed. Balneology is used in some cases as the exclusive treatment, and as an
auxiliary treatment in others, and it can help in the recovery of some patients, and in
the maintenance of well-being in generally healthy people.
Thermalism is defined as the use of geothermal and other natural resources (e.g.,
different herbal plants), in combination with the natural environment, for the promotion
of health and quality of life, and for recreation and ecotourism based on these practices.
Thermalism resources include both geothermal water, steam and mud, naturally heated
by the earths interior, and also resources that are artificially heated to be applied for
thermalism, e.g., mineral waters, peloides, micro-algae of marine salines and lagoons.
Modern thermalism uses these resources to integrate the elements of health, promotion
of quality of life, enhancement of aesthetics and beauty, and recreation. Spas, health
centers, and similar institutions are developed around thermalism resources to facilitate
their usage by the public, healthy and sick, including national and foreign tourists.
Here the focus is on thermalism resources that are of geological origin. Other
resources used for thermalism and health tourism are considered marginally (e.g.,
seawater) or not at all (e.g., peloides of the tropical forest, herbal plants, flowers).
Central America has numerous geological resources that can be used for thermalism
and health tourism and also by the cosmetics industry. The uses, potential and actual, of
these resources include: (1) In medical therapy; (2) In spa and resorts; (3) In the
production of cosmetics; (4) In the production of dermocosmetics; (5) In hotels and
other tourist facilities; (6) In bathtubs and individual jacuzzis in private houses; (7) In
aesthetics and beauty centers.
34.4.2 Geothermal resources related to volcanism and their actual use
34.4.2.1 Overview
There are numerous geothermal sites in the Central American volcanic mountain chain,
which covers much of Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, parts of Honduras
and parts of Panama (see Chapter 26). These sites include hot springs, bubbling mudpots,
and fumaroles. There are also geothermal sites in some non-volcanic areas of Central
America. The great majority of these sites are undeveloped for tourism or other uses.

Table 34.3. Water types for health and recreational tourism, their actual and potential uses and
medical applications. Examples are primarily from Costa Rica.
Water type
Ways of applications/medical uses
Chloride waters:
predominantly marine
environments of Central
America and to a lesser
extent, geothermal
waters in volcanic areas
such as Rincn de la
Vieja, Agua Caliente de
Orosi, Agua Caliente de
San Carlos (El Tucano),
Termales del Bosque,
Tabacn (all in Costa
Rica).
^%DWKLQJUHFRYHU\IURPVXUJHU\HVSHFLDOO\PXVFOH-related, and from

wounds. Properties include anti-inflammatory effects; muscle
stimulation; and treatment of arthro-rheumatic and locomotion
problems. Bathing constitutes the primary use of chloride waters in
Costa Rica.
^,QKDODWLRQVQHEXOLVDWLRQHWFXVHGLQDIHZWKDOORVRWKHUDS\FHQWHUV
in Panama and Belize): useful in treating chronic respiratory problems
and some digestive problems.
^'ULQNLQJ1RWUHFRPPHQGHGH[FHSWLQWKHFDVHRIWHUPLQDOVWDJHs
of hepatitis.
Sulfate waters:
e.g., geothermal areas
of Miravalles, Rincn
de la Vieja, Los
Hervideros (Puntarenas)
(all in Costa Rica).
^%DWKLQJLQGLYLGXDODQGORFDODSSOLFDWLRQVRIVXOIDWHZDWHUVE\
ordinary bathing and showering, and, where appropriate, by irrigation
of afflicted body parts.
^,QKDODWLRQVQHEXOLVDWLRQHWF1RWVLJQLILFDQW7KHSULQFLSDOIRUPRI
administering sulfate waters is oral (in drinks), depending on the
dosage to ingest and on the mineralization of the water.
^'ULQNLQg: Sulfate waters have laxative, expurgatory effects. They
facilitate the release of bile to the intestine, and stimulate diuresis. Can
also help treat locomotor and digestive problems.
H2S waters:
de la Vieja, Termas Sta.
Mara volcano (all
Guanacaste, Costa
Rica).
^%DWKLQJVXOIXURXVZDWHUVDUHXVHGIRUWKHLUWKHUDSHXWLFHIIHFWVRQ
the body. They produce direct effects on the skin and on accessible
mucus membranes of the respiratory, digestive, and genito-urinary
tracts. The sulfur in the water is absorbed by the digestive tract and
also by the respiratory tract, and through the skin.
^,QKDODWLRQVQHEXOLVDWLRQHWF0DLQXVHVFKURQLFLQIHFWLRQVRIWKH
respiratory tract, such as rhinitis, laryngitis and bronchitis.
^'ULQNLQJ0DLQXVHVFKURQLFLQIHFWLRQVRIthe respiratory tract, such
as rhinitis, laryngitis and bronchitis.
In addition to the documented geothermal sites, numerous thermal place names strongly
suggest that there are many more geothermal sites than have been formally described in the
scientific literature. For example, the Catalog of Known Hot Springs and Thermal Place
Names for Honduras [11], compiled using as a base the set of 1:50,000 topographic maps
available in 1986, lists 105 known hot springs (T > 35 C), and an additional 56 suspected
thermal sites on the basis of names such as agua caliente, agua tibia, etc.
There are several hundred thermal springs in Central America, mostly
thermomineral waters with both, > 1 g/l dissolved solids and temperatures over 35 C,
Because these waters possess many health benefits, these springs have a huge, as yet
mostly untapped, regional potential for different applications in thermalism, both
medical and recreational. Table 34.3 indicates types of geothermal waters found in
Central America and their actual and potential uses and medical applications. However,
it must be noted that the occurrence of the different water types and respective
applications are biased towards Costa Rica, due to the lack of available data from
thermalism sites in other Central American countries. Thermal waters fed into pools or
individual baths can be used directly simply as hot bathing water primarily for its

Table 34.3. (continued).

Water type
Ways of applications/medical uses
Iron waters:
e.g., Salitral de Santa
Ana, Agua Caliente de
Cartago (all in Costa
Rica).
^%DWKLQJEDWKLQJLQLURQ-rich water is believed by some to lead to

general health improvements. Although scientific documentation of
curative affects of particular waters may be lacking, some therapeutic
benefits may occur according to the users expectations.
^,QKDODWLRQVQHEXOLVDWLRQHWF1RWVLJQLILFDQW
^'ULQNLQJ0DLQXVHVDUHLQWUHDWPHQWRIEORRGGLVHDVHVSDUWLFXODUO\
anemia (iron deficiency).
CO2 and CO2 gas

waters:
In general all the
thermal waters of the
Central valley of Costa
Rica: e.g., Fuentes de
Oros-Bermejo, Finca
Fdo. Esquivel, Fuente
Doris (NE del Volcn
Arenal) (all in Costa
Rica).
^%DWKLQJ&22 (dissolved) and CO2 gas (gas bubbles) waters are used
for drinking and bathing. The best known effects of these types of
waters are vasodilation and improvement of peripheral circulation.
Recommended in cases of arterial occlusive diseases and hypertension.
^,QKDODWLRQVQHEXOLVDWLRQHWF'U\JDVLQKDODWLRQVDUHLQGLFDWHGIRU
patients whose conditions make bathing unsuitable.
^'ULQNLQJ:DWHUZLWK a high carbonate content is an ideal table
water. It behaves as a weak stimulant of the mucosa of the digestive
tract; it stimulates the secretion of gastric juices and activity of the
stomach, favoring the progression of food through the first sectors of
the digestive tract and the absorption of nutrients.
Bicarbonate waters:
de la Vieja; the majority
of the thermal waters of
the Central valley
(Finca Ro PerlasBarcel y Agua
Caliente, Cartago) (all
in Costa Rica).
^%DWKLQJ8VHGIRUWKHUDSHDXWLFEDWKV
^,QKDODWLRQVQHEXOLVDWLRQHWF LRFDODSSOLFDWLRQVH[WHUQDOO\RU
internally, do not offer particular benefits; in fact, drinking is the
principal means of application.
^'ULQNLQJ,QVPDOOUHSHDWHGGoses serves to neutralize stomach
acids; in higher doses bicarbonate waters facilitate evacuation of the
stomach. It also stimulates secretions of the pancreas and the liver. It
has favorable effects on diabetic patients and some obese patients.
relaxative qualities (in which any medical or curative properties of the water are
bonus benefits), or they can be mixed with natural mineral-rich volcanic mud for
mud baths specifically for the curative aspects of thermalism.
Bathing in thermal waters and mud baths is a natural stress buster and the
combination of relaxative and curative aspects of thermalism is creating a growing
field of thermal health tourism. Thermal baths are no longer considered places for the
elderly seeking cures, but as resorts for young and mature persons interested in
maintaining physical and mental health and fitness. Spas where one can relax in
thermal pools and/or take mud baths in the midst of a landscape of tropical beauty with
volcanoes and lakes, lush vegetation, and a clean atmosphere, and which offer sports
and other leisure activities, are growing in popularity. Some of the potential benefits of
visits to thermal spas include development or improvement of self-esteem, image,
aspirations, physical and psychological improvement, body and soul rejuvenation,
along with a reconnection with nature.
Sulfur-rich thermal waters, which are the most common type of geothermal waters
in Central America, have relaxing and curative properties for clinical treatment of
chronic respiratory diseases (e.g., asrinitis, laryngitis and bronchitis), rheumatism,
arthritis and skin diseases. The main component of the volcanic muds is hydromineral,
containing bioactive compounds of sulfur, iron, manganese, lithium, silica, etc., which
are beneficial for skin diseases and for the circulatory system. They are also used for
purposes of aesthetics and beauty. The micro-algae in these thermal environments are

of less abundance compared to marine muds, because the high temperatures limit the
species variety and abundance. Micro-algae species associated with sulfur- and ironrich muds are in great demand for their cosmetic properties.
In spite of their many well-known therapeutic and recreational uses, most of the
thermal springs, peloides and micro-algae associated with the volcanic areas of Central
America have yet to be developed, or are only partially developed, lacking the
necessary infrastructure needed to realize their full potential. At present, only a few
thermal sites in Central America have been developed into attractive vacation centers
for relaxation and medical purposes. Nor, in general, are Central American thermal
waters used by medical institutions for rehabilitation or cure. In contrast, elsewhere in
Latin American (e.g., Mexico, Chile, and Argentina), different thermal waters and
muds of different mineralogical and chemical compositions are used for medical
treatments in sophisticated medical centers, where baths are combined with modern
balneotherapy with capacity of thousands of baths per day and where professionals and
technicians, such as doctors, kinesiologists, physical education teachers, balneotherapy
auxiliaries, etc. supervise the treatment professionally.
34.4.2.2 Guatemala
Guatemala exemplifies the under-developed condition of Central Americas thermal
water resources, even in areas where the sources are well-known and indeed have been
used in a rustic or primitive fashion for many generations. There are three principal
areas in Guatemala where thermal springs are used for thermalism: the area southeast
of the city of Quetzaltenango, the area around Amatitln lake, and the area of
Momostenango and Totonicapn.
The beautiful volcanic highlands around Quetzaltenango, the second largest city of
Guatemala, host the primitive natural sauna/steam baths of Los Vahos (where volcanic
steam is used for sweat baths, but there are no pools for actual bathing), and the very
basic baths at the town of Almolonga (not suitable for international tourism). South
from Almolonga, on the highway towards the Pacific coast, is a site called Aguas
Amargas, which was operated for thermal tourism as long ago as the 1950s. A few
kilometers east of Almolonga lies Guatemalas most famous thermal spa, Fuentes
Georginas (Fig. 34.11a), which is located in a mountain gorge about 15 km from
Quetzaltenango town. Here, water from hot sulfur springs is dammed by a rock wall to
form a moderately large swimming pool, with smaller adjacent pools. The remarkable
setting in the cloud-forest (2400 m a.s.l.), the perpetually cool climate, and the
soothing, hot mineral water of the baths attracts national and international visitors. In
October 1998, the installations were partly destroyed by a landslide caused by rainfall
associated with hurricane Mitch. After restoration, spa users found that the upper pool
was too hot to bathe in comfortably, the landslide apparently having opened a new vent
and as consequence the water was noticeably hotter than before. Since that time the
water temperature has returned to a hot but pleasant temperature. Facilities for visitors
are limited, but include a parking area, basic changing rooms and sanitary facilities, a
small restaurant/bar, lodging and a primitive hiking trail into the cloud forest. Seven
rustic stone cottages, alleged to have hot water piped to private baths in the cabaas,
allow overnight stays, but are dark and not very well maintained. Due to these
limitations, most visitors make day trips from Quetzaltenango to the springs rather than
enjoying longer stays. Although the facilities of Fuentes Georginas need some
improvements, the extreme steepness of the terrain here would make larger and more

Figure 34.11. Geothermal manifestations for health tourism in Guatemala and Honduras:
(a) Fuentes Georginas near Quetzaltenango (Guatemala); (b) Thermal springs near Agua
Caliente village, north of Copn city (Honduras): left: deep and shallow pools located nearby
the river; right: hot water cascade (2 m height) in a river originating from 82 C warm waters
of thermal springs flowing into the river; (c, d) Installations of Gracias geothermal baths
(Honduras); (eg) Azacualpa (near town of San Pedro Zacapa, Santa Brbara department,
Honduras) with a steamy natural tunnel, known locally as La Cueva (e, f) and sauna
installations (g). Photos: a, cg courtesy Rutahsa Adventures, b courtesy Toru Matsumoto.

elaborate development difficult and expensive. Such development would also detract
from its present charm, which should be maintained.
Another important area of thermalism in Guatemala is the town of Amatitln with
its homonymous lake, which due to its proximity to the countrys capital and its
easy accessibility by bus or car has been a tourist leisure area since the 19th century.
The basin of the lake features numerous solfataras, fumaroles, and thermal springs.
Many of the springs have reputed medicinal properties and are visited by several
hundred visitors per day. At more than 20 sites, the hot springs have been converted to
recreation centers with thermal water pools and different recreation facilities. In
addition, many of Amatitlns thermal springs are used by the owners of private
weekend/holiday houses.
Hot spring sites have been developed for local use in the areas of Momostenango
(four), San Cristbal Totonicapn (two) and San Antonio Aguas Calientes (one) near
Antigua. The facilities are not of a class to attract international tourists, but nonetheless
are listed in some guidebooks, and, as a consequence, no doubt receive some visitation.
Two other tourist hot springs in Guatemala deserve mention. Northeast of
Guatemala city, at km 29 on the national road CA-9 is the spa of IRTRA (Instituto de
Recreacin de los Trabajadores de la Empresa Privada de Guatemala) Aguas
Calientes. Here a recreational center with lodging and food service has been developed
for the use of workers in the private sector, who pay a small percent of their salaries
into a fund for the creation and maintenance of a system of recreational centers all over
the country. The facilities here are more extensive than those at any other hot spring in
Guatemala.
At the opposite end of the scale of development is the hot spring associated with
Finca El Paraso on the north shore of Izabal lake. Despite some difficulties of access
(which is primarily by boat across Izabal lake) the owners of Finca El Paraso have
successfully developed their farm into a tourist retreat on the lake with cabins, dining
and bar facilities, and swimming. One of the attractions of the farm is a natural
swimming hole in a cold water stream, into which cascades a waterfall of hot water
from a thermal spring above the pool. Transportation from the lodge to a parking lot
near the hot spring is available, and a maintained trail leads to the swimming hole, but
other than this, the hot spring and pool remain completely natural.
34.4.2.3 Honduras
Although Honduras has no active volcanoes, there are 105 known thermal springs (> 35 C),
plus numerous additional geographic place names that suggest thermal activity, and
thus the potential for the development of thermal resources for tourism is considerable.
Those sites with the greatest potential for ready development would be sites situated
near other, already established, attractions and tourist facilities. Development of sites
located at great distances from population centers or from other existing tourist
attractions would be more difficult, as the thermal sites would have to be developed on
a scale and with facilities sufficient to entice visitors from afar, and therefore would
have to provide more services than just thermal baths alone.
Due to its proximity to the world famous Maya ruins of Copn, the hot spring
known locally simply El Agua Caliente is the most visited thermal spring in
Honduras (Fig. 34.11b). The site is located 21 km north of the town of Copn Ruinas,
in an idyllic valley with abundant vegetation. At the spring site, river water is mixed
with very hot (82 C) water from the spring to create an appropriate temperature for

bathing and relaxing, and is piped into two artificial pools. Visitors may either bath in
natural warm-water pools dammed in the river or swim in the artificial pools. Facilities
include changing rooms, sanitary facilities, a picnic area and simple refreshments. A
small, basic hotel exists in the nearby village of Agua Caliente.
Despite the large visitor numbers at Copn ruins, El Agua Caliente is not
sufficiently developed as a leisure site to cause many visitors to stay longer in the
region of Copn. Many of the Copn visitors come to visit the famous Maya ruins on a
day trip from San Pedro Sula, or, if entering Honduras from Guatemala, will overnight
in the town of Copn Ruinas. In either case, the great majority of visitors focus on the
archeological site and only a few stay long enough to include a visit to the thermal
springs.
Another site with thermal baths is located near the historic mountain town of Gracias,
160 km by highway southeast of Copn. Gracias is easily reached by paved highway
from the north (Copn and San Pedro Sula) and by a currently gravel (but soon to be
paved) road from the direction of the capital, Tegucigalpa. The town has good hotel
facilities, and also features attractions other than its long-established hot springs pools
(Fig. 34.11c, d). Gracias preserves historic sites of the colonial era, features an old fort
(now open to the public) on the outskirts of town, and is the base for adventure tourists
wanting to hike into the cloud forest of Montaa Celaque national park. Indeed, Gracias
seems poised on the brink of being discovered as a tourist destination and site for
further development of the ecotourism industry. However, at present Gracias is much less
visited than Copn, and due to its geographic location, visits from either San Pedro Sula
or Tegucigalpa cannot be conducted in one day.
The Gracias thermal springs are located just 7 km outside Gracias, and have been
developed and popular among locals for over 30 years. Like the site near Copn, the
Gracias hot spring is located in an attractive area of forest. The site features a large
concrete-lined pool, subdivided into sections of different depths. The facilities have
been recently upgraded and include a restaurant, bathrooms, and changing rooms. The
springs are popular with national tourists, especially during weekends and on holidays,
and are increasingly visited by international tourists, especially travelers seeking
adventure and less-well-known sights in rural Honduras.
The thermal pools near Gracias are owned by the municipality, but are operated by
the community of Arsilaca, and profits are re-invested in social projects for the
community. Thus, these springs are a good example of how thermal tourism can
directly benefit communities, as opposed to private investors.
An additional site with noteworthy thermal springs of tourist potential is Azacualpa,
reached by road from the town of San Pedro Zacapa, in Santa Brbara department. The
spring site is 1.8 km east of Azacualpa, at the base of a prominent northsouth trending
escarpment, where the Jaitique river emerges from the narrow canyon it has cut into the
uplifted Atima limestone. Here over 40 hot springs have been catalogued, with
temperatures up to 100 C [12]. Many rise along the major normal fault at the foot of
the escarpment, while others issue from numerous fissures in the limestone in the
eastern (upthrown) fault block. A steamy natural tunnel, known locally as La Cueva,
is found on the south side of the mouth of the Jaitique canyon (Fig. 34.11e, f). This 20 m
long tunnel appears to be excavated in alluvium deposited along the fault-line scarp,
cemented by travertine (probably deposited by the hot springs), and later partially
excavated by a small surface stream that now flows through the tunnel mixing with
thermal waters to form a sort of natural sauna (Fig. 34.11g).

These springs are well-known locally, and have begun to receive some non-local
tourism by nationals, in spite of the almost complete lack of development. The Jaitique
river level fluctuates seasonally, being swift and muddy in the rainy season, and low,
but clear in the dry season. Because the spring water is too hot for bathing without
dilution, it is necessary to bathe in the Jaitique where thermal and stream waters mix.
The surrounding area is attractive, and horseback riding, hiking and rock climbing
activities could be added to bathing, along with camping and picnicking. But at present
the site lacks facilities to make it suitable to large numbers of visitors.
Another thermal spring near the town of San Juan Intibuca, about halfway between
Gracias and La Esperanza on the main road to Tegucigalpa has been developed for use
by tourists and will likely benefit from increased traffic as tourism grows in Gracias
and spills over into other communities in the region. In addition, at least two other
Honduran thermal springs have been developed for tourist use. One, the Balneario San
Francisco, is located in the Amarateca valley just north of the capital, Tegucigalpa, and
has been developed for bathing for several decades. Facilities include dressing rooms,
sanitary facilities, and a cement pool with a temperature of 36 C. This thermal bath is
used by nationals, but probably receives few or no international tourists.
The second, more highly developed site is the hot spring located 7 km east of the
town of Trujillo, about 4 km from the Caribbean coast. Spring water here has been
measured at 64 C. The site has been developed as a spa, offering several different
thermal pools, a variety of relaxing and rejuvenescent treatments such as massage,
jacuzzis, and natural steam baths, and a good hotel. Its location allows thermalism to be
combined with nearby seaside leisure activities. Its proximity to the historic town of
Trujillo (7 km E), with its own tourist attractions, bodes well for increased tourism,
both national and international.
El Salvador has numerous fumaroles, solfataras, and thermal springs. The most wellknown are: (1) the famous fumaroles of Ahuachapn, (2) the infiernillos (thermal
springs) of San Vicente or the Chinchontepec volcanoes, (3) the geysers of Carolina
(San Miguel), (4) the bicarbonate springs of La Toma de Quezaltepeque at the San
Salvador volcano, and (5) the thermal springs discharging into the Caliente river (near
the town of Caluco; Sonsonate) (Fig. 34.12a). Despite the large number of thermal springs
found practically all over the country, these thermal resources have not been developed,
and in some cases the access roads are not appropriate. For those reasons, they are not
extensively visited by nationals and are little known to international tourists. In
addition, the hot climate of El Salvadors lowlands (where the countrys capital, San
Salvador, and most other major population centers are located) does not make
swimming in warm water attractive. In Ahuachapn department, the El Playn and
many other fumarolic fields are located near the city of the same name. The fumaroles
are widespread across an area of about 20 km2, where the Ahuachapn geothermal
plant is also located (see Chapter 26). Although numerous, these thermal muds and steam
resources remain unused and undeveloped. One of them, called El Salitre, is an area of
hot water lagoons that form the head waters of the Agua Caliente river. This river flows
into the adjacent province (Sonsonate department) to the east. On its way, the Agua
Caliente river passes Caluco, a village close to Sonsonate city and located just 1.5 km
from Izalco volcano, where the sulfur-rich thermal river water is crystalline clear and
uncontaminated a rarity for rivers in El Salvador and is used by local people for

Figure 34.12. Geothermal resources and facilities for health tourism in El Salvador and
Nicaragua: (a) Termos del ro, La Libertad department (El Salvador) near to Agua Caliente
river; (b, c) Tipitapa (Nicaragua): Thermal baths (b) and natural sauna bath (c); (d, e) Hotel
Aguas Claras, Boaco (Nicaragua): Thermal baths (d) and geothermal jacuzzi (e); (f, g)
Centro Asistencial, Jos de la Cruz Mena, San Francisco Libre (Nicaragua): Thermal pool
(f) and treatments with thermal mud (g).

bathing and relaxation. Together with the beautiful natural landscape and the close
proximity of Izalco volcano, already a tourist destination, this site seems a natural place
for the development of a fully-fledged thermal spa for both national and international
tourists. The development of appropriate bathing installations and tourist facilities
would be an interesting option for either private enterprise or for the municipal
government of Caluco as an investment for its citizens. Other thermal springs with
rudimentary bathing facilities include: (1) the Balneario de San Andrs at the town of
Apaneca (Ahuachapn department); (2) the thermal springs at the towns of Villa de
Agua Caliente and El Paraso (Chalatenango department); (3) the thermal springs at the
base of the Chichontepec volcano (San Vicente volcano), southeast of the city of San
Vicente; (4) the springs of Toma de Quezaltepeque at the San Salvador volcano; and
(5) the thermal springs at the foot of the Santa Ana volcano, which discharge into
Coatepeque lake in the homonymeous national park (see Table 34.2).
Recently, the geothermal industry in El Salvador recognized that the exploitation of
thermal resources as tourist attractions could generate income (see Chapter 26). The geothermal energy company (LaGeo) has constructed a thermal spa at the Berln geothemal
field near the Tecapa volcano in the east of the country, and swimming pools and modern
facilities are under construction close to fumaroles and the geothermal energy plant.
34.4.2.5 Nicaragua
In Nicaragua there are only a few sites offering very limited possibilities to enjoy the
benefits of thermal waters, and these sites do not yet excite much tourist interest. In
particular, the Nicaraguans seem still to largely consider bathing in thermal waters to
be only for people with skin diseases and other afflictions, and have not, in general,
come to consider thermalism as means for relaxing and recreation.
The existing Nicaraguan thermal baths are not linked to ecotourism or leisure
tourism. One reason for this is that they are not located in the attractive surroundings
needed to attract international health visitors or ecotourists as are thermal baths in
Honduras and Costa Rica. Nicaragua has not yet recognized the potential demand for
thermal spring facilities in conjunction with its well-visited natural parks and
volcanoes.
There are numerous thermal springs in Nicaragua that are not used at all, or which
have only rudimentary development such as damming and which are used by locals and
some tourists. Examples include springs at the foot of Momotombo volcano and the hot
water river of Aguas Calientes near Len Viejo. Other sites, such as the famous
Hervideros de San Jacinto bubbling mud pots and fumaroles near the foot of Telica
volcano are frequently visited by tourists, but the site is not developed for mud and
steam baths, bathing, or other aspects of thermalism.
The most famous thermal spring of Nicaragua is that of Tipitapa, about 20 km from
the capital, Managua (Fig. 34.12b, c). Known officially as the Centro Turstico Los
Termales, the site lies northeast of the town of Tipitapa, which administers the
facility. Here, water from a thermal spring (60 C) discharges into a pool from which
the sulfur-rich water is fed into two other pools (35 to 40 C). Tipitapa also has the
only natural sauna in Nicaragua, with a capacity for 10 persons, where natural steam at
50 C is used for treatment of obesity, but can also be used for relaxation and pleasure.
The facilities include a restaurant.
The thermal springs at Hotel Aguas Claras, around 70 km from Managua on the
paved highway to Boaco, constitute the best-developed thermal center in Nicaragua

(Fig. 34.12d, e). Two thermal springs some 150 m from the hotel supply sulfur-rich
water at different temperatures to five pools for adults and four separate pools for
children (around 30 C). In addition there is a small jacuzzi at 35 C. The site is very
attractive, and features a bar, restaurant, and accommodations at moderate prices. It is
privately owned and operated.
The thermal site at the town of San Francisco Libre, located approximately 75 km
by road from Managua, at the foot of Momotombo volcano, does not at present have
facilities open to the public. Very hot (80100 C) spring water, containing chloride
and sulfate, discharges to form a small river that is used by locals after it has flowed
a sufficient distance from the spring orifice to cool to bathing temperatures. This
stream flows a few kilometers to enter Managua lake, which is significantly
contaminated by human activity.
Formerly a medical center for hydrotherapy and mud bath therapy, the Centro
Asistencial Jos de la Cruz Mena operated at the site, has been administered by the
Asociacin de Educacin Popular Carlos Fonseca Amado (an NGO) (Fig. 34.12f, g).
When in operation it was the only thermalism center in Nicaragua that specialized in
therapies to treat skin diseases, rheumatism, obesity, cholesterol reduction, and stress
alleviation, using different volcanic muds and thermal water from a variety of springs at
the center. The facilities included pools, individual baths for therapeutic treatments with
thermal waters and mud at ambient temperatures, a restaurant and bar, and lodging.
Though closed at present due to the lack of electrical power, there are plans to reopen the
site and resume operations as a medical center.
34.4.2.6 Costa Rica
In Costa Rica, the use of thermal springs and volcanic mud baths for tourism is more
common than in the rest of Central American. This is especially true in the last 10
years, as Costa Rican geothermal assets have been developed. Costa Rica is blessed
with many accessible natural thermal baths, at sites ranging from fancy resorts to
humble swimming holes. Nonetheless, the use of thermal resources for purposes of
balneotherapy is weak and clinical centers for medical thermalism are absent.
In a survey of 20 Costa Rican travel agencies [13], 85% of the interviewees
indicated that thermalism may be an important alternative source of tourism in Costa
Rica, because of the medicinal and relaxing properties of the geothermal waters, as
well as their recreational value. Additionally the agencies recognize that a great number
of geothermal sites in the country could be developed for thermalism (health tourism).
Of the remaining 15% of the interviewees, 5% were of the opinion that the thermal
waters should be used only in combination with other activities related to ecotourism
destinations; 10% were ambivalent. Although no special promotion of thermalism
exists in Costa Rica, many foreign and national tourists visit thermal springs and
volcanic mud baths as places of rest, relaxation and enjoyment of nature.
In 1993, international visitors to Costa Rican geothermal areas came from the U.S.
(28%), Germany (17%), Central America (17%), Canada (10%), Italy (10%) and
Mexico, Ecuador, The Netherlands, Switzerland, and France (3.6% each) [13].
The statistics [13] show that Costa Ricas geothermal sites have important potential
for growth as attractions for tourism, recreational and therapy. The numerous
geothermal resources are greatly under-used, and present opportunities for both nearterm and long-term development.
The most visited thermal bath sites are (in decreasing order of visitation): (1) the

area surrounding Arenal volcano national park, especially near the town of La Fortuna;
(2) Rincn de la Vieja volcano area; (3) Chocosuela volcanic area near the town of
Ciudad Quesada; (4) the Miravalles volcano area; (5) the area around the town of Orosi
(near Cartago city); and (6) the Tenorio volcano area.
Visitation clearly correlates with the degree of development and amenities. The top
three attractions all have good tourist facilities; Arenal and Rincn de la Vieja, and the
Chocosuela volcanic area combine the attractions of tropical rainforest, active volcanism
and thermal baths. In contrast, the Miravalles site offers only modest lodging facilities, and
is not located in an area of tropical rainforest or other natural attractions. The Orosi baths
feature only basic facilities and, with the exception of a single resort with thermal water
spas, are not attractive to tourists who might want a multiday leisure stay.
Arenal volcano area: Without doubt, the most spectacular thermal springs used for
tourism in Central America are those at the foot of Arenal volcano, a well-formed
stratocone and one of the worlds most active volcanoes. The volcano, with its constant
eruptions, especially visible and impressive at night, together with the surrounding lush
forest, constitute an extraordinary setting unparalleled in the world for visitors to the
thermal baths. In the middle of this natural splendor, visitors can relax in various
thermomineral sulfur-rich springs. The largest springs are the Tabacn springs (3040
l/s), which discharge into the nearby river of the same name. This stream has been
dammed and modified by the development of a luxurious resort, the Hotel Tabacn
(Fig. 34.13ac). The modified stream features 12 natural-looking pools of different
temperatures (up to 39 C in the swimming pools) and different degrees of
mineralization, cascading from pool to pool through a garden. This resort was founded
in 1993 as the first of its kind in Costa Rica, although the geothermal resources have
been used for bathing since 1985. The resorts spa offers indoor-jacuzzi, massages and
other treatments for relaxation and rejuvenation. Other hotels with geothermal water
pools are the Los Lagos, Arenal and Arenal Parasos.
Directly downstream from the resort, the Tabacn river is used by the more modest
installations of the day-bath Tabacn Pequeo. During the last few years, several
other thermal springs at the foot of Arenal volcano have been tapped for feeding
bathing pools; other hot springs remain unused. Another day-spa is Baldi Termae,
where thermal water is pumped from boreholes into pools, and the day spa Ecotermales
Fortuna. Numerous other hotels and cabins are found around Arenal volcano and in
nearby Fortuna, some of which have swimming pools fed by thermal water coming
from borings rather than from natural springs as eco-tourists would prefer.
Rincn de la Vieja volcano area: The Borinquen Mountain Resort is located 24 km
NE of Liberia (Guanacaste province, NW Costa Rica). The resort is just outside of
Rincn de la Vieja national park with attractive sulfuric lagoons, boiling mud pits, and
thermal springs. The resort facilities comprise natural hot spring pools, thermal sauna,
mud baths, and outdoor jacuzzis. Other attractions and facilities are good trails, hiking,
birding, and canopy tours.
Chocosuela volcanic area (Platanar and Porvenir volcanoes and fault system): The
hot springs near the town of Quesada, in the vast primary forest areas near Platanar
volcano are characterized by sulfur-rich thermal water. The tourist facilities of this area
have been greatly improved during the last few years, and are currently very similar to
those of the Arenal area. Compared to the Arenal sites, the Platanar thermal springs
have the advantage of being closer to San Jos (100 km compared to 140 km to
Arenal), and they are not within a high volcanic risk area like Arenal. In the Platanar

Figure 34.13. Geothermal manifestations for health tourism in Costa Rica: (ac) Tabacn resort
hot springs at the foot of Arenal volcano; (d) Termales del Bosque in Platanar volcano area,
near the town of Quesada.
area, visitors who choose to bathe in a natural setting can visit Termales del Bosque,
where hot springs (up to 42 C) discharge into a river (restaurant; small hotel with cabins
nearby) (Fig. 34.13d). Here they can enjoy seven interconnected pools of different water
temperatures in a natural rain forest environment. Alternatively, visitors can choose a
luxurious hotel (Hotel Tucano & Spa, located 1 km from Termales del Bosque) situated
in a large (182 ha) private biological reserve with pools fed with thermal water (pumped
from the same river as at Termales del Bosque), natural sauna and steam baths, and
jacuzzi. Using natural steam, thermal waters and mud, the hotels spa offers different
treatments for relaxation and rejuvenation, including mud wraps, mud baths with
thermomineral water, aromatherapy, and massage. The sulfur-rich waters are used for
clinical treatment of rheumatism, arthritis, skin diseases and obesity.
Miravalles volcano area: At the foot of Miravalles volcano between Fortuna village
and Guayabo town are two spas: the tourist center Yok, a day spa with 4 simply
designed pools, and the Thermo Mana waterpark. In a third, recently (2004)
inaugurated simply designed installation, natural volcanic mud baths can be enjoyed at
the Las Hornillas fumaroles.
Orosi area: The installation of the Balnerario Termal Orosi (in the town of Orosi,
35 km from San Jos) is a day spa, with two simple pools, basic showers and a small
restaurant, located near to Orosi Lodge. The spa Balneario Los Patios (2 km S of Orosi)
is a day spa, with a few hot pools and one cold pool and is more scenic than Balneario
Termal Orosi. A more luxurious environment is offered by the Hotel & Spa Barcel
Rancho Las Perlas, which however is less scenic since it obtains its geothermal waters
from borings, which makes it less attractive than the high quality tourism installations

in Rincn de la Vieja, Arenal or the Chocosuela volcanic area. The Hotel & Spa
Barcel Rancho Las Perlas offers swimming pools, 13 open air jacuzzis, and a spa
offering therapeutic massages and bubbling baths, all in natural geothermal waters.
Surrounding attractions include the Tapant national park, the Iraz and Turrialba
volcanoes, and the Guayabo archaeological reserve.
34.4.2.7 Panama
Although thermal springs occur throughout much of Panama, they are in general not
used or considered for bathing. As in the case of El Salvador, this lack of interest in
thermal attractions can be attributed to the hot climate in Panama city and the
Panamanian lowlands where most Panamanians live. For weekends and holidays,
nationals prefer areas with a cooler climate. Nonetheless, thermal waters are receiving
increased attention as additional tourist attractions. At present, thermal bathing
facilities exist at the Valle de Antn (Cocl province). This site is a weekend
destination for people from Panama city, as it can be reached from there in just two
hours by bus or car (120 km). At about 600 m a.s.l. the Valle de Antn, located in the
caldera of El Valle volcano complex, enjoys a relatively fresh climate. The town,
which is dispersed within the valley, has recently experienced moderate development
for tourism. The thermal springs and bathing installations are considered as an addition
to the other varied tourist attractions which include waterfalls, a zoo, canopy tours,
petroglyphs, bird watching and hiking. There is one thermal bath open to the public,
and recently the first small hotel (Crater Valley Adventure Spa) to have its own thermal
pools opened, featuring five small pools in total (one containing therapeutic mud, the
others with thermal waters of different temperatures). The thermal waters of this valley
typically are around 41 C. Other Panamanian destinations for leisure and ecotourism
are the mountains of the Chiriqu province. Unfortunately, this area is disadvantaged in
comparison to the Valle de Anton, by being far from Panama city (six hours by car, one
hour by air). There are two principal areas with thermal springs in these mountains.
The Cerro Pando area, some 10 to 15 km to the northwest of the town of El Hato de
Volcn, contains the springs of Cotito (67 C) and Los Pozos (58 C) and the Quebrada
Catalina warm stream. Other springs are near Cerro Punta in the mountains near the
Bar volcano complex, the highest mountain of Panama (3475 m a.s.l.). Finally, Los
Pozos Termales de Caldera, well-known for the curative properties of their waters
(especially in the treatment of rheumatism), are located at the town of Caldera.
Other Panamanian thermal springs include: the hot springs of Calobre (province of
Veraguas), with an average temperature of 54 C; the Chitra hot springs (near the town
of the same name), with an average temperature of 58 C; the Agua de Salud thermal
spring (west of the town of Caazas, province of Veraguas), with temperatures around
85 C; the Coiba hot springs south of the San Juan camp on the Pacific island of Coiba,
with an average temperature of 45 C; and the Galique thermal springs near the town of
San Feliz (province of Chiriqui). The Galique spring is accessible in the dry season, but
difficult to reach in the rainy season. In general, none of these sites has any significant
tourist facilities at the present time.
34.4.3 Resources related to coastal lagoons and marine salt pans and their use
In Central America, climatic and geomorphologic conditions are ideal for the formation
of coastal lagoons and marine salt pans (salinas) or brine pools with hyper-mineralized

NaCl brines resulting from the evaporation of seawater (e.g., the brine pools of
Nicaragua and Panama). In the same environments, the physico-chemical and
biological conditions favor deposition of peloides. The precipitation of dissolved salts
and the precipitation of particles, which is controlled by brine density, along with other
physical, chemical and microbiological processes, permits the formation of medicinal
slimes in the bottom of such ponds. The peloides of marine salinas belong to the type
of sulfurated slime of coastal lagoons.
These peloides are not used for any kind of social or economic activity in Central
America, and in all of Latin America have found application only in Argentina.
However, peloides resources in Cuba (formed under natural conditions similar to those
of Central America) have been used over the last 15 years in therapeutic medicine and
in the manufacture of cosmetics. The use of these resources in Argentina and Cuba,
plus long-term experience in medical practice in Europe, shows that sulfurated slimes,
hyper-mineralized waters, and micro-algae are of great potential use in health tourism
and in the cosmetic industry. Yet they remain unused, thus far, in Central America.
The sulfur content of the peloides and the presence of an assemblage of different
major and minor and trace elements give the peloides properties beneficial to human
health, which makes them useful resources for thermalism in thermal centers and spas,
as well as for the production of cosmetic and dermocosmetic products. The potential
economic value of peloides resources can be demonstrated using the Cuban example,
where the two largest of the 25 marine lagoons contain 500,000 tonnes of sulfurated
mud with optimal characteristics for exploitation and creation of local employment.
The quantity of Central American peloides resources has not yet been ascertained.
Micro-seaweeds (micro-algae) also form important resources. Through their
metabolic processes, they produce and liberate to the environment biologically active
substances. They support the development and the proliferation of bacteria and, jointly
with them, produce a biogel that mixes intimately with mud, making it unctuous,
transforming and enriching it. Additionally micro-seaweeds generate vitamin
complements, such as the B12 complex. With the extraction of other beneficial
substances and amino acids, micro-seaweeds become a nutritious supplement for
human consumption that helps improve metabolic activity. The micro-seaweeds in
Central America need to be studied before they can be used commercially, either in
natural form or processed. Studies are needed to determine which may be applied to the
skin in raw form for the direct dermal assimilation of beneficial materials, and which
may be useful for the manufacture of purified extracts used in cosmetic products such
as gels, soaps, and creams for the maintenance and restoration of dermal health.
Similarly, studies are needed to determine which micro-seaweeds in Central America
can be used in thermal centers or spas in bathtubs as a relaxing or anti-stress agent.
34.4.4 Needs and tools to develop health tourism
34.4.4.1 Problems and related needs
In previous sections, it was shown that Central America has huge geological/
geothermal resources, which can be used for thermalism. The principal reasons why
these thermalism resources are underexploited are: (1) the distribution, quantity and
characteristics of these resources remain only partially understood; (2) financial means
are lacking to develop the facilities and necessary infrastructure for centers of
thermalism; (3) medical staff, equipment and technology needed for thermalism centers

are likewise lacking; (4) government authorities and the private sector are not aware of
the opportunities presented by thermalism; (5) health insurance policies do not cover
costs of thermalism-related treatments in foreign countries (a concern for potential
foreign visitors to Central America); and (6) no national market exists and national
health care institutions and insurance companies do not consider thermalism-related
treatments as covered therapy options.
It was also shown in preceding sections that thermalism, as a modality of thermal
health tourism, is an economically, socially, and environmentally sound option for the
Central American countries, one that should be taken advantage of and promoted by
authorities and by the private sector, as well as by the international tourism industry
with an interest in the Central American region. Thermalism provides a highly valuable
tourism product, as long as its development and marketing are appropriate for the
qualities of the respective geological/geothermal resources, the existing infrastructure
and the associated amenities, and provided that the thermal resources are protected and
used in a sustainable manner.
To solve the problems that have impeded the development of thermalism in Central
America, and to fulfill the development requirements noted above, we develop in the
following paragraphs a set of prerequisites, challenges and tools that must be
considered for the development of a thermal health tourism industry in the Central
American region.
Prior to actual development of infrastructure or physical facilities at any particular
site, an analysis of the geological/geothermal resources is necessary as a basis for
determining their potential uses. Once the properties of a resource are determined to be
useful and potentially marketable, further studies are needed: an analysis of the
strengths and weaknesses of the resource/site, an analysis of marketing strategies
suitable for the proposed development, and a general analysis of the facilities proposed
in regard to type of center (thermal, resort spa, thalassitherapy, or combined) and
purpose (therapeutic, leisure, fitness, or multipurpose). Meetings and workshops with
operators of already established thermal centers and regional partners in the tourism
sector to exchange know-how and experience are also recommended.
The existing specific needs are listed in Table 34.4. Furthermore, additional needs,
identified in a Mexican market study [14], are listed as they are also valid for Central
America (the potential clients for Mexico and Central America are from the same
sources the U.S., Canada and Europe).
34.4.4.2 Protecting the resources for sustainable development
Resources related to volcanic activities: The geological/geothermal resources for
thermalism may be harmed by over-exploitation and anthropogenic contamination.
Because the use of geological/geothermal resources for thermalism has been very limited
and because most of the resources used are geothermal springs which are used
primarily as peoples spas by the local inhabitants, who enjoy them free of cost
over-exploitation is not presently a matter of concern. Nevertheless, since these popular
facilities, in many cases, are built close to or above the thermal sources, they are
potential sources of contamination of these resources.
At present, the most common use of geothermal groundwater is for recreational
tourism, facilitated through the construction of pools. These pools are mostly small,
and with few exceptions the pools are fed by geothermal water flowing from natural
springs. As long as the natural output is not altered, the resource will not be harmed by

Table 34.4. Needs to develop health tourism in Central America using geological resources.
Specific needs
Additional needs
^Detailed regional and local analysis of the

potential of available geological/geothermal
resources suitable for thermalism, including:
(1) mineral/thermomineral/thermal waters,
muds and micro-algae related to
volcanism;
(2) mineral waters, peloides and microseaweeds related to coastal marine
environments (lagoons, salinas, etc.),
regarding their physico-chemical and
microbiological composition to define their
therapeutic properties and the pathologies
and/or cosmetic products for which they
can be used. This analysis comprises the
investigation of:
(1) types of geothermal resources
existing;
(2) the quality and quantity of the
respective resources;
(3) their possible uses for thermalism.
^7KHGHWHUPLQDWLRQRIWKHVLWH-specific
possibilities of development of each
region/locality, including:
(1) the specific characteristics of each
region/locality and resources;
(2) the potential of the resources;
(3) the existing infrastructure;
(4) classification of the tourist centers
according to the geological/geothermal
resources, which they provide or may
provide in the future.
^3URWHFWLRQRIWKHJHRORJLFDOJHRWKHUPDO
resources and their sustainable use.
^$ZDUHQHVVHQKDQFHPHQWLQWKHKHDOWKVHFWRr
(authorities, insurance companies, medical
staff, etc.) with respect to the preventive and
curative value of health tourism and
thermalism.
^,WLVQHFHVVDU\WRGLVFXVVKRZIDUQDWLRQDO
health care institutions and public and private
health insurance companies may adapt their
policies to include coverage of these kinds of
disease treatments.
^8SGDWHDQLQYHQWRU\RIWKHWKHUPDOFHQWHUV
as well as the spas and thalassitherapy centers
in each Central American country.
^,QFUHDVHFRPSHWLWLRQLQWKH
commercialization and promotion of centers.
^,QFUHDVHLQYHVWPHQWRIILQDQFLDOUHVRXUFHV
^,QWURGXFHQHZWHFKQRORJ\
^&RQYLQFHWKHRZQHUVRIFHQWHUVDQG
geothermal resources of the economic
advantages of the utilization of such resources
in thermal health tourism.
^3URYLGHWUDLQLQJRIWKHSHUVRQQHOQHHGHGDW
all levels of operation in centers.
^(VWDEOLVKDSURIHVVLRQDOEDVLVIRUWKH
activity of thermalism.
^&UHDWHDSXEOLFDZDUHQHVVRIWKHLPSRUWDQFH
of improving personal quality of life and wellbeing through the use of natural thermal
resources.
^0RGHUQL]HWKHH[LVWLQJFHQWHUVLQ
accordance with todays market preferences.
^+DYHPHGLFDODQGSDUDPHGLFDOSHUVRQQHO
specialized in medical hydrology, thermal and
other rehabilitation therapies, as well as
technicians and professionals for all the
services, treatments and programs to be
offered in the different facilities.
overuse. However, if in the future geothermal waters are pumped artificially from the
underground at rates exceeding natural flow, without being replaced by reinjection, the
geothermal reservoir may be cooled and/or depleted. Due to the current low level use
of geothermal resources, this problem is not of importance now, but could become a
significant issue as the market for thermalism-related tourism is developed. For this
reason, now is the time for the establishment of laws to regulate the exploitation and
protection of geological/geothermal resources for thermalism.
If the use of mineral/thermal groundwaters for thermalism increases greatly in the
future, management of these resources cannot continue in the traditional manner, i.e.,

without regard to the care and protection of the shallow aquifer systems which may be
in hydraulic contact with the deeper mineral/thermal waters.
Corresponding regulations will include the establishment of protection zones
around the capture zone (e.g., spring, well, mudsource, etc.). Different grades of
protection, represented by different perimeters around the capture zone, need to be
defined by hydrogeological and geological studies. The requirements for obtaining
permits for the installation of thermalism centers must include an evaluation of the
resources to determine the maximum sustainable exploitation, and an environmental
impact study, which will allow the definition of appropriate protection measures for the
prevention of contamination of the resource. These requirements and restrictions
ultimately also benefit the investor, since they guarantee a stable quantity and quality
of the exploited resource and, in so doing, also ensure the longevity of the tangible and
intangible products to be offered through the operation of the proposed facility.
Although it is unknown how long the formation of volcanic mud requires, it is
assumed that it is a relatively slow process. In Central America, especially in Costa
Rica, it must be remembered that most of the volcanic range has already been declared
to be in conservation areas and that hence the exploitation of volcanic clays may
become limited.
Geological resources of coastal marine environments: In using peloides and microalgae/seaweeds, two problems may occur: (1) their host water becomes contaminated
and/or the environmental conditions for their formation are otherwise destroyed, and
(2) the resource is depleted by being over-exploited (used at a rate that exceeds the
formation rate). Regulations to protect and control the use of these resources are
necessary to avoid these potential problems and to maintain the quality and quantity of
these resources for long-term exploitation by the health tourism industry.
An important aspect is the periodic inspection of the hygienic/sanitary quality of
these geothermal resources at the point of arrival to the centers of use, since these
resources will be used primarily for medical hydrology and aesthetics and beauty
treatments.
In summation, the desired future increased use of Central Americas
geological/geothermal resources for thermalism requires legal regulation and control of
these resources, in order to protect them from contamination and over-exploitation, and
to insure that they can sustain long-term use for the benefit of human health and wellbeing, as well as for long-term economic and social development of the areas
containing these resources.
34.4.4.3 Marketing and promotion
All marketing and promotion of a resource is necessarily dependent on the reality that
any thermal health tourism center is fundamentally based on the geothermal resource.
Therefore, resources of good quality and in the necessary volumes must be guaranteed
for stable and long-term use. Each resource should be examined as an organic whole,
the studies including not only its physico-chemical and bacteriological characteristics
and its existing volume and sustainability under use, but also general information about
the area around the resource site.
As noted earlier, specific segments of the population are becoming increasingly
aware of and concerned about improving various aspects of the quality of life,
including health, aesthetics, beauty and others.
For these reasons the marketing possibilities for any of the four types of centers of

thermal health tourism could be great, depending primarily on an adequate

development of the center itself and of its setting. Inasmuch as the services to be
offered would be proper for tourists of any age and health condition, the only
requirements are adequate development of the site and good promotion.
Thermal centers, spa centers, thalassitherapy centers, combined centers and the
services, treatments and programs to be offered in them can be marketed in three
fundamental forms:
By means of the sale of individual services and treatments to casual visitors who
have come primarily to take advantage of the tourism aspects of the center.
Through special offers, involving general and special therapeutic programs for
periods of one, two or three weeks, appealing to users with particular interests and
needs.
Through offers of packages that include the general and special therapeutic
programs, and in addition provide accommodations, meals and transportation
(including the air tickets when possible). For a European thermal tourist, an
acceptable rate for a two weeks stay with this kind of package is 2000 US$.
It has been shown that the average expenditure per day by casual tourists purchasing
occasional services on the spot varies from 25 to 50 US$, while the tourist expenditures
related to the sale of packages of general and specific treatments vary between 35 to 70
US$ or sometimes higher. In the cases of very exclusive centers such as the Luisson
Bobbett in France and Bassett Spa in Canada, daily tourist expenditures can reach as
high as 400 US$ per person.
34.5
KARST AND CAVES USE AND PROTECTION
34.5.1 Introduction
Nearly 40,000 km2, or some eight percent of Central America is underlain by karstic
rocks (primarily limestone, but also some dolostone and gypsum) resulting in
widespread occurrences of karst landscapes, whose different morphologic forms are
discussed in Chapter 5. In addition there are minor areas of volcanic rocks that contain
caves. Because Central American caves (carbonate and volcanic) and karst landscapes
have archaeological, historical, cultural, biological, aesthetic and recreational
significance, there are increasing efforts to conserve and protect them against adverse
human impacts. At the same time, human uses are increasing, and enforcement of the
various conservation and protection legislation is problematic. About 22% of the
Central American karst landscape has been afforded nominal, although not necessarily
effective protection, through designation as protected areas [15, 16]. This total includes
all categories of protected areas, including several not recognized by IUCN.
In 1997, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN) World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) recognized karst
landscapes worldwide as being in significant need of protection [17]. This need for
environmental protection and the establishment of protected areas is now gaining
regional acceptance in Central America and support through both government and nongovernment agencies, for example, the Central American Commission on Development
and the Environment (CCAD) [7, 18].
The importance of karst landscape protection was highlighted in 1997 by the IUCN
Working Group on Cave and Karst Protection, which published guidelines for the
design and maintenance of protected karst areas. Rationales for the protection of karst

include the following (modified from [17]):

Provides habitats for endangered species of flora and fauna.
Includes unique and scenic landscape features.
Provides water for people, agriculture, and industry in karst regions; understanding
regional karst hydrology is essential for the protection of vital water supplies.
Includes sites of prehistoric, historic and current cultural importance: archeological
sites, and religious and spiritual sites in current use.
Can include deposits of unusual minerals.
Provides scenic landscapes and natural attractions (caves, travertine pools, natural
bridges, etc.) plus habitat for plants and animals that tourists wish to see, making
many karst areas and features potential areas of recreation and tourism of
significant economic and aesthetic value.
These numerous reasons notwithstanding, very few Central American karst areas are
designated for protection because of their overall value as karst landscapes. Rather, if
selected for protection, it is in recognition of specific biological or cultural features
associated with, and inextricably linked to the karst.
Reliable information on protected areas is surprisingly difficult to acquire because
of the wide variety of protected area legislation, variations in descriptive terminology
and in the sizes of the protected areas and features, and the difficulties of de facto
verification. The primary source of information is the United Nations List of Protected
Areas, which is maintained and updated by the World Conservation Monitoring Center
(WCMC). Other studies [15, 19, 20] also include protected areas that do not necessarily
conform to UN criteria, including all national, state and private parks and forests,
wildlife, forest and archaeological reserves.
Human impact on Central American karst landscapes has been long-term and
severe, in particular through forest clearance, species introduction, agriculture,
degradation of surface and groundwater resources, and industrial activities, including
mining and quarrying [21, 22]. Increasingly, tourism is emerging as an important use of
karst landscapes, with attendant consequences and increased monitoring requirements [23].
In Belize, adverse impacts occur due to agricultural expansion, increased tourism, and
other causes [19]. Forest reserves continue to be logged despite local opposition and
quarrying of limestone for construction projects is ongoing. In Guatemala and
Honduras the World Conservation Monitoring Center [7] lists major threats as
including the exploitation of floral and faunal resources, the establishment of
settlements within protected areas, and unclear or ineffective legislation.
34.5.2 Protected karstlands the regional situation
Throughout the region significant caves and karst landscapes are variously
encompassed within national parks (e.g., limestone karst in Tikal national park in
Guatemala, and Montaa Santa Brbara national park in Honduras), forest reserves
(e.g., the Vaca and Chiquibul forest reserves in Belize), wildlife reserves, refuges and
sanctuaries (e.g., Machaquila-Cuevas de San Miguel wildlife refuge in Guatemala) and
other conservation areas (e.g., the Ro Bravo conservation and management area in
Belize). Karst and/or caves are present in at least three UNESCO World Heritage Sites:
Tikal, Darin, and La Amistad, the last two of which are also Man and the Biosphere
Reserves. Much of the Guatemalan Petn karst is incorporated in the Maya biosphere
reserve.

About 8% of the total Central American land area, that is, about 39,300 km2, is
karst landscape. Protected karst areas for individual countries and the region as a whole
are shown in Table 34.5, which includes both those recognized and not recognized by
IUCN. Regionally, there are currently 37 protected karst areas, collectively
encompassing 8540 km2, approximately 22% of the regional karst total. Considering
individual countries, the greatest number of protected karst areas (18) is in Belize,
where 68% of the karst landscape is protected. However, the largest total area of
protected karst (3500 km2) is in Honduras, where approximately 35% of the total karst
is protected.
Fifteen of the 37 protected karst areas, accounting for about 60% of the protected
total, are IUCN category II national parks, protected areas managed mainly for ecosystem
protection and recreation.Six areas, accounting for about 15% of the total area, are IUCN
category VI managed resource protected areas, which are managed mainly for the
sustainable use of natural ecosystems. Three are category IV habitat/species management
areas (10%), which are managed mainly for conservation through management
intervention, and two are category III natural monuments (1%), conserving specific
natural features. One area is category I nature reserves (4%), managed mainly for science,
and the remaining 10 areas (10%) are currently not classified by IUCN. As Table 34.5
suggests, regional levels of karstland protection are highly variable, with significant
protection in Honduras and Belize, intermediate protection in Guatemala, Costa Rica and
Panama, and, as yet, none in Nicaragua or El Salvador.
Table 34.5. Protected karst areas in Central America [15].
Country
Karst area
total
(km2)
Guatemala
Belize
El Salvador
Honduras
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
Total
15000
5000
300
10000
5000
2000
2000
39300
Number IUCN categories

of sites
protected protected
(km2)
(% of total)
1517
3400
0
3500
0
43
80
8540
10
35
0
35
0
2
4
22
7
18
7
0
0
5
1
37
II(2),VI(2),na(3)
I(1),II(6),III(1),IV(1),VI(4),na(5)
-II(4),III(1),na(2)
-I(1),II(2),IV(2)
II(1)
I(2),II(15),III(2),IV(3),VI(6),na(10)
It is interesting to compare the karstland situation with overall national levels of

protected area designation. However, it is important to note that the UN/WCMC data is
constrained by criteria of size and legal status, so that the protected area totals are not
directly comparable (Tables 34.5 and 34.1). Belize has a relatively high level of
protected area designation both for karst and non-karst landscapes; by contrast
protected area designation in El Salvador is minimal in both cases. Honduras has
designated only 10% of its total landscape as protected, but it affords protection to
seven karst areas, representing 35% of its total karst. By contrast, Guatemala has
designated 20% of its total landscape as protected, but its seven protected karst areas
represent only 10% of the national karst total. Nicaragua has designated 11% of its total
land area as protected (although this is on paper only), but so far this includes no karst.
Costa Rica and Panama both have reasonable national protected areas systems (23%

and 21%, respectively), but thus far the karst protected areas in these countries are very
small compared to Belize, Honduras, or Guatemala.
Although Table 34.5 and the preceding assessment suggest that the level of
conservation of karst in Central American protected areas is encouraging, the situation
in reality remains highly fluid and the future of the karstlands is very uncertain. In part
this arises from the relative ease with which legislation can be changed in response to
external, non-conservation priorities. It is also clear that many of the protected areas on
paper are not effective in practice. This reflects myriad circumstances, including a lack
of protective resources, including personnel and finances, poor demarcation, local
unawareness and unconcern, and illegal and criminal activities. Although reliable data
are unavailable, personal experience suggests that enforcement of karst area protection
regulations is at present most effective in Belize and Costa Rica, with Guatemala and
Honduras currently striving to attain comparable standards. El Salvador, Panama and
Nicaragua lag behind in implementing any karst conservation strategies.
34.5.3 Protected karst areas and their human use: selected examples
The 22% of the Central American karst landscape given protected area status includes
some individual karstlands that are extensive and significant in terms of scientific,
cultural and recreational criteria. Accurate statistics on visitor numbers to individual
karst and cave sites are difficult to obtain, but small sites such as the inland Blue Hole
national park in Belize receive over 10,000 visitors annually, and annual visitor
numbers at large and world-renowned sites such as Tikal exceeed 150,000. The
majority of the 38 protected karst areas are so designated because of their biological,
archaeological or recreational significance, rather than on the basis of geomorphic
criteria.
34.5.3.1 Belize
Belize has the highest level of karst protection in the region, measured as a percentage
of the total karst area, which may in part result from the relative lack of other types of
natural attractions (volcanoes, major lakes, etc.) on the Belize mainland. Note,
however, that Belize has a major natural tourism attraction offshore, in the form of the
barrier reef system.
The largest protected mainland karst area is the Chiquibul national park, established
in 1991, which encompasses 1865 km2 in the western Cayo district. The park contains
the Caracol archaeological reserve, as well as portions of the Chiquibul cave system,
the longest known cave system in Central America, presently surveyed to 55 km [24,
25]. The Ro Bravo conservation and management area (1010 km2) in the Orange Walk
district is managed by the Programme for Belize, a non-government organization
established in 1988 to promote conservation of natural heritage and wise use of natural
resources. Other significant protected karst areas include the Vaca forest reserve
(210 km2) and parts of the Bladen Branch nature reserve and the Columbia river forest
reserve [19]. In spite of, or perhaps because of, the extent of the protected karst areas
and features in Belize, these features are coming under increased pressure from tourism
[19, 26, 27] (Table 34.5). Although visitor numbers for most sites are unavailable, sites
such as the inland Blue Hole national park have seen a doubling of visitor numbers
within the past ten years.
Two small karst areas in Belize that are protected, at least in part, for their intrinsic

karst value, are the Blue Hole national park and Five Blues lake national park in the
Cayo district. Blue Hole national park, established in 1986, is 2.3 km2 in area and is
managed by the Belize Audubon Society. In 2004 over 10,000 people visited the park,
up from about 6000 in 1999 [27]. The Belize Audubon Society is an NGO that is
deeply involved in conservation throughout Belize, and which is involved with the
government of Belize in the co-management of several protected areas. Five Blues lake
national park is focused around a large sinkhole lake and is 4 km2 in area. Communityoperated, Five Blues lake is part of a local sustainable development project, but is in
need of integrated cave and karst management planning [28].
An international protected area in the Gran Petn, encompassing parts of Mexico,
Guatemala and Belize, is under consideration and would include the Bravo river
conservation area. A second proposed bi-national agreement includes the
Chiquibul/Maya mountain project between Guatemala and Belize [7].
Tourism is rapidly becoming the primary economic sector in Belize, with much of the
mainland tourism focused on karst features and sites. Tourism currently accounts for about
40% of Belizes GDP, compared with 23% for agriculture and 25% for industry. Rath [27]
demonstrated that about 30% of Belizes tourism activity takes place within the terrestrial
karst of the Cayo and Toledo districts, involving some 50,000 visitors and generating
approximately US$ 1015 million annually, or about 1015% of the total annual tourism
income of Belize. An additional US$ 75 million, or about 60% of the total annual tourism
income, is generated by visitors to the coastal karst, particularly the cays and reefs. Most of
the inland karst tourism, which has expanded rapidly within the last two decades, revolves
around the natural and cultural landscapes, particularly involving archaeological sites
(including caves), nature activities (particularly bird watching) and adventure activities
such as caving, hiking, riding and canoeing. To date, much of the karst tourism focuses on
the Boundary fault karst, particularly around the towns of San Ignacio and Santa Elena in
the Cayo district. Popular destinations include the Ro Fro, Caves Branch and Barton creek
caves, and the archaeological sites at Caracol, Cahal Pech, El Pilar and Xunantunich. There
is also increasing interest in the karst areas of Cayos Vaca plateau, in the Bravo river area
of the Orange Walk district, and in the karst of the Toledo district (for locations refer to
Chapter 5). Clearly, ecotourism in the Belize karst represents an important component of
the national future, in terms of both conservation and economic development.
All caves in Belize are regarded as potential archaeological sites and, as such, fall
under the jurisdiction of the Department of Archaeology, with permits being required
for entry. Specific caves are protected within national parks and similar reserves. For
example, three significant caves St. Hermans, Petroglyph and Mountain Cow
are within the Blue Hole national park [19]. Similarly, the Chiquibul national park
includes portions of the Chiquibul cave system [24, 25], which contains the astonishing
Belize Chamber, one of the worlds largest cave rooms (200 m by 400 m). The
authority of the Department of Archeology permits at least some form of monitoring
and control of visitor numbers, although it is poorly enforced, and unauthorized use of
caves such as Barton creek is increasing. Public access to some caves is sanctioned, for
example to St. Hermans cave within the Blue Hole national park, to the Ro Fro caves
in the Mountain Pine ridge forest reserve, and to Che Chem Ha, a privately owned and
operated cave on the approaches to the Vaca plateau, where the owners are required by
the Department of Archaeology to maintain a visitors log, and to lock the cave entrance
when no visitors are present. A thriving, officially tolerated, although contentious cave
tourism operation is well established on private land in Caves Branch, where both cave

exploration and through floats are arranged.

In addition to this inland karst activity, Belizes barrier reef and islands (cays)
represent the traditional focus of marine tourism in the country, accounting for at least
50% of all tourist visits and revenue. There are clear relationships between the reef and
the inland karst, not the least being that they share a common origin, with the modern
reef being an active analogue of the lithified carbonates inland. Moreover, studies
indicate that the form of the present reef has been much influenced by subaerial
dissolution and karst formation during Quaternary low sea-levels [29, 30], and
freshwater-seawater mixing zones have been shown to be important to coastal karst
development [31, 32]. Overall then, considering the reef and cays as developing karst
features, karst-related tourism, or at least that occurring in karst landscapes, constitutes
at least 80% of the total tourism within Belize, a level that is unparalleled within the
region. Total revenues from this tourism approach US$ 125 million annually,
representing about 15% of annual GDP.
34.5.3.2 Guatemala
Guatemala has the most extensive karst areas in Central America, considered of major
significance due to its profusion and diversity by Middleton and Waltham [33], who
add that Cones and towers abound; then there are great sinks and resurgences, dolines
and some enormous poljes (Fig. 34.14a). Caves, of which well over four hundred are
known, are typified by river systems. Of Guatemalas karst areas, some 1517 km2 have
been officially protected in seven protected areas (Table 34.5). The Ro ChiquibulMontaas Mayas biosphere reserve (619 km2) is the largest contiguous protected karst
area in Guatemala. Located in the Petn department, the reserve adjoins the Vaca forest
reserve in Belize. The Machaquila-Cuevas de San Miguel wildlife refuge, contains
148 km2 of karst in south central Petn. Laguna Lachua national park (150 km2), in the
Alta Verapaz department, is one of the most extensive karst areas in Guatemala [33].
The largest protected area in Guatemala is the Maya biosphere reserve (18,449 km2),
established in 1990 [34], located in the department of Petn. This reserve contains
many important archaeological sites, including El Mirador, El Zotz, Piedras Negras,
Tikal, and Uaxactn. The reserve also protects karst in Tikal national park (576 km2).
Despite its protected status, the Maya biosphere reserve loses an estimated 485 km2 of
forested land to unauthorized agricultural clearance each year [35].
Although karst and cave tourism is not yet a major activity in Guatemala, this type
of tourism is on the rise, especially in the mountain karst of the department of Alta
Verapaz, where the Lanqun, Candelaria, Rey Marcos, Bombil Pec, Kan Ba and the
Pozo Vivo caves all receive some visitation, as do the Semuc Champey and Las
Conchas travertine pools, and La Canasta natural bridge. Cave-related tourism is also
developed to a lesser degree in the Petn region where at least two caves are regularly
visited by tourists.
Lanqun cave, near the town of the same name, has long been developed for tourism
with walkways and electric lights (unfortunately, rather primitively done). This cave,
and more especially the nearby Semuc Champey are very popular tourist destinations.
At the Semuc Champey, a series of karst springs has created immense deposits of
travertine, forming a stepped series of travertine dams, with clear green pools and
waterfalls. The deposition of travertine has completely roofed over the Cahabn river
for 320 m, and the river now flows through a cave beneath the beautiful pools and falls
(Fig. 34.14b). During a period of unusually low water in 1993, this cave was explored

Figure 34.14. Tourist karst attractions in Guatemala (ad) and Honduras (e): (a) Karst landform
with cones; (b) Semuc Champey, where travertine deposits from karst springs formed
travertine dams, with pools and waterfalls; (c) Las Conchas (Petn) with natural travertine
pools; (d) Swimming in the Candelaria cave; (e) Karst landscape of Coln mountains with
high relief karst and numerous sinkholes. Photos: courtesy Rutahsa Adventures.

as far as humanly possible and mapped [36]. Today, development includes a parking
area with a ticket office and refreshment stand, trails, a picnic and camping area at the
pools, with rudimentary sanitary facilities.
A similar series of travertine dams and pools (but without any subterranean river), has
been developed into a recreational area called Las Conchas. This site, located in the Petn
region between the towns of Modesto Mndez and Chajal, includes picnic areas, basic
sanitary facilities, swimming in natural pools, and beautiful waterfalls (Fig. 34.14c).
The most spectacular cave currently utilized for tourism in Guatemala is the
Candelaria cave. This 22 km-long cave system is the underground channel of the
Candelaria river, and consists of seven caves, the longest of which is nearly 8 km long,
separated by karst windows or other stretches of surface flow. Passages are enormous,
typically 2030 m wide, and up to 60 m high in places, with many (at least 55, it is
said) entrances and skylights [16].
For a number of years, guided tours of portions of the Candelaria system have been
possible, starting at an ecolodge developed by a French cave explorer. Although tours
are available to the public, the cave remains essentially undeveloped. Rudimentary
trails have been established in a relatively short section of the cave and some ladders
emplaced in critical spots. However, there is no lighting other than the lamps carried by
the guide and visitors, and the trails are in fact risky in places and not suitable for
general tourism. By special arrangement with the management, floating/swimming
cave trips are offered through longer portions of this great river cave (Fig. 34.14d).
The development at Candelaria is not so much in the cave as at the ecolodge near
several of the multiple entrances. Here, attractive thatched cabins and dormitories have
been constructed, using traditional materials and style, in a setting of well-tended,
garden-like grounds. The lodge features a bar and restaurant with excellent food. A
portion of the proceeds from admissions and lodge services is said to go to the
maintenance of a public school for the local Qeqchi Maya community.
The Candelaria ecolodge has the drawback of being somewhat over a kilometer
from the nearest road and accessible only by a footpath. Furthermore, there is no
designated parking at the road, and until very recently, little or no signage to indicate
the presence of a lodge or spectacular natural feature. This has changed since the
Candelaria cave system has been declared a national park and now several sections of
the system, managed by competing interests, are receiving tourists.
In late 2002, the native community was given ownership of the lands including the
cave system. This has exacerbated already exisiting tensions between the local
community and the management of the Candelaria ecolodge. It has also created a
situation in which four different segments of the great cave are now controlled, at least
nominally, by different entities, including two different indigenous communities. As of
2005, tours of the four segments of the Candelaria system were being offered by two
Qeqchi communities, the original ecolodge, and a private land owner. The
unfortunate lack of cooperation between the various owners has hampered the
establishment of adequate protective measures for the Candelaria system. As elsewhere
regionally, the Candelaria caves contain evidence of pre-Hispanic Mayan usage, which
has suffered from looting and destruction. Furthermore, the Qeqchi people continue
to use these sites for ceremonial purposes.
As of 2005, the situation at the Candelaria caves was very unsettled. Although the
cave system has been declared a national park and ownership of portions ceded by the
national government to the native communities, there remain conflicts over land
ownership and the rights of guides from one section to traverse other sections of the

cave during their tours, amid accusations of mismanagement, vandalism, and looting.
At the present time it is uncertain whether or not the original ecolodge will be able to
continue operations. Those controlling the four segments currently receiving visitors
are in an unhealthy, uncooperative competition.
In sum, the situation at Candelaria national park in 2005, most unfortunately, is a
first class example of how not to manage a spectacular natural feature that is not only
deserving of protection, but has the potential to be a major ecotourist attraction that
could aid in the socio-economic development of this area.
East of the city of Cobn, near the town of San Juan Chamelco, a spring-fed series
of pools and waterfalls provides a popular swimming destination. Above this
recreational site is the well-decorated Rey Marcos cave, which is open to the public.
North of Cobn, near the town of Chisec, a site known as Bombil Pec (Piedra
Pintada) has been developed in a primitive way for tourism. Visitors can descend into
the cave entrance via wooden ladders or can rappel off a cliff to enter a cave that
features cave paintings and fragments of ceramics. In the same area is JulIq (Cueva de
Aire), which visitors can walk through, the path illuminated by natural skylights formed
by roof collapses.
Northeast of Cobn, very near the famous Semuc Champey, the recently discovered
Kan Ba cave is now subject to a primitive form of tourism. The management of
Hospedaje Las Maras, a rustic lodge and campground near the Semuc Chamey, offers
(for a very modest fee) its guests guided tours of this cave, provided they are prepared to
wade and swim, climb up several ladders or use a rope to ascend a ledge, while carrying
their own lights. The management provides shoes for visitors who do not wish to wade in
their own shoes, and protects the cave with a caretaker/guide during the day. To return to
the hotel from the cave, visitors may walk back the way they came, or they can take inner
tubes provided by the management, and float back down the Cahabn river to the hotel.
This is an example of adventure tourism taking advantage of a natural resource with only
minimal investment in the development or protection of the resource.
Along the main Cobn-Guatemala city highway are two other karst features that
receive some tourism, the Pozo Vivo just outside the town of Tactic, and the Chicoy
sinkhole (generally known as Cueva Chicoy) which is just outside of Alta Verapaz in
the adjacent department of Baja Verapaz, near the town of Purulh. Pozo Vivo, or
Living Well apparently is a sinkhole pond subject to unusual water movements;
camping is permitted here. Chicoy cave is a site of Mayan rituals, and is relatively well
set up to receive tourists.
In addition to cave touring, it is worthwhile to mention that whitewater rafting and
kayaking are increasingly popular sports in Alta Verapaz, with several tour agencies
involved, most notably Maya expeditions of Guatemala city. The streams that are
rafted are karst spring fed rivers, and they flow through karst for significant portions of
their courses. In the Petn region, north of the Verapaces, one cave has been developed
for tourism; another, although undeveloped is the focus of tourist visits; and a third,
Naj Tunich, is an important archeological site with tourist potential, although it is
currently closed to visitors.
On the outskirts of the town of Santa Elena is the Aktun Kan cave (Serpent cave),
which is open to tourism upon payment of a nominal admission fee. Trails have been
developed, and at one time the cave was electrically lit. Such tourism as this site
currently receives can be attributed to overflow tourism related to the regions premier
attraction, Tikal national park.

Near the town of Poptn, Finca Ixobel is a highly popular lodging and recreational
area, especially among budget travelers. Among the many activities offered by Finca
Ixobel is a hiking and caving trip to River cave (also known as One Day cave, so-called
because it takes a full day to make the trip). The cave is totally undeveloped, and the
visit is made with a guide who has a supply of candles, which are placed along the cave
passage and left burning during the tour. Visitors must carry their own flashlights, and
be prepared to swim through portions of the stream cave. The first section of the cave
ends at a sump pool 580 m from the entrance, and normally the tours end here. Upon
occasion, daring visitors are taken beyond this sump, via a dive through a short
submerged section, to access the second section of the cave.
Other caves in the Poptn area are said to be receiving some visitation, but none
have been formally developed for tourism. Also not far from Poptn is the
archeologically significant cave of Naj Tunich, the site of important classic Mayan
paintings. Because the originals were damaged by visitors, this site is now off-limits to
general tourism. However, in 2006, replicas of the paintings were being created in a
nearby cave; when the paintings and other preparations are completed, this cave will be
opened to the public.
In the department of Izabal, near the coastal town of Livingston visitors can enter a
cave known as Las Grutas El Encanto (Enchanted Grotto) for a fee of less than US$ 1.
At present, development is minimal.
In sum, Guatemala has innumerable caves and karst features with tourism potential.
Approximately a dozen caves and karst features are currently receiving some degree of
tourism. Some of these sites are developed, but many are not. In addition to the sites
mentioned above, a handful of hotels catering to tourists mention caves and caving as
among their attractions, and the growing whitewater tourism is karst-based. Yet in spite
of this wealth of karst features, little has been done thus far to develop their potential
for the tourism industry, and, sadly, little has been done in the way of effective
regulation to protect the majority of these features and areas. Guatemalan tourism is
currently focused on the scenery, indigenous culture, and historic sites of the central
highlands, plus a number of famous individual non-highland sites such as Tikal. Karstbased tourism currently generates less than 5% of Guatemalas tourism income and
accounts for less than 10% of total tourist numbers (estimates of the authors) but its
potential is far greater, and in fact might well become the greatest tourist draw for the
Alta Verapaz department.
34.5.3.3 Honduras
The largest protected karst area in Honduras covers 2400 km2 within the Patuca
national park and Tawahka anthropological reserve, in the Entre Ros cordillera and the
Coln mountains in southeastern Honduras. Patuca national park contains
approximately 1600 km2 of karst and Tawahka anthropological reserve approximately
800 km2 of mountainous karst. The area is considered threatened by illegal immigration
and is the last homeland of the Tawahka (Sumo) culture, one the most threatened
indigenous groups in Honduras [37].
The second largest protected karst area is Sierra de Agalta national park (655 km2)
in central Honduras, which includes the famous Talgua cave (cave of the Glowing
Skulls). Karst is also designated as protected within the Pico Pijol national park
(160 km2), the Cerro Azul Copn national park (155 km2), the Santa Brbara national
park (130 km2) and the Cuevas de Taulab national monument.

The Taulab cave was discovered by accident in the early 1970s when quarrying
related to road construction broke into the virgin cave. The caves location beside the
main highway between the most important cities in Honduras, Tegucigalpa and San
Pedro Sula, made commercialization feasible. The cave was declared a Natural
Monument and wooden walkways and a crude string of electric lights were installed
to open the cave to the public more than 25 years ago. The wooden walkways quickly
deteriorated, and were later replaced by concrete. Although not properly developed for
tourism in terms of esthetic and safety considerations, the cave continued to receive
visitors year after year, with some periods of closure. As of 2002, the cave was
controlled by the municipality of Taulab, and proceeds from entry fees benefited the
local Red Cross.
In 2002, the municipal government of Taulab, seeking to capitalize on karst
resources in its area, funded studies for the proper development of the Taulab cave, and
investigations of other caves in the area suitable for tourist development, with the idea of
creating a tourist theme for Taulab, with a variety of cave types and cave experiences to
be made accessible for visitors. A guided tour lit by Coleman lantern was recommended
for one cave near Taulab, and a guided real caving experience in which the visitors
would don helmets and lamps, and have to crawl and wade, was recommended for
another nearby cave. Together with the conventional cave tour these additional cave trips
would form a suite of experiences encouraging visitors to spend more time (and money)
in the Taulab community. One cave trip would interest and encourage visitors to take
another; to experience all three trips, an overnight stay would be necessary, with the
visitors patronizing local hostelries, restaurants, gasoline stations and stores. However, as
of 2005, only the upgrading of the Taulab cave has been achieved; this cave is again
open to the public, with 300 m of concrete walkways and proper lighting, supported by
surface facilities that include parking, refreshments and food services, and sanitary
facilities. None of the other caves in the area have been developed thus far.
The Ro Talgua cave was first explored and mapped (3.09 km) in 1984, but
achieved no fame until the dramatic discovery in 1994 of an upper passageway
containing ancient human skeletal remains. In the beams of the discoverers flashlights
the calcite-encrusted skulls appeared luminescent, giving the cave its second name
cave of the Glowing Skulls. Archeological studies at this site, which has been
protected, indicate that the stacked bones had been first interred outside, and later
ritually placed inside the cave. The remains, thought to be related to the builders of a
cluster of mounds near the cave, have been radiocarbon dated at approximately 3100 to
2500 years old [38], making this site one of the most important archeological finds in
Honduras outside of Copn.
In the late 1990s, after the archeological find brought fame to the Ro Talgua cave,
the Instituto Hondureo de Antropologa e Historia decided to develop a portion for
tourism. Today a major segment of the main cave passageway is open to the public,
with well-built walkways and indirect lighting. Access to the archeologically sensitive
portion of the cave is restricted; it is not open to visitation by the public. The site
features parking, a cafeteria and an interpretive center with information about caves
and cave geology, plus, of course, the archeological significance of the Ro Talgua
cave. There is also an interpretative trail, with a guidebook, and other hikes in the area
to see waterfalls, flora and fauna. Guide services are available for other hikes. For
serious hikers, a three-day guided hike into the nearby mountain range can be arranged.
An admission fee is charged for the park, and an additional small fee covers the guide

service for the cave trip (for the protection of the cave and for safety reasons, visitors
are not permitted to enter without a guide).
Because the cave is a stream cave and because the site is in a stream valley, flood
damage, following local torrential rains, has occurred to both the surface facilities and
the cave infrastructure on at least one occasion. Flood problems notwithstanding, this
cave is an example of better than average commercial development, and should serve
as an example to be emulated by developers of other commercial caves in Central
America.
Currently, the Taulab and Talgua caves are the only two caves formally developed
for tourism in Honduras. Nonetheless, cave visits are offered elsewhere, for example,
guided visits to caves in the area of Copn. A variety of other Honduran caves are
locally famous and have potential for tourism, such as the beautifully decorated and
archeologically significant Masical cave and the huge Ro Atima cave, both in the
department of Santa Brbara. The Atima river cave runs some 2.5 km underneath a
mountain ridge; it was explored and mapped in the 1980s by North American cavers
[39] and would be quite challenging and expensive to develop, but would be a great
attraction if done properly.
In addition to caves, other karst features have tourist potential. Just to the north of
Yojoa lake is a series of travertine cascades formed by the Ro Lindo river; this area
has been celebrated in Honduran song and attracted local visitors over the years, but
has never been formally developed. Nearby are the falls of Pulhapanzak, an impressive
waterfall with associated significant travertine deposits. These scenic falls have been
commercially developed with a swimming area and small restaurant.
By far the most impressive karst landscape in Honduras is that of the Coln
mountains, where the combination of folded and uplifted thick Cretaceous limestone,
and high rainfall has resulted in a high relief karst (up to 400 m) that is characterized by
innumerable sinkholes (some very large) and numerous springs (Fig. 34.14e).
However, three caving expeditions two American in 1984 and 2001, and one Italian
in 1995 did not result in the discovery of significant caves. This apparent lack of
enterable caves, and the general remoteness of the Coln mountains (which at present
is primarily accessed by boating up the Patuca river) suggest that karst features will not
be a significant tourist attraction in this region for the foreseeable future.
Tourism in Honduran karst areas is increasing steadily, but currently represents less
than 10% of the national total, both in terms of tourist numbers and tourism income.
34.5.3.4 Costa Rica
The largest protected area of Costa Rica that contains limestone karst is Barra Honda
national park on the Nicoya peninsula (22 km NE Nicoya city; Table 34.1; 23 km2) and
the three small areas of Cabo Blanco wildlife reserve (12 km2), Ostional wildlife refuge
(8 km2) and Cur wildlife refuge (1 km2). The Barra Honda national park, which was
created in 1974 in large part because of its speleological resources, includes at least 19
separate caves (Fig. 34.15). Most of the caves feature vertical entrance pits and few are
easily accessible. Only one of the caves, Terciopelo cave, is open to the general public,
and a visit requires three guides and special equipment (provided by the park). These
difficulties notwithstanding, this park and its caves receive considerable visitation.
Probably the most popular and heavily visited cave in Costa Rica is the Venado
caves (Deer caverns), located on private land an hours drive south of La Fortuna. An
admission fee is charged, trips are guided, with boots, flashlights, face masks and

helmets supplied to the visitors. The hour and a half cave trip requires wading and
crawling, and a shower after the cave trip. In 1998 the cave was closed for two months
after several visitors fell ill with histoplasmosis. The cave is again open for visitation,
but because of the histoplasmosis the Ministry of Health now requires protective gear
and a post-cave shower [40].
Figure 34.15. Karst attractions of geo-tourism destinations in Costa Rica: limestone karst
manifestations of the Barra Honda national park (Nicoya peninsula). Photos: Sergio Mora.
From the foregoing, it is clear that caves and karst features are not major components
of the Costa Rican tourism industry. Indeed, the popularity of Venado caves is
probably due mainly to its location close to the famous tourist destinations of Arenal
volcano and Monteverde Cloud Forest biological reserve. Costa Rican tourism is, in
fact, largely focused biological preserves in the highlands, around the volcanoes and on
the coasts. The contribution of karst-related tourism to the national tourism industry is
less than 5% of tourist numbers and tourism income.
34.5.3.5 Other Central American countries
El Salvador is primarily underlain by igneous rocks and has no major karst areas. Of
the estimated 300 km2 of karst in El Salvador, none has protected status. Panama is also
largely underlain by igneous rocks, but does contain an estimated 2000 km2 of karst,
none of which has been given protected status. Nicaragua shares important karst areas
with Honduras, but none of Nicaraguas estimate 5000 km2 karst is protected at this
time. The remoteness and difficulty of access to this Nicaraguan karst makes it unlikely
that it will be a factor in tourism for the foreseeable future.

34.5.4 Summary and conclusions

Approximately 22% of Central Americas karst is afforded at least nominal protection
through its designation as protected areas. The 37 currently protected karst areas total
about 8540 km2, with two countries Honduras (3500 km2) and Belize (3400 km2)
accounting for over 80% of the total protected karst areas. There are also some extensive
protected karst areas in Guatemala, with much smaller areas in Costa Rica and Panama
(Table 34.5). El Salvador and Nicaragua have yet to designate any karstlands as protected
areas. Panama, Costa Rica and El Salvador have only limited karstlands, with relatively
low levels of protection. Combined with Nicaragua, their protected karstlands constitute
only 123 km2, or less than one percent of the regional total (Table 34.5).
Regionally, Belize has the highest percentage of karst protection, with 68% of its
total karst incorporated within 18 protected areas. Half of all the protected areas in
Belize incorporate karstlands, although few of the protected areas are so designated
primarily because of their karst landscape. The high level of karst protection in Belize
reflects the overall national commitment to protected area establishment, which results
in some 40% of the country being designated as protected. Another important factor is
Belizes low population density, which stands in marked contrast to that of other
Central American countries. Although detailed analysis of the factors influencing the
differing levels of karstland protection has not yet been undertaken, population
pressure would appear to be an important factor.
Conferral of protected area status does not necessarily result in effective protection
from such threats as forest clearance, agricultural incursion, water contamination, and
the looting of archaeological materials. For example, the Tawahka anthropological
reserve in eastern Honduras encompasses important areas of karst in the Coln
mountains, simultaneously preserving in theory the karst and a homeland for the
Tawahka indigenous people. Nonetheless, this area is subject to illegal invasion,
clearing and homesteading by Ladino squatters who have threatened violence against
those Tawahkas who dare to protest. This illegal homesteading is so well-known by
authorities in the capital, Tegucigalpa, that it is even mentioned on the Map of
Protected Areas of Honduras, published jointly by the Honduran Tourism Institute,
Honduran Forestry Development Corporation, and Peace Corps Honduras, yet nothing
is done to stop it. Because of limited finances and manpower (and, it seems, a lack of
political will), management and policing of Central Americas protected karst areas is
of variable effectiveness and, in some instances, is non-existent. Some of the largest
and most significant of the reserves are the most vulnerable.
The protected areas situation in Central America is volatile, with reserves being
created and too commonly protection is later revoked. In the last decade the numbers,
sizes and status of many countries protected karst areas have changed, in some cases
dramatically. The contemporary regional attitude towards conservation is not always
encouraging, and it will be interesting to follow future developments in the status of the
protected karst areas. The current modest levels of protection may increase in terms of
area, proportion and efficacy, or they may decrease as other pressures on natural
resources increase.
Tourism in a rapidly increasing facet of human use of the Central American karst,
and caves are the most important foci of karst-based tourism. This is particularly so in
Belize, where over 80% of the total tourism is directed towards the coastal and inland
karst areas. Karst is considerably less important as a tourism focus in the other Central

American countries, but its contribution is increasing, and its potential to add
significantly to national tourism income is particularly great in Guatemala and
Honduras.
34.6
OTHER GEO-HERITAGE OF TOURISTIC VALUE
A number of other geologic and geology-related features found in Central America

have both actual and potential tourist value: geology-related museums, former and
presently active mines, sites for collecting minerals and fossils, special geologic
scenery such as relict glacial topography, etc.
For more than 30 years, the small town of Estanzuela, in the Motagua valley of
Guatemala, has boasted a Museum of Paleontology, Archeology and Geology, perhaps
the unique example of such a museum in all Central America. Its location seemingly
unlikely in terms of tourist visitation apparently results from being near the site where
some of its spectacular Pleistocene vertebrate specimens were excavated (Fig. 34.16).
The exhibits are of highly variable quality, and the museum hours have been erratic,
reflecting the inadequate funding available. Nonetheless, the museums continued
existence against all odds demonstrates that there is a genuine role for such museums.
If properly developed and promoted, geological museums could be viable attractions.
In Costa Rica, the former gold mining town of Las Juntas de Abangares has an ecomuseum which features trails leading up to the top of an abandoned gold mine,
complete with old mine structures [40]. In Honduras, a few kilometers east of
Tegucigalpa is Honduras first national park, La Tigra national park (1980), which
includes the site of the historic Rosario mine, a gold and silver mine operating from the
1870s to 1954. One of the two entries to the park is through the former mine camp of
the New York and Honduras Rosario Mining Co., with some of the historic buildings
still standing and some actually in use by park authorities. The major road and hiking
path through the park was originally a mine road, and visitors hiking this trail pass by
numerous adits. The main purpose of the park is the preservation of a watershed critical
to Tegucigalpas water supply, along with the flora and fauna of the cloud forest
covering this watershed. At present the parks tourist appeal is essentially limited to
hiking and birdwatching. However, there is significant potential here for showcasing
the parks human history with the development of an historic tour that includes going
underground into a portion of the mine. Such a development would add substantially to
the parks ability to attract greater numbers of visitors and generate additional revenue.
Historically, Honduras is known for its placer gold deposits. Some gold panning is
still performed by campesinos in the region of the Guayape river and its tributaries. In
the United States, gold panning is a common tourist activity in mining regions. Visitors
pay for the use of gold pans, some instruction, and the chance of actually panning
genuine gold. While insufficient by itself to sustain a tourism industry, gold panning
might well be a viable adjunct attraction in an area that has already become a tourist
destination.
Mineral and fossil collecting is another geology-based activity which could be a
tourist activity in an area which already had a flow of tourists. The black opals from the
Erandique area of Honduras are well-known amongst mineral collectors. The obvious
drawback to this type of collecting is that supplies of minerals or fossils are finite and
irreplaceable.
Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica all have geothermal fields

developed for the production of electricity (see Chapter 26). Geothermal power plants are
sites of inherent interest to many people, and educational guided tours of such sites could
Figure 34.16. Museum of Paleontology, Archeology and Geology, in the town of Estanzuela
(Motagua valley, Guatemala), where the nearby excavated Pleistocene vertebrate specimens
are exhibited.
add to the overall tourism industry in countries with such facilities. Safety and security
issues would have to be addressed, but this would not be difficult.
Finally, attractive and special landscapes resulting from specific geologic processes
could be incorporated into tourist circuits where such landscapes occur. Karst
landscapes, which can be dramatic, have been mentioned earlier. An additional special
landscape is the glacial landscape found in some of the higher mountain areas of
Central America. Both Costa Rica and Guatemala feature areas of high mountains that
have been glacially modified [41]. Perhaps the most noteworthy of these areas is in the
Altos Cuchumatanes mountains of western Guatemala and Chirip in southern Costa
Rica where mild glacial sculpting and deposition has left behind truly beautiful alpine
scenery. At least one tourist lodge is currently operating in this area, taking advantage
of the attractive natural setting, albeit the management may or may not be aware of the
geologic processes responsible for the scenery.
In sum, there is a wide variety of geologic features and geology-related activities
that can be, and should be, exploited to add to the tourism industry in each of the
Central American republics.

34.7
ECOTOURISM FUTURE FOR CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT
34.7.1 Economic analysis of ecotourism

Until a few years ago, the economies of the Central American countries depended on
agricultural exports (coffee, banana, meat) and textiles. Due to changes in the world
economy (e.g., declining earnings from Central American coffee due to competition
from Southeast Asia) the importance of these exports has been reduced and other
products have been favored.
During the decade 19902000, the nations of Central America underwent an
explosive increase in tourism, especially ecotourism. The basis for this tourism is the
tropical rain forest with its extremely rich biodiversity, in combination with scenic
mountain landscapes and the presence of volcanoes and volcanic lakes. Together these
natural features constitute assets of huge economic value to the economy of all Central
America.
This growth of Central American tourism has been aided not only by the many and
varied attractions, both cultural and natural, in the region, but also by advances in
telecommunications, improvements in transportation services and infrastructure in
Central America, and perhaps most importantly, by the cessation of regional armed
conflicts in Guatemala, El Salvador and Nicaragua.
In Chapter 1, economic development figures for the seven Central American
countries were presented in Table 1.6. Along with traditional economic sectors of
agriculture, industry, manufacturing, services, and exports, data on the value of tourism
is shown in this table. Some salient features related to tourism deserve mention here
(Table 34.6).
Of the seven nations (Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa
Rica and Panama), Guatemala, is the third largest and has historically been the
wealthiest. In 2004 Guatemala retained its pre-eminent position with the largest GDP in
the region, US$ 19,676,000,000 with tourism constituting a small but significant sector
in the overall national economy. For the year 2000, exports generated US$
3,881,000,000 accounting for 20% of the Guatemalan GDP. In 2001, the Guatemalan
tourism industry had an export value of US$ 493,000,000, equaling 12.9% of total
exports, but still accounting for only 2.6% of the 2001 GDP. It should be noted that
Guatemala is unique in the region in having a large indigenous population (Maya) that
has maintained a very viable and colorful culture. The Guatemalan tourism industry is
based on this indigenous culture as well as Guatemalas ancient archeological and
colonial sites, in addition to the geological and other natural attractions of the country.
Belize, next to El Salvador the smallest nation in the region, has the smallest GDP,
US$ 931,000,000 in 2004. However in Belize, the contribution of tourism to the national
economy is far greater than in Guatemala, having an export value of US$ 121,000,000 in
2001 and equaling 27.3% of total exports, and fully 15.0% of the 2001 GDP.
Honduras, long famous as the quintessential banana republic, had a GDP of US$
7,358,000,000 in 2004, fifth of the seven nations in the region. The proportion of the
Honduran national economy derived from agriculture, including bananas, has declined
steadily from 37.8% of GDP in the 196170 decade to 17.8% in 2000. Tourism in the
meantime has grown. While still a small sector in the national economy, tourism has
more than quadrupled from 1.0% of the 1990 GDP to 4.4% of the 2001 GDP, and
equaling 10.5% of total 2001 exports. Its best-known attractions are the famous classic
Maya ruins of Copn and the Bay islands offering beautiful beaches with coral reefs

and excellent snorkeling and diving. The predominance of these two attractions
notwithstanding, Honduras is beginning to be noted for its many parks and protected
areas, to date not extensively developed, but offering many opportunities for
ecotourism in varied forms. Honduras is in fact, becoming known as an in destination
for ecotourism.
Belize
Honduras
El
Salvador
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
Tourism industry
export value1)
(current million US$)
1990
1995
2001
Share of total exports2) (%)
1990
1995
2001
Share of GDP2) (%)
1990
1995
2001
Share of total employment3)
2002 (%)
Inversion of capital3)
2002 (million US$)
Share of total inversion of
country3) 2002
Guatemala
Table 34.6. Economic indicators of tourism development.
185
277
493
44
77
121
29
107
2624)
18
41
235
12
50
109
275
660
1278
172
367
626
11.5
9.8
12.9
17.1
26.1
27.3
2.6
6.2
10.54)
2.0
2.0
5.9
4.8
8.6
11.85)
13.9
15.0
18.6
8.4
12.5
18.4
2.4
1.9
2.6
10.9
13.1
15.0
1.0
2.7
4.44)
0.4
0.5
2.0
0.8
2.6
4.2
4.8
5.6
7.8
3.2
4.6
5.2
6.6
--
8.6
5.8
7.9
14.0
10.7
376
--
179.6
237.0
58.4
608.9
379.3
10.4
--
12.2
9.6
6.9
17.1
12.4
1)
Source: [2]; 2)Calculated from GDP in current prices from International Monetary Fund [42],
and total exports from [2] (see Table 1.6, Chapter 1); 3)Source: [43]; 4)2000 value; 5)1998
value.
El Salvador, the smallest nation in Central America (though only slightly smaller than
Belize), nonetheless has the third largest economy, with a 2004 GDP of US$
13,850,000,000. El Salvador has long had a reputation for a hard working population and
has been more industrialized and diversified than many of its neighbors in the region. It is
the most densely populated nation in Central America, which no doubt has been a factor
in its industrialization. Unlike Guatemala, El Salvador does not have a colorful
indigenous population to attract international visitors, and unlike Honduras, it does not
boast large still-uninhabited areas of primary tropical forest (another result of its dense
population). Furthermore, El Salvador remains troubled by negative images from the civil
war of the 1980s. Nonetheless, the portion of the national economy attributable to tourism
industry, has grown even more in El Salvador than in Honduras, quintupling since 1990,
rising from 0.4% GDP in 1990 to 2.0% in 2001 (equaling 5.9% of total exports). While a
small factor in the overall national economy, the rapid growth during the past decade
suggests that tourism, including ecotourism and geologically based tourism, may yet
become a significant contributor to the economic well-being of El Salvador.
Nicaragua, the largest nation in Central America has the second lowest GDP, only

US$ 2,705,000,000 in 2004. Unfortunately the national economy has yet to recover from
the devastation of the serial civil wars of the late 1970s (Sandinista revolution) and
throughout the decade of the 1980s (Sandinista-Contra war), plus alleged economic missmanagement of the Sandinista period. As noted earlier in this chapter, development of
parks, protected areas, and tourist facilities has lagged in Nicaragua. Nonetheless, as in El
Salvador, the economic significance of tourism has quintupled since 1990, from 0.8%
GDP to 4.2% GDP in 2001, equaling an impressive 11.8% of exports. In 2005 the
country seems poised to enjoy a period of continued rapid growth in tourism.
Figure 34.17. Export values of Costa Rica compared with the tourism industry sector (modified
after [44]).
Panama had the fourth largest GDP in Central America in 2004, US$ 13,256,000,000.
Panamas strategic location and possession of the Panama canal contributes
significantly to both the overall national economy and to the Panamanian tourism
industry. In 2001, 5.2% of the GDP was attributable to the tourism industry, the third
highest rate in the region.
However, it is Costa Rica that is the shining example of the value, actual and
potential, of tourism especially ecotourism to Central America. Covering only
51,100 km2 (only Belize and El Salvador are smaller), with a population less than a
third of that of Guatemala (less than two thirds of that of El Salvador), and having no
strategic facility such as the Panama canal, Costa Rica nonetheless generates the
second largest economy in the region. In 2004 the Costa Rican output ran that of
Guatemala a close second, with a 2004 GDP of US$ 18,617,000. In contrast to this near
parity in 2004, the GDP of Costa Rica in 1970 was only 52% of that of Guatemala.
How much of this change is attributable to the growth of tourism in Costa Rica?

Since the 1980s Costa Rica has by deliberate intention re-invented itself as a worldrenowned tourist destination. The main basis for this tourism is not a colorful
indigenous culture, nor a plethora of historic sites, but a system of national parks and
protected areas that preserve, protect, and to some degree make accessible Costa Ricas
varied forests, waterfalls, lakes, and whitewater streams, volcanoes and thermal
springs, beaches and reefs. In Costa Rica ecotourism has become the main industry of
the country, representing 7.8% of the GDP in 2001, up from 4.8% in 1990. Figure
34.17 shows that in export values, tourism exceeds forestry, meat, and coffee, and has
exceeded the value of the traditional banana exports in most years since 1993.
Number of tourists: According to data from the WTO (World Tourism
Organization [45]), some 1.9 million travelers arrived in the Central American region
in 1990. In the year 1995 the number increased by 34.2% to 2.6 million (Table 34.7); in
the following five years the increase doubled to 66.4% corresponding to 4.3 million
international visitors in 2000. In 2004, the visitors number reached nearly 5.8 million,
an increase of a further 32.8% for the 20002004 period, resulting in an total increase
of about 200% within the period 19902004.
Belize
Honduras
El
Salvador
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
Total
International tourist
arrivals (thousands)
1990
1995
2000
2004
Share of total tourists (%)
visiting Central America
1990
1995
2000
2004
Growth (%)
19901995
19952000
20002004
19902004
Guatemala
Table 34.7. International tourist arrivals to Central America by country (source: [45]).
509
563
826
1182
197
131
196
231
290
271
471
672
194
235
795
966
106
281
486
615
435
785
1088
1453
214
345
484
652
1945
2611
4346
5771
26.2
21.6
19.0
20.5
10.1
5.0
4.5
4.0
14.9
10.4
10.8
11.6
10.0
9.0
18.3
16.7
5.4
10.8
11.2
10.7
22.4
30.1
25.0
25.2
11.0
13.2
11.1
11.3
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
10.6
46.7
43.1
132.2
33.5
49.6
17.9
17.3
6.6
73.8
42.7
131.7
21.1
238.3
21.5
397.9
165.1
73.0
26.5
480.2
80.5
38.6
33.5
234.0
61.2
40.3
34.7
204.7
34.2
66.4
32.8
196.7
The country-wise shares of international visitors to Central America vary only

moderately in the period 19902004. The countries which receive most of the Central
American tourists are Costa Rica (2230%) and Guatemala (1926%), followed by El
Salvador (918%), Panama (1113%), Honduras (1015%), Nicaragua, (511%), and
Belize (410%) (Table 34.7). So, in 2004, Costa Rica received the greatest number of
visitors to the region (1.45 million), followed by Guatemala (1.18 million), El Salvador
(0.97 million), Honduras (0.67 million), Panama (0.65 million), Nicaragua (0.62
million), and Belize (0.23 million).
The greatest increase in international visitor numbers from 1990 to 2004 was in
Nicaragua (480%) and El Salvador (398%), which were battered by civil wars, political
unrest and resulting problems, so that they were not attractive for tourists at the

beginning of the 1990s. Costa Rica (234%) and Panama (205%) show moderate growth
rates, since these countries were not disturbed by civil wars and therefore were already
in 1990 important destinations for international visitors. This is also true of Guatemala,
where the increase was 132% for 19902004. In contrast, Belize shows a lesser
increase in visitor numbers (17%).
With respect to the visits to protected areas in Costa Rica, in 2002 a total of 949,714
visitors were recorded, 56% of them being nationals and residents. About 41% of the
total entrance fees of all protected areas were obtained from the two volcano national
parks Pos and Iraz [3] .
Pos volcano national park is the most visited of Costa Ricas volcanoes. In 2002 it
was visited by 237,737 tourists, equivalent to 25% of the total number of visitors to the
National System of Conservation Areas (Sistema Nacional de reas de Conservacin
de Costa Rica, SINAC), generating 29.3% of the total income from entrance fees [3].
For comparison, Iraz volcano national park received in the same year 16% of all
SINAC visitors, and produced 17.1% of its total incomes from entrance fees. In
contrast, Arenal volcano national park received only 2.9% of all SINAC visitors, and
produced only 4.9% of its total income from entrance fees [3].
These low numbers for Arenal volcano national park can be explained by the fact
that because of its size, form and location the cone of Arenal volcano can be
observed from a distance of various kilometers. Thus most of the tourists who come to
see Arenal volcano do not actually enter the Arenal national park itself, resulting in
economic loss for the Costa Rican national park system. For this same reason, it is not
possible to determine the number of persons that visit the zone mainly to observe
Arenal volcano versus those whose primary purpose may be to enjoy a thermal spa or
other attraction. In contrast, the Pos and Iraz volcanoes and their craters can only be
visited by entering the respective national parks, and the visitors to these parks are
clearly attracted by the volcanoes themselves.
34.7.2 Identification of ecotourism targets and challenges
34.7.2.1 Overview
Ecotourism is a means by which the Central American countries can overcome their
socio-economic problems, and simultaneously overcome their difficult environmental
challenges by improving conservation, reducing the presently ongoing deforestation,
loss of biodiversity and degradation of the land, which is occurring in varying degrees
throughout the region. These challenges can be met, or at least the problems
moderated, by using the direct and ancillary benefits of the regions natural attractions,
including its geological heritage, for promoting and developing ecotourism. The
economic and conservation aspects of ecotourism, if well balanced can achieve the
multiple optimal benefits of (1) providing social and economic development, both
nationally, and, in particular, in rural areas, (2) providing financing for protected areas
and conservation efforts, (3) serving as an economic justification for the preservation
and management of protected areas, (4) reducing the exploitation of resources from
protected and other areas by supplying local people with viable economic alternatives,
(5) promoting environmentalism and conservation, and (6) encouraging private
conservation efforts.
In previous chapters it was shown clearly that the abundant geology-related
resources of Central America represent a huge potential, which can be used for the

economic and social development of the region and at the same time improve
environmental conservation. However, up to the present time, only Costa Rica has used
these natural resources for ecotourism in an extensive manner. In Costa Rica, progress
has been made by both government (national and local) and the private sector regarding
sustainable tourism development. The Costa Rican case study proves that true
ecotourism, i.e., sustainable, nature-based tourism, has a very tangible value by
pointing out the contribution of ecotourism to overall tourism profits. Visitors will pay
to visit volcanoes, crater lakes, thermal springs, caves, tropical forests, etc. The
example of Costa Rica illustrates that sustainable tourism development can be achieved
by encouraging responsible planning and management practices consistent with the
conservation of natural, historic, and cultural heritage.
Since the 1980s, the ecotourism potential of natural sites has been recognized in the
Central American region, and as a consequence there has been a considerable increase in
the number of tourist destinations based on geologic and other natural phenomena. The
strategy of marketing, in respect to services and the countries, contributes to the
conservation of the natural resources, and to the cultural, social, and economic
development of the communities where the ecotourism resources are located.
Nonetheless, no technical criteria have been formulated and agreed upon that would
permit the distinction between those enterprises that are truly ecotourism versus those
which are not. This lack of accepted evaluation criteria has allowed many tourist
enterprises to promote themselves as ecotourism sites in spite of the fact that they do not,
in reality, comply with the requisite minimum standards to be considered as green.
During the last few years, most Central American countries, including governments
and the private sector, invested in improved planning and development of tourism. This
has increased the available tourist offerings and has strengthened the image of Central
America as an ecotourism destination. The results of these efforts are reflected in the
visitor statistics discussed in Chapter 34.7.1.
So, the national and local governments have established strategies to asist the private
sector to enter into the markets of nature tourism. In spite of this government planning,
the actual situation of some of the most important protected areas necessitates a
revision a strong increase, to be precise of the political will to invest in these
places to insure that their protection is real and effective, not merely theoretical.
Necessary as well is the assignment of more economic resources to generate a corps of
trained personnel with the capacity to manage protected areas and to envision and
create new ecotourism destinations.
The principal aim of an ecotourism business should be to achieve high levels of
satisfaction among clients by providing quality services while simultaneously
contributing to the conservation of the natural and cultural resources. Furthermore,
ecotourism must stress the maximum participation of local people. Communities that
obtain income from ecotourism develop environmental awareness about their own
ecosystems.
The increase in political will and allotment of more economic resources to
conservation and ecotourism projects, necessary to bring the national planning to
fruition, presupposes several conditions:
The harmonizing of environmental politics for sustainable and tourist development.
Greater participation by local governments.
Improvement of the relationship between the public and private sector.
Promotion of a strong business mentality, considering the market dynamics and

standard of quality and sustainability.

The development of a climate of business favorable for ecotourism activities.
Growth of the ecotourism sector to the extent that it can influence national politics
and establish joint actions to strengthen other fields: infrastructure, security,
education, health, etc.
Among the most important politico-economic challenges to Central America is to find
mechanisms for regional integration that will encourage the development of authentic
tourism attractions, destinations and services of high quality, which achieve the
fulfillment of sustainability norms.
The examples from the volcano areas of Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua
presented in Chapter 34.3.2 illustrate the deficits and the needs of many protected areas,
including those with geological heritage, to become economically viable for tourism. The
preconditions for successful ecotourism based on these protected areas are: (1) the areas
must be effectively (not merely nominally) protected, (2) the personal security of the
visitors must be ensured, (3) the areas must be accessible, (4) local infrastructure
(including additional facilities and services offered to the visitors) must be adequate, and
(5) the areas must be promoted as tourist destinations, with a plan for sustainability built
into the development strategies. These preconditions must be achieved jointly by all the
involved groups (governments, NGOs, and private sector) working in cooperation.
In spite of the need for cooperation between government and the private sector, in
Nicaragua and Guatemala numerous private ecotourism companies developed in the
year 2004 outside of any framework or context of governmental conservation or
development planning. Although these companies offered a number of geology-related
and other ecotourism products, such as hiking volcanoes, ballooning over volcanoes,
canopy tours, etc., the lack of effective coordination, planning, and marketing has led
to their failure to achieve a recognized identity in the tourism market, and tourists
awareness and familiarity with the new companies and their services is weak.
The Costa Rican examples (Pos and Iraz national parks) and Masaya volcano
national park in Nicaragua show that visits to volcanoes are often short, generally
lasting only few hours. Short visitor stays mean that the social-economic benefit for the
rural areas around these parks is minimal. This calls for developing additional tourism
products for the visitors to attract them for longer stays in or near the parks, requiring
lodging, meals and other services, for only in this manner will park tourism contribute
to rural development. Keeping the tourists more than one day becomes difficult if the
distance from the amenities of the nearest metropolitan area is small, as it is true in
these three examples. In contrast, Arenal volcano national park presents an example
where a comprehensive package of tourism products has been developed, resulting in a
average stay of tourists of 2.6 days, making tourism the main income source for the
region, and contributing in a self-sustaining way to rural development around the park.
As outlined in Chapter 34.3, volcanoes constitute important tourist attractions and
encourage both the established tourism industry and local people to develop the
surroundings of volcanoes by installing tourist facilities (accommodations, restaurants,
spas with geothermal water and volcanic mud baths, etc.). In so doing, government
authorities, tourism providers, and the visitors themselves often fail to properly
consider that from time by time the very volcanic activity that creates the attraction
may also cause damage and destruction of material and life. Many people consider only
the area nearest the peak or crater to be potentially dangerous, but not the surrounding
volcanic flanks, where tourism facilities are commonly installed. However, the lower

slopes of cones and other areas in the vicinity of active volcanoes may be subject to a
variety of dangers, including ash falls, lahars (volcanic debris flows), pyroclastic flows,
landslides and seismic activity, among others. Scientific estimation of volcanic hazards,
based on surface gradients, soil characteristics, rainfall, seismic and volcanic activity
(historic and prehistoric) (see Chapter 38), can permit the delimitation of zones of
different grades of volcanic hazard. Such risk definition and hazard zone delineation
should form the basis for landuse planning and regulation. The activities allowed in the
different volcanic hazard zones must be regulated by competent authorities that are
properly empowered, meaning that government authority will likely be required.
A regulatory case study of the area surrounding Arenal volcano which, as
already noted, is an important tourist area with a significant number of hotels and other
tourist facilities on its flanks is presented in Chapter 34.7.2.2. This model should be
adapted and applied to other volcano areas, where tourism facilities exist, or are under
development, or planned.
34.7.2.2 Arenal volcano case study contribution to development
The case study of the Arenal volcano area will be used to demonstrate how a formerly
remote and inaccessible region can be economically and socially developed by means
of geology-related ecotourism when governmental and private investment activities are
combined. The Arenal area is located 140 km from the capital, San Jos, and 7 km
from the small town La Fortuna. Prior to its development as an ecotourism destination
the Arenal volcano area was difficult to access, and was characterized by farms and
undeveloped lands (Fig. 34.18). Development has included much improved access,
necessary for the successful operation of tourist facilities. The local inhabitants living
around the protected area benefit in many ways from the improved access, facilitating
commerce between the La Fortuna area and city markets. Equally as important, the
local population is directly involved in the tourism industry: as employees in major
tourist facilities (built by enterprises with greater capital than could be raised locally),
as the providers of services (guiding, horses, bicycle rental, etc.), and as
owner/operators of smaller establishments catering to the visitors various needs
(dining, lodging, automobile repair, medical, etc.). The local population thus
participates in the social and economic benefits of tourism.
Costa Ricas Arenal was not known to be an active volcano until its eruptions
started in 1968. Both before and immediately after 1968 only a few travelers visited the
volcano. In 197071 and 198485, roads in the Arenal area were significantly
improved (in connection, it must be noted, with the development of the Arenal
hydroelectric station, not specifically for the purpose of tourism). This upgrading of the
access has contributed heavily to the success of tourism in this area. Since 1990 the
Arenal-La Fortuna area has been one of the most popular tourist destinations in all of
Costa Rica, featuring new hotels and lodges, hot spring spas, cave tours, canopy tours,
ballooning, wind-skiing on Arenal lake, fishing, nature trails, and, of course, Arenal
volcano national park (1991) itself (Fig. 34.18).
In the town of La Fortuna (Fig. 34.18a, b), the tourist industry grew from a minimal
base. The local inhabitants first rented out rooms in their houses to tourists (particularly
until 1980), then added small cottages (cabinas) to their houses (starting in 1985), then
built small hotels with 1520 rooms (the first in 1990). By 2004 there were about 60
hotels, of which Tabacn resort was the largest, with 106 rooms. More commonly, the
hotels have 15 to 60 rooms. A particularly interesting and well-known up-scale tourist

Figure 34.18. The Arenal volcano case study shows how a formerly remote and inaccessible
region can be developed by means of geology-related ecotourism: (a) Fortuna town with
Arenal volcano in the background in the 1970s (a) and in 2004 (b). View from west of
Arenal volcano, before the Arenal storage lake was constructed (c), and the view in 2004 (d),
showing how the use of the lake for watersports contributes along with the volcano to the
development of the region. Photos: courtesy O. Aragn.
site is the Tabacn resort (since 1993) at the foot of Arenal volcano. The resort offers
more than just hot springs: visitors can view Arenals activity (while soaking in the hot
pools), enjoy the resorts bars, restaurant, lodging, and special services such as
massages and mud wraps.
The Arenal area serves as an example of how development might proceed at many
of Central Americas most interesting volcanoes, which are not currently visited by
significant numbers of tourists because of the missing infrastructure of access roads,
public transport, hotel facilities, and ancillary tourist attractions. The experiences at
Arenal can be used to create a model for ecotourism development, which may be
applied at other places in Central America.
The goal of the model is to develop an ecotourism industry based on the natural
attractions of a volcano area. In this model, an ecotourism center will provide naturebased activities (e.g., volcano observation, hiking, bird-watching, etc.), research and

education (at college and general level). This center should be integrated with ongoing
volcano studies by national and international scientists, with the object of stimulating a
broad-based ecotourism product. Ecotourists will stay in local accommodations (villas,
cabins, hotels, etc.) and will use local transportation and other services. Revenue and
employment will accrue to the local people through activities at the center,
transportation, accommodations, entertainment, and sales to tourists, etc. A key
advantage is that this model is based on expanding existing infrastructure, and
providing additional employment. It will also provide training to local people. A
further advantage is that knowledge generated at the center will directly benefit the
locality in natural resource management. The diversity of activities and subjects at the
center (from rain forest biodiversity to volcanoes) will stimulate greater interest and, in
turn, increased revenues.
34.7.2.3 Arenal volcano case study, continued Security measures for tourism
development in volcanic active areas
Since sites for additional tourism development in the Arenal volcano area are limited,
and because the operators of tourism facilities (including hoteliers) try to bring the
tourists as close as possible to the volcano in order to maximize the attractiveness of
their services to their clients, tourist facilities have been built in zones of higher than
advisable volcanic risk (Fig. 34.19, Chapter 38, Fig. 38.8). Zones which were formerly
not used by humans, since they were known to be dangerous, have been encroached
upon by development. Regulation of landuse and access by people became necessary.
The Arenal area zoning regulations (2000) for landuse and access to people, developed
by the authorities, are based on a map in which the zones of different volcanic hazards are
outlined (see Chapter 38, Fig. 38.8). This zoning code is used as the instrument to authorize
permits for construction and other activities. Through this means of control the security
of the residents, employees of the tourism facilities, and the tourists themselves, is
enhanced. A summary (published in the governmental newspaper [46]) of the principal
restrictions for landuse and access in the Arenal volcano area, as they are defined in
[46] is given below for the different volcanic hazard zones.
A zone of absolute restriction (the red zone, R) is delimited. It is subdivided in the
subzones R1, R2, R3, and R4, corresponding to decreasing volcanic hazard. In the
entire red zone the following general restrictions apply:
1. Restrictions on landuse
1.1 General restrictions for the entire zone R (or red zone)
(a) The construction of new tourism facilities (including lodging facilities,
restaurants, day spas, paths and tracks, camping sites, canopy tours, trekking, climbing,
horse riding, the construction of roads, and complementary installations as required for
offering tourist services) is prohibited. In addition, the amplification of existing
facilities is prohibited. This recommendation applies for the entire zone of absolute
restriction (red zone), except for those sectors where exceptions are indicated (as in the
cases of zones R2 and R3).
(b) The establishment of new dwellings within the properties of existing farms or in
subdivisions of these properties is prohibited within the entire zone of absolute
restriction (red zone).
1.2 Uses and particular restrictions
(a) Restriction zone R1: The proper authorities should take drastic measures so that
in the shortest possible time, no activities will be permitted that result in concentrations

Figure 34.19. Houses (a) and tourist facilities (b) constructed in the volcanic hazard area of
Arenal volcano. Photos: courtesy O. Aragn.
of persons in zone R1. These areas have histories of dangerous volcanic phenomena:
they have been affected by pyroclastic flows (nues ardentes), and hence their present
uses are in conflict with the level of risk. Those farm activities already established in
this sector, will be governed by the regulations established for the restriction zone R4.
(b) Restriction zone R2: This sector of the Arenal conservation area (rea de
Conservacin de Arenal, i.e., ACA), may be used according to the regulations defined
in the chapter on restrictions regarding visits and visitor traffic (2 sections a and b). An
approved emergency plan must be in force, paths and emergency routes indicated, and
visitors information on the hazards must be available, in different languages (at least
English and Spanish). In this sector, no new infrastructure may be built or services to the
tourists offered, with exception of paths, informative signs or other facilities in the open air.
(c) Restriction zone R3: To the west of the road to the Castillo (between the road
and the bank of Arenal lake and Arenal river), the establishment of paths exclusively
for hiking and horseback riding, and also as access to the lake for fishing, is allowed
according to the existing regulations, as well as other open air activities, whenever
these do not imply the building of constructions of any type, which must be located
outside of the restricted area R3. Neither the establishment of camping facilities nor
any activity that requires such is permitted. Activities of extraction of materials and
agricultural activities are governed according to the regulations established for
restriction zone R4 and in concordance with the regulations in force.
(d) Restriction zone R4: Agricultural and forestry activities as well as the
excavation of construction materials are allowed, provided that they have been
established by the CNE (National Emergency Commission; Comisin Nacional de

Emergencia) and if they do not imply a concentration of more than seven persons in
places of high risk. The construction of new dairies, stables or storage buildings or the
enlargement of existing ones is not allowed. The already existing installations for
farming, forestry and exploitation of materials may be repaired (provided that the
activities have already been properly permitted in the past before the law was
established).
2. Restrictions on visits and visitor traffic
While the Arenal volcano remains active (lava flows, pyroclastic flows, emission of
volcanic gases), the access and transit of persons is regulated, and two restrictive subareas are established.
(a) Restrictive subzone Sub-1: Visits and traffic is absolutely prohibited in this zone.
The only persons excepted are: (1) vulcanology researchers of national public or
private institutions, or foreign scientists, provided they carry identification accrediting
them as such, and provided they are accompanied by personnel of the proper national
institutions; (2) officials of emergency services, carrying out operations of rescue or
investigations, provided they carry identifications accrediting them as such; and (3)
police authorities in performance of their official duties such as the task of capture or
judicial investigation, providing they carry the corresponding identifications.
(b) Restrictive sub-zone Sub-2: Zone of partial restriction of visits and traffic of
persons: Only small groups of people are allowed to visit the lower part of the western
flank of Arenal volcano, and the areas located to the west of the volcano in between the
Arenal conservation area (ACA), Arenal lake, and Arenal river, and only under the
specific conditions that follow. (1) The controlled access of small groups (up to 10
persons) to the ACA is allowed by officials of the ACA, to the sector delimited by the
topographic height of 600 m a.s.l., a limit that must be properly marked by the officials
of this institution. (2) The ACA must have an alarm system to order evacuations and
evacuation plans which must be approved by the CNE, and persons are not allowed to
stay overnight in this restricted zone. The only tourism services which are allowed
within Sub-2 are those of tourist guide services for groups of persons, and the
transportation service into and out of the zone. Persons acting as guides in Sub-2 must
be certified by the Costa Rican Tourism Institute (ICT). (3) The road that crosses the
foot of the western flank of the volcano is free for circulation; nevertheless,
informational signs stating the different restrictions within the zone are recommended.
(4) The lands located between the road, Arenal lake, and Arenal river may be visited to
perform activities permitted for restriction zone R3 (section 1.2). However, it must be
clarified to the visitors, proprietors, and to the staff of ACA, i.e., all who are concerned
with activities inside of zone of absolute restriction (red zone), that this area possesses
a high risk, and therefore should be demarcated and indicated by signs.
34.7.3 Tools to promote ecotourism
34.7.3.1 General
There are many tools to promote ecotourism for socio-economic development of the
region and for the conservation and protection of geological and other natural heritages.
Here only those tools are discussed which were either applied in the geological heritage
case studies or which are of special interest due to their applicability to such cases.
Governmental (national, provincial, and municipal) and other Central American
authorities must develop and apply these tools in combination and co-operation with

national, regional, and international private investors (e.g., tour booking agencies, tour
providers, hotels, spas, etc.) and integrate them in their sustainable development
policies.
This requires a package of governmental tools including: (1) regulations, clear
policies, and incentives for private sector investments (e.g., tax benefits and credits for
small enterprises on both the local and national level); (2) implementation of the comanagement principle, where state authorities cooperate with NGOs and private
enterprise in the management of protected areas; (3) measures to improve the personal
security of visitors and improve infrastructure surrounding and within the protected
areas; (4) licensing of tourist guides to protect visitors from fraudulent tour guides
(Belize already has such a system and Nicaragua is currently working on the issue); (5)
sustainable tourism certificates; and (6) advertising and marketing.
Visits to volcanoes and other geological tourism destinations are often short. Visits
to the volcano parks like Masaya, Pos, and Iraz are short visits of some hours only.
This necessitates the development and application of measures to hold the tourists in
the region longer, so that local communities can benefit more. An obvious possibility is
to offer manifold different tourist attractions at one site or in one local area.
The negative image of civil war and unrest, which remains associated with many
Central American countries must be overcome and the confidence of potential clients
to visit these countries must be established. The case of Costa Rica illustrates the
importance of a peaceful image. After president Arias won the Nobel Peace Prize on
December 10, 1987, Costa Rica was discovered and recognized worldwide as a
peaceful country and a potential vacation destination. Its volcanic regions became
increasingly chosen as destinations for international tourists.
34.7.3.2 Certification for sustainable tourism
Effective sustainable tourism certification programs need to inform the traveling public
about ecotourism products and services and especially to act as a trademark for
marketing purposes. As a state tool to develop ecotourism and to promote private
sector cooperation, it is important to (1) improve the image of a country to potential
visitors; and (2) to introduce a well-recognized means of evaluating ecotourism
projects, for example through the national tourism institutions.
In Central America there are only a few programs of tourism certification. There are
two on the international level, one Central American, and one on a national level.
Among the international ones are Green Globe and Ecotel.
Green Globe is an initiative, consisting of the execution of an environmental
management program, which was developed in 1994 by the World Travel and Tourism
Council (WTTC), with the support of the World Tourism Organization (WTO) and the
Earth Council. In 1997, Green Globe 21 was established on the basis of Agenda 21
(approved at the United Nations World Summit for Sustainable Development, Rio de
Janeiro 1992) and including some elements of the series ISO (a series of quality norms
which intend to guarantee the satisfaction of the consumer [47]). In Central America
enterprises affiliated with Green Globe exist in Belize (2), Guatemala (1), Costa Rica
(1) and Panama (1).
ECOTEL is a system of environmental responsibility, which was developed by
environmental experts of the Rocky Mountain Institute in Aspen, Colorado. It was
elevated to a world level by HVS Ecoservices International, and today there are about
1000 hotels worldwide holding ECOTEL certificates. The certification is based on five

criteria, which are separately applied on the following areas: environmental performance,
management of waste, energy efficiency, conservation of energy and environmental
education of employees and community relations. In Central America, ECOTEL certified
hotels exist in Belize (4), Guatemala (1), Honduras (1) and Costa Rica (17).
The Certification in Sustainable Tourism Program (Programa de Certificacin para
la Sostenibilidad Turstica, CST; [48]) is the only regional initiative in Central
America. It was created in 1996, as a proposal of the Costa Rican Tourism Institute
(ITC) to contribute to the solution of environmental problems engendered by tourism
projects. CST was designed to rate tourism sector businesses based on the degree to
which they comply with a model of sustainable natural, cultural and social resource
management. The CST Program evaluates ecotourism businesses on the basis of four
different parameters (defined below), and includes a series of incentives that increase in
benefits for each company in direct proportion to the rating it receives. Benefits include
international and national publicity and promotion, specifically designed for the CST
Program; training for the personnel of the business; priority participation in various
world tourism fairs and events, and more. As the rating of a business increases, more
and better benefits will be received. Thus, it is expected that the CST Program will
encourage firms to advance towards the model of sustainability by giving the same
degree of consideration and importance to each of the four areas evaluated.
CST operates within the framework of environmental, social and economic
sustainability. It consists of a scale of five levels of sustainable tourism achievement
and evaluates the sustainability of an ecotourism establishment, using the following four
evaluation parameters:
Physical-biological parameters: The interactions between the company and its
surrounding natural habitat are evaluated.
Infrastructure and services: The management policies and the operations systems
within the company and its infrastructure are evaluated.
External clients: The interactions of the company with its clients in terms of how
much the company allows and invites the clients to be active contributors to the
companys policies of sustainability are evaluated.
Socio-economic environment: The interactions of the company with the local
communities and the population in general are evaluated.
Each of these areas of concern contains descriptors which determine whether the
impacts are positive or negative, which assists in evaluation of whether the enterprise
complies with the prescribed standards [48].
CST is regulated by the Costa Rican National Accreditation Commission (Comisin
Nacional de Certificacin), which is composed of representatives of diverse sectors
related to the environment, tourism and academia. CST can be considered as a pilot
project operated in Costa Rica, but amenable to use by the other Central American
countries. The aim of the CST is the rating of each tourism company (or activity)
according to the degree to which its operations comply with a model of sustainability.
At present, CST is used only in Costa Rica, where approximately 60 certified CST
lodging businesses exist. Additional criteria are being defined for tour operators and for
other ecotourism businesses.
There are regional agreements to expand CST to the whole Central American
region. In 1996, the Central American Tourism Counsel (Consejo Centroamericano de
Turismo), which consists of the ministers responsible for the tourism sector of their
respective countries, approved a resolution by which the CST program is accepted as

the tourism certification program for all the Central American region. At the same
session, the Board of Tourism (Direccin de Turismo) of the Secretariat for Central
American Integration (SICA), was authorized to seek means to facilitate the
implementation of CST throughout Central America. From this resolution, CST forms
part of the efforts towards regional integration and is included in all initiatives of
regional tourism cooperation activities.
The Central American joint trade mark Central America: So Small So Large
incorporated CST as an important element in its commercial image, thus giving the
trade mark a greater value. Additionally, CST is included in the Plan Puebla Panam.
The Green Deal program was initiated by the NGO Green Alliance of Guatemala
(Alianza Verde de Guatemala). Originally it was presented as a code of best practices
for tourism enterprises in the Mayan biosphere reserve (Bisfera Maya).
Subsequently a quality seal was developed to recognize those businesses that put
this code into practice. After an internal review, the need to establish a special program
of certification for the Petn zone in Guatemala was recognized.
The Green Deal certification evaluates three main areas of concern: (1) quality; (2)
environment; and (3) sociocultural. It is applied to various sectors of the tourism
industry: tour operators and travel agencies, communities, hotels, tourist transportation
services, travel guides, and restaurants. It includes certain generic norms applied to all
the sectors, and specific norms for each of different sectors. The criteria of quality,
coincides in great part with the series ISO 9.001 [47].
34.7.3.3 Co-management of protected areas
Co-management concepts, methods and tools must be used to assist the different social
actors striving to decide how to best manage natural resources. These are discussed in
[49]. The pluralistic approach of co-management of protected zones and related areas
in Central America, and the related legal, institutional and political issues, as well as
experience thus far in Central America are discussed by Luna [50]. Co-management
requires that two or more social actors (national, provincial, and municipal
governments; NGOs, society, private sector, etc.) negotiate, define, and formalize their
roles and responsibilities regarding management of a certain protected area.
Cooperation between national conservation authorities and NGOs appears to be an
important possibility to be promoted in the future to improve the conservation and
accessibility of volcano areas. One example is the Tarales reserve, a self-sustaining
private reserve located at the foot of Atitln volcano (Guatemala), which was declared
a protected area by Guatemalas National Council of Protected Areas (CONAP) in
2000. It serves as an example of a private and autosustainable reserve. Costs for its
conservation are covered by profits of the zone of multiple use and through providing
ecotourism services. In Belize, there is widespread governmental cooperation with and
reliance upon NGOs. The Forestry Department (which is integrated into the Ministry of
Natural Resources and was formerly in the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries) is nominally responsible for all protected areas in the country. In reality, the
main burden of conservation work has been undertaken by NGOs, notably the Belize
Audubon Society (BAS), and the Programme for Belize, a consortium of conservation
organizations.
The natural reserve of Mombacho volcano (Nicaragua), located 10 km from Granada
(the oldest city of Central America, retaining much of its colonial ambiance and therefore
a tourist center itself) provides an important lesson with respect to protected area

administration benefiting from a co-management agreement between governmental

authorities and an NGO. Cocibolca (the NGO) has taken over the task of managing the
park and improving the infrastructure, allowing larger numbers of visitors access to the
park. Mombacho natural reserve was declared a legally protected area in 1983, but this
protection, as in the case of most other volcanoes in Nicaragua, was on paper only.
Now, thanks to the NGO co-management agreement, it is being managed on the ground
as a natural reserve. In February 1999, after constructing a hiking trail and other
facilities designed to enhance visitor access, Cocibolca opened the natural reserve of
Mombacho volcano to the public. Trails now lead from the biological station (1150 m
a.s.l.) to one of the four craters and some vents of fumaroles (but not to the volcanos
highest peak at 1345 m). This is the only case in Nicaragua where an NGO has taken
over the management and conservation of a protected area, and it can be considered a
model for similar efforts in Nicaragua and other countries.
34.7.3.4 State-incentives
The majority of the Central American countries provide incentives to promote
investments in the tourism sector. Nevertheless, with the exception of Panama, these
incentives apply for any type of tourism activities and do not preferentially support
ecotourism. The majority of the incentives are fiscal benefits, specifically, the
reduction of income taxes and waiving of import taxes.
In Belize the Fiscal Incentives Act provides tourism enterprises with temporary
exoneration of income taxes and total exception of duties on importation, which
stimulates both present and future economic developments. In Guatemala the Law of
Promotion of Tourist Investment (Ley de Fomento a la Inversin Turstica) was
established in 1974, but was abrogated in 1998 and as of 2004 no new policy of
incentives had been formulated.
In June 1999, Honduras enacted the Law of Tourist Incentives (Ley de Incentivos
Tursticos), which was reformed in 2002, with the object of reviving the economy after
hurricane Mitch (1998), whose devasting impact affected the countrys infrastructure
and cultural and natural attractions, and set back the development of Honduras by at
least a decade. In the framework of incentives, the law proposed encouraging those
investments which would increase the number of foreign visitors, since the
international image of Honduras as a tourist destination was severely damaged by
Mitch.
Although the Honduran law does not directly refer to ecotourism, the objective is to
favor tourist development by means of fiscal incentives that promote the creation of
sustainable tourism products. Some of the incentives provided are exoneration of taxes
on the income for a 10 year period, and exoneration of various taxes, including (among
others) taxes on: (1) the importation of goods and equipment for construction and
operation of hotel services; (2) materials and services required for publicizing the
country and its attractions; (3) replacement or repair of goods and equipment; and (4)
importation of vehicles for terrestrial, maritime, and air transportation.
In Nicaragua, the Law of Tourist Incentives (Ley de Incentivos Tursticos) was
promulgated in 2000. Although it does not specifically refer to ecotourism, its goal is to
promote the development of sustainable tourism with absolute respect for the
environment and the cultural and natural patrimony. The law offers incentives in the
forms of promotion, certification and marketing, fiscal exonerations, fiscal credits and
concessions to the private sector in public terrains.

In Costa Rica, the Law of Tourist Incentives (Ley de Incentivos Tursticos) was
promulgated in 1985 and reformed in 1992 and 2001. The benefits vary according to
the sector of tourism business, with the exemption of taxes on imported goods,
equipment, and materials, as well as allowance for their accelerated depreciation. The
exoneration of import taxes on vehicles was eliminated, except for the importation of
cars for rental purposes (50%) and for vehicles with capacity for more than 15
passengers.
Panama enacted the Law of Tourist Investment (Ley de Inversin Turstica) in
1994, and modified it in 1998. This law is designed to increase the number of
international tourists visiting Panama and to diversify the existing array of tourist
products. In the list of potential beneficiaries the law includes cabins built for
ecotourism. In general, the benefits are focused on the exoneration of import taxes on
building materials, vehicles, equipment, furniture, household goods, etc.
34.7.3.5 Product development and marketing
Ecotourism products must be developed that include the regional geological heritage of
volcanoes, volcanic lakes, geothermal features, caves and karst landscapes, glacial
relicts, coastal cliffs, geological-paleontological museums, and so forth. The
ecotourism products must be many and varied, but among the geological features of
interest, volcanic features form an obvious starting point or focus for the development
of ecotourism centers. Probably no other natural features in Central America, except
perhaps the rain and cloud forests hold more tourist attractive power. Volcanoes attract
international visitors because of the near-universal fascination with volcanic activity, of
being close to natures awesome power. Volcanoes also attract tourists who are
interested in ecology, combined with the possibility of relaxing in hot springs and
enjoying special services such as therapeutic volcanic mud treatments. As outlined in
Chapter 34.4, health tourism is a tourism product, which has a large potential market
and that must be considered. As with other ecotourism products, health tourism or
thermalism, when properly developed and managed, is environmentally friendly.
Furthermore, geothermal manifestations and the opportunities they present for the
development of thermalism are widespread throughout much of Central America, and
therefore offer a possible economic substitute for the declining agricultural sector in
some rural regions. Attracted to an area first by its volcanic features, visitors can then
enjoy and support a wide variety of other attractions and tourist facilities according to
what can be developed in the area. For example, visitors come to the Arenal-La
Fortuna area, attracted mainly by the Arenal volcano itself. Once there they also
patronize and enjoy hot springs spas, cave tours, canopy walks, horseback rides, windsurfing and fishing on Arenal lake, and many other tourist offerings.
The varied ecotourism facilities developed around a primary or central tourist
attraction, such as a volcano, will be obviously be determined to a considerable degree
by the possibilities offered by the area. However, and equally important, the ecotourism
products must be attuned to the needs and preferences of the visitors. In regard to the
marketing of ecotourism, marketing through the Internet is inexpensive. Because of
this, some eco-adventure tourism companies are 100% web-based. Furthermore,
Internet searching is the primary mode of researching travel destinations used by many
international travelers, especially those with an interest in ecotourism, who have, on the
average, a higher education level than other tourists.
Until a few years ago, each country in Central America relied on its own specific

tourism products for which it had achieved some reputation. Belize offered coral reefs
and marine activities, while Guatemala was known for its colonial architecture, its
colorful indigenous cultura viva and its famed Maya ruins. Honduras was known
almost exclusively for just two sites, the Bay islands for diving and snorkeling, and
Copn for its classic Maya ruins, while El Salvador was known mainly as a business
destination. Nicaragua, perhaps the least visited of the Central American nations,
nonetheless had some renown for its colonial cities and Las Isletas de Granada in Lake
Nicaragua. Costa Rica focused on nature tourism, especially that related to rain and cloud
forests, while Panama was considered a destination for shopping and business.
The ending of armed conflicts in Central America and the decline of income from
agricultural exports, together with recognition of the potential of nature-based tourism,
has prompted the evaluation and implementation of new economic options, and
motivated the diversification of ecotourism offerings, without neglecting the traditional
tourist products. As a consequence, government strategies were implemented to
facilitate these processes (e.g., laws for fiscal incentives, strategies to develop
sustainable tourism, formulation of sustainability measures, etc.). This has resulted not
only in the creation of new tourist destinations, but also in the diversification of the
types of tourist sites and services available, including adventure tourism. Investments
in tourist services have increased and the private sector has been motivated to diversify
its offerings even as the official organizations have been motivated to improve their
respective countries presence in the markets.
These changes in the tourism industry and the role of government in the industry
have also created new opportunities for regional integration, which is needed in order
to prevent detrimental competition between the different countries. A number of
regional committees have been established during recent years, including the Central
American Council of Tourism (Consejo Centroamericano de Turismo, CCT), the
Marketing Committee (Comit de Mercadeo, COMECATUR), and the Executive
Committee (Comit Ejecutivo, CE). The process of regional integration is supported by
the German Agency of Technical Cooperation GTZ, which supports on behalf of the
project Advancement of Sustainable Development by Means of Tourism in Central
America (Fomento al Desarrollo Sostenible mediante el Turismo en Centroamrica
FODESTUR). The logo Central America: So Small So Big is one of the results of
this cooperation project and promotes a positive and unified regional image and a
strong impulse for development for the region.
With respect to product diversification, until a few years ago Belize was
characterized by tourism focused on beaches, coral reefs, and atolls. But nowadays
Belize is known as a destination for ecotourism and archeological tourism, in addition
to its beach and reef attractions. Nature tourism sites and services, first developed at
San Ignacio, Orange Walk and Corozal, and later at Dangriga, Hopkins, Placencia and
Punta Gorda, are now available all over the country.
In Belize, as elsewhere, co-management agreements, signed by governments and
different NGOs, allow strengthening of infrastructure, environmental interpretation,
and integration of local communities into the tourism sector. Private sector efforts in
Belize have been even more relevant than in some other Central American countries,
considering that the Ro Bravo conservation area, managed by the Programme for
Belize, is one of the oldest and best-known ecotourist destinations of the country.
Guatemalas traditional tourism products are related to colonial architecture, the
cultura viva (the living culture of the Maya population) and archeology. Antigua

Guatemala, Atitln lake, highland Maya towns, and Tikal and Izabal lakes in the Petn
have been well known and frequently visited destinations for many years. However,
during the last 6 years, the Petn area has diversified its tourist offerings by making
numerous additional archeological sites accessible to the public and by including
nature-based tourism destinations in the forest, with eco-lodges, canopy tours, cave
trips and other services, which were formerly unknown in this region. The most-well
known areas under development are Las Verapaces and the area around Izabal lake,
where different reserves are located, some of them under co-management. The
co-management areas are characterized by community-based ecotourism activities,
aided by NGOs.
The national strategy for tourism development in Guatemala, as formulated in 2000,
includes, among other aspects, the development of new tourist destinations as a
priority. This requires not only an increase in tourism sites, but a diversification of
types of sites and services, most especially the development of previously neglected
nature-based tourism destinations. This initiative has been supported by the private
sector and by the Guatemalan Chamber of Tourism (Cmara de Turismo de
Guatemala), which joined together to develop nature related tourism products.
In Guatemala, the development of nature related tourism enterprises is limited by the
rudimentary infrastructure, especially roads, in many protected areas. Nonetheless, the efforts
of the private sector have, at least for the meantime, done much to overcome this lack of basic
infrastructure in many reserves, especially those integrated into the Guatemalan Association of
Private Reserves (Asociacin de Reservas Privadas de Guatemala).
Until a few years ago, the principal tourism destinations in Honduras were the
beaches and coral reefs of the Bay islands and the archeological site of Copn. In the
framework of a national reconstruction program after hurricane Mitch (1998), the
tourism sector was promoted by a new law providing incentives for tourism enterprises,
and an publicity campaign to enhance the international image of Honduras was started
in the main tourist markets of Europe and North America.
During the last six years, different organizations which co-manage protected areas
along the north coast of Honduras have initiated ecotourism programs with local
community participation. In the Mosquitia region (coastal northeast Honduras), naturebased tourism has been developed and services significantly improved during the last
three years.
Honduras has a national plan for sustainable tourism development (Plan de
Desarrollo Turstico Sostenible), which includes improving the competitiveness of the
Honduran tourism sector on the world market, and the diversification of tourism
products towards sustainable tourism sites and services.
The integration of municipalities into active participation in the tourism sector is a
means to support this sustainable development on a local base, with the objective of
guaranteeing long-term continuity of the projects developed. This strategy permits the
Honduran Tourism Institute (IHT) to decentralize responsibilities and to focus on new
tasks including promoting the tourism image of Honduras and actions and marketing
existing tourist sites.
El Salvador has long been widely recognized as a business destination. The end of
the armed conflict in El Salvador and new governmental politics aimed at diversifying
the nations tourism offerings have resulted in the first activities by the Salvadoran
government to actively develop a tourist sector. Tourism development activities are
now occurring all over El Salvador, but are predominantly linked to nature sites like the

national parks of El Imposible, Montecristo, and Cerro Verde.

As long as two decades ago, the government of El Salvador initiated a process to
attract investments in the tourism sector, one result of which was the establishment of
the hub of the regional airline TACA in 2001. In 2002, El Salvador developed the
Strategic Plan for Sustainable Development of the Ecotourism in El Salvador (Plan
Estratgico para el Desarrollo Sostenible y Sustentable del Ecoturismo en El
Salvador), which proposes a catalogue of measures to be taken: (1) community
participation; (2) environmental education and interpretation; (3) promotion and
marketing of tourism; (4) development of management plans; (5) creation of adequate
infrastructure inside the conservation areas and outside as needed to reach the
conservation areas; (6) strengthening of the institutions corresponding to tourism
(ministries, municipalities, etc.); (7) incentives for ecotourism activities; and (8)
territorial code for territorial classification.
The El Salvadoran System of Protected Areas (Sistema de reas Protegidas de El
Salvador) is presently undergoing a consolidation process, and a only few areas within
the system currently possess infrastructure and services adequate to attract significant
numbers of tourists, other than just a few individual travelers. Some NGOs encourage
private companies in the areas near protected areas, and community run ecolodges have
been established. Additionally, El Salvadors tourism corporation CORSATUR
(Corporacin Salvadorea de Turismo) has designated some tourist circuits (routes using
principal roads that lead tourists from one attraction or destination to another), which they
promote strongly on the international level (e.g., La Paz and Las Flores). CORSATUR is
a new governmental planning and administration unit that integrates the efforts of the
private and public sectors to attract investments and coordinates international marketing.
The traditional tourist destinations of Nicaragua are related to colonial architecture
(Granada and Len), handicrafts (Masaya an surrounding villages), and the Isletas of
Lake Nicaragua. In the early 1990s, a policy was initiated to promote and attract
foreign investments in Nicaragua. One of the earliest successes of this policy was the
arrival of the Spanish hotel chain Barcel, which now operates the beach resort of
Montelimar (formerly a property of the dictator Somoza, confiscated by the Sanidinista
government). From this beginning a diversification of tourist products related to nature
has started to develop, especially in the areas of Mancarrn and San Carlos (on the
shore of Lake Nicaragua), and Selva Negra in the interior of the country.
In 1996 Nicaraguas Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (Ministerio
del Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, MARENA), began employing co-management of
protected areas, based on agreements with NGOs, which constructed basic visitor
infrastructure facilities in conservation areas. Tourist projects have also been
established at private natural reserves, which are working jointly with government
authorities regarding marketing, planning, staff training, fund raising and technical
support. An example of such co-management is the initiative of the Corredor Verde,
which ranges from the Mombacho volcano to Zapatera island, combining the efforts of
private natural reserves, MARENA, the Nicaraguan Institute of Tourism (Instituto
Nicarag ense de Turismo, INTUR), and the NGO Cocibolca.
Costa Rica is the Central American country that is most widely renowned world
wide as a premier ecotourism destination. This has been made possible by the National
System of Conservation Areas (Sistema Nacional de reas de Conservacin, SINAC)
which comprises both public and private areas. The principal protected areas possess
the infrastructure and services that tourists need. Infrastructure and services have also
been developed and improved in the nearby communities.

The network of private natural reserves, which was created in 1995 as part of
SINAC, provided an impetus not only for the conservation of these areas, but also for
increasing and improving the quality of nature-based tourism throughout Costa Rica. In
1996, SINAC established a marketing unit whose principal task is to support and to
coordinate tourism within the protected areas system and to connect with external
agencies for the overall promotion of Costa Rican tourism.
In spite of the fact that the country has had for some time Tourist Plans of
Development directed by the Costa Rican Tourism Institute (Instituto Costarricense de
Turismo, ICT), only recently has a National Plan of Sustainable Tourist Development
(Plan Nacional de Desarrollo Turstico Sostenible) been proposed. This plan proposes
establishing a frame of reference to guide tourism development in the coming years
focusing on criteria of sustainability.
The private tourist sector in Costa Rica is represented mainly through the National
Chamber of Tourism (Cmara Nacional de Turismo, CANATUR), which has been
actively involved in the planning and development of tourism in the country. For
example, CANATUR participated in designing the National Plan of Sustainable Tourist
Development. For the purpose of strengthening the marketing and promotion of Costa
Rica as a tourist destination, CANATUR proposed the creation of a Tourist Promoter
(Promotora Turstica, PROTUR), to be coordinated by the private sector with the
support and co-financing of the ICT.
Traditionally Panama has performed as a center of services for the international business community, supported by its financial structure, its advanced telecommunications
technology, and its excellent air and sea access. This traditional economic role for Panama
did not motivate the development of a tourism industry. Hence, except for cruises passing
through the Panama canal, Panama today is relatively unknown as an international tourist
destination.
In 1994, a Master Plan of Tourist Development (Plan Maestro de Desarrollo
Turstico) allowed the formulation of a Strategy of Tourist Development (Estratega de
Desarrollo Turstico) that identifies nine priority zones that each have specific plans
for the diversification of tourism sites and activities. Additionally, the Alliance for
Tourism, Conservation and Investigation (Alianza Turismo, Conservacin e
Investigacin) established 22 national heritage routes that together with the tourist
zones, constitute the guiding framework for the development of new products.
From 2000, the concession of areas for the development of ecotourism in the basin
of the Panama canal must be initiated under the framework of the General Plan of Use,
Conservation and Development of the Basin (Plan General de Uso, Conservacin y
Desarrollo de la Cuenca).
All this effort in Panama is complemented with the new and aggressive promotional
campaign for the country: Panama: the Route of Discovery, which presents new
tourism routes and products, especially nature related tourism sites and services. The
diversification of tourism offerings in Panama is taking place in a coherent manner.
This is facilitated by an excellent road system, a multicultural society, a US dollarbased economy, and relative political stability. These assets constitute a strong
incentive for the attraction of investments, which should result in new approaches to
the diversification of nature-based tourism enterprises in Panama.
Another step toward the integration of the tourism industry in Central America has
been the formation of the Central American Commission of Marketing of Tourism
(Comisin de Mercadeo Centroamericano de Turismo, COMECATUR). In order to

promote the regional tourism industry, COMECATUR is responsible for the

implementation and promotion of the regional tourism slogan and trade mark Central
America: So Small So Large.
In sum, Central America has an organizational structure and sufficient information
to allow the regionalization of the tourism industry. Some countries have supported and
relied on this regionalization process more than others. Importantly, there is a growing
political will towards consolidation of the process. In concert with the growing
regionalization of tourism throughout Central America, the private sector is searching
for new ideas and looking to expand its areas of operations. As a pioneer organization
aiming to help the private sector expand its tourism operations, the Maya World
(Mundo Maya) program merits particular mention. Other organizations include Green
Central America (Centroamrica Verde) and Route of the Corn (Ruta del Maz),
Mesoamerican Paths (Senderos Mesoamericanos), among others. The private sector
appreciates the incentives provided by these and similar organizations, not only
because the incentives are designed to aid investors with limited capital, but especially
since todays tourists, national and especially international, demand high quality and
innovative tourism experiences.
34.8
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Tourism based on scenic and unusual natural features, including wildlife, also called
ecotourism, represents the fastest growing sector of the entire tourism industry.
Although tourism corresponded to 14% of the total export of Central America in 2001,
restricted access and limited infrastructure in some regions, as well as civil wars and
crime in the past limited the potential growth of the sector. Central America has a
favorable environmental position due to its abundance of extraordinary geological
heritage, such as volcanic landscapes with crater lakes and hot springs and fumaroles,
karst regions with caves, beaches and reefs, rain- and cloud-forests with rich
biodiversity, combined with an extraordinary cultural heritage, such as Maya ruins and
Spanish colonial sites. Most notably, Costa Rica has recognized the positive impacts of
ecotourism on the local societies and cultures, including sustainable employment and
increased international cultural exchange. As of 2004, more than 23% of Costa Ricas
national territory is protected, with major parts of the rainforest declared as national
environmental patrimony. In contrast to other Central American countries, the current
protection categories (including two parks declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO)
and infrastructure (best public access to natural destinations) are at a higher and more
effective level in Costa Rica. In 2001, the contribution of tourism reached 1278 million
US$ in Costa Rica, followed by Panama (626 million US$) and Guatemala (493
million US$). In Belize, the growth of tourism as the primary economic sector (40% of
the national GDP) exceeding agriculture (23%) and industry (25%) highlights the
necessity to enlarge tourism facilities. A general increase of tourist activity in the 1990s
was observed in all of the seven Central American countries, especially in Belize (share
of GDP from 10.9% in 1990 to 15.0% in 2001), Costa Rica (from 4.8 to 7.8% in the
same period), and Nicaragua (from 0.8 to 4.2%). Costa Rica received the greatest
number of visitors to the region (1,027,046 visitors in 2001, or 25.2% of the total for
the region), followed by Guatemala and El Salvador (approx. 18% each), Panama
(13.3%), Nicaragua (10.9%), Honduras (9.6%) and Belize (4.4%). Until 2004 these
visitor numbers increased further: Costa Rica 1.45 million, Guatemala 1.18 million, El

Salvador 0.97 million, Honduras 0.67 million, Panama 0.65 million, Nicaragua 0.62
million and Belize 0.23 million.
Most volcanic areas in Guatemala and El Salvador are hardly accessible due the lack of
conservation and administration of volcano areas, except the Pacaya volcano in Guatemala
(20,000 visitors per year) and the Cerro Verde national park in El Salvador. Nicaragua, the
Land of Lakes and Volcanoes has 89 protected areas, covering 21.8% of the national
territory (2003), but only 12 of the areas are actively managed by permanent staff. The most
visited volcano in Nicaragua, Masaya volcano, receives approximately 90,000 visitors
annually. Pos volcano national park in Costa Rica is the most frequented volcano national
park in Central America with a total of 212,458 visitors in 2002, followed by Iraz volcano
with 122,024 persons (2002), and 27,661 visitors at Arenal volcano, one of the worlds
most active volcanoes. Some local incidents, such as the kidnapping of two tourists at
Rincn de la Vieja park in 1991 and the death of two persons in pyroclastic flows at Arenal
park caused a significant decline in tourist numbers for several years.
Several hundred thermal springs in Central America could possess health benefits
for medical (medical therapies, spas, cosmetics, dermocosmetics) and recreational
(tourist facilities, private jacuzzis, beauty centers) applications. Nonetheless, only a few
thermal water resources are used for thermalism, such as hot sulfur springs at the spa of
Fuentes Georginas close to Quetzaltenango, and 20 recreation centers with solfataras,
fumaroles and thermal springs around Amatitln lake, both in Guatemala. Some
thermal springs are near to cultural sites, such as the El Agua Caliente spring close to
the Mayan ruins of Copn in Honduras. In El Salvador, Nicaragua and Panama, a large
number of thermal springs fail to exert much tourist interest. In contrast, Costa Ricas
sites combine the attraction of tropical rainforest, active volcanism and thermal baths
(e.g., Arenal and Rincn de la Vieja), and are successful tourism attractions.
Karst provides scenic landscapes and natural attractions (caves, sinkholes,
travertine pools, natural bridges, etc.), habitat for endangered species, archeological
and prehistoric sites, and vital water supplies. Although 8% of Central America is
underlain by karstic rocks (primarily limestone, but also dolostone and gypsum), only
about 22% (8565 km2) of the total karst areas are protected. The most effective karst
protection is in Belize (which protects 3400 km2 of 5000 km2) and Costa Rica, with
Guatemala and Honduras currently striving to attain comparable standards. El
Salvador, Panama and Nicaragua lag behind in implementing any karst conservation
strategies. Thirty percent of Belizes tourism activity takes place within the terrestrial
karst of the Cayo and Toledo districts, involving some 50,000 visitors annually. Total
revenues from coastal and inland karst activities approach 125 million US$ annually,
representing about 15% of the annual GNP (2001).
There is a large potential for the use of as yet unexploited natural sites for tourism.
As a recommendation, infrastructure must be improved in order to improve
accessibility to, and the facilities at, the natural sites developed for tourism. The
development of health tourism requires a detailed regional and local analysis of the
available geological/geothermal resources. As a second step, site-specific possibilities
of each location should be determined, such as the potential of the resources and
existing infrastructure. Important requirements for sustainable development will be the
social and economic incorporation of local people and communities, the training of
qualified medical and paramedical personal, increasing investment in financial markets,
the modernization of existing tourism centers, ensuring personal security of the visitors,
and an increasing awareness of the need to protect the geological/geothermal resources

for their sustainable use, especially through the establishment of laws to regulate the
exploitation and protection of the natural sites. The implementation of a well-organized
certification program for sustainable tourism programs, such as Green Globe by the
World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) will provide information to the traveling
public about quality ecotourism products and services. Laws for tourist incentives and
investments were designed in most Central American countries to favor tourist
development by means of fiscal incentives that promote the creation of sustainable
tourism products. The initiative of Corredor Verde in Nicaragua, ranging from
Mombacho volcano to Zapatera island, provides a representative example for the
possible co-management of private and governmental institutions, such as the Ministry
of Environment and Natural Resources (MARENA), the Nicaraguan Institute of
Tourism (INTUR) and the NGO Cocibolca.
The integration of thermal spring facilities in conjunction with natural parks and
volcanoes could represent a good strategy to attract visitors. Further studies should be
made of peloides resources of marine salinas, which are useful for therapeutic
medicine and in the manufacture of cosmetics. Common micro-seaweed resources in
Central America could become a nutritious supplement for human consumption.
Additional non-exploited tourist attractions could be guided tours to active geothermal
fields in Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, as well as fossil and
mineral collecting as another geology-based activity, and gold panning in former
mining sites.
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Chapter 35
Seismic hazard and microzonation
CONRAD D. LINDHOLM, LVARO CLIMENT, EDUARDO CAMACHO,
WILFRIED STRAUCH, JOS CEPEDA, DIEGO CCERES, JUAN P. LIGORRA
AND HILMAR BUNGUM
When I arrived in Central America, I
thought that a complete and thorough study
of seismic and volcanic activity could
provide data that, if not capable of
predicting catastrophe, then at least would
be able to estimate the frequency of those
horrible disasters that have elevated to first
place that part of the active volcanic chain
located between the isthmuses of Panama
and Tehuantepec. Montessus de Ballore:
Temblores y Erupciones Volcnicas en
Centro-Amrica, 1884.
35.1
INTRODUCTION
Central America is located along the western part of the Caribbean plate where the
Cocos plate collides with and subducts under the Caribbean plate. On the northwestern
flank of the region the Caribbean plate meets with the North American plate along a
left-lateral transcurrent fault, and in the southeast of the region (south of Panama), the
Panama fracture zone acts as boundary between the Cocos and the Nazca plates. The
Nazca plate interacts along a more complex border with the Caribbean plate (see
Chapters 1 and 8).
The earthquake activity in this region is high, with several very destructive
earthquakes in the recent history. In 1972 a shallow magnitude 6.2 earthquake
practically flattened the city center of Managua, killing about 10,000 people. The most
damaging Central American earthquake in modern history hit Guatemala in 1976,
when the left-lateral strike-slip Motagua-Polochic fault system, which separates the
North American and the Caribbean plates, ruptured in a large MS 7.5 earthquake. This
earthquake claimed more than 22,700 lives, injured more than 76,000 people, and
caused an estimated US$ 1.1 billion in damage, representing 18% of the countrys
gross national product at that time [1, 2]. The first damaging earthquakes in the present
century were two events in El Salvador early in 2001 (January 13 and February 13),
claiming more than 1000 lives [3].
Most of the earthquake activity in Central America occurs along two main tectonic
features, the offshore subduction zone and the onshore volcanic front, where the latter
is associated with significant shallow focus seismicity. Other regions with important
seismic activity include the Motagua-Polochic fault system, the Panama deformed belt

1100 SEISMIC HAZARDS AND MONITORING
and the Panama fracture zone (see Chapters 1, 8 and 11). The three separate maps in
Figure 35.1 display the variation in hypocentral depths of the earthquakes. Even though the
shallow focus earthquakes are generally smaller than the subduction zone earthquakes,
the damage potentials in the volcanic chain are higher due to the shallow foci and the
proximity to densely populated areas. More detailed overviews of historical
earthquakes in Central America are published by Ambraseys and Adams [4] and
Peraldo and Montero [5].
The worldwide disaster database from the Center for Research on the Epidemiology
of Disasters (CRED) [http://www.cred.be] provides general information of the effects
produced by disastrous earthquakes. Every earthquake within this data base fulfills at
least one of the following criteria: (1) 10 or more people reported killed, (2) at least 100
people reported affected, (3) the event generated a call for international assistance, and
(4) a state of emergency was declared after the event. According to the above CRED
data base criteria, all countries in Central America (with the exception of Belize)
have experienced earthquake disasters since 1900, the starting year of the time window
covered by the data base. The number of disastrous earthquakes in each country is:
Guatemala 11, El Salvador 7, Honduras 3, Nicaragua 8, Costa Rica 11, and Panama 4.
Figure 35.2 shows the number of casualties for each of these events.
From a social vulnerability point of view, Figure 35.2 also reflects the well known
relationship between seismic risk and the socio-economical situation. While Costa Rica
is known as one of the seismically most active countries in Central America, its
political and economic development over more than a century, and especially during
the last 50 years, has been more stable than for the other countries. This has in turn
allowed for investments in building code development and implementation, and in
other earthquake mitigating actions. The results of these developments correlate quite
well with the earthquake disaster history in Figure 35.2, which shows that the last large
Costa Rican earthquake disaster (exceeding 100 deaths) occurred in 1910. In contrast,
Guatemala, El Salvador and Nicaragua have been severely hit by disastrous
earthquakes after decades of socio-political unrest that has limited investments in
earthquake mitigation measures. This insufficiency of mitigation actions, combined
with a dramatic increase in the vulnerability of large and growing urban centers, has
resulted in a society that for certain will be hit by earthquake disasters in the near
future. While the connection between socio-economic situations and earthquake
vulnerability in general is clear, the situation is still multifactorial in that there are
many factors that determine whether a large earthquake causes a major catastrophe or
not. A favorable socio-economic situation is therefore only the foundation on which an
effective societal protection against earthquakes should be built.
Natural disasters have different characteristics. Floods and windstorms often affect
large areas (compared to earthquakes) and occur relatively frequently. On the other
hand earthquakes occur more rarely, but the effect can be devastating within smaller
areas (cities and other urbanized areas), and they strike without any actionable warning
time for the population. This difference is probably in part related to the fact that
significant ocean wave heights, for example, have a hazard curve that is much steeper
than a comparable one for earthquakes [6].
When an earthquake disaster occurs, it is primarily a result of the high physical and
societal vulnerability, as the seismic disaster risk relates directly to the combination of
a high population and building density, combined with low building standards. There
are, however, many ways in which the population can contribute to a significant
reduction in vulnerability, and thereby also to earthquake risk reduction.

Figure 35.1. Major damaging earthquakes in Central America between 1900 and 2000 with
magnitude MS > 5.0, as compiled from the U.S. National Earthquake Information Center
(NEIC) database for different focal depth ranges.
1101

Figure 35.2. Number of deaths in major damaging earthquakes in Central America since 1900,
according to Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED). It should be
noted that statistical databases on damaging earthquakes are often incomplete and erroneous,
and a reader with detailed knowledge may find errors in the statistics above.
Figure 35.3 sketches two opposite trends in the global natural disaster situation. On one
hand the increasing vulnerability combined with an increase in extreme events, and on
the other hand how concerted efforts to curb the increasing vulnerability can and must
be made. The environmental loads that cause individual buildings to fail are different
and mitigation actions must be similarly differentiated. For earthquake disasters, the
first mitigation basis is to estimate (for a region or a site) the expected ground shaking
caused by future earthquakes. This is the goal of seismic hazard assessment, and the
ground motion is typically provided in the form of peak ground or spectral acceleration
or velocity as a function of annual exceedance probability.
Figure 35.3. Sketch of two contrary development trends for natural disasters: factors that increase
risk (left) and factors that reduce risk (right).
35.2
SEISMIC HAZARD STUDIES IN CENTRAL AMERICA
Seismic hazard assessments are made either deterministically (employing some kind of
worst-case geologic scenario) or probabilistically (based on statistical models of
spatio-temporal earthquake occurrence derived essentially from historical catalogs), or

they are based on a combination of the two. The probabilistic methods are presently
more frequently used, and most often the ground motion is estimated for sites with
bedrock site conditions, such that the site (soil) amplification at a particular location
is computed separately and subsequently. The recognition of ground shaking
amplification due to shallow sedimentary layers (where Mexico city, 1985, is the
classical example) has made the mapping of surface geological units, and the
quantification of spectral amplification due to sediments, increasingly important. Such
mapping is often termed microzonation, and has been done for four cities in Central
America: San Salvador (El Salvador), Managua (Nicaragua), San Jos (Costa Rica),
and David (Panama).
The present chapter provides an overview of the most relevant advances in seismic
hazard assessment achieved in Central America over the last decades. The countries in
this region have, as already noted, had very different socio-economical lines of
development. For this reason there have been also obvious differences in efforts and
achievements within seismic risk mitigation, in particular with respect to the financial
and human resources that have been allocated to the subject. With these differences in
mind, a country-by-country overview is presented in the following for Guatemala,
Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. To the knowledge of the
present authors, no scientific activity in the area of seismology has been conducted in
Belize, and hence nothing can be reported from that country.
The relatively turbulent political situation prior to 1990 clearly impaired the buildup
of national seismological competence centers in Central America, and for this reason
relatively few seismic hazard studies are known from this period. Notable exceptions
here are the many national seismic hazard studies that were conducted by Stanford
University (J. Blume Earthquake Engineering Center) in the late 1970s and in the
1980s. These studies are the best available from this period, based on the data available
at that time, and these studies are referenced in more detail in the following country-bycountry review.
In the 1990s the political unrest calmed down and allowed for greater concentration
in research and competence building, and in this period several seismic hazard studies
were conducted both on regional and national levels. Many of these were done within
the framework of a 10 year regional cooperation project between Norwegian and
Central American institutions. Site specific and regional seismic hazard studies were
conducted in five countries, and three microzonation studies for major cities in
Panama, Costa Rica and Nicaragua were successfully conducted. In addition, other
seismic hazard studies have been conducted through other international cooperation
projects.
The present authors were fortunate to participate in this period of competence
building and regional cooperation, and in the following we provide an overview of the
seismic hazard study results on national and regional levels that have been conducted in
the region over the last decades.
35.2.1 Regional studies of seismic hazard
On a regional scale the present authors know of four seismic hazard studies, [710].
Additionally, a regional loss estimation study, including regional hazard estimates [11]
has been conducted. The most recent study for Central America [10] was conducted as
part of the Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Program (GSHAP). The GSHAP results
1103

Figure 35.4. Approximate bands of estimated peak ground acceleration (PGA) from the GSHAP
study [10] (hard soil or soft rock conditions) for a 10% exceedance probability in 50 years
(475 years return period).
were presented exclusively as peak ground acceleration (PGA) maps for 10%
probability of exceedance in 50 years (i.e., 0.002 annual exceedance frequency), and
are shown in Figure 35.4 with a maximum PGA exceeding 5 m/s2. The GSHAP results
are all for hard soil or soft rock conditions, and approximate what is known as
bedrock site conditions.
Table 35.1. Estimated peak ground acceleration (PGA) at a 10% in 50 years probability level
(corresponding to a return period of 475 years) for selected cities in Central America [8]. The
values below may be compared with the maps presented under the different studies, [711].
City
Country
Guatemala city
San Salvador
Tegucigalpa
Managua
San Jos
Panama city
Guatemala
El Salvador
Honduras
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
PGA (m/s2)
2.4
2.4
1.6
2.8
3.1
1.4
The GSHAP results in Figure 35.4 can be compared to Table 35.1, in which results
from a regional study from 1993 [8] are given for the Central American capitals. The
values in Table 35.1 are generally lower than the GSHAP values, which may partly
reflect that the 1993 study computed the results for hard rock sites, as opposed to soft
rock.

35.2.2 Guatemala
Guatemala is split between two tectonic plates in that the southern part of the country is
located on the western end of the Caribbean plate while northern Guatemala is part of
the North American plate.
The most destructive earthquakes in Guatemala occur as follows: (1) along the
diffuse left-lateral strike-slip border between the North American and Caribbean plates,
manifested by the Motagua-Polochic fault system (e.g., [10, 13]); (2) along a series of
active, shallow secondary faults, which are products of the substantial intraplate
deformation south of the Motagua-Polochic fault system [1416], also connected with
active volcanism; and (3) along the Middle America trench (MAT), manifesting the
active subduction of the Cocos plate beneath the westernmost part of the Caribbean
plate [4, 17, 18].
Guatemala has, as seen from Figure 35.2, experienced three catastrophic
earthquakes with more than 1000 casualties over the last 100 years. However, it was
not until after the disastrous 1976 earthquake that the first extensive study of seismic
hazard was conducted [19]. Subsequent seismic hazard studies were completed in 1984
[20], in 1995 [8], in 1997 [21] and lastly in 1999 [17], with the latter two studies
concentrating only on Guatemala city. Table 35.2 summarizes some hazard results in
terms of expected PGA for Guatemala city at different probability levels for the largest
horizontal component of earthquake ground motion.
While older studies before 1997 only provide seismic hazard estimates in terms of
PGA, both the 1997 [21] and the 1999 [17] studies provide equal hazard spectral
ground motion estimates, which are more useful for seismic design.
Table 35.2. Expected peak ground acceleration (PGA) values for Guatemala city derived from
different studies for a range of annual exceedance frequencies.
PGA (m/s2)
Annual
exceedance
frequency
Corresponding
return period
(years)
[8]
[17]
[19]
[20]
[21]
0.5
0.1
0.02
0.01
0.004
0.002
0.001
2
10
50
100
250
500
1000
1.6
2.5
3.1
5.5
2.3
2.8
4.4
-
3.0
3.6
4.2
4.8
2.7
3.5
0.67
1.32
2.15
2.62
3.32
3.93
4.65
35.2.3 El Salvador
El Salvador is located at the western brim of the Caribbean plate and is the smallest of
the Central American countries, where earthquakes represent a major problem. The
Cocos plate converges with the Caribbean plate with a velocity that increases towards
the south, from Guatemala to Costa Rica, ranging from 5 to 8 cm/year [22]. In addition
to the occurrence of major subduction zone earthquakes, the convergence is also
responsible for six active volcanoes along the volcanic chain. The fertile soils and the
high-relief terrain has led to the highest population density in Central America, with
correspondingly high exposure to landslides as well as to local shallow earthquakes,
both connected with devastating physical and social effects [23]. Six earthquakes have
claimed hundreds of lives since 1950: on May 6, 1951, on May 3, 1965, on June 19,
1105

1982, on October 10, 1986, and the two most recent events occurring on January 13
and February 13, 2001 [3, 2426].
The first study of seismic hazard for El Salvador was conducted in 1988 [27], and a
second, more comprehensive study was done in 1990 [28], both based on PGA. In
1993, a regional seismic zonation was completed for Central America [10], which also
included spectral estimates of the ground motion. These results were published in 1995
[29] and indicated that accelerations around 0.3 g could be expected at a 0.002 annual
exceedance frequency. In 1996 a new study [30] provided an overview of seismic
hazard studies for El Salvador, including also an important discussion of the
differences in attenuation relations, which is one of the main reasons for the variations
in hazard levels obtained by different investigators as shown in Table 35.3.
Table 35.3. Expected peak ground acceleration (PGA) values for the capital San Salvador for a
return period of 475 years.
[27] [28] [31]1 [29]
Reference
investigation
[6] [10]
PGA (g)
0.4 0.76 0.50 1.05 1.02 0.30
1
[32]
0.250.30 (subduction)
0.350.40 (upper crustal)
[33]
0.48
This study was prepared as a basis for the 1994 building code revision in El Salvador.
Soil amplification and microzonation studies for El Salvador have only been performed for
the capital, San Salvador. The methodologies that have been used are based on depth of soil
deposits and locations of lava flows [34], seismoscope [3537] and accelerographic records,
down-hole and resonant column tests, standard penetration tests, torsion pendulum tests,
and free-field microtremor measurements. Most of the studies have only assessed
predominant periods, and the results indicate in general periods from 0.08 seconds in the
western parts of the city to 1.0 second in the eastern parts, where the deepest deposits (> 25 m
of young volcanic ash (locally termed Tierra Blanca) are found. In fact, the predominant
periods correlate quite well with the depth of these ash deposits, which are eruptive
products of the Ilopango lake, a caldera located east of San Salvador. Amplification factors
have recently been assessed from micro tremors, weak and strong ground motion in San
Salvador indicating amplification factors up to 10 [38].
The seismic hazard studies that include the El Salvadorian territory (Table 35.3)
reveal variations in PGA estimates exceeding a factor of 3 between the maximum and
the minimum values. In addition, the studies show differences in the spatial distribution
of the hazard [30]. Such differences reflect on the large uncertainties in seismic hazard,
however, important insights have been gained in the time lapses between the different
studies, generally making the more recent studies more reliable.
The occurrence of the January 13 and February 13 destructive earthquakes in El
Salvador in 2001 poses a particularly challenging question that often is ignored in
seismic design, related to the fact that the second earthquake will hit structures in which
the resistance capacity has been significantly degraded by the first one. In addition to
this it has been shown that subduction and shallow upper crustal earthquakes were
alternating during 2001. This has been explained through stress triggering, implying
that one earthquake acts as a trigger for the later one [25]. This alternation of
subduction and upper crustal destructive events is confirmed in the history of
destructive earthquakes in El Salvador from 1900 to present [24, 25].

Figure 35.5. Seismic hazard (PGA) for Honduras [43]. Both maps are prepared for 475 years
return period, but with different attenuation relation variability: (a) ZKLFKLV
XQSK\VLFDODQGLQFOXGHGRQO\WRGHPRQVWUDWHWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIDUHDOLVWLFYDOXHDQG
(b) = 0.6.
The effect of cumulative damage due to the occurrence of a sequence of high-intensity

earthquakes has recently been investigated for municipalities in the smaller region of
the Jiboa valley in El Salvador [37]. This study verified that the cumulative effect was
evident for the sequence of the January and February 2001 earthquakes.
35.2.4 Honduras
Honduras is located on the Chorts intraplate block, which is bounded to the northwest
by the seismically active Motagua-Polochic fault system and the Swan transform fault,
and to the south (along the Gulf of Fonseca) by the subduction zone. A series of north
south oriented grabens (the Honduras depression) run from the Caribbean coast
towards the south. It is suggested [39] that most of the deformation in this block is part
1107

of a diffuse North American-Caribbean plate boundary zone. The seismogenic potentials

of this zone are not very clear. Sub-parallel to the Swan transform fault are a series of
active strike-slip faults known as the Honduras Borderland faults [40]. To the east of
the Honduras depression, the long Guayape fault exhibits signs of Holocene rightlateral strike-slip motion, however, the area is generally considered to be seismically
stable.
The seismicity, even though it is clearly lower than in the neighboring countries,
still defines the Honduras depression on the mainland, as well as the Swan transform
fault. On July 11, 1999, an earthquake with magnitude MW 6.9 occurred (see Fig. 35.5)
less than 100 km north of San Pedro Sula, which is one of the major economical
centers in Honduras, causing some infrastructural damage. Events such as this are
reminders of the importance of seismic hazard estimations also for this country.
One of the first seismic hazard studies for Honduras was made in 1979 [41]. As for
later studies, the highest hazard levels were found in the southwestern part of the
country, reaching nearly 0.55 g in Choluteca for a 475 year return period. During the
1980s and first half of 1990s little work within seismology was conducted for
Honduras, but in 2000 two independent studies of seismic hazard for Honduras were
presented [42, 43]. The first one [42] obtained PGA values exceeding 0.6 and 1.0 g
(Fig. 35.5) for the southern areas close to the Middle America trench (10% probability
in 50 years), whereas the second one [43] for the same area obtained around 0.4 g
(Amapala) at the same probability level. The regional GSHAP study (Fig. 35.4)
obtained PGA values of about 0.3 g in the same region. The significant difference is
probably due to different attenuation relations in addition to other differences in input
models. The spatial trends are, however, the same in all three studies, showing
significantly higher hazard levels closer to the Middle America trench (Fig. 35.5).
Figure 35.5 also highlights another issue of importance in probabilistic seismic hazard
FRPSXWDWLRQ QDPHO\ WKH LQIOXHQFH RI VFDWWHU Ln the applied attenuation relations.
The predicted ground motions are strongly dependent on the variability in the strongmotion attenuation (see also [44]). The studies are different also in that two of them
only provide seismic hazard levels in terms of PGA [41, 42], whereas the other one
provides equal hazard spectral estimates [43].
35.2.5 Nicaragua
The most outstanding tectonic feature of Nicaragua is the Nicaraguan depression that
runs parallel to the coast, and in which the volcanic front is embedded, comprising six
active volcanoes. In Nicaragua there are, as for the other countries on the isthmus, two
main earthquake source regions. The largest earthquakes are primarily related to the
subduction process, occurring offshore and sometimes at large depths, while the onshore
earthquakes occur on smaller and shallower faults within and adjacent to the volcanic
chain. The latter earthquakes have greater destructive potentials due to the shallow foci
and the proximity to population centers, as demonstrated in particular in December
1972 when a devastating earthquake hit Managua.
Managua is located in a fault-graben depression (Fig. 35.6) where the volcanic front
is offset to the south, and the city has experienced repeated damaging earthquakes. The
first comprehensive seismic hazard study was conducted already in 1975 [45], followed
by a second part in 1976 [46]. In 1996 a site-specific probabilistic seismic hazard study
was conducted [47], later used as basis for a microzonation study.

Figure 35.6. Simulation of maximum accelerations in the city of Managua in case of a magnitude
6.3 earthquake on the Tiscapa fault. From [55].
The soil amplification in Managua has been investigated by different authors and by
varying methods [4851]; in the last of these studies [51] the Nakamura technique [52]
was used (horizontal to vertical spectral ratios of ambient noise). Later, soil
amplification studies in other districts of Managua as Ciudad Sandino, Estel and
Ocotal have been conducted as part of the MOVIMONDO project [53, 54].
From 1996 through 2000 a comprehensive microzonation study for the larger city
of Managua was conducted by INETER [55]. The study presented ground motion
estimates in terms of PGA with normalized response spectra at 5% damping, yielding
PGA in excess of 4 m/s2 (475 years return period). In terms of local amplification the
study indicated that Managua should not expect strong amplification of shaking at any
frequency relative to the hard rock conditions. These empirical results were also as
expected from a theoretical perspective, because of horizontal layers of competent tuff
interspaced with other materials that underlies Managua.
The microzonation study of Managua [55] also comprised a program for the
evaluation of paleo-earthquake activity on known faults, presumed to be active within
the city, with clear indications of paleo-earthquake activity found on the Aeropuerto
fault in the eastern part of the city [56]. Based on these paleo-seismological
investigations, earthquake scenarios were computed in different faults located in the
Managua area using the Beresnev and Atkinson code [57]. Figure 35.6 shows an
example from this scenario earthquake modeling, showing that the highest
accelerations in the rupture direction (northeast) could exceed 1 g [58].
1109

Figure 35.7. Structural map of Central valley, Costa Rica, with important shallow earthquakes
included. From [63].
35.2.6 Costa Rica

The Middle America trench (MAT) is the coast-parallel tectonic depression (4000
5000 m deep) where the Cocos plate collides with and subducts below the Caribbean
plate. This tectonic feature can be followed from Mexico to the middle of Costa Rica.
The chain of active andesitic volcanoes runs approximately 100200 km northeast of
the trench, and the most intense coseismic deformation takes place beneath the
landward margin of the trench, with focal depths increasing down-dip with the
subduction zone, to the northeast. Another area of coseismic crustal deformation is
within the larger volcanic chain, where frequent shallow focus earthquakes of
intermediate magnitude have caused significant damages. A third deformation zone is
found in the southern Caribbean coastal zone where destructive earthquakes have been
associated with the North Panama deformed belt (NPDB). In southern Costa Rica, at the
limit of Cocos and Nazca plates, the Panama fracture zone (PFZ) forms another important
seismic zone.
Costa Rica belongs to the Central American countries that are most frequently hit
by large earthquakes (Figs. 35.1 and 35.2), with particularly damaging earthquakes
occurring in 1910 (April 13, May 4), in 1973 (April 14), in 1983 (April 2, July 3) and
in 1991 (April 22). As with the other Central American countries, a rugged topography
with loose and sometimes saturated soils of volcanic ash makes Costa Rica vulnerable
to earthquake-triggered avalanches [23].
One of the first seismic hazard and risk studies for Costa Rica was conducted by
Stanford University in 1977 [59]. The PGA estimated in that study for a 0.002 annual
exceedance frequency was 0.4 g in the southern corner, near Golfito, and 0.31 g in San

Jos, for rock site conditions. No spectral ground motion estimates were included, but
an extensive discussion of the vulnerability of buildings was included in this study.
While several local seismic hazard studies subsequently were conducted for different
Costa Rican sites (predominantly hydroelectric dam sites) it was not until 1994 that a
new probabilistic hazard study was completed for all of Costa Rica [60], where
moreover a new regional seismic spectral attenuation equation for Central America
was used [61, 62]. In this study PGA values of 0.5 g and 0.37 g for Golfito and San
Jos at 0.002 annual exceedance frequencies were estimated, in addition to providing
spectral ground motion estimates.
The most recent seismic hazard study for Costa Rica was conducted as part of a
microzonation study for San Jos in 2000 [63]. The study included both area and fault
sources around San Jos, based on geological investigations [6466]. The major faults
were mapped and quantified in terms of recurrence interval for given magnitudes as
well as maximum magnitude, and Figure 35.7 shows these faults where the black circles
represent historical shallow earthquakes (5.0 0 S One shortcoming in this and
similar fault mappings is that potentially active faults beneath the city centers may be
obscured by recent alluvium deposits and historic urban development, and therefore,
largely remain unknown until they rupture.
The 2000 study [63], in which an updated version of the regional attenuation
relation equation was used, concluded with a PGA for San Jos of around 0.55 g (0.002
annual exceedance frequency), which is significantly higher than the results found in
1977 and 1994 for rock sites [59, 60]. This difference is mainly due to the inclusion of
local active faults in the hazard model.
The 2000 study [63] also included a detailed investigation of soil amplification and
soil characteristics in the larger metropolitan area. For San Jos, the lithological units
were mapped with special emphasis on characterizing thickness and composition of
younger sediments with amplification potentials. Thirteen sites were investigated and
characterized through different geophysical measurements, and at seven sites spectral
analyses of surface waves (SASW) were conducted. These experiments provided
important constraints (velocity models) for subsequent analytical soil response analysis.
The microzonation study of San Jos also included a network of eight
accelerographs (Kinemetrics K2 model), deployed for a period of nine months. This
development provided 68 earthquake records that were used in an empirical soil
amplification study, revealing in some cases large differences caused by local
geological conditions (Fig. 35.8). In addition, ambient noise measurements were made
at 185 sites, used for establishing a map of amplification iso-periods.
Both empirical and analytical methods were applied to estimate soil amplification.
For analytical calculations the well-known software tools SHAKE and AMPLE were
used, while standard penetration tests (SPT) and SASW results were used to estimate
the soil velocity profiles, which in turn were used to predict frequency-dependent
amplification. For empirical analysis the methods of Nakamura and spectral ratio were
applied [52]. The main results from these soil amplification investigations were that the
soils in San Jos can be characterized as rigid and without the conditions that cause
very high amplifications. The findings indicate that in the southern and southwestern
part of San Jos the predominant (natural) period is 0.25 seconds or less, while in the
central, northern and northeastern parts of San Jos the period is between 0.25 and 0.6
seconds. In some smaller areas the natural period was found to be up to 1 second. The
average amplification factor was about 2.5.
1111

Figure 35.8. Recording of one earthquake on the accelerograph network. From [63].
The study concluded by presenting a normalized response spectrum for San Jos, one
for rock conditions and one for soil conditions as shown in Figure 35.9. The
microzonation investigations for San Jos were later expanded into a study in which the
earthquake vulnerability of the city of Caas, in the Guanacaste province, was
evaluated [68].
Figure 35.9. Final smoothed dynamic amplification spectrum recommended for San Jos area.
From [63].

Figure 35.10. Vulnerability evaluation of the city of David. From [71].
35.2.7 Panama
The isthmus of Panama is located on a tectonic microplate that usually is termed the
Panama block [69]. Four major tectonic plates surround this microplate: the Caribbean
plate to the north, the Cocos plate to the west, the Nazca plate to the south and the
South American plate to the east. As seen on Figure 35.1 the seismic activity in
Panama is mainly concentrated in the western part, offshore southwards along the
Panama fracture zone and to the north and east along North Panama deformed belt
(NPDB). Panama is one of the Central American countries that have been less affected
by strong earthquakes. The last large, damaging earthquake took place on September 7,
1882, when a major M~7.5 earthquake killed at least 100 people along the San Bls
coast. The casualties were largely caused by a tsunami and the earthquake caused a
1113

major disruption in the construction of the Panama canal.

Except for the seismic hazard studies for the Panama canal region, which are
proprietary and usually also confidential, not many seismic hazard studies have been
conducted for Panama. In 1994 a study of seismic hazard was done as part of the
Norway-Central America cooperation program, published in 1997 [70].
The last work within the area of seismic hazard was a seismic microzonation for the
city of David [71], which is the main port in western Panama. As part of this work a
seismic hazard update evaluation was done together with a soil amplification study.
The study included also a risk assessment that attempted to incorporate both seismic
hazard and the differentiated vulnerability of David. The vulnerability map is shown in
Figure 35.10.
35.3
APPLICATIONS OF HAZARD RESULTS
The computation of seismic hazard is, in an isolated perspective, a technical/scientific

exercise, and it is useful for the society only when the results are properly applied in a
specific and practical setting. One such setting is when the hazard results are used as
input to building regulations. In Central America four countries have adopted proper
national seismic building codes, namely Panama (1994, now under revision), Costa
Rica (1974, with revisions in 1986 and 2000), Nicaragua (1983) and El Salvador (1966,
with revisions in 1989 and 1994). The building codes do not change frequently, and
many of the codes currently in force are based on old earthquake hazard studies. It is
expected that some of the studies referenced above eventually will find their way into
future revisions of the national building codes. How appropriate (or inappropriate) the
seismic design codes are and how they are implemented (or not implemented) are
important issues. These issues shall not be discussed here, but the situation in El
Salvador [72] is relevant also for the other Central American countries.
35.4
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Central America is a large region covering marked seismo-tectonic differences, from

the subduction zone over the volcanic range to the aseismic regions located well within
the Caribbean plate. The region also encompasses large socio-economic differences.
The countries are relatively small, with limited resources to develop an expertise within
engineering seismology and earthquake engineering comparable to some other
countries with similar earthquake hazards. For the same reasons only limited crossdisciplinary efforts were invested within this field prior to the 1990s.
The developments in national expertise and experience within seismic hazard
through the 1990s are important positive steps, but even more competence needs to be
assembled within the national institutions in order to create a deeper national impact.
For example, many of the hazard studies referenced above are initial results that need
to be revised as more data and experience are accumulated. Equally important, is to
take advantage of the recent methodological developments within the field, e.g., [73],
and to develop and refine more region-specific approaches [72].
The probabilistic type of hazard studies has been executed more widely and is
referenced above. There certainly exist also seismic hazard studies based on the
deterministic approach, however, these are not known in detail to the present authors
and could consequently not be referenced.

While most of the results referenced above focus on ground motion estimates in
terms of peak ground acceleration (PGA), there is a general need for more studies that
provide ground motion in terms of spectral acceleration, since this is more directly
related to the damage potentials, and to the means by which engineers improve the
earthquake resistant design.
Lastly, the studies referenced exhibit a wide range of results, sometimes so different
that one may wonder if they are based on the same data (e.g., [30]). The reader should
realize that they are in fact often not based on the same data. A probabilistic hazard
study firstly requires a seismic zonation and quantification of the activity, and this is
based on historical earthquake catalogs that may vary in magnitudes and locations; all
catalogs contain errors and need to be interpreted, and there is never only one catalog
for a given region. Evidently, any quantification based on different catalogs will come
out differently.
A likely important source for differences in the hazard estimates reflect on the
attenuation relations applied. Until recently (late 1990s) little regional strong-motion
data existed to constrain attenuation in Central America. As more accelerometers are
installed in Central America (and in other parts of the world), more and more high
quality strong-motion data are collected. It is to hope that the recent developments in
terms of constraining attenuation in Central America will be continued in the near
future, so that results in terms of PGA as well as further development of spectral
attenuation relations can be achieved.
Seismic hazard computation as described above is a necessary basis for proper
mitigation actions, however, there is a large volume of literature on engineering issues
that is related to seismic hazard computation. In the present chapter references have
mostly been made to the pure seismic hazard studies and we have refrained from
referencing to the extensive earthquake engineering documentation. To this end it is
appropriate to direct the interested reader to the Special Issue of Geological Society of
America [3] in which a number of articles report on investigations and experiences
from the two destructive El Salvador earthquakes in 2001.
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earthquake engineering in El Salvador. In: W.I. Rose, J.J. Bommer, D.L. Lopez, M.J. Carr &
J.J. Major (eds). Natural Hazards in El Salvador. Geol. Soc. of Am., Special Paper 375,
73. Bommer, J.J., Scherbaum, F., Bungum, H., Cotton, F., Sabetta, F. & Abrahamson, N.A.: On the
use of logic trees for ground-motion prediction equations in PSHA. Bull. Seism. Soc. Am. 95:2
(2005), pp.377389.
Chapter 36
Seismic monitoring
MARIO FERNNDEZ, WILFRIED STRAUCH, ENRIQUE MOLINA,
JAIME TORAL AND GRISELDA MARROQUN
The first seismographic observations in
Costa Rica were carried out after 1888 in
the Instituto Fsico Geogrfico [Physical
Geography Institute], founded by Henri
Pittier, and were contemporaneous with
those of many other seismographic stations
in Europe, Japan and North America. The
first seismological bulletin of the Insituto
Fsico Geogrfico was published in 1901,
and was one of the first in the world.
Setumi Miyamura: Sismicidad de Costa
Rica, 1980.
36.1
INTRODUCTION
Central America is a region located near the active convergent margin formed by the
interaction of the Cocos and Caribbean plates. Since Cretaceous, the tectonic stress has
been acting over the region, deforming rocks, fracturing the crust, and generating highlevels of seismicity. The first impacts on human life would naturally have occurred
during Pre-Columbian time. We look in these artifacts and ruins for evidence of
earthquake damage, but it has been only in the past two hundred years, of PostColonization times that the first reports of destructive earthquakes have appeared, and
with this era have come new ideas and a full realization of the seismic potential of
Central America (CA). At the present, the stress extends outward from the eastward
advancing edge of the Cocos plate, for hundreds of kilometers towards the continent
and results in many earthquakes that sometimes strike population centers causing
tremendous damage and great disasters. The most recent seismic catastrophes are those
of Nicaragua, 1972; Guatemala, 1976; El Salvador, 1986; Costa Rica, 199091; and El
Salvador, 2001. These violent shocks caused terror, death, and destruction, and
confirmed that we live in an earthquake-prone area.
The anguish caused by these repeated seismic disasters and the impotence to
mitigate them has rightfully fallen to our national governments and scientific groups to
develop information, policies and programs to mitigate the impact of the earthquakes
that we know we must live with. Therefore, since the 19th century most the countries of
Central America have installed seismic instrumentation in order to better know the
seismic phenomena and their destructive potential. Since that time, the seismologists

have not given up in installing seismic station in the region and in carrying on
evaluations and interpretations necessary to discover natures seismic plan.
In the following we describe the evolution of the local networks since the
installation of its first seismometers, giving a general view of the instrumental seismic
monitoring in the region.
36.2
HISTORY
During the first French Canal Companys attempts to build in Panama a canal
connecting the Caribbean and the Pacific Ocean, a strong earthquake occurred in
1882 at that country. Two months after the strong earthquake mentioned, the first
seismological observatory in the isthmus was placed at the Ateneo Municipal in
Panama city [1]. A rudimental seismoscope registered a probable aftershock of the
September 1882 main shock [2], and a distance of about 3080 km was estimated by the
swinging of the pendulum, showing separations of 4 and 5 seconds for each peak pulse.
A French scientific mission led by S. Aillaud and J. Canella, evaluated the effects in
land and discarded any possible volcanic origin for this event, which was the common
erroneous thought of the population. This was the first post-earthquake evaluating team
to appear and operate in Central America. Considering the high death rate of visiting
Europeans, from tropical diseases at the time, we admire the courage of these early
geophysicists.
In Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua the first installation were
completed in 1888, 1896, 1925, and 1966, respectively. The earliest seismologists
elaborated the first monthly and yearly reports of felt earthquakes, and these observations
typically were initiated in institutes devoted to astronomical and meteorological
observations and their bulletins were published and now exist in archives as part of the
official newspapers. The earliest seismographs arrived to the region at the end of 19th
century; they were two-components Ewing and Wiechert seismometers acquired in
Europe and United States. Other characteristics of those instruments were 1880 kg
inertial mass, and 6 seconds of natural period. At the beginning of the 20th century, the first
simple mechanical seismomometers were fabricated in the region, being thus a significant
contribution to the seismology of Central America. Great catastrophes caused by large
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions during the 19101960 period further led to
development of seismic instrumentation and improvements in the seismic monitoring of
Central America. During the 1960s the United States Geological Survey (USGS) started
the operation of the World Wide Standardized Seismic Network (WWSSN), installing
long-period seismometers used to record local and regional earthquakes. The first analog
accelerometers also were installed during the 1960s, to provide useful seismic-withstand
design parameters for the structural engineers.
Individual sub-regional seismic networks in Central America were born in
the 1970s in cooperation with the USGS, OAS (Organization of American
States), and universities from United States. These networks, each of about
316 stations, produced excellent data and permitted insights to the structure
and tectonics of tsubduction zone in Central America and the seismic patterns
in the volcanic chain. Thus also was born a new realm of attention to
the most apparent and regionally distinct seismic threat zones, so that earthquake

Figure 36.1. Network of seismic stations in Central America. Triangles represent the short-period stations and open circles are the broadband currently in
operation in the region. Note the northwest lineament of the network. The Cocos island has been enlarged to show the seismic station located there.
1121

mitigation efforts could begin. It was thought that later efforts could be made
to weave the individual networks together and this wisdom has been proven out by the
occurrence of the following disasters of Managua (Nicaragua) 1972, Tilarn (Costa
Rica) 1973, and Guatemala city (Guatemala) 1976, for which the Latin American
seismic-scientific community was prepared. This preparation has led to an increased
number of stations, which, in some cases, reached a maximum of 30, but,
unfortunately, some of them collapsed later due to problems related to the socioeconomic situation and internal conflicts.
36.3
SEISMIC MONITORING
36.3.1 National networks

The seismic crises in the region (El Salvador 1917 and 1951, Nicaragua 1972, Costa
Rica 1973, 1983 and Guatemala 1976) led to creation of new institutions for the
monitoring and study of natural phenomena. In this way were born the National
Seismological Observatory of El Salvador (currently within the Servicio Nacional de
Estudios Territoriales, SNET, of El Salvador), the Instituto Nacional de Sismologa,
Vulcanologa, Meteorologa e Hidrologa (INSIVUMEH) of Guatemala, the Red
Sismolgica Nacional de Costa Rica (RSN: ICE-UCR), and the Observatorio
Vulcanolgico y Sismolgico de Costa Rica (OVSICORI). Most of these institutions
have been established by the national governments by joining the different seismic
working groups, in particular the national electricity companies. Local seismic
monitoring of Central America has been performed since the 1970s, through the
operation of separate local networks. The networks have been installed for monitoring
the most obvious sources of seismicity in every country of the region. The
detection/location threshold of coda magnitude is Richter 2 for most of the networks.
The first network of the region was installed in Costa Rica in 19731974 and the latest
was that in Panama, which started in 1991. The Nicaragua, Guatemala, and El Salvador
networks began in 1974, 1976, and 1984, respectively. Honduras has only three seismic
stations. At the present, most countries have more than one network. Table 36.1
summarizes the most important information of the seismic instruments in the region.
Table 36.1. Seismic stations, accelerometers, and seismic networks in Central America.
Country
Guatemala
El Salvador
Honduras
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
Total
Short-period stations
12
36
3
60
54
13
178
Broadband stations
1
1
1
1
3
1
8
Accelerometers Networks
12
46
1
18
42
8
127
1
1
1
1
3
2
9

The equipment consisted of short-period vertical seismometers linked by radio to drum
recorders at centralized seismic observatories. In addition to the radio, telephone and
satellite communication are also used to transmit data. With the continued cooperation
of the United States government through the USGS the National Seismic Networks the
number of stations increased rapidly during the 1970s. In some networks the number of

stations went into decline due to a lack of budget and civil war but now there is a period
of governmental stability and the number has been increasing gradually, and there are
plans for more stations in the near future.
Despite the fact that the networks began in the 1970s, the capability to effectively
locate earthquakes using instrumental data did not come about until 1980s when
seismic monitoring reached a fairly complete and integrated areal coverage of the
countries. To adequately monitor specific areas, the networks have now been
redesigned to detect and locate earthquakes over the entire Latin American region.
Digital acquisition systems are used for the information processing. Central recording
of telemetric stations at the recording data centers is achieved with the following
equipment: QNX-SEISLOG data logger [3], and the WIN-EARTHWORM data logger
(USGS). Some networks intentionally have a high level of recording redundancy to
guarantee recording of important seismic events during maintenance or in case of failure
of one of the data loggers.
At the central data center there are SUN-Workstations with the SOLARIS operating
system. SEISNET software [4] is used for automatic retrieval of data from the digital
accelerometers and the broadband stations. The data of the different sources are merged
automatically and can be processed together. SEISAN software [5] is used for semiautomatic and interactive seismic data processing. The structure of SEISAN includes
routines to locate earthquake hypocenters and for automatic storage of the incoming
seismic information. Several PCs (small or personal computers) serve as the
communications server, map server, and general web servers. Actual seismicity,
seismograms and spectra of several seismic stations, and official reports are published
on the Web, nearly on line, in real-time.
The data processing of tectonic seismicity includes the following steps:
Automatic event detection and emission of an acoustic (wake up) alert signal on
the base of the data of the Networks;
Automatic access via INTERNET to receive corresponding data from other stations
and centers;
Independent automatic, initial location and magnitude estimation (5 minutes after
occurrence);
Supervised revision and reprocessing of the automatic results within 15 minutes;
In case of strong events, transmission of fax and email messages with information
about epicenter, depth, origin time, distance, and explanations about the causes of
the event, are sent out to the designated National Emergency Offices and Press; and
Monthly revisions and elaboration of the monthly bulletin, are issued within the
first week of the next month.
Hypocenter parameters and waveforms are sent regularly to the Central American
Seismic Data Center (CASC), recently at University of Costa Rica (UCR), San Jos,
Costa Rica. Near real-time information (online) includes epicenter map, list, and
seismograms of selected stations. The national networks publish monthly bulletins of
seismicity and volcanic activity, and yearly seismic catalogs.
36.3.2 Local networks

The Chiriqu Seismic Network (ChiriNet) has operated in Panama since 1997. It is
integrated by 4 stations that monitor the seismicity of Chiriqui, a province of Panama
located near the border with Costa Rica. Three stations have short-period (4.5 Hz)
1123

seismometers. The other is a broadband station with connection to GPS. ChiriNet has
two significant characteristics: (1) The analog signals are digitalized on site, and (2) all
the stations are connected by high-speed INTERNET. An important result of this
connection is remote maintenance to the stations and rapid collection of data. Data are
collected and sent to storage every 45 minutes. These characteristics make ChiriNet
currently the most modern seismic network in the region.
Another network was recently installed in Guatemala. In March of 2001, 12 strongmotion instruments were deployed in free field by Secretara de Coordinacin
Ejecutiva de la Presidencia and Coodinadora Nacional para la Reduccin de
Desastres (CONRED) of Guatemala [6]. Eight of them are located in Guatemala city,
and 4 are even distributed between Guatemala city and the Pacific coast (Villa Canales,
Paln, Escuintla, and Puerto Quetzal). The accelerographs are QDR models, version
IND, from Kinemetrics, of California. The data are routinely collected at each station,
and processing is done at CONRED.
36.3.3 Seismic stations in volcanoes
A prototype volcano monitoring system was established during the latter part of 1972
and beginning of 1973 on 15 active volcanoes, as found in the United States, Iceland,
Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua [7, 8]. It consisted of seismic and tiltmeters
stations, and event counters with a satellite link to the USGS at Menlo Park, California.
In 1974, one of these telemetered seismic networks was deployed around the Arenal
volcano to monitor both the volcanic and seismic activity within the volcanic zone.
Currently, there are about twenty volcanoes with seismic monitoring in Central
America, four of them have seismic networks in their surrounding. Miravalles, Arenal
and Bar (or Chiriqu) volcanoes are monitored with dense and modern seismic
networks. At the present, there are about 50 seismic station installed in the active
volcanic zones of the region (see Chapter 39). The stations situated near the craters of
active volcanoes are used to count the number of detectable events per hour or day. A
seismologist on duty monitors and visually checks these parameters, and monitors the
occurrence of apparent seismic swarms near volcanoes. In case of important changes
the seismologist on duty informs Civil Defense or National Emergency Offices. Alert
messages are sent to local authorities and population, if volcanic activity is
confirmed, according to existing diagnostic checklists, and routine information
messages are published to inform the population after the government has released the
warning.
An example is the seismic network of the Observatorio Sismolgico y Vulcanolgico
de Arenal y Miravalles (OSIVAM), consisting of 12 digital seismic stations and 4
strong-motion instruments from Lennartz Instrument Co. Six of these stations were
installed around the Miravalles volcano to monitor the seismic activity around the
Miravalles geothermal field. The other six stations cover the Arenal volcano area and
detect the seismicity in the vicinity of the Arenal hydrolectric project. Each station has
a 3-component seismometer, a GPS system for time calibration, signal conditioner and
transmitters, the MARS-88 data adquisition system and a workstation for data
processing [9]. The processing system consists of a SUN UNIX
workstation with multitask operative system. The computer automatically runs a
program to collect data from the stations. The processing is done with PITSA and
SEISAN programs, which include a series of standard routines used worldwide in

seismology. This is probably the best seismic network used to monitor seismic and
volcanic activity in Central America.
36.3.4 Ocean bottom networks

Much important seismic activity is known to occur offshore of Central America, on the
Cocos plate, but there has been only one experiment in the region, to date, that has
included ocean-bottom seismometers (OBS) in the instrumentation: the Costa Rica
Seismogenic Zone Experiment (CR-SEIZE). As part of this project, an OBS network
was designed and deployed in front of Nicoya peninsula, Costa Rica (Fig. 12.1), to
supply complete coverage of a segment of the seismogenic zone. The network
consisted of 7 broadband and 7 mid-range instruments that operated from December
1999 through early June 2000. Using the records of these seismometers and 37 more
inland, 650 earthquakes were located along the seismogenic plate interface [10] and it
was found that the updip limit of the seismogenic zone along the Nicoya peninsula varies
in depth from 10 km in the south to 20 km in the north. They suggest that the downdip
extent of this forearc seismicity terminates at about 30 km of depth.
36.4
NORWEGIAN AND CEPREDENAC ASSISTANCE
The Center for Prevention of Natural Disasters in Central America (Centro para la
Prevencin de los Desastres Naturales en Amrica Central, CEPREDENAC) was
founded in 1988. In 1991, the project Reduction of Natural Disasters in Central
America, Earthquake Preparedness and Hazard Mitigation was initiated, coordinated by
CEPREDENAC, funded by NORAD (Norwegian Agency for Development), and
operated by the University of Bergen and the Norwegian Seismic Array (NORSAR) in
cooperation with seismological agencies in all of the member countries. In the first
phase of the project (19911994) the goal was to improve the seismic networks of the
region and to conduct regionally based research, in particular hazard estimation. The
second phase of the project was more concerned with local problems, such as
microzonation and the improvement of national data centers.
From 1990 to 1996 every country of the region received seismological equipment,
especially data acquisition systems. Accelerometers were also provided for different
institutions and more professionals from the field of seismology were involved at postgraduate level. In the second phase of the project all the countries received more
hardware and software and microzonation surveys were carried out in Panama, Costa
Rica, Honduras and Guatemala. The project provided data acquisition systems for A/D
(analog to digital) conversion, and software and hardware for digital data processing.
This improvement has greatly facilitated the collecting, processing and storage of
seismic information.
36.5
THE CENTRAL AMERICA SEISMOLOGICAL CENTER
The local networks face some difficulties in monitoring the regional seismicity. Firstly,
because of the geography of Central America, the network station sites are rather
linear and do not provide accurate locations for earthquakes near the border regions of
1125

the countries. Stabilities in the earthquake detection/location capability are

difficult to establish because of the changing configurations and procedures as the
networks develop. Catalogs will therefore contain reporting-rate changes caused by the
positional changes of seismograph networks, gain setting, computer codes for analysis,
extra work loads due to aftershocks sequences, and personnel, resulting in certain
inhomogeneities in the catalogs. These aspects are known to pose serious problems that
affect quality of hazard estimations in the region.
To solve the problems mentioned above and accurately locate the regional
earthquakes, CEPREDENAC, NORSAR, University of Bergen (Norway), and the
seismological agencies of the region decided to create a regional seismological center.
This center, called the Central America Seismological Center (CASC) was opened at
the Geology Department of the University of Costa Rica in 1998 [11].
CASC was created to provide reliable Central American regional detection/location
of earthquakes based on data from short-period and broadband stations, and to offer a
sufficiently large data recording/storing capacity for seismic data in CA. The main
reasons for establishing the CASC network have been to evaluate the potentials for
seismic and tsunami hazards in the region, to understand the tectonics in more detail,
and hopefully, to be able to reduce the loss-impact of future earthquakes and tsunamis
in the region.
A combined network of nearly 180 short-period and eight permanent broadband (or
near-broadband) stations is now operating in CA, providing regional coverage of the
area. From this total, all the broadband records and most of the short-period ones must
be used in the quasi-real time location of regional earthquakes. Every country operates
local analog networks whose data are sent to the recording centers by radio or
telephone. The SEISLOG data acquisition system is used to input the signals
from the sensors and condition these for conversion to digital counts.
Physically, the CASC network is built around two interconnecting systems,
SEISLOG and SEISNET [4]. While SEISLOG connects the stations to the local
networks, including the broadband ones, SEISNET is a data collection system used by
the main microprocessor located at CASC to communicate with the SEISLOG systems
in the region. Computer software is used for information collection and location of the
events and the storage of selected data.
Using these interconnected systems, CASC automatically collects data of large events
(M > 4) from the regional stations via modem or Internet to assist in the location and
magnitude determination of the events. SEISNET downloads detected information if there
are more than two triggers within a time window of five minutes. The event parameters
provide sufficient information for approximate event location and magnitude assessment.
Further human-oversight processing is accomplished manually to give a reliable epicentral
location and magnitude. SEISNET also collects data from stations of the Incorporated
Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS) located in Central America and also from the
National Earthquake Information Center, USGS, Golden, Colorado (NEIC) data center.
Once an event is located, the information is stored in the database of CASC. The main
problem in the automatic data collection is the inherently slow Internet speed in the region.
Due to this, many of the seismological agencies of the region are not yet contributing to
real-time location of the earthquakes and therefore CASC has to locate the events with
fewer stations than otherwise could have been used. There are funds set aside for nine
regional coordination trips within the country in the first two years, and six in the last year.

The project Travel funds for regional Central America contact was approved by
the Norwegian Agency for Development (NORAD). The project is managed by
NORSAR and CASC. CASC is presently managing funds for seismology work in
Central America. Funds will be transferred from Norway to an agreed account
managed by the University of Costa Rica and subject to proper monitoring by CASC.
These funds are intended for Central American seismologists to take coordination trips
within Central America. One important goal of this project is to exchange experiences
between seismologists of the various partner nations for the purpose of compiling a
new regional and interdisciplinary research proposal. Coordinating visits from
Norwegian seismologists and instrumentation technicians are also included in this
project, they will come to give hands-on improvement assistance to the SEISAN and
SEISNET operations.
36.6
CONCLUSIONS
As was presented above, the development of seismic monitoring in Central America

has been markedly improved by foreign cooperation triggered some times by the
occurrence of natural disasters. Apart of the installation of seismic stations, an
important improvement occurred during last decade (19922002), due the cooperation
of the Norwegian government trough the Regional Coordination Center for Disaster
Reduction in Central America, CEPREDENAC, and the Bergen University as the
Norwegian counterpart center of excellence. One of the main goals achieved was the
creation of Central America Seismological Center (CASC).
The seismic stations have increased in the last years in Central America. There are 178
short-period seismographs and 8 broadband stations deployed in the region (December,
2005). According to the actual status, we expect a remarkable increase in the number of
seismic stations, especially broadband, during the next years.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Montessus de Ballore, F.: Temblores y erupciones volcnicas en Centroamrica. Imprenta

Doctor Francisco Sagrini, San Salvador, 1884.
Leeds, D.: Panama Seismic History. In: Central American Conference of Earthquake
Engineering. San Salvador, 1978, pp.107116.
Utheim, T. & Havskov, J.: The SEISLOG data acquisition system, Version 8.0 manual and
software. Institute of Solid Earth Physics, University of Bergen, Bergen, 1999.
Ottemller, L.: SEISNET (Seismic Network Automation Software), version 2.0.6. Institute of
Solid Earth Physics, University of Bergen, Bergen, 2001.
Havskov, J. & Ottemller, L.: The SEISAN earthquake analysis software for Windows, Sun and
Linux. Manual and software. Institute of Solid Earth Physics, University of Bergen, Bergen,
1999.
Escobar, R.: Seleccin de los Sitios para la Instalacin de Acelergrafos. Coordinadora
Nacional para la Reduccin de Desastres, CONRED, Guatemala, 2001.
Ward, P.L., Elliot, T.E., Harlow, D.H., Allen, R., Marquez, D. & Eaton, J.P.: Development and
Evaluation of a Prototype Global Volcano Surveillance System Utilizing the ERTS-1 Satellite
Data Collection System. USGS, Open File Report, 1974.
Endo, E.T., Ward, P.L., Harlow, D.H., Allen, R.V. & Eaton, J.P.: A Prototype Global Volcano
Surveillance System Monitoring Seismic Activity and Tilt. Bull. Volcanol. T. XXXVIII-2
(1974), pp.315344.
1127

9.
Barquero, R., Barrantes, J., Boschini, I., Taylor, W., Climent, A. & Alvarado, G.E.: Brief
Description of the Arenal-Miravalles Digital Seismological network, Costa Rica. Bol. OSIVAM
7 (1997), pp.16.
10. Newman, A., Schwartz, S., Gonzalez, V., DeShon, H., Protti, M. & Dorman, M.: Along-strike
variability in the seismogenic zone below Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica. Geophys. Res. Lett.
29:20 (2002), pp.3842.
11. Alvarenga, E., Barquero, R., Boschini, I., Escobar, J., Fernndez, M., Mayol, P., Havskov, J.,
Galvez, N., Hernndez, Z., Ottomoller, L., Pacheco, J., Redondo, C., Rojas, W., Vega, F.,
Talavera, E., Taylor, W., Tapia, A., Tenorio, C. & Toral, J.: Central American Seismic Center
(CASC). Seismol. Res. Lett. 59 (1998), pp.394399.
Chapter 37
Strong-motion monitoring
LVARO CLIMENT, VICTOR SCHMIDT, DOUGLAS HERNNDEZ,
JOS CEPEDA, EDUARDO CAMACHO, RDIGER ESCOBAR AND
WILFRIED STRAUCH
It is my hope that others continue my work,
and more importantly, that meteorologic and
seismic stations be established, as has been
done in Guatemala. After years of observation,
I have concluded that Central America could
apply the scientific information gleaned from
such stations to build homes so as to minimize
future losses. Montessus de Ballore:
Temblores y Erupciones Volcnicas en CentroAmrica, 1884.
37.1
INTRODUCTION
The Central American region is prone to earthquake phenomena and geological hazards
that affect the environment, structures and life. The subduction of the Cocos plate
under the Caribbean plate results in a great release of seismic energy, being the cause
of the majority of seismicity. Historical reports show that strong earthquakes occur
frequently, the most recent events being the El Salvador earthquakes of January 13 and
February 13, 2001.
In most Central American countries the main cities are located near active faults.
Therefore it is necessary to improve the knowledge of seismicity and tectonics in order
to obtain improved seismic hazard estimates, and propose actions to mitigate societal
effects. Using the above and the instrumental records of the seismic ground motion, it
is possible to develop dynamic analyses of structures and soil deposits that will allow
engineers to design for earthquake-resistant buildings and civil works.
The occurrence of strong earthquakes and its record and measurement, by means of
seismological instruments, has allowed an improved understanding of the physical and
tectonical processes related to these natural events and their effect on civil works. One
of these instruments is the accelerograph, whose function is to record the time history
of acceleration of the ground motion or the structural response at the specific site where
the instrument is installed. The recorded motions can be used to infer input for seismic
design under comparable tectonic, geologic and geotechnial conditions.
Accelerographic records play an important role in the process of seismic design of
civil works, since they allow the direct or indirect characterization of the seismic strong
ground motion, the estimate of parameters such as peak acceleration, peak velocity,
effective acceleration, strong-motion duration, Fourier spectra and response spectra.
For all of these strong-motion parameters, it is possible to derive predictive equations,

often referred to as attenuation equations. Accelerographic records are also useful in

seismic safety analysis, assessments of physical vulnerability, and site effects. The
ultimate goal is to use this information in the development and improvement of
building codes, as well as the development of programs for urban planning, response
and mitigation of damage due to strong earthquakes.
At the present time, the development and use of digital technology in the design and
manufacturing of accelerographic instrumentation, has improved the precision of
analog-digital converters. The instrument dynamic range and response, the memory
capacity to record seismic events, and the resolution of the recorder have increased.
The reliability of absolute time recording has been improved through GPS technology.
Modern accelerographic data are essential not only in the earthquake engineering field,
but also in the discipline of seismology, especially in the inversion of the rupture
history as well as in the location of epicenters, the estimation of magnitude, the
determination of focal mechanism, and the propagation of seismic waves.
The majority of countries in Central America have had strong-motion monitoring
programs, which have operated in different periods and with different number of
stations. These instruments have recorded a significant number of important strong
earthquakes in the region, as well as hundreds of smaller events. However, each
country works individually and without a common database. This chapter presents brief
summaries of strong-motion networks that operate in each country, and a review of
attenuation studies developed for the region.
37.2
STRONG-MOTION NETWORKS IN CENTRAL AMERICA
At present, five of the seven countries of Central America have operating strongmotion networks, Belize and Honduras being the two countries without this kind of
instrumentation. Each of these networks is operated independently and according with
its own local goals. The first accelerograph in the region was installed in 1933 by the
Panama Canal Company at Balboa Heights, Panama city [1]. This was followed by
stations installed in Costa Rica in 1946, El Salvador and Nicaragua in the 1960s and
Guatemala in the 1970s. El Salvador and Costa Rica are the two countries with the
largest number of instruments installed in the region, 49 and 42, respectively. A total of
129 stations are operating now (December 2005) in Central America, most of them
installed at ground level, and the rest in buildings and lifeline structures such as dams
(structural response records). 88% of the instruments are digital and the rest are
Kinemetrics SMA-1 analog accelerographs.
37.2.1 Monitoring in Guatemala
After the MS 7.5 February 4, 1976 earthquake, four accelerographs were installed as
temporary stations in Guatemala at Puerto Santo Toms, Zacapa, Chichicastenango,
and Guatemala city. Some aftershocks were recorded at Zacapa, Chichicastenango and
Guatemala city, and produced accelerations exceeding 0.10 g. Those records have been
digitized and response and Fourier spectra have been computed. In addition, two
records were recovered from seismoscopes installed in the administration building at
the San Carlos University in Guatemala city. Prior to this event, ten records, all with
peak ground acceleration values lower than 0.05 g, had been obtained from an
accelerograph installed at the Observatorio Nacional in Guatemala city.

Figure 37.1. Strong ground motion stations of Guatemala and eastern part of El Salvador.
Since March 2001, 12 digital accelerographs have been installed and are operating as
part of a joint project of the Presidential Executive Coordination Secretary (Secretara
de Coordinacin Ejecutiva Presidencial, SCEP) and the National Commision for
Disaster Reduction (Coordinadora Nacional Para la Reduccin de Desastres,
CONRED). The stations are geographically distributed in high seismic hazard areas,
and some are close to active faults. Eight stations are installed within the urban limits
of Guatemala city, and four towards the southwestern side of the city (Fig. 37.1). All
the instruments are three component Kinemetrics QDR model IND version
accelerographs. The horizontal components are parallel to the northsouth and east
west directions. In general, trigger levels were set between 0.01 and 0.02 g.
At the stations, geological site conditions vary from thick pyroclastic deposits to
recent (Holocene) alluvial deposits. Only one instrument was installed on a rock
outcrop site (TNG), and is probably influenced by localized topographic site effects.
A summary of the characteristics of each station is presented in Table 37.1.
1131

Table 37.1. Guatemala city strong-motion network (stations information).

No Station
G1 Nuevo Hospital Militar

G2 Planta de agua
Lo de Coy
G3 Planta de agua
El Cambray
G4 IGSS de Pamplona
G5 Teatro Nacional
G6 Hospital de Salud
Mental
G7 Escuela Rosa Pardo
de Lanuza
G8 Hospital San Juan
de Dios
G9 Municipalidad de Villa
Canales
G10 Municipalidad de Paln
G11 Gobernacin de
Escuintla
G12 Empresa Portuaria
Quetzal
Code
Type of
instrument
Location
Latitude Longitude
N
W
Site
conditions
HMG
PLCG
QDR
QDR
14.63
14.62
90.47
90.60
hard soil
hard soil
PECG
QDR
14.57
90.49
hard soil
QDR
IGSS
QDR
TNG
HSMG QDR
14.61
14.63
14.66
90.53
90.52
90.48
hard soil
rock
hard soil
ERPG
QDR
14.63
90.48
soft soil
HSJG
QDR
14.64
90.52
hard soil
MVCG QDR
14.48
90.53
soft soil
MPG
GEG
QDR
QDR
14.40
14.30
90.67
90.78
soft soil
soft soil
EPQG
QDR
13.94
90.78
soft soil
/All stations located at ground level.
Before the installation of these stations, only one Kinemetrics FBA-23 accelerometer
was in operation since 1992 at the National Seismic Network Central Station of the
National Institute of Seismology, Vulcanology, Meteorology and Hydrology (Instituto
Nacional de Sismologa, Vulcanologa, Meteorologa y Hidrologa, INSIVUMEH).
37.2.2 Monitoring in El Salvador
El Salvador is located in a region with high seismic activity. This country has been
struck by several destructive earthquakes due to shallow upper-crustal (focal depths
less than 25 km) and subduction-zone events. The most recent destructive earthquakes
occurred on January 13 and February 13, 2001 and caused many casualties and
damages that amounted to approximately 14% of the countrys GNP [2]. Damage
reports date back to the middle of the 16th century thus making evident the necessity of
strong-motion instruments that, among other things, allow the collection of information
for the development of seismic codes for the earthquake resistant design of structures.
A national strong-motion network (Figs. 37.1 and 37.2) currently operates with
instruments and stations under the ownership of the following four institutions: (1)
National Service of Territorial Studies (Servicio Nacional de Estudios Territoriales,
SNET); (2) Hydroelectrical Commission of the Lempa river (Comisin Ejecutiva
Hidroelctrica del Ro Lempa, CEL); (3) Salvadorean Geothermal Company (LAGEO,
formerly GESAL); (4) Central American University (Universidad Centroamericana
Jos Simen Caas, UCA).
The selection of the geographical distribution of the stations throughout the country
follows two criteria:
Ensure near-field monitoring of events originating in the seismic sources that

Figure 37.2. Strong ground motion stations in the east part of El Salvador, Nicaragua and
western part of Costa Rica.
influence seismic hazard in El Salvador. The owner institutions have agreed to reinstall some or, in certain cases, all of their instruments in order to provide optimal
nationwide coverage, avoiding redundant instruments and allowing for a more
efficient use of the instrumental resources.
Satisfy special interests of the owner institutions such as instrumentation of
hydroelectrical power plant facilities, monitoring of seismic activity in geothermal
fields, monitoring of volcanoinduced seismicity, monitoring of swarms or
aftershock series, consultancy services for seismic monitoring of engineering
projects, etc.
In consideration of the very high seismic hazard and in order to improve hazard
estimation and mitigation, a strong-motion network has been in operation since the
1960s. At that time, the institution in charge of seismic monitoring was the
Geotechnical Investigation Center (Centro de Investigaciones Geotcnicas, CIG),
which was part of the Ministry of Public Works. Until December 1981, El Salvador
1133

had seven accelerographs in operation. In 1984, CIG purchased twenty SMA-1 analog
accelerographs that were distributed in the San Salvador metropolitan area and in
different cities around the country. During 1991, the SMA-1 network was expanded to
fifty instruments, installed throughout the country, which operated continuously until 1995.
In 1995, the SMA-1 network was restructured. The new configuration consisted of
26 accelerographs, ten of which were installed as a three-dimensional array within San
Salvador, five at ground level and five at the bottom of boreholes. The remaining 16
instruments were distributed as follows: four were located within San Salvador at
UCA, the Seismological Observatory, CIG, and Soyapango, and twelve were deployed
throughout the country in Acajutla, Ahuachapn, Chalatenango, Comalapa
(International Airport of El Salvador), Cutuco, Metapn, San Miguel, Santa Ana, Santa
Tecla, Santiago de Mara, San Vicente and Sensuntepeque.
After the destruction caused by the 2001 earthquakes, the government of El
Salvador decided to improve its monitoring and research capabilities and integrate its
efforts into one institution that would plan and coordinate mitigation efforts associated
with natural hazards. Therefore, throughout 200l a re-organization took place and the
volcanic and seismic monitoring resources of CIG, and the meteorological and
hydrological monitoring resources of the Hydrological Service and the National
Meteorological Service of the Ministry of Agriculture (Ministerio de Agricultura y
Ganaderia, MAG) were transferred to the newly formed National Service of Territorial
Studies (SNET), an autonomous institution ascribed to the Ministry of Environment
and Natural Resources (Ministerio del Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, MARN). All
previous activities, responsibilities, infrastructure, equipment, and part of the personnel
have also been transferred to SNET, as well as the existing cooperation agreements
with international agencies.
In view of the above, the strong-motion network originally operated by CIG is now
being upgraded by SNET. Thirteen new ETNA digital accelerographs were purchased,
all equipped with a modem and GPS system and installed at ground level inside lowrise buildings. In addition to the common use of the accelerographic data, the
information generated by the ETNAs is also used for the determination of seismicsource parameters (magnitude, focal depth, epicentral coordinates, and focal
mechanism). Ten SMA-1 analogical instruments have been upgraded to digital format
in order to expand the strong-motion network. Table 37.2 summarizes the information
about the current network operated by SNET.
Until 2002, two SMA-1 accelerographs owned by the Executive Hydroelectrical
Commission of the Lempa river (CEL) had been operating on the San Lorenzo dam on
the Lempa river. Recently, CEL has installed nine K2 digital accelerographs on four
hydroelectrical power plants located in the Lempa river basin (Table 37.3). The main
purpose of these instruments is the monitoring of the seismic response of structures in
the hydroelectric power plants. These structures include earth embankments, concrete
spillways and powerhouses. Two SSA-2 accelerographs were installed by the
Salvadorean geothermal company (LAGEO) in 1996, as part of a monitoring network
around the Berln geothermal plant. One of these instruments was moved to the
Ahuachapn geothermal field after the 2001 earthquakes in order to collect information
about the western part of the country and the geothermal area. Recently, three ETNA
instruments have been incorporated to the monitoring network in the Berln geothermal
field (Table 37.3).

Table 37.2. SNET strong-motion network (stations information).

No Station
S1 Servicio Nacional de
Estudios Territoriales
S2 Chinameca
S3 San Miguel
S4 Perqun
S5 La Unin
S6 Aeropuerto Int. El
Salvador
S7 Acajutla
S8 Santa Ana
S9 Sonsonate
S10 San Luis La Herradura
S11 Universidad de El
Salvador
S12 Ciudadela Don Bosco
S13 Ministerio de
Agricultura y Ganadera
S14 San Jacinto
S15 Hotel Raddisson
S16 Metapn
S17 Casa Presidencial
(top of borehole)
S18 Casa Presidencial
(bottom of borehole)
S19 Seminario, San Jos de
La Montaa
(top of borehole)
S20 Seminario, San Jos de
La Montaa
(botton of borehole)
S21 Chalatenango
S22 Sensuntepeque
S23 Campo Experimental de
la UCA
S24 Universidad
Centroamericana (UCA)
Code
Type of
instrument
Location
Latitude Longitude
N
W
Site
conditions
SNET
ETNA
13.68
89.23
soft soil
CHIN
SMIG
PERQ
LUNA
AIES
ETNA
ETNA
ETNA
ETNA
ETNA
13.51
13.43
13.95
13.34
13.44
88.34
88.15
88.15
87.83
89.05
hard soil
hard soil
hard soil
soft soil
soft soil
ACAJ
UNCO
SONS
HERR
UESS
ETNA
ETNA
ETNA
ETNA
ETNA
13.57
13.98
13.73
13.34
13.72
89.83
89.54
89.71
88.95
89.20
hard soil
hard soil
soft soil
soft soil
hard soil
UDBS ETNA
MAGT ETNA
13.73
13.68
89.15
89.29
soft soil
hard soil
SJAC
HRPS
CEME
CPRS
SMA-1 Retrofit
SMA-1 Retrofit
SMA-1 Retrofit
SMA-1 Retrofit
13.68
13.71
14.33
13.69
89.19
89.24
89.45
89.25
soft soil
rock
rock
hard soil
CPRF
SMA-1 Retrofit
13.69
89.25
rock
SEMS
SMA-1 Retrofit
13.70
89.22
hard soil
SEMF
SMA-1 Retrofit
13.70
89.22
rock
CHLT
SENS
CEUC
SMA-1 Retrofit
SMA-1 Retrofit
SMA-1 Retrofit
14.04
13.86
13.84
88.94
88.66
89.36
rock
rock
hard soil
UC
SMA-1
13.67
89.23
hard soil
The network operated by the Central American University Jos Simen Caas
(UCA) consists of 10 Kinemetrics SSA-2 digital accelerographs and 1 Kinemetrics
ETNA instrument. The instruments have been deployed to provide coverage of
seismicity from both the volcanic chain zone and the subduction zone. It also covers
different geological units in central and southern El Salvador, although the
geographical distribution of the instruments was given a higher priority and the
geologic criteria only excluded rock outcrop sites.
The reason for this decision was mainly because most urban areas in El Salvador
are underlain by soils, mainly volcanic ashes, and construction on rock is rare, hence it
is useful to obtain the largest number of recordings as possible at typical sites. It was
decided that only one instrument would be installed within the capital due to the
significant number of records already obtained in San Salvador and the fact that the
1135

existing SNET network already provides good coverage of the metropolitan area. In the
areas outside San Salvador the stations were located in hospitals and health centers as
part of an agreement with the Ministry of Public Health and Social Assistance
(MSPAS).
Table 37.3. CEL and LAGEO strong-motion network (stations information).
No Station
S25
S26
S27
S28
S29
S30
S31
S32
S33
S34
S35
15 de Septiembre
15 de Septiembre
15 de Septiembre
Guajoyo
Guajoyo
5 de Noviembre
5 de Noviembre
Cerrn Grande
Cerrn Grande
Ahuachapn
Berln
Code
G181
G182
G183
G111
G112
G101
G102
G171
G172
CPTA
EXPB
Type of
instrument
Altus K2
Altus K2
Altus K2
Altus K2
Altus K2
Altus K2
Altus K2
Altus K2
Altus K2
SSA-2
SSA-2 / 3 Etna
Location
Latitude Longitude
N
W
13.62
13.62
13.62
14.22
14.22
13.99
13.99
13.93
13.93
13.91
13.51
88.56
88.55
88.55
89.47
89.46
88.75
88.75
88.90
88.90
89.88
88.51
Site
conditions
soft soil1)
soft soil2)
soft soil2)
rock2)
rock2)
hard soil2)
hard soil2)
hard soil1)
hard soil2)
rock1)
rock1)
/1)Ground level, 2)buildings, dams or other structure.
The locations were also chosen because they offered reasonably good access for
maintenance of the instruments and data recovery. The network was designed
according to these criteria to cover three important sources of seismic activity in the
volcanic-chain zone: San Salvador and Ilopango lake, the southeast area of Coatepeque
lake to the west of San Salvador, and San Vicente to the east of San Salvador. Stations
have also been located to the south as far as the coast, and a single station has been
placed to the north of San Salvador. The distribution provides coverage of both the
subduction zone and the volcanic chain, and allows recording of volcanic chain
earthquakes near to the source and at epicentral distances up to about 50 km. This data
helps to diminish the uncertainty associated with the attenuation of strong-motion from
shallow upper-crustal events.
Table 37.4. UCA strong-motion network (stations information).
No Station
S36
S37
S38
S39
S40
S41
S42
S43
S44
S45
S46
Externado
Hospital San Rafael
Armenia
La Libertad
Zacatecoluca
San Pedro Nonualco
San Vicente
San Bartolo
Panchimalco
Tonacatepeque
Santiago de Mara
Code
ESJO
HSRF
UARM
ULLB
HSTR
USPN
HSGT
CSBR
UPAN
UTON
SDMA
Type of
instrument
SSA-2
Etna
SSA-2
SSA-2
SSA-2
SSA-2
SSA-2
SSA-2
SSA-2
SSA-2
SSA-2
Location
Latitude Longitude
N
W
13.70
13.67
13.74
13.48
13.51
13.60
13.64
13.70
13.61
13.77
13.48
89.20
89.27
89.50
89.32
88.86
88.92
88.78
89.10
89.17
89.11
88.47
Site
conditions
soft soil
hard soil
hard soil
soft soil
hard soil
soft soil
soft soil
soft soil
hard soil
soft soil
hard soil

Some characteristics of the network are presented in Table 37.4. All the instruments are
installed inside of one-storey buildings at ground level. In all stations, the instrument
trigger has been set to an acceleration level of 0.010 g horizontal and 0.006 g vertically.
The UCA manufactured and installed shelters for each of the accelerographs. Bommer
et al. [3] present a comprehensive description of this network.
37.2.3 Monitoring in Nicaragua

The first two strong-motion accelerographs were installed in Managua on floors 1 and
15 of the Central Bank building (Banco Central) in 1966. Another instrument was
installed in 1968 in Colonia Centro Amrica (the epicentral location of the 4.8
magnitude Managua earthquake of January, 1968) and it was transferred in 1969 to the
premises of UNAN university in Managua. In 1968, a fourth station was installed at
the ESSO refinery, in the northwestern part of Managua. These accelerographs can be
considered the first permanent seismic stations in Nicaragua.
A number of earthquakes, including those on October 15, 1967, and January 4, 1968,
which caused substantial damage in Nicaragua, were recorded by these instruments.
Four accelerograms and nine seismoscope records were also obtained from a series of
earthquakes that occurred in January 1972. One accelerograph at the Esso refinery and
13 seismoscopes recorded the major earthquake of December 23, 1972. Several
aftershocks of this earthquake were recorded at various sites; the largest one on March 31,
1973 at the UNAN station in Managua.
After the Managua earthquake, the development of the seismic and strong-motion
networks accelerated enormously. In 1975, the newly founded Seismic Research
Institute (Instituto de Investigaciones Ssmicas, IIS) installed the first seismic network
in Nicaragua with the support of the U.S. Geological Survey. It consisted of 16
telemetric stations with a central registry in Managua. Additionally, a network of 21
accelerographs and 26 seismoscopes was installed [4].
The telemetric and accelerographic networks worked well until 1982 when the
collapse of the station network began as a result of the socioeconomic problems that
Nicaragua was facing at that time. At the beginning of the 1990s none of the stations
were functioning in Nicaragua though the equipment still existed.
The year 1991 marked a new beginning for seismology in Nicaragua. The
Nicaraguan Institute of Territorial Studies (Instituto Nicaragense de Estudios
Territoriales, INETER), formerly IIS, started to re-establish the telemetric seismic
network and the existing accelerographic instruments. The existing accelerograms on
photographic film were digitized and a database was created [5].
At the end of 1992, an FBA-23 accelerograph was installed in the seismic data
center of INETER in Managua. This equipment was connected to the digital recorder
of the telemetric seismic network in order to facilitate the processing of strong
earthquakes (estimation of P-S arrival times and the calculation of magnitude based on
amplitude). This was important since the conventional telemetric recordings have a low
dynamic range and become saturated in the case of strong events.
In 1997, seven K2 Kinemetrics accelerographs were installed temporarily in
Managua in order to obtain information for the Seismic Microzonation of Managua
project which formed part of the Seismic Hazard in Central America study financed by
the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD). The purpose was to
record strong regional earthquakes for the investigation of ground amplification in
1137

Managua. This temporary deployment finished on August 1998.

During 1997, 1998 and 1999, 6 digital Etna type accelerographs were acquired each
year. Initially these instruments were also used for the study of the seismic
microzonation of Managua. A series of trials were made, first in the lab and then in the
field, prior to the permanent installation of the new equipment. Some of these field
trials were dictated by the immediate need for measuring local seismic movements in a
specific epicenter area since there was no other portable equipment available for this
task. During the seismic activity in Dipilto in 1997, the Etnas capacity to detect relatively
small earthquakes of magnitude 3 and distances of about 20 km was evaluated.
Table 37.5. Nicaraguan strong-motion network (stations information).
No Station
Code
MGA
Managua (INETER)
MAAN
Masaya (Enitel)
GRAN
Granada (Enitel)
BOAN
Boaco
RIAN
Rivas (Enitel)
LEAN
Len (Enitel)
ESAN
Estel
CHAN
Chinandega (Enitel)
JUIN
Juigalpa
MATN
Matagalpa
JIAN
Jinotega
Managua Amricas #2 IBWN
RAAN
Managua (Refinera)
UNAN
Managua (UNAN)
DCAN
Managua
(Defensa Civil)
SOAN
N16 Somoto
OCAN
N17 Ocotal
BLAN
N18 Bluefields
N1
N2
N3
N4
N5
N6
N7
N8
N9
N10
N11
N12
N13
N14
N15
Type of
instrument
Location
Latitude Longitude
N
W
Site
conditions
FBA-23 Q330
ETNA
ETNA
ETNA
ETNA
ETNA
ETNA
ETNA
ETNA
ETNA
ETNA
ETNA
ETNA
ETNA
ETNA
12.15
11.98
11.94
12.47
11.44
12.43
13.10
12.62
12.11
12.93
13.09
12.16
12.14
12.11
12.12
86.25
86.08
85.97
85.66
85.83
86.88
86.36
87.14
85.37
85.92
85.99
86.18
86.32
86.27
86.27
soft soil
soft soil
soft soil
rock
soft soil
soft soil
soft soil
soft soil
rock
rock
rock
soft soil
soft soil
soft soil
soft soil
ETNA
ETNA
ETNA
13.48
13.63
12.01
86.58
86.48
83.76
rock
hard soil
soft soil
On September 1999, the instruments were installed permanently in the principal cities
of Nicaragua: Managua (five stations), Masaya, Granada, Jinotega, Matagalpa,
Juigalpa, Boaco, Somoto, Ocotal, Estel, Rivas, Chinandega and Len (Fig. 37.2). By
December 1999, 17 instruments had been installed in the INETER offices
(meteorological stations and municipal offices) and in the offices of the cities mayors.
One of the instruments was installed in the Seismic Center of INETER. The goal of this
project was the deployment of an accelerograph network in Managua and in the most
important cities in the northern Pacific coast of Nicaragua in order to obtain
information about the effect of strong-motions in these areas and to develop a database
for the prevention of earthquake disasters. Ten of these stations were connected to the
Internet so that data would be accessible in real time. The other stations will be
connected with the Internet, as soon as this service becomes available in these cities. The
final distribution of the stations is shown in Figure 37.2.
In 2003, at the Seismic Center of INETER, a Quanterra Q330 24-bit data logger
was installed to register the data from an FBA-23 accelerometer and a broadband
seismometer STS-2. This equipment is part of the tsunami warning system maintained

by INETER. The high dynamic range and broad frequency band allows the analysis of
very large local and regional earthquakes, which is necessary to evaluate the need for
issuing a tsunami warning. When a strong earthquake is detected by the telemetric
seismic network, the central computer of the network sends a triggering command via
Internet to the digital accelerographs. Then, the recorded event is retrieved from the
accelerographs and stored in a database for processing. This process requires only a
few minutes. In this way, the effects of a strong earthquake in the most important cities
of Nicaragua can be estimated very rapidly using ground accelerations reported by the
network. In addition, the accelerographic data are routinely used in the calculation of
earthquake origin parameters and magnitude, which produces a significant
improvement in the quality of these parameters. The software used on the central
computer to control the accelerographic network was developed at INETER. The main
information of the current network is shown in Table 37.5.
37.2.4 Monitoring in Costa Rica

A triaxial analogue Montana recorder was the first accelerograph operating in Costa
Rica. It was donated in 1944 by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey and installed by the
Meteorological and Seismological National Service at the University of Costa Rica
(Universidad de Costa Rica, UCR). This instrument operated until 1952. From 1965 to
1967, the Costa Rican Institute for Social Security (La Caja Costarricense del Seguro
Social) operated two AR-240 accelerographs which were installed in two of their
buildings in San Jos.
In 1976, by means of a cooperation agreement between the Geology School of UCR
and the Organization of American States (OAS), three more accelerographs were
installed, one in the Geology School building and the rest in the building of the
National Insurance Institute (Instituto Nacional de Seguros) [6]. Unfortunately, the
records of these instruments are not available, and the quality and quantity of the data
recorded are unknown.
Since 1984, strong ground-motion recorders have been operating continuously in
the country as a complement to the seismological networks and as part of an effort to
have a better spatial coverage. Two institutions are mainly involved in this field: the
Costa Rican Institute of Electricity (Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad, ICE) and
the Earthquake Engineering Laboratory (Laboratorio de Ingeniera Ssmica, LIS) of
the University of Costa Rica (UCR).
The objective of the LIS network focuses on engineering research, the assessment
of earthquake effects on the behavior of soil and structures, and the improvement of
building codes. Many of these records have been used to update the Costa Rican
Seismic Code. Furthermore researchers commonly use the data in the following areas:
seismic hazard and risk studies, site effects and soil dynamic assessments,
microzonation studies, etc. Some of the instruments are located in high-rise buildings
but most of them are installed in one- or two-story buildings and located to obtain
ground response records.
This Laboratory was created in the mid-1980s with the donation of 20
accelerographs by U.S. AID (United States Agency for International Development)
through the University of California at Santa Cruz. Presently, LIS has 33 stations and
37 instruments, including both analogical and digital recorders. These instruments have
produced almost 1000 records of 350 earthquakes with magnitudes between MS 2.9 and 7.7,
1139

including very important earthquakes like Cbano (1990), Alajuela (1990) and Limn
(1991).
Urban noise, micro-tremors, and vibration measurements are also made at the LIS
using highly sensitive accelerographs for the application of Nakamuras techniques to
estimate the natural vibration period of soil deposits. Table 37.6 shows the main
characteristics of the LIS accelerograph network. All instruments are from Kinemetrics
Inc. of California. The geographical location of the stations is shown in Figures 37.2 and 37.3.
Table 37.6. LIS strong-motion network (stations information).
No Station
C1
C2
C2
C3
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
C8
C9
C10
C11
C12
C13
C13
C14
C15
C16
C17
C18
C19
C20
C21
C22
C23
C24
C25
C26
C27
C28
C29
C29
C30
C31
C32
C33
CIPET, A
Hotel Aurola-s, SJ
Hotel Aurola-a, SJ
Banco Nac.-s, SJ
Banco Nac.-a, SJ
Bomberos Nicoya, G
Bomberos Quepos, P
Presa Cach, C
Ciudad de los Nios, C
Escuela C. Activa, SJ
Escuela Frailes, SJ
Hospital Golfito, P
Escuela Guatuso, SJ
Clnica Hatillo, SJ
Edificio INS-s, SJ
Edificio INS.a, SJ
S.I. del General, SJ
Liberia, G
UCR, Limn, L
UCR, San Pedro, SJ
UNA, H
UCR, Paraso, C
Bomberos Puriscal, SJ
Hosp. M. Sanabria, P
RECOPE, Ochomogo, C
RECOPE, Barranca, P
Ochomogo, C
RECOPE, Garita, A
RECOPE, Mon, L
RECOPE, Turrialba, C
ICE, Sabana, SJ
Colegio SLG, C
Colegio SLG, C
UCR, San Ramn, A
UCR, Sta. Cruz, G
Ingenio Taboga, P
UCR, Turrialba, C
Code
ALJ
AURs
AURa
BNCs
BNCa
CBN
CBQ
CCH
CDN
ECA
FRA
GLF
GTS
HTO
INSs
INSa
ISD
LIB
LIM
LPF
OVS3)
PAR
PCL
PTS
RAL4)
RBA4)
RCP
RGA4)
RM4)
RTU4)
SAP
SLGa
SLGd
SRM
STC
TAB5)
TBA
Type of
instrument
ETNA
SMA-1
SMA-1
SMA-1
SMA-1
ETNA
ETNA
SMA-QDR
SSA-1
SSA-2
SSA-1
ETNA
SMA-1
SMA-1
SMA-1
SMA-1
SSA-2
SMA-QDR
SMA-1
K2
SSA-1
SMA-1
SMA-QDR
SMA-QDR
ETNA
SSA-2
SMA-1
SSA-2
ETNA
SSA-2
SMA-1
SMA-1
ETNA
SMA-QDR
SMA-QDR
ETNA
SMA-1
Location
Latitude Longitude
N
W
10.00
9.94
9.94
9.94
9.94
10.14
9.43
9.84
9.83
9.93
9.75
8.64
9.87
9.91
9.94
9.94
9.38
10.62
9.98
9.93
10.02
9.83
9.85
9.97
9.90
10.00
9.90
10.00
10.00
9.91
9.94
9.86
9.86
10.10
10.28
10.35
9.90
84.12
84.10
84.10
84.10
84.10
85.45
84.16
83.80
83.92
84.09
84.06
83.17
84.04
84.10
84.07
84.07
83.70
85.46
83.06
84.05
84.20
83.87
84.31
84.75
83.94
84.73
83.94
84.30
83.09
83.69
84.10
83.92
83.92
84.50
85.59
85.18
83.67
Site
conditions
soft soil1)
soft soil2)
soft soil2)
soft soil2)
soft soil2)
soft soil1)
rock1)
rock1)
hard soil1)
soft soil1)
hard soil1)
rock1)
soft soil1)
soft soil1)
soft soil2)
soft soil2)
soft soil1)
hard soil1)
hard soil1)
soft soil1)
soft soil1)
soft soil1)
soft soil1)
very soft2)
hard soil1)
hard soil1)
hard soil1)
soft soil1)
very soft1)
hard soil1)
soft soil1)
soft soil1)
soft soil1)
soft soil1)
soft soil1)
very soft1)
hard soil1)
/1)Ground level, 2)buildings, dams or other structure; some of the stations owned by OVSICORI3),
RECOPE4) and Ingenio Taboga5), but LIS is in charge of the maintenance and operation of the
instruments; SJ: San Jos, A: Alajuela, C: Cartago, H: Heredia, L: Limn, P: Puntarenas,
G: Guanacaste province.

Figure 37.3. Strong ground motion stations of Costa Rica and western part of Panama; see also
Tables 37.6, 37.7 and Figure 37.4.
The main purpose of ICE, a public institution involved in the development and supply of
electricity and telecommunication services, is to obtain acceleration records from free-field or
civil engineering works at sites of existing or future hydroelectric and geothermal projects. As
a requirement, every critical structure in new projects must be instrumented, especially dams
[7]. The installation of instruments for measuring dynamic properties of dams together with
static measurements of pore pressure, deformation, seepage, vertical and horizontal
displacement, and water flow, contribute to the development of reliable design methods, and
models for the prediction of dam behavior during severe earthquake motion thus allowing
engineers to analyze in a more precise way the safety of the structure [8].
By its own initiative, ICE operates 15 accelerographs installed in nine different sites
and mainly located in dams (Table 37.7, Fig. 37.3). Any future increase of the network
will depend on the development and construction of new projects. The stations are
distributed in such a way that they cover the major part of the country and at least one
1141

is always near the main seismic sources. It is important to indicate that in some of the
current stations, as well as in others that are not operating anymore, SMA-1 analog
accelerographs were in operation during several years. In 1995, the first digital
instrument was installed in Sandillal dam and in 2002, the last analog instruments,
located in APSM, were substituted by digital recorders.
Four of the stations currently operating are located in the free field (i.e., recording
conditions are not strongly influenced by the structural response of any civil works):
APBO, APPI, APGM and AETG; the rest are located in dams. Dams are instrumented
using one accelerograph in the base and one or two in the crest generally with a central
recording system as in the case of APTO (3 accelerographs), or having the individual
instruments synchronized by means of GPS time as in APSD (2), APSM (2), APPB
(2), and APSG (2).
Table 37.7. ICE strong-motion network (stations information).
No Station
C34
C35
C36
C37
C38
C39
C40
C41
C42
Boruca, P
Pirrs, SJ
Toro, A
Arenal, G
Sandillal
Vent. Garita, A
Miravalles, G
Guatuso, C
Peas Blancas, A
Code
APBO
APPI
APTO
APSG
APSD
APSM
APGM
AETG
APPB
Type of
instrument
Etna
Etna
Mt. Whitney
Etna
Etna
Etna
Mars-88/L
SSA-2
Etna
Location
Latitude Longitude
N
W
8.95
9.64
10.26
10.47
10.46
9.94
10.70
9.82
10.35
83.33
84.10
84.26
84.76
85.10
84.33
85.19
83.94
84.66
Site
conditions
rock1)
rock1)
hard soi2)
hard soil2)
hard soil2)
hard soil2)
soft soil1)
soft soil1)
rock2)
/1)Ground level, 2)buildings, dams or other structure; SJ: San Jos, A: Alajuela, C: Cartago,
H: Heredia, L: Limn, P: Puntarenas, G: Guanacaste province.
The ICE accelerograph station that has recorded most events has been AETG (Guatuso
Telecommunications Station) located near Cartago city in the Central valley of Costa
Rica, which corresponds to a soft-soil site condition. Since 1996, this station has
recorded accelerograms from 30 events with local magnitude between 2.7 to 5.5, at
epicentral distances between 5 and 200 km; 16 of the events occurred in the subduction
zone source, and the rest on local faults.
From 1984 to 1994, the old analog stations (SMA-1) recorded 71 accelerograms
from 39 different earthquakes, including the 0.54 g record obtained at the San Miguel
dam station (APSM), located less than 10 km from the 1990 Piedras Negras earthquake
epicenter, and the 0.76 g record obtained at the Siquirres project site station (not
currently on operation) during the 1991 Limn earthquake [9].
37.2.5 Monitoring in Panama
Panama was the first country in Latin America with an accelerographic station, a
Wenner type instrument, which was installed in 1933 by the Panama Canal Company
at Balboa heights, Panama city, and recorded the July 18, 1934 Puerto Armuelles
earthquake (MS 7.5), with epicenter offshore, southwest of Panama, on the Panama
fracture zone. The maximum acceleration recorded for this event by the instrument at
Balboa Heights was 0.007 g at 0.6 s [10]. Despite this early advance, the monitoring of
Figure 37.4. Strong ground motion stations in the central part of Panama.
seismicity in the isthmus and the recording of strong-motions was very poor during the
20th century.
This situation changed after December 1999, when the Panamanian structural code,
which is a national law, established that all buildings with more than 15 stories must
have an accelerograph at the basement. Buildings with more than 20 floors must have
two, which should be interconnected: one on the basement and another one at roof
level. Low rise buildings with more than 5000 m2 of construction must also have an
accelerograph. The Technological University of Panama (Universidad Tecnolgica de
Panam, UTP) has been appointed to follow up this requirement. UTP also manages
the national strong-motion database. The location of the instruments is shown in
Figures 37.3 and 37.4.
The requirement by law of installing and maintaining new instruments is an
enormous task, because Panama city, with almost one million inhabitants, has a great
skyline with many multi-story buildings, the tallest of which has 55 floors. Also there
1143

are two bridges with 1000 m span length: one existing and the other under construction,
which serve as a crossings over the Panama canal.
The dam of the hydroelectric project (HP) at Fortuna, Chiriqu province, has been
instrumented by Hydro Quebec (Canadian Provincial Agency), as well as the reservoir
dams used for the storage of water for the operation of the Panama canal (Table 37.8).
The Panama Canal Authority is developing plans to instrument more of its critical
facilities along this waterway.
Panama actually does not have a permanent free-field strong-motion network but
there are plans by the University of Panama (UPA) to start installing this type of
network in the short term. Table 37.8 lists the locations of the current stations in
Panama as well as the characteristics of the sites and the type of instruments.
Table 37.8. Panama strong-motion stations.
No Station
P1 Instituto de Geociencias
P2 UTPs, Panama city
P3 UTPa, Panama city
P4 Fortuna HP
P5 Fortuna HP
P6 Gatn dam
P7 Gatn dam
P8 Madden dam
/1)Ground level.
37.3
Code
UPA
UTPs
UTPa
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
Type of
instrument
Etna
GSR-12/Terra
GSR-12
GSR-12
GSR-12
Etna
Etna
Etna
Location
Latitude Longitude
N
W
8.98
8.93
8.93
8.62
8.68
9.26
9.26
9.21
79.53
79.55
79.55
82.27
82.26
79.93
79.93
79.62
Site
conditions
rock1)
soft soil1)
soft soil1)
dam
power house
dam
spillway
dam
STRONG-MOTION RECORDS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA
In the last 30 years, 121 events with magnitude equal or greater to 6.0, and 14 equal or
greater to 7.0, have occurred in Central America (according to the PDE-NEIC reports).
Not all of these events have been recorded since it has been difficult to have
accelerographic instruments operating continuously in all the countries during that
period. Costa Rica and El Salvador have operated more stable networks in the last 25
years, but it has not been until the last 5 years that all countries have been calculating
earthquake parameters as a routine activity. Table 37.9 shows a list of some of the main
seismic events in the region that have produced accelerographic records. The oldest
accelerograms in this set were obtained from analogue instruments, while the most
recent records were produced by digital accelerographs.
In general, earthquakes in the Central American region produce very distinct
accelerographic records depending on the type of seismic source and the distance to
fault rupture. It is hoped that in the near future, the development of fingerprint
techniques to identify seismotectonic features and motion characteristics will become
possible. For example, it is possible to say that the shallow earthquakes (< 25 km
depth) found in the volcanic front and recorded at very close distances from the
source, show high peak accelerations, short duration of the strong-motion and a rapid
attenuation of the seismic signal. Figures 37.5a and 37.5b show acceleration traces of
two seismic events that are typical of this kind of source. The first one, recorded in
Costa Rica during the Piedras Negras earthquake of December 22, 1990, shows a
horizontal peak acceleration of 0.5 g at 5 km from the epicenter in a rock site. The
second was recorded in Nicaragua, during the Managua earthquake of December 23,

Figure 37.5. Accelerographic records in Central America produced by shallow upper-crustal

events (a, b) and subduction events (c, d). For magnitudes, see Table 37.9.
1972, with a horizontal peak acceleration of 0.32 g at a 5.5 km distance from the
epicenter at a soil site. In both cases, the most severe cases of damage were reported
near the epicentral zone [11].
In the case of subduction events recorded at intermediate hypocentral distances
(40100 km), typical accelerograms have longer durations of strong shaking, as well as
a low rate of attenuation with distance. Figures 37.5c and 37.5d present the acceleration
traces of two seismic events typical of this source. The first one was recorded in Costa
Rica during the Naranjo earthquake on March 7, 1992, which presents a peak
acceleration of 0.10 g at 61 km of epicentral distance at a soft soil site. The second
trace is from El Salvador, during the earthquake of January 13, 2001, which presents a
peak acceleration of 0.46 g at an epicentral distance of 118 km on a soft soil site. These
types of events can usually be felt at longer distances, due to their depth, and because
this type of seismic source can generate earthquakes of high magnitude (MS 7.7 in the
case of the El Salvador 2001 earthquake) their damage potential, to vernacular
buildings and to slopes, is high even at intermediate distances (100 km).
As can be seen in Figure 37.6, using the above earthquakes, the elastic response spectra
(representing in a simple way the response of structures with different fundamental periods) is
different if the earthquake is a shallow upper-crustal event recorded in the near field, or a
subduction earthquake recorded in the far field, notwithstanding differences due to site effects.
In addition to the accelerograms of large and destructive earthquakes, the instruments
deployed in Central America have recorded hundreds of seismic events of different
magnitudes. In 199193, as part of the Reduction of Natural Disasters in Central
America, Earthquake Preparedness and Hazard Mitigation, Seismic Zonation and
Earthquake Hazard Assessment project undertaken by Norway and the Central
American countries, all accelerograms available in the region at that moment were
collected in a database, and analog records were digitized to a 600 dpi (dots per inch)
1145

Figure 37.6. Elastic response spectra of some shallow upper-crustal and subduction events in
Central America.
resolution, and used to develop seismic attenuation equations, one for Central America
and one for Costa Rica. The complete information on this database can be found in
references [5, 1216]. In the last 10 years several studies dealing with microzonation,
ground-motion site effects and seismic hazard assessment have been presented in the
region, as based on these original recorded strong-motion data or its results. The references for this studies are [3, 1724]. Additional information of the strong-motion networks
and data bases in Central America can be obtained through the following websites: Costa
Rica: terraba.fing.ucr.ac.cr/~lis/, El Salvador: www.lageo.com.sv, www.snet.gob.sv,
www.uca.edu.sv/investigacion/terremoto, Guatemala: www.conred.org/principal.php,
Nicaragua: www.ineter.gob.ni.
Table 37.9. Central America main seismic events with reported damage (19722003 period) and
with accelerographic records (source for events before 1996: [11]).
Date
MS
Country
23 December 1972
4 February 1976
31 May 1978
27 October 1979
19 June 1982
18 July 1983
10 October 1986
3 November 1988
25 March 1990
22 December 1990
22 April 1991
7 March 1992
13 January 2001
13 February 2001
25 December 2003
6.3
7.5
6.0
6.8
7.3
6.0
5.4
6.4
7.0
5.7
7.6
5.9
7.6
6.6
6.6
Nicaragua (Managua)
Guatemala*
Nicaragua
Guatemala*
El Salvador
Nicaragua
El Salvador
Guatemala*
Costa Rica
Costa Rica
Costa Rica
Costa Rica
El Salvador
El Salvador
Costa Rica-Panama
/ * Recorded in El Salvador.

37.3.1 Strong-motion attenuation studies

37.3.1.1 Regional studies
One of the most important applications of the strong-motion data in the region, has
been the derivation of attenuation equations. In 1994, a first attempt to develop a
spectral strong-motion prediction equation was made [25, 26] using a common
database format for all the accelerograms available at that moment in Central America
and some large-magnitude records of Guerrero, Mexico, as part of the NorwegianCentral America project. Mathematically, the expression of the attenuation model used
in the 1994 study is given by equation 1 with the coefficient values c1 to c5 from Table
37.10 according to
ln(I) = c1 + c2 M + c3 ln(r) + c4 r + c5 S
(1)
where:
I
= spectral velocity (m/s) for 5% structural damping or

PGA observed acceleration (m/s2)
M = moment magnitude
r = epicentral or hypocentral distance (km)
S = soil type, S = 0 if it is rock or 1 if soft soil
c1c5 = coefficients obtained by the regression
Table 37.10. Regression coefficients of equation (1) using strong-motion data from Central
America.
F (Hz)
0.25
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
10.0
40.0
PGA
c1
7.441
7.348
6.744
5.862
4.876
4.726
7.214
1.687
c2
1.007
1.128
1.081
0.917
0.642
0.483
0.553
0.533
c3
0.601
0.728
0.756
0.726
0.642
0.581
0.537
0.537
c4
0.00040
0.00053
0.00077
0.00107
0.00156
0.00199
0.00302
0.00302
c5
Bay
0.496
0.536
0.588
0.566
0.470
0.381
0.327
0.327
0.73
0.79
0.82
0.82
0.82
0.80
0.75
0.75
37.3.1.2 Studies for Costa Rica

In 1997 a new calculation was made only for Costa Rica [27] and under the same
project. The expression of the attenuation used was almost the same as that of 1994, but
the soil conditions were classified into three categories: rock, hard soil and soft
soil. The expression is presented in equation 2 with the coefficient values c1 to c6 from
Table 37.11 according to
ln(I) = c1 + c2 M + c3 ln(r) + c4 r + c5 S1 + c6 S2
(2)
where:
I, M and r are the same as above
S1 = 0 and S2 = 1 for soft soil,
S1 = 1 and S2 = 0 for hard soil and S1 = S2 = 0 if rock
c 1c 6 = coefficients obtained by the regression
1147

Table 37.11. Regression coefficients according to equation (2) using strong-motion data from
Costa Rica.
F (Hz)
0.25
0.50
1.00
2.00
5.00
10.00
40.00
PGA
c1
8.476
8.084
7.971
6.766
5.237
4.974
7.530
2.005
c2
1.021
1.179
1.185
1.003
0.642
0.494
0.609
0.609
c3
0.450
0.660
0.668
0.641
0.559
0.611
0.603
0.603
c4
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.003
c5
c6
0.061
0.110
0.208
0.232
0.198
0.234
0.173
0.173
0.475
0.454
0.693
0.625
0.438
0.296
0.279
0.279
Bay
0.77
0.80
0.75
0.77
0.83
0.80
0.74
0.74
37.3.1.3 Studies for El Salvador

In 1996 and 1997, Bommer et al. [28] and Cepeda et al. [22], respectively, presented
reviews of the attenuation studies performed in El Salvador and in Central America.
Cepeda et al. [22] compare the predictions of the existing attenuation equations with
the observed PGA values in a database of 322 records from networks in Costa Rica, El
Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua. A strong limitation of their database was the
almost complete absence of data from large subduction earthquakes occurring off the
Pacific coast of Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua. At that time, the only available
record of a large subduction event was produced by the MS 7.3 earthquake in June 19,
1982. Another limitation at that time, which is presented in Figure 37.7, was the
Figure 37.7. Magnitude-distance distribution of shallow upper crustal records in Central America
available before 1997. Stars are records produced by volcanic chain earthquakes [29].

reduced number of volcanic chain records among the shallow crustal event records.
This is important since the volcanic chain earthquakes are historically highly destructive
in Central America, particularly in El Salvador. Examples of these type of events in the
last 40 years are the 1965, 1986 and February 2001 earthquakes in El Salvador, and the
1972 earthquake in Nicaragua.
Figure 37.8. Magnitude-distance distributions for records produced by (a) subduction

earthquakes and (b) shallow upper crustal earthquakes during 2001 in El Salvador.
Subduction and volcanic chain accelerographic data may be completed with the
inclusion of the seismic activity that has occurred after 1997, and particulary with the
activity during 2001 in El Salvador, which was significantly high in terms of intensity
and frequency of occurrence. Figure 37.8 illustrates this fact with the magnitudedistance distributions in the database employed by Cepeda et al. [23] using only data
from 2001.
Table 37.12 summarizes some of the characteristics of the 7 studies of attenuation
that have included a significant number of records from El Salvador. Further details
about the first 6 studies in Table 37.12, can be found in Bommer et al. [28] and Cepeda
et al. [22].
The separation in the attenuation analysis of records generated by subduction and
shallow upper crustal earthquakes (see fourth column in Table 37.12) was first
suggested by Joyner and Boore [33] due to the existence of significant differences in
the geometry and spreading pattern in these two types of earthquakes. Furthermore,
evidences in both types of earthquake records in El Salvador also indicate that spectral
shapes may present important differences, even under identical site conditions (see Fig.
37.9). It has also been observed that the duration between the onset of the ground
motion and the moment when the maximum structural capacity occurs is significantly
shorter in shallow upper-crustal records compared to subduction zone records [34].
Current U.S. guidelines for the design of seismic codes establish the requirement that
ground motion prediction should be made for spectral response at low periods (0.2 or
0.3 s) and at intermediate periods (1.0 s). An example of the above is the guidelines
proposed by the National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program, NEHRP [35], which
were first applied in the 2000 edition of the International Building Code, IBC [36]. The
studies developed with Central American data that derive equations for spectral
ordinates are Dahle et al. [26], Bommer et al. [28] and Cepeda et al. [23]. Another
1149

Figure 37.9. Envelope of elastic acceleration response spectra for horizontal components of
records of 10 October 1986 earthquake (solid line), and of 13 January 2001 earthquake
(broken line). Records correspond to Hotel Camino Real and Colegio Externado San Jos,
separated by a distance of less than 1 km, and with identical surface geology [34].
important element in the prediction of ground motion parameters is the consideration of

site effects. Dahle et al. [26] and Cepeda et al. [23] take into account the effect of
surface geology in the attenuation. The first study establishes two site conditions (soil
or rock) by means of a dummy variable, while the second study considers site classes
according to NEHRP [35], which are also used by the IBC [36].
Table 37.12. Earthquake strong-motion attenuation studies for El Salvador.
Reference
Number of Number of Type of events

records
earthquakes
Algermissen
et al. [30]
Alfaro et al.
[31]
Taylor et al.
[14]
Singh et al.
[32]
Dahle et al.
[26]
82
40
89
89
280
Bommer et al.
[28]
36
Cepeda et al.
[23]
479
- Combines shallow upper crustal

and subduction earthquakes
32 Separates shallow upper crustal
27 Combines shallow upper crustal
20 Subduction
188 Separates shallow upper crustal
(only and subduction earthquakes.
during
year 2001)
Predicted
parameter(s)
Horizontal PGA
Horizontal PGA
Horizontal PGA
Horizontal PGA
Horizontal PGA
and pseudo
spectral velocity
Horizontal PGA
and spectral
acceleration.
Horizontal PGA
and spectral
acceleration at 0.3
and 1.0 s
At the present time, attenuation models for subduction zone earthquakes take into
account the differences between those events originating in the interface of plate
convergence and those that occur directly due to ruptures within the subducting plate.
Cepeda et al. [23] take as the basis for the analysis the attenuation model and
coefficients presented by Atkinson and Boore [37] that makes a distinction between
both types of subduction earthquakes. The implications of the two types of ground
motion for seismic design codes in the region have been explored by Lopez et al. [38].

37.4
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Since the beginning of strong-motion monitoring in Central America in the 1930s, the
operation of the networks in the region has been very irregular with ups and downs in
the attention of institutions and governments, as well as in the number of operational
stations. Nonetheless, concerted efforts have recently brought the spatial coverage of
instrumentation to a highly complete state and empirical knowledge is coming forth to
summarize the entire regional seismic character of the area.
The strong-motion instruments deployed in the Central American area, at present,
include 12 accelerographs in Guatemala, 49 in El Salvador, 18 in Nicaragua, 42 in
Costa Rica and 8 in Panama. This amounts to 129 active instruments in the area. The
total number of digital accelerographs is 114. In Guatemala, Nicaragua and Panama, a
single institution in each country is responsible for the operation of the network. In
Costa Rica and El Salvador, the number of owner institutions are two and four,
respectively. In general, the instruments are located in the main cities of these
countries, which are settled in valleys formed usually by soft and firm soils.
Organizations in Costa Rica, Panama, and El Salvador have shown interest in the study
of the dynamic behavior of engineered structures such as hydroelectric and geothermal
projects, multi-story buildings, and the Panama canal as a specific case.
Unfortunately each country works independently, and this situation is further
hampered by a lack of uniformity in concepts of operation, processing and analysis
between the different institutions. There is not a common and unified database in the
region, and there are different perspectives for operation and future growth in each
country, but not at a regional scale. One important task in the short term is to establish
cooperation agreements among all strong-motion monitoring institutions in order to
develop a strong and reliable regional seismic database, which will certainly benefit the
production of studies aimed to the mitigation of earthquake risk in Central America.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Knudson, C.F.: Strong-motion networks for Latin America. In: Proceedings, Central American
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, San Salvador, January, 1978, pp.6388.
Bommer, J.J., Benito, M.B., Ciudad-Real, M., Lemoine, A., Lpez-Menjvar, M.A.,
Madariaga, R., Mankelow, J., Mndez de Hasbun, P., Murphy, W., Nieto-Lovo, M.,
Rodrguez-Pineda, C.E. & Rosa, H.: The El Salvador earthquakes of January and February
2001: context, characteristics and implications for seismic risk. Soil Dyn. & Earthq. Eng. 22
(2002), pp.389418.
Bommer, J.J., Udas, A., Cepeda, J.M., Hasbun, J.C., Salazar, W.M., Surez, A., Ambraseys, N.N.,
Buforn, E., Cortina, J., Madariaga, R., Mndez, P., Mezcua, J. & Papastamatiou, D.: A new
digital accelerograph network for El Salvador. Seism. Res. Lett. 68:3 (1997), pp.426437.
Aburto, A., Lara, E., Sandino, J.R., Fajardo, D., Sagastume, M., Harlow, D. & Mills, H.: Reporte
de los Temblores ocurridos en Nicaragua los meses de Marzo a Junio de 1975. Boletin del
Instituto de Investigaciones Ssmicas (IIS), Ministerio de Obras Pblicas, I:1, Managua, 1975.
Segura, F., Strauch, W., Taylor, W., Santana, G., Dahle, A. & Bungum, H.: Digital strong
motion data from Nicaragua. Technical report 2:15, NORSAR, Norway, 1994.
Morales, L.D.: Historia de la Sismologa en Costa Rica. Rev. Fil. Univ. Costa Rica XXIV(59)
(1986), pp.93104.
Climent, A.: Seismic safety program of projects and works at energy sector. Accelerograph
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9.
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18.
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21.
22.
23.
24.
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26.
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28.
29.
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Climent, A., Midorikawa, S., Matsuoka, M. & Toshinawa, T.: Processed Strong-Motion Data
of Near-Source Accelerograms Obtained From Costa Rican Electricity Institute Strong-Motion
Network in 1990 and 1991. Division of Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo Institute of
Technology. DEETEC Report 920207, TITECH, Tokyo, 1992.
Newmann, F.: United States Earthquakes 1934. U.S. Department of Commerce Coast and
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Ambraseys, N.N. & Adams, R.D.: The Seismicity of Central America, A descriptive catalogue
18981995. Imperial College Press, London, 2001.
Santos, P.: Digitization process for strong motion records from El Salvador. Technical report
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Taylor, W.: Digitization and analysis of strong motion data from Nicaragua and Costa Rica.
Technical report 2:3, NORSAR, Norway, 1992.
Taylor, W., Santos, P., Dahle, A. & Bungum, H.: Digitization of strong motion data and
estimation of PGA attenuation. Technical report 2:4, NORSAR, Norway, 1992.
Climent, A. & Dahle, A.: Central American strong motion data base. NORSAR, October 1993,
Technical report 2:11, 1993.
Taylor, W., Climent, A., Santos, P., Ciudad Real, M., Santana, G., Villagran, M., Strauch, W.,
Segura, F., Dahle, A. & Bungum, H.: Digital strong motion data from Central America.
Technical report 2:16, NORSAR, Norway, 1994.
Bungum, H.: Seismic source evaluation, strong motion attenuation and soil response in Central
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Earthquakes, Windstorms, Floods. Miscelaneous report 2:2, 1993.
Moya, A., Schmidt, V., Segura, C., Boschini, I. & Atakan, K.: Empirical Evaluation of Site
Effects in the Metropolitan Area of San Jos, Costa Rica. Technical report II 1:09, Bergen
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Moya, A., Climent, A., Schmidt, V., Rojas, W. & Boschini, I.: Microzonificacin Ssmica de
San Jos, Costa Rica. Universidad de Costa Rica, San Jos 2000.
Camacho, E., Tapia, A., Toral, J., Benavides, J., Chichaco, E., Caballero, A., Bolaos, R.,
Ortega, M. & Cowan, H.: Microzonificacin Ssmica de David, Panam. Instituto de
Geociencias, Universidad de Panam, Panama, 2000.
Strauch, W., Segura, F., Guzman, C., Lindholm, C., Bungum, H., Nadin, F., Atakan, K. &
Cowan, H.: Microzonificacin Ssmica de Managua. Instituto Nicaragense de Estudios
Territoriales, Managua, 2000.
Cepeda, J., Salazar, W. & Bommer, J.J.: Ecuaciones de atenuacin para Centroamrica: I.
Aceleracin mxima del Terreno. Seminario sobre Evaluacin y Mitigacin del Riesgo Ssmico
en el rea Centroamericana. UCA, San Salvador, 1997, pp.119128.
Cepeda, J.M., Benito, M.B. & Burgos, E.A.: Strong-motion characteristics of January and
February 2001 earthquakes in El Salvador. In: W.I. Rose, J.J. Bommer, D.L. Lpez, M.J. Carr
& J.J. Major (eds): Natural Hazards in El Salvador. Special Paper 375, The Geological Society
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Atakan, K., Ciudad Real, M. & Torres, R.: Local site effects on microtremors, weak and strong
ground motion in San Salvador, El Salvador. In: W.I. Rose, J. J. Bommer, D.L. Lpez,
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Strauch, W. & Segura, F.: New Spectral Strong Motion Attenuation Models for Central
America. Proceedings of the fifth International Conference on Seismic Zonation, Vol. 2, Nice,
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Schmidt, V., Dahle, A. & Bungum, H.: Costa Rican Spectral Strong Motion Attenuation.
NORSAR, Technical report, Norway, 1997.
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for El Salvador. Geofsica Internacional 35 (1996), pp.227244.
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America, San Salvador, El Salvador, 1997, pp.109118.

30. Algermissen, S.T., Hansen, S.L. & Thenhaus, P.C.: Seismic hazard evaluation for El Salvador.
Report for the U.S. Agency for International Development, U.S.A., 1988.
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for El Salvador. Report No. 93, The John A. Blume Earthquake Engineering Center, Stanford
University, California, 1990.
32. Singh, S.K., Gutirrez, C., Arboleda, J. & Ordaz, M.: Peligro ssmico en El Salvador.
Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico, Mexico City, 1993.
33. Joyner, W. & Boore, D.: Measurement, characterization and prediction of strong ground
motion. Proceedings of Earthquake and Soil Dynamics II GT Div/ASCE, Park City, Utah, June,
1988, pp.2730, 43102.
34. Cepeda, J.M.: Ciento cincuenta das despus del 13 de enero y 15 aos despus del 10 de
octubre: algunas consideraciones tcnicas sobre los sismos y sus efectos. Revista Estudios
Centroamericanos, El Salvador, ECA, v. 631632 (2001), pp.459472.
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structures, FEMA 302, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington D.C., 1997.
36. ICC: International Building Code. International Code Council, Inc., United States, 2000.
37. Atkinson, G.M. & Boore, D.M.: Empirical ground-motion relations for subduction zone
earthquakes and their application to Cascadia and other regions. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Amer.
93:4 (2003), pp.17031729.
38. Lpez, M., Bommer, J.J. & Pinho, R.: Seismic hazard assessments, seismic design codes, and
earthquake engineering in El Salvador. In: W.I. Rose, J. J. Bommer, D.L. Lpez, M.J. Carr &
J.J. Major (eds): Natural Hazards in El Salvador. Geol. Soc. of Am., Special Paper 375,
1153
Chapter 38
Volcanic activity, hazards, and monitoring
GUILLERMO E. ALVARADO, GERARDO J. SOTO, CARLOS R. PULLINGER,
RDIGER ESCOBAR, SAMUEL BONIS, DEMETRIO ESCOBAR AND
MARTHA NAVARRO
There are burning mountains in this
province, the chief of which is Masaya,
where the natives at certain times offered up
maids, throwing them into it, thinking by
their lives to appease the fire, that it might
not destroy the country, and they went to it
very cheerfully. J.L. Stephens: Incidents of
travel in Central America, Chiapas and
Yucatan, 1841.
38.1
INTRODUCTION
Active and dormant volcanoes in Central America are famous and well-known
because: (1) during the 19th and 20th centuries, two of the 11 largest explosive eruptions
(volcanic explosivity index, VEI &RVLJLna in 1835, and Santa Mara in 1902)
occurred in this area, (2) of the 16 volcanoes on earth that have been erupting more or
less continuously through > 30 years, the region has three: Santiaguito (Santa Mara),
Pacaya, and Arenal [1], (3) many volcanoes and volcanic lakes are tourist attractions,
(4) there is a high population density and several cities on their flanks or nearby, and
(5) there are geothermal and hydroelectric plants, and many other development projects
close to hazardous volcanoes. Moreover, of the approximately one hundred most
notorious volcanoes of the world, 11 are located in Central America [2, 3].
Although the actual number of fatalities from volcanism in Central America is
uncertain, an estimated 12,000 to 18,000 people died in the last five centuries. No less
than half of these fatalities were a result of post-eruption famine and epidemic diseases,
and the other half by direct effects such as tephra fall, pyroclastic flows and surges [4].
The Central American population has significantly increased since the last century and
mitigation of volcanic risk and designing emergency plans should become paramount to
the volcanological and civil authorities in the coming years.
To understand the premonitory signals of a future eruption, its most probable type,
magnitude and affected area, requires the development of interdisciplinary volcano
monitoring systems, including gas, condensates and water geochemistry, geophysics,
geodetics, and satellite imaging, together with investigation of past and current
volcanic activity.
This chapter presents an overview of the characteristic eruption styles in the Central
American volcanic front (CAVF), some patterns of historic and prehistoric eruptive
activity, and effects of eruptions (including socio-economic aspects) that are essential
for an adequate short- to long-term hazard assessment. In addition, this work aims to

1156 VOLCANIC HAZARDS AND MONITORING
provide the international community with a general review of existing monitoring

systems in Central America, and some examples of the present knowledge of the
characteristics of volcanic crises and premonitory phenomena, which can be used to
gain a better understanding of volcanic behavior, and eventually minimize its impact on
society.
38.2
VOLCANIC CENTERS AND ACTIVITY
At least 26 volcanoes are definitively known to have erupted during the past 10,000
years in Central America, and more than 35 probably had Holocene activity [5]. The
CAVF (Fig. 38.1) extends for 1100 km from the Mexico-Guatemala border to central
Costa Rica. There is a volcanic gap of 175190 km between Iraz-Turrialba (Costa
Rica) and Bar-Tisingal (Panama) and then ten stratovolcanoes and 1520 domes are
present along 400 km in Panama. The volcanic range (from Guatemala to western
Panama) comprises 50 major volcanic centers (large andesitic shield volcanoes,
compound volcanoes, twin stratovolcanoes, and calderas), and several hundred small
vents (cinder and tuff cones, maars, domes). More than 400 eruptions have occurred
historically.
The major centers are regularly spaced along narrow discrete alignments as
individual, paired or clustered volcanic centers. The close spacing, approximately 26 km
on average, provides one of the highest densities of active volcanic centers along
any convergent plate margin [6]. The volume of volcanic products erupted in the
CAVF for the past 300 yr was 19 km3, for a volume rate estimated of 62 km3/106 yr-km
or 6310 3 km3/m.y. [7]. Additionally, there are several tens of volcanic centers off the
CAVF, both landward and trenchward, usually controlled by regional and local tectonic
trends. At least a dozen silicic centers are identified beneath or nearby the main
volcanic centers, ranging in age from Early Pleistocene to Holocene (for more details
see Chapter 4). Monogenetic vents can be isolated or part of volcanic fields. Arcuate
volcanic summit grabens, usually confused with calderas (e.g., Pos, Tenorio), and
horseshoe-shape sector collapse openings are reported from many volcanoes (e.g., Fuego,
Pacaya, Cacao, Miravalles, Iraz, Turrialba, Bar).
The distribution of highly-active volcanoes is apparently influenced by the
segmented structure of the CAVF [8, 9]. Volcanoes that have erupted more or less
continuously for several years (e.g., Santiaguito, Pacaya, Izalco, Arenal and Iraz), and
volcanoes producing large and violent explosive eruptions (Cosigina in 1835 and
Santa Mara in 1902) are located on segment boundaries (Fig. 38.2).
The history of Central American volcanic activity can be divided into: (1)
prehistoric, before the Spanish Conquest around 1525 AD, (2) historic, from 1525 to
about 1958, reported by several scientists and then in the Catalog of Active Volcanoes
of the World, Part VI [1012], and (3) historic, post Catalog of 1958, with the most
frequent reports and/or relevant volcanic activity for all eruptions [5, 1315].
An inspection of existing data (Table 38.1, Fig. 38.3a) shows that only a small
proportion of eruptions were reported in the first three centuries of recorded volcanic
history. The period from 1510 AD to 1849 AD accounts for only 159 out of the total
792 eruptions recorded until 2002, or just 20%. The apparent increase in eruptive
frequency during the last century and a half is due largely if not totally to better
reporting from a more widely dispersed population, and scientific observations.
However, the 20th century (485 eruptions reported) was extraordinary for Central

Figure 38.1a. The major volcanoes in northern and middle Central America and principal cities
and towns cited in the text.
1157

American volcanism. Starting on 1902, Santa Mara had one of the centurys most
violent eruptions, and Masaya erupted after a 43 yr period of quiescence [16].
Santiaguito dome (Santa Mara) began extruding in 1922 and continues to the present.
In 1961, Izalco ceased erupting after over a century of nearly continuous eruptions, and
Iraz erupted continuously for 30 months (August 1962February 1965) becoming a
natural laboratory for lahars and ash-fall pollution effects for a new generation of
volcanologists. In 1968, Arenal violently erupted for the first time in centuries. In 1971,
San Cristbal erupted after a 286 yr period of dormancy. During that century, Fuego
had two VEI = 4 eruptions (1932 and 1974), and Pacaya started a new eruptive cycle in
1961 after 76 years of dormancy.
Table 38.1. Number of eruptions reported and cumulative number of eruptions (intervals of 25 yr,
except first and last) in the period 15102002 in Central America (based on [5, 1315]).
Period
Number of eruptions reported
Accumulated number
15101524
15251549
15501574
15751599
16001624
16251649
16501674
16751699
17001724
17251749
17501774
17751799
18001824
18251849
18501874
18751899
19001924
19251949
19501974
19752002
6
27
6
9
7
4
12
12
11
5
8
10
13
30
67
59
91
87
132
196
6
33
39
48
55
59
71
83
94
99
107
117
130
160
227
286
377
464
596
792
38.2.1 Periodic volcanic activity

Volcanoes such as Fuego, Cerro Negro, Pos, and Rincn de la Vieja have shown
periodical eruptions characterized by short-lived (few hours to several days), violent
(vulcanian, strombolian, and phreatic) eruptions, commonly accompanied by
pyroclastic flows and rare lava flows. The activity of Fuego in historic times is clearly
pulsating, and such pulses can also be seen in the record of other less active volcanoes.
This correlation could be viewed as further evidence that tectonic activity directly
influences the regional-scale volcanism in Central America [17, 18]. Some eruptions
cluster in periods of 1070 years (Fuego, Telica, Rincn de la Vieja, Iraz), while
others clearly erupted once, and after that, had a long period of inactivity, or have more
than one century to several thousand years of inactivity.
38.2.2 Long-term volcanic activity
Santiaguito, Fuego, Pacaya, Izalco, San Miguel and Arenal are good examples of long-

Figure 38.1b. The major volcanoes in southern Central America and principal cities and towns
cited in the text.
term, almost continuous volcanic activity. Izalco, located in western El Salvador, on

the southern slope of Santa Ana volcano, has been one of the most conspicuous, called
the Lighthouse of the Pacific, for its spectacular strombolian eruptions. It started as a
parasite cone, but the pile of volcanic products grew into a stratovolcano standing 1400 m
above the plain. Activity began in 1770, and from 1850 to 1857, eruptions were
almost continuous. By 1961, the volcano was quiet and has remained so, except for a
small flank eruption in OctoberNovember 1966 [19].
At present, there are three examples of long-term eruptions, each with a different
overall magma composition. Santiaguito, in Guatemala, has shown a slow, continuous
extrusion of dacitic lava since 1922, accompanied by mostly strombolian, ocassionally
vulcanian explosions, pyroclastic flows and lava flows. Fuego, also in Guatemala, has
been explosively erupting basaltic magma, almost continuously since 1932, alternating
between effusive lava flows and vulcanian explosions, and summit dome collapse
events. Arenal, in Costa Rica, started with a highly explosive eruption in 1968, and
since then has shown effusive activity, strombolian/vulcanian eruptions and scattered
block and ash flows of basaltic andesitic composition.
1159

Figure 38.2. Cumulative number of eruptions recorded between 15102002 AD plotted against
the distance of volcanoes from the Mexican-Guatemalan border (in km), along the volcanic
front.
Santiaguito, Fuego and Arenal have erupted comparative amounts of lavas and
pyroclasts (0.61.3 km3), with extrusion rates that have remained essentially constant
around 0.480.64 m3/s, very similar to other long-lasting eruptive volcanoes in the
world, such as Etna (Italy), Colima (Mexico), Sakurajima (Japan) and Soufrire
(Montserrat). As all of them are located along convergent margins, it seems that such
an eruption rate would be an expected value for decades-long eruptions (Fig. 38.3b).
Figure 38.3. (a) Cumulative frequency curve for eruptions in Central America (15102002 AD);
(b) Plot showing the total volumes of lavas and pyroclasts erupted by Arenal, Santiaguito and
Fuego volcanoes. Although the chemistry and periods of eruptions are different, the average
eruption rates are comparable (0.64 m3/s, 0.53 m3/s and 0.48 m3/s, respectively). All three
volcanoes are still presently erupting, and the periods cover those from the literature cited.
Data for Santiaguito from Harris et al. [20]; for Fuego from Martin and Rose [18]; for
Arenal, recalculated from Wadge [21]; Soto [22], and Soto and Arias [23].
38.2.3 Dormant and violently reactivating volcanoes

It is well known that dormant volcanoes are often the most dangerous ones. In the
CAVF there are many volcanoes that have morphological features and/or secondary
activity (fumaroles, solfataras, mofettes, hot springs, sinter terraces, mud pots) that
suggest a somewhat recent activity. A good estimation of the repose periods of
volcanoes based on 14C and the historical record include spans of thousands to
hundreds of years (e.g., Atitln, Santa Mara, Agua, Acatenango, Oros, Miravalles,
Chato, Congo). Several volcanoes have had one or more centuries of inactivity: Barva

Figure 38.4. Comparative map showing the distribution of ashes (1 mm isopach) and heard
explosions of the two biggest historical eruptions in Central America: Cosigina (1835) and
Santa Mara (1902). The largest prehistorical tephra deposit, Los Chocoyos ash, erupted from
the Atitln caldera (84,000 yr BP), is shown by its 10 mm isopach. Data taken from Sapper
[11], Drexler et al. [24], Williams and Self [16] and Self et al. [25].
and Bar since the beginning of the Conquest, Momotombo in 1605, El Viejo in 1685,
Cerro Quemado in 1818, Atitln in 1853, Cosigina in 1835, Turrialba in 1866,
Ilopango in 1880 and Conchagita in 1892. For these volcanoes, it is extremely
difficult to elaborate detailed short- to mid-term emergency plans. In fact, in 1902
Santa Mara and in 1968 Arenal violently erupted for the first time in centuries, and in
1971, San Cristbal erupted after a 286 yr period of dormancy. In all three cases, the
type, duration and affected area seemed to be completely different from previous prehistorical eruptions.
A good example of long repose can be found at Santa Mara volcano. No activity
was known prior to the October 2425, 1902 eruption, one of the worlds largest
historic eruptions. It was preceded by a great earthquake (M 8.3) on April 19, 1902
epicentered at the volcano, as well as numerous other major earthquakes. The major
plinian event occurred on October 25, when about 8.5 km3 of dacite (Dense Rock
1161

Table 38.2. Main eruptions, casualties, and economic loss in Central America (15002002 AD).
The 1300 people that died by the draining of crater lake of the Agua volcano (1541 AD) and
the 400 people killed in an Indian village destroyed by a debris avalanche and/or debris flow
from the Mombacho (1570 AD) are not included because they were not associated with a
volcanic eruption (modified after [4, 5]).
Volcano and country
Year Type of eruption or VEI Number of Damage and

event
casualties economic losses
? Destruction of
4
1605 Ashfall
Momotombo (NI)
Len in 1605
1609
Destruction of
3
San Salvador (Boquern) (ES) 1658 Fissure lava flows
Nejapa
600
5
1835 Phreatoplinian?
Cosigina (NI)
2000 K. Sapper
6
1902 Plinian
Santa Mara (GU)
10000 accounts for 25
millions of
German marks
40 5.3 million (1980
3
San Salvador (Boquern) (ES) 1917 Fissure lava flows
US$); earthquake
damage of San
Salvador, and
other cities
(Armenia,
Ilopango,
Quezaltepeque)
48 Destruction of part
3
1926 Pyroclastic flows
Izalco (ES)
of the country
3 2005000
1929 Dome collapse
Santiaguito (GU)
7
3
1963 Lahars
Fuego (GU)
22 55150 million
3
1963 Phretomagmatic
Iraz (CR)
(1980 US$)
65 eruption and lahars
78 1.1 million
3
1968 Lateral blast,
Arenal (CR)
(1968 US$)
pyroclastic flows,
ashfall, and
ballistic
Damage in the
1
1970 Ash eruptions
San Miguel (ES)
towns of San
Jorge, Chinameca
and Usulutn
10 3
1971 Ash fall
Fuego (GU)
> 3 Houses destroyed
4
1974 Bombs and ashes
Fuego (GU)
by heavy the
weight of ash
1 Land destruction
0
1975 Block/bomb and
Arenal (CR)
ash flows
1
0
1978 Mudflows related
Santiaguito (GU)
to block and ash
flows
1
0
1988 Ballistic bombs
Arenal (CR)
26
1990 Phreatic explosion 0
Ahuachapn, Laguna Verde
(ES)
8 Ash effects
3
1992 Violent
Cerro Negro (NI)
strombolian
(subplinian)
1
2
1995 Ash eruption
Pacaya (GU)
10000 (1980 US$)
3
1998 Ash eruption
Pacaya (GU)
2 Land destruction
0
2000 Block/bomb and
Arenal (CR)
ash flows

Equivalent DRE) was erupted in an 1820-hr period. It produced a column at least 28 km

high, reaching into the stratosphere. The eruption devastated much of southwestern
Guatemala, killed thousands of people, contributed to a three-year worldwide average
decrease in solar radiation and left an amphitheatre-shaped crater on the southwest side
of Santa Maras former symmetrical cone. Explosions were heard (Fig. 38.4) as far
away as Costa Rica, Oaxaca (Mexico) and Belize (see [16]; and references therein).
Another example despite not following a long dormancy period, since it had
eruptions in 1709 and 1809 generally listed among the great volcanic events of
recent times, is the January 1835 eruption of Cosigina. It produced a lithic-rich
phreatomagmatic eruption (fallout, pyroclastic flows and surges) with a volume of
roughly 2.95.6 km3 (1.82.8 km3 DRE) and with very little amount of juvenile
components [16, 25]. The main explosion was heard at great distances: Colombia
(1500 km), Jamaica (1300 km), and Curaao (1900 km), and the ash and pumice fell
throughout Central America and southern Mexico (Fig. 38.4). The sun was blocked out
over a radius of more than 150 km.
38.3
VOLCANIC HAZARDS
The hazards posed by a volcanic eruption depend on many variables, most importantly,
the type of eruption, followed by the type of volcano, its morphology, geographical
location, wind direction, climate, season, and eruption frequency. The most pressing
problem facing the mitigation of volcanic risk on a global scale, including Central
America, is that most dangerous volcanoes and calderas are located in densely
populated regions and/or countries that lack the economic and scientific resources and
the political will to adequately study and monitor them.
Analysis of repose periods and eruptive patterns are very useful for understanding
the behavior of active volcanoes, but in most cases the information is very fragmentary
and unreliable. Because many volcanoes have poor historical records, it is usually
better to try to recognize: (1) the largest eruptions (VEI ZLWK WKH ORQJHVW UHSRVH
periods of centuries to thousands years, (2) the most prolonged and/or energetic
explosive (VEI ~3) or effusive periods, (3) intermediate repose periods within low to
intermediate levels of eruptive activity (1 < VEI DQG SHULRGV RI ORZ OHYHO
activity in the main crater (phreatic, strong exhalative).
A synthesis of the most destructive volcanic events in Central America is presented
in Table 38.2, which illustrates the main volcanic hazards posed by the volcanoes in
this region. Table 38.3 summarizes the hazards from the most important, well known
and hazardous volcanoes in Central America.
38.3.1 Volcanoes as social and economic conditioners

The association between fertile land of volcanic origin, rivers, and population
settlements is strong throughout Central America, where large portions of the
population, agricultural and economic production are located on volcanic lands.
Archaeologists have claimed that violent eruptions that deposited thick layers of
pyroclastic material made hitherto productive farm lands unusable, so the area could
not sustain its entire population and therefore groups of people had to migrate. This is
the case of many archaeological sites around Ilopango caldera (El Salvador), where a
huge eruption around 500 yr AD is believed to have disrupted the Mayan civilization in
1163

Table 38.3. Type of eruption and hazards of the main active volcanoes of Central America.
Volcano and Type of
country
maximum
historical
eruption
and VEI
Type of
maximum
Holocene
eruption
and VEI
Volcanic
Short term
hazard index expected
(Yokoyama hazards
et al. [26])
Tacan (GU) Phreatic, 1
12
Santa Mara / Plinian, 6

Santiaguito
(GU)
15
Cerro
Quemado
(GU)
Debris
avalanche
12
Fuego (GU) Vulcanian;

34
14
Pacaya (GU) 3
13
Santa Ana
(ES)
3
Strombolian
12
Ilopango
(ES)
San Miguel
(ES)
Plinian
10
12
Cosigina
(NI)
Phreatoplinian, 5
14
Long term
expected
hazards
Debris
4000
avalanche,
Guatemalan
lava flows,
side. Shortpyroclastic
term/small
flows, lahars
event
Dome, lava, Plinian,
3000
debris
pyroclastic
approx.
flows, lahars; avalanche
short-term
airfall
Debris
Lava flows,
30000
dome, airfall, avalanche
long-term
pyroclastic
flows
Debris
Lava flows,
2500 shortavalanche
pyroclastic
term; 25000
flows, lahars,
long-term
airfall
Debris
Lava flows,
14000 longstrombolian, avalanche
term
vulcanian
Airfall, slides, Plinian
50000
lavas, lahars,
volcanic gas
Airfall
Dome
emplacement
lahars,
pyroclastic
flows, lavas,
ashfall
Lahars, airfall
100000
Debris
avalanche,
lava, lahars
50000
Plinian
eruption,
pyroclastic
flows, lahars
10000
San Cristbal 1
(NI)
10
Lavas,
pyroclastic
flows, airfall
10
Lavas, airfall Violent

strombolian
to vulcanian
eruption
Mainly ashfall Violent
strombolian
Telica (NI)
Cerro Negro 3
(NI)
Momotombo 2
(NI)
10
11
Estimated
endangered
population
Lavas,
strombolian
eruptions;
lahars
Debris
avalanche;
seiche on
Managua
lake
100000
10000
200000
500090000


Volcano and Type of
country
maximum
historical
eruption
and VEI
Type of
maximum
Holocene
eruption
and VEI
Masaya (NI) 2
Phreatoplinian, 6?
Volcanic
Short term
hazard index expected
(Yokoyama hazards
et al. [26])
10
Concepcin 2
(NI)
12
Rincn de la Vulcanian, Plinian, 5

Vieja (CR) 3
11
Arenal (CR) Vulcanian, Plinian, 5

3
14
Pos (CR)
Vulcanian, Vulcanian,
3
2
11
Iraz (CR)
Vulcanian, Vulcanian,
3
3
13
Turrialba
(CR)
Vulcanian, Plinian, 5
3
10
Gas explosion,
acid rain;
hawaiian to
strombolian,
vulcanian
explosions;
pyroclastic
flows, lava
flows
Ashfall
Long term
expected
hazards
Plinian,
collapse
event
Pyroclastic
flows, lavas,
ashfall,
lahars,
debris
avalanche,
seiche on
Lake
Nicaragua
Plinian,
Phreatic to
debris
vulcanian
explosion; hot avalanche,
acid lake
lahars
collapse
Plinian;
Pyroclastic
flows, small volcanic
volcanic slide slide, seiche
on Arenal
lake
Plinian, acid
Phreatic,
strombolian to lake
collapse,
vulcanian,
lahars
acid rain,
lahars
Vulcanian,
Vulcanian,
lahars, slides lahars,
debris
avalanche
Vulcanian,
Plinian,
debris
lahars
avalanche
Estimated
endangered
population
5000
2000
2000
10000
> 10000
20000
1000000
> 5000
the central part of Central America and to have produced major shifts in population [27].
In historic times, several eruptions have locally and temporarily affected Central American
history. Several towns and villages in Central America have been destroyed by volcanic
eruptions, such as Nejapa (by Boquern in 1658, El Salvador), Len Viejo (by Momotombo
in 1605, Nicaragua), and Pueblo Nuevo and Tabacn (by Arenal in 1968, Costa Rica). Others
were severely affected by heavy ash falls, such as Opico (also by Boquern in 1658),
1165

Alotenango and Yepocapa (Fuego in 1699?, Guatemala), San Jos (Iraz in 196364), Len
(Cerro Negro in 1947, 1992, and 1995, Nicaragua), or lahars at Patrocinio and Los Ros
(Pacaya in 1995, Guatemala), Taras (Iraz in 1963, Costa Rica), El Palmar (Santiaguito in the
1980s, Guatemala), and Dos Ros, which was partially isolated by lahars (Rincn de la Vieja
in 1991 and 1995, Costa Rica). See Figs. 38.1a, b; and 38.5ce and h. After the
devastating Santa Mara eruption of 1902, there were no significant changes of landuse around
the volcano. By 1929 when Santiaguito (Santa Mara) collapsed, again the plantation villages
to the south were affected, and hundreds of people where killed. The same area that was
devastated by both the 1902 and the 1929 eruptions is again populated. Non-eruptive and posteruptive debris flows and landslides close to volcanoes have also destroyed several towns,
such as Masagua and San Juan Mixtn to the south due to the eruption of Fuego in 1717,
Taras-Cartago (Iraz, 1861, 1891, 1928, and 1951, Costa Rica), El Porvenir and Rolando
Rodrguez (Casita in 1998, Nicaragua).
In the case of Guatemala, in the rugged mountain highlands, 8 departmental capitals and
the countrys capital are located on flat bottom valleys with fertile soil, filled with voluminous
ignimbrites. Two examples demonstrate the importance of the volcanic soils for two of the
major agricultural products of Guatemala. First, Arabica coffee production requires certain
climatic conditions that are best met on the slopes of the Quaternary volcanic chain. Second,
the Guatemalan southern coastal plain, formed by the alluvial products of the Quaternary
volcanic chain, is extensively covered with sugar cane plantations.
Volcanic areas of Central America have also become a major destination for
ecologically-conscious tourists from throughout the world, who visit the volcanoes,
including the rain forests, volcanic lakes (e.g., Atitln, Amatitln, Apoyo), hot springs
and other attractions. For instance, about 420,000 tourists (43% foreign) visit the Costa
Rican volcanoes every year; Pos being the most popular, followed by Iraz and
Arenal. Pacaya, Santa Mara/Santiaguito, San Pedro and Masaya are also well known
tourist attractions. At some volcanoes, like Atitln and Fuego, there are already private
reserves and most of them are planned for ecotourism development (see Chapter 34).
Izalco had nearly continuous small explosive eruptions until 1957, but ironically, when
a hotel was built nearby to view the frequent eruptions, the activity ceased. In addition,
there are geothermal and hydroelectrical plants, and many other development projects
close to volcanoes (see Chapters 26 and 29).
38.3.2 Geovolcanic studies and hazard zonation maps
The detailed stratigraphy, distribution of deposits, and records of both historic and
prehistoric eruptions provide the essential information to determine the patterns of
activity, affected areas, and the repose periods of a volcano. However, the field of
volcanology tends to concentrate on volcanoes, which attract our attention by eruptions
that were either destructively large or long lasting. Accessibility and good outcrops are
also important conditioners for studies, but we must not ignore thickly vegetated
volcanoes that have no historical activity. The detailed eruptive history of most of the
Central American volcanoes remains unknown, although some information about
eruptions has been obtained from isolated geological studies and historical documents.
Hazard assessment work has progressed according to a more or less intuitive criterion,
focusing the efforts on the historically most active volcanoes (Santiaguito, Fuego,
Pacaya, Atitln, Cerro Quemado, Telica, Rincn de la Vieja, Arenal, Pos, Iraz), or
the ones that have had recent crises (Tacan, Pacaya, Cerro Negro), and less on

Figure 38.5. Volcanic activity, hazards and their effects: (a) Eruption of Santiaguito dome in 2000 AD
(courtesy M.J. Carr); (b) Pyroclastic flow at Fuego volcano (Oct. 1974, courtesy E. Greenburg);
(c) Len Viejo ruins, destroyed by Momotombo eruption (in the background) in 1605 (G.E. Alvarado);
(d) People at Len, cleaning the ash from 1992 Cerro Negro eruption (courtesy G.J. Soto); (e) Pueblo
Nuevo town destroyed by lateral blast from Arenal volcano on 2931 July, 1968 (courtesy A.
Lpez); (f) Effects of the acid rain on the forest, Pos volcano (courtesy Joint Project
CENAT/NASA, Carta Mission 2003, Costa Rica); (g) 1964 Iraz eruption (courtesy: W. Schaer);
(h) Taras town destroyed by lahars from 910 December, 1963 Iraz eruption (courtesy S. Mora).
1167

dormant volcanoes (Hule, Turrialba). This is a reasonable idea, given that it is much
more probable to have a crisis at recently active volcanoes than to have a crisis in one
of the less active ones. Hazard assessment, though, should continue to include the
volcanoes that have no historical activity (Tajumulco, Siete Orejas, Oros, Tenorio,
Barva), including even the calderas and monogenetic fields.
A generalized problem is that many of the hazard maps have been constructed for
the maximum hazard scenario (almost equal to long-term hazard), which is not
practical for short-term planning measurements (especially for management policies),
civil countermeasures and evacuation procedures, because under short-term
expectations, it would be necessary to evacuate larger areas than required for long-term
events. The new tendency is to make hazard maps under different scenarios, including
the most probable, specific hazard types, and affected areas that might occur during the next
significant eruption (short-term hazard). A good example is Fuego volcano: in the early
1980s a hazard map was prepared [28], based on the activity of the 1970s. This map
could be considered a short-term map (return period of many decades, and about
2500 people were included within the hazard area). More recently Vallance et al. [29]
published a report of volcanic hazards on Fuego, based on the geological record,
recognizing deposits dispersed over a wider area than the ones produced in the 1970s.
This lead the authors to establish a larger hazards area (return period of many centuries
and about 26,000 people included). Both sources of information are being integrated
with information of the population, infrastructure, productive goods, and other factors
to obtain a reasonable risk assessment. The death of two people on August 23, 2000 by
a moderate-size pyroclastic flow at Arenal, triggered a governmental response to
prepare a landuse restriction map around the volcano, led by the local volcanologists.
The map was published as a decree on January 11, 2001, in the official newspaper La
Gaceta [see 30]. For more details, see Chapter 34.7.2.
38.3.3 Types of volcanic hazards
Because of the variety of types and behaviors of Central American volcanoes and the
environment in which they are set, there are many kinds of hazards. Some of them can
be enhanced by non-volcanic circumstances (e.g., rain, wind direction, etc.). Some
types of hazards can cause others as well. For example, damming a river by a lava flow
or debris avalanche could precipitate down-valley floods and debris flows during dambreaking events; debris avalanches or pyroclastic flows could change to debris flows by
incorporating water; a debris avalanche or volcanic earthquake could trigger a seiche or
a tsunami. Other post-eruption effects some of them as severe as, or worse than
eruptions could be famine and epidemic diseases, post-eruptive lahars, and
psychological and social impacts. In the following sections, hazards are illustrated with
some of the most relevant cases that have occurred in Central America. A complete
hazard assessment is complex and has to deal with some obscure interactions between
classic hazards (e.g., pyroclastic flows, tephra fall, lahars) and other external
conditions. Photographic illustrations of different volcanic hazards in Central America
are shown in Figure 38.5.
38.3.3.1 Fallout and ballistics
Studies on wind directions are essential to predict the affected areas by fallout deposits.
In Guatemala, the prevailing wind direction between January and March is toward the

east (predominantly E and ENE), and between June and October to the west
(predominantly W, followed by WNW and WSW); AprilMay and November
December are transitional periods [31]. Consequently, most of the fallout distribution
of ash and pumice, for both prehistoric and historic eruptions from the northern part of
the CAVF, occurred to the west (WNW and WSW; i.e., Fuego; Pacaya), to the NE to
NW (Amatitln complex, Santa Mara/Santiaguito), bi-directional (NWSE at Atitln
with the Chocoyos ash; NS to NNW at Coatepeque), or even NNW (San Vicente).
Studies on the winds in Costa Rica show the predominant wind direction to be to the
WSW [32], and therefore in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, the fallout deposits are
predominantly oriented toward the W (i.e., Telica, Rincn de la Vieja, Arenal and
Hule), or WSW (Pos, Barva, Iraz and Turrialba). Although as in the rest of the CAVF,
some pumice and ash fell on areas to the NE, NW and SE (i.e., Arenal, Pos, Barva,
Iraz and Turrialba).
One of the most serious effects of tephra is when it accumulates on structures and
causes them to collapse. For example, most of the direct victims of the Santa Mara
eruption were due to collapsing roofs. The damage to other infrastructures like modern
high technological telecommunication facilities and transportation systems is also a major
concern. Most of the international airports and airplane routes are in ashfall-prone areas.
In a region with ever-growing air traffic, this is likely to be a major threat in Central
America. Volcanic ash can cause jet-engine failure, which creates hazards not only to
passengers, but to people on the ground as well. As an example, we cite the report of an
ash encounter: At least two commercial aircraft flew through airborne ash near the
Guatemala City airport on 21 May 1999. An eruption from Fuego that day was the first
at that volcano since 1987 [33]. Although the aviators reports attributed the ash from
this encounter to Fuego, different aircraft intersected ash plumes in widely different
locations, and thus they may also have crossed plumes from Pacaya. The plume near the
southern approach to the airport (La Aurora, ~23 km N of Pacaya; ~40 km NE of Fuego)
was probably from the commonly active Pacaya. In contrast, Fuego lies 32 km W of
Pacaya and was the likely source of a plume intersected later during the flight, at higher
altitude, and for much longer duration. During the encounters, more than 100 people on
board the two aircrafts and many more on the ground were at risk. Both encounters
seriously damaged the aircraft but ended in safe landings without reported injuries. The
risk in this situation was amplified because most airports in Central America are located
in or close to capital cities.
The most conspicuous ballistic event in historical time was produced during the 1968
Arenal eruption, which produced impact craters up to 60 m in diameter, 4 m deep, and in
some places, covered 100% of the impacted area [34]. Most recently, an unexpected
explosion of Masaya volcano on 23 April, 2001, ejected several blocks while over 120
tourists where on the crater rim. Although some bombs landed in the parking lot,
significantly damaging vehicles and a bus with passengers, there were no casualties.
Hawaiian, strombolian and violent strombolian eruptions: Hawaiian to strombolian
eruptions are frequent at Fuego, Pacaya, Cerro Negro and Arenal. There are also
descriptions of violent strombolian eruptions at Iraz in 1723, and the prehistoric
eruption (about 11th century) at Arenal. Pacaya, one of the most active volcanoes in the
world, has produced 15 scoria-fall eruptions in the last 1500 years [35]. The most
recent strombolian eruptions of Pacaya (2000) have produced lava fountains that
reached a few hundred meters high, which could be seen from Guatemala city.
Phreatomagmatic and phreatic eruptions: Several volcanoes in historic times have
1169

had phreatomagmatic and phreatic eruptions (Santa Ana in 1904 and 1920; Iraz in
196365; Fuego in October, 1974; Cerro Negro in 1971; Rincn de la Vieja, 1991).
Eruptions usually lasted short periods, but several were nearly continuous, with fine
ash-fall and base surge events. Rincn de la Vieja and Pos have active craters
occupied by lakes, which have also produced phreatic and phreatomagmatic eruptions,
very similar to those of shallow submarine type. In 1880, the surroundings of the towns
Sonsonate and Acajutla were damaged by up to 10 cm of ash from Santa Ana [36].
Also, in 1932 ashes from Fuego fell as far as El Salvador and Honduras, and in
Guatemala city, 138 kg/m2 of tephra fell during one hour [37]. An eruption similar to
the 196365 Iraz eruption would disrupt communications, adversely affect crops and
cattle, destroy buildings, affect electronic systems, etc.
Phreatic explosions producing craters 2080 m in diameter, mostly related to
previous geothermal manifestations (solfataras, hot springs, mud pools) on the flank of
volcanoes or geothermal fields, occurred on September 14, 1946 at Miravalles (Costa
Rica); May 8, 1986 at Tacan (Mexico/Guatemala); October 13, 1990, and January 13,
2001, both at Ahuachapn (El Salvador, the first one with 26 fatalities; [38]),
December 8, 1994 at Iraz, and several times at Pos (both volcanoes Costa Rica).
Plinian eruptions: A regional synthesis of the tephra-stratigraphy of Central America
has not been completed, but much progress has been made in marine tephrochronology
and in field studies in Guatemala, Nicaragua and Costa Rica (see Chapter 14). In
Guatemala and western El Salvador, the stratigraphy of fall deposits has been studied by
several researchers [39, 40]. The 1902 Santa Mara plinian eruption produced an airfall
pumice deposit that covered more than 1.2 million km2 with a trace of ash, but was only
two meters thick at the vent [16]. Bice [41] has defined the tephra-stratigraphy in the
Managua area, where there are seven main air-fall units, erupted during the last 36,000 yr.
The most extensive of these are dacitic fallout and ignimbrites erupted from the Apoyo
caldera about 23,000 yr BP [42]. Arenal is a well-known case with prehistoric subplinian
eruptions, occurring approximately every 7501100 years [43]. Remarkable and unusual
Holocene basaltic plinian eruptions have been studied at Masaya volcano [41, 44].
38.3.3.2 Block/bomb and ash flows and surges, including blasts
The most remarkable case of block and ash flows in the CAVF is Santiaguito, a
multiple extrusive volcanic dome, active since 1922, which has produced large Peleantype block and ash flows. The most dramatic one occurred in November 1929,
devastating several villages and plantations, and killing hundreds of inhabitants [45]. In
this case, they were related to the frontal collapse of viscous lava flows (i.e., 15
September 1973, [46]). On June 29 of 2003, Fuego volcano erupted a block and ash
flow that traveled 7.5 km down from the crater. It reached close (1.5 km) to the
community of Sangre de Cristo. This flow was mainly produced by the partial collapse
of a summit dome that was emplaced during the preceding months. Arenal volcano
produces block/bomb and ash flows related to small strombolian column collapse, lava
front collapse or lava pool outpours following the collapse of crater walls [47].
Overlying the debris avalanche deposits of Cerro Quemado and perhaps Pacaya,
there are fine-depleted density current deposits that originated from a lateral blast that
accompanied the debris avalanche [48]. A lateral blast related with a cryptodome
intrusion, but not with slope failure, is reported from the 1968 Arenal eruption [49]. These
events are much smaller than the 1980 Mt. St. Helens lateral blast.

38.3.3.3 Lava flows

Lava flows are rarely life-threatening, but can destroy property by crushing and
burning buildings and crops. The most recent eruption of significantly voluminous
pahoehoe lava volume occurred at Masaya volcano in 1670 and 1772. Cerro Negro,
Concepcin, and Fuego are characterized by lava flow extrusions that persist for
several days to weeks. Santiaguito, Pacaya (aa type) and Arenal (blocky type) have
been periodically erupting lava flows for decades, piling up large volumes (0.5 to
1.0 km3). Lava flows on steep slopes can become unstable at their fronts and collapse to
produce block and ash flows, which are common on Santiaguito, Fuego, and Arenal.
This also appears to be the most probable mechanism for generating the block and ash
flows found at Atitln volcano. There is also a relationship between lahars and lava
flows on Santiaguito. Thick, blocky dacitic lava flows move toward the head of three
river basins, transporting lots of loose material (from the lava flow front collapse and
the lava autobreccia), which is readily moved by water to the active river channels.
Before the 1950s, endogenous growth was the main growth mechanism at Santiaguito,
forming four typical equidimensional domes (Caliente, El Brujo, El Monje and La
Mitad). After the 1950s, activity style shifted to produce long (up to 3.75 km length),
thick blocky lava flows, reaching well into the heads of the river streams (Tambor,
Nim I and Nim II). Historical records suggest that lahar activity at Santiaguito has
been much more intense since the 1960s. Moreover, lahar activity at Nim river,
correlates well with an active lava flow that was penetrating to the head of the river
stream from 1996 to 1999.
38.3.3.4 Lahars
Debris flows and hyperconcentrated flows (lahars) typically threaten drainages and
valley bottoms. Around all volcanoes, the possibility of lahars is a constant threat to
people and livestock. The occurrence of eruption-triggered lahars in Central America is
significantly much more probable and less random, than precipitation-induced floods.
Lahars are closely correlated, though, with the rainy season, which occurs from May to
December.
Abundant fine-grained ash was produced during the dominantly phreatomagmatic
eruption of Iraz volcano in 196265. The ash was deposited on the SW slopes of the
volcano, resulting in profound changes in the Reventado basin. During the rainy
seasons of 1963 to 1965 about one hundred lahars were generated, but only five have
been preserved in the geological record [50]. A similar situation occurs at San
Cristbal, where the continuous emission of ash contributes to generating lahars during
the rainy seasons. The 1902 eruption of Santa Mara volcano deposited immense
quantities of tephra around the volcano, the source of material for lahars for almost 20
years after the eruption. About 4 km3 of loose material was transported by the Ocosito
river, mostly as lahars.
On Fuego, lahars have affected populated centers, like Masagua and San Juan
Mixtn after the 1717 eruption, and destroyed infrastructure, like the bridges over
Barranca Seca and Barranca Honda after the 1999 eruption. The most recent lahars on
Fuego volcano during October 2003 were still hot and steaming, derived from the
block and ash flow deposit from the June 29th eruption.
Another example is the sequence erupted from Santiaguito volcano during July and
August 1963. Headwater blockage of the Ro Nim II triggered the damaging lahars,
which affected the town of El Palmar. The lahars gradually built a dam, creating a lake.
1171

The lake eventually overflowed its banks and triggered lahars that inundated dozens of
houses [51]. During the rainy season of 2002, a mudflow killed 37 people in El
Porvenir, on the slopes of Atitln. The event was not related to volcanic activity, not
even to an excessive rainfall, earthquake or other obvious trigger. This case reminds us
how unpredictable the occurrence of this kind of flow is. In the case of Rincn de la
Vieja, hot lahars in 1991 and 1995 were triggered by phreatomagmatic eruptions that
blew up the hot crater lake and then overflowed the crater rim. In those cases, there was
sufficient time for evacuation, and caused no casualties.
Debris flows in El Salvador affecting major cities (nearly a third of the countrys
population) located near San Salvador, San Vicente, and San Miguel volcanoes, pose a
significant threat to people, as well as to property (infrastructure and agriculture). The
return periods vary broadly in the range of 10100 yr [52].
38.3.3.5 Debris avalanches and landslides
Although edifice collapse and debris avalanche events are rare, they have occurred
several times in Central American volcanoes in the last 50,000 years, and even several
times at the same volcano. Debris avalanches move at speeds of up to 150 km/h and
can cover large areas in minutes. Moreover, the mixing of avalanche debris with water
(from lakes or rivers) might generate lahars that can travel tens of kilometers down
valleys. Prehistoric debris avalanche deposits have been reported from Tacan, Cerro
Quemado, Acatenango, Fuego, Pacaya, Tecuamburro, Santa Ana, San Vicente, San Miguel,
Mombacho, almost all Costa Rican stratovolcanoes, and Bar [48]. Steep slopes,
cryptodome intrusion, hydrothermal alteration, heavy rains, seismic activity, and
variations in the pore pressure, are all factors (alone or combined) able to trigger debris
avalanches at almost all the volcanoes. Volcanoes with elevations over 2000 m are
particularly more susceptible.
Relatively small events have also produced extensive damage. For example, at
Boquern (September 1658), heavy rainfalls triggered a slide that transformed into a
debris flow, killing 500 people and destroying 308 houses. In 1717, seismic activity
triggered landslides and debris flows generating severe damage [53]. The most recent
and well-known case of destruction was the Casitas slide, triggered during hurricane
Mitch in 1998, taking over 2000 lives [54].
Mombacho contains two large breached craters. The northern one is the source of
the Isletas de Granada, a group of islets in Lake Nicaragua, composed of forested
debris-avalanche hummocks. The southern crater formed as a result of a debris
avalanche and/or debris flow in 1570 AD triggered by an earthquake and heavy rains.
Spanish conquistadores accounts report that the entire south side of Mombacho slid
and destroyed an Indian village, killing 400 people [48] (see also Chapter 4).
38.3.3.6 Formation of new volcanic vents
There are many examples of Holocene and recent new volcanoes in Central America.
Some of them are very active, as exemplified by Arenal (about 7000 yr) and
Momotombo (4500 yr). Santiaguito could also be considered as a new volcano that was
born in 1922. Cerro Quemado is a dome that originated in 1879 on the rather flat
bottom of Ilopango lake. Izalco is another good example of the birth of a new volcano
in 1770. Cerro Negro is either a recurrent cinder cone or one of the youngest active
composite volcanoes, which has erupted 22 times since its birth in 1850. The city of
Len (population > 200,000) has suffered significant damage and deaths because of its

eruptions, but no adequate hazard evaluation has been conducted [55, 56]. Both Izalco
and Cerro Negro are lateral parasitic cones, the former from the Santa Ana volcano,
and the latter from Las Pilas-El Hoyo stratovolcano.
Many volcanological and geomorphic features show that the major and minor
volcanic structures (craters and cones) are controlled by regional and local stresses. Thus,
as it has been in the past, the formation of new eruptive vents, and resulting hazards
would be favored in these weak zones, oriented mainly along NS and NWSE trends.
The Ipala graben area, an example among several other cinder cone fields in Central
America, located in the southeastern part of Guatemala, is a potential location for future
monogenetic activity (Fig. 38.1a). In this area, around 280 Quaternary volcanic vents
have been identified, most of them cinder cones and maars [57].
38.3.3.7 Volcanic gases and acid rain
The effects of volcanic pollution are geographically widespread downwind from the
active craters. This is caused by the exhalation of volcanic gases, which mix with
humid air and damage forests, crops, machinery and buildings. Many people report
headaches, respiratory difficulties, nausea, chronic coughing, asthma, irritated throat
and eyes, and dermatological problems during periods of poor air quality. Long-term
exposure to such high gas levels is considered unhealthy.
Figure 38.6. Comparison of the areas most affected by acid rain: a mid-size area at Pos (Costa
Rica; 19891994), a large area at Masaya (Nicaragua; 19931999), and a small area at Santa
Ana (El Salvador; 1990s).
The large quantities of SO2 released in the atmosphere by Masaya and Pos produce
volcanic air pollution, which impoverishes air quality, creates hazy atmospheric
conditions or smog, and acid rain [58, 59]. Monitoring SO2 dispersion revealed that
Pos and Masayas plumes have affected regions of about 100 km2 and 900 km2,
respectively (Figs. 38.5f and 38.6). Other high-degassing volcanoes are Pacaya, Santa
Ana, San Cristbal, Telica, and Rincn de la Vieja. SO2 flux measurements of Masaya,
Pos and Arenal indicate a value of ca. 345950, 50760 and 8.3 t/day, respectively
[6062]. Recent research suggests that dry deposition of sulfur onto the ground does
not remove significant amounts of SO2 from the plume during transport downwind
1173

[62]. At Masaya volcano, time-averaged concentrations of SO 2 exceeding 30 ppb are

commonly observed at the plume at distances up to 30 km distances from Santiago crater.
Sharp SO2 concentration gradients seem to correlate with topographic features [64].
38.3.3.8 Earthquakes
Volcano-tectonic earthquakes could be as large as Mw 7.0 for caldera collapse, but are
usually M < 6 [64]. In rare cases, these could produce some moderate destruction and
fatalities near the volcano, or trigger landslides. Although the magnitudes of
earthquakes caused by volcanic activity are moderate, their shallow depths can cause
property damage in close proximity to the volcano. Most of the destruction and deaths
produced by the 1917 Boquern eruption were caused by the various volcanic earthquakes,
which affected several small towns and cities around the volcano. The largest reported
volcano-tectonic earthquakes were M~5.5 during the 1723 Iraz eruption [66], and
M 5.1 at Arenal in 1968 [65].
38.3.3.9 Secondary syn- and post-eruptive effects
Some post-eruptive effects have proven to be as fatal, or worse, than the eruptions:
famine, epidemic diseases, lahars, tsunamis or seiches, and psychological and social
impacts, leading to migration. A potentially important air pollution agent is the ash
generated by steadily active volcanoes, specially the finest and more silicic ones.
Fine silicic ash, especially if it contains adsorbent heavy metals and shards of
cristobalite, can be serious threat, causing injury to the respiratory tract and the lungs.
During the 196265 Iraz eruption, the downwind fine ash deposited on the Central
valley, affected crops, especially coffee, tobacco and citrus orchards. The ash facilitated
the growth and spread of such dangerous coffee crop plagues as Leucoptera coffella and
Olygonychus vothersi [66]. The most dramatic case is, again, Santa Mara, where
500010,000 people are estimated to have died because of epidemic diseases after the
1902 eruption [4].
38.3.3.10 Caldera-forming events and related ignimbrites
A chain of caldera lakes and calderas spans the CAVF (Ilopango, Berln, La
Carbonera-San Vicente, and Concepcin de Ataco), offset by a few kilometers north or
slightly behind of the CAVF (Atitln, Amatitln, Ayarza, Coatepeque, Chocosuela and
Barva), or in front of the CAVF (Alcntaro-Guachipeln, Guayabo, Los Perdidos).
Ignimbrites produced during these caldera-forming eruptions have covered areas from
300 to 4000 km2 in a single eruption. Calderas are located near economic centers in
Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. Most of these calderas are
marked by picturesque lakes, agriculture and grazing lands, and/or have a high
geothermal potential or plants. They are focal points for development and, therefore,
are places where risk assessment is a priority. Tens of thousands to over a million
people live within a radius of 2030 km from the main vents. For example, valleys
where Guatemala city and San Jos are located (about 2 million people each) are filled
by several Quaternary ignimbrites.
In Guatemala and western El Salvador, the stratigraphy of tephra deposits was
defined by Wunderman and Rose [39] and Rose et al. [40]. One of the best known
deposits is Los Chocoyos ash (fallout and pumice flow originated from the Atitln
caldera, Fig. 38.4) erupted about 84,000 yr BP [24]. The most recent caldera collapse in

the CAVF, at Masaya, is thought to have occurred between 2250 and 6500 years ago.
This is a rare case because the collapse originated from a tholeiitic basaltic shield
volcano, and was accompanied by unusual basaltic plinian fall, flow and surge events
[41, 44].
There is great concern about the remote but not impossible possibility of a future
caldera-forming eruption somewhere in the CAVF. Several calderas have produced
significant ignimbrite eruptions in the last 350,000 years (Atitln, Amatitln, Ayarza,
Coatepeque, Ilopango, Apoyo, Masaya, Barva), and therefore, must be considered likely
to erupt again. New 40Ar/39Ar and 14C ages of ash-fall and ash-flow deposits and lavas
can be used to make some inferences about the long-term volcanic hazards, particularly
the chance of eruptions from these silicic centers [40, 67, 68]. Although the recurrence
rate of caldera-forming eruptions in Central America is not well-known, a frequency of
103105 years is proposed for the northern part of the CAVF [40]. A similar recurrence
rate of 104105 yr was found using recent data from Costa Rica [6870].
38.4
TRIGGERS OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
There is no single physical mechanism that can be thought of as a trigger for volcanic
eruptions. In many cases, it depends of the delicate critical state of the volcano, including
the seasonal and tectonic stress, pore pressure, magma ascending, rainy or dry season, etc.
38.4.1 Earth tides
For several centuries, earth tides have been proposed as an influence on volcanic
eruptions and related seismicity. A relatively good correlation has been found in some
cases, but there are also many others that do not show any correlation. Although some
relation between moon phases and of eruptions were suggested by the Spanish
governor Diego de la Haya for the 1723 eruption of Iraz, there is no clear correlation
between maximum or minimum tidal amplitudes and eruptions even for the explosive
phases during 191721, 1928, 1933 and 196365 [66].
Records described the 18791880 eruption of Islas Quemadas (El Salvador) in such
detail that Golombek and Carr [71] were able to show that the earthquake swarm was
affected by the semidiurnal and fortnightly earth tide. Some well-known case studies
are the tidal triggering of crystal growth, magma ascent and eruption during the
October 1974 eruption from Fuego volcano [18, 72]. Arenal also shows distinct
correlation with earth tides during the present eruption period [73, 74]. Since 1800,
48% of the eruptions at Fuego volcano occurred within 2 days of the fortnightly
maximum amplitude of vertical tidal gravity acceleration [18]. For example, the
beginning of the 1974 activity coincided with the minimum lunar-solar tidal
acceleration (i.e., at low tides), and the first major pulse of the eruption sequence
started during the fortnightly maximum in the range of tidal acceleration and coincided
with a minimum in the tidal acceleration. Each of the other main pulses of the eruption
also began within two hours of a tidal minimum [72].
38.4.2 Magma mixing and mingling
Magma mixing and mingling events are also proposed as volcanic eruptions triggers
1175

[75]. There are many compositionally bimodal volcanoes, usually with a marked gap in
the range of 6062% SiO2 (e.g., Arenal, Iraz, among many others), even as wide as
5562% SiO2 (e.g., Santiaguito: [51]). The intrusion of new magma with a sharply
different composition to that in the chamber, could be a thermodynamic trigger of
eruptions. Examples are widespread: caldera complexes (Atitln, Coatepeque,
Ilopango, Masaya, Barva), stratovolcanoes (Santa Ana, Rincn de la Vieja, Miravalles,
Arenal, Platanar, Pos, Iraz, and El Valle), and cinder cones (Nejapa and Granada,
Nicaragua), and domes (Peln, Costa Rica).
38.4.3 Regional and local seismic events
Regional or local destructive earthquakes and swarms of shallow earthquakes have
preceded or accompanied volcanic eruptions. Perhaps the clearest examples are the
destructive earthquakes in San Salvador in 1658 and 1917, which preceded large flank
flows of Boquern (San Salvador) volcano by a few hours [12, 53]. Another example is
the volcanic activity of Fuego in 1717 and the strong local seismic activity at Antigua,
Guatemala [53].
Carr [17] found a pattern of volcanic activity associated with great shallow
subduction earthquakes. Part of this pattern is a period of quiescence, or low volcanic
activity that begins a few years to a few decades before a great shallow subduction
earthquake and ends near the time of the earthquake. Periods of volcanic quiescence
precede most large Central American earthquakes. Quiescence was especially
pronounced before the two very large 1902 earthquakes in Guatemala and the 1850
earthquake in Nicaragua. In Central America, one of the clearest associations of
seismic and volcanic activity is the tendency for volcanoes to be very active for a
decade or more after a nearby great shallow earthquake (M > 7).
Figure 38.7. Number of earthquakes Mb > 6 (a) and eruptions (b) between 1850 and 2002.
Some periods of relatively high volcanic activity in the past century (192040, 1950
65, 196878) appear to correspond to shorter periods of high-seismicity (1934
40, 195260, 198791) (Fig. 38.7).
New measurements, statistical analyses and models support the old idea that a large
earthquake (M > 6.5) can trigger subsequent volcanic eruptions over surprisingly long
distances (up to 4000 km) and time scales (up to decades; [76]). The CAVF is no
exception, and several papers attend to this hypothesis, as seismic activity is common
along the entire CAVF. Major earthquakes occurred on January 16, 1902, centered near
Chilpancingo, Mexico (900 km NW of Santa Mara), and on January 18 at a location
13 km SE of Santa Mara. An unprecedented number of severe earthquakes occurred
within the next year, causing severe damage over 10,000 km2. Three more great

earthquakes struck Central America in 1902 and 1903. The first one occurred on April
19, 1902 (MS 8.3) and was centered on the western Guatemala segment break,
underlying Santa Mara volcano. A second great earthquake struck on September 23,
1902 (MS 8.3), centered 210 km NW of Santa Mara. Then, after the first major
earthquake in January, the number of earthquakes per month jumped by an order of
magnitude to 45, before becoming essentially continuous at the time of the eruption in
October. After the eruption, seismicity dropped significantly, but on January 14, 1903,
the final great earthquake occurred, centered at a point 700 km west of Santa Mara
[16, 77]. The eruption of Santa Mara evidently came as something of a surprise,
despite the exceptional seismic activity, because there was no historical record of
previous eruptions.
The 1924 Orotina earthquake (MS 7.0) in Costa Rica also appears to have triggered
minor ash eruptions at Iraz, located 80 km from the epicenter, and at Rincn de la
Vieja, 140 km away [78].
The temperature of fumaroles in Pos rose from 100 C in December 1980 to 875 C in
February 1981 and reached 1020 C in March of the same year, indicating volcanic
unrest. These high temperatures were sustained until November 1981, when it started a
gradual decrease (to 90150 C). It is likely that the July 1980 seismic crisis (M < 5.2)
located in the NW Pacific (200 km from Pos) triggered A-type events that fractured the
upper cap of a magmatic mass cooling inside the conduit of the 195255 eruption. A large
volume of phreatic fluids migrated toward the magma body, was heated up and reached
the surface five months later [79]. There was no evidence of magma intrusion or any
impending eruption. This interpretation also explains the absence of phreatic activity
during a long period (1980 to 1986). A similar example was observed at Santa Ana in
1992 and 2000, where fumarolic activity and lake temperature increased as a result of
increased venting from a hydrothermal system underneath the crater. The venting was
caused by fracturing of a hydrothermal cap, without any seismic activity associated
with magma movement [80].
An aborted eruption occurred at Iraz in 1991. Regional seismic events (M S 5.6 and
7.5, with epicenters 53 and 84 km from the volcano) clearly triggered some
premonitory signals (tremors, solfataras, formation of a lake after many years, A-type
earthquakes), but did not develop into an eruption [81, 82]. The Limn earthquake of
April 1991 probably contributed to triggering the Rincn de la Vieja eruption in May
of the same year.
38.4.4 Seasonal fluctuations

An analysis of volcanic activity during the last three hundred years reveals that the
seasonal peaks in the eruption rate of volcanoes in Central America coincide with
periods of falling regional sea-level. Such correlation might help future understanding
of volcanic activity and volcano-climate feedback mechanisms [83].
38.5
VOLCANO MONITORING
Eruptions widely vary in character, magnitude and duration, not only from one volcano
to another, but even at the same volcano within short or long periods of time. Most
eruptions are preceded by premonitory signals which, if recognized and heeded, may
give timely warning of the impending events. Forecasting the time, place, and character
1177

of a volcanic eruption is one of the major goals in volcanology.

However, these signs may be subtle or complex, and may demand a careful detailed
study before they can be interpreted correctly, all directed at one specific volcano.
Substantial progress has been made in the field of volcanology in Central America.
Interest in volcanology was recently renewed by both spectacular and moderate
eruptions (Cerro Negro in Nicaragua, 1992, 1995; San Miguel in El Salvador, 1995;
Arenal in Costa Rica, since 1993), as well as significant volcanic crises or alerts (Pas
in 1989, Iraz in 1991, and Santa Ana, 1992). Other natural phenomena with disastrous
consequences have also been a catalyst for resource investment in the field of
volcanology (e.g., hurricane Mitch in 1998).
Of the total of about 60 active and dormant volcanoes, only 30 volcanoes (50%) have at
least one permanent seismic station (Table 38.4, which does not include several Quaternary
cinder cones, maars and calderas). Few CAVF stratovolcanoes are well understood in all
the different disciplines of volcanology (geology, tephrastratigraphy, petrology, precursor
signals, etc.), and not many have reasonably complete monitoring systems composed of 3
or more seismic stations (about 30%), or periodic geochemical, geophysical and visual
monitoring, enough for making any prognostic or prediction.
38.5.1 Seismicity
Harlow [84] compiled a list of 71 studies of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions worldwide. In 58% of the cases, there was an increase in the number of earthquakes before
an eruption; in 38% there was an increase in earthquakes without an eruption, and in
4% there was an eruption without any increase in earthquakes, as was the case of Cerro
Negro. A serious problem in volcanic forecasting is the lack of reliable criteria for
distinguishing between the precursory pattern of an eruption and other phenomena
(magma intrusion or hydrothermal effects). This latter type of activity is called
aborted or abortive eruptions [76, 85]. In fact, swarms of small earthquakes (M < 5)
occur at shallow depths beneath active and dormant volcanoes, although not usually in
conjunction with volcanic activity [9]. This may be because some of these swarms are
tectonic (related to local faults) instead true volcano-tectonic quakes (A-type) related to
magma or gas movements through faults. Small earthquakes, some as deep as 15 km,
preceded and accompanied the major historical pyroclastic flows at Arenal volcano
between 1968 and 2001 [47]. Continuous monitoring is now being carried out at a few
volcanoes (Table 38.4). More details are presented in Chapter 39.
38.5.2 Volcanic gases, temperature, and hot springs
Changes in the temperature, volume and gas composition discharges of fumaroles and
hot springs are often associated with changes in volcanic activity, either preceding an
eruption or not. However, gaining access to high-temperature fumaroles in active
craters is often difficult and hazardous, and the sampling and subsequent analysis of the
gas samples require considerable skill. Therefore, the gas samples usually are rare
rather than frequent. The remote sensing (COSPEC, MINIDOAS, TOMS) and diffuse
emission measurements are infrequent. There have been many geochemical studies on
gases, hot springs, and diffuse gas emissions, but few studies of truly diagnostic
premonitory activity have been carried out.
For example, beginning in 1965, thermal, geochemical, and seismic precursors of

the July 1968 Arenal eruption were reported: (1) a colorless gas (CO and/or CO2?) on
the NE flank of the volcano affected animals and vegetation; (2) the water level of
Cedeo lake on the north flank dropped, killing fish; and (3) the temperature of hot
springs increased in 1967 at Tabacn river, which drains the volcano on the northwest
[86]. Small changes in the gas composition (CO2, SO2, SO2/HCl molar ratio) have been
related to volcanic activity at San Miguel and Cerro Negro [61, 87], but most of these
results are conclusive after the volcanic unrest.
Since the early systematic works of Stoiber and co-workers [59, 88, 89], several
recent workers have focused mainly on regional variations of gases and their isotopic
compositions [9092], or studies related to diffusive emission of gases [87, 9395].
More details are presented in the Chapter 28.
The quantity of emission of gases could be clustered or even concentrated through
some flank areas of volcanoes, as for example the north flank of Pos and Barva, where
crustal weakness has been identified. In this area, there exist several reports of CO2
bubbling in cold and hot springs, caverns with poisonous concentrations of CO2, or
even in sufficient volumes to be extracted commercially through boreholes. In addition,
during the construction of the tunnel for the Cariblanco hydroelectrical project (north
of Pos), 21 laborers were temporally affected by the gases, particularly CO, and variable
quantities of SO2, H2S, HCl and CH4 [96].
38.5.3 Ground deformation and gravity measurements
Precursors of volcanic activity can involve changes in the pressure and volume of
magma reservoirs at depth. This may deform the ground surface overlying the magma
chambers and conduits. However, caution is needed because there are other processes
that can generate measurable ground deformation and changes in gravity.
During the last eruption of Iraz (196265), surveyors from the Instituto
Geogrfico de Costa Rica ran a line of precise leveling along the road to the summit.
The conspicuous ground deformation measured was due to the uprising magma which
caused the eruption [97]. At Arenal, deformation studies have been carried out by
various groups in 1969, 19741978 and from 1982 to present. All data sets show
continuous subsidence at the volcano with small episodes of uplift on the order of
10 radians. The subsidence seems to be related to ground loading by lava flows erupted
from 1968 up to present (ca. 0.60 km3). The small inflation episodes could be an effect
of natural background noise, geological conditions and some periods of stronger
magma feeding along the conduit [98100].
Gravity and petrological data confirm the presence of a shallow, low-density,
highly degassed magma beneath Pacaya, Masaya and Pos [64, 101, 103]. Scientists
believe that low-density, gas-rich magma is periodically transported upward from
depth, resulting in observed changes, such as significant decreases in gravity with
increased gas emission, and in some cases, deformation. The mechanisms involved are
not completely understood.
38.5.4 Satellite remote sensing
In 2002 the Kings College of London (KCL) and the Instituto Nicaragense de
Estudios Territoriales (INETER) began a project entitled: Enhancing Volcanic Hazard
Avoidance Capacity in Nicaragua and Central America through Local Remote Sensing
1179

Table 38.4. Monitoring of Central American volcanoes (December 2005).

Volcano
Tacan
Santa Mara
/Santiaguito
Cerro Quemado
Fuego
Pacaya
Santa Ana
Seismological
Deformation
6 stations
9 benchmarks
1 station
3 stations
1 station
4 stations
Apaneca
Ground leveling
Boquern
4 stations
Ilopango
San Vicente
4 stations
1 station
Tecapa
6 stations
Microgravity
Berln
6 stations
Microgravity
San Miguel
3 stations
San Cristbal
Telica
Cerro Negro
4 stations
2 stations
2 stations
Momotombo
Masaya
1 station
1 station
Concepcin
Rincn de la Vieja
Miravalles
1 station
11 stations
6 stations
Arenal
5 stations
Pos
7 stations
Iraz
2 stations
Turrialba
1 station
Bar
1 station
GPS
Sporadic
gravimetry
Leveling
Dry tiltmeters,
leveling, GPS
Dry tiltmeters,
EDM, GPS
Dry tiltmeters,
EDM
Dry tiltmeters,
EDM
Dry tiltmeters,
EDM
Geochemistry
COSPEC
Sporadic
Sporadic
Sporadic
Lake, fumaroles, Sporadic
SO2 , diffuse CO2
Springs,
geothermal wells
and fumaroles
Water wells,
springs, diffuse
CO2 and H2S,
radon
Diffuse CO2 and
H2S
Springs,
geothermal wells
and fumaroles
Springs,
geothermal wells
and fumaroles
Diffuse CO2 and
radon, springs
Thermometry
Thermometry,
radon
Thermometry
Gases
Sporadic
Sporadic
Wells chemistry
Wells chemistry
Sporadic
Springs, radon
Sporadic
Springs, gases,
radon
Springs, radon
Sporadic
Springs, gases,
radon
and Improved Risk Communication. Then, in 2004, as part of the original project, it
was extended to: Central American Network for the Use of Satellite Imagery for
Monitoring and Scientific Research of Active Volcanoes and for Early Warning of
Volcanic Eruption. Both projects have been funded by the Department for
International Development (DFID), and Kings College London (KCL) of England,
and INETER. Thus, 24 volcanoes can be measured remotely using advanced very-high-

resolution radiometer (AVHRR) carried by National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA) satellites to test the viability of the thermal and ash-plume
monitoring technique in Central America.
38.6
CONCLUSIONS
Volcanoes pose serious hazards to many parts of Central America. Some of historys
greatest catastrophes have been caused by eruptions whose early signs were
unrecognized, misunderstood or ignored. The great explosions of Cosigina in 1835,
Santa Mara in 1902, and Arenal in 1968, all took place at volcanoes that had no
historical record of previous eruptions. If adequate monitoring had been available, the
impending eruptions might have been recognized, so as to avoid, or at least to reduce
fatalities and damages. If occurring today, an eruption similar to these great explosions
would cause catastrophic loss of life and property. The destruction from such disasters
might gravely impact the social, economic, and political systems of an entire country.
Thus, the landuse restriction maps, as the case of Arenal, constitutes a major first
step in reducing volcanic risks (Fig. 38.8).
Figure 38.8. (a) Comparison between the landuse restriction map for Arenal volcano (R1 to R4:
highest restriction to lower restriction, and 5.5-km-radius circle of lowest restriction) and
(b) short-term volcanic hazards map for Arenal volcano (modified from [104]).
Consequent increased emigration would put pressure on the entire region, including
Mexico and U.S.A. The total estimated damage caused by eruptions could be in the order
of US$ 200 50 million. Presently, the population endangered by short-term volcanic
hazards is more than 600,000 persons. Both numbers are conservative estimates.
Eruptions cannot be prevented by man and efforts to control their effects have
met with only limited success. However, there is much that can be done to evaluate
what to expect from a volcano (type of eruptions, frequency) and when to expect it
(recurrence, next eruption?), and to take measurements based on this information to
reduce the impact of eruptions, minimize vulnerability and mitigate the risk. This is the
information that can save many lives, but the generation of this information is only a
part of the process. If this information does not reach the final user in the right way, it
will be useless. In this sense, a well defined and efficient communication process
should be established. The final user of the information should be informed about what
this information means and how he can use it to take decisions. The implementation of
an awareness program on volcanic risk and the establishment of the communication
procedures during a volcanic crisis should be done before the crisis. Much of this
1181

depends more on the attitude of scientists and authorities than on the cost of equipment.
In that way, geologists can prepare short-, mid- and long-term hazard maps.
A short-term hazard map is based on the current or frequent activity (VEI IRU
active volcanoes, or the type of events that could be expected during volcanic unrest.
Mid-term hazard maps are based on relatively frequent and strong eruptions (VEI = 4).
Long-term hazard maps should consider the largest events in the last 10,000 yr. The
most catastrophic events in the last 300,000 yr (i.e., ignimbrites related to caldera
collapse, debris avalanches), although possible in the near future (years to centuries,
even millennia), are out of the realistic political and logistical planning, at least before
the volcanic crisis. But in some cases, even the less probable, biggest events, should be
considered, given the magnitude of its impact.
Although some volcano observatories and research centers have been established in
Central America, promoting volcanological investigation, hazard evaluation and
improving monitoring systems, many potentially dangerous dormant and active
volcanoes remain poorly understood. Many of these are located near major cities,
industrial complexes, and other productive infrastructure. Central American countries
lack the necessary resources to build and maintain a well-equipped observatory and
conduct basic volcanological research (geology, radiometric dating, geochemical and
isotopic analysis, for instance). Even more threatening, severe financial problems in all
observatories and research centers put at risk the continued maintenance of the existing
permanent monitoring networks and instruments, as well as the required logistic
support and training of personnel. As a consequence, many volcanologists in the region
are looking for new employment in other fields. At the moment, only six volcanoes
have enough monitoring systems (several seismic stations, geochemical and visual
monitoring, geodetic control) for observing normal activity: Fuego-Acatenango volcanic
complex, Santiaguito, Rincn de la Vieja, Miravalles, Arenal, and Pos (Table 38.4).
Over the last three decades, Central America has had three of the most active
volcanoes in the world: Santiaguito, Pacaya, and Arenal. Several lines of evidence show
that many CAVF volcanoes demonstrate correlations between regional seismic activity
and earth tides, suggesting that open systems may be sensitive to minor variations in
confining pressures or stresses. Other volcanoes have minimum monitoring systems
according to the type of current activity, while their host countries are prepared to install
more equipment in case of volcanic unrest. However, many dangerous volcanoes remain
poorly understood, are virtually unmonitored, and represent an unpredictable potential
hazard for future eruptions. A relatively well-studied volcano theoretically should have a
score near 7. From a list of nearly 70 volcanoes (Table 38.5), only 17 have a score 4.
Several of these volcanoes have a volcanic hazard index following Yokoyama [26] criteria
10 (Table 38.3), but a few have the minimum monitoring system (Table 38.4).
A sense of urgency is required to ensure that at the beginning of the next decade,
we have a better understanding of the potential for volcanic disasters and an adequate
monitoring system, at least in the most dangerous volcanoes located near to population
centers (i.e., Santa Mara/Santiaguito, Cerro Quemado, Acatenango, Santa Ana, San
Salvador, San Miguel, Telica, Momotombo, Mombacho, Masaya, Concepcin, Bar).
Worldwide experience shows that short-term eruption forecasting is best achieved
by integrating results from a wide variety of approaches. The lack of reliable criteria
for distinguishing between the precursory patterns of an eruption and that of a magma
intrusion and/or hydrothermal unrest, remains a serious problem. Magma intrusions can
cause volcanic crisis, but often result in abortive eruptions.

Table 38.5. Estimation of status of knowledge about the main Quaternary volcanoes of Central
America, using the literature and expert criteria (July 2006).
Volcano
Tacan
Santa Mara
/Santiaguito
Cerro Quemado
Atitln
Tolimn
San Pedro
Fuego
Acatenango
Agua
Pacaya
Amatitln
Ayarza
Santa Ana
Apaneca
Izalco
Cerro Verde
Conejal
San Marcelino
Boquern
Ilopango
San Vicente
Apastepeque
Tecapa
Usulutn
Berln
Tigre
Taburete
San Miguel
Chinameca
Conchagua
Conchaguita
Meanguera
Cosigina
San Cristbal
Casitas
Telica
Santa Clara
Rota
Cerro Negro
El Hoyo
Momotombo
Apoyeque
Nejapa
Masaya
Apoyo
Mombacho
Granada
Zapatera
Concepcin
Maderas
Oros/Cacao
Rincn de la Vieja
0.25
0.75
0.25
0.75
0
0
0
0
E
0
0
F
0.25
0.50
G
0.50
0.50
Total
1.25
2.50
0.50
0.25
0.50
0.50
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.75
0.75
0.25
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.75
0.50
0.75
0.25
0.75
0.25
0.75
0.25
0.25
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.25
0.50
0.25
0.25
0.50
0.25
1
0.50
0.75
0.50
0.50
0.50
0
0.50
0.50
0.50
1
0.50
0.50
1
0.50
0.25
0.50
0.50
0
0
0
0.75
0.75
0
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.75
0.25
0.25
0
0.25
0.50
0.25
0
0
0.50
0.25
1
1
1
0.25
0.50
0.75
0.25
0.50
0.50
1
0.75
0.75
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.75
0.50
0.50
1
0.50
0.75
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.50
0.25
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.75
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.50
0
0.50
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.50
0.25
0.50
0.50
1
0
0
0
0.50
0.75
0.75
0.25
0.50
0
0.50
0
0
0.25
0.50
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.25
0.25
0
0.50
0
0
0
0
0.50
0.25
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.25
0.75
0.50
0.25
0
0
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.50
0.50
0.75
0
0
0.25
0.50
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.75
0
0.75
0
0
0.50
0.75
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0
0.25
0.25
0.50
0
0.50
0
0
0.25
0.25
0.50
0.25
0
0
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.75
0.25
0
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.75
0.50
1
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.75
0.50
0.75
0.25
0.75
0.25
0.75
0.25
0.25
1
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.25
0.25
0.50
0.25
0
0
0.25
0
0
0.25
0.25
0
0.75
0
0.25
0
0
0
0.75
0.75
0.75
0
0
0.25
0
0
0
0.75
0
0.75
0.75
0.75
0
0.25
0.25
0.50
0.50
0.25
0.75
0.25
0.50
0.25
0.25
0.50
0.25
0.50
0
0.25
0.25
0.25
0
1
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.50
1.50
0.75
0.50
3.50
3.50
1.25
3.50
2.50
4.00
0.75
0.75
1.00
4.00
3.50
4.75
1.00
4.00
1.25
4.00
0.50
0.50
3.75
4.00
4.25
4.25
4.25
1.25
1.75
1.50
2.00
2.50
1.00
4.75
1.50
3.75
2.00
2.50
2.50
1.00
1.75
2.00
2.00
3.25
1.75
2.25
5.50
0.25
0.50
0
0.50
0
0.50
0.25
1
0.50
0
0
1
0.50
0.75
0.25
0.50
0.75
1183

Miravalles
Tenorio
Arenal
Chato
Platanar/Porvenir
Pos
Congo/Hule
Ro Cuarto
Barva
Cacho Negro
Iraz
Turrialba
Bar
La Yeguada
El Valle
1
0.50
1
1
0.50
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.75
0
0.75
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.25
1
0.75
1
1
0.75
1
1
0.50
1
0.50
0.75
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.25
1
0.5
0
0
0
0.50
0.25
0
0.25
0
0.25
0
0
0
0
0.75
0.25
0.75
0.75
0.25
0.75
0
0.25
0.50
0
0.75
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.50
0.50
0
1
0.50
0
0.50
0.75
0
0.50
0
0.50
0.50
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.75
0.50
1
1
0.75
0.75
0.25
0.50
0.50
0.25
0.75
0.75
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.25
0
1
0
0.25
0.50
0.75
0
0.50
0.25
0.75
0.75
0.50
0
0
5.25
2.50
5.75
4.25
2.50
4.75
3.50
1.50
4.00
1.00
4.50
3.75
2.50
1.50
1.75
Notes: A: Geological map and studies; B: geomorphological map and studies; C: Deep
stratigraphy (boreholes depth 1002000 m); D: Radiometric dates (K-Ar, Ar-Ar,
U-Th); E: Tephrostratigraphy and 14C dates; F: Petrography and geochemistry; G: Volcanic
hazards map. Scores: 0: non existent; 0.25: general or incipient; 0.50: moderate or in some
detail; 0.75: well detailed; 1: very well detailed. In the case of historically building volcano
(new volcano), the qualification D is 1.
Thus, previously accumulated tectonic stresses within the volcanic system can be
released by regional earthquakes and thus trigger local, A-type events that affect the
stability of the geothermal reservoir and cause: (1) ascent of hydrothermal fluids to the
surface, (2) new fumaroles and hot springs, and (3) low frequency and tremor events.
When a volcano begins to show signs of unrest, however, the course of events is almost
always uncertain. Volcanologists can rarely make definitive predictions. In general,
there is a broad range of possibilities depending on the characteristics of the volcano
and on the extent of previous investigations.
Mutual cooperation among scientists and government is needed, as well as is their
positive relations with journalist and the public. The final decisions on landuse
planning or volcanic crises management can not be considered only on base of the
volcanological aspects of the problem; the social and economical aspects are as
relevant to the risk problem as the pure phenomenological-volcanic aspects.
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asociada al Volcn Arenal. Bol. Obs. Vulc. Arenal 1:2 (1988), pp.2643.
99. Soto, G.J.: Anlisis de inclinometra seca en el volcn Arenal, 198890. Bol. Obs. Vulc. Arenal
4:7 (1991), pp.3361.
100. Alvarado, G.E., Carboni, S., Cordero, M., Avils, E., Valverde, M. & Leandro, C.: Estabilidad
del cono y comportamiento de la fundacin del edificio volcnico del Arenal (Costa Rica). Bol.
OSIVAM, 14:26 (2003), pp.2173.
101. Eggers, A.A.: Temporal gravity and elevation changes at Pacaya volcano, Guatemala. J.
102. Rymer, H., van Wyk de Vries, B., Stix, J. & Williams-Jones, G.: Pit crater structure and
processes governing persistent activity at Masaya Volcano, Nicaragua. Bull. Volcanol. 59
(1998), pp.345355.
103. Rymer, H. & Williams-Jones, G.: Volcanic eruption prediction: Magma chamber physics from
gravity and deformation measurements. Geophys. Res. Lett. 27:16 (2000), pp.23892392.
104. Soto, G.J. & Sjbohm, L.: Sobre el mapeo de los peligros volcnicos del Arenal (Costa Rica)
como una herramienta para la planificacin del uso del suelo y la mitigacin de desastres.
Memoria VIII Seminario de Ingeniera Estructural y Ssmica, San Jos, Sept. 2005, pp.26.
Chapter 39
Volcano seismology
PHILIPPE LESAGE, MAURICIO MORA, WILFRIED STRAUCH,
DEMETRIO ESCOBAR, OTONIEL MATAS, VIRGINIA TENORIO,
EMILIO TALAVERA, NGEL RODRGUEZ AND GUILLERMO E. ALVARADO
Since then until the present day [December
11] we have seen a continuation of fires,
ashes and sands which increase in volume
during lunar conjunctions and oppositions
and on the days immediately before and
after, there being days with four, six and
eight earthquakes, though without damage to
houses. D. De la Haya: The activity of Iraz
in 1723. La Gaceta, Costa Rica, 1852.
39.1
INTRODUCTION
The large number of active volcanic centers in Central America combined with the
rapid expansion of the population at their surrounds increases the vulnerability and thus
the volcanic risk. In this context, two aspects difficult the risk management associated
to volcanic activity. First, while several volcanoes maintain continuous activity, only a
few of them had recently generated severe impact on the population. Second, other
natural phenomena, which have important human consequences, such as hurricanes,
floods or landslides, are more frequent than large volcanic eruptions. Both aspects lead
the political authorities to underestimate the volcanic risk and to not assign enough
resources to adequately monitor the volcanoes. Moreover volcanic surveillance is
relatively recent in Central America.
The first instrumental seismic observations at Central American volcanoes were
carried out during the 1964 eruption of Iraz volcano [1] and the 1968 eruption of
Arenal [2]. The first permanent seismograph networks dedicated to the observation of
volcanic seismicity were deployed in Costa Rica in 1974 and in Nicaragua in 1975.
Since then, the evolution of the seismic monitoring systems has been closely dependent
of the political and economical situation in each country. Despite this limitation,
significant quantitative and qualitative improvements of monitoring systems have been
done in Central America during the last two decades, although large disparities
between countries are still observed. The number of permanent seismic stations
installed at or close to volcanoes has been increased and, following the worldwide
trend in this field, the instrumentation and data processing were strongly improved. The
recent development of permanent seismograph networks on volcanoes has yielded
several successful eruptions forecasts and early warnings. On the other hand, temporary
networks have been deployed on several volcanoes of the region during specific studies
of their seismic activity.
In this chapter, we present the state-of-the-art in volcano-seismic monitoring in

Central America at the beginning of the XXI century. We offer an overview of the
seismicity features of the most active volcanoes and review the main seismic studies
that have been carried out in the last years. We conclude identifying important
problems to be addressed in the future.
39.2
MEANING AND USE OF VOLCANIC SEISMICITY
The variety of seismic signals observed suggests that various complex physical
processes take place beneath volcanoes. The seismicity of a volcano is characterized by
several features which can change with time. The changes are associated to the
evolution of the volcanic system state and tracking these variations provides the basics
of volcano monitoring. The seismic activity of volcanoes is now classified into two
types of events: one associated to brittle fracture in solid rocks and the other related to
fluids in the structure. Events of the first kind have been termed volcano-tectonic (VT),
high-frequency, or A-type earthquakes. Their waveforms show sharp P and S-wave
arrivals at various seismic stations and their frequency spectra show that most of the
energy is radiated in the range 515 Hz. The source mechanism of VT earthquakes is
thought to be the same as for tectonic earthquakes, namely a double couple force
system [24]. VT earthquakes generally occur in swarms and are induced by stress
variations related to magmatic intrusions, pressure changes in the volcanic conduits or
gravity slips. The second type of signals includes long-period (LP) events (also termed
B-type events and low-frequency earthquakes), explosion quakes, and volcanic tremor.
LP events and explosion quakes are discrete signals and tremor is identified as a quasicontinuous oscillation lasting anywhere from minutes to hours or longer. Their source
processes are thought to be produced by pressure perturbations in fluid-filled cavities
such as magmatic chambers or conduits, dykes, sills or cracks. The fluid can be
magma, water, gas or a two-phase mixture of liquid, gas or even dust. Their link with
volcanic fluids makes them important for obtaining information on the state of the
magmatic or hydrothermal systems and on the associated physical phenomena.
Hereafter we will refer to the discrete events as LP events and the long duration
vibrations as volcanic tremor. The main features of these signals are: generally
emergent onsets, lack of S-waves, low frequency (< 5 Hz) spectra. Most of their sharp
spectral peaks can be traced back to resonance effects at the source. Indeed, because of
the strong impedance contrast between the fluid and its containing solid walls, the
cavities behave as resonators and the spectral peaks correspond to their oscillation
modes. The detailed study of these events can bring information on the geometrical and
acoustical properties of the cavities and fluids [5] and their time history. Several simple
models for the geometry of the resonator have been proposed: spherical [6], cylindrical
[710] or plane [11, 12]. Kumagai and Chouet [13] studied the acoustic behavior of a
fluid-filled crack and showed that the measurement of the quality factor of the main
spectral peaks can yield the identification of the type of fluid. Also, autoregressive
modeling of the seismic signal has been found to be a well-suited method to estimate
the frequency and quality factor of the resonance peaks and to identify the excitation
function of the source [14, 15]. The great number of alternative models developed
reflects the variety of available observations and physical processes occurring at
volcanoes. Those models generally consider either two-phase fluid flows [16, 17],
transient or turbulent flows [1820] or non-linear phenomena in fluid flows [21, 22].
On the other hand, the determination of source mechanism based on the modeling of

Figure 39.1. Monitored volcanoes in Central America.
waveforms recorded by broadband seismometers yields complementary constraints on

the physical processes which generate the seismic events [17, 23, 24].
Increases of the seismic activity and/or changes in the patterns of occurrence of
earthquakes are frequently observed as precursors of volcanic eruptions [3, 25, 26].
This makes seismic monitoring the most widely used method for eruptions forecasts
[27]. It is thus important to study the level and characteristics of the background
seismicity in order to detect any variation that may indicate the beginning of a preeruptive period. Various complementary pieces of information useful for eruption
forecasting are the number of events of each type per unit of time [28], the released
seismic energy [29], the migration of hypocenters [30], the Real-time Seismic
Amplitude Measurement (RSAM) [31] or the Seismic Spectral Amplitude
Measurement (SSAM) [32]. The pre-eruptive seismic activity, however, displays
complex behavior, including short-lived VT activity before fissure basaltic eruptions or
complex long-lasting VT and LP activity preceding large eruptions of andesitic
volcanoes. There is no general criteria or method to forecast volcanic eruptions from
seismic data. It is thus necessary to combine them with other observations and
measurements such as visual observations, ground deformation, geochemistry,
microgravity, geoelectrical or geomagnetic monitoring.
39.3
SEISMIC MONITORING SYSTEMS
Advances on computer technology (faster and less expensive microprocessors and

increase on storage capacities) allowed a radical evolution of the seismic monitoring
systems in the last 20 years. Nowadays, a great part of the acquisition and transmission
devices is digital, resulting in high-dynamic broadband instrumentation [33].
Consequently, large amounts of high-quality data can be processed in order to extract
significant information such as event classification, RSAM [31], source location or
spectral content. Part of the data processing is carried out in real-time, giving
1191

Table 39.1. Main characteristics of the seismic monitoring systems (in 2004).
Volcano, agency,
Installation Distance
number of seismic
(year)
to active
stations and existence
crater
of a bulletin (Yes or No)
(min/max)
(km)
Sensor type1)
and telemetry
system2)
Recording Data
system3) 2) processing4)
Guatemala
(all INSIVUMEH)
1986
1978
1973
1987
1984
19
2.8
4.5
1.7
5
V SP
V SP
V SP
V SP
V SP
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
C
C
C
A,D
A,D
A,D
A,D
A,D
a,c,d1
a,b,c,d1
a,b,c,d1
a,b,c,d1
a,c,d1
2001
1992
1992
2001
1984/2002
1.5/5.0
0.05/2.0
1.0/5.0
no crater
0.5/3.5
3C, V SP
3C, V SP
V SP
V SP
3C, V SP
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
C
C
C
D
D
D
D
D
a,b,c,d1
a,b,c,d1
a,b,c,d1
a,b,c,d1
a,b,c,d1
1993
1993
1993
1993
1993
1999
1993
1998
1993
2000
1993
1993
2000
<5.0
2.0
0.5/<7
0.5
2.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
3.0
3.0
V SP
V SP, 3C BB
V SP, 3C BB
V SP, 3C BB
V SP, 3C BB
V SP
V SP
3C SP
V SP, 3C BB
V SP
V SP
V SP, 3C BB
V SP
A
A/D
A
A/D
A/D
A
A
A
A/D
A
A
A/D
A
C/T
C/T
C/T
C/T
C/T
C/T
C/T
C/T
C/T
C/T
C/T
C/T
C/T
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
a,b,c,d2,e
a,b,c,d2,e
a,b,c,d2,e
a,b,c,d2,e
a,b,c,d2,e
a,b,c,d2,e
a,b,c,d2,e
a,b,c,d2,e
a,b,c,d2,e
a,b,c,d2,e
a,b,c,d2,e
a,b,c,d2,e
a,b,c,d2,e
1988
V SP
C A,D
b,c,d1,e
1994
1.5/9
3C SP
a,c,d1,e
1974
1984
3.5/2.3
2.7
3C SP
V SP
D
A
T A,D
C A,D
a,c,d1,e
b,c,d1,e
1980
1986
1.35
2.7
V SP
V SP
A
A
C/T A,D
C A,D
c,d1,e
b,c,d1,e
1982
1985
2.2
5
V SP
V SP
A
A
C/T A,D
C A,D
a,c,d1
b,c,d1,e
2004
1984
<0.5
0.5
V SP
V SP
A
A
T A,D
C A,D
c,dl,e
b,c,d1,e
2000
9/38 3C SP, 3C BB
Tacan (1) Y
Santiaguito (1) Y
Fuego (3) Y
Pacaya (1) Y
Tecuamburro (1) N
El Salvador (all SNET), all N
Santa Ana (3)
San Salvador (2)
Ilopango (3)
San Vicente (1)
San Miguel (3)
Nicaragua (all INETER), all Y

Cosigina (1)
San Cristbal (4)
Telica (3)
Cerro Negro (2)
Momotombo (1)
Apoyeque /1)
Nejapa-Miraflores (1)
Tiscapa (1)
Masaya (2)
Apoyo (1)
Mombacho (1)
Concepcin (2)
Maderas (1)
Costa Rica, all Y
Rincn de la Vieja
(1) OVSICORI
Miravalles
(6) RSN
Arenal
(6) RSN/ICE
(2) OVSICORI
Pos
(1) RSN
(1) OVSICORI
Iraz
(2) RSN
(1) OVSICORI
Turrialba
(1) RSN
OVSICORI
Panama, N
Bar (5)
1)
a,d1
V: Vertical, 3C: 3 components, SP: Short-period, BB: Broadband; 2)A: analog, D: digital; 3)C:
continuous, T: triggered; 4)a: localization, b: RSAM/SSAM, c: classification, event counting
(d1: manual, d2: automatic), e: spectral analysis.

invaluable tools for early warnings. Other important advances are based on the use of
broadband seismometers and deployment of dense arrays of seismograph stations. The
very long-period signals (VLP) observed at some volcanoes provide an insight into the
physical processes involved in the magmatic or hydrothermal systems [5]. Lowaperture seismic arrays, or antennas, are used to analyze the wavefield [34], to locate
the sources of tremor and LP events [3537] and to infer the shallow structure beneath
the array [38, 39].
Table 39.2. Temporary seismic deployments.
Volcano,
number of
stations
Date of
deployment
(year/month)
Distance
to active
crater
(min/max)
(km)
Sensor type1)
Recording References
System(2)
and main
objective(3)
Guatemala
Tacan (1)
Santiaguito (1)
Santiaguito (5)
Fuego (3)
Pacaya (1)
Tecuamburro (1)
19
V/3C SP
[45]
2.8
V SP
[46]
310 4: 3C, 1: V SP
V SP
1.4
V SP
1.4
V SP
5
D
A
A
A
B
[48]
B
B [106, 107]
B
E
E
E
B
1979/11, 1986/02,
1997/09, 2002
1978/02, 1981/04,
1986/03, 1992/02,
1998/031998/12
1973/06, 1976/02
1987/02
1984/10
1992/041992/11
1995/051995/12
1999/081999/09
1992/09, 1993/11
35 1: 3C, 2: V SP
13
V SP
13
V SP
03
3C SP
Nicaragua
Cerro Negro (3)
Cerro Negro (3)
Cerro Negro (3)
Masaya (3)
[53]
[54]
[55]
[39]
Costa Rica
59
Rin. de la Vieja (5) 1995/031995/07
23.9
1984/07?
Arenal (1)
1.83.7
1990/031990/04
Arenal (4)
2.32.8
1994/04
Arenal (1)
1995/111998 1.963.33
Arenal (5)
1.84
1997/011997/02
Arenal (15)
Arenal (20)
Pos (3)
Pos (1)
Pos (5)
Pos (8)
Iraz (12)
Turrialba (1)
2004/02
1980/041980/12
1984/07?
1989/021989/06
1991/031991/06
1991/011992/05
2001/032001/03
2.3
crater
1
0.52
0.51.5
0.44
crater
V SP
3C SP
V SP
3C BB
3C BB
14: 3C SP
1: 3C BB
3C SP
V SP
3C SP
V SP
V SP
V SP
V SP
B
D
[75]
B
A
[68]
B
D
[69]
B
D
[92, 94]
B
D
D B,S [37, 70, 84,
104]
B
D
[74]
B
A
[75]
B
A
[76]
B
A
B
D
[80]
D B-E
B
D
(1)
V: Vertical, 3C: 3 components, SP: Short-period, BB: Broadband; (2)A: analog, D: digital;
(3)
B: basic study, E: emergency, S: structural study.
Volcano observatories in Central America followed this worldwide trend by adopting

digital data acquisition and processing systems. Table 39.1 lists the main characteristics
of the seismic monitoring systems currently operating at 30 active volcanoes of the
region (Fig. 39.1). Several seismic stations deployed at active volcanoes complement
the national seismic networks designed for the detection of tectonic earthquakes. They
are not well-suited to study volcanic seismicity for the following reasons: (1) these
1193

stations record only in trigger mode and not continuously, (2) the operation parameters
(filters and gain) are adapted for tectonic earthquakes characteristics, and (3) the large
distances between these stations and the active craters make the regional networks
unsuitable for volcanic surveillance.
Table 39.3. List of institutions quoted in Chapter 39.
Abbreviation of institution
Institution
CEPREDENAC
Centro de Coordinacin para la Prevencin de los Desastres

Naturales en Amrica Central
Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (Costa Rica)
Instituto Nicaragense de Estudios Territoriales (Nicaragua)
Instituto Nacional de Sismologa, Vulcanologa,
Meteorologa e Hidrologa (Guatemala)
Observatorio Sismolgico y Vulcanolgico de Arenal y
Miravalles (ICE, Costa Rica)
Observatorio Vulcanolgico del Arenal (UCR-ICE, Costa
Rica)
Observatorio Sismolgico y Vulcanolgico de Costa Rica
(UNA)
Red Sismolgica Nacional (UCR-ICE, Costa Rica)
Servicio Nacional de Estudios Territoriales (El Salvador)
Universidad de Costa Rica
Universidad Nacional (Costa Rica)
Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico
U.S. Geological Survey
ICE
INETER
INSIVUMEH
OSIVAM
OVA
OVSICORI
RSN
SNET
UCR
UNA
UNAM
USGS
The previous trend is now changing and Table 39.1 illustrates the strong development
of seismic monitoring in Costa Rica, Nicaragua, El Salvador and Guatemala and the
spreading of the digital technologies and computer processing. Most networks were
deployed in the 1980s and 1990s. Part of the transmission systems is still analog
because of the low-cost and maintenance easiness of the equipment. However, all the
recording systems are digital, with some drum recorders used in parallel providing
redundancy. Routine data analysis includes source location, when the number of
stations is enough, and RSAM almost everywhere. Spectral analysis is carried out
principally in Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Other monitoring methods, such as
deformation and temperature measurements or geochemical analysis are also
implemented in many volcanoes. Furthermore, several detailed studies using temporary
networks or antennas have been carried out at some volcanoes. Those deployments are
summarized in Table 39.2 and the corresponding results are discussed in Section 39.5
Many institutes are involved in volcano monitoring in Central America. Their names
and acronyms are listed in Table 39.3.
39.3.1 Guatemala
The first mechanical seismographs were installed in 1925 by the National Observatory.
At the beginning of the 1970s, the first six electromagnetic seismometers for volcano
monitoring were deployed with the collaboration of the USGS. After the February 4,
1976 earthquake, the Instituto Nacional de Sismologa, Vulcanologa, Meteorologa e
Hidrologa (INSIVUMEH) and the National Seismographic Network were created.
Digital acquisition of the seismic data began in 1989 with the support of the
CEPREDENAC. In 1992, a network of five seismic stations with vertical short-period

seismometers was installed at Fuego volcano through cooperation project with the
Swiss government. Three-components short-period digital stations were also deployed
in 2004 at Tecuamburro, Pacaya, Fuego and near Tacan volcanoes, thanks to the
cooperation of the Spanish government.
39.3.2 El Salvador
Since 1990, volcano monitoring has been carried out discontinuously using at least one
seismic station, performing some chemical analysis on the water of the Santa Ana crater
lake, and visual observations. San Miguel volcano is seismically monitored since 1984
because of its eruptive history and its elevated level of microseismicity. After the 2001
earthquakes, the Servicio Geolgico, Servicio Nacional de Estudios Territoriales
(SNET) was founded and the monitoring systems of the six main active volcanoes were
improved. Monthly reports of the volcanic activity are published at the following site:
http://www.snet.gov.sv. Cooperative projects are in progress, especially with the
Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico (UNAM) and the USGS to aid in the
preparation of volcanic hazard maps for San Miguel, Santa Ana and San Salvador
volcanoes.
39.3.3 Nicaragua
The seismic network in Nicaragua is developed and maintained by the Instituto
Nicaragense de Estudios Territoriales (INETER). Numerous seismic stations are
installed near volcanoes, with at least one short-period or a broadband seismometer
located at a distance less than 3 km to the crater of each active volcano (Fig. 39.2). All
stations signals are recorded by two SEISLOG [40, 41] and one EARTHWORM
acquisition systems [42]. EARTHWORM includes algorithms to compute the
parameters of the RSAM and SSAM that, together with the seismograms, are published
in real time on INETERs website (http://www.ineter.gob.ni/geofisica/sis/depsis.html).
RSAM was found to be a very efficient method for tracking changes in volcanic
seismicity. During the last 10 years, several volcanic eruptions were preceded by a
significant increase of the RSAM level. INETER maintains a round-a-clock monitoring
service that guarantees near real time data processing and an information and alert
messaging service in case of strong seismic events or volcanic activity. In 2004,
INETER acquired 12 new broadband stations that were distributed among six active
volcanoes: San Cristbal, Telica, Cerro Negro, Momotombo, Masaya and Concepcin.
The system includes high speed wireless digital communication (TCP/IP) to the data
center in Managua. The communications infrastructure can be used to transfer data
from multiple sensors that can complement the volcano monitoring. INETER initiated
also the use of mobile small aperture seismic arrays for monitoring and research
purposes and developed the integration of visualization tools for the seismic and
volcano monitoring network using geographical information systems (GIS). General
on-line access to interactive maps with information on earthquake locations,
meteorological conditions at volcanoes, ash cloud distribution, and satellite maps
combined with hazard maps is provided via WAN or INTERNET. All this information
is accessible by the public.
1195

Figure 39.2. Seismic network for volcano monitoring in Nicaragua.
39.3.4 Costa Rica

Seismological studies at active volcanoes in Costa Rica started in the 1960s when the
Ministry of Industries installed two stations at Pos and Iraz volcanoes in 1965 and 1966,
respectively. However, disasters such as the Arenal eruption in 1968 and the Tilarn
earthquake in 1973, prompted more detailed seismological observations in Costa Rica. In
1970, the Ministry of Industries transferred the operation of the seismic stations to the
Escuela Centroamericana de Geologa of the Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR).
At present, volcanic surveillance is carried out by different institutes and
universities, as well as government offices (Table 39.3). At Arenal volcano the Instituto
Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE) began volcanic surveillance in 1974, deploying 7
permanent seismic stations with data telemetry to the Observatorio Sismolgico de
Chiripa in Tilarn, 23 km west from the volcano (Fig. 39.3). Station FOR (Fortuna)
located 4 km east from the active crater has been used as the reference station for
seismic monitoring. In 1984 the Observatorio Sismolgico y Vulcanolgico de Costa
Rica (OVSICORI) also deployed a permanent seismic station (VACR) 2.7 km east
from the active crater. In 1994, the ICE created the Observatorio Sismolgico y
Vulcanolgico de Arenal y Miravalles (OSIVAM) and deployed 12 short-period digital

Figure 39.3. Seismic monitoring network of Arenal volcano, Costa Rica.
seismic stations, six of them in the framework of the Miravalles geothermal project and
the other ones around Arenal volcano (Fig. 39.3).
39.3.5 Panama
ChiriNet is a privately owned and operated research seismograph network surrounding
Bar volcano, in the Chiriqu province, in the northeastern part of Panama. The
network began operating in 2000 and consists presently of three short-period threecomponent stations, one broadband station and one small aperture array with eight substations. The sites are all connected by an Ethernet wireless network to a central station
that gathers data from the remote stations every half hour. Data acquisition and
processing is done with SEISLOG/SEISAN software package from the University of
Bergen [40, 41, 43]. A public FTP server (chirinet.serverftp.org) makes the event files
available to anyone.
The Bar volcano array has an aperture of about 500 meters and consists of eight
stations equipped with one to three components 4.5 Hz geophones and a 16-bit SARA
digitizer. The central computer is linked to the stations via a serial line protocol. It runs
the SEISLOG software, has a GPS receiver for time synchronization and is connected
by a wireless link to ChiriNet. The SEISLOG system runs in normal event trigger
mode. Preliminary results show that the array can make reliable azimuth and apparent
velocity measurements for the regional and local earthquakes. The collected digital
seismograms and hypocenter data are made available freely to the Institute of
Geosciences at the University of Panama, the Emergency Commission of Panama, the
Electric Power Company of Panama and to other cooperating institutions in Central
America.
In the last years, ChiriNet has detected and processed an average of 8 events per
day. They are mainly tectonic earthquakes of the Pacific Ocean, northwestern Panama
and southeastern Costa Rica. Until the time of this writing, no local seismic activity at
Bar volcano has been detected. ChiriNet is well-suited to record and locate tectonic
events but is probably not yet able to detect tremor or other small volcano-seismic
activity. To overcome this limitation, planning is underway to install a new station on
the rim of the central crater to improve the detection of small events and volcanic
tremor.
1197

39.4
OVERVIEW OF THE VOLCANIC SEISMICITY IN CENTRAL AMERICA
Seismic monitoring of volcanoes focuses on determining the background level and

characteristics of the seismic activity in order to detect unrest that could indicate a
forthcoming eruption. Table 39.4 is an overview of the main characteristics of the
seismic activity of the Central American volcanoes. We discuss below some interesting
aspects of the seismicity of several volcanoes and we describe examples of pre-eruptive
activity and early warnings that have been issued.
39.4.1 Guatemala
39.4.1.1 Tacan
In December 1985, a swarm of M < 5 VT earthquakes was detected at Tacan volcano.
In February 1986, the epicentres migrated toward the volcano and then a moderated
phreatic eruption occurred on May 8, 1986 on the NW flank producing a small crater.
The activity subsequently declined in mid-June 1986 to the present low levels [44, 45].
39.4.1.2 Santiaguito
Since 1974, the activity at Santiaguito dome consists mainly of magma extrusion and
frequent small ash explosions in the central Domo Caliente crater. The seismicity
includes 30 to 150 explosion quakes per day and 60 to 300 daily rock falls and
avalanches produced by instability of the lava flows. Numerous signals associated with
lahar activity are often detected [46].
39.4.1.3 Fuego
Fuego volcano has been very active in historic times with frequent vigorous eruptions
producing major ash falls and some pyroclastic and lava flows. Seismic activity at
Fuego is characterized by VT earthquakes, LP events, explosion quakes, tremors
signals and rock falls [47, 48]. Tremor signals have been associated to degassing with
audible noise similar to chugs or plane turbines. Explosion quakes are often
accompanied by acoustic shock waves and the strongest blasts can be audible at
distances of up to 25 km. Some LP events occur few hours before the eruptions.
Harmonic tremor has also been linked to magma ascent episodes [4850].
39.4.1.4 Pacaya
During the last decades, Pacaya volcano experienced a few large explosive eruptions
and frequent strombolian activity with intermittent lava flow extrusions [48]. Eruptive
cycles are generally preceded by short-lived (days to weeks duration) swarms of small
VT events. Larger earthquakes sometimes precede strong explosions by a few minutes.
Spasmodic or harmonic tremor is associated to lava flows in the crater or through
lateral vents. During the strombolian phases, the waveform of the explosion quakes are
either impulsive, when the high level of magma produces a lava pool in the crater, or
emergent, when the magma level is low in the conduit. Many long-lasting, highamplitude seismic signals are associated to collapses of the spatter cones.

Table 39.4. Main features of the seismo-volcanic activity.

Volcano
VT
LP
Activity(1) Activity(2)
Tremor
Type of
Activity(3) Tremor(4)
Other
events
Guatemala
Tacan
Santiaguito
1
2
0
1
0
3
Fuego
23
Pacaya
23
Tecuamburro
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
0
2
0
1
1
12
2
3
1
1
3
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
3
0
1
0
1
0
0
2
0
4
0
0
1
0
2
2
12
2
0
1
2
0
3
2
2
2
3
2
1
H,S Tens to hundreds explosion

quakes and rock falls/day
quakes/day
H,S Hundreds to thousands explosion
quakes/day
El Salvador
Santa Ana
San Salvador
Ilopango
San Vicente
San Miguel
Nicaragua
Cosigina
San Cristbal
Telica
Cerro Negro
Momotombo
Apoyeque
Nejapa-Miraflores
Tiscapa
Masaya
Apoyo
Mombacho
Concepcin
Maderas
M < 6 earthquake
H,S M < 5 earthquake at Casita
volcano, lahars
H,S
H,S M < 5 earthquake
H,S
M < 5.2 earthquake
Sparse tectonic events (1972

earthquake at Managua, M = 6.2)
M < 5.4 earthquake
H,S Lahars
Lahars
Costa Rica
Rincn de la Vieja
Miravalles
Arenal
Pos
Turrialba
Iraz
Lahars
quakes/day; rock falls
H
Hybrid
Panama
Bar
(1)
0: none, 1: sparse, 2: swarms, 3: frequent swarms; (2)0: none, 1: sparse (<10/day), 2: frequent
(10 to hundreds/day), 3: very frequent (hundreds to thousands/day); (3)0: none, 1: sparse,
2: minutes/day, 3: hours/day, 4: permanent; (4)H: harmonic, S: spasmodic.
39.4.2 El Salvador
Most of the El Salvador volcanoes are characterized by a low level of seismic activity
with less than five VT events per month. The only exception is San Miguel volcano
1199

Figure 39.4. Plot of RSAM amplitudes versus time (a) during the August 2001 eruptive episode
of San Cristbal volcano; (b) during the November 1995 eruption of Cerro Negro volcano,
registered at about 7 km from the crater; and (c) at seismic stations CRIN and CHIN located
on San Cristbal volcano and on its foot, respectively; the plot clearly shows a sharp
increment in RSAM units during lahars activity (note the time difference of the maximum of
RSAM at the two stations).
where LP events and spasmodic tremor are associated to clear increases of RSAM
lasting up to tens of hours. This seismicity seems to be related to hydrothermal activity.
39.4.3 Nicaragua
39.4.3.1 San Cristbal volcanic complex
Since 1994, when INETER started continuous seismic monitoring, enhanced
continuous seismicity has been recorded. VT events are relatively rare, but long-lasting
swarms of LP events are detected. Starting July 2003, however, the volcanic complex
entered a quiescent stage. At Casita volcano (4 km SE of San Cristbal main crater)
seismic swarms occur sporadically. Destructive earthquakes with magnitudes up to 5.0
have occurred on a fault which crosses the crater, causing the opening of shallow
fractures [51].
On May 12, 1997 an earthquake occurred between San Cristbal and Casita

volcanoes. Three days later a strong seismic activity began with more than 400 LP
events per day; the RSAM level increased continuously. INETER issued an alert
message to Civil Defense Organization. In the night of May 19, an explosive ash-rich
eruption began. In July 1998, an eruptive activity similar to that of 1997 took place. A
second alert message was issued on the night of November 20, 1999 after several hours
of seismic unrest. Similarly on early August, 2001, a large number of LP events were
detected and associated with increase on RSAM values which exceeded the level of 80
on August 12 prompting yet another alert message to Civil Defense. Between August
11 and 15, local residents and INETER scientists observed incandescence on the crater
rim. Degassing was low and minor amounts of ash were emitted [52]. On August 16,
increased temperatures were measured on the crater rim but no incandescence could be
seen. In the following days, the activity subsided and no larger eruption occurred (Fig.
39.4a).
39.4.3.2 Telica
Since 1994 enhanced LP seismicity has been recorded. Many of these events have an
initial 2030 s low-amplitude phase followed by a 3060 s duration high-amplitude
phase (Fig. 39.5). On the other hand VT events are sparse. Eruptions at Telica are
preceded by high-level seismic activity reflected on RSAM records. This was clearly
observed before the August, 1994 and May, 1999 eruptions. In the second case,
INETER successfully warned Civil Defense and the public about the eruption.
Figure 39.5. Seismogram of a typical LP event at Telica volcano. Amplitudes are in velocity
units.
39.4.3.3 Cerro Negro

The background seismicity at Cerro Negro is characterized by LP events. Harmonic
tremor and LP events often precede, accompany and follow eruption episodes and
explosions in the crater. On April 9, 1992, one of the most violent eruptions in the
history of Cerro Negro volcano started. At this time the Nicaraguan seismic network
did not yet exist. The local population felt seismic precursors one week before the
eruption. Some of those events were detected at about 20 km from Cerro Negro by a
temporary network of seismic stations deployed on Momotombo volcano. After the
eruption and until November 1992 hundreds of local seismic events were detected with
1201

three portable stations [53]. In 1995, three days before the beginning of another
eruption, a strong tremor signal lasting for two hours was detected. On May 24, the
eruption started with phreatomagmatic explosions continuing until August 1995. On
November 22, 1995 a new eruption occurred. Surprisingly, a seismic station located
500 m from the volcano did not record precursory seismic activity except for some
small events during the two hours before the eruption. A possible explanation for this
absence of precursory seismicity is that the magma had already reached the surface
during the previous eruption. Low amplitude seismic tremor, linked to explosions in
the crater, appeared at the very beginning of the eruption. After two hours, the tremor
reached large amplitudes with strong shaking being reported at distances up to 1 km
and signals recorded at distances of up to 40 km. Figure 39.4b shows the RSAM record
during the latter activity period [54].
Figure 39.6. Map of epicenters for the seismic events related to the Cerro Negro 1999 eruption.
On August 4, 1999, strong tectonic seismic activity with magnitudes up to M 5.0 was
located over a wide area between Telica (about 15 km NW) and Momotombo (15 km
SE), producing damage to infrastructures (Fig. 39.6). Twelve hours after an alert
message was issued, a surface fracture opened on the southern flank and eruption of
lava fountaining ensued [55, 56]. Seismic unrest started again in December 2003 with
relatively strong tremor and LP events. The volcano has been quiet starting April 2004.
39.4.3.4 Momotombo
Momotombo volcano is characterized by a low level seismic activity. Rarely, some episodes
of harmonic tremor can be detected. Intense swarms mainly composed of VT events occur
sporadically and are generally located at less than 5 km SE from the main crater. The swarms
are possibly related to a regional faulting zone which crosses the SE of Momotombo [57].

39.4.3.5 Masaya
High-amplitude quasi-continuous tremor at Masaya volcano is caused by the
continuous degasification from a lava reservoir below the active crater Santiago [58,
59]. Discrete seismicity is characterized by sporadic LP and explosions events related
in some cases to explosions in the crater. Volcano-tectonic seismic events in the
Masaya caldera are very rare, although unrest has been detected at Apoyo and Masaya,
as recently as 2000. Figure 39.7 shows a seismogram of a strong explosion at Santiago
crater on April 23, 2001. The explosion opened a new vent, launched a large number of
ballistics that reached as far as the visitors platform, located at 200 m from the crater
rim, causing some injuries to a group of tourists [52].
Figure 39.7. Analog seismogram of a strong explosion at Masaya volcano in 2001. Time marks
indicate one-minute intervals. Velocity amplitudes are in arbitrary units.
39.4.3.6 Concepcin
The enhanced seismicity of Concepcin volcano is characterized by LP events and by
some harmonic tremor (Fig. 39.8). On December 24, 1999 increases of the RSAM level
prompted a communication advisory to Civil Defense. Two days later, the first reports
on ash explosions were obtained from both the local population and pilots of fixedwing aircrafts who observed ash columns of several hundreds of meters above the
crater rim. This activity finished in the first week of January, 2000.
Figure 39.8. Seismogram (a) and corresponding amplitude spectrum (b) of an episode of
harmonic tremor at Concepcin volcano.
39.4.4 Costa Rica

39.4.4.1 Arenal
Geological studies at Arenal initiated in 1965 by the Departamento de Geologa of ICE
for the Arenal hydroelectrical project. Beginning 1965, manifestations of volcanic
activity were detected [6062]. However, little is known about the characteristics of the
seismic activity previous to the great 1968 eruption. According to reports, precursory
seismicity started around May, 1968 [61]. People living at Tabacn and Pueblo Nuevo
(two small towns now disappeared) reported that they felt earthquakes that increased in
number and magnitude with time (maximum magnitude MW 5.1) [6365].
Seismological investigations at Arenal volcano began shortly after the 1968
1203

Figure 39.9. Seismogram (a) of a typical volcanic tremor at Arenal volcano, and corresponding
spectrogram (b) calculated with the Burg method. Note the regularly spaced overtones. The
record has been obtained on the vertical component of a temporary broadband station located
1.8 km west from the active crater. Amplitudes are in arbitrary velocity units.
eruption [2, 66]. Since then, a large variety of seismic signals have been observed including
harmonic and spasmodic tremors, explosion quakes, LP events, and rockfall events [67].
High-resolution spectral analysis shows that harmonic tremor has a fundamental frequency
in the range 0.92 Hz with up to ten regularly spaced overtones (Fig. 39.9). Explosion
quakes are sometimes accompanied by an audible air-shock wave several seconds after the
P-wave onset and their coda frequently becomes harmonic tremor [62, 6870]. Several
volcano-tectonic swarms have been detected between 2 and 5 months before the major
pyroclastic flows originated by crater wall collapse (June 1975, August 1993, August 2000,
March 2001) [71, 72]. However, never a good location was possible. A more detailed
discussion on the seismic features of Arenal is given in Section 39.5.3.
39.4.4.2 Pos
Surface activity at Pos volcano is characterized by an intense and steady fumarolic
activity, a hot and acid water lake and an adjacent lava dome. During the last two
periods of intense phreatic eruptions, in 19891990 and 19931994, the crater lake
dried completely and an increase of the seismicity was observed. Seismological
investigations at Pos volcano began in 1965 when one station was installed in San
Pedro de Pos, 13 km SW from the active crater [73]. In 1980 this station moved to its
current location (VPS) close to the summit and became part of the network of
permanent stations operated by the Red Sismolgica Nacional (RSN). The first
seismological study using a local network was carried out by Casertano et al. [74].
They deployed three Sprengnether MQ-800 single-component stations that recorded a

Figure 39.10. Histogram of the number of events per day during the unrest of Iraz volcano in
1991. The recording station (ICR), located 2.2 km east from the main crater, has been
running during the whole crisis.
large variety of seismic events. They were classified in local or A-type events,
impulsive-explosive events, dispersive tremors and harmonic tremors. Morales et al.
[75] described the spectral characteristics of the Pos events recorded from July 1984
to June 1988. They defined a new classification based on the spectral characteristics as
follows: VT events (f > 10 Hz with clear P and S phases), B-type events (1 < f +]
harmonic tremor (1 < f +] LPSXOVLYH-explosive events (f > 10 Hz) and high
frequency tremor (f > 5 Hz). A seismic network composed of 5 MEQ-800 vertical
seismometers was deployed from February to June 1989 [76]. Using sharp P-waves
onsets, 33 low-frequency events were located. For a group of 21 events the locations
indicated a source on the east side of the crater lake. The rest of events were located
outside the main crater. Depths were usually less than 1 km and magnitudes were in the
range 1.22.6. Energy in these signals was concentrated between 1.1 and 2.4 Hz. Several
mechanisms, such as shallow fracturing and fluid movements in the hydrothermal system
have been proposed to explain the origin of this low-frequency seismicity [7476].
However, better observations with broadband seismometers and data analysis are still
necessary in order to identify the corresponding source processes.
39.4.4.3 Iraz
Before 1991, the seismic activity of Iraz was very low. Two short-lived swarms of
tectonic earthquakes occurred near the volcano in 1982 and 1987. About ten days after
the tectonic earthquake of Piedras Negras of December 22, 1990 (MS 5.8) located
50 km from the volcano, a seismic swarm started beneath Iraz. The swarm lasted for
several weeks and included events large enough to be felt in San Jos (22 km away).
After some weeks of quiescence, the Puerto Limn earthquake of April 22, 1991
(MS 7.6), 80 km away from Iraz, clearly reactivated the seismo-volcanic swarm (Fig.
39.10). A small burst of seismicity immediately followed the earthquake. Since May
25, the level of activity strongly increased until June (up to 600 events per day) and
then slowly decreased during the next months. This activity was mainly composed of
VT events in the first half of the year and of LP events thereafter. Some low amplitude
tremors have also been recorded. Most of the hypocenters have been located in the
1205

volcanic structure [78]. New fumaroles and a water lake appeared in June in the main
crater [77, 78]. The water volume reached 70,000 m3 in July and 330,000 m3 in
February, 1992. Gas analysis indicated mainly vapor with a small magmatic
contribution (Baubron, pers. comm.). No significant deformations were detected during
that episode [79]. The low level of seismic energy released and the lack of evidences
for a new magmatic intrusion support the hypothesis of a disturbance of the shallow
hydrothermal system of Iraz by the two strong tectonic earthquakes [80]. Numerical
simulations of the wavefield generated by these events showed that the corresponding
static stresses were negligible in the volcanic structure while dynamic stresses were of
the order of one bar [81]. This crisis is an example of the complex, and probably nonlinear, relationships that can exist between tectonic earthquakes and volcanic activity.
39.5
CASE STUDIES AND SPECIFIC EXPERIMENTS
Few detailed studies of either the structure or the seismic activity of Central American
volcanoes have been carried out. They generally required specific seismic experiments
with deployment of dense arrays or temporary networks (Table 39.2). The main results
obtained from these experiments are presented and discussed in this section.
39.5.1 Developments in seismic monitoring of lahars

In May 2000, after the rainy season, INETER scientists observed lahars flowing down
the southern slopes of San Cristbal volcano. At the same time strong seismic RSAM
signals were produced at two stations located at different distances to the lahars (Fig.
39.4c). In some cases the flow velocity was estimated around 20 m/s [82]. Similar
seismic observations of lahars were made at Concepcin volcano [83]. Based on those
studies, INETER initiated a pilot project with the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute to
study the causes of the landslides and lahars on the slopes of the volcanoes and to
install an early warning system. The system is based on the data of telemetric
meteorological and seismograph stations. If precipitation at the lahar source area overcomes
a given threshold an alert message is sent to Civil Defense. The seismic observations are
used to corroborate the occurrence of lahars.
39.5.2 Wave field analysis and source location of the permanent tremor of Masaya
Mtaxian et al. [39] deployed two tripartite antennas, three semi-circular arrays and a
2500 m long linear array on the flank of the active Santiago crater in 1992 and 1993.
The wave propagation direction was calculated at each array and the source location
estimated by intersecting these directions. The spatial attenuation observed along the
radial array is consistent with surface waves at short distances from the source
suggesting that it is shallow. These results confirm that the tremor originates from the
activity of the lava lake of the Santiago crater. The smooth energy decay with distance
is consistent with the lack of strong site effect [70, 84]. The data of the semi-circular
arrays were analyzed by the spatial correlation (SPAC) method [85]. The tremor wave
field is composed of a comparable amount of Rayleigh and Love waves, whose phase
velocities are in the ranges 7301240 m/s at 2 Hz and 330550 m/s at 6 Hz. The
velocity models obtained by inverting the dispersion curves are similar for the northern

and southern parts of the volcano (Table 39.5). They are characterized by one or
two 50 to 70 m thick low-velocity layers, which correspond to unconsolidated
and heterogeneous materials composed of young pyroclastic deposits and lava flows.
An underlying layer, a thickness of 130 to 180 m and velocities of VS = 9001200
m/s and VP = 2000 m/s, may correspond to the present cone structure. Finally an about
550 m thick layer with velocities of VS = 16002000 m/s and VP = 3500 m/s, can
be interpreted as the older volcanic materials placed during the calderas formation.
After geometrical spreading corrections along the linear array, the spatial attenuation
factors were also estimated [39]. The low values obtained (Q = 14 at 2 Hz and Q = 31
at 3 Hz) are typical of shallow poorly consolidated material on volcanoes. Using the
same data, Del Pezzo et al. [86] showed that the mechanism of intrinsic dissipation is
predominant over the scattering phenomena in the attenuation of tremor wave field.
Table 39.5. Seismic structure of the central crater zone of Masaya volcano(1).
Vp (km/s)
Vs (km/s)
1.0
2.0
3.5
4.85.8
0.450.6
0.91.2
1.62.0
2.74.0
Thickness (m) Depth (m)

5070
130180
510570
5070
180250
690790
Inferred composition
Poorly consolidated pyroclastic material
Postcaldera composite cones
Caldera structure
(1)
Average velocity model calculated from models obtained at three sites around the Santiago
active crater by using the spatial correlation method. An interpretation of the composition of
each layer is also proposed.
39.5.3 The sources of tremor and explosions at Arenal volcano

Most of the first seismological studies at Arenal describe the waveform and spectral
content of the signals without accounting for the temporal evolution of those
characteristics [2, 62, 64, 66, 67, 75, 8791]. The differences in the fundamental
frequency of harmonic tremor that are reported in the literature can be explained by the
phenomenon of frequency gliding [69, 9294]. In 1995 Hagerty et al. [92, 94, 96]
deployed a network of 5 broadband stations with continuous recording and, in 1997, an
array of seismometers and microphones. They made an extended analysis of the
seismic and acoustic signals and presented evidences of frequency gliding. Mora [70]
carried out high-resolution time-frequency analysis of a ten-days continuous record
obtained with a broadband station in 1997 and observed a diversity of features in the
tremor and explosion quakes that were previously not completely described. In
particular, the peak frequencies display two distinct behaviors. First, progressive
glidings are generally associated to frequency increases of up to 1 Hz, although in some
cases the frequency decreases. Those episodes last a few tens or hundreds of seconds.
Second, sudden variations of the frequency are also observed. They generally
correspond to a frequency decrease following a positive gliding. In some instances, the
source seems to alternate between two states characterized by different fundamental
frequencies, with abrupt transitions. In all cases, both odd and even overtones are
observed. Some sequences of tremor involve two simultaneous systems of spectral
peaks. Both systems are characterized by distinct fundamental frequencies, regularly
spaced harmonic peaks and clearly independent frequency glidings (Fig. 39.11). This
suggests that two sources of tremor, probably related to the two vents observed in the
active crater, could be simultaneously active during some episodes [100]. Spasmodic
tremor, characterized by broad spectral bands, may contain low amplitude spectral
1207

Figure 39.11. Spectrogram of a tremor episode at Arenal volcano involving two simultaneous
systems of spectral peaks. Note the clearly independent frequency glidings of the two
systems. The amplitudes of the seismogram are in arbitrary velocity units.
peaks and sometimes progressively evolves into harmonic tremor. The inverse process
is also observed indicating no fundamental differences between both kinds of tremor.
Explosions can be preceded or not and can be followed or not by tremor episodes. A
certain type of explosions, called whooshes, is followed by a long-lasting tremortype coda with fundamental frequency gliding from 2 to about 3 Hz [69, 70, 94]. From
the analysis of 13 years of seismic record obtained at station FOR and during the 1997
experiment, no clear systematic relationship between the occurrence of explosions and
the tremor behavior can be found [70].
One of the main challenges in volcano seismology is to infer the physical processes
involved at the sources of the seismo-volcanic events. Several model types have
been considered to explain the observations at Arenal. A 1-D fluid-filled resonator can
explain the evenly spaced spectral peaks of the harmonic tremor [67, 69]. However, the
velocity of waves in this medium must be low in order to avoid unrealistic estimations
of the conduit length. Such low velocities can be accounted either by tube waves [7, 67,
95] or by compressive waves in gas-magma mixture [69]. In these cases, small
variations of the gas content produce strong velocity changes inducing frequency
modifications [96]. A model based on nonlinear excitation of an irregular channel by
fluid flow has also been considered [21, 22, 94]. The phenomenon of period doubling
in such a nonlinear system, due to modification of the fluid-flow conditions, could
account for some observations. Nevertheless, some assumptions, such as
incompressible fluid and high fluid velocity, seem unrealistic for Arenal because of its
gas-rich magma and its low effusion rate of about 0.3 m3/s. Alternatively a repetitive
pressure transient that produces evenly spaced spectral peaks by Dirac comb effect
could also explain most of the observed features of the tremor [97]. In this case the
Figure 39.12. (a) Location of tremor sources by seismic triangulation. The triangles indicate the
positions of the tripartite arrays. The corresponding probability density functions of the backazimuth of propagation are represented in a polar diagram with 1 increments. The
corresponding scale (in %) is displayed on the upper right part of the map. The probability
density function of the source position is also displayed. Its maximum (white cross) gives the
estimated source position; (b) Seismogram for the located tremor episode.
process must have quite a stable period of repetition [94, 98]. The stabilization of the
triggering process during long time intervals suggests the existence of a feedback
mechanism, such as an interaction of the standing or traveling waves in the conduit
with a pressure valve in the solid-viscous plug at the top of the vent [99, 100].
Furthermore, a loss of regularity or synchronization of this mechanism would lead the
tremor to turn spasmodic.
Locations of the seismic sources of LP and explosion events have been achieved by
applying different methods. Alvarado et al. [67] used the time differences between the
P wave and the acoustic wave, a method proposed by Tanaka et al. [101], polarization
analysis following Del Pezzo et al. [102] and classical hypocenter determination.
Hagerty et al. [94] selected a master explosive event, which is used as a reference to
improve the estimation of the P wave arrival times for a set of events recorded at
different stations. The mean of those arrival times is calculated and used for the
location. Mtaxian et al. [37] designed a method based on the deployment of small
aperture triangular arrays and a probabilistic approach and tested it on the tremor and
explosions of Arenal. Results from all the methods show that the explosive events are
located inside the volcanic edifice. Mtaxians method yields the identification of a
seismogenic region with a radius of about 500 m centered at the active crater and
provides source locations even for the tremor (Fig. 39.12).
39.5.4 Shallow structure of Arenal volcano

The shallow structure of Arenal flanks has been studied using a combination of
different methods. ICE carried out two seismic refraction profiles and two vertical
geoelectric surveys at the west and east flanks. They obtained detailed 2D velocity
models for depths of up to 150 m [84, 103]. Several layer-like structures were
identified on the profiles. A first layer, with Vp < 1950 m/s and thickness between 20
and 140 m, is associated to unconsolidated tephras. The next layer is characterized by
Vp ranging from 2100 to 3900 m/s and may correspond to breccias and lava flows.
1209

Figure 39.13. Shallow velocity structure of the western flank of Arenal, calculated using the
spatial correlation method. Data were obtained from a 60-m radius semicircular array with
stations every 30.
Ancient rocks formed by volcanism previous to Arenal activity probably compose the
deepest layer. The models present several low-velocity anomalies, associated to active
faults, and strong lateral variations of velocity, resistivity and layer thickness that may
reflect the complex structure of the volcano [84]. Two deeper vertical soundings were
carried out at 3.5 km NE and 2.5 km W from the crater, by using the spatial correlation
method [85] (Fig. 39.13). All the velocity models obtained are characterized by layers
with very low velocity at the surface and large impedance contrasts at some interfaces
that can induce resonance of the shallow layers [70]. These resonances are associated
to site effects that strongly disturb the seismic wave amplitudes, yielding important
distortions in the curves of energy as a function of distance along linear arrays. This
phenomenon was studied by applying the H/V spectral ratios method [84, 104, 105]
and by calculating the theoretical S-wave transfer functions of the local velocity
models. These methods give reliable results in volcanic areas and show good
consistency between the observed and calculated resonance frequencies.
39.6
CONCLUSIONS
Central America is clearly identified as a region with elevated volcanic hazards (see
Chapter 38). The subsequent need of mitigation measures and the non-availability of
enough effective monitoring systems and methods made necessary the close monitoring
of all the active volcanoes of the region. Despite the relevant developments achieved in
the last two decades, various technical hurdles need to be overcome and basic studies are
still required to establish fully operational monitoring systems in every country.

Surveillance capabilities should include greater numbers of one- and three-component

seismograph stations on each volcano, the use of seismometers with improved dynamic
range and band width, digital data acquisition and communication systems, and the
integration of other sensors and methods, such as traditional deformation measurements
and geochemistry as well as multiparameter measuring stations. Progress in eruption
forecast will also depend on more accurate data analysis, such as automatic event
detection, classification and characterization or source location. The integration of the
different observations will surely result in a better interpretation of the volcanic system.
The corresponding improvements are already either in progress or planned, although their
conditions and advancements are quite different from one country to another. The main
difficulties encountered everywhere in the region are the lack of expertise at the PhD
and MSc level in volcano seismology and in digital data communication and acquisition
technologies, insufficient technical staff, plus inadequate funding. Also, better
coordination and cooperation between the scientific teams of the volcanic observatories,
the civil defense authorities and the governments is still needed in some countries.
The improvement of volcanic hazard mitigation also requires basic research on the
Central American volcanoes. Besides some works of the shallow structure of Masaya
and Arenal volcanoes, no structural study has been ever done with seismic methods
such as tomography. Moreover, detailed investigations on the physical mechanisms
involved in the seismic sources or on the relationship between seismic activity and
volcanic processes would be useful. The level of seismic and volcanic activity, the
great variety of observed phenomena and the relative accessibility of many volcanoes
in Central America make them outstanding scenarios for fruitful research. All the
institutions in charge of volcano monitoring are interested in developing international
collaborations in this widely open field.
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San Jos, 2000.
2. Minamaki, T., Utibori, S. & Hiraga, S.: The 1968 Eruption of Volcano Arenal, Costa Rica.
Bull. Earthquake Res. Inst. 47 (1969), pp.783302.
3. Richter, C.F.: Elementary Seismology. W.H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, 1958.
4. Latter, J.H.: Volcanological observations at Tongariro National Park: 2. Types and
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1215
Chapter 40
Earthquake-induced landslides
CARLOS E. RODRGUEZ
Many surface cracks and landslides
developed in the Sierra de Texacuangos.
There was also a series of numerous and
strong earthquakes [earthquake of May 23,
1575, in El Salvador]. F. Montessus de
Ballore: Temblores y erupciones volcnicas
en Centro Amrica, 1884.
40.1
INTRODUCTION
Earthquake-induced landslides have caused tens of thousand of deaths and billions of

dollars in losses worldwide [1, 2]. In fact, in many earthquakes, secondary effects such
as landslides have caused as much or more damage than the seismic shaking. This has
been especially seen in Central America where geology, climate and geotechnical
conditions make the area very prone to landsliding during heavy rains and/or during
moderate-to-strong earthquakes. The first case documented of landslides during
earthquakes in Central America was during the 1541 Guatemalan earthquake reported
by Gutenberg [3] One of the most damaging cases was the 1991 Valle de La Estrella
earthquake in Costa Rica (MW 7.7) which caused the greatest damage in the history of
the country. The environmental damage produced included extensive landsliding,
destruction of primary tropical rainforest, soil erosion, floods, silting of rivers and the
Caribbean Sea, liquefaction, tectonic uplift and exposure of extensive areas of coral
reefs. This earthquake cost the country 8.5% of the 1991 Gross National Product
(GNP) and an average loss of 2% of the GNP in the years following the earthquake [4].
Earthquakes have been an important trigger of landslides in Central America;
however, earthquake magnitude alone does not reflect the effects on landslide
characteristics. Types and distribution of landslides are also affected by the
susceptibility of slopes to failure, which in turn depends on slope geometry, lithology,
and antecedent climatic conditions [2, 5]. Rural poverty, overpopulation and
uncontrolled urbanization result in settlement on hillsides and on the banks of ravines,
creating an ever-increasing exposure to the hazard of earthquake-induced landslides in
this region of high seismic activity. Although the landslides triggered by earthquakes in
these slopes are often small, in densely populated areas the risk that they present is
potentially deadly. Furthermore, the numbers of landslides triggered by earthquakes in
Central America is often disproportionately high compared with other areas [5].
In regions with pronounced topographical relief such as much of Central America,
programs of seismic risk mitigation must address the collateral hazard caused by
landslides. A prerequisite of an effective and realistic seismic risk mitigation program
is a quantitative assessment of the distribution and magnitude of the risk. The
assessment of the hazard of earthquake-induced landslides can be performed at

1218 LANDSLIDES AND TSUNAMIS
different levels ranging from regional studies to the site-specific evaluation of

individual slopes.
This chapter presents data on earthquake-triggered landslides in Central America
with special emphasis on the earthquake characteristics, landslides typology and
lithology, and the influence of rainfall. Implications of these factors on hazard
assessment in the region are also explored. The basic approach of the method
developed by Mora and Vahrson [7] provides a useful framework although application
of the method to geological and topographical environments different from that in
which it was developed requires modification. A new method has been developed by
Rodrguez [2], modified by Len and Torres [8] and applied by Rodrguez et al. [9] for
the specific conditions of the 2001 El Salvador earthquakes. This method is shown to
improve significantly the hazard assessment practice for the region.
40.2
GENERAL SETTING
The largest earthquakes in the region are produced by the convergence of the Cocos
and Caribbean plates in the Middle America trench situated in the Pacific Ocean. These
earthquakes have their foci in Benioff-Wadati zones within the subducted Cocos plate,
extending to depths of about 200 km [10]. The seismicity of this subduction zone is
lower than that in the neighboring zone of convergence between the Cocos and North
American plates offshore Mexico. Earthquakes in the subduction zone have caused
appreciable damage although the general pattern is one of the moderately high
intensities over large areas rather than exceptionally strong ground shaking because of
the location of the earthquake foci offshore or at depths of several tens of kilometers [5].
Large earthquakes are also produced along the boundary between the North
American and Caribbean plates, defined by a zone of large, sub-parallel left lateral
strike-slip faults that run through Guatemala (Polochich-Motoya fault zone) from the
Swan fracture zone in the Caribbean Sea. The earthquakes generated along these
transcurrent faults, although less frequent, contribute to seismic hazard in northern
Central America more than the subduction earthquakes because of their shallow focus
and the proximity of many population centers to the faults.
A great deal of destruction in Central America has been caused by earthquakes
generated in the upper crust along the chain of Quaternary volcanoes. These
earthquakes are generally tectonic rather than volcanic in origin, occurring on strikeslip faults associated with a shear zone induced by an oblique component of the CocosCaribbean collision [11]. The earthquakes in the volcanic chain zone are generally of
moderate magnitude, usually in the range of MS 5.56.5, but due to their shallow focal
depths and coincidence with areas of highest population density, they result in very
high seismic risk.
The tectonics of southern Central America is particularly complex, with interaction
of four major tectonic plates and a number of micro-plates on their boundaries. Shallow
earthquakes of moderate to large magnitude occur on the Caribbean coast in the Costa
Rica-Panama border region and in the northernmost segment of the Panamanian
isthmus. These earthquakes are generally associated with thrust faults of shallow dip.
The region is tropical, with annual mean temperature variations of only a few
degrees and the mean temperature at sea-level during the coldest month not dropping
below 19C, although at higher altitudes lower temperatures are encountered.

Figure 40.1. Climatic regimes in the Central American area; numbers correspond to rainfall
diagrams of Figure 40.2 (modified after Portig [12]).
The climatic setting for each case is defined by the average rainfall annual distribution
classified according to Portig [12]. This author proposed the climatic regimes shown in
Figure 40.1; regimes for specific areas affected by landslides during earthquakes in the
region are also presented in Table 40.1. Figure 40.2 shows the annual rainfall
distribution for each regime.
From Figure 40.2 it can be seen that the entire region experiences a rainy season
that begins in May and extends to October although to the south it lasts somewhat
longer, extending into December in Costa Rica and Panama. The rainfall throughout
Central America has two maxima, in June and September, which usually account for
between 15 and 20% of the annual totals. The dry season is much more intense on the
Pacific side than on the Caribbean side.
Annual rainfall totals generally decrease from south to north, reaching 4000 mm at
the Panama-Colombia border and reducing to less than half of this amount in northern
Guatemala. There are, however, important local variations within this trend, including a
belt of steppe conditions through Guatemala and Honduras into north-western
Nicaragua, where annual totals stay below 1000 mm. By contrast, there are also areas
of excessively high rainfall, such as the Guatemalan highlands where the annual total is
about 3200 mm. On the crests of lesser mountains and on the slopes of higher
mountains in Costa Rica, annual rainfalls exceed 6000 mm.
40.3
OVERVIEW OF LANDSLIDES CAUSED BY EARTHQUAKES
Reports of earthquake-induced landslides in Central America have been collected from

a wide variety of sources and summarized elsewhere [5]. Bommer and Rodrguez [5]
also presented and discussed the seismicity and earthquake characteristics for events
1219
MS2)
Damage4)
Rainfall Min. intensity

regime related
to land-slides
(MMI)3)
Min. acceleration related to

farthest disrupted slide5) (g)
Area affected
by landslides
(km2)
Low6)/high7)
Geology8)
Max. epicentral
distance (km)
Coherent/Disrupted/
Flows
Type9)
Guatemala
G1 1541-09-11
2
G2
1585 5.46.0
2
1586
G3 1717-09-29 6.36.5
1
G4 1765-06-02
6.5
2
G5 1765-10-24
6.5
4
G6 1773-07-29
6.5
2
G7 1816-07-22
7.6 25
G8 1821-05-06
6.2
2
G9 1855-01-12
G10 1862-12-19
7.2
1
G11 1870-05-12 5.76.0
1
1870-06-12
G12 1874-09-03
6.0
2
G13 1885-12-18
6.0 12
G14 1902-04-19
7.5
2
G15 1917-12-26
5.6
1
1917-12-29
5.2
G16 1942-08-06
7.9
1
G17 1945-08-10
5.7
5
G18 1976-02-04
7.5 25
G19 1991-09-18
6.1 12
Vc
VII
VII
VII
C, Ct, RD
Vc
Vc
Rd
C, Rd, RD
Vc
Vc
Vc, Re, Al
VII
VII
Rd
VII
(>47/>300), Td, Ct
C, RD
Rd
VI
(237/22,700), Rd,
Td, RD, Cm
Rd
30000/5000
--/185/--
0.07
0.15
20000*/-6000/--
--/110/--
0.23
6500/-6500/-16000/12000
--/95/--
0.06
--/270/110
Vc
Vc
Vc
Vc, IR
Vc, Re
Vc, IR
Sl, F
GC
Sl
Sl, GC, F
Sl
Sl, Rf
Sl, GC
Sl, Rf
Sl
GC
Sl, GC, Lq
Sl, F
Sl, F, GC
Sl, GC
Sl, GC, RSl
Sl
Sl
GC, Lq
Vc, Co, Al, Sl, LS, Slu, Rf, F,
IR, De
Lq
Sl
Re, Vc

No. Date1)
Table 40.1. Earthquakes inducing landslides.
2
11
11
Al
Al, Re
RD, Td
Sl, Av
Sl, GC
Sl, GC
Sl, GC, Rf
El Salvador
ES1
ES2
ES3
ES4
ES5
ES6
ES7
ES8
ES9
ES10
ES11
ES12
1575-05-23
7.1*
4
1719-03-06
7.2 24
1765-03/04
6.0
4
1776-05-30
7.2 12
1839-03-22
6.0
4
1854-04-16
6.0
4
1854-06-18
2
1857-11-06
6.0
4
1859-12-08
7.2
1
1860-12-03
6.0
4
1873-02-22 6.26.5
4
1873-03-19
1878-10-02 6.77.2
2
1879-12-20
4
1)
VIII
VII
VIIVIII
VII
VII
VI
VI
VI
VII
VII
V
VII
Vc
many, Td, RD, Rd
RD
(14)
Td, Ct
0.33
0.14
0.22
150/--
190/--
--/20/-95/--/-25/--/--
Vc
Vc
Vc
Vc
IR(?)
Vc,
Vc, Co
Vc
Vc
Sl, GC
GC
Sl
Sl, GC, F, Lq
Sl, GC
Slu, GC
Slu
Sl, GC
GC, Lq(?)
GC
Sl, Rf, GC
Vc
Vc
Sl
Sl, Mf, Lq
Cursive dates refer to subduction events; 2)Magnitudes before 1900 taken from Peraldo and Montero [72], Values with asterisk are Ml magnitudes; MS:
surface wave magnitude, Ml: local magnitude; 3) MMI: Modified Mercali Intensity; 4)Socioeconomic damage associated to landslides: (#d/#t) number of
deaths due to landslides over total number of deaths, Rd: roads blocked; Aq: damage in water supply systems; C: cultivated area destroyed; Ct: cattle died;
RD: river dammed; Td: towns destroyed; Cm: communication lines destroyed; Ri: railway blocked; Es: electric station damaged; (?): contradictory or not
precise information; Bd: bridge damaged; TF: tropical forest destroyed; Hb: houses buried; Sd: school damaged; Pt: port affected; Ca: Panama canal
interrupted; 5)Accelerations estimated by using the appropriate attenuation relationship; 6)Areas of low-intensity landsliding truncated by coastline are noted
by an asterisk; 7) Low and High in table refers to area enclosing low and high landslide concentration, respectively; 8) Natural deposits in which landslides
were reported: Re: residual soil; Co: coastal deposits; Col: colluvial; Al: alluvial; Vc: volcanic soil; IR: igneous rock; Lq: liquefaction; De: deltaic
deposit; La: lacustrine deposits; 9)Failure type: Sl: disrupted slides; Slu: slumps; Rf: rock falls; LS: lateral spreads; GC: ground cracks; SSl: submarine
slides; RSl: rock slides; (?): contradictory or not precise information.
1630H1
H2 1774-10-14 5.46.0
H3 1820-10-19
6.0
H4 1856-08-04
7.2
1221
Honduras
MS2)

regime related
to land-slides
(MMI)3)
Damage4)
Max. epicentral
Geology8)
distance (km)
Coherent/Disrupted/
Flows

Area affected
by landslides
(km2)
Low6)/high7)
0.23
0.25
0.23
0.36
0.27
0.27
0.14
0.38
4400/2200
860/160
400/-100*/-190/-250/-6500*/350
300/80
--/85/---/20/---/25/---/25/---/20/---/20/---/100/-10.5/15.5/10
Re, Vc, Co
Vc
Vc
Vc
Vc
Vc
Vc, Re
Vc, Al, IR
0.09
8700/1670
170/170/195
Vc, Al, IR
Type9)
El Salvador (continued)
1915-09-07
1919-04-28
1936-12-20
1947-01-26
1951-05-06
1965-05-03
1982-06-19
1986-10-10
7.7 42
4
5.9
6.1
1
6.7
2
6.0
2
6.0
4
7.3 21
5.4
4
VII
VIVII
VIVII
VII
VII+
VIII
VI
VVI
ES21 2001-01-13
7.6 21
VI
ES22 2001-02-13
6.5
1527/1529 5.06.0
1570
6.0
1609/1610 6.06.9
1849-10-27
7.0
1858-05-11
7.0
1931-03-31
6.2
1951-08-02
5.8
1951-08-03
6.0
4.6*
N8 1968-01-04
6.2
N9 1972-12-23
5.8
N10 1974-03-06
8b
8b
8b
2
8b
8b
2
ES13
ES14
ES15
ES16
ES17
ES18
ES19
ES20
VVI
Rd, Cm
Rd, Ri
Rd
(200/1500), Hb,
Rd, Es
(>485/944), Rd,
Hd, RD
Rd, Hd, RD
Vc, Al, IR
Sl, Slu, Rf, SSl

Sl
Sl, GC
Sl
Sl, SSl
Sl, LS, Lq
Sl
Sl, Rf, RSl, Slu,
GC, F
Sl, Rf, RSl, Slu,
GC, F
Sl, Rf, RSl, Slu,
GC, F
Nicaragua
N1
N2
N3
N4
N5
N6
N7
8b
8b
2
(400), Td
Rd
Aq
(many), Td
VII
VII
VI
Rd, Aq(?)
0.54
0.72
20/--
--/20---/4.5/--
0.26
0.70
15/-35/--
--/2/---/5/--
IR
Vc
Vc
Vc
Vc
Co
Vc, La
Rf
F
Sl
Sl, Slu
Sl
Sl, GC
Sl, F
Vc
Vc, Al
Vc
GC, Slu, Sl
Sl, Rf, Lq(?)
Sl

No. Date1)

Costa Rica
1772-02-15
5.7 8b-11
1822-05-07
7.5 8b-11
1841-09-02
6.5
8b
1853-08-24 5.46.0
8b
1854-08-08
7
1888-12-30
6.0
8b
CR7 1900-06-21
CR8 1905-01-07?
CR9 1910-04-14
1910-05-04
1910-10-18?
1910-10-22?
CR10
a 1911-08-29
b 1911-10-10
c 1912-02-22
d 1912-06-06
CR11 1913-02-11?
CR12 1916-02-27
1916-05-16
CR13 1924-03-04
CR14 1926-11-05
CR15 1941-12-05
CR16 1950-10-05
CR17 1951-08-21
CR18 1952-12-30
7.2
5.8
6.4
5.8
6.5
5.1
8b
8b
8b
VI
Aq
(5), Hd, RD, Rd,
C, TF
Rd(?)
V(?)
8b
0.03
13500/--
245/--/67
Vc(?)
Al, Re, Vc
0.13
210/80
--/21/--
Al, Re
Sl(?)
GC, F
Sl
GC
Sl
Sl
Rd(?)
Rd
0.09
Hd
0.26
Aq
(some), Hd, TF, Bd 0.19
15/4
90/6
15/--/-12/--/--
70/10
20/--/--
Ri, RD
0.16
3500/--
45/--/--
7.3
8b
8b
7.0
7.0
7.6
7.9
8b
8b
7
8b
VI
Rd, Ri, RD, Ct
0.12
900/56
--/50/--
VIII
VI
Ri, Hd, TF, Ct

Rd ,Ri, Aq, Pt
0.12
0.06
2500/-620/--
15/65/-96/96/156
5.9
8b
VI
0.15
130/9
--/18/--
CR19 1955-09-01
CR20 1973-04-14
5.8
6.5
11
8b
VI
0.22
0.23
50/2
180/20
--/8/---/15/15
CR21 1982-09-24
CR22 1983-04-03
3.7*
7.2
8b
7
VII
VII
(21/21), Ct, Hd,

RD, Rd
Rd, Hd
(23/23), RD, Rd,
Hb
Ri, Rd, Hd,Cm, Bd 0.15
3300/--
55/--/23
VII
Sl, F
GC, LS, F, Sl, Lq
Sl, GC
Sl, GC,
Sl, LS
Sl, , LS, F, GC
Re, Vc
Al(?), Vc
Sl, GC
Sl
Sl
Re, Al?, Vc Sl, GC, F
Sl
Re, Vc, Co Sl, GC
LS
Al, Re(?)
Sl, Slu, GC, Rf, F
Sl, F
Co, Al
Sl, Slu, LS, Lq
Co, Re
Sl, Slu, SSl
GC, Sl
Vc, Re
Sl, LS, F
Vc, Re
Sl, F
Vc, Re,
Sl, Slu, GC, Rf,
Al(?), IR(?) LS, F
Sl
Al, Co, Re LS, Slu, GC, Lq
CR1
CR2
CR3
CR4
CR5
CR6
1223
Date1)
MS2)
Damage4)

regime related
to land-slides
(MMI)3)

Area affected
by landslides
(km2)
Low6)/high7)
Geology8)
Max. epicentral
distance (km)
Coherent/Disrupted/
Flows
Type9)
Costa Rica (continued)

CR23 1983-07-03
CR24 1990-03-25
6.1
7.0
1990-03-25
CR25 1983-06-03
1990-07-23
CR26 1991-04-22
7.1
5.1
5.1
7.6
CR27
1991-08
CR28 1993-07-10
1993-07-13
CR29 2003-12-25
4.3*
5.7
4.8
6.6
8b
8b
Rd, Sd, Aq
Rd, Aq(?)
0.11
0.06
270/29
--/31/---/120/--
Re, IR, Vc
Re, Vc(?),
Re, Co
8b
Rd
0.09
390/9
--/25/--
C, Bd, RD, TF, Rd,

Aq, Ct, Ri
Hd, Rd
0.09
2000*/75
0.20
20/--
Re, Al, Co, Sl

Vc
Re, Al, Co, Sl, LS, Rf, Lq
De
Sl
Re
Sl
11
VII
8b
11
--/100/100
--/10/--
Sl, Rf
Sl
Al, Co, IR
SI, RSI, GC
170/170/350
--/130/---/60/60
--/150/---180/100
Al, Co
Re, Al, La
Re, Al, Co
85/33/33
55/--/-12/--/--
Co, Re
Al, Vc
Co, Re, IR
Slu, LS, GC, SSl

Sl, F
Sl, GC, LS, SSl, Lq
Sl
Sl, GC, LS, SSl, F, Lq
Sl
Sl, Slu, GC, LS
Sl
Sl, Rf
Panama
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8
P9
1882-09-07
1904-12-20
1913-10-02
1914-05-28
1916-04-26
1921-10-17
1934-07-18
1974-07-13
1976-07-11
7.9 79
6.8 8b10
6.7 78b
6.4 79
6.9 1011
5.2 79
7
7.5
7
7.3
7
6.7
VI
V
VII
Rd, Ri, Cm
RD, Ri, Bd
Rd, RD, Cm
VI
RD, Ri, Cm
0.03
0.07
0.08
0.03
0.03
Ca
(5)
0.11
0.05
0.26
10000/4000
15000*/-2600*/-30000/--
450/--
Co, Re, Al

No.

after 1898. Table 40.1 presents the cases that have been identified so far in the region.
The database compiles cases up to and including the 2003 Costa Rica earthquake. It
should be noted that there are some clusters of multiple events, which are characteristic
of the seismicity of the region. Surface wave magnitude is presented as a uniform
measure of earthquake magnitude size for all the events.
40.3.1 Earthquake-induced landslides in Central America

Some landslides induced by earthquakes in Central America were reported by
Montessus de Ballore [13, 14], who in 1884 compiled a database of earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions in Central America, which was accompanied by a brief description
of damage, including landslides. This database includes a report related to the 1541
Guatemala earthquake which destroyed the old Guatemala city (Antigua Guatemala).
This report includes the description of a landslide after a strong earthquake on 11th
September; this slide was favored by intense rainfalls during the two days prior the
earthquake. In 1924 Montessus de Ballore published the book called La Gologie
Seismologique where he presents a detailed description of geological effects due to
earthquakes worldwide, including the 1879 El Salvador earthquake, which induced
landslides.
More recently Bommer and Rodrguez [5] compiled a comprehensive database of
earthquake-induced landslides in Central America; they documented landslide types,
distribution, and the relationship to seismic intensity. They concluded that the hazard
due to earthquake-induced landslides is far from uniform throughout Central America,
showing that the hazard is high only in Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala and
Panama, and that there exist important differences in nature of earthquake-induced
landslides between the countries of northern and southern Central America.
Liquefaction and lateral spreads constitute an important component of the landslide
hazard and have contributed to significant damage due to earthquakes in Costa Rica
and Panama, and to a far smaller extent in El Salvador and Nicaragua. Submarine
slides have also produced damaging effects in the region, but again their significance is
far greater in the southern part of the isthmus than in the north.
40.3.1.1 Guatemala
The first attempts to characterize hazard due to earthquake-induced landslides in
Central America were presented by Plafker et al. [15] and Harp et al. [16]. They
described the general distribution of landslides during the 1976 Guatemala earthquake
and related landslide occurrences to lithology, climatic conditions, relief, and
earthquake shaking intensity. According to Harp et al. [16], lithology, mainly volcanic
ash deposits, and multiple rupture characteristics of the earthquake played an important
role in extension affected by landslides, whereas the tension stresses induced by
seismic waves were suggested to control the failure mechanism.
40.3.1.2 Honduras
Landslides in Honduras have been little studied as reported by King [17]. This author
compiled the state of landslide significance in Honduras to that date, however, the lack
of geologic and landslide surveys in the country made the analysis very difficult. This
situation is worse for earthquake-induced landslides, since earthquakes are not clearly
1225

Figure 40.2. Monthly rainfall for climatic regimes in Central America; numbers correspond to
climate regimes from Figure 40.1 (modified after Portig [12]).
identified as a trigger by King in Honduras. The only reference of earthquake-induced

landslides in this country is the database of macroseismic intensities presented by Sutch
[18], which includes landslide occurrence; however, these reports do not include
detailed description of these events. As stated by King, landslide hazard in Honduras is
related more to rainfall-induced than to earthquake-induced landslides as was shown by
damage produced during the Fifi and Mitch hurricanes in 1974 and 1998, respectively.
For El Salvador, data compiled from literature review of earthquake-induced landslides
were presented by Rymer and White [19]. They presented the main characteristics of
these earthquakes and the distribution of areas affected by landslides they caused.
These authors stated that the contour for Mercalli Modified Intensity VII is a minimum
estimate of the limit for earthquake-induced landslides; furthermore, they suggest that
the contour of MMI VI best approximates the limits of landslides associated with an
earthquake. No evidence that this relation can be generalized has been found, and
occurrence of landslides in lower levels of intensity depends strongly on slope
susceptibility. Although major concentration of landslides has been found to correlate
with volcanic tuff distribution, there are other susceptible lithologies such as residual,
lacustrine, deltaic and coastal deposits, which are spread around the country. Principal
events, which have induced landslides are the 1982 and the January 2001 subduction
earthquakes and the 1986 and February 2001 volcanic chain earthquakes [5].
40.3.1.4 Nicaragua
Earthquake-induced landslides in Nicaragua are uncommon compared with rainfallinduced landslides due mainly to the low topography; however, some cases, currently
localized along the inner walls of volcanic craters, barrancas, and road cuts, have been
reported [5]. Rock slumps and rock falls have also been identified as failure

mechanisms induced during earthquakes in Nicaragua, as was the case during the 1849
and the 1972 earthquakes. Alluvial deposits have also reported to fail during
Nicaraguan earthquakes as reported during the 1972 earthquake. Mombacho volcano
contains two large breached craters: the northern one is the source of the Isletas de
Granada, a group of islets in Lake Nicaragua, composed of forested debris avalanche
hummocks. The southern crater has formed as a result of a debris avalanche in 1570
triggered by an earthquake and heavy rain. Spanish conquistadores accounts report
that the entire south side of Mombacho slid and destroyed an Indian village, killing 400
people [20].
40.3.1.5 Costa Rica
Landslides during earthquakes have been an important source of damage in Costa Rica.
Mora [21] showed that most severe Costa Rican earthquakes have triggered landslides
since a long time ago. He showed a summary of these cases including events during the
period 1888 to 1993. From these events the Prez Zeledn earthquake in 1983 and the
Limn earthquake in 1991 produced large areas of destruction by landslides.
Although very small landslides were triggered in 1989 on Costa Rican volcanic slopes
during very low magnitude (MS 4.04.6) swarm earthquakes at shallow depths less than
10 km [22], usually in this region landslides have occurred in earthquakes with
magnitude greater than MS 5.1, and extension and distribution of landslides have been
shown to be dependent on the climatic conditions. On the other hand, Mora [21] found a
very close relationship between slope susceptibility and topographic roughness, which
was defined by the relative relief. Slope failures in Costa Rica frequently occurred in
areas of residual soil composed of the weathered products of volcanic rocks. Deep
layers of residual soils on moderate to gentle slopes tend to fail as coherent slides: as
slumps when the soil is more uniform and continuous and as block slides when the soil
presents discontinuity surfaces. Shallow deposits on steep slopes fail as translational
slides along the rock-soil interface, which additionally acts as a permeability barrier
increasing the susceptibility during short but intense rainfalls; this was the case during
the Limn earthquake in 1991 which was preceded by intense rainfalls. Some cases
have been reported on volcanic soil slopes, particularly along vertical slopes of ravines.
Liquefaction and lateral spreads have also been observed during earthquakes in Costa
Rica affecting coastal, lacustrine and alluvial deposits [21, 23, 24].
40.3.1.6 Panama
Stewart and Stewart [25] summarized the landslide significance in Panama including
the sliding as a result of seismic shaking. These authors reported that portions of the
Panama railroad were destroyed by sliding during the 1882 earthquake; these slides
occurred in the constructed fill areas across the deep swamps on which the railroad was
constructed. Submarine landslides were reported to destroy banana docks during the
1914 and 1934 earthquakes in Puerto Armuelles and Tonosi, respectively. However,
Stewart and Stewart stated that the greatest damage due to earthquake-induced
landslides in Panama was caused by the series of earthquakes in July 1976. This
seismic activity took place during the rainy season characterized by intense rainfalls
able to saturate the ground favoring soil liquefaction and massive sliding causing
extensive deforestation in tropical forest areas [26]. Camacho and Viquez [27]
compiled a database of historical earthquakes in Panama including description of
geological effects such as landslides and liquefaction; they also reported landslides
1227

during the 1913 and 1914 earthquakes. Camacho (pers. comm., 2001) mentions a large
landslide at the Culebra Cut on the Panama canal during an earthquake on 13th July 1974.
40.3.2 Landslide mechanisms
Earthquake-induced landslides in Central America are of many different types and are
initiated in areas exhibiting a wide range of materials and characteristics, which are
summarized in Table 40.1. Landslide types include fast-moving falls and disrupted
slides; low-moving coherent block slides and slumps in volcanic and residual soil are
also frequent. Liquefaction of man-made fills and alluvial deposits are commonly
reported after earthquakes in the area. Subaqueous slides have been inferred along the
coastal deposits. These slides may fissure, displace, or remove materials from source
areas. As can be seen from Tables 40.1 and 40.2 earthquake-induced landslides in
Central America are generated mainly on residual, alluvial, volcanic-ash, and volcanicrock deposits [1, 2, 7]. Residual soils having slopes steeper than 35 are particularly
susceptible. In tropical environments such as in Central America, such slopes are
generally densely vegetated, and landslide damage is more dramatic in terms of
environmental changes (Fig. 40.3a). When a residual soil is relatively shallow,
common on steep slopes, failure tends to occur along the soil/rock interface [2]. As a
result of the shallow permeability barrier in residual soils, short, intense rainfalls
commonly perch subsurface water. Consequently, earthquakes that occur shortly after
intense rainfalls in areas covered by residual soils are especially likely to trigger
landslides such as the 1974 Panama earthquake and the 1991 Limn earthquake in
Costa Rica.
40.3.2.1 Rock falls
Rock falls are one of the most common landslides during earthquakes [1, 2, 28]; they
originate on slopes steeper than 40 and come to rest on talus accumulation at the base
of the slope on which they originate (Fig. 40.3b). Most individual rock falls triggered
during historical earthquakes are very small in volume. This kind of movement can
have very great travel distances and can cause great damage to structures far from the
base of the slope. In Central America, however, earthquake-triggered rock falls
generally have traveled short distances. They typically have presented a hazard only to
developments located near the bases of slopes from which they have failed. These falls
have commonly occurred in road and river cut slopes usually causing traffic disruption.
Lithology units producing most rock falls included extensively fractured metamorphic
rocks and volcanic tuffs. During the 1983 Costa Rica earthquake many rock falls were
reported. These slides consisted of the free fall of volcanic rocks as big as 0.5 m3; one
of these blocks fell into a primary school in Siberia destroying two class rooms without
fatalities thanks to the fact that the earthquake occurred on a Sunday [29, 30].
Individual rock block falls, during the January 2001 earthquake in El Salvador,
were more common in the rocks of the El Blsamo formation because of the prevalence
of persistent discontinuities in the form of bedding and cooling joints. Highly altered
layers of volcanic rock also acted as aquitards [31].
40.3.2.2 Soil falls
Soil falls are probably the most common landslides during Central American
earthquakes; these slides usually are small volumes of disrupted volcanic or residual

Table 40.2. Landslide mechanisms and materials involved during earthquake-induced landslides
in Central America.
Slope
type
Failure
mechanism
Description
Sliding
^'HWDFKPHQWRISDUWRIWKHVRLOPDVVE\ZD\RIVOLGLQJDORQJ
a shearing surface or within a relatively thin shear zone,
which may be straight or curvilinear. Common in fills on
flood plains.
^6XGGHQFROODSVHRIWKHPHWDVWDble soil structure within a
loose soil mass in the slope when it is subjected to a high
degree of saturation under sustained shear stresses, resulting
in a significant reduction in soil shear strength and leading to
a flowslide type failure. Extensive ground cracking.
Fill slope
Liquefaction
Volcanic soil slope

Sliding
Falls
Flows
^7UDQVODWLRQDOVOLGLQJRQEDVDOVKHDUVXUIDFHRU]RQHRI
weakness, usually interface between layers from different
volcanic events or between volcanic ashes and lava flow
layers. Ground cracks.
^'HHS-seated slumps when weathering of surface volcanic
layers have developed homogeneous soil.
Free fall of soil blocks formed by wetting-drying fissures or
by root action. Usually occurs in either natural (ravines) or
artificial cuts with very steep slope face.
^+LJKPRELOLW\RIYROFDQLFVRLOOHDGVWRWUDQVIRUPEORFNDQG
disrupted slides into debris flows especially when saturated
but saturation is not a necessary condition.
Residual soil slope

Sliding
Flows
^6KDOORZWUDQVODWLRQDOVOLGHVDORQJWKe interface between

weathered layers and fresh rock. When deep weathering soil
is developed soil slumps are common.
^'HEULVIORZVIURPVDWXUDWHGVKDOORZSODQDUVOLGHV
Generally small slides but widely spread in steep slopes.
Coalescence of yielded sediments in main streams produce
large avalanches especially in rainy areas.
Alluvial soil slopes

Sliding
Liquefaction
^)ORRGSODLQDQGDOOXYLDOIDQVDQG\GHSRVLWVDUHSURQHWRVRLO
slumps that consist of headward rotation along a, usually
deep, curvilinear shear surface.
Translational sliding along basal shear zones of sandy or silty
flood plains and alluvial fans.
^7UDQVODWLRQDOODWHUDOVSUHDGVDORQJEDVDOVKHDU]RQHRI
liquefied gravel, sand or silt. Ground cracks.
Rock slopes
Sliding
Falls
Continental slope
Sliding
^7raslational sliding along basal shear zones, usually

discontinuity planes dipping out of slope face.
Rotational movement of large rock blocks has sporadically
reported.
^%RXQGLQJUROOLQJDQGIUHHIDOORIURFNEORFNIRUPHGLQ
highly fractured slopes.
^5RWDWLRQDODQGEORFNVOLGHVRIGHOWDLFVDQG\DQGJUDYHO\
deposits transform into submarine flows.
1229

soil blocks that disintegrate, during movement, into small blocks or individual grains.
They deposit material near the base of the slopes that commonly are steep road or river
cuts. The occurrence of rock and debris falls in the Tierra Blanca deposit affected an
extensive area around Comasagua road on the El Blsamo ridge during the January
2001 earthquake in El Salvador [31] (Fig. 40.3c). Here the steep slopes that were
formed as part of the road construction failed in spectacular manner giving rise to an
extensive area of slope instability. Similar failures were extensively observed during
the 1976 earthquake in Guatemala.
40.3.2.3 Disrupted rock slides
Disrupted rockslides have also been reported in Central America. These are commonly
translational slides along discontinuities dipping out of the slope face. Road cuts have
shown to be very prone to this kind of slides, which are also seen to be induced in areas
where previous intense rainfalls have fallen such as during the 1983 Costa Rica
earthquake. Rockslides have also reported for the El Salvador 1986 and 2001
earthquakes and during the 2003 Costa Rica earthquake. Slopes more susceptible to
these landslides are those composed of highly weathered materials, which are very
common in tropical areas in Central America. This kind of slide is also very frequent in
weakly cemented rocks such as volcanic tuff. During the 1983 earthquake in Costa Rica,
along the Panamerican highway, some of the slides reported were in intrusive and sedimentary rocks, particularly in those, which are highly stratified and fractured [29, 30].
40.3.2.4 Disrupted soil slides
Disrupted soil slides are as common as soil falls in the area (Fig. 40.3d); these slides
usually consist of shallow sheets of volcanic and residual soils that disintegrate during
movement. Most of the slides formed along weak zones such as the interface between
weathered and fresh materials. Disrupted slides are also common in alluvial deposits
along riverbanks; in this case highly-saturated materials disintegrate and move rapidly,
reaching long distances from the source area. Other materials producing small
disrupted slides during Central American earthquakes are man-made fills and flood
plain alluvium.
During the 1976 Guatemala earthquake, disrupted slides were the most abundant,
when the shock produced thousands of slides from soil weathered from weakly
cemented volcanic pumice exposed on 2530 slopes. Most of the sliding occurred at
the base of the weathered soil zone, which was generally within 0.6 m of the ground
surface, and material that slid was largely medium-to-coarse grained sand containing a
small amount of clay [16]. Most individual slides had volumes less than 15,000 m3, but
many landslides originated from closely spaced sources and many coalesced to denude
as much as 80% of the slope area. The 1991 Limn earthquake in Costa Rica
triggered a huge number of disrupted slides, mainly in residual lateritic soils weathered
from volcanic rocks. These slides affected around 2000 km2 from which 50 km2 were
covered by tropical rain forest. Most of the area was affected by landslide
concentrations lower than 15%, but 75 km2 of the area was denudated by as much as
60%. Most of the slides were shallow translational slides along the weathered zone
[22]. Similar slides were reported on the slopes of Iraz volcano during the 1952
earthquake in Costa Rica; these slides were responsible for at least 18 casualties in

Figure 40.3. (a) Landsliding triggered by the El Salvador earthquake of 13 January 2001 at El
Blsamo cordillera; (b) Single rock fall triggered by an aftershock of the 13 January El
Salvador earthquake on the coastal motorway near La Libertad; (c) Soil fall from tuff slopes
triggered by the 13 January earthquake in El Salvador; (d) Disrupted soil slide at steep slope
of Tierra Blanca formation triggered by the 13 January 2001 earthquake in El Salvador; (e)
Lateral spread at Ilopango lake triggered by the 13 January 2001 earthquake in El Salvador.
1231

Patillos and the destruction of many houses around the epicentral area [32].
During the January 2001 El Salvador two large slides also occurred which were the
responsible for more than half the deaths during the earthquake: the Las Colinas and
Las Barrioleras landslides. These slides, which occurred in young unconsolidated ash
known locally as Tierra Blanca, showed significant travel distances [31].
The February 2001 earthquake triggered additional landslides to those reported in
January. Along the Panamerican highway new landslides were observed at Las Leonas
and adjacent locations. On the slopes of the San Vicente volcano (El Salvador),
disrupted slides were reported along the El Muerto and El Blanco creeks. El Blanco
landslide mobilized silty and sandy gravels and blocks coming from pyroclastic flows [33].
40.3.2.5 Coherent slides
Coherent slides consist of large blocks of soil or rock, separated by fissures and
grabens that move remaining relatively intact. Total displacements are relatively small.
Slumps move predominantly by sliding along basal shear surfaces that are curved or
concave upward, so that the headward rotation of the slide occurs. Rock slump are not
very common during Central America earthquakes, although the 1888 Fraijanes
earthquake in Costa Rica triggered a large soil slump. The slide consists of a rotational
movement of 250,000 m3 of deep clayey soil, which dammed the river creating the
Fraijanes lake. The lower part of the slide became a debris flow along the river with a
width between 20 and 30 m moving for a distance of 150 m where it became wider
reaching widths as large as 200 m; this flow was responsible for the five casualties
caused by the slide [34].
The 1976 Guatemala earthquake triggered a large rock slump at San Jos Poaquil,
which was described by Harp et al. [16]. The slump remained largely intact in its
upslope portion but became progressively disrupted with movement downslope so that
near its toe it was transforming into an incipient rock avalanche when movement
stopped. The slide was about 1 km long and 50 m thick and comprised 3.5 106 m3 on
an average slope of 19. The slump dammed the river, creating a temporary lake 1 km
long and 15 m deep.
Rock slumps and large rock slide are less frequent but some have been reported
during the 1854, 1986 and 2001 earthquakes in El Salvador. A large slump that blocked
the course of the El Desage river was reported during the February 2001 earthquake in
El Salvador; in this case a volume between 1 and 2 106 m3 was mobilized, consisting
of andesitic breccia blocks of around 0.52.0 m in diameter embedded into a Tierra
Blanca matrix [33]. Other large slides occurred in the water head part of the Jiboa river,
it was estimated that the volume of sediments yielded by in this area was between 10
and 15 106 m3.
40.3.2.6 Lateral spreads and flows
Lateral spreads and flows are slides in which the movement takes place primarily by
fluid-like flow. The fluid basal zones of lateral spreads are commonly made up of sand
or silt that has been liquefied by build up of dynamic pore water pressure. Less
commonly the basal zones are in liquefied gravely sediments. The basal layers of
lateral spreads are always saturated, and so the landslides occur where the water table is
within few meters of the ground surface. These slides initiate in very gentle slopes in
flood plain alluvium, alluvial fan sediments, deltaic, lacustrine and coastal deposits.

Liquefaction was observed at various locations along the coast in central and eastern El
Salvador during the January 2001 earthquake, accompanied by lateral spreading and
consequent damage to some houses. Similar observations were made on the shores of
Ilopango lake, where lateral spreading was significant (Fig. 40.3e). The most serious
effects of lateral spreading occurred on the banks of Lempa river at San Nicols Lempa
that resulted in collapse of a railway bridge [31, 35].
40.4
SLOPE SUSCEPTIBILITY TO FAILURE
Slope susceptibility to failure is controlled by in situ conditions such as topography,

lithology and material properties. Landslides occurred when a critical combination of
slope susceptibility and triggers is reached. This section explores the influence of
susceptibility factors on landsliding induced by earthquakes in Central America.
40.4.1 Lithology
Lithologies related to earthquake-induced landslides during different earthquakes in
Central America are compiled in this report and presented in this section. Transported
deposits with high water tables are the most susceptible to landslides during seismic
events. This kind of deposits includes alluvial flood plains, alluvial fans, alluvial
terraces, lacustrine and deltaic deposits, and coastal deposits like beaches and tidal
flats. Volcanic and residual soils have also been shown to be very susceptible
compared with other soil deposits.
Mora and Vahrson [7], based on Central America data, developed a hazard
assessment model in which slope susceptibility was considered as the combination of
three contributing factors: lithology, relative relief and soil humidity. Table 40.3 shows
the susceptibility ranks given to different lithologies; it can be seen that typical soil in
Central America classified within the highest susceptibility categories.
Landslides in volcanic and sedimentary rock deposits have been shown to be more
common, and their frequency seems to be associated with structural controls such as
the basal discontinuity inclination and orientation, these being more critical when
discontinuities dip out from the slope face. Many cases of volcanic rock deposits are
volcanic ashes, which have been shown to be very susceptible to rock and soil falls.
40.4.2 Material properties
40.4.2.1 Mineralogical composition
Bommer et al. [36] show that material plasticity, particle size, and mineral
composition, produce a relatively high shear strength and permeability in volcanic soils
from El Salvador, but a relatively low compressive strength even at low stress
increments. Sandoval [37] found, for volcanic soils in Colombia, a close relation
between shear strength and compressibility and their microstructure, which is strongly
dependent on origin and subsequent weathering process.
Gonzez de Vallejo [38] stated that shear strength of volcanic soils, from Tenerife,
depends on the mineralogical composition and soil fabric. Alophanic soils present a
higher shear strength compared with montmorillonitic materials. Rao [39] also showed,
testing soils from Dominica, that as the alophanic mineral content increases the peak
1233

Table 40.3. Classification of different lithologies and their susceptibility. Based on cases from
Central America (from Mora and Vahrson [7]).
Lithology
Susceptibility
^Permeable compact alluvium; permeable limestone, slightly fissured

intrusions, basalt, ignimbrite, gneiss, hornfels; low degree of weathering,
low water table, clean-ruggose fractures, high shear resistance.
^Higher degree of weathering of above mentioned lithologies and hard
massive sedimentary rocks; lower shear resistance and shearable
fractures.
^Considerably weathered sedimentary, intrusive, metamorphic, volcanic
rocks, compacted sandy regolithic soil, considerable fracturing,
fluctuating water tables.
^Considerably weathered, hydrotermally altered rocks of any kind,
strongly fractured and fissured, clay filled; poorly compacted pyroclastic
and fluvio-lacustrine soils, shallow water tables.
Êxtremely altered rocks, low shear resistant alluvial, coluvial and
residual soils, shallow water tables.
Low
Moderate
Medium
High
Very high
strength angle increases and that this parameter in not influenced by the soil plasticity.
Giraldo et al. [40] and Redondo [41] showed a series of laboratory tests in volcanic
material from Colombia, where the cohesion intercept seems to be independent of the
soil mineralogy.
40.4.2.2 Soil strength
Natural slopes in volcanic soils, especially those formed along the banks of deeply
eroded ravines and cuts for roads and urbanization are commonly nearly vertical and
they can reach heights of several meters. These slopes can remain stable for long
periods of time, but they can become unstable during heavy rainfalls or seismic shaking
[5, 25]. In general, volcanic deposits have a metastable, open structure and relatively
low moisture contents, which lead to negative pore-water pressures (suctions) within
the soils. Additionally, weak cementation seems to be present in most volcanic deposits [42].
Shear strength of volcanic soil is also strongly influenced by soil saturation as
shown by Rao [39] and Bommer et al. [36]. The cohesion intercept decreases as
saturation decreases, Bommer et al. [36] consider that this reduction in cohesion is due
to reduction in soil suction. Prez [43] compared results of shear strength for
sedimentary and volcanic soils from Andalucia (Spain) and found that suction plays an
important role in both soils but the peak shear strength is more strongly related to
suction values for volcanic than for sedimentary soils, which shows the importance of
suction on shear strength for volcanic soils.
Tension stresses have been identified as one of the failure mechanisms in volcanic
soils during earthquakes: ORourke and Crespo [44] found that tension strength of
volcanic soils in Ecuador may reach a value equal to 1/3 to 1/5 of the compression
strength and is a function of soil water content.
Sitar and Clough [45] studied the seismic behavior of vertical slopes in weakly
cemented soils, such as volcanic soils in Central America, and found that they
generally performed well under weak earthquake loading. Under moderate to severe
seismic shaking they found that these materials commonly suffered brittle failure and
had high rates of mass movements. Yamanouchi and Murata [46] observed brittle
failure in steep road cuts in volcanic soils in Japan. The slides they documented,

Figure 40.4. Antecedent rainfalls of historical earthquakes in El Salvador. Arrows represent

particular earthquakes as indicated.
generally soil falls, tended to be shallow, about 25 m thick. Such falls commonly are
initiated by tension in the upper segments of slopes. Formation of tension cracks was
identified by Sitar and Clough [45] and Harp et al. [16] as an important factor that
contributes to slope instability during earthquakes followed either by toppling of blocks
from the upper slope or shear failure of the lower slope.
40.4.2.3 Soil structure
Sitar and Clough [45] attribute the stability of steep slopes in non-cohesive sediment to
interlocking grain structure and variable amounts of cementation. This factor is also
considered as a contributing element to the stability of volcanic soils in Japan [46].
Another factor that may contribute to stability in volcanic soils is matric suction, which
occurs in unsaturated soils. However, Bommer et al. [36] stated that despite its high
value, matric suction appears to contribute little to the stability of slopes in volcanic
soils in El Salvador. Instead, weak cementation, probably provided by silica gels, that
is broken when those soils are subjected to even small strains, is likely a more
important contributor to slope stability of those soils.
40.4.2.4 Antecedent moisture content
Inspection of available data of historical earthquakes reveals the incidence of rainfalls
1235

on area extension and failure mechanisms of earthquake-induced landslides. For

instance, the earthquake of October 1878 in El Salvador triggered more and larger
landslides than a series of three earthquakes of lower magnitude that struck the same
area in May 1951. These two earthquakes occurred at opposite ends of the rainy season
(Fig. 40.4). Similarly, it appears, in this figure that the El Salvador earthquake of May
1965 occurred at the beginning of the rainy season whereas the earthquake of October
1986 occurred near the end of the rainy season [5]. The epicenters of the two
earthquakes were similar, yet the area affected by landslides was as much as five times
greater during the 1986 earthquake, and the total number of landslides was significantly
greater, despite the latter earthquake having the smaller magnitude of the two [19].
Failure mechanisms appear also to be influenced by the groundwater conditions: the
1965 San Salvador earthquake only triggered soil slides, whereas the 1986 event
triggered soil slides and also significant slumps and flows [47].
40.4.3 Site amplification of seismic waves
A numerical analysis performed by Sitar and Clough [45], for cemented soils such as
volcanic ashes, implied that topographical amplification of earthquake shaking in the
vicinity of steep slopes is not great, although they identified amplification of shaking
within the soil layer as an important factor that contributes to instability. There is ample
evidence that earthquake shaking in volcanic deposits, in El Salvador, is amplified
significantly with respect to bedrock motion [4749].
40.4.4 Post-earthquake behavior
After earthquakes, soil and rock experience changes in material properties, particularly
degradation of shear modulus and changes in static strength [5055]. Similar results
have been shown for residual and volcanic soils elsewhere and in particular for El
Salvador [55, 56]. Shear-modulus degradation increases slope susceptibility to
landslides, and minimum rainfall thresholds for triggering landslides, in residual soils
in Japan, have been shown to change following earthquakes [57]. Although there is not
recorded historical evidence from Central America, similar rainfall influence on
residual and volcanic soils in the area can be expected.
Kobayashi [57] found that the distribution of landslides that occurred near Kobe,
Japan, during the rainy season after the 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu earthquake (MS 6.9)
was different from the distributions of landslides that occurred during typical rainy
seasons. Landslides that occurred during the 1995 earthquake had a denser distribution
on steeper slopes than did those that occurred during the post-earthquake period, and
the post-earthquake landslides were more concentrated on slopes steeper than those that
usually failed during typical rainy seasons. Kobayashi attributed these differences to
the fact that ground shaking is amplified on convex slopes, whereas groundwater
effects are more pronounced on concave slopes. On the basis of these observations, he
concluded that post-earthquake failures can be regarded as earthquake-induced
landslides in the broadest sense. Peraldo and Rojas [24] reported that due to the August
1951 earthquake in Costa Rica, near Orosi ground cracked extensively and landslides
were induced during the intense rainfalls in September that year. In El Salvador in
1982, occurred a large earthquake in June, followed by catastrophic debris flows during
the September rains [5].

Figure 40.5. Areas affected by landsliding triggered by earthquakes in Central America as a

function of surface-wave magnitude (MS). Numbers refer to numbers in Table 40.1. The line
represent the upper bound established by Rodrguez et al. [28].
40.5
MINIMUM SEISMIC SHAKING TO INDUCE LANDSLIDES
In Central America, the lack of strong-motion records around areas affected by

earthquake-induced landslides makes it difficult to define the minimum seismic loads
required to trigger landslides. In El Salvador the minimum earthquake magnitude
historically related to landslides is MS 5.4, which corresponds to the 1986 earthquake
that occurred at the end of the rainy season. Landsliding related to magnitudes as low
as ML 3.7 has been reported in Costa Rica (Table 40.1).
Figure 40.5 shows the area affected by landslides as a function of magnitude (MS). The
area in this case is defined by the limit of landslide observations irrespective of density and
frequency. Outliers observed in this plot may be associated with uncertainties in magnitude or
to possible influence of exceptional rainfalls or to cluster events, as explained elsewhere [5].
The rest of the points are generally well contained by the upper bound and in fact many points
lie very significantly below the line. The apparent dispersion of the points in Figure 40.5 can
be explained by focal mechanism, focal depth, topography within epicentral area and
proximity of the earthquake focus to coastline, as suggested by Bommer and Rodrguez [5].
Large differences can be found between total areas affected by landslides as shown
in Figure 40.5 and areas where landsliding was intense, as shown in Figure 40.6 for
some earthquakes in El Salvador. As noted in Table 40.1, it was only possible to
determine the areas of dense landsliding for a rather small number of the earthquakes,
but these are plotted in Figure 40.7 as a function of surface-wave magnitude MS.
Although the data points in Figure 40.7 are few, some important observations can
be made. Comparison of Figures 40.5 and 40.7 immediately reveals that the area of
dense landsliding is significantly smaller than the total area of landsliding for most
earthquakes. Drawing an upper bound to the few data plotted in Figure 40.7 it
would be defined by shallow earthquakes in El Salvador and Guatemala. The data
1237

Figure 40.6. Area affected by landsliding in El Salvador. Upper points represent areas defined by
the farthest sites where landslides were reported, lower points represent areas of high
landslide density.
points representing events in Costa Rica and Panama would all lie significantly below
the upper-bound line drawn through the points defining the upper bound. The data set
is too limited to make definitive conclusions, but it seems that earthquakes affecting areas
of extensive volcanic ash deposits in El Salvador and Guatemala do produce more
landslides over relatively larger areas than similar earthquakes on residual soils in Panama
and Costa Rica [5].
Landslides in El Salvador have occurred at earthquake intensities as low as modified
Mercali intensity (MMI) V, as happened in 1873, 1986, and February 2001. The magnitude of
historical earthquakes has been determined from macroseismic intensities, which usually used
landslides as evidence of strong-motion; this assumption must be treated with caution in
Central America since it has been shown that slope susceptibility may control landsliding
instead of earthquake motion. Usually historical earthquakes include landsliding in intensity
level VII and larger even Rymer and White [19] suggested that the minimum intensity related
to huge landslide triggering is MMI VII, and this limit can be used to estimate roughly the area
around epicenters of crustal earthquakes that might be affected by landslides. Subduction
earthquakes, however, commonly trigger landslides over a large area, even in zones of lowintensity shaking. Keefer [1], Rodrguez [2] and Bommer and Rodrguez [5] discussed the
difficulty of using macroseismic intensity as a predictor of landslide occurrence, because
landslides are controlled not only by shaking intensity but also by slope susceptibility.
Harp and Wilson [58] used Arias intensities (AI) to compare the spatial limits of
landslides, specifically falls and slides from rock and soil triggered by the 24 October
1987 Superstition Hills and the 1 October 1987 Whittier Narrows earthquakes in
southern California. The comparison established two shaking thresholds for the limits
of falls and slides. A range of 0.08 to 0.6 m/s was determined for landslides in Neogene
and younger deposits, whereas a range of 0.01 to 0.07 m/s was determined for those in
Mesozoic and older rocks. Harp and Wilson found these two ranges of shaking levels

Figure 40.7. Areas affected by high landslide density triggered by earthquakes in Central
America as a function of surface-wave magnitude (MS). The uppermost broken line is the
upper bound for data for El Salvador and Guatemala; the lower broken line is the upper
bound for data for Costa Rica and Panama as suggested by Bommer and Rodrguez [5].
to be controlled by the relative degree of fracturing and the aperture of the fracture
systems within the two age groups of rocks and soils.
Rodrguez [2] estimated minimum values of Arias intensity for several worldwide
earthquakes that induced landslides. The minimum Arias intensity ranges related to
landslides were 0.10 to 5.28 m/s for coherent slides, 0.01 to 2.70 m/s for disrupted
slides and 0.1 to 7.60 m/s for lateral spreads and flows. In general, the results confirm
that disrupted slides are triggered by a lower shaking intensity than are coherent slides
and lateral spreads, a finding noted earlier by Keefer [1]. For the 1986 El Salvador
earthquake, the minimum Arias intensity values related to landslides in volcanic debris
were 1.17 m/s for coherent slides and 0.41 m/s for disrupted slides. These intensity
values suggest that volcanic deposits need at least moderate shaking intensity to be
affected by slides. However, during the January 2001 El Salvador earthquake, both
coherent and disrupted landslides were observed in areas having Arias intensity values
as low as 0.08 m/s, which lies near the lower limit estimated from an analysis of
earthquake-triggered landslides worldwide [2]. The minimum intensity values are
determined from the slides that occur farthest from the seismic source; however, such
slides are more commonly associated with areas of very high susceptibility to slope
failure rather than with the intensity of seismic shaking.
Table 40.1 shows accelerations corresponding to maximum distances of disrupted
landslides in the region. These values were estimated using the mean value given by
the Alfaro et al. [59] attenuation relationship for crustal earthquakes and the Schmidt
et al. [60] relationship for subduction events. For Events in Panama the Climent et al.
[61] relationship was used. In general, landslides induced by crustal earthquakes
correlate with larger acceleration values than landslides induced by subduction
earthquakes. This observation confirms a general trend, shown by other seismic
parameters, that crustal earthquakes require larger shaking amplitudes than subduction-
1239

Table 40.4. Weighting factors and hazard assessment for the Mora and Vahrson method [7].
SUSCEPTIBILITY FACTORS
Relative relief (m/km2)
Susceptibility
Very low
Low
Moderate
Medium
High
Very high
075
76175
176300
301500
501800
> 800
Lithology
Susceptibility
^3HUPHDEOHFRPSDFWDOOXYLXPSHUPHDEOHOLPHVWRQH
slightly fissured intrusions, basalt, ignimbrite, gneiss,
hornfels; low degree of weathering, low water table,
clean-ruggose fractures, high shear resistance.
^+LJKHUGHJUHHRIZHDWKHULQJRIDERYHPHQWLRQHG
lithologies and hard massive sedimentary rocks;
lower shear resistance and shearable fractures.
^&RQVLGHUDEO\ZHDWKHUHGVHGLPHQWDU\LQWUXVLYH
metamorphic, volcanic rocks, compacted sandy
regolithic soil, considerable fracturing, fluctuating
water tables.
^&RQVLGHUDEO\ZHDWKHUHGK\GURWHUPDOO\DOWHUHG
rocks of any kind, strongly fractured and fissured,
clay filled; poorly compacted pyroclastic and fluviolacustrine soils, shallow water tables.
^([WUHPHO\DOWHUHGURFNVORZVKHDUUHVLVWDQFH
alluvial, coluvial and residual soils, shallow water
tables.
0
1
2
3
4
5
Parameter Sl
Low
Moderate
Medium
High
Very high
Average monthly precipitation (mm/month)
Assigned value
< 125
125250
> 250
0
1
2
Summation assigned values of precipitation

averages for 12 months
04
59
1014
1519
2024
Parameter Sr
Susceptibility
Very low
Low
Medium
High
Very high
Parameter Sh
1
2
3
4
5
TRIGGERING FACTORS
Intensity (MMI), Tr = 100 years
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
Susceptibility
Slight
Very low
Low
Moderate
Medium
Considerable
Important
Strong
Very strong
Extremely strong
Maximum rainfall (mm), n > 10 years, Tr = 100 years Susceptibility

< 100
< 50
Very low
Parameter Ts
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Parameter Tp
1


101200
201300
301400
> 400
5190
91130
131175
> 175
Low
Medium
High
Very high
2
3
4
5
HAZARD ASSESSMENT Hl value; Hl = (Sr Sl Sh) (Ts Tp)

06
732
33162
163512
5131250
> 1250
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
Negligible
Low
Moderate
Medium
High
Very high
zone earthquakes to induce landslides, presumably because of their shorter duration.

Further studies are necessary to reach more definitive conclusions.
40.6
EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED LANDSLIDE HAZARD ASSESSMENT
An effective seismic risk mitigation program requires the assessment of the distribution
and magnitude of the earthquake-induced landslides. The hazard assessment due to
earthquake-induced landslides can be performed at different levels ranging from
regional studies to the site-specific evaluation of individual slopes. All different
methods that exist are based on two basic parameters: the susceptibility of the slope to
earthquake-induced instability and a measure of the earthquake shaking. The hazard
itself can be measured in many ways, again reflecting a wide range of levels of
sophistication. In the simplest approaches, the hazard is expressed as a binary function
defining geographical limits within which landslides will be expected from an
earthquake of specific magnitude and location. Studies of particular slopes have
expressed the hazard in term of the expected Newmark displacements [6264]. The
approach adopted for assessment of earthquake-induced landslide hazard will depend
on the extent of the area to be covered, the available geotechnical data, the time and
resources available for the study, and the intended application of the findings.
40.6.1 Mora and Varhson method

A method for regional landslide hazard assessment, considering simultaneously
earthquake and rainfall events, has been developed in Costa Rica by Mora and Vahrson
[7]. This method is summarized in Table 40.4. A detailed discussion of the
applicability of this method to other regions different from Costa Rica was presented
by Rodrguez [2] and Bommer and Rodrguez [5].
A recent study by Len and Torres [8] applied the Mora and Vahrson method to the
particular climatic and seismic scenario for the January and February 2001 earthquakes
in El Salvador. Results of this study are shown in Figure 40.8; it can be seen that the
highest hazard rating assigned on the maps is grade IV (Medium) and most of the
landslides lie in zones with grade III (moderate). These results confirm that the Mora
and Vahrson method tends to underestimate the hazard when applicable to other
regions as suggested by Bommer and Rodrguez [5].
Nadim et al. [6] used a simplified version of the Mora and Varhson model in order
to obtain a global hazard map. New weighting values were used in order to adjust the
1241

Figure 40.8. Earthquake-induced landslide hazard in El Salvador for the January and February
2001 earthquakes using the Mora and Vahrson [7] model (after Len and Torres [8]).
model to the study scale and to make it applicable to different climatic conditions from
those where the model was developed. The new values are shown in Table 40.5 and
results for Central America are shown in Figure 40.10a. It can be seen from this graph
that high and very high hazard levels were found in southern Guatemala, El Salvador,
Costa Rica, and Panamas borders with Costa Rica and Colombia. These results are
consistent with historical evidence of earthquake and rainfall-induced landslides in the
region.
40.6.2 New approach
A new method for earthquake-induced landslide hazard assessment was proposed by
Rodrguez [2] on the basis of a definition of landslide hazard expressed as:

Figure 40.9. (a) Landslide hazard zonation for Central America using a modified version of Mora
and Vahrson [7] model (after Nadim et al. [6], with permission of ICG-NGI); (b) Landslide
risk zonation for Central America (after Nadim et al. [6] with permission of ICG-NGI).
H =TS
(1)
where H is landslide hazard, T is a triggering function, and S is a susceptibility

function.
The model assumes that an earthquake triggers landslides and therefore the
triggering is the seismic event and the triggering function is defined in terms of strongmotion parameters such as peak ground acceleration (PGA), peak ground velocity
(PGV) or Arias Intensity (AI), which allow the source and path factors to be included
in analysis. A normalized value of each strong-motion parameter is obtained based on
the maximum and minimum values of those parameters within the area potentially
affected by landslides. The triggering function is expressed as:
T=
(SP SPmin )
(SPmax SPmin )
(2)
where SP is the seismic parameter (PGA, PGV or AI) for the slope location, and SPmin
1243

Table 40.5. Weighting factors and hazard assessment for the modified Mora and Vahrson model
as suggested by Nadim et al. [6].
SUSCEPTIBILITY FACTORS
Slope angle (degrees)
Susceptibility
01
18
816
1632
3275
Lithology
Very low
Low
Moderate
Medium
Highvery high
Susceptibility
^([WUXVLYHYROFDQLFURFN Precambrian,
Proterozoic, paleozoic and Archean.
Endogenous rocks (plutonic and/or metamorphic)
Precambrian, Proterozoic, Paleozoic and Archean.
^2OGVHGLPHQWDU\URFNV Precambrian, Archean,
Proterozoic, Paleozoic.
Extrusive volcanic rocks Paleozoic, Mesozoic.
Endogenous rocks Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Triassic,
Jurassic, Cretaceous.
^6HGLPHQWDU\URFNV Paleozoic, Mesozoic,
Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous.
Extrusive volcanic rocks Mesozoic, Triassic,
Jurassic, Cretaceous.
Endogenous rocks MesoCenozoic., Cenozoic.
^6HGLPHQWDU\URFNV Cenozoic, Quaternary.
Extrusive volcanic rocks MesoCenozoic.
Êxtrusive volcanic rocks Cenozoic.
Soil moisture index (Willmott and Feddema)
1.0 to 0.6
0.6 to 0.2
0.2 to +0.2
+0.2 to +0.6
+0.6 to +1.0
Parameter Sr
0
1
2
3
4
Parameter Sl
Low
Moderate
Medium
High
Very high
Susceptibility
Low
Moderate
Medium
High
Very high
5
Parameter Sh
1
2
3
4
5
and SPmax are the minimum and maximum expected and minimum values of the
seismic parameter. SPmin corresponds to the seismic parameter at the maximum
distance from the epicentral area where landslides might be expected. This maximum
distance can be estimated as a function of earthquake magnitude and rainfall antecedent
conditions by using relationships between earthquake magnitude and maximum
distance to epicenter such as those proposed by Keefer [1] or Rodrguez [2]. The
denominator in Equation (2) therefore represents the maximum range of the strongmotion parameter within the area potentially affected by landslides.
Values of the function T range between 0 and 1. Slopes outside the area expected to
be affected by landslides will have values lower than zero; in that case it is assumed
that the design earthquake is unable to trigger a landslide at that distance and hazard
will be negligible. For slopes near the seismic source the function T will take a value of
1, which represents the maximum value of the seismic parameter that the earthquake
may produce.
The maximum distance to which slides can be triggered by an earthquake is a
function not only of earthquake magnitude, but also of the antecedent rainfall
conditions and the type of failure that occurs. Thus, for a given earthquake the
triggering function T may vary depending on the temporal rainfall variability and type


TRIGGERING FACTORS
2
PGA (M/s ); return period 475 years
Parameter Ts
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.000.50
0.511.00
1.011.50
1.502.00
2.012.50
2.513.00
3.013.50
3.514.00
4.014.50
> 4.50
11-year extreme monthly rainfall (mm)
00000330
03310625
06261000
10011500
> 1500
Susceptibility
Low
Moderate
Medium
High
Very high
HAZARD ASSESSMENT
Hl value; Hl = (Sr Sl Sh) (Ts Tp )
Class
> 14
1550
51100
101168
169256
257360
360512
513720
> 720
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Parameter Tp
1
2
3
4
5
Susceptibility of hazard
Negligible
Very low
Low
Low to moder.
Moderate
Medium
Medium to high
High
Very high
of landslide that occurs, as well as on other factors such as local geology, topography,
and factors that affect shaking attenuation or amplification.
The susceptibility function is defined by a combination of lithology slope geometry;
particularly slope angle and height, and antecedent rainfall. This function, expressed as
shown in Equation (3) was obtained by considering the weighting values given, for
each variable and for each category, by a Correspondence Analysis performed for
global databases of earthquake-induced landslides and earthquakes inducing landslides
[6, 8];
SMi =
(W Wmin )
(Wmax Wmin )
(3)
where SMi is the susceptibility function for failure mechanism i with i = 1 for disrupted
slides, i = 2 for coherent slides and i = 3 for lateral spreads and flows; W is a function
of weighting factors related to lithology, slope angle, annual and monthly rainfalls
given by Equation (4); Wmin and Wmax are the minimum and maximum values of W;
W = WL + WS + WCa + WCm
(4)
WL are weighting values for lithology; WS are weighting values for slope angle; WCa
1245

Table 40.6. Weighting factors for using to define susceptibility.

Weighting factors for lithology units
Value
Factor
Factor
Value
W Lj
W Li
W L1
W L2
W L3
0.583
0.251
0.166
W L1
W L2
W L3
W L4
W L5
W L6
0.445
0.017
0.070
0.108
0.013
0.347
Weighting factors for annual rainfall

Factor
Value
Factor
Value
WCa i
WCa l
WCa1
WCa2
WCa3
0.492
0.334
0.174
WCa1
WCa2
WCa3
WCa4
WCa5
0.012
0.010
0.046
0.104
0.828
Weighting factors for slope angle

Value
Factor
Factor
Value
Wsk
W si
W S1
W S2
W S3
0.470
0.095
0.435
WS 1
WS 2
WS 3
WS 4
WS 5
0.012
0.010
0.046
0.104
0.828
Weighting factors for monthly rainfall

Value
Factor
Factor
Value
WCm m
WCm i
WCm1
WCm2
WCm3
0.491
0.335
0.174
WCm1
WCm2
WCm3
WCm4
WCm5
0.208
0.244
0.279
0.215
0.054
are weighting values for annual rainfall and WCm are weighting values for monthly rainfall,
where:
WL = WLi WLj
WS = WSi WSk
WCa = WCai WCal
(5)
WCm = WCmi WCmm
Weighting factors for lithology are shown in Table 40.6, where j = 1 is for alluvial,
coastal and lacustrine deposits, j = 2 is for alluvial, talus and old landslide deposits,
j = 3 is for residual soils, j = 4 is for volcanic soils, j = 5 is for clayey deposits and j = 6 is
for rock deposits.
Factor for slope angle are presented in Table 40.6, where k = 1 is for slopes
between 0 and 15, k = 2 for slopes between 15 and 30, k = 3 for slopes between 30
and 45, k = 4 for slopes between 45 and 60 and k = 5 for slopes greater than 60.
Table 40.6 shows weighting values for annual rainfalls where l = 1 is for annual
rainfalls between 0 and 175 mm, l = 2 for rainfalls between 175 and 500 mm, l = 3 for
rainfalls between 500 and 1100 mm, l = 4 for rainfalls between 1100 and 2500 mm,
and l = 5 for annual rainfalls greater than 2500 mm.
Weighting values for monthly rainfalls are presented in Table 40.6, where m = 1 is
for monthly rainfalls between 0 and 5 mm, m = 2 for rainfalls between 5 and 30 mm,
m = 3 for rainfalls between 30 and 100 mm, m = 4 for rainfalls between 100 and 250 mm,
and m = 5 for monthly rainfalls greater than 250 mm.
Earthquake-induced landslide hazards are now assessed by creating a bi-dimensional
space having axes T and S (Table 40.7). This space contains any combination of
triggering and susceptibility values; each point plotted within this space represents an
individual slope. The bi-dimensional space is divided into five zones that represent
different hazard levels. The zones were obtained by dividing the triggering and
susceptibility function values into five increments defined by the landslides
concentration during the January and February 2001 earthquakes.

Figure 40.10. Earthquake-induced landslide hazard in El Salvador for the January and February
2001 earthquakes using the Rodrguez model (after Len and Torres [8]).
Results of this model for the January and February 2001 earthquakes are presented in
Figure 40.10. These maps show how most of the landslides associated to these events
lie in hazard zones with grades larger than medium level and that hazard zones
distribution matches very well with landslide distribution in El Salvador.
An improvement of the model is being tested at this moment in order to extent its
application to earthquake-induced landslide prediction. The new approach normalises
the PGA by the critical acceleration of each slope in order to define the triggering
function.
40.6.3 Slope stability analysis

An example of slope instability analysis under seismic loading was performed for the
1247

Table 40.7. Triggering and susceptibility values defining hazard levels for the Rodrguez model
and Torres [8]).
(from Len
Triggering function
(based on PGA)
Level
Very low
Low
Medium
High
Very high
00.075
0.0750.185
0.1850.355
0.3550.482
0.4821.0
Susceptibility function
(for disrupted slides)
00.36
00.36
0.360.67
0.670.79
0.791.0
Las Colinas landslide induced by the January 2001 earthquake in El Salvador [6567].
The analysis used a combination of limit equilibrium, sliding block and finite elements
analyses. Using limit analysis the most critical slip surface was identified for the
geotechnical model of the Las Colinas slope (Fig. 40.11); for this surface a sliding
block analysis was applied and Newmark displacements calculated. Finally, a dynamic
finite elements analysis using the program PLAXIS v.8.1 was carried out in order to
identify the failure mechanism. Analyses show that tension stresses behind the slope
crown induced vertical cracks that propagate down to find a weak zone (palaesoil
layer); this mechanism of vertical crack propagation was considered as one of the
possible failure mechanisms in volcanic soils in Section 40.4.
Using Salvadoran seismic records on volcanic soils for the 1982, the 1986, January
2001 and February 2001 earthquakes, a multivariate relationship between critical
acceleration, Newmark displacements and Arias Intensity was proposed for El
Salvador, as shown in Equation (6) [6567]:
log D N = 1.25 log Ia 7.75 A c + 1.53 0.42
R 2 = 0.867
(6)
DN are the Newmark displacements in m, Ia is the Arias Intensity in m/s, AC is the

critical acceleration in m/s2, and is the standard deviation. This relation can be used
for landslide hazard assessment of volcanic soil slopes as suggested by Jibson and
Keefer [68] and Lin [69].
40.7
EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED LANDSLIDE RISK
Landslides, as one of the major natural hazards, account for enormous property damage
in terms of both direct and indirect costs in Central America. As development expands
into unstable hillslope areas under the pressures of increasing population and
urbanization, human activities such as deforestation or excavation of slopes for road
cuts and building sites, have become important factors that increase slope
susceptibility. Landslides have caused large numbers of casualties and huge economic
losses in mountainous areas in Central America; earthquake-induced landslides in
particular have accounted for large number of casualties and economical damage in the
region, although lack of data makes it very difficult to compile a database of damages.
Landslide risk assessment and management comprises the estimation of the level of
risk, deciding whether or not it is acceptable, and exercising appropriate control

Figure 40.11. Critical slip surfaces, for Las Colinas landslide induced by the January 2001 El
Salvador earthquake, found by the Bishop model. Analysis with or without considering the
paleosol layer (a) and (b), respectively (modified after Arango and Rodrguez [66]).
measures to reduce the risk when the risk level cannot be accepted. It requires the
following issues to be addressed: (1) probability of landsliding, (2) run-out behavior of
landslide debris, (3) vulnerability of property and people to landslide, (4) landslide risk
to property and people, and (5) management strategies and decision-making [70].
Probability of landsliding and run-out distance of landslide debris are part of the
hazard analysis, whereas vulnerability of property and people and risk assessment are
based on analysis of structural response of exposed elements and on quantification of
possible damage, which usually is assessed using historical data of damage due to
similar events. This means that an inventory of previous damage in terms of direct and
indirect costs and effects on populations is required in order to carry out risk analyses.
Economical damages in Central America due to earthquake-induced landslides are
generally associated with damage to infrastructure, especially communication and
transportation and in some cases energy and sanitary elements. Damage to productive
sectors has also been very important particularly in agriculture, industry and commerce.
Finally social impact includes damage in educational and cultural infrastructure and the
consequent reduction of employment and health conditions. Table 40.1 includes some data
of damage related to landslides for the earthquakes where information was available. As can
be seen from this table, direct effects of these landslides are sometimes even larger than the
direct effects of the earthquake itself. Most of the damage is related to interruption of roads
and railways; however, important losses are also related to cultivated and tropical forest
devastation. Human deaths have usually been associated with rapid flows and avalanches,
which are induced by strong events or moderate events during the rainy season.
According to the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
(ECLAC) [71] the social and economical effects of the 1986 El Salvador earthquake,
which include thousands of homes destroyed and about 1500 people killed, were as high
as the 23% of the GNP plus the 40% of the external debt of the country for that year.
There is no data about how much of this damage was due by landslides but Schuster and
Lynn [72] suggest that most of the damage in San Salvador, which include approximately
100 homes destroyed and more than 200 people dead was due to landslides.
During the January 2001 El Salvador earthquake the high percentage of totally or
partially destroyed dwellings and other buildings contrasts sharply with the relatively
low death toll. Specifically, there were 944 deaths, 5565 injuries and 1,364,160 victims
[73]. Yet it should be noted that 485 of the deaths that is, nearly 50% occurred in
1249

the Las Colinas neighborhood of Santa Tecla where a massive landslide buried homes
at the base of the hillside in mud, leaving very few survivors. With regards to the
affected structures, a total of 1155 public buildings were damaged, while 169,792
houses were damaged, 108,261 destroyed and 688 buried by landslides. ECLAC [73]
reported that more than 500 roads and highways were cut off by landslides.
The second earthquake on February 13, 2001 aggravated the health situation. By
February 21, COEN (National Emergency Committee) reported 315 deaths, 3399
injuries, and 252,622 victims in all [69]. With regard to structures, by that date, 57,375
affected constructions had been recorded, of which 41,362 (72.1%) were totally
destroyed. There is no data on the proportion of these damages that were due to
landslides, however a total of 186 ha of land cultivated with coffee, 21 sites along
roads and some railways were affected by landslides [74]. The combined effect of the
two earthquakes in El Salvador in 2001 produced losses estimated at 12% of the GNP of
the country for 2000 [74].
UNEP/GRID-Geneva (United Nations Environment Program) [6] has proposed a
formula for modeling risk, which combines the three components of the UNDRO
definition [75]: the risk is a function of hazard occurrence probability, element at risk
(population) and vulnerability. This function can be written as:
R = H Pop Vul
(7)
where R is the risk, i.e., the expected human impacts (expected number of killed
people); H is the hazard, which depends on the frequency and strength of a given
danger; Pop is the population living in a given exposed area; Vul is the vulnerability
and depends on socio-politico-economical context of this population.
The physical exposure is defined as the combination of both frequency of a given
hazard and population exposed to a given magnitude for a selected type of hazard. The
hazard multiplied by the population can then be replaced by the physical exposure as:
R = PhExp Vul
(8)
where PhExp is the physical exposure i.e. the frequency and severity of the hazard
multiplied by exposed population.
This approach was used by Nadim et al. [6] in order to identify landslide hotspot
zones worldwide, where physical exposure was calculated using historical data from
casualties due to landslides obtained from the EM-Dat from CRED (Center for Research
on the Epidemeology of Disasters). Results of this analysis for Central America are
presented in Figure 40.10b. It can be seen that expected number of people killed in some
areas in the region is higher than 103 to 102 per year per square kilometer.
40.8
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Historically landslides in Central America have been shown to be one of the most
significant hazards affecting the region; landslides have caused significant economical
and social losses. Earthquake-induced landslides in Central America have been
reported for centuries, and they commonly are distributed broadly during any given
earthquake. Landslides have also occurred during rainy seasons in the absence of any
earthquakes. Although such landslides are very common, their effects are normally

isolated to small areas. The most dramatic and extensive rainfall-induced landslides
were triggered during hurricane Mitch in 1998 [76]. Commonly earthquakes and
rainfall (either direct or antecedent) combine to trigger landslides in Central America.
Natural slopes on volcanic soils, especially those formed in the banks of deeply
eroded ravines and in cuts for roads and urbanization, are often close to vertical and
can reach heights of several meters. Weak cementation, interlocking grain structure,
and matrix suction are considered key factors that enable these slopes to remain stable
under most conditions. However, these slopes can become unstable during heavy
rainfall or seismic shaking due to changes in structure and material properties.
Susceptibility of these slopes to failure depends not only on soil behavior, but also on
topographic and geomorphologic features and climatic conditions at the time of, and
antecedent to, triggering events.
The minimum seismic shaking and rainfall amounts needed to induce landslides in
Central America depend on antecedent rainfall conditions, which vary through the year.
Temporal variability of antecedent rainfall can be considered when analyzing hazards
from earthquake-induced landslides by applying the new model proposed by Rodrguez
and colleagues [2, 8].
The minimum seismic shaking required to induce landslides also depends on
landslide mechanisms. The combined effect of earthquakes and rainfall also reduces
the seismic shaking or rainfall intensities required to induce landslides. Models that
consider this combined effect must be developed in order to improve hazard
assessment in the region. A stochastic model was proposed by Nadim et al. [6] where
probability functions for earthquake and rainfall-induced landslides for different
magnitude and intensity of earthquakes and rainfalls, were obtained from global
databases. This kind of model may help to define the relative contribution of
earthquakes and rainfalls in landslide hazard.
Earthquake- and rainfall-induced landslides in Central America start mainly as
disrupted slides and falls in residual, alluvial, volcanic ash, and volcanic rock deposits.
When the intensity of the triggering events is sufficient to induce large displacements
or the soils are sufficiently contractive, landslides can transform into debris flows that
travel long distances. As a result initially small, isolated events can have consequences
that reach far beyond their immediate source area.
The spatial and temporal variability of landslides induced by past earthquakes and
intense rainfalls can be used to define the distribution and recurrence intervals of
landslide hazard. A hazard plot that considers earthquake characteristics and the
susceptibility of slopes to failure provides a useful tool for defining spatial and
temporal variation of landslide hazard. Application of different methods used for
hazard assessment in Central America shows that rainfall affects not only the slope
susceptibility to failure and the minimum seismic loading required to induce landslides
but also the spatial distribution of the hazard. Besides of the high landslide frequency,
population vulnerability highly contributes to landslide risk in the region. This means
that risk managements must focus not only on reduction of landslide hazard but also on
avoiding population settlements in hazardous areas. These two points are the key
challenges that scientists and governments must face in the future.
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environmental Impact. United Nations, Mexico City, 2001.

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al documento de evaluacin del terremoto del 13 de enero. United Nations, Mexico, 2001.
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de Historia y Geografa, 1999.
1255
Chapter 41
Earthquake triggered tsunamis
MARIO FERNNDEZ AND MODESTO ORTIZ
... we felt a very terrible earthquake, the
force whereof was such that our ship and
pinnace, riding very near an English mile
from the shore were shaken and did quiver
as if it had been laid on dry land [Tsunami
experiences of Sir Francis Drake near Cao
island, Costa Rica on March 16, 1579)].
Peraldo and Montero: Temblores del perodo
colonial de Costa Rica, 1994.
41.1
INTRODUCTION
The tsunami hazard of Central America had been underestimated until 1992 when a
catastrophic tsunami struck Nicaragua. This event raised public awareness that large
earthquakes in the region can generate destructive tsunamis as in other seismicallyactive areas. In fact, Central America is part of the so-called Circum-Pacific Ring of
Fire, which is one of the most volcanically and tectonically active regions in the
world. Central America is located on the western Caribbean tectonic plate along a
convergent zone under-thrusted by the Cocos plate. The interaction between the two
plates has created a zone of subduction along the Middle America trench (MAT), a
very active regional stress field responsible for crustal deformation and the occurrence
of many destructive earthquakes and tsunamis. Additionally, the Polochic-MotaguaChanialecn fault system (PMCFS) and the North Panama deformed belt (NPDB) are
two other significant tectonic structures in the region where large earthquakes and
tsunamis have been generated (see Chapter 12).
In this chapter, large historic tsunamis from seismic sources are reviewed to
document that Central America is an active tsunamigenic region. The catastrophic 1992
tsunami prompted further research of historical tsunamis in this region. The record
shows that from 1539 AD to 2004, at least 49 tsunamis have struck Central America [1,
2] some causing deaths and extensive destruction. In the last two centuries, nine
major tsunamis destroyed coastal villages, boats and killed about 500 people. Of these,
seven struck the Pacific coast and two the Caribbean coast. The causes and effects of
these destructive tsunamis are briefly described. Also, the impact of distant tsunamis in
Central America, as those generated along the Colombia subduction zone (CSZ), is
analyzed by reviewing historical reports of the 1906 Colombia tsunami and by means
of its numerical simulation. Emphasis is placed in this chapter on programs of public
awareness and education about the dangers of tsunamis, on preparedness and on the
need for a reliable local tsunami warning system.

41.2
SOURCES OF TSUNAMIGENIC EARTHQUAKES
Most tsunamigenic earthquakes in Central America occur near the MAT along the
Cocos-Caribbean subduction zone and at both, the PMCFS, and the NPDB. Historical
records from 1539 to 1996 [2] document that 37 tsunamis that struck the Pacific coast
of Central America were generated along this subduction zone. Most of these events
were small. Along the MAT, large earthquakes account for 93% of the total seismic
energy release [3] and the majority of tsunamis. Of the nine destructive tsunamis listed
in Table 41.1, three occurred along the MAT, including the two destructive tsunamis
that struck El Salvador and Nicaragua in 1992. Also, earthquakes that occurred along
faults of the Nazca-Cocos tectonic boundary (southern Panama) generated local
destructive tsunamis on the Pacific side.
On the Caribbean side, one of the largest earthquakes to strike Central America,
was the 1882 San Bls islands (Panama, Fig. 41.1) earthquake (MS 7.9). Its source was
near the NPDB [2]. This seismic event generated the San Bls tsunami, which was the
most destructive event. Waves more than 3 m in height caused extensive destruction at
the San Bls islands and killed about 100 people. At least six other of the destructive
tsunamis that have occurred along the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica and Panama
originated near NPDB [2, 4].
It is believed that the strike-slip earthquakes that are generally associated with the
PMCFS do not produce significant tsunamis. However, the 1856 tsunami in the Gulf of
Honduras, which destroyed the village of Omoa, was generated along the PMCFS.
Also, a moderate tsunami was generated by the 1976 Guatemala earthquake, despite its
epicenter being well inland within this fault system.
Table 41.1. Destructive tsunamis of Central America.
Date
MS
Tsunami source
location
Type
Run-up
(km)
Coast
TE
1854 Aug 5
1856 Aug 4
1882 Sept 7
1902 Feb 26
1906 Jan 31
1913 Oct 2
1957 March 10
1976 July 11
1992 Sept 2
7.3
78.0
7.9
7.0
8.1
6.7
8.1
7.0
7.2
Dulce gulf, CR
Gulf of Honduras
San Bls, PA
GU/ES boarder
Colombia
Azuero, PA
Alaska
Darin, PA
Nicaragua coast
Local
Local
Local
Local
Distant
Local
Distant
Local
Local
ND
5
3
ND
23.5
ND
>2
ND
9.5
P
C
C
P
P
P
P
P
P
CO-CA
NA-CA
NPDB
CO-CA
NZ-SU
A Fault
PA-NO
NZ-CA
CO-CA
MS: Earthquake magnitude, P: Pacific, C: Caribbean, TE: Tectonic environment, CO-CA: CocosCaribbean, NA-CA: Nazca-Caribbean, NPDB: North Panama deformed belt, NZ-SU: NazcaSouth America, A: Azuero, PA-NO: Pacific-North America, ND: No data; GU: Guatemala,
ES: El Salvador, CR: Costa Rica, PA: Panama
Table 41.1 shows that earthquakes with MS > 6.0 have generated tsunamis in Central
America. Most of the destructive tsunamis were generated by earthquakes with
magnitudes greater than 7.0. Most of the tsunamis caused moderate damage. However,
three tsunamis had run-ups higher than 3 m and flooded villages, washed out houses
and caused exensive damage. As previously mentioned, the most destructive of the
historical tsunamis to strike Central America were the San Bls tsunami (Panama) of
1882, the El Salvador tsunami of 1902, and the Nicaragua tsunami of 1992. The areas
affected are illustrated in Figure 41.1. The 1882 tsunami washed out most of the islands

Figure 41.1. Figure 1. Map of coastal areas in Central America affected by the most destructive tsunamis. Solid lines represents expanse of affected areas.
1259

of the San Bls archipelago located north of Panama. The waves penetrated well inland
and swept away entire villages, and between 75 and 100 people lost their lives. On 26
February 1902, a large earthquake off the western coast of El Salvador generated the
most destructive tsunami in that country (Fig. 41.1). Eyewitnesses reported that, prior to
the tsunamis arrival, loud noises resembling the rumble of cannon shots were heard and
that there was an initial drop in sea level which exposed the ocean bottom for a
considerable distance. Subsequently, the first of three large waves struck the coast
causing damage to property and washing out homes and trees. The magnitude of
devastation was exceptional. There was extensive flooding of the coast of El Salvador,
from Garita Palmera to Barra de Santiago and beyond (a distance of about 120 km). The
maximum tsunami runup height of this tsunami was estimated to be about 20 m. [5]. The
waves inundated 100 m inland near La Libertad and Acajutla. The village of Barra de
Santiago was greatly damaged. Over 185 people lost their lives in the affected areas.
A major, very shallow earthquake off the Pacific coast of Nicaragua on 2
September 1992 generated the most destructive tsunami in Central America in recent
times (Fig. 41.1). Destructive waves struck along a 220 km coastal section of the
country. There was major damage to coastal towns and villages from San Juan Del Sur
to Masachapa. At least 70,000 people living in the coastal areas of 27 communities
were affected by the tsunami [6]. The maximum runup of 9.9 m, occurred in the central
part of the inundation area near El Trnsito [6]. According to local reports, waves of up
to 9.9 meters destroyed most of the houses of this town (about 200) and killed 16
people [6]. Hard hit was the town of Masachapa where the tsunami waves penetrated
300 to 400 m inland. Nine people lost their lives there. The maximum wave height at
El Popoyo was 5.6 m. The waves caused extensive damage and killed 15 people. The
most affected coastal communities in Nicaragua were also La Boquita, Casares and
Huehuete. Other towns that sustained loss of life and damage to property were San
Martn, Pochomil and Poneloya. Sixty percent of all houses were destroyed in San Juan
Del Sur, a small town with 13,000 people [6]. At Corinto, the tsunami caused extensive
damage to food and fuel storage facilities. The town was partially protected by a large
seawall. Fresh water wells were flooded by sea water. The total death toll was 170
people. The tsunami was responsible for the destruction of most of Nicaraguas Pacific
fishing fleet. Total property losses were estimated at around US$ 25 million [6]. There
were no deaths reported from other Central American countries but waves of 2 to 4 m
damaged harbors and boats in Costa Rica [6]. Perhaps, the only positive aspect of this
tragedy is that consciousness was raised about the potential devastating effect that
tsunamis in the region can have. Prior to this event, the threat of the potential tsunami
hazard was almost ignored in Central America.
41.3
THE POTENTIAL EFFECT OF TSUNAMIS FROM TELESEISMIC SOURCES
The historic record indicates that tsunamis from teleseismic sources can have an impact
on the Central America region. For example, the 1957 tsunami, generated by a large
earthquake near the Aleutian islands in Alaska, caused extensive damage and loss of
life in Acajutla-Salvador [2]. Also, the 31 January 1906 Colombia earthquake (MW 8.8;
[7]) generated a large tsunami that washed away all homes on the low-lying coast
above the rupture area in Colombia, and killed anywhere from 500 to 1500 people [8].
In contrast, the 1960 Chile tsunami, which was generated by a large earthquake with a

Figure 41.2. Numerical simulation of a large tsunami generated by an MS 8.4 earthquake along
the Colombian subduction zone: (a) Maximum wave height in water depth of 10 m along the
coast of Central America; (b) Tsunami wave fronts at time steps of 30 minutes; the rectangle
along the coast of Colombia indicates the surface projection of the assumed fault plane
(400 100 km2) of the Colombian subduction zone.
moment magnitude of 9.5, was barely perceptible in Central America because most of
its energy focused toward the central and northwestern Pacific.
The potential effect of teleseismic tsunamis on Central America from earthquakes
occurring along the Colombia subduction zone (CSZ) has been evaluated by simulating
1261

numerically the tsunamigenic scenario of the 31 January 1906 event. Based on reports
of this event [9], earthquake source parameters of rupture length, crustal displacements,
focal depth and orientation were either estimated or postulated as input parameters for
the numerical model. The 1906 event was assessed to be a shallow interplate
earthquake with a focal depth of 30 km. Its rupture was estimated to be 400 to 500 km
long [10], dipping at an angle 30. A crustal displacement of 10 m was postulated as
occurring along a buried thrust fault plane that was 400 km long and 100 km wide.
Thus, the tsunami generation source area was estimated to be 40,000 km2 and oriented
parallel to the CSZ (location of the fault plane shown in Fig. 41.2).
Figure 41.3. Computed 1906 tsunami mareogram at Puntarenas, Costa Rica. The grey line
indicates the corresponding tide prediction for 31 January 1906. The origin of the time axis
corresponds to the origin time of the 31 January 1906 earthquake. Note that the computed
tsunami (black line) arrived at Puntarenas during low tide.
The results of the numerical simulation are summarized in Figure 41.2. As the tsunami
approaches Central America, the shoaling coastal depths amplify the height of its waves. At
water depth of 10 m, the maximum wave height along the coast varies. As illustrated by
Figure 41.2a, from Panama to Costa Rica the computed maximum tsunami wave height
ranges between 1.5 to 2 m. From Nicaragua to Guatemala the tsunami height ranges between
1 to 1.5 m, then drops to about 0.5 m along southern Mexico. Figure 41.2b is a travel time
chart of the tsunami that was generated by the 1906 earthquake along the CSZ. A tsunami
generated by a similar earthquake in the same area off the coast of Colombia would take about
one hour to reach Panama, 2.5 to 3 hours to reach the central part of the Central America
coastline, and about four hours to reach Guatemala and southern Mexico. The tsunami would
be expected to reach Puntarenas in Costa Rica in about two hours, and to have an approximate
maximum height of up to 2.5 m. In 1906, the tsunami arrived at Puntarenas at low tide, which
probably reduced its height to that of the high tide. The computed tsunami at Puntarenas and
the corresponding tide level for the 1906 event are shown in Figure 41.3. Since the tidal range
varies from 3 to 4 m along the coast of Central America and the 1906 tsunami arrived at low
tide, the effects of this tsunami were not significant. However, if a similar tsunami arrived at
high tide, then a greater runup would be expected. Thus, the possibility for moderate
destructiveness from tsunamis originating along the Colombia subduction zone should be
taken into consideration, as well as the expected level of the tide at the time of the tsunami
arrival along coastlines of Central America.

Figure 41.4 (a) Tide gauge record of the 31 January 1906 Colombia tsunami at Naos island,
Panama. (b) Comparison of the synthetic tsunami produced by the numerical model (line
with circles) with the recorded tsunami at Naos island. The observed tsunami corresponds to
the residual tide, which was obtained by subtracting the tide prediction from the record. The
origin of the time axis corresponds to the origin time of the 31 January 1906 earthquake.
To verify the accuracy of the numerical method and confirm that the initial source
parameters [9] were realistic, the recorded mareogram of the actual 1906 tsunami at
Naos island in the Gulf of Panama was compared with a synthetic one produced by the
numerical model. The results as illustrated graphically in Figure 41.4b indicate
relatively good agreement in arrival and amplitude of the tsunami produced by the
model with the one recorded by the tide station.
41.4
THE TSUNAMI HAZARD
Both Pacific and Caribbean coasts of Central America have been struck by tsunamis and
there has been extensive destruction of property and loss of lives. On the Caribbean side
there are 44 coastal communities exposed to potential tsunami hazard and the risks of
future losses (Fig. 41.1), including the most important ports (Coln, Limn, Bluefields,
Puerto Cabezas, Puerto Lempira, Trujillo, La Ceiba, Puerto Corts and Belize). The
historical tsunami record indicates that villages that are most seriously affected by
tsunamis are Omoa, Puerto Corts, Trujillo, and San Bls islands. However, it should be
emphasized that the risks of the tsunami hazard are not limited to these locations only.
The historic record documents that the entire Pacific coast of Central America has
1263

experienced the effects of tsunamis. During the last century, this region has been
responsible for 37 tsunamigenic earthquakes [2]. There are at least 60 coastal
population centers on the Pacific coast that may suffer damage and loss of life by future
tsunamis. Eleven of those localities are important ports such as Balboa, Puerto
Armuelles, Golfito, Quepos, Jac, Cladera, Puntarenas, Corinto, La Libertad, Acajutla,
San Jos, and Champerico. The most vulnerable localities to tsunamis in the past have
been Puerto Jimnez (Costa Rica), Acajutla (El Salvador), Pedasi (Panama), and El
Trnsito (Nicaragua). However, it should be emphasized again that the risks of the
tsunami hazard are not limited to these locations only. Although infrequent, tsunamis in
Costa Rica and Panama have also destroyed small villages, suggesting that the tsunami
hazard for these two countries should not be underestimated.
Earthquakes with magnitudes of 6 or more on the Richter scale have generated local
tsunamis on both Caribbean and Pacific coasts. However, the largest and most
destructive local tsunamis were generated by earthquakes with magnitudes greater than
7. The 1992 Nicaragua tsunami was the largest, locally generated tsunami in Central
America in the last century. Although the magnitude of this earthquake was initially
given as 7.2, this represents an underestimate of its energy release. Analysis of the
seismological records showed the fault motion of this earthquake to be unusually long
in duration and occurring in the top 10 km of oceanic crust depth much shallower
than that of typical subduction-zone earthquakes [6]. It was determined that the
magnitude of this earthquake had been underestimated because most of the seismic
stations measured only seismic waves of short period. Short period waves were not
readily produced by this quake because of its long duration of faulting. Measurements
with long period seismometers would have shown a much higher moment magnitude.
The energy release of this earthquake was five times greater than that of magnitude 7.2
earthquake [6]. Unusually large tsunamis can be generated by earthquakes with slow
fault motion within subducted sediments. This appears to be the case with the 1992
event and perhaps other regions of the MAT. In fact, several similar earthquakes, as the
1992 event, have occurred around the world, which are now being called tsunami
earthquakes. It is estimated that 5 to 10 percent of all tsunami generating earthquakes
may be silent earthquakes of this type. In fact, the quick dissipation of short period
waves accounted for the absence of strong ground movements or rumbling the coastal
residents reported for the 1992 earthquake. Programs of public education and tsunami
preparedness emphsize that strong ground motions should serve as a natural warning
of a large local earthquake and of the immediate need to evacuate to higher ground as
an impending tsunami may be on its way. Such a natural tsunami warning may not
occur in Central America and residents should be aware that even weak ground
motions could be the prelude to a destructive local tsunami.
41.5
CONCLUSIONS
Nine destructive tsunamis have struck the coast of Central America causing loss of
lives and damage to property. Both the Caribbean and the Pacific coasts were affected.
The subduction zone near the MAT is the main source of potential local tsunamis in the
region. Other sources are the NPDB and the PMCFS. The most destructive tsunamis
occurred in Panama (1882), in El Salvador (1902), and in Nicaragua (1992).
Cumulatively these three events were responsible for almost 500 deaths and extensive
damage to coastal communities.

The risk of tsunamis from teleseismic sources cannot be underestimated. At least

three distantly-generated tsunamis have reached the Pacific coast of Central America.
The 1957 tsunami from the Aleutian islands caused extensive damage and loss of life
in El Salvador. Waves of the 31 January 1906 Colombia tsunami reached Central
America during low tide and thus their effects were not significant. Numerical
simulation of a tsunami from the same source along the CSZ, indicates that its travel
time to Central America ranges between 1 to 3 hours and that its wave heights can be
expected to be 3.5 m in Puntarenas (Costa Rica), 2 m in Acajutla (El Salvador), and
70 cm at Naos island (Panama).
The establishment of a regional Tsunami Warning System is still in the planning
stage in Central America due to the absence of state-of-art of seismic instruments, sealevel measuring stations, satellite telemetry and communications. For an effective local
tsunami warning system to be established in the region, it will be necessary to establish
appropriate training workshops for government officials and for programs of education
and preparedness for the general public on the potential tsunami hazard
REFERENCES
1.
Fernndez, M., Havskov, J. & Atakan, K.: Destructive Tsunamis and Tsunami Warning in
Central America. Sci. Tsun. Hazard 17 (1999), pp.173186.
2. Fernndez, M., Molina, E., Havskov, J. & Atakan, K.: Tsunamis and Tsunami Hazards in
Central America. Natural Hazards 22 (2000), pp.91116.
3. Ambrasys, N.N. & Adams, R.D.: Large magnitude Central America earthquakes, 18981994.
Geophys. J. Int. 121 (1996), pp.545556.
4. Fernndez, M.: Daos, efectos y amenaza de tsunamis en Amrica Central. Rev. Geol. Amr.
Central 26 (2001), pp.7183.
5. Lard y Larin, J.: El Salvador: inundaciones e incendios, erupciones y terremotos. 2nd ed.,
Direccin de Publicaciones e Impresos, Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y el Arte,
CCONCULTURA, San Salvador, 2000.
6. Pararas-Carayannis, G.: The Earthquake and Tsunami of 2 September 1992 in Nicaragua.
http://www.drgeorgepc.com/Tsunami1992Nicaragua.html, accessed June 2004.
7. Kanamori, H. & Mcnally, K.: Variable rupture mode of the subduction zone along the EcuadorColombia coast. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 72 (1982), pp.12411253.
8. Soloviev, L. & Go, N.: A catalogue of tsunamis on the eastern shore of the Pacific Ocean (1513
1968). Fish. Aquat. Sci. 5078 (1984), Nauka Publishing House, Moscow, (Translation by
Canada Institute for Scientific and Technical Information, National Research Council, Ottawa,
Canada KIA OS2).
9. Ortz, M., Fernndez, M. & Rojas, W.: Anlisis de riesgo de inundacin por tsunamis en
Puntarenas, Costa Rica. GEOS 21 (2001), pp.108113.
10. Kelleher, J.A.: Rupture Zones of Large South American Earthquakes and Some Predictions. J.
Geophys. Res 77:11 (1972), pp.20872103.
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