CN - Chapter II

Unit II
Data and Signals:

One of the important function of physical layer is to
move the data in the form of electromagnetic signals
from one host to another.
The data in its original form (Text, Image, Audio,
Video) is not suitable for transmission.
For transmitting the data over communication
medium, it must be converted into a form suitable for
transmission.
Transmission mediums transmits the data by
conducting the energy along the transmission path.
Unit II
Analog and Digital:
Both data and signals which represents data are of
two forms
Analog
Digital
Analog and Digital Data:
The data that we want to transport can be analog or
digital.
Analog data refers to the information that is
continuous in nature.
Digital data refers to the information that is discrete
(Non continuous) in nature.
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Analog and Digital:
Examples of analog data are Human Voice,
Temperature etc.
Examples of digital data are Data Stored in
computers memory.
Analog data can be converted into analog or digital
signals.
Digital data can be converted into digital signal.
Analog data is going to take continuous values.
Digital data is going to take discrete values.
Unit II
Analog and Digital:
Analog and Digital Signals:
As data can be analog or digital, the signals which
carry the data can also be analog or digital.
An analog signal contains infinite values over a
period of time.
A digital signal contains definite values for the given
period of time.

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Analog and Digital:
Analog and Digital Signals:

Unit II
Analog and Digital:
Periodic and No periodic Signals:
Both analog and digital signals can be periodic or non
periodic.
A periodic signal repeats a specific pattern for a given
time interval called as period.
The completion one full pattern is called as a cycle.
A non periodic signal does not shows or repeats as per a
specific pattern for the given time period.
In data communication we use periodic analog signals
because they require less bandwidth and non periodic
digital signals as they can represent variation in data.

Unit II
Analog and Digital:
Periodic Analog Signals:
Periodic analog signals can be classified as
Simple
Composite
A simple periodic analog signal can not be decomposed into
simpler signals. Ex. Sine Wave
A composite periodic analog signal can be decomposed into
multiple sine waves.
Sine Wave: A sine wave is the most fundamental form of
periodic analog signal.
A sine wave can be represented using three parameters

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Analog and Digital:
Peak Amplitude
Frequency
Phase
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Analog and Digital:
Peak Amplitude: The peak amplitude of a signal is
the highest value attained by the signal. It reflects the
energy it carries. For electrical signals it is measured
in volts.
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Analog and Digital:
Period and Frequency: Period refers to the time a
signal takes to complete one cycle. Frequency refers
to the number of periods or cycles in one second.
The relation between period and frequency is

Period is normally expressed in seconds and
frequency is expressed in Hertz.

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Analog and Digital:
Period and Frequency:

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Analog and Digital:

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Analog and Digital:
Another way to look at frequency is that it shows
the rate of change of a signal.
If the signal changes rapidly in a short time it has
high frequency and vice versa.
If a signal does not changes at all its frequency is
zero.
If the signal changes from one level to another level
in no time its frequency is infinite.

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Analog and Digital:
Phase: The term Phase shows the position of the
waveform with respect to time.
It reflects the distance travelled by a waveform in
one cycle.
It is measured in degrees or radians.
Looking at the waveform we can conclude that
A sine wave with phase of 0 degrees is not shifted.
A sine wave with a phase of 90 degrees is shifted to the
left by cycle.
A sine wave with a phase of 180 degrees is shifted to the
left by cycle.
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Analog and Digital:
Phase:.
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Analog and Digital:
Wavelength: It is a term that is used to bind the
frequency of a signal to the propagation speed of the
medium.

The frequency of the medium is independent of the
medium but wavelength depends upon both
frequency and medium.
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Analog and Digital:
Time Domain and Frequency: In all previous waveforms
the signal is represented using time domain
representation.
The time domain representation shows changes in the
signal amplitude with respect to time.
In time domain plot phase is not shown explicitly.
To show the relation between amplitude and frequency
of a signal we use frequency domain plot.
In frequency domain plot peak amplitude value of the
signal and frequency are shown.
Changes in one period are not shown in the frequency
domain plot.
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Analog and Digital:
Time Domain and Frequency:
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Analog and Digital:
The advantage of frequency domain plot is that we
can easily see the values of peak amplitude and
frequency of a signal.
In this plot the position of the spike shows frequency
and the height shows the amplitude.
The frequency domain plot is more useful when we
are dealing with more than one sine waves.
Figure shows three sine waves in time domain and
its frequency domain representation
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Analog and Digital:

Unit II
Analog and Digital:
Composite Signals: A composite signal is made up of
many sine waves.
Simple sine waves are not useful for data
communication.
A composite signal is actually a combination of many
simple sine waves with different amplitude, frequency
and phase.
A composite signal can be periodic or non periodic.
A Periodic composite signal can be decomposed into a
series of simple sine waves with discrete frequencies that
have integer values (1, 2, 3 ).
A Non Periodic composite signal can be decomposed
into a combination of infinite number of sine waves with
continuous frequencies that have real values (1, 2, 3 ).

Unit II
Analog and Digital:
Composite Signals: Figure shows a composite
periodic signal
Unit II
Analog and Digital:
Composite Signals: Figure shows a decomposed
composite periodic signal both in time and frequency domain
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Analog and Digital:
Composite Signals: Figure shows a non periodic
composite signal both in time and frequency domain
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Analog and Digital:
Bandwidth: The range of frequencies contained in
an composite signal is called as Bandwidth.
The bandwidth is usually difference between two
frequencies.
For Ex. If the range of frequencies contained in a composite
signal is 2000 Hz to 5000 Hz. Then its bandwidth is 5000-2000
= 3000 Hz.
Figure shows two composite signals, one periodic and other
non periodic.
For periodic signals the bandwidth contains all integer
frequencies.
For non periodic signals the bandwidth is of same range but
contains continuous frequencies.
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Analog and Digital:
Bandwidth:
3.27
A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest
frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw
the spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the
same amplitude.
Solution
Let f
h
be the highest frequency, f
l
the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then
Example 3.11
The spectrum contains all integer frequencies. We show
this by a series of spikes (see Figure 3.14).
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Analog and Digital:
Bandwidth:
3.29
A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth
of 200 kHz, with a middle frequency of 140 kHz
and peak amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme
frequencies have an amplitude of 0. Draw the
frequency domain of the signal.

Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the
highest at 240 kHz. Figure 3.15 shows the
frequency domain and the bandwidth.
Example 3.12
3.30
Figure 3.15 The bandwidth for Example 3.12
Unit II
Digital Signals: The information that we want to
communicate can be represented with the help of
digital signals also.
In digital signals for example a binary 1 can be
encoded using a positive voltage level and a binary 0
can be encoded using a zero voltage level.
Also a digital signal can have more than two voltage
levels.
If we represent data using more than two voltage
levels in digital signals then we can transmit more
than 1 bit using each voltage level.
Figure shows a digital signal using different voltage
levels

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Digital Signals:
Unit II
Digital Signals:
As shown in figure, for first case we are transmitting
1 bit using each voltage level.
For the second case we can transmit two bits using
each voltage level.
In general if a signal has L levels each level require
Log2 L bits.
3.34
A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are
needed per level? We calculate the number of bits from
the formula
Example 3.16
Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.
3.35
A digital signal has nine levels. How many
bits are needed per level? We calculate the
number of bits by using the formula. Each
signal level is represented by 3.17 bits.
However, this answer is not realistic. The
number of bits sent per level needs to be an
integer as well as a power of 2. For this
example, 4 bits can represent one level.
Example 3.17
Unit II
Digital Signals:
Bit Rate: Most of the digital signals are non periodic.
Therefore frequency and phase are not appropriate
characteristics.
To describe digital signals a term called as Bit Rate is
used.
It is defined as the number of bits transmitted in one
second.
The unit of bit rate is bits per second (BPS)
3.37
Assume we need to download text documents at the rate
of 100 pages per minute. What is the required bit rate of
the channel?
Solution
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each
line. If we assume that one character requires 8 bits, the
bit rate is
Example 3.18
3.38
A digitized voice channel, as we will see in Chapter 4, is
made by digitizing a 4-kHz bandwidth analog voice signal.
We need to sample the signal at twice the highest
frequency (two samples per hertz). We assume that each
sample requires 8 bits. What is the required bit rate?

Solution
The bit rate can be calculated as
Example 3.19
Unit II
Digital Signals:
Bit Length: Bit length of digital signal is similar to
that of wavelength for a analog signal.
Bit length is the distance occupied by a bit on the
transmission medium.
Thus
Bit Length = Propagation Speed * Bit Duration
Unit II
Digital Signal as Composite Analog Signal:
Using the concept of Fourier analysis a digital signal
can be treated as composite analog signal.
The time domain representation of digital signal
contains vertical and horizontal line segments.
A vertical line in time domain shows infinite
frequency (Sudden change in zero time).
A horizontal line in time domain shows zero
frequency (No change in time)
Thus in a digital signal going from zero frequency to
infinite frequency shows the domain contain all
intermediate frequencies.
Unit II
Fourier analysis can be used for the decomposition
of Digital Signals.
If the digital signal is periodic then the decomposed
signal has a frequency domain representation with an
infinite bandwidth and discrete frequencies.
If the digital signal is non periodic then the
decomposed signal has a frequency domain
representation with an infinite bandwidth but the
frequencies are continuous.
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Unit II
Transmission of Digital Signals:
A digital signal can be treated as composite analog
signal having frequencies between zero and infinity.
It can be periodic or non periodic.
For data communication we prefer non periodic
digital signal.
A digital signal can be transmitted using one of the
two methods
Baseband Transmission
Broadband Transmission ( Using Modulation)
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Baseband Transmission: In this method of
transmission a digital signal is transmitted on the
transmission medium without changing it to analog
signal.
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For baseband transmission we require a low pass
channel (Medium).
A low pass channel is a channel whose frequency starts
from zero.
This is a case when we have a dedicated medium with a
bandwidth constituting only one channel.
For example a cable connecting two computers using
point to point link.
We can also have a bus (Multipoint Link), but with a
restriction that only two stations can communicate at a
time.
Figure shows two low pass channels one having narrow
bandwidth and other with infinite bandwidth.
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Baseband transmission of digital signals that
preserves the shape of the signals is possible if we
have a low pass channel with a very wide bandwidth.
Two computers can communicate with each other
using baseband transmission if the communication
medium is having wide bandwidth such as coaxial
cable or fiber optic.
Figure shows baseband transmission with dedicated
medium
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Unit II
For transmitting digital signal using a medium with
low bandwidth we approximate digital signal to a
analog signal.
The level of approximation depends upon the
bandwidth available.
In this case the required bandwidth is proportional
to the bit rate.
It means that if we want to send bits faster we need
more bandwidth.
Figure shows simulation of digital signal with first
three harmonics
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Unit II
Table shows the bandwidth requirements for
different data rates.
3.52
What is the required bandwidth of a low-pass channel if
we need to send 1 Mbps by using baseband transmission?

Solution
The answer depends on the accuracy desired.
a. The minimum bandwidth, is B = bit rate /2, or 500 kHz.

b. A better solution is to use the first and the third
harmonics with B = 3 500 kHz = 1.5 MHz.

c. Still a better solution is to use the first, third, and fifth
harmonics with B = 5 500 kHz = 2.5 MHz.
Example 3.22
3.53
We have a low-pass channel with bandwidth
100 kHz. What is the maximum bit rate of this
channel?

Solution
The maximum bit rate can be achieved if we
use the first harmonic. The bit rate is 2 times
the available bandwidth, or 200 kbps.
Example 3.22
Unit II
Broadband Transmission (Using Modulation): In
this method of transmission a digital signal is
converted into analog signal and then it is
transmitted.
This method allows us to use a band pass channel
(Medium).
A band pass channel is a channel whose frequency
does not starts from zero.
This type of channel is more available than low pass
channel.
Figure shows a band pass channel
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Broadband Transmission (Using Modulation):

A low pass channel can be treated as band pass
channel with lower frequency starting at zero.
Figure shows modulation of a digital signal
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As shown in figure a digital signal is converted into
composite analog signal and then transmitted.
The analog signal is called as carrier.
Here the amplitude of the carrier is changed in
accordance with the input digital signal.
At the receiver the analog signal is converted back to
digital signal.

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Unit II
Transmission Impairments:
Signals travels through communication medium
from sender to receiver.
This transmission medium is not perfect. Therefore
the signal transmitted by sender is not exactly same
as the signal received by the receiver.
This is called as transmission impairment.
In data communication there are three causes for
transmission impairments
Attenuation
Distortion
Noise

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Attenuation:
Attenuation means loss of energy.
When a signal travels through a transmission
medium some of its energy is wasted in overcoming
the resistance of the communication medium.

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This energy is wasted in the form of heat.
To compensate for this loss of energy we use
amplifiers.
Figure shows attenuation and amplification

Unit II
To show whether a signal has lost or gained the
strength a unit called as decibel is used.
Decibel (DB) measure relative strength of two signals
or strength of the signal at two different points.
Decibel is negative if signal is attenuated and
positive if signal is amplified
It is given by formula

P1 and P2 are the powers of the signals at two
points

3.62
A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is
increased 10 times. This means that P
2
= 10P
1
. In this
case, the amplification (gain of power) can be calculated
as
Example 3.27
3.63
Sometimes the decibel is used to measure signal power in
milliwatts. In this case, it is referred to as dB
m
and is
calculated as dB
m
= 10 log10 P
m
, where P
m
is the power in
milliwatts. Calculate the power of a signal with dB
m
= 30.

Solution
We can calculate the power in the signal as
Example 3.29
3.64
One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure
the changes in the strength of a signal is that decibel
numbers can be added (or subtracted) when we are
measuring several points (cascading) instead of just two.
In Figure 3.27 a signal travels from point 1 to point 4. In
this case, the decibel value can be calculated as
Example 3.28
3.65
Figure 3.27 Decibels for Example 3.28
3.66
Sometimes the decibel is used to measure signal power in milliwatts. In this case, it is
referred to as dB
m
and is calculated as dB
m
= 10 log10 P
m
, where P
m
is the power in
milliwatts. Calculate the power of a signal with dB
m
= 30.

Solution
We can calculate the power in the signal as
Example 3.29
3.67
The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per
kilometer (dB/km). If the signal at the beginning of a
cable with 0.3 dB/km has a power of 2 mW, what is the
power of the signal at 5 km?
Solution
The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 (0.3) = 1.5 dB.
We can calculate the power as
Example 3.30
Unit II
Distortion: The meaning of distortion is that the
signal changes its shape or form.
It can occur typically in composite signals containing
different frequencies.
Each signal in an composite signal has its own
frequency and own propagation speed.
Since different signal components travels at different
speeds, there is a delay incurred as they arrive at the
destination.
Differences in the delay may cause differences in
the phase of the signal if the delay is not exactly same
as the period duration.

Unit II
Therefore the signal components arrived at the
receiver are of different phase as that of transmitted
phase.
As a result of this the shape of the composite signal
is not same as it was transmitted.
Figure shows the effect of distortion

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Unit II
Noise: Noise is another important cause of
distortion.
Basically noise is any unwanted signal that gets
mixed with the data signal and thereby corrupting it.
There are different types of noise
Thermal Noise
Induced Noise
Crosstalk
Impulse Noise

Unit II
Thermal noise is the noise created because of
random motion of electrons in communication
medium.
It creates additional signal which is not part of the
original transmitted signal.
Induced noise comes from sources like electrical
appliances and motors.
These devices acts as sending antenna while
communication medium acts as receiving antenna.
Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on another. One
wire acts as transmitter while other acts as receiver.

Unit II
Impulse noise is a spike that gets interfered with
signal because of power lines and lightening.
Figure shows effect of noise

Unit II
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR): SNR is a term that
determines the theoretical limit for the bit rate.
It is the ration of signal power to noise power.
It is defined as

We consider average power because it may change
with respect to time.
SNR is actually a ration of what is wanted (Signal) to
the what is not wanted (Noise)
A high SNR means signal is less corrupted by noise
and vice versa.

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It is also expressed in decibels as
3.76
The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the
noise is 1 W; what are the values of SNR and SNR
dB
?

Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as
follows:
Example 3.31
Unit II
Data Rate Limits: One of the most important aspect
of data communication is that how fast we can send
the data in bits per second using a communication
medium. Data rate of a communication system
depends upon
Available Bandwidth
Number of signal levels we use
The quality of the channel (The level of Noise)
Two theoretical formulas are used to determine the
data rate
Nyquist theorem for noiseless channel
Shannon capacity for Noisy channel

Unit II
Data Rate Limits:
Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate: This formula
defines the theoretical limit for data rate of a
noiseless channel. It is given by
Bit Rate = 2 * Bandwidth*Log2 L
Here,
Bandwidth =Bandwidth of the Channel
L = Number of signal levels used to represent data
Bit Rate = Bit Rate in Bits per Second.
From the formula we may think that for the given
bandwidth we can increase the data rate by
increasing the number of signal levels used.
Unit II
Data Rate Limits:
But practically it is observed that if we increase the
number of voltage level beyond a limit it imposes a
burden on the receiver.
For Ex. If there are 2 levels the receiver can easily
distinguish between a 0 and a 1. But if there are 64
voltage levels used the receiver is burdened if it is not
sophisticated.
Thus increasing the signal levels reduces the
reliability of the system.
3.80
Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting
a signal with four signal levels (for each level, we
send 2 bits). The maximum bit rate can be
calculated as
Example 3.35
3.81
We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with
a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we
need?
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:
Example 3.36
Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either increase the
number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If we have 128 levels, the
bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64 levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.
Unit II
Data Rate Limits:
Noisy Channel: Shannon's Capacity: In actual
practice it is difficult to have a noiseless channels.
Almost all the channels are noisy.
To determine the highest data rate for such
channels in 1944 Claude Shannon proposed one
formula called as Shannons Capacity and is given by
Capacity = Bandwidth * Log2 (1 + SNR)
Where,
Capacity = Capacity of the Channel
Bandwidth = Bandwidth of Medium
SNR = Signal to Noise Ratio
Unit II
Data Rate Limits:
In this formula there is no mention of the number of
voltage levels used.
Thus whatever may be the number of voltage levels
used, we can not achieve a higher data rate than the
capacity of the channel.
This formula defines the characteristics of the
channel, not the transmission method.
3.84
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the
value of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In
other words, the noise is so strong that the signal
is faint. For this channel the capacity C is
calculated as
Example 3.37
This means that the capacity of this channel is
zero regardless of the bandwidth. In other words,
we cannot receive any data through this channel.
3.85
We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a
regular telephone line. A telephone line normally has a
bandwidth of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually
3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated as
Example 3.38
This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is
34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster than this, we
can either increase the bandwidth of the line or improve
the signal-to-noise ratio.
Unit II
Data Rate Limits:
In practice we use both the methods to find the data
rate limits and the signal levels.
The Shannon's capacity gives us the upper limit and
the Nyquist formula tells us how many signal levels
we need.
3.87
We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR for
this channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate and
signal level?

Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.
Example 3.41
3.88
The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper
limit. For better performance we choose
something lower, 4 Mbps, for example. Then we
use the Nyquist formula to find the number of
signal levels.
Example 3.41 (continued)
Unit II
Performance:
One of the important issue in computer networking
is the performance of the network.
Typically the performance of a computer network is
measured using five parameters as
Bandwidth
Throughput
Latency (Delay)
Bandwidth Delay Product
Jitter
Unit II
Performance:
Bandwidth: This is the first parameter that measures
the performance of a network.
In computer networks the term bandwidth is used in
two different contexts
Bandwidth in Hz: It is the range of frequencies contained
in a composite signal or is the range of frequencies a
channel can pass. For Ex. BW of telephone line is 4KHZ.
Bandwidth in Bits per Second: It refers to the number of
bits per second that a channel, link and a network can
transmit. For Ex. The bandwidth of a fast Ethernet is
100MBPS.
Unit II
Performance:
There is a relationship between these two
bandwidths. If we increase the bandwidth in Hz then
the bandwidth in BPS also increases.
But it also depends upon whether we are using
baseband transmission or broadband transmission.
The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for
voice or data. The bandwidth of this line for data
transmission can be up to 56,000 bps using a
sophisticated modem to change the digital signal
to analog.
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Performance:
Throughput: Throughput is a term that is used to
measure how fast actually we can send the data
through network.
At first sight it may seem that bandwidth in bps and
throughput are same. But they are not.
If B is the bandwidth then we can send data with a
throughput T through it, where T is les than B.
For. Ex. If we are having a link of BW 1 MBPS and the
devices connected to it can handle data at a rate of
200KBPS. Then we can not send data faster than 200
KBPS.

3.93
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an
average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the
throughput of this network?

Solution
We can calculate the throughput as
Example 3.44
The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in
this case.
Unit II
Performance:
Latency (Delay): The term latency or delay is the
time required for entire message to reach to the
destination completely from the time the first bit of
the message is transmitted.
The latency is made up of four components
Propagation Time
Transmission Time
Queuing Time
Processing Time
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Performance:
Propagation Time: This time is the time required for
a bit to travel from source to destination.
Propagation time is calculated as

The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals
depends upon the medium and the frequency of the
signal.

3.96
What is the propagation time if the distance between the
two points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed
to be 2.4 108 m/s in cable.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as
Example 3.45
The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic
Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a direct cable between the
source and the destination.
Unit II
Performance:
Transmission Time: In data communication a
message consist of many bits.
We do not transmit a single bit, we transmit the
entire message.
The transmission time is the time between arrival of
first bit and arrival of last bit at the receiver.
Thus the transmission time is the time required to
transmit a complete message.
Each bit in a message takes time equal to
propagation time to reach to the destination.

Unit II
Performance:
The transmission time depends upon the size of the
message and bandwidth of the channel.
It is given by

3.99
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 2.5-
kbyte message (an e-mail) if the bandwidth of the network is 1
Gbps? Assume that the distance between the sender and the
receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 108 m/s.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission time as shown
on the next slide:
Example 3.46
3.100
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 5-
Mbyte message (an image) if the bandwidth of the network is 1
Mbps? Assume that the distance between the sender and the
receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 10
8
m/s.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission times as shown
on the next slide.
Example 3.47
Unit II
Performance:
Queuing Time: Queuing time is the time required
for each intermediate or end node to hold the
message before it can be processed.
The queuing time is not fixed, it changes depending
upon the load on the network.
With increased traffic the queuing time increases.
A router is an example of intermediate node. When
a message arrives it is queued and then is processed
one by one.
If there are many messages, each message have to
wait.

Unit II
Performance:
Processing Time: This is the time required to
process a message at intermediate device or at the
end system.
Unit II
Performance:
Bandwidth Delay Product: Bandwidth and delay are
the two performance metrics of a link.
The Bandwidth delay product is a performance metrics
that reflects the number of bits that can fill a link.
This parameter is important if we need to send data in
bursts and wait for acknowledgement before transmitting
the next burst.
To use the maximum capability of the link we should
send the data at least twice that of Bandwidth delay
product.
This much amount of bits are equal to the number of
bits in transition at a given time.
3.104
Figure 3.31 Filling the link with bits for case 1
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Performance:
we can think a link as a pipe, the cross section of
the link represents the bandwidth and the length of
the pipe represents the delay.
Then the volume of the link represents the
bandwidth delay product.
Unit II
Performance:
Jitter: Jitter is a problem if different packets of data
encounter different delays and application using the
data is time sensitive.
If there are variable delays then the application
receiving the data encounters problem.
Unit II
Digital Transmission:
We have seen that the data and the signal which
carries the data can be analog or digital.
The data in its original form can not be transmitted
as it is.
For transmitting the data we need to convert into a
suitable form.

Unit II
Digital to Digital Conversion: In this method digital
data is converted into digital signals and these signals
travel through the communication medium.
There are three techniques of digital to digital
conversion
Line coding
block coding
Scrambling
Line coding is always needed, block coding and
scrambling are optional
Unit II
Line Coding: In this method digital data stored in
computers memory is converted into digital signals.
It converts sequence of once and zeros into digital
signals.
At the sender digital data is encoded into digital
signals and at the receiver it is decoded into digital
data.
Figure shows the process of line coding
Unit II

Unit II
Characteristics of Line Coding: There are different
characteristics of line coding
Data Element Versus Signal Element: The objective of
data communication is to communicate data element.
Data element is the smallest entity which represents a
piece of information i.e. a bit
This data element is carried by signal element.
A signal element is the shortest unit of signal time wise.
Thus data elements are being carried and signal
elements are the carriers.
Unit II
We will define a ratio r which is data elements
carried by each signal element.
Figure shows a situation for different values of r
For first case a data element is carried by a signal
element therefore r =1.
For second case each data element is carried by two
signal elements i.e. transitions therefore r = .
This extra signal element is helpful for
synchronization.
Unit II

Unit II
Data rate Versus Signal Rate: The data rate defines
the number of data elements transmitted in one
second. The unit is BPS.
The signal rate is the number of signal elements
transmitted in one second. The unit is baud.
The aim of data communication is to increase the
data rate while decreasing the signal rate.
Increasing the data rate increases the speed of
transmission while decreasing the signal rate
decreases the BW requirement.
Unit II
The relationship between these two depends upon
the value of r and the pattern of data.
As data pattern changes the relationship changes i.e.
transmitting all 1s is different than transmitting
alternate 0s and 1s.
For deriving the formula we consider three cases i.e.
worst, average and best.
The worst case is when we need maximum signal
rate, best is when we need minimum signal rate.
In data communication we are interested in average
case.
Unit II
Data rate Versus Signal Rate: The data rate defines
the number of data elements transmitted in one
second. The unit is BPS.
The signal rate is the number of signal elements
transmitted in one second. The unit is baud.
The aim of data communication is to increase the
data rate while decreasing the signal rate.
Increasing the data rate increases the speed of
transmission while decreasing the signal rate
decreases the BW requirement.
Unit II
The relationship is given by

Where,
N= Data rate in BPS
C= Case factor
S= signal elements
r= ratio

4.118
A signal is carrying data in which one data element is
encoded as one signal element ( r = 1). If the bit rate is
100 kbps, what is the average value of the baud rate if c
is between 0 and 1?
Solution
We assume that the average value of c is 1/2 . The baud
rate is then
Example 4.1
Unit II
Bandwidth: In data communication we prefer non
periodic digital signals.
The bandwidth for such signals is continuous with
infinite range.
Although the bandwidth is infinite the effective BW
is finite.
The baud rate determines the bandwidth for signal
signal.
More changes in signal means more frequency.
The BW is proportional to the signal rate

Unit II
The minimum BW can be given by

The maximum data rate is given by

Unit II
Baseline Wondering: In decoding a digital signal, the
receiver calculates the average of the received signal
power.
The average is called baseline.
The incoming signal power is evaluated against this
baseline to determine the value of the data element.
A long string of 1s or 0s can cause the receiver to
drift from this baseline and thus may decode the bits
incorrectly.
A good line coding scheme should prevent this
baseline wondering.
Unit II
DC Components: When the voltage level for a signal
is constant for a while, the spectrum creates very low
frequencies.
These frequencies around zero are called as DC
components and creates problem for a system that
can not pass low frequencies.
Self Synchronization: To correctly interpret the
signals received from sender, the bit interval of sender
and receiver must match.
If the receivers clock is faster or slower, the bit
intervals are not matched and therefore receiver
might misinterpret the received bits.
Unit II

Unit II
A self synchronized signal transmits the
synchronization information along with it.
This can be achieved by providing the transitions in
the signal to alert the signal at the beginning, middle
and end of the signal.
If receivers clock is out of synchronization these
transitions allows him for synchronization.
Built in Error Detection: It is desirable to have error
detection capability in the signal transmitted.
This helps the receiver to check for errors that occur
during the transmission.
Unit II
Immunity to Noise and Interference: It is also
desirable characteristics for a good line coding
scheme.
Complexity: A line coding scheme which is complex
is more costly to implement than the simpler one. For
Ex. A line coding scheme that used 4 signal levels is
difficult to implement than a scheme that uses two
levels.
Unit II
Line Coding Schemes: Following are the different
line coding schemes used in data communication
Unit II
Unipolar Schemes: In this line coding scheme all the
signal or voltage levels are on only one side of the
time axis i.e. Positive or Negative
It uses only one polarity of voltage level to
distinguish between a zero and a one.
NRZ (Non Return to Zero): This scheme is called as non
return to zero because the signal does not returns to zero
at the middle of a bit.
In this scheme typically a binary 1 is encoded using
positive voltage and a binary zero is encoded using zero
voltage.
Unit II

Compared with polar encoding schemes this scheme
is costly because it require more normalized power
than that of polar schemes.
Therefore this scheme is not used in data
communication.
Unit II
Polar Schemes: In this scheme the voltage levels are
on both sides of the time axis. For Ex. A binary 1 is
encoded using positive voltage and a binary zero is
encoded using negative voltage level.
Non Return to Zero (NRZ): In polar NRZ scheme we use
both the levels of amplitude for representing binary 1 and
a binary 0. Here also the voltage does not returns to zero
in the middle of the bit. This scheme is having two
implementations
NRZ L (Level)
NRZ I (Invert)
Figure shows both the schemes
Unit II

In NRZ L the level of the voltage determines the
value of a bit.
In NRZ I the change or lack of change determines
the value of a bit.
Unit II
If there is no change next bit is zero and if there is a
change next bit is one.
If we compare both these schemes with the
parameters we have defend, baseline wondering is a
problem for both the schemes.
However this problem is more significant in NRZ- L
than NRZ- I, since in NRZ L voltage may remain
constant for a long time if there is a long sequence of
0s or 1s.
In NRZ I this problem may occur if there is a long
sequence of 0s because if next bit is 0 there is no
change in voltage level.

Unit II
The synchronization problem also exists in both the
schemes. Again the problem is more serious in NRZ- L
than NRZ- I.
Both the schemes are having average signal rate of
N/2 Baud.
Looking at the power spectrum of both these
schemes we can observe that, most of the power is
available near zero frequencies.
This means that there are DC components that carry
high signal energy.
This also mean that the energy is not evenly
distributed in both halves of the spectrum.

Unit II
Return to Zero (RZ): The main problem in NRZ
schemes occurs when receivers and senders clocks
are not synchronized. The receiver does not
understand when one bit is ended and when next bit
is started.
The solution to this problem is Return to Zero
scheme which uses three polarities i.e. Positive,
Negative and Zero.
In this scheme the signal returns to zero in the
middle of the bit interval.
Figure shows this scheme

Unit II

As shown in figure the signal goes to zero in the
middle of the bit and remains there until the
beginning of the next bit.
The main disadvantage is that it requires two signal
changes to encode a single bit and therefore requires
double bandwidth.

Unit II
In this scheme there is no problem of DC
components.
The RZ scheme is more complex because it used
three voltage levels for encoding.
Because of these deficiencies this scheme is not
used today.

Unit II
Biphase Schemes (Manchester and Differential
Manchester): Manchester encoding is a combination
of RZ and NRZ- L in which there is a transition in the
voltage level at the middle of the bit.
In this scheme the duration of the bit is divided into
two halves. The voltage remains at one level in first
half and makes a transition to the second level during
second half.
The transition in the middle of the bit interval
provides synchronization.

Unit II

Unit II
Differential Manchester scheme is a combination of
RZ and NRZ- I.
In this scheme there is a transition in the middle of
the bit, but the bit values are determined at the
beginning of the bit.
If the next bit is zero there is a transition and if the
next bit is 1 there is no transition.
These two schemes eliminates several problems of
unipolar schemes.

Unit II
Bipolar Schemes: This scheme is also called as
multilevel binary scheme. It uses three voltage levels
Positive, Negative and Zero.
The voltage level for one data element is zero, while
the voltage level for other element alternates
between positive and negative.
There are two methods in bipolar encoding
AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)
Pseudoternary
Figure shows these two schemes

Unit II

Unit II
In AMI the word mark is taken from telegraphy and
means binary 1.
So AMI means alternate 1 inversion.
In this scheme a zero voltage represents binary 0
and binary 1s are represented by alternating positive
and negative voltages.
Pseudoternary is a variation of AMI scheme in which
a binary 1 is encoded as z zero voltage while binary 0
is represented using alternate polarity of voltage i.e.
Positive and negative.

Unit II
Bipolar schemes were developed as an alternative to
NRZ scheme.
Bipolar schemes are having same signal rate as NRZ,
but there is no DC component.
For bipolar schemes the concentration of energy is
near frequency N/2.
AMI is commonly used for long distance
communication, but it has a synchronization problem
when a long sequence of 0s are present in the data.

Unit II
Analog to Digital Conversion: Many times the data
that we want to transport is analog and the signal
which is going to carry the data is digital.
Under this circumstances we need to convert analog
data into digital signals or analog signals into digital
data.
There are two methods
Pulse code modulation
Delta modulation

Unit II
Pulse Code Modulation:
The most common method to convert analog signal
into digital data is Pulse Code Modulation.
The process of PCM comprises
Sampling of Analog Signal
Quantization of Sampled values
Encoding of quantized values into bit streams
Figure shows the process of PCM

Unit II

Unit II
Sampling: In this process the analog signal is
sampled every Ts seconds, where Ts is the sampling
interval.
The inverse of sampling interval is called as sampling
rate or sampling frequency given by Fs= 1/Ts.
There are three sampling methods as
Ideal sampling
Natural Sampling
Flat Top Sampling
Figure shows these three methods

Unit II

Unit II
In ideal sampling pulses from analog signal are
sampled, but this method is difficult for
implementing.
In natural sampling a high speed switch is turned on
for a small period of time when the sampling occurs.
The result of this process is the sequence of pulses
that retain the shape of the analog signal.
The most commonly used method is flat top
sampling which is implemented using sample and
hold circuit.
The process of sampling is also called as Pulse
Amplitude Modulation (PAM).
Unit II
The result of sampling process is still a analog signal
with non integral values.
For this conversion important is sampling rate or
sampling frequency.
According to Nyquist Theorem the sampling
frequency should be at least twice the highest
frequency of the analog signal.
Sampling Frequency > 2 * Highest Frequency of
Analog Signal.

Unit II
Quantization: The result of sampling is the pulses
with amplitude values between maximum and
minimum amplitudes of signal.
These non integral values can not be used for
encoding.
Following are the steps in quantization
We assume that the original analog signal has amplitudes
between Vmax and Vmin.
We divide the range into L zones each with a height of
Delta()
We assign quantized values of 0 to L-1 to midpoint of
each zone.
Unit II
We approximate the value of the sample amplitude
to the quantized value.
Figure shows this process
The result of this process is that the normalized
quantized values are different than that of normalized
amplitudes.
The difference in these two values is called as
normalized error.
The choice of quantization levels is an important
parameter.
Unit II

Unit II
If the amplitude of analog signal fluctuates between
only two values then two quantization levels are
sufficient.
But if the signal is a voice signal which contains many
variations then we should choose at least 256 levels.
Choosing lower values of L increases the
quantization error if there is lot of fluctuation in the
signals
The quantization error changes the SNR of the signal
which in turn reduces the upper limit capacity
according to Shannon theorem.
Unit II
Encoding: The last step in PCM is encoding. After
each sample is quantized and the number of bits per
sample are decided each sample is changed to an n
bit code word.
The number of bits for each code is decided from
the number of quantization levels.
If the number of quantization levels are L then
number of bits n = Log2 L.
The bit rate is calculated as
Bit Rate = sampling rate * number of bits per sample
Bit Rate = Fs * n
4.155
We want to digitize the human voice. What
is the bit rate, assuming 8 bits per sample?
Solution
The human voice normally contains frequencies
from 0 to 4000 Hz. So the sampling rate and bit
rate are calculated as follows:
Example 4.14
Unit II
Transmission Modes:
Transmission Modes: One of the important concern
in data communication is what type of wires we are
using for data transmission and also the type of data
stream we are transmitting.
What kind of transmission mode we are using for
data transmission is important.
Data can be transmitted in two different modes
Parallel
Serial
Asynchronous
Synchronous
Isochronous

Unit II
Transmission Modes :
Parallel Transmission: In parallel transmission data is
transmitted in the form of group of bits.
The data stored in the computers memory is also in
the form of group of bits called as words.
Transmitting more than one bits of data at a time is
called as parallel transmission.
The mechanism for parallel transmission is we use n
wires to send n bits at a time.
Each bit travels from source to destination using its
own wire.
Group of bits are transmitted per clock tick.
Unit II
Figure below shows parallel transmission

Here the transmission of 8 bits at a time is shown.
Typically eight wires are bundled in a cable with a
connector at each end.
Unit II
The advantage of parallel transmission is speed.
The disadvantage of parallel transmission is cost.
We require n wires to transmit n bit data.
Therefore it is usually used for short distance
communication.
Unit II
Serial Communication: In serial transmission we
send one bit at time i.e. one bit follows another.
Therefore we require one wire or couple of wires for
serial communication.
Unit II
The advantage of serial transmission is that we
require only one communication channel.
Also the cost is also less in comparison with parallel
transmission.
Since communication within the devices is parallel
we require parallel to serial and serial to parallel
converters at transmitting and receiving ends.
There are three types of serial communication
Asynchronous
Synchronous
Isochronous
Unit II
Asynchronous Serial Transmission: This type of
transmission is called as asynchronous because here the
timing of the signal is not important.
Instead here the pattern of the data is important.
As long as the pattern of the data are followed the
receiver can still receive the data without any problems.
Patterns are based upon grouping the bit stream into
bytes.
Each group usually of 8 bits is sent along the link as unit.
The sending system handles each group independently.

Unit II
Without synchronization the receiver can not use
timings to predict when the next bit will arrive.
To alert the receiver about the arrival of data an
extra bit is added at the beginning of each byte.
This bit is usually 0 and is called as start bit.
To tell the reviver that the byte is finished, one more
bit is added at the end of data byte.
This bit is usually 1 and is called as stop bit.
Thus because of these additional bits the size of the
data byte increases.
Unit II
In addition to this after the transmission of each
data byte there is a gap of varying duration.
This gap represents either idle channel or stop bits.

Unit II
Analog Transmission :
Data can be transmitted using analog or digital
signals.
For digital transmission we require low pass channel.
But if low pass channel is not available, the only
choice is to transmit the data using analog channel.
Analog transmission require a band pass channel.
Converting digital data to a band pass analog signal
is called as digital to analog conversion.
Unit II
Digital to Analog Conversion :
Digital to analog conversion is the process of
changing one of the characteristics of an analog signal
depending upon the digital data to be transmitted.
Figure below shows the process of digital to analog
conversion
Unit II
An analog signal is represented with the help of
three characteristics
Amplitude
Frequency
Phase
If we change any of the parameter of the sine wave we get
a different waveform.
Thus by changing one of the characteristics of the sine
wave we can represent digital data.
By changing any of the parameter of the analog signal we
can represent digital data using analog signal.
Unit II
Following are the methods using which we can
modulate digital data using analog signal
Amplitude shift keying(ASK)
Frequency shift keying(FSK)
Phase shift keying (PSK)
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
The first three methods changes only one parameter of the
analog signal to represent digital data.
But the last method uses two parameters i.e. Amplitude and
Phase to represent digital data and therefore is the most
efficient one.

Unit II
Aspects of Digital to Analog Conversion:
Data element versus Signal Element: Same as described for
Digital to Digital Conversion.
Data rate versus Signal Rate: Same as described for Digital to
Digital Conversion.
Bandwidth: The required bandwidth for transmission of
digital data using analog signal is proportional to the signal rate
except for FSK.
Carrier Signal: In analog transmission the sending device
produces a high frequency signal which acts as a base for
information exchange. This signal is called as carrier signal. The
process of changing Amplitude, Frequency or phase of this
carrier signal in accordance with the digital data is called as
Modulation (Shift Keying)

Unit II
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): In this type of
modulation the amplitude of the carrier signal is
varied in accordance to the digital data to be
transmitted.
Frequency and phase of the carrier signal remains
constant.
Binary Amplitude Shift Keying (BASK): In binary ASK
or on off keying we use only two levels of carrier
signal to represent digital data.
The peak amplitude of one signal level is 0 while the
amplitude of other is same as the amplitude of the
carrier frequency.
Unit II
Figure below shows BASK

Figure also shows the BW for BASK.
Although the carrier signal is simple sine wave the
process of modulation produces a non periodic
composite signal.

Unit II
The theoretical BW is proportional to the signal rate.
However in practical case there is a factor d
involved, which is because of modulation and filtering
process.
Thus the BW is given by B = (1 + d) * S
Figure shows implementation of BASK
If digital data are represented using unipolar NRZ
with high voltage of 1V and a low voltage of 0V, then
the implementation can be achieved by multiplying
the NRZ signal by the carrier signal coming from
oscillator.
Unit II

Thus when the amplitude of digital data is 1 the
amplitude of the carrier frequency is held and when
the amplitude of digital data is 0 the amplitude of
carrier frequency is made 0.
5.174
Example 5.3
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which
spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier
frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by
using ASK with d = 1?
Solution
The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz. This
means that our carrier frequency can be at f
c
= 250 kHz.
We can use the formula for bandwidth to find the bit rate
(with d = 1 and r = 1).
Unit II
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): In this type of modulation
the frequency of the carrier signal is varied in accordance
to the digital data to be transmitted.
Amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remains
constant.
Binary FSK: In binary FSK we use two different
frequencies to represent two data elements of digital
data.
Let two carrier frequencies be f1 and f2.
First carrier frequency f1 will represent data element 0
and carrier frequency f2 will represent data element 1.
Unit II
Figure below shows BFSK

As shown the middle of one BW is f1 and of other is
f2.
F1 and F2 are f apart from the midpoint between
the two bands.
Unit II
The BW for BFSK is given by B= (1 + d) *S * 2f
BFSK can be implemented using a voltage controlled
oscillator (VCO).
Figure shows implementation

Unit II
As shown in figure the VCO produces two different
frequencies depending upon the voltage applied to it.
If the data element to be transmitted is 0 then VCO
keeps the same frequency of the carrier signal and
when the data element to be transmitted is 1 the
frequency is increased.

Unit II
Phase Shift Keying (PSK): In this type of modulation
the phase of the carrier signal is varied in accordance
to the digital data to be transmitted.
Amplitude and Frequency of the carrier signal
remains constant.
Binary PSK: This is simplest type of PSK.
Here one data element has a phase of 0 degrees and
other has a phase of 180 degrees.
Figure shows binary PSK
Binary PSK is as simple as binary ASK with advantage
that it is less susceptible to noise.

Unit II

As shown a data element with value 1 is represented
using a phase of 0, while data element with value of 0
is represented using phase of 180 degrees.
The BW for binary PSK is same as that if BASK and is
given by B = (1+d) * S

Unit II
BPSK can be implemented using the same concept
as that of BASK.
The important difference is that the digital data is
represented using polar NRZ instead of unipolar NRZ.
Figure shows implementation

Unit II
As shown if the data element is 1 (Positive Voltage)
it is represented by a phase starting with 0 and data
element 0 (Negative Voltage) is represented with a
phase of 180 degrees.

Unit II
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): The
problem with PSK is that it can not distinguish
between very small phase differences.
This limits the potential bit rate.
The concept behind QAM is that instead of changing
only one parameter of sine wave we change two
parameters i.e. Amplitude and Phase
In QAM we use two carriers one in phase and other
in Quadrature with different amplitude levels for each
carrier.

Unit II
Thus it is a combination of ASK and PSK.
Figure shows different variations of QAM

The simplest of these is 4 QAM.
In first figure there are four different signal elements
using a unipolar NRZ to modulate each carrier.

Unit II
In figure 2 polar NRZ is used which is same as QPSK.
The last figure shows 16 QAM with eight signal
levels i.e. Four Positive and Four Negative.
The BW required for QAM is same as that of ASK and
PSK and is given by B = (1+d) * S

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