Composite Materials

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• What are the classes and types of composites?
• Why are composites used instead of metals,
ceramics, or polymers?
• How do we estimate composite stiffness & strength?
• What are some typical applications?

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 Pole-vaulting
Lightweight - low density
Buckling resistance - stiffness
Strong - yield strength
Minimal twisting
Cost

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 Boeing 757-200
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 Composites
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 Combine materials with the objective of getting a more

desirable combination of properties
 Ex: get flexibility & weight of a polymer plus the strength
of a ceramic

 Principle of combined action

 Mixture gives “averaged” properties
 Terminology/Classification
• Composites:
-- Multiphase material w/significant woven
proportions of each phase. fibers
• Matrix:
-- The continuous phase
-- Purpose is to:
- transfer stress to other phases 0.5 mm
- protect phases from environment cross
-- Classification: MMC, CMC, PMC section
view
metal ceramic polymer
• Dispersed phase:
0.5 mm
-- Purpose: enhance matrix properties.
Reprinted with permission from
MMC: increase sy, TS, creep resist. D. Hull and T.W. Clyne, An
Introduction to Composite Materials,
CMC: increase Kc 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press,
New York, 1996, Fig. 3.6, p. 47.
PMC: increase E, sy, TS, creep resist.
-- Classification: Particle, fiber, structural
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 Properties of the
Properties of the
reinforcement material
matrix material

Factors influence
Composite
properties

Ratio of matrix
Matrix–
to
reinforcement
reinforcement
bonding/adhesion

Mode of fabrication

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 Functions of the continuous matrix phase:

 Bind fibers together, applied stress distributed among the
fibers
 Protect the fibers from being damaged
 Separate the fibers, inhibit crack propagation

 Characteristics of fiber and matrix:

 Matrix phase – ductile, soft, low elastic modulus
 Fiber phase – stiff, strong, brittle

 Strong interfacial bond between fiber-matrix:

 maximize stress transmittance
 minimize fiber pull-out and failure
 Composite Survey
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C o m p o s it e s

P a r t ic le - r e in fo r c e d F ib e r - r e in fo r c e d S tru c tu ra l

L a rg e - D is p e r s io n - C o n t in u o u s D is c o n t in u o u s L a m in a t e s S a n d w ic h
p a r t ic le s tre n g th e n e d ( a lig n e d ) (s h o rt) p a n e ls

A lig n e d R a n d o m ly
o r ie n t e d Adapted from Fig.
16.2, Callister 7e.
 Composite Survey: Particle-I

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Examples:
- Spheroidite matrix: particles: Adapted from Fig.

steel ferrite (a) cementite 10.19, Callister 7e.

(Fig. 10.19 is
(ductile) (Fe3 C) copyright United
States Steel
(brittle) Corporation, 1971.)
60 mm
Adapted from Fig.
- WC/Co matrix: particles: 16.4, Callister 7e.
cemented cobalt WC (Fig. 16.4 is courtesy
Carboloy Systems,
(ductile) (brittle,
carbide Vm : hard)
Department, General
Electric Company.)

10-15 vol%! 600 mm

Adapted from Fig.
16.5, Callister 7e.
- Automobile matrix: particles: (Fig. 16.5 is courtesy
tires rubber C Goodyear Tire and
(compliant) (stiffer)
Rubber Company.)

9 mm
0.75
 Composite Survey: Particle-II

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

Concrete – gravel + sand + cement

- Why sand and gravel? Sand packs into gravel voids
• Concrete consists of an aggregate of particles that are bonded together by a
cement.
• Limitations of concrete:
 weak and brittle material
 large thermal expansions - changes in temperature
 may crack when exposed to freeze-thaw cycles

• Three reinforcement strengthening techniques:

1. reinforcement with steel wires, rods, etc
2. reinforcement with fine fibers of a high modulus material
3. introduction of residual compressive stresses by prestressing or
posttensioning.
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 Composite Survey: Particle-III

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Elastic modulus, Ec, of composites:
-- two approaches. upper limit: “rule of mixtures”
Ec = VmEm + VpEp
E(GPa)
Data: 350
lower limit: Adapted from Fig. 16.3,
Cu matrix 30 0 Callister 7e. (Fig. 16.3 is
w/tungsten 250 1 Vm Vp from R.H. Krock, ASTM
= + Proc, Vol. 63, 1963.)
particles 20 0 Ec Em Ep
150

0 20 40 60 80 10 0 vol% tungsten
(Cu) (W)

For equal volume of fibers:

• Upper limit: isostrain conditions, higher modulus
• Lower limit: isostress conditions, lower modulus
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 Composite Survey: Fiber-I

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Fibers very strong
– Provide significant strength improvement to
material
– Ex: fiber-glass
• Continuous glass filaments in a polymer matrix
• Strength due to fibers
• Polymer simply holds them in place

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Why fiberglass-reinforced composites are utilized
extensively? 14
 inexpensive to produce
 composites have relatively high specific strengths
 chemically inert in a wide variety of environments
Limitations of these composites?
care in handling the fibers, susceptible to surface
damage
lacking in stiffness in comparison to other fibrous
composites
limited maximum temperature use
 Glass fibers
• Glass fibers are amorphous (noncrystalline) and
isotropic (equal properties in all directions) and are a
long, three-dimensional network of silicon, oxygen,
and other atoms arranged in a random fashion.

• Characteristics:

• an inorganic, synthetic, multifilament material

• are the most common of all reinforcing fibers
for polymeric (plastic) matrix composites
• strong, low in cost, nonflammable,
nonconductive (electrically), and corrosion
resistant.

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 Glass fibers

• Disadvantages:
• low tensile modulus
• relatively high specific gravity (among the
commercial fibers)
• sensitivity to abrasion with handling (which
frequently decreases tensile strength)
• relatively low fatigue resistance
• high hardness (which causes excessive wear on
molding dies and cutting tools)

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 Glass fibers

Categories

E-glass High-strength glass C-glass

S-glass S-2 hollow glass

S-2 glass fiber

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 Glass fibers
• Applications:
– E-glass has the lowest cost of all
commercially available reinforcing fibers,
which is the reason for its widespread use
in the fiber-reinforced plastics (FRP)
industry.

– S-glass, originally developed for aircraft

components and missile casings, has the
highest tensile strength among all fibers
in use. However, the compositional
difference and higher manufacturing cost
make it more expensive than E-glass.

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 Composite Survey: Fiber-II

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Fiber Materials
– Whiskers - Thin single crystals - large length to diameter ratio
• graphite, SiN, SiC
• high crystal perfection – extremely strong, strongest known
• very expensive
– Fibers
• polycrystalline or amorphous
• generally polymers or ceramics
• Ex: Al2O3 , Aramid, E-glass, Boron, UHMWPE
– Wires
• Metal – steel, Mo, W

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 Fiber Alignment
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Adapted from Fig.
16.8, Callister 7e.

aligned aligned random

continuous discontinuous
 Composite Survey: Fiber-III
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced
• Aligned Continuous fibers
• Examples:
-- Metal: g'(Ni3Al)-a(Mo)
by eutectic solidification.
matrix: a (Mo) (ductile)
2 mm
fibers: g’ (Ni3Al) (brittle)
From W. Funk and E. Blank, “Creep
deformation of Ni3Al-Mo in-situ
composites", Metall. Trans. A Vol. 19(4), pp.
987-998, 1988. Used with permission.
Structural
-- Ceramic: Glass w/SiC fibers
formed by glass slurry
Eglass = 76 GPa; ESiC = 400 GPa.
(a) fracture
surface
From F.L. Matthews and R.L.
Rawlings, Composite Materials;
Engineering and Science, Reprint
(b)
ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
2000. (a) Fig. 4.22, p. 145 (photo by
J. Davies); (b) Fig. 11.20, p. 349
(micrograph by H.S. Kim, P.S.
Rodgers, and R.D. Rawlings). Used
with permission of CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL.
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 Composite Survey: Fiber-IV
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Discontinuous, random 2D fibers
• Example: Carbon-Carbon C fibers:
-- process: fiber/pitch, then very stiff
burn out at up to 2500ºC. very strong
-- uses: disk brakes, gas (b)
C matrix:
turbine exhaust flaps, nose less stiff
cones. view onto plane less strong
fibers lie
(a) in plane

• Other variations:
-- Discontinuous, random 3D
-- Discontinuous, 1D
Adapted from F.L. Matthews and R.L. Rawlings,
Composite Materials; Engineering and Science,
Reprint ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2000.
(a) Fig. 4.24(a), p. 151; (b) Fig. 4.24(b) p. 151.
(Courtesy I.J. Davies) Reproduced with
permission of CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

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 Composite Survey: Fiber-V
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Critical fiber length for effective stiffening & strengthening:
fiber strength in tension fiber diameter
f d
fiber length  15 shear strength of
c fiber-matrix interface
• Ex: For fiberglass, fiber length > 15 mm needed
• Why? Longer fibers carry stress more efficiently!
Shorter, thicker fiber: Longer, thinner fiber:

fd
f d

fiber
length
15 fiber length  15
c
c
s(x) s(x)

Adapted from Fig.

16.7, Callister 7e.

Poorer fiber efficiency Better fiber efficiency

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Composite Strength: Longitudinal Loading
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Continuous fibers - Estimate fiber-reinforced composite
strength for long continuous fibers in a matrix
 Longitudinal deformation

c = mVm + fVf but c = m = f

volume fraction isostrain

\ Ece = Em Vm + EfVf longitudinal (extensional)

modulus
F EfV f = fiber
f
 f

F
m Em Vm m = matrix
Composite Strength: Transverse Loading
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 In transverse loading the fibers carry less of the load -

isostress
 c = m =  f =  c= mVm + fVf

1 Vm V
  f transverse modulus
E
ct E
m E
f
 Composite Strength
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Estimate of Ec and TS for discontinuous fibers:
f d
-- valid when fiber length  15
c
-- Elastic modulus in fiber direction:
Ec = EmVm + KEfVf
efficiency factor:
-- aligned 1D: K = 1 (aligned ) Values from Table 16.3, Callister 7e.
(Source for Table 16.3 is H. Krenchel,
-- aligned 1D: K = 0 (aligned ) Fibre Reinforcement, Copenhagen:
-- random 2D: K = 3/8 (2D isotropy) Akademisk Forlag, 1964.)

-- random 3D: K = 1/5 (3D isotropy)

-- TS in fiber direction:
(TS)c = (TS)mVm + (TS)fVf (aligned 1D)

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Fiber forms

Chopped strands

Yarns

Woven fabric
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Fiber forms

X-mat

bidirectional unidirectional

Roving Mats

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 Composite Production Methods-I
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Pultrusion
 Continuous fibers pulled through resin tank, then
preforming die & oven to cure
Precision machine to
Performs of desired shape, impart the final shape
Establishes the resin/fiber ratio

Adapted from Fig.

16.13, Callister 7e.
 Pultrusion
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The advantages are:

 Process may be automated
 High production rates
 Variety of shapes,constant cross-sections, long pieces
may be produced
The disadvantage – shapes are limited to those
having a constant cross-section.
 Composite Production Methods-II
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Filament Winding
 Ex: pressure tanks
 Continuous filaments wound onto mandrel
 to form a hollow (usually cylindrical) shape

Adapted from Fig. 16.15, Callister 7e. [Fig.

16.15 is from N. L. Hancox, (Editor), Fibre
Composite Hybrid Materials, The Macmillan
Company, New York, 1981.]
 Filament Winding
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The advantages are:

 Process may be automated
 Variety of winding patterns are possible
 High degree of control over winding uniformity and
orientation
The disadvantage – variety of shapes is limited
 Composite Survey: Structural
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Stacked and bonded fiber-reinforced sheets
-- stacking sequence: e.g., 0º/90º
-- benefit: balanced, in-plane stiffness
Adapted from
Fig. 16.16,
Callister 7e.

• Sandwich panels
-- low density, honeycomb core
-- benefit: small weight, large bending stiffness
face sheet
adhesive layer
honeycomb

Adapted from Fig. 16.18,

Callister 7e. (Fig. 16.18 is
from Engineered Materials
Handbook, Vol. 1, Composites, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1987.)
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 Composite Benefits
• CMCs: Increased toughness • PMCs: Increased E/r
Force ceramics
particle-reinf 103
E(GPa) PMCs
102
10 metal/
fiber-reinf metal alloys
1
un-reinf
.1 G=3E/8 polymers
.01 K=E
Bend displacement .1 .3 1 3 10 30
10
-4 Density, r [mg/m3]
ess (s-1) 6061 Al
• MMCs: 10 -6 Adapted from T.G. Nieh, "Creep rupture of
Increased a silicon-carbide reinforced aluminum
composite", Metall. Trans. A Vol. 15(1), pp.
creep 10
-8 6061 Al 139-146, 1984. Used with permission.

resistance w/SiC
whiskers
s(MPa)
10 -10 34
20 30 50 100 200
 Summary
• Composites are classified according to:
-- the matrix material (CMC, MMC, PMC)
-- the reinforcement geometry (particles, fibers, layers).
• Composites enhance matrix properties:
-- MMC: enhance sy, TS, creep performance
-- CMC: enhance Kc
-- PMC: enhance E, sy, TS, creep performance
• Particulate-reinforced:
-- Elastic modulus can be estimated.
-- Properties are isotropic.
• Fiber-reinforced:
-- Elastic modulus and TS can be estimated along fiber dir.
-- Properties can be isotropic or anisotropic.
• Structural:
-- Based on build-up of sandwiches in layered form.
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