ASSIGNMENT#1

OF

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

“PSYCHOANALYTIC &
COGNITIVE THEORIES”

SUBMITTED TO
MISS.MEMOONA ISMAIL

SUBMITTED BY
AYESHA BATOOL
BS (PSYCHOLOGY)
2 YEARS- 1ST SEM

SUBMITTED ON
25-09-2008

International Islamic University Islamabad

TABLE OF CONTENT:

THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1-PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY:

> FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY:

> ERIK ERIKSON’S THEORY:

2-COGNITIVE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT:

> PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY:

> VYGOTSKY'S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY:

THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Child development that occurs from birth to adulthood was largely ignored throughout

much of history. Children were often viewed simply as small versions of adults and little

attention was paid to the many advances in cognitive abilities, language usage, and

physical growth.

To a large extent, the study of human development is the study of child development,

because the most significant changes take place from infancy through adolescence.

Some important theories are:

1-Psychoanalytic theories

2-Cognitive theories

3-behavioral & social cognitive theories

4-Ethological theory

5-Ecological theory

We will discuss here psychoanalytic theories and cognitive theories.

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY:
According to psychoanalytic theories development depends primarily on unconscious

mind. Psychoanalytic theorists believe that behavior is merely a surface characteristics

and that to truly understand development we have to analyze the symbolic meanings of

behavior and the deep inner workings of mind.

FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY:

According to Freud personality has three structures: Id, Ego & Super ego.

ID

As the baby emerges from the womb into the reality of life, he wants only to eat, drink,

urinate, defecate, be warm, and gain sexual pleasure. These urges are the demands of the

id, the most primitive motivational force. In pursuit of these ends, the id demands

immediate gratification: it is ruled by the pleasure principle, demanding satisfaction now,

regardless of circumstances and possible undesirable effects. If a young child was ruled

entirely by his id, he would steal and eat a piece of chocolate from a store regardless of

the menacing owner watching above him or even his parents scolding beside him.

The id will not stand for a delay in gratification. For some urges, such as urination, this is

easily satisfied. However, if the urge is not immediately discharged, the id will form a

memory of the end of the motivation

EGO

The eventual understanding that immediate gratification is usually impossible (and often

unwise) comes with the formation of the ego, which is ruled by the reality principle. The

ego acts as a go-between in the id's relations with reality, often suppressing the id's urges

until an appropriate situation arises. This repression of inappropriate desires and urges

represents the greatest strain on, and the most important function of, the mind. The ego

often utilizes defense mechanism to achieve and aid this repression. Where the id may

have an urge and form a picture which satisfies this urge, the ego engages in a strategy to

actually fulfill the urge. The thirsty five-year-old now not only identifies water as the
satisfaction of his urge, but forms a plan to obtain water, perhaps by finding a drinking

fountain. While the ego is still in the service of the id, it borrows some of its psychic

energy in an effort to control the urge until it is feasibly satisfied. The ego's efforts at

pragmatic satisfaction of urges eventually build a great number of skills and memories

and become aware of itself as an entity. With the formation of the ego, the individual

becomes a self, instead of an amalgamation of urges and needs.

SUPEREGO

While the ego may temporarily repress certain urges of the id in fear of punishment,

eventually these external sources of punishment are internalized, and the child will not

steal the chocolate, even unwatched, because he has taken punishment, right, and wrong

into himself. The superego uses guilt and self-reproach as its primary means of

enforcement for these rules. But if a person does something which is acceptable to the

superego, he experiences pride and self-satisfaction.

The superego is sub-dividable into two parts: conscience and ego ideal. Conscience tells

what is right and wrong, and forces the ego to inhibit the id in pursuit of morally

acceptable, not pleasurable or even realistic, goals. The ego ideal aims the individual's

path of life toward the ideal, perfect goals instilled by society. In the pursuit, the mind

attempts to make up for the loss of the perfect life experienced as a baby.

According to Freud, the mind can be divided into two main parts:

1- The conscious mind includes everything that we are aware of. This is the aspect

of our mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally. A part of this
 includes our memory, which is not always part of consciousness but can be

retrieved easily at any time and brought into our awareness. Freud called this

ordinary memory the preconscious.

2- The unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories

that outside of our conscious awareness. Most of the contents of the unconscious

are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict.

According to Freud, the unconscious continues to influence our behavior and

experience, even though we are unaware of these underlying influences.

Repression:

Repression, a fundamental, usually unconscious function of the ego, maintains

equilibrium in the individual by repressing inappropriate, unfeasible, or guilt-causing

urges, memories and wishes (all usually of the id) to the level of the unconscious, where

they will be out of sight, if not out of mind. The ability to repress dangerous or unsettling

thoughts turns out to be vital to the individual's ability to negotiate his way through life.

If a child had never learned to repress the urge to steal his sister's ice cream cone, for

example, he would have spent years in punishment. Only the timely repression of

harmful impulses and urges gives the individual the capacity to move on and meet the

demands of an ever-changing world.

FREUD'S STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

According to Sigmund Freud, personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early

experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence

behavior later in life.

Freud's theory of personality development is one of the best known, but also one of the

most controversial. Freud believed that personality develops through a series of

childhood stages during which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on

certain erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the

driving force behind behavior.

If the stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality. If certain

issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur. A fixation is a

persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the

individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. For example, a person who is fixated at the

oral stage may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through

smoking, drinking, or eating.

The Oral Stage

The oral stage begins at birth, when the oral cavity is the primary focus of libido

energy. The child, of course, preoccupies himself with nursing, with the pleasure

of sucking and accepting things into the mouth. The oral character who is

frustrated at this stage, whose mother refused to nurse him on demand or who

truncated nursing sessions early, is characterized by pessimism, envy, suspicion

and sarcasm. The overindulged oral character, whose nursing urges were always

and often excessively satisfied, is optimistic, gullible, and is full of admiration for

others around him. The stage culminates in the primary conflict of weaning,

which both deprives the child of the sensory pleasures of nursing and of the
 psychological pleasure of being cared for, mothered, and held. The stage lasts

approximately one and one-half years.

The Anal Stage

At one and one-half years, the child enters the anal stage. With the advent of toilet

training comes the child's obsession with the erogenous zone of the anus and with the

retention or expulsion of the feces. This represents a classic conflict between the id,

which derives pleasure from expulsion of bodily wastes, and the ego and superego, which

represent the practical and societal pressures to control the bodily functions. The child

meets the conflict between the parent's demands and the child's desires and physical

capabilities in one of two ways: Either he puts up a fight or he simply refuses to go. The

child who wants to fight takes pleasure in excreting maliciously, perhaps just before or

just after being placed on the toilet. If the parents are too lenient and the child manages to

derive pleasure and success from this expulsion, it will result in the formation of an anal

expulsive character. This character is generally messy, disorganized, reckless, careless,

and defiant. Conversely, a child may opt to retain feces, thereby spiting his parents while

enjoying the pleasurable pressure of the built-up feces on his intestine. If this tactic

succeeds and the child is overindulged, he will develop into an anal retentive character.

This character is neat, precise, orderly, careful, stingy, withholding, obstinate,

meticulous, and passive-aggressive. The resolution of the anal stage, proper toilet

training, permanently affects the individual propensities to possession and attitudes

towards authority. This stage lasts from one and one-half to three years.

The Phallic Stage

The phallic stage is the setting for the greatest, most crucial sexual conflict in Freud's

model of development. In this stage, the child's erogenous zone is the genital region. As

the child becomes more interested in his genitals, and in the genitals of others, conflict

arises. The conflict, labeled the Oedipus complex (The Electra complex in women),

involves the child's unconscious desire to possess the opposite-sexed parent and to

eliminate the same-sexed one.

On the Electra complex, Freud was more vague. The complex has its roots in the little

girl's discovery that she, along with her mother and all other women, lack the penis which

her father and other men posses. Her love for her father then becomes both erotic and

envious, as she yearns for a penis of her own. She comes to blame her mother for her

perceived castration, and is struck by penis envy, the apparent counterpart to the boy's

castration anxiety. The resolution of the Electra complex is far less clear-cut than the

resolution of the Oedipus complex is in males; Freud stated that the resolution comes

much later and is never truly complete. Just as the boy learned his sexual role by

identifying with his father, so the girl learns her role by identifying with her mother in an

attempt to posses her father vicariously. At the eventual resolution of the conflict, the girl

passes into the latency period, though Freud implies that she always remains slightly

fixated at the phallic stage.

Fixation at the phallic stage develops a phallic character, which is reckless, resolute, self-

assured, and narcissistic--excessively vain and proud. The failure to resolve the conflict

can also cause a person to be afraid or incapable of close love; As well, Freud postulated

that fixation could be a root cause of homosexuality.

Latency Period

The resolution of the phallic stage leads to the latency period, which is not a

psychosexual stage of development, but a period in which the sexual drive lies dormant.

Freud saw latency as a period of unparalleled repression of sexual desires and erogenous

impulses. During the latency period, children pour this repressed libidal energy into

asexual pursuits such as school, athletics, and same-sex friendships. But soon puberty

strikes and the genitals once again become a central focus of libidal energy.

The Genital Stage

In the genital stage, as the child's energy once again focuses on his genitals, interest turns

to heterosexual relationships. The less energy the child has left invested in unresolved

psychosexual developments, the greater his capacity will be to develop normal

relationships with the opposite sex. If, however, he remains fixated, particularly on the

phallic stage, his development will be troubled as he struggles with further repression and

defenses.

ERIK ERIKSON’S THEORY:

Erikson made an enormous contribution to and alteration of Freud's developmental

theory. He changed and extended the stages into a more complex theory extended

throughout life. He also associated a "virtue" and a related developmental issue with each

stage. This is especially important because the failure to resolve those issues explains

many problems. The seven stages are essentially as follows. The first, or "oral" stage has

the virtue of hope and the issue of trust. The anal stage has the virtue of will and the issue
of autonomy. The Oedipal stage has the virtue of purpose and the issue of initiative. The

latency stage has the virtue of skill and the issue of industry. Adolescence has the virtue

of fidelity and the issue of identity. The stage involving marriage and work has the virtue

of love and the issue of intimacy. The stage of parenthood has the virtue of the capacity

to care for others and the issue of integrity

ERIKSON'S THEORY OF
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT:

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

• The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs

between birth and one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.

• Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based

on the dependability and quality of the child’s caregivers.

• If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in

the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or

rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for.

Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is

inconsistent and unpredictable.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

• The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes

place during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater

sense of personal control.2

 • Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this

process. However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different then that of

Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to control one’s body functions leads

to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.

• Other important events include gaining more control over food choices,

toy preferences, and clothing selection.

• Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident,

while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.

Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt

• During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and

control over the world through directing play and other social interaction.

• Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead

others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt,

self-doubt and lack of initiative.3

Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority

• This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.

• Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in

their accomplishments and abilities.

• Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers

develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive
 little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their

ability to be successful.

Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion

• During adolescence, children are exploring their independence and

developing a sense of self.

• Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through

personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self

and a feeling of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their

beliefs and desires will insecure and confused about themselves and the

future.

Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation

• This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring

personal relationships.

• Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed

relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step will

develop relationships that are committed and secure.

• Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps.

Erikson believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important to

developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with

a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more

likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.

Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation

• During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career

and family.

• Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are

contributing to the world by being active in their home and community.

Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in

the world.

Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair

• This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.

• Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has

been wasted and will experience many regrets. The individual will be left

with feelings of bitterness and despair.

• Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of

integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few

regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain

wisdom, even when confronting death.

CRITICISM ON PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES:

1. Freud's hypotheses are neither verifiable nor falsifiable. It is not clear what would

count as evidence sufficient to confirm or refute theoretical claims.

2. The theory is based on an inadequate conceptualization of the experience of women.

3. The theory overemphasizes the role of sexuality in human psychological development

and experience.

4. Much of the data come from individual’s reconstruction of the past, often the distant

past, and is of unknown accuracy.

5. Unconscious mind is given too much importance in influencing development.

6. Their images of human beings in psychoanalytic theories are too negative.

7. Future predictions are too vague. How can we know that a current behavior was caused

specifically by a childhood experience? The length of time between the cause and the

effect is too long to assume that there is a relationship between the two variables.

COGNITIVE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT:

PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY:

Cognitive theory is concerned with the development of a person's thought processes. It

also looks at how these thought processes influence how we understand and interact with

the world. The foremost cognitive thinker was Jean Piaget, who proposed an idea that

seems obvious now, but helped revolutionize how we think about child development:

Children think differently than adults. Piaget then proposed a theory of cognitive

development to account for the steps and sequence of children's intellectual development

FOUR STAGES FOR UNDERSTANDING OF THE WORLD:

SENSORIMOTOR STAGE

Characteristics of the Sensorimotor Stage:

The first stage of Piaget’s theory lasts from birth to approximately age two and is

centered on the infant trying to make sense of the world. During the sensorimotor stage,

an infant’s knowledge of the world is limited to their sensory perceptions and motor

activities. Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli.

Children utilize skills and abilities they were born with, such as looking, sucking,

grasping, and listening, to learn more about the environment.

Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage:

The sensorimotor stage can be divided into six separate substages that are characterized

by the development of a new skill.

Reflexes (0-1 month):

During this substage, the child understands the environment purely through inborn

reflexes such as sucking and looking.

Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months):

This substage involves coordinating sensation and new schemas. For example, a child

may such his or her thumb by accident and then later intentionally repeat the action.

These actions are repeated because the infant finds them pleasurable.

Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months):

During this substage, the child becomes more focused on the world and begins to

intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment. For

example, a child will purposefully pick up a toy in order to put it in his or her mouth.

Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months):

During this substage, the child starts to show clearly intentional actions. The child may

also combine schemas in order to achieve a desired effect. Children begin exploring the

environment around them and will often imitate the observed behavior of others. The

understanding of objects also begins during this time and children begin to recognize

certain objects as having specific qualities. For example, a child might realize that a rattle

will make a sound when shaken.

Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months):

Children begin a period of trial-and-error experimentation during the fifth substage. For

example, a child may try out different sounds or actions as a way of getting attention

from a caregiver.

Early Representational Thought (18-24 months):

Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world in the final

sensorimotor substage. During this time, children begin to move towards understanding

the world through mental operations rather than purely through actions.

PREOPERATIONAL STAGE:
Characteristics of the Preoperational Stage:

The preoperational stage occurs between ages two and six. Language development is one

of the hallmarks of this period. Piaget noted that children in this stage do not yet

understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information, and are unable to

take the point of view of other people, which he termed egocentrism.

During the preoperational stage, children also become increasingly adept at using

symbols, as evidenced by the increase in playing and pretending. For example, a child is

able to use an object to represent something else, such as pretending a broom is a horse.

Role playing also becomes important during the preoperational stage. Children often play

the roles of "mommy," "daddy," "doctor," and many others.

Egocentrism:

Piaget used a number of creative and clever techniques to study the mental abilities of

children. One of the famous techniques egocentrism involved using a three-dimensional

display of a mountain scene. Children are asked to choose a picture that showed the scene

they had observed. Most children are able to do this with little difficulty. Next, children

are asked to select a picture showing what someone else would have observed when

looking at the mountain from a different viewpoint.

Invariably, children almost always choose the scene showing their own view of the

mountain scene. According to Piaget, children experience this difficulty because they are

unable to take on another person's perspective.

CONCRETE OPERATIONAL:

Characteristics of Concrete Operations:

The concrete operational stage begins around age seven and continues until
approximately age eleven. During this time, children gain a better understanding of

mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have

difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.

Logic:

Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were fairly good at the

use of inductive logic. Inductive logic involves going from a specific experience to a

general principle. On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty using deductive

logic, which involves using a general principle to determine the outcome of a specific

event.

Reversibility:

One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of reversibility,

or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being able to reverse the

order of relationships between mental categories. For example, a child might be able to

recognize that his or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an

animal.

FORMAL OPERATIONAL:

Characteristics of the Formal Operational Stage:

The formal operational stage begins at approximately age twelve to and lasts into

adulthood. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts.

Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge

during this stage.

Logic:

Piaget believed that deductive logic becomes important during the formal operational
stage. Deductive logic requires the ability to use a general principle to determine a

specific outcome. This type of thinking involves hypothetical situations and is often

required in science and mathematics.

Abstract Thought:

While children tend to think very concretely and specifically in earlier stages, the ability

to think about abstract concepts emerges during the formal operational stage. Instead of

relying solely on previous experiences, children begin to consider possible outcomes and

consequences of actions. This type of thinking is important in long-term planning.

Problem-Solving:

In earlier stages, children used trial-and-error to solve problems. During the formal

operational stage, the ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and

methodical way emerges. Children at the formal operational stage of cognitive

development are often able to quickly plan an organized approach to solving a problem.

SUPPORT FOR PIAGET’S THEORY:

Piaget's Impact on Education

Piaget's focus on qualitative development had an important impact on education. While

Piaget did not specifically apply his theory to education, many educational programs are

built upon the belief that children should be taught at the level for which they are

developmentally prepared.

In addition to this, a number of instructional strategies have been derived from Piaget's

work. These strategies include providing a supportive environment, utilizing social

interactions and peer teaching, and helping children see fallacies and inconsistencies in

their thinking
CRITICISMS OF PIAGET:

Problems With Research Methods

Much of the criticism of Piaget's work is in regards to his research methods. A major

source of inspiration for the theory was Piaget's observations of his own three children. In

addition to this, the other children in Piaget's small research sample were all from well-

educated professionals of high socio-economic status. Because of this unrepresentative

sample, it is difficult to generalize his findings to a larger population.

Problems With Formal Operations

Research has disputed Piaget's argument that all children will automatically move to the

next stage of development as they mature. Some data suggests that environmental factors

may play a role in the development of formal operations.

Underestimates Children's Abilities

Most researchers agree that children posses many of the abilities at an earlier age than

Piaget suspected. Recent research on theory of mind has found that children of 4- or 5-

years old have a rather sophisticated understanding of their own mental processes as well

as those of other people. For example, children of this age have some ability to take the

perspective of another person, meaning they are far less egocentric than Piaget believed.

Piaget’s Legacy:

While there are few strict Piagetians, most can appreciate Piaget's influence and legacy.

His work generated interest in child development and had an enormous impact on the

future of education and developmental psychology.

VYGOTSKY'S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY:

Vygotsky is best known for being an educational psychologist with a sociocultural

theory. This theory suggests that social interaction leads to continuous step-by-step

changes in children's thought and behavior that can vary greatly from culture to culture.

Basically Vygotsky's theory suggests that development depends on interaction with

people and the tools that the culture provides to help form their own view of the world.

There are three ways a cultural tool can be passed from one individual to another. The

first one is imitative learning, where one person tries to imitate or copy another. The

second way is by instructed learning which involves remembering the instructions of the

teacher and then using these instructions to self-regulate. The final way that cultural tools

are passed to others is through collaborative learning, which involves a group of peers

who strive to understand each other and work together to learn a specific skill.

His theory combines the social environment and cognition. Children will acquire the

ways of thinking and behaving that make up a culture by interacting with a more

knowledgeable person. Vygotsky believed that social interaction will lead to ongoing

changes in a child's thought and behavior. Theses thoughts and behaviors would vary

between cultures

The sociocultural theory consists of several elements to help implement it. i.e. :

> Children construct their knowledge

> Development can not be separated from it’s social context

> Learning can lead development

> Language plays central role in development

Consider private speech, where children speak to themselves to plan or guide their own

behavior. This is most common among preschoolers, who have not yet learned proper
social skills but rather explore the idea of it. Children often use private speech when a

task becomes to difficult and the child doesn't know how to proceed. Private speech helps

the child accomplish a task. Vygotsky believed private speech changes with age, by

becoming softer or being just a whisper.

The second element in the sociocultural theory is the zone of proximal development

(ZPD). Vygotsky believed that any pedagogy creates learning processes that lead to

development and this sequence results in zones of proximal development. It's the concept

that a child accomplishes a task that he/she cannot do alone, with the help from a more

skilled person. Vygotsky also described the ZPD as the difference between the actual

development level as determined by individual problem solving and the level of potential

development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or

collaboration with more knowledgeable peers. The result of this process is children

become more socialized in the dominant culture and it induces cognitive development

In order for the ZPD to be such a success, it must contain two features. The first is called

subjectivity. This term describes the process of two individuals begin a task with different

understanding and eventually arrive at a shared understanding. The second feature is

scaffolding, which refers to a change in the social support over the course of a teaching

session. If scaffolding is successful, a child's mastery level of performance can change,

which means that it can increase a child's performance on a particular task.

The zone of proximal development has implications for assessment, especially

concerning children with learning and behavior problems. In the book, Scaffolding

Children's Learning, Berk and Winsler discuss Vygotsky's dissatisfaction with the ability
and achievement tests as valid measures of children's capacity to learn. Two children can

differ substantially in the ZPD's. One child may do his/her best on their own, while the

other needs some assistance. Therefore, the ZPD is crucial for identifying each child's

readiness to benefit from instruction.

REFERENCES:

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> www.altavista.com