Handbookof

TEXTILE FIBRES

By"
J. CORDON COOK
BSc. PhO. CCh€m. FRSC

II. MAN.MADD FIBRES

 MERROW PUI}LISI"IINGCO. LTD

LS.A. Building,HackworthIndustrialPark,
Shildon,Co. Durham,DL4 lLH, England

@ Copyrightby J. GordonCook, 1959,1960,1964,1968,1974,1984,1993

Firstpublished/,959
SecondEdition 1960
Third Edition 1964(November)
FourthEdition 1968
Reprinted1974
Fifih Editiott 1984
Reprintedl,993

All rights reserved.No port of thispublicationntay be

reproctuced,stored in a retrievalsyslem,or!ronsnlilled,
in any lorrn oi by any ,,,eatts,electronic, meclratrit:al,
plrctocopying,recordingor atltert'ise,withouttlreprior
permissionof tlrc publishus

I S B N 0 9 0 4 0 9 54 0 I

Printed in Great Britain by

Redwood Books,Trowbridge,Wiltshire
 FOREWORD
The manufactureof textilesis one of the olcrestancrmost inrpor-
tant industriesof all, Its raw materialsare librcs, and the siuJy
of textiles therefore begins with an uudcrstanclirrg of thc fibrci
fronr which nrodcrn textiles are rnaclc.
- In this book, an outline is given of the history, procluctionand
fundam.entalproperties of important tcxtilc nUr.s in ,r" ioaol.
The. behaviour of each fibre as it anecb the nature of its fabric
rs olscussecl.
The book is in two volumes.Volume I deals with the natural
fibres on which we dependccrfor our rextilcsuntil cor'pai;ii;;it
reccnt times. Volume II is conccrned with .nn-nroi.
nLi"r,
including rayons ancl other natural poiy,".. fibrcs, and
thc lruc
synthetic fibres wrrich rravcrnaclesuch iapid progrcss
in ,,,o,t.i,i
tinres.
The book has bee' wrir.tenfor all co.ccrncd with thc
tcxtirc
trade who require a backgrouncrof information on nt..t
t"-ir.r'
them in their work. Every eflort has beenmacrcr.oensurc
thar thi
text is accuratc ancr up-to-d^tc. 'r'hc infornration
on 'unn-n.,nJ"
f i b r e si s b a s c do n f a c t ss u p p r i c db y t h c ' r i r n u l a c t u r c t r
or trr"iibi.s
thernselves.
In writing this book. I. have bcen given much cncouragcnrent
a n d h c l p b y m a n y i n d i v i d u a l sa n d o i g a r r i z a t i o n s- t.- h c
nri'rrfal-
t u r e r so I t h e n r a n - n r a d cf i b r c sn r c n t i o n e ci 'rt h c t c x t r r ^ u " g o i r " - i o
great "otr,r
.trouble on my bchalf i' providing infor'ratio' in
checkingthe text before publication.I woulcllike to
o.[no*i"Ae;
!h9ir h.elp,with grateful thanks,and also that givc' t" "r" fry tfi.
following individualsand organizatiorrs :
D. A. Derrett-Smjth.,Esq., B.Sc., F.R.I.C., Linen
Industry
ResearchAssociation.
D_rC. H. Fisher, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.
The Cotton Board, Manchcster.
Stanley B. Hunt, Textile Economics Bureau.
Pr !t. J. W. Reynolds,I.C.I. Dyestulls Division.
N,Ir H. Sagar, I.C.I. Dyestufls Dlvision.
I{. L. Parsons,Esq., B.Sc., F.R.I.C., Low ancl Bonar
Ltcl.
L. G. Noon, ESq.,Wigglesworth ancl Co. Ltd.
 FOREWORD

Silk and Rayon Users Association'

i- C. ni.Union, Esq', International Wool Secretariat'
*. R. neath, Esq., and his colleagues;CourtauldsLtd'
g.'Lo.A, nsq., il.S.., Cotton Silk ancl Man-Made Fibres
ResearchAssociation.
K. J. Brookfield, Esq., FibreglassLtd'
F. H. Clayton, Esq., Wm. Frost Ltd'
J'c'c'
Ilurlington Industries Inc.

NOTE ON TI-IE FIFTI-I EDITION

The man-ntaclefibre industry ltu, .*pund"d greatly since the
fourtlr eclition of. Ilanclbook of Textile Fibres was published.
Many new fibres havecome into production in countriestluough-
out ihe world, but the emphasishas been largelyon development
and moclificationof establishecl fibre classes, rather tSan upo' tlle
introductiort of fibres of ncw cltentical typcs.
Within ahnost every chelnical class there is now a family of
fibres displaying a range of properties and applicationslirnited
only by tLe fundamental chemicalstructureof the fibre class.To
inciude detailed information about every fibre in production
would have meatrt producing a book of unmanageableand
uneconomic size. ln this volume, therefore, I have provided
backgrounclinformation about eachchemicalclassof fibre, based
uruoiiy upon a fibre in current production w1ric6exemplifiesits
chemical class.More specific information about individual fibres
will be found in a supplementaryvolume.
Since the fourth edition was published, production of sonte
classesof fibre has been suspended.I have, ltowever, rctained
inforrnation about these fibre classes;they are of technicaland
historicalinterest, and there is alwaysthe possibility that produc-
tion of these fibres may restart to meet changingeconomic and
technicalcircunrstances.
As in previous ectitions,I have been given much valued assis-
tance by iibre manufacturersand textile organisationstlrrouglout
the woild. Many individuals have gone to great trouble on n1y
behalf by providing information and checking the text before
p u b l i c a t i o n .I w o u l c ll i k e t o a c k n o w l e d g et h e i r h e l p w i t h g r a t e f u l
thar*s.

J.G.C.
vl
 CONTENTS
page
MAN.MADD FII}RES

FuNrolrr4rNrrs. oF FrBnBSrnucrune tx

A. Nalural Polynrer Fibres

L Cu,lur-ose Flnnr,s; R,r,yoNs 9

Viscose Rayon 9
Cupro (Cupramrnoniunr) 65
S n p o n i f i c dC c l l u l o s cE s t c r "t4

2. Ce,i-lur-ose Esl:n Flnnns 79

CelluloseAcetate (Acetatc) 80
CelluloseTriacctate (friacetatc) 99

3. Pnorarx Frnnns l5
Casein Fibres t7
Groundnut Protein Fibres 35
Zein Fibres l4l
Soya Bean Protcin Fibres 144
Collagen Fibres t46
MiscellaneousProtcin Fibrcs t47

4. MrscrlurNEous NrrrunLr- PolyveR FrnRrs 148

Alginate Fibres 148
Natural Rubbcr Fibres 153
Silicate Fibres t't 6
Silica Fibres 178
B. Syn(hcticFibrcs t92

l. Pot-y,ruroe lltnncs t94

Nylon 6.6 209
Nylon 6 261
vll
 CONTENTS

page
Nylon I I 292
Nylon 6.10 302
New Types of Polyamide Fibre 308
2. Polyr,srr,n Flnnes 328
PoiyethyleneTerephthalateFibres
(PET Polyester Fibres) 330
Poly-1, 4-cyclohexylene-dimethylene
TerephthalateFibres (PCDT polyester Fibres) 316
Other Types of Polyester Fibre 388
3. Por-yvlNyr" DEnrvrrrvr Flnnns 392
PolyacrylonitrileFibres 393
Polyvinyl chloride Fibres 444
Polyvinylidenechloride Fibres 484
Polyvinyl alcohol Fibres 493
Polytetrafluoroethylene (and related) Fibres 509
Polyvinylidenedinitrile Fibres 523
PolystyreneFibres s33
4. Polyolerrx FlnRrs 536
PolyethyleneFibres 541
PolypropyleneFibres 564
5. Polyunsnr,q,ne Frnnes 610
'
6. Mrscnlr"rNe,ousSyvnrr,nc FlnRrs 639
Glass Fibres 639
Aluminium silicate Fibres 666
Nfetallic Fibres 678
Polyurea Fibres 707
PolycarbonateFibres 7t4
C a r b o nF i b r e s 7t6

INoex 7t9

vlI
 INTRODUCTION
FUNDAMENTALS OF FIBRE STITUCTURE

D u r i n g t h e l a s t h a l f - c e n t u r y ,a l l t h e f a r n i l i a r
n r a t c r i a l st l r a t t h c
world.lras bee. using for triousancrs of ycars huvc co'c un<Jcr
t'e microscope'scie'ce.has opcncclup a
ircat cra of cxproratiori
which is_probing into rhe nature of matciiat
thi.gs. W" ,;^;;i;
know why differcnt forrns of nratter bchave
as il.rcydo: and to
{ind our answerswe have had to stucly ttte
atours and rnolcculcs
frorn which n.raterialsare nrade.
In this respect,natural-fibrcs havc proved
to bc onc of the
most
.interesting ficlds of nrodcrn scicntific ,"..nr"ti. nr- *i
rnaterialsof o'.e of tlrc worlcl'sgrcfltcsti'drrstrics,
ar;J';, ir;;,,1i;;;
I o r ' r s o I n r a t t c r i n t h c i r o w ' r ' l g l r t ,n t r . s ' i r a v c
r o r r gc x c i r c d t r r c
curiosity of scientisrs.Now, rJsearch
iirto thc .f";r[i;-;;,;
physics of fibres has provic.lecla
satisfying cxplanatiou of thc
runusualand invaluablc propertics that
itrey possess.
7'lucad-like Molecules
A l l f i b r e sh a v e b e c n f o u n c l t o s h a r c o n e
r h i n g i n c o n r n r o n ;l h c
f.undamentalparticles, nrolcculcr,ni" ,,t*"y, long ancl thrcad-
-the
like. That is to sav. thc'rolcculer;i
fib;;r, r'nttcr arc i. t'c
fo.n of hunclrecrs b. .u.., trrousancrs of incrividuar^tonrs strung
together one after the orher. rn. n.,ol..irlc
of celiiri;r;:"i;;
isbuiltup by theplantfronrtrr,,J..a,ol" n",or"
:Iilll.,
glucose-nrolecules, ;l-il;l
eacrr of which i' turn cont.i's six carbon
atoms.T'e cellulosernolecule,thcreforc,
is in t'c forni of ;-i;;;
thin chain of atoms.
T h e m o l e c u l c so f a f i b r e _ a r et h u s i n s h a p e
v e r y s i n r i l a rt o t h c
libre itself-And just as trre fibre uoto*s
itr'"rraractcristicson trrc
y a r ' o f w h i c h i t f o r ' r s a s i n g l cs t r a n d , . o . r o " ,
propcrties frorn the threacr-rikc'rorcculcs t r r cf i b r c d c r i v c i t s
of trrc ,,,trrru,.,".'rio,i..
which it is rnade.
One of the ntost outstanclingpropcrtiesof a
fibr.eis its strcrrgth.
R c l a t i v et o i t s c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l . i r r e a , i f , " , t r . , i e i f r
of a silk nir;;-f",
c x a m l r l e i, s c x t r a o r c l i n a r i llyr i g h .A s i r r g l c
s t i a n c l ,s o l i n e , , , i l r r "
alnrosti'visible to the nakc. cye, w.ill ,_""ppoit
a wcig't o[ scvcral
ix
 I NTRODUCTION

grants.Yet, at the same tiure, this filarl1cntis flexible zrndrcsilient.

In silk, as in other natural fibres,the threadlike moleculestend
to lie along the direction of the ftbre itself; they are aligned in
one direction like sticks in a bundle of faggots' It is almost as
though the silkworm, in extruding its silk,,the sheepin growing
its wool fibres, and thc plant in producing its cotton and flax
coulcl align the long thin moleculesas the llbrcs are forfitcd'

Orietlaliotr
'fhis
orientationof the fibre nroleculesis uot a precisegeonretrical
arrangement.Rather is it a tendency for the majority of the
molecules to lie in one direction. The effect on the libre is
analogousto the effect of the individual strands twisted into a
rope - each one plays its part in taking up the strain on the rope
as a whole.
Long nroleculesof this sort are a characteristicof the peculiar
fornrs bf mattcr wc call plastics ancl rubbcrs, as lvcll as fibrcs'
But it is only very special types of long n.roleculethat arc ablc
to form {ibres.'fhey must, for example,be fairly regular in shape
'repeating'pattern of atoms in the molecule.They must
with a
not have iarge pendant groups of atoms sticking out from the
sides,or the long moleculesare unable to pack together'
When the long molecules are able to pack closely together,
tlrey can exert strong forces of attraction betweeneach other' In
o fibr" the moleculesare able to develop these forces, and it is
this that is responsiblefor many of the fibre's characteristic
propcrties.
-
Insiclethe fibre the long moleculeslying alongsideeach othcr
pack tightly here and there into their little bundles. But the
inoleculesare so long that they can each be involved in many
diflerent close-packedbunclles.In betweenthese orderly regions,
the fibre moleiules run through regions in which the molecules
are aligned to some degree along the fibre, but are not aligned
rvith the precisiorrthat allows thcm to pack together into well-
olclcredbundles.
The eflect of this wandering of molecules in and out o[
r c g i o r r so f t i g h t - p a c k i n gi s t h a t e a c h i n d i v i d u a l m o l e c u l ei s t i e d
firnrly to its neighboursat inlervals along its length. In between
'tiecl' region there is a sector of freedom and disordcr.It is
each
t h i s p e c u l i a r m o l e c u l a ra r r a n g e m e n t h a t g i v e s a l i b r e i t s c o n l -
bination of strength and flexibility.
 I NTRODUCTI ON

1 ' h o u g h n a t u r e h c r s c l f p r o d u c c sn r a n y c l i f f c r c n ts o r t s o f l o n g
rnolecules,she has used few for nraking Iibres. 'I'lrc dillcrcnces
betweenthe natural fibres are the result of diflcrcnt charactcristics
in tl.reconstituentmolecules.

CI{YS'|ALLINI'fY

The Iong molccules of a typical fibrc-fornring rnntcrill nrc ablc

t o p a c k t o g c t h c r c l o s e l y a l o n g s i d co n c t n o t l r c r , l i k c s t i c k s i r r a
'I'lre
bundle of faggots. regularity of structure brorrglrt - i n about by
t'fhese
h i s a r r a n g e m e n tr e s u l t s. i n r e g i o n so f . c r y s t a l l i n i t y t h c l i b r c .
are regions in rvhich a nurnbcr of nrolcculcsare lligncd
in such a rvay lhat strong forccs of attraction hold thc ntolcCulcs
together. The bonds dcvelopcd in this way nrc not clrcnrical
bonds in the familiar scnse, but thcy arc strorrgcr tlran tlrc
tuormal forccs of attraction cxcrtcd bctrvccri indivitlunl
nroleculcs.
.. Thc. dcgrec of order introduced by thcsc rcgions o[ crystal-
l i n i t y i s a n i n r p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n d c t c r h r i r r i r r tgl r C r r s c f r r l n c s s - on I
p o t c n t i a l t i b r c . l n d i v i d u n l n r o l c c u l c sf o r r n i n-gt i rpragrltc o
t lf n r c g i o n
of crystallinity miry wandcr tlrrough ir n t n s s -o f
rnolccules in rancklnr flrrtngcntcnt, lncl tlrcn l'ot.nr part oI
another rcgion oI crystallinity. tn this rvay, thc ntolcculcs
fornring the fibrc are arrangcd into a strucfurc corrsisting of
regions rvith a high tlcgrcc of alignnrcnt wlrcrc thc nrolcCulcs
hold tightly to cach other, ancl rcgions o[ randonr arrnngcnlcnt
w h e r e l l r c n r o l c c u l e sa r c n o t h o l d i l r t t i -and 'l
chtlv to clch otlrcr. hc
crystalline regions provitlc stlcngih rigirlity, arrd tlrc
anrorphous rcgions provicle llcxibility and rcactivity.
'l'he
ratio of crystallinc to antorphous nrtlcrial lxrs an inrpor-
tant itrflucnce on thc propcrtics of nny librc. lrr tlrc c;rsc oI
natural fibrcs, tlris is an inlrcrcnt propcrty of thc lihrc rvhiclr is
lixed by nature. ln thc caseof a nran-nr:rriclibrc, thc crysttrllirrc-
arnorphous ratio may be conlrollctl to a lrrgc tlcgrcc by tlrc
conrlitions undcr u,lriclt tlrc fibrc is prodrrccrl.
 I NTRODUCTION

Cellulose
I n t l r e v e g e t a b l ef i b r e s ,c c l l u l o s ej s t h c m a l c r i a l t h a t p r o v i d e s
the
thread-like molecules.This molecule. built up by nature from
s n r a l l e rg l u c o s en r o l e c u l c si,s r e g u l a i i n a r r a n g e m e n tb, u t i t
is
fairly rigid in structure.The celluloscfibres,in consequence, are
s t r o n ga n d t o u g h .
A t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s a l o n g t h e c e l l u l o s em o l e c u l e t h e r e a r e
groups of atonrs which tend to att.ractwater. wherr cotton,
for
cxample,is steepedin water, thcsegroups encouragetrrerelatively
small water moleculesto penetratebetwee' the long thin celr;ro;;
molecules.As a result, the fibre structure is loo"se'eclu; u;J
softened.In a humid atmosprrere,therefore,cotton fibres aie not
so inclined to break - a factor that may have helpeclttre growtt.,
of the cotton tradein Lancashire.
This softeni'g eflect of water also explainshow mercerization
c.rn give
.its spccial propcrties to a cotion fabric. The e{Iect oi
t h c c a r s t i c t r e a t * c n t i s t o l o r c c w a t c r n r o l c c u l c si ' t o i l ; f i b ; ,
making il soft a'd plastic. The cellulose of the cotton ir ii"i,
able to 'Ilow' as it is stretched.
Ani.ral fibres are nrade from protei's, the classof substances
tuscdi' the animal world for so nrany builcling jobs. protein
rnoleculcsare, ol'lceagain, long, thread-likechainJ of atonrs.
plant world, celluloseholds a monopory i' fibre produc-
. In the
t i o n . w h e t h e r i t i s i n c o t t o n o r t r r et r u n k o f o i r . . , i ' f l a x o r i n
the fruit or leaves,the cellulosehas the sarle chemicalstructure.
Ilut thc proteins used in tl'reanirnal worrcldiffer widely one fro'r
another.

Proteins
The long moleculesof a protein are built up from sorne twenty
or so differenttypesof srnallamino acid moleiule.The proportio;
and arrangementof thesedifferent units cleterminethe structure
of the protein moleculeand the nature of the protein itself.
. By cornparison with proleins, the regular cillulose n.rolecule
built from its glucoseunits is sinrplea'cr straightforward.t'roteiri
nrolecules,with infinitc possibilitiesfor the arrangernentof their
n r a n y c o n s t i t u c na t m i n o a c i d u n i t s ,a r e e x c e e d i n g l cy o r l p l e x . B u t
chenristshave been probing steacrilyinto the myiteries oi protcirr
s l r u c t u r cd u r i n g r e c c n ty c a r s ,a n d w c a r c b e g i ' r i i n gt o u ' d e r s t a n c r
the intricaciesof thesecomplex molecules.

xil
 INTRODUCO
T IN
lhc protein molcculcsin woot arc now
rcgardcclas bcing foldcd
r'olcculcs.T'c long, thr.cacl_likc "f*i", of ,,t?ntsc,o.ot lic straig^t
alongsideeach other: they bencl
uo"r.*ura', and forrvards like a
m e a n d e r i n gs t r e a m .
In the ordinary unstretchccl
are arra'ged alonqsideeach other .wool fibre, thescfolcicclmolcculcs
ancl lioiit.tte g.n"roi;i;;;;;;
of the fibre irselfl When the fibre
is ,i..i.tr..r, the fol<ls in thc
rnolecttlcsare partly straightenecl
""t-rriii they can.ot u'folcl
a ' y f u r r h c r .T r r e w o o l f i b r c i s t r r . n
oi ir,"'ii,"it or its crasticitv.r

Cross-links
fhere is anothcr fu'clanrentar criflcrencc
bctwccn thc ccrurose
moleculesi' cotton ancrflax,.anJ
iri"-p."t.r" nrorccuresof woor.
Wrereas the close-packedcellulor"-rnii."uf..
solely by elecrrostaiicforces."f ;rr;";i;;]'tn" are hcld togethcr
n r o l e c u l cas r e a c r u a , yj o i ' c c r t o g c i i ; ; ; ; ; ; ; "tor._packcd woot
""^ti.ir-,.rv a n c rt r r c r cb y c r r c r r r i c a r
lirrks' T'hcsc'cross-ririks'
molecules.Thev ensurctrrat .act as ,rrong tics bctrvccrrrrrc
whcn'th-e'ntl."ur., arc strctcrrccl
of their norn.,aifoldecl ,ho;., out
il;y';;;;;]; rhar shapc whcn rlrc
stretchingforce is renroved.
One of wool's most inrportant
charactcristicsis its thirst for
water. As in the casc of, cotton,
ilr; ;ilii w.rcr nlolcculcs ca'
penetrate betwcen thc long
*oot ,"ol."ut.r. U,.,.1;;-;;lrii;
conditions,wool can absorb Inf
f itr-o*n-*.igfl, o[ water.
Unlike ceilurose,however,the protein
of woor is attackedfairry
readity by warer, which cause.;;;i;;;;
l'rolecule.If wool is stretc.hea, changes in rhc wool
fo. ."n,rrjt", ancl t'c' hcatcd in
boiling water and atowed to'coor
* i r i r l i ' r , t t r s r r c t c r r c cirt, w i '
remain in its stretchedform.
The reason for this is founcl jn
the cross_linkswlrich join the
wool moleculestopether.Hot
watei oi'ri.nnl can dcstroy tlrcsc
links so that trre nioleculesor.
ri." to'ti^v'in thc ncw positions
they reachedrvhen the nUr. *r-rtr*f*i]
heating will actuallv causc new I\,Ioreovcr,prolongcd
links to for.nr '"' rvhich anclror thc
'rolecules firnrly iri rhcir new
;;;iir;;
I n l s l s w l r a t I t a n p c n sw. l r c n . l r a i r
i s g i v e n a p c n n a n e n tw a v e .
l ' h e h a i r i s b c n t a n i r r v i s t c ci nl t o - i i s
" r i i v l ' r o p . , w h i c r rs t r c t c h c s
* Strctchirrgof
^ wool bf"r^_o^,llI partly srr.liglttcnsorrt thc fokls.
u o r n p l e t ct r a r r s i t i o fnr o,,f
t o - k c r a t r nt e p - k c r a t i r o r n l y t : r k c sp i . ; ' ; ; ;
o e s t r o y r n tgh e c r o s s - l i n i i r .

xill
 I NTRODUCTI ON

a n d d i s t o r t st l r ef i b r e s .I t i s t h e n s t c a m c dw h i l s t h c l d i n t h i s s h a p c :
the links between the clistortedmoleculesbreak down and tlten
r c b u i l d t h e m s e l v eisn t h e i r n e w p o s i t i o n sO . n c e t h i s h a sh a p p e n e d ,
the hair fibrcs arc lixed firnrly in their ncw shape.

Silk Protcitt
S i l k , l i k e w o o l , i s a n a n i m a l f i b r e ,a n d i t i s o n c ea g a i na p r o t c i n '
B u t t h e c h e m i c a sl t r u c t u r eo f t h e s i l k p r o t e i ni s d i f l e r e n tf r o m t h a t
of wool. This clillerenceis reflectedin the diflerencebetweenthe
two fibres.
Where wool ntoleculesare folded and capableof being stretched
out straight, the silk moleculesare in the extended position to
start witli. That is why silk possesses little 'returnable' elasticity
alter a substantialclegreeof stretching.when it is stretchedwitll
sulhcient force, the moleculeshave to slide over eacl'rother and
clo not return to their original positions when the stretching
forcc is releascrl.The nrolcculesoI silk are not joincd togcthcr
by chemical cross-linksas are the molecules of wool.
Research has shown that in silk the protein nroleculesare
h i g h l y o r i e n t a t e d- t h e y l i e i n t h e d i r e c t i o no f t h e f i b r e a n d c a n
pnik tigtttty together.The forces of attraction bctwcctrthe molc-
cules are thus able to conre into play and give the nrolecular
b u n d l e sv e r y g r e a t s t r e n g t h .
The c{Iect of hcat on silk is similar to its eflect on wool' At a
high tenrperature,silk rvill burn. But silk is simpler than wool in
iti rnolecular structure. There are no cross-litrksbetween tlre
moleculesto break down or rebuild. silk will thus stand higher
t e n r p e r a t u r etsh a n w o o l w i t h o r r t t a k i n g a n y h a r m .
Scricin, the gum that holds the twin stranclsof silk together,
is a protein similar to that of silk. But the moleculesof sericin
protein are not alignccl,ancl the tnaterial is thus not fibrous'
This differencebetweensilk fibre atrd sericingum is an example
o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n tfso r f i b r e f o r n r a t i o n .I t i s n o t e n o u g ht h a t t h e
molecules of the material shotrld be long and thread-like. To
nrake a uselul fibrc, they nrust be of stlch a shapeand strttcturo
that they can bc alignecland packedtogetheralongsidecach other.

Eflcct of Oricrtlntion
D i l l c r c n c c si n t h c p r o P c r t i e so f n a t u r n l f i b r c so f s i n t i l a rc h c n r i c a l
c o n s t i t u t i o nc a t r b c e x p l a i n e di r t p a r t b y v a r i a t i o n si n t h e s t a t co f
xiv
 I NTROD U CTI ON

a l i g n n r c n to f t h c n r o l c c u l e sF. I a x a n d c o t t o r r ,f o r c x n r r r p l cn, r c
chenricallyalmost identical;they are both celluloscfibrcs.llut flax
has tcnsilepropertiesquite diflcrent from those of cotton; it has
a _ t e n a c i t y - 9 fu p t o 5 5 . 6 c N / t e x ( 6 . 3 g . p . d . ) , c o n r p a r c cw l itlr
2 6 . 5 - 4 4 c N / t e x ( 3 - 5 g . p . d . )o f c o t t o n .
These differencesin the tensilepropcrtiesof cotton and flax arc
causedby differencesin the fine structureo[ thc two fibrcs. Most
irlportant of all arc the differcnccsin thc dcgrcc of alignnrcnt
of the cellulosemoleculesthemsclves.In flax, tlrc rnolcculcsarc
highly orientatedalong Lhe fibre; they lie alongsideone anothcr
in the same direction as the fibrc itsclf. ln cotton, this dcgrec of
alignment is not so high; there are more of thc moleculcslying
'out
of true'.
When the flax fibre is subjcctedto a stretchingforce, thc alignccl
tnoleculescombine to resistthe force. But in cotton, many more of
the moleculesare lying at an angle to the long fibre axis anclcon-
t r i b u t c l i t t l c t o t h c s t r c n g t ho f t h c f i b r c . I n n n t u r n l l i b r c s . l h c
'dcgrcc
oI orienl.ation'oI tlre long moleculcs is controllcd bv
nature, and there is little we can clo about it. Nnturc givcs flai
a n d r a m i e t h e i r u n u s u a l l yh i g h t e n s i l es t r e n g t h sb y a l i g n i n gt h c i r
moleculesto a high degrce.Wc havc no way o[ incrcasirrgthc
dcgree of orientation of thc celh.rloscmolcculcs in cotton in
order to make it compare in strcngth with flax or ranric.r
In natural fibres, also, the way in which thc molcculcs arc
alignedis complicatedby various factors.'fhe ccllulosemolcculcs
i n f l a x o r c o t t o na r e o r g a n i z e di n u n i t b u n c l l c so r f i b r i l s ,w h i c h a r e
in turn built up into largcr units in thc fibrc. 'flrcsc molccular
bundles are not laid down by the plant in a simple fore-and-aft
fashion along the fibre; they are in spiral form.
As would be expected,thc nature of the spiral in cclluloscfibrcs
has a great infiuence on the tensileproperties of thc librc. 'fhc
greaterthe angle of the spiral,the more the fibre can stretchbcfolc
the alignedmoleculeshavc to take up thc full strain of thc tcr)silc
force. Cotton, with an anglc o[ spirality of about 3l clcgrccs,has
a -ttruchgrcater clongntionat brcak tlran flax, with its spiral arrglc
of 5 degrces.
l - h c e f l e c t o f o r i e n t a t i o na n d s p i r a t i t yc a n t h u s b e s e c n q u i t c
clearly in the case of natural cellulosic librcs. Cclh"rloseis n
reasonablyun.ilorm straightforwarclrnolccule which consistsof
*
. Tlrs dcgrecof oricnl.ation of cclluloscmolcculcsin co(on cnn bc
r n c r c a s etdo s o t r r cc , r t c r rbt y n r e r c c r i z a l i o n .
xv
 INTRODUCTION

COPOLYMERS
(A) nnruoovt coPoLYMER -x-x-Y-x-Y-Y-Y-x-

(B) ELOCT COPOLYMER -X_X_X_X-X_Y_Y_Y-Y-

(C) aurEnNartNG coPoLYMER -x-Y-x-Y-x-Y-x-Y-

(D) GRAFTCOPOLYMER _X-X-Y_Z_Z_Z_Z_X-Y_
OI -X_X_X-X_X_X
I
Y
I
Y
I
Y

.t,
Linear moleculesmay be produced by polyrnerizationof a mixture of
'copolymers' in which the linear molecule con-
monomers, forming
tains trvo or more types of monomer unit. A nunrber of clillcrent typcs
of copolymer may be proclucedin this way, as shown abovc.
In i randont copolymcr, the mononrer units are linked together in
random fashion. ln a block copolymer, one or mote of tlre contponents
may be polymerized to form sectionsof nrolccule containing otrly one
type of nrononrer trnit. These'blocks'are linked togcther to form the
liriear molecule. In an altennling copolynrcr, the motromer units alter-
nate in sequencealong the linear molecule. In a grall copolynrer, a
block of third componcnt may be grafted on to the linear molecule,
forming part of the molecular chnin itself, or forming a side chain.

. ut the pro-
m a n y r e p c a t i n gu n i t s o f s m a l l e r g l u c o s es e c t i o n s B
teins from rvhich the animal fibres are tnade are much more
cornplex in their detailed chenricalarratrgetnent.fhe orierrtation
of protcin moleculcsstrchas those of wool, for exarnple,is conr-
p l i c a t c c l b y t h e c x i s t c n c eo f c h e m i c a l b r i d g c s b c t w e c n t h c
nrolccules,and by the lolded state in which the nrolectrlcslic.

Control of Orientation
W c c a n d o l i t t l e t o n r o d i f y t h e d c g r c e o I o r i c r r t a l i o no f t l r c
m o l c c u l e si l r n a t u r a l f i b r c s . B u t i t t n t a k i n g s c t t t i - s y n l h c t i o
cr
s . v n t l r e t i fci b r e s t l r c a l i g n n r e n to f l o n g m o l c c u l e si s a n e s s e r r t i a l
step in manufaclure. We are able to control the alignntent in
such a way as to exert a major influenceon the propertiesof the
fibre itself.
xvl
 I NTRODUCTION

l - h c f i r s t s t c p i n m a k i n g a s y n t h c t i co r s c n r i - s y n t l r c tfiicb r c i s t o
obtain a substanccwith the rcquisite long thrcad-likc nrolcculcs.
In the case of a syntheticfibre, this substanceis built up fronr
simpler chemicals;in the case of a semi-synthcticl.ibre,iuch as
a rayon, the substancehas been nrade bv naturc.

MAN-MADE FIBRE YARNS

Man-made fibrcs arc nrn<tc bv
cxtrusion of fibre-forrning sub-
stances in liquid form (ntoltcn or
i n s o l u t i o n ) t h r o r r g hf i r r eh o l e s i r r a
spinncrct.1'hc jcts of liquicl nrc
l r l r d c n e d i n o n c ' o [ s c v c r a lw n v s t o
fonn solid filarrrcnts. 'l hcsc- arc
drawn or strctchcd antl nrnv bc
trvistcd sliglrtly togclhcr to iorrrr
y n r n s o f v i r t u a l l-yk n n on wyr r r l c s i r c r l
lcrrgth,rvltich arc ns corr-
nrcnts
nrayatsobccoltecrc<t
,"*.lill'J','i,.n':'ii:ri{,
i#1";rt,';:,,lll;
theu cut i;rto slrort lcrrgthsto fo-irn staplc fibrcj this niay ir" "o,l,t".i.
a t t e n u n t e d . a n ds p u n i n t o y a n l s b y t e c h n i q u c ss i n r i l a r [ o t h o s c u s c t i
lor natrrrar staple libres such as cotton or wool, fornrinE staplc or
spt.u,yants,
Continuous Filanrcnt Yants, These
cotrsist of unbroken filamcnts rvlrich
alc. hcld .togcthcr irrto a yarn by a
slight twist. They arc sniooth intl
generally compact anrl arc used for
satins, poults, tallctas, faillcs and
similar fabrics.
Sputr or Staplc Yartrs.Thcsc consistof
short fibres hclcl togcthcr by the twist
grven
' l ' h c y t o a n a t t e n u a t c isl t r a n d o f f i b r c s .
arc gcnerally nruclt fullcr in
'Ilt'ahrer d l et h a n c o n t i n r r o u sf i l a t n e n tv a r n s .
s h o r t f i b r c s l i c a t v a r i o t r sr i r r g l c s
with respcctto the long axis of ilrc
y a r r r ,t h e < l c g r e co f u n i f o i n r i t y d c p c n d -
i t t g u p o n t l t c c o r n b i r r ga n c lo t l r c r t r c n t -
nrcrrtsgivcn to thc fibrc stranrls bcforc
being twistcd togcthcr. The surfacc oI
.J spun yarn-is roughcr to thc touch, owing to thc fibrc-crrtlsprotrutlinr
l r o n r r t , - a n d s p u n y a r n s a r c i n g e n c r a l f u l l c r a n t l r v a r D r c rt h i l n c o r r -
-l-hcy
lilarnenryarrrs. are-usctlfor sports shirts, suitjngs,shccts,
l]jM?r:
b l a r r K c t sl,u n l t s l l r n g a n d o t h e r f a b r i c s .

x\'ll
 I NTRODUCTI ON

In its 'raw' state, a fibre-forming substancemay bc little more

than an amorphousmatcrial such as, for exantple,the powclerecl
casein from milk, the celluloseof wood pulp or the ribbon of
tough horny plastic extruded from the nylon-manulacturing
plants.
In this bulk-material,the long thread-likemoleculesare mixed
up one with another in more or less random fashion, like the
mass of fibres in a bundle of cotton wool. In orclcr to turn the
material into a textile fibre, we have to (a) shapeit into thc usurl
fibre form, i.e. a long, uniform rod of extremelyfine cross-section,
and (D) ensurethat the long ntoleculesof the material are aligned
so that tlrey tend to lie alongsideone another in the same direc_
tion as the long axis of the libre itself.

Spitrtting
T h e f i r s t s t a g eo f f i b r e - p r o d u c t i o ins c a r r j c d o u t b y r e n d e r i n gt h c
mass of fibre-forming material into a liquid or serni-liquiclitate.
This can be done either by dissolvirrgthe rnaterial in i solvent.
o r b y h e a t i n gi t u n t i l i t m e l t s .I n e i t h e rc a s e ,t h e l o n g m o l e c u l e s
are freed from closeentanglenrentwith each other, and can move
independently.
The liquid containing the fibre-forming material is then
eltqgde_dthrough very small holes so that it emergesas fine jets
of liquid. These jets are hardened,forming a solid rod which
possesscs all the superficialcharacteristicsof a long filament such
assilk.
In the production of nran-madefibres, the extrusion of liouicl
fibre-forming material, followed by hardening of the fine jeti to
f o r n r f i l a r n e n t s i, s d e s c r i b e da s ' s p i n n i n g ' .l t i s s i n r i l a r i o t h e
'spinning' process
uscclby the silkrvorm or the spider,resultingas
it docs in the production of continuouslilantents.
The hardening of the jets from the spinneretmay be carried
out in one of severaw l ays:
(l) Wet SpinningT . h e s o l u t i o n o f f i b r e - f o r n t i n gm a t e r i a ln r a y
.
b e e x t r u d e di n t o a n a q u e o u sc o a g u l a t i n gb a t h i n w h i c h t h e j e t s
are hardened as a result of chemical or physical change.
Viscose, for example, is wet spun, the solution of cellulose
x a n t l r a t eb e i n g e x t r u d e di n t o a n a q u e o u ss o l u t i o n o f a c i d s a n c l
s a l t s . c e l l u l o s c i s r e g c n c r a t e da, r r d t h i s i s i n s o l u b l ei n w a t c r .
forming solid filarnents.

xvlrl
 :

.-L
_1
tr?t=iji*5s
z = 9= 9 !r
cr

:!3 t;
lrF

i7="-89. ! "Ei
q

;:lE;:::,ijii:i
= < d

2 = 2.3 ' i : . =* : " :5 r l -

l
o-
z= c 5
u o = t - d
-
o q
*3-o
= >\c
= o j .L -' I
= = . = E= 2 L-b

s\ill:Iii=i;'E
;F € E :i : E €
3 E : > , = -
L

";€g
z

itrfi*i:g
ii;
- lr-!
r ' 7
d i E - " . ; e
) 7
=
<r
J F
. T 5E I E 1
t-
,:
H - 7 f,< ?=,6.^o .=
(r@
E, ' , '=i >"a.;i . E f go ' x r . \
F U ) -. P

,;i* i:igi#.ff!,i;i
z s o c c E -
=E"pIE;.= !

2 - u c ) ; 5 =
3s -
'*
- -
' U- X- - v . \;
L -
.r
- ' - b -
a, . =

- 2
=<
U_
g*i:Eii;;;
; :i;,;Ei: $:: i€ Y=
= = ; i : =.ii =
.:< H6 U
8; ii:
=
?!
- \
f,

!;:;:;i!:::ifiFii
19.? "i - ! >,
Q 6 : E E E o
a: I i = aE
.=9.=9 E
- - - r v - - Lr,
d

i:;:l!!#*t ::a:
;si€
r-\

qifjii ii,iii r: -\
j

+
l {

,.
t
tl
*l [ '

i:ii,iitii;i:
siru:€8,;ra ]|

+
+
+
*r
 INTRODUCTI ON INTROD UCTION

STRETCFIING I t i s n o w c s t a b l i s h c tchl a t t h c s u r f n c co I a n c x t r r r d c cf li l i r n r c n its

t u s u a l l yr n o r e h i g h l y o r i c n t a t c d t h a n t l r e n r n t c r i a l i n s i c l c t h c
filarnent.This surface alignmcnt is known as the skin elJccr.lt
has an irnportant influenceon thc propcrtiesof the fibrc.
Stretching
o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e l o n g n r o l e c u l e iss c o r n p l e t c cbl y s t r e t c h i n gt h c
f i l a m e n t .T h i s h a s t h c c f r e c t o f p u l l i n g t h e I o r r g ' r o r e c t r l c si n t o
a l i g n n r e . ta l o n g t h e l o n g i t u d i n a a l . x i so f t h e f i b r c ,s o t h a t t l r c y a r c
able to iie alongsideone anotherancldeveloptlrcir cohcsivcforccs.
T h e d e g r e eo f o r i e n t a t i o nd e p e n d su p o n t h c a ' l o u ' t o [ s t r e t c h
to which the filanrentis subjcctecl,and by controlling thc strctch-
ing (or 'drawing') it is possibleto control the tcnsilc propcrtics
o f t h c f i l a m e n tt o a h i g h d e g r e e .
I * t h e p r o d u c t i o . o f a s y n t h e t i cf i b r c ,w e h a v c c o n t r o lo v e r t l r c
c h e r n i c a ln a t u r e o f t h e f i b r e - f o r m i n gs u b s t a n c ca, ' c l h c n c c c a '
p r o d u c e a f i b r c w i t h w c l l - t l c f i r r c dc h c n r i c a l p r o p c r t i c s n n t l
b c h a v i o u r .T h i s c o r r t r o lo v c r t h c c h c n r i c a ls t r u c t i r c o f t l r c t i b r c
a l s oe n a b l e su s t o c o n t r o l t h e s h a p ea n c lt h e p h y s i c a lb c h a v i o u ro f
t h e l o n g t h r e a d - l i k em o l e c u l e st h a t w e r n a k e _
It is reasonableto expcct, for exanrplc,that slcrrrlcr,unifornr
(e) r n o l c c u l c sw i l l b e a b l c t o p a c k a l o n g s i c loc n e a n o t h c rn r u c h r n o r c
'fhc
strctching (drawing) ant! Aligntnurl. c-xtrusionof fibre-fornring c l l i c i c n t l y t l r a n i r r c g u l a r m o l c c u l c sw i t h n w k w a r d k ' o b s n n d
matcrial'brings ab6ut sorne sliglrt dcgree of orientation o[ the lincar . n g l e s d c s t r o y i n gt h c i r u n i f o l ' r i t y . A b u ' c l l c o f b n n r b o ' c a n c s ,
n'roleculesin the direction o[ the fibre axis. This is nlost pronounccd f o r e x a n t p l e ,r v i l l p a c k t o g c t h c r n t o r c t i g h t l y t h a . a b u ' d l c o i
'skin eflect') (A)'
near the outer surface oI thc filanrcrrt(the
'fhe twigs.
subsequcntstretchirrgor drnwing of the filanretttcontinues thc
a l i g r r r n c n to f t h e n r o l c c t r l e st h r o t r g h o u t t l r e . b u l k o f t h c f i l a r n e n t . ln 'raking a synthctic Iibrc, thcrefore, wc terrcrto dcsig. our
nra'icrial.The crystallinc regions are oricntatcd in thc dircction of the long-chainnrolcculesin such a way that they havc an oppoitunity
fibre lonc axis. ahd thc nrolcculcsin tlre amorphous region are brouglrt -group,
of packing together with rcasonablecflicicncy. I_arge oi
irrto grea-terilignnrent, incrcasing the degree of.crystallinity- of the
atorns attached to the
nrateiial (B).'fhe 'stretch-properties of the llbrc are greatly influenced by tlte .sidesof the long moleculcsare generally
amount of to-rvhich the lilanrcnts are subjected. undcsirable,for exarnple,as they prevent the closc-packingwhicir
c o n t r i b u t e ss o g r e a t l y t o f i b r e s t r c n g t h .
through spinnerets,and the jets haiden as they cool on etnerging Crystalline and Antorplrcus Rcgiotrs
'Terylene',for example,are melt
from the spinneret.Nylon and wherever the threacl-likemolcculesare ablc to pack closcly to-
spun. gcther in a fibrc, thcrc is a tendcncytowarclsan orclercclnrr"ng.-
Skin ElTect rncnt of the atoms with rcspcct to one anotlrcr. 'flrcse tiglt-
The extrusion processbrings about sonte orientationof the long packecl bundles of thread-moleculcsarc, in cflcct, rcgions-oI
moleculesinside the filatnent. This is especiallypronounced on crystallinity; thcy possessthe rcgular ancl prccisearrangcrncntof
thc outer sttrfaceof thc filanlctrt,whcre the molcctrleshave bccn a t o n r st h a t i s c l r a r a c t e r i s t iocf a n y c r y s t a l s u c h ^ s s a l t o r c o p p c r
influencedby the edgesof the spinnerethole. sulphate.

xxi
 INTRODUCTION
I NTRODUCTI ON
I ) u r i ' g t h c s t r e t c h i n go p c r a t i o ni n s y n t h c t i cf i b r c n r a u u f a c t u r c ,
i n b c t w c c r rt h c s c r c g i o n so f c r y s t a l l i n i t ya r c r c g i o n si n w l r i c l l the long moleculesslide ovcr o'e anothcr as thcy arc pullcd ilrto
the moleculeshave trot been able to line tltenrselves up with suclr alignment in the direction of the fibre's longiiudinal axis. As
precision.These arc the anrorphous regions of the fibre. drawing continues,more and morc of the moleculesare brought
In this tnodertr conceptiotl o[ fibre-structure we regard the long to a statewhcre they can pack alongsideone anothcr into crvslal-
threacl-liketnolcculesas passing through regionsof orderedcrYs.-
-embedclea line regions; in these regions, the molecules are able to hold
talline arrangementwhic'h are in amorphousmaterial tightly togetheras a result of their cohesiveforces.Thcy wiI the.
The molecuies in the amorphous regions are aligned to sotfle rcsistfurthcr movenlentwith respcctto one anothcr.
clegree,but have not been lined up with the precisiontltat enables whe. nylon is drawni' this way alter spinning,a filarnert may
them to pack togetherin a wcll-defiucdcrystallineforrr-r. stretch to as much as live times its original lerUth. Then, quitc
abruptly, the drawn filarnent wirl resist furthei strctchiirg. rts
molcculeshave aligned themselvesas effcctivelyas possiblJi.to
^t*
crystallineregionsand are holding tightly together.'l'he filanrcnt
..-*-d
_X-X_X-X_X-X_X- -x-x-'x-x-x(.1 u'ill now withstand much greater force without stretchi'g, and if
1 ^-x-.. tlre load increasesit will eventuallyrupture as the nrolcculcsare
I ^-x
u/n
-ya dragged apart.
(A) -x-x-x-x(i_"
' ^-x- Dlect ott Properties
(B)
The degreeof alignment of fibre moleculesaffcch thc propcrtics
of a fibre in severalways. The more closely the rnolcculcspack
-n-*'1'r-r-*al]*- together,the greater is the tenacity of the tibre. This incrcaie in
I ')x-""\x tenacityis accompaniedby a decreasein thc clongationat brcak;
I u'xt^ the moleculesare not able to slide over one anotrreras they coul<i
-i-x-x-x(i
^\v belore alignment took place.
"-x-
/al
A high degreeof oric'tation also tends to incrcascthe stiffncss
\ v ,
or rigidity of the fibre. The nroleculesno longcr have the freec.lorn
Cross Litrkitrpatrc!Clmitt Brcncltitrg.T1e productio. o[ loitg molecUle-s of movement that they had before alignment.
during polyrierization of a monorncr X may lake place in such a $u{
as to'fbrrn a linear molecule (A). It may, however, lortn brancnc; watcr is unable to penetratebetweentho moleculcsin a crvstal-
nrolecules(B), and tlteseutay evcnttrallylink logetlter to lorm networN line region of the fibre as readily as jt does in the amorphous
structures (C).
-'i'fr" regions.Increasedalignmcnt thereforetendsto lower the -oirtur"
fo.ri-iion of brancltestcnclsto reducc the ability of the linea! absorptionof the fibre. This resistanceto water-pcnctrationaffccts
nrolecules to pnck togcther irr such a way as to form {gsjons^:j
crystallinity, and branche<lmolecules do not as a rulc result ln g<lv" the dyeing properties in a highly orientatectfibre; moleculesof
Iibre properties. dyestuffcannot migrate frorn the dyebathinto the spaccsbetwccn
The formation o[ a netrvork structure, in which.the linear molectt.les the fibre motecules.
nr" iin[.1 iogether, prcvcnts moven]ent of tlre chains of aton'r.s rclatlv9 'fhis
. Clbsc'pncking of the chains is not possiblc, itrttt
resistanceto pcnctration by forcign moleculcsaflccts thc
i;-;;i;--;t;ifi
crystallizatiold t ocs not norrnnlly takc place. gc'cral chemical stability of a fibre; highly oricntatcd fibrcs nrc
Network structures m"y b" created aitcr the littenr-nro-lcculcsltllc nrore resistantto chemical attack.
been formed arrd aligned into libres.Tltis ltas the result.o[ blndlng.]': There is a markcd changc in the appearanceof fibrcs ns thcy
molectrles firnrly togethcr, and nr:ry intprove-certain libre properrt-; a r c d r a w n . I n t h c u n d r a w r rs t a t c ,n y l o n i s u s u a l l yc l u l la n < lo p a q u c ;
,srvcllincnrnv bc rctluced, for exantplc, ils solveltts(e'g' watcr) can'i"'
nenetralc scl'rcadilv belrvccn the long nrolccttlcs' Ccllulosc ffiolccttt'" as the filamc'ts are drawn, and orientation i'crcascs, tlie illa-
"Iopel' and 'Corval"
Ii.' "i"ii-iiitt cd in'nrodified rayons iuch as
 I NTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION

ments acquire a transparencyand lustre which are characteristic The great modern rayon industricshavc dcvclopcd frortr thcsc
of drawn nylon. natural long-chainmoleculeswhich nature has ncglccteclto turn
out in the form of ready-madetextile fibres.Cellulosefrottr woocl
MAN-MADE FIBRES is a raw material for rayon; it is separatedfrom its undcsirablc
gurns and then re-made into fibres suitablc for tcxtilcs. Cascin
Though nature has used long threadlike molecules for many from milk, and other proteins,are manipulated r.rntiltheir long
purpo-ses,it is only in a relatively few casesthat she has fulfilled
moleculesare lying side-by-sidein fibrous fornr.
ih.^t.quit..ents for a textile fibre. In wool and cotton, flax and F i n a l l y ,w e h a v e n o w l e a r n c dt o r c m a i n e n t i r c l yi n d c p c t t c l c tot t[
silk, nature has carricclout tlre entire job of fibre production. All nature for our fibre production. We can start from scratch and
we have to cto is to avail ourselvesof nature's bounty' actually make the long fibre-forming moleculesthcmsclvesfrotlt
In other cases,naturehas associatedher libre-formingsubstance sirnpler chemicals.This is what we have done in makirrg nylon
such as cellulosewith extraneousmaterials that make it useless and the other syntheticfibrcs. As a result,wc hirvc o1rcttcdtrp a
as a fibre. ln wooct, for exan.rple,thc cellulosefibres are bound great new field of scientilic industry which can provicleus with
togetherby lignin and other gummy sttbstances. fibres unlike any that we have been able to derivc frotn naturc's
1et again, nature may produce the necessarylibre-forming limited selectionof ready-madelong-chainmolecules.
n-roleculei,but ornit to alig' them in the necessaryway. Caseiu,
for exarnple,the protein of milk, will form a fibre if the nroleculcs
Chssificnliono[ Mln-Mndc Fibrcs
are arrangedalongsideeach other.
I\,[an-madefibres fall naturally into two broad groups,dcpcnding
on the origin of the fibre-fornringmatcrialsfrorn which thcy arc
POLYMERIZATION produced (seepage xxx ).
CH.=g1161+ cH2: cHCt + CH"-611a, Polymeriz-ation may take lvlan-madefibres arc considcrcdunder two nrain hcaclings:
vtNyl cHLoRtDE place in one or other of
I two ways: A. N,lrun,rt Polyut:n FtBnes (in which thc fibrc-forrning
t (l) Additiotr Polynterizatiott. material is o[ natural origin).
- cH2-cHct-
-cH2-cHcr cH2-cHCt- o;:ii:"i:l *'il;ll B. SyN'nrEl'tcFrlnes (in which thc fibrc-fornring nratcriaI is
CHLORIDE
POLYVINYL
lllf "11.1 nrade from sinrplersubstances).
togethcr without the elinrina-
(l ) tion of atoms to fornr
by-product molecules.'fhe These main sectionsare sub-dividcclas lollorvs:
r--------r nlonomer molecules literally
add together. PolVetfvlgnet
NHa(cHa)5NH',H_+_HQoc(cH.)ocooH
Natural Polymer Fibres
DTAMTNEotar''.nc'o :frili'1,?tt"j':i.3:"-#i'i:l?i The fibres in this group may be classifiedinto the following
JY potvmeiirnacte
nrrr"-roitt\iiig
h" "/liil;;" ioivnl"'lt"ti""' sub-groups:
NHe(cHe)ouH.oc (cx.). cooH+ H2o iir"ii,ononr.r nrolcculesli'k (l) CelluloseFibres; Rayons (in which thc fibre is wholly
I togcther via the double bond or mainly cellulose).
Y
(2) Cellulose Estcr Fibres.
(cx.).HH.oc(cn").co]oH
H[Hr'r * nl,o i\r\,ni]:;il;;, poryttrcriza-
(3) Protcin Fibrcs.
-
poLyAMtDE
"
tiorr'. This is a proccss itl
(4) MisccllaneousNatural Polymcr Fibres.
(s) l,:',"'ll,J["",]i::*lf':"Jf,ll3'i,",
chcmical action which results in the elimination of a by-prod.uct Synthe(icFibrcs
;i;G;ri;, comrnonly tvater. Polyatnidesare produced by copde.satio'
polynrerization (lJ)' Synthetic libres may be classil'iedwith rcfcrencc to thcir
xxiv xxv
 INTRODUCTION
chcnrical structure. The following synthctic materials have
become the' basisof cotnmercially-irnportantfibres:
(l) Polyamides.
(Z) Polyesters.
(3) Polyvinyl Derivatives.
(a) Polyacrylonitrile.
(t') Polyvinyl chloride.
(c) Polyvinylidene chloride.
@ Polyvinyl alcohol.
(e) Polytetrafluoroethylene.
A Polyvinylidenedinitrile.
(e) Polystyrene.
(/r) MiscellaneousPolyvinyl Derivatives.
(4) Polyolefins.
(a) Polyethylene.
(D) Polypropylene.
(5) P o l y u r e t h a n e s .
(6) MiscellaneousSyntheticFibres.
This is not by any means the only effectiveway in which man-
made Iibres may be classified,but it is a simple and straightfor-
ward method of considering{ibres on the basis of their chemical
constitution.It is the classificationwhich has been followed in the
remaining section of the Handbook.
It should be rememberedthat modern syntheticlibres are often
copolymersor modificationsof polymers, and they may on that
account be consideredas belongingto two or more chemicalsub-
groups. For the purposes of this book, libres are included in the
sub-grouprepresentedby the major constituentof the polymer.
Fedcral 'frade CourntissionFibre Idcntilication Act 1958
In recent years, the nunrber of synthetic libres appearing on the
market has given rise to considerableconfusionregardingthe true
nature of textile products.In order to protect producersand con-
sumers from rnisbrandingand false advertising,the U'S. Federal
Trade Commission established'l(ulcsand Regulationsfor Fibrc
Identificationwhich came into force on 3 March 1960.After that
date, the following generic names were obligatory for man-made
t e x t i l ef i b r e s :
/lcetate (and Triacetate).A tnanulacturedfibre in which tlte
libre-forrning substanceis celluloseacetate.Where not less than
xxvi
INTRODUCTI ON
92 pcrccntoI thc hyclroxyl
groupsarcacctylatc<1, thc lcrrn,trincc_
tate'may bc uscdas a gcncricdcscription
of thc fibre.
Auylic. A manufactured fibre in which the fibrc-fornring sub_
sta.ceis any long chain synthcticpolymerconrposcd of ai lcast
85 per cent by weightof acrylonitrileunirs (-CI-I,-CI-I(CN)_).
Anidex. A rnanufacturedfibre in which thc fibre-lbrnring
substarrce
is any long chainsyntheticpolynrcrcornposcd oI it
least50 per cent by weightof one oi ntbre estersof a n.tono-
hydricalcoholandacrylicacid(Cl12= ClI-COOII).
Aranid. A manufacturedfibre in which thc libre-lbruring
substance is a long chain syntheticpolyanricle
in wrrichat leasi
95 p9r cent of the anridelinkages-(-CO-Nlf-)arc artachcd
directlyto two aromaticrings.
Azlon.A manufacturcd
fibrc in which thc fibrc-forrrrirrg
sub-
stance is composedof any rcgencratcdltaturally occurrirrg
proteins.
G/ass. A manufactured libre in which the fibre-forming sub.
stanceis glass.
Metallic. A manufacturcd fibre composcd o[ ntctal, plaslic-
coated metal, metal-coatedplastic, or a core cornpletclycoverecl
by metal.
Modacrylic. A manrrfacturedfibre in which the fibre-forrning
substanceis any long chain syntheticpolymer conrposeclof lesi
t h a n 8 5 p e r c e n t b u t a t l e a s t3 5 p e r c e n t b y w e i g l r to f a c r y l o n i t r i l c
units (-CH_2-C-ll(CN)-), except fibres qualifying unclcr sub-
paragraph(2) of paragrapl.r
fi) (rubber) of ihis sectiirnand fibrcs
qualifying under paragraph(q) (glass)of this section.
N o v o l o i d .A n r a n u f a c t u r e df i b r e c o u t a i n i n ga t l c a s tB 5 p c r c e n t
b y w e i g h to f a c r o s s - l i n k e nd o v o l a c .
N)'lort. A manulactured fibre irt rvhich thc [ibrc.firrrnirrg
s u b s t a n c ei s a l o n g - c h a i ns y n t h e t i cp o l y a n r i d ci n w h i c h l c s st h i r n
Q5 pcr cent of the anridc (-CO-Nfl-) l i n k a g c sa r c a t t t c h e d
d i r e c t l yt o t w o a r o n r l t i cr i r r g s .
xxvll
 l_ I r-f r_f

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
N y t r i l . A n r a n u f a c t u r e cl l lb r e
c o n t a i n i n ga t I e a s tg 5 p e r c e n t
a Iongchain poly'r.. uinlri.rii.'ii"iii,," (_{H,__c(cN),_) of Saran. A nranufa<
.or
where rhe vinylideneainitrile
unit in the polymer chain.
"""i;";l;';; ressrhan every orher :11::i:i;,i;il'"yiii,,,,,,9".:i"i:!tti"ii,ltf
per cent by weight Ti:li,j,J,t;
of vinylidene .nf.jii.f.
rlnrts (__CH,__CCI1_).
Olefin. A nranufacturedfib.re Spandex.A manufactured
in which the fibre-forming fibre in which thc fibrc_forrning
is a.ny Iong.chain synrhed; p;i;;;, sub_ stanceis a long chain
:?i.^: composedof at reast synrhert" ;;i;;;;;,orp's.o sub_
u-\ per cerrrby weigh_t-of .ihyr.n", ;."p;i;;" pcr cent of a scgmentecl . "" of at teast85
except amorphous (non-crysialli"Lj or ourer orefin unirs polyurcth;;;.
pJrv"i qualirvingunder
catesory(l);ip;;r;raph Vinal. A manufactured
0) (rubber)"ro"illl fibrc irr which thc
fibrc_formingsub-
;ii ffi :'",i"ilr'
il:nif iJoqir'".J'composecr
i I .:l-ltn'l or ar rcas
un;ts(-it{,--ciiriiriiji r
Polyester'A marufactureclfibre
substan_ce in wrric^ the fibre-fornring andrn wtrichrtrc,o,o,ol"ullvlalcohol
is any long .f,uii,,yntlirti;'o;i, ",1'
leas
t 85p.'..it t u'i".ier,,
oi;;;;;;;.;;'i'lTJ?ilff:.,i,,:1,# nroreor .rhe";;; ;;' ;:.11,',.]"",1j a;d any ; ; oi
acict,includ"f, ot thc fibre. ^'l';:j:?'
rt,f
) Pcr ccnt by wcight
:1rb?*.{li: ir,',ioi"^rlr,rt.,ecl to substituted
terephthalateunits p.(__{t"_O_9O_9._H. _CO_O_I and para- Vinyon.A manufacturf
substituted hy droxyberizoate u ni tsp (_"n]O_Cull4 _CO_O_). srarrcc 1p.".in which the fibcr_fornring
is any rongchainsy.rrtrrcti" sub_
dr por ccnt by weight pory,u.r'.onr'oscrt
Rayon. A nrunufl:l:,.1.q Iibre. of at ren.st
of vinyl .f,f.jrla,".r,,lt,(_CI.I,_CIlcl*).
cellulose, cornposed of regenerated
as rve' as ma'ufacturedhbres
cellulose "J,rpos.a of regeneratecr
i' whichsubsrituenisl;;;",;;iled
pcr ccnt of the hyctrogcns not more rhan t5
of rtr. try.t,oilil.oupr.
Rubber.A nranufacturcd
fibre in which the fibre_forntinc
naturat-or''v"
;illi:ffi:"i:r'::l:;'i:,1, ii'i,i";,t d;;;ffiffiii;
:r
l. A nranufac(uredfibre jn
which the fibre-fornringsubstance
is a hydrocarbon such as
nari;;;;';rrrU.r,-".;' potyisoprene,polv_
butadiene, copolymers..of
.li;;*; hydrocarbons, o.
a n r o r p h o u s( n o n _ c r y s t a l l i n e
p lo f v o i " n n s . ' -
. 2. A nranufacturecl fibre.itr.whichthe fibre_tornring
ls a copolymer of acrylonitrile substance
ani " Ji""" (such as butacliene)
conrposedof not more.
thSn.so per .!"i"rr."t ;r;;.j;
" o"it.i
r" u'iit' iJH,--cor(c.N)-).' "*
li, "o{.;:'qi::r:fi"l:ilt asa genciic
nures raiiingffi;'; ,illlt"i:r:[: 'rcs'iipiio'i'ro.
3. A manufactured fibrein which rhefibre-forming
is a polychloroprcne substance
or a colrolym..oi-"i,to.oprene
ar'lc.st 35 'er cc't by rvciglit in whiclr
r "r tli.lior"-1'orrrring
srbsl.'cc
s conrposect
o[ chIoroprc". t_Cll,_6 6l : Cli;ii,T
#;
 a

, *El s
o
z = - l o f

F
e fi{l-s;-1
-
- o
;=
x= z=
fi-l Heae]I
iir
I i = l -
fr-l a=l. LiF
==-
a
o
MAN.MADE FIBRES
E <
d
I rE;_l
o z
! < tsrt
o - Fl
m o

n= ;==l
;=]@ I
z IE

rrl
>3
o
t- A: NATURAL POLYMEIT FIIIRES
9 < (t)

L *-u;J
A Z
U)

=7 T' B: SYNTHETIC FIBRES

:ll :
t i
i l -

-l I gur
r m 9
T : I
=Jk
s=4 r D | - j
ll
r ' | Y
a\

sHA o z
s: >z co o
H

*ufi=-
aJ- a

=l |
o
Q < -l
= <
- z
= <
=-
z a | | 4 _ rl F
# l l = l l ,=
iHr l r j f i
z
3
{ I
v

Ir F= - r. l i
a
z @
v

=
6

z
o
c
a
 A: NATURAL POLYMER FIBRES
I. CELLULOSE FII]RES; RAYoNS
2. CELLULOSE ESTER FIBRES
3. PROTEIN FIBRES
4. MISCELLANEOUSNATURAL POLYMER FIBRE.S

INTRODUCTION
ln 1664,the famousEngrishscientistRobertI{ooke pubrisrrcd
book calledMicrograp.iia.Amo'gst tt.,"-i.,.,ony a
subjcctsI-lookc
discusscd. was trrcpossibirity oI i'ritntingtrrciirkwoi' to iu.r..
a' rrtificialfibrc.I{cre wasar i'scct th''i 'racre
trrcrin.ri t,ro*n
lextile-fi.bre
sinrplyby forcinga liquiclthrougha tiny h;lc-;,;
hca_d. Why could not we do the iame thirigrncctrlnically,ii;
nrakean artificialsilk? and
It w^snca'ly two hu'crrccr yearsbcfore.Llookc's suggcsrio'was
strcccssfullytrieclout. onry the silkwormk'cw how i6 n.,,i["
liquidthat hardencd iii.
into iilk afterit traoL..n squirtccr i'to rhc
ai1.
\9!9aV couldsuggest arrything clseto do thc job.
In 1842,an Fnglishweaver,LouG Schwabe, dcviscda nrachinc
.
for makingartificialfilarnents by forcingtif,,fa tt.,rough
^oles.The rnaterialhe usecr- ;;;t;i;;;
*os gtnsi,-*lrri.rr
plasticwhen molte' to bc.forcecl-tt.,rougtrwis"su;l;i.;ii; 'ar;.i;;1
thc trolcs,
woLrlcl cool to a solid onceit canteinto "intu"t witlt
tlre air.
This was thc neares-t thing yet to arr artificialfibrc. Buf'giu*
fibrewasnot suitablcfor texliics,nna s"ii*"rre's
cntrcatics to trrc
scientiststo providesomethingbetterwereof no nvail.
At that time,science lradharcllybcgunto intcrcst
natureof fibrousmalerials.The txistenccof long itsclfi'the
tl r;"l-;;;i;:
culcs,suchas are neecjed for fibre_forn.,niior.,,
had not "u.,r-fr..,,
suspccted. But it was realizcdtrratin naturalcclrurosc
a potentialraw materiarfor nrakingfibrcs.Natur" ir,.i"-**
tr.rr"ti ir.'",t.
ccllulosefibresin cotton anclflax. lVhy sirould
not nran makc
useo[ lhe vaststoresof vcgetablc ccturoseior r,akingracritional
suppliesof textilelibres?
 IIANDBOOK OF TEX'TILE FIBRES A: NATURAL POLY[{ER FII}RES

U n f o r t u n a t c l y ,t h c c c l l u l o s cf r o n r w o o d a u d s t r a w a n d s i n t i l a r N i t r o c c l l u l o s c ,u r r l i k c i t s p a r c n t n r a t c r i a l c c l l t r l o s c ,
dissolvctl
sourceswas associatedwith gumrny matcrialssuch as lignin. And r c a d i l y ; f o r e x a n r p l c ,i ' a ' r i x t u r c o [ c t h c r a ' c l
' l c o r r o r .r , r i a s J ,
though in sonre cases it was possible to separate the fibrous Gcorge Audemars discovercclthat if hc clippe<ln
'cecllc i;1" ,;
cellulosein usefulform - for example,flax - most of it was useless s o l u t i o ' o f n i t r o c c l r u l o sa e n d t t r e nd r c w i t a w a y , a I i r a l r r c n t
was
for tcxtile purposcs.What rvasncededwas some way of purifying forrrrcdwhich dricd a'<r rrarcrened i' the air anctcourd bc rvou'd
the celluloseand obtainiug it as a satisfactoryfibre. tupinto a reel. The modern rayon inclustryhad
bcgun.
D u r i n g t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e n i n e t e c n t hc e n t t t r y ,m a n y a t t c r n p t s Whcn cellulose is turncd iirto nitroccilulosc,
tic lrrolcculcs
wcre nrade to use crude celluloseas raw material lor a textile rc.rain i' thcir long trrrea<I-rike shapc;snrailgroups o[ ator's huvc
'I'he
Iibre. problem resolveditself into finding a way of dissolving becn attached to their sides, maiirg thc new
substaucc'rorc
cellulose, separating the liquid from the impurities and then soluble.when Audemars touchecrthc nitroccilulosc
rot,,rio,i-,ui,J
squirting it through tiny holes and hardcningit into a fibre. t h e ' d ' c w h i s n c c c t c a w a y , t r r e a r c o ' o r a n c rc t r r c r
" u n p o r n -lo,ig
t . , ii i i
C c l l u l o s c ,h o w e v e r ,w o u l d n o t d i s s o l v ei n a n y s u i t a b l cl i q u i d . t'c. air, Icaving tlrc solicl nitrocellulosc bchi.cl.
,tn.i ttr.
r ' o l c c u l e sw c r e a b l c t o h o l d l h c n i t r o c c r l u l o s c
t o g c t r r c ri ' i t s n c r v
Nitroccllulose il Dt'oussl)ape.
'l'hese
In 1846 a scientisttrriedrich Schtinbeindiscoveredthat ccllulose 'itrocellulose fibres wcrc a grcat adva'cc r.orvartrs
production of a comnrerciallyuscful fi-brc. trrc
could be turned into anothcr substance,nitrocellulose,when it Thcy ,u".. ,ufi, ;il;;
was treated with nitric acid. This nitrocellulosewas a highly a n d f l e x i b l e .B u t t h c i r I I a r ' r ' a b i l i t y p r c v c r r f c c l -
nrry grc^t ,,*. ui
f l a m n r a b l e n r a t e r i a l ; i t w a s , i n d e e d , e x p l o s i v e .I t s d i s c o v e r y thc for nraking tcxtilcs - no-uo,rywantcd [o wcar
,fibres crotrrcs
n r a r k e d t h e b e g i n n i u go f t h e n r o d e r n e x p l o s i v e si n d u s t r y ; a n d , n r a c l cf r o l n g u n c o t t o n .
rnixed rvith camphor, it gave us the lirst man-made plastic, t h i r t y y c a r s p a s s c cul n t i l , i n 1 g 8 3 ,S i r J o s c g r h
.t ^) cl ^g"a_n.rlof lo?K1r, n g Swan
celluloid. r o r s o r n ew a y o f ' a k i . g I i r a r ' c . t s f o r r r i i c r c c t r i c
light bulbs. He warrtccl sbnrctrring tirirt
wourtl givc hir) !;ri
c x t r e m e l yf i n e f i l a m e n t o f c a r b o n f a n d
he uscrl nitroccllulosc.
cHzoH ,Swan
f ?H f ?H fH'oH .pa.tenteda process foruqrirting .itroccllulos" ;1,;;;;;
c-c c-o c-c c-o through holes to forrn fila'rcnts,'follorvctl
by a chc.rila i;;;i_
AV* t./il H.1x
___.o,/6" \-o.-16H *\,H \r--- n r c n t o I t l r e f i l a n r e n t sw h i c r rc h a r r g c dt h c < l . n g c r o t r s
rritroccilurosc
H\ /-o-\H H/\ H\ /-o/\u r/.H b a c k i n t o h a r m l e s sc c l l u l o s e .
c-o c-c c-o c-c l ' I 8 8 5 , S w a n e x h i b i t e ctle x t i r c sn r a d ef r o m
t t l t l l
OH r r i s , a r t i f i c i a rs i r k ' ,
cH2oH H OH CH2OH H ,]:-l:T interestcct
in hisfitamcnrsasr wayor nrlking
^u,:,1
nnc carbonTlli]ly
nranrents for lanrps,
CELLULOSE anclhc fairccr
to fojrowup trri
I NrrnnrroN textilepossibilities.
Y
H oNoe ONo2 ClmrdonnetSilk
T
oy j[ut\." -
tHzoNo2fH.ONoa
-- - I\'[carrwhile,,in
1878,Count I-lilaircdc Charclortnct
___,.o.../i;[y,'
' 1z[- -o- - r,^rf;]\, tncntingi. Fra.ce.crrnrclonnct was a stucrcrrt
bcgarrcxpcri_
at trrci:.ot" ti,iiy-
n\ ,L-ro,'\lto.T,z"'H "\ 7L-'o"u19xo.fi\ tcc^niquc undcrLouis pastcurat thc timc of trrcpdbrir.,.
o
tcH2oNo2 g-9 9-o 9-9 gationi' thesilk industry. inv.rii-
H oNoz cHzoNo2 H ONOz I-Icbecar'cirrtcrc.stcd iri trrcsirkwor'rjs
ability^t-o
sril fibres,a'd crctcrnrincctto crirurrtcit ^rtificiliry.
CELLULOSE NITRATE rn 1884,chardonnctnracle rrisfirstartifiliarfibrcsfrom nitro-
( NT T R O C E L L U L O S E ) ccllulose
solutionwhichwassquirtcdt^rougiitiny rrorcs, rr;rrdcnccr
5
 I{ANDBOOK OF TEXTILB FIBRES NATURAL POLYMER FIBRES
in rvarm air and then treated clrenricallyto convert it back to Acatotc Fibre
cellulose.Materials made front this arti{icial silk werc cxhibited
I t r v a sn o t u n t i l a f t e r w o r r d w a r I t h a t a n o t h c r t y p e
at the Paris Exposition in 1889and Chardonnetsecuredfinancial of artificial
fibre cane into successfur production.This rvas ,rc fibrc wc ,ow
backing for the industrial development of his libre. A factory
know as acetate.
was built in 1890at Besangonand began producing'Chardonnet
once again, the raw material is cellulose,which is
silk'. rcrctcrccl
solub.leby being convertedto a derivative,celiulose
This was the first artificial fibre to be produced commercially, n..torc, *trj.n
dissolvesin aceto'e ancl other solvenis. In this
and it marked the beginning of our modern man-made fibre ,.rp".t, it.,"
production of acetateresenrbresthat of chardo''ct
industry. But nitrocelluloseis a highly flamnrable material, and .iit, wtri.t,
was
the nranufacturingprocessproved dificult and dangerous.Large , n r a d e b y c o n v e r t i n g c e l l u l o s ei n t o c e l l u l o s . , r i t . i i t " o , , J
clissolvingit in solvent.
scale production of Chardonnetsilk was never realized,although
cellulose acetatesolution is extruded through finc rrorcs,
the fibre rvas manufacturedsporadicallyuntil 1949.In that year, as in
the caseof the other regeneratedfibres.But in-steacl
the only remainingChardonnetsilk factory, in Brazil, was burned "i.,rt"riiig'*
down. -coagulating
-l'he.solvent bath, the fine jets enrergeinto a stream o[ warm irir.
The Chardonnetprocessis no longer used commercially.It had evaporates,leavingfilamentsof soliclcellulosc"""t"i..
The lilamentsmade in this way ctifferfunctamenraLlti;;;til
the advantagesof simplicity, a stable spinning solution and a
rtadc by the c,pramnroniunr or viscoseproccsses,
m i n i m u m o f w a s t c d u r i n g m a n u f a c t u r c .l l u t i t w a s s t o w i n in ih^t tl*t ;;;
roI rccorvc.tccl to ccilurosc.1'hcy rcrrrni' ccilurosc
operation,potentially dangerousand cxpcnsive. .cctntc, ri,iti
thc propcrtiesof thc fibre are thus trirlcrcntfrou.rttror"
ot".ttuior.
I I DTCS.
Cupramrttoniunt Fibre; Cupro
In 1890,a new processfor making artificial fibres was invented, Pro!eitt Fibres
which made use of the discovcrythat cellulosecould be dissolved c c l l u l o s ei s b y f a r t r r c r n o s ti n r p o r t a n ts o u r c eo f n a t . r a l
in cuprammonium liquor, The solution was extruded through poryr'cr
fibres.made t o d a y .B u t n a t u r ep r o v i c l e so t h e r r n a t c r i a l sw h i c h
small holes into a coagulating bath, where the cellulose was arc
ca,pable^of fornri'g fibres,ancrio're of theserravelr..n
regeneratedto form continuouslilaments. r'0,t. iui.]
t l b r e so l c o t n r t r e r c i avla l u e .
The cuprammoniumprocesswas developedinto a commercially for example,.are useclby
._,Protcins., "Butnature in nraking natural
important process,and it continuesin operation today. Cupram- Iibres.suc'
monium fibre has never achievedreally large scale protluction, _as wool, hair ancl silk. th"r. o." nrany ot^cr
proteins which are not in fibrous fornr,
and marry of ttr;r;;;;..
but the fibre has special qualities which have enabled it to b e . , n r a n i p u l a t etdo c o n v e r t t h e m i n t o n U . . r . , t ,
establishimportant outlets in the textile trade. in thc caseof
cclltrlose,it is necessaryto dissolvethe protei'
nna .itr,iJ.-tri.
solution in the form of fine jets which can
be frnrd.n.J-inlo
Viscose Fibre fiIanrcnts.
In 1892, another method of making regeneratedcellulosellbre Casein (from milk), zein, (from maize) and
arachin (front
was cleviscd,in which thc cellulose is converted to cellulose groundnuts) havc becn made into uscful
fibrcs, but non" fi..,
xanthate and dissolvedto form the solution known as yiscosc. yct achicvcd rtrnjor successin thc tcxtilc ficlcl.
When fine jets of viscoseare extruded into an acid coagulating
bath, celluloseis regeneratedin the form of lilaments. illginate Fibrcs
In the years prior to World War I, the viscoselibre industry Alginic acid extractecrfrom seawcectis a crre.ricrl
rcrativc of
dcvelopcdrapidly, and viscoseis now the nrost inrportant rral.ural c c l l u l o s ea' . d i t h a s b e c o u r e ' r a w n r a t c r i a r
[ r o ' r w r r i c r r| i b r c s
polymer libre of all. lre spun. Alginate fibres have usefui specializedappticationr,
frut
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILB FIBRBS A: NATURAL POLYMER FIBRES

a r e o f r e l a t i v e l ym i n o r i n r p o r t a n c eb y c o n r p a r i s o uw i t h o t h c r
natural polymcr fibres. l. CELLULOSE [tUIlES; RAYONS
N onrenclature
I?edcral 1'ratle Conunissiott Delinitiotr
In the early days of natural polymer libre production, the fibres
'artificial silk'. The reascittfor this lay in the Tlre ge.nericLerm rayon was aclopteclby thc U.S. Ircclcrall.racle
became knorvn as
fact that the fibres were produced in the form o[ continuous Conr'rission for fibres of the rcge'ciatccl cellulosc typc, thc
filarnents; in this respect, they resernbledsilk rather than the olllcial definition being as follows:
short staplefibres of cottolt or wool. Also, they often had a silk- Rayon. A manufactured fibre composcdof regcncratcdccllu_
like sheen. lose, as well as manufactureclfibres composeclof rcgencratccl
F t r n d a m e n l a l l y ,l r o r v e v e r ,t h e f i b r e s m a d e b y t h e c u p r a m - cellulosein which substituentshave repracecL.otmore'th;; itp;;
m o n i u n r a n d v i s c o s ep r o c e s s easr e r e l a t e dt o c o t t o n , i n t h a t t h e y ccnt of the hydrogensof the hyclroxyl groups.
arc all cellulosefibres. Silk, on the other hand, is a protein. The
'artificial silk' was obviously a ntisnomer' therefore, This definition includes three types of regcreratecrcelrulosc
nalnc
fibre in production today, i.e. viiiose Rayoir, cuprattrttrottiutrit
especiallyas it becameapparent that the ne* fibres were estab-
Royott (Cupro), and Saponiliecl Ccllulose Accrate.
lishing thcmselvesin their own right in the textile trade. They
r v c r c n o I n r c r e l y s u b s t i t u t c sf o r s i l k , b t r t h a d t t n i q u c p r o p e r t i e s
which made thcm unlike any othcr fibrcs. ln due cotlrse,the term VISCOSBI{AYON
'artificial silk' was abaudoncd,and the fibres became known as
INTRODUCTION
rayon.
l a t u r a lp o l y l n c rf i b r c s o f a l l t y p e s ,
A t l l r s t , t h i s t e r r n i n c l u d c cn Thc large-_scalc devcloplncrrtof rayon was nrlclc possiblcby C. F.
but it is now restrictedto those fibres consistingwholly or sub- Cross,E. J. I3cvan,and C. Beacllein Englanclin ig92, whofouncl
stantially of regeneratedcellulose.In practice, this means that it that they could dissolve cellulose witrrout first nrliring
refersto fibres made by the cupranlmoniunrand viscoseprocesses. it i.to
n i t r o c e l l u l o s eT.h e c e l l u r o s ew a s t r e a t e dw i t h c a u s t i ct J a n ,
Fibres nrade from cellulose acetate are called acela!e (or tri- ttt.n
vrith carbon disulphide, ancr the procruct <rissolvccl
acetate),and those from proteins are azlorr libres. (See U.S. . in clilutc
curstic soda.Tlris viscousliquid they callecl,viscosc'.
Federal Trade Commission de{initionson page xxvi).
.. A rnethod of producing textile liiaments [ror, tlrc viscoscrvas
Nalural Polynrer Fibres TodaY discoveredby C. H. StearnanclC. F. Tophant, thc l:rtter
o[ whonr
V i s c o s e ,c u p r a m m o n i u ma n d a c e t a t em'fhe ake up the btrlk of the invenlecl the 'ageing' of viscose (to iis corrcct conclition
for
natural polytncr fibres produced today. ccllulosc tlrat scrves spinning),the rnultiple hole spinning jct ancl the fanrous'l'oprrarrr
as raw material is availablc in virtually unlimited quantities,and s p i n n i n gb o x .
the manufacturing processeshave been developedand improved . In 1904,the British rights of trreviscoscprocessrvcrc purchnscd
u n t i l t h c p r o d u c t i o no f n a t u r a l p o l y m e r f i b r e si s n o w o n e o f t h e by courtaulds Ltd., who developcclit into trle most
succcssful
rlost cflicient and irnportant industricsin the worlcl. n r c t h o do f r a y o n n r a r r u l a c t u r e irr tlrc world.
The rapid rise of the natural polynler libre industry is reflected The viscose process is cornpurativcly lcngthy ancl sonrc
3(X)
s t a t i s t i c sA. t t h e e n d o f W o r l d W a r I , t h e a c c u r a t c l yc o n t r o l l c ds t c p sa r c i r r v o r v c cTt .h c r l w r r n t c r i a l s ,
in thc nranulacttrring how-
c.vcr'arc chcap.viscosc r.yo' c.' gc'crally be pro<rtrcccl
w o r l d o u t p u t o f r t r t u r a l p o l y n t c r f i b r c s a t r l o t t t r t e dt o - o n l y 9 0 0 0 crrcarrcr
than othcr rayons, ancl viscoscis irow 'ranufacturccl i' grciitcr
t o n n e s ( l e s s t h a n t h a t o f s i l k ) . I l y 1 9 5 7 o u t p u t . h a d s o a r e dt o
q u n n t i t y t h a n e i t h e r c u p r a l n n r o n i t u l tr a y o n o r
sonre2tli utilliort totrttesand in 197"1it was 3'l lnillion tortncs. ncclttc.
 I.IANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIRRES A: NATUNAL POLYMER FII}RES

g
Wateris needed itr grcatquantityandutanychcrrricals arcuscd
" .i
i! !
! :
irr viscose^rayonrranu.faclure. A kilogra.roi' ,uyu,,fiti. .rii.ir,
::. o:
1t tlreuseof more than 1,600kg of watir, nearlyi kc of sulDlniiic
. a " l I r .

Hi;
2 : a
;t b.i acid.,I ltk^gof caustic..soda., of woodpuli o, ;,ii;il;i;;r,
y'^ii .l.yikg
I tg of carbon disulphirtea"ndsr.alrera'rou'ts o| otrrer
chernicals.
ConlinuousFilnnrcntanit Slaplc
Until 1914, viscoserayon was produceclalnrost entircly
in thc
form of continuousfila'rcnt yarn. During Worlct War
I,'C;;,rin;
and ItaUan firms began proclucingstapl,erayon fibre
by chop_
'ri
ping the filarnentsafter extrusion.
o 'fhe
o production of rayon staple macle rapid progress
during
:; !? the 1930s,and by 1940 there wis as much itaplc bJing
!; used a!
continuous filarnent. After worlcl war rI, filirnc.t pio.tr,.iioii
ti
e-rceeded
!: lhat of staple u'til 1954,when siaplc once ;dl,ii;;i;
, a t thc lcacl. I' 1961, somc 60 pcr ccnt of thc *orl,l
Z E
i : consistcdof staplc fibrc. ;;;;i;,.;;;;

- l ' t h e 1 9 6 0 s a ^ d l g z o s p r o c l u c t i o no f c o r t i n u o u s f i h ' r c ' t

dirninishedbut stapleproduction i,.,rrrrr.J.

TYPES OF VISCOSERAYON

As co'trol and understancling o[ the viscoseprocessrrasirrcrcasctr,

u
z i t h . a sb e c o m ep o s s i b l et o r n o d i f y . t h ep r o p c i t i c so f
o tlrc Iibr; i;,;
= v ' r i e t y o f w a y s .A r a n g eo [ v i s c o s er o y o n i i s n o r v
z
a v a i l a b l cw h i c h
z x; incluclesfibres of widely diflering charactcristics.
;5: ; r Physical modificatio's of the viscosefibre ra'gc
:;: 9! from crrangcs
ts in thc forrrr of the filanrent, e.g. hollow, shapcd
;i!
;y9
z nnd surfrric_
ntodilied lilamcnt (seepage 20) io changesi' irrc
f, linc structurlc
i ' , t t l " h i g h . t e n a c i t yr a y o n s( s e cp a g e3 i ) a n c lh i g h
wct nroclulus
(l ,rrn c l u o t n gp o l y n o s r c )r a y o r ) s( s e e
!
l l a g e4 7 ) .
Chemical nrodification,Iikewiscjhas rcsultcd in nrany
o typcs of
f,
nrodificd viscosefibre, such as cross_linkccl,
z rayolls (scepage 38).
basificd n,iA gi,,itJ
z
:; U
PIIODUCTION
i :
Il:rrv Mutcrinls
:: T h e r a w n r a t e r i a l sf o r m a k i n g v i s c o s er a y o ' a r c c i t r r c r
9;; cotto'
li.ters (the short, uselessfibreJin thc co'on boll)
or- ivooi;;;
;!: I l'i l l
 IIANDDOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
^: NATURAL POLYIUER
FIITRES
dcrived fronr such tinrber as northern spruce, rvesternlrenrlock, cellulosc)(scc pagc
e u c a l y p t u so r s o u t h e r ns l a s hp i n e . T h e s ep u l p s c o n t a i n a b o u t 9 4 ^12).
cellulosemoreculesare ,Dur:ing
attackci .tlreagcirrgl)roccss, thc long
per cent cellulose,and are most suitablefor fibre nranufacture. bv- o*-vg"nfrorrr rrrc ^ir rrrrl
brokenup to someextentjnto shorter
Wood pulp is puri{ied by boiling with caustic soda or soclium molccules.
bisulphite solution. It is bleachedand washed, ancl reachesthe Sodium CelluloscXunthuteproluctiott
rayon factory in the form of sheetslike thick blotting paper.The The aged crumbsof
cellulosepulp is stored under controlled conditions of hurniclity -arkariceturosca'c nrixcrrwitrr c.rbo'
tisulphidein a rcvorving a.r-. iir"
a n d t e m p e r a t u r eu n t i l t h e m o i s t u r ei s d i s t r i b u t e du n i f o r m l y ; t h i s
'conditioning' graduallyyellowanclt'en orn,rg. "r'n"t, wrritccrrrrrrtrs rrr.l
o, ,oJiu,n ..ii"f"r. _.",i,,,t.
nray take severalweeks. is formed-(sec pagc l2). The-barcrr
. ls tippccrirrto :r dirurc
solution
Forrtrtt!iott of Alkali Cellulose (Soda Cellulose) 'fhcre of causticiocra,iormi'g ; ,-hi"[""rangc-browlr sorrrtiorr
is a rooseassociation ^itiiit"rtng" bctwcc. trrc sotlirrrr
The first step in viscoserayon ntanufactureis the production of cellulose xanthateanclthe ro<.tiui"'iivr.f
ro*j.r..
alkali ccllulose.The cellulose pulp sheets are steepedin warm Thc lustreof thc ray.onis "ont.oit.A-nt
caustic soda for an hour, and then pressedto remove excess producedfronr trrc socriunr ttrisstag..If rlryorris
".[;i;;;;;;rrrre sorurio'wirrrour
solution. Thc trcated cellulose is brokcn up in a shredder to anvrhingto ir, rhe ,ovoii *rii-'i,nu"
f o r n r p o w d e r yc r u r n b s .
la^r]ins. . n sirk_rikcsrrccn.
o[tcn howcver,a ctulicrappca;;;;;";,
prctcrrccl,antt rtris is
The crumbs are aged f<lr up to a day, during which tinrc thc ac'icvcclby adrtirrg
caustic soda reacts with cellulose to form alkali cellulose(socla 1l1rc,ylr'itcfrisu-.,t,i,r,rr'ytir.rriurrr tlioxitlc,
to tlrcspinnlng solution at thispoii,ti,.,n"iirulactur.c.
Ilipcning
oll oH OH ONa fhe sodiurncellulose.xanthatc solutiorr
r l t l allowedto sra'<rutra,rip.ii'iu;r;"i;';'i'y (viscoscsolutiorr)is
CH_CH CH_CH
trolled.rcrrrperarure, ;rr . carc.rry c<.rrr-
/ \ , / \ crurirrgwhich'tiirre'ii ii nrt.r.J ;;;;;,i,..r;.
-o-cH -N- >
aoH
-o -cH c H*
cH- sornebreakdownof thc
\au_n / \ / of lower nrolccular .lJng ".liuror"-"ror*,ii., i,,r"',rri"""iJ;
CH_O wciglrttiL.. iri.".,'i ,i ,fr" vi.scosity
I I solutionfallsinitiallv. oI t'c
cH2oH cH20H orr lurtherstandi.g,the viscosity of thc sorrrtio'bcgirsto rise
CELLULOSE SODACELLULoSE againas celluloseis
,iesocrium
c;ir"r";
fif,:ffi:]:ll'r.llilrofll,1ill
ij illlii,jj
for a long tinre, ceruroseis cleposit.a
rro"ni
Iroweve.r,ripening is atow-ccr,i-t"trir","'unrirsolution. ln practicc,
tl ' 1 , thc solutio, rras
OH ONa
reachcda state suitable.for
OH OC-SNa t ^ c ' s u b j c c t c dt o
l t t l vacuulll to 'remove bubbrcs of- s p i n n i , i r . - ' i
CH-CH CH_CH
air or-otrrcr gascs wrriclr wourtl
i n t c r f e r e w i t h t h o s n r o o t hf l o w
/ \ c s , / \ o C r f , " , o i " r i o , . ,d u r i r r g s l r i r r r r i n g .
-o-cH cH- -o-cll cH-
\ / \ / Spinning*
cH-o cH-o T ' e r i p e n c d' v i s c o s es p i n n i n g s o l u t i o n
t l *
i s p a s s c ctrh r o u g h a r i r r a l
cH2oH cH2oH
' s p iIn
n nthci n g manufaclurc
' o{ rayon.anclothcr nrnrr-nradc librcs,lhc tcrnt
h a s c o n r et o - b c i p p i i c r i
SODACELLULOSE SODIUMCELLULOSE
XANTHATE t t r r o u g ht i n y l r o l c s , o f ? , . 1 ,t.i,, b l ; ' t l ; ; ' y , r ' o . . r , o t . f o r c i r r gt i t l t r i d
n U . " . . f : n ; - i l , ; " t c r n r i s r r s c t il n r h c
Viscose Rayon. Stage.r itt prodttctiott
if,l,'.,",10?il'i,il:"if.'":"u rttan-t'atlc nu,"i-roi'ii,.
rrvisrirrg
t.,s.tii.r';i
t2
t3
 IIANDBOOK OF TDXTILE FIBRBS ATI.'RAL POLYMER FTDRI]S

A s t h e c o r e s h r i n k s ,t h c s k i n b c c o ' r c sw r i n k l c c la n d t h c f i l n r n c n t
fittcring stage,and then forccd through tiny holes bored in a cap
acquiresits lobed cross-scction.
of metal forming the spinneret.Spinneretsare made from gold,
platinurr, palladium, tantalutn and other corrosion-resisting . l n t h e p r o d u c t i o no f h i g h - t c n a c i t yf i b r c s o f a l l _ s k i nc o n s t r u c _
tion (sec page 43), regc'cration rttardants arc acldccrto
metals; platinurn alloys are comuronly used. thc
coagulating bath, slowing up the regencration or cclrurosc
The holes in the spinneret are usually between 0.005 and bv
the acid, a'd so allowi'g thc srowei route (b) to bri'g-aLoiri
0.0125 mm diameter, and each spinneretwill be pierced by up 'i, -tiv
rcgenerationthroughout the
to 20,000 o[ thent. .libre. This cltcci int.r.,.rincJ
u s i n g a h i g h c r c o . c c r r t r a t i o r r ' o zf i n c s a r t si n r t , . , t r i , r , . , i , i e - [ , , i i i .
As it emergeslrom the hole in the spinneret,thc jet of viscosc
entersa coagulatingbath containing a mixture of acids and salts, I'he slower rege'cration obtainccrin trris way ailows tiirc
for
stretchingand orientation to be carriccl out morc eflccrivclv.
typically of the following composition:
S u l p h u r i ca c i d 4-12 parts by weight
Sodium sulphate10-22 parts by weight
Zinc sulphate l-5 Parts bY weight There are three ways in rvrrich the firanrentsare trcatcd
aftcr
I e a v i n gt h e c o a g u l a t i n gb a t h ; t h e p r o c c s s easr c k n o w n
n, pof oi
b o x ,s p i n n i n g ,b o b b i n s p i n n i n ga n i c o n t i n t i o u ss p i n n i n g ,
I n t h e c o a g u l a t i n gb a t h , t h e s o d i u m c e l l u l o s ex a n t h a t ei s c o n - *rp..-
. h i s i s i n s o l u b l ei n t h e l i q r r i d o [ t h c tivcly.
v e r t e d b a c k i n t o c c l l u l o s cT
bath, so that the fine jet of viscosesolution is changedinto a solicl P o t S p i n n i n g ;I l o x S p i n t i n g
f i l a m e n to f c e l l u l o s e . 'fhe
sodium I n p o t s p i . n i n g t h e b u n c h o f f i r a r n e n t fsr o m
The action of the spinning bath is complex. 'r'his c a c- h s p i n r r c r cits l c t l
s u l p h a t e b r i n g s a b o u t t h e c o a g u l a t i o no f t h e s o d i u m c e l l u l o s c
outof rhebarhandarou'cra wrrccr. whcer "irr"J rli. e"i[i
-
whecl pulls the filame-ntrrom the jct at a co'trotcrr
xanthate to form a lilament. This is thcn ccinvertedto cellulose spcccr.It is
t h i s s p e e d ,t o g e t h e rw i t h t h e r a t e o f e x t r u s i o n ,
by one or othcr of two routes: which crctcrr'incs
(a) thc soclium cellulosexanthate is converted into celltrlose t h e d i a m e t e ro f t h e r a y o n I i b r e . f h e f a s t e ri t p u l l e d
is ". it i."".,
t h e j e t , t h e t h i n n e rt h e f i b r e w i l l b e .
xanthic acid, which decomposesinto cellulose.
(b) the sodirrm cellulosexanthate is converted first irrto zinc leaving the gocretwhccl, the fibrcs pass arouncr
.on a sccorrcr
wheel which is movi.g fastcr than thc lirst. -fhe
cellulosexanthatc, which is then convertedinto cellulosexanthic fibrcs arc thcrc_
fore stretched bctween trre two wtreers-l-a proccss
acid and finally into cellulose. whicrr has a
profound elTecton the finar fibre.
The conversionof zinc cellulosexanthateinto cellulosexanthic This stictching or trr" siiti-
p l a s t i cr a y o n t e n d s t o o r i e n t a t et h ;
acid takes place more slowly than the conversion of sodium n r ; i ; " ; , | " s o f c c l l u l o s ca l o n g
the direction of trre libre. rhe tirng nrot.ctires
cellulose xanthate into cellulose xanthic acid, and route (b) is arc po.t". n.,oii
tightly together so that rheir nrutuit otiin"iion
slower than route (a). "",":;-i;,r; ;i;y.
Ihey hold strongly to each other, giving a sirongcr
I n t h e c o a g u l a t i o no f v i s c o s eu, s i n g a b a t h a s o u t l i n e da b o v c , tibrc.
The more. the rayo' is strctcirJd *i.,it" it
t h e z i n c s u l p h a t ei s i n l o w c o n c e n t r a t i o na, n d i t p e n e t r a t e so n l y . is still p!.stic, thc
s t r o n g e ri s t l r e f i b r e . I l u t a t . t h c s a n r et i n r e ,
a short distanceinto the lilament in the time that the acid pene- t l r i s t i g f r tp n " f l , i g ' o i
t'e molecules recluces..the,stretchabiiiat;'of
trates into the centre of the filament. The bulk of the filament, t^c fibrc, so thnt
excessive
inclucling,the core, is thus regeneratedvia the direct route (a). -stretchingw'r. achicve high strcngtrr usua'y rrt iii"
cxpenseof other desirabrepropertics.
Only the outer layer is regeneratedvia the slower route (b). 1'he treatrrent is trrcrcforc
The slower regenerationtaking place in the outer layer of the
rcgulated
to suit ilreco^dirlonitn" nu." *iit r.,"u"to ,riinrinn,i
filament results in a nrore uniforrrr deposition of cellulose,and . Afterstretching, thefibrep_assesinto a Tophal'box.Thisis :i
createsthe skin cffect that is typical of a regular viscosefibre. hollowcontaineri6out rB.*?7i;iilr Jir],i"t* rvrricrr wrrirrs
rikc
t4 I5
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
A: NATURAL POLYMER
FINRE,S
a sp.inningtop. The filanrent is lccl through a hole in thc top o[ ptrrification'
t h e b o x a ' d i s f l u n g a g a i n s tt h e s i d e b y c e n t r i f u g a lf o r c e . I n t h i s
brcachirrg,
waslring and crryi'gof trrcfirarrrcrt
lcavingrhc coacuraring a[tcr
rvay it. is pulled continuously through the hole ancl buil<Isup br,tt,.li'ii,"
';i";;, pri,i,'",iorrof rayorrby pot
spi'ning, for eiar'plc] ,il;
i'to a cake of filament inside the box. A n'rcchanicaldevice rnoreto complete. ijj.,, rakc J0 rrri'rrrcsor
ensuresthat the cake js built up evenly from top to bottom, ancl Ancr.intrristilne,*o.i'urnn a rnirc
nrightbe spun'If continuously-pr;;; of firanrcnt
the spin o[ the b_oxgivesa twist to tlie fibres, irsually about L.i
ti'e to process,, Iira'rc't took rhc sanrc
t u r n s t o t h e c m ( 3 t u r n st o t h e i n c h ) . n.-,,1:,1,-li:ii
i;,i;';;;il; arrcr drying cquiprrcnr
'lhe wouldhavclo accon)n_todatc
Topharn box rotates some 10,000 tinres per nrinute. The a conrparablc lcngtho[ filnlrrcnt.
The successfur
crevcronrr."toi;;1;ii;;us spirrning
sidesare perforated,so that most of the liquid ii ftung off from wasnradepossibrc of viscosc
to.a rargccxteni
t h c w e t f i b r c c a k e . U p t o 6 3 r n ( 7 0 y r t ) a t n i n u t e a r e f e c li n t o dcviccswrrichcourcrrtoralnrm"u;; bt'l;* dcsig'o[ rrrccrranic.r
t h e b o x ; i t t a k e s s e v e r a lh o u r s t o b u i l a u p a c o n t p l e t e , c a k e , , i;r;,ir-
tinuousmovementas they p"rr.,r jfrr*:,ill o[ firarncnri' co'-
which is tl'renwashed and may be treated wittr soaium sulphicle ,n. o.o..rsirrgtrain.
sol.tion to renrove residual sulphur conrpouncrs.The fibre is
bleachcd, IttdttstrialRayott Corporatiotr proce.rs
.Lrsuallywith sodiurn or calciirm hypochlorite or
peroxide,rinscd in dilute acid, washecland driecl.
the 1930s,many firnrs expcrinrcntecl
.?:,:lg
vrscose spinningtcchniques. with corrrinuous
Bobbin Spinning onc of tlr"-n"t t" ^"il;;;..;;,,,:
rrrcrcialsucccsswns il
In bobbin spinning, the filanrentsof rayon emerging front lhc .l)t.occsstlcvclopcrl
by lrrrlrrslrirrl
ltrryorr
c o a g u l a t i n gb a t h m a y b e w o u n d w i t h o u t t w i s t o n t o b o b b i n s . wtii.l'",,n,"-inio''or,..",io'
nr l.irrcsvlc,
bobbins,whicl'rhave perforateclbarrels,are purifieclancl bleachecl
Thc 3|'i3:ilt!;|r.u't'n.,
T^c probrcrnof harrclrirrg great
tunderpressure.The yarn is then dried and oiled, ancl after trvist- processingwas solveclty.",,ii,rf- rcngthso[ firrr.rcrrtrrurirrg
ing is wound up again ready for winding into skeinsor cones. rir..?,.r'aovil'c*g rccls of
ingeniousdesign.Each recl ""*irt.i""i"o
C o rr!i rttrous Spi nning axes set on thc skew, i.e. n_otparallcl pri,. of rorcrs rvitrr
filanrentis fed to one io caclr othcr. Whcrr
I n t h e p o t a n d b o b b i n s p i n n i n g p r o c e s s e sp,a c k a g e so f v i s c o s c .end "f " ;;;;";i n.,ouing rollcrsof t^is
sort, a'd passcdrounrl thc .o'eis--as'ttrougl,
filan.rent are collected rouncl n plir o[
1nd then subjected-to desurphurizing, pulleys,rhe fitanrentrcrcts
to f"r;; ;"rl;;;;l which nrovcs.torrc
bleaching,washing and drying before tire rayon is ready for usJ. thepair of rotersunril.it..n"n",
Thc processis thus an interrnittentone, in which batchesof Iila- ii.*oii,.. ..a. r.rrccrirccrion or
nrovement of the sniral,.the .istancct.i*..n thc coils,arcl thc
ment are handled separatelyas they become available. lcngth of filanrent"u.ii.,l,
J;;;;;
lJatchprocesses of this type are inevitably costly in labour aucl bctwecnthe axeso[ ttretwo rollcrs. trJ,, ,,," anglc o[ skcw
operati.g chargesa , n d t h e i n t e r m i t t e n to p e r a t i n g - t e n dtso i n t r o - A pair of skew_set rollers"un if,i,, bc rrscclfor carryirrg
d u c e v a r i a t i o n si n t h e q u a r i t yo f t h e p r o d t i c tf r o n i b a t c h t o b a t c h . lengt'sof filanrent grcat
in a.vcry.snrall space,
I'
.modern industry therc is a te'dincy to favour processesin betweenindivicrualcoits.df ni;,;;;;-i;i witlroutp^ysic^lcolrlilct
rvhich the procluct nloves from one stagc to the 'cit in a
con- strandsof filament"^n. b.: ,,,frj".i.J- i,,g pr,,"". r'<livictuat
t i . u o u s s t r e a n . rc. o n t i r r u o u s p r o c e s s e so f t r r i s s o r t a r e u s u a i l y cnviron're'ts irr a most dircct '*^r,-f,ro'pro""r.ingliquidsantl
c h e a p c rt o o p e r a t c ,a n d c a n b e c o n t r o l l e c tl o p r o c l r r c ea h i g h l i r v h i c ' a r ew o u ' < It o c c t h cirr r t o c,ontra.twith flla.lents
r u n i f o r r np r o d u c t . a c i ( . o r o t h c r ' : r c k a g e . . l . l irri rs ,
I t h a s l o n g b e e n r e a l i z e r tl h a t t h e p r o r l u c t i o no f v i s c o s er a y o n l,Ill: rhcpiocl:sring
i:d":.s uced^ ti,n"'-n..i..i'io.r^c trc*tr'crrr -ir;;..r_r o[
con t i nuously-prod fi lnnri. r, o, "oi"pn r.a wi rh t d;
could. be aclaptedto operate on a continuous basis. nut o f - f i l a r n c n ti n p a c k a g et o r n t . *
,"nnf
practical problcms hacl to be sorvecrbelorc contintror-rs
spirrrirri l n t h e I n d u s t r i a lR a y o n C o r p o r a l i o n
bccamea reality. The main difiiculty lay in the time requirecl c e s s t, h e t h r e a da d v a n c i n gr e c l s ' c o n r i r i c o n t i n u o u ss p i r r r r i n gp r o -
foi
" i p . i r c o [ s k c w _ s cht o l l o w
t6
t7
f__ | l_ -.1 L I L f
I{ANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
rollers wlrich rotate one inside the other. A sttccessionof thcse
reelscarriesthe filament from the coagulatingbath and stretching
equipment,through desulphurizing,blcaching,rvashing,oiling and
cliying stages, until eventually a clean, d-ry lilarnent is delivered
-shipm"nt
,..ua' for to the textile manufacturer.The techrriqtre
has now been devcloped and refined, and Industrial Rayon
c o r p o r a t i o n c o n t i n u o u ss p i n n i n gn r a c h i n e.sa r ei u w i d e s p r c a du s e
throughout the worlcl. Worlcl rights to the process,cxcluding
U.S.A-.ancl Scuth America, are held by Coultaulds Ltd', U'K'
A motlern continuous spinning machine of this type is 6 .rl'r
(20 f0 high, and has threi operating levels.On the top are the
coagrriating b a t h a n d t h c s t r e t c h i n gt t r e c h a n i s nfrr,o l r t w h i c h t h e
filarirentmoves clownwardto pass throtrgh a train of ten process-
ing stages.Each stage consistsof a thread advancing reel, and
cltiring its passagethrough the reel the filament is subjectedto
the appropiiate processitrgliquids or environments.Finally, the
tilanrcnt passcs through a drying rccl ctrclosccliu n hclrtctl
chamber.Thc dry filament emergcslront this rccl ancl is twistcd
ontl woutrd on to bobbins which iarry up to 4.54 kg ( I 0 lb)'
The dofling of the bobbins is automatic,and there is no intcr-
r u l t t i o n t o t l i e o p e r a t i o no f t h e m a c h i n e .T h e e n t i r c p r o c e s si s
c o n t i n u o u st,h c f i l a n t e n tb c i n g w o u n d o n t o t h e b o b b i n l i t t l e m o r e
t h a n 5 m i n u t e s a f t c r b e i n g p r o d u c e d i n t h e c o a g u l a t i n gb a t h '
Nelson Process
A c o n t i n u o u ss p i n n i n gp r o c e s sw a s d e v i s e di n t h e U ' K ' b y S ' W '
Barber anclJ. Nelson during the early 1930s.By 1934,the process
was in operation. It has since been developedby Lustrafil Ltd',
and has bcconreknown as the Nelson Process.
In the Nelson Process,a combination of two techniqtresis
useclto overcome the problem of carrying great lengtlrsof fila-
rncnt during the processiugstages.Firstly, skew-sctrollers are
u s e d t o c a r r y t h c f i l a m e u t ,a s i n t h e I n d u s t r i a l R a y o n P r o c e s s ;
seconclly,the stages in processingare redttced,desulphurizing
a n d b l e a c h i n gb c i n g o n t i t t e d .
The thread advancingdevice,in the Nclson Process,is sinrilar
i n p r i n c i p l e t o t h a t u s e d i n t h e I n d u s t r i a l R a y o n P r o c e s s-,t r t t t
cliffirs in the details of its operation.The two rollers, instcaclof
rotating insicle one another, are arranged one above the other
l8
Ai NATTJRALI'OLY[{DII FIITITES
l i k c t h c r o l l c r si n a w r i n g c r ,w i t h t h c i r a . r c s . s co[n t h c s k c r v . ' t ' h c
r o l l e r s ,a t l ' u t I n r ( 3 . 3 f t ) l o . g , c a r r y u l o r e t r r a ' 1 0 0 c . i r s
or'
t l r e f i l a r n c n ts l r i r a la s i t r n o v c sf r o m o n c c n c lt o t h c o t h c r .
A s t h c f i l a m c n t se r r i e r g cf r o r n t h e c o a g u l a t i n gb a t h , t h c y a r c
carried upwards to pass over thc uppcr roilcr and tlic. ,iorun-
r v a r d st o p a s s u . d e r t h e l o w c r r o l l c r , a n c l s o o ' . ' l ' h c f i r s t c o i l s
o f t h e s p i r a l a r c s p r a y e d w i t h u c i c r ,a n d c o r g u r i r t i o ^i s c o r r r -
p l c t c d d u r i n g t h i s f i r s t s t a g c .' l - h c f i l a n r c n t i s t h c r r r v . s h c c l
bv
w a t e rs p r a y sa s i t ' r o v c s a l o r r gt l r . er o l l c r s ,p a s s i ' gI i ' a l l y o v c r
thc
e u d s e c t i o n so f t h e r o l l e r s ,r v h i c ha r e h c a t c d .o r y t i l a r n c n t tt . , i u .
t h e r o l l c r s ,h a v i ' g s p c n t s o m c 3 n r i n u t c st r a v c r s i i r gf r o ' r o n c c . t l
t o t h c o t h c r , n r o v i n g r h r o u g h r , o r c t r r a ' 1 0 0 c o i - i so f t l r c s p i r r l
o ' _ t h e w a y . 1 ' h c d r y f i l a r n c n t sa r c t r v i s t c car n t r c o l l c c t c do i r
to
b o b b i n s ,u s u a l l y b y a c a p s p i n n i n gm c c h a n i s m .
D e s p i t e l h e o n r i s s i o ' o f t h e d c s u r p h u r i z i n gs r . x g c f, i r . r ' c . t s
p r o d u c e db y t h e N c l s o n P r o c e s sc o n t a i n o n l y b . I _ - 0 : j p c r
ccnt
s r r l p l r r r rI.f , a s i s r r s r r n lt,h c y ^ r n s r r t r s c q t r c r r tpI lyr s s c s
i r r i . u i , g l i, ,
r v c I p r o c c s s i r r tgr c u t ' r c ' t , s u c l r a s s c o r r r . i r rogi t i y c i r r g ,
tlrissirr'll
p r o p . o r t i o no f s u l p h u r i s r c n r o v c d .r f t h c s u b s c q u c i i t
' o p c r a tr ian' ,. rt t, i n !
o f t h e y a r n d o c s n o t i n c l u c l ca w c t p r o c c s s i n g
itri
t r : r c eo f s u l p h . u . r . n r abyc r c r n o v c ccl a s i i y b y , v . i h i n g
thc fribric.
r r r c u s e o t r r i g r rq u l r i t y w o o d p u r p r r a sr c . d c r c d t r r c
brcaching
s l a g e u n n c c e s s a r fyo r m o s t a p p l i c a t i o n sb, u t b l c a c l r i n g
can nlsi
be carrieclout if nccessaryaf fabric stage.
Anrcricatt Visco.rcCorporotiotr Itroccs.r
T f i i s i s a ] ' i g h - s p c c dc o . t i n u o t r ss p i ' n i n g
l ) r o c c s si . r v r r i c r rt r r c
f i l a n r c n t sl c a v c t h e c o a g u r ' t i n g u i r t r v i i a j c t o f " o n g , , i u r i i i f
l i q u i d , i n . w h i c h t h e l i l a u r e n t s' ' o v e f o r a d i s t . n c e o I a E . t r t l i
c'r (6. irr). Irilar'cnts ther passround the rccls of a thrcaJ-
a d v a n c r n gn r c c h a ' i s r ' a t s u c l ra s p c c dt h a t c x c c s sl i q u i t l
is rlrrorvrr
o ( r b y c e n t r i f u g a lf o r c c . c o a g t r l a t i o no f t h e c c l l u l o s c
co'tirrtrcs
a s t h c f i l a r n e n t st r a v c l a l o n g t h c i r s p i r a l p a t h , , , , r , t
,tr"t"iri,,f i,
carried out when lcss trrat 70 pcr ccnt icgc.cr-.tiorr
l r : r sr i r k c r r
placc.
K uljian Proccss
I n t h i s p r o c e s sf' i l a ' r c n t s a r e c a r r i c d f r o n r t h c c o a g r r r a t i r g
bltrr
by godct wheels,ancr prss on to a systenrof roflcis
*t,i"il ..ii
b e c o n t r o l l e dt o a p p l y a < l c s i r c c<lI c g r e co f s t r c t c h .- I ' h c
filarncnts
are trcatedas they travcl tltrough tlrc rollcr systcnr,
a r r c ll h c r r
l)
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIDRES A: NATURAL POLYMER FII}RDS

d r i e d b y h o t a i r . T h e d r y f i l a m e n t sa r e w o u n d o n t o b o b b i n sb y I) tt b ble-fiI Icd F i I artrc:n t.r

a r i n g s p i n n i n gn t e c l t a t t i s n r . 'l-he
covering powcr of viscosc firanrcntsrrray bc
irrcrcascrlbv
s p i n n i n gi n s u c h a w a y t h a t b u b b l c s o r
Koltortr'Okortratic' Process .i.'";-"li;;;;;' ";i
trapped inside the firamcnr. This may bc dorrc
try rpi,i,iii,g"o
A process of continuous spinning devised by Von Kohorn v i s c o s es o l u t i o ' w h i c h r r a s b c c . a g i r a i c c r p r o d u c c
to
'Okomatic' Process, ^ [orr' irr
lnternational Corporatiotr, known as the which air bubbles are entrappecl .
carries the yarn forward by means of a system of skew-setglass hr 1976courtaulds Ltd nraricetccr a rrollow visc.sc tibrc .Vilot.t,
rollers.
x!i.I isr'adebv.gc'crari'g carbo'aiu*ia.i,,iia.iii. iir,,,;i;;,i.
T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f y a r n s b y t h e s e c o n t i n u o u ss p i n n i n g p r o - r r l c ' D r e l l i l s[ r e a i l v i r r c r c a s c d
b u l"ii'
k a ' d h i g h r r r o i s t u r c' b s . r . p t i o r r .
cesseshas now beconreestablislredpracticein the rayon industry. ur wil' ptityest.,ii rrr.r, ; ";?,1.,i'c rcasc
The quality of the yarns is fully equal to that of yarns produced ,']:.,9;r:" d c.vcri' g
-.
by batch techniques,and the uniformity of the lilan.rentsis high. llle'ds oI hollowviscose witrrcottonarc uscdirrshirti'gsa'cl
TIris increased uniformity is reflected in the reductior"rof drcssfabricsa'd for tcrry t.wel pile. Iloli.w
;ir;.;;;';ft;;;";
breakagesduring weaving, and consequentin-rprovementin the widelyusedin nor-wove's,particulirlyl' fieids
;i;;;;;;;.;i
quality of thc fabrics. a.d rnedicalfabricswrrerehighrnoistrric ribsorptio'a.d ,r,isturc
holdirrgproperlicsarcinrport"ant.
T
NtoDtrlc^'floNoF ITILANIEN l)rrrirrgworltl w'r il, a bubbrc-riilctl viscoscrilrrrrrcrrr
'llubblclil' crrilcd
wasproducccl in.U.S.A.by clu'clrrt,usi,ga tcchrrirluc
l l y n r a n i p u l a t i o na n d m o d i f i c a t i o no f t h e s p i n n i u g p r o c e s s t' h e by.which.air,rvasinjccterlinto the iil"nr.,rt.s
physicrl structure and form of the rayon lilament can b e -fhis it
produccda co'ti'uous firanrc'tcorrtii,ring was cxtrudcd.
c h a n g e di n n r a n y w a Y s . ait.r.t" iri,ili.,
3-6 "r -% i.) lo'g, whichwasusccl
l* asa substitute ti,, k;;;;k
irrlitejackets, poritoorri,insulatecl
ctottrii,g
etc.
Cross-Sectiotr
The cross-sectionalshape of the filament may be varied by
extruding through spinneretholes of suitableshapc.Modification SpturclyedFilatnent and Staple
of filanrent cross-sectionis becoming of increasing in'rportance Conlrolof the spinningprocess in rayonprocluction cnnblcsthc
today, as it can causeprofound changesin the characteristicsof 'ranuflacturer to mix lirrcry-crispcrsccr-pigrirc'ts
- rvitrrtrrc viscosc
yarns'and fabrics. Circular cross-sectionfilaments,for example, solutionbcforespinning.Thc pignrcntJaic
loct<c,li,r*i,|. rlic
or" poot., in covering power than lobed cross-sections typical filar,entsa-[terspinning'proviclirr!'spuir-Jy.a'
fibres are now rira'rc'tsrvhiclr
of the normal viscose filament. Many synthetic arc unusually fastto rightn.crto w.shing.wrritctitlnit,,r.,aiuii,l.
being produced in non-circular forms, such as dog-bone and is uscdi' this way for duili'g ttt. n"fJini
srrcc' of r^yor.
trilobal cross-sections.
V i s c o s er a y o n h a s b e e n m a d e e x p e r i n r e n t a l l iyn a v a r i e t y o f
Crittrp
cross-scctionolSltu1r.s,and sonrc lrirve become of conrnrercial -fhc^spinnirg
importance.Straw filaments,for example,are produced by.sonre q L r a l i t i e so f s t a p l c f i t r r e a r c u s t r : r l l y
c.l*rrrccd iI
ntanufacturers.Flat filaments are made by extrusion of viscos: t h e f i b r e h a s a w a v i . e s so r c r i n r p
1 c i . w o o r y ,a n . f i r a n r c n t rsv ^ i c l r
tlrrough slit orifices insteaclof circular ones; these{'ilamcntshavc . r e r o b c n r a d c i n t o s t a p r ca r c c o ' r r n o n r y ' r r c a r c d
'l'his t o p r o v i t r ca
improved covering power, but tend to be of harsh handle' c.ritnp.. rnay bc donc rncchlrrically,for exunrl.,leby passirrg
ihc cliarnctero[ a filanrc.t ntay be varied continuouslybetrveen t'c fi lar.cnt bctwee' g^car_likc rollcrs,'or cl.,.,r.,ic.ilyb; ;";;r,.;t
t h i c k a r r c lt h i n , p r o v i t l i n g r a y o n f i l a n r c n t sw h i c l t r l l a k e u p i n l o l i u g .t h e c o a g ' l a t i o n o i t h c f i r a ' c ' r i t t - ; , ' ; i ;
a way .s ro crcirtc
spccial cffcct fabrics. a fibre of asymnrctr.icalcross-scction.

20 2t
 rL -*J [*.,J

I{ANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES A: NATURAL POLYMER

FTSRES
Chcnrical crimp has resulted very largely from experimental Surlace-Modifiect Fibre
work carriccl out in Japan, aud much of the viscose staple l-hc nature of the fibre surface influcnccs
pro<luccclin Japan is now crinrped in tlris way. The crimp is perties of a fibre, and lhc proccssingpro-
.arTects i,r u"iir"i"rr lr.t ,sc. 'rrrc striirte.
i n t r o d u c c db y s p i n n i n gv i s c o s ei n t o a c o a g u l a t i n gb a t h c o n t a i n i n g surface o[,a regular viscosenU..,
*iiii irs typical lobcd cross-
less acid and nrore salt than is usual, followed by carefully con- scction, influences the sp.innabllit'y
oi""ir.osc staple, a,d also
trollcd strctclting.The filanrent is then ctrt'into staple and dried. irflects.theappearanc-e and hancte or uir.or" yarus. o.
Filarnentsproduced in this way have an asymmetricalcross- h a n d , i n d e n t a t i o n so f t r r i ss o r t t * , i - t o ' " i i n g trrc othcr
section, cne side bcing thick-skinned and almost smooth, the t o p a r t i c r c so f d i r t .
and fibrcs of this typc arc oftcn
more rlifiicult to clcln thnn
other side being thin-skinnecland highly serrated.When the fibrcs sirnilar fibres with a non_serratecl
surface.
are wet, thcy srvell much more on the thin-skinncdside than on T h e . u n i q u e p r o p c r t i e so f w o o l " r " - J i , .
the thick-skinnedside, so that there is a tendencyto curl. ., i r r s o r . c r r r c u s u r ct o
the scaly surfaceof th-efibrc ona
nt,,iiy niiinrp,, havc bccn r'adc
A sirnilar efl'cct nray be introduced into rayon by using the t o c r e a t ea s u r f a c eo f . t h i s t y p c
'bicornpcnent' tcchnique which has becn developedsuccessfully o' .ovri-^ntr othcr nran-nradc
'Orlon' Bicom- fibres'such fibres wourd rr. .^p..t.a^tli.oui.r"
in the plcduction of some synthetic libres (see with wool. iruproved brcnds
porrcnt Fibrc). This consistsin the extrusion of twin filarnents Surface moclified rayon fibres have
through orifices set sicle by side, in such a way that the two bccn procluccclby nrcans
o f f i n i s h i n g t r e a t m c n t i ,a n c l b y u r i n g
{ l l l m c n t s j o i n n s t h e y c o a g t r l a t cT. h e c o r n p o s i t ef i l a l n c n ti s t l r a d c uiLrnfingspinncrcls.
from viscoscsolutions of dillercnt characteristics,atrd the two Iligh l'cn:rcl{yllnyol
portions o[ the filament have different swelling properties. In During the extrusion ancl strctching
which fornr parl. of thc
w a t e r ,t h c f i l a m e n tt e n d st o c u r l a s o n e s i d e s w e l l sm o r e t h a n t h e p r o c e s so f . p r o d u c i n g
f i l a m e n t { t h c n r o l e c u l e r . " i. . f f r f " . r .
o th c r . arc alig'ed and oricntal"cr ..ny9n
'fhe to-sonrc ,r"gr.. wlrcrc r'orcctrrcs
a n t o u n t o [ c r i m p t h a t i s p u t i n t o a f i b r e d e p e n d su p o n t l t e able to pack togcther..inorclc.rlyi"rfrion,'tr.,.y arc
forrn rcgions of
d e c i t e x .F i b r e so f 1 . 7 d t e x ( 1 . 5 d e n ) m a y h a v e 5 c r i m p s p e r c r n crystallinity,or crystailitcs,wrrich
ur"r.pn.nr.,r frorn o.e arol'cr
a n d 3 . 3 d t e x ( 3 d e n ) f i b r e s3 c r i m p s p e r c m . I f l l b r e s a r e - g i v e n b y - r e g i o n so f a m o r p h o u sc e l l u l o s e .
t o o n r u c h c r i m p , n e p st n a y b e c a u s e dd u r i n g p r o c e s s i n gi ;f t h e y In this respect,the rayon filamc't
g ay be resertrblcsthe cotton fibrc,
a r c g i v e n t o o l i t t l e c r i n r p , t l t e c o l t e s i o tdt u r i n gp r o c e s s i n m rvhich also consists of cerrulose
-"r.*i.r' parry in crystntine
too low. in arnorp.trous
form. Brt il;; <lirlcrs
li1
rn-r lirrty
n.urnbcr from corron
of significant ways.
uunng vlscosemanufacture, the
cellulosenrolcculcstrndergo
so.r'edegradation,ana, i' a norrnal
Crimped Viscose Rayon. DY suit- "i;;;r; fibrc tlrc nrolcculcs

fiffi
able control of spinning conditions, pcrhaps.20G-700
glucose
u"l;. ;;, couon,rtreccllulose
:111j^:.?:Il
aremuchlonger,
viscose filarnents may be spun in andmaycontain2,000_1b,000
which the skin is thicker on one ;il[:",.r ;ii;;;;;
side of the filament than ort thc
other. Tbe swelling and othcr .^ The prop.ortionof crystatine rnaterialin a nornrarviscoscIibre

*o
ts conrnronlyin the re-gionof
characteristics of the two sides o[ 25_30p.. "*t, whcrcasin corton
the fibre are different, and the rvet it is as high as 70-75 c e n t . T h e c r y s t a l l i t c si n r a y o n
filament contractsmore on one sidc s t n a l l e rt h a n i n c o t t o n ; i.np er a
r
y o n , r f r . y - , , r . , ' o , ,t v c r a g c ,a b o u t
trc
than on thc othcr. This producesa t n g s t r o m sl o n g a n d 4 0 a n g s t r o n r , 100
crirnp (cf. the relationship betwecn *id.; iir cotton thcy lre sonrc
the twirr-corc structure of the wool 1 9 9 : : F s t r o m s . l o n g a n c l -6 0 n , r g r t i o i . r " '* t 0 . . N t o r c o v c r
o r r c n r a t i o .o f t r r c c r v s t ^ l r i t c sn t o , [ rhc
fibrc cot(cx and the crirttp o[ rvool) r t r " n b r c a x i s i s g r . c a r c ri n
- Alter Cottlartlds L!d. c o t t o nt h a n i n r a y o n .
22
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES NATURAL POLYMER ITIBt(ES

These factors all contribute to the difiercncesin physical pro- thc r c g i o n so f t h c s k i n a r c r c s sr i r ' g r c d
perties betweenrayon and cottotr. In particular, they explain the -arnorp'ous a r r dl r * p h a z - l ' d
'r arrar)gement than_in rhc core. .t-hc skiri is
relative weaknessof rayon, especiallywhen wet. And they have uniform structure,and the o.i.niotion'oi ai;,;, ;i..;;;;.
,tr. "ryr,,r'itcs is 'igrrcr
pointed the way towards the developmentof viscoserayous o[ in the skin than in the core.
i n c r e a s e ds t r e n g t ha n d d i n r e n s i o n asl t a b i l i t y . I n t h e p r o d u c t i o no f h i g h _ t c n a c i t y
'I'he r a y o r ) s t, h c c o n g u l n t i o na n c l
successachievedin this field is demonstratedby the intro- slretchingof the fibre arc controllea
in suctra way Ji; i;;;;#;
duction of high-tenacityviscoscfibres (seepage 39). Since World tlre internar structure of the liranre"t.':rrtir
ircrcascin rne propor.rion is acconrparricdby .rr
War II, the usc of high-strength r a y o n i n t y r e s ,c o n v e y o rb e l t i n g , of ,kii;; ;;;j ;;;;'t,i']il;,;;;i
transnrissionbelting, hose pipes, etc., has become cornmonplace. tio'of
'fhe. core,to the poi't at wrrichirr..ori.(rsar)pcars coruprctcly.
These yarns are produced by applying a high degree of stretch fibre is coagulared i" " ,r-;;'i;"i;;;"., way, an<Irtrc
c l u r i n g m a n u f a c t u r e ,w h e n t h c i n d i v i d u a l f i l a n . r e n t sa r e i n a section beconrcslcss scrralcclas cross-
'lhe thc corc_shrinkagc ellcct is
pseudo-plasticstate. stretchingis eflectedby suitable choice dinrinisrrcd' In trrecaseoI a 'wt.,ot.-s[ini .'l-errasco
a n d c o n t r o l o f t h e c h e m i c a l si n t h e s p i n n i n gs o l u t i o na n d i n t h e Suder105',the crosssectionis alnrost {ib." sr.r, as
circular.
s p i n n i n gb a t h . l'he increasedunilormitynri,rorr.,rt,,iion
The acicl bath coagulatesthe cellulosexanthate solution ancl an all-skinfibre of this iype ;.;;l;';,;'"n or thc nrorccurcs irr
'I'hc ircreaseirr rensite
p c r m i t ss t r c t c h t o b e a p p l i c d i n o n e o r n l o r e s t a g e s . process s t r e n g t ' 'I f t h e n r o. r c c u r c s -n. l n
nr,in-..iit
r u s c di n t h e p r o d u c t i o no f ' T c n a s c o '
y r r n s b y M c s s r s .C o u r t a u l c l s l,r"u: poor rrcgrccor oricntriiioii," a r c , o t ' r i g r r c a n r r t l
:].
crystallirrity "r"ir trrc oricrrr^tio'^rrtl
L t d . i s o f t h i s t y p e , p r o v i d i n gy a r u s w h i c h a r e t h r e e t i m e s a s vary grcatly
_throug'oui
a te.silesrresswilt be iakcn b;;;iy';-r;"alt ti,. iitrr., t,c rcsistn'ccto
s t r o n ga s n o r n r a lv i s c o s er a y o n .
The aclditionalstretch given to viscosefilaments in producing availablemoleculcsat a.time. proporrionof rhc
rf, in" if." i, strctclrcd, thcse
h i g h t e n a c i t y r a y o n s i n c r e a s e st h e d c g r e e o f a l i g n n r e n to f t h e nrotecutes will break,anciorhers*iii'i";i;
cellulosemolecules.This has the effect of increasingthe propor- too will break,anclso on. up ttrc strain.f.hcsc
t i o n o f c r y s t a l l i n em a t e r i a l , a n d o r i c n t a t e st h e m o l e c u l e sa n d lf the degreeof oricnlationof
the nrolcculcs arrdcrystallitcs
c r y s t a l l i t e sn r o r e h i g h l y i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e f i b r e a x i s . T h e is high, anclthe structureof the
nbr. is-rinifornt,a grcatcrpro-
physical structure of the fibre changes,resulting in increased portionof nrorecules
s t r c n g t ha n d d i m i n i s h c dc x t e n s i b i l i t y . libre is pulrccf. 'rrre wi' co-operai" i" i"r.irg trrcstrai. rvrrc,trre
fibre *irii"i;;-;';;;','il. rcrsircsrr'rgrrr.
Skin ElJect
W h e n v i s c o s es o l u t i o n i s e x t r u c l e di n t o t h e c o a g u l a t i n gb a t h , a IIigh lVet Morlultrs Royons;polytrosic
Fibrcs(secpagc 47)
skin of celluloseforms on thc outsideof the filanient.As coagttla- I\'lanynew typesof ui::-:r_:l]"y..cnrcrgccl
tcxtilescientists cturingrcccntycars,ns
t i o n c o n t i n u e s ,t h e c o r e o f t h e f i l a m e n t h a r d e n s a n d s h r i n k s , haveincreascd trreirinacrstandirrg
c a u s i n ga w r i n k l i n g o f t h e o u t c r s k i n o f t h e f i l a m c n t .T h e r c s u l t of spin'ing ancrproccssing ancrcontror
t"Jrriiqi,.r."anron,trrc nrostinrpor-
of this can be seen in the serrated cross-sectionof the norrnal tant are the hieh wet modulusrnodal anclpolynosic
-creverop.a
v i s c o s cf i l a n r e n tT. h e s k i n i t s e l fc a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h ebdy e x a n r i n i r r g T'ese rravebeen fibrcs.
i,i u uu,ri'rrJiirJ,run trics i rr ll ri rair.
a d y c d a n d l e a c h c df i b r e . ' I ' h e c o r e d y e s m o r e r e a d i l y t h a n t h e rrr.odal.fi
bre is r'anuftrciup.a y c"" rir,irar'r-ta.u,der ; a
'Vincel'; ^t Irrc'arirc
s k i n , a n d i t l i k e w i s el o s e si t s d y e m o r e r e a d i l yo n l e a c h i n gl,e a v i n g in thc U.S..rn.ocr..rfi6res*.'r"rir.rrr. as ,Avrir'
t"ibers (Avtcx
""^
a darkcr shadewhich can be secn quite easily through the nticro- Inc.)and'Mov*cr' (c* iirrri;
- r'i;;iil'i,;,;;i.n'iui.;)"
scope. Modal arrd polv.osic'fibresare"iiigi,.t.,,r.ity,
T h c s k i n a n t l c o r c a r c b o t h c c l l u l o s e ,b u t t h e y d i f l c r i n t h e rr,dulusrayo'sin wrricrr 'ig, wcr
rrrocri{1".ti""
oi'il,. ,,,,,t..rr.rstrrrcturc
n a t u r e a n d o r i c n t a t i o n o f t h c c r y s t a l l i t e s .I n t h c s k i n , t h e hasrcsultedin a fibrewirhnranv"iijr;';;;;."rivc
c r y s t a l l i t e sa r e s m a l l c r t h a n i n t h e c o r e , a n d t h e m o l c c u l c si n crraracrcris(ics

25
.FNFFFFFNFFFTFTETNF
T I A N D B O O KO F T I ] X T I L E F I B R E S N A T U I I A L P O L Y M E , I T F TB R [ , S

o f c o t t o n .T h e h i g h s t r e n g t h e , s p c c i a l l yw h e n w e t , r c s u l t si n g o o d
'0t

m;
Xtdt
d i r r e n s i o n a sl t a b i l i t ya n d f i r m u e s s .
)Vt
{sl
S(aplc

){s
}\/
The nranu[acttrrcof viscosestaple libre has assttrnedincreasing

s fi
i n r p o r t a n c cs i n c e t h e e n d o f W o r l d W a r l l . ' S t a p l e i s n r a c l eb y
chopping filanrents,which may havc been crimped nre^chanically

(lth-8 in),
l y ,i n t o s h o r t u n i f o r t u l e t t g t h sc, o t n t t t o n l y3 B - 2 0 0 n t r n
p r c l e n r i c a l-after
they etnergelrom tl're coagu.lating.bath.The
e3% [p {
i t a p l e f i b r i i s t h e n w a s h e da n d d r i e d ,a n d p a c k e di n b a l e s .
in proclucingstaple,it is not llecessaryto control the trniformity
of the fibre to sttch a fine clegreeas in the case of continuous
f i l a r n e n tp r o c l u c t i o n(.U n i f o r r n i t y i s n e v e r t h e l e svse r y g o o d , a n d
i r r t r i n s i c a l l yb e t t e r t h a n t b a t o b t a i n e dw i t h n a t u r a l f i b r e s . )A l s o '
' Ssl, &) 9
1
2
€'

t h e f i l a m e n t sc a t t b c s p u n l r o m s p i n t t e r c t w s l t i c h p r o v i d ea t h i c k

,sur#ot010 c
)0 b:
r o p c o r t o w c o n s i s t i n go [ t h o u s a n d so f f i l a m e n t s .T h e s e t w o
factors tencl to lower thc cost o[ producing staplc as conrlrarcd

d
w i t h c o n t i n u o u sf i l a t n e n ty a r n s .

tw
'st
Viscoscstaple nray be blendcd with wool, cottoll or other

{\OXn@
$fi
fibrcs, and spun into yarn by the various systenrstrsedfor staple

Io
f i b r e s .Y a r n s t u a d e f r o m v i s c o s es t a p l ea r e n a t u r a l l y f t r l l e r a n d
r o u g h c ri n h a n c l l ct h a t t t h o s ct u a d ef r o t n f i l a m c n ty a r n s ( c f . w o o l
and silk).
Totv !o Top Conversiotr
-I'hc
c o n v e r s i o no f s t a l l l ef i b r e t o y a r n i n v o l v c st h e r e a l i g n n r e n t
of thc nrassof short fibres which have resultcclfrorn thc ctrtting
ZyAenae$: .{I
3 4
i-{

ffi
oI the filanretrts,bringing thcm back, in elTect,towards the state
o f a l i g n m c n tt h a t t h e y h a d w h e n t h e y w e r e i n t h e f o r m o f u n c u t
1 . S T A N D A R Dt . . I O R O
t o w . I - no r d c r t o a v o i c la n a p p a r c n t l yu l l l l c c c s s a rdyi s o r g a n i z a t i o n
ancl rcalignrnent,tow to top conversiotrtechniqucshave been 2. TENASCO
developeclin which the filaments in thc tow are cut or broken 3 . T E N A S C O3 5
i n t o s t a p l ea n d d r a f t e d i n t o s l i v c r a s a c o n t i n u o t l sp r o c e s s '

ffi:
Z Y ^ W
7^vf,w - 4 . T E N A S C O S U P E R7 0
" I ' ( t t u s c oO' .p p o s i t cl:' l i g ht c n n c i t yv i s c o srca y o l l so f t h c " l ' c n n s c ot y' .p c
5 . T E N A S C O S U P E R1 O 5
a r c u r o c l u c c d ' bcvr t r u s i o no f t h e v i s c o s e into an acicb l a t l tc o n t a i n i r r g
z.in.'atr,l socliunisulphates, follorvedby stretchingof tlrene_rvly-fortlrcd
f i l a n r c n t isn h o t n q u c o u sa c i d . T h i s r c s u l t si n i n' cs rkei na's c d molecular
o- r i . i i t i t i o n ,a n c la n ' i t r c r e a si en t h e p r o p o r t i o no f to 'core''
y n i i t n t o a ci n t h i s w : I y a r e s t r o l l g e trl r n nt t o r n r avl i s c o s ea,n d t h i s
< ii t h o n l y s l i g h t_ r e t l u c t i oi nr r e x t e n s i o a
nt 5
" r , t i n . t t r . r r g t ti rs : r c h i c v c w
Lie:rk.'l'lris"nteans that the fibreshlvc n high rvorkoI ruptute'-Aller
CourtauldsLtd,
1l) 27
 I

II NDBOOK OF'I'I]XTILE, FII}RES

NAT.'lt^L PoI-YMllR
PROCISSING FIBlt,.s
Drtacr co.r.oN t
rcrvi'rc
IvIr'r'..'rvotIrcr
Desizilg
;:::,TiJixi:,J,',':H'ii,lli:iili)
r^src "':,
v i s c o s e .f i l a n r e n ty a r . s a r e c o n r n r o ' l y s i z e d w i t r r
sizes which arc renroved by scouri'g. stapre yarns
water-soluble
sizeclwiflr
o"n.,unilr
tll';iii:: Tillrl",.::,'
tunobtainable ::; :
wirh othcray*irnr'irr.,tir"
s t a r c h n r a y b e d e s i z e db y t r e a t n r e n tw i t l , " , l " v n l . r . frgitiu. to light.
'sr,Lpru*Dy[s]'ut;Irs
Scouring
. - -,'tii'et,
are trsccr
rvlrcrr
c,rccrcrrtwasrrirr'g
f.rt,,..,
;:'fii?:Jllii'JJ;;;ji;;,;'r'o ..r..corr,istrrcss
lo
A s i n a l l r v e t p r o c c s s i n go f v i s c o s eg, r c a t c a r e m u s t
be taken to
a v o i d c a u s i r r gd i s t o r t i o no J t h e r a y o n g o o c i sw h e n w e t .
S.ouiinl trvcs
arcrror
orrc'
r n i r yb c c a r r i c c ol r t r s i n g t r r eu s r a l t c c h r r i c l u cr so r c e l r u l o s i c
s u c h a s s o a p a r c l s o c r i u r ' c r r r b o n a t es; o i i p , s r r r f a c "a c t i v e
nui..i :.,.J..11i{1'":1,',,',iifJ'nil,:iT,iJ"';,:[..u,.1,'.,.
appriccr
to conri,iuorrs
riranrc.r
i;;;k; brackis
ag"rii Sraplcfibrc is dyc<l*itf, n ;;fJlu ?:lif."'
a n d . t r i s o d i u r r rp h o s p h a t e ;s o a p , s u r f a c ea c t i v e a g e n t u , . , a
t.ira-
.,,,.rg."oiJr"i,u,.r,,.
clycstulls.
pyrophosphate.Scouririgshould be foilowld frv ^zolc Dycsrunn".,-y1r::rc rayonhasa high,t.gi.e of
tf,o-ugfl
:::!,:iT
nnslllg. azoicclyesttrlTs tt.runni.il.iil..i "otto,,l..l.hc aflinityfor
(higlrer.
gooclfasttrcss colouri arc
:lll;'H;,'iil'l.ltavc i" ir"tr'i,u,cross-trycirrl;,
r.ubbirrg
Il lcnching
S t r o n g .o x i d i z i n g a g e n t s s h o u l d b e a v o i d e c l .B l e a c h i n g
may be . v^'r' Dyns'uFF' ilrc lrrc_fastcstof all lrrc crycstu,.s
c a r r i c d o u t r v i t h h y d r o g e np. e r o x i c l ea t t e n t p c r a t u r eusp rcsist
the.n..t, ui'iigrrr trscrro.
ncutral
to 50"C., ;i:f[':i::;,1*: a.rrrvasrrirrg
jusr:rs
- s o d i u n rl r y p o c h l o r i t e , a i c l p o t a s s i t , up. ,. . , n ^ i r _
g a n a t c f o l l o r v e cbl y s o d i u n rb .i spuc lrnbhoirtac t. e , .,
1 - h ea p p l i c a t i o n
o f v a I c l y c st o v j s c o . srci
thcscnsir
ivityorrlrc,fi bre., llayo';;ii; ;,1v,?* ii
Dycing tuscd
irrclyci'g
.'noi.rvirhrhcsc,ly.riJji,
. bsorbed ru1,i.r ";,; ,,".'i",r1i ffi?i:'::lfil.,lil
y th.r,i l;; ;;:' ;; ::i;;,:gifiJiii:l:tr.l;
viscose rayon is a regeneratecrceilulose fibre, a'cl
"
#'lX.;"'t av.'-*ltr' n;;i-,.;,
as such is
c h e ' r i c a l l ya l n r o s ti d e ' t i c a l w i t h c o t t o . . r t c a ' b c < r y e c r
witrrart
c o t t o n d y e s t u f f s ,b u t t e c h n i q u e so f c l y e i n g a r e i r r i l u e n " . A
iilil;",f"9il.J',]:il','j' i; i*iiir,ii
Uy
s p c c i a lf a c l . o r s . Sptttr-dygdRayon
R a y o n h a s a g r e a t e ra f r i n i t yf o r d y e s t h a n h a s c o t t o n .
Afri'itv Ivluch rayon is norv
r n a y v a r y a c c o r d i n gt o n r a n u f a c t u r i n gc o n c l i t i o n sa, n < J itl the sptttt-dyccl.
will noi coloureclpig.rcnts ,,r"1'f.-o!l1"ttl forrtt, in rv6iclr
neccssarilybe icle'tical irr rayons procluceclfronr tire ,n,r.,.ptont.
it "i ;;;i';,;i;ii:t -
t n c o r p o r a t c dc l t r r i r r g
s l i r r r t i r t g' .r r i ; t p t , " . - t
. Ilayon swells to a greater extent than cotton when it is
ilrnrersedin water. The fibres are weakenecl,
gc'e
rar oi' :;il;.;
iy;i ;;; ;; ;]'i;,,111i":,11:i'.1,,,'.xi1"'.,,,,[.
ancl yarns or fabrics
m u s t b e h a n d l e dw i t h g r e a t c a r e i n t h e d y e b a t h . Drl,ing
V i s c o s ci s d y c d i n t h e f o r n r o f h a n k s ,s i a p l ef i b r e ,p i c c e g o o d s
a n d ' c a k e ' ( i . e . a s c o l l e c t e col n t h e s p i n n i n gn r a c h i r i e j..f h e " h i g t i \ V c t v i s c d s cn r t r s t
b c c l r i c < li n s t r c l t a w ; l y
degree of swetling can carse dilficulties *Ir"n ,nyon ,,,'eccssa rystrains",,"],1: i*.j;l'iil;ii":i,i:,;l as
r.
p a c k a g e df o r m . C a k e sf o r d y e i n gs h o u l c h
is clyed in widrh rrraybc fo.ilorvctltry l;i,'",i,,ii,J
ilil
l avean openwind. ;,1^jilt ,t;i;;;';
I i D A C T I V E D y D S T U t ; F S w h i c h c h e n r i c a l l yb o n d t o
Icsloondryingnrayals
onasrc, rcr .q,,
itp..r inJl'i",',1::li
ili,ll.''i,
#'^iii li lii,iii
c c l l u l o s cr n o l c c u l c sa r e o f t e n u s c c l .
the
i,T,
dryingstroul<t
t," """irJii, as rhisnrly crusc
,,.fJ/::.'.. n hnrslr
28
29
IHITFTFFFTIIFITTF
O F ' T E , X T I I -FEI B R E , S
IIANDBOOK A : N A . t U R A Lt , o r - Y M [ , t It r l u t t E s

liinishing r r r a d ci n a r a n g co f d t c x . ' l ' y p i c a sl t l n l c I'ibrcd tcx a r c 1 . 7 ,. 1 . - 1 ,

g . 0 r 1 7 , 4 0 , 5 6 ( l k , 3 - , ' 4 k ,g ,
T h e f i n i s h i n g o f v i s c o s c f a b r i c s i s c o n c e r t r e dl a r g e l y w i t h .5.0, \ 5 , 1 8 , 4 4 , 5c0l c r r )s; t l r p l c
its l e r r g t l r3
s 2 - 2 0 0 n r r n( l / a - 8 i n ) .
r ' i . i n t i z i ' g t l c s h o r t c o r r i n g si n h c r c u t i r t v i s c o s e ,r t o t a b l y
s c n s i t i v i t yt o l v a t e r ' l l c s i n f i n i s h e so f I n a n y t y p c s a r e .n o w . u s e d l'cnsilcStrength
. f t . . t i u . t y f o r t h i s p u r p o s e , p r o v i c l i n g i n c r e a s e cdl i n r e n s i o n a l O , r d i r r avr iys c o srea y o r hr u sa t c r u r c i toyl ' l g - 2 3 c N / t e x( z . t J * 2 . 6
s t a b i l i t yi t r r i n g w a s l r i i g , i n r p r o v e dw r i n k l e. r e s i s t a n caeu d c r c a s e g / d c r r )d r y ; 9 . 0 - 1 3 . 2 c N / t c x ( 1 . 0 _1 . 5 g / t l c r r )w c r . . l . e D s i l c
rcsistarice. These finishesshorrld be used wit5 cirre, as they rlray
strengtlr o[-rrorr'al viscose r'yo. is 210942i4 kg/c.r2(30,000-
c a u s el o s s o f a b r a S i o nr e s i S t a n caen d t c a r s t r e n g t h ,a n d p r o d u c e 46,000lb/in2).
a h a r s h ,b o a r d Yh a n d l e .
v i s c o s e f a b r i c s n t a y b c c a l e n d e r c ccl a r e f t r l l y t o i n c r e a s e- t h e Iilougalion
f u l l n e s so f h a n d l e . d c c a t i s i n g i s u s e c lt o p r o d u c e a w o o l - l i k e N o r n t a l v i s c o s ew i l l s t r e t c hb y a b o u t l 7 * 2 5 p c r c c n t
finish. Iength bcfore brcaking, ancl 23-32 pcr ccrit rvlrcrr

Mercerizittg IJlaslicllccovcry
R a y o n i s a l u s t r o u sf i b r e , a n d t h e r c i s r a r e l y a n y c a l l f o r l u s t r e c o t t o u a n d o t h e r n a t u r a l c c l l u l o s cf i b r c s h t v c l i t t l c i ' h c r c n t
t o L c i n c r c a s e c el ,. g . b y r u c t ' c c r i z i n gI .t n r a y b e d c s i r a b l e h , ow- c l a s t i c i t yv' i s c o s cr ^ y o , , l r o r v c v c rh, . s c v c ' l c s s . r t I r . s i r s a r i r i l
e v c r ,f o r b l e n t l s o f c o t t o n a r r d r a y o n t o b e t t t c r c c t i z c t
c o
l i m l rrovc c l a s l i c s t r c t c h o I a b o u t 2 1 r c r c c r r t f ' o . r r v r r i c hi t r v i l l r j c c . u . . r i
t h e i u s ( r e o f t l r e c o t t o n , a n c l b r i n g i t s d y e i n g q u a l i t i e sm o r e i n t o w h c n r e l a x c c l .I l u t . r o r e p c r s i s t c ' t s t r c t c h i n gw i l l t c n d t o c a r r s c
l i n e w i t h t h o s eo f t h e r a Y o n . P e r n r a t r c ndtc f o r n r a t i o na s t h c l o n g c c l l u l o s cr r r c l l c c u l cssl i d c < l v c r .
V i s c o s ef i b r e w i l t w i t h s t a n c tl h c c a u s t i cs o d a s o l t r t i o nu s c d i n oncanother.
n r c r c c r i z igr r, b u t c l i s i n t e g r n t ecsl t t r i n gs u b s e q t r c ur tv a s h i n gS. p e c i a l E l a s t i cr c c o v e r y( 6 0 p e r c c n t r . h . ) :
t c c h r r i q u eas r c u s c c lt o o v c r c o t l l ct h i s p r o b l c m , i u c l u d i n gt h e t t s c I p c r c c r r tc x t c n s i o n :6 7 p c r c c l l t
o I c a u i t i c p o t a s h ,o r n r i x t u r e so [ c a u s t i cp o t a s ha u d c a u s t i cs o c l a , 2 pcr ccnt cxtcnsion: 60 pcr ccnt
i n p l a c e o [ c a u s t i cs o d a . 3 per centcxtcrrsion3 : g ncr ccnt
5 1 > c cr c n t c x l c r r s i o n 3: 2 j r c r c c l ' lt
l0 lter ccnt cxtcnsion: 2J ncr ccnt
S'fl{UCI'Ul{Il n ND PI{OPIIR'flES (l{cgular Viscose)

liiue Slructurcltnd APPcarancc

f h e f i l a r n e n to f v i s c o s er a y o n i s s n l o o t h a n d s t r a i g h t .I t n t a y b c Averngc Stillncss
c r i n r p e d ( ' s a r i l l e ' ) b u t t h e r e a r e u o c o u v o l u t i o n sa s i n c o t t o t t . 98 cN/tex (l l.l g/den).
T l e s u r f a i e i s h o w e v e r ,m a r k e d b y l o n g i t u d i n a lc h a n r r e l sw h i c h
a r e c a u s e c lb y c o n t r a c t i o ni n v o l u n r e o f t h e f i l a r l e n t c l u r i r l g Initixl M()dulus
'l--hese
coagulation, c h a n n c l so r s t r i a t i o t t sg i v c t h e c L o s s - s e c t i oon[
477 cN/tex (54 g/dcn).
v i s c - o sr"a y o n a c h a r a c t c r i s t i o c u t l i n e ,r v l t i c hi s d e e p l ys e r r a' st p
ed.
utl-
W h c n r a y o n h a s b e e t rd u l l e d w i t h t i t a n i u m d i o x i d e ,o r lYork Factor
d y c d ' c l u r i n gn r a n u f a c t u r ct,h e p a r t i c l e so f p i g n l e n t a r e s c e t l a s 0.62.
d a r k s p e c k se m b e d d e di n t h e f i l a r n e n t .
A s i a y o n i s a m a . r r f a c t u r c d n t a t e r i a l ,t 5 e c l i a ' r e t e r o f t ; e Spccific Grnvity
f i l a n r c n tc a n b e v a r i e d t h r o u g h w i d c l i n r i t s .v i s c o s ci s c o n r n r o n l y 1 . 5 0t o 1 . 5 2 .
JU J I
 I I A N D I } O OOKF T E X T I L EF I D R E S A: NAl'UI{AL POI-YMI]I{ I:INIINS

ElIcct of Illois(urc o . ' e a t i n g . l t b e g i ' s t o l o s es t r c n g t ' a t l 5 O o c .

a[ter'r<lrorrgctl
' e a t i ' g , a n d b e g l r s t o c l e c o n r p o si.t t g s _ z o 5 o C .
l n n a t u r a l c e l l u l o s cf i b r e ss u c h a s c o t t o l l , t h e c e l l u l o s em o l c c u l e s (clcplir,iil";;,
a l e p a c k e d t o g e t l t e ri n o r d e r l y l a s l t i o n w h e r e v e ra l i g n m e n t o [ t i n r ef a c t o r ) .
t h e n r o l e c u l e sn r z r k e st h i s p o s s i b l e .T h e s e o r d c r e d , c r y s t a l l i n e
r c g i o n sc o n f e r s t r e n g t ha n d r i g i d i t y o n t h e f i b r e ; t h e a m o r p h o u s Flatnrrnbility
r e g i o n s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w l t e r e c e l l u l o s e m o l e c t l lse a r e R a y o n b u r n s r c a c l i l yw i t h a c h a r a c t c r i s t i c
o c l o u ro f b r r r u t p l p c r .
a r r a n g e di n r a u d o r n f a s h i o n a r e r e s p o u s i b l ef o r t h e f l e x i b i l i t y ,
' s t l c t c h a b i l i t ya' n d s r v e l l i n gp r o p e r t i c so f t h e f i b r e .
liltcct ot Agc
W h e u n a t u r a t c c l l u l o s ef i b r c s a r c d i s s o l v c dd u l i n g v i s c o s c
So slight as to be almost nil.
r n a n u f a c t u r et,h e m o l e c u l e sa r e s e t f r c e f r o u t o t t e a n o t h e r ,a n d
a r e a b l e t o n r o v ea r o u n d n r o r e o r l e s si n d e p e n d e n t liyn t h e l i q u i d .
-fhe Iillcct of Sunligtrt
c x t r u s i o no f t h c l i q u i d , f o l l o w c c lb y c o a g u l a t i o tar n d s t r c t c h -
i n g , t c n d s t o r c s t o r et h e a l i g n n r e n o t f t h e c c l l u l o s et n o l c c u l e sa n d V i s c o s er a y o n w i t h s t a ' d sc x p o s u r c
to su'rig't wit'out riiscolora-
e u c o u r a g e tsh e f o r n r a t i o no f c r y s t a l l i n er e g i o u sa g a i n .l n g c u e r a l , expo^surc causcsa grartualloss o[ rcnsilcsrrcngrtr.
h o w e v e r ,t h e m o l e c u l a r l i n c - t r p i s u o t r e s t o r e dt o s u c h a h i g h ll?it:,ll:.t^":pcd
r r l l sl s l l ) o r cs e v c r ei f t h c f i b r e c o n i r i n s
t i t a n i u r no x i d e .
c l c g r c ca s i n t h e o r i g i n a l n a t u r a l s t a t c .A l t l t o u g h t h e f i l a r n e n to [ ChcrnicalPropcrlie.s
v i s c o s cr a y o n c o n s i s t so f c c l l u l o s c ,i t d i { [ c r si n t h i s r c s p c c Lf r o t t t
c o t t o n . l t . b c h a v e si n m a u y w a y s l i k c a c o t t o n i n r v h i c h t h e Acids
c e l l u l o s em o l c c u l e sh a v e b e e n s h o r t e n c d( i . e . b y c h e n r i c a a l ction
S i n r i l a r[ o c o t t o n .v i s c o s cr a y o n i s a t t a c k c c r
d u r i n g r i p c n i n ga n d a g e i n g )a n d a l i g n e dw i t h r a t h e rl e s sp r e c i s i o n b y r r o td i r u t co r c c l l t l
c o r c e ' t r a t c c lr . ' i n e r a ra c i c r sw
, r r i c h w e a k * r a r r r rd i s i r r t c g ' r t c
t h a n i n c o t t o n . T h c a c t u a l d c g r e eo [ a l i g n n r e n ta n d c r y s t a l l i n i t y tlrc
fi b r e .
clepcncls upon the att.toutrtof stretch that is given to the filament
during rnanufacture.
Alkolis
l ' h e r c d u c e d c r y s t a l l i n i t y o f t h e c c i l u l o s e i t r v i s c o s er a y o t r
r e n c l c r st h e f i b r e r n o r e r e s p o l t s i v et o w a t e r - p e t r e t t ' a t i o n . ' f h e L i k c c o t t o n , v i s c o s cr a y o n r r a s a h i g '
c r c g r c co I r c s i s t . . c c t .
n r o l c c u l e so f w a t c r c a n f o r c e t h e i r w a y b c t r v e c nt h e l o o s e l y d i l L r t ea l k a l i s .S t r o n ' ! s o i u t i o n so f ^ r k a ' r i -
ciirsc srvc'i.g, witrr r.ss
o r g a n i z e dc e l l u l o s em o l c c u l e si n t h e a n t o r p h o u sr c g i o n s o f t h e o f t c n s i l es t r c n g t h .
r a y o n . V i s c o s er a y o n r v i l l a b s o r b t w i c e a s t t t u c h r v a t e rn a t u r a l l y
f r o n r t h c a i r a s c o t t o n d o c s . V i s c o s el t a s a n t o i s t u r er c g a i n o [ G etteral
l 3 p c r c e n t u n c l e rs t a n d a r t lc o n d i t i o u s .( W a t e r i n r b i b i t i o n : 1 0 0 - 'I'he
celluloseof viscoscrayon u'crcrgoes
1 1 0 p e r c e n t . )W h e n s o a k e di n w i t t e r ,v i s c o s er a y o t r w i l l i t r c r e a s e sor.rcaclrory'rcrizatio,
during the rranufacturi'gproccrr.
i n l c n g t h b y 3 - 5 p e r c e n t a n d s w e l l t o d o u b l e i t s o r i g i n a lv o l u u r e . r ' i r ; - ; ; ; " r c f l c r st o c ^ c r ' i c a r s
ir a'ra.'er si'rirar to cotion,rrutit g1n.*ry
T h i s i n c r c a s c dw a t c r p e n e t r a t i o ni s r e f l e c t e di n t h e c h a n g ei n r ' o r c s c n s i t i v el.t
is attackcd bv oxidizirrg agcnrs such
t c n s i l cs t r e n g t l tr v h e n r a y o t r i s w e t t e d .V i s c o s el o s e sa s m u c h a s as rrigh-strerietri-i,;,ir"g.l,
p c r o x i d c , b u t . w i l l w i t h s t a n c ln o r n r a l
h a l I i t s s t r e n g t l tw h c t t r v c t , a n d i s m o r e e a s i l y s t r e t c h e d T . hc liyfoctrtoritc or pcroxidc
blcaches.
s t r c n g t h r e t u r r t s o n d r y i n g , i n c r c n s i n ga s t h e r a y o t l b c c o m e s
bonc-dry. Mlcct of (JrganicSolvcrrts
'I'hcrntnlPropcrties
v i s c o s er a y o ' i s i n s o l u b l ei n m o s t o r g a n i c
s o l v c r r t si;t
Ii{Ject ol IIiglt'I'cntpuature a fcw co'rplcx solutions,s.uc' as c,,,lr..nrr'o,ri,,,rr: a i s s o r v c is'
D;t-;l;;;,;;
l l a y o n i s n o t t h c r n t o p l a s t i ca, t r d c l o c sn o t n r c l t o r b e c o n t ct a c k y s o l v c n t sd o n o t h a v c a n y c l c l c t c r i o u s ^ c f l c f i .

5L 3l

r--T
 K I - T E X T I L EF I D R g S
I I A N D I ] O OO NATUI{AL I'O LYN,lI]II I.I D IT!,S

Lr.sccls V I S C O S ER A Y O N I N U S E
V i s c o s ci s r e s i s t a n t o i n s e c ta t t a c k b u t i s a t t a c k e db y s i l v e r - f i s h . I n t h e m a n - r n a d cf i b r e f i e r d ,r a y o n p r a y sa r o l c
s i n r i r a rt o t r r n to I
c o t t o n i n t h e f i e l d o f n a t u r a l f i b r c s .I t
M icro-organisnrs i s p r o d u c c di , , g r l n t . ,
quantity t'an any other nran_r',oa,
" 'U
n ' - r' . ; " i t ' i s r e l a i i v e l y; i l ; ;
Nlilclewsdo not reaclilyattack the celluloseof the nbre itself, but a n d h a s a w i c l er a n g eo f o p p t i . n i i r i r .
wili feed on the size that is left on the fibres after processing' A l t h o u g h v i s c o s er a y o n i s s i m i l a r t o c o t t o n
in its cclrulosic
Milclervswill cause discoloration,and weaken the libre if the structure,it provides a range of yarns ancl
fabrics wltfi tf,.lr o*n
attack is severc. characteristicpropertics.Tlie cclrulosc
oi ioyon has bcen nrocrificd
to some degrce during. manufacture, ancl
thc alignr'enf ;i ih;
McctricalI'ropcr(ies molecules is not ideniical with thai
oi-naturat fibres such as
T h c h i g h m o i s t u r ea b s o r p t i o no f r a y o n t e n d st o d e t r a c tf r o m i t s cottol, Also, the fact that rayon is
a nranulacturcd rnatcrial
v a l u e f o r i n s u l a t i o n p u r p o s e s 'T h c d i e l e c t r i cs t r e n g t h o f d r y cnables us to control the physical
charricteristicsoI the Iinal
fabrics is fair. Undei orclinary conditions, viscose rayon does
product. We can nrakcthe ,iyon .on.s" -.oiorr.
oi-fi,r., ^ii.;ih:i;.;r;ii;
i r o t c l c v e l o ps t a t i cc h a r g e sb u t a n t i s t a t i ca g e n t sa r e u s u a l l ya d d c d and e-lasticity, modify its lustre un,i
nranufactured Moreovcr,as u
i f t h e r e l a t i v eh u m i d i t y i s l e s s t h a n a b o u t 3 0 p e r c e t r t ' materiai,viscoserayo. is irol subjcctt; ;i.,;;;i,.,;
cconomicand cli.raticcircunrstaiccs srrchns tiroscttrnt nircci
thc,propcrtics anclpriccof a naturalfibre.
vlscoserayo' conducts heatmore rcadilythansilk clocs,and
therayonhasa cooler.feel against trt. Jln.-vrrcoscis arsohirhrv
absorbent, and thisenhances irs uoru"nr-o'.i;ili,;;
-uira.rgo., ;;;;;;,,i."','t
Ihe of strcngthwhich rayon
.loss
probablyits rnostseriousshortcoming, whcn wet is
biri mo.tcrnresinfinishcs
have done rnuch to overcontethis
rayongarments lroblenr. properly finishccl ---"--
havehigh dimensionar stabilitywtren;.;:
The introductionof. iayon staplehas ciiaf:fcA
manufacturcrs
to blendrayonwith othernatural-ancl synitretic staptent;;;, ;;.i
rayonstapleis usedvery largclyin this way.
Rayoncontributcs
its moistureabsorption and-other.cellulosic' characteristics to
blenclsof strongeranctlessabsorte;a-h1;;;,
TENACITY incluclingnrosroI
the synthetics.Blendswith polycsterstaplc
are of prrti.ufni
irnportance.
Blendsof rayonwith otlrerfibresrnaybe -nr" proccssccl
lo 20 30 .40
Ihe by arryof
s r R A r N( 2 e l o N c n r t o r u T .farniliartechniquc.s. staple rcngtrir 'roviaccr to suit
p a r t i c u l abrl e n d as n ds y s t e n r s5; a0 r n r n( 2 i -ibol'i;6;;;r;(;;,i;;
n ) s t a p l ef ,u r . * u , , , p 1 . .
ca' be ha'dledon cotio' r'achi'ery0,,)-n
staple nraybeusedwith wool.
lVashing
In,.general, viscose rayon fabrics rvaslr l i k c
cotton; tltcy nro
< ; e l l u l o s ifci b r e s . I l u t v i s c o s cg o o c l s . a r e
l r r r r c hl c s s s t r o n g t h a r r
(:ottone , s p e c i a l l yw h e n w c t ,
a n c lt h i s n r u s ta l w a y sb e r c r n c r n b c r c c l

3_5
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILD FIDRBS A : N A T U R A LP O L Y M A RI I I O I T I I S

w [ c 1 r a y o n g a r m e l t s a r c l a u n c l c r c dT. h c u s e o [ r c s i l l ' t u i s h c s l)ry Clcaling

has done n]uih to increasethe dimensional stability of viscose Viscose is not aflcctecl by
thc usual'aJ'JIIcctivcty
clry clcanilrg solvcnls, and
fabrics when wet, but it is ahvays necessaryto take great care viscose fabrics may bc .liy .l"n,r.a
when wet rayon fabrics are bcing hanclled. irs cotton.
Rayon fibre itself does not shrink appreciably,but a wovert Iind Uscs
fabric nray unclergo progressiveshrinkage, evcn whcu it has variety.,offabricscan be rnadefronr viscosc
been treated with a resin linish to provide dimensionalstability. f rs
rr. ,*^r.:1
now possibleto use rayon i' nrnking rayorr,urrtl
Much dependsupon the way the cloth has bceu constructed' traditionalpatternsanclwcavesttrat iiave^'rong al,'osi-;;i";i.ii;;
I{ayon fabrics will usually withstand tcmperatures u.p Jo naturalIibres. bccn'raclc fr.orrr
boiling, but it is recommended that most garments should be To meet specificneeds,viscoserayoll proclucccl
washedin hot water (60'C., 140'F.). In the casc of some knitted varietyof typesanclsize.s,.a.ntl is in a witlc
ancl lightweight garrnents, hand-hot (48"C., I l8'F.) or evcn it is jossibi" to rirg t'c clrangcs
on fibre-properties by suitirbre
"rtoi..'oi riyon ,yp". Thc softncss
warrn (40"C., 104"F.) water should be uscd' of handleof a fabric is incrcasccl,
hr general, the washing telnperaturesfor other fibres (except for cxirmplc'by usiug fincr
{ilaments.
cotton) are more restrictedthan for rayons, and rvhen rayon is Rayonin its nrany..forms
blencledwith other fibres the washinginstructionsfor thcsellbrcs
is astolishingly and unirluclyvcr-
satile.It is useclin evcry branch
s h o u l db e f o l l o w c d . of tlic--icxrifcirrtlrrstry:
nrcn,s
rvonrcr'sand crrildrc''s outcrwca,
W a s h i n g a n c l b l e a c h i n ga g e n t s n t a y b c u s e d a s l o r c o t t o t r . n,r,i u'<Icrwcirr;riii,,irrli,.,r:,
and carpcts;householdtextileso,ra
Soap cloesnot aflect tlre fibre under nornral washing conditions, nr.,fi.nf fabrics.
ancl rayon will withstanclhypochlorite bleaches. Crinrped llayotts
'I'llcse
are finclingparticularly
i.rportant
-irlri.tort,.rv,
outlctsi, tuftcclcar.l)cts
Drying arrd rugs, tuftecrcrre'illes,curtains,
fabricsfor surgicaluse. ancr.o'-wov'r
R a y o n i s a n a b s o r b e n ft i b r e , a n d i t d r i e s s l o w l y ' F l e a v yg a r n r e t t t s
nlult be supported carelrrlly when they are ltung up to dry, or Sputr-dyeclRayon
they may stretch ancl lose their shape.Alter the labric has dried,
tho rayon retains its original strength. g:rtails and car.upfiolsteryare applications irr whichspun_dycd
rayo' is of speciarinte.rcsip.oviaing
Spin clriers and turnbler dricrs may be used with ,rayon .*".lrtiorlnrrigi,i^ri^uiiiv.
g a r m e n t s ,b u t s p i n n i n g f o r t o o l o n g n r a y i n c r e a s et h e a m o u n t In,knittcdgoods,blencts*lti, n".yiiin-l'r-c-J
ar" poputar.
o [ i r o n i n g r e q u i r e d .H a r d w r i n g i n g t n u s t b e a v o i d e d .
Jerseyknit fabricshavelong fr.L,io-pr*rvc
cxcels-inlow shrinkag",goo,l handte o[ cotton,rvhiclr
o,rJ'"ou.r. Thc irrtro<.luc_
tion of foam-backed i:g:i: ."J i;;i,,;;.'r,'lro*.u"r, trastargcty
lrorring cancelled out the advantages "njoyJ bt';ltton in thcscrcspcct.s,
'Ihe and spun-dyed rayon has made-goodlrcactway
lroning presetrtsno special difficulties. fibre is not ttnduly in this ficld.
s c n s i t i v e t o h c a t , a n d i r o n i n g t e n r p e r a t u r e sf o r o t h e r f i b r e s
FIat Filanrcnt
(exceptcotton) are more restrictedthan tltose for rayons. When
i r o n i n g b l e n d s ,t h e i n s t r u c t i o n sf o r t h e o t h e r f i b r e s i n t h e b l e n d Flat filanrentviscoseis usccrw'ere increasecr
Irandleare required. Iustrca'tr a fir'rcr
s h o u l db e f o l l o w e d .
Rayon fabrics iron well with a meditrrn-hot iron (I-ILCC An u.ustralbut notcntialry i'rportantorrtlctis iu trrcbrc'cring
s e t t i n g3 ) w h e n s l i g h t l yd a m p . I f d a r n p i n gi s n e c e s s a r yi t, i s b c t t e r oI vcry shortflat-filanrent siaprc'withwooJ rrur', in trrclrrocrtrc-
t o r o l l t h e g a r m e n ti n a d a m p t o w c l t h a n t o s p r i n k l e i t . lion of papcr.
36 37

rri- I [" '1

' l ;. 1 I
I
tIIFFFFFI't].ffi
NATURAL POLYMER FIBRES
FIBRES
I'IANDDOOKOF TAX'TILE
I r a v e i n c r c a s e dr e s i s t a n c cI o w a t e r a n r l a l k a l i ,
RAYON with rcrlucctl
P O L Y M E , R . M O D I F I E , DV I S C O S P swcllingT . h e c l a s t i cr c c o v c r yo f t h e f i b r c i s i n c r c a s c d ,
thc hancllc
soiution before it is spun' the is more wool-like, anclcovci is improved.
Ilv mixing stlbstancesinto viscose
conrposition of tbe extrudedfilament'
manufacture,"on utt"''in" Ilasilicd Viscose
lor "-^'ttpit, lJ t"Jt Uy adclingfinely-dispersed
Spun-<lyect fibre, T h e i n t r o d u c t i o no f r a y o n s t a p l ep r o v i d e <Il f i b r c
( s e e p a g e 2 l ) ; t i t a n i u n rd i o x i d e that could be
n i q r n e n t st o t h e v r s c o s e * ; J l ; l ; ; b l e n d e dw i t h o t h e r s t a p l e f i b r e s , ' i n c l u c l i n gw o o l .
iriJa.a to dull the lustre of the filaments' V i s c o s ei s a
-fhis
techniqucmay i"itta t" moclify.the characterof viscose cellulosic fibre, however, and it cloes not have
an aflinity for
gi"ing it chnracteristicswhich are a c i d . d y e sc o m p a r a b l ew i t h t h a t o f w o o l .
1 - h ed y e i n g o f f r i . n J ,
fibre in rnore subtle *"Vt,
Aclditivesmay increasethe of viscoseand wool may therefor" pr.r.nl
difliculties.
required for particulat"^r]pii*ti""t'
ex-anrple'or give it an affinitv .
B y i n c o r p o r a t i n gb a s i c c o n s t i t u e n t si n t h e v i s c o s c
waier resistanceof th; ;t;;;;i;; is possibleto produce Iibres whicrr hou" inipiouecr
s o l u t i o n ,i t
i;;;r ;i;*ide the "'il tungt of viscosedves' dyeabiritywitii
respectto acid and other dyestuflsuseclin
Tho possibilitiesin#ini ii-t tiit technique are almost in{inite' dyeing wool.
have bien made' A few have The
. ' R a yadditives may take ihe form of synilictic-resinr,n,
and thousana, or *oa]iitJ;;i;;t in o l a n d a ' ,
o r c a s e i na s i n . C i s a l p n u ; u n a, L a c i s a n a i .
ur.,t
bccome of commercial imPortance'

l n c o r p o r a t c dR n Y o nS t a p l c HICI.I I'ENACITY VISCOSE ITAYON

p o l y r n e r si' n c l u d i n g
V i s c o s em a y b e b l e n c l e dw i t h n o n - c e l l u l o s i c
to thoextent INTITODUCTION
;;i;;;yi;;itrite ana ntt"Lyt "1":1"t.,,'^:,*monlv rayons
of about 10-20 per "tni' Tltt" so-called incorporated -I'he
s t r e t c h i n go f f i l a r n e n t sc l u r i n g t h e s p i n n i n g
the
nray bc made in " ;;; "^tiltv of forms' depenclingon
"oi--^trJta fcature of all 'nocrcrn viscose-.."yo"
o^proccsr.r."
p e r a t i o ni s a
poly.mer' Features which are li.oarction ti
nature and amouut s t e l n s f r o n r t h e t c c h n. i q u e .o f u s i n g i w o g o c l c t
for acicl dyes' increased wh.cls, on"
generallyconlmon t'" ii itt"ft"rt omnitv. rotating faster tha' the ot'cr, perfJctccl
a'd wooi-likehandle' bi f. p. Wi1,",.,""1
;i;;ii"ili, bulkiness c o r " r r t a u l dL
s t d i n 1 9 1 4 .T h i s p i o v i c r e cal
sirnplcarcl e{Tcctive
rvay o[- bringing about the coritinuous
Cross-linkcd IlaYon o r i e n t a t i o no f c c t u r o s c
of the nroleculesin the newly_formeclfilame't, an,l
may bring about cross-linking so i,r..;n;i,;;'tl;;
Polymers added to viscose of strengthof rayon to a satisfactorylevel.
thJ Jreerlom of movement
cellulose molecules'i;it";;J;;"s . Since that time, researchon ti," spinning o[ rayon has been
t; each and has the effect of
the moleculeswith t;;;;ti .other'
water and alkali' and
intensiveand unceasing.tlvery urp."i oi-ui!.or"
production and
in
reducing water absoffit" ^"a *tffi"g s p i n n i n gh a s b e e n s t u d i e c ra, n , l i n " r . a s e d
unders^taudi";;l'ii;;
increasiig the wet initial modulus' are factorsinvolved has made.oossiblethe pioauction
resistanceto t.h: effects of water
These improut*ti"t-io 'iitt-ttionul c'aracteristicsthat are suifed to p".ti"ii-
of rayons witlr
stability and washability' upptications.n;;h;;;
reflected in in",tu"i t h e m o s t i r n p o r t a n to f t h e s e. r " t h . h i g h
and increasedcovering power' f e n a c i t yr a y o n s .
Fabrics also have u'lttttt nundle T'e use of textile varns as reinforceire't in
iridusiriafapprica-
tions has bee' increasingropioiy-i"-i"rp"rt^".e
l a Y o nS t a P l e
G r a t t e cR during thc last
half century. High strength y".ns u.. ur.a
o t h e r p o l y m e r sm a y b e a d d e d in f,or, fip"r,-.on-
P o l y a c r y l o n i t r i l ep, o l y s t y r e n ea n d v e y o r b e l t s , -t y r e s a n c l o t h e i a p p l i c a t i o n s
a w a y a s t o p r o d u c eg r a f t p o l y m e r s ' of tfri, &fi..'Vort
t o v i s c o s es o l u t l o n , n ,-ttr*"
u.t,
extent importantof all is rhe part b y r c i n for....ni't;.;;-i;
The characteristicsoi depend upon the nature and t y r c s ,a n d a s t h c c a r a n d t r u cl l k" yi .nac l u s t i yh a s g r o w r r ,
used commonly to improve so hns t.c
of thc grafting, tut tit^l"tftniqut is c l c r n a n r[lo r h i g h s t r e n g t hy n r n s i n " r . o s . d . - '
Grafted viscoserayons
the dimensionatstabiiity of thl viscose'
39
38
;Ft
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES A: NATURAL I,OLYMER
TIDRES
t l t a n c o t n p e n s a t efcol r b y t h e i n c r e a s e dt e n a c i t y ,e s p c c i a l l yw h c n *.l v r or
v r fi
r rlir
r ( rrncn
r r r u rrr tsr
s t rucrurc
r t l c l t l l ' c it tnrrucrrccs
wet. ]',::,flil::l,i:"
tltc cltaractcristics
c li.l :.:il,j"lnray tllttcttccs
These fibres have become the basis' of S u
the so-called
p e r
'Super'
'Super
.-fenasco,
,,i.."
X":":ll"ijy:::H:,n.y!" y,,
r^v^nc ^tenacity
:
f

i t' 1,.i,:,"
-"^r,,:,^,rlf::
F j'[ ^TiS;,; .bc ,sccn in thc rlngc oi
I tlrefc rs a prosrcs-
high tenacity rayon yarns, such as Tenasco',
''l;l'
sive i'crease in
. - I . c l r a s c o ' . . T e n a s c ^ ifr;,;";;il;j";;:'
""# :illll;
i'.'.^'.^^^......
C J r c l u r a ' a n c t ' s u p r c r l k a " M a n u f a c t u r e r so f t h o s u p e r h i g h
H'l'I;r ::,l' :^:{:::iq"
J
;i;il -';;i "l"!l'-.?
"',1;;
t e n a c i t y y a n l s c o o p e r a t e di n t l t e t r t a r k e t i n go f t h e i r t y r e c o r d s
lJ.l.
;ll':,,:l?,'1.t"'
"i1"1'::Tf ^'i,,i^"
?:ll
nra
m.n:i ;i: ; ;.',; :;ff:
jl"ll,
througir the Tyrex Inc. organization.
,l -t a
- .g
6ev2
L ,7, , n
t as ";,,";
?.1,* ; ;fi;,ii1,,
IiiL, -si,
r ubrlvy jmn tuht ee o rurtl l li l e
, uor t. a
of the filanrcttts ancl irt
unilormity of iriternal srructure. thc
Molcculur Struc!ure
' f h e p h y s i c a lc h a r a c t e r i s t i cos[ r a y o n d e p e n du p o n t h e m o l e c u l a r
IIIIODUCTION
structure of tlre tjlaluents. All rayons consist of regeneratecl
c e l l u l o s eb, u t t h e c e l l u l o s er n o l e c u l e sm a y b e o f v a r y i n g l e n g t h s , I n t h e p r o d u c t i o no f . l r i g l r . t c l a c i l y .
r a y o n s ,s u c h a s t h c . . l . c r r a s c o ,
a n c l t h e y n r a y b e p o s i t i o n e di n a l l m a n n e r o f w a y s w i t h r e s p e c t anclstretcliir,r'J'ii,"fibrcarc
t o e a c h o t h e i a n d t o t h e f i l a m e n t i t s e l f .T h e u n i f o r m i t y o f t h e Ili].i:.,|" :"agularion coprrolcct
f i l a m c n t m a y v a r y w i t h r e s p e c tt o t h e n a t u r e a n d p o s i t i o n i n go f X,?"':1".:?:';l':,,1"ri:;"1::i:'lUliJ,J
iil+'ffi
t h e c c l l t t l o s em o l e c u l e s .
'fhe iLi. .; ffi J'ifflf-:fill;:
",,,ri'"T
I :ff?JT:"lii :ti:ft,ln,T
,i*
I
length of the cellulosenrolectrlcsis controllcd largcly
the conditions under which the viscosesolution is made'
by
'fhcse
Tlese changcsjn tne ,tru.ti,?. i
may be such as to bring about severebreakdown of the cellulose
n.roicculcs into shorter oues.Or they may be such that breakdowtt
i s k e p t t o a m i n i m u n t , a n c ll i t t l e d e p o l y m e r i z a t i o tna k e sp l a c e '
;:ff
,T,,:
:filfl;nrilil j:ll;Iitiikff
nih;i:fi#,
(.T"ily, 'Tenasco
Supcr I05,.
;i';;;;

The positioning of the ccllulose nroleculesin the filament is Orclinaryviscose riyon hasa thin skin,and is
controllcclprimarily by the conditions under which regeneration In^'Tenasco' higlrlyscrratcrl,
.higrr teriac]tynr"r"."i,"irr"' ii.,i"t,,.ssof skin
a n c l c o a g u l a t i o nt a k e p l a c e i n t h e s p i n n i n gb a t h . T h e m o l e c u l e s rncreasecl,and [hc serrario.sLn;. ;;.;;;;" lrns
nray be procluceclin such a way that the formation of crystallites trenclis 'raintai'eclin 'renasco-:si-i"'*i,i"rri"r, ,r.ono'rcca..],^is
',ir" '.or. t'c tcrracityrr.s
i s a t a m i n i m u m , i . e . t h e d e g r e eo f c r y s t a l l i z a t i o nis low. Condi- rncreased. In ,'lenascoSup"r ZOI
tions of spinning and stretchingwill also inlluencethe size of the cntirely,and theserrations has <lisappcarcrl
with respect fin".-nf,"ort'iiriprr.nr..f, lcavingonly
crystallites,and the way in which they are orientatcd 'Ihese a bea'-shapecl cross_secri";r.
i.i,l;ll;,'il"':.1cr0sco Strpcr
to each other ancl to the long axis of the libre. conditions thc-cross-section 105,,
is alnost rouncl.
rnay also be used to control the uniformity of the lilament Thereare now many techniques
ancladclitivcs whichnray bc
s t r u c t u r e ;s o m e f i l a m e n t sm a y b e o f t h e s a m es t r u c t u r et h r o u g h - tuscdin producingther
out, rvhereasothers may have a structure in the centre that is recrucin
g "*t.n,i6i
rify'.":T.:lil3l',::l;l
-n.s.a -iii'r il,J"ix:,#ffil:il ri
d i f f e r e n tf r o m t h a t o f t h e o u t c r l a y e r s . rr'acceprabreaegrce. rcti
These factors all have a major influence on the tenacity and ts as active
r,t"i.i,i' "r rayo^productiorr
today as it has ever frl.,r,^.,"f
o t h e r p r o p e r t i e so f f i l a m e n t s t h a t a r e p r o d u c e d w h e n r a y o n r v es h a l ls e en r a n y n e w t y p c s o f i t s c e m sl i k c l y t ^ n t
r a y o n; ; , l ; ; ; , , g i n t h e I l t u r c .
i s s p u n . B y u n d e r s t a n d i n ga n d c o n t r o l l i n g t h e t c c h n i q u e o f
regenerating,coagulating ancl stretching rayon' therefore, it is
poisible to produce rayons to meet particular specifications.It S1'ItUCTURE AND pROpElt.l.ll).S
( H i g h - f c r r a c i r yI l l y o r r s )
is in this way that modern high tenacity rayons havc bcen
developed. Iligh tenacityrayonsarc crrcr'icalry
si'rilar to r.cgtrr.r.
viscosc;
42 . 4 3
iF t h l'':h h h F-|'':TT-F-F}-F}
I { A N D D O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S A: NATURAL POLYMER FIBR[,S
Thcrnral Properlics includingthe mammolh.. crir tyre markct, high tenacityrayon
High tenacity rayons have an improved performance at elevated retainsits hold.The abilityto lustainhigh tcnacityuna .rini.n-
tenrperatures; tensile strength and other mechanical properties sionalstabilityat the temperatures geneiatcrli" ;"; it.;,"iil.
are affected less than in the case of regular viscose. excellentresistance to farigue,and the price adva'tng"'oi r.,igr,
tenacity rayonshaveenabledtrresefibresto-*iiririo,iJ
I.IIGIJ TENACITY VISCOSE RAYON IN USE .viscose
conrpetition from nylonandothersynthetics
-which in thisfield.
The combinationof properties serveshigh tenacity
The highly orientedmoleculesof cellulosein high tenacityviscose rayonsin tyres has been equally eflectivein oth;; in-,;;;tn;ri
rayons presenta barrier to water moleculesand to moleculesof industrialapplications. Flexi6lerlbb.r beltingis uscd for con-
dyestuflsin solution or suspension.High tenacity viscoserayons veyingall manncrof materials,from coal anJ iron oie
do not, as a rule, dye casily or eflcctively,and the rnajority of to p*i,
and productsmoving down innumerableassernblylines. .lhe
their applicationsare in lields where colour is of minor impor- rubberin theseconveyorbeltsrequiresreinforcem*t,
o;'ii
tance.They are predominantly industrial fibres, more often than doesin a car.tyre.And again,riigii t.nu.iff vis.ose,^vfi;;i
not being buried out of sight in a mass of rubber or similar ", ii^*
como into widespread use for tiis purpose.They proviclethe
material. hig.hstrength,dimensional stability,iatigue
- resistance and llexi-
High strength, and the ability to retain high strength under bility that are needcd,
and at moaesicost]
s e v e r ee n v i r o n m e n t acl o n d i t i o n s ,a r e t h e m o s t v a l u a b l ef e a t u r e s Power transnrission bclts form anothcrirrrportnnt
of high tcnacity viscoserayons. They are uscd, for example, iu scctorof
this field,requiringthe samecombination of propcrtie,in tfio
applications where elevated temperaturesare encountered,or yarnsthat are usedto reinforcethem.Nylon,,
where there is repeatedflexing. ,up.iio, ..ririonl.
to shockloadinggives,it.ausefuladvaniog.ou.r
Tyre cords provide by far the largest outlet for these fibres. high tenacity
rayonsin somepower.beltapplications, bui f,igt t.ni'.itv invoil
1 ' h c p h c n o m e n a lg r o w t h o f t h e c a r a n d t r u c k i n d u s t r y d u r i n g remainscompetitivewheretliii is not a vitar rJquirc,.,r.ni. "-'-"
the present ccntury has created a huge market for tyres, arld I{igh tenacityviscoserayons
for the tyre cords that are used in reinforcing the rubber-in the industry,includingthe pro<Iuction.havclnany othei applications in
of tarpaulinsancl protcctive
t y r e s . T o d a y , h i g h t e n a c i t y r a y o n s s u p p l y a l a r g ep a r t o f t h e s e fabrics,sewingthrcaclsand umbrellafabiics,
tyre cords,and seemlikely to continue doing so in the forseeable -andthe rcinforcernent
of hosesa'd of plasticsusedfor bearings ot'cr h";"t_J;i;
future. purposes.
Tyre cords are called upon to provide great tensilestrength,and
to retain high strengthat the considerabletemperaturesgenerated HrcH wET MODULUS (polyNostc)
inside the tyre during use. They must withstand repeatedflexing, RAyoN.S
and resist deformation. High tenacity viscoserayons have rnuch INTRODUCTION
to offer in theserespects,and they have ousted cotton from this
important market during recent years.The arrival of nylon has Viscoserayon has now been in production for
diminishedthe hold that high -tenacityrayons had established, but more than half a
c e n t u r y . . W . h e nf i r s t p r o d u c e d ,i t w a s a f i l a m e n t y a r n
r a y o n r e t a i n sa l a r g e p o r t i o n o f t h e t y r e c o r d m a r k e t , a n d i t i s o[ hiqh
lusrre wlrch borc a superficialresc'blancc i'
u n l i k e l y t l t a t n y l o n w i l l c h a n g et h i s s i t u a t i o n ' trreserespectsio
Its properriesctid.not,.howcver, bcar comparisonwirh
Nylon competes witlt greatcst effect in the reinforcement of lfjij"l.u]|,<;
those
ururs of ur silk,
s'K' and
anq rt it cornpcted
cornpcted iniiiattyi'i the continuousfiramcnt
initiaily
h e a v y d u t y t y r e s f o r a i r c r a f t , e a r t h - m o v i n ge q u i p m e n ta n d t h e field on the basis of relative cheapnessancl a n d noveltv
n o v e l t y value.
value.
like. In these applicatiotrs,its phenomenal resistanceto sltock
l o a d sg i r r e sn y l o n t h e e d g eo n h i g h t e n a c i t yr a y o n , a n d i t a l s o h a s . In due course,viscoserayon settleclao*n- ona-i.g^"-i" nra
its propernichein the textilefield.It wasacccptccl
as a cellulosic
a higher strength/weightratio. But in tyres for lighter purposes, fibre,in this respcctrcsembling cottonrwhichtoulcl bc proctuccJ
46
47
 {lil
I
I
I

IIANDBOOK OF TDX'TILE FIBRES

A: NATURAL POLYMER FIDR[,S I
falls, and the lilament will stretch in responscto only a sntall
in wood' Its
extremely cheaply from the cellulose available tensilestress.Elastic recovery from such strctchingis poor.
and it found. its market in those 'this
shortcorningswere accepted, deteriorationin the mcchanicalproperticsof rayon whcn
where cheapness was.o[ ovcr-riding importance'
"ppli;;ii;;;
-"i-t- wct is reflected in the behaviour of yarns ancl fabrics. Rayon
the process
"*p.tience of viscose production grew' and goods do not possessthe wonderful wet-stabilityand washability
improvements were made in
."ni" uni"t scientificinvestigation, and of cotton. They tend to deform when handled without due care,
presen-t day'
fibre quality. This tre;A has-continuectto the and undergo progressiveshrinkagc.
establishecl for itself a wide range of
moclern viscose,oyon--hot 'fhe production of viscoserayon exceeds Also, rayon docs not have the crisp, firm handle that is so
^pJrc"ii"iit ona outt"tt' characteristicof cotton. Rayon fabrics tcnd to havc a limp and
position seemslikely
ijiif "f any other man-madehbre, a'd this floppy feel.
o r e t r t a i t rf o r a v c r y l o n g t i m c
t'-;;;;ii; t o c o m e ' In reccnt years, rnuch has bcen done to inrprove rayon in
aud
inir r"n.,oitobl! progres-'made.bv viscose^.ravon' theserespects.High tenacity rayons, for exanrplc,havc cnablcd
quality of the fibre' viscose
the continuous improvement in the rayons to compete eflectivelyin the important field of industrial
been associatecl
i.tnin, unattractivJ characteristicswhich have textiles. Cross-linked and chemically modified rayons havc
earliest times. These sbortcomings have preventcd
;iii; il tinl" tnt iucrcasedthe resistanceto water (seepage 38), and rcsin finislrcs
as it might with tlte
uir"tt. toyon from competing as -effectively have done much to provide dintensionalstability and waslrability.
- cotton'
natttral fibre it most ncarly rcsemblcs Dcspite these aclvanccsin rayon tcchnology, howcvcr, viscosc
ccrtain advantagcs
A, u tnauufactureclftbrc, viscoscrayon has r n y o n i s s t i l l r r o n r a t c h f o r c o t t o u i n i t s b c h n v i o u rw i t h l c s p c c t
It is procluced as a contiuuous lilament' of uniforttt
over cotton. of anv to water, or in the charactcr and crispncssof its handlc.
iffin;;;itv utia Jo"-tp"titio"' tt it cut into staple
'fhe p.roduction costs can be
i.ngth, o, ,rri*t,',r" of lengths' Stntclural Diflerences
is possible w'itlt
assessedand controlted mo-re accurately than I n c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n ,v i s c o s er a y o n a n d c o t t o n a r e a l i k c ;
price and
;;ii;n,-which is suUj"ct to all the.fluctuations of they are both cellulose.The diflerencesbctwecn the fibrcs stcnt
product'- And rayon' produced
pr"J""ti"ti typical of'a natural fronr dillerencesin the physical structulc of the filamcnts. It is
oUunaant raw-material' is the least expensive
i;;; " cheap^and rcasonableto assunte,therefore,that by nrodifying thc structurc
t e x t i l ef i b r e n o w a v a i l a b l e . of the viscosefilament, it should be possiblcto producc a rayoll
atl inrportant
Thcse advautageshave enableclrayon to sustain that more nearly resemblescotton.
tixtile field' But rayon manulacturers have Iong
oosition in the The micro-structuresof cotton ancl viscoserayon have been
fi;;iil'ii;t rayon is only parrly
ih; pore'riatof viscose studied extensively,and the dilfcrenccs bctwccn thcnr are well
overcome' ano IIS
being realized; if its shortcomingscould be tunderstood.In cotton, the cellulose nrolccutcsconsist of sonrc
o r o o e r t i c sb r o u g h t m o r " n t n r l y I n t o l i n e w i t h those of cotton'
2,000 to 10,000glucose units linked togcthcr (i.e. cotton has a
iiffi;';;r;" ."""iOfr."onretlie mosrimportanttextile'ibre of degreeof polymerizationof 2,000to 10,000).Thcsc long ccllulosc
all. nroleculesare laid down in a wondcrfully preciseand ordcrcd
'thc Same as
deficienciesof ttroclcrn viscose rayons are the w a y ( s e e V o l . l ) , f o r m i n g a h i g h l y o r i c n t a t e d ,u n i f o r n r s t r u c -
f i l a m c n t sw ere pro-
t h o s e t l t a t h a v e b e c n w i t h i t s i n c et h e f i r s t t u r c i n w h i c h t h c r c i s a p r o p o r t i o no f c r y s t a l l i n cr n a t c r i a la r . r l o u n t -
last century' Improvelnents have bcen
iiircectat the cncl of thc ing to about 70-80per cent.
but these have been largely a matter of degree'
nraclc,
' The crystallitesin cotton are oricntatcd with rcspcct to cuclr
When
Vittot. rayon is sensitive to itre effects of moisture' othcr, fonning fibreJike groups or micro-librils; thc rrricro-fibrils,
and swells, thc diameter of the
.oyon ls ru.t, it abs;rbs water . in turn, are arrangcd into fibrils, and the fibrils into filamcnts.
25 per cent' At the same time'
filarnent increasing by nrore than The structure of the cotton libre is, in fact, 'fibrous' all thc way
tii. t.nn.ity falfJ frV aborrt 50'fhc per cent, ancl the e-xtcnsibility t hr o u g h .
increascsby sorle 20 per cent' irritial rnodtrlusof the rayott
49
48

f-l rl r-I r r
rF F F F F F l. f-}.-}.-F}}:l} l_f_li H-r
HANDROOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES A: NATURAL POLYMER FIBRES

e'g' by chenticaltreatment'its High lle t MoclulLts Moctal atul pob,nosic lla1,s115

If a cotton {ibre is clisintegrate<l, 'fhe
micro-fibrillar structure is displayed as it breaksup into ever-finer mai' structural crirTere.ces ber.ween viscoscrayo' and cotton
nlarnents.With the help of the electronmicroscope,it is possibleto can be sunrmarizedas (a) difrcrencesin thc crcgrcc pory,tr..ir-n-
or
f o l l o w t h e f i l a r l e n t o u sc l i s i n t e g r a t i ounn t i l e v e n t u a l l yt h e c e l l u l o s c tio' of the celluloscmorc.culcs, ancl (b) crirlererices in ttr" ^rruir["-
nroleculeitself is reached;this is the finest librous elementof all. nrent of thesemoleculesin the filan.rent.
In this wonclcrfully organizecl micro-librillar structure of B y t h e 1 9 3 0 s u, n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e v i s c o s er a y o n p r o c c s sw a s
c o t t o n w e h a v e t h e e x p l a n a t i o no f m a n y o f c o t t o n ' s u n i q u e such that methods of irrrproving rayon in botir tl,;r"
.;r;.;i;
characteristics. The high degreeof orientationand crystallization, rvere know'. It was realizcd, for ciample, that
brcak,l";;r-;i
anclthe uniformity of the structure,enablethe cellulosemolecules the celhlose moleculestook place cluring the agcing
of thc alkari
to cooperateeffectiveiyin resistinga tensilestress.cotton has a c c l l u l o s e ,a n c l i n t h e r i p e n i n g o f s o J i u r n . . l l u l o r .
x -ri.g.r,
a.thate
high tenacity. solution during viscose procrui.tion.Ry avoicring
:fh" 1i*r.
crysialline regions of the cotton fibre are not readily viscosesolutionscoulclbc macrci' whicli the molcculcs
or soaiurii
penetrateciby water molecules; the amorphous regions-,into c e l l u l o s ex a n t h a t ew e r e l o n g c r t h a n i n n o r m a l v i s c o s e .
which water can fincl its way, form only a relatively small pro- .The.
d e v e l o p m c n to f h i g h t c n a c i t y r a y o n s h a d d e m o n s t r a t e c l ,
portion of the whole. swelling takes place as water enters the also,that the structureof trre filament .outa be
influcncJ il;tli
cotton fibre, but without affectingdrastically the strength-provid- b y c o n t r o l o f t h e s p i . n i n g c o n d i t i o n s I, n g e n e r a l ,
thc slorierthc
i n g c r y s t a l l i t r es t r u c t u r e ;t h c r a t i o o f w c t t o d r y s t r c n g t hi s h i g h ' r c g c . c r a t i o ' a n c l . c o a g r r l ' t i oonf t h c c c l l t r l o i c ,
t h o i u o r c c t t c c t i v 'c' i v
1he highly-crystalline, higtrly-orientated micro-fibrillar structure c o u l d s t r e t c h i r r gb c u s c d i u o ' i c u t a t i n gt h c c c l r u l o s c
;"1;;;i;;.
of the cotton fibre enhances the rigidity and stiflness that is 1he late 1.930s, rayons.werebein! nradein rvhich the Acgi."
.By
inhcrent irr the cellulose molecule itself. Cotton is a stifl fibre, of polymerizationof the cellulose*oi i,r.i.or.d
by moclification
ancl this stiffnessplays a part in giving cotton fabrics their o f , . t h e v i s c o s ep r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s ,a n d t h c o r i c n t a l i o n
of thc
characteristic risPness. cclluloscwas improved.by siowing tlr. ,"g.n"r,,tion
nnJ "onl,iin_
The possibilityof reproducingthis cotton structurein a viscose tion of the ccllulose filanrcnts
Gee lligliienacity ftnVo,i, ing.
filament seems remots indeed. The cotton fibre grows slowly, 39).
ancl its architectureis establishedgradually and with great pre- D u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I , f u r t h c r p r o g r e s sw a s n r a c l c
a l o n"gi rtrh c s c
c i s i o n .V i s c o s er a y o l ' I ,o u t h e o t h e r h a n d , i s c r e a t e dr a p i d l y b y l i n e s , n o t a b l y i ' J a p a n . I n 1 9 5 1 ,t h l s w o r k
culnrinatccl the
regenerationancl coagulationof cellulosein the coagulatingbath' a.pplicationfor a patent by S. Tachikawa,
covering the protlirc_
Simultaneousstretching aligns the cellulosemolecules to some tion of viscoserayon by a icchniquewhich'yielclcd
fibres of novcl
degree,the extent of alignmenl dependingon the conditionsused' type. In
.particular, the. Tachikaw" .nyon, wcre strongcr ilrarr
Ilut even under the rnost favourable circumstances,the position- r e g u l a rv i s c o s ew , i t h r e c l u c c de l o n g a t i o r ia, ' d t h e y f r . a g r " o i i V
i
i n g o f t h e c e l l u l o s em o l e c u l e sc a n u o t b e e x p e c t e dt o m a t c h t h e i n r p r o v c dr a t i o o f w e t t o c l r y s t r i n g t h ' ( 7 i p e r
cent, cornparccl
preciseorganizationthat we find in the cotton fibre. rvith the 56 per cent of regular viscose).ilris
ln.r"nseclresistancc
Despite the obvious di{Iicultiesthat face the rnanufacturerin to the eflect of water was reflccteclalio in a
high *.t ,"oauii",
h i s a t t e m p tt o n r o d e ll t i s r a y o n o n t h e c o t t o n p l a n , g r e a tp r o g r e s s w i t h I o w e r w a t e r i m b i b i t i o n a n c l r c c l u c c csl w c l l i n g .
h a s b e c n t n a d ei n t h i s r e s p c c ti r l r c c e n t y c a r s " f h c p r o d u c t i o r to f tYl?: o[. rayon <liflcrcclstructurally fronr rcgular
..,]'f. rayon.
vlscose l-.*
h i g h t e n a c i t yr a y o n s h a s t a k e n u s s o m e w a y a l o n g t h e r o a d ; The ccllulosemoleculeswere longcr, with a dJgree
soine of theie rayons have nricro-llbrillar structuresthat begin to of polymerizationin thc region of 500 (cf. ordinaiy
rnyon
'o ntioi,i
l o o k l i k s t h a t o f c o t t o n . E v e n n t o r e i m p r e s s i v ep r o g r e s si n t h i s 250)..Also, disintegration of the filanicnt <Jisplayccl
,,ii.ro_
direction has taken place with the developnrentof the new types f i b r i l l a r s t r u c t u r ew i t h a r c s e m b l a n c e to that o[ cotton.
o f v i s c o s er a y o n w h i c l t h a v e b e c o m ek n o w n a s h i g h w e t m o d t t l u s Development of the Tachikawa proccss in
Japan lc,l to the
( l l W l v l )r n o d a la n d p o l y n o s i cr a y o n s . p r o d u c t i o no f h i g h s t r e n g t hh, i g h w e i m o d u l u s
r a y o n sw h i c h w c r c
50 5l
 IIANDI}OOK OF TEXTILE FII]RNS
A T U N A L P O L Y M I ] I TF I N R E S
rIWMMODALPOLYNOSIC
FII]RES In practicethe tcrrn"rrigrrwct nrodurus" (lrwM) is cr,rrrr.rrlv
rusedto describea broaclla'ge of fibr;"i
Firnr Fibrc Trade Mark "polyr.osic" itii;iy;;.,li;;"i;;;i
9:!!,! 'Modal" beingusedfor triose*iih'th. higrrcst wct rrrocrurrrs.
Austria un enrlelaser-Lenzrng Superfaser is wideryuseaur o gru.ri. i;;;r'i;, regc'c.rrcd
fibresobtai'edbv orocesseJgiving ccilurosc
Belgium trabelta Z 54 (Zaryl) a 'igrr ie.acitya'd a 'ig' rvct
England Ltd.
Courtaulds Vincel rrrodulus-
France 254 'fe
Germarty Poly{lox, xrile IttstituteDefirtitiort:s
(IJK)
Super Polyflox PolynosicFibre A.reg.'re.tccicelluloseflbre
that
Italy Snia Viscosa I(oplon isedby a high iritiai w-et'uoaurusoi eiasticity is charirctcr-
lowdegree a'd a- --'--"'"r
relativcry
Switzerland ViscoseSuisse 254 of sweilirgin soclium hyaroxirte soltitic,'.
r4 ne,1 D a i w a S p i n n i n gC o . Polyno ModalFibre Geneiic name fo; ,.g;;;rtccl
obtai'ed by processes cclluloscl.ibrcs
F u j i S p i n n i n gC o . Junlon givi'g u rrigli"i.iiucitya'd a rrigrrwct
M i t s u b i s h iR a y o n C o . Hipolan rnodulus.
Teijin Ltd. Polycot
'l'oho FederalTrade Cotrrrtri.ssiotr
l{ayon Co. M 63 (Tovis) Delititiotr (U.S.A.)
'loyobo 'f
Co. Ltd. u lccl Tlrc.terrnpolyn.o.ric:
fibre rtasbccn clcfincdtry thc u.s. Itctlcrrrl
'frade
U.S.A. A v t e x F i b e r sI n c . Fiber40, Avril. Comrnission as follows:
American Enka Zantrel PolynosicFibre. A rnanufacturcd
Courtaulds N. Anrerica W 63 (Lirelle) cclltrlosicfibre with a firrc
andstablemicro-fibriilarstructurc whichis rcsisrant to trrcaction
of 8 per cent sodiurnhyclroxidcsolutiondown
nrarketed as 'Toramornen' and l a t e r ' T u f c e l ' . S i n r i l a r t y p e s o f structureresultsin a nrininrutn,wet
lo 0.C., ;l,i;ii
r a y o n h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e di u o t l r e r c o u n t r i e s ,a n d a r e u o w i n strcngth"f Z.Z gtd", f'ti.i
cN/tex).arda wet elongatiori "r i.*iiirrit:., pcrccrr.at a sr.rcss
producl.ion. oi 0.5 g/den(4.4 cN/texj
NOMENCLATUITE ryPES OF TIWMMODAL FIBRE
In the Iate 1950s,viscoserayons produced by the new techniques flwM rnodalfibresall rr* ,r*irrowi'g propertics
were being dcscribed in Europe as 'polynosique' rayons. This i, coruror:
term was derived, presunrably,fronr a conrbinationof 'poly', to !]J |rlgtrwet modulus, i.e. resistance
to extension whenrvct
'lhe
indicate a high degrce of polynrerization,and 'cellulosique'. (2) increased ratio of wct to dry brcakin!icnacity
term was subsequentlymodified to 'polynosic'. (3) increased resistance to swcltingUy cairsiicalkalis
In its original sense,the term 'polynosic'was restrictedto fibres (a) high degreeof polymerizatioioi ""tiuior"
of the high rvet modulus type produced by techniquessimilar to (5) nricro-fi
brillar sl.rucrure.
that dcscribedin the Tachikawa patent. In the U.S.A., an oflicial Thesecharactcristics are sharcctwitrrcotto. nnd otrrcrnaturirr
Federal Trade Commission definition was coined, using a high cellulosicfib-res,and for thisreaso''wM iiiouarfibrcsareso'rc-
w e t m o d u l u s a s t h e c r i t e r i o n ,i . e . e x t e n s i o na t 0 . 5 g . / d e n( 4 . 4 c N / thnescalled'artificial cottons'.
t e x ) b e i n g n o t m o r e t h a n ' 3 5 % i n w a t e r ( s e ep a g e5 3 ) . T l i e t e r m
'polynosic' has since
been used with less precision, to describe Thrcc Types
higher-strengthrayons of the increasedwet-strcngthtype. These
do not necessarilymect the requirementsof the F.'l'.C. delinition. Dcspitethesecharactcristicswhichall r-lrvlvlrrrodal fibrcshavcirr
conlnron,thcindividualr-rwMrrr'cralfibrcsdif|cr rru,n
,,,,. ,iiintl,.i
52
53

,.,1
 .-r-r--------
ffil-f-l-_-HHl
A: NATURAL POLYMER FIDRES
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES

llwlvt MODAL FIBRES- COMPARATIVEPROPERTIES . .(.3) ltiglt ElongatiotrHIrM l;ibres. r'rrcsc arc crraractcriz.cd by
llieh
9 l o l q a t i o n s ,d r y a n d w e t , c . g . i n t h e r a n g c 1 2 _ 1 4p e r c c r r t
dry; 16-20 per cent wer.
III|M Modals
-Fibres belongingto each o[ thesethrce groups,and thc rangcs
I I i g l rS t r e n g t h S t a n d a t ' d E l o n g ' n Cotton Rayon of properries-they clisplay.are shown in itr.
_High 'fhe i^frf" o,i-pre"'3a.
Uppcrs Staple table also i.cludes corresponclin j propcrties oi
SuperPoly- 254 Superfaser ;;;i,,.-,;
rayon staple and of a reprcsentitivecotton (uppcrs).
flox Vincel Fiber 40
Junlon Polyflox ( A v r i l )
w6l Koplon PI{ODUCTION
(Lirelle) Polyno
Hipolan 'fhe
pri.ciples Iollowccr in the procruction
Polycot of high wct nrocrurus 'itiJ
rayon by the Tacrrikawa technique are (a)
Tenacity(cN/tex) .Jar"tio,r--in
amount of cellulosebreakdown whlch takespln""
dry 4l-46 28-35 a a
JJ-+L
A ^
JL 22 iu if,.'p;;.;;:
12 tion of t^e viscosesolution ancl(b) sto*lng .fbw,,
wet 30-35 tB-27 2t-30 35 of tfr" ,ig"'n;r;_
t i o n . a n d c o a g u l a t i o no f t h e f i l a m e n t ,p " . i r i t t i u g
,tr.rcl'iiilo'fr.
c a r r i e do u t g e n t l y a n c li n s t a g e s .
(%)
I:xtensibility
dry 6-10 8-t2 12-14 9 l8 .,."|,f,.r^:.|lt...1.-in productiori of a IMM rrrotllI nryr.rn
by tlrc
8- l4 9-t6 16-20 l0 22 l a c l ) l K a w ap r o c e s sa r c a s f o l l o w s : _
rvet
W e tl v l o d u l u s( c N / t e x ) . ( l ) S o d a c c l l u l o s c( a r k a r ic e l r u r o - sics) p r o c J u c cbt ly s t c c ' i r r gt r r c
c e l l u l o s ei n c a u s r i cs o d a , . f o l l o w . ar i y p i " r r i n g
p e r l 0 0 d / oe x t ' n a,<l ,irrJ;1ft';;
i ' t h e p r o d u c t i o . o f r c g u l a rv i s c o s er.d e c o n a i t i o n s
at2Vo exl'rt 98-r s9 53-80 i Ut) 35 are cnrcfulrv
IJL-LLI controlled to ensure that the temperature
159 44 .lo; n;;'l;";il;l
a t ) 7 oe x t n 221-353 r24-247 109-il5 2 0 ' C . , a n d t h e p r o c e s si s c o m p l e t c cw i ithin 2 horrrs.
65-75 55 - 7 0 6 s - 75 50 90-100 ( 2 ) f h e t h e o r c t i c a lq u a n t i t y o f c a r b o '
d i s u l p h i d ei s u s c c li n
xanthation(lessthan trre theorcticar
.quantity is tiscdi'.t p."J".i,.,g
r e g u l a r v i s c o s e )a, n c l t h e a d c l i t i o ni , n r " a l
o v c r 2 [ h o u r s ,T l r c
tcn)peratureis held below 20.C., a'cl the.
in propertiesover a wide range' Air-dry tenacities,for example, raiscclto ZS"C- f", i
hour,
n l o y U t 2 8 . 3 - 4 ' l . ' 7c N / t e x ( 3 : ? . 5 . 4 g / d e n ) ;w e t e l o n g a t i o n m
s ay
r a n s ef r o n r 8 t o 2 0 p e r c e n t .w i t h i n t h i s w i d e r a n g eo f p r o p e r t i e s , ( 3 ) S o d i u m c e . l l u l o sxea n t h a t ei s d i s s o l v c .
i' watcr to proviac
horicver, it is possiblc to classify the polynosic librcs into three a c o n t a i n i n gt r r c e q u i v a r c ' t o f 6
^solution l i e r c c n t c c i l u r o s ca r r t l
rnain groups, as proposed by J. D. Grifliths of Courtaulds Ltd' 2.8 per cent sodium hydroxidc. (ln the regular
"ir;;;; ;;;;;;;
( l ' e x l . I n s l . I n d u s t r . ,1 9 6 5 ,3 , N o . 3 , p . 5 4 ) : x a n t h a t ci s d i s s o l v e ci ln c a u s t i ci o d a s o l u t t n . ) ' . ---'

(|)Highstrengt|tH||MFibres.Tlreseareclraracterizedby.lriglt (4) The solution is

- s o u n b y e x t r u s i o ni n t-f-f,.
o a bath of vcry
t.tioJiii.i, Jty uita wet, e.g.40.6-45.9cN/tex(4'6-5'2 gidert) dilute.(1 per cent) sulphuric acicl at ZS;i. filamcrlts arc
dry;30-35.3cN/tex(3.4-4.0giden)wet' s t r e t c h e di n s t a g e st o t h r e e t i m e s t h e i r
spun lcngth al;;J;;
( 2 \ S t a n d a r d H | | M F i b r e s . T h i s g r o r r p i n c l u d e s t l r e n r a j o r i t y o f v i s c o s ei s e x t r u c l e di r t o a b a t h c o ' t a i ' i n g i o p c r c - c n r , i ; i p l , i ; ; ;
a c i d , I p e r c e n t z i n c s u l p h a t ea n d a b o i t
""i;ir;;; nbres.Te.acities28.3-35.3cN/tcx (3'2-4'0 g/dert) lg pcr cc't sociiurrr
in tlte sulphate maintained at 45-55'c. rhe aeliee of srretcrr
tkv'..17.7-26.5cN/tex(2.0-3.0 g/den)wet. Elongations t u p o nt h e t y p e o f r a y o n b c i n g n r a d c . )
,r.p;;,i;
r r n g e8 - 1 2 p e rc e t t td r y ; 9 - 1 6 p c rc e n tw e t '
5.1 55
 HANDDOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES A : N A ' I U I T A LI ' O L Y M E R I ' r t r R l J S

Under these conditions, the degradirtion of cellulose is helcl lIlcaclring

to a minirnum by the omission of ageing and ripening stages' Hypochlorite, chloritc a1t{
blcachcs rnav bc peroxidc
and by the milder conditions used in preparing the viscose used safelv ]rydroqcn
onHWMmo<rar
ri6res-trrl
solution. The regenerationand coagulationof the cellulosetakes [ibres means, ir.r"i.i.r*"1;;;;;;ili,.;."
however, that rcss arorti""-"on,ritions
place slowly and gently in the dilute acid of the spinning bath, to produce whites equivarentto rhosc nray be uscrr
obtai'ccr *iiri "ii,., nrrr*.
ivhich contairrs little or no salt. This pernrits stretching to be A s w i t h a l I c c l l u l o s i o t i b r c so, v e r b l c a c h i " g ' i n " y
carriecl out graf,ually, allowing the moleculesto assumea higlt c a u s ea c g r a d a t i o '
and shouldbe avoicled.
clcgreeof orientation and crystallization.The filamentsproduced
arc of nrore uniform conrposition;tltc cross-section is round. I)ycirrg
The degreeof polylnerization of FIWM rnodal fibres produced All the usual tvoes of dyestufls for cellulosic
i n t h i s w a y i s a b o u t 5 0 0 , i . e . a b o u t t w i c e t h a t o f o r d i n a r yr a y o t . r - on I-'WMmodaffibres,i";i;dl;;-;ir*tl'urt, libres tnay be usecl
The coiclitions describeclabove are typical of those used in uzni.,reacrivc crc.
I l W l v lr n o d a lf i b r e p r o d t r c t i o nb, u t t h c y m a y b e v a r i e di t t a n u t n b c r
thc dycingproperrie;
lt].9.,r..r,u1, uiiiwrurrnodllslre ncarcrto
cottontrranto ordi.aryvisco.se rayor,bui tt,. u'ri,rit,cs
of rvays to provicle fibres of the desired charactcristicswithitl vidualHWMnr.darfibresvaries oili,ii
the l'lWM ntodal range.The coagulatiotrbath, for exantple,may co'sidcrabry.'r'rris is rrarticurrrlv
noticeable witndirecrdycs.Thus,; At;;i;iii;,,;i i;;;.,';;';ii;iii
c o n t a i n s u l p l t u r i ca c i d a n d s o d i u m s u l p h a t ei n v a r y i n g p r o p o r - foronettwM'rocrar
t i o n s .Z i n c s a l t sn t a y [ : c u s c d t o s l o w t h c r c g c n c r a t i o rot f c c l l u l o s c
.q,iiu,,t.itiiu'rrr;i
il;i,,;*.r'ii,i.,,ir.,,,,";h;,;
by lorming zinc cellulosexanthate (sce page l4)' Forrnaldchydc
lusthcs..rcdvcstu|r'will h'veurr'l'lirrity Ibr.rr,thcrl lwMrrr.tl,l
nray be adcleclto the viscosesolution or to the spinning bath,
which
'l'rrciscloserto thatif ;lqplry;i;;;;iiuuy viscosc.
[ o r m i n g a n c s t e r b e t w e e nt h e x a n t h a t e a n d t h c f o r m a l d e h y d c ,
rangcof avairabrc .ry.ri,,ri,'ir-
sii';ii. ilili;rrrr.rstcvcrv
shadeof requirecl fasrncs-s.'to*n.t,i,,g,riglii pir.rri;;ii;;;,,";;;:
which also servesto slow the regenerationprocess.
canbeproduced on anyI-IWM nroclal n;r;."
PROCESSING Irinishing
IlWlvl nrodalfibres are essentiallycotton-like itr character,and tlte lllvM modalrayotls
aregcnera'ysir'ilarto cotto' i' trreir
initial ernphasisin staple productiou has been to provide staple nnd physicalstructurc,gl:1. chcrrricrl
tri.v ,.rpouj'to finishingin nruclr
l e n g t h sa n c l l i n e a r d e n s i t i c ss u i t a b l ef o r u s e o u c o t t o n s p i n n i n g t'e,same.way ascorron.IIwM;iiodalsi;;;; -u,r.or.,
. grcarcrrcsisra'cct.
rnachinery. The setting of cards, drawframes, etc., reqttirc swellingin causticalkalis.rtra,,
oiaiirlrf
t]l*i"d merce nrrtlt'ey will
acljustment,to suit the particrrlar fibre being processed,but
,yi rizing
concritions.
ni.xir i."ceof rrwMr,. .hrs
t h e r e a r e n o m a j o r d i f f i c u l t i e si r t p r o d u c i n gH W M m o d a l y a r t r st o lsnoIasgreat ast'at.ofcottonhowevcr,n,,ait isl,rri;ffi,;'i;
a wide rangeo[counts, frortt coarseto fine. tuscthefullrnerccrjzation
process
with lOtf% ffWU
-riioct
rrrodul
labrics.
flWM modal flbres sharewith other man'madefibres the advan- I^i: i:, in anycase,un.ecessary
bc fully set,stabilizccr.ancr
as I.IWM ri"iJrr., ,i,.y
tages of uniformity of staple and linear density, and yarns may givenlncrcasecr cryearlinityby trcnt-
be producedfrorn them to a much higher standardof unifornrity nrcnt with causticsoda cxceedingellrtp", ccnt. _I_his
t h a n i s p o s s i b l ew i t h c o t t o n . centration causcs .noi con-
no significant
lossotllropcrtics, ancrit is uscful
I I W M n r o d a lf i b r e s a r e a l s os p u n a n d c u t t o l i n e a rd e n s i t i e sa r t d ils u 'retreatme't for variousrcsinapplicatiorrs,'anrl
colour.yicld irr printing. f; l;r;;;
staplessuitablefor processingon woollen worstedand flax equip-
ment. l(esl' treatrlre'tsuscdwith cotton rnay
bc appricclto lrlvM
W e a v i n ga n d k n i t t i n g o i H W M n t o d a l y a r n si s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , 'odals, e.g. provideincreased ,turlitiiyincr to bcstowcuse-,[-
.to
t h e b c s t r i s u l t s i n w c a v i - n fgi n c c o u n t y a r u sb c i r t go b t a i n c da t r c l a - carepr.opertics. IlwM r'odal fabricssubjcctcrl
-ir t, rcsi' tr..ii"crit
t i v e l r u r r r i d i t i eosf 7 Q %a n d a b o v e ,a s i n t h e w e a v i n go f c o t t o t l ' suflcr loss o[ tensilcan. tca*tr"u!ttr'
ro lcssercxtcnt than
57
 H , l ,, I
r-t

A: NATURAL POLYMER FIBRES

[IANDDOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
T h i s I n e a r l st h a t I I W M m o d a l
c o t t o n g i v e n t h e s a t n et r e a t t n e n t '
j s h o r v st h c w o r k d o n e .i n s t r e t c h i n g
permanentset (i.e. 100 per cent
a fibrc w^c' wct, ancl tlre
ease-of-carepro-pertieswill nrinus elasti
fabrics of given crcase-recoveryancl I ror thettr,..crols.
be stronger than cotton o' 'nyo'l fabrics o[ equivalent crease-
I
s;l ! ryr,,L
;1! ;T;;
;; i ?;;l,,jii.i,l1,1
Io',j,ilil'J]
The amottnt of resin neccled rayo' staple.The superiority of I-IWM,"oaui,
ptop"ttitt'
,*"""iv'^"a .or"-ot-.n'"
to attaitr a particular levei of these
prope.rtieswith l-lWM modal I t'at fabrics rna.e from ihern
in rlrir ;;;i;;
are tess sut lcct to pe.t.la'c't
d e f o r m a t i o nd u r i n g w e t t r e a t m e t r t s
;r;;;;,t,

i;;;;l; t.t'i inan witlt cotton or ravon fabrics' i t h a n e i t h e rc o t t o n o r o r d i n a r y

I r a y o n s t a p l ef a b r i c s .

STRUCTUI{E AND PROPE,ITTIES I

ri
li
liine Structure and APPcarnncc t
r o u u d c r o s s - s e c t i o na'n d d o li
I I W M n r o c i a lf i b r e s a r e t y p i c a l l y o f I
is fibrillar' the
tr"i aftp V any skin "fttt' fn" micro-structure Iil
Illament breaking "p-l;t; smaller ancl smaller fibrils whcn r, HIGII ELONGATION
are distributed il,
for exampleby nitric acid' The fibrils
disintegratecl
uniformly throughoui the filamettt
cross-section' producing. a I o.8
honrogctteousstructure.til; iht tltgtt". o.f polynrerizationis in
ori twtr/l
a.ei..oi cryii,itti'rity libres
nrodal
the
is ti z-t\
;;;i;;i;i-i00.
ceut,compareci with 40-45per cent.for
tl Y
";;t"nof 55 per
in the region ^;o-so lfl
nna f"t "titt {or cotton'The crvstallites I
;;ii;;ty In 3 o.o
those in ordinaryrayorl'
i; Hivi',itnooutlibresarelargertharr I U
the long cellulosemolecules'in
The clegreeof orientatioriof of the fibre' is
H
lr,
trl

both the amorphousutJ 1ft" crystallineregions (,

z
fibrestharlin ordinary rayon'
itiglt.t in HWlvimoclal :r
H o'a
U
STRENGTH
TerracitY q l ORDINARY
dry;30-35 cN/tex
li
F I
Strength:4l-46 cN/tex(4.6-5.2g/den) \ n l RAYON STAPLE
Hielr
-(3.4-4.0
g/den)wet'
cNi tex
sto)iio,a,'i|-ts'.N[.* Q.2-4.0 g/dcn)dry; l8-26
(2-3 giden)wet' //corToN
dry;21-30 cN/
I{ielr
"texElongation: 34-42cN/tex (3.8-4.8 g/den)
Q.4-3.4 g/den)wet'

Elongatiort
c e n tw e t ' 2 3
l l i g hS t r e n g t h6:- 1 0 p e rc € t r t : t t y , ; , S - l , 4 . l e r PERMANENT
sEr (1")
l 6 p c rc c t t wct'
t
b l , i , r d a r c5l-: t z p . t c ' c ndt r y ; 9 - lllvA'l Modal Iribres. 'I'rrc relationsrrip
rz-14 pei cent drv; l6-20 percetrtwet' between rvork do'c in strctcrrinc
;itdfti;;s;tioni r fibre when wet and the set' 1he srrperiorityot llwilt rnoJai
l-ibreswith respecrto or;,|:.T1Lent
ElasticRecoverY
,noaor
rot'ii.,"51"'rJL;{l^._"il:
treatnrents tlf"fill?,l,i';ii:l,l',x:l,y|l
ill,.,il:l,i
thaneithercottonor "i.ti,i"iy i"y* iiirr,", _
than for cottou or
Elasticrecoveryis higherior IIWM ntodals'Ihe followingdiagrant Court csy J.D. Grifl'it hr
in tlte wet state'
t.V"tt-ti"pf.,eipeciall"y
58 59
 I{ANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES A: NA.TURAL POLYMER FISRN,S

lnitialModulus,Wet This dimensional stabilityunderwet conditions is pcrhtpsthc

r'ost.l,portant characteristic o[ IrwM r'ocl't rib;J;ii;;;; il;;
Less tlran 3.5% elon}ationin water at 4.4 cN/tex (0.5 g/den). practical..point
FlighStrengthflWM Modal: oI view.But r-rwMmocrar fiures'rrryik"t. gir;"
a so[t,si.lkyhandlethat cliffersfronrcottorror viscose.
132-221cN/tex (15-25 g/den)per l0Alo ext'n at 2Voext'n.
221-353 cN/tex (25-40 g/den) per IOO%ext'n at SVoext'n. lVashing
Standard llWM Modal:
88-159 cN/tex (10-18 g/den)per llVo ext'n at 2Voext'n. F'abrics
madefrom FIWM-nroclal.fibres
nraybe wasrrc.rcpeatccily
124-247 cN/tex (14-28 g/den)per l}V/o ext'n at 5% ext'n. rvithout.undcrgoing_.,dcformation
or._irogrcssivcslrrirrkagc.
I-lighElongationFIWlvlModal: Launderingcharactcristics
are gcncraty siirrilarto trror."iri
53-79 cNi tex (6-9 g/den) per l)Vo ext'n at 2Voext'n. colton.
8B-ll5 cN/tex(10-13 g/den)per llVo ext'n at 5% ext'n.
Ironing
liltcct of I\loislure llWM modalfabricsiron likecotton.
S e e f c n a c i t y a n d o t l t e r t e n s i l ep r o p c r t i e s '
Dry Cleaning
WaterImbibition:
l - l i g hS t r e n g t hl ' l W M M o d a l s : 6 5 - 7 5 p e r c e n t . l-lwMr'odal fibresarevirtuallypurcccilrrlosc,
nrrrlarcrrrt n|f'cc.
S t a n d u r dI " I W MM o d a l s : 5 5 - 7 0 p c r c c t t t . tv dry clc''irrgsurvc'rs.
riabrics
r.'tlc ir.r'rrrrvlri'iiui,ir
H i g h E l o n g a t i o nI ' I W M M o d a l s : 6 5 - 1 5 p e r c e n t .
1.9,,t
l l D r e sn l a y l r e d r y c l e a n e da s r e a d i l ya sc c l t t o n .
I n c r e a s ei n d i a m e t c ro n w e t t i n g : l l . 5 - 1 5 p e r c e n t .T h i s i s i n t e r ' -
r n e d i a t eb e t w e e nc o t t o l l a n d o r d i n a r y r a y o n s t a p l e .H W M m o d a l lind Uscs
f i b r e ss w e l l l e s sr e a c l i l yi n a q t t e o t t s o l t r t i o t l st h l u o r d i n a r y r a y o l l T h e d i r n e n s i o n asl t a b i l i t y o f I I W M n r o c r a r
f a b r i c sw r r e r rw c t r * s
s t a p l ed o c s . give'tnernthee'rrde.inio
virtualry
.u.if t'i.t,t"a,r;;ri;;ii;,;'i;;
whichcotto.isuscd.
I-rwM
r'odalfabrics
- irc strorrg, ri,ir,i,;;;;i,,;;
Mtect of Alkalis dinrensionally stabre, rrnilornr ano oi gooct ha.cllc
irrrd
[{WM modal tibres swell ntrtch lessthan ordinary rayon staple' appcarance.
'l'f,c
T h e y w i l l w i t h s t a n dt t t c r c e r i z i t tcgo t t d i t i o n s . stability of orclinary viscosc rvhcn wct
has clcnicd
r,,t a c c e1o,or
s st o n r a u-blouscs.,
y i m p o r t a n t a p l l l i c a t i o n si,n c l u d i n g
,ou.n nuJ
Chcnricnland Biologicll Propertics knitted shirtings, knittcd una.r*"n.. a'<I outerwear gar-
r l e r t s ' B u t H W M r u o d a l s' a v e ' o w r r i " u r c L
G c n e r a l l ys i r t t i l a rt o o t h e r c e l l u l o s i cf i b r c s . v l s c o s et o c o r r p c t e
ellectivelywith cotton in e.nclusesof
this iyfc, cspeciallytrroseirr
IIIGH WET MODULUS RAYON FIBRESIN USE which a soft, silky handle i, oa"oning.Jirs.
In printcd drcss
fabrics,for exarnpie, HwM ;"dri;';;;fre a conrbi'atiorr
jrrsire of
IlwM nrodal libres have brought to the textile industry a viscose stability, subduecl and attractive hancJlc.
rayon rvhich approaches cottou in character, notably in its D i n r e n s i o n a ls t a b i l i l y a t v a r y i n g h u r n i c l i t i e s
is an irnltortant
behaviour with respect to water' The high initial wet moclulus factor in the fiercr of curtain'"rit"ii"fr.-burtaius
nra<Jcfro.r
of HWM modal fibres is reflectedin fabricswhich are highly resis- ordinary viscosestapleare liable to alterin
lingth fronr scilsonto
tant to deformation whett tvet; they wilt withstand the strcsses s e a s o na, n d e v e nf r o m m o r n i n g t o e v c n i n g ,
a s i r c s u l to f c t r a n g " s
i r n p o s c cdt u r i n g l a u n d e r i n ga n c l w e t p r o c e s s i n g e n e r a l l yw i t h o u t in^hunridity.But rhis p^e.nornJnon.;;
i;; ou.r"o,u" by rhc usc
t u n c l e r g o i nsgh r i n k a g et o a s i g r r i f i c a t rctx t c t t t , a n d r v i t h o u t t r e i n g of l{WM nrodal yarns in the warp of iliJ fufrrj..
p u l l e do u t o f s h a p e . Cotton interlock fabrics tc.cl io bcco're lrard
a'<J boardy, a'cl
60 6l

r .,
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
NATURAL I'OLYMBII ITII]II.ES
_ I{WMMODALFIBRES
DIAGITAMS
STRESS-STRAIN

H STRENGTH 5

--: }]rcHsrRErucrH
o
IIIGFI ELONGATION
o t4 1
bJ
0 t STANDARD
U
CT
J 6z
a

4 6 8 1 0 1 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 2 0 2 2 2 4
srRAtN(% elorucarroru)
2. llet. Tltis diagrarrr
shorvscorrcspondlng
curvcslor thcsofibrcsln tho
wct stfttc.
o 2 4 6 'o 16 18 c o t t o t r 'T ' e b r e a k i n st e . n a c i toyI. c o t t o r f i b r e s . r r a s
(r l?or"Jrlo*)
.roo?,* l r r c r c a s csdr g r r t l y ,
9.,:ql!t.tC hasbeena si-gniticanr it,op iiifiiitirr',n'oii,,,,r.
llllM Modal Fibrcs.-'f|rcsc all sli.w ioiu.i'r]i*iti,rg tc'ircrtrosand rrr_
l. Air-Dry. This diagrant, b:rsed on air-dry conditions, compares the creased brcakingextensions,
three types of l{WM rnodal fibre rvith cottons, flax and rayon staple. which are .ui.i.,ii tiu,u"trr.iu*iirii,g'ii ti,.
slopes of thecurves.
Cotlon. The region covered by the curves for various cotton fibrei is
indicatedby the shadedarea.
'I'he
upper marginof the arer representsthe . Higll strengthand standard ItwM modarfibresrenralnrrrgerywithin
tle. regionof the cottoncurves.-r-ligh .ro,rjotioiiilrvMnrodalfibresnorv
stress-strain curve of a Sea lsland cotton (St. Vincent); the lorver ntargin lie betweenthecottoncurves
r e p r e s e n t st h e c u r v e so f t y p i c a l A s i a t i c c o t t o n s( O o n r r a sa n d B e n g a l s ) .
ancl.thitioi rifon itopfc.
. Irr tensilepropcrties,the HwM ,n"it.i''r'iurrrrcscrrrbrc
The breakingtenacitiesofvariousIigyptian,Americanand Peruviancottons closelythandoesiny otliertypC"f r.ge".i,,t.aciilutosic cottorrrr'rc
a r e i n d i c a t e db y p o i n t s . fibrc.
Hlltl[ lr[odal Fibres. Curves typical of the tlrree groups of HWM modal Court esyJ.D. Griflit tts.
fibres are shorvn.It will be seen that (a) the curve of the high strength
tlWI'l modal group closely resenrblesthat of Sea Island cotton, (b) the
curve of the standard HWM modal group resemblesthose of uppers,
American lvliddling and Peruvian cottons, (c) the curve of the high Blettds
e l o n g a t i o nI I W M n t o d a lg r o u p l i e s w i t h i n t h e a r e ao f t h e c o t t o n c u r v e sf o r T h e e n d u s e sd e s c r i b c r l . a b o vree l a t el a r g c l y
about the first 5 per cent of exterrsion,but beyond this point its high t o y a n l s r n a d cl i o n r
100percentFIWM'rorial
fibrcs.lut UWfi-iiroari,
e x t e n s i o nt a k e si t r v e l lo u t s i d et h e a r e a .
rapidheadwayasconstituerts "r;;i;;;;;k;;;;
Flax; Rayon Staple.Thecurvesfor flax and rayon staplerepresetrtapprox- of yor,r,,pr,,i-i-;r;ilir;^;i.;;;;."'"
irnately the trvo extrerrlesof the total rangeof cellulosicfibre curves.
Seediagrantoppositcfor fibres in the wet state. Cotlott Blcnds
The resenrblance
of HWMrnoclal
lrbresto cott'' i.cricatcs
t h e s u r f a c e t a k e s o n a f e l t e d a p p e a r a n c ew , h e n s u b j e c t e dt o trrat
repeatedrvashingand turlble drying. llWM modal interlock suffers ll*rg_tygtypesof {tbrewouldlr. .onipoiille
i, ble'Js.M;;ii;i
the HWM modalfibre 'ow producedir'u.ing uscd
n o n e o f t h e s e d c f e c t s ,a n d r e t a i n s i t s i n i t i a l a p p e a r a n c ea n d ir ble'crswith
cottor,and manyexcellentfabricsare nraclc-
in this*ny, in"ir'iJ_
h n n d l ct h r o t r g h o t rntr o s to f i t s l i f c . ing drcssnratcrials,
shcetings,
Iurnishingsctc.
62
63
 I.IANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES ^: NATURAL POLYMER FIDRES

l - l W M n r o d a l f i b r e s c o n t r i b u t c i t t c r e a s c dr e g u l a r i t y a n d u n i -
lorrnity to the blendcd yarrt.
cuPRo (CUPRAMMONtUM)
Flax Blcnds
INTIIODUCI'ION
l-lWM modal llbres ltave higher bending and torsiottalrigidities
t h a n e i t h e r c o t t o n o r r a y o n s t a p l e ,a n d i n h b a v i e rd e n i e r st h e y cellulosewill crissolve
provide fabrics with a linen-like handle. This is especiallytrue in a mixecrsorutio'o[ c<lppcr sartsancl
anrnronia,calledcuprarnm oniumliquor,on,t..g.,r.il i..r *ir,,i"ri
in the caseof the high strengthand standardl{WM modal fibres. fibresare producecl by extrusionof ttri, solutio]ri,rto o "*g;;;
-procluced
Blended rvith flax, HWM modal fibres of this type provide fabrics ing bath. yarn
of full linen handle which is retaitredafter repeatedwashings. -The by tlte "up.ornn.,oniunr process
consists of regeneratccl ccllulose;it ir no*'*irt.ty tnoivn'-dil;
lVool Blends nameof cupro.
Blends of I-lWM modal fibres with wool provide fabricswhich Thecuprammoniurn process haclits beginnings
yearsof cellulosic[ibre manufacture. in thc vcrvcarlv
d i s p l a yr e d u c e ds h r i n k a g ee, v e nw i t h t h e H W M m o d a l c o n s t i t u e n t In lg9O," i+.],.f, .il#;i
i n c o r n p a r a t i v e l y5 m a l l a m o u n t s .T h e h a n d l e a n d a p p e a r a n c o
ef Despeissis,<liscovcredthat he couict.issotvc;ii;i;;;
l",li:
rn lt llrt
cuprammonium
the fabrics remain substantially unchanged,resemblingthe all- liquor,anclspin a fine Iilaurcntor ,nrtiii"-i,i
wool fabric. silk' from the solution.- Dcspeisiiscticcl,nowcvcr,alrd for two
ycarshis invcntionwasforgoitcn.
Sytttlrctic Fibre Blends ^ln 1892,Max FrerneryancrJohannUrban at oberbructrin
Cermanymade use of the cuprarnmonir,r., pro..r, for rnaking
l-lWM rnodalshave reolacedcotton to a considerableextent in
carbonfilanrentsusedin carly elcctriclight bulbs.
lrlenclswith polyester fi-bres;thc fabric retains ail thc clesirable r' rgca.-'*Jifi
thc lrclp of others,they bcganrnanufactu"ring ccilurosic
characteristicsof the cotton blend, but is clearcr ancl morc ' librcsi<rr
tcxtilo p_u-rposes;this was the bcgin'ing o[ thc Vcrcinicic
r e g u l a r .A l s o , s u c l rb l e n d so f l t W M r n o d a la n d p o l y e s t e rr n a y b e
Gla.zstoff-Fabrike'
A.G.,wrricrr
u..i,i,. ui. oi tii.-rrrl.r;';,i;;
cheaper, as it is not necessaryto comb the l-lWM rnodal fibre; r'adefibreproducing
c o t t o n i s c o n r n r o n l yc o n r b e db e f o r eb l e n d i n g . orgarrizations
in the*"iia icir"r;;8ii;:C:j.
'l'he
s t a n d a r dl l W M r n o d a l s h a v ca l o a d - e x t e n s i o l l c u r vwch i c h i s
very similar to that of polyestersfor the first few percentage . A f t e r a b o u t l 0 y c a r s , . t h ec u p r a m r n o n i u npr r o c c s sw a s a b a n _
doned in favour of-thc viscos"p;";;;r;;;J
e x t c n s i o n ;t h i s p a r t o f t h e c u r v e i s o f g r e a t e s ti r n p o r t a n c ei n ir rc.raineclneglcctecl
until aftcr World War I In 19ll, a tectrniquc
fabric perfonuance.The highelougatioul-lWMmodalshave air-dry of stretch ,p'l;i;i;;
dcvclopedby J. p. BernbergA.G. rcvivcJ ini"."rt
curves wlrich resenrble the polyester curves over almost the i' thc cuprnr'-
r'onium process,ancrsincJ then thc proau"tiou
rvholc of their range. Blend yarns of diflerent ratios show a of the nui, iins
c.ontinucd..The cupro fibre has b..o*.
m o r e n e a r l y l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i pt h a n d o s i r n i l a rb l e n d sw i t h o t h e r 'lJcntberg' wictcly f no*i, o,
yarn.
types of I-IWMmodal libre, and for this reasorlthe high-elongation
type of l{WM rnodal is favouredfor polyesterblends. NOMENCLATUITE
Bleuds of llWM modal fibre with a relativelysnrallproportiorr
of lorv density fibre, e.g. polypropylene, provide fabrics with Fedcral Trade Conunissiotr Dcfinitiotr
handleand shearpropertiesvery similar to those of cotton fabrics. Fibre produ.cgdbV thc
The additiou o[ the low dcnsity fibre increasesthe bulk of the ccllulosewhich falls within .cupramrnoniunrproccss is rcgcncratcd
the class cJescribecl
,,, ,rryl,, ,riia.i
l l W l v l n r o d a l y a r n , w h i c h t e n d s t o b e l e s sb u l k y a n d n l o r e c o r n - llte U.S. Fecleral Trade Comrnission <.lcfinitions,
p a c t t h a n c o t t o n , l a r g e l y o w i n g t o t h e c i r c u l a rc r o s s - s c c t i oon[ thc oflicial
d c s c r i p t i o nb e i n g a s f o l l o w s :
the IlWlvl nrodal Ilbre.

r.
 Itl}}]-H
IIANDBOOK OF TEXl'ILE FIDRES A : N A T U I T A LP O L Y M I ] I IF, I D R I I S

Rayott. A manufacturedfibre corlposed of rcgeneratedcellu-

Prcprrationof SpinningSolulion
lose, as well as rnanufactured llbres composed of regenerated
s a v e r e p l a c e dn o t m o r e t h a n 1 5
c e l l u l o s ei n w h i c h s u b s t i t u e n t h Purified cotton linters or wood pulp is rnixed
i'to cupranrnroniunr
per cent of the hydrogens of the hydroxyl groups. liquor.a.l 1ow temperature. Stabiizing
a g c n t s a n d c a u s t i c s- ioi ic.r a
arc added, the latter in sufllcicnt quintity
Cupro ro "onv".t
c u p r i t e t r a m m i n os u r p r r a t ei n t o h y c r r o x i i e .
T h e c c l l u l o s e. o , r t . , r i
The term cupro ltas now come into widespreaduse throughout o f t h e s o l u t i o ni s a b o u t l 0 p e r c e n t .
the rvorld to denote any regeneratedcellulosefibre produced by T h e s p i n n i n g s o l u t i o n i i f i l t e r e c lb y p a s s i n g
. it through a
I h e c u p r a m n r o n i u mp r o c e s s . succcssiouof nickel filter scrccns.It i;
' l ' h c tl,en cllacraf;ii ;;;i ;
rcady for,spinni'g. solution is stablc aucl r'ay bc storcd
C upr atrtttto triuttt Rayo tt
pcriocls wirhour apprcciabt. Acteriorario,,;
L",i. ln
as cupratrrtnotriuntrayotr to dis-
Ctrpro is also still <tescribecl U ) r s::]l-riU:.able
r e s p e c t ,r t c o l l t r a s t ss t r o r r g l yw i t h v i s c o s cs o l u t i o n .
tinguish it from viscoserayon.
Spinning
PI{ODUCTION ( a . )B a t c l u , i s c S p i n n i n g( R e c ! o r p o t
Spinnirrg)
, c p r o c e s sf o r m a k i n g c u p r o i s s i n t i l a r t o t h a t l ' ^ c f i l t e r c d - s p i n ' i n gs. o i u t i o n i t p u n - , 1 r . , i
I n i t s e s s e n t i a l st h ro a uickcrspi.rrcrcr,
u s e di n n r a k i n gv i s c o s eC . e l l u l o s ci s d i s s o l v e da, n d t h e s o l u t i o ni s rrrrlcxtrudccl
througrr 'r'rt.
lrorcso[ 0.g .iru. rriarrctcr.
solution ili* "i
e m e r g i n g f r o m t h e s p i n n e r e tI r o l e s f l o w
forced through holes in a spinneret. The jets of solution are into a glass
c o a g u l a t e d t, h c c e l l u l o s eb e i n g r e g e n e r a t e da s a s o l i d f i l a m e n t . funnel, where thev nleet astreain of purc watc.r
which i. ii";i;;
dow' through tlie fu'nel. Th" ;Ji;;-.lissoru.,
Rarv Mntcrial .rost oI thc
arnmonia and about one third of thc copper
fron.r tfr"- j.ir,
C o t t o n l i n t e r s a n d w o o d p u l p a r e b o t h u s e d a s r a w n l a t e r i a li n b r i n g i n g a b o u t c o a g u r a t i o no f t h e c e l l u r o s e
to fornr prastic
m a k i n g c u p r o . C o t t o n l i n t e r s i s a s o u r c eo f v e r y p u r e c e l l u l o s e , filanrents.The filaments are carriecl along
by th" st;J;;;'-;;
and for this reasou was preferred initially as raw material. water,and are stretchedrcontinuously to fonri nf r",.irt, "i *,,rfii
Latterly, holever, rvood pr-rlphas been used otl an increasing a b o u t1 . 4d t e x( 1 . 3 c l e n ) .
s c a l e ,l a r g e l y b e c a u s eo f i t s l o w e r c o s t . F o r h i g h q u a l i t y p r o d u c - The loose thread of filamcnts erncrging froru
the bottonr of
t i o n s ,c o t t o n l i n t e r s c e l l u l o s ei s s t i l l u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y . tho funnel is carried rouncl a guia."ioir,
most of the watcr
C o t t o n l i n t e r s i s p u r i f i e d b y k i e r - b o i l i n gw i t h d i l u t e c a u s t i c being flung olr. The"thread th.i pass.s
iouna a rolrcr rv'iclr
soda at about 150'C., followed by bleaching with sodiurn rotatesin a trough of sulphuric acicl;
thc remaining "opp.i""nJ
'sulphate
hypochlorite. anrnronia are removed as copper
ancl ammoniunr
W o o d i s s e l c c t e da n d p u r i f i e d t o y i e l d a n r a t c r i a l o f h i e h sulphaterespectively.
a l p h a c c l l u l o s ec o r r t c n t( a b o v c 9 6 p c r c e n t ) . * T h e f i l a r n e n t sa r e t h c n w o u n d c i t h c ri n t o s k c i n s( R c c l
or into cakcsin a Topham box (pot Spinrring),
C u p r a n r n r o n i u nlri q t r o r i s p r c p a r c t lb y d i s s o l v i n gb a s i c c o p p c r Slinni,.Ig;.'1ll";k"i;;';;
s u l p h a t e i n a n r n r o u i at o f o r t . n a s o l t l t i o t r o f c u p r i t c t r a m m i u o cakes are washcd to rcnrovc acicl ancl^any
rcnraining coppcr
h y c l r o x i d e a n d c u p r i t e t r a n r m i n os u l p h a t e i n t h e r a t i o 3 : l , s u l p h a t eo r a m m o n i u m s u l p h a t e s, o i t . n . J f y
a d c l i n gl u b r i c a n t s ,
c o n t a i n i n g3 - 4 p e r c e n t c o p p e r a n d 5 - 8 p e r c e n t a m m o n i a . and dried. The yarn is.-comnroniygivcn a
seconcl*"^rlil; ;;
o l t e m u l s i o n ,o r ( i f i t i s t o - b J t w i s t e i l a r e r )
* A l n h ac e l l u l o sies t h a tw h i c hd o c sn o t d i s s o l vicn 1 7 . 5 - 1 8 p . 0e rc e n t 3n{ i. ";;rkl;;
bath. It is then dried again.
c a u s t i is o d as o l u t i o na f t e r 3 0 n t i n u t c sa t 2 0 " C .I t c o n s i s tosf c e l l u l o s e
r v h i c hl r a su n d e r g o nae I r i n i m u m o f d e g r a d a t i o n a ,n d i t i s t l t e m o s t (b) Continuous Spinning
satisfactorycellulosefor use in fibre-nrantrfacture.
A s i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f v i s c o s cr a y o n , t h e p r o c l u c t i o n
of cupro
66
67
 IIANDI]OOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES A: N A T T J R A LP O L Y M E R F I B R F , S

h a s b e e nm o d i f i c dt o o p e r a t eo n a c o n t i n u o u sb a s i s A . continuous 1 - h c s cm a y b e _n r a d e , [ o r c x a r n p l c ,
b y c x t r u c l i r r gt h c s l l i r r n i r r g
s p i n n i n g p r o c e s sw a s i n t r o d u c e df i r s t i n G c r n r a n y a n d i n 1 9 4 4 s p i . n c r c t sw i r h t w o s c r so f f r i f i c c s . . I . h c
in the U.S.A. The following dcscription refers essentiallyto the :*o'r
: l : l : i "one
^ r l t hset
rough filar'c'rs
of orifices arc alrowecrto cotcct on a
to fornr bundles which adhere together; flat surfacc
U.S. process. t]r.r, o.. carriecl away
Up to the point at which the filamentsemergefrorn tbe funnel, a t . i . t c r v a l s t o j o i n t h e f i l a m e n t sJ i t i " J . , L - i . o n r
trrcot.cr sct of
the continuous processis virtually identical with the batchwise orifices,forming a compositeyn.n
*itt, tir. buncilcscrcating slubs
process. The thread of filaments from the funnel is passed at intervals.
through an enclosedbath of hot dilute acid called the pretreat-
nlerlt pan. This continues the coagulationof the cellulose, PI{OCESSING
reducing the filamcnts to about one third of their original
Scnuringand Dcsizing
c l i a n r e t e rT. h e o r i e n t e d f i l a m e n t so f c e l l u l o s ea r e s h e a t h e di n a
f i l n r o f u n a l i g n e dc e l l u l o s e a, n d t h i s i s w a s h e da w a y i n t h e p r e - W a t e r s o l u b l e s i z e s ,s u c h a s t l r e p o l y v i n y l
alcolrol typcs oftcn
t r e a t n l e n tp a n . I f l e f t , t h e u n a l i g n e dc e l l u l o s ew o u l d a c t a s a tuscd,may be removeclbv s o a k i n g ,
followcd by a ncutralscour
g l u e , h o l d i n g t h e f i l a m e n t st o g e t h e r . at the boil.
After leaving the pretreatrnentpan, the thread of filaments
BlcncLing
p a s s e st h r o u g h a n a c i d t r o u g h w h e r e r e m a i n i n g c o p p e r i s
removed as copper sulphate. Thc acid is washcd away as the C u p r o i s an unusually whitcfibrc,and blcnclrirrg
is not gcrrcrully
t h r e a d n r o v e st h r o u g h a w a t e r t r o u g h , a n d l u b r i c a n t s ,s i z e se t c . r c q u i r c d .If.it shouldprovencccssary,
the usuirltcclrniqucs
for
a r e a d d e d a s r e q u i r e db y p a s s i n gt h e t h r e a d o v e r a p r e p a r a t i o n c e l l u l o s i cfibresnray bc uscd,
c.g. Irypocltloritc
or hydrogcrr
roll, pcroxide.
T h e t h r e a d p a s s e st h r o u g h a s u c c e s s i o n of driers and over a
r o l l w h i c h a p p l i e sc o n i n g o i l b e f o r e b e i n gw o u n d o n t o f l a n g e l e s s D5'cing
s p o o l s .U n t w i s t e dt h r e a d sm a y a l s o b e w o u n d o n t o b e a m sw h i c h
C u p r o i s a c c l l u l o s i cf i b r e o f r c l a t i v e l y
aio used directly in warp knitting, or combined to provide a l o w - c r y s t a l l i n i t y( c . g . b y
c o n r p a r i s o nw i t h c o t t o n ) ,a n c l i t
w e a v e r ' sb e a m , ; , p . o O r " . . r u s u a l l yi n t ' c f o r ' r
o f I i n e f i l a n r e n t s .W a t c r p c n c t . " t . ,
T h r o u g h o u t t h e c o n t i n t r o u sp r o c e s s t, h e t h r e a d o f f i l a m e n t i s d y c i n g t a k e sp l a c e r a p i d l y n , r a
qrltiy into thc {ibrc ancl
never ltandled, and irnperfectionsare thtrs held at a nrinimunr. used
.ft..tii.ir.'f^" typcsof dycstufl
T h e l l l a m e n t sa r e o f h i g h l y u n i l o r m s t r u c t u r ea n d d i r n e n s i o n s , 'l',c for cotton a.rl otrrcr ccrurosic nu"., n.. usca for cupro.
s^ades obrainecrwirrr cupro a;;i;;;;;
a n d t h e p r o p e r t i e sa r e e x c c l l e n t .A f t e r c o n d i t i o n i n gf o r a f e w t u n d c rc o r n p a r a b l cc o n c l i t i o n s ' w i t t i rrra. trroseobrairc<r
d a y s a t c o n t r o l l e dh u m i c l i t y ,t h e c u p r o i s r e a d y f o r d e s p a t c h . o t t r J i ' . - " t r r l o r i .n U r . r .
Cupro filamcnts adhcre to eaclt other, and are separatedonly
by a comparativelystrong force. Unlike viscoseyarns, they may STI{UC'I'UREAND PROPERTIES
b e u s c d f o r m a n y p u r p o s c si n a n u n t w i s t e dc o n d i t i o n .
I;incS(rucrur"
n',unn[illl-
A r v i d ev a r i c t y o l ' c u p r o y a r n si s p r o d u c e d ,r a n g i n gl r o r n l 7 t o
t o 3 3 0 d t e x ( 1 5 - 3 0 0 d e n ) a n d n t o r e .W e a v i n ga n d k n i t t i n g y a r n s C u p r oi s t h e m o s t . s i l k - l i k c ' oa[l l c e l l u l o s i c
y a r r r sI .t i s s n t o o t h _
a r e c o r n n l o n l yi n t h e r a n g e5 6 t o I l 0 d t e x ( 5 0 - 1 0 0 d e n ) . surfaccd and shows'o rnarkings or rtii,,tilnr.l. cross_scctio' it
is almostround.
Novelly Yarns The filarnents are extrelnely-fine, usually1.4tltcx (1.3 dcn),
Cupro manufacturershave been particularly successfulin their andhavebeennranufacturecl i,i o.+i hi.*?ol+ ,r.,,1.
p r o c t u c t i o no I n o v e l t y y a r n s , s u c h a s s l u b a n d n u b b y y a r n s .

68
69

::,-'F
I
 ^: NATURAL POLYMER FIDRES
TIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES

I'cnsilc Strenglh
The tenacityo[ cupro is l5-20 cN/tex ( 1 . 7 - 2 3 g / d e n )d r y ;
9 . 7 - 1 1 . 9c N it e x( l . l - 1 . 3 5 g / d e n w
) ei.
The terrsilestrengthof Jupro'is about2 1 0 0 - 31 5 0 k g l c r n 2
(30,000-40,000 lb/in2)
C O T T O NL I N T E R S
(oR wooD PULP) EIongnIion
Cupro has.an elongation of l0-17 per
c e n t when dry and 17-33
per cent when wet.

Ulstic Properlies
Cupro has an elastic recovcry of
2 0 _ 75 p c r c c n t a t d i f l e r e n t
clongations.

Spccillc Gravity
1.54conditioned
at I I per centrnoisture.
[lfcct of Moislurc
c u p r o s w c l l si ' w a t e r a n d l o s e ss t r e n g t h T . h e r n o i s t u r cr e g a i r i s
1 2 . 5p e r c e n t u n d e rs t a n d a r dc o n d i t i o n sT. h e c o r n n r c r c i aslt a ' c l a r d
is 1l per cent.

[lfcct of l.Icnt
Deco-mpositionbegins at about 250.C. without ntelting. yarns
a n d f a b r i c s b u r n r e a d i l y , l e a v i n gl i t t l e a s h .
COAGULATING S K E I NS P I N N I N G ,
LIQUOR FILAMENTYARN
Iilfcct of Agc
S i n r i l a rt o v i s c o s e .
CONTINUOUS SPINNING.
F I L A M E N TY A R N
EIIectof Sunlight
P r o l o n g e de x p o s u r ec a u s e ss o t n ed e g r a d a t i o na n d l o s so f s t r c n g t l r .
S P I N N I N GF O R S T A P L E
FIBRE
ChernicnlI'ropertics
Acids
l'he fibres are disintegratedby h o t d i l u t e o r c o l d c o n c c n t r a t e d
acids.
Cupro Florv Chart
NA
,U 1l
 I{ANDNOOK OF TEXTILE FIT]RES A: NATURAP
L OLYMNR
F I BR I i S
I rrse
cls
Alkalis C u p r o i s r n o d e r a t c l ya t t a c k c cbl y s o n r c i n s e c t s .
D i l u t e s o l u t i o n s d o n o t h a v e a n y a p p r e c i a b l ee f i e c t . S t r o n g
s o l u t i o n sc a u s es r v e l l i n ga n d d e g r a d a t i o n . l\ Iicro.organisrns
W e t f i b r e i s a t t a c k e db y n r i l d c w s .
Generul
C u p r o b e h a v e sg e n e r a l l y l i k e o t h e r c c l l u l o s i cf i b r e s . I t i s n o t DlcctricalItropcrtics
aflected by rveak oxidiziug agents or by bleachessuch as hypo- It,loderatedielectric strcngth when dry.
chlorite or pcroxide solutions. Strong oxidizing agents cattse
degradation.
Olhcr Propcrlics
Eflect of OrganicSolvents T h e f i b r e h a s a s o f t s i r k - r i k eh a n d l e a n d
a c h a r a c t e r i s t i rcu s t r c .
L i k e o t h c r c e l l u l o s i cf i b r e s ,g e n e r a l l yi n s o l u b l e .
C U P R OI N U S E

c r r p r o i s i n g c n c r a ln l o r e e x p c n s i v et h a n o t h e r
cellrr- nrnn-nrnrtc
losicyarns.Its cxrrafinc'cis.nn,t;i;;i,;tn,
subdued 'ttrrictiv;';r;l;:
lustreand goodtlrapingprop.rfi., cnableit
rhisexrracostin th-crnanufactul"'oi to carrv
iiieii q;;l;;; nooir.',,t
lVashing, Ironing, Dry Clcaning
cupro is similar to other cellulosics
i n i t s g e n e r a rb e r r a v i o u r
-E laundering ancl ctry cleaning p.o..rr.r.
fowarrfs. It should bc
t r c a t e di n t l r e s a m e w a y a s v i s c o s e .
cir

U'' End Uses

u't
U
x. cupro is made into chi{Ions,satins,nets,
F
ninons a.tl at rnanncr
o of very sheerfabrics. or tnir-vuirt goesinto unclcrwear,
dressfabrics and linings. _ M u c r r
y a r n s ,s u c ha s s l u b . . y a r n a
s ,r e u s e ciln a g r c a t v a r . i c t yo f
\gveltV
applications,
espccialry
asweri.strt, yor,rr"r.urJJii.,ai.rrr^i.*,
sportswear
andfinedrapery
fabrics.
.::-i
- A.specialityend use,l.ies
:'J=: :-i:::----3: ?j-::::
in thc production of ynrn_clyccl
for hig' qualitv sirk-rikeJi,ings, ,ir.rr "n,r "pr.toiri.iy fabrics
*r,iit.a r,ilrl"r.
Reelspun ya'ni or. especiaily to ttrcseapprications;
o l o 2 a 3 0 4 0 arc produccdin skcinsrcaclyfor yarn_clycing thcy
srnatru(% rr-oNcattoN) in the untwistcrl
state.The dyedyarn is useduntwiiteAfor the
welt and twisted
for the waro.

IJ

?.' r l
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES ^: NA-I.URAL I'OLYl!{E,II IrII}I(DS

t l . r ec a r l y 1 9 3 0 s , s t r e t c h i n go I s o l v e n t _ p l a s t i c i s c c l
,During
SAPONIFIED CELLULOSE ES'|ER c c l l u l o s ea c e t a t er e s u l t e ci 'r. t r-rteh'er o c r u c t i o no f
v a r r r sw i t l i , . , , i i " i i i . . . ,
i' tne regio. of 44-53 cN/tex (5-6 g/dc'). 'l ii.i. y;;;;;;i;i,;;ii
INTRODUCTION t l r c e s s e n t i acl h a r a c t e r i s t i cosi c c l l u l o s ca c c t ^ t c ,
but thcy courcr
b c c o n v e r t e di n t o c e l l u l o s eb y s a p o ' i f i c a t i o r w i t r r
D u r i n g t h e e a r l y 1 9 3 0 s e, v e r y e f f o r t w a s b e i n g n - r a d et o d e v e l o p c a u s t i cs o d a
s o l u t i o n , p r o v i d i n g h i g h l y - o i i e n t e c lf i l a u r c r r t s
t e c h n i q u e sf o r i n c r e a s i n gt h e t e n a c i t yo f v i s c o s er a y o n f i l a m e n t s oI rcgcncratccl
c c l l u l o s e . ' f h c r n o l e c ' r e s i ' t h c s e s a p o ' i f i c c rc c i l u l o s c
by motlification of the spinning and stretching techniques.The acctrtc
f i l a r ' c n t sw e r c i n a r l o r e h i g r r l y o r i e ' i c c ra ' c r c r y s t a i l i r c
h e a r t o f t h e p r o b l e m l a y i n t h e d i f l i c u l t y o f m a i n t a i n i n gt h e co'di-
t i o n t , a . c o u l d b e o b t a i n e c lt y s t r e t c h i ' g I i l a r i c ' t s
extruded filament in a plastic condition after it enteredthe proAii..A
during coagulat.ioo n f v i s c o s e, o y o n .
c o a g u l a t i n gb a t h , a n d s o p r o v i d i n g a n o p p o r t u n i t yo f s t r e t c h i n g
1 - l ] r re l e g a ' t t c c h . i q u c o f c r c a t i r r gl r i g r r l y - o r i c r r t c d
t h c f i l a r n e n tt o o r i e n t a t et h e c e l l u l o s en r o l e c u l e s( s c e p a g e 4 0 ) . cllul'sefira-
'e'ts lbrrnsrhe basisof
D u r i n g t h i s s a n r e p e r i o c l ,a t t e r n p t sw e r e a l s o b e i n g m a d e t o
groupof cornpa'ies .trrcpruc.r"tusccrby tl,. b,,iiitr"ii,
produce high tenacity cellttloseacetate yarlls by stretching in proirucirghigrrtcrLacity'rryo,,r-,i,iaii
iri.
t r a d en a r n e ' F o r t i s a n ' .
f i l a n r e n t so f c e l l u l o s ea c e t a t e .I n t h i s c a s e ,h o w e v c r ,t h e p r o j e c t
w a s s i m p l i { i c db y t h e r e a d i n e s w s i t h w h i c h c e l l u l o s ea c e t a t ec o u l d
bc brought i n t o a p l a s t i cc o n d i t i o t ta l t e r i t h a d b c e u n . r a d c . NOMI]NCLATUITE
'l'he
h a r u l c n i n go I a c c l l u l o s ca c c t a t cf i l a r n c n ti s a c h i c v c t lb y
llul,on
e v a p o r a t i n gs o l v e n tf r o m t h e j e t o f s o l u t i o n c t n e r g i t t gf r o m t h c
I r i b r e sp r o d u c e db y t h e s a p o n i f i c a t i o n
s p i n n e r e t .A n d t h e l i l a m e n t m a y b e r e u d e r e dp l a s t i c a g a i n b y o f c c i l u l o s ca c c t . t c fi brcs
t r e a t r n c n tw i t h a s o l v e l t t ,w h i c h w i l l f i r s t s w e l l a n d t h e n d i s s o l v e a r e r c g e n e r a t e dc e l I u l o s ea, n < l a r e p r o p e r l y
d c s c r i b e cal s rayotl
undcr the rules of thc U.S. Fccleraltl.r,r.l"
t h c c e l l u l o s ea c e t a t c .C e l l u l o s ea c e t a t ei s a l s o a t h e r m o p l a s t i c Co,ll,trissiou(scc p i r S c
xxvi).
n r a t e r i a l ,a n c l m a y b e s o f t c r t e db y h c a t i n g .
These diflereucesin the behaviour of celluloseand cellulosc
a c e t a t e t o w a r d s s o l v e n t sa n d h e a t a r e a c o n s e q u e n c eo f t h e I'I{ODUCTION
c l i f f e r e n c ei sn t h e i r m o l c c u l a rs t r t l c t u r e T . h e h y c l r o x y lg r o u p s o f
cellr.rlosc
accrittcfibres arc nraclcby hcatirrgccllulosc
c c l l u l o s cc l o n o t e n c o t l r a g es o l u t i o n o f t h e m o l e c u l ei n o r g a n i c l::::ltt:.cJ
s o l v e n t s ,w h e r e a s t h e a c e t y l g f o t l p s o f t h e c c l l u l o s e a c e t a t e liil'i;i,'ll,']?'
l,I^..:r:,'l:.
: r,b",i tr.k;[;;;
::'ii'l
sofrcne<l.-i "iiiu.,i :0i;);;:),
nrolecule do. Also, cellulosemoleculesare able to pack closely ;::1,;,..llli'lq
llT vnr,, rry.-+'t"
lo iir"l?iiil,,ii
length.Tho stretchect
yarn ii wouni on roili;;;,;,i
togctherand developporverfulforces of attractionassociated with
a n d .s a p o n i f i e db y t r e a t r n e nw
;;t1;;;
h i g h c r y s t a l l i n i t y ;c e l l u l o s ea c e t a t eI n o l e c t t l e sw, ith their large t i t r r c a u s t i cs o-c r *s o l u t i o . . I ' t r c y a r '
is thcn washed,oitccl,driccl nn.t ,"*oi,n.i.
penclang t r o u p s ,d o n o t p c r n t i t o I t h e c l o s e p a c k i l r gt h a t r e s u l t s
V c r y f i n e f i l a n r c n t s . o f r c g e n c r a t c chl i g h l y _ o r i c n t c d
i n h i g h c r y s t a l l i n i t y ,a n c l c c l l t r l o s ea c c t i r t ei s s o f t e n c db y h c a t ' c c lI u lo s c
'I'his n r a y b e p r o d u c c di n t h r s w a y .
r c a d i n e s sw i t h w h i c h c e l l u l o s ca c c t l t e c a n b e r e n d c r e d
p l a s t i c ,e i t l i e r b y s o l v e t t to r b y h e a t , p r o v i d c s a n e i r s ys o l u t i o n
PIIOCESSING
t o t h c p r o b l c m o f s t r c t c h i n gl i l a r n c n t st o c r e a t ea h i g h d e g r c eo [
o r i c n t a t i o n . F i l a r n e n t so f c e l l u l o s e a c c t a t e w h i c h b a v e b e e n l)yeing
s o f t e n c db y s o l v e n to r b y h c a t t n a y b e s t r e t c h e dt o m a n y t i n . r c s
S a p o ' i f i e dc c l l u l o s ca c e t a t cy a r , s r r a v ca y c i r r gp r o p c r t i c s
t h c i r o r i g i n a l l e n g t h , t h c l o n g t n o l c c t l l e so f c e l l u l o s ea c e t a t e si'rilur
t o t h o s e o f c o t t o n o r v i s c o s cr a y o n , t h c i r i g h , i . g . . c
s l i c l i n gr e a d i l y o v c r o n c a n o t l t e r a s t h c y a r e d r a w n i n t o a l i g n - of oricnta-
t i o n r e n d c r i n gd y e i n g s l o w c r a n d l c s s c f f c c ' i i v c .
I n c nt .

74 75
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE F I BRES
NATURAL POLYME,R FII}RBS

S'TRUCTUREAND PROPERTIES

Saponifiedcelluloseacetateyarns consistof regeneratecl cellulose, Iillcct of Moislurc

and their characteristicsare esseutialtythose of highly-oriented
cellulosic fibres.They are sirnilar to high tenacity yarns clerived I'Iigh rcsistanceto stretch is retainccl un<ler
both wet and d r y
b y t h e v i s c o s ea n d t h c c u p r o t c c h n i q u c s( s c ep a g c 4 3 ) . c o n d i t i o n sg
, i v i n g h i g h d i r n c n s i o n asl t a b i l i t y .
The mechanical properties of the yarns depend upon the I(cgain: 10.7.
degree to which the filanrentshave been stretched.
Olhcr Propcrties
The prop.crtiesdescribcdi^ tlre following sectionare basedupo'
'llor Sinrilar to cotton ancl viscose.
tisan'.
Finc Structurcand Appcarance SAPONIFIED CELLULOSE ESTER FIBI{I]S
IN US[]
Filaments are of somewhat lobecl, almost rouncl cross_section. .Saponificd
celluloseacetateyarns are used for applications
The indentationsare seenas striationswhen the lilament is view.J of typicrrl
high srrengrrr ceilurosic
rayonsrr." liigrr'rtr.neil,-;iJ""*
lengthwise. r^yo'rs,page46).Theyare ,scd whcrc a highrarioii ,r;;;;ii;
t<lvolur'cnndcxccllcrrt. crir.c^sio'i,t
,rniiiiry'rc ncrvnrrr'gcous,
TensileStrcngtb c.g,in parachute roncsand_fabrics,
tyr.'.or,ts,bclting,i;;r.i-;;r;i
T e r r a c i t y :5 3 . 6 2 c N / t e x ( 6 - 7 g l d e n ) d r y ; 4 4 _ 5 3 c N / t e x ( 5 _ 6 b a l l o o nf a b r i c s .
T l r e v e r y f i n e f i l a m c n t s, n n , t . b y t h i s t c c l r n i q r r c
den)wet. el 'ave. enabledsaponificctiellulose ;..1;i; yarns
to rc1:laccnatural
T e n s i l es t r e n g t h :9 5 2 0 _ k g / c n r 2 silk in applicationssuch as elcctrical
1 l : 6 , 0 0 0 l b / i n 2') . i's,ir"ii",, "-'"i'.;;[, ;.;:';;;
Loop strength:about 50 per cent ofstandard. hearing. aid equiprnent. Coatecl fabrics provide
light, strong
t a r p a u l i n sa n d p r o t e c t i v ef a b r i c s .
Iilongation
6 per cent, dry or wet.

Ma.sticIlecovery
60-80per cent at 2 per cent extension.

I r r i ( i a lM o d u l u s
1 500-2207 cN/tex ( I 70-250 e/clen).

AvcragcStillness
1 0 3 3 - l 1 9 2 c N / t e x( l l 7 - 1 3 5 g / d e n ) .

SpecificGravity
1.5.

76
77

*'lJ',l_r
|}}}}

TIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES

NATURAL POLYMER FIBRES

2. CELLULOSE DSTER trIBITES

78 79
 h,

',
1

IIANDROOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES A: NATI'RAL POLYMER FIDRI]S

' l
Prinrory Ace!ate
;l
-flrc
cellulose acetati:producccl in these carry cxperiments
was
,f
n conrpletely acetylatedcellulose,i' wrrich ntt ti.tr..
irvJr"*vi
CELLULOSE,ACE,TATE FIB[{'ES(ACETATE,)
I
g r o u p so f e a c hg l u c o s eu n i t i ' t h e c c l l u l o s cm o l c c u l c
I i, n..iyLni.,t.
I t w a s c e l l u l o s et r i a c c t a t ew, h i c r rr a t c r b c c a r ' c k n o w . u ,
INTI{ODUCTION 1rii,*ry
l c c t a t e ( s c c p a g e8 2 ) .
viscose and cuprarnmoniunrrayons are basicallysimilar, in that fI c e l l u l o s et r i a c e t a t cw ^ s o b t a i n e car s a t o u g h ,h o r n y s o r i c r. rv h i c l r
the libre procluieclat the end of the processconsistsof cellulose. :l
r' l l
rvas.no.t readily wasrrccrfrce of acid, an<I it arso
containcJ
-
I n b o t h p r o " . t t . t , t h e r a w n r a t e r i a lc e l l u l o s c w o o d p t r l p o r il
s u l p h u r i ce s t e rg r o u p s w h i c h r c n c l c r c ci il u n s t a b l c .I t
was soluble
c o t t o n l i r i t e r s i s b r o u g h t t o a s o l u b l ef o r n r s o t h a t i t c a n b e
- 1l
;i,
o n l y i n t o x i c a ' d e x p c ^ s i v cs o l v c n t s ,s u c l r a s c r r l o r o f o r n r
and
extrudeclthrough fine holcs to form filanrcnts.The filirment is t c tr a c h l o r o e t h a n c .
c r e a t e db y r e g c n e r a t i o no f t h e s o l i d c c l l u l o s ea s t h e l i q u i d j e t I
,l
tl SecotrdaryAcelale
e n t e r s t h e c o a g u l a t i n gb a t h .
Viscosc and cuprammonium are therefore regeneratedcellu- iT
In 1906, Miles discovercdthat the triacctatc courd bc partiaily
lose. In their chenrical structure they resemble cotton or flax' hydrolysedto produce a celluloseacetatcin whicr*on.,"
fl
fr oi tt,L
B u t t h c r e i s a n o t h c r i m p o r t a n t [ o r r n o I c c l l u l o s i cm a n - m a d e
.t
ncctategroups of thc triacetatc had bccn ren.rovcd,nnct
I rccon-
f i b r c , i t r w h i c h t h e w o o d o r c o t t o n c c l l u l o s ci s c l t a n g c c il n t o a v c r t c c lt o h y d r o x y l g r o , p s r s i n t h c o r i g i r r n lc c l l r r l o s c .
f ll,i., ;;
di{Ierent substanceto render it soluble ancl spinnable,ancl after il
t'atcrial was, in eflcc.t,a partialry acctyratcdcciltrrosc
urrtrri".,r
being spun is left in its changed chemical form' This fibre is I by cornpletc acetylation
.ancl subscqucnt partial fry<lrolvrir. lt
made fionr a chemical derivative of cellulose;cellulose acctate. L bccanreknown as ,secondaryacctatc;.
Like the nitrocelluloseft'om which early rayons were spun'
{ T h e s c c o n d a r ya c e t a t ew a s s o l u b l e i n a r c l t t i v c l y c h c a p
t and
c e l l u l o s ea c e t a t eh a s b u l k y g r o u p s o f a t o m s a t t a c h e dt o t h e l o n g { non'.toxicsolvent,acetone.Also, it courcrbe wrstrcclfrce
oi acid
cellulosemoleculeat intcrvals throughout its length.Theseacetate
J
nruch nrore easily than the primary acetatc.
'li
groups tenclto keep the moleculesapart, preventingthe alignment D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d l e a c l i n gu p t o i h e o u t b r c a ko f W o r l c l
'close lr War I,
incl packing into regions of regularity which make for {, n r a n y w - o r k e r se x p e r i m e n t e dw i t h t h c p r o c r u c t i o no f
celrurosc
crystallinesiructure.The hydroxyl groupswhich exert so powerful acetatefilaments from solutions of the prirnary ancl
l:
.t'
li sccondary
an attraction on each other'in thc cellulosenroleculehave been acctatcs.The secondaryacetate,which dlssolu.il i,, thc
ll
li chctpci
recluceclor elintinated, dirninishing the grip exerted by eacll and less toxic solvent, appearedto olTer thc greatcstprospcct
l! o[
molecule on its neighbotrrs.It is easier for the moleculesof an success,and it was upou this material that lnuch oi ttr. *ort
o r g a n i c s o l v e n t t o p e n e t r r t e b e t w e e nt h e m o l e c u l e so f c e l l u l o s e was carried out.
o""tot. than betwecn the molecules of cellulose itself, and
ii
4,
Anrong the most active workcrs in the cclruloseacctatc ficrd
c e l l u l o s ea c e t a t et v i l l d i s s o l v ei n s u i t a b l es o l v e n t s . t] at that tinre were the brothers Drs. Henry and carnille
Drcyfus
T h e n i t r o g r o u p s i n n i t r o c e l l u l o s eh a d t h e d i s a d v a n t a g eo f $i i ' S w i t z e r l a n d 'w h e n w a r b r o k e o u t i n 1 9 1 4 , t h e b r o t i r e r s
n.rakingthe niaterial highly flartrrnable.But ccllulosc acetate is
ir Dreyfuswere invited to Britain by the covcr'nre't, who
li wcrc
n o n r o r ef l u n n t a b l et h a t l c o t t o t r . ti i . t e r e s t c di ' t h e u s c o f c c l l r r l o s ca c c t a r ca s a v a r n i s h f o r
Rl
thc
il fabric wings of aircraft. In the early tlays of thc war, nitro_
Celluloseacetatewas first preparedby Sclrutzenberger in 1865, ai cellulosehad been used for this purpose,iut its extrcnrc
fla^.r-
by heating c o t t o n w i t h a c e t i ca n h y d r i d ea t 1 3 0 - 1 4 0 " Ci.n a closed i, nrability had causcdheavy casualties.cellulosc acctatcwas r'uch
tc
vessel.In 1894, Cross ancl Bevatl discovereda more practical lr more satisfactoryfor the purpose.
p r o c e s si,n w h i c h t h c a c e t y l a t i o nw a s c a r r i e do t l t a t a t t l o s p h e r i c ll The Dreyfus brothers establislrcda ccllulose acctatc factory
F a t S p o n d o n ,D e r b y , w h e r e s e c o n d a r ya c e t a t cs o l u t i o n o r . d o n c ,
p r . s s u r c ,u s i n g s u l p h u r i ca c i d o r z i n c c h l o r i d ea s c a t a l y s t ' l.
l'
I
80 l 8l
tI
11
i:
l!

-t
,!

I
'lt..l L

t
t'
-.----------.-----_---.---------

A: NA'fURAL I'OLYMI]II FIBITES

I{ANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
a c e l l u l o s ea c c t a t ef i b r e . B y r 9 2 1 ,n r o s to f
t h e t c c h n i c a<
t tifiicultics
cHzococH3
1"9 P."1 overcome,.ancl a filament-aceraic,
H ococH3 yorn- *n, being nraclc irr
Ilritain fronr seconcrary ccllurose
.\^,/:;i,\.1 *.. '-o\./o\--- 'Cclanesc'.
Sorne six years later, Courtaui.s Ltd.,,";r"";i;;
u.crcr t^c na'lc
p r o d u c i n ga s e c o n d a r yc e i l u r o s ea c e t a t ey a r n .
,r'\3_ o,/"\o.z- \i:atl pound*s
.of _acetateyarn. was exporte<Ito Arnerica, ,,;.i ;t ij;i;
y.earBritish dyestu[s chenristsiracr sorvecl
In r934,a rnillion

trrc biggcst pi"rri.i,i

lH.o.o.t, '\ A.ocH, l h a t . w a sh o l d i n g u p r ' e p r o g r c s so f t h c n c w n U r c_ i i o w
t;';;;;;.
Viscose and_,cuprammoniumrayons, consisting
C E L L U L O S ET R I A C E T A T E n, tfr.V ;; ;i
regeneratcdcellulose,can be dyed with dycstulls
(entuaRY AcETATE; FULLYacrtvuetro) uscclfoi cotton
and other natural cellulosic fibres. cellulose
acetatc, howcvcr,
cliflers chernically frorn cotton in trrat marry
CELLULOSE NCE,TATE of ttre trvaroiyi
-a{Iini
b.y.acetate
sroups,an<lrhe iy
:lrrlrl.:gl'.iliiii{i::Jfiiilxri!tii:if
th9::i''-"'**fl':^{H* :l::1,^:. ^1,1y:
cnaracrerrstrcs -b:""n.,r.ol"cd
oI the fibre with respect to clycstuflshave bceir
changed. It was necessaryto deveiop new
iiiti'fi
:$ti:j'*
-lt :*mf ii|i,{tlji:h':ij n.
*r;;;.non,.,r,
v,. acetatelibre.
typcs of dyes for
O . n c c t l r i s p r o b l c r n l r a c l b c e n . s o l v c c l c, c l l r r l o s c
chiorictc' is insolub'"r,';ri11:11?al ncctntcflbrcs
'vdrolvsiso[ -ii cellulose
triacctatc r r r a d cr a p i d h c a d w a y . l : j l a n r c n t y a r n s ,
'r"9il"i?'t',f';.; tii" g,o,,pr back i nto v<lroxvl sroups,to s t r i p l c n n d tow arc norv
p r o d . u c e di n r n a n y c o u n t r i e s ,o n , i o r " ' a v a i i a b l e
l5'"'"tfff .
tit'it is. sonretimes called cellulose i n a widc rangc
;;;il';.;;;;;v-i"riuror" i.itft". of sizes and spun-dyeclcolours. They are
ttis trvo of its hydroxvl now known sinrply
.iacerarc,implying tr.,oi".iifr'Jiu..oi"-unii as ecetatc (see bclow).
[l*T;.*;:rWltfl n"l'fi*;l*.,";:Jl"i.3lr""i'3i"''""'"':iii'lll't
NOMENCLATURE
c e l l u l o s ea c e t a t e .
'"il;;;;;;rt
iellulose acetatcis soluble in acetone'
Acelalc
of thecelIuIose.molecule.,iir'il]}t:::,i"'"i:l:
4'E::"1"{r?!"3,:i::I3:i""
is".onifionfv the acely/ valtle' u
cxprcsseclas Until conrparatively recc'r ti'rcs, fibrcs spun
lro.r scc<l'darv
'"8ii?l'3j1,"1ifl,qq1 c c l l u l o s ca c e t a t e( s e ep a g eg 2 ) w c r e c r e s c r i b c c
l^.111"..:1..6^2;5,
i"1,,,,,,,,,,,,,''1;:"1i,?".it'
,..-tt,f ^.v t.tlulose acetatehas arl acetyl
value t ffi:;;'it:;!lmerciar
.rayon'
In modernterminology, is uscdo,rryi,i a.r".i;;;;'iib;;;
nr-:*.t,u"-r"J",rl
consisting
_of regcnerat".,lc.llulos", inclucling viscosc,oy;; ;;;
c u p r o ' a n d f i b r e s s p u n f r o n r s e c o n d a r yc c i l u i o s c
accratc;r. ,i;;
known sirnply as ocetale. Iribres spun fro,n prinrary
ccllulose
quantity' When Anrerica acetateare called triacetate.
rvas ultinratcly produccclir"rconsidcrable
c n t e r e dt h e r v a r , C a m i l l e D r c y f t r s w e n t .to the U'S' to establish I,'eclcralT'rade Cornttissiorr Definitiotr
n r o c l u c t i o no f c e l l u l o s ca c c t a t c t h e r e ' T h c w a r e n d e db c f o r e t h c
r e t u r n e dt o E n g l a n d ' T'he generic LcrtTrsacc!arc irncl trictccrurcwcre arloptcd by
i;;;;;;t conrpleted a n c l D r c y f u s thc
U.S. FederalTrade commission for fibrcs o[ trreccllrros. ^..tni.
typc, the ofiicial dcfinition bcing as follows:
AcetaleFibres Acetate (and Triacetatc).A manufacturcd fibre in w h i c h t l r c
-fhc with a largc
c n d o f t h c r v a r f o t t n c lt h e D r e y f u s b r o t h e r s f i b r e - f o r m i n gs u b s t a n c ci s c e l l u l o s ea c e t a t c .W h c r c n o t l c s s
than
n o l o n g c r ntry clct'itttd
. . i L u t o r " a c e t a t cf a c t o i y i ' l l r i t a i r l , i i n d 9 2 p c r c c n t o [ t h e h y d r o x y l g r o u p s a r c a c c t y l a t c d ,t h c t e r n r
t o w o r k ; t h e r e f o r e t
' o t r y and dcvelop 'triacetatc'
io, nii.rntt dope.'l'hey'sc m a y b c u s c c la s a g e n . r n i c l c s c r i p t i o no f t h c f i b r e .
82 83
 I I A N D B O O K O I : ' I ' E X ' I ' IL E I : I 8 I { E S
NAI-URAL l,oLYMSt{ rrt
t}ltIs
t,ttoDUC'l'loN
r c s i d u a .rc c t i c a c i d f r o n r t h c a c e t y r a t i o n
' r i x t u r c , l o r r r r sa s o r u t i o '
(A) lcarvl,r,'noN oF wooD put-p ol( colroN LINT.ERS o f a c c t i c a c i c li n w a t c r .
T ' e c e t u l o s e t r i a c ^ c r ' aitsc a ' o w c d
Itatv IVlatcrial t o s t a n d i . t , i s s o r u t i o no [
a c e t i ca c i d i n w a t e r f . o r . t r pt o
Z Ot o r r r . b u r i , , g t h i s t i n r c ,p a r t i i r l
A s i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f v i s c o s cr a y o n a . c l c u p r o , t h e c e l l u l o s e ^ydrolysis of the cc'ulose i.i^..-tnt"'i.i"s
pr".", sonrc of thc
t u s e da s r a r v m a t e r i a I i n a c e t a t em a n u f a c t u r ec o m e sc i t h e r f r o n r "
a c e t y lg r o u p s b e i n s
i L"J'rivj,"i;,;,"' -
c o t t o l l l i n t e r so r p r e d o r n i n a n t l yf r o n r p u r i f i e dw o o d p u l p .
C o t t o t r l i n t e r s a r e p u r i f i e d b ) , k i e r - b o i l i n gf o r s e v e i a l h o u r s
:i,;:"',: :.Jili,1f i'.:j:il ;,;lr,lll
:'i, :fJ:',
rhccornplcr.r :
r v i t h a s o l u t i o n o [ s o c l i u n rc a r b o n a t eo r c a u s t i cs o d a .T h e l i n t e r s ;l3lll
D c r r l gc ::L
o n v^t,.ol..rr:
/ n."ivilr.rtccllu
e r t e di n t o a p a r t i a l l y - a c e t y l a t c a toscrriaccrl
rc
'I^e celrulose
a r e t h c n r v a s h e da n d b l c a c h c cw l i t h s o d i u m h y l r o c h l o r i t ew
, ashecl r e s t o r a t i o no f s o m c o f . t l i c h y c l r o ^ Vgt . o u p , ^ . " t , i i " . - - " "
o c c t a t e r n o l e c u l cc , a n g e s o' tlteccllrrlosc
againand dricd.
acet:rtc. ce'urose . t h e s o i u b i l i r y . 1 , u . ^ . t . .'rr,,il,,J"r,,iri"
i;ii;r';;..;,"
triacetate
is sorublo
in Jrrrorofo.ii,
Slccpirrg i' accrone;
thepartialry-o".tytni.a'1;ir;i;r.
in accrateis irrsorubrc
1 ' h e p u r i l i e d c o t t o n l i n t e r s o r w o o c l p u l p a r e s t e e p c di . g l a c i a l but
_ c h l o r o f o r m , s o l u - b l ei n ' n . . t o , -acetatc
.,..""''
acctic acicl to swell the llbrcs ancl incrcnsc thcir chemical 1'he partiallv-acetylate<l cellulose nradc in t'is wav is
r e a c t i v i t y .M o d c r n p r o c c s s cus s c v a p o u r - p h a slcc t i v a t i o u b n s c col r r o f t c n c a l l e d. . l l u l o r ,
a c e t i c - w tae r n r i x t u r c s .
Acclylltion
l:i:l,l:;,i;;;;;' 'i,li".''';::;,,''i:ili,illf,,""1l,,i,";,,lli
lrr;rcctatc,
so that cach glucoscunit now lras
two <li l,; ii;,:;;
-l'he hydroxylgrorps ac"tytati<I.
s w o l l e n c e l l u l o s ei s t r a n s f e r r c dt o a c l o s e d r c a c r . i o nv e s s e l 1,i,,1,r"r"",' t'e scco'cfaryacctatc
c o n t a i n i n ga n r i x t u r e o f a c c t i c a c i d a n d a n h y c l r i d el.' h e r n i x t u r e usedin spinningacctatcfibreao.r
nor .J.rcspo.aprcciscry witrr
has the following weight ratio: cellulosodiacetate.fhe hycrrolyri,
"iir* i.racctatcis arowccrto
Purificd linters I part proceeduntil eachglucoscunii
in thc cellirlosc ;;"r.."i.1,".i ""
Acetic anhydride3 parts average,about2| of its hy<lroxylgroupsu""tytot.a
acetatestructurelies part way Letwecn n* ;;.;;;1.;;
C l a c i a l a c e t i ca c i d 5 p a r t s t'at "i i;i*;;;;.;;ri
T h e r c a c t a n t sa r e n r i x c d , a n c l a s m a l l q u a n t i t y ( 0 . 1 p a r t ) o f diacetate.
s u l p h u r i c a c i d d i s s o l v e di n g l a c i a l a c e t i c a c i d i s a O a e d .. | h e D u r i n g t h e h v d r o l v s i sp r o c e s s ,
t c s t sa r c c a r r i c t ro u t a t i n t c r v a r s
a c c t y l a t i o n o f t h e c e l l u l o s e n o w p r o c e c d s .T h e r e a c t i o n i s to i'clicate
how the',r.-L..ivi"ii"u'ir'p"r*..,rirrg.
the desirect wrrc. it lr.s
e x o t h e r r n i c ,a n d t h e v e s s e il s c o o l e d t o m a i n t a i n a p r e d e t e r m i n e c l :."r:T9 point,.tlic,oiuiio,,i."porr.A into
ot water, arrd
a' cxccss
t e r n p e r a t u r ep r o f i l e . A f t e r a p e r i o d t h e t e m p e r a t u r ii s a l l o w e dt o 'l'ese the scco'dary acetatc is prccipitat.,l ;; ;lr;i;
r i s e a . d m a i ' t a i n e d a t a h i g h e r t e r ' p e r a t u r ei o r a f u r t h e r p e r i o d . flakes. are was'ecl t6r;;ilt ona ,rrry be grourrcli'to
finerparticles.
D u r i n g t h i s t i n t e , c o n r p l c t ea c e t y l a t i o no f t h e c e l l u l o s et a k e s The acetic acicl is rccovercclfrom
the residual solution antl
p l a c c . T h e t h r c e h y d r o x y l g r o u p s o n c a c r r g l u c o s eu ' i t o f t h e u s e da g a i n .
c c l l r r l o s cn r o l c c u l ea r e : r l l a c c t y l a t c c la, n d t h c l r r o c t u c ti s c c l l u l o s c I)ry Spinrring
'fhis
triacetate. is known as prinrary acetate.
Thc spin'ing solutio' is ma<Je f r o r ' a b l e n c lo f s c c o n d a r ya c c r a t c
Ilydrolysis (Itipcning) contairing material fronr a torg.
n u n r L " r - o i b a t c l r c . si ., o r a c r
l ' h c s o l r r t i o no f p r i r n a r y a c c t a t ei s t r a n s [ e r r e ctlo a n o t h c r v e s s c l , a s h i g h d e g r e eo f u n i i ' o r n i t y a s ' p o s s i U l c .
1 o : . : u . :
a c e t a t ei s d i s s o l v c ciln T'e blcndcd
a ' d ' r i x e d w i t h d i l u t e a c c t i c a c i d . T h e r e s i c l u aal c e t i c a ' h y d r i c l e c o n t a i r i i r r gi - s r r r n l lp r o p o r t i o n o I
r e a c t sr v i t h t h e w a t e rt o [ o r n r a c e t i ca c i c a w a t c r ( u p t o 5 p e r c c n.taocnc ttohneew c i g h t
l n d t h i s ,t o g e t h e r* i i r i i r r . o f " a c c t o r r c )a, n c lp i g r n c n t s
t t t a y b e a d d c d a t t h i s s t a g e .R i n e l y - _ d i v i J c , l
corbon black (2 pcr
84
85
 A: NATURAL I'OLYMER FIBRI]S
I'TANDDOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
S t a p l ef i b r e i s p r o d u c c db y c r i r n p i n gt h e l i l a r r r c n t s
ccnt on the weight of acetate) is used in rnaking black fibre; a|d
d nOu jlr,gn
ru nl ecnn cgytliie^. s lrhem m linro
nrcchanicallv
t i t a n i u m d i o x i d e1 t - Z p . . c e n t o n t h e w e i g h t o f a c e t a t e i)s a d d e d
Cu
l trf u
l rnn g ul lr ec m ,rrori
i tr lr tron cs
lr.ijiii,
hh^o. rr t t ^ - ^ , r - .
e n e t h s r a n g i n gf r o n t 3 8 - l 5 0
r r r n r( l t l - 6 i n ) . T h e s t a p l e l e n g t h i s c h i s e n t o b l c n ds u i t a b l y
in making dull libre. with
'dope', is filtercd carc- other.fibres in lnaking blencleriyarns.
The spltning solution, now known as ipinning
fully and deaeiated,ancl is ready for spinning' It contains 20-30 1l*::1.:!e.<lry -of'o sirnpli{icsthc producrion
It is pumped to the spinnerot'under- :j jl..l",:_ fiqT1jI,,"nF:rrs" ^process " r,!r. ; Ji^;r',..i""rr"*j,i
;;':;'J
per"cent ccllulose acetate. n
' ceceudceud ri nn c o u
n s li cd leerraabbl leeq^u a n t i t y .
n nnul filtration on the way. From the spinneretholes,jets p r o d u c e d n e e d s a b o u t O . eS tkg
Every kg oi acctaic fibie
iioing off . o t ] , , i " . " 1.5
s o I s kg off ,acetic
lz. n ,^^ri^
6i ttiinning solution, 25-15 p in cliatnetcr,cmergeinto a spinning
iuU.. ffrir-i, an encloseclvesselthrough which hot air is llowing Iillili:; 1;9,
_cellulose, j d'l;
k;;a;ipi';i;:.ij,
It lf.:::'*t''q'^o$
ni n t.,"p.roture of about 100'C. As the jets of spinning solution
,*1.,,
:::,T:"':?.111.1: f gari;
oiwa"tJr.
Triffi,#;lll,;i.,l,ii
Ionl.,ri"porriut;;;lr";;',i;;";J;;,
ductionof acerare
fibrc is
ntcet the hot air stream, acetone is evaporated to leave solid recoveryof a.high proportion of thcse
the raw rnatcrials,so that riicf
f i l a r n c n t so f c e l l u l o s ea c e t a t e .M o r e t h a n 9 0 p e r c e n t o f can bc recvcled.
acetonein tlte jets is evaporated during the fraction of a second
that the jet is moving downwarclsthrough the spinning tube'. lVet Spinning
ifr" nlwly-forme,l filurn.nt of cellulose acetate is stretched T h e . f i n a l s t a g ei n t h e p r o < l u c t i o no f
s e c o n c r a rcyc l r u l o s ca c c t . t c
,f igfriiy wtrite stitt plastic,to align the long molectrlesa'd develop
t h e s t r e n- g mtoho v i[ntgh e l l l a m c n t . :,:'::1'l:
:::^:*'ltf
i'l*'' .".i;i;i,iliil;;';";J"i;
9tqLi"iv
'Lrct.wnrcr.'.t.r,.
After < l o w n w a r d st h r o u g h t h e s p i n n i n g t u b e f o r . a l,::ll.l::li1lcid
as
,..oii,i^ry
,.1t,,i."i,
a solutio',from which.itis prccipitated ,',i,,1:,J;
distance of sevJral feet, the filaments are sprayed or wiped with In the n9r3al way, this precipitation
bycrilutio'*itr, *;t..l
lubricant. Thcy pass round a guide roller and emerge from
the is*Jarri.a out i. suchir
s p i n n i n g t u b e o n t o a c o n s t a n ts p e e d f e e d r o l l ' F r o m t h i s ' t h cy Iil"i.:":l l.l1Lll.: of for
secondaiy
<try
n .tut.Jii.i, *. J,ir,r.o"er,,ri
rpi;,,;i;;.
which may wind the untwisted .,: .l:,.ron" "" ir"''ol ;,;';;;;' ;r";; ",ffffi:
:i:'^yl::.1
"t"^I llj: o,':'
nie leaio a winding mechanism
filaments on to a cylindrical tube, or insert twist and
then ill:::'::": u't
iJn;i ; ;i; ; ; ; iIil" ;l:lli
:qtrud;ed.il,;;Gh
mechanisms arrd cheese [r"l':Y:,:.::-uld. b: ex ; rrr",*.*i ;;iJ'iii:"J,ll]
*i,ia tn. trvistedyurn on to bobbins' Ring lose acetateprecipitateclin t^e forri
oi n'ionr.nt, in au aqucous
c o l l e c t i o na r e c o t n n l o n l Yu s e d ' c o a g u l a t i n gb a t h .
Acetate ftlament yains procluce<lin this way are ready for Wet spinning techniqucsof this sort have
treat-
immediate use, without any of the washing or purilication s p i n n i n gc e l l u l o s ea c e t a t e .
becn clcvclopedfor
n.rentsthat are necessary with wet-spun fibres'
fact
itl" technique of dry spinning is made possible by the
that seconclarycellulosen".tut" dissolves in a readily-evaporated Illclt Spinniug
.otu.nt'acetone.Theprocessissimplerandfastertl-ranthewet Celluloseacetateis a thermoplasticfibrc;
spinning processesuseclwith viscoseand cuprammoniurniuygl! it nrclts when hcatcd
to temperaturesin the of 230"C., ancl molten-;;.i;;';
1000
o r i J t p i n n i n g m a y b e c a r r i e d o u t a t v e r y , h i g h s p e e d so f -region
sullicientlystablc to undergo -.ft ,pinn-G.
i i i . l r . i p e r r r i i n u t e .T h e r e i s n o h a n d l i n g o f t l t e f i l a r n e r t b
t e t ween
w i t , t ' c d c v e l o r m c n to i n r c l t s p i i r n i i r l
i c c h n i q u . sf o r s y ' t l r c t i c
e x t r u s i o na n d c o l l e c t i o r t . l i b r e s . ,t h e ' r e l t i p i n n i ' g o r . . i r r i o r . ' ^ . . t " t "
Acetate filarnentsare proclucedin a rangeof co.unts,the nlost practical possibility, and- many has beconrca
witlt yarn ";;;;i,r,;;;.1 fibres havc bccn
o o o r t u t f i l a r n e n t sb e i n g ^ o [ 3 . 3 - 4 . 4 d t e x ( 3 - 4 d e n ) "l'_j i ns.om eui"v,ir*, ni^..",r'o."a"iili
4 .4t -o2r O
c o i r r r-t fsn s ,O O d t e x ( 4 0 - 1 8 0 0 d e n ) .T h e c o u t t t i s c o n t r o l l e dD y ll," Iu r;.I|1,
b ry d
u rJy sr pprillll. n,g ,n oortaaiq.,
rnr rnui 8 bllyy il n tuht eelirr r eeaacctti lo n t o b o i l i n g
D
itii.. ( l ) t 5 c i a t e a t w 6 i c 5 s p i ' . i ' g s o l u . t i o rits . p u n r p e d s p u n f i l a m c n t s t e n c l t o r J e r u s t r ei n
watcr. Dry
b o i r i n g w a t e r , b u t ' r cnrct l t s pput rnn
t o t h e s p i r t n e r e t(,2 ) t h e s i z e o f t l l e s p i r t n e r eltt o l c s , a n d ( J ) t l l e ItIame
ntsdonot.rh. ; ;;i;;'" r"'.ii,o"i,nriii;,,ir'i,
rate at wl'ticlt tlte filarnent is drawn away from tlte spinneret' "'ffi iJlil
87
86
 IIANDDOOK OF TEXl'ILE FIBRES ^ : N A T U R A LP O L Y M E , F
RI I l I T E S
I\lodiliqrtionof Filnnrent
WOOD PULPOR
C O T I O NL I N T E R s rffiq
.-T]
I* conr'ron with other.rnan-made fibres, cellurose
nray be produced in physically_modifiedfornrs
acctatc fibrcs
by ,r,oniputniio,,
of the spinning process.
Spun-dyedacetatelibres are now bcing nradc
in great varicty
bv the addition of pigments.to the spilning
PROPYLENE sorutlon p.i"i-i6
gas e x t r u s i o n .c a r b o n b l a c k p r o v i c r e sb l a c i f i b r e s ;
titanium'dioxidc
ACTIVATED is used to modify lustre.
CELLULOSE of spinneretorificesof appropriatcslrapcsrvill proclucc
",I11.^.:.r^"
a l a r l r c ' t s o r u n u s u a l c r o s s - s e c t i o r sa, n d r n a ' y v a r i a t i u i r s
w.rc
ACETYLATED nrade commercially. Frat firaments rcflcct
tnc tigtrt ana yi.iJ
CELLULOSE novelty glitter yarns.X- ancry-shaped cross-sectioniprovi.t"
y'orrx
T A C E T I CA N H Y D R I D E of improved handle ancl.covering-power,nna yornr'*iri;f
;;;;;
in water. Thick and thin yarnJ and siub yarns
are nrade by
varying the rate of feed of the solution to
S U L P I I U R I CA C I D
tlie spinn.;.i; ;;; ;i,
thc extrusion of diflercnt filanrcnts which
,"" ,,,frr.qi,.,rtfi
c o l n b i n c di n t o c o r n p o s i t cn o v c l t y y a r n s .
l r..or.ry andrc-usc
-
waihinq . A. (B) lcnrvrnrtoN oF cr:rrul.ostc FIDRE5
w a t c r - > d r i i n q - > w c a k a c c t i ca c i d
In . the production of celluloscacctate fibres
by thc norrnal
tcchnique, the raw material is ceilulose in a
fibrous form trrut
- a c c t o n cc x h a u s t o r e c o v e r ya -n- d rc-use i is not, however, suitable for textile use. Cotton
+------- ----i rinters ;;. i;;
s h o r t t o b e s p u n i n t o a s a t i s f a c t o r yy a r n ; w o o c l
c e l l u l o s ei s
c o n t a m i n a t e dw i t h n a t u r a l g u m s a n d r e s i n s ,
and the fibrcs in
puri{ied wood pulp ^r" ugain too short
to fbrrn u t."tli;-;;r;;:
During.acetylation, the fibrous structurc o[
*obtdinablc from eithcr
acetic acid or acctonc the ccllulosic'raw
material
.is-destroyed; the acetylateclcellulose forms a solution
from which celluloseacetateis precipitated as
flakcs; trrc nakes
are redissolvedand spun .into filamenis.
warm air ->
It has long been known that cellulose fibres
may unclcrgo
chemical modilication without losing thcir fibrous
f"orm. If"a
r------- cellulosictextile fibre is acetyratedun*crpr sucrr"onaitions, lt -ov
I b e c o n v e r t e di n t o a f i b r e w h i c h i s e i t h e r c c l l u l o s e
* t r i a c c t a t co r a '
i ' t i n r a t e r n i x t u r e o f c e l l u l o s ct r i a c e t a r .aen d c c l l u l o s c
ard is in a
s t a t es u i t a b l ef o r i r n r n e d i a t et e x t i l eu s c .
:
CONTINUOUS Cotton
F I I - A M E N TY A R N
C o t t o n f i b r e s o f t e x t i l e q u a l i t . ym
- a y b c a c c t y l n t c <wl i t h o u t l o s i r r g
ilreir.fibrousfornr, the modincd hbrcs bci,rg ccllulose
acctatc.
Acetale Flotv Chart Practical processesfor the production of acclyratedcotto.
lravc
88
 IIANDDOOK OI: TEXTILE FIBRES NATURAL POLYMER FIBRES

b e e n e s t a b l i s h e db y t h e U . S ' D e p a r t m e u t o f A g r i c u l t u r e , u s i n g PROCESSING
e i t h c r a b a t c h w i s eo r c o n t i u u o t r st e c h n i q u e .
Scouring
Batchwise Proccss.Cotton fibrc, yartr or fabric is purificd by
c e l l u l o s e a c e t a t ei s s e n s i t i v ct o c a u s t i c a r k a l i , w h i c r r r c n c r s
b o i l i n g i n d i l u t e c a u s t i cs o d a , w a s h e da_n d d : i e d . l t i s t h e n a l l o w e d to
to soik in acetic acid for at least I hour. Excessacid is squeezed b.ringabout hydrolysis of the acetategroups. yarns anct fabrics
-o,ra
from the cotton, which is then treated with a mixture of acetic should not be scoured undcr alkalinc ionditions.
Sorp
a c i d a n c l a c e t i ca n h y c l r i d ei n t h e p r e s e n c eo f a s n r a l l a m o u n t o f sulphatedfatty acid at 60.C., ammonia, or tetrasodiu,npyrfplos-
perclrloric acicl catalyst. After treatment for I hour at 20"C'' p h a t e a n d s u r f a c ea c t i v ea g e n ta r e e f f c c t i v e .D e t c r g e n G - n r ., , o r u
t h e c o t t o n i s w a s h e da n d d r i e d . widelyused.
Continuous Process,Tltis process,rvhich is designedfor ttse Illeaching
with fabr.ic,is essentiallythe satne as the above, but presoaking c e l l u l o s e a c e t a t e i s a w h i t e f i b r e , a n c r b r c a c h i n gi s s c l c r o ' r
i s s h o r t e n e cb l y c a r r y i n g i t o u t a t 8 2 ' C ' f o r 2 m i n u t e s .T h e n e c e s s a r yI.f b l e a c h i ' g i s r e q u i r e d , a l k a r i n e c o n d i ' [ i o n ss h o u r d
fabric is coolecl an<l passed coutinuously through a bath of
*"1::1,1.3:.t:i9 or a soctium
chlorite
orhydrogcrr
perchloric acicl in acetic acid, followed by treatment with acetic p e r o x l c t e b a t , hs h ofrltgrtrlorite,
uld be used.
i n h y d r i d e i n a n a c e t y l a t i o nv e s s e lf o r 3 m i n u t e s a t 2 0 " C ' T h e
c o t t o n i s t h e n w a s h e da n d d r i e d .
Dyclng
P a r t i a l t y a c e t y l a t c dc o t t o n p r o c l u c e di n t h i s w a y h a s g r e a t l y
improveclrot- and lteat-resistttnce (seePA cotton, Vol. l). cellulose acetate dirlcrs in its che'rical structurc froln
the
ce_llulosic fibres, such as cotton, viscoseancl cupro. All but a fcw
Viscose of the reactive hydroxyl groups of the ccliulose havc
bccn
acetylated,and acetate will not, as a rule, acccpt
D u r i n g t h e 1 9 5 0 sJ, a p a n e s es c i c t t t i s t d s e v e l o p e da s i m i l a r p r o c e s s thc dycs that
are normally used for ccllulosicfibres.
for the direct a c e t y l a t i o no f v i s c o s ef i b r e w i t h o u t d e s t r o y i n gi t s
When acetate fibre came on the nrarket, its succcssful
fibrous form. This technique has uow become the basis of a com_
mercial development was prejucliccclby thc fact
conrmercial process rvhich produces a cellulose acetate fibre that availablc
t y l a t i o no f t h e dyestuffs were unsarisfactoryfor the riew fibrc. N.;
r l i r c c t f r o n r a p o l y n o s i c - t y p cv i s c o s eb y d i r e c"tla' oclct a loll"
iy;;;f;-;i
'Alott' or dycstull wcre discovercdfor dycing acctate,notably
i i b r c . l " i b r c sc a r r i c dt l r c t r a d c r l a t n c s thc ilispcrsc
dyes, and acctatecan now be cryedsatisfacforilyrn'a
T h e a c e t y l a t i o ni s c a r r i e d o u t b y s o a k i n g p o l y n o s i c r a y o n wia" ritirtc
o f s h a d e s .A c e t a t e w o v e n f a b r i i s a r e n o r r n a l l y l l g
s t a p l e i n a s o l u t i o n o f a c a t a l y s t ( e . g . s o d i u m a c e t a t e ,z i n c d y e A fr.t*..n
l gi t t h r o u g h a 60 and g8oc at pFI 6.0 to 6.5 clepenai,igoii'tr,i ;ffi;;;;;;;;;;;
s u l p h a t e )p, a r t i a l l yd r y i n g t h c f i b r e a n d t h e n p a s s 'i ft h e
c h a n r b e rc o n t a i n i n ga c c t i c a c i d v a p o u r a t I l 0 ' C . fibre then dyeing.equipnrent can also be used to dyc *uu.,,
1I-r.1.n:a,t".
passcs through an acetylating chamber containing acetic a c e t a t et a b r i c s ,b u t i s n o r m a l l y u s e dt o d y e a c e t a t ct r i c o t .
a n h y d r i d eY a p o u ra t 1 3 0 " C . B o i l i n gw a t e r t e n d st o d e l u s t r ea c e t a t ef i b r e , a ' c r c r y e i n g s h o u t c r
-thari
Acetylatiott takcs place,to a slightly lcss dcgreethan in normal b e c a r r i e d o u t i f p o s s i b l e a t t e m p e r a t u r e sr o w c r g5oc.
seconclaryacetatc. The fibrc is washed in water, lubricant is I I o w e v e r ,a c e t a t eo f 5 5 a c e t y rv a l u e i s r c s i s t a n tt o < l c r u s t r i nag' t l
acldecl,arrcl it is dried in warm air. The crintp of the libre is d o e sn o t r e q u i r ed y e i n ga t t e m p e r a t u r elso w e r t h a n g 5 o C .
retained throughout the process.
A c e t y l a t i o n b y t h i s t e c h n i q u ed o e s n o t c a u s ed e g r a d a t i o no f
the cellulose to the extent that normal acetylation in solution . Spttrt-DyeclAcctate. A wide rangc of spun_clyccl
acctatc libres
<locs.'flte acctylatcd viscosc fibrc is strongcr tltan norrnal is now produced.
s c c o n d a r ya c c t a t e d , ry or wet, with lower clongation.
90 9l
 H A N D B O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S A: NATURAL POLYMER FIDRES

Slripping length.Staplcfibre is by chopping

.produccd.
mcntsinto shorrrengrhs, the continuousfila-
Treatment with soap solution will bring about partial stripping wrrichi." uru'oiri"ii*p.J'"ffii"iiy.
38-75 rrn.(l%-3,rf) stapleis cornnronly
of dispersed dyes. Addition of activated carbon will usually producedfor uscon
cotton
complete the stripping. A stripping bath containing zinc .r'achinery.7S_l2i.r''r (:_S--i"j'rtrpf. i; t;;;r;J
rvorsted ;;,
sulphoxylateformaldehyde and acetic acid may also be used. and woollen u,,A'JlS_fg0 nrrn (5_7 in)
.rnachinery,
stapleon spunsilkmachinery.
fiinishing Continuousfilanrentaceiate protlucecl
range
of filarrre't .is ^l
coylqr,usually.7_j.e'
conrnrercially irr a
The appearance,handle and draping propertiesof acetatefabrics
are generally excellent, and the dimensional stability of- wet fibrenraybeashighaszi rtieifzOa.n;,li;;'ii
Staple 'i:;r,r'Ji,i
o, inii..
v'v,'/,
non-iextured,fabricsis good. Finishingprocessesdesignedto brittg ..
Thernicroscopicappearance of an acetate
about intprovements in these respects are not often necessary rhat of the rayonsbut is very ;i,;ii;i;'thar filamentdilTcrsfront
.fhe
filamentis marked uy tongituai'"i i"riJ of rriacerare.
with all-acetatefabrics. ancrricrges.
sectionoutlinois buili up ol.os monv Trre cross-
Filament yarn fabrics made from acetatetend to su{Ier from u, iu" or six rouncrcd
yarn slippage,ancl finishes are used to roughen the surfaceof the If the acetate -;.in",iriy"iy
lobcs.
firaments havenot u.enauri.J
filaments artd createa rustle or scroop. addirionof ritanium dioxide "; ;ih";;igments,
they are clear
Acetatc staplc is a constituentof all manner of blended yarns, and glossy.
especiallywith viscose staple. The acetate providcs drape, solt 'fcnsllc
Strcngth
hanclle, dimensional stability and wrinkle resistance.Blended
yarns ancl fabrics of this type may be subjected to finishing Normal acetatefibre, fornri.g-the
bulk of t'c
ireatments which are intended primarily to affect the viscose , a sa t e n a c i toy ? o b o u fg . ) _ r 1 . 5 output of t'is
t y p eo f f i b r e h
g/rlen).It does not rose,,rtt.'gth-io c N / t c x( t . l _ 1 . 3
fibre, ancl the acetate must be able to withstand the conditions iiiart<ectyas viscoserroes
usect.It shoulcl be remembered that acetateis sensitiveto heat, wlrenwet;the tenacityfallsro f.i_i?rVt.*(0.65_0.75elden).
water and alkali, and linishing processesshould not be used t''e te'siresrre.pih,
of acetate
tr;;;i r)ait:15;0-ft);;i,
which subjectthe nbre to dilute alkali or to water at temperatures ( I B,000-22,000 lb/inz;.
above 80"C. Dry temperaturesshould not exceed 140"C.
The thermopiastic nature of acetate makes possible tlt" Elongation
embossingof atetate and acetateblend fabrics. Patterns may be 23-30 per cent (Standard);35_4j per cent (wct).
embossedon the fabric by passing it, for example, through a
heated calender.
Acetate fibres have a natural sheen which may be destroyed Elastic Properties
by incorporating fincly-tlispersedtitanitrm dioxide in the spinning At,4 per cent elongation,acetatehas a rccovcry
of 4g_65.f,;;;
pcr ccnt.
solution. Modcrn acctatc fibrcs are commonly produced as dttll When stretched further, thc
a bright acetatemay be delustred
gradesin this way. If nccess.rry, becomcspermancntlvdeformc<I .fibre r'inJ.rgoi, plastic ;i
",Ja"., ".it rcturn to its original
by boiling it in watcr, particularlyin soapy water to wltich a length when relcasei. At 5 pcr ""ni
""i"i.,rion, acctatc '35*r*
has an
swelling agent such as phcnol ltas been added. immediate recovery of.54 pct cen-t,;-ari;y.a
r.i,"""ry'"f
cent and a permanent set of I I pcr
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES ."nt. Th" .o*"rpo"Ai"g
figuresfor l0 per ccnt extension or" il,-12'
and 4l per ccnt.
Fine Structurcand APPearance
Specifc Gravlty.
The length ancl finenessof acetate llbres are controlled by the
manufaclurer. Continuous filaments can be made to almost any L30.
92 93

"l r r
 T I A N D I } O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S A: NATURAL POLYMER FII}ITES

organic
Eflect of Moisture ^ . a c i d s ,i n c l u . d i n g- a c e t i c a n c l f o r n r i c a c i d s , w i l l n r a k e
a c e t a t ef i b r e s s w e l l . A t s u f f i c i e n t r yh i g h c o . c e n t r a t i o . s .
as a result of the attraction a.rcous
Watcr is hclcl by ordinrry ccllulose solutionsof forrnic and acetic aciis w'ilr,rirroru. ..iiui;;.-;;;;;.
hy6roxyl- groups on the cellulose
betwcen ttre woter-tovini Alkalis
groups h^Y:.it"^1
rrrolecule.ln accrare,t";;y ;i these hyaroxyl
attraction of acetatelor Alkalis have little effectup to pH 9.5, brrt strong
replacedby acetateg,oupi; the inherent a l k a l i sc a u s e
less than that of viscose or cupram- saponification; the acetate g.oups arc rcplaccd"
*it , .ot..ules is therefore ty fryar"_yj
groups and the cellulosc acetate is grirlually
moniunr rayons' Jf,^,i'e.i-"-i"
water as the rayons' The regcncratedccllulose.
Acetate cloes not absorb as much
about per cent' Immersed in
stanclarclmoisture t.g-uin is -6-5
p e r c e ' t . ( V i s c o s eo, .n t h e Cetrcral
w a t c r , a c c t a t c* i t f s w i i i b y a b o u t 6 - 1 4
o t l . r c rh a n d , s r v c l l sb y 3 5 1 6 6 p e r c e u t , a t t c l c u p r a n r n r o n i u n br y A c e t a t ei s a t t a c k e db y s t r o n g o x i c r i z i n ga g c n t s ,b u t
is not aflcctcd
40-62 Per ccnt.) by normal bleaching soluiions of iyiochiorirc
or p";";1.il
(Peroxide degradesacetate on long stancting.)
'l'hcrnralProPcrtics
The chemical propertics of an lcetatc libre <Jepcnd
. on thc
material' lt becomessticky degreeto which acetategl9up,
Cellulose acetate is a thertnoplastic -Thc have rcplaccd hydroiyl groupr'Jn
is sofi enotrghto deform under pressure' the cellulose moleculc..
ri iso;C. ancl at zos;c. moro tryCroxyt gruup, iir.,;';;;
It nrcltsat about 232"C' rcr'aining, thcgrcatcris thc fibrc's 'ccirulosic'
"i,tru.Lr. r"ru.r.rn
c o m m e r cai acle t a h
t ea sa na c e t yvla l u e
of54_55.
E,|ect ol lTigh TentPerature
high temPeratureswithout EIIect of OrganicSolvents
The fibre will rvithstand prolonged
tiO'C., it retains nruch of
s e r i o u sc l e t e r i o r a t i o uA. f t e r a w e e k a t Acetate swells or dissolvcs,in many solvents,
including accl.one
its original tensilestrengtlt' and other kctones, u".tut., ethyi acctatc," ;i";;;;
. . .mcthyl _
dichloroethylene,cres.ol,p'enol, cntoroform,
FlannrobilitY methylene"ii;;;;;:
ethylenechloride. It '.qinsorublein petroleum
Exposed to a naked che'ricals such as
Cellulose acetate is not readily flammable' white. spirit or petrol. (gasoline),"thyl .tl.,cr,
bcnzene, toluenc,
flamc it will melt a n d b u r n ' rrichlorocrhylcne,carbon rcrrachlorictc,cyclo-
f e:"^|t:I":lllylene,
n x a n o l ,x y l e n e .
l,flect of Age
over prolonged periods'
T h e r e i s a s l i g h t f a l l i n tensile strength Insects
good.
The colour of the fibre renrains M o t h s a n d o t h e r i n s r c l . sd o n o t n o r n r a l l y a t t a c k
a c c t a t e ;g r u b s
Efiect of Sunlight w i l l . b i t e t h r o u g h t h e f i b r e si n a n e f f o r t t o g c t
after 'lii:i-r:"',;
0,"',".'l?:fJ-J"""'l:'h';','.X'li:fi
beterioration food.
at'rore attractivc

-p ii
I'i' .::J:'i'.oro,,.aigme'
i,\li:l3l,l,' titaniurn
ts' "J'tigt'i-ro't Micro-orgauisms
grades.
dioxicle Fungi and bacteriamay causosurfacc cranragc
ancrtriscoloration,
ChcrnicalI'roPcrties b u t r e s i s t a n c ei s g c n e r a l l yh i g h .
Acids
not affect acetate, but the Elcctrical Propcrlies
D i l u t e s o l u t i o n so f w e a k acicls do solutions'
in concentrated Excellentinsulator.
fibres are dccomPosedbY s t r o n g a c i d s
94 l:
95
 !i, I t: .ll . t..i;. :

FIBRES A: NATURAL POLYMER I:IBRNS

IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE
t h a t i n c r e a s e dc o n t i n u o u s l yu n t i l l g 6 9 - 1 9 1 0 .
In general,modern acetatefabrics can be treated in nruch the
san'roway as natural fibres and the rayons.'fhcy can bc dyccl ancl
cN/tex finished,washed and dry-cleaned,ancl will withstanclall ihe co.-
ditions that are met in ordinary commercial ancl dorncstic use.
It must be remembered,howcver, that acctatcis funclarncntallv
dillcrent in its chemical structure from thc rayons ancl natural
fibres. It therefore dillers in its behaviour in nrany ways, and
these diflerencesmust be taken iuto account in thc handling of
acctatematerials.
Acetate is thermoplastic, for example, and it must not bc
subjectedto high temperatures.It will deform tunderprcssureat
about205"C.
This tendencyfor acetate fibres to soften on bcing hcateclis
madeuse of in t h e p r o c e s s i n go f a c e t a t cg o o d s . F a b r i c s c a n b c
cmbosscdwith p a l t c r n s t h a t a r c i n r p r c s s c do n t h c w a r m c d
nratcrial.
The rclativcly low moisture absorptionof acctatcfibrcs rcndcrs
Vo 30 40 .so a c e t a t cl e s s l i a b l c t o d a m a g c b y s t a i n i n gw i t h m i r n y s u b s t a n c c s .
(% rloNcertot't,
Fruit juices, ink, food and othcr watcr-iorubre stai.s are clsilv
sponged or washed out.
. Acetate fabrics dry rapidly, and are particularly suitable for
b a t h i n g s u i t s ,r a i n w e a r a n d u m b r e l l a s .
Cellulose acetate does not concluct hcat readily; acctate
Other ProPertics garments are cool in summer and warm in winter.
natural .lustre and a pleasant Acetate has little natural colour; the dyer can procluceacctatc
Acetate yarns have a.n attractive
is har<Jerthan that of the rayons' fabrics in a range of shadcs varying from a dJicatc tint to a
handle.The surfaceof-tft" fibr"
heat' .
Acetate is a poor conductor of decp, heavy colour.
yarns and f"b;i* ;;t non-toxic' and do not irritate the The richnessand variety of shades,allied with the softncssancl
Acctate
pliability of the acetatefibre, have hclpcd to makc acctateinto a
skin. 'bcauty'
f i b r e . A c e t a t eg a r m e n t sc l r a p cw e l l a n c lh a v c a n a t t r a c t i v c
ACETATE IN USE h a n d l c ;t h c y a r c s o f t , a n d n c v c r h a r s h .T h e y r c t a i n t h c i r s h a p ci f
h a n d l e dw i t h r e a s o n a b l ec a r e a n d < l o n o t e a s i l y w r i n k l c .
commercial use was an excltlng
Thc introcluctionof acetoteinto Acetate fabrics have an unusuaily attractivc crrapc. Acctatc
*oriJ.-rri" chemical structure of the fibre is
event in the textile satins will fall naturally in grace[ul folcls; tafrctas retain thcir
of any natural fibre or of any
funclanrentallydifrererii iiom that crispnessunder sevcreconditions of wear.
The propertics of acctatc
of the regcncrated ""iruior" rayons.
diffcrcnt. lrom tltosc of any fibrc in lYashing
were, itt consequence;;;tt;
It was' in this respect'a step
"."lt ift. tinro of its introduction' T h c r e l a t i v e l y l o w m o i s t u r c a b s o r p t i o no I a c c t n t c f i b r e s c o n _
fi.bre'
iotuota, thc completely synthetic t r i b u t e st o t h e g o o d d i m e n s i o n a sl t a b i l i t yo I a c c t a t ef a b r i c s w h c n
'l'lte
r t a t u r a lu t t , " i i u # t t i o f c e l l u l o s ea.c e t a t e 'c o ' m b i n e dw i t h
w e t c o n ) p a r e ct ol v i s c o s ef a b r i c s .
s u s t a i n e da d e n r a t t df o r a c e t a t e
it, "rif"i"pia"ii.tt pioptiii"t'
96

Trt '-l r-1 'I

 FIBRES A: N TURAL POLYMER FIBRES
I.IANDBOOK OF TEXTILE
shapeappreciably END USES
Acetatefabricsclo not shrinkor losetheir by boiling
rvhen rvashecl. They ;r;- ;;t affecte<l significantly Acetate lilament varns,areused in
ntany types of rvomcn,sdrcss-
;;;;, ;;t;";" delustringmav occur' Lustre is generallv restored rvrar,from rinirigs,
ri'gerieand gow'i t" rritiiiiu'l;it;';i.,',i
A;;t" ruutiJt wili withstanclorclinarvsoap.solutions' blouscs' Staplefibreis usecr
in fuller i-,ot"riolr;blendcdwith otrrer
;;;;;"j;;. should be
iit.tg""t. and bleaJet, t'ut alkaline conditions fibres,acetat.e.staple providesu *iA" vuri"ty of drcssfabrics.
providesresilience It
avoided. and resistance to shrin[agein suchbrcncrs.
Washingof acetategarmentsplgs:^njs. no difficulties'eitherby r.
.men'swear,acetatefilarnentprovicres"r'ai.ii.r,ioi'iiiif,rg,
and neutralsoap
f,^nJoi ,iuchine.War"m(40"C', 104"F')water nq
,]::, socks.and pyjamas.. Srallc fibre gocsinro rnanyblcnjs
inouto L" ut'a' Agitation. should be sentle and tlrat are spun into suitings,shirt fabricsaid
;;";.;;t;;;i wet or thev matcriaili;. ;;;;t;
not u" *tung o9l ot. twisted when wear.
;;;;;it";ust 'tiey shJulclbe kept flat as far as possible' Ma'y fine householcl
ii^v i.i"i" creascs. ancrfurnisrri.g textiles,a.crnraterials nrc
nradefronr acctate,ancl_ thc gooclelcciricalinsulatio"
Note of rhe fibre rravecarriedin irito th" ;i;;i;i"or ;r;;;;;ii;;
poults'satins'brocades - inoustiy.'ii"ii ,r.i
Many fabricsfor eveningwcar' such as. andelaborate
as the insulatcdcoveringfor electric;il;.
;;;i;fi;t^t, ar" macle fro-n, Evening
acetate' dresses
the constructionand decora-
;i;1.;'t-h;;14be dry clcanedbecause at home'
tion of thc fabric nluk. unsuitablc
tl'ttn't for washing

Drying
givena cold rinse
Acetategarmentsdry reaclily'They shoulclbe
ioiro*'J bv a (15
short.spin seconds)'-Tumbler
;;j;;;;:;i;;l;s, is run cold before
Ityi"g-it t"tisfictory prouiO"athat.the drier
Drying temftraturesshould not exceed 105'C'
tf,ippi"ttg.
Ironing
with a warm iron (HI-CC
Acetate fabrics should be ironecl
pressurecloth' and^to
s"rii"g zi. ii it pr"r.inule to use a damp
ii trieir.t
t"rnp.ratur"s. than about 120"C.
;;;^;"" iii"l.u.rr, ,i;;.
tne cettuiJse-""ti"it may beg-in to soften and the
are used,
pressure.of tho iron' The surface
ilt;;-y -i;;;; be Oeformedby the plastic lilaments
;i';; raurtc.w't b""o*l glazed as the
CELLULOSE,TRIACETA]-E FTBRES(TRTACETATE)
are flattened.
4.5 kg/cnrz
ln commerciallaundering,coveredpressesat INTI{ODUCTION
(65 lb) steanlpressure aresatisfactory'
'l'hc
Dry Cleaning
early attemptsto creverop
textilcfibresfronr ccturoscacctatc
wcrcconcernedvery largelywith the material
Acetatefibre is sensitive to many typesof solvent(seeStructure
-n'tuit obtaincclbt .;;rr:
u" taken in bringingany plcteacetylatio'of ceiluiose.
Trrisis cerruiose
unJ lrop.rti.s),
';l".ni "ni great care triacctatc,iir'*lii"i,
thc threeavailablehycl.roxylgroupsof
"rst"f. into contact with acetatefabrics' Perchloro- cellulosc
rnolccule
"' -"-"
cacirglucoseunit of thc
anclpetroleurn' arc'ailicetyi;i;j.
"irivi.ii., lri.hloroctliylencor carbontctrachloride
(".g. solvent)
Sioctctarcl may be used in dry cleaning'
iypi,-r"f"""ts
98 99.
 ITANDDOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES
A: N A 1 . UR A L I ' O L Y M I l l l . I r t B l t E s

Cellulose triacetate is not soluble in acetone, which dissolves arrdnorv produce a singlc triacetatcfibre, the traclcnrark ,-I'riccl,
cellulose acetate,and few solvents were known for it during the bcing retained, with British Celanescas thc produccr.
early years oI the present century. At that time, when attempts 1954, Cel,aneseCorporation o[ Americi began
rverc being made to produce acetate fibres by dry spinning -ln -anclproduction
of a triacetatefibre under the Lradenarnc .Arncl', production
solutions of cellulose acetate,the most satisfactory solvent avail- of triacetate fibres is now proceeclirrgin sevcraf countrics.
able for the triacetate was chloroform. And lilament yarns were
produced experimentally by dry spinning solutions of cellulose
NOMENCLATURE
triacetatein chloroform.
This experimental work continued up to the outbreak of Worl<l Sce page 83.
War I. In 1914,the I ustron Company, in the U.S.A., began to
produce triacetate yarns in quantities of up to 300 lb. per day
Notc
by dry spinning chloroform solutions. This production continuetl 'fhe
on a very modest basis until 1927, when it was discontinued. infornration in the section which follows rclatcsparticularly
Trvo factors contributed to failure of this early triacetatefibre to the British fibre 'Tricel,, which rnay be taken as a typical
project, (l) the use of chloroform as solvent was expensiveand cxamplc of a modern triacetatc fibre.
dangerous,and (2) the triacetate lilaments could not be dyed
satisfactorilyrvith thc dycstufls thcn availablc. PI{ODUCl-ION
Despite this setback, interest in cellulose triacetate was kept
alive by the succcss of the closely related secondary cellulose Experiencegained in the rnarrufactuleoI scconcllrryccllulosc
'I'he acctatewas put to good.use in tlrc cotnrncLcialdcvcioplrrcnt
acctate process. development of special dyestuffs for o[
secondary acetate fibres went a long way towards solving that ccllulosetriacetate.Thc production of triacetateis, iri cflect,
a
difliculty for triacetate, and eventually methylene chloride was stagein the production of the scconclaryacctate.
found to be a satisfactory solvent for triacetate.This solvent was
more suitablc than chloroform as the basis for a commercial llarv Mnterials
dry sp.inningprocess.
Cellulosein the fornr oI purified cotton lintcrs or wood pulp.
With this successagainst the two biggest barriers to triacetate
Iibre production, it became apparent that the libre might have
very significant practical advantages over secondary acetate. Prclrcalmcnt
Cellulose tr.iacetatefibres were found to have a relatively low The celluloseis pretreatedin aceticacicl/watervapout.
watcr inrbibition and moisture rcgain, plus a high degree of
chernicalinertness.They had a high mclting point, below which Acclylalion
heating produced irreversible physical changes which improved
This may be carricd out in such a way that thc cellulosctrjacctntc
the chemical and physical stabilty of the fibre. These changes
cither goes into solution as it is formcd, or rc(ains thc structurc
enablcd triacetatcfibres to be heat set.
of thc original cellulosc.
Alter scveral years' rescarch work, Courtaulds Ltd., U.K.,
began the commercial developmentof cellulosetriacctatefibrcs
'JPS', was (a) Solution Proccss
in 1950. fhe rcsultant fibre, first referred to as
announced undcr the trade mark 'Courplcta' in 1954. In that Prctreated ccllulose is acctylatcd by trcatnrcrrt rvith
ycar, British CelancseLtd. announccd that they werc to intro- acctic
anhydride and sulphuric acid in thc prc..n." of acetic
ircitl. As
ducc ''friccl' triacetatc fibre. Later, Courtaulds and British tlc acctylation procceds,ccllulose triacctatc js fornrccl,
an<.1 it
Celancsc linkcd their research eflort and production experience dissolvcs.Thc solutiorris ripcncd, nragnesiunracctatc and
wiltcr
100
l0l

_I : I - I r l
IFFFFffiF
IIANDI}OOK OF TEX-I-ILE FII]RES A: NATUITALPOLYMER FIBRES

being addcd to replace any sulphate groups on the cellulose lYct Spinning
molecule by acetategroups, and the cellulosetriacetateis pre- As in the case of secondarycellulose
c i p i t a t e d b y d i l u t i n g t h e s o l u t i o n r v i t h r v a t e r .T h e c e l l u l o s e acetate,solutionsof thc
triacetatemay be spun into coagulating
triacetateis washed until free of acid, and dried. The triacetate baths which contain
water or other liquids which bring
produced in this way has an acetyl value of 61.5 per cent. about precipitationof the
lllaments.
A modificationof this solutionprocessmakebuseof methylene
chloride as solvent instead of acctic acid. Smaller amounts of l\lelt Spinning
sulphuric acid catalyst arc necded,and a mild hydrolysis pro-
Cellulose triacetate is a thermoplastic nraterial,
duces a triacetateof 62 per cent acetyl content and higher, up triacetatemay be spun into nta-ents Uy
and molten
to the maximum. mclt spinningprocesscs.
PITOCESSING
(b) N on-solutiort Proccss
.^._loittwirh orher fibres,anclrhe techuiques
I::,".;::" jt:.19: ar.,.in g.n".al,
Pretreated cellulose is steeped in benzene or other liquid
capable of swellingcellulosetriacetatewithout dissolvingit, and
l:'.9,._T'i::11t. suitable i;; i;;;",*"i;;:
is then treated with acetic anhydride and perchloric acid (or g, spinn
inf r,,,1,l;bi'i;;-co,"i
r,.'rrri.o uut.
fl:u'j:r^,.^::l
loin
aragof triacetate
othcr acid) catalyst. Acetylation procceds, but the ccllulosc ,'l::,.:il:':1r:u rnakesil ,il"irotl.
ro re(lucc
triacetatedocs nol. dissolveas it is fornrcd. lt rctains thc shape toa nriniriru'r i. wi'Ci'g.o,,ir,,,iL,ir'
nri;;;,i;,,1fi;;;
of the or'iginalcellulose.
l.lltl."''r
yafl]s.
The triacetateis washed until acid-freeand tlien dricd. High Triacetate
r r r.rLcL.rLiiyarns
yarns are
are a little
lltt.le more diflicult to size owing
thc lower moisture take-up as comp , to
rnolecularweight triacetatenray be obtained more easily by this parcd
arcd wwith
ith acelrin Siznc h,,c^,1 acetiltc.Sizes
rncthod. ort polyvinyl alcohol, acrylates,ana,''.,eiliacryiaicl-are biscrl
e*cettc,',t
r o r c o l t r u t u o u st l l a n r e n tv a n r , a n d n r o d i f i e d
s t a r c h-'
a n c lp o l y v i n y l
alcohol,are satisfacrorywith cotton-.p;;
Dry Spinning ;;;r.-'
A relativelyhigh humidity facilitatesttrc piocessing
Ccllulosetriacetatefrom many batchesis blendedand dissolvcd ---""' oI triacc-
ti\te yarns, for exarnplein knitting
in methylene chloride containing a little alcohol, to form a 20 o. w.uving.
per cent solution.'lhe solLrtionis thcn filteredand deacrated,and Dcsizing
punrped to the spinneret.
-fhe jets Watcr-solublesizes are gcnerally used,
of solution emergefrom the spinneretinto a vertical and these are rcnro vcrl
ounng scouring.Enzynre treatrnent
spinningtube whcre they meet a streanrof hot air. The methylene will remove starch.
chloridc evaDoratcs. leavins solid filarnentso[ cellulosetriacetate. Scouring
I'he filarnentsare lecl over an oiler rvhich applies antistatic
lubricant, anrl are collectediu the sanrervay as seconilaryaoettLe Fabrjcs.neecl a thorough scouring
to rentove dirt which is
fillrnc n ts. acquircd during proccssirrg.Surfacc-a c t i v c
pnosplratc, a g c rtr u r r t l t r i s o d i r r r r i
If continuousfilanrentyarn is rcquircd, tlre filanrcntsfrom the with or without soap,ntay b e u s c dc { T c c t i v c l y
(160'F.). at 70"C.
s p i n n e r e at r e c o l l c c t c do n t o b o b b i n sb y a c a p o r r i n g s p i n n i n g
rnechanism, rvhich appliesa twist.
Il lcaching
If staplc is bcing produced,the filamentsfronr a nunrber o[
multi-holed spinneretsare brought together into a tow. This is friacctatewill withstandnormal bleaching
conclitions, an<j it
c r i n r p c dr r c c h a n i c a l l ya n d t h c n c u t i n t o s t a p i c o f t h e r c q u i r c d may bc blcachcdefiecrivcly
with hypoclrior:i.
lcrrcth. sodiurnchloritc,hycJrogcn Gi:i"o. alkatirrc),
pcroxicleo. p.rn".ti"'-icid. Sodiurn
102 r03
 K F T E X T I L EF I B R E S
I I A N D B O OO A: NATURAL POLYMER FII}RE.S

II
chlorite is reconrmendcd.When triacetateis blcnded with other alkalino solutions than has.acctatc
fibrc. It is not dclustrcd by
fibres,fabrics rnay be scourcdand blcachcd,as a rule, by using boiling soap solutions.and has goo,f
Jiin",rriu,,,,l.tubility rul,.,,
techniquessuitable for the other componentsof the blend. hcat set (see below).
Triacetate fibrc withstands alkaline conditions much better Blends of triacetate with cellulosic
librcs
than acetate. rvith rcsin finishesto re.uce -"iriri"'r.".iii"i,arc cornnronly lrcatctl
fibrc anct to impart a firrncr L;;.11..-'6;;;l,itv .r r^c ccllulosic
Dycing finishing is neceslarv in rho",,-";.;":^;^^"::::::.' conrrot oI thc
Tr.iacetatefabrics can be dyed with most disperse dyestufls. In poorpliat ,.t.ntioo'o,ilitlfi;Tfii":"o nrucltrcsin cartcausc
g c n e r a l ,I r i g h e rd y e i n g t e n r p e r a t u r easr e u s e c l9, 0 - 9 B o C o r e v e r t
u p t o I l 0 - 1 2 0 " C . C a r e f u ls e l e c t i o no f d y e s t u f f si s e s s e n t i awl h e r t IIeat Setting
high tenrperaturetechniquesare usecl. In the production of cellulose.lriacetatc,
'lhe thc hydroxyl grotrpsof
use of swelling agcntsor pressure-dyeing techniqueswith the cellulose molecule h.1""
machinesyield excelleutresults. accrategroups.These bulky, .b;9;;;;il;; ,,i,;;., cnrircry by
Sanderson-type hyclroplrbfri.grui,p; havc changcd
' .
Triacetatefibre does not stain easily,and vat or sulphur dye- lhc characterof the matcrralin several
wirys.Thc Iong nrolccrrlcs
stufls may be used with blends to dye the cellulosecomponent. nrc no longer able ro nack togeth^er-as;iiil,;i;
';,1 as rlrc originll
Whcre thesedyes are used,howevcr,dyeing is donc by the two- ccllulosc.molecules,anri the po"wcrftil
bath nrcthod;thc trincctatcis dycd by dispcrscclycsin thc sccond ^y<lroxyl groups
i;;;;;f ',, r^"r io' bctwcc'
is no rorrgcr
tt,.r. to l,oliitir. iitt,,..rrrorccurcs
bath. Dircct cotton dycs can be uscd on thc cotton or viscosc tiglrtlytogcthcr.Whcnccllulosc t,i...t"i.'lr'i,.*i"|, ".p."l.ttyi,,
component,cross-dyeingblended or melangefabrics in a single theprcsence of steam.thelong.;i";;i;;;;"'iii"
bath. frectyretativeto eacliothcr;;lluio;;-i;i^;;;.;;. ro movo,rorc
Blcnds of triacetateand wool nray be dyed similarly by normal Cellutosetriacetate rhcr'ro'tirsric.
nns, howevei,-;-;;;;;;ll;rricaI
cross-dyeingmethods.Linritations will be inrposedby the fact than secondarycelluloseacetate. nrolcculc
The triacciatc rnoleculchns a
that wool is very much more sensitive to conditions than srrccessionof
triacetate. .large ncctate groups atto"trcii'lii- r"gu lar intcrvals
th" molecule, whereas secondary
:-l,o:,-g ccllulosc acctate hts a
Triacetate fabrics can be printed in the same generalway as
acetate.Dispersecolours or vat rlyes may be used.'I'heresistancc
ol triacetateto stainingrneansthat there is little risk of rnarking
l"T,
T;f,,ii:.#f .,]l
lilLi:[,?:, rl; *::**
#,il:i,'":,t
of rnoleculcsinto rcsular order is
thr;; ,;;-;".dily aclrievcd
during rvashing-off. with.cctlutosetriacctalethan wi th
;;;;j.;;;;.i, i".
Whcn cellulosetriacerarei. t,;"i;l;tir;'ilil.:u
Finishing nrovcment frcccrornof
of rhemoleculcs enablcsrh;m i" ;lj;;; thcir posirions
Triacetateis an attractivefibre with a good handle and excellent with respectto one anothcr.i"i;;"-;f;ir;:,"I,ii.,;,
draping qualitics.It is scldonrnecessaryto apply finishesto bring during spinningare relic-ve<t,. wcrc crrscd
;il iil il;",.'-r"il"'r.,r* can align
about inrprovcmcrrtsin thcse rcspccts.Softcncrs arc somctirrcs lhcmsclvcs nrorc prccisclyrnto cryslallincrcoiorrs
used, and silicone finishcs may be applied to increase water rncsccl)angcs in lhc inlcrnl.lstructurcof tiic hcllc<l
rcpcllcncy. bring about changcsin the charact".-"f-,f,"'liiri.. lrincctatc
,I.lrc
'friacetate tiglrtcr
fibresare oftcn used in blcndswith other fibres,and nrolccular struc^turcis lcss rcatlily.p.n"tini.j bi' ,noi.tr,r.,
finishcsmay be uscd to a{Iect the charactcr of other fibres in rrc a.rou.t of water t'at trr.e-'riilr. n,,.t
. u i i ir t o i i i s t r i r r i r r i s r r c t r .
the blend. Il is neccssary,thercfore, that the triacetateshould l\foistureregairrfalls lrom.4.5To
i"'irr",i'i i.ii.'n, woultl bc
stand up to conditions used in thcse finishing treatments.As r cxpcctecl, this increaseclreslstance to rvatcrpcnetratio.is accorrr-
rulc, tlrc triacctltc will causclittlc dilliculty in this rcspcct.Tritcc- prrrica.by rcduccttatrsorption
J ;i;;;l,iri;."'.1;
tatc has a rnuch greatcrresistanceto thc cllectso[ hot water antl lini.iittyi,';;;;ils,("., *r,i.r,arealreatty s,.,'t.t
i,,rl,.ilbl'J
104 105

' I ' I ' I ' I ' - [ ' l - ' '-T --t

 F.F.F.NF TT h F.FF,T'}}}T
L-F-F.
A: NATURAL POLYMER FTBRES
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES

on heating to presenceof moistureduring settingtendsto increase plasticity

fhc
This change in the characterof triacetatefibre of the triacetate, and lower temperatures may bc userl, c.g.
biio* tn" melting point is called heat setting' It
,";;;;"i;;; 125-130'C. for several minutcs.
lnlportant- iraracteristic of triacetate and
has bccome a lnost
;il"r"-ti;;;tplastic fibies, provicling a rncans of stabilizing .lleat settingis commonly followed by dccatizing,or trcarmcnt
-This
yarns' againstsubse' with steam at atmospheric pressure. rclie-vesprocessing
fabrics and garnrents'especiallyof teitured strains.jn the fabric, improving crease-rccovcry
praciical use' and faun<tcrin!
nr.'ii'a. iotiitution riuring
',li'"-'iiiu..t"te properties.
fabric is'heated under conditions which bring
will assume Plcating
rb*; r;;,i;;, ihe molecules of cellulose triacetate
a nrinimum of strain' And they The conditions used in heat setting permancnt pleats dcpen<l
tt o." potitio'n. that represent
thcse positions when the fabric is cooled again, upon the blend and the constructionof the fabric. ihe following
*iii t"ia to holcl
to heat and/or moisture such as examplesindicatc the conditionsthat may be uscd:
""""-liift" fabric is su-bjectecl
it"n"ount"rr<!rtringnormaluse'Thernoleculcswillgiveup 1 0 0 7 ot.r i a c e t a t e :
ih"ir set positions only if the fibre is hcated
to temperaturcs _ l i g h t w e i g h tf a b r i c s : 0 . ? - 1 . 0 k g / c r n 2 ( 1 0 _ 1 5
a further t?t:n.^)^ .l: - mm; heavyweight fabrics 1.0_ 1.4 kg/cnr2
If this should happen' Lo.l
itioii". itt"" that userlin setting' ( l5-20 lb/inl) for 30 min;
of rnolecular arrangenlcnt nlight taKe.place'
'"ii
ad'lustrnent 677o triacetatel33vocotton: 1.4 kglcm2 (15 lb/in2) for 25_30
"'ii"..,"," i^6ti" is heat set whilst being held{iat, therefore'
and creasing,irrrd nrin:
l, *lii.".qrir" a builri' rcsista.ceto wrinkling 60% triaceta,tcl40l/o wool: 0.? kg/crrr2 (10 lb/ln2) for 20 rrrln.
on to its heat set structure uuder norrnal
iir" "uifitv to hold
of use. It can be made into garments which have
"""aiti."i
"ury-.ur" characteristics,and require no- iro.ning.' STI{UCTURE AND PROPERTIES
thc
s.ttiug may be taken a- stagc further-by distorting
ii",rt-a"iit
before sctting is
fuUii" "r-utely into a rcquired ihape .thc Irine Structurcand Appcarancc
setting- treatment to hold the
carried out, and then using ihe Triacetateis of bulbouscross-section.
The fibrcsshow longittrdinal
;;;;;;p;;;""entlv
^-;rnpfi,. in its n-ew shape' lf a fabric is folded for striations.
molecules in
and then heated to set tlie triacetate' the-
positions that.relieve the strains set
the fibres wilt take up new TcnsileSlrcnglh
"uui"a by folding, and will setlle into situations
irv ,n" A-i.,"iii"n, Tenacity: 10.6-12.4 cN/tex (1.2-1.4 g/den) ,Jry;6.2_7.1
be held unless and
li ,nini*urn strain.Theseiositions will then
higher than that at cN/tex (0.7-0.8 g/cien) wet. Ratio w;t/dt:
u",if-,f* nU.. is heated to a temperature .
Loop tenacityd
70% approx.
, r y : 8 . 8 - 9 . 7 c N / t e x( 1 . 0 _ l . f
setting took Place.
which -t".rtiiique ilUenl.
Knot tenacityd
, ry: 8.8*9.2 cN/tex(1.0_l.l
iriit ofhcat sctting is used.to set pleats and creascs idoni.
p";;;;;;;ii; in triacetate garrnints, and to set three-dimensional
shapes in brassieres, .orft"" titti iite like' Once they have been [longation
n e w s h a p ed u r i n g a l l t l t e
h e a t s c t , t h e s eg a r n r e n t t - " t ^ i n t h e i r 25-30 pcr ccnt dry; 30-40 pcr ccnt wct.
-liave encourttcrecl irr norrnaluse' I lcat
.""aiii"i t "r heit anclI'tloisturc stability'
remarkable clinrensional Ini(ial Modulus
set triacetate garments
some 30 to 388.5 cN/tex (44 glden).
The temperatureused in heat setting is ustally
which might subsequently te encountered' SpccificGrnvi(y
+O;C, trigt er than that
example' to
""t"frfv ]" lr"ning. Fabrics rt'tay b". subjected'{or t.32.
Thc
of 20-30seconds'
i.'"p.i^,r*, or ico-zao"c.foi pcriocls
r06 107
 I I A N D B O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S A : N A T U R A Lp O L yr vEt R F T o R E S
Effcct of Moislure Chcmicalpropertics
Regain before heat treatment: 4.5 per cent; after heat treatment:
2.5-3.0per cent. Acids
The Iibre retains 70 per cent of its strength when wet. Triacctatc is resistantto dilute acids,
Triacetate is not delustred by boiling water, to which it is highly but is attackcd by strong
acids in high concentration.
rcslstant.
Alkalis
Thcrrual Propertics
has an app.reciably grenter resisrancc
I:".lll: -Acir-,sir..t
to saporrificntion
Triacetatc is tlrermoplastic. It di{Iers frorrr acctatc in its heat tlran acctate. For this rca.sonit
can,rot bc ty soup
setting characteristics.Heat treatment of triacetate increasesthe sotutionor phenol. It resis.rs
crystallinity and molecular orientation of the fibre. The effect arecommonly .airui" ^rLri* l"iriion, suchas
encountered,in.launctering,rA
is to set the fibre in a dimensionallystable state; the softening ing,but is auacked "tfi"r'*., proccss-
anclhy<lrolyzeJ uy'f,""ilil"g'"ir,"rir.
point of the fibre is raised, and its water imbibition and desree
of swelling are lowered. Getrcral
After heat treatment, triacetats has a softening point of 225.C.,
a fabric glazing point of 240'C. and a melting point of 300.C. Triacetate has a.good resistance
to thc chcnricnlscncountcrctl
Properly set fabrics have a safe ironing temperature of 200.C. proccssing.
nnttrcxritcusc.tr is ,;i';ii;i;;
ll:.n:lnlol
lry con)mon bleachinc sigrrificnntty
ngcnts.and conAitions,- l,rJuding hypo_
tes, pcracciic acid.rnd hyttrogcn
EIJect ol lligh Temperature :l]l::il:r:_.1]t".i
culonte rs recomrncndcdas a blcaching , -'-"
lcroxirJc. Sortiurrr
agint.
After trvo weeks exposureat 130'C., triacetateretained 6g per
cent of its strcngth under conditions in which nylon retained trllcca of OrgnnicSolycrrls
20 per cent and cotton 38 per cent of their tensile strengths.
Triacetatedissolvesin methylenechloride,
acid, acet.icacid, dioxan an<l m. ...,oi. chloroforrn,
-ii-'iu' formic
EfJect of Lolv Tcttrpcraturc acetone,ethylenedichloride.anrlt.i"htorociirvi.nc] swcllcd by
Triacetate yarn retains its softnessand resiliencyat extremely r_rio..t,rtcis
low temperatures. :^1-lt::1",1
carbon .bv.methvlaredspirits,b;";;;;;-;;i,.nc, xyrcnc,
tetrachloride.
rerchloroethylcnc nn,f niosi-iry.frocrrbons.
Trichloroethylcne'm'usrnor t " u."J-in'il';il;;,,s,
F larnnnbili ty preferably carriccl out with. pcrchlor""tfrif.,r"" wlrictris
solventssuch as white sprr.rt. ". pclrolcunl
Triacctatcmclts and shrivelsto a nrolten bead when it is ignitcd.
Fabricswill burn as rcadily as acetateif thcy arc of opcn wcavc.
ntsccls
Dllect of Agc friacctateis not attackerlby.mothsor nlost
larvaewhich commonlyotto"t t.*tit" tropicat
"""''' inscctsor
Triacetate is highly resistant to ageing. n;;;;"
lllicro-organisnrs
Ellcct of Sunlight
Triacelateis.highly rcsistantto attack
Triacctate is highly resistant.On exposure to severe outdoor by rnicro.organ isnrs.pro-
I o n g e db u r i a l i n s o i l c a u s c sn o t o * .
weathcringthere is little loss in strength and no ycllowing. of-irr";l;i;,,;;., no rlricro_
biological at{ack can bc clctcctecl.oo..
""t- ffi.ilr"."
t03
109

trL,Li-l .-lr--lrIrl . T - l
 O F T E X T I L EF I B R E S
HANDBOOK A: NATURAL POLYMER FI BRES
Ilcctrical Propcrties .I'RIACETATE
IN USE
fhe electrical resistanceof triacetate yarn is very high, and in
its unlubricated fornr it is superior to most textile fibres other The chemical relationship between triacetatc and acetatc is a
than glass, polyesters, polyolefins and lluorocarbons. The anti- closeone. Yet it is only in their tensilepropcrtiesthat thc two
static finish which is given to the fibre before processinghelps to fibres bear any real resemblanceto each otircr.
reduce the ellects of static to a minimum iri garmentsand fabrics. - _In many respects, triacetate behaves more like a synthctic
Triacetate is very receptive to such finishes. fibre than a semi-syntheticfibre. It posscsscsthe thcrnroplastic
propertiesand the low moisture absorption that wc nssociatcrvith
Handle synthetic fibres.
The low moisture absorption of triacetate is rellccteclin the
Triacetate which has been heat set has a crisp, firm handle which fact that the fibre retains some 70 per ccnt of its strcngth whcn
is particularly suitable for certain types of fabric including su.it- wet. Fabrics made from triacctate are casily washecland wiil dry
ings and ta{Ietas. The handle does not match that of acetate quickly.
fibre for garments to be worn next to the skin, such as lingerie
The heat setting characteristics of triacctatc are of grcat
and underwear. practical value. When fabrics are heat set they arc rendcred frce
from shrinkage, and acquire excellent dinrensional stabilitv.
Thcy arc sct pcrnrancntlyin the dcsircd shapc. Morcovcr, lrcnt
Ircatntcntincrcascsthc fastnessof thc dycstultsto washing nnd
light if they have been applied prior to Leat treatmenr.
1.4 Heat treatment is used to pro<tucepermancnt efTcctsin fabrics
made from triacetate. tPermanent pleats are put into wovcn
fabrics of all types, and permanent embosscclcfiects into knittcd
t,2
and woven materials. The permanency of pleats in blcndcd
fabrics dependsupon the amount of triacetati in the blcnd. ln
l.o two-component blends with cellulosic fibrcs, for exarnplc, n
& minimum of 67 per cent of triacetateis reouired.
g o'8
-The high melting point of triacetatcprouid", a widc margin
of safety in high ternperaturetrcatment usccl in clothing nraiu-
r,i 0.6 facture and laundering.
Triacetate fabrics have little tendency to shrink even bcfore
o.4 heat treatment.As a result, tighter constructionsarc rcquircd in
triacetateand triacetateblended fabrics than in equivalcnl fabrics
of acctate.
Triacetate docs not shrink and tightcn up thc fabric during
subsequentdycing and finishing.

srRArN (% ELoNGATtoN) \Yasbing

Triacetate is not affected by hot water, soap solutions or rnilcl
alkalis such as are used in laundering.Gainrents which hnve
been heat set are dimensionally stable and do not shrink.
' A rnel' 7'riacetateFibre.
Launderingof triacetatepresentsno problcms.
lt0 llt
 .T

I{ANDtrOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES A: NATURAL POLYMEN

FI DRES
Clothes ntade with triacetate resist soiling and are generally
- Triacetate'snon_staininr
complctely washablc, quick drying and easy to iron. Fabrics r", r"ur.Joir,';ffffi i:i,[:?;;';,:.'"0' it parricurarrv
uscf ur
made fronr triacetate should bc rvashedin warm (40'C., 104'F.)
-u
u#",.1'""Jf;,:"?l"of?,Jlg., obraina
:rlects. blcin rabricsrrr
acte
water using detcrgent or soap flakes. Garmcnts with complicated
r
.,,,ri,t. nair":1";l J;'i'r""",;:o
pleatsshould preferably be washedby hand, but many garments
with sinrpleplcats and most non-pleatedgarmentsmay be given wrtn ii T'iJnJHfi?,.,
corron.Blendetl*,,,1,ygo,, :,,I.":,li
a nrinimunr machinc wash. whlch the warmth of wo tri"""t"i"-!r."iJcs fabrics
'I'riacetate in
should never be bleached. Squeezing or wringing a'd drip dry propcrries"ii.t:.;,"#:t"ed with thc hcat sctiiril
should be avoided.
Drying
Triacetate dries quickly and easily, rcsenrbl.ingfulty synthetic
fibres in this respect.After washing, pleated garments should be
given a hand-hot (48'C., 118"F.) rinse and drip dr.ieclin their
proper shape. Other garments may be drip dried or given a
cold rinse and a short spin (15 scconds)followed by line drying.
Tumblcr drying is rcconrnrcndcdfor triacctatebut it is csscntial
to run the drier cold before switching ol[.

Ironing
Triacctatc garnlcnts should be ironed damp on the reverse siclc
with a warm iron (FILCC Setting 2) or a steam iron.

Dry Cleaning
Trichloroethylencmust not be uscd. Perchloroethylene
or pctro-
lcum solvents(e.g.Stoddard solvent) are recommended.

END USES
'l'riacetatc
is establishedin warpknit garments in underwear anct
lingerie rvhich retains its shape, and in woven and knitted fabrics
which do not shrink or cockle.Triacetateis being usedwith wool
to confer its non-shrink charactcristicson the blend, ancl is
blendcd with cotton and viscose to produce cloths which arc
conrplctelystable and fornr pcrmanent plcats.
Triacetate's drip-dry properties, and the fact that many triace-
tatc fabrics nccd no ironing, have establishedit as a libre for
use in ease-of-careskirts and dresses.On the other hand, its high
nreltirrgpoint pcrmits it to be used in blcnds or applicationswheie
high ironiug temperaturesare likely to be usccl,such as mixtures
rvith linen, or in industrial applications.

I tL
lr3

',fi ._l .*l --r ! -t '

IIAN DBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES A: N TURAL POLYMER FIBITDS

3. PROTEIN FIUTES

Inlroduction
In producing wool, silk ancr other aninral fibres,
Naturc nrirkcs
use of the long-chain moleculcs of proteins.'Tlicse
arc thc
organic substanccs ih;i ;i;y a"vitat rolc in
ll!"f::'-:o","ining
the-structure and processcs of living matter.
Only.a minor proportionof the'availabie proteinis uscdfor
producingnaturallibresin this way, anclit has
lonf bccn
-manipulated
rcalizcd
that suitablenon-librousproteins"outa p"rtrops -fr"i" t'e
to bring them into libroui form. p.","ii.
t-rrg
the.primary requirementof a fibre-fornri"gr"rr.i^ii.".motcculcs,
moleculesmust be broughtinto some --^' But thc
."ri .i-.'f ie""lcnt with
cachotherif they are to frovidc o nUr"-.
r n m!rnyprotcins,{heIongmolccules arc coilcdinto a cor'pirct
ball,with coils- bciugrinkcrrtogcthcrin prn."srrv.iicriicnlborrds.
If the moleculesof theseso-inlted
st;i,,i;;;r;;i,;,, arc ro bc

AUtlto-ActD CHEM|CAL STRUCTURE S YMEOL

GLYCINE NH2Ct12cooll
CYSTINE HoOC.CHNHa. Ct-tes.S. ClJaCt.lNH2. COOH
THREONINE c H ! c H o H .C H N H ? . C O O H o

- - - o

- - - i:-f r-r r----_---'i t-|.\

P r o l e i n .m o l e c u l e s a r e f o r n r c d b y l i n k i n g t o g c t h e r
moleculcs in diflcrcnt proporriorrf and i,'' iifr;i;ii';;q;.ii... s n r a l l a r r r i r r oa c i r l
acidssholn rt," ",uiuu
above,for ciarnplc,coukiU" ri^-t".i'iiil,i,ii,i,i"r^trt"*"yr,
two examplcsbeinggiven.
t4 l' I 15
 IIANDI}OOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES
brought into alignment in such a way as to form a fibre, they
must lirst be subjectedto some treatmentthat destroysthe cross-
links and permits the molcculesto be uncoiled.This processis
called dcnaturirtg.
When a globular protein has been denaturedsuccessfully,it
may then be possible to dissolve the protein and extrude the
solution through the fine holes of a spinneret.As the jets of
solution emergc,the protcin is coagulatedto form solid filanrcnts.
In this way, it is possibleto make useful fibresfrom certain types
of protcin.
Ii a protein is to be of value as a raw material for nraking
textile fibrcs, it must be availablc in adcquate quautity, and it
nrust be cheap.A uumber of proteinssatisfy thesebasic require-
nrents; thcy are conrmonly by-products fronr some industrial
proccss. Anrong them nrc casein, zein, arachin and soyabean
Drotcin.
Cascin is availablc in thc skimrncd nrilk which rctnlins I ftcr
butterfat has been retnoved;zein is obtainedfrom nraizc,and is a
by-procluctin starch manufacture; arachin (groundnut protcin)
and soyabeanprotein are left behind after the extraction of oil
for margirrineand cooking fats.
'I'hcse proteins
have all bectr ttsed with varying degrees oI
successfor producing protein fibres, brrt only casein libres havc
surviveclto becontea commerciallyimportant product.
In gencral, rcgeucratedprotein fibrcs tend to be weak' The
rnoleculesdo not align thenrselvcswith prccision and regularity
to form crystalline regions .in the libre, and they cannot hold
tightly togetherto provide the tensilestrengththat is characteristic
of fibres with crystallinestructure.
Like wool, regencratedprotcin fibrcs will stretch easily; but,
unlike rvool, they do not have tlre elasticitythat enablesthem to
return to their fornrer lengtl-rafter bcing stretched.
Federal 7'rade ConrtrrissionDclinitiort
The gcncric lerrn azlon was adopted by the U.S. Federal Trade
Commission for fibres of the rcgcneratedprotein type, the oflicial
definition being as lollows :
Azlon. A Ilanttfactttred fibrc in which thc fibre-fornling
substanccis conrposcd of any rcgcueratcdnaturally-occurring
protclns.
l16
L{ '_1 '*I --1 -I n ' ' r l ' [
NATURAL POLYMER FIB R!S
CASEIN FIBRES
INTRODUCTION
As long ago as 1898,solutionsof cascinwcrc being spun cxpcri_
nrentally to form fibres. casein solutions wcre forcc-crtirrougli firrc
jcts into hardening baths, forming soli<lfilanrcnts
in whiih ttrc
long casein moleculcs had been givcn suflicicnt oricntation
to
hold toge.therin typical fibre forrn. These carly cascin librcs wcrc
commercially of little value. They wcre briitlc antl hnrcl, arrcl
lacked the resilicnceand durability ncc<lcdfor tcxtilc usc..Ihcy
swclled to a high degree in watcr and.tcndcd to stick togcthcr.
During the early 1930s an Italian chcnrist, Antonio l:crrctti,
experinrentedwith casein Iibrcs to try ancl ovcrcome thcir <.lrarv-
backs.He was successful,making cas"in libres which wcrc plilblc
and had many of the propcrticsassociatcdwilh wool.
_..Ircrrcttisold his patcnts to n largc Itnlian rnyorr lirrrr _ Srrin
Viscosa - who devclopcd thc largc-scalenranufucturc of cascirr
fibrcs under the tradc-nameof .Lanitat', In I936, thc output of
'Lanital'
w a s a b o u t 3 0 0 t o n l r c s ,b y t h c f o l l o r v i n gy e : r r ' i t h u t l
le^r"]gd 1,200 tonnes,antl in 1939 tlrc productioricapacityrvrs
1 0 , 0 0 0t o n n e sa y e a r .
Casein fibres have since bcen produced un<tcrvarious nanrcsirr
a number of countries, e.B. ,Lanital' in Ilclgium antl Francc,
'Fibrolane'
in lJritain, 'Merinova' - an ilut)rovcclforru ol' tlrc.
' L a r r i t a l-'
original i n I t a l y ,a n t l ' W i p o l a n i' n i , o l i t n t l .
N ote
Infornrationin the sectionwhich follows is bascdupon ,Fibrolunc'
producedcomrnerciallyby CourtauldsLtcl. in the'UK. Altlioirglr
production has be-ensuspended,.Fibrolane'canbc rcglrtlctl as-l
typical exampleof a conlnercial protein fibre.
PRODUCTION
An outlincof the productionproccssis shownon pagc I19.
Rarv Material
Cascinis obtainedby tlrc acid trcatnrcnt
of s k i r u n r cndr i l k .T l r c
cascincoagulates
as a curd which is washcdantl dricd,and thcrr
tt7
,-I-
.F F.F.F T F F.F T T F.F,F.T}}
}IANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES NATURAL POLYMER FI BRES
grou.ndto a fine powder.35 litres(7.7 gallons) of skinrmed
milk
produce a b o u tI k g ( 2 . 2 | b )o f c a s e i n .
austtcSoda
ahd wttat
SpinningSolulion
Casein is blended to minimize the effect of variations in quality,
and is tben dissolvedin sodium
.hydroxide solution (causticsodaj.
The solution is allowed to ripen until it reaches a suitable
viscosity, and is then filtered ancl deaerated.

Spinning
Thc spinningsolutionis wet spun by cxtrusionthrough spinnerets
into a coagulating bath containing, for example, sulphuric
acid
(2^parts), formaldehyde (5 parts), glucose (2d parts)-
and water
( 100 parts). The jets of solution coagulate into
filaments in a
rnannersirnilar to.the coagulationof viscose-filaments.
- They are OEAERATION
stretched to some degreeduring coagulation.
Up to this stage,caseinspinningis simplcr than that of viscosc
rayon, as the conditionsare not so critical. But subsequentpro-
cessingmay become more jnvolved, as it is necessaryto
treat the
fibre cbemicallyin order to harden it. SPINNING
thc. solution is forced through jctr into an
.The newly-coagulatedcasein filaments are soft and weak, and acrd coagutating bath and drawn ofi ovar
rvill
.break.easily if handled. The spinning processhas aligned the
roller a5 continuous tibrs
casein molecules to some extent, but they are not organiled
into
crystal structurescomparable with those of cellulose.
Wut., p"n"- CUTTINGINTO
trates readily into the case.infilamcnt, pushing apart the SHORTPIECES
long
caseinmoleculesand softeningand swelling.thefilament.
The ellect of water on untreated casein ii such as to render it
of little use as a textile fibre. If casein lilaments are to be of
practical textile use,.they must be treated in such a
way as to
enable the long molecules to holcl together in the presence of
water, retain.ingan adequate degree of strength and dimensional
stability.
In
.c9mm91 with all proteins, casein is a highly reactive
rnatcrial,and it is possibleto makc use of this acti-vrtyto cre.ltc
cross-links betwecn adjacent cascin moleculcs. Such crosslinks
tie the casein molecules together, and prevent thcm being
apart by water molecules. Crosslinkecl casein acquires
increabed resistance to the elTect of water, retaining a higher
degree of tensile strength and resistanceto swelling.
forced
an

BALING
TT!!Tt]
Many methods of increasing the water resistince of casein
have been developed, and several techniqueshave been used
Casain Fibre FIow Clnrt
I lB I19
 IIAND DOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRE,S A: NATUIIAL POLYMER IIIDIII]S
as
successfullyin practice' The processis coluntortly clescribed lVorstcdSyslent
'harclening',in that it minimized the softening ellects of water'
For use on the worstedsystem,cascinfibrc is procluccd in 3.9,
Trcatmcn-[ivith Iormatclehydcforms thc basis of many hardening 5 . . 0a r r d d t c x( 3 k , 4 t / 2 , . 9< l e n ) , 1 0 0
.10 a r r t l1 5 0 n r r n( 4 a n d( r i n j
techniqucs. staple.Thesefibresare blendedwith rnerinoor finc cross_bretl
ln a typical casein libre production process' bunches of fila- rvools,or rayonstaple,for the rvorsted industry.
nrents are^collectedtogcther into a tow as they leave the coagula-
ting bath, and are tlten stcepedin formaldehydesolution' The FIax Systenr
filn-nrentsmay be subjected to further strctching at this stage'
After treatment, the tow is washed and dried, crinrped mechani-
Ctrt tow is conrnronly uscdon thissystcmin ortlcrto rcduccncp
cally, and then cut into staple.The staplemay .be-nradeinto tops f o r r n a t i o ne,. g .5 . 0 a n d 1 0 . 0d t e x( 4 . 5a n d9 d c n )c u t t o t 5 0 n r n r
-blending ( 6 i n ) s t a p l e . ' l ' h insr a y b e b l e n d e cfl o, r c x a r r r p l e
for witl-rwool, or may be blcnded during the carding w,i t h 5 . 0 r l t e x
(.411clen)cut viscosetow or bright rayon stapte.antl proocssed
stage.
into yarn withoutcornbing.
C o a r s ef i b r e s e , . g . 2 0 , 3 3 d t e x ( 1 8 , 3 0 d e n ) , 2 0 0r r r r n( B i n )
PROCESSING staple,may be usedon the flax andjute systcnxof proccssirrg iri
t h e p r o d u c t i o no f c a r p c ty a r n s .F i b r c so f t h e s ec l i r u c r r s i oanrsc
Spinning
u s u a l l yb l e n d e dw i t h 2 0 a . n t5l 6 d t e x( l B a n d5 0 t l e r r n) l i r t tr a y o n
Caseinfibre is producedalmostcntirclyas stitplc,tow or top' A s t a p l co f a s i r n i l t rs t n p l cl e r r g t l rn,o r r n asl t i r p l cf l b r cl r n r l r o t c r r t
smallamountof fibreis usedfor 100per centcaseingoods,but t o w b e i n g - u s efdo r b l e n d so f t h i s t y p e i n i r n o u r r t o sf'up to 50
most caseinfibre is blendedwith wool, cotton,rayon, nylon and p e rc e n to f c a s e i n .
other syntheticstaPlefibres.
Blenriscontaining caseinmay be spunon all the usualsystems' Sizing
Cotlon Syslent Warps made of staple fibre blend yarns containirrgc:rscinnray
For useon the cotton anclnrocliliedcotton systems, caseinfibre bo sized satisfactorilyfrom back-beams,cither by the ,Cotton
is oroducecl, for exanrple, in 3.9 dtex (3.5 clen),50 rnnt(2 in) or SlasherSystem'or by the 'Rayon SlasherSystern'.Short warps
65',n,u Qi in) staple,ancl5.0 dtex (4.5 den),65 nrm (2% itt) carr be prepared by section warping and sizcd bclrns, to bcaiu
itrpt.- Vir.ote' staple'is comutonlyble.nclecl caicin for on a normal multi-cylinder rayon sizing machine.
.with
sDiirnineon the coitom systern, a typical and highly successful It is important that the constitucntsof thc size uscd shoul<l
fr-i..a fi,ti"g l/3 casein,i dt.* (4.5 ien),.65. ntnt (2tA in) and be readily removable,i.e. they shoul<Ibe complctely rcmovablc
2 / 3 v i s c o s e ' s t a p t e ,c: l.tfe x( 3 d e n ) ,6 5 m m ( 2 %i n ) ' from the woven fabric by a mild scouringtrcatrnentwhich corn-
plies with the conditionssugges(cd.
lVoollen Systertr Among the morc common readily rcmovablc sizing ntatcrials
For use on the woollen systetn,caseinfibre is produced,lor suitable for use with casein blcnd yarns arc:
exanrple,irr 5.0 dtex (4.5 ilen), 50 and -55 ntrn (.2 an<I2tA in) l. Tho water-solubleccllulosccthcrs,and
s t a r r l ca, n t t l 0 d t e x ( 9 d c n ) , 6 5 a r t t l 1 0 0 n r n r ( 2 % a n d 4 i n )
2. The water-solublestarchcs (i.c. rnodificd starchcs,starclr
staple.For carpet blends,ireavierdeniers,are produced,e'g'
cthers and starch cstcrs).
2 0 ' d t e x( 1 8 d e r i )a n c 3l 3 d t e x ( 3 0 d e n ) ,l l 5 n r r t r( 4 % i n ) s t a p l e '
Illencle<l yarnsspunon the woollcnsystcmcomlnoulycorrtain The starch should contairra lubricarrt,a rvater-dispcrsible
oil
about { caicin anrl } wool or rayon staple.Highcr proportions (i.e. one containing a mineral or vcgctablc oil clissolvedor
of caseitr - up to l' - arc uscdin producingblcndedcarpetyarns clispcrscd.in a sulphonated oil) being the rnost satisfactory.
containingcoarserfibres. Such a lubricant is readily compatiblc with tn aqucoussolution
l?0 l2l

q
TTT F F h F T I T h E E E E E E E E I:
l)
HANDDOOK OF TE,XTILE FI BRES
I of one of the starch or cellulosc derivatives referred to above,
and is, ntoreover, easily removed from the woven fabric.
Using a Rayon Slasher, rayon/casein blends yarns may be
dried after sizing,at a maximum cylinder temperatureof I10.C.
Casein blends with acetate or other thermoplastic fibres should
be dried at a maximum cylin<Jersurface teritperatureof 100.C.
Using a Cotton Slasher, the maximum temperatures should
be some 5"C. lower in cach case.
It is preferable to aim at obtaining a stretch during the sizing
operation of not more than 3-4 pcr cent. and to have sonre
5-7 per ccnt of size on the warp yarns for satisfactory weaving.
IYcaving
There are no special difiiculties in weaving blend yarns, e.g. of
casein and rayon staple contairringup to { of casein,either as
singles- suitablysized,or as unsizedfolded yarns.
Desizing
Enzyme products may be used, preferabty at pH 4.0 to 6.0. If
water soluble sizeshave been used,desizingis not neccssary.
Scouring
Syntbetic detergents should be used, preferably under acid
conditions,e.g.pll 6.0
Illcaching
In common with all wet processing,bleaching should be carried
out if possible under rvedkly acid conditions, e.g. pH 4.0-6.0, as
casein fibres retain maximum strength and minimum swelling
under theseconditions.
Hypochlorite bleachesshould not be used.
Bleaclring may be carried out with two volumes hydrogen
peroxide buffered to pll 8.0 rvith I kg/24 litres sodiunr
pyrophosphate.Alternatively, an acid stabilizer nray be used.
Bleaching can usually be ellected cold, by steepingovernight.
If alkaline processingis used, it must be followed by careful
washing and acidificatiorrwith acetic acid.
Optical bleachingagents miry be applied as for other fibres
and blends.
l22
A: NATURAL POLYMER FIBRES
Dycilrg
Casein absorbs moisture readily and does not havc a highly
orientated structure. Dyes can penetrate into thc fibre witfiorit
difiiculty.
In general, casein can bc dyed with dyestu{Is use<lfor wool.
Acid, basic, direct and disperse dyes are use<l where good
wash.ing-fastnessis not a prinre essential.Carbolan and Ncolan
dyes give superior wash fastness.
It is essential to employ modifie<l techniqucs in the tlycing
processesif the desirable propertics of cascin fibre are to
bc
preserved.In particular,it is neccssaryto establishcarcful control
over pH and temperature. Bullerecl systems should bc use<jto
keep the pH of the dye liquor betweenpFI 4 and 6.
Casein Staple Fibre ond Continuous Tow
Caseinstapleis commonly dycd for cvcntuirlusc ns prcsscdfclts,
needleloomcarpets,or in woollen blends to bc usc<|,ior exnn.,pl",
in coatings. For these purposes aggrcgateclor nrctallizcd iciri
dyes.are mainly uscd. Selectedchrontc tlycs providc a high
standardof fastness.
Continuous tow is dyed for various purposcs,nncl lcvclling or
aggregateddyes will usually provide thc rcquircd fastness.I,Icavicr
deniers require less dye per unit weight titan finer dcnicrs, ancl
at the same time are more readily penetratedby <tyeliquois.
Casein taken from thc balc is clean ancl alrnosi ncuiral, ancl
tvi_flnoJ, as a rule, require scouring or treatment before <lycing.
After dyeing, the fibre should be rinscd and given a soft nnish,
followed by the applicationof antistaticagent. Continuous tow
is usually given the soft finish, but antisiatic agent is seldom
applied.
Caseinllltool Blends, Staplc Fibre or Tops
Blends of wool and cascin arc sometinrcstlyccl in thc forrn of
staple fibre in the woollen trade, or as tops for thc worstcd tradc.
The procedure is similar to that usccl with cnscin alonc, but
greatercare is neededin dye selectionto producc a satisfactory
solid shadeon both fibres in the blcnct.
It is preferableto convert tops to hankcd sliver ancl dyc in
nrachinesof the Obermaier type.
t,{' t23
 IIANDBOOK
O F T E X T I L EF I B R E S A : N A T U R A LP O L Y M E RF t DN E S
ln dyeing these blends,it may be neccssaryto raise the tem- under slightly acid conditionsd uring.
perature sufliciently to ensure adequate dye fastnesson the wool _scouring. fhc clyc liquor
is therefore adjusted to pH 6 Utf, uiitti"l.iu:"
conlponent. --'
i.i.l, the goods
receiving a final treatrnent ut pl-I q aftcr
Casein/wool blends are also dyed as yarn or fabric, and as JV.i,ig.-
various forms of felt. Dyes cornmonly used include levelling, Drying
aggregated,metallized acid or chrone dyes, and dyeing of yarns
is carried out in the Hussong machine or in package form, and After dyeing, loose stock yarns may be centrifugallyhydro-
extractedbcfore bcing dried,and.
piece goods in the winch. in convcntionalniiini.-
Levelling acid dyes for carpet yarns, certain woollen-type labrics may bc hydro-cxtractcdby opcn
lo.vcn witlth suction
cloths and felts, are selectedfrom those of this class with neutral nrachine,or.by centrifuging^in open width.
if basket typc extnrc-
dyeing properties. Dyeing is carried out at pH 4, f.or f hour at lors are used,excessiverunning timc shoulcl
U.-f-iigfi-
ouoia.a to prcvcnt
thc boil, and thereaftersliglrtly bclow the boil. development of creases and- crack
rnn.Lr. rpec<I watcr
Aggregated or metallized acid dyes, or chrome dyes, provide manglesare not reconrmended.
a higher standard of wet fastnessfor hosiery yarns, particularly A recontmended drvins proce<lureis cither
to tlry on a slack
in darker shades,and for some worstcd-typecloths. Most of thc drier, followecl by stenteiing, or to
<!ry and finish on an ovcr-
aggregatedor metallizedacid dyes are applicableat pH 6, and fced stenrer. Ir is essentialto allow
"r'o;;qr',;;;;;rinkage fronr
dycing is usually carried out at 90-95'C. grcy to finisheddimcnsions.
Selectedchrorne dyes are suitable for dark shades of high
wet fastness,using either the chromate or the after chrome I'rintirrg
methodsof dyeing. Casein blend fabrics rnay be printcd
vcry cfl'cctivcly.Coo<I
rcsults nccessitatcthorough preparatiorr.
CascinlCellulosic Fibrc Il lends If--singcingis rrcccssary,
a ltglrt treatnrcrrtwith a low burncr will
sullicc.A thorouglrscorii
Blends of caseinrvith cellulosiclibre may be dyed in the yarn is essential.
form for thc hosiery and carpet trades,but thcy are more cont- Casein fi_b-rcis generally white, and. bleaching
is
monly dycd as [a b rics. necessary.If required. however, a rt il<.lpcrborite not usually
Yarns are dyed on the Hussong nrachine, or may be package bleach should be used una.. "ont.oii.;-.;;;i;;;;: or pcroxide
dyed on cone or chcese;fabrics are usually dycd on a winch.
the fabric should b" G;;';;';i'c rins, un<tcr
For nrost general purposes,these blends are dyed to solid **lt-::_f'_"!.'ing,
mlnlntum warp tension, followed by white room
shadeswith direct dyes and the addition, if necessary, of aggre- a stable width. Alternatively, tlie fof.i"rnny-fr" stcutcring to
gated acid dyes. As a rule, Class B direct dyes are of greatest a-ri.d dircct on an
enclosedstenter. In all casls, high t".p.iitr."r*
interest; they have the least aflinity for casein and permit the -brr.hi;;-.1;;;tl oild ou"r_,t.yi,,g
should be avoided. Whire room
use of acid dyes on the latter. b*""unn"..r."ry,
but if employed, care shoulcl be takcn
Suitablcacid dyes are drawn fronr the aggregatedor metallized &;;iJ;.;;rcing a hairy
surface.
classesof dye. In general, dyeing at high tcntperatureswill ,Fabrics
favour thc absorption of dircct dye by the casein, but thc -containing casein may. be printc<l by block, scrccrr,
rollcr, surlacc roller, and rno<Jificcl
pnp., irilnr# nr"cilrous.ncitt,
relative rate of dyeing on a ccllulosic fibre and casein can bc chrome,mordant,nroi",'uot'of'p-ig,.r,.n,
controllcd by carelul addition of salt and CalsoleneOil HS. It B:rt;;.11r..,, .ry.. ulny
is also possiblcto produce other attractiveclTectsby dyeing thc Acid.or dircct dycs shoul<Ibc appliedin
casc,inonly with aggregatedand metallizedacid dyes. potentiallyacid paste.In.sonre..or.i, a slightlyacid or
Cellulosicblends,being dyed with direct dyes, do not usually
it ,nny b""n""".s[ry ro
modify thc viscosityof tnc pnrrtrngpaste
rcquire bullercd systenrs,as they have alrcady been proccssed in orclcr
"wolt to obtain
definitionsimilar to that obraincd*iri
i.y"i,, o, .ottou
t24 t25

- t.,l r I r I 'l r-t

TErrr t t t t t F.Frr t I t t t t I
I I A N D B O OK O F T E X T I L E FI BRES
^: NA.TUIIAL POLYM EIt
FIBRES
fabrics. Casein blends will require a less viscous paste, for
containingcaseinfibre lencl thenrsclvcs
example, than 100 per cent rayon fabric, and slightly more -..,1,i!ri"j
rarsrng.Bestresultsare obtaincdby using rcadily to
viscouspaste than that used with 100 per cent cotton. and dry raisingprocesses ,,'rl"*.r^," of raising,
The rninimum amount of alkali should be used on alt print are recommcndcd.
mixtures,but vat dyes may be pr.intedby the potassiumcarbonate
Cnrbonizing
formosui method and naphthols may be applied in the usual
nlanncr, bullering being advisable.In many cascs,it is preferable Case.inwill withstanclthe carbonizing
treatment when carricd oul
to use the Rapidogen form of azoic combination. In general, wirh the minimum srrengrh.
of .ufpirii"'""id'r;c;ssary ror
normal printing proceduresnray be followed, but it may be cflcctive rernoval of vegctzrble thc
rn"tt"r. afi.r'"ir..,nr"nt,
necessaryto modify the printing mixtures slightly in the case of bewellrinse<l thc
"na ",rlu.t".r'i"ou'o wirhsodium
certain dyes, knowledge of which can be obtained frorn ordinarv i]:1il:fl'":"'.
rnay
.be ",:..":9 out beforcor afrcr <rycing;
s w a t c hp r i n t i n g .
,j:r??l1"g if
Normal ageing and steaming proceduresmay be followed, thegenerai'
iiJ.".l3'li'"1#T"':'"i";i:Jif: t'n'r'n.ior"ir,"
but unnecessary and excessive steaming should be avoided,
espccially in the presence of alkali. After ageing or steaming
the fabric should be washedoff quickly and not allowed to stand llilling
ovcrnight.The fabric should not be finishcd.inan alkaline statc. Cascin fibre itsclf clocsrrot
display any nrilling propcr.tics,
blcnds 'Ji,.r,
of cascinwirh orr,., niii_,r.itiil';,;;;r: nn<J
Stripping staplcor nylon, shoulclnot bc processcd o. .uyou
-i' -''ii
in rrrillingntacltirrcs.
Partial strippirrgof blends of caseinwith wool or rayon staple
rnay be achievedby working the rnaterialat approximately80.C. ,nltl'ff "lt -;:'"':lJ'fr ,:"""' "v.u"andr".1'iu?""nu,pr",on
nrillirtgnraclii'c,or
in a clean liquor containing 5 per cent of CalsoleneOil HS thc hcavier type of nn"tllu-ll3:'irrg
rniling. The ;1&.";r;"lir"" dcsigncdonlv for
calculated on the weight of material. ;oJ':'..il0'"'"'
th,oytg
lf more severe stripping is required, this may be carried out ^.ll shrinkbe remenrberecr
otten
that brendsof caseinancrwool wiil

lHffi ,,,.:;:"bu;
moreouicklv
in a Iiquor containinga neutral solution.of sodium hydrosulphite
at approxinratcly50'C. i","i;Ji; ;;;;;i;; y,,lli,"[ ::il,,,:ll *l:
Initial small-scaleexperinrentaIstrippings should always be . A sui(ablenrillingrncdiumis a rni*t,',r"-oi'i'il, o[ soap
carried out. I part of synrhetic
dercrpent. to
c..or" n.,iili,,!'_'";";: carric<I
our
only.the requirccl
I;inishing
:']:1
df ti
l'Ji
"' ";,;i,Y**
tr:l'
imornt of fr"e ai-taii'io sanonify

i*ml'.,l'_.,',,
rhc

Crease-resist linishesntay be applied to blends containingcasein

fibre, using telnperatureswhich are preferably not higher than
::'$!iT?f
generalfor most feltedstructurcs.
washingoff is essentialaftcr scotrring
160"C. (320"F.) for approximately2f minutes.The polymeriza- ";:il,,i'#T;ff,;",:o"l::0"',T'j;,lii,Xi
,,.1,-1,]:r."_"gh
ccnt
o".. bascii
or nrilling,
tion may be carried out .in a convcntionalbaking charnber,and ;1, l;j;1at
it should be followed by lhorough rvashing with a neutral
"',"il'xl'l,:li'';ilff
jH.?lii'f
detergent.
The final percentage of added resin, calculated on the bone :l;::',:"'.li!y*:' l*i"'i;
dry weight of fabric, should preferably not exceed8 per cent.
I{andlc rnay be inrproved by adding proprietary softcning
*'*i,liy*."1:"1;i,11'',;l,t*,,"::fi
il''"1^'ifi
strortdprocccdu'ril r'c pH .-ir..t'""i" l*it.t;l jU
agents to the last wet proccss bcfore drying. pI{ 4. i""i,,iliir"' is abour
126
127
 T I A N D B O O KO F T D X T I L E F I B R E S A : N A T U R A LP O L Y M E RF I B N E S

STRUCTURE AND PI{OPEITTIES filTccl of Sunlight

Vcry little. Similar to wool.
liinc Slruclurcand Appcarlncc
The filanrcntsarc snrooth-surfaced,with faint striations. Cross- Chcntical propcr(ics
scctionis bean-shapcd to almostround,with a dappledelTcctdue
to pitting. Acids
Caseincan be spunin the form of fine lilaments,with diametcrs
Cascin is stable to acids of modcratc strcngth
of 20-30u.. "pcr undcr nornrrl
conditions. It can be carbonizcrt with coiJ
The naturalcolouris white. i cent sulphuric
acid solution.
TcnsileStrcngth _.,Caseinfibre disintegrates in strong nrineral acids. It rcsists
dilutc mineral acids a-nclweak. organ-ic o"i.tr,
C a s e i nf i b r e h a sa t e n a c i t yo f 9 . 7 - 8 . 0 c N / t e x( l . l - 0 . 9 g / d e n ) "u.n at elevatccl
temperatures;some loss of strength and embrittlcnlenI
clry.Wren wet, the fibreslose much of their strength;tenacity nlay occur
after boiling for long periocls.
fallsto 5.3-2.6 cN/tex(0.6-0.3 g/den).
Alkalis
Ilonga(ion
Liko wool, cascin is scnsitivc to nlknli.
60-70per cent,wet or dry. Mild nlknlis such ns
sodium bicarbonate and disoclium hy,lrogcn- piiosptrat"
little effect.at low ternperatures. travc
Spccilic Gravi{y Stron! atizrtis,'sucnas causlic
soda or soda ash causesevercswelling a-ndwill
uttimot.ty disintc_
1.30. grate the fibre.

Iiflcct of l\loisturc General

Caseirrtends to absorb moisture readily, and the fibres become The chemical structure of casein fibre bcars
sontc rcscnrblance
srvollen and soft. They may become plastic and sticky as the to that of wool. Both fibrcs are proteins, but
ilrc-<tetailc<l
con_
tcmperatureis raised.Regain under standardconditionsis about struction of the protein of casein clillcrs'from
ilr"i "t wool. In
14 per cent (cf. wool). casein itself there are no sulphur bridges zuch
as thcre are in
wool keratin. Bridges of dillerent cheriical
typ., ur" built into
Thcrmal Propcrlics the casein during Lreatment with formaldetiyic
Ji aluminium
Casein fibres generally soften on heating, particularly when wet. salts.
Hydrogen peroxide can be safely used as
bleach. At high
E{Ject of I{igh Tentperature temperaturesit will cause some yellowing.
The fibres become brittle and yellow on prolonged heating at
over 100"C. Dccompositionis appreciableat 150'C. ElTcctof OrganicSolvcnls
Dry cleaningsolventsdo not causcdanrage.
Flanrttnbility
Caseinfibres burn slowly in air. Flantmabilityis similar to wool. Insccts
Caseinfibre is not attackedby.nroth grubs to thc
Iillcc( of Agc srme degrecf,s
wool. Danrage may bc caused, howJvcr, whc'
tiic"cas.in fibrc
V c r y r c s i s tnat . is blendedwith wool.

r28 t29

- l r l r I r I r l r - r I - I r r r l
 T ET,TT} E E-E
ITANDI}OOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES A: NATU ItAL POLYMER I]TBITT]S

Micro-orgauisms CASEIN FII]RES IN USE

Casein libres are attackcd by mildews, particularly when moist. 'fhe
iow strengthof caseinfibre anclits sensitivityto watcr have
rcstrictedits use, but it has found a number of applications
o[
Elcctrical Propertics importance in certain textile fields.
Diclectricstrengthof caseinfibrcs is Iow. Casein fibres are produced almost entirely as staple, and arc
.
intendedprimarily as blend fibres for mixtuie with wool, cotton,
rayon,.acetate,nylon and other synthetic staple libres.
Other Propcrtics In blends with cotton and rayon staple, cascin brings warmth,
Cascin fibre resembleswool in having a soft warm handle. The rcsilie,nceand a full, soft handle. Being of excellent colour,
fibres are naturally crimped, and yarns have a characteristic it make.s.possiblethe production of good whitcs, ancl prolongej
rvarnrthand fullnessof handle. wcar trials have shown that the whitencssof fabrics madc
fronr
Casein fibrcs provide good thermal insulation. They are thcse ya-rns is preserved throughout the life of the garnrcnt,
resilient,like wool. irrespective of the numbcr of washes it is civcn.
Biends containing one part casein to two prrts rayon staplc
or cotton have been found particuhrly satisiactory.1.will arr<l
float rvcavcsbring out r.nrxinrurnsuppi.nussin thj flbric, nnd
lhc crease_resistanceis good. This rnay bc strcngthcncd where
rcquired,for examplein suitings,by applicrtion oia crcasc_rcsist
finish. Shrink-resist finishes are aiso- uscd where ncccssary ro
improve the shape,stability or resistanceto shrinkageon wasliing.
Most of the casein libre producecltoday is used in blenclswitlr
wool. Casein has a soft handle and warmth thlt nrakc
it
particularly suitablefor this purpose,and it enablcsthe
spinner
to produce a yarn of lower cost.
Casein lilamentscan be spun to very fine diamcter,enabling
them to blend with thc finest qualitics of wool. Cascin librc oT
20p diameter is as fine and soft as the 70s wool used for making
baby clothes. Casein of 30p diameter is equivalent to 50s wool.
The proportion of case.inused in blends with wool will <tcocn<j
upon the eflectrequired;one third caseinis gencrallysatisfaciory.
Casein may increasethe shrinkagein linishing in so*. .on-
structions,and allowanceshould be made for this in the sctting
of the cloth.

lYashing
Carmcnts containing cascin fibre should be washcd with carc,
and treatcdas gentlyas wool. Flarshconditionssuch as cotton will
withstandmust not be used.High temperatures and strongly acicl
or alkaline conditions must be avoidLd. Ncutral dcrcrgcnrsare
Caseirt ('Merirtova') preferable for washing.
t30 l3l
 IIANDBOOK OF'I'EXTILE F I DRES
A: NATURAL POLYMER FII}RES
Fabrics containing casein blended with wool are obviously
rnd.similar blends, also .introclucing
nylon. Thc conrbination
wool-like in appcaranccand handlc, and thcy will automat.ically
c;rscinand corton for kniucct fabrts i ri"*s gl"i'iicxibiliry o f
be trcatccland washcdas wool, causingno difficultics.Blcnds o[ of
garnrcntdesign and knittcd structurc,
cascinrvith cotton will gcnerally be wool-like in handle,and will
Caseinblendcdwith wool,.coilon, rayon staplc,
bc treatedas rvool, but such materialsshould be suitably labelled nylotr an<!
othcrfibrcshasmany possibirities in inc ncttroi-'.,rcutn,.
to avoid any possibilityof harsh treatrnentduring washing. t uitt..t
pilc fabrics,Raschclcloths,coatings,blankctfabrics,ctc.
Drying Fclts
Garnrentsshould be dried as wool, care being taken to avoid Onc of the earliestusesfor caseinl.ibrcwas in thc
high temperaturcs. mrking of
fclt for hats.Caseinfibresdo not have'a;;iy';,,;i"""
like wool
Iibres.,but they will soften and.stick togcthlr in
Ironing
*ornl *ot"r,
fornringa feltedmass.Mixed *itn *ooi, ?or"i,, iil..,
wiil rnake
The full, soft handle of garments containing casein will be the wool felt more readilv.
nraintainedif they are only very slightly damp, or almost dry,
before being ironed or pressed.Wool settingsshould be used,
i.e. warm iron (HLCC Sctting 2). Prc.rscdFclts
Dry Clcaning Dlcndsof caseinanclwool arc rnade.intopresscd
fclts for usc as
floor coverings.The compact fclting ot'tfi"- frf",rO givcs
Casein is not aflected by dry cleaning solvents,and garments ,,.:lglL-".19 high
properriesi"c"sso.y foi rioo. covcring.
containingcaseinnay be dry cleanedas readily as wool. lr..d-wearing
used lor this purposeincreases
-^,r-:-yrt the rate of milling, ar;l
rcouces costs.
End Uses
C0rpets
Kttittittg Y arns BIcndsof rvooland caseinare usedin corrvcntional and tuftcd
Cascirr and rvool blends are used for fingcring and nrachiuc carpcts.The caseincontribulcsa high dcgrceof rcsiliencc, gooJ
knitting yarns, the whitenessof caseinlending itself to the pro- coveringpower (low fibre dcnsity),w"rnith, "*""li",rt
soil resis-
duction of pastel shades. lancedue to the smoothcross_seCtion, and rclativclylow pricc.
The caseinis obtainablefor this purposcin purc white natural
Knitted Fabrics colour,or in a largerangeof spun-clye<t
colouis.
Pile carpetsare nrade with 50 per ccnt cascinblcn<lcd
Worsted spun yarns containing blends of between 30 per cent with
rvoolor rayon staple.
and 50 per cent casein with wool are very suitable for knitted
jerscy fabrics rvhere a soft full lrandle is required, together with . Blendsof cascinand rayon stapleare widcly uscdfor necdle-
loomcarpeting. The caseinprovidcssoftncss,6ultanrfwarmlh,
a widc range of solid dycd shades,fronr dark colours to pastcls.
and 50/50blcndsof cascin.arr<lrayonstaplc"onr1rur" favourably
Casein/wool blends are used for knitted berets,in which a
with an all-wool carpct in hanile, appcararrciano wcariug
dcgrcc of nrilling is required to produce the necessaryfelted
properties.
structure.
For interlock outerwear, 'T' shirts, cardigans,jumpers etc., ResilientFillings and padtlings
interestingefTcctsntay bc obtaincd with cotton-spunblcnds of
Cascinfibre has cxcellcntinsulationpropcrtics,
and good corn-
{ cascin,+ cotton; } casein,;}rayon staple(spun-dyed), } cotton, prcssibility
and resilicnce.
The lattcrpropcrtics
dcpcndto a largc
132
I JJ

' I ' [ rJ r l .--l

: ' - - - -

I I A N DBO O K O F T E X T I L EF I B R E S A: NATURAL POLYMER FIBRES

extcnt on denier and staple length, and by suitablesclectiono f

fibre dimensions the characteristics of linished articles mav be CROUNDNUT PROTEIN FIBRE ('ARDIL)
obtained to suit requircments.
INTIIODUCTION
The natural protein fibres,silk and wool, possessso many attrac-
tive propertiesthat they have always scived as quality
hbres in
thc tcxtile trade. But animal_der.ivcd fibres are, by ihcir very
nature, expensive.They are subject to all the unicrtainties
,nnerentrn anything of animal origin. They are expensive,
an<l
'their
vary greatly in quality. Moreover, in the case of-
wool,
productionoccupiesland that could be devotcd growing
to food.
The proteins frorn which theseanimal Iibres are riradecorne,
in
the lirst place, from proteins in
.the plants that are eaten by
food. These plant proteins difler from animal proteins
Ti.T1lr,o.r
ln tne detalledstructure of thcir molecules.Dut all protiins
arc
basically sim.ilar in chenrical design. All protein
molcculcs arc
in.the.form of long threadsof atonrs.plant prot"inr,
as wcll as
animal protcins,are thereloreable to satisfy thc nrst
rcquircrlrcnt
of a fibre-forming material.
The successfulproduction of-.Lanital', ,Fibrolane,,
ancl other
case.infibres showed that non-fibrous ariinrafjroicin
rnolecules
c.ould
berearranged
andaligned
to bringthenriritoifibrousfoiirr.
Thersjs no reasonwhy the same thing'shouldnot be donc
in the
caseof protein derived from plants.
lltet Spinning
In 1935, ProfessorsW. T. Astbury and A. C. Chibnall
suggcstcd
to Imperial Chemical Industries itd., that nb.es "oufa
bc made
by dissolvingvegetableprotcin in urea and extrudinl
ilre solution
rnrougnsprnneretsinto coagulatingbaths.At that time
I.C.I. was
engaged.in researchdesigned to aisist in thc devclopment
o[ thc
world s tessprosperousareas,with a view to finding
new usesfor
their products. One of the most likely sourcesof veietable protcin
for libre production was ground-nuts,which g.oil
o. a sttplc
product in many of the hot, humict regions of
ilte wort<t.
Groundnuts (peanuts, Monkey nuts) irc usea in large quantities
as a source of the arachis oil required for making
nrargarine.
The meal remaining after removal of the oil "onlin,
i- higt,
proportion of protein. This protein was regardcd
as a potcntiaiiy
suitable source of vegetable protein fibre.-

t34 t35
 IIANDBOOK
O F T E X T I L EF I B R E S
A: NATURAP
L OLYMER
FTBRES
Experintentswere cnrricd out, and a processwas developedfor
Extractcdnreal-produce<lby the normal cxtractiorrproccss
nraking the pcanut protein fibre which becanteknorvn as.Ardil'. uscd
In rne production of arachis oil
(-fhe fibrc was llrst nrade at Ardeer irr Scotland.) is subjccted to too high a
temperature,which leads to a deterioratloi,
Ily 1938,plans wcrc nrade for pilot-plant production, but thc oi1fr" propcrticsof
the protein.
war held up further progress.Experimental production of 'Ardil'
About 50 per cent of the extractedmcal
eventually began in i946. Conrntercialmanufacttrrefollowed. a consistsof protcin,
the actual prorein contentvary.ingu".oiAlilg
factory being built at Dumfries. By I 951 'Ardil' was .inproduction tl"iLc nraturityof
the seedsand the conditionsund"i which
at the factory, rvith a planned output of 9 rnillion kg. a year. ttii nr. g.o*u.
Production of 'Ardil' rvas suspendcdiu 1957.
protcinis cxtracte<I f.; iii;',,;; by dissolving
,, lr.--rro.ynd,ru1
It ln causticsodasolution,the residueafter
Notc
valuablecattle food which.,containl-*;;-3 citractionbcing a
In the sectionrvhich Iollows, information on grourrdnutfibres is
from.glutelinsinsolublern the causticsoda. i"r"".n, nirrogcrr
based upon the fibre 'Ardil', as it was whcn production ceased Acidificationof the nro-teinsotrtion pr""ipitatcs
whichis rhe raw materiil rro'n *r,iiri thc proteirr,
in 1957. nrir;[''.,;;;;

PII.ODUCTION Spinning Solution

Croundnutproteindissolvcs. in lqrrcous
-,r.ii"Lr"',,ltyf
Ilarv I\hlcriul trrcn,an.rrnonir,cnuslic
sod., and solutions of
Croundnuts are the seedsof a sub-tropicalannual plant,Araclis sulphonare. -clctcrgc.is
In rhe manufa.tu;;-;i n;;; jiir,; bcrrz'rc
caustic.soda ""'' sorurio'so[
Itypogaca1., which is cultivated in lndia, China, West Africa, wercusedto dissolvetir" pr"i.i".
Bornco and the southernstatcsof U.S.A. . A,.solutjonof grounclnu_t
proteinin <jilutccausticsodasolutior.r
is allowed to maturc un<tcicontrollcJ
-'fhe,groundnut plant grorvsto a height of about 26 crn (10 in). """afil"lu for 24 hours.
After fertilization the stalk of the ovary elongates,pierces thc During.the maturarion,the viscosity-"i-il':;i;,i"n
ground to a depth ol 25-75 rnrn (l-3 in), and the seed-pods probablyas a result of the.unwindi,ig incrcascs,
"f i"itr.j'"r coiled nrolc_
ripen unclerground. gf globularprotein..
At.the cnj oi Ur"-,*ti"^tion pcriod,
:ul:r,
a stablesolutionof suitableviscosityn,iJ,pi,,,ri,u"irrnructcrist.ics
After harvcsting,the nuts are shcllcd or dccorticatect.
The recl
skins are then removed Irom the shcllcd nuts, togcther with hasbeenproducect.
forcign matter such as snrall stonesand nails. - ^The solids contentof the protein solut.ionis betwccn12 ancl
The nuts, lvhich contain about 50 per cent of oil, are crushed 30 per cent.
and pressed. Sorne80 per cent of the availableoil is squeezedout,
leaving an oily groLrndnutmeal which is reducedin breakerrolls Spinning
and passcdthrough {laking rolls. The thin flakes pass via a series
of bucketson an endlesschain into an extractionplant. As they
of groundnut.
protcin is Iitrercdand punrpc<r
ll:_::l:ji"l
splnnerets, throughwhich it. is extruclcdot-.on.i"nt ro
pass through the plant, the buckets of meal are subjectedto a ratc into
an acid coagulating barh.Thc .pin,r"i"i fi"f"r""r"'typically
thorough washing with solvcnt (hexane) which removes the 0.07-0.10 ot
nrnr.diamcter.
renririnderoI the arachis oil.
The coagr:iatingIiquor
Thc extracted nreal is heated under low pressurein steam- sulphuricacid, sodium sulphate.consistsof a solution containing
jackctecl pans to renlove residual solvent. lt is then cooled, ,"a ^.,*iu,,rl,'".i,"rr.tanccs.
It is
majntaincd a remperaturc bctwccnrz .,i,i'io;i.'
screcnecl,rveighedand bagged. .at
,n.. tllam€ntis beingspun,it is strctclrc<l
'fhis
specialtechniquc lor relnoving oil fronr groundnut mcal ^,,1:
arlgnrnent to incrcascthc
of thc proteinmorecures. lt coagutals-toa firament
was dcvised to provide protein suitable lor llbre production. thlt is wcak and flabbywhcn wet, an<l
brittlcwhcndry. At this
t36
137

T 'r,t r r-l r-I ' r --T

I l'''lFl E T E F . F F F I ' 'I1: nt
O F T E X T I L EF I BR E S
HANDBOOK A: NATURAL POLYMER FI BRES

stage,the filament dissolvcseasily in dilute saline solution and

in dilute acid and alkali. After leaving the coagulatingbath it
is treated with formaldehyde to harden and insolubilize it (see
CaseinFibre), and it is then dried and cut into staple. Modulus of Torsional la-gidily
I.3 x 10todyne/cmr.
PROCESSING
Specifc Gravity
Scouring r.31.
Wet processinginvolving the use of alkali should be carried out
at moderately low alkali concentration and temperature. Wool- Ellcct of Moislure
type scouringconditionsare suitable,and processessuch as kier Regain.: 12-15 per cent (depending
boiling should not be used with fabrics containing groundnut -toupon type).
protein fibre. [xnands slightty when wet,irying"
'Heat iiieiriai ilrn.nrionr.
of wetting: 26.6cal.lg.-

Bleaching Thcrmal Properties

Sodiunr hypochloriteand sodium chlorite causedcgradationand Docs not soften or nrelt on heating.Chars
at 250,C.
should not be used.Hydrogcn pcroxide is the preferredbleaching
agent. Flanunability: less flammable than
wool.
ChcmicalPropcrtics
Dyeing
Groundnut protein fibre may be dyed with dyestuffs used for Acids...High resistance,similar to wool.
Withstands carbonizing
dycing wool, but the di[Ierences in protein structure result in conditions.
'individual
diflerent characteristics. In general, the allinity for
dyes is higher than that of wool. Alkalis. Poor resistance,
similar to wool.
General. Similar to wool. Degracledby
so<liumhypochlorito anct
STRUCTUI{I] AND PROPERTIES sodium chlorite bleaches.

Finc Struclurc and Appearance Ellcct of OrganicSolvents

C i r c u l a r c r o s s - s e c t i o n .S m o o t h , s l i g h t l y s t r i a t e d s u r f a c e . C ood,,r.es.ista
nce, similar to wool. May bc dry cleancd
without
Tcnacity
Insccts
62-8.0 cN/tex(0.7-0.9 g/den). Ilesistantto attack by moths.
lcnsile Strength Micro-organisms
B - 1 2 k g / m m z( l 1 , 0 0 0 - 1 4 , 0 0l0b / i n z ) . High resistanceto mildews.

Elonga(ion RcfractivcIndex
40-60per cent dry; 80 per cent wet. |.53.
138
r39
 I I A ND B O OK O F T E X T I L EF I B R ES A: N TURAL POLYMER FIDRI]S
Notc 'Ardil'/wool
blends were used_for swcatcrs,blankcts,
wcar, carpets ancl felts. Blcnds with undcr_
Crounclnut protcin fibrcs are gencrally sinrilar to woo[ in that cotton wcic ,rs.cl fo. sport.
thcy are protein in structure.They do not have the rough scaly shirts, pyjanras, dress fabrics.,ald blencls
witn iayon'for costunlc
surlace of wool fibres, and do not undergo felting in the way and dress fabrics, tropical ciothing,
.p"it. ,lrlrrc'i"a carpers.
that wool does.A comparisonof propertiesof groundnutprotein
fibres ('Ardil') and wool is given in the table below.
Croundnut meal provides a mixture of proteins,the composi- ZEIN FIBRE
tion of thc protcin in the filamcnt dcpcndingon conditionsundcr
which they are produced. INTRODUCTION
Groundnut protein moleculescarry many side chains,and thcy
cannot pack so closelytogetheras the rroleculesof silk. Ground- Ilctween1948ancl1957.a protcin-fibre ,Vicrra,
in.th.eU.S. It was maclcfio- z"in, tfr" p.ot"in'o?"wasin production
nut protein yields a rclativcly weak fibrc, which is much morc
'Vicara' _oi.".
sensitiveto nroisture than wool. was manufacrure<t.by.,tlie nl ril "i":'ir-iina Ctrcmical
Corporationof Richmond.,virginia, t;; plil"i;;a,"u
ville,Connecticut.productronwassuspencted n, Tof,-
COMPARISON OF PROPERTIES - in 1957.
GROUNDNUT PROTEIN FIBRE AND WOOL In the naturalstale,zein nr" *ii".i-up' in thc forrn
rypicrl.of a globutar .moleculcs
prorcin.ri;br; ;ily;i,i,'t,l'*1,,,,, i,,run
Property Groundnut Protein Wool librc, thc nrolcculcsnrust b,cuncoilccl 'p.
to i,,,ii'if
"frv ,.,n to nligrr
Fibre ('Ardil') themselves besideone another.ffli" l.- a"ln"
zein in causticsoda.whcn trr" ncuiiulizon:In-oirtlll' iissotving tlre
Tensile Strength (kg./mm') in the proteinntolcculedestroysthe attraction n.i.l g.o,,p.
B-t0 12-20 b"i*.,.,
Elongation at Break (per cent) anrinegroups.The moleculesaie rhcn"bl" acid ancl
40-60 30 i;;,r;;ii';nd associarc
Young's Modulus (kg./mm' / I per cent the posirions or "riennr"nt'"ricis?;;
ext'n.,at 100 per cent ext'n. per min.) )4 l:g::l:,._t"
lorntatlon. ror fibrc
1.65

I
lvlodulusof Torsional Rigidity
(dyne/cm' ) 1 . 3x l 0 l.l x 10 PRODUCTION I
SpecificGravity 1 . 3I I.JJ

Rcgain (per cent) t2-15 l5 Rarv Malerial I

I
FIeat of Wetting (cal./9.) 26.6 26.9 Corn_meal is extracted with rsopropyl I
Refractive Index 1.53 1.55 alcohol, whiclt dissolvcs I
o-utthe zein..After evaporationof ttre"1""1"f,-tfii, I
icin is obtaincd I
as a pale yellow powder. I
I
CROUNDNUT PROTEIN FIBRE IN USE
SpinningSolulion
The outstandingcharacteristicof groundnut protein fibre is its
-
The zein is dissolveclin caustic socla
solution, rvhich is thcn
soft, wool-like handle. When it was in commercial production,
'Ardil' groundnut protein
fibre was costing about half as much 3,*::1
-"*" Tr,"
l::.::il.g. ."i"ti",i-i,
"ir";il il';;,;J";;
for,severalhours,when the coilcrl,rrof..r.,f.r'"f
as wool, and it was used largely as a diluent fibre which provided :,_1l9i"S
proteinare ableto uncoiland straightcn ,ji
wool-like characteristics
rf,.n-r."lu"r-'ou
t. Dtrring
at low cost. It was used almost entirely the maturation.period,the viscosity-or
in blends, nrostly with wool, but also with cotton and rayon
rrr" ,"iiiiio,i incrcascs as
thesclong molcculesbecomcassociated into t,,it.r nrolccular
staple. groups.
140 t4l

n,l r"-l f r-l T r ' r r ' r-l -l

;l
.F.NF.NF.NF
F.I NF.F.F}}}
I I A N D B OKO O F T E X T I L EF I D R E S
A : N A T U I I A LI ' O L Y M E RF t B
Spinning RES
lilaslic Ilccovery
When the zein solution has reached the correct viscosity for
spinning, it is pumped to spinnerets and extruded into an acid .96 per..cent at Z per ccnt elongation; g0
per cent at 5 pcr ccnt
coagulating bath containing formaldehyde. The filaments are elongation.
stretched,and some crossJinking takes place by reaction between
the zein nrolecules and formaldehyde. After stretching, the zein Speci0c Gravi(y
filaments are subjected to further hardening in fornraldehyde, 1.25.
which creates additional crossJinkages between the zein
molecules.The lilaments are washed,crimped, dried and cut into trllcct of Moislure
staple.
Regain l0 per cent.
Moisture.imbibition 40 per cent.
PROCESSING Jwclllng tn water 20 per ccnt.

Dyeing Tlrcrmal Propcrlics

'Vicara' could
be dyed w.ith most of the normal wool dyes, and Cenerally similar to wool.
but
with alkaline vat colours. It had excellentresistanceto alkali,
and tlre caustic sodzr used in alkaline vat dyeing had no
deconrposeat about lg5"C. ,ilil-jTiffirastic, began
to
deleteriouseffects. Flantnmbility : did not burn easily.
'Vicara' withstood
hot rvater and could be dyed at the boil.
EIIect of Agc
SI'RUCTURE AND PROPERTIES None.

Fine Struclure and Appearance Ellcct of Sunlight

'Vicara'
w a s m a d ei n 2 . 2 , 3 . 3 , 5 . 6 ,7 . 8 , 1 7 c l t e x( 2 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 1 5
Sonre deterioration on prolonged exposure.
d e n ) , a n d i n s t a p l el e n g t h so f b e t w e e n1 2 a n d 1 5 0 n r n r( % a n d 6
in).
ChcnricalProperties
The individual filamentswere almost circular in cross-section,
and resembled smooth transparent rods. They were crinrped
A cids. lJtghly resistant.
mechanically.The colour was golden yellow.
Tenacily AIkalis. Less sensirivet" than are wool and othcr protein
10.6 cN/tex (1.2 g/den) dry; 5.74 cN/tex (0.65 g/den) rver. fibres. Cold solutions hadilf.lll
little "ffe"i. ffot-roiution. of .t.ong
Ratio rvet/dry: 54 per cent. alkali caused deterioration.

TensileStrength General.Similar to other protein,fibres.

Goocr resistanceto l'ost
1 2 2 5t o 1 3 6 5k g / c n r z( 1 7 , 5 0 0t o 1 9 , 5 0 0 l b / i n z ) . chemicalsencountere<l in normal usc.

Iilongalion Eltcct of OrganicSolycnts

25-35 per cent dry; 30-45 per cent wet. Insoluble in most solvents.ancl could be
dry clcaneclwithout
difliculty.
t42
143
 I . I A N D B O OOKF T E X T I L EF I B R E S A: NATURAL POLYMER FID RES
Insccts rrradeto spin this protejn .into useful fibres.
Thc Ford lr{otor
Not attackcdby nrothsor othcr inscctsthat attack wool. pomna.nf.!1 pioneeredin this ficltl; proju"iion-fry rhis conrpany
bcganin 1939and reacherlmore than ttrree
M icro-orgurrisnrs tonsi'wc ck by 1942.
The fibre was used for making "r; ";i;;[t-.;
I{esistantto nrildewsand bacteria. takenover in 1943bv the Drackeu p;;r;;a;U. ]ro<tucrionwas
but stoppedafter a fiw years. ot Cincinarri,
Note
'Vicara'had
an attractivehandle,and did not causeany irritation PITODUCTION
to the skin. I t had cxcellcnthcat-insulatingproperties,and macle
up into flrbrics that werc as warm as wool. Itarv Matcrial
The ntost signilicant features of 'Vicara's properties were its havea high protein.content(about35 per cenr),
conrparativelyhigh wet strcngth and its rcsistanceto alkalis. lt l:11-!"""r
tney are grown in abundance_.in and
U.S.A. and cast'crncountrics.
could be washed readily and without dilliculty. They providea cheapand readiry"""ii"-ur"
,""ii" of proteinfor
fibre procluction.
ZEIN FIBI{E IN USE
-. The beansare crushed,.andthe meal is extractcdwith sorvcnt
'Vicara' (hcxa.ne) to remove thc oil. Tlre prot;i;ls'Jir"f*,r
o[Iereclan unusualconrbinationof attractivcpropcrtics. out of rhc
It was softer than wool, and made up into fabrics as warn as ::,]lll"irg. nrarcrialby diturc.,i,triuiu,rrpiiit."rorrUon, nntl
rccoveredby acidi{icationof thc solution.
wool. It was resilient,and gave fabrics a luxurious feel.
The high moisture absorbencymade 'Vicara' especiallyattrac-
Spinning
tive as a clothingfibre, and it could be washedancllroneclwithout
difficulty.It did not fclt. Soya-beanprotein is dissolvedin caustic
'Vicara' soda solution, and aftcr
was uscd mostly in blends with cotton, rayon and bcing filtered and ripcned solution
.the is nrrn;;;';" spinncrcrs.
nylon. lt brought excellcnt handle, resilicnce, softnlss and The jets emergeinro an acid coagularinsdiil,;;ihc
are stretched,hardened, washed,ar.iea fitanrcnrs
rvarnrthto the mixturcs. lr4ixedwith wool,.Vicara'increasedthe aiA cut'inio staple.
wcar by reducing the tendcrrcyto fray.
'V.icara' STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES
_ Blends containing were uscd in suitings and clothes,
knitted goods, hosiery, blankets and pile fabrics. The ,Vicara;
inrproved crease-resistance and dimensional stabilitv of the Tenacily
garrnents. 7 cN/tex (0.8 s,/den) drv;2.2 cN/tex
(0.25 g/ttcn) rvct. Ilatio
r v e t / d r y :3 l p e r i e n t . '
Elongation
SOYA.BENNPROTEIN FIBRE
50 pcr ccnt.
INTRODUCTION
Ellect of Moisture
Soya-beans havc been one of the staple foods of Oriental Regain ll per ccnt.
countries for thousandsof years.They are rich in a protein which
resernblescasein. Note
In Aurerica, soya-bcansare now cultivated in great quantity Soya-bean fibres were of low strcngth,
as I sourcc of cdiblc oils and protein. Many attemptshave bccn ancl wcrc sensitivc to
nroisturc to thc cxtcnt o f losing 69 per
ccnt of thcir tcnncity
144
145

' L t l t l r l
'rr, rl r - F E li E F E F,E l'''iE f''if'1F.F
I I AN DB O O KO F T E X T I L EF I B R E S A: NA'TURAL POLYMEII IIII]IrI:S

when wet. They were generally of poor quality comparcd with COLLACEN ITIBIIEIN USB
other regeneratedprotein fibres, and had little more than cheap- -
'Marcnl'
nessand availabilitvof raw material to recomnrendthem. w a s s i m i l a r to. horse hair. It
lra<l good dinrcnsionirl
stabilitya ncl exccllcntrcststallcc
to dry-clclrnitrgsolvcnts.
It was usedIargely as brush fi bre.
COLLAGEN FIBRE CMARENA)
INTRODUCTION
MISCELLANEOUS PIIOTEIN FII}I{ES
A protein fibre was made by Carl Freudenberg K.G.a.A.,
'Marena'. Wherever there is a source of
Cermany, under the name Production ceasedat the cheap, waste protcin, thcrc is lr
potential textile fibre. There
end of 1959. arc two such sourccsof irrrlustrial

PRODUCTION T"'^"#ltB#i:T[.*-",?,j,.,?i;,*]i"*l;]il*ll{li
rhegreategg-arllng
pil,i;;';;;-;ii,"".]. i" chickcri
'Marena' was a collagen fibre, produced from split hides. The ;:'oXi1,31
split hides were chopped, treated with alkali followed by hydro- 11 tl. caseof theeggalt,umin,theprotcin
...
rr'and globurar'The probrcrr'r ntolcculcs arc foldctl
chloric acid, washed,refined and spun in solution. i. to ,i,rroi.i"tii."t'"",ibringtrrcrrr
The fibres were dried and tanned. They were dope dyed. irrtothc extcndccl,fibrc-fornring
statc.
Featherproteinmorecur".^^r;;i;;;ly
cxrendcrr,
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES cross-linkedinto a nctwork.structure.Hcrc, it is but arc rrighry
ing down the cross-links a "as" o[ brcak_
wirhour;";;;;;; ii,"",,lo]."urn, .t,riu,
Spccilic Gravi(y themselves.
1.32. The sanreprocesshas becrruscd
both theseproreinsinro a.spinnabi;-expcrirnen tally for tlringing
f"rli'nig'i'r icattrcrprotcin
Ellect of Age
N one. :i",1,$,:ll,
molecules
.lli
i,,iil::..,:,li;J,,t:l,xll1i""i'il:1"$;tf
I
in the extcncledpositioi r"iif-irr.v fr"""'fr""."s;:un
Eflect of Sunlight the fibrc coagurated. ancl
The detergcnt is tr,",rreinovJ ancrwirshccl
away,,tcaving rhecgg or r."orr,"ipioi"iii';; i;;';;ii
None.
":,lt''i
and alignednrolecules. oI cxrcrrdcrl

iif: ;iJ'
Al
E{Iect of Acids
Resistant. :1iiH :: ;i:?.I[ "i;:l';[",:l::i ;i"1"
lii],:li
_ Other regcneratccl protcin fibres havc becn nrade
in this way
[ficct of OrgnnicSolvents I ronr gclatineand silk was
wilrno<roubt
nnao pru"o'1,"i o[ thcsc nbrcs
Resistant. ill',:ff:i'.t?"sontc
Insects
Cood resistance.
Micro-organisnu
Good resistance.
146 t47
 I I A N D B O O K O F T E X T I L E F I B R ES
A: N A . t . t r R AL p O L y l t t E R r l l l R E S

A. success[uldevclopment of alginic acid fit:rcs wus cirrrictl

4. MISCIiLLANEOUS NATURAL POLYMER FIBRtrS
out. by Prolessor J. B. Speakman of Lceds Univcrsity,
-'of U,lgf,i,"i,
during World War II. Coarse nrononlarnciiis chronriunr
alginate wcre first proclucctl.They werc grccrr irr colour,
ALGINATE FIBRES and
wcre manufactured in sorne quantity foi usc in
canroullagc
INTRODUCTION nctting.
In the course of this work, Spcakmanand his collcngucs
also
In 1883 an English chenrist, E. C. Stanford, discovered that nrlde multi{ilan)eut yarns of cilciunr alginatc. 'l.hcsc
wcrc o[
common brown seaweedscontained a substaucewhich served a altractivehandle and appcarance,and werc of about
thc srnrc
purposesimilar to that of cellulosein land plants.This substance, strength as viscose rayon yarns when clry. 1'hcy lra<l
thc ad<lc<l
now called alginic acid, is a polymer of d-mannuronic acid of advantageof being flanrcproof. Unfortunrtely, cllciunt
alginatc
molecular weigbt in excessof 15,000.Its structure is as follows: yarrs proved to be readily soluble in wcakly arkarine
sorritions,
inclutlingsoap arxl water.
1'his sensitivityof calcium alginate libres to rvcakly alkaline
solutionswas a serious drawbaik to the dcvclol.rnrcnt
o[ thcsc
cooH l-l ll fibrcs for gcrreralcomnrcrcinlusc. A fnbric rn,r,rciror'cnrciurrr
-r
t t llginatc fibre woukl clissolvcin a scouring blrth;
u calciurl
|| ./i r-r /i Y\ li alginatedressmight disappearin thc wash tu6.
\r-/ A \.,/"\. / OH Oll\r/
./-\ OH OH,/'). .7- Many ailcmpts lravc bccn nraclc to spin fibrcs frortr
\f l/ n t1 \'i ./-\n/ , othcr
c-c arglnate satts, and from_ alginic acid itsclf, in
thc hopc of
H
r H
l I
cooH
obtaining fibres that would 6c suitablc for nornral
textilc usc.
Alginic acid fibres are evcn nlore rcadily dissolvccl
irr dilutc
ALGINIC ACID alkali than are calcium alginate fibres. Sonre nr"inffi.
alginatcs,
howevcr, are suflicientry relistant to alkali to witrisiand
Iaundcr-
rng_treatments, and beryllium,chrontium anclaluntiniunralginatc
Alginic acid accountsfor onc third or nrore of the dry weight trores,.l n^.particr.rlar,have shown somc pronrisc.
Alunrirriunr
of many specicsof seawecd,and is available in virtually unlimiied atglnate lrbres, Ior example, are washablc. llcryllium
alginafc
quantiticsin the millions of tons of weed that litter the world's fibf.: of.. particularly stabic, but tf'r.i, "ornuiii"iat
value is
shorcline. rcsrrcred.by the toxicity of beryllium and thc brittlc'css
of thc
Whcn alginic acid is treated with caustic soda it.is converted IrDres.chronrium alginate fibres are restrictcd in
thcir possiblc
into its sodiunr salt, sodium alginate.Sodium alginateis soluble applicationsby their green colour.
in water, forming a very viscous solution, and the alginic aci<! . As in the case of viscose ancl other watcr_sensitivc fibrcs,
present in seaweedmay be extracted by treatment with caustic improved resistanceto water pcnetration nright bc
cxpcclcclfrorrr
soda or other alkalinesolutions.Alginic acid is precipitatedwhcn crossJinkingtreatments.Thc alginic acid riolcculc
iras rcaclivc
the sodium alginatesolution is acidified. acid groupings which coulcrue uscd to fornr "ro.Jinr.r,
arxr nxrr.ry
techniquesfor crosslinking alginatc fibrc nrolcculcs
_ The,molccules of alginic acid and its salts arc long and havc bccn
CrossJinking.rnay be carricct out, for ciamptc, wirh
threadJike, arrd are ablc to align themselvesalongside one :lill:l:
another in the manner charactcristicof fibre-forrningsubstances. rormaldehydeand resins,or with hcxanrethylcncdiisocyantttc.
Many attempts have been ntacteto produce comnreicially useful As yet, it has not becn possiblc to procltrccan algiriltc
fibrc
fibres front alginic acid itself, and from its salts. suita.b.lefor large scalc nianufacturc an<l fo. ,sl
in nornral
tcxtile applications.Calcitrrnalginatc yarns arc, lrow"vcr,
rnlnrr-
148
149

61 '-t F-l'L I t
i.n.--|:-.-n....-..---l
A: NATURAL POLYMEN FIBRES
H A N D B O OOk F TEXTILE FI BRES
by washingin dilute solutionsof sodium carbonnte
factured on a modest scale and are used as specialityyarnsin or sequcstcr-
ing agents such as Calgon.
which solubility in weakly alkaline solutionsis turned to good
Coods should have sullicientfreedonr of movernentto
effect. cnsurc
lhat the dissolving solution reaches the alginate .fhc
threa<Js.
follorving treatments are recommended:
PI{ODUCTION
(a) Alginate with Cotton, Viscose Rayon,
Lincn or Nylon: 20
Ilarv Malcrial to.40 minutes at a temperatureof at lcast 50"C. (120;F.)
in a
Seaweedis dried and milled to a line powder, in which form it DxUrcontalnlng
may be stored without undergoing bacterial attack. The first stcp Soda Ash 2.5 e.ll.
in the production of fibres is to convert the alginic acid in sea- Common Salt 5 g./1.
rveed into sodium alginate.This is done by treatment of the (b) Alginate with Wool, Celluloie Acetato
powdered weed with a solution of sodium carbonate and caustic or orhcr Alkali-
sensitiveFibrcs: 20 to 40 minutes at a tenrpcratuic
soda. of at lc;rst
50'C. (120'F.) in a bath containing
The solution of sodium alginate is allowed to stand, and the
undissolved constituents of the seaweedform a sediment which Lissapol C Z g.ll.
may be removcd. The solution is thcn bleached, and sodiunt Calgon 3 g./1.
hypochlorite is added to prevent bacterial attack. Cornnron Salt 5 g. /1.
Alginic acid is precipitated from the solution by acidification
with hydrochloric acid, and the alginic acid is purilied and dried. Note..Y'/ct steam may causc idcntification tints
to stairr goods
containing nylon and sirnilar librcs which arc bciirg
. stcanr sct.
Spinnirg Solution Excess moisture should be avoided, an<l when .ioiiiing
occurs it
may be removed usually with warm socliurn hyclrosulphitc.
The alginic acid is neutralized with sodium carbonate, forming
sodium alginate. This is made up into a solution containing
about 9 per cent of alginate,which is again sterilized and filtered.
ITRIJCTUREANDPRoPERTIES
Spinning Fine Structureand Appearance
Sodium alginate solution is wet spun into a coagulating bath Alginate fibres are striated length_wise.The
surface has a foldcd
containing calcium chloride, hydrochloric acid and a small appearance;in cross-sectionthe fibrcs are round
to oval with a
amount of surface active agent. Tho jets emerging from tbe serrated outline.
spinneret are coagulatedinto lilaments of calciun-ralginate.These
are brought together,washed,oiled, dried and wound. I'cn:rcity

PI{OCESSINC l4-lB cN/tex(1 .6-2.0 g/tlcn)clry;4.4 cN/tcx (0.5

g/tlcrr)rvct.
Dyeing Elongation
Basic and direct dyestuffs may be used for dyeing alginate fibres. 2-6 pcr ccnt under normal conditions;25 pcr ccnt
wct.
Rcmoval of Yarn fronr Fabric
SpccificGr:rvily
Alginatc yarns are uscd prirnarily as rcmovablelinkages,e.g.in
t.779.
the productionof hosiery.Thcy may be removedfronr the fabrics
t50 l5l
 IIANDDOOK OF TEXTILE F IBRES
A: NATURAL POLYMER
FTBNN.S
Ellcct of [Ioisturc
alginatefibres are <tissolved^.away
aflcr knitting, lcaving a flufly
Calciunralginatefibrcs arc insolublein water but sufler consider- fabric which coutcrnor havc bcen'mal"
ablc loss of strcngthwhcn wct. lllii-Jr.r,:n, by nonnil
calcium arginateyarn is of particular
I hcrmnl Propcrlies tradc. Socks are linked to_gethci interestin ilre rrosicry
ty-;-ir;';";rsiJ or orginotu
Alginate fibres are non-flammable. They will not burn even if yarn,productionbeins continuous.
The socksoi. i.purut..t Uy
held in a flame, but will decomposeto ash. cuttingahe alginate yirn,. the ,.rnuin.-
awry. Thi.s techniquccnabresperfccl-ruJtr""i rr,'lrf"i,are <tissolvcd
socksof all types. io' rr"' obtainedirr
Ellcct o[ Alkalis
Calcium alginate fibres will dissolve readily in dilute alkaline
For medical usc a calcium/sodium.
alginal.cyarn providcs
solutions,including soap and water. d3.,t: dressings
and dressingswhich-archae,rnosratic,
:lL-{i"
loxrc and absorbabtc norr_
in the blooi srr;;;.-ii ir'url.r in
surgeryfor pluggingcavitres. a.n,nf
Ellcct of Orguic Solvcnls
No cflect.

ilt

$.
NATURAL RUBBETTFI[}RES
rii INTRODUCTION
i i
i: Rubberis a naturalpolvmero-btainecl
producedby certainsoeciesof plant, by coagulation
tl i
o[ thc latcx
ri the ru.bbertree which growsin iropical
"tt^ttl'iirr"r"
,.oidn._
-'"' ltrasilicnsis,
r.: r,r raw state,rubber a
.is .tough,elnsticmatcrial which
! I
_.
soltens. on heating,becoming plasti-c,"J--J"rei_lite. In the
Alginate processing -
of rubber.it is tnei<tia ^il ;;j;;;lwerrul milts.
This.softensthe rubber, renaering
ALCINNTE FIBRES IN USE ii _"r.-,ir"fr'"plastic and
l1letr jestroving.theelasricity;i rd;;
'fhe trme'milling providesan opportunity ;rvrnirl'", rhe same
sensitivityof calciurnalginatelibres to dilute solutionsof ro, niiiji,g oir,er nratcrinrs
rubber, norablysulphur *iri.r, tnt ".
alkali has beena seriousdrawbackto the practicaluseof these :ll:.-tlr.o
seg-rl9nt processof vulcanizaliono. "uring.-'--- .*" jn rh" sub-
i,iJ
fibres.
When rubber has beensofteneduoJ',ii".O
Their non-flammability is a most valuableproperty,and has su{Iiciently on thc nrill, it is
led to their use,for exanrplc,in theatrccurtains.A really wash- usual plastics.rhernroplasricb b; ;r;i;l,t;j'l,ia"rr,lp.,t rrv tr,"
able alginatefabric would be of particularappealin this respect tcchniques.such as extrusion
moulding.If ir is thenheated.inits n;;';i;;;, and comprcssion
for children'sclothes. with the.sulphurwhich has.been.mixed tl,""ruub., ,.u.t,
-itr into it, and it sctsin
The solubilityof alginStefibresin alkalihas led to a number rts moulded shape.T'he ru.bberloses "iiir"i"pirrtici
of specinlizcd applications.
Thc llbrcsare used,for cxamplc,as - '*iiir' ty anrl
acquirest'e unusualelasticity,*
strcngthprovidersin ploducingloosely-spun wool yarns; thc "rrf"i"i.' url"nnir..t
rubbcr.
t52
153

t,l n l ' I ' T i l . T

-E---------------|:|:-
I I A N D B O OO
K F T E X T LI E F I B R E S A: N TUIIAL I'OLYMER FItrIIES
A cured or vulcanizedrubbcr nray stretch to many times its production of elasiicfilarnentsat this
tinrc, and its shortconrings
original length, and rvill return rapidly to that length when the becamemore evidentas its use became
rnoru'*ij.rpr.ad. lt was
stretchingforce is removed. attackcdand degradeclby oxygcn anrl
'to " by tight; it would not wilh-
The discoveryof vulcanizationin 1839 marked the beginning stand prolooged expozure elevatei i..p.."tur.r; it ,uu,
of our modern rubber industry. It provided a nrethod of setting attacked by oils and fars, p.rrp;"tl;il it rendcd to
rubber in its moulded form, and of developing the elasticity that 1nd .bl
discolour,and some of lne vulcanrzlng
agcntsuscclwcrc Ijablc to
was inherentin its molecularstructure.Even before the discovery stain other fibres.
of vulcanization,elasticthreadshad been made by cutting strips In the 1950s, rubber fila.mentsrealry came
^ into thcir orvn.
from raw rubber. Many possible applications for these threads Great improvements hacl b."o moJ"'in
had beenforcseen,and attcmptshad bcen made to produceelastic th-e quality of thc
threads. They could be producccr "r
*r,ii" nio',"Jn,, whicrr cricr
filamcnts suitable for textilc use. Prior to the discovery of not discolour undulv in. use, ancl they
vulcanization,however, it was not possible to produce stable, were more rcsistantto
degradation by oxygen, light and "tr,"i'"g""ir.
highly-elastic filaments, and little practical progress had been aiini, tir", ntro,
the introducrion of hioh_speccl. warp k;iii;;'madc
m ade. possiblc a
r.a^pidexpansion.in. the-prodrrction oi "ln.ri"'f^b;l;,
By 1850, vulcanized rubber threads were in comrnercial pro- way stretch, and thc demand for lightwcighf wirh a rwo_
dtrctionat the Manchester,England,works of CharlesMacintosh. .uppo.t gantrcnts
increasedby leaps and bouncts.
The threads were in the form of fine filaments cut from thin, Meanwlrile,with thc introduclion of nylon
calcnderedshcetsof vulcanizedrubber, a techniquewhich is still nncl olhcr synthctic
fibrcs,fiucr fabrics of incrcascclstrcngth't."riii.
tusedin modified fornr today. createda dernandfor rubber nlamcnts" rivrilablc..1.'is
For the next eighty years or so, cut lilaments were the only of n"*'"-",,,rt an<llrighcr
modulus, which woulcl bc suirablc
fo, ,lr"'iiiojr"rion of lighr-
form of rubber thrcads available.They came into fairly wide- weight capabrc ot providin! p";;i;;l-;;;;port.
spread use for a variety of textile purposes, including fabrics .fabrics
rrlaments met this challcnge with- nubbcr
tirc a"velopricnt of high-
rvhich would 'give' and yet provide support. The square cross- nrodulus'power' threacls.
scction threads made by cutting sheet rubber were comparatively 'I'he
importance of whitenessin thc foundation
coarse,howevcr, and they tended to deterioratein use.They were garnrcnt ficld
resultedin c.ontinuecl inrprovcrncntin tfris r.spcci. Antioxiclarrts
diflicult to incorporate into fabrics by the usual processesof used in earlier rubber liianrentshad
tendcdif Jcvctop a pirrk
knitting and weaving,and were of poor colour. Elastic threads, colouration during fabric nnist,ing
anJ'w;.';h;, rcaction of
prior to the 1930s,played only a modestrole in the textile trade. c-onstituentsof. the rubber with tr-accs
"f ,i;;"i;;; coppcr srlrs
In the 1930s,a new technique of producing rubber filaments rn water would produce materials
that tcncd io iiusc a yeilorv_
was perfected, in which rubber latex mixed with vulcanizing ing of nylon fabrics.Theseproblern;;.*';;i";
agentsand other naterials is extruded through holes in a spin- of the antioxidantancl vulcanrzatton iy nrodificarion
systems.
ncret. The jcts of latex emergeinto a coagulatingbath to forrn
filamcntsof rubbcr which arc subsequentlyvulcanized.This new Spandex Fibres
technique made possiblethe production of round lilamcnts in In tlre early 1960s,a ncw type of
elastorncric
-ii,-r"",ii''
thrcad ap.pcarctl,
vcry finc counts,and irr virtually unlimited lengths. basedupon polyurerhancs. f ir"r",y,riiitii.
In the years leading up to World War II, rubbcr filaments as spandcxfibresundcrthc F.l-.C.nonr.n.ruli,,"'irlc no* r nu*,.'
produced by latex extrusion began to nrake real headway conrpeteddirectly with natural rubbcr -ttl.
plgc xxvi),
in thc textile industry.The old, rigid type of corset and support garnrentfield.And thc spanclex, thrcaris),.r ,upport
nfrr.. f'ln.i-oiuiousadvantagcs
garment gavc way to the lightweight garnrent in which rubber over rubber, norablv in thcir t.rigir* i.illir" ".ir",'rg,r,r,
threadsprovidcd a firnr but yielding support. modulus,and bctteriesisrancc r,igr'r"r.
t" "trrli"tr,'p"i.p;;;i;,, and orhcr
Rubber rvas virtually the only material availablc for the organicmaterinls.The elasticrecovery
of ti\c sparrclcx librcs rvas
154 ct 155
 IIANDIIOOK OF TEXl'I LE FIAITES A: N A ' I ' UI I A L P O L Y M E I { FTI}IIES

better than that of any previous synthetic elastomericlilament, FederalTradeCornmission

and it seenrcdat first that natural rubber threads had l.ittle future Definition
in the support fabric field.
However, production costs of the spandex fibres have been Rubber
high, and rubber filaments are cheaper.Also, rubber retains some
advantages,such as a lorver rate of stress decay, which havc A nranufactured fibre in which tlre fibrc-forrlirrgsubstance i5
enablcdit to conrpetemore efiectivelythan had been anticipated. cornposed of naturalor syntheticrubber,irrcluding"the followirrs
a rnanufacturcd fibre in which thJ fibre_forrnirr!
Counls s:.i1.^g::t::,,J1),
u D s r a n lcsca. h y d r o c a r b osnu c ha s n a t u r arl u b b c rp, o l y i s o p r c n e l
Thc count systernused for rubber threads is based upon the copolynrersoI dienes antl hyaricart_,o,is, oi
Lll_b_yjl,ti.lr,
arnorpnous ( n.on{rystalline)
diamctbr of the lllament. It is equivalent to the number of polyotefins, (2) a rninufacturetl fibre
filanrentsthat nreasure25.4 mnr ( l in) when placedside by side. ln wrucn.tne ltbre-.1ornl ingsubstance isacopolyrncr of acrylonitrile
If 62 filarnents,for exantple,make up 25.4 rnm when placedside ano.a.dlene (such as butadiene)conrposedof not more than
by side,then the filarnentsare 62s count. )u% but at least l0% by weight ol acrylonitrilcunits
In the case of a round filament, the count is thus the reciprocal
(-cHr-cF(CN)-).
of the diamcier of the filamerrt,cxpressedin inches.In the casc
of square-cutfihnrcnt, the count is the reciprocal of the width
of cross-sectionexpressedin inches. PRODUCTION
If the filarnent is of rectangularcross-section,two adjacent
faccs are measurcd,and the width of both is exprcsscd,c.g. Ilnrv Mulcrial
62 x 40s count. Natural rubber is obtaincd as a latex front thc rubbcr
trcc,
I-levea brasiliensis.
NOMENCLATURE
Proccss
ElastotnericFi bre (a) Cut Rubber Filantents
Naturalrubberhas an unusualcharacteristic in that it displays The rubbcr.latex is coagulatc<J, ancl the raw rrrbbcr is rnixcrl
elasticrecoverythrough a Very high extensibility,and this pro- wlut vulcanlzlng agents and other ingrcdicntson a rnill.
perty has beconreknown as 'rubberlike' elasticity.Many types then passed through a calender, whicli pro<.luccsa thin
lt is
of syntheticpolymeralsodisplaythis charactcristic to a greater shcct ol
very accurately controlled dimensions.The shcct trray
or lesserdegree;thesepolymers,togetherwith naturalrubber bc cut
into lilaments before or after vulcanization.
itself, are describedgenericallyas elaslottters,
and libres made There are a number of techniques for cutting calcn<Jerccl
from tlrenrareelastonteric
fibres. sheetsinto Iilaments.In one process,the.unvulcanizedshect
is
cut into a seriesof flat rings. A number of thcseare placcd
Natural Rubber Fibre onc
on top of the other, and the pile of rings .isvulcanizcd.;I'hc
The term 'natural rubber fibre' indicatesa fibre that is madc
shects
are then mounled on a turntable, *n,l o rotating circular
knilc
natural rubber, and it is thereforea
frorn a specificsubstance, in the centre of the rings movcs otrtwardsat nn irppropriltc
ratc
descriptiveterm based upon the chemicalconstitutionof the so that it cuts away a continuous strip to fornr'a ribbon
ol
fibre. filaments.
ln another process, the calenderc<lshcet of rubber is
vulcanized and then passed over two sets of circulnr rotating
156 t57

trl '.-;l rl rl r r r r l
i..........|:E'l:-l:
r I A ND B O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B I { E S A: N A T ( ' N A L P O L Y M NI r F I N I I E S

knives, nrounted on shafts, one set being below and the other PITOCESSING
above the sheet.Each pair of knives exertsa scissors-like cutting
action on the rubbcr sheet passing betlveen thern, producing Scouring
filanrents which may bc collected dircctly as warps, or passed Soapsarrd detergentsntay be usetlfor scouringfabricscontaining
between prcssure rollers. The rollers squeezethe filaments into rubber threads.Sodium carbonatemay be usid i[ nccessary
ribbons in which they adhere lightly together; the individual anrl
no sign.ificantharm wjll be done. Caustic soda should nbt
filaments are readily separatedfrom one another when required. bc
used.
In the original technique for producing cut rubber thread,
which has now almost gone out of use, calenderedrubber sheet Illeaching
rvas vulcanized and then wrapped rouud a large drum. As
Ilubber js attacked by strong oxidizing agents,nncl
the drum rotated, a rotating circular knife moved slowly -pcroxidc blcaching
must be carried out with care..Hydrogen
along the face of the drum, cutting the sheet into a line spiral and hypo-
'Ihis chlorite. bleaches may be usett, tire iorm.r b";ng prcfcrrctl.
of filanrent. proccss produces filanrents in comparatively
Peraceticacid and sodium chlorite rnust not bc usccl.
short lengths,up to 180 nr (600 ft), and hasbeensuperseded by
the more modcrn techniouesrvhichproducecontinuousfilarnents
Dycing
n r e a s u r i n 1g 8 0 0m ( 6 0 0 0 ' f t ) a n d n r o r e .
Using modern cut filament techniques,it is possible to cut to Rubber filanrcntsarc usuirlly colourcd whcrc ncccsslrry
by tlrc
-covcri
counts as fine as 85s,and if rectangular filanrents are being made f, appropriate pi gnrenrs ng nrix ing. lf rhc ng
i.l_dj,i:-",: .<Iuri
yarn_rs to be dyed, carc should bc taken
the second dimension may be reduced even further by use of not to ,se conrlitioni
calenderedsheetsof appropriate thickness.A calenderedsheet of wlrich mighr harnr.rhe rubbcr. I-Iigh ienrpcrirturcs,
::,:l:1i"ul.
oxlotzlng agcnts,excessivealkalinity and organic solvcnts
thicknessequivalent to 115s,for example, will provide a filament rnusi
o[ averagethicknessequivalentto l00s count. be.avoided.Dyes containing "opp"i in the irolccules
aucl dycs
The commerciallimit for cut filament is usually in the region which are fi_xedby the addition of copp.r salts
arc not rcconr_
of 85s. mendcd. It is possiblo to use trrem wiiriorrt harnrful
ctlccts, but
only by exercisingvery careful control.
(b) Extruded Rub ber Filatnerts
Rubber latex is mixed witlt vulcanizing agents, accelerators, I'inishing
antioxidants, pigments and other materials, and is extruded I3 ,.1t...
linishingof garmenrscontainingrubbcr, precaulions
through glass spinneretsinto a coagulatingbath, cornmonly of shouldbe taken to avoiclmaterialsand c6nditions'which
acetic acid. The jets of latex coagulate, and the filaments are nright
harmthe rubber,as in dyeing.
washcd, dried and heated to bring about vulcanizationof the in particutar, may be cncounrcrcd irr rnauy
rubber. The filamentsare thus convertedinto fine, highly-elastic ..-l-l::.::: leat,
unrshlngprocesses, and this will causedegraclationof thc rubbcr
threads,which are dustcd with talc to provide a smooth surface yarn. Temperaturesabove 95.C., evcn
ior short pcriocls,nrtrst
which facilitatesproccssing. bc avoided,tl.rcmaximu't pernrisiiblctotal trcatnicrit
'I'hc lir.c at this
Thc cxtrusion processproduces filanrents which arc usually tempcraturcbcing r hour. pcrnrissibrcti'rc is doubrcd ['r
by contrast with thc square cross-section
of rourrd cross-section, cach l0"C. drop in telltpcrlture.
of the cut rubber filaments.They are strong and unifornr, aud
can be spun to very finc diametcr and in almost any continuous STI{UCTURE AND PROPEITTIES
length.
Using this tcclrniquc,it is possiblc to produce filarnentsto Natural rubbcr is a polynrcr of isoprcncin wltich
thc isopreno
counts as line as 160s. units arc arrangcdin tlre crs configuration;it is
c'ls-polyisoprcnc.
158 159
 I I A N D B O OK O F T E X T I L E F I B R E S
A: N A T U I I AL P O L Y M E R F I l l R E S
The rubber nrolecule has a dcgree of polymerization of about c.ross-links
which hold adjacentlnoleculcs
10,000,i.e. there arc sorne 10,000.isopreneunits in the chain. fogcther..l.trc fol<.ls
in
thc nrolecules
allow thcnt still to be pulle<Ii,ito',i"rv positions
rcsponseto a force (assunringtheri are not too in
many cross-
links).,
but a limir is ieacheclot *l,i"h tfl" flnt, iuilf no
}I CH
pcrrnitfurther rnovement.lf thc stretchitrg longcr
\ 't / fo.."-is now rclcasi,J,
Ihe
.rubber moleculesreturn _to the pos-itionsthai' corrcsponrt
to the shapein whicb the rubber was vutca,iizeJ.'-
H. H
ISOPRENE

+ 4 ,1 -C
I-
II
,^.^./\ /\/\n -C-7\.A
I
/V\/\ - C -/\,^\

T-'\ - r
i',
I II
I ./'""-| I
/\/v\-C-l\...,\
I
/V\/1.-C-/\/V\
II I
I
Lzt-t\ | ,\ -C - r.r..\
I cH, H I I I
L poLySuLpHtDlc
Jn MONOSUI.PHtDtc cAnOoN-cAn00N
POLYISOPRENE (x >21
( N A T U R A LR U B B E R )
l / u l c u t i z a l i o t t o l R u b b c r - W h e n . n a t u r a l r. u b b c r i s
Natural rubber; crs-polyisoprcne. v L r l c a n i z c dt,l t c l o r r c
cnairr molcculcs arc lirrkc<t-..ct,c,''riciity-ii-'a,t:j,i.;;1";""i;";;i;;"."?
i n t c r v a l s. a l o r r gt h c i r l c . g t h s . ' l r r c .n a t u r c -o f r-lat"r-iir""i-riitv",iiii,
t r c c i o i i - i i r r t < sv u r i c s w i t r r
l'e condirions
undcr rvrricrr
vulcanizatiou
Thc 'rubber-like' behaviour of rubber is due to the unusual foroexample,
be polysulphidic,mono.uifiii.ii"'oi-"ni'rriirl.nrrrun
cross_
forrn of its nrolccules,which are highl y-fol<lccl.When a piece of
rubber is pulled, the molecules tend to straighten out, and if the
stretching force is sustained,the nroleculesmay begin to slide over Rlnge of Propcrlics
one another and take up new positions.When the stretchiug force The properties of vulcanized.rubber rnay be variccl ovcr
is released,the molecules will return towards their folded state. a very
rvide.range by suitable choice of vulcanization conclitions.
remaining in their new positions with respect to one another. A
lightly-vulcanized rubber
Rarv rubber is thus a plastic material that displays elasticity to ryay be soft an<l po.r"rr- a vcry low
initial modulus, and it could stretch to g or 9 tinrcs its original
a remarkable degree.If it is heated, the moleculescan slide more lcngth.A highly-vulcan ized rubber, on the othcr tlnnA,nroy irou"
easily over one another; the rubber is thermoplastic. ,o
When rubber is milled, sorne breakdown of the long molecules TllI cross-linkstying its molecules togcrhcr rhat ii is ; hard,
unyieldingsolid which will not stretch to any noticeablcdegrcc.
takes place. The entangled nrolecules cannot hold orr to circh Rubber lilamcnts can thus bc macleto a wi<icrangc of prolicrty
other as ellectivelyas in the urrmilledraw rubber. They are nrorc spccifications,and it is dillicult to gcncralizcin consi-rlcring
rdbbci
easily pulled apart, especiallywhen heated. Milled rubber is fillnrentsas a wholc. Natural rubLer has, howcvcr,chnracteristic
more thermoplasticthan raw rubber. propertieswhich are inlrerentin the naturc of thc nlatcrial,
and
When milled rubber has been mixed with sulphur and other lhc inforrnation which follows rnay be of usc irr this rcspccr.
vu_lcanizingagcnts, ancl then nroulded into a ncw shapc, thc Rubb^crJilamcnts may be used barc, or covercclby othcr textilc
sulphur undergoesa chemicalreaction with the rubbcr, creating yarnsof virtually any type. The natureof theseconiposite
rubbcr
160 l6l

61 lrl t-l t-I -l '-I rt rl'[ -[ r - '-l -I

LI'. F. F. F' T F. F. F. F. F. F . l f ' f f : f - . f : f ,
I IA ND B O O KO F T E X T I L EF I B R E S A: NATUIIAP
L OLYMER
FIDRES
threadsis influencedgreatly by the nature of the covering yarn, StressDccoy
and by tbe u.)annerin which the composite yarn is constructed. \Vheu rubber is held under stretch,
thc stressesset up show a
'fhe gradual decreasewith increased
infornration on propcrties relatcs only to the rubber {ilan-rent tirne, as ,ir" ""t*ort of cross-
itself, the term 'rubber' being used always to relcr lo vulcnnized linkcd moleculesadjusrsto an equilibiirnl
"onJi,io,i.
natural rubber. decayis an exrremely
-,Stress aiml"ii pl"p.itv'il'_.o.u.",
fibrcs,be.ing.verys-ensitive t.
to test conditionsand to ilre nrcthod
Fine Slruclure and Appcarnnce ot preparation of the samples.The
follo*iu6,'tulrle shows
valucsobtainedby tcstingproduction
Rubbcr filamentsare produccd usually as cut filamcntsof square -tr.ing batchcsof rubbcr and
(or sometimesrectangular) cross-section,or as extruded filaments sprndexfilaments,the loads
m.a.urlJ'ii-pfl,r.
a]n'extensionot
of round cross-section. ":nl, using a Scott LF.2 i".fi""a
1^O^,1-"-f
spccrnrens resrcr,the
being first concritioncdan<rthcn prJsircicrrca
The count of rubber filamentsrangesusually from 30s to 125s. to soO
pcr cent, tlre valuesbeing read
Composite yarns are generally covered with two oppositely- on ttr" s""oria-"y.i" "t loading.
wound spirals of textile covering yarns. The gauge of covered
yarns ranges from 0.009 in. to 0.040 in. The covering yarns may Load/Extension
Ratio,RubberanclSpan<lcx
Fibrcs
bc of virtually any textile fibre, including cotton yarns in counts
of 100s to 24s used singly or as wrappings of 2, 3 and 4 ends, Load at 200 pcr ccn! cxtcn.rion;p.ri
a c e t a t ea n d v i s c o s er a y o n y a r n s , 1 1 0 , 1 3 3 , 1 6 7 d t e x ( 1 0 0 , 1 2 0 ,
1 5 0 d e n ) a n d n y l o n a n d p o l y e s t e ry a r n s 3 3 - l l 0 d t e x ( 3 0 - 1 0 0 Ruhber T hread
d e n) . 60 gaugc
100 gauge 235
267
l'cnsile Slrcngth Spandex Fibre
'fhe 280 denier
breaking stressof a vulcanizedrubber in tension is in the
region of 1-2 tons/in2. (140-280 kg./cm' .) calculated on thc 420 denier 714
8.10denicr 635
original cross-sectionalarea. Calculated on the cross-sectionat
break, it may be as high as 15 tons/in2.
600
A typical rubber filarnent rvill have a teusilestrengthof 385
Notc
kg/crnz (5500 lb/inz). A comparable spandex filament has a l'hese values for loa<l were
tensile strength of 490-700 kg/cm2 (7,000-10,000 lbiinz). rcsrer,
rhc.p";i,,,;;;';"i"s'ri,j,i{iji,i;;.t",i,I,,f,1"rill.:,.lil,,if
'frre.sa
)uu per cent, the valucs6ei ?:
Tcnncity nrprcs wcre
hk;; r;Jr''ffi"fl l,',tl:i,"":'il,it;T,""r",1"$t'iT,i;
spcctttcation fcr this particr 'ttt,i'i'rl,
propcrty
4.0 cN/tex (0.45 g/den) (cf. spandex: 6.2 cN/tex (0.7 g/den). t'ro(!,rcat.t Rcscarch rt rror;or'i'],1. courresy waturul

Elongalion
700-900 per cent (cf. spandex: 700-800 per cent). The figuresshow a much g1gn1g1
rcduction in the load/extcn-
during.thcfirstan"d,..;;;l;;;;;s""riil
Elnstic Rccovcry
:,o'1,.?l1o
spand€xfibrc ," rhccasc
:t_lhe tharrin thc caseof tf,ciuLi"r. The
tor the spandexfibre.however,..moin valucs
Rubber has an immediatc recovery front stress,under normal t igii.i. itli'r'*orta npp.n.
ro give rhe spandexfibrc a'conside;fl;';.il,,;c
of 100 per cent.
circumstances, ovcr rhc
t62 |,63
 } T A ND B O O K O F T E X T I L E FIBRES A: NATUIIAL POLY[,rER FINITES

natural rubber in this irrrportantpropcrty. It is equally inrportant,
howcver, that the load/extcnsion ratio should be maintained
throughout thc life of a garnlent,with thc fibre held in a highly-
stretchedstate.
Thc following table shows the results of further tests com-
paring the stress decay for natural rubber and spandex fibres.
'Instron' tester in a conditioned
The tcsts were made using an
atnrospherc,the specimcnsbcing cxtendcdto 300 per cent exten-
sion and maintained there for the stated times. The rubbcr
thread is o[ heavier gauge than the spandex so that the stress
loss was measured at comparable values of stress.Samples of
finer rubber thread, however, wcre tested in the same way and
it was found that the pcrccntage stress loss was the satne for
all counts tested. The results shorv that the stressdecay for the
spandex libre is about twice that for the rubber hbre.
Conrparisono[ StrcssDccay, Rubbcr and SpanclcxFibrcs
StrcssLoss (per cent)
Sp!! ", ::!!:__
- Rybber Ttu'ead_
622 rltex(560clen).
If thc fibre is kept in a stretchedcondition,as in the stressdecay
testsabovc, the relaxationof stressis accompanicdby arr inconr-
plcte return to the original length when the hbrc is relaxcd. .l.hc
anrouutof permancntset in the c:rseof rubber lilarncntsis snrall,
and most of it takcs placc during the initial pcriod of strctclr.
_ As would be expccted frorn the results of thc tesrs on stlcss
decay, the permanent set of rubbcr filanrent is ntuch lcss
than
with spandex fibre. The foltowing tablc conrparcs thc
two
libres in this respect. In thc cxper.imcnts frorir which thcsc
valueswere obtained, 25.4 cnt ( l0 in) sanrplesof tlrrcaclwcrc
uscd, measurernentsof extende(l leng[h bcing takerr 5 ruirrutcs
r f t e r .e l o n g a t i o n o
s l 1 0 0 , 2 0 0 a n d 3 0 0 * p e rc c n i l r a t lb c e r tr c t n i r r c t l
lor tlle tintes stated ancltlre sarrrplcs rernoveclfror|l thc strctclring
frame.Thus, 5 rninuteswas allowed for recoveryln'cach
casc.
Comparisonof PcrnranentSct, Rubbcr and Stlnntlcx lrjbrcs
Extcnded Ltngtlt (lil.,
100')(,Elong'n.
200y" Elong'n. 300"/,,Elons'n.
60 gauge Spandex Rubbcr Spandcx Rubbcr SpundcxRnbbcr

Altcr 5 nllns. 46.6 z).+ A[tcr

Alter l 0 mI n s . 50.2 25.0 5 rnin. 10.40 1 0 .03 10..15 10.30 10.90 I 0.35
After 20 nrins. 53.2 27.1 l0 min. 10.70 t 0.30 r0.60 10.40 l r.l5 10.50
Altcr 4 0 nrins. 55.2 28.0 20 min. I I.00 10.35 l r.00 t0.45 r1.50 i0.65
After 80 nrins. 86.0 28.9 40nrin. I 1.10 10.40 rt.l0 10.50 il.70 10.80
8 0n r i n . I1.10 10.50 l1.30 I0.65 I t.85 t0.85
N olc
T h i s c o m p a r i s o n o f s t r e s sd e c a y r v a s m a d e o n a n ' I n s t r o n ' t e s t e r i n n Nole
c o n d i t i o n c d a t n r o s p h e r e t, h e s p e c i m e n sb c i n g e x t e n d c d t o 3 0 0 p e r c e n t l0 inc.h
cxtension and nraintained there for tlrc statcd times. The rubbcr thread - s r n r p l e so f t h r e a c lw c r e u s e d i n t h c s ec x p c r i r n c n t ss, p a n d c x6 2 2
d t e x . ( 5 6 0 d e n ) a n d r u b b c r 6 0 g a u g c .T t r c ; , , ; r ; ; ; ; ; ; ; i ;
is of hcavicr gaugc than the spandex so that the stress loss was of cxlcrxtcrl
lcngth were taken fivc minutcs iftei clongation.
nrcasured at cornparablc values of stress. Santplcs of fincr gaugcs of pcr cent ]lad been rctaincd for the .i iiiol zoo and 300
rubbcr thrcad, Itorvevcr, were tcstcd in tltc sanre rvay and it was tirnts ,i"tJ ""J thc snnrplcs
r c r n o v c df r o m t h e s t r e t c h i n g f r a m c . T h t i s , - f i u "
founrl that the percentage stress loss wfts the samc for all coun(s -r-nuia* was lllorvcrl
for rccoveryin cactr casi" c"iiricit,-ii,,';,;;.i"'ii;i;i;rr pntdu<.t,rt,
testcd. Corrf/ery Nstural Rubbcr Prodncrrs' Rascarch tlssocialion' Rc.rearc
h A ssociatio rt.

Pcrnmnent Set Thc data show that the pcrm:rnentset of thc naturll
fibrc is
When the load is removed lronr a strctchcd rubber hbrc, ntuchlcss than that of thc spanclcx.Thus, for an initial cxtcnsion
rccovery is almost 100 per ccrrt if thc tinrc of stretchingjs srnall. o[ 300 pcr ccnt for 80 rninutcs,thc rubbcr lrts strctchcd
fronr
164 165

,lL --l --l "-r , r I'

tr . t - - . " . " -

I T A ND B O O K O F T E X T I L E
- . .

FIBRES
- -'-n-'--,
A: NATURAL POLYMER FIBRI]S
1-.r-.'
l0 in (25.4 cnr) to 10.85 in (27.6 cnr) whereasthe spandexfibrc Flannnbility. Rubber will burn, but it does
not rcadily propagate
lras strLtchedfionr l0 irt (25.4 cm) to I 1.85 in (30 cm), i.e. tnore fl anre.
than twice as much. Moreover,the rubber shorvslittle itrcrease itt Spccilic Heat. 0.41-0.45.
stretch after the first 5 minutes, whereas thc spandcx fibre con-
Tlrcnrrul Conductivity. 0.25-0.31 (relativc
tinues to stretch as time goes on. to watcr).
This dillerence in permanent set bctween rubber and spandex
libres is aggravatedat higher temperatures.The figures on pagcs
167 and i68 show tho diflerencein heat ageirrgbchaviour of
rubber and spandexlibres.

Modulus
52.5- 70 ke/cnrz (750-1000 lb/inz) at 500 per cent extensiort'
(cf. spanrlei: 175 kg/cmz (2500 lb/inz) at 500 percentextension)'

SpccificGravify
0.960-1.066.

Elfect of Moislurc N 60
F
lrJ
Negligible.

Thermal Properties 6so

EfJect ol High Tenrperarure d

At tcmperaturesapproaching 140'C', further vulcanization of a 40

the rubber muy tak" place, causing increased hardness and
decreasedstrength.
At temperatures of 350'C. and above, rubber softens as
molecular breakdown occurs, and then becomes hard and
brittle.
Oxygen plays a major role in the degradationof rubber at
elevated temperatures.
In general, temperatures above 95'C. even for short periods
should be avoided. The maximum perrnissible tirne for treat-
ment during fabric finishing is I hour at 95'C., the permissiblc
time being doublcd for each 10"C. drop in temperature.

E[Ject ol Low Te,nqeralure

TIME IN I1OURS
Rubber stiffens with decreasein temperature from about 70"C.
down to - 20"C. At about - 60"C., it becomes glass-like and H.eat Agcirtli, Rubbcr and Spande.rFibres
brittle. If maintainedat -25"C., rubber crystallizesand losesits *,:l::"1.T,,:*:ing-tcii
';:::::.::! 't'0;dj)v;;;;i'
in wJrict'l
rl,r"*i"It'ioop.i ".,,l'i'"*t",,.ion
*",
clasticity,but this returns on heating.
hcarc<r
,'-1^__y_ll:, io iiia'rI;l'jtl,lr?,,.|,1:
Research A ssociatiorr,
t66 167
 IIANDOOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES
: N A ' I ' UI TA L P O L Y M E R
tIII]R!S
Jn ir covcrcd threacl.thc rubbcr
core is largcly protcrtcd fronl
thc clTectsof sunlight.
\-t-
Chcmicalpropcrtics

BO
Y T U R A LR U B E E R
zlcirls.N:rtural rubbcr is rcsistant.to
rs attacked by conccntra (eclsulp'u
urost iuor.ganic
"fr'"'o*idizing
acids, but
ric o.iJ
--- l,r.f'
-"e v, v^ acicls
such as nitric ancl chrontic acids.
Mincral acids and the s
,'c
ryd'urc,,.^1i,"i,i,'"tn1'ilff
,'JitllJ;i;'';1,
ll:'i,jo;:l'
f
J
f
/ v
threads,causingsonre changc
of shatle.
"il:
o
o
5 l/kalrs. Resistanccto alkalis gencrally
- is
60 good.
o
z PANDEX Gcneral. Oxygen and. more especially,
ozone attack rubbcr,
t- causingdegradationwliich m a d e
a p p a r e n tb y
Antioxida.rs
A r r li o xi r : rr r r c ,arc
, , . ^ ,incorpor.ar.,r
,.^^-..^..1a. f a c ce r . a c k i n g .
. s u r j,lii,lll-l,i,t;
i;,iffi;",i,ir,i"'
looo

900

000

700

cr 600
t8 24
TIME IN HOURS {
'-"
L?
I{eut Agcirtg, Rubbcr and Spunde-rFibrcs
A rlry heat ovcn agcing test carried out xt 100.C. at 200 per cent
cx tcnsion-Natl ral Rublter Producers' Rcsearclt Associaliort.

Iificct of Agc
In the abscnccof exccssiveheat, sunlight,oils and greases;and
catalystssuch as coppcr and ntangancse,the agcing effectsarc
very slow.
'fhe
general e{Iectsof age are loss of modulus and extensibility.
3()0
Iiflcct of Suulight PL:R C.[ I.IT
Light has both a discolouring and a deterioratingaction on Rttbbcr 7'hrcar. cotnpuris'tr
'l'l)cse ol stan.tran!artr! I'orvtr T,rtrcutrs.
rubber which is proportional to the intensity of the light and s t r e s s - s t r a i nt l i a r r a n r s D It647 powcr .l-lctro;;, nntl
s t a r r ( t a r (' tL a c t . r o n 'r u b b c r t l r_r coat < l s DIUTA
thc tinrc of cxposurc. rfrc l'owcr Lhrcad.-Loslc-r ytrn
i l h r s _ r r a trei i c i " . . i i , i J u n r o r t u l r r s
oI
and Lii,r.',, f),,:r',i,i'Lil.
168
169

. I r"I r I . F
t r I. t I t I t I t F t , I I F F F
I { A N D B O OK O F T E X T I L E F I B R E S A : N A T U R A LP O L Y M E NF I D R E S
Insccls
these will give adequate protection lor most normal textile
applications.
'itubber I{esistant.
is attackcdby chlorine and other halogens'I{ydrogen Micro-organisrns
p"roiiJ" and hypochloiite bleaches may be used, but peracetic
acid and socliuni chlorite bleachesmust be avoided' Itubber is attacked only uncler vcry warm and
<larnpconclilions.
Copper salts cause degradation, and must be kept out of con- Elcctrical Properties
tact with rubber.
Elcctricalresistivity: l.7x I016ohrns/cnr.
cubc.
DielectricConstant: 3-15.
EIIcct o[ OrganicSolvenls
Power Factor: 0.002-0.L
Natural rubber is swelled to a small extent by acetone,alcohols
ancl vegetable oils such as castor oil. It is attacked by hydro'
"urboni oils and fats. Dry cleaningfluids should be avoided'

- roo 2oo 4oo 5oe oul

,ui9&", 500
PER CENI
Stress'strainDiagram, Spandc.r Fibre ('Vyrene') Stress-Strain Diagram, Rublryr Thread (,Lactro,i)
' V v r c n c ' l l 0 ' s c o u n t . F i r s t a n d s i x t h c y c l c so [ e x t c n s i o n 'S c v c n t hc y c l c ' Firsrand s.ixrhcyclcso[ cxrcnsi,,,r.
:!l:..:'l:^i.lj -count. S""c,rrrrc y c lc
^ii;;jr;;;""1-i.ii, Listttl.' cvclc nttci 24 ltottrs at rcst'-L(r'r'c't
y(tril rcsr.
::ll:',9.11:.'l.*ll cighrri
cyc-r"'iiitii z ri.i,,il'ii''Ji'*'i._|r,.u".
Y urn
and Laclron Tlveacl Ltd-
ul L,uctrin"
iti';;;;i ti;:
170 I7l
 A: NATURAL POLYMER FIBRES
A: NATURAL POLYMER
FIBRI]S
NATURAL RUBBER FIBRES IN USE fabric is relaxed.Cc
Coverirtg
a<rva .,1*l
nrale,i;li""iJl[:ll'J,.!?::,,,J';:i;,,i[]i,ii:.,
contamination by oilsand otfr"r'.lrgrojitiv""nra
Rubber threads are used in knitting and weaving either.in the alsoeasierto controlin kniuing;;?-;;,;;roccsscs. tcrials..I.hcyarc
bare form, or covered with spirally-wound textile yarns. The perfornrance of al .r"rfrnlrl."nir"'..,i.,, as
Covering is carried out by drawing a rubber thread through pmcricaluseis influenc.,lg.^iiy;;ljri. rubbcrin
the ccntre of a rotating hollow spindle.The rubber is stretched clasronrcric threads ,".r,"ill* of usirrgrhc
in a pairty.eit",iO;;1";:,ii,.
^JJ.r^i,r.r.
to a dcsircd cxtcnt as it is cnrcrgingfrom the spindlc. strerctredmatcrialro srrsrain' abiliryof rhc
The cover.ing yarn is held on a cheese or bobbin which is duringthelifc of the I ii; ;;; corclirio's
is a vitallv
nrounted on thc spindle, and as the bobbin rotatcs the yarn Er^it"i,'".i" il."J :::ltit lor stlpport ittrportant factor'
passesovcr-cnd from the bobbin and wraps spirally round the tnatcrialscapablc or ,ttt"9 garmcnts.are usually
rubber filament as it emergesfrom the spindle. o"ri"g'tr,"l|ilioir;;"'-"?i cxten.sion of at leasl. p"r. ..^i
9oo
In recent years, spindle speeds have increased greatly, largely
owing to the use of air-drag to tension the covcring yarn. Flyer
nrericir,rcaJ;;;;#fi :';!iflt:l$l&",i,i;llf ji;
ll;.,11"":]i
at.a^srrerchof pcrhaps._I0o
to zoir-pe"r
1"";"i;;;.
or ring and travcller mechanisms were previously employed.
Using the latter, spindle speeds were in the range of 5,000 to obrainswrrc .,r;;
struclureor by thecovc
j
n l'' i L'J.'illii:+iljiit,f".r,lft
by rrref^bric
;i,:J
10,000rcv./nrin.; modern spindlcsrotate at about 20,000rcv./nrin. initill rcsisrancc
ro srrctchirrg f i:l;ii
wh;,,^il;.^;;,.i,"l.ii, pur
There are many reasonsfor covcring rubber threads in this
':$*J;,,.t.1,- rrrc'.;;;;,;;-;,, i,ro orr,lr
way. The covering yarn protectsthe rubber from light and other i;:1","0".;ff lnusr
I rorcc to achicvc thc
rhcbo<ry
degradative inlluences,and from materials such as fats and trrat is require<t. dcgrce of corrtrol
greaseswhich would attack the rubber. Covering also permits the
rubbcr to be helcl in a partially stretchcdstatc in the composite . When the manufacturer is. dcsigning rl sul)port garnrcnt,
arnrsro produce
o ,u"n,:j],lwrricrrrilrtironi<.r"",i,I."i."ry hc
yarn, enablingthe coveredyarn to cxcrt grcaterrestrainirrgpower thc right
ctcgree
of support,
andwiil mainrain
rvherr used in a support garment. The covering yarn will also rtiissupp6iiauringthcrifc
restrict the total stretch of the compositeyarn; the rubber alone l1'li""til'l;,'ii"ll"'ffi r;;;';;tii,;;",,trre-garnreni
could stretch to 9 or l0 times its original length, but this is necessary ,'::'lri"s.
conrrolwirr'":1 rorceis toosn]trll,
the
not generallydesirablein a fabric. ff ffil:XtJj:t
During its acrivelife. lh,
,,,;;;r;;arrncnr wilI
b.ybody nlovernent,and.will rcturn w-hcn,.lu*"J bc srrctchcd
Knitted, \Yoven and Braidcd Fabrics rheelasron,eric to its nornral
:llj:;,Ij:" tr,."oas
in ;iffi#i., JI, of conrroltc<l
Rubber threadsare used on.all types of conventionnlequipnrent
in the production of knitted, rvoven and braided fabrics. . It the elastorneric nbl__1:,lr: to ,crccp,and un<Icrgo
In relatively dense fabrics such as woven webbings or braids, <tccaywlren ..i";r;;,;"f".,"n,
held un<Jer t strcss
or ir. iniiinf ir nraylosea sicnifica,,f ,,,,,o,iiii
barc rubbcr filarnentsmay bc irrcorporatedin the fabric at high its piactic*l ,,r..':ii,.
extcrrsion,antl held in the extcudcdform by the fabric structure, clcsignerwill havc ,o ,,,,131""-o19.during
t3t tttit lossof tcrtsiort
by.tietrlcnlrii
.r) the constructionof iI^
thus providing a fabric with high power.
"'l'
.ri,.otroJ'oil;;;.;;";"?.^9arn)cnt' so adding to thc gencrirT
;LTl#li,lij''il''.,.:
In opcn fabrics, it is more difllcult to use the structure of
thc fabric itsclf to maintain the rubber thread in its extendcd
state, and in fabrics of this type covered rubber threads arc
J'l"J;
i,l,'j'
.*;.,,J:,,:";'j"' ;:;:l;i';,,
conrmonly used. Thc covering yarns of the composite threads (l) An extensionar bre1f,?f about 600pcr cent,
holcl the rubbcr corc at a controllcd dcgrce of stretch whcn thc threadto opcratcin the nricldlc ,r,i"s..
ro nllow rhc
of ir, .^tJ".l*
t72 173

r-l .l -l t - - ' ' r-'1

t r , T T T T T T T T I T I F , F , Fr
r f t l

IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES : N A l U I I A L P OL Y M E I I F I I ] t ( E S

(2) A high ratio of load to extension(modulus)for extensions [nd Uscs

in the region of 200-300 Per cent. Fabrics designed with rubbcr [hreatls
to intl]rovc thc tit ot
(3) The ability to retain a high load/extension.ratio ufter garnrcntsor to providc support,
arc rnarlcin gi",it iiu.rrity. fii
.ontinu.,t stretcliing,anclafter being held for an indefiniteperiod
:'.::g,ll'-"_lllror.rrialc
a .trqc of.rubbcr yarn anclissociarc<ttcxritcs,
at an extensionof about 200 per cent. wlde range of fabric handle, front rclativcly stiff batistcs
ncts.to soft and supple swlmwear ancl anrl
(4) Adequate tensile strength. Very high tensile strength is unclcrwcarfabrics can bc
obtaincd.Over the wlrolc rangc, thcse
noi nceclecl,as the fibre is never strctched beyond about half its labrics pi""fJ. cxccptionul
conrfort.
total rangc, cither <.luringmanufactttrcor in subsequentusc.Thc
1'he. typc of garnrcnt for which rubber
rigid fibres of the fabric act as a buller which prevents extension thrca<lsarc uscd arc
as follows:
beyond a certain Point.
ilubber threadssatisfythesercquirements,and in sonrerespects End-Usc l;al) rics
lrc supcrior to othcr clastonrcricmaterials,incltrding spandcx Corsctry Wovcn batistcs,satins,brocirrjcsanrl lcnos
fibres.The stressdecay of rubber threads is generally lower than
wil.lr rubbcr yarns as wcft.
that of spandex fibres. Garments made from natural rubber
Knitted garments(roll-ons,ctc.).
thrcacls retain their elasticity to a much greater extent, both
Narrow wovcn and braitlcd fltrics
during the nranttfacturingand finishing processesof the fabric' rrscd
Irs Irinrnring.
and throughout the life of the garment. Thus, natural rubbcr
Wa_rp-loorn knittcd clastic ncls urrd laccs
thread rnakesit possibleto achieve tlre degreeof control required
with rubbcr yanr as will p.
with a much more gentlc action which will be retained over a
,Sw.im,'vcar Wovcn batistcs,jacquardsancts:rlinsrvillr
longer period.
{ubbcr threaclsarc generallylcss heat sensitivethan spandex ruDDeryanl as wc[t.
fibres.They rvill withstandthe conclitionsencounteredin proccss- Knitted garnrcntsand fnbrics.
ing without being aflectedto the extent that spandexfibres are. Iluched elastic labrics nradc by scwing
rubberyarn on to thc t n"t oi ,i .igii
lVashing wovcn fabric.
I:ootwear Woven clastic fabrics for borrclirrgrvilh
Garments containingrubbcr threadsshotrld be washedby haud
in warm soapy water, and thoroughly rinsed.The surplus water lcather to give the elasticizcdicathci
should then be squeezedout, not wrttng, and the garmentsdried rvhich is wiclely usedin wonren'sfootrvear.
with a rninimum of heat. Surgicalhosicry Knitted surgicalstockings,anklcts,ctc.
Men's and Children's R^ubberyarn is
knitted or lai<J-in
thc tops
Ironing Hosiery of nrcn's and chilclren'ssocks to nrai<c
It is generally unnecessaryto iron garmentscontaining rubber thcm sclf-supporting.
should
threads.When ironing is cnlployed,only low temperatures Ladies', Gents' and Rubbcr yants arc usc<lin nrany difiercnt
bc uscd. Childrcn's Undcr- ways either to pcrfonn the frinction
wear and Outerwear garnlent support of
or to rrrlintairrgarrtrcnt
Dry Clcaning shape.Rubber yrrns arc rlso ur.i "it"n_
Special care shotrlcl be taken not to rub or stretch fabrics con- sivcly for th_c ruching of all typcs
of
tiining rubber yarns during dry clcaning. It is generallybetter nglct nlatcnals uscd in lingcric, drcsscs,
to avoid clry clcaning,where possible. gloves, etc.
174 t75
 IIAN DAOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES A : N A T U R A LP O L Y M B R
T t BR E S
SILICATE FIDII.E,S rrrirrcralflows to thc bottom of thc furnacc,fronr which
it crucrgcs
to nreet a blast of high prcssurestcarn.Thc ntoltcn
Fibres spun frorn mineral silicatesor rnixturesof minerals mincrai is
orstnregrated lnto snlalI dropletswhich are attcnuatcdinto viscous
containingsilicates. fila.nrcnts as thcy are blown llong by tnc steanrjci. -fhc filanrcnts
solid.ify as_thcy cool, forming fibres which arc collcctctl
INTRODUCTION nroving belt as a blanket or batt of mattccl fifrr..
on :r
n bin<lcr of
rcsin may be sprayed on to the batt, ancl thc
Most of the fibre-fornting substancesnrade available to us by icsin .ur"J Uy
passirrgthe batt through a curing ovcn.
Nature are organ.icmatcrials, in which the element carbon forms Altcrnativcly, thc bnit
nray be sprayed with oil and thcn broken trp into
the backbone of a long polymer molecule, as in celluloseand the looic fibrc.
proteins. There are, horvever,many naturally-occurring inorganic
STI{UCTUREAND PROPERTIES
substanceswhich are capable of being formed into fibres, and
some of these have beconre of commercial importance. They liinc Struc(urcand Appcarlncc
include nrany minerals and mixtures of the silicate type.
lr4inerals.ilicatefibres are gcnerally snrooth-surfaccd
Fibrcs are spun from a varicty oI silicate-type minerals and and glass-
likc in appearance,ancl are of alnrost roun,.l c.oss_s"ction.
mixtures of minerals,including basalt,wollastonite,dolonrite/clay
nrixturcs, etc. Thc fibres produced fronr thcrn are gcncrally 'l'cnsilc
Strcngtlr
mixtures of silicates,e.g. calcium, aluminium and magnesium.
I'Iigh.
NOMENCLATURE
SpccificGmvi(y
Ivlineral silicate fibres are included in various commonly-used 2.8-2.9.
Iibre groupings. They are inorganic fibres and nincral [ibrcs.
Their rcsistance to high temperature puts them into the /rglr Iiftcct of Moislurc
I etnperot ure fbre classilication. Ncgligible.
These fibres are usually described as nineral silicate fibres, a
tcrm which indicatesthat they are silicatesof natural origin, as fhcrnr:rl Propcrlics
distinct lrom silicateswhich are made synthetically,e.g.glass. Mineral silicatc fibres are-gcncrally resistant to tcnlpertturcs
of,
for example, 850-900"C. for prolonged perio<ls.
PI{ODUCTION
'l'
lu'nttal conductivity. Low.
Ilarv Matcrial
Basalt, wollastonite, dolornite/clay mixturcs and the like. F Ionrrnability. Non-llamrnable.

Produclion of Fibrc ChcnricalPropcrlics

Thc processcs used in nraking silicatefibres vary in detail Mineral silicate fibrcs arc crrcnricailyincrr, nntr wirl rcsist nrost
dcpending uponthe natureof thc mincralsusedas rarvmaterials, o[ thc chenricalscncountcrcdin norrnal usc..fhcy rcscnrblcglass
but the general principles are alike in most cases.The raw in their reaction to most chcnticals.
materialis nrixe<l
with cokeand fed into a form of blastfurnacc
throughwhich an air jct is blowrr.'fhc cokc burns,rclcasing Iiftccl of Orgnnic Solvcn(s
heatthat nrcltsthe chargcof siliceousraw material.The ntoltcn Nil.
176 il t t t

|
-1
\
, l
t-F t F F F F,-l''1-lt1
F,t F,t f'''IF t F t t l"'i
I I A N D B O O KO F ' T E X T I L EF I D R E S ^: NA'rUItAL POLYM E IT IITOI(I:S

Iosccts properties of silica in thesc rcspccts

..The _outslanding. has
Completely resistant. stinrulated.the development of other routes to,iii"o .f.ir"y
fiUr"r.
ilrc now being produccd .indirectlyfrom grass
nranrcntswrricrr
Micro-organisnts are treated to remove const.ituentsothcr thin silica.
Completely resistant. A modilicdtion of the latter_technique"onri.ir-in
spinning a
containing.
a high pr.oporrion
oi'hn.tv-airp.ri.,t
:l::::.. ure
slrca; 11."1""t
organic materials arc then burned lwny to lcavc
IUINEI{AL SILICNTE FII}RES IN USE, ir
porousfilament of silica,
A4ineralsilicatefibres arc used largely as thermal and acoustical .TYPES
insulation materials,especiallywhere resistanceto elevatedtem- - - - . - - - OF
- ' - -SILICA
- - - - - FIBRE
peraturc is an inrportant factor, e.g. in boiler and stcam-pipe
insulation,and thc sound-proofingof buildings. Silica fibres nradc_by the routes indicatcti :rbovc
arc si'rirar irr
that they are all basicaily silica, Uut ttrcy
Aincr in ccrtain
character.isticswhich crerive-f.o- dl["."n"";i,, ii;;i; r.crhorrs of
SILICA FIBRES production. The fibres are considered ."pnr,ii"iy, urcrc[orc,
-best
as dilTerenttypes of silica fibre:
Fibrcs spun from silicon dioxidc (silica),which nray or nray not (l) Quartz Fibrcs.
contain minor amounts of other materials. (2) Silicl-fronr-ClassFibrcs (Silicn(G)
l;ibrcs).
(3) Silica (Viscose proccss) Fibres (siiica
si o, lVf irlt r.rl.
NOMENCLATUI{E
INTRODUCTION
Silica llbres are inorganic fibres, an<Jt h e y c o m c
The element silicon is the nrost abundant in the earth's crust. within tho
category- o.f. high-tcrttperoture
occurring in comb.inationwith many other elements as silicates, fibres. 1'hcy are conrmonly
described also as ceranic libres.
and in the form of its oxide, silica.
Silica occurs as agate,amethyst,chalcedony,cristobalite,flint,
jasper,onyx, opal, quartz, rock crystal, sarrdancl tridymite. It is (I) QUARTZ F]BRES
typically a hard, transparent, glassy mineral, with a very high
melting point. Quartz, for example, softens at about 1,500"C., Fibresspunfror-nnat urally-occu
rring silicain thc fornroI qtr:rrlz.
and melts at 1,710-1,755"C.It is chemically extremely stable,
resistingthe attack of almost all common chemicals. PRODUCTION
In 1838,a French scientist,M. Caudin, discovercdthat fused
quartz could be drawn out into fine lilamcnts, and thesc were Rrrv M:r(crinl
subsequentlyuscd as springs in torsion balances.Tlrey are still purc lornr of siticl, which occurs narrrrally
used for this purposetoday, providirrgspringstlrat have almost 9r:lj:"1:^^l_l!os-t
rn nlasslveLonn, c.g. as rock crystal,and as silicir
s:rn<.'.
perfcct elasticity,and do not undergo deteriorationfrom fatigue
or corrosion. Spinniug
In nrore recent times, quartz filaments have assumeda new T h e l n e l t i n gp o i n t o f q u a r t z i s . i n t h c r e g i o no f
l , Z-,na,r"
l0 to I,756"C.,
importance as high-temperature-resisting fibres, and they are now of-quarrzinto fibreit,astr.",i
being produced in considerablequantity for applicationswhich l:O.l!",tl,|"arion
Dy ule dcveloprncntof tcchrriques
possiblc
capablc of opcrating at such
require high{emperature-resistanceand corrosion resistance. high temperatures.
t78 t'l9
 I ' I A N D B O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S A : N A T I JR AL P o L Y I v I E RF I n R n . s
quartz
Quartz fibrcs of 5-10p. dianreter are urade by softening T lrerrtnl Cond uct ivi t y. Low.
rodi in arr oxy-hydrogin flanre, and drarving the rods out into
diameter. These are then passed CLcnricll Irropcrlics
filaments of about 0.1 mm.
through a series of oxy-hydrogen jets, the quartz being blown tI citl.r
forwaid by the jcts to form fine fibres which collect on a rotating I-lig,hly resistant to all acids
exccpt
d rurn. prolonged treatment at normal hydrofluoric acicl, cvcn a[tcr
Continuous filameuts may be nrade by softening quartz rods . t"'.p"r,ili,,o.'-itractcd by
phosphoric
acidat elevated ternperaturcsl
in an oxy-hydrogen flame, arrd therr draw.ingout the fused quartz
into filamentsof dialneter0'7prand less. Alkalis
I-lighly resistantto most alkalis,
evcn altcr prolongcrlIrcatrncnt
STRUCTUI{E AND PROPERTIES lt norrnal temperatures.Cnusticpotash at 90'C. nrty catrsc
rosso[ strengI h. sonrc
Fine Structurcand APPearancc
Gencral
Smooth-surfaced,glassJike filanreuts of near-round cross-section'
I'Iighly resistatrtto almost all
cornnron clrcrlicals.
Tcnsilc Strcngth
QIJNIITZ I?IBIII]S IN U.SE
Quartz fibresarc strong.Tensilc strengthis typically in thc regiotr
of 650kg./mm!. GcrrcralChnmclerislics

Elas(ic Rccovcry strong,alnrostpcrfectlyclasticnntl

9.,1nr,,
ir. 1
rrbrc,which corrosion-rcsistlnt
is capable of withsran<tiirti;,.r;;;.;;;;;
frotn
Quartz is an alnrost pcrfectly-elasticnratcrial, recovery up ro sornc
defornrationbeing almost 100 per cent. l9!9".C .This.conrbinationof properties givcs
rn)portant -" "it 'a nunrbcr of
applicationsin the indusiri:rfn.fi.

SpccificGrnvity lind Uscs

2.6. Quartz fibres arc wi<lelv,ll.".l Iiltration rrratcrilrls,
cspccially
llh::: I::i:,*e ro corrosive .nl
subsrances ^".r1", irei, rcnrpcrarurc
'i"r,,i"iiorr
[,llcct of Moislure ts essential These fibrcs are also ur..f n.
servingat rrrnrcrials,
Nil. abovc rhose*1r".; ,.,r1;;;;;,i
,ren)peraturcs iiticatc librcs
arc norrnarrv used.Exanrnlesof appricatiot,;
jet aircraft,nuclcarpoweiplants ;;;i;; rockcrsln(l
nrissilcs,
Thcrmal Propcrlics nn.fl,Jiisr.inffurnaccs.
Soltenirrg Poirrl. 1,500'C.
(2) SrLrcA-FROM_CLASS
Fil]RES (SrLrcn (c) FtERlts)
M elri ng Poin t. 1,700-1,756' C.
Fibres,
obta.inccl t!9 treatnrcntof glassfibres
stltuents .by to relltovccon-
EIJect ol lliglt TenrPeralure other than silica.
prolongcd periods at tempera-
Quartz fibres may be heated for IN'TI{ODUCTION
tirres up to I y'00-1,600"C. without undergoing deterioration'
-['hc
dcrnaudfor higrr-tcrnperat
ur.c-rcsisting
slinrulatcdby the Jevelopment fibrousnratcrilrsrvns
F Iatn nnbilit y. Non-flammable. of go, tu"rfrin.,
li,r.l' 1.t .ngin".
t80
t8l

f i - , t ' - l- _ 1 ' - l ' 'I ''l -l --r

F, r''l - - F. n F, F, l"'1,
HANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES A : N A T U R A L P o L Y I t T E RI T ID n E s

cluring World War II. The exhaustducts of thesc engines, Silica Fibrc
op"ruiingat temperatures in the regionof 700to 800'C',required
inrulutio-n from the airframeand other structuralparts of-.the of,glassfibre or tcxrileto silicafitrrcor texritc
^ii.r"ft, anctthe insulanthad to be reasonably fuel-tight'light l.n:,:^o^1y..rr'oT
ln tneory a straishtfonvard ls
prolonged high frequency extractionproccss,ftrt irr prtcticc
in weigit an<Iable to withstand the tlrerearedifficult-ies
which.must tr. ourrioni..;i.lise arc
vibration associated with jet engines. of strength,(b)-increased 1a1toss
brittlenessu"A i.j ,f.rri,,-f,rge
in lcneth
Silica was obviouslya suitabGmaterialfor this purpose'a.nd and diameterof fibresafterprocessing tlr. gfossnirie or textilc.
provide
a new rorrteto silicahbre productionwas discoveredto
tfr" nUi. in quantity and it reasonable price'-This consisted in
A typical manufact.uring processfollows thrcc stngcs:
roinni,t* ctasi nUre and then leachingout all the constituents (a) Choppedglassfibrc is lcacheclwith hydrochloricacid until
oitr.. tt-tni the silica. Fibres producedin tltis way werc over
for thepurpose mostof the non-silicanratcrialhas bcenrcnrovccl.
96 per ".nt puresilica,and theyprovedadmirable
ioi*ti.it ih.y tu"t"-intended. Sincethe end of the war' they (b) The leachedfibre is washecland then fcltcd into bhnkcts or
huue develop"i into on" of the most important types of higt- batts.
i;;;;";;ir;;:t;sisiine fibres, with a wicle range of industrial (c) The batts are dried and heat-treatecl, the tibres bonding
applications. togcthcrto increascthc strengl.h
of thc nratcrial.

FORMSAVAILABLE STI{UCTURE
AND PROPERTIES
brrlk
Silica (G) fibres are commonly available in - the fornr of Chemic:rlSlruc(urc
fibre, bait (fe10, cloth, tapc, slecving, braided rope, scamless
Silica .fi.bresproduced by the leachingof gltss fibrc arc alrnost
tubular cloth, cord and Yarn. pure silicondioxide,commonly over 9g per ccnt. -fhc conrposition
of a typical modern silica (C) fibre of ihis typ. (,ltcfrasil')is ls
NON,lENCLATURE Iollows:
sio" 98.7 per cent
Silica fibres macle from glass fibres may be - describedcon- Fe'o' 0.1 per cent
i""l""tiv t. t,f,ca (G) librei to distinguishthem from quartzand
(V)
f.om siiica fibres'pioducedby the viscoseprocess(silica Al,o,I 0.4 per cent
fi bres). TiO, J
CaO 0.3 per cent
Nolc Mgo 0.1 pcr ccnt
'Refrasil"
Thc infornration wltich follows relates prinrarily to Thc balance consistsof combined water and traccs of othcr
pioau..a by Thc Chemical ancl hrsulating Co' Ltd', U'K' Thjs elemcnts,
'nrny
fr" taken as a typical example of a modern silica fibre nrade
by thc lcaching of glass ftbrc. Finc Slruc(urc:rnd Appcnrancc
Smooth-surfaced libre of near-circular cross_scclion.Iribrc
PRODUCTION d i a n r e t e r sr a n g e l r o n r 0 . 0 l . n t r n ( 5 p ) t o 0 . 0 2 n t r n ( l 0 p ) .
Iiillrc
l e n g t hi s a b o u i l 9 n r r r r( % i n , .
Glass fibre Silica (G) fibres are whiie. Batt arrclbulk fibrc arc likc raw
cotton in appearance;tcxtilcs rescmbleglasstcxtilcs.
This is producedin thc usttal wiry, as describeclorr page 649'
182 il r83
 I { A N D B O OK O F T E X T I L E FIBRES
A : N At u R A t _p o t _ y Mu n r t r r r t I s
Fibre length of batt (felt) and bulk fibre nray be varied betwecn Spccilic II eat
6 and 50 rnnt (/a-2 in).
Vcry line lilament batt is also manufactured with a fibrc 7 ' a n p( C . ) B.T'.U.sllb.l"F. Culs.lt:.1"C.
dianrctcr of Q.75p.. 260 0.19
538 0 .l 9
0.21 0.21
Tcnsilc Strcngth 815 0.23
1095 0.2J
Silica (G) fibre textiles have adequate strength for the nrajority 0.26 o.26
1370 0.27
o[ applications.Minimum breaking strer)gthof a typical yarn, 0.27
I650 0.28
5 9 5 0n r / k g( 3 0 0 0y d / l b )i s 0 . 4 5 4k g ( l l b ) ; 3 5 7 0r n / k g( 1 8 0 0 0.28
yd/lb)is 0.908kg (2 lb).
Chcnrical. propcrtics
Elongation
tlci tl s
Vcry low.
Silica (C) fibres are verv stablc to
lilastic Recovcry acids,othcr tlran lrytlrofluoric
and phosphoric acicls.
Silica (C) fibres have almost perfect elasticity.

Spccilic Grnvity tl lk o lis

2.1. Silica (C) fibres arc stablc to nriltl
alkalisat lorv or high tcrrrpcra-
turcs, bur srrong alkatis will
liltcct of Mois(ure causc ,;;;; i;;; ;iicrrsitc strcngtlr
and rclated properties.
Silica is not affcctcd by moisture, the properties of thc llbrc
being unchangedwhen wet. Gcttcrul
1[hcrnr:rlPropcrlics I{esistanceto ntost conrlon chcrnicals
is exccllcrrt.
Softcrring point. 1,500"C. Insccls
M elring poitrt. 1,70O-1,7
56'C. Not attacked.

lilJect ot' 17iglt Tcrnpcraturc lVlicro-organislns

Silica (C) fibrcs remain unchangcd after corrtinuousa n d p r o -
Not attackcd.
longed exposure to tentperaturesof 1,000"C.,and will withstand
nruch higher temperatures for short periods.Resistance
to thernral
shock is high. Fibres may be heated to I,000"C. and t hcn Dlcctricll ltropcr(ics
quenched.incold water without appreciablechange. Silica (G) fibres are extrenrelygoocl
high tcrlpcraturc clcclrical
insulators, anclare _
virrually'tri"
""rv'"i",,rir"ii._iiir"
F Iarnrn
abili ty. Non-flanrmable. availablcin textile.fornrthat will scrvc nrrterials
as cicctricalinsulantsat
lenlperalures up to 1,000"C
T lrcrttnl Conductivity -l'hc
'I'l're tablebelorvshowsvalucsfor thc insulation
thcrnral insulation aflorded by silica (G) fibre lextilcs is silica rcsistunccof
extrenrelyhigh. 'l'he (G) fibre cloth at various rc,irl...,rr*',rr",t"i"rurin"ct t y
NationalphysicalLaboratory,U.K.
184 il"
t85

l
r --l . J r-r ' I
t E F t - - l"1t t t t t l'"i|,',ir:
IIANDOOOK OF TEXTILE FIBITES
: NATURAL pOLyt\.tERFltlRIlS
I'etrtp.("C.) I nsulatiott Rcsistance (olurrsI cnf) Silica (G) libre textiles havc.adequatestrcngth
20 5 x 1 0 7t o 5 x 1 0 8 for nrost applica-
lions, but where heavv abrasionii fit"fV-i"i"
200 5 x 1 0 1t2o 2 x 1 0 r l .r"r"ounr".",f,".g.
in the rnachine braidins"{ il''";;,
500 2 x 1 0 et o 5 x 1 0 ' .rl*,
treat the goodswith a fin_rshing ;,lilrcferablc to
900 agentthat will incrcasethcir
2x 107to 5 x 107 rcsistancero abrasion. This
;e;it;' ,fr"' u..lif ,lg or orhcr
operationto be carrieclout. successfully,
l/o/e. Lorver figuresrelate to plain weave,0.45 nrrl (0.018 irr) rcnroved..quickly and thc finish is
thick. Fligherfiguresrelate to 8-end satin weave,0.90mrn (0.036 whcn the silica gooas a.e iiri tr.nt",f in
The.applicationanctremovatof tri" "oati"! ur..
in) thick. ir.r',lo .n..t nt orr
n""t thermal an<telecrrical
pdffi;-;i';c
Eltcct of Iladiation ;lrjll" silica(G)
Silica (C) fibrcs of low boron content may be usedin regionsof
high neutron and ganrma flux without appreciableradiation littd Uscs
'I'he
heating ellects. following figureswcre obtained by exposing Tlrc ind.us,trial
applicationsopcn to silica (C) Iibrcs
silica (G) fibre materialsto neutron bornbardmentin the CLEEP and varied, but they fall nrainly into arc rnilny
reactor at U.K.A.E.R.E., Harwell, England. threegroups:
(l) I{igh tenrperaturcclcctricrl
insulution.
(2) [ligh tcnrl;craIrrr.c
t hcrlral i n s u l a t i o r r ,
A4ucroscopic N uclcar
(3) Chcrnical cnginccring.
lulat eial Absorptiotr Cross Section
(ctrt2per grarrr)
I Iigh 7'cnpcrature Elcctricol Itrstilutiorr
I{efrasil tape T-RF-3 0 . 0 16
Rcfrasil yarn Y-RW-445 0.016 alcr.tapes
:lXilJ:l,ltf :l:^,r'^1,^:r.._:1,:lrsareuserr
rbravarictyo|
Relrasil fibre F-RF-75 0.019 J.j.i;";;;;:,ii;;:';l,i:l
,.i,of;i,',::,",.,,j,_,]l:.,:i::ili:,,"u,a,!tiii
fi.:lil:.l'::lllg":l:"t:lI :l ;';;t; ;;';;i?;'ili'fi I:'::';:liii;
;;;;;Jiiilii;;':,::5::illi;
These lorv values mean that the materials are completely
satisfactoryfor reactoruse,espcciallysincethe thermalproperties
;j:'J;::l*:ll:?.'."',.1:1,::,'i;;i,;i'
for thernrocouples, highfr.qu.u.y f.rroti,,g
.oifi.
renrain substantiallyuna{Iectedby neutron bombardnrent. II igh Tempcrnture Therna! Insulatiort
,l, r.,therrnal
insrlator,siticr (c )
SILICA (C) FIBRES IN USE
lloI ;il;il;:[]:lli',drliIi,
il;,1,li','_t';;l:lfl:,*,-..,.,.,1:rr,y
h.i:":;.1"',i,1:,1:1,:,_:i:,{,t';;;
u':.1in.tnefollowi,,;
1;,;;;;; Jf,]
GcrrcralChnractcristics
ll,
liltre), (b) silica fibre
ii,i;k";;, 'i
6i'il;,;"ilii'?,lill":l'i:,lil
iii"lil'll,i,,,,lii
Silica (C) fibres combine light weight witlr low thcrnral conduc- fliTl;
!:l,l':l?, ";l.,ll,,ll;:,:i:
::1,,:f t.:,;;;;*i
:r;i
9.",'l*_:l.ii;
c l o t l r c o v c r c r l h h r r t z a r c/ ^ r ^ r r , ^ . . - r r - _ . . . r
i;;''.;;i'il;ir,,
iiii'i,ii'iiJilllii
tivity, flexibility, high tcntperaturercsistanceand high resistancc
ll"lI,"y,,:.1 r,u,ic,
.l:. tJli,ii; i;il.J .,iil1;,
",i
J,ii,,
fiLi: j,lili
to thermal shock. In addition, thcy have the chernicalresistancc 0
lf.liij;. ;?,:i.
:i::,:,
andalso
r,l .ii,
rp"iii,l' iJ,,ii,.,ili
lii,"J
-:It.l"per,"li,iii"r,,'i,igii'ili,p::lli'l:
that is characteristicof silica, and cxcelleut l.righ tcntperaturc to proicct-
electricalinsulationpropertics. :i;j:lfi,
processes.
Silica (C) fibre batt has a br.rlkdensityin the region of 4lb./ftr. ClrctnicalEngineering
(64 kilo./mr.). It can be conrpressed to a bulk density of about ln high ternperaturechenticalengineering

iiill*liiqs:
9 lb./ft3. Datt consistsof a close selt-bondedfelt of fibres inter- operationsltcliasil is
locked in randont orientation.As no bondirrgagent is used therc
is no distortiou or loss of strengthat high temperatures.
t86
n':;{r,$
ririi,f,
lir*l[,'#
fu
iil;iI 187
 IIAND!OO K OT TEXI'ILE FIBRES A: NATURAL PoLYIvIER FII}IIEs
curtainsin conveyor-fed annealing and nornlalisinglurrracesand
alsodrapedoverlargecastings to controlthe rateof cooling.ln . Thc technique of producingfibrcsfronr inorganicruntcri:rls i'
this way has beenundcr investigation for a cionsi<tcrable
continuoussteel castingprocesses gasketsprecisioncut fioru tinre.
Early fornrs of inorganicfibre weie weak,howcvc.r, antl thc higlr
thick Refrasilcloth are usedin special valvescontrollingthe florv loadingsof, inorganic material precru<red
of nroltenmetal.RefrasilRopesare usedin gaskets for furnacc trrc nianutactureof
anythingother than coarsefilaments,e.g. of 5011, dianreter.
door seals.Many other applicationsinvolvingnewer fornrsof M9{ern research,
Refrasilmaterials notably by,Avtex Fitr.r, jii.., has--rnatle
arecontinuallybeingfoundin hightemperature possiblethc productionof very line firarnentsof
chenrical engineeringandengiueering processes. silica and otrrer
high-melting. mater.ialsby the viscosctcchniqrc.iitre basisof
In atomic cnergyapplications,the low boron contentof silica rs.ro dispersethe inorganicmaterialsin a very linc
(G) fibresis advantageous jn that thereis no heatingeffectwhcn :,]:_fl:"::.
lornl ln the vrscose solution.
the silicais irradiatedwith neutrons.
.. Many iriorganicsubstances are solublein alkali, ancl will
dissolvein the viscosesolution.They are suUsclucntty
regcnc-
ratedas the viscoseis coagulatc<l in the coagulaiing batlr,-pro_
viding a fine dispersionoflhe inorganr"*otJiioi in
urc viscose
ilrantent-
Silica has been madc into filarircntssuccess[ullyby
tltis viscosc
tcchrriquc,a,d rayon fibrcs arrtr f^brics corrtnirii'g
siricn rrro,c
(3) SILICA (VISCOSE PROCESS) FIBRES; SILICA (V) FIBRES or nrixed with carbon and other substanccsare
oir ilrc nrarkct
('Avceranr').
Fibres produced by dispersingsilica or der.ivativcsin viscosc
NOMENCL TURE
solution, spinning by the usual viscose techniques,aud then
removing the conrbustiblc materials to leave fibrcs consisting Silict fibres rnade by thc viscosc techniqucnray bc
substantiallyof silica. dcscribcd
conveniently as ,ri/ica (V) libres to distinguish
tlrcnrfroru q uartz
and from silica fibres procluced by the glassfibrc
INTRODUCTION Ieacltingtcch-
rrique (silica (G) fibrcs).
The production of fibres front a high-melting ntaterial such as
silica presentsconsiderabletechnical difilculties.Filarnentsmay be Nolc
'l-he
melt-spun by a direct process,as in the case of quartz, but this information which follows relates orirnarilv to .Avccrant,
producedbyAvtex FibersInc.,U.S.A.This nray
is not readily adapted to thc production of textile grade filaments tr. i.f,tl, asa typical
on a large scale. exanrpleof a modern silica fibre rnade by tire viscosc
tcchniquc.
Filaments may, however, be produced by indirect methods, PRODUCTION
as in the production of silica (G) fibres, in which the fibre is
produced by spinning a lower-meltirrgmaterial which is sub- Spinnirrg
scqucntlycouvertedto the high-nreltingnraterial, Production of silica (V) fibrcs by Avtex Continuous Ccrrrrric
'l-his
indirect rnethod of production nray be taken a stage ljrbcr Proccss rnakes trsc of thc convcntional viscosc
proccss
further, as in the production of silica (V) Iibres. The silica, in (scc pirge ll). Sodium silicateis dissolvc<lin
tlrc viscoscsolution
tliis casc, is dispersedin a solution of viscose,which is spun into prio.r to.spinning, ancl this is converteclto
hyJrutcJ silicic acid
rayon in the usual way. The cellulosic material of the viscose during the coagulationof the fibrc in thc acii coagirhtirrg
rnry thcn bc burnt lway ut any stirgco[ proccssing,to lcirvc a batli
The. tcchniqueuscd is, itr tlris rcslrcct,di[Icrcrrtfiorrr
fibrc lormed fronr tlte silica residuc. Ure lorrg-
establishedtechnique oI incorporaiing particlcs
of pigrncnt or
r88 189
t EI t t t t t t t t t t t t t t
l

' . I A ND B O O K O F T E X T I L E F I DRES A: N A T U R A L P O L Y N , I E RF I B I T E S

clelustrantin spinning dopes. In the latter case,the resulting fibre
contains essentiallythe same particle.size inorganic material as
rvas supplied in the spinning dope. ln the Avtex process,
inorganic material is dissolvedin the spinning dope, and is thus
present in a nrolecularly dispersed form. As the cellulose has
been regeneratedin the acid coagulating bath at the sanre time
as the inorganic material is precip.itated,the resulting hybrid
fibre has few, if any, domains of either celluloseor silica, but is
essentiallya continuum of both these materials.
'Ircatnrcnt of Fibrc
silica. The composition may be varicd ovcr a widc
rangc Up to
a silica content of about 60 per ccnt by weight;ille
corrtnrcrcial
productcontainsapproximately35 per cent
silici and 65 pcr cent
regeneratedcellulose.
^.The fibres are superficiallyidentical with unnrod.ificdrryon;
l r l a n r e ni st 1 . 3d t e x ( 1 . 1 5d e n ) .
..'.Avcerant'{S contains 35 per cent carbon and 65 pcr ccrrt
sl I l c a .
- The fibres are sinrilar in appcaranceto typical carbon
filamentis 0.69 dtex (0.62 clenj.

Fibres produced as above may be furtlrer processedat any sub- Tensile S(rcngth
sequent stage to produce a variety of protlucts, including a silica 'Avccrnnt'-CS
fibre. r'Icnsile
ena.city-cN/tex(g/den)'ni|'i"([.aft 53 ((,.0)
Pyrolysis of the rayon-silicamaterial under reducing condi- Strengrh
kg/cnrz(lb/inz),3500
(SO,OOO)il ,200( 160,000)
tions witl produce a carbon-silica fibre. If this carbon-silica libre
is oxidized, thc carbon may be burncd ofl and a silica filament srl-rcn(u FrrllrF.s
rN usrl
Iormcd. Alternativcly,pyrolysis of the rayon-silicafibrc may bc
carried out under oxidizing conditions, resulting in the direct Rayon-silicayarns ntay bc wovcn, knitred, fcltcd,
choppcd into
formation of a silica fibre, without goirrg through the carbon- staple, or madc into fclts or papcrs. Controllcd
pyrolysis to
silica fibre stage. pr*r:: the dcsiredtypc of silici, sili"a-"urbon-oi.iti.on cnrbidc
Thc carbon-silicafibres produccd in this way arc unique in n r a r e n a tm
s a y b e c a r r i e do u t a t a n y s t a g c .
that both the carbon and the silica are present as fibrous struc- Thc. fabrics produccd in this way uscJ prirnarily
as rcinforce-
tures. This may be shown by the fact that oxidation of the nrent in the manufactureof high i.rnp.rntur"
rcsin systenrsfor
carbon-silica fibre results in a fibrous silica, while chenrical use in rocket and missile technology, e.g. rc_entry
systcnl hcut
extractionof the silica from the carbon-silicacompositionresults shiclds and rocket nozzlcs.
in a fibrous carbon product.
Sincethe carbon and silica are indistinguishable as to structure,
even using high magnification electron photomicrography, the
tendency for these materials to react to form silicon carbide is
enhancecl.Treatment of the carbon-silica fibres in an inert
atmosphereproducescontinuoussilicon carbide filaments.
Two products,basedon rayorr-silicaand pyrolysedrayon-silica
arc produccdcomnrcrciallyby this proccss,unclerthe tmde nanrcs
'Avcerarn'-l{S (rayon-silica)and'Avceram'{S (carbon-silica).

STITUCTUREAND PROPERTIES

('Avccranr'-RS and'Avccram'{S).
Fine S(ructurc ltttl Appcarnncc
'Avceronr'-RS yarn
is a conrposition of rcgcneratcd cellulose an<l

190 l9r
 D: S Y N T I IE T I C F I D I T E S
In thc years after World, War..I,.
chcnrists carricd out n grcat
dr:alof rcsearchon nerhorls"i
ri,iH,rg'rir'.tli,li,'un.tgroups
sucha way as to cr-care of
::?::ll1
poryrners lo,lg;,;i;;;;;. Ma.y synttrcric
I}: SYNTIIETIC FIBRES wercmade.sonrcof rtr.n,t'"i,,g-jrtn.ii.r,,otl,...
rhesepotymerswoutctctissolvii;r";;il,,,., rubbcrs.
.lli"r,"i
rra.turar an<tir was
I, POLYAMIDE FII]RES for peopleto try.extruding tt" p.1v,,,""r'r"lrrt
sprnncrcr holesro find out wherh]er ionstlrrougrr
2. POLYESTE,R FIBRES nl;;;;;i;';i.t bc rrradcin
thc samewty as ravolr.
3. POLYVINYL DEI{IVATIVES ogo o.
4. POLYOLEFIN FIBRES ^" 1'-,.t-":9.
cxpcnrnental -i913, cennan chcmistswerc producingan
fibre frorn polyvinyl chlorid;-in'i;;s
"r tirtleinr.ercsr way. But thc
5. POLYURET}IANE FIBRES lP::^:1.- ir-n'pot"ntioi1"*rii",.ho*. tn te2|,
nDrcswerespunin GcrnranyAonr
6. MISCELLANEOUS SYNTI-IETIC FIBRES and vinyl-acerare, n ."p"1y"i".'ol vinyl chlorirlc
anctin rg:c " n;;;-;;;'b"ii,g
rncrciallyfrom chlorinar*a n,u,t" "on,-
Pc cc, which many claim_ noryuilri'.il;d;. fiil *r. rhe fibrc
Introduction as the first synthctictcxtirefibrc.
p" c". wasonryof tirnjrc<I.;;1,,;';;
The nranufactureof syntheticfibresis a wondcrful cxlmplc o[ the
_
ncvcr of grcat cornnrcrcinl ;il;il
.fhc ii,l., nn.rit *a,
inrportancc. rcai-bcgirrnin[ol
way in which industrial chemistry is contributing to modem life. lhc syntheticfibro industrywas
'Terylene', to stemr.o,r.,il. wurt of wailacc
We now accept synthetic libres such as nylon and on polyesrcrsand polyanridcs,
'Acrilan' ancl 'Courtelle' as everyday nraterials, using thcm as |l_^C1lo,Jr*.
lrDrc wc know whictr lcd to rhc
as ilylorr.
casuallyas we use the rvool and cotton, flax and silk that have circrnistryis onc of thc nrost
provided man's fabrics for thousands of years. ^.Today,^polymer
ot scientificresearch.and flritful branchcs
Yct until tlre 1930s,synthetic libres existed only as a few experi- ,puninror"iiii;ilf :; ;lill;?:H:i.i:,'#xT;[: no*r,.iiig
mental lilarnents that showed little sign of serving any useful
purpose in the textile trade. Who would have dreamed that in
twenty years or so the production of synthetic fibres would have
become one of the world's great industries?
During the early years of the present century chemists became
interested in the unusual ntaterials we now know as plastics. In
time, it became realized that the strange properties of plastics
were a consequenceof their molecular structure - their molecules
rvere long and threadJikc, nrade up of atonts strung together likc
nrirriaturestrings of beads.
These materials rvith thread-like molecules became known as
polynrcrs, and during lhe I920s and I930s great progresswas
rnade in the study and understanding of polymers of different
types. It was found that rubbers and libres were polymcrs, thcir
unique properties deriving from the particular shape of long
moleculc thcy possessed.Fibres, for example, were polymers in
which thc long rnoleculescould pack together alongside one
anothcr like st.icksirr a bundle of faggots.
t92
193

l,;,1 r I r t
F F F F F F F F F F,F N F F1N NF, N
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES
N: SYNTTIETICFI BRES

I, POLYAMIDI' TII}RES ,(b)Th.ctype of porymcrshownin.(2) abovcis proaucedby trrc

sglf-condensa
tion of an ar'ino lcid, or a <terliv;iivc
srcrr as a
tacl.anr:
INTRODUCTION

Polyarnidesare polymers which contain recurring amide groups cx. (cu.).,co Nr-r
as integral parts of the rnain polymer chains. Naturally-occurring > --r.rH(cx.). co HH(cH.)"co r.+r(cx"). ___
polyamidesinclude the protein fibres, e.g. silk and wool. Synthetic
polyarnide fibrcs form one of the most important of all classes CAPROLACTAM NYLON 6
of textile libre, which we know today as nylon (seeNomenclature,
page'207). have been.spun experimentallyfrom ilrousands
Synthetic polyarnidesare made by a condensationreaction _ libl::, produce(lby one or other of thcsccondcnsation of
taking place betwcen small moleculcs, in which the linkage of Lo,Ll.tu".^
rcac'ons.But onlv a very few havc attainc<lreal
the nrolecules occurs through the formation of amide groups. ' inrportance cornrnercial
in rhe-rnode.i.rextile inclustrt.-ii;"';;
-nyion
them,which
The reactant molecules are selectedto yield linear molecules of as nylon (or, nlo." p...ir.iy,
polyamide a{ter reaction has taken place, and the linear lt:,l"oy.now 6.C _ s..
l\omenclature, page207) was thc first conrnrcrcinlly
polyanridcsfrom which ntodcru nylon fibres are spun arc typicrlly succcssful
synthctic lcxtilc fibrc.
of trvo structural typcs, which may be representedas follows:
Nylon 6.6
(l) H"NRNH(COR' CONHRNH),,COR' COOH
The story of nylon's discovcryis a ro.rarrcc
(2) H?NRCO(NI-IRCO),,NHRCOOH oI nrodcrn scientific
rcsearch.It is the rcsearch of fiction conrc
'- iiic;
to "'- ttrc "t,nncc
In each case R and R'represent chains of atoms separatingthc discovery that led to a world_wid" inJurt.V.-
'n' representsthe nutnber of recurring In 1927,the managemcnt of one of amliica,s
functional groups, and ^ largest chcrnical
uuits in the polymer molecule,i.e. the degreeof polymerization. firnrs,p. I. du pont de Nemours & Co., decideJ
ifroi tn" outlook
Synthetic linear polyarnidesof these two types are produced o[ their industry was becoming too r"stii"toL-M'Jr"
on.r nror",
by one or other of the two follow.ingroutes: thcy were dependingon."."n."-h to k;"p ii;;;uir'['aot"
processesand in their developmcut in rhcir
(a) The type of polymer shown in (l) above is producedby thc of n"* pro.lr'rcts.But to a
interaction of a diamine and a dibasic acid, e.g. hexatretltylenc large extent it was .directed' ,.r.0..I, ].;;;;.;ir-;;
was retatcd
d i a n r i n ea n d a c l i n i ca c i d : to. the products already being manufacturcA,
anJ-io cstablishcd
scientificfiel<ts.
Backedby this research,. du pont was flourishing;but in spite
Nrt, {cH.)u NH. + Hooc (cn.)o coon of.this, insuflicientwas bcing donc to
broadcn thc scope o[ the
irtdustry during the years ah-ead.rt *o.
H E X A M E T H Y L E I I ED I A M I N E A D I P I CA C I D a."iJ"al ihcretore, that
rcscarchshould begin along lines which
did noin"ccssarity t"ar
II rny.direct relation to the bread-and_bu tter ,lii"lti* of thc firnr
+ ilsclf. The researchchemists would bc gi"."
cxp,loreat will in any new scicntilic territo;;
"'fr.. hand to
to-*fri.n ilrcir fnncy
- - co NH (H.)o HH co (cu.)n co NH (cH.)o Nn co (cu.)o co --- took..them. They would not be expectcA
ti .o"trifri,tc anything
o[ direct conrmercial value to the tirm;
NYLON6:6 no. *oiita thcy havc
lo convincc lhe managententof any
P O L Y H E X A M E T H Y L E N EA D I P A M I D E
irs"fut prrposc in thc
researchthey chose. It was to be reiearch for'reJearcrr's
s:rkc.
t94
195
 T I A N D D O OOKF T E X T I L EF I B R E S B: s YN,nE l Tt C F I l t n E s
carried out in the conviction that if anything was discovered,it glycol and dibasic acid
molcculcs altcrnatcly cnd-to_crr<l
would be something entirely new. In 1928, the work began. produce a long polynrcr to
nrolccule.
Responsibilityfor lcading the team of chenristsfell to Wallace H.
Carothers, a comparativcly young and little-known organic HO-R-OH + HOOC_R,_COOr{_>
chemist who had served as instructor lor four years at lllinois _o_R_ooc_R'_coo_R_ooc_tt,_.coo_
and Flarvard Universities.
Carothers,during the next few years,was to lead his team with - l'hc estcrification
took placc as -,u'.i!iri.
ror.red'Initia'v, theserrrirtt'or."ucxpccted, '.'.,1"r,
and polycstcrswcrc
a brilliance that had rarely been surpassedin scientificresearch. r,ii ing into rrrc
:' p"'i"i"niui t-.
!i'"io*- r,".",''.
Had he lived, Carothers would lrave become one of the great
scientistsof our tirne. But he died at the age of forty-one,before ;lili:ri'XT,[,t;?3t;fi
,* u'oi.
thc rcsultsof his work wcre to comc to fruition. or,r*i,*aiii,iJlirrii,ll'",ii"Tif j,iij
JJj;il,,ll,rTl".l,',i.I-;il
nanresuperpolyesters.Tl
Polytncr Ilescarclt
wrl"n.sJriiini;';;"iifJ,:1"."""i:U,||v.cIcar,v.iscousriouiJs
-J;'
.,.
P"jn.q this.carrvp.rioj,, carotli;.: ilr";;iica
Carothers and his tcam, irr 1928, chose for their research thc the rctarionshipsbcrwccntt," p.op"rii"s';f';"-,;;."
gucsstu<r
ictl
study of the long chain molecules which give us our rubbers, rrrotecurar anrJrhcir
plastics and fibres. At that time the chemistry of polymers was
srrucrures.rnis ..rJnrili';il ;;#;tuiJrrar phasc
thc rcscarclrincrcascclt ol
little understood,and much work had to be done before arr r,ur
vi"iJ.J'riiil scic.cc,
;;,;j[ii,,li}.T;rji'.}:l]',,i:.1:]',,'.,
adequate background could be built up in the new scientilic lield. Anril
Much of our present understanding of the behaviour of long ^.{n 1e.39, on unus11t
"#"'.i;;;;;'
";'ffi l.por
y..t",**n.
observed,.which._was ro prove of i;",;;;; i,,iiolnn.".
chain moleculcs is a result of the work carried out by Carothers nrscovered jf lr ,un,
that the nroltcnpolyest".*^.-t",,",i.,f
and his colleagues. rod, and the rorl was then <trawn with a gllrss
The llrst stage of the research included a study of the tech- iway, ,iri""f'r"*r.l,Iratcrialstuck
niques by which short moleculescould be linked together into long P lltc lod' forming a Iine srrandri,'tii,e it"'i.Jlncr thc nrorrc'
polymer rnolecules. Carothers concentrated his attention upon |l1r:. asrhe
lrsolidified
:991 strand.
t.rt trc'rrit'"i..ir,"il,,nr.tthccor<t
nrrand to fornr" t""J.o"ti"r""."riii,i.nl"nr'rt. .I.his
the production of polymers by condensation reactions, rathcr wasquitc flexible,and strong
than by addition reactions involving unsaturated monomers (scc enoughto be wound o, to a bobbin.
page xxiv). And in the initial experiments, he made use of thc D rawittg
esterificationreaction between alcohol and acid groups to providc
Hcre, then was sonrethinq _ a nrorrerrsynlhcric
the link that joined small molecules together.
.orlj b; io;;;;j;;,,;,f;.,,"* uolyrler rlrrr
In an esterification reaction taking place between two mono-
nrane
nts.J ;l;;";;';;;l"i'l"l:,;:iX?rin g thcIongconrirruous
functional substances,e.g. methyl alcohol and acetic acid, thc
,"ilH' ?i "liLll
#ffJ ;l'j,t,,#, jll.:Jl;
two materialslink to form an ester,and water is eliminated:
tuntil^t}ey {i};!:1,
werescvcraltirncs
:';:i...,':.
thcir originallcngth.Whcn
CLI"O[{ -t-CHTCOOFI+CH"COOCFI, -r-I-I,O thc fitarncntss^owcd ,o tc.(tc..cyj" 'rirctr strclcllc(l
;."ii;;;";"'
l c n g t hi n r l r e w a y r h a r s t r c r c h c j . , " b origirral
; ; . : t . t , . y* i , u p l y
L ; ; ' ;-f,,.,f
Carothersand his colleagucscarried out this reaction betwcerr cxlcndeduntil a point was rca.chcd
difunctional substances,i.e. glycols, containing two hydroxyl tv:ts.rcsistcd, nnd thcy rcrnairrcd. _ai- *fii"f, ,"r cxtcnsion
groups, and dibasic acids,containing two carboxyl groups.Thcy .in thcir ";;'.|.;,j,.
..._M.or.gu"r, rtrephyiicatcharncte;isi;;,f ir,"'ifilJ".,",.,ts
selectedre&ctantswhich would not readily forn.r ring molecules, tvcnta dranraricchanrcafrer 'r1,. rnr(rcr_
in the anticipation that the esterilicationprocesswould link tlrc being""1;;r^;;.';;, ,,,,.trnrun
statc,thcy werc duil an,ropoqr.,
with Iittrc resisrarrcc to rcusirc
196
197

[l r I , r t ' I ' -I
I_FFFFFFFF
I I A N D B O OK O F T E X ' I L E FIDRES B: S Y N T I . IE T I C F I N R E S

stress;in thc drawn state,the filamentsbecametransparentand value as comnrercialtcxtile.fib^rcs.In particular,

points.were too low, ancl rhe nb.". ;;il--;;i thc rnclting
lustrous,and displayedgreatly increasedtcnacity,toughnessand withstrn<lrhc
clasticity. conditionswhich woulcl be encounterealn
rrornraftcxtile usc.
Thcse two phenomena, i.e. the fornration of filaments from It was decided,tlrcrefore, that work .lrouiJ U.'"oncentratcd on
nrolten polymer, aud the cold-drawingof the filament.to change
lh: :l"dl of superpolyami<tes, which ;;t.t ;; cxpccrcd ro
its properties,had rcsultedfrom the production of linear polyester provide filarnentswith propcrties moresatisfactoif
^r"ri"i".r"nsation
to tcxtitcuse.
molecules of great length. Condensation between the glycol and ^ Initially, polyamideswere produced uv
9-aminononanoic o[
the dibasic acid had resulted in polymers that were essentially acid. polynrerswere obiaincdwhich nrclteclat
linear; there were no side branchesor large pendant grotlps to about195'C.,and fibresspun.fromtlri.
in strengthand flexibility with those "f ;;it;;;*;rc -.itk. comparable
prevent the molecules packing close alongside each other, and ""iri.i
a promisingstart. Thi. *r,
the long molecules were able to form regions of crystallinity in
which the forces of attraction between them could develop A wide range superpolyamicles was then maclc,usingboth
-of
eflectively. Also, the length of the polyester rnoleculeswas such . routes,i.e. the self-condensation of anrino-aciJs anJ tuctanrs, an.l
as to link the crystalline regions together into the structure that the condensation of diamines*itf, Jifosi"'.iii.. -nrof
tirne,themethod of spinningntam"ntsiroi tii" nt thc sarnc
is typical of a fibre (see page xi).
cameunder intensivedevelopment. t.n polynrcrs
X-ray difiraction studies of undrawn superpolyesterfilaments Instea<tof .piiining hfri., Uy
showed that the long molecules were indeed packing together touchingthc molten nolymtr and pullint
;rr,^r";, strnnd,
into crystalline regions.But in the undrawn fibre, thesecrystalline chcmists. began extruiing thc moltcn polymcrs through the
regions were not in alignment witlr each other, or with the long . .
orillcesin spinncrets.In principlc, finc
tfri, t.in,iiq,,""rcscnrblc<llhnt
axis of the filament. They were in a state of random orientation' usedin spinningviscoscrnyon, but it invorvci
ilrc cxtrusionof
lVhen the filaments were cold-drawn, however, the X-ray held at high ternp"rutu."inrt;;;i"
i^T.1,1" at
polymer Ti." sotutionof
diffraction patterns showed that the crystalline regions werc normal temDerature as in the caseof rayon.
pulled into alignment until they were oriented parallel to the
..This .techniqueof mclt spinni,rj practicat
fibre axis. At the same time, drawing brought about an increased difliculties.The moltcn polymer i.,i ;;;r;;;j';,ry
t" fr"- fl"i,i nt o f'ligf.r
degree of alignment of the molecules in the amorphous regions temperature withoutdeconrposing duringthc .p;"ui"g operatlon.
o[ the filament. This permitted more of the molecules to pack Pumps,filtersspinnerets anclother .quirim"r,tli"J t" rr" dcsigne<.|
togcthcrinto crystallineregions,so that the degreeof crystallinity at thcse,high remperaturcs; thc first spinnerctuscrtin
was i ncreascd. :^lp:T,,_"
mcrr splnnlngmorten noryanridcs was a' clectricailyhcatcJ
hypodcrmic needle-
Supcrpolyanides Followingan intensiveresearchcampaign
1930s,a.superpolyami<Je 'fi;rrlr.;during thc carly
The physical properties of some of these early cold-drawn was chosenf",
a potentialtexrilefibre. This was.polyh.-;;;;iily[;; ;;;clopmcnt ns
polyester filaments showed certain advantages over established
madeby conclensation arlipanridc,
man-made filaments,such as viscoserayon, notably in tenacity 'Ihe of hexanrethylei. Oianlin"an,iadipicacid.
and elastic properties.And jt becameevident that superpolyesters potymerwas of suitabl"rn"ttingpoini'i"rr"ri'iso"c.l,
producedby condensingglycols and dibasic acids might provide the fibresspun from it had properti.r',n"i ""a
"r*[-it attractivcas
a route to the production of true syntheticfibres of real com- fibre.Equallyinrporrarit, this polynrcrolicrcdrhe rnost
1..1.*tjl.
illtractive
mcrcial value. Carothers and his team began a systematic propositionfrorn lhe point of "i"*
and tnanufacturing J i"* nratcrinls
investigationof superpolyesters with the ainr of producing such costs.
a fibre. Once this dccisionhad beennrarlc,a full_scale
canrpaignwas put in hlncl, with tlic dcvelolrnrcnt
At an carly stage,it bccarrteapparcnt that thc stlpcrpolycstcrs "fri."i-"i
-i..i'
thcn available had deficierrcies which precluded thcir being of polyarnidefibre on a conrmercialrr.,i.. iroducing r
iii. Jn, ,o prou"
t98 t99
 I

[IANDr|OOK OF TEXl'I LE FI BRES B: SYNTIIETICFII}RES

one of great conplexity. Thcre rvas no brckground o[.industrial Nylon 6
expcrience on which the chemists and technologistscould draw. During his early rcsearches into
Tlre processof producing polyamides was new. The techniqtreo[ thc produclion o[ polyanridcs,
9ll:,h"ir- made.a !o!yT9i by the s;rf-c;;;"nruiion
spinning a molten polyn-rerat high tempcrature had never becn l:rctanr.
He describe o[ capro-
d.' in ihe ,ibr"s
-;;'th"t;;ul,l' be spunfrorn
attenrpted before. .1932,
this polymer, ana oolycapi";;ri;;
Processeshad to be devised for the manttfacture of the two polyamidcs """ ", rhc nrany
consiclerccl for possibleA"u.tofnrcIif"s a cornnrcrcial
main raw materials,hexamethyleuediamine and adipic acid. Thc tcxtilcfibre. Followinsttre decisionr, ;;;;;;i;"
basic source, originally, was phenol, and adequatesuppliesof this on rtrc pro-
of a polyhexinrethylenc ^dip;,,;i,i;;;;;, rrowcvcr,rhc
had to be ensured. *:l':l
polymermadc from canrolaclanr
Altogether,some eight yearsof high prcssurework by chernists, wni no long"i a candidatcfor
inrnrcrtiatcdevelopmeni by du pont.
physicists,engineersand tcxtile technologistswere re<luiredbeforc lll .L,urope,consiclerabl^c
production of the new fibre could begin. ln April 1937,the lirst rcsearchhacl bccn carricd out orr
polyanrides during the 1930s., notablyfry
pair of stockings was made from polyamide fibre produced in -6";;;
tfr.-C"r"",,r firrn of I.C.
F:rrbcninrtusrrie.
tn I 937,.Iibr., ;;;.
the experinlentalplant. The processfor making the libre was thcn fronrpolycaproamicle, Jpi,n'i*p.rinl"ntntry
cstablishedon a pilot plant scale,and on 27 October 1938 the but it was not until 1939that thcsclibrcs
wcrebeingproducedon a con)nrcrciurty
news of this first synthetic textile fibre was announced to thc p.*tr"oui" tasis.
world. It was to be called 'nylon', a name that had been coincd - During World War ',. polycapioa1,,il;-;;;;;
'r,r,r.r^;"";;;. wcrc ,rilnr-
frctu.cd in Gcrnrany,nna'.,rl,r .'crlo'
as a generic term for synthetic polyanride fibres. Chcnrically, thcsenyion 6 Iibresfr""' fl",,ierl"i"ir,r",pne" I.,,
rvcrcsimilar ro rhe nvlon 6.6 nbrcsp;;;;;i';;'.,u zOzl
ponr, tlrc
ul Plod uctiott
Corttnterci
slight diflcrencesin nrolccularstructure
rcflectedin sonre dillcrcnccs;" ri.," lscc pngc 203) bcing
Ily tlre end of 1939,thc first factory for commercialproduction irirvri*i jfficrtics of
fibrcs. thc
of nylon was in operation at Seaford, Delaware. And by May ln cermany,as in the u.S.A..and Britairr,
1940, nylon stockings werc being sold to the American public. uscclalmoste-ntirely nyron fibrcsrvcrc
The end of 1941saw nylon in productionat Seaforclto the extent
for essentlat war purposes, notablyin thc
productionof parachute
of 3.6 million kilograms per year. [Jut this was insufficierttto 'l)crlon Altcr'thc war,"many oI thc
.fabric..
L' factorieswcrc disnra-ntlcd,'Ui,t'p.",1,,"ii""
mect the dcnrand,and a secondfactory was openedat Martins- bcganrgainirr Gcnnanyirr 1948.. o[ t^c librc
ville, Virginia. Front these two factories, nearly I 1.3 million
kilograurs of nylon per annum rvereturned out by 1942.
In Britain, thc first nylon spinningfactory was in operationby PolyanridcsI'oday
January 194t, and the second by Decenrber!942. Canada, also,
was in production. Dur.ing the war, all the yarn produced by these Nylon 6.6 and Nylon 6
factories was uscd for essentialwar purposes.lvlost important of Sincc._lheend of Worlcl War Il,
nylon 6 anct nylon 6.6 have
alI rvas the manufacture of parachutes,which neededstrong, light c.stablishedrhemselveson th".wo.lJ'r"^rf,"t
lJ t*l -ofof the nrosr
and elasticfibre - a job for which nylon was adnrirablysuited. Inrportantof all synthetictextilc.fibrcs.proJ,r.iio"
tncreased both typcs
Aftcr the war, nylon production underwent an enormous at an irnpressive
ra.tein tl,. i;;,;;li;i;"pir,**,
expansion.The new fibre was soon being nranufacturedin mrny Alnrost
everyinduitrialco y.rrr.
countries, and in nratry forms; multifilament yarns, monofila- nyIonnu,"s'
i re,;ffi; li,:i}?^?",:,
I T",,:":
l-?'i.,
Iil,,,?",il
i"llit
rncnt, high tcnacity yarns irnd staple.It was acceptedenthusiasti- textjlcand in<.lustrial
alplications.
cally by the gcncralpublic, and has now comc ittto use in almosl Nylon 6 arrd nylon 6.6 togethcr
account for alnrostthc crrtirc
cvery branch of the tcxtilc industry. production of potyarnirte
fibies.The ;;;s; ;; pffi,.ti"s orr"r",r
201

n, -l ' \r " ' ,-J - - r '.-l .-l -'l

F , FF F F F F I I F T F T F T F T F T F ,
I'tANDBOOK OF TEXTI LE FIBRES N: SYNTIIETIC FI I}RES

bv the two fibres makes for great versatility,and there are few competition with nylon { and nylon 6.6
as I gcncral purposc
textilo fielclsin rvhich nylon does not compete eflectivelywith textile l'ibre.Thcsc two fibres secnt destincct
to i.outinuc rs thc
other fibres.This versatilityof nylorr6 and nylon 6'6 has increased two general-purpose poryanridcfibrcs for as long as wc c:'l
sce
steaclilyover the years as researchhas introduced all n.rannerof ahead.competition wilr.deveropnot fronr a
'fibres ir-cw'conrcncler,but
mo<.liflcations and improvementsto the basic types of fibre' Thc bctween the two established whiclr ,,f..",fV slrare thc
procluction of trilobal filaments and textured yarns in conr- polyamidefibre field betwcenthenr.
paratively recent times, for exanrple,has opened up vast new
fields of applicationfor nylon fibres. Sinilarities and DifJerences
Since the end of Worli War II, continuous expansionof thc The chemical structuresof
,y,rth"ti. fibre rnarket has built up.the production of nylon 6 .nylon 6 and nylon 6.6 are virtullly
idcntical,differing-onry in the arrangen't"nioi'tlrc atorns in rhc
una nyton 6.6 into one of the world's great new industries'An antidegroups,as follols :
enormous capital investmenthas been made in the nylon pro-
clucinginclustry;vast sums have been expendedon the research - NH(CH,LcoNH(CH,)"co _ _ NI{(cH,),,NFICO(CH,).CO _
that .ii necessaryto ensuremaximum elliciency of production and Nylon 6 Nylon 6.6
continuous inrprovement of the product. The result has been to
create an industry that is operating with great efficiency, and There are diflcrcncesalso in thc nrolccular
proclucing two closcly-sinrilartypes of polya-midcfibrc for wltich wciglrt distribtrtion
and thc avcragcnrolccularwciShtso[ tllc
two pniiiu.*, rcsultirrg
ihere is i sustainedand indeed increasingdemand' from the dillerences in po[,rnerizatio,,
If either of thesetwo polyamidefibres,nylon 6 and nylon 6'6' iJh;1;ues usc<] in
lnanufacttrrc.
suffereclfrom serious deliciencieswitlr respect to their suitability Thcse structural rclationships bctwccn nylorr
6 and nylon 6.6
for widespread use in the general textile field, the way would bc are reflectedin thc rclationships.bctwcenttr"
t*o fibi"r rp,,n tronl
op"n fo. ihe development of a more satisfactorypolyarnide fibrc' RolVrn..s. .In general. terms, the characteristicsof thc two
Lik" "ny other texlile fibre, nylon 6 and nylon 6'6 have short |11",
rorcs are srnrlar, and trrey fulfi[ sinrirar rorcs
lomings- with respect to their use in specific applications' But' in thc textirc
industry. But there are diffeienccs i,, tf," pi"p"rii"s
by uni lurge, the two nylon fibres provide.a range of propertics rvlrichvary in practicalsignrlrcance
of the libres,
accordirrgto thc requircntcnts
tliat enables them to compete effectively throughout almost the of particular end-uscs.
entire lield of ,generaltextile applications. Sonre of lhe more jmoortant clilTercnccs bctwccn nylon ( and
ihis situatioriprovides little lncentive for the introductionof nylon 6.6 are as follows:
u n"* polyu.iae fibre to compete in the general textile field' (l) Nylon 6 has a lower melting point
The prospeits are nracleeven less attractive by the cost situation' nylon 6.6 (about 250.C.). For nroit
(about 215"C.) rhan
^prnltiini-t"*titc
Nylon 6 an<tnylon 6.6 are now being produced by highly-ellicicnt lhis is.not.a signilicantfactor. l-he "ri,fti,ie
-;"i"i"of purposcs,
o-...t"t that are establisherland thoroughly understood' Thc gcnerallyhigh enough to nreetalr nylon 6 is
economic conditions that infltrenced the choice of these two arc circumstancesin which the higher
normar .&ri."nr*tr, but thcrc
poiyanritles for cleveloprnentin the early day-sare still valid n-,"fti,u poiirt"of nylon 6.6
with 6 is advantagcor.rs.
ioclay. The rnw nrutcrialsin each case are substarrces 'fhc.lowcr
linke<lin linear fashion in thc nrolecule,and thesc rnclting point of nylon 6 has bccn clainrcd
carbon atoms rcsult in lower fuel costs during nrn to
are inherently attractive as raw nraterials;they rnay n u fn.irr"-.-'Lcss hcat is
substances necdedto keep thc polynrcr nrolteriduring
t. mu,l" by opening oul the 6-memberedring of aromatic sub- r;i;;r;;g.*
slanccsavailablefrom coal, oil and other sources' (2) Nylon 6 has a grcatcr aflinity
for certain crycstutlsthan
Unclcr present circunlstanccs,therefore, it is dillicult to scc rrylon 6.6...Dycd togcrier with acict'.ty;
t; ;i;; #nc <tycbnth,
how any othcr polyamidc fibrc could establishitself in dircct nylon ( will dye to a shadeseveraltinl",
.l..p.r lfr.i'thut uttnin..l
203
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES lt: sYN I.ltETlC rlllRES

by rrylon6.6. llorvever, colourlastnessis generally better ort ( 7 ) N y l o n ( r i s n r o r es u i t a b l e

f o r I l . F .r v c l t l i ntch u r rn y l o n6 . 6 .
nylon 6.6 becausethe dye is ruore closely conrbirlcclwith the
'l'rvo-tone
fibre. (or rnulti-tone) dyeings rnay be obtained by
D i rcct CotttltctiI iort
dyeing fabrics constructedfrom both fibres; sirnilar effects can
be nrore readily achicvedby conrbinationof different varietiesof Nylon 6 and n),[on 6.6 clevelopc<l into full_scalcintlustricsurrdcr
t h e s a n t ef i b r e , e . g . ,b r i g h t a n d c l u l l y a r n s . wirr-tirnc contlitions,ouc bccorning thc polyanriclcIibrc
of thc
lllcnds of other fibres with nylon, notably wool blends,may Axis Powcrs,and the other of thc Allic<l Powcrs. Wlrcrr
tlrc war
often be dycd rnore advantageously when nylon 6 is used rather endcd each fibre was establishcdin its own region
of thc rvorltl,
than nylon 6.6. to the exclusionof the othcr.
. (3) lloth nylorr 6 ancl nylon 6.6 are sensitiveto ultraviolct If thc di{Icrencesbctrvccnlllc two nylons had bcen so signifi-
light, and tend to undergo degradationand yellowing to varying cant as to give onc an intpressiveadvantagcovcr thc
othci.,or
clegreesalter prolonged exposure to sunlight. Resistanceis i[ the productiorrcosts of onc ha<t bccn rituch lcss
thln thosc
af'fectedgreatly by titaniunr dioxide and additivesusedto stabilise o{ the othcr, one type of nylon wour<ino croubr,rravc
cstrtrrisrrcd
yarns againstUV radiations. clcar ascendencyafter trre war c.<red.But witrr littlc
to crroosc
(4) Nylon 6.6 has a better resistance to thc ellect of high between rrylorr and nylon 6.6 .in either rcsl)ccl,tlr"r"
.6 ,un, ,.,,,
ternperatures irrasmuchas it has a higher melting point, and cnn ilrcenrlvelor elthcr sidc to switch production frorn
tlrc fibrc it
withstand highcr ternperatureswithout rapid loss of tensiletnd hacl cstablishcd.
other properties.At tentperatureswell below the melting point i"t po-st-wirrycars, both nylon 6 alr<lnylorr 6.6 htvc gonc
_, ?,ll
of nylon 6, horvever,both fibres will undergo clegradationon lneild' each rn rts owr) lrart of the world. -l'hc tlillcrcrrccsbctwccn
prolongedheating,anrl resistanceof nylon 6 to this degradation tilcln were insullicicntto warrant a prcfcrcnlial <.lcvcloprncrrI
of
is grcater than that of nylon 6.6. cither; such diflcrencesas thcrc *"r", i,., fact, loritribut"d
to thc
This increasedresistanceto heat degradation,coupled with rnaintainanceof the status quo by nraking dycrs
and othcr
the lorver melting point, nrakcsit possiblefor nylon 6 to be held processorsreluctant to changc front onc fibre
to thc othcr rvhcrr
in a nroltencondition without undergoingnoticeabledcgradation. littlc tcchnicaladvantagcwas to bc gaincd.
Nylon 6.6, on the other hand, tends to degrade fairly rapidly
..." j|; ll.rl{,:l?y.lop.'nent.y.ears, ttrerctore,
eactr
typeof rryton
whcn held in a nrolten corrclit.ion. This diflercnce betwcen thc w aIsiD u s ye s t a b i r s r l ii'tgs p o s i t i o r r r a r g e loy r rt r r cb a s i i o r ' r r i s t ' r i c r r l
two polynrersis irnportant in its influencc on thc nrarrulacturc c e v c l o p l l t e l lItl.r e s i t u a t i o nc l r l n g e dh, o w e v c rd, u r i n g
thc l9(r0s
of fibre. It has proved sinrplcr to spin [ilanrentsdirect fronr
l:"d,1?]!r: potnty1,es.of
:11111 rriyloiunacre
il.ii;;;y i,,rcrrjtory
nrolterrnylon 6 after production of the polyrner,without inter- ym previously_
rcgardcdas the alnrost exclusive preservc
nredietecooling and soliclification, than in the case of nylon 6.6. t h c o t h e r_. l n t h e U . S . A . , c x a n r p l ct,h e r cw l s n o p r o r l u c tol.
lllr,
iorr
When setting fabric on a stcnter, nylotr 6 is at a disadvarrtagc o f n y l o n 6 i n 1 9 5 4 ,b u t ' .bf yo rl 9 ( r 2i f r i i n t r i . w a sa c c o u n U , r g
sornel0 per cent of the toial U.S.output. n,,J fry l9(r4, t i ,r
in tlrat it nrust be set within a closer ternperaturerange (6oC) rrlylorr
than nylon 6.6 (20'C). up about,25 pcr cen.tof the ioral outprit. Vtca,rruhilc.
!p rg1y!:
ouucrton o l n y l o r r6 . 6 ^ h a db c c r rr n a k i r r g s i r r i i l apr r o g r c sisr i
(5) Nylon 6 is clairnedto havebetterelasticrecoveryand fatiguc Gcnrrarry; by 1964,this filre rvrs accourrtiirg tbr abbut'_f J-pci
resistancethan nylon 6.6. Nylon 6.6 tyre cords, however,havc c e n to f t h et o t a lr r y l o rpr r o t l u c t i o n .
fatigue resistartceto nylon 6 tyre cords whcn each is
' 5uperior 1'hisp:tttcrnhas bccnfollowcdin otlrcrcountricstoo. Nylorr
riraclcto optinrurnconditions. 6 production.is now establishc<l in thc U.K.,whichrvasprcuioirsly
(6) Nylon 6 filarlcnts blend more readily than those of nylon a nylon 6.6 preserve.
'6.6. 'l'his
is an advnntagcwlrcn a soft full hand is requircd,but n y l o n6 a n c ln. y l o n6 . 6n o w c o r n p c l i nrgl i r . c c t w
- - . W i tln
h rna10r l yi t h c a c h
is disadvantagcous when a cr.isphand is required. orncr world nrarkets, thc tech^icilldill'crcnccs
'-) bctwccrr
204 205

n-"L,'-r -L ' n r ' n - [

r,rnntttttrFtFFFF
' T E X ' I ' I L DF t B I I t ] S
IIANDI}OOK OF I J : S Y N . r I I E ' TI C F I N I { E S

costs
thcnr are becouringof greatersignificanccthau bcfore' The . All fibres estabrisrra place for tlrenrsclvcsin thc tcxtirc
scrutinizcd the greatest care' industry by oflering a rnngc of propcr.tiestf* ,iiif.i.
- procluction,too, are being
of -with to r grciltcr
point, nylon 6 or lesserdegree from the property ranges
tieqrite the haridicap of its lower softening of othcr ribrcs.-r.hc
npp"nit to be making headway against nylon 6'6 in many uscr assesses the characteristicsof every Iibre and
rvhich oflers hinr the rnnge of propcitics sclcctsthat
point
"ountri.s, including the U.K. and U'S A' lts protagonists bcsi 'suitcA to his
characteristics,increased light and heat particu.larnceds,at the price he can
io th. .l.eper dyeing allorrl t" ;;;.
as iescri-betl ibove' These factors have.given it the edge lnevltabty, the charactcristics of any indivitlual fibrc rvill strit
stability
sonreapplicationsbetter than othcrs,arrd
o" nyfon 6.6 in spccific applications,such as tyre cord' The for c.riairi apptications
the rangc-of properties it orTers*ili
softei hand of nyion 6, too, has beeu o[ advantage in sonre b.-.;rtit;ly unsuitaurc.
';;;d Thc
applications,such as tricot fabrics, and thc prodtrctionof fabrics dema.nd for any fibre depencls upon
irs ;;.i;;, upon rhc
from falsc-twistedYarns. brcadth of the spectrurn of tcxtiie ^plrii"'"ii","
. ior wtrictr its
With onty ot.t" ri* matcrial to be made, compared with trvo characteristics are sat isfacrorv.
in the case of nylon 6.6, it would seenl that nylon 6 production ln the case o[ thc nolyarriiclefibres,
nylon 6 and nylon 6.6,
the inherentcharactcriiticiof thc fibrcs
shoulcl be simpler and cheaper than that of nylon 6'6' A new rirJ"iin.,.r".,r,
';;, of r widc
range of imporranr textilc appticatio,rs,
route to caprolactamfrom toluene has increasedthe advantage ,,ixi ;i; ", nrc pro_
auced on a largc scalc to nreet thc restilti'g,r;,;,,;l.,fhcrc.r.c,
;;tj;t.J by nylon 6 in this respect.on the other hand' it is
holcvcr, spccificnppticarionsfor whicir
claimed that <liarninesand diacids are cheaper to producc than iii.',r,;;:i1;" of rrylorr6
and nylorr 6.6 are inadcquate,an<l
amino acids,giving nylon 6.6 an advantagein costs' i,.,,port.ili-iroi"litir I nrrrkcts
The extra leat- stability of nylon 6, allied with its lower ll'rny^9" cl-ose<ton rhisaccount.
f " .rfri'"".*rllt'ii,r"i w"lr trctt,"t
melting point, have made the developmentof continuousprocesses to nrcelrcquircnrcnrs try o,,ly',i*ingicfacror;rtrc
:T, l.^ :"_flll.
c,nd.-use.nray rcquirc,for
now being spun direct from molten polymer
simplei.'Nylon 6 is'I'he cxarnple,that thL fibrc shotrldrctairr
pto,lu"ccl. high nrelting point of nylon 6'6, and its its tcnsilecharacteristics
at a tcnipeiatur"triglr"iit,oiittrcrncltinS
os it is
point of the fibre.
tendencyto decomposeif heltt in a molten condition,have made
more difficult' If the end-use,in an example such
itr. J.u.topnt.nt oi continuousspinningprocesses as this, rcprcscntsarr
ro.'ti,"-
i:,"r-";:T:"1.3j."lll,:r nu,.,'ir,",",i,'Ii,i,liill]r,,'j
With so many technical and ccononricfactors involved, it is aLll!:I.
spccializ.,l
:ir^"^1"_i-ll"dlicing iorn.,
oi poiv""ii,i"
r" .iiili,ir,l
dcfi.ciency
in thc propeiticsis
difllcult to preclict what the long-term result of competition made goo<1.
betweennylon 6 and nylon 6'6 will be. In the lneantime,it can thistypeof backgrouriJ itat n.* polyanridc fibrcs
],J:,lg^i1:!
dwelopcd,
be forecasi with some certainty that nylon 6 and nylon 6'6, i,i" ::i1qr:.^o:,,-'l:" and.rhc oiproo"r,'i.,-Li;;;';;;1j.",;;;'
rron,rwo
n" .non.t,'ili" "riJu.r,.,t";;;"";.
betweenthem, will be the nrainstayof polyanridefibre produc- *::; ll:.T ;:
tion for some dccadesto come. T:1:n:1-"]".ically or physicaily r" rn"",'rp"Jnc',,i..rs.On tt,.
:l,l:, l^119,",1.w
chemically
types p"iJu."j,'*r,i.r,,rir.r
of nylon^."-Uli"e
Otlter Polyanide Fibres from riylon 6 and nylon 6.6.
With nylon 6 and nylon 6.6 so well established,and with the
..ono,rli., weighted io heavily against the introdtlction of new NOMENCI-ATURE
gcncral pttrpose polyamitte fibrcs, thc prospcctsof devcloping 'l-hc-
ternr'nylon,,as coinccl.
i.* potyonliA" fi6rei are obviously restricted.The opportunitics by..<l
rr l)ont,wrs clcfincdas .l gcrrcric
nlust li; very largely in the direction of producing specialized :::]]],^t1::.:
I in synrheiicporvn,"ij.. *i, i.ii'1,n,r"."ur.ri
l"ng-crra ng
anlldegroups as arr inlesral-partof tlie rrrairr
types o[ polyamiJe hbre which can serve in particular applica- llolynrcrchairr,ancl
whichis capabreof being formedri;i;
tions foi rvhich the regular nylons (and othcr fibres) are ;"fr;rffii,t irr wnicrrrhc
stnrcturalelenrents
are ori-ented
ln tne aiieciio,i oi ifr. n,,ir,.
inade4uatc.
206 207
 'I'EXTI
ITANDBOOK OF I-E FIBRES II: SYNTIItrTIC FIT}RES

I'rior to the introduction of polycaproamidefibres ('l'crlon L') In thc copolyntcrizationo[ ethylcrrc cliarrritrc, atlipic ncitl
s,ebacjc_ _hcxant
in Gertlany, the polyhexamethyleneadipantidefibre dcveloped 114 l:il fgl example, a resulianr pofVnnii,r" dcscribcd
by tlu Porrt in the U.S.A. was the only fibre of comnlercial (90: I0) would bc n .opolynr"r contaioing
'nylon'. Through- it,t]l_l?",6.616.10 thc
irirportanccthat came within this dclinition of o . oa n o o . t Uc o r n p o n c n tisn t h e p r o p o r t i o n s( b y
w c i g h t )o f 9 0 : 1 0 .
oui thc wartimc years, the du Pont fibre was known sinrply by I;cdcral 7'racleCotttrttissiottDefinitiotr
thisnanrc. Nylott. A manufacturecl fibre in rvlrich
'l'hc 'Perlort L', however, brought another tlrc fibrc-[orrning
devclopmcnt of
substa'ce is a lorrg crrai'syrrthetic polyar'irle
polyanride fibre on to the nlarket, and this Iibre too could be i. wriicrr lcss trrarr
85% o!. the anrirt-e
(-colNH-j ri,,k;;;;^;;.^';ii..r,.a
describedas'nylon' under the ternrinologyestablishcdby du Pont. ltronraticrings. to t,uo
Clearly, sonrc tnethod of dillerentiating betweetr these two
polyamide fibres,and others which have since appeared,becanre Arantid. A manufacturecl
fibre in which thc fibre-fornring
necessa ry. :?9:tT9: is a
.long-chain synthetic
poryriiiiir,
ii rvrricrr
at rcast
'fhis or,,oorrne..anilde
can be done most ellectively and precisely by referring linkages
(_CO_Nfl_) are attachcdtlircctlyto
to the polyarnide llbre in ternrs of its chemical structure; the trvoaronratic
rinss.
original nylon, for exarnple,is polyhexanlethylene adipanride'
'Perlon L'is polycaproamide.This ternrinologyis too cum- TyPESoF POL;MIDE FIBRE
and
bersoure,howcvcr, for cvcryday usc, and a sinrple tncthoclo[ 'fwo
nomcnclerturervas dcviscd which retained the accepted ternr o[ types of librc - nylon 6.6 and nylorr 6 _ donrinatc
'nylon', but distinguished between the diflerent fornrs of polyarniclc thc
fibre fiel<|.As alrer<Iya"r.iirr.',f ii,.r" n.i',t," gcncral-
polyamide. that rcprcscntthc bulk of polyanrictc fibrc lroduc-
l:_rpi:l!*:
,^1
Using this nontenclature,the nunrber of carbon atonts iu years,however,a numbcrof ncw polyanride fibrcs
i]:: i:_::i,
nxveassuntecl
the constitucntsof the nylon are indicatedby appropriatefigures' conrmcrcial irnportance. In somcCascs, lhcschavc
the clianrinebeing consideredfirst in the case of a polyamidc alreadyconreinto conrnrerciilproductiorr;il
;iil; cascs,thcy
ma<.lcby condcnsingdiamine and dibasicacicl.Thus, the original
l.::- :,]jl r"d:r d,cvcloprnent, but ihow prosiectsoi'acrricving r"ut
nylon, made {rom lrexamethylerre dianrine and adipic acid, is lntportancc ln due course.
nylon 6.6 - the diamine and dibasic acid both contain 6 carbon ln this sectionof the Hanclbook, the comnrcrcially
typesof polyamidefibrc are discuisccl ' irnportant
atonrs.The nylon made fronr hexamethylenediamine and sebacic as follows:
acid, likewise,is nylon 6.10. (l) Nylon6.6
When the polyarlide is nrade by self-condensa tion of a single
constituent,c.g. an anrino acid, the nature of the polyamide is (2) Nylon 6
indicated by a single figure representingthe nunlber of carbon (3) Nylon I I
atonrs in tlte molccule of the original constituent.Nylon 6, for (4) Nylon 6.10
cxanrplc,is the fibre made by self-condcnsation of caprolactanr'
'Pcrlon 'Perlorr'). (5) New typesof polyanrideFibre.
i.e. L' (rrow known simply as

Copolynrcrs (l) NYLON 6.6

In clcscribingcopolytrers,the rnajor conlponcnt is nanred first.
followcd by thc minor conrpollentsin ordcr of decreasingpro- Nylon 6.6 fibre is spun from. polyhexanletllylcnc
adiparnide,a
portions. The percentagesof each component are written in polyamide.madeby condcnsationof hexamctfiylcrrc'rtianr
inc and
parentheses. adipic acid:

208 209

r l I r
 I:IBII'ES SYNTII ET IC FII}RES
T I A N D B O O KO F T E X T I L E

NH. (cH.)u t'tx. + Hooc (cur)ncoot-l

A D I P I CA C I D
H E X A M E T H Y L E N ED I A M I N E

I
+ ---
-- co NH (cH.)" r.+rco (cH.)o co NH (cu.)o NH co (cH2)4co

N Y L O N6 : 6
E
POLYH X A ME TH Y L E NE A D I P A M I D E

-fYPES OF NYLON 6.6 FIBRE

yarns' nronoltlatnents'
Nvlon 6.6 is produceclas multifilanlent
i;;;i;'t;; io*, in a rviclc rauge o[ counts and staplelengtltsto
suii virtually alt tcxtile requirenrents'
""i.rr"'ili"!
aie available'in bright, semi-dulI and dull lustres,
for specializedend-
ona- *iitt additives such as optical bleaches
uses.
""i1,"
which is
prop.r,ies o[ nylor-r6'6 fibres vary over a range
characteristics of the polymer, each TRILOBAL CIRCULAR
riniii"a'by the inherent will
controlling his process to protluce.fibres that
rr^nri".i,jt".
".i.f tp..in" reguiremeits. In general, commercial nylon fibrcs
fi,,l{i!:f,Jli i'"1,,",li,
:i:iJliXl}t"fi:
ii',i,""f,,j11",?l',*i,i','."i"i,1l,Ti,,ll,."f
fall into two maln ",arres, (aI regular tenacity
and (b) higlt
;i!t,T"i'J:t
l{i.!l'{r:;'"","?i,?'t,i.T*.:lrm
sionalhigtrlightcffccr,_
ji{
I'lil.l *it*llnsi
tcnaclty.
'-'Nyi;" antrprintson uoiti-w"";;;;li'i',;ii;,r rabricsrravc
well to
6.6 is a thernroplastic.nbt:: ollt lcnds itsclf runusualclarityanddcfinitioh.
with this property' Crimpecl
uhvsical rnodificationsasiociated
available'
;;;i"i;;i";;J vorns of all the [ar'iliar tvpes arc PI{ODUCTION

l\{odified Fibrcs ReaclantSynthcsis

cross- Nylon 6.6 polymer is made by condcrrsrtionof trvo subslanccs:
N vlon 6.6 filanrentsare commouly proclucedin round
-fri,,- (a) adipic aci<|,and (b) lrcxanrethylene
ot spccial (c.g. cross-sec(ion
rnutrilobal). arc diarnirrc.
..lii",r, iiL,l", l'hcse starting nraterialsar.c synthcsizc<.l
rers' Bicontponcnt fibres usually via orrc or
,ro*-ounilufrt" from several nranufacttr other of three routcs.
n'rany others arc
ii "^ii"r, ,vpes have been introcluced,and
"'ii.." develoPment.
under (l) Cyclolrcxanol Route
fibre have
.oai.ol modificationsof the basic nylon 6.6 'rhis
spccial ics
rist
cltnractc tliflcling is thc original routc usccrirr 'rakirrg trrc sta'tirrg nriltcriirrs
introcltrcctlIrcw fitrrcswlrich hirvc
norrnal nylon fibres' for nylon 6.6, and it is still the route by wlrichrrruch
fronr those of thc of thc
210 2ll
 IIANDI}OOK OF TI]X'ILE FIBRES D: SY N T I I E T IC F I D R E S

nylon 6.6 is tuade to<lay.The stagcsin thc synthesisare shown (a) Adipic acid is reactedwith anrnronia[o fornr acliprnridc(5).
below. (b) Adipamide is dehydrarcclto adiponitrite(6).
Originally, cyclohexanol was made from phenol, rvhich was,
(c) Adiponitrile is rcduced to hexamethylcucdilnrirrc
in turn, obtained from the benzenedistilled from coal tar or with
hydrogenin the presenceof a catalyst(7).
petroleum. The phenol is reduced to cyclohexanol by hydrogena-
tion in the prescllccof a catalyst(l).
(2) Butadiene Route
Much of ihe cyclohexanol used today is produced by a more
direct route froni benzene,which is reduced to cyclohexane (2); Butadieneis a basic raw material of syntlreticrubbcr manufirc-
the latter is thcn oxidizeclby air in the presenceof catalyst, ture in the U.S.A. and it is pro<lucc<lin grcat quantity
fronr
forrning a mixture of cyclohexanol and cyclohexanone(3)' petrolcun'r.It is rnade into adiponitritc by llre foilowing
routc
(sce below) :
(a) Butadieneis chlorinatedwith chlor.inegas,to lorrn
OH OH dichloro_
b u t e n e( l ) .
4'\
t l t
o t l (b) Dichlorobuteneis treated with hydrocyarricaci<I,
fornring
l, 4-dicyanobutene(2).
PI-IENOL CYCLOIIEXANOL
(c) Dicyrrnoblt:l..il Irytlrogcnrtcdin thc prcscncc
,to of cntnlyst,
o Iornr acliponitrilc(3).
(\ @-al o,f -F zc-:
t l
Adiponitrile is tlren convcrtcd into adipic ncid or hcxarlcflry-
lcnc dianrineby hyttrolysisor rcduction icspcctivciy.
\,/ \-/ \,,,
BENZENE CYCLOHEXANE CYCLOHEXANOL CYCLOHEXANONE

@
CH.:69-CH:CH.
o- C t C H : C H - C H 2 C H 2C t
@ _ NH2CO (CH.L CONH 2 BUTADIENE DICHLOROBUTENE
HOOC (CHrL COOH
ADIPIC ACID ADIPAMIDE @
@ o
C N c H r : C H - C l - 1C
, H 2C N cN (CH,LCN
rn
c N ( c H , LC N NH, CH, (CH,L CH, NH2 DICYANOBUTENE ADIPONITRILE
ADIPONITRILE H E X A M E T H Y L E N ED I A M I N E
Nylon 6.6 Mononrcrs. llutadicne Iloutc.
Nylon 6.6 Mononrers. Cyclohcxanol l{oute.
(3) Furlurol Routc
Cyclohexanol,or the mixturc of cyclohexanoland cyclohexa- Ftrrfural is producedin large quantiticsfrorn corn cobs
ancl olt
none producedby the secondroute, is oxidized to adipic acid (4). hulls. It is convertedto adiponitrilc by the following routc (sce
bclow):
l lcxitntctttylcnc dinrninc,tltc secotttlstnrting trtatcrial,is nradc Furfural is cotrvcrlcclto furan (l) nn<l this is rcduccd
to
[rorn adipic acid by thc lollowirrg route: lclrllrydrofuran (2). 1'rcltnrcnt with hydrochlor.icitci<Iconvcrts
)l)
2t3

EI .-"1 -I .-l r-l , r t '-l . -l rl rl r-l r-l --r.lf-l

 ' I A N D B O O K O F T E X T I L E F I B R Es
[l].uo ' o-o-
FURFURAL
qr
FURAN
o)
--=:-r-
TETRAHYDROFURAN
o If the proportions of the two conrponentsrre, say, I rnolar
cr (cH2) ct
l:4- DICHLOROUUTANE
Nylon 6.6 Monomcrs. Furfural Rou(c.
tetrahydrofuranto I : 4-dichlorobutane(3) whicit .isconvertedto
adiponitrileby trcatmentwith sodium cyanide(4).
Hexarlethylenediamine or adipic acid nray then be made fronr
the adiponitrile as describcclabovc.
I'oll,nrcriza(ion
-flre
condensationreaction that resultsin thc formation of nylon
polyrncr takes place bctrvccnthe amine Srotlpson cach end o[
the hexamethylenediamine, and the carboxyl groups on each
en<l of the adipic acid. If the two reactantsare mixed in exact
stoichiometricquantities,thc reaction could theoretically con-
tinue until all the sntall moleculeshad linked togetherinto one
lruge nrolecule.This could not, of course,take place in practice,
as the opportunitiesfor amine end groups and carboxyl end
groups to meet and react dinrinishesas polymerization proceeds,
and the mobility of the polymer moleculesis reduced.
If the two reactants are nrixed together in quantities which
are not stoichionretricallybalanced, the condensationreaction
rvill proceedin the normal way. But a point will be reached at
rvhich all the end groups of one type have been rcacted, arrd
the end groups of the polynrer chains are now all of the type
prescnt in the componcnt that wa-suscd in excess'The poly-
nrcrizationwill then stop.
The manner in which this imbalance of componentsaffects
polynrcrizrtionis best illustratedby consideringan extremecase.
I[ condensationis carried out, for examplc, using I molar pro-
portion of cliacid to 2 rnolar proportions of dianrine,the poly-
nrerization w i l l r c s u l ti n t h c p r o d t r c t i o no f a ' p o l y r n c r ' c o n t a i n i n g
214
I t : S Y N T I I E - I ' IC F I B I { E S
a
of thc molecule:
with anrinc groups on cach cnrl
only three component resicltrcs,
H"N(CH,)6N HCO (CFI')'CONH(CH,,),'N I t.,
proportion of diacid to 1.25 molar proportions of dianrinc, i.c.
4 diacid moleculesto 5 cliaminemolcculcs, thcn thc polymcr
cN (cHr).cN 'l-hc
formed would contain 9 componcnt rcsiducs. polyrncr
ADIPONITRILE nrolcculewould again have amine groupsat cach cnd, irnd furthcr
condensationwould bc impossiblc.
Two irnportant poiuts are eviclentfronr this cllcct of vnrying
the balance of the components used .in the polycondcnsatio rr
reaction;
(a) a high degreeof polymerizationwill be attaincd only lry
ensuringthat the balanceof componentsis aclcquatcly controllcd,
(b) the dcgree of polymerizationattaincd ntay bc controllctl
by using componcnls in carcfulty cnlculntctlnon-stoichiornctlic
grroportious,
rcprcscrrtingthc rcquircd dcgrcc of irnbllirrrcc.
Stubilizatiort
In Lheproduction of nylon 6.6 polynrcr, it is ncccssury(o utlow
lhe polymerizationto proceeduntil an adequatcdcgrcc o[ poly-
nrerizationhas been attairrecl. Polyntcrsbclow a rnolcculartvcight
of about 5,000will Iorrn llbres only with thc grc^tcstdilliculty;
polymcrs of molecular weight betweenapproximatcly5,000nnd
10,000will form fibrcs which are generallytoo wcak for prnctical
ruse.lt is not unl.il tlrc molccular weight is grcatcr thltr about
12,000 that fibres of adcquate strength arc produccd. It is
necessary, therefore,that the polynrerizationconditionsshould bc
such as to allow this degreeo[ polymcrizationto bc rcirclrcd.
As the degreeof polynrcrizationincreascsstill furtlrcr,howcvcr,
'fhc
new difliculties arise. polymer becornesiutransigcrrtand
ditllcult to melt and spin. In practice,it is rreccssary to corrtrol
the polymerizationto providc a polynrcr of avcragc nrolccular
weight in the region of 12,000to 22,000thc actual figurc bcirrg
detcrnrinedby the fibre characteristics tlrat arc rcquilcd.
It is apparent that the polymerizationrcaction carr bc con-
trolled in this way by trsingcxtremelyhighly purificd conrl)oncnts
in very carcfully calculatcd proportions. Ily suitublc choice of
thc balancc of conrponcnts,the polynrcrizationrnay bc stoppcd
at any rlcsircd <lcgrccoI polyrncriza t ion.
215
 IIANDNOOK OF TEXTILE FIDRES
This techniqueis, in flct, usedin practice.A conrnrountodificr-
lion is to crcatc the nccessaryinrbalanceby using sl.oichiometric
proportionsof the two components,and adding a sntall propor--
tion of a nronofunctionalingredient which servesas a chain-
growth stopperin the slrne way as the extra proportion of a conr-
ponent. Acctic acid, lor example, is added to the nrixture of
hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid uscd in producing
nylon 6.6 polynrer.The amount of acetic acid is calculatedto
block the cnds o[ the polynrer chains aftcr the dcsircd average
nrolecular weight has bcen reuched. Tlris tcchnioue is callcd
'sta
bilization'.
P olycottdensatiort
If the hexanrcthylenediantine and adipic acid are pure, thcy
may be mixed in stoichiontetricquantities directly in aqueous
solutions, thc crluivalcnce being clctcrmincclby elcctrometric
titration.'I-hissolution is therruseddirectly for the polymerization
lo nylon 6.6 polymer.
Thc correct stoichiornetricbalancc bctweerr lhe two colll-
ponents may also be obtained by reacting thc two materials
togetherto form a salt, hexamethylcnedianrrrroniurnadipate,in
which one moleculeof each component is present.This ls com-
monly called 'nylon salt'.
-t_ -1- - tnto a coagulatingbath which regenerates
(N I-I3(CH')oNH.XCOO(CH,),COO)
Nylon salt is prepared by neutralizing solutions of the two
components in rnethanol. Tlre salt is rclativelv insoluble in
methauol,and it crystallizesout as the solution.oolr. Tlr" crystals
are separatedby centrifuging,washcd and dried.
Nylon salt produced in this way is extrenrclypure. Jn it, the
two nylon 6.6 conrponentsarc pr.esentin exact stoichiometric
proportions.The salt is dissolvedin watcr to form a 60 per ccnt
solution,and acctic or adipic acid is added in amount calculate<l
to stop polymerizationat the desiredstage.
Condensationof the aqueoussolution of nylon salt as carricd
out in a stainlcsssteel pressurevcssel,using an inert atrnosphcre
of nitrogen or hydrogento ensurethat oxygenis excludc<.|. Nylon
polymcr is extremclysusceptibleto deconrposition in the prescncc
oI oxygcn at the tcnrpcralrrrcsuscrl in condensation,ancl it is
essentialthat all tracesof oxygen should be kept out of the vessel.
2t6
t-l rl r-l 'l r-l 'l
B: SYN'I'II[,TI C FIDITE,S
Condensalionis conrnronlycarricd out in two s t a g e s :
'fhe
(l) solution is heatccl at 220-230"C. lor u p t o 2 h o u r s ,
at a pressureof about 17.5 kg/crnz (250 lb/inz).
(2) lhe temperature is raiscd gradually, nnd steanr
is allowc<l
!9_.Iqlqg fronr the vessel,the pressurebeirrgat about 17.5kg/cnr2
(25.0lb/inz). When the tenrpeiaturehas reaihe<lzis_zfi0dd.,
ili.
molten material is held at this lcmpcrature at attnospheric
prcssurc,or undcr vacuum, until thc dcsircd dcgrcc
of poly-
nrerization has bcen rcached.
The js then cxtrudc<I through
. _m,oltenpolymer a slit in thc
b.aseof tbe vessel,the ribbon of viscousrnatcrirj falling on to a
slow-moving wheel wlrich is coolccl by watcr. I-hc polynrcr
is
irnn.rediately chilled and solidiliesto a tough ribbon of hornJikc
nylon polymer (polyhcxamcthylcncacliptrni<.lc), which is
.,6.6.
r y p r c a u ya t ) o u t J 0 c r r r ( 1 2 i r r ) r v i t l e a n d ( r r r r r n ( % i n ) t h i c k .
.'l'hc ribbon is passccrirrto a nracrrincwrrich clropsit iuto sr.rril
picccs or chips.
Spinning
-fhe
spinning of nylon diffcrs funtlanrcntally frortr tcchrriqucs
that are used in rayon and acetatemanufacrure.Viscoscrayon,
for example, is spun by extrutling cellulosc xanthate solution
insolublecellulosc(wet
spinning); acetateis spun by cxtrucling a solution of cclluiosc
acetatein volatile solvcnt into.a strcanr of hot air, thc solvcnt
evaporatingto lcave a solid filarncnt (dry spinning).Nylo,,, on
the.other hand, is melt spun.The polynreris ltcatctlirrtil'it nrclts,
and the molten materjalis then forceclthrough holcs in
spinrrcrcts.
As the jets of rnoltcn nylon emerge,they arc-coolcr.lancJsolidificcl
by contact with a stream of cold air, forming solid lihnrcnts.
In the melt spinning of nylon 6.6, grcat iarc must bc takcn
to avoid the risk of decompositionwhiih is alwaysprcscnt whcn
the polymer is molten and at a high tcnrpcra[,,r".A. in th"
polymerization process, the polymer is alwriys protcctcd
cluring
spinningby maintainingan inert atrnosphcrcof,iitrog.n or othei
protectivo gas above it. Thc spinning techniquc is such
as to
m a i n t a i na s m a l l a m o u n t o f p o l y m e ri n t h c n t o l t c ns t n t ct t n n y
Iinrc,_-so that thc opportunity for <lcconrposilion is irt n rninirnrrrrr.
Dctails o[ thc spinning operation arc shorvn in thc fiqrrrc orr
;tage 219.
2t7
tttrTElltltt
, NI'IROGEN OXY6EN.
- ( - . - . - A l f ( >> > r > r >r > r ) ) >>>>) >>) > ) ) ) >
r. )
T
I
I
t
Y
t
I
I
t
I
I
Y WATER COAL NYLON YAAN
t f
t l HEATING
SYSTEH
r l . I I- r l f----4
I --r .li .o*. rrn
T ifrrrr I
I
I I PUHP
\
I
Y
I FEEO nolls
i
r t SPINNERET
I

I
I
+ WINO UP

satr
INYLoN I
-l!-

F"r**;4
\-r'
NYLON
P O L Y ME R E X T R U S I OO
NF NYLON
C O L DD R A W I N G

N 'y l o n 6 . 6 F l o v C h a r t . Lcft: produclion of polynter'

fronrpolvrrrcr'
ltll8il. ilii;lll'i,nvlo'rvanr
2lB
 'I'EXTI
II NDDOOK OF LE F I I]RES
The yarn cn'lcrgesfronr tlte cooling chatnber at the rate of
sonre 1,200metresper nrinute.lt has beertcooled to about 70"C.
It the dry, rvarrnyarn were wound directly at this stage,it would
subsequcntlyabsorb nroisturefrom the air and increaseslightly
in length. This would create instability in thc package. After
leaving the cooling chamber,therefore,the nylon filanrentsenter
a conditioning tube through which steam is passed.This moistens
the yarn and allows it to reach a state of equilibrium with respect
to nloisturc it would otherwise absorb from tlte air.
The filanrentsemcrgingfrom the conditioningtube are brought
togcther and given a slight twist before being rvound ou to the
package.
Drawing
At this stage,thc long nrolccttlesof nylon polynrerare folded and
'fhe
in a state o[ random orientation. filamcnts are weak and
opaque.In order to develop thc inhcrcnt ltrstrc ancl strcngth o[
the nylon, it is necessaryto bring the molecules .into alignment
-flte
with respcct to the long axis of the libre. filaments are there-
fore stretchedor drawn.
Drawing is carried out by a techniquesintilar to that used.in
the production of rayon. Tlte undrawn yarn is passedrouud a
pair of feed rollers which control the speed at which it leaves
the package.It then passesseveral tinres round a second roller
which is rotating such that its surfacespeedis four or five tinres
faster than that of the first feed rollers. The filanrentsof nylon
in the yarn are thus stretchedto four or five times their original
length as they pass fronr thc first to the second rollers, the
moleculesin the filanrentsbeing drawn into alignrnent.
The drawn nylon is lustrousand strong.lt may now be heat-set
in boiling water bcfore being wound, or it nray be wound up
imrncdiatelyafter drawing.
During drawing,the dianretcrof the filamcntshas becn reduced,
and they have acquircdgrcat tensilestrcngth.The appcaranceof
the filarnentshas changcd;they arc now trunslucentarrd lustrous,
whereasthe undrawn yarn was dull and oprque.
Thc plrysicalpropcrticsof the nylon yrrn produccd in this wly
will deperrdto sonlc dcgreeon thc clegrccof oricntation of thc
nrolccules.This, in turn, dependsupon thc clrnwingor stretchirrg
to wlrich thc filtrrtctrtslravc tlccn subjcctccl.'l'he clraractcristics
of
the fibrc can thus bc controllcd during nranufacturc.
' l ' l
S Y N ' T I IE T I C F I N R E S
I'ttocEsstNc
Scouring
N{ost processingagents and rnany typcs o[ dirt nnd soil are
renrovedeasilyfrom nylon by scouring.Sornc typcs of soil, how_
ever, including graphite and certain oils and grcascsmay bc
dilficult to remove, especiallyif the soiled nylon is subjectcd to a
heat-settingtreatment before scouring.
Everything should be done, thcrefore, to kccp nylon clcan
during mill processing,and nylon f:rbrics shouid bc scourc<l
before heat-setting to remove substancesthat rnight contribute
to yellowing during heat-setting.
Method
Nylon should be scoured with mild agit:rtion at a nrodcratc
tcmpcratrrre,e.g. 50-60"C. Suggcslcd scouring fornrulns nrc
givcn in the tablc on pngc 222.
High ternperaturcs will usually incrcasethc ellcctivcrrcss
of thc
scour, and causepartial settingof thc flbric. Wrinklcs or crc:rscs
set in thc fabric during a high terlpcraturescour rnay bc dillicult
to remove in subscquentopcrations.
Yarns or fabrics carrying a polyacrylic-type size must bc
scoured before heat-setting,as it will be inrpossible to rcmove
the polyacrylic acid after heat-setting.
Tho renroval of graphite becomes nrorc difiicult with tinrc,
and nylon lace should be scoured bcfore storage.
Equipnten!
Jig Scouring
The jig may be used for scouring wovcn fabrics mltle frorn
filarnentyarns, It is advisablcto removecrcasesby slcam franrirrg
before the fabrics are loadcd into the jig.
Ileck Scouring
The bcck is used for scouring most spun wovcn firtrrics,sonro
warp knit fabrics, and somo light and looscty wovcn filarncut
fabrics.
Beck scouring is not rccommendedfor most hervy or tightly
woven filarrrentfnbrics becauseof wrinkling an<l subsccfucrri
streakirrcss.
221
f''if''1F Fi t Fi ll l"':l'"1t l"'it I'l t l''l f'l f'l
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE F I BRES B: S Y N T T I E T I CF I B R E S

The beck should not be overcrowdcdwith fabric,

itr ordcr to
E
s F,?i?ii? prevent wrinkling.
Js :-686s131;
t X i r . i 6 N r . i 9u ^ ' 5
E
!$ | ll ll '.i;e?"rqj "-" $o Rotary Drum or padtllc Machine Scouring
c..i ".r - ; o;,i \q q- This method is uscclnrainly for scouring knit goods
s\J
such as
6 :gr=rx8 socks.and sweaters,which arc usually placctl
in bags bcforc
scouring.
; : | | | -'-t Ilopc Soapcr Scouring
.\:J
I I l l l i l |

9X9 This machine is usecl for scouring severcly

E;ii soiled fabrics o[
selected constructions which have a-high resistc-nci
= to "r"asing
or wrinkling and to slippageof yarns.
cr^ Ct
trX I o-Y I ;st |
l
|l I r t - 6 r ; '
Beont-Dyeing Equipntent Scouring
\O
r\O :: .=go
z Warp knit fabrics and sheer.opcnwcnvc fabrics
:o 0, arc conrrnonly
al
:? O')E scoured on bearn-dvcirrneqrripntcnt.I,Iighcr
o i
Y(l>\ tcrnpcraturcsrnay
F it bq | | , ,"- $. , , \o a.l bc uscd.than in bcck s-cotrring, rvhcrc crclscs antl ropo runrks
't o. \. t---t '| | l| 't h ro l
z *r,': r. ! N I x.b ! tcnd to bc set in thc flbric at irigh tcnrpcrl
x p.E turcs.-'--'
( 4 ' i Anti-foaming agents are generally' n"""rr,rry
- < * trFr- to clir'i'atc
cxcessivefoanring whcn scouiing *iir, ,v,rii,.iii
,) :--
'- E
6.9
be beam type equipment.
dclcrgcn(son
;il I I I I | =/-
& :-' c'r :c>, lllcnchirrg
o :;'x
Nylon is a white fibre as produceclby the nranufactttrcr,
. - \ : : : 9 5 and
\J I Q
( l ' it . t 4 r:o:rir"sbteaching.
It a btuish_whit"
"uri i, ..quircd,rhis
z
I F . a * ; : l l ;ol I t o T
Tl1:,1
nray De achrevedby tinting witrr a smail ar.ount
d, a (l-s - | | | | | I t 6 o F! tr of a suiiabrc
3 s r . -\t. Y
I
cl n.= Drucor vlolet <tye,such as .Latyl' DIuc ItD.
! )-d N
Bleaching may bcqome necessarywhen fabrics
g ,. are stained or
ii\ duringprocessing. Scourinsrt;;i;i;i;"y, prcccrrc
",99 lX:P::g rn such cases,
i- ;E r;? as blcaching alonc is not always cflectivc
| | t t l l l ' o
,r.1"1:nlnS.
certain.types of srains,especiallyoils anct greases.
q s v ) a i1l ::llo"l"S
cases,bleaching may set the stains in a nylon
_T ,some fabiic and
(u X 5 ! 6 nraKe comptete rernoval irnpossiblc.It may cvcn bc
p i (, >' bO ncccssary,
thereforc,to_spot or clry clean thc faUric prioi-io
x
o -o- q) -Jiscoloratio,
l.ouring o,,.t
o o q bleaching.Nylon shoulcrbe breachedonly *tr"n
ki -B tiie
rcsistsremoval by scouring.
\ <'t n't i E 8 i x E - t l )

E X -c < i- <{.) =Ee E s t r igt 9: x * t1 J=^

. 9,i i.: I 00 pcr cent Nylon y arn.r ond Fobrics
-'i
- : . ;
qr
O o e = ( , e =
E - eH F : i: Itrc !'E:
F} F . g f i E E F 6H3.g;EeF'"$ Acid Sodiunt Chlorite Bleaching

\
r3o*;er;trF
<
f f l : t 3 € E : ag9 !
i F U - 3 t - (/)FF
i E 100 pcr ccnt nylon is blcachcdnrost cffcctivcly
thc acid sodiunr chloritc rncthocl..fhis nrcthod
[ry nrcansof
i.
is uscful as n
222 223
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE. FII}IIDS
B: SYNTTIEl'tC FI S,{ES
bleach for (l) nraxinrLtmwlritencss,(2) renrovingyanl lints, ilnd pcroxide/telrasodiunrovro.phosphate .l_his
(3) whiteningfabrics that have beenyellowedby exposureto air at - bleach
'.h."t
at -i,,
50"C. will
bleach the wool, bui wilt have ritti"
high tempcratures.Fabrics should be treatedin opcn width fornr component. tt.,. nylon
to prevcnt wrinklesfront being set by the hot bleachingbath.
Rlends of Nylon and Cottott
Pcracclic Acid Bleacli ng
These blenclscan be bleached wirh (l)
This techniqueproducesa good white with nylon when only a acicl so<lium chloritc, (2)
hydrogen peroxidc in a continuous
light or moderatc coloration must be reduced.It has the addecl unit or kicr, or (3) sodiurri
hypochlorite.
advantageof being less corrosive to equipntent than the acicl Acid sodium chlorite i::::.d to rernovc
sodiunr chlorite tcclrniquc,and there are no toxic fumes. yellowing fronr nylon
which results from hcat_s_ctting,
as ncithcr of thc othcr two
bleacheswill be erlecriv". u"ot_iuing
Hydrogen Pcroxidc; Sodiunr I:ly pochloritc ;;;;;;.;ir'icquirctl
',rur"". whcn
a blended fabric contains 50 p"r
c"n-t 1."_or"'Jf
Thcse are not ellcctive bleachesfor nylon, and they should
not bc used .in high concentrationor at clevated ten)peratures Dycing
for long periods of tinre. Some degradationof nylon may takc (l) 100 per ccnt Nylon
placc under such conditions.
Nylon has allinity for nrtny. classcs
I-]lcndsof othcr fibres with n1,lonrlay rccluircLhc usc of thcsc o[ <lycs,nrrtl nrny bc dyul
bleachingnaterials; in such cases,the conditions of tit.ne.tem- 1y.11c_ltuttr
purposes, .wittr a_vcry .wi<tc.n,lg"-oi-jy.rtrtir. t._or.
nylon urort
perature and conccntration should bc licpt as nrodcratc as is dve<twith dispcrsle
"; ;;i,i';;. ctasscs,
possible. laltcr includine nculral-clycing rhc
prcmctallizcd and,chrornc dycs.
Selc.cteddirect dycs are used, and
"oll1o: "3T.o.nty
onbren<ls '
va[ dycs nray sorrrclinres
bc
Blcttrls ol N)'lon and lla),otr
rurne tnanutacturers
ot "vro,'"ijl";i;;i.
have_introducctlnylons witlr specitl
Blcach as for 100 per cent nylon. dyeing characteristics.
These.h";;'" ;;d-e-;"..i,riJir," prort
of nrutricotour.
eficctsin singrc-uoit, ucriorr
Blcnds ol Nylon and Polyester Filtrc,r ,ty-";";;i';;; ilr ccrrrrrytorr

Bleach as for 100 per cent nylon.

DisperseDyes
Blettds ol N,tlott and Acrylic Fibrcs cspecially
suited tfc-dycingof nylorr,an<J
Llr,.::."* i,l _to thcy arc
:jo.:j.1,::":l .ar..inUyarns arrdrorrri..I-ii"v'i,lo,vi<lca rnctlro,J
Bleach as for 100 pcr cent nylorr. or dyerngthat is both simpleanclpractical., ,
As in the case of aceiatc anj poiv".i..
B lends ol Nylon ond Acetate Fibrcs fibrcs, thc rlyeing
one
i:::,1.T'ior transfer
.is of soridsorutioir.-iillr;'ilvc
Bleach as for 100per cent nylon, except that temperatureshould rcveulng oronerties, cxccncnr
and.proclucc t.i,.i *.tt-p.n.trot.,t
not cxceed77"C. av:ing:.Fastness to-ligtrt.,,a'*n.l,ini"il;,,1r,,i";:;,,,.
Shade build-up allows light,
nrcdiurrrantl sornc dlrk shndcs.
Blcnds ol N)4on and Wool
Acid Dyes
The acid sodium chlorite blcach recommendedfor nylon will Ac_id, neutral-dyeing prenretallizect,
damage wool, and cannot thercforebc used for blcnclsof nylon acid<lycing prenrctallizcd,
cnrome and.sclccteddirect
and wool. A blcach is cotnmonly used, such as a hydrogen dyes arc tusc<lwlrcrc nraxinrun.rftrsl-
ness rs required,or whcrc
depth of shadc prccludcsthe
usc of
224 225

- - l T - t . - t- l r-
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES B: S Y N T T IE T I C F I I } R E S

dispersedyes. Most of thcsedyes have good fastnessto washing, these exhaustwell at neutral or slightly
alkaline pl{; thesc arc
beirrg superior to disperse dyes in this respect. Some have designatedas neutral-dyeing.
particularly good fastncssto light. Chrome dyes are, in general, """,i.j-ctycing (non-metallizcd)acid dycs gcncrally
,_,fl:to good
lalr havc
fast to soaping at the boil. transfer propertiesan<Igood wctiastriss.
Acid dyes do not transfer as well as dispersedyes, and the
selection of dycs and dyeing procedure should be made with N etrtral-Dyeing prcmetallized Dycs
grert care jf maximum lcvclness is to be obtainetl. This is 'lhese
dycs are rccomntencled tor dying raw stock arrd top, arrtl
particularly true when filanrentnratcrialsare being dycd. in continuouspad-dycingsystcnls.f.irc/can,
l{etarclationof the dyc ratc will generally give good results tro*.u.r, bc applicrl
to nylon yarns in eirherskein orpackalefor;;;;;;;
in achievingmaximum lcvelncss.This may be done by ternpera- piece goods. The use of theseAyes i; spun nyrorr
ture control, pH control, and the use of additivesin the dyebath.
-irign"i.,'nl"ro,
ori nfo,""ni'vr,r,r. is linlitc(l
by theirpoortransferproperricsj
"u.i, nf
Acid dycs are absorbednrore rapidly as the dycbath lempera- ur.r.
turc is incrcascd,or as the pFI is lowerecl.'fhe dyeing rate nray Acid-D ycing pretnetalliTcclD ycs
be controlled, thcrefore, by initiating dyeing at or near the The acid-dyeingprenretailizeddye'chronracyt'rlrack
neutral point, and then gradually raising the temperatureand
lowering the pH.
-"i,i;nlilJli""::i,ij:ul:ihl;*,i:l
::"li"iffi:,ixLi,''ff
w is used

D y c b a t h a d d i t i v c sr t r a y b c o I c i t h c r t h c n n i o n i c o r c r t i o n i c trsulllyfrorrrt clycbuthcontlirringfonui" -"' '

types. fhe anionic additivesirre colourlcsssurface-activeagcnts u"jii.
which provide anions which compete with the dye anions for. CltronTs I)1's.e
the arnine groups in the fibre nrolecule.The cationic additives 'Pontachrome'
provide colourlesscationswhich form complexeswith the anions Black TA arrcl ,solochrornc,BIack
examples of chrorne dves.used-with WDIrA arc
of the dyestuff. As the dyeing temperature is approached, the nylon.
"io -iigr,iirtl'pro,ru"" rr,lt
black shadeshaving excellcnt ro, in"r.
complexesdissociateto releasethc dye anions in low concentra- i,"iJ wastringan<l
to all wet processing.
tion, a condition rvhich favours level dyeing of the fibre.
Levelling oI rnost acid dyes is enhancedby increasingthe
Vat Dyes
dyeing tenrperatureto l2l"C. in pressurizedequiprtrent.This
tcchnique also results in increaseclperretrationancl irnproverl These dyes are used successfullyto provi<lc
high wct and light
\\,et[astness. fasrness in a gooclrangesf .ri"a"rj ovfi"g
alkalirresolutions, li cirri.a out i,,
usingtemperatures highcrtha' thoscuscdfor
Dircct Dy'cs cotton.
Sonre dycstulls of this class are used successfully for dyeing nre.frequcnrlyuscclon blcrrcls
of nylon an<lcotron
,,,,Y1,outstanding
wrren !fs.
nylon; others are of little use.The useful colours are, in gcneral, fastnessis_dcsired.Vat dyes alonc giue
union in light an<lnrcdiunr.fiua.J-i,, well n
those which are similar in chgmical structure to the acid dyes, bierrdcd
and they nray bc applied to nylon by methods sinrilar to those ;:i.r"#Ot.
uscd for ncid d ycs.
Direct dyestuflsprovide shadesof good fastnessto washing D ilJerentialDye EfJeus
and to perspiration.The washfastness of thesedyestullson nylon nray be obraincclfronr a sirrglcdycbnrht:y
is bctter than tlrat of the samc dyes on cotton or wool. Y]illi._"I:l*d"eflecrsrj.nylo"nyarnswith diflcrcntdycing"cliaractcrisr
rlt,r1*,,"s.,I:
. \ _ . rr. ' r D r e sL t ( I . ,l o r e x a r n p l ep,r o r l u c teh e f o l l o r v i n g ics.
Netttnil-Dycitrg Acid Dyes y a r n : s t a r r < l adnvl e i n c :d e c pd y e i r r (ga c i d c l a s s cosi .
d y c i n g )l;i a i i cd y c a b l c
All acid dyes rnay be applicd to nylon at low pI{, but sonre o[ (acid-dye- resist i.
226 227
 IIi\NDI}OOKOF TEXTI LE FIBRES I}: SYNTII ETI C FI DRES

.lJy using conrbinationsof these classesof nylon, rvhich differ is possibleto treat the nylon with a dyc_resist
bclore blcnrJing
only in their dyeing characteristics, the dyer can obtain colour with thc wool.
and rvhite, two-colour, three-colour and tone-on-toneeffects.
l'he nrost versatileof combinationsis obtainedby usingdeep dye (a) Neutral-Dl,eing Acitl Dyes
and basic-dyeableyarns on which cornplementary colours, Thesc are conrmonly usc<lfor. dycing rrylon/wool
blcntls,pro_
as wcll as colour and whitc eflccts,may rcactily bc obtainc<.1. d ucing.satisfactoryunions,in palc io heavy shrrtlcs,
'fhe nnd trriljing
sha<leon the basic-dyeablenylon should be restricted lo up well. They havc good wetfastrr.r. n,i.l
fair to good light-
nredium depth, in ordcr to prevcnt cross-dyeingof basic dyes on fastness.
to the.deep dye yarn. Also, the easicstIabric to dyc .is onc
(b) Level-Dyeing Acid Dycs
containing 50 per cent decp dye and 50 per cent basic-<lyeablc
yarn; the greater the dcviation fronr these proportioni, thc of thesedyes
,orenos
, Yi"t . _producca good union on nylon antl rvool
greatcr will bc the rcstrictionson shade contbin:rtionsthat can fil llght to nrcdiulu shades.
be achieved. (c) Acid-Dyeing prenrctalli4d Dyes
(2) Bletrds . The_se dyes are conrnronly used ou nylon/wool labrics
that
have been carbonized.They producc.unionsilrat
havc lightfast_
Nylon is often uscd in blcndswith othcr fibres,to providc fabrics nessin pale shadcsof l5 to.40 sun hours (.Chronracyl,
dy-cs).
with propcrticsnot attainableby using a singlc libic. Whcn dycrl ncutrnl or with fornric ncij, tlrcy tlo
'lhe not lcvcl ns
following points should be consiclerecl when blends or wcll as with sulphuric acid, but this nrrrit bc
conrbinationscoutaining nylon are to be dycd: u.scrtwith grcat
care as. it can damagc nylon. The clycbath pl_I
should not bc
(A) Desircd Effcct lower than .3.0,or degrldition of thc irylorr'rnriy
rcsutt.
( l) Union dye (r)) Chrotne Dyes
(2) Cross dye As a class, chronrc dyes olTer the best lightfastness
(3) Leaving one fibre white. _ on wool.
Except in a few cases,thcy havc a gooA tig'irif,isrncss
on nylon,
(B) Type of Operation and they are therefore used to procluio selecicd
shlcles on nyionT
(l) Batch wooI blcnds.
(2) Continuous. f'he blends may lre difllcult to chrorne, as thc wool
absorbs
(C) End-Use FastnessRequirements. proportion of rhe chronrc froil tfi"
3l1ls9 frorf'l, f"uui,ig
insullcient for the nylon.
Blends of Nylon and Wool (e) Ncutral-Dyeing prunetallizc.r! Dres
Nylon and wool have aflinity for the sanre types of dyes, but
- These dyes are nor. gencraily recorrrnrcndccl[or thc u'iorr-
their absorption ratcs are differerrt. This faitor makei every blcnds of nylon arrclwool, as rhcy slrow prcfcrcntial
change of shade or fibre prolrortion a clilTerentclyeing probleni. !,{:il.g
allnrly 9f
I or the nylon. Sclectcddycs will, lrowcvcr,proclucc
Thc blocking of dyc sites by onc or more dyes in a mixturc solicl
shadeson 50/50 blends if thc dye alliniiy of thc
nylon hrs bccn
nray also be a di{ficutty which must be solvetl by careful dye reducedwith a resistantpretrcttnlcnt.
sclection.For thcse rcasons,it is esscntialto test every coloir_
cornbinationbefore crrrying out the dyeing. Dlentls of Nylon nul Ccllulosic Fibrcs
. Cross-dyeingor dyeing one fibre and lcaving the othcr un<lyed Sevcral.methods.of dycing nylon/cellulosicfi[:rc [rlcrrds
nriry bc
is. not gcnerally a commercial proposition with nylon/rvool uscd..Union-dyeing,cross{yciug and sirrglc_fibrc
blencls,as both fibrcs take up thc sanredyes. In sorne cases,it tlycing rrc all
possible,thc choicc dcpcnclingon the
faitncss icquircr:ucntsof
228 229

rtL '' --l -_l --t --l -l --l --l -l -l -[ ,. -l ,-l '. -l ' - - l '--l --I
m-Fi lr,flr'ff,,ilTt'f-l,l ft'il',il.l 1.,:ltl f'l l',i
IIANDBOOK OI. l'EX f ILE, FlBlLES
l l : s YN 1 . tE
. tT tc F t t l R E s
the fabric, thc availableequipment and the proportion of libres
nrixture fabrics may be dyc<l usirrga single_bathprocess
in the blend. which
is shorter.and cheaper thin_ rhc two_barh-t".iiiii.1i"
Usually, the nylon portion is dyed with acicl dyes, and the "o,umonly
used to obtain cross-dyecl effects.
cellulosic llbre with selccted aftcrtreated direct dyes. When
The preferred nrethod is based on the usc of thc
nroderatewashfastnessis satisfactory,dispersedyes are put on high-
tcnrperaturebeam-dyeingnracrrinc,sincc it rras bccn
the nylon and direct dyes on the cellulosicfibre. found tiiat
under theseconditionsselcctccldispcrsctlyes givc
Vat dyes may be applied to nylon/cotton blended fabrics in a stain on thc
nylon which is wcakcr than, or it l"nri no*hcirvicr
Iight and rncdium shadcs, trsing a onc-step procedurc iI thc thrr', tlrc
pcrccntageof nylon in thc blcnd is about 25 pcr ccnt or lcss. siadc on thc polycstcr fib'c corrponcrt. whcn tlrcsc
sclcctcd
dyes arc uscd, thc fastncssof tlrc siuin on tnc uyton
For heavy shades,or blends containing more tltan 25 per cent is atlcquatc
f,or a wide rangc o[ apparel outlcts. Whilc thc jlcscrrcc
nylon, a two-step procedureis usually necessary.Acid or pre- ol this
orsperse-dye staln on the nylon cxcrtssotnc inflrrcnceorr thc filral
mctallizeddyes are applied to the nylon on the first pass, and
vat dyes applied to the cotton on the sccondpass. shade which can be obtained,a wiclc range of irtt-racrivc
colour
contbina.tions
_can be produced on the fin-ishcdfabric by cross-
dycrng the nylon with. Nylomine ancl acid rnilling
Lilcnds ol Nylon and Acetale Fibre dycstulls.
l rlree-coln ponent mixturessuch as nylon polyestcr
These nray be dycd readily with clispersedyes. Acid dyes nray / /cotton may
also_be handled by thc onc-bath proicss, tut thc problcnrs
be used to dyc the nylon and leave thc acctatc white, but the oi
shl<lc control in bulk scalc workirig rnlkc it ltlvisrrllc (o
rcverseis not possiblc, lcuvc
thc cotton undycd. whcrc trrccottori is in an .intirratc
Most of the dispersedyes produce strength and shade on blcncrrvitrr
the.nylon or polyesterfibrc, care shoulclbc takcn in
nylon which differ from those produced on acetate.Only a fabric <lcsign
ancl choice of colour to avoid exccssivecontrasls whiclr
limited number of dispersedyes produce good unions. rvoulcl
u..lr?l"hes of. changingcolour as thc cottoir conrponenr
Subtle cross-dyeellects may be obtained by selectingdyes :ll:I is
prctercntlallyabraded away in wear.
which have more aflinity for one fibre than the other. Ccrtain textured fabrics, such as scerstrckcrs,which
are
Lrnsuitablefor bearn-dycirrg,may bc handled
Blerrds oJ Nylon and Silk on thc rvinclr
machine.
When dyeing thesc blends,a careful colour selectionis required
for union shades.Cross-dyeingis not possible. Printing and Surfacc [flec(s
N4any types of nylon fabrics nrc printed conrntcrcially.
Nylon
Blentls ol Nylon and Polyesrer (P ET) Fibre Ilat-wovenand nylon tricot fabrics arc printed by conventiona
I
rollcr- and screen-printing tcchniquesto mcet thc nccdsof a grent
White reserveeffectsmay be producedon nylon/polyesterpiece-
vanety of end-uses.
dyed warp-knitted fabrics. The nylon component is dyed with
selectedProcion or acid dyestufls,leaving the polyesterfilament Nylon. carpcts,hosiery, specialityfabrics and ynrns
are also
pnnred, but specialtcchrriques and equipnrcntarc oftcn rcquircd.
conrponent white. The brightness of the polyester nray be
enhancedby the subsequentapplicationof a fluorescentbrighten- . A w i d e s e l e c t i o n . odfy e si s a v a i l a b l ef o r p r i n t i n gn y l o n ,i r r c l u r l -
ing agent to proclucea white comparable with that obtainable acrd, drrcct, prernetallizcd,vat and dispcrsc lypcs.
:i9 ,'":"V,
l(esrn-bondcd
on 100 per cent polyesterfabric. Level shadeson 100 per cent pignrentsarc also used.'l-hcsclcctiorrof clycs
iiorrr
any of these classcsshoulcl be bascd on thc crrtl-usc
filament nylon fabrics are dillicult to obtain using Procion dye- of thc
stufls, but where the eflect is broken as in a striped fabric, the fabrjc to achieve aclccluatecolourfastncssancl biiglrtncss
of
evennessof dyeing is perfectly satisfactory. shnde.
lJoth componentsof woven or warp-knitted nylon/polyester Fabrics of nrultilobal cross-sectionnylon :rntl Schrcincr-
calenderednylon tricot fabrics are espccia[lysuitcrl to printing.
230
731
 R: SYNTI]ETIC FIDNES
I I A N D B O O K O F 1 ' EX ' T IL E F I B R E S
produced by any other nrethod.Thc print nray bc stillcncd to
The increaseclcover and smoothness of these fablics give clear
somc extent, but pigment printing is usurlly satisfactorywhcre
Jefinition of printed patterns, good colour register,and more
the coverageis small euough to lcavc tlre lrand of thc fubric
desirableopaque backgrounds.
-foinrtrlac trnirnpaired.
Specilic for printing pastes d.epcnd upon the type
of clye to be uscd, the method of application,and the naturc o[
the iabric. Pastesto be used in screcn printing are generally Disclnrge Prirrting of Nylon
thicker than those for roller worl<.Fabrics o[ spun yarn requirc 1-hedischargeprinting oI nylon has bccn lirnitcd by thc following
a thiuncr plstc tltan sheerfilamentconstructions' factors:
(a) Few dyes are satisfactorilydischargeableon nylon.
Acid und Dircct DYes
(b) Dyes which are dischargeable do not usually huvc sullicicnt
These are widely used in printing piece goods for dresswear'
levelnessto meet rnarket requirements.
They provide the brightestshadesthat will meet nrinimunr fast-
nessrequircnrentsfor dressfabrics.Thcy build up readily to full (c) Dischargedareashavc a tendcncyto discolour with agc.
shacles,and arc used for attractivecombination shades. Best resultshave bcen obtainedwith pastelshadcs,dischnrging
to whitc or to a colour with vat dycs in tlrc pastc.
N e ttrral-tlyeing atil Acid'dyeing Prurte!ullit'cd D5's5
These types are duller than nrany acid and direct dyes' but Stripping
exhibit vJry good fastnesson nylou fabrics. Thcy are used rvhere
Dispcrscor acicldycs nray be rcnrovcdfrorn nylorr by:r strippirrg
nraximum lightfastnessand wetfastnessare rcquired, as in
proccclurebased on a rcducirrg action, 'l'hc following is lrrr
carpets,car upholsteryand swimwear.
cxanrpleo[ thc type of stripping techniqucwhich may bc usctl:
Vat Dycs 1. Add thc following to the stripping bath, bascclon weight
Selccted vat dyes print easily and produce shades with out- of goods:
standing fastneisto washing.Lightfastncssis commonly inferior Zinc sulphoxylateformaldehydc 5 pcr ccnt
to that of tho same dyes on cotton. Acctic acid (56 pcr cent) or fornric acid for
heavy shades 10.0 pcr ccrrt
'Duponol' D 'l-issapol'
Dispersc Dyes Pastc or N surfitce
end posscssgood active ageDt 0.5 per ccnt
These dyes are econotnicalto use with nylon, 'fhs
shadesare clrtllcr 2. Strip for 45 minutcs at BB to 99'C.
aflinity, builcl trp ancl lcvelling pt'opcrties. 3. Drop thc bath antl rinse wcll.
than tjiose prodtrced with aci<l dycs, and arc iufcrior to the acid 4 . S c o u r w i t h ' D u p o n o l ' D P a s t c ,' D u p o n o l ' l l A , o r ' l - i s s a p o l '
clycs in weffastness.They must be processedwith.care to avoid
N.
stainingof whites during rirrsingfor removal of thickener'
If this proccdurc docs not rcmovc acitl <lycscomplctcly, llrc
following additional trcatnrcnt rnay bc uscd:
IlcsirrB oml ccl I'igttrcnls
l. ltun at thc boil for about 30 nrin. - rnisc 3'C. / rnin. irr rr
I)ignrcntsarc applicd to nylon fabrics usuillly frotn itn cmulsiort s o l u t i o nc o n t l i n i n g :
.ont,,ining su[Iicicntresin to bind the colour lrcchirnic"rllyto thc
A c e t i c a c i d ( 5 ( r p e r c e r r t )0 . 1 3 o z . . l g r .(l 0
. .8 g/l; 0.1%solrr).
fabric. The ettrttlsionmay be of the water-in-oil or oil-in-watcr
Sodium chlorite 0.07 oz./gal. (0.a g/l; 0.057osoln) pll to
typcs. Thc pignrentsare fixecl to the fabric by curing thc resin'
6 . 0t o 7 . 0 .
Pisnrentsare used in printing slreernylon fabrics and irl tltc 2. I)roo the bath and rinsc wcll.
procliririon oI opaque white-on-whitc ellects which cannot bc
2J)
232

r . 1 r l r ' fI J r - I r l ' I
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES N : S Y N T I I I J T I CF I B R E S

3 . S c o u rw i t h: t o l a u n d e r i n gi f p r o p e r l ya p p l i c d . ' Z c l a r r ' . iSs a p p l i e db y p a < l d i n g

' D u p o n o lR' A 0 . 0 6o z . / g , a( l0' . 3 6g / l ; 0 ' 0 5 %s o h t ) from an aqueousbath, followcd by drying anclcuring at clcvatctl
Sotliunrbisulphitepyrophosphate 0'133 oz'lgat'(U'U g/l; temperature.
l0% soln). Application of.'Zepel' B fabric fluoridizcr to fabrics of nylon
and its blends w.ith other fibres provide water- and oil-rcpcllcnt
Chcmical Finishing Trcatntctrls and stain-resistant finisheswhich are durablc to both lirundcrirrg
Fabrics atrd yarns of nylon rnay bc made.softer,
stifler or repel- and clry-cleaning. Typical irpplicationsinvolvc thc usc o[ 2.5 to
i.ni to oit and water by trcatnicntwith the appropriatctypc of 3.0 pcr ccnt 'Zcpc[' B with rvltcr-rcpcllcn t lrdjuvunts lrntl/or.
i'r"irriiltg'agent.Antistaiic propertiesnray be iutpartedto nylon resins sclectedto rncet individual finishing rc<luir.cnrcn ls. 1'lrc
by use of an antistaticfinishingagent'
-'-|t,. finish is applied by padding, followcd by drying ancl ctrring rt
a"tnrotologicalbehaviour of finishing agents shottld 150'C. for 2 to 4 nrinutes. It is not ueccssaryto aftcr-wash
skin
nf*nV, b" chcckc-clwith great ctrtc' as sotlle l1lay cltusc unlessthe forrnulasuscd contain resirrsor othcr nroductswhich
irr'itation or ion.
sensitizat require au a [tcr-wash.

NIodilicution ol Fobric II atrd Atttistatic Finishes

to
Nylorr fabrics often untlergo finishing treatmel)t designed An an{istaticfinish rvhich is clur.ablcto lnundcring rvillr soirp is
p.*i,f" incrcirscclso[tness atrd itlllrovccl draping propcrtics' nttuincd by applying 'Zclcc' DI, irr tltc r.urrgcol' I lo 2 pol.ccnl
-7Auit.*'with increaseclyarn pliability atrd surfacelubricity'
iog.th", to nylon. The efiect is ncutralizcclby cxpostrrcof thc treatc(l
'Ciriasol' AD softetrcrsare examplesof tlrc
NA and fabric to synthctic dctergcnts,but it nrty lrc rcgcncr:rtcclby
for this ptlrpose'If morc lubricity is
type of finishingagent ttsed'Methacrol' rinsing with warnl soap solution ancl thcn with wa(cr.
an eq"uat-part of
.'"q"ii.a,'fr" I-ubricant K or'Lubrol' Ternporary antistaticfinish is providcd by tlrc appliculion of
'Avitcx' NA or 'Cirrasol'
w" rir"v .,ried in aclclition to the agentssuclt as 'Avitex' NA or 'Cirrasol'AD. Yarns rvith 'built-irr'
'l-jrese
AD. finishesarc applied by padding on a quetschor by anti-staticpropertiesare alsoavailable.
per
exlraustionfronr ir dilute bath. A linish level of 0'5 to 2'0 Flarne Retardants
ccnt is usua llY desiritble' Clean, undyed, finish-freenylon labrics lrave lorv lltrnrnability,
the
Thesc trvo'finishing agenls arc also ttsecl to irnprovc and in this respectare satisfactoryfor nrany practicalpurposes.
scwing qualitiesof nylon iabrics on high specd sewing tnachincs'
per cent' The flanrmability nray be increasecl, howevcr, by ccrtairr rcsirr-
The a-nrountof finish applicd is in the region of 2'0 finish applications or by certain dyes. Such fabrics nray bc
nylon fabrics are treatcd with linishing agents to
Sorne treatedwith flanre-retarclant finishcsto rctlucetlrcir flanrtnlbility.
rcsin dispersio's,sttch
ino.ns" stiilncssof hanclle.'l-herrroplastic 'Methacrol' FNI-I resin Exanrplesof these finishesare 'Pyrosct' Fire ltctardant N2 and
;;-;Ei;;J; 8l-900 polvvinvl acctate and 'lltey- 'Fi-Retard'
Nl0, and NBX.
,rirp"rrion nre .xanlpl"i of finith.. used for this ptrrpose' Tlreseflanre-retarclanlshavc an advcrsccllcct on thc ligltt untl
"iJ utr',ottvpatl<.lccl bn thc goocls,to produce.concentralionsof gas-fadingfastncssof dycd nylon. 'l'hc still linis^hwhich is oftcn
per cettt
0.5 to 1.0 pei ccnt for satirrsand taffetas,an<l l'0 to 3'0 procluccdby a rctardarrtnray bc ntotlific<lby n softcncr.
for nrarquiscttes (based on the weight of [abric)'
If a tnore clurable finisll is required, a lhcrnlosettingresitt McchanicalFinishing'frcatrncnls
'Acrolex' M3 maY be used.
such as
Modificationo[ the hand and surfacelppcaranccof nylorrfabrics
Repellcnts may be achicvcd by various rncchanicnltrclttncnls. 'l'lrc cll cct
'Zelart'
Coocl watcl rcpellcncy is obtrined by thc npplicirtiono[ dcsircd in thc finislrcrlfrbric dctcrnrirrcsthc tygrcoI crlrrrprlcrrr
.t-lic
S io nylo,] fnbiics. rvaler rcpcllcncyis durlblc nrrd rcsistant rrscd.

234 235
 'TEXTII-E
IIANDBOOK OF FIBII,F,S
t ! : s YN . l .ItE . r .ct F I U l t e s
l. Cold Caluilt ritr!: goods.Durability and hand are excellcnt
in this proccrjurc,rvi{h
Calcnderingis used to polish and smooth a fabric surface, or opacity and thinncssrated as goocl.
to minimize the nrark-ofl of labrics treated with resinsor water Calenderinghas the least efcct on fully finishctl
'I'he nylorr tricot,
repellents. rolls of the calender are normally unheated,and as the goods havi already bccn hcat_sct,,1,j i""r-iJ.f .r.piug. .l.his
pressuresof 30 to 50 tons are uscd. js the most economical
wiy of.ScJrrcirr"r.;i;nl;;;;g nyron rricor,
as intennediatedrying and franring 0." unn...r*iy.
Thc cflccts
2. Flat Colcndcring - Tricot Fubrics on the fabric, howcver,arc only fair to gooc|,
unJ ii," calcndcring
nraybringout u'dcsirablc
lusirewhich-nrust
ttr". trct.ut.,i iifr
Flat or Schreinercalenderingof tricot nylon producesa durable by subsequent
wetworking.
finish which increascstlre covcring porvcr of the fabric and
'fhe
clrangcs its hand and appe:rrancc. changc irr appcarancc 3. Etn bossittg
resultsfronr a cornpactionof thc fabric stitch and fronr difiusion N.yJon 6.6 may be durably crnbossed without
of light reflected from the embossedfabric surface. A change in trre usc of rcsins.
This is achieved by embossing at elcvatcJ
the fabric hand rcsults from a decreasein thickness of the tcnipcraturcs with
close control of the moisture contcnl of
fabric, antl a change in the frictiorral properticsof its srrrfacc. thc tabiic, <lwcll tirrrc
and roll pressure.
Fully dricd tricot, calcndercd at zcro tensiorr, produces the I^ rnost cases,it is not .ccessrry to hcnt-scr
optirnunt finishcd cflcct. srrnrlowc.rbosscd
prttcrns.to obtain a lastirrgcll'cct.Dccp
Schreincrcalendcringcan be uscd to: horvcvcr,rcqrriro
.pnttcr.rrs,
hcat-sctting.Thc fabric shorrldbc corriplctcly,"f,,i.j during
hcat_
(a) producethin, lightrveightfabricswith a high degrccof opacity, setting to prevcnr loss of rhc rtrrcectinr"rrsif;;i';ii;,.
which retain goocl porosity and good bursting strcngth;
4. Napping and Sueding
(b) obtain excellentwhitenesswith a fully delustredappearance;
and sueding.equipnrentis uscd to producc
(c) obtain a more eflectiveprint base by .increasingcover ancl |lnging ruiscrl sur-
fabrics,.tlrc conrlitions n.c".r..y to obtnin
smoothness; 1119. ,onrnYlon
oesrred ellect on a particula.r.fabric being a
bcst ictcrnrincd by
(d) produce a trvo-fold increasein covcring porver of the fabric; experiment.Knit fabrics shoutd bc l"i."d";;,1i;;;
ii'rst to nchicvc
nraximunreffectin atry rarslngoperatlon.
(e) increasethe styling potential of tricot by changingits normal
jersey appearance. ha,sa higher tenacitythan natural fibres,and
,.,t\yton thc clotlr_
on. nappcrs for wool or cotron fabrics nray
In the Schreiner caiencleringof nylon tricot, the fabric is :1E l,:rT:,i|_1*d.
nor oe oI adequatestrcngth. Stiller napper clotlring
passed through an engraved (diagonal grooves I l8-142/cm; is usually
required to.obtain a good napped .r.fo."
300-360/in) Schreiner calender at temperatures of 193 to on-,, nfion frbric. zf
softeneracting as a lubricant,wct or dry, assists
2 0 5 o C . a t 1 2 - 2 7 m ( 1 3 - 3 0 y d ) p e r m i n u t e .O n a 1 2 2 c m ( 4 8 " ' raisingfibrcs
in
t o , t h c s u r f a c eb y r c d u c i n gi n t c r _ f i b r cf i i " r i " i i . ' -
in) width rnachine,good resultsare obtained at roll pressuresof uesl rcsultsare usunllv obtaincd in sucding
B 0 t o 1 0 0t o n s . by using thc fincr
grades of sanclpaper.
Calcndcringnray bc carricd out at any stagc during finishing,
but the cllects obtaincd will depcnd upon thc stage at which 5. Shcaring
it is introduced into the finishing scquence. Fabrics of. spun nylorr nrrclblcnd-ftrbrics
corrt;rirrirrg
rrylorr rnay
Schrcincr calcndcring rcsults irr excellent opacity, thinncss, bc shcarcd to rcmovc exccsssurfacc fibrc.
unifornrity of appearance,durability, dcfect coverageand hand. ln tiic'casc of pilc
fabrics, slrearingis use<lto..cut thc pilc to
lVith scourcd or dyed tricot, calendcringflattcns the yarn and a unifornr hcight.
Shear setting.varies, <tcpendingupon f"b;L-;;;;;i;crion,
c l o s e sl h e s t i t c h ,b u t w i l h l c s s s h r i n k l g c t h a n o c c u r sw i t h g r a y pilc
dcnsity and the dcpth of cut rcquirccl
236

-l rt r-l r-l .r 'I r

t F tri F r t
IIANDDOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES ll: sYNTl.lEt.tc FIoRES

l'he selectiono[ a methocl

Fuzz which is deeply embedded in the fabric construction _for hcat_settingnylon <lcpcndson
the forn.rof thc librc anclon the
cannot be removed by shearing,and it may be necessaryto propcrticsAJsirlidin thc hcat_sct
product. fhe following ntetho<Js are-conrnronlyusccl:
remove this by singeing.This is preferablydone after dyeing, to
avoid deep-dyeing of melt balls. (l) Dry Hear
(a) Hor Air
6. Scntidecalersand Palttrcrs (b) Radiant I-Icat (lnfra Iicd)
Smooth, presscd fabrics are obtained by sernidecatingor by (c) Hot Roll
treating in a palmcr. Conditions will vary dcpending upon tltc (2) Slturatcd Stcanr Undcr Prcssurc
finished eflectsrequircd.
(3) .l-lot Watcr.
l. fleat-sellutp
Pleats nray bJ set in nylon fabric by exposurc o[ the plcated STIIUCTURE NND PROPEITTIES
itenr to saturatedsteamat a pressureof 0.7 kg/cmz ( l0 lb/inz ) for liinc Structurcand Appcararrcc
20 nrinutes. Several commercially-availablernachineswill set
pleatsin nylon by exposingthe fabric to a hot roll. lt is essential Nylon 6.6 fibres are sntooth_s urfaccci, rvitlr no slri:rtions. In
that thc fabric should not be hcat-sct before the pleating nr.icroscopicappcarancc arc n, r"ur,ii..t.r*r-ns grass rorrs.
'l'hc .thcy
operation. fibres nrc cournronly..
ol. round .r,r*-r."iiuu, [rrrl spccill
types of nylon 6.6 of nrultilobarcross-scction
ur. ,r',r* produccd.
IIcat-Sctting
Nylon 6.6 may bc hcat-sctbefore or after dyeing. lf this is done
Tenacily
eflectively,it will have the following results:
T h e t e r r a c i t yo f n y l o n n r a y b e v a r i e cw
l i t h i n l i r r r i t st l y l t l i u s t i r r p
(l) Residualshrinkagewill be renrovcd,ensuringdirlensioual ure nranuracturrngcontlitions. Filantent producctl
foi st<ickingi
stability of fabrics during processingancl wear. has a te_nacity of 40.6-5 1.2 cN/tex (4.6_5.8 g/clen), clry;35.3"_
(2) Resistanceof fabrics to wrinkling during processingand 45-0 cN/tex (4.0J.1-g/den), wet. t.lightenaciTy.rrfton
rrrayhave
wcar will be increased.
l,.l:]]tri:I."f^]f s cN/tex
(e.0g/dei),crry;2,s.6
.Nlt.i (i.i
g/oerr),wet. Nylon staple^
has_
a-teilacityof 36.2_39.7cN/tcx
(3) Yarn twist will be stabilized. j
(4.1-4.5 dry; r.s_:s.:cu/teit j.c_+-.0
g/clen), g/,i."j,i".i.
(4) Edge curl of fabrics will be prevented. Loop tenacity:about90-95per centof noinral.
(5) Hand of fabrics will be softened. Knot tenacity:aboutg5 per ccnt o[ nornral.
'l'cnsilc
S(rcngtlr
Nylon 6.6 fabrics may be heat-setusing either (l) dry heat,
(2) saturatedsteam under pressure,or (.3) hot water (l2l'C.). llegular filanrent:
4.550_5,950 (65,000_85,000
I,tightenacity filament: Ig/1,1,1 lb/inz).
Thc degree of set is determinedby both the duration and the c,joo_plioij
rdl"iJiso,000_t30,000
tcmperature of the treatnrent,and the natule of the sctting l b / i r r )z.
m e d i um . Staple:4,200-4,620kglcrnz(60,000_6(r,000
lb/inz).
Nylon 6.6.tendsto shrink during setting,developinga force of Iilongalion
about 3.5 cN/tex (0.4 g/den). A force equal to this rvill prevetrt Regr:larfilanlent: 26-32 pcr ccnt (30_37pcr
shrinkage;a greaterforce will stretch the yarn. ccnt, wct).
High-tenacityfilamcnr: l9-24 per t.nL
Wrinkles or creasesformed during heat-setting or during dyeing 12'1_2g , ""n,, ,u",t.
Staple: 37-40 pcr ccnt (42-46 per ccnt,'.uc0. 'ff
of an unset fabric will be alrnost impossibleto rernove.
2lB zJv
 IIANDNOOK
O F 1 ' T ] X T I LFEI I } I T E S t|: sYN I lrlj'rtc r;lliluis
Iilastic Ilccovcry
Nylon is a highly clasticfibre, in that it will recoverits original
dinrcnsionsafter bcing <leformedby the applicationof a strcss.
Standard filarnenl.has au clastic recovery of 100 per cent at up
to 8 per ccnt extension;high tenacityfilamcnt has a rccovery of
100 per cent at up to 4 1:ercent extension.
In this respect,nylon has a rcsenrblanccto rubber, but.it clocs
not recovcr or snap back as quickly as rubbcr aftcr the rclcasc
of tension.Like rubbcr, howevcr,it tries to return to its original
lcngth rvhen held in a stretchedcondition, ancl until allowed to
contract it exerts a force Lhat resiststhe rcstraininginfluence.
II nylon is stretchedfor severaldays,anclthen allowed to relax,
if. rvilI recoversome 50 per cent of its strctchalmost imntediately.
-I'hc
rest of the recovery takes place rnore slowly. During tlie
first 24 hours, nylon will recover about 85 per cent of the total
strctch, but it may take 2 wccks to rccovercomplctely.Thc ratc
of recovery is irrcrcasctlby incrcasc iu tcnrpcraturcor rclativc
hunridity.

Lritial Modulus
I{egularfilament: 353.2-530.0 cN/tex (40-60 g/den).

Avcrngc Stillncss
N y lott 6.6
R e g u l afri l a n r e n t1: 5 9c N / t e x( l B g / d e n ) .
High tenacityfilarnent:282.6cN/tex(32 g/den).
S t a p l e9: 7 . 1c N / t e x ( l l g / d e n ) . Ellcct of Moislure
Average Toughncss N y l o n a b s o r b so n l y a s m a l l a m o u n t o f n r o i s t L r r c
c o r n p a r c dw i t h
R e g u l a r f i l a m c n t: 1 . 0 8 . nrost natural fibres. lt has a regain of 4*4..5
t)er ccrrt.
High tcnacity Iilanrcnt : 0.77. . , ^ 1 ' h et c n a c i t y . o [t h o r o u g h l yw c t n y l o n i s i ( ] t o t 0 p c r c c r r to f
I rs qr), (condltroncd)tenlcity. Thc clongirtion
of wcI rrylon is
lilcx Resislancc 5 to 30 per cent greater th:rn that of clrli (con<liiiorrcrl)
nylorr.
Exccllent. . The filanrentsdo r)ot swcll appreciablyin rvatci;"ttrcdilructcr
rncreasesonly by about orrc_flfticth.
Abrasion Rcsist:rnce
Ihermll lrropcrlics
Excellent.
Me lting poirtt.
Spccific Gravity
Approxinratcly 250"c. -r'lrc rrngc of rc'lpcl..trrc
1.t4. ovcr. wrricrr
nylorrsoftcrrsand rnclts is vcrV narrow.
u0 .l,t I

' r l
\
 -TEXTILE
ilANDnOOK OF rtllillES t r : s Y N r . l r E . l . tFc I n R t i s
II lJcct ol Low 7'erttpcratttrc 'l'lrcrtnal
Expansiort ond Cont ractiott
Nylon retainsits streugthrvell at low tenrperatures. Alter several Iteshrunk nylon ya.rn<Jccrcascsslightlyin lcngth with an incrcasc
hours at -40'C., a nylon rope does not lose strength,and the rn temperatureand incrcasesslightly in leng*th
strength is retaincd after the rope is rcconditionedat nornral rvith a clccrcasc
ln tentperature.In thc tentpcraturerangc
Ien']pcra tures. fronr 25 to l-t0,,C.thc
'fhe clrange.in lengthis abouto.007To p";'T (07;O;i"
tenacity of regr.rlarand high tenacity yarus increases t h en r o i s t ucr eo n t e notf t h ey a r nr c n r a i nc so , n t o , ,,per.F),
i
rvhcrr
slightly rvith a slight decreascin elongrtion when tlrey arc chilled
to about - 80'C. Sltri nkage Pro pcrti e.r
ElJect ol I'l igh Tetnperature When nylon yarn is rentovcd fronr thc
bobbirrsantl allowc<.| to
Nylon can withstanrltcmperaturesrU) to about [50'C. for many relax with_no tension,it nray tcnd to "ontro"i
oi sirrinf by about
Irours without undue loss of strength. It turns slightly yellorv per cenr,rhe icrualam";;i-;;;;Jll;,gu1,onrrre
a f t c r 6 h o u r sa t 1 5 0 ' C . ?:9^..i:
?!Lreatmentof the yarn.
prevlous
This.is rclaxation shrinIagc.
Prolonged exposure in air at elevated temperaturescauses The unrelaxcdresiclual,sirrinkagc.of,,yi;; ;,;;; is thc nrnount l
clcteriorationof nylon, as evidcnccd by permaneut losses in of shrinkagethat takes place in boiling
watci irnnicAiatclyattcr
breaking strength,breaking elongationand toughness.The fibre the yarn is remove<I
frTl^rhc n^ ivrrf""i""nluc _-\
cliscolours(yellows)[o sorne extcnt, and unclermany conditions rcsidual shrinkageis in thc .n.ng:_boby"rl forr,rlris
'I'his q to l2 pcr ccrrt,cornrno\ily
of cxposurc thcre is also an increascin the resistanccto initial 9 to l0 pcr ccnt. figurc irrcrudcsttr. r"i,i*^iiu,, srrrirrkngc,
strctch. : and if this has been ailowcd to
tnf."-ffnl. L"tor" pta.ing
Apart from tliis eflect oI prolonged cxposure, there is an the ya.rn.in boiling watcr, thc rcsi<lurrl
lfr.i,i,,.g" is rcducctl
instantaneousand reversiblechangein thc fibrc propcrtieswith accordingly.
increasein ternperature,resulting in a decreasein tenacity and lVlren.conrplctelyprcshrunk yarn is
iutnrersc<l in watcr it rvill
an increasein elongation. gain in.length. This gein ,.,lny
b" u, nrri..t.r
u, i'pcr ccnt. It is I
Anti-oxiclantsare added to nylon yanls for sonre (generally reversibleelTectand should not bc confusccl
witli true shrirrkacc.
industrial) end-usesto conler a high clegreeof heat resistance.
Flantmability Ellcct of Agc
Nylon is lcss {lamrnablethan cotton, rayon, wool or silk. If a Negligible.
flame is applied to a nylon fabric, the material rneltsand tends
nffect 0f Sunlight
to drop away. The fabric does not normally support conrbustion
on its orvn, but its flarnmabilitymay be increasedby the presence ln comtnon with most other-tcxtilc.
fibrcs, nylorr is altcctctl by
o[ certain chernicalfinishesand dyes. prolongedexposureto riqh.t.r'hcrc
is " gr,i,i;i.ii;; o[ srrcngtrr,
I g n i t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e :5 3 2 ' C . but littlc or no discolouiatiorr.
IIeat Cdpacily arttl IIeat of Fusiotr I'he degree to which nylon resistsdctcrioration
or ultraviolet light in a particular ."ng. by sunligltt
1-lrespccificheat o[ nylon at 20"C. is 0.4 calolics/ gr.arn/ "C. At ,i *,""ililgths " <l"pcrr<ls
2 3 0 " C . ,i t i s 0 . 6 c a l o r i e s / g r a n r / ' C . rrpon a nunrbcr of factor.s,ns follows
a
Tlre hcat oI frrsionof nylon is 22 calories/granr. I . L u s t r c . . B r i g h tr r y l o r ri s c o n s i t l c r a b l y
., n t o r c r c s i s t a ntto l i g h t
l h a r rS e n r i d u l ol r D L r l l .
'l'
lrcrrrttrl C ontl rtcli vity 2. Anrount of surface exposecl.
l - h e t h c r n r a lc o n d u c t i v i t yo f n y l o n p o l y m c r i s 1 . 7 B . T . U . / h r . / 3. Size or diarnetcr of exposetl filanrcnts.
ftr./'F. for I inch of thickness. I_ligh ttcrricr per
filanrent nylon is morc rcsistantto licht.
242
243
 ilANDIIOOK Or TEX.TtLE l:lBI{US
N: SYN'r.,IETIC I:IBRES
4. Length of tirnc of exposurearrd intcnsity of light.
Materials Ilaving No pcrrnanent
5. Tinrc of ycar and geographicallocation. Nylon deteriorates Etfcct on Nylorr 6,6
Cltcntical .lcttt ,l.ittrc
nrorc rlpidly in surnrncr. Cottc,ctr- p.
("c') (tr.)
6. Tenrperaturesduring exposurc. ,.!.'.""nt' ,
\p?r cc,rl)
7. Locatiorr of exposed nylon, indoors or out<loors. Acetone
Acetic acid 25 60
Stabilizers.n.ray be inco^rporatedin nylon to give improvecl Benzene t00 3
resistanceto light and heat for specializ.ed
ipplications. Carbon tetrachloridc ?5 60
Cotton scec|oil 25 6()
Dichlorodifluoromethane 8 2 120
Ethyl alcohol 25 t72
Chcntical Propcrtics Forrnic acid 25 60
Hydroxyacctic aci<l 100 3
Materials [:Iaving No PenrtatrerrtEflcct orr Nyjlo,, ynr,,
Lard 100 3
Most conrpoundsof the following gcncral typcs have littlc or no Methyl alcohol 82 l2O-,
efi'cct on thc. lcnaciLy and clougation oi- nylon yarn rrndcr l)otassiumcarbonatc
t9
2
)5
5 .fo \
ordinary conditions of exposure: Potassiurrrhy<lroxidc 2 rr'rbrrllts
t0 65 3
Sea water (Flori<Ia)
Alcohols Sodiurn cyanitlc 4 wccks
I0 25
Aldehydes Sodiunr hydroxi<.le t6tl
t0 85
Stoddard solvent l(t
Alkalis Telrachlorocthylene 25 60
'l'richloroethylenc 25
Dry cleaningsolvents 60
25 60
Ethcrs
Materials IIoving o pcrtnrtttetrl
Halogenatedhydrocarbons EfJect otr Nyltttr l,urtr

Flydrocarbons aci<lancl sulphuric acict in

Pj"r::|t:f
llons at room tcmpcraturecausc 5.0 pcr ccnr conccntm_
aborrt25 p"r..,,t lossirr strcrrgllr
Kctorrcs oI nyron yarn in It* davs-.Srre.ngrh
t";i;,t;';:;rr
Soaps and syntheticdctergen
conccnrrarions
of thcse
o.i.r,.'r'rii'uiJ""i'.i.il"rrlili'.n wrlh lorvcr
ts wilh thc conccntralionat)o irrcrc'scs
tctill)crature.
Water, including seawater acid.in 3-0 per cent colrcentration
^^.O-1oli"
causes at '"".i"'"f
roonr rclnpcralurc
somc detcriorationof nylon
tion irrcreascs vnrn. f.ir" <lctcrior:r_
Ihc rcsultsof tcstscarriedouI otr nylon yarn, bristlc anclfishing rapi<llywitlr tcnrpcrattirc.nt
ccllt Ioss.of strcnglh occurs in 100;C.;about 35 pcr
linc are shown in thc following tabtt. fde nylon was subjectcJ 3 hourr.
to trcatn)cntas indicatedin thc table,anrl strengtlrlucasurcntents rome dcrcriorarion o f n y r o n . y a r nt a k c sp r ' c c d u r i r r g
rvcrc nrade before exposure and on the washed-and clrietl
<rcpc
n<r.s,;p;;'
;, ";?'1,,
rvith blcacheso[ thc or<.lir: rrcrtlnc'l
aftcr cxposurc.None oI thcsc tlcatn)cntscauscda
(lcss than 5 pcr cent) in the strcngth
santple
significantloss ccntration
;l;;,;:; :l::i,]li:.ii;:'.fi
""i#:'TITU?ll
of thc ,u,nfri"l. o f r h e b l c a c h i nagg c r r t sr ,l l "
and the tinrc an<Jtcmperature i r ii : i ' i j , " r b l' c a c h b a r h ,
of.ttr" trcninr.-,rt."'-
u4
245

-1 r-1 --l r-[ .-I r . , I

 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FINRES
n: s Y N T l t F . ' r l ( :F I I R E S
Air (oxygen) at high temperaturescauses deterioration of
Cltenticol Concenlratiott Solt,ctrtttr
nylon (seeThcrnral Properties).
{ptr ccn t) Diluctrt
Solvt rrts lor Nylotr Lithium bromide Concentrated Mct hanol
i\,letacresol 2 Mcthanol
I . Concentrated formic acid at room temperature (27'C.).
2 Wu tcr
flhe solubility falls off rapidly as the concentrationof formic p. Hydroxybenzoicacid 20
acid is d ecreased.) M ethanol
Phenol Watcr
2. Phenolic compounds such as phenol, cresols,xylellols and I)hosphoricacid 20 Mcthrnol i "'
chlorinatedpl'renols(27'C.). 20 Water
3. Calcium chloridc irr methanol (saturatedsolution at 27'C.). Zinc chloride Sltura(ed Water
4. Concentratednitric acid, concentratedsulphuric rcid ancl Perspiratiort
concentratedhydrochloric acid. These agentsappecr to dissolve
the fibre but in fact break down the molecularstructure of the Exposure to synthctic perspiration,both acid and nlkalinc, hls
polylner. little eflect on the tenacity of nylon. Af.ter Z hours at 100"C..
exposure to an acid perspirationsolution rcsulted in only an
5. Hot solutionsof calcium chloriclein (a) glacial acetic acicl,
8 per cent loss in tensilc strcngth. Unrlcr lcss scvcrc conrliliotrs
(b) eihylenechlorohydrin,and (c) ethyleneglycol.
of ovcrnight cxposulc at roont tctnpcraturcthcrc is rro loss of l
6. FIot solutionsof zinc chloride irr methanol. strengtlr.
7. Benzyl alcohol at thc boil.
Acid.s
S welling Agctrtslor Nylon Dilute acids have littlc e(Tccton nylon un<ler thc con<litions
The follorving agents cause an appreciableincrease in t h e e.ncountered in practical use. Hot ntincral acids will, howcvcr,
diameter of nylorr filanrents.The ellect of these agents on the decomposenylon. Thc fibres disintegratcin boiling hyclrochloric
strength of the yarn was not determined. acid.of 5 per cent strength,and in cold conccntratccl
hytlrochloric,
sulphuric arrd nitric acids.
Chetttical Cortcettlraliott Solvcn! or
(per cent) Dilue nt Alkalis
Nylon 6.6 has excellentresistanceto alkalis. lt can bc boilcd in
Acetic acid 100
lvlethanol strong caustic soda solutionswithout damirge.
Adipic acid 2 M ethanol
Ellcct of OrgnnicSolvcnts
An iline Saturated Water
Benzenesulphonic acid 20 Water Concentratedforntic acid, phcnol an<l crcsol are solvents for
Benzoic acid Saturated Water nylon. The fibre is not attackeclby solvcntsuscclin <lry-clcnnirrg.
Doric acid Saturatcd lvlcthirnol
Chloral hydrate 20 Waler Insccls
Chloroaceticacid 20 Water Nylon cannot scrve as food for ntoths or bccllcs.
Formic acid 20 *uY
C lycol 100 Micro-organisnrs
Lactic acid t00 Nylon is not weakcncdby nrouldsor bactcria.
L.l0
247
 T i A N D B O OO
KF T E X T L
I E I-IBRES
I } : S Y N T I I E T TC F I I ] R E S
lilcc(rical I'ropcr(ics
(c) llxcellcnt rccovcry from
dcforrnlrtion.
l'hc low nroistureabsorptionof nylon encouragcsthe accunrula_ (d) High abrasion rcsistancc.
tion of static electricity,but the efects nray be overconre
by use (e) High flex resistancc.
of antistatic fitrishcsand static clinrinatori.
tenacity of nylon rnay bc adjustcd
Volutne Resistivity: .,--fhe to providc for nrost of
4 x l 0 r { o h r n s . c r na. t l 8 p c r c c n t r . h . iitX#?:I:il'*i,:f,fll"" appricaiio;;;
i*ri'aj''e
r'igr,i."".iiv
5 x 101ohnrs-cnl.,wet. 1'l:c rrigrrclo'gatio' o[ rcgrra_r
'yro.,'fitr,."
cxcellc'r. lrss.ci.tccrwitrr its
crasriciry,
makesnylo' rhc iircal i;;;r,;,liii,r"'i
IJrcakd own strettgtlt : ladics'
hose'
which
*i rr "e"i" tI'"i'ffi ;"';i;;;
F i l n r , u n r o l l c c l9, n r i l s . ; 1 , 3 0 0v . i m i l .
3ii'lr"lli;,lX,ltlas
Someitenrsma<.le frorn nylonhaveshownphcnonrcna[
Fihn, rollcd, 2 rnils.; 3,000 v./nil. 'in atrrasion
resistance in use.This propertyis relatetlto itr.
nessof the fibrc in tcrmi of resistancc 'n.*i"g,t,.r"n t lough_
Dielectric Properties i" its rratural
pliab.ilityand jts recovcrytronr.
PowerFactor Dielectric -aft"r Acfoi,rr,";"".U..i",,reo[ nylon,s
toughnessand rccovcrv ,r"foniir;;;";,, il- rcsisrlrrccis
(pcr ccnt) Constunl cxccllcnt.
1 , 0 0 0c y c l e s ;l 8 p e r c e n t r . h . ; 2 2 ' C . 5.0 4.0 propcrticsof nylon arc nllcctcct
I ,000 cycles; rvet; 22.C. I t.0 ,,^ll"^ T.:.h"llical orrlyro a low
20.0 ot moisturc,and fabricsi.nlnin
6 0 c y c l e s ;d r y ; 3 3 . C . r.8 ,truiig irrrtlsr:rt>lc
3.8 :":.1:". wtrcn
6 0 c y c l e s ;d r y ; 9 0 " C . I3.0 7.O fhe high strcngth,associatccl with lorv spcciticgraviry,givc
Allcrgcnic Irropcrtics nylona highstrengrh to weight.ratio.
geststhat yarnsshouldtc rrurty ifr" i"*,.p."ltic gravitysug-
,ino
Nylon is chernicallyirrertanclwill not causeirritation t o
t h es k i n . manyotherfibres.but thisis o0.sct et" irr;i;"r'covcragctharr
to
i' which the snrooth,,"s,,roi ro;,,j somcdclrcc by thc nurrncr
Ilcfracliyc Indcx fi;il;,:';;" abrc ro pack
inro com-pactyoin...i.h. "fr";i ;l;i;;;
I n a x i a l d i r e c t i o n: 1 . 5 4 ? ,Tg.]lt:t
oy cor:rparison is wcrr ilusrrarctJ
of nylon wilh silk. nf tf,oi,gilio'if"<t-oft
Itr trtnsvcl'scdirection: 1,521 a specificgravirvof r.25,nyron(spccific silk has
sanre.,weight and gaugcare muchnror" sl|'5"..,-,
'''
erfii,y l.'iql rroscoI trrc
NYI,ON 6.6 IN USE Arrnoughnytonhls a highbreaking
is relativelylow. 'I.hisnrcans_lhat tenacity, its initirl nroclulus
Gcneral Charactcristics it is particulirr.ly scnsitivcto
strctchingunder low loads.
Nylon fibres offer a range of propertieswhich have enabled
it curv-eriseslesssteeplytlran thc ..fhc for".i i",f"oi"ilr. srr"rs-stroin
to beconrc one of the nrost successfulof all s y n t h e l i ct e x t i l e ,,ri,lAf.lr*iil,i an<tirr this lower
rcgron
fi blcs. -l'his n srrrallchanqcof lo:rrIprocluces consijcrablcclorrgation.
lower cn<lof tlic crr
ro' t"r'sions-iii;;';i; ;;i::l;11'":"^rs tltc gorrcrrtlworkirrg*rcn
rocsrabrisri ;l:i illlil,fi",iff],:t
i;J;;;"'.:'i:fil';1,1,li,l,
Mccltanical Pro pcrt ics
The outstandingmcchanicalpropcrticsof nylon i n c l u d e : evenly as possible.
(a) I-ligh strcngth-to-wc Thc history of the varn,being
ight ralio. uscd
has a considcrnblci,flucnce
on irssensiriviry j;;;;;;;i,'.;'iii"-i",.",
ro sircrcrring.
(b) I-Iigh brcaking clongarion. (sucnas
hcat rclaxing)which incrcls",Jtn,,gnti.rii,,,,ir-c,"'incr""s"s
il,.
248 K'r' 24g

.-t --I -l r-T -I -r ' I - --r - r -.af1'.--t

tF:-------F.
IIANDI}OOK OF TEXTILE FIBITES
tendcncyto stretch under low loads. By the same token, nornral
tcnacity yarn stretchesmore easily than high tenacity yarn.
Humidity is also a factor which influencesnylon's resistancc
to stretching. In otre series of tests, for exanrple,wet nylon
stretched I per cent with only 24.2 per cent of the load required
to stretchbone dry yarn I per cent. Nylon conditionedat 50 per
ccnt r.h. required 64.6 per ccnt of the load needcdat 0 per cent
r.h.
I-lcat Setting
Nylon fibre, yarn or fabric may be heat set readily in either
dry hcat or steam. The threshold temperaturefor dry heat is
in the region of 205"C., btrt rnuch lowcr temperatureswill bring
about heat settingin the presenceof water, e.g. in the region of
120'c.
Goods which have been hcat set by either the dry or wet
lrrocessrvill subsccluentlyhold thcir gconlctrical coufigttratiotr
through processingin boiling water, irud will exhibit wrinkle
recovery characteristicsconrnlensuratewith tlte severity of thc
s c t t i n go p c r a t i o n .
Fibre rvhich is beat set under dry conditions su{fersa com-
pacting of the internal structure, which results in decreaseddye
receptivity or dye rate. Fibre heat set under wet conditions results
in a more open structure, wl'rich dyes deeper.
These properties impartecl to nylon by heat setting have been
a nrajor factor in its acceptanceiu nrany consumer uses.lt is
fortunate thrt nylon 6.6 heat sets rcadily at temperaturesin thc
range of 205"C., which is well below its melting point of about
250"C. This allows a good operatingmargin in heat setting,hot
drawing, calcndering,pleating and yarn texturing operations.
Te.rtnri ng
The thernroplasticnature of nylon has made possible the
succcssfuldcvelopnrentof a wide variety of permanentbutking
and texturedclfectsou continuouslllirmentyarn. Ir{any processes
aro userl,rvhicharc bascclgcrrerallyon trvisting,crirnping,looping
or curling (dcfornting)rvith sonrcsort oI hcirt sctting.ln adtlition
to providing additionel bulk and texture to the filamcnt yarn,
theseproccssesnray or may not intpart a certaitl deglee of stt'etch
ancl recoverability.
The textile industry has ntldc good use of this aspectof nylort
250
. SY N T I I E , T IC F I I T R E S
processing,by developing an cxtensive varicty of cncl ttses,
particularlyin knit articlcsand garmcrrts.Ilxanrplcsincludc rl{nrs
women's and childrcn's hosc, bathing suits, undcnvcrr, glovcs,
sweatersand dressrvcar.
In addition to the propertics of loftirrcssund strctclt, lltcsc
yarns and thc fabrics nradcfronr thcnr nrc charlctcrizctlby gootl
cover, light weight, soft lrand, dullncss, incrcasctl:rtrsorption,
durabitity lnd frecdonr from pilling. E,:rchoI thc prttccsscsis
capableof producing rnodilicltionsof thc bulkcd yarn by chltrg-
ing the basiccharacteristics,providing flcxibility and adaptubility
to different end use requirerncnts.
I{ cut Rcsistancc
Nylon 6.6 has adequatc rcsistlncc to hcat for practically tll
appareland honte furnishinguses.n nti-oxidlnts arc lcldcrlto sorrrc
y a r n st o c o n f c r r h i g l rd c g r e eo f h c a t - r c s i s t a u fcocr s o r r r icr r t l r r s l r i ; r l
us e s .
Flantc Resistarrce
'l'hc
flanrrnabilityof thc fibrc ilsclf is only onc lspcct of ll:urrrrrr-
bility of the labric coustructcdfronr it. Othcr factorsarc involvcrl,
including construction,type of surlace (brushcd or nirppcd, for
exanrple,as comparcdwith clean),the typcs of dycsnnd chcnricals
usedin finishing,and the moisturecontcnt of thc nratcrial.
Clcan, undyed fabrics of nylon hrvc a goo<l lcsistencc lo
burning ancl are considcredhighly satisfactoryfor practic:rllynll
lextile purposcs.Whcn nylon nrelts,it forms a nrclt ball which
drips away. Usually, wherr thc igniting flnnrc is rcrnovcd, thc
flarne cxtinguishesitself. Dycd and finislrednylon, howcvcr, will
in some casessupport the spreadof flarne.In principlc,anything
that will tend to hold the structure togethcr and rctlrcl or
prevent dripping of the molten polynrer will help to support
the spread of Jlamc. Iror this rcasorr,prcmctlllizcd arrd chronrc
dyes, thcrmosctting rcsins and certnin flanrcproo[irrgconrposi-
tions developedfor other fibresnray tcnd to incrcirscthc cnpacity
of nylon fabrics to support lhe sprea<lo[ flurnc.
lv[oisture
-fhe
r : r t ew i t h r v h i c h n y l o n c o r r r c st o c q t r i l i b r i t r r r rv i t h l h c s r r r -
rouncling a i r d c p e n d su p o n t h c a v n i l a b l cs u r f i r c c ; r rsv c l lu s t l c r t s i l y
lund typc o[ packing. For this rcason,the only slfc corrrlitiorrirrg
251
 I I A N D B O OK O F ' I ' E X T I L E F I BRES
B: S Y N T I . IE T I C F I D R E S
lrextnrentshould be controllcd by daily weighingsuntiI constatrt Fibre Dcgradatlon lry Llght
ii wcight is rcached.A shcerfabric will come to equilibriurnin less
i than an hour if looselydraped over a rack. The samefabric when I:ibre A vcragc Percentage Sicn'tt{t
tightly rolled may take l0 days. Shipping bobbins and warps
sonrctinrcsrequire 20 days or ntore. Ilctuirred
Ouldoors Dchind G lus.s
Static
Fluorocarbon yarn (,Tcflon''l'FE) r00
1'he rclatively lorv rnoistureabsorptionof nylon is conduciveto
100
Acrylic fibrc ('Orlon,) 57
the accumulationof static elcctricity.This nray causea problem
6l
Nylorr yarn (bright; 6.7 dtexlf) 38
in nylon processing,encouragingballooning in yarns and the
50
Polycster(brighr, semidull,dtiil)
inability to lay nylon [abric straight on tablesand trucks. Static ('Dacron') l6 72
nray also causea yarrr or fabric to pick up soiling materials.It is High tenacity rnyon 8 23
nccessaryirr the processingo[ yarns and frbrics, therefore,to
ensure that static is kept to a minintutn. cxposure,
Miami,Florictr;fncingsourhat
Static nray be controlled by modification of the polymer and orlu?1r";,"l"",inuous
the use of antistatic agents.A high humidity in processingwill
also prcvcnt the accunrulationof static clcctricity. If huntitlity
is too high (above75 per cent, it may lnake the finish tacky and Angstrdnrsinto thc visiblc l:luc slightly abovc
4,0fi) Angsrrijms.
create tension difiiculties. I{igh humidityI nray also produce l"or thjs reason, thc cflcct is lcss pronouncecl
oii-nyto,l thrtr on
uneven stretch and recovery due to the tendencyof the nylon the polycstcr wlrcn the two fibrcs nr" pln.",l unlcf glr,ss.
to stretch nrore easily as the humidity increases. durability of nylon is extendcctt y ""itain prcrrrctal_
,,_Illo,lith,
ltzeo 0ves-
Static eliminators are very eflicient when positioned efectively.
In warping for tricot, for exanrple,the eliminators should be

I
placed at each drop wire bank on the creel just after the eye Washing
board and as the ya.rn goes on the beam or spool. Colour.ednylon goods are best washeclin warru water at 50oC.,
Nylon should always be allowed to condition for at least 24 6.0"C.
Blcntrs
*1.y"T11 of nylonandcouonnrly
hours open to the atmospherein rvhich it is to be proccssed. Dewasllcdilt_1lj:g{r.r,
at.rathcrhighertcnrperat.ures,up to about70.C. WhitL
and lighrcolouredfabrics nray pick uf tints
Ligltt
irlnr
- colourc<l
fabrics,and the two shoulctbe *ortr..l ..pn,ntlv.
Most fibres undergodegraclationwhen expose<lto light, resulting Bleachingis genepaIyunsatisfactory, "",r ,ri".ir,rbc avoidcd.
in loss of strcngth and other pioperties.The relative mcrits of
Drying
fibres in respect of light resistancecan be assessedonly against
identical concurrent cxl)osures,and some data comparing nylon Nylon fabricsabsorbvery.littlcwater,and thcydry quickly.
dryingor cokl tunrbleclryingarc prcfcrrcd. ' J I Drip
with other fibrcs is given in thi following table.
The rcsults of this tcst inclicatc that nylon rates below thc
fluorocarbon yarn and acrylic fibrc both in the open and under Ironing
glass. Behind glass,the polyesteris second only to the fluoro- qualiries
I]]"i-li.,"T:"llerrr of crcascrcsistanccan<lshapcrctcn_
carbon yarn. Sonrc inrprovementoccurs in nylon durability by ron, especraily whcn it has bcenellectivcly
placing it bchind glass. hcilt sct.A nrininrurn
'fhe anrountof ironing requircd;this nrly bc clriiccl
_is otrt wirh a
wavelcngths that degrade nylon rangc fronr 3,200 ory lron at 'synthctic' sclting,or by usinga stcanliron or srcarn
252
251

r . t - r r
 I
.,.i.

IIANDBOOK OF TEX'TILE FTBRES N : . SY N T I I E T I C F I B R E S

press. Ironing tenrperaturesabove about 150'C. should be ins-ta

avoided.Glazing may occur at higher tcmperatures,and sticking
rnay occur betrveen205 and 240'C. Excessiveexposureto ironing
tenrperaturesn'lay causc yellowing.
Previous trcatrilentof thc fabric has ir cousiderableellect on
its reaction to pressing conditions. Certain dyes may change
colour at elevatedtemperatures. If a cl-rangeof form is desired,
e.g. in creascs,plcats or wrinkles, the conditionsof ternperature
and rnoisturc under which thc fornr was establishedmust be
exieededto produce a perrnanentchange.
n 1nn.ourlr', and adequatclime is thus providccr
irr tufting
bc[orc the yarn assertsits elasticrecovcry.
, Vclvet'I'ype Yartrs. l'hcsc lencl to clongntc on
- thc packirgc,
but 'bloonr' whcn convcrted into carpct pTt.
BCF Yarns. These arc bulky in carpcts, but cornpact
whilc
on,the.shipping package.They pass readiiy rhrougri
th" cr""i
and tufting machine, dcvcloping subscqucirtly
thc nraxinturrr
bulk and covcr in thc carpet. where tcnsiorx
arc rro longcr
present.

Dry Cleaning of. all rhree types of hcar-sct nylon

...11 ,t:.]f:11^nt.,properry
ya.rls l:, rnetr ablllty to pass through piccc_dycing
Nylon is not aflectcdby any of the solvcntscommonly used in operationsanrl
retaln rnelr appearanccand physicaI charactcristici.
dry cleaning,and there are no diflicultiesinvolved. BCF yarns. have gained wide acccptancc bccause
of thc
econonlyprovided by this type of yarn in cornparisorr
End-Uscs with sprrn
yarns; many handlirrg and proccssirrg
opcraliorrsarc nvoitlcd
I! onre Furnislrings
I!1"- a yarnfoi carpcrs
:lill.llo"iding *itfi .*..f i.iii pcrforrnuncc
-fhe cnaraclenstlcs ln tcnns of tufting cllicicncy, piccc clycability,
rrajor usesof nylon in this field are in carpetsand upholstcry. bulk, covcr, wc:rr, styling rrnd aplicararrc","i",,iiu,i.
attcnng ilrc cnd_groupsbalanccirnd thc physiculprol)crtics
Carpets -uy
yarn, its dyc rate ancl dye capacity cai
:{.nYfol bc controilcrl.
It is apparent that several of the characteristicsof nylon are This techniqueis used in -BCFproducing t.i-Ay.'.tt."t. which bring
of value.in carpets.Among theseare appearanceretention,which inrprovcd styling of both onJ .pun'V"r,ir.'ilri, principlc
is a function of abrasion resistance,texture retention,recovery is used.in carpets,upholstery ancl appaiel .,i<'1,,r.r.-
from crushing,durabitity and dye fastness. Furthcr slyling eflectsin carpcfs in<J upholstcry
, arc achicvctl
A nrajor proportion of all carpetsand rugs is now rnacleorr y r n r s . orfn i x c dc o u n tg, . C2. 0 , t 7 a n t tt 6 . 7 tttcx/t.
tufting nrachines,and three generaltypes of nylon yarns are used: (i lr"o. ,: ,rlJo, 2ol $
oe. n it l w t i l l i l l e c r o s { y e a b l e
y a - r n as n d i n c l u t l i n gt h r e c
plies
andtwo twistlevels
alongwiihtwoifif Li.i, i'*.igt,t levcls.
conrbirring
lhesefactors, lly
(l) Frieze and Nubby. as riany as fS0,00ij
sivlcconrbinatiorrs
arc obtainable,excludingcolour anclpnttcrn.
(2) Velvet. Adding to rhis rhc possibiliticsobtiincct by using
. rhc diflcrcnr
(3) BCF (Bulked Continuous Filanrent). s r a p l e .a n d l i l a n t e n t p r o d u c t s , t h c n u n r b c r o f c o n r b i n a ( i o r r s
All these three types depend upon heat setting to providc ex(endsinto the ntillionsfor tufted carDcts.
ul" of space
thcir nraxinrunrfunction in carpets. _,fh., .clycing,spacc icsist trcttnlcnts prior lo
dycrns,yarn dycing and printing introduccsothcr possibili-
l1c-cc.
trcs
Friczc Yarn. In its rel',rxcd,kinked forrn, a friezc yarn looks lor stylng in thc cilrpct ficld.
as though it would not prss through a tufting ncedle.llut the
U plrclstery
lorv forces nceded to elongate nylon (low irritial modulus) are
advantagcousin this rcspect,as the yarn appearsunkinkcd when Nylon's combinationof strength,dyeability,rbrasion rcsistrncc,
wound on concs. When unwouncl. the nvlon does not recovcr high light fastnessand lustrJ (.Antron') iiavc olxnccl
up a,r
254 255
 -!

I{ANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES

B : , SY N T I E
I T rC F T D R E S
important nrarket in the upholsteryficld. Nylon providesfabrics froln its donrinant nositiorr in thc quality
rvhich conrbinc bcauty, perforrnanceand practicability. hosicry ficl<J.Oncc
prc-boa.dingwas adopted,therc wcre,r"
i"ir pr"Lr."rs associatcd
with the use of nylon in ta<tics, l;;rt"d. tJil;
Apparcl configurationwas essentialto p.crmitpassag" or thc fabric
"f ifi. hoscthrough
The follorving characteristics,among otlrers, are important in thc dyebathwithourthe formaiionof ."u"ii
*r1,,[ils.tn acldition,
fabrics to be used in rvearingapparel: the.boardingoperarionstrapesthe lr"r" a;;
;;.;i;;lte
'fufrri..
<tinrcnsion
and imparts clasticmemory and recovery -I.his
(l) Protcction - Cover, warmth particularlyinrportantto tie appearan"J io-ii,. is
(2) Aestheticappeal- Texture, colour, hand, drapc J lor,'"'in u...
Postboardingwas irrtroduccjnt o foi.,
(3) Ease of care ,i,,;;-
Thc dcveloprnent of nylon stretch yains'ii, fotto*",t by
(4) Durability - Abrasion resistanceand strength rapid increasein the useof nylon i" ;;,rlr;;;. u
(5) Appearanceretention- Wrinklc recoveryand soil rcsistancc of thcse yarns r.csulredrro'n .o,rriori; Thc acccprance
(6) Comfort - Wcight, openness,tactilc propcrty. ;;;;r;,,." rcrcnrion,
c l a s t i c i tayn d c x c c l l c ndt u r a b i l i t v .
Many of these characteristicsare influenced greatly by the Cotton hose have bctter
fibrillation characrcristics -washfastnessthan nylon, but thc
yarn size, denier per fihnrent, lustre, fibre cross-section,fabric "t ""it."-'J",1";';;; -f.,in.,"-i.un,r.y
causcit ro
construction and weight. But within the franrework of yarn becomewhitene<laftcr a fcw repeatcJ-
and fabric constructiou,sonre fibres pcrfornt better than others,
.
Nylon, by contrast,rvill witlrstanrl.'*p."t.,i"i.r. j.ring cyclcs.
lorrgperiodswirhoutundergoing for urry
and irr this respect nylon contpetes most ellectively. a"t.ii"i.1i"ir'in'ii, npp..rnn"..
Nylon lends itself to ntost types of fabric corrstructiorr, The excellcntabrasion,"iirtni"" "a t"r;
inclucl-
Ihcnt nruclrlesssusccptiblcto t otc io,.,rl-n't-iun",,,if ;,;;; "*""r.
ot nylon nrake
ing the following types which are inrportuntin thc apparcl fielct:
Surah, tricot (plain and brushed), sinrplex, Iinings, hosiery
(circular and fully-fashioned), tafl'eta, crepe, satin, reinforced Lingcrie
twill and sateencotton, ski-wcar fabric, velvet fleece,brocade, Tricot is onc of the nrost.important of thc warp
and nylon tricot has macleimprcssi". -iri knit fabrics,
matlasse,circular knit single,circular knit double, full fashion ri*J*"y rcccnt ycars.
knit, tape and ribbon, lace, shcer, organzaand seersuckcr. Nylon's acceptance in this usc l. ,"J"rfrrcilfV relntctlto
'['hese casy care propcrtics,such as_quickdrying " i(s
fabrics arc used for all nranner of apparel end-uses, and alaptabilityto
incltrding thc follorving: automatichome laundering. Equally i"1p"?t",,iin the dcvelop_
Lingerie, swinrrvear, ladies' outerwear, nren's ourcrwear, "l nylon tricor,howevcr,was rhc abiliry
T:ll of Iingcricpro-
stretch sportswcar,hunting apparel, urriforrns,hosiery,swcaters, ly::rr jo stytcday wear fabricswhich are ligirt in wcightrvirh
dresses,(knit), skirts (knit), socks,gloves. a(lcqtlale'sce throuqh covcr', attd
,|.,""a"r'.i..f "car fabrics
The introduction of textured yarrrs o[ nylon in recenr years requiring less cover. Thcsc ractois-wcr.-
development "i f,rl*i.trrcc in thc
has opcned up a vast nerv field of applicationin the production of nylon rricot t"roi" tt;;;;";";;pcrrics
rccognized. wcrc
of garmentsthat perforrn becauseof cithcr bulk with low weight
or bulk with clastic recovery for bettcr fit. In addition, special For optinrumshrinkapccontrol and -"r,,
wrinkle
'ir.'Olir"
rccovcry,it is
constructionssuch ns boucli c[Iectsarc obtainirbleanrl dillcrent essentialto heat-sctnylo'n tricot. -nii,
y nr on. nr.
tactilc lrropertiesare providcd. other..of two sragcsduring thc pro,tu"iioi,
two dilTcrcntproccsscsarc now rccognizccl. oi iii"' rnrrri". .n.r
.l.hcy
ar.c rcfcrrctl
fl o.ricry as (a) rhc singlc-pass proccss,an<l(b) rhc <Joublc-pass
l"__b-l:ldlV
process.
Nylon ruadcan irnnrctliatcnppcal as a hosicry fibrc, an<lfrorn In.thc sirrglc-pass proccss,tlrc
the day of its appcnranceon lhc lnarkct it bcgarrto oust silk an<lhcar-scr, whcrcai in thc doubie-n^., _fabricis',;;;;";t
scourecl, <lycrl,ctricrl
is scourctl.
256 257

r l r r ' I
 F F F t t F I I t F,F F F F l'iF
IIANDNOOK OF TEXTILC FIIIRES n: sYNTnEltC FtrlRF.S
<lricdand heat-set,follorvedby clycingand drying. In the single- typefibrewill corrveysignificantly highcrylrrr arrdfabricstrcnctlr
pass process,thc scverity of heat-setiingis restrictedby fabric rvhenblendedwith cotton,than can be obttincd with yarn nrrtl
discolouration,dinrensionalstability and smooth appearanceaftcr fabricnradefront 100percentcotton.Suchblcncls arecornntorrly
laundering.In the two-stageprocess,a rlore contpletedegreeoI n r a d er v , i t hl 5 t o 5 0 p e rc e n to f n y l o ni n t h eb l c n d .A s t h c p c r c c r i -
hcat-settingis achieved,which actually ycllows lhe fabric ancl tage ol nylon.increases, fabric flcx lifc, tearingnnclbicnking
necessitates subsequentbleaching,but provides excellentdinten- strer-rgth and abrasionresistance incrcascs irr suclra rvay tlrat a
sional stability and smooth appcaranceafter launder.ing. b l e n dc o n t a i n i n5g0 p e rc c n tn y l o ns t a p l cw i t h c a r c l cccol i t o r r v i l l
Using tlre AATCC Wash and Wear Pcrformance scale, a havea 30 percentgreaterfabricbreakingstrerrgth.'l'hcrc rvillllso
flbric finishedby tho single-pass processrated 2.5,whereasfabric be a threefoldinrprovenrcnt irr abrasionresistarrcc ancla sixlbld
produced by the two-pass proccss rated 3.5. There was lcss increase in flex life as cornparecl with a fabricof 100 pcr ccrrt
rclaxation slrrinkagein the second fabric. cotton.
The wrinkle recovery properties of propcrly prepared nylon Nylon staplesof this type are uscdto rciuforcecottonfabrics
tricot are excellent.This is due in part to the mobility of thc suchas twills,sateens, denims,whipcords, 'l'hc
drills nnd tlucks.
knit structure,but also to a great degree to the excellentwork followingtable illustrntcstypicalinrlrrovcmcnts in str.cngth irrrrl
rccovery of the fibre. Nylon has a high work rccovery undcr abrasionresistance whcn25 per cent nylonst:rpleis adttctlin tlrc
conclitionsof high deformation, rvhereaspolyester yarns have r.varpo nly.
superior work recovery under conditions o[ low dclormation.
In tricot fabric. the mobile structure works to the advantagc Effectof Nylou Strpleon Fabr.ic
l)ropcrtics
of the fibrc having the best rccovcry propertiesutrderconclitiorrs
of high dcfornration,and trylon is cxccllcnt in this rcspcct. I'will.r I)cttitrts
100"/, 75'/., cotto,t I 100'/" 75'jL cottotrI
G loves Irubric Property coltort 25 "/" nylort cctttort 25 "/,,rtylott
Nylon has been used successfullyin ladies'glovesmade lrom 19(trp tvorp
sueded simplex fabrics. A leather graiu appearallcemay be Fabric weight (g/nr: ) 257.6 264.4 381.4 3 8 1. 4
obtained by embossinga'crush'-like pattern on to simplex.The llreakingstrength(kg) 4B.l 54.5 18 84.4
pattern is durable to hand laundering. Stoll abrasion(cycles
to destruction) 260 1100 1600 4000
O ulervear Accelerated abrasion
Nylon tafleta is used in shell cloth in jackets and wind- (min. to destruction) z7 50 36
breakers.These garmentsare generallylined with fleecednylon
fabrics or fiberfill,or are laminatedto other materials.The colour In the latent cure typc finishedfabric, nylon is uscd to inrprrt
fastrressof these garments is acceptable,and they have excellent strengthand wear life, The nylon componentconrmonly anlounts
appearanceretention and easy care properties. to some 15 pcr cent.
Nylon taffcta and tricot have founcl atl irlportant outlet in lllcnds with cotton contaiDinghigh pcrccntagcs(c.g. 50 pcr
blouscs and drcsscs,whcrc thc satnc cottlbinationof propcrtics ccrtt) of nylon havc grcat rcsistnncc[o wcur, abrirsiorrand llcx
is advantagcous, Iife, and good rcsistanccto thcrnral ratlilrtiotr.

Stoplc I rrtluslrial
Nylon staplc is widcly uscd as a conlponcnt of blcnclsrvith 'fhe
high strcngth, elasticity, abrasion rcsistancc nnrl olhcr
other fibres, notably of cotton. A lrigh strength,high ntodttltts characteristics of nylon have opcncd up n rvidc field of applica-
258 259
 'IANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES D: SYNTT{ETIC Ft I}RES

tion in industrial fabrics. Thc following are a few of the nrore

nt industrialcnd-uses
ir.uporta :
Air springs,belting, filter fabrics, fish net, twine, hose, wash
nets, press covers, ironer covers, paddings, parachutes,webbing,
sewing thread, cordage coated fabrics, bocly armour or ballistic
cloth, tents, aerial targets,screening,fclts, reinforced plastics, (2) NYT.ON 6
ropes, blend paper, papermakers' felts, tyres, nolr-woven fabrics,
Nylon 6 fibre is sprrnfrom polycaproamidc,a polyanriclc
back gray fa bric. nradc
by the self-condcnsation of 6-anrino-caproicacid or its lactanl,
caprolactarn:
7'yrc Cord
The high strengthand abrasion resistanceof nylon 6.6, coupled
with other properticssuch as resistanceto nroisture and hcat,
good fatigue rcsistanceand high work of rupture, enablednylon
to nrakerapid headwayin the tyre cord ntarket.
Convcyor Belting cx. (cH.). co NH
'['hc t l
trsc of nylon as rcittforcentcntirr hcavy-tltrtyconvcyor bclt- --ruu(cx,)"co Nrr(crrr)rcor.lt
(or.)r---
ing is rapidly gainirrggrouncl.Nylon ofiers the following advan-
tagesin this application: CAPROLACTAM N Y L O N6
(l) High tensilestrcngth.
(2) I{igh impact strength and resistanceto shock rlraintained
over long periods
(3) Good adhesionto rubber.
(4) Resistanceto rotting.
(5) Excellent flex and fatigue resistance.
(6) Low specific gravity cotnpared with natural fibres uscd
TYPES OF NYLON 6 FIDI{E
for rubbcr reinforceutent.
Nylon 6.is pro<tuccclas rnultifilanrcnt yltrns, nrorroli
II ose lantcnts,
staple.and tow, in a widerangeof countii",,i'riopf.f.iigifii"i"
Nylon is widely used in many types of industlial hoscs.It oflers suit virtuallyall textilercqurrcntenls.
a high strength-weight factor, good wet strength retcntion, The fibresare availablcin bright,scnri_<lLrll and dull lustrcs,
excellentflex life and loop-strcngthratio. Nylon-rcinforccdhosc and with specialadditivessuchas opticalblcachcs for spccializcd
is made witlr knitters,vcrtical and horizontal brnidcrs,Wardwell cnd-uscs.
braidcrs, Chernak loonts; nyton is also used in nrandrel-built Lilic.nylon6.6 fibrcs,thc fibrcsof rrylon6 nray bc vnricd in
wrappcd hosc. ;xopcrlics.ou.r- 1 rarrge which is linritcd by thc inhcrcnt
cnaractenstlcsof thc polymer,eachnranufacturci controllinghis
proccssto producc fibres.thht will nrect spccific
rcquircnrcnts.
-rnain
In general,commercial 6 fibrcsfall into trvo classcs,
,nylon
(4, regulartenacityand (b) high tcnacity.
260 261

' l ' 1 ' [ ' I ' L ' I r-[m

F . t t t l t t t t t t t FFt I FFF
,
T I A N D I } O O KO F T E X T I L E T I B R E S X: S Y N 1 ' I I I ] ' TI C F I N R E S

Nylon 6 is a thermoplasticfibre,and lendsitself well to physical

moclificationswhich are associatedwith this property. Crimped
and textured yarns of the fanriliar types are availablc.

BEt.lZENE /'( cYcLoll ExAr.lot,lE

Modilied liibrcs
As in thc caseof nylon 6.6,nylon 6 ftbresarc conrmotrlyproduccd
in round cross-section,but fibresof special(e'g.nrtrltilobal)cross-
sectionare now availablefrom severalnranufactttrers.
\\^\ x V -.. , \J
>::%
PI{ODUCTJON

Rcxclant Synthcsis
'a)
Thc caprolactanrtrscclirr lrroducittg nylon 6 polytncr is made
by one of severalrorttcs,of which thc following are important:
o
r-c\ (L(t (ri)
(l) CyclolrcxattoneRoutc t l -t
;-(ctt'1
t l
This is thc route by which caprolactanlis comnrotlly producccl NH, CO -r
for nylon 6 manufacture(sec pagc263). cYcLor-rExANoNL CAPROI,ACTAM
Cyclohexanonemay be made from bcnzenevia one of several C a p r o l ; r c t r r n Irt r o d t r c t i o l r .C y c l o l r c x ar rr ; n c l l . o u t c .
routcs, including the following:
(2) Cycloltexane Routc
(a) Benzeneis chlorinatedto chlorobenzene(l), which is then Benzenenray be hydrogenatcdto cyclohcxarre(l), which is thcn
convertedto phenol (2). Phenol is reducedto cyclohexanol(3), nitrated (2). The nitro-conrpoundis rcducccl,iorlnirrg cyclo-
which is oxidized to cyclohexanone(4). hexanoneoxime (3), which is convcrtcd to caprol:tctanlrs abovc.
(b) Benzene is nitrated to nitrobenzene(5), which is then NO" NOll
reclucedto aniline (6). The aniline is then converted to cyclo- __ o @ l l
.____._-.--,- - - l l
hexanol (7), which is oxidized to cyclohexanone. (., \-.' \-,/
(c) Benzeneis hydrogenatedto cyclohexane(8), which is then BENZENE CYCLOHEXANE CYCLOI]Ii XANONI:
OXIME
oxidizedto cyclohexanone(9). Caprolac(arn Procluc(ion. Cyclohexnrrc ll ou tc.

1'hecyclohcxanonc Produccd bY any of thescloutcs is rcactctl (3) Cy<:lolrc.t),lunincIlotttc (uppcr rlilgrarn, plrgc
264 ).
w i t h h y d r o x y l a n r i (ni e
n t h c f o r m o [ its sulphltc Nl'l"OI{.1{".SO,), A n i l i n c i s h y d r o g c n a t c dt o c o n v c r t i t t o c y c l o h c x y l t r r r i r r(cl ) .
fornringcyclohcxanonc oxirne( l0). I-Iydrogen pcroxidc is rcactcclwith this to forrn an atklition
Cyclohexanotteoxitne is trcatccl with s u l p h u r i c i t c i d , a t t t l conrpound,which is thcn convcrtcd to cyclohcxarroncoxirrrcby
run<lcrgocsihc Bccknrann trltrsfornlatiolt t o f o r n r c a p r o l a c t an r lreatnlcnt with nrnnroniunr tungstatc solution (2). Thc cyclo
(ll). hexanoncoxinrc is convcrtedto clprolactrnr as abovc.
262 263
 I

IIANDBOOK OF'TEXTILE FII]tIES

B : S Y N T I . I E T IFCt B N E S

an
\-/
NH-

o_*o*o not used.,as a rule, in the production of

(b) I{ydrolytic process

fibrcs.lt is of particular
intcrestin ttie production of cast polyan.,ia.
ftnsrics.
ANILINE CYCLO_ CYCLOTIEXANONE
HEXYLAMINE OXIME This is the technique comntonly a<Iopted
in thc pro<luction of
C a p r o l a c ( a m P r o d u c t i o n . C y c l o h e x y l a n r i n el l o u t c . polycaproanride for fibrc utoctui". 1fi. 'rniic-ct
.,r-,an pr".i* is usually
opcrated on a continuous basis.Cap,olocioirl,
wirh about
l0 pcr ccnt of irs wcicht of wa ter,' tojctfi.,
(4) II exahydrobenloic Acid Roura *iifi'.lr',f f ing agcnrs
(rvhcrc rcq.uircd), acict catalyrt "nr.l
niiJ'"r,.;;;i;p.r, lrc fctl
fhis is a proccsspatented by Snia Viscosa [or the production continuouslyinto the too of a slainless
stc"f coiumir,
"""' which nrly
o[ caprolactarnfrom toluene which is availablefrom petroleum be 6 rn (2O ft) high anct45 crn S inl Jiai,rci;
1f
refining. Toluenc is oxidized to benzoic acid (l) which r ne colunrn is heateclto
is ,250_270.C., an<l as the caprohctnnr
hydrogcnatcdto hexahydrobenzoicacid (2). -frcatment of flows.downwardsthrough column it-r",f"rg"., polymcrizl-
this _the
with nitrosyl sulphuric ncicl in the prcsenceof oleum lron to polycaproarn ide. An equilibriu, "ondltion is rcachcd,
Droduces
caprolactam(3). the matcrial at the base of thc'column
"o"i^ i"i"i"^Uout g9_92
pcr cent
-of polymer and I l_g pcr ccnt of capiolactnm. ,fhc
anrount o[ caprolactarnin thc cqJilibriunr
rnixtrLriJcpcndsuporr

6i -e- q)" o- g'-e*

the
.temperature;at 260.C., thcrc is "fr"rf i-i'rr.. ..nt.
polymerizario' of caprolacrarn
_ The r^k"; ;i.:,;^"; rwo rourcs,
[(."").1
CO*NH
(a) a polycondensarion ,.o"iion, ",iJ trrj "-p'",'uiiiion ,"o",,o,.,.
TOLUENE H E X A I l Y D R O- CAPROLACTAM Poly corttle nsati ott Rcact i on
BENZOIC ACID
C a p r o l a c t a m P r o d u c t i o n . Hexahydrobcnzoic The water added to the caprolactarn
Acid Routc. -sonre
as it cntcrs thc rcactiotr
":tr as a hy<trotyric
agent,..n.ii,,f *iiir or rtrc
l::.,.],
caprolactarn to form 6-ar.rrinocaproic acid.-
Polyntcrizalion
-l
The polymcrization of caprolactam is carried out trsuallyby one T (cH,)
or other of two processcs,either (a) a non-aqueousprocess,or t - l
(b) an aqueousor hydrolytic process. Lao-*"-J
(,a) Non-aqueous Process
Polycondensationof this acid then takes place,
In. this process,__thecarprolactam is heated in the presence of sctting [r.cc
water which forms more amino caproic acicl
catalysts(c.g. alkali nietals and their salts) flt temperatures irom'ca prolactanr.
of This undergoesconclensation,contributing to rii. lioiynl"rin rio,,,
up to. 280"C.
.Polynrcrizationprocceds by the opcning of the and so thc proccss gocs on.
caprolactam rings and tlre linking of the operreclrings into
polynrcr nrolcculcs.Thc rcaction is rapicl, nna higl, molccular Polyaddition Rcactiott
weJghtpolycaproamidemay be produce<.!, e.g. witli a degreeof Thc polyaddition rcaction takes.placctlrrough
polym.erizationin thc regiol of 200. The polyrners tlrc opcning oI
are highly cap.rolactarnrings, and the linking rog"tlr.i
crystallinc.Tlrcy are generallysuperior in pLysical propertiei to ul'rhe opcnc<l
-but molecules.There is no intermcdiat" forilatiiin
polynrers made by the alternative methoj, tlie proccss is oi anrino acid,
and lhe reactioncloesnot involvc the libcrntion
oi*,,t"l" or othcr
264
265

-r r-l'I
ffi FFffi
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTII-E FIDRIIS I]: SYNTII ET I C FII}RI]S

srnallmolccules.It is an addition reaction,and not a condensation In the prorluction of rnulti[ilanrcntyurn,

l high clcgrcc of
reaction. unifornriry is-esscnrial, as variationsi,'r ni;n;;,li <Jciricr,vill rcna
Polyaddition takes place alongside the polycondensation to show up in the finishccl.fabric.ln the
lrroau"-tio,,oI staplc
reaction,both contributingto the creation of polymer molecules. fibrc, on the otrrer
-rmncr,uniformity is noi sircii I'crit ical factor,
Polyaddition predonrinatesover the polycondcnsation. and greater latitude is nerrtrissiblc.Vnriotlon.s
Jn fibr.c dcnicr,
within reasonablelimits. will tcnd ro ior.
iir",r,rclvcs during
Polymerization continues untiI the amino end groups are subsequentnrixing anrl proccssingof
ttr" .r,,pi."ntrr..
blocked by the organic acid wl'rich was added to serve as a r n e n l o r t c np o r y m e ri n t h c p o l y n r c r i z a t i o n
v c s s c rl v i l l c o r t : r i r r
polymcrizationstabilizer,'asin the casc of nylon 6'6 production' .p to I I pcr cc't of unchangcctciproractanr,
thc irctuat ^.rorrt
Polycaproamidemade in this way has a degreeof polymerization varying with polynrerizationconditiorrs..t.tris'conrparativcly
which is commonly in the region of 120-140. proportion of a'volatile constit,cnt high
i. n unri,t i"''incfor that is
The molten polycaproarnidemay be spun directly at this stage, <trrring
spinning
"i ,ll" ,.r,"ii."rnrrcriat,
without any intermediatcisolatiorrof solid polymer (sec Direct l:l:lI.]: :""trol
rrrantcntsspun dircctlv
nntl
fronr lhc nrclt arc not rcatlily
lrcltl witlrin
Spinning, below). More conrmonly, it is extruded from thc n.""prnbl" ro.,u,,riiiirn,;;;,';;i. .r.trcy
pressurevesselas a thick macaroni-like strand which is cooled by llil:,:..
1|ra,
horv.ever, .".
sal.isfactory nrc,
for the productionof staptc iiUrc.
a water spray or by falling on to a coolcd metal band. Tlre
. whe.n polycapronnride is extrutrcdnnd isoriitc<r as crrips,orr
solitlified polymcr is clroppcd into stnall chips of ntaxiurunt thc othcr hand, lhc cxcc.ss
is ,.",,iuu..t[ry rvtrlcr
-clprolacltrrrr
dianreterabout 6 nrnr (% in). washing,and thc spinninqof fiirc fro,ri pof
y,rr.i"i,ip* ,,,ny b"
The chips are rvaslrcdin denrineralizedwater, which dissolves controlledto proviclca riruclrrrrorc-
unifornrprodrrcl..l.hcclrip
out the bulk of the caprolactam;they arc tlren ccntrifugedand spinrrirgproccss,trrcrcforc,is prcfcrrcd
iii ii,""'i,u,r,,"rir' or.
dried in vacuo at a tentperaturebelow 85'C. The washed and nrultifiIanrent
yarns.
dried chips contain about I per cent of caprolactam'
(n) Sp,,r,r,,rgylltilihrncnt yorn
Spinning lrorn polytrtcr Cltip,
Polycaproamide(nylon 6 polymer) melts at 215-217'C.,i.e. about In the production of rnultifilanrcntyarns,
tlry chips of poly_
35'C. lower than polyhexamethyleneadipamide (nylon 6.6 caproanrideare allowed to falt into tlrc
rnclting2o,,"'of n stirirrlcss
polymer). Molten polycaproamideis conrparativelystable, and steel spirrningapparatus.Tlris. nray
"o,lriri,'io.".*lrrrplc, oI nrr
may be held (under an inert atmosphere)at 250"C. f.or 16-24 clectricatty-hcarcd grictnrainraincdar "rr"iii iib_icb"c.
hours without deterioration.In this respect,polycaproamideis ,h. chipsnrelt,.themoltenpolynrcrnl*r-rfi-ugr,
,._lr
rnto a conical-shaped thc gricl
rnuchlesssensitiveto spinningconditionsthan polyhexanlethylene sunrp leadingto n nr"i"iliig purrrp. .l.hc
nroltenpolynreris at all tinresnraintain.A ",,
adipanride,and the spinning of polycaproamidedirect from the ,r,iA.i ' blankctoI
polyrnerizationvessel may be carried out much more readily nitrogcn to prevent oxiclat.ion ona a."onirro.iiiorr.
than that of polyhexamethylene adipamide. Frorn the,punrp,rhe molrenpoly,;..-i;'f;;;c"j
consisting througtrnttcrs
Direct spinning of polycaproamideis now establishedou il of layersof sandor gract"<r -st."i ironr rrrcrirrcr
s;r;,;;J
it
cornmercialscale,and therc are thus two spinning techniquesin .flows.to 1hespinncrct. This ii a stniil".rs jisc pcrtoratcrl
opcration for the production of nylon 6 fibres, (a) Sp.inning rvithholesin nunrbcranrlshapca"pcn,tiuf
on-i",iiir",l,",,rr.
from Polymer Chips, and (b) Dircct Spinning fronr Polymcriza- polynrcrcmcrgcinro rhc cortl nir, rhcy
tion Stage. "^,lir1lr.j:::-:f.,,]]o1,".n
surury. Lrunngurc snrnningproccss, thc hcatirrgof thc poiynrci
Thc use of one or other of these two processcsis clictated has te.nded to bring about regcncration of sorneirclc-crrprolrrctn
a_ndthc filanrents rn,
largely by the dcgrecof uniforrnity reqtriredin the filanrentsthat containu lig-h", p"r..,rt^g"f*",l'.,"I p", ""nt;
are produced. lhan was presentin tlrc dry polynr.. .lrip.,:fi," pr.-scncc
of this
266 267
 t
.,)

IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILI] FIDRES

D : S Y N . t .E
l r 1 . ct F l l l r ( E s
free caprolactanr prccludes the use of a stean'l conditioning
Coning
chambersuch as is used in the production of nylon 6.6 filaments;
yarn .is then dricd, and a sizc
the filanrentso[ nylon 6 would becomesticky in the hot stearn, _ fhe. is applicd, prior to a
and would stick together arrd to any surfacesthey met. firral w.inding on to cones.The yarn n-rnl
oi* be lubricalcddurirrg
The nylon 6 filaments are conditioned, therefore, by passing this final winding stage.
over rollers which moisten thenl with water, solutions of antistatic
agcnts and lubricant before being wound on to the package. (b) Direct Spinning ol Staplc Fibre
'l'hrouglrout lrottt polytttcrilcttiott Stttga
the takc-up region, the atmosphereis controlled to
sustain a rclative humidity of 45-55 per cent and a temperature J"ltrcr is nunrpecl
l]_:lt^.,1 frornthcpotyn.,cr.ir.,
tiliilJGl
of l8-20"C. This ensuressubsequentstability of the package. rhcsc.conrain a.largc
nurnl:cr of hotcs,anJ
:::?::j:t:l-lts-
thelilaments.from nranyof rhern
Take-up speedsof more than 1,000metersper minute are used, ,.. bi"igrr,l'"e",i#",ff;il;
lorggbobbins. A cableof 5,500,frc- f.,plii,f.n) rnaybc
and the speedof winding is co-ordinatedwith that of the metering Pl,,lo this wav,provitlirtg
pump to ensure that the filament diameter is accuratelycon-
ilil;rfifl.in o po.t'g.'-*igr'i,'g,.i.,ri
trolled. Packagesmay contain about I kilograrn o[ yarn.
A numbcr o[ these bobbins arc thcn run togcthcr
to producc
a tow of 500,000 dtcx (450,000 den) or nlorc.
Stretchitrg or D rawing Stretching ol 'l'ow
'l'hc
Nylon 6 filarnents are drawn by passing over two sets of tow is passctlovcr a scr.ics
ol lrc:rvy_duty fcctl l.trllcr.s
wlriclr
rollers, as in the case of nylon 6.6, the secondset nroving with stretch the filamcnts in two stages..l.he'
nrst'siag; strctchcsthc
sonre 4 tinres the surface speed of the first set. Thc yarn is thus tow sonrc 2.5 to 3.O tirncs, rnd Lhc strctclrcti
t-u* t1,",, p,,rr"*
stretchedto a ratio of about I to 4. The stretchingoperationis forward to rlre secontl srrcrching,rug"
;i;;;; iiis t,.ut"a u,,.t
carried out under rigidly controlledconditions,e.g. at 15"C. and stretctrcdto bring rhe total strc[h r;3.5
io a.6-ti,,.r.r.
55-65 per cent r.h. Drawing may be carried out at higher tenr-
peraturcsto produce filaments of higher tenacity. lYashing, Crinrping an.l Cuuing
The stretchedtow is passedtlrrough lrot
watcr, which clissolvcs
Twisti ng out the bulk of the ciprolactam. it is
iri"J-ii warrrr air ancr
rnay bc trcated with varlous finishc..
Thc rrultifilament yarn at this stagc has little or no twist. f.i"rf lv,ifr" tow is crirnpcd
rnechanically and moves forward t"
If addcd twist is rcquired, thc yarn nray be up twisted, using 1ii. "i,it", *i,ich chops ir
into the required staple length.
conventional nrachincry,on to perforated bobbins. The degrce
o[ trvist is cleternrinedby the end use for rvhich the yarn is
destined. A hosiery yarn, for example, may be given a twist of PITOCESSING
1,182 turns/rn (30 turns/in) whereas a yarn for weaving or
Scouringand De-Sizing
knitting may be givenonly 276 turns/m (7 turns/in).
Nylon 6_yarns,in conrrnonrvith
othcr synthctic fibrc ylrns, trc
lVaslring uttd 7'tvis!-sct
tittg sized..w.irhpolyacryl ic ;,ci,r,'efr;,'p"iy"vinyt ntcotrot,
::,'lillly
ortsor waxcs.AII thcscsizcs.,
The caprolactamformed during spinning is still presentin thc
logcthcrwith Airi, sliirrIi,)goil Irij
otlrcrcontanrinants arc rca,liiyicnrovcJby;;;i,;:i;;
filarnents of nylon 6, and for some purposes this is better 'or",
rcnrovccl.
'fhc
yarn is thelcfore washcclin hot water which dis- -The agentsused in scouringunry .l.p'"rr.lir",f tt," n"tur"
"fi,iirr,r
oI tlrc nratcrialto [rc rcnrovc<t.wtrcrr .pi,r,ii"g
solves out the caprolactanr.At thc snnrc tirnc, the yarn undcr'- bc renrovecl, "at only is to
a scour with soap or dctcrgcnt SO"C.nray bc
^pr.scnt,
goes sonle hcat-setlingwhich setsthe trvist. adequate.If nn acrylic sizc is il;;;;.;, it"i* n"""rrnru
268
269

.tt r-l ._I r r r r r r l

'r"
[EtttttEt
clilPiloPPtn
POI.Y
Ht RIZATJON VALVE
MII-I SPINNIIIG
cilAfr0tR

ililililflililil||iltI SPINNIRTT
SPINNING
5ltAtI

PI.AIII
COKING
COOI.ING
CUTIER DRIT.R DRY
WAITR clilPs

lrt SIAGI 2ndSTAGE 0 0 0 8t N

COTDDRAWING !/ASHrNc

il '. L l
HYDR0XYl"lll$! I I fl corrlc
A/51
mu ,f']1, F1LAMENT
\
yARN
illr20ll
OXIME / tLh:|l
\
5Ul.PlruRrc
ACrDti?5lr

IMHCllr
() L':li-'{_:t-'qr DNItR
lllll

MIXING
CHAMBIR
SOOALYE coHHoilSAIT DEIIYDRAIION
2ila 0H tHYDRocrMiloN CRUDE
PHEN0t" lcYcr"oilexAN0L CYCTOHEXANONI
H Y D R o G E- N H 20 l S T l L t A T l o N DtSilLtATr0ll POLYMIRIZATIOIJ
PURE CYCIOHEXA}IOL PURE
CYCLOHEXANONE in verticaltubc
O NOH
ll rl

9Hr Cll, CHr Cl{2

cHl,rcHr cu,.cHr
Ln2 Ln2

)-lpc0 Cllt
STAPLE FIBRE
cil,
,t l cll,
AHHONIUM
cut
LACTAM
OIT
SOtU]ION
5ULPIIAIE
DISIIttA]ION
I cllr
L NH PR€PARATION
 IIANDBOOK OITTDX'TILE FI IJRES
to usc a scour liquor containingsodaash,at a temperature of
60-70"c.
solventdetergent,
For heaviersoiling,an en-rulsified a strongcr
alkali,or botb, arc reconrmended.
In sorne cases,solvent scouringin pure or chargedper'
chloroethyleneis preferred,particularlyin tlte caseo[ nylon 6
weft-knittedlabricsandgarments.
Many conrmercial deepdye and basicdyeablenylon 6 yarns
are tinied with a specialsightirrgcolour and, in this case,it is
necessary to destroy the dyestufl chenticallyby additionof
hydrosulphite to the scourbath.
lllcnching
Potyamidetibresin gencralare naturallywhite, aud chemical
bleaching is unuecessary exceptin specialcircumstances. Bleach-
ing nray be necessary, for example,if heat-setting has causcd
discolouration,or if the nylon is blendcdwith other libresthat
needbleaclring.
Althoughrecomntencled altd usedin the past,strongoxidative
bleachessuch as peraceticacid, sodiunrchlorite and sodiunt
hypochloritenlust not be usedfor the bleachingof nylon 6 as
they can causeexcessive oxidationand a resultantreductionitt
dyeability.Moreover,the resistance of nylon 6 to pltotodegrada-
tion is often drasticallyreduce(lafter suchoxidativetreatments
resultingin unacceptable strengthlossesalter exposureto ligltt.
When the use of an oxidativebleachis unavoidable, e.g. for
nylon 6/cetlutosicblends,hydrogenperoxideis the preferred
agent;very little oxidation occurs in this case providedthe
correctconditiorlsareenlployed.
n : s Y N . r . leI ] . tc l ; l l t l t u s
Dycirrg
(l) 100 pcr cent Nylon 6
Ihe dyeing characteristicsof nylon 6 are csscntiallysinrillr
to
thosc of nylon 6.6, but dyestullstcnd to dillusc nrorc rcadily inlo
'l'lris
nylon 6 fibre tharr into nylon 6.6 fibrc. lrrcnnsthat witlr
nrany dycs, nylon 6 requireslessdycstufl to attain a givcn shadc,
and its rate of exhaustioncxcec<!that of nvlon 6.6_
_--.Nylon 6 has a nrarkcclaffinity for rnarryclasscsof dycstul.f.
'l'he
classeswith thc witlcst applicatio.s aie ttrc ciisp*si:, aciti,
p.re'retallized, clirect and selected rcactivc dyestufli
corirbiraj
tions.
As .in thc case of nylon 6.6, basic dycs an<l vat colours trc
rarely used.The_basicdyes tcnd to havc poor light fastncss;thc
vat-dyesare costly and difhcult to apply, havc poor light fustncss
and low migration powcr.
. As. nylon 6 is hcirt-sctilt a ntlxintrllr lctlpcrilturc of lg3.C.,
thc hc.t stability o[ thc dycstrrflsuscd is riot usurily criric:,i.
Carc should be taken, however, in choosing thc dycs. Whcrr
sctting prcccdcsdycing, it is csscntirl tlrat lricvcn trcatnrcntis
givcn, or there nray be sorneditliculty in obtlining lcvcl sharlcs.
Metlrcds and Preparatiott
The techniquesused in dyeing nylon 6 are sinrilar to tlroseuscd
in dyeing nylon 6.6. It is often dcsirableto rlye frorn a slightly
highcr dyebath pl-l and to raise the dycbath i.,,,r,.rr,rr. ,,,or.
slowly to the_firrallcvel, in orclerto preventtoo rapirlcxhaustiorr
o l t h e ( l y c s t u l l .w h i c h w i l l r e s u l ti n u n e v c nc l y c i n s . -
It is most important that thc goocls sh-orrld" bc thoroughly
scouredbefore thcy are dycd.

Optical'Bleachittg Disperse DyestulJs

Uiually bleachingof nylon 6 is requiredonly for optically- 1-hcse dyes prescnt fcw difliculties in applicrrfion,and lravc
briehtenedshadei and in this casea reductionbleachusing cxcellentmigration and levelling propcrtici, cven whcn applied
sta6ilizeclhydrosulphiteis employed.It is often possibleto at low temperatures.They ofier a wide ringc of colouri-and
apply the opticalbrightening bathmaking
agentfrom the,b.leach are rccommended particularly for light and mcdium sltndcs.
bleaching When.postsettingis
treatnrentullllccessary. 'l'heir
a separate coveringability is very good and incrcascswith rlycing tirrrc
to 6e carriedout, the heat sensitivityoI the whiteningagent andternperature.
shouldbe considere([. A.lthough generally insoluble in watcr, thc dispcrsc dycs trrc
easily disperscdwith the aid of a suitablc clctcrgcnt;sonlc ncw
dyes of this class arc self-dispersing.

272

rl':ll: -1 --1 --t -1 "-l '-t --l r'- .- r . . r .-l r-1 r-1 -l
rttltF,F,tl
'TDX'I'I
I I A N I ) I } O OK O I . ' LD I;IDI{DS
sYNlltElrc Ir(us

Dispersccoloursarc of two types,(a) nornraldisperseclyes, i n t h e s a r n eb a t h . ' l ' h c r r r o n o s u l p h o n art lcycel , w i t l r i t s h i r l r c r

and (b) dyeswhich are diazotizedand developedon thc fibre. a l f i n i t y f o r n y l o n .6 , w i l l < j y e ' p r c f e r c r r t i aai lny r l s o r r r e t i r r r e s
The lattergrouparesornetirnes usedfor heavyshades,exhibiting f l r s p r a ,tchee p o l y s o l p h o n a tI e
t .i s i n r p o r t a n t ,h c r c f o r et ,o s c l c c t
good rvet fastnesswith sonrcwhatpoorer light fastness. The r.rre(ly^e^s crrelully arrtl trot to use incorrrpltiblernixturr,sol
converseis true rvith the norntal clisperse dyes, which have dyestuffsr.vhen clycitrg cornpountl shadcs.
rnoclerate
light fastness
antllesssatisfactory
wet fastness.
Sorrrcof thescdyeshavc a tendcncyto sublinrcon to whitc Prent etoll isetl D1'cst ulfs
goodsparticularlywhen exposedto hcat. Many in conrmcrcial 'l'hese
lr.espcci:rldyestuffscorrrplcxctl rvitlrr:lrrorrriutrr, trickclor
usc,however,will resistsaturated stcamat 120'C.and higher. cobait.,'l'hey havea very high aifirritylor nylon 6 antl thcrcforc
Dispersedyes are universallyused for hosierydyeing,but conrrolot (tyelllgpara.nleters is very ilnportant;for palcslratlcs
are only suitablefor the lightestshadeson warp-knit,weft-knit c y c l n gr s o t t e n c a r r i c do u t f r o r n a s l i g l r t l ya l k a l i n ci l y c b l t l rt o
arrd wovenfabrics.The washfastness of the majorityof thcse slow do.wrrthe rateol'dyei.g. 'lhesctlics i,.u.,roo,irvct lnst'css
dyes is insuflicient
for dyeingntediulrror helvy shades.Light properties(conrparablc rvitli aciclnriliingtlycs)but rrc char.uc_
fastnesspropertiesare,on the whole,adequate for mostencluses. ,r-rlr:d their very high Iight fastness. ti.cirs6 ol rlrisrlreyrLc
rlearlyalwayslV
usedrvhcrevery.g-oodfastrrcss to light is rcqriirc,tl,
Acid Dyesru[Js c ; S c: r f u ; r l r , o l s t ccr tyc, .U r r f o r t t r r * r t crlryr,. s iti f . t h cr l y i s t r r t . l . i
ltlj"s,,
1'hese dyestuffsareusedgenerally lor mecliumto deepshacles arrd B l v cI c l u t l v c l(yl u l ls l il l( l c S .
usuallyshorvgoocllight fastness, wash fastness an(l resistance
to CltronteDyestL{fs
'l-hey
sublinration. are classifiedcorrverriently
into tr.voclasses, l'his class.ofdye_is only of itrtcrcstlitr spccil'ic crrtluscsrvlrcrc
(a) Acid Levelling Dyesand(b) Acid MillingDyes. ecouonric. hcavyshades of highlightanrlwailrlastncss rrc rc<1uirctl.
(a)Acid LeveII ittgDy es Chrornc.dye a sr ea p p l i e d . i n ls i n r i l alru a n n c tro a c i r ul y c se x c c p t
'l'hese that, after dyeing,the dyestuff is cornplexccl
havegood levellingpower anclshowgooclcoverage of - in a ircsh brih
affinityvariations betrvcen nylon 6 fibrcs.1'heyaredyeclgenerally c o n t a i n i n gp o t a s s i u ndr i c h r o r n a t ea n r l r e t l u c i r r ga g c r r t .1 . h i s
fronr a fairly acidicdyebath,e.g.pFl 3-5.l'he washfastness of rcsults.in a. corrrplcxoi t,igi, lirstncss
acidJevelling dyesis inferiorto that of otheraciddye classes and b e i ' g l o r l l e d".strong..chrolriunr/dye
in sitrr"
i , t h c f i b r e .A s t r r ei r u cs r r a diei t r c v c l o p c r l
they are thereforeused only for pale anclurediumshacles or o n l y . a f t e rt h i s c h r o n r i n p
g r o c e s sc ,o l o u rr r r a t c h i ni sc d i f f i c u l ir s
rvherefastnessto rvet treatnrentsis not of prime inrportance. sampleswatches haveto be aftcrchrornccl beforeriratching to thc
standarcl patterncan be carriecl out. nnothcrproblcnris tiiat frcc
(b) Acitl Milling Dycs chronriunrsalts in finishcd apparelcan ciusc Iocalisctlsl<irr
This classof dyestuffshols a higheraffinity for nylon 6 ancl irritation.
greatercarein applicationis needed. This is achieved by a slow
rise in dyebathternperature, a higherdyebathpll and by useof Direct Dyestuffs
selectedanionic ancl cationiclevellingagents.llecauseof the Direct _dyc,s are clrcnrically sirrrilarto acitl dycs antl lrc usctl
higheraffinityof these,levelling arrdcoverage prinrarilyfor thc dycingof cellulosic{lbrcs.ilorvevcr,sclcctctl
of affinityvariations
is nruchpoorerthan with acicllevellingdyesbut fastness to wet t l y e sr n a yb c u s c df o r d y c i n gn y l o n6 ; a p p l i c a t i ocror n r l i t i o rlrnst l
treatnrentsis nruch higher.Becauseof their good all-rouncl l a s t n e spsr o p e r t i casr cs i r n i l l rt o a c i dr r r i l l i r rt g
lycs.
fastness, acid nrillingdyestuffsare suitablefor nrostencluses.
Carcfulselectionof dyestuffsis irrrportantas blockirrgrnay Reactive
'l'hese Dyest(fs
occurif nlonosu lphollated anclpolysulphonatcd dyesarcprcscnt dycstul'fsarc tlcsigrred
for applic:rtiouto cellulosicsarrrl
wool. Ccrtairrsclectcdrlyesnraybc uscrlfor rlycingrrylon(r arrrl,
2'14 275
 |ll
ilANDlJ()0K Ot.' l DXl lLE I;lt|t{US N: SYNTII ETI C FITIRES

becausethey fornt a covalentlink rvith the nylon 6 molecule,

very high fastness to washingcan be achieved. 'l'hese
dyestulfs
find only linritedusagebecauseol theirpoor levelling
powerand
limitedshaderange.
I mprovenwt in Fast tress
The fastnessof dyed nylon 6 to rvet treatmentscan often be
inrprovedsignificantly by the useof a syntan.(synthetic
tanning
agent)or full backtan.'I'heyshould,however,be useclonly when
necessary as thcy can alter the shade,especially
on subsequent
washing, andcanalsobreakdown on postheatsetting.
DeepDye and BasicDyeable Yants
Dye variantnylon6 yarnsarcbeconring increasinglycomnlonand
can be useclto givenovelcolourandwhite,tonein toneanrltrvo
coloureffects.The effectsproduce(l areverv nluchdcDcn(lent on
the <lyeirrgparanrcters uic<l arrrl prrticuiar attention shoultl
thereforebe nradeto dyebathpll, dyeingauxiliaries anrldyestuff
selection
so that the desirecl
effectrnaybe achieved.
@ nU,,rtt ol f,lyln,t 6 : from fibre to finishcd garmcnt.
'fhe
rvarnrthof wool and the strcngthand hard-wclringpro-
pertiesof nylon 6 combineto producehighly-desirable
blencls.
Dyeingof theseblendscan prcsentsomediflicull.ies, but theyare
overcomcby the useof carefullyselectcd acid,prenretallized
or
chronredyestuflstogctherwith suitableretardingagents.
Dyes gcnerallyhave a grelter a0inity for nylon 6 thrn for
rvool,and they will dye the nylon nrorerapidlyand to a greater
clepthin light to mediumshades.As dyeingcontinuesanclthe
shadedeepcns,the dillereucein tone bctweenthe two fibres
'I'he
diminishes but is still distinguishable. useof retardingagents,
however,reversesthis state of aflairs,as the nylon is rctarded
nrorc than the wool.
ln hcavy shades,thc nylou 6 will be conrpletclysaturatcd
with dyc and the excesscolour will be availablefor the wool,
dyeingit to a deepcrshadein darkercolours.
ln additionto thc proper sclectionof dyestulTs, the typc of
rvool and the percentage of the two fibresirr the nrixturemust
be takeninto considcration in prcparingthe dye bath.
(3) Blends ol N ylon 6 and Ccllulosic Filtrc.s
For union shades of nylon 6 and cellulosic fibrcs, dircct irntl
dispersecolours are gcnerally used in thc santc brth.'l-hc dircct
colours tend to stain thc nylon 6, but this can bc nrinitnizcdby
tlrc usc of a resisting agcnt. The dircct :rnd dispcrsccolours
should be preparcd and introduccd into thc bath scparatcly.
IIcal-Sclting
Nylon 6 may be hcat-seteflcctivcly at tclttpct'tturcslowcr lltitn
thoseusedin hcat-settingnylon 6.6.1'hisgivcsan addcd llcxibility
to the setting process,permitting thc usc of dyestu(Is,optical
whiteners and other agents prior to heat-sctting rvhiclt rvotrld
be scnsitiveto the temperaturcsenrploycdwith nylon 6.6.
Heat-settingo[ nylon 6 follows the pattern conttnonto thcrrno-
plastic fibres gcnerally. Strains which havc bccn cstrblishcdirr
thc fibrcs at any stilgc of proccssingatc rchxcd, lttd thc
'l
fibrcs are sct in thc positions thcy occupy tltrrirrgscttirtg. lris
gives stability and shape permancnccto lhc gootls.
Setting may be carricd out at any stagc during proccssittg,
'fhc
later thc stagc nt wltich
settingis carried out, the grcatcr wiil bc thc ellcct otr thc stability
of the final product; strains introduced durirrg proccssirrgthat
follows setting will not, of coursc, be aficcted.
Knitted and woven fabrics of nylon 6 arc cotumonly ltcat-sct.
During setting, the cloth must be smooth and crcasc-frcc,bttt
relaxationmust be allowed if residualshrinkagcis to be rcdttccd
to an acceptablelevel. This is usually achievedby ovcr-fccding
the fabric on a pin stenter.
An adequatelyset nylon 6 fabric will not creascto any signifi-
cant extent in normal washingoperatiorls.
M ctltod
'fwo
rnethodsof hcat-scttingarc itt conrrrtottttsc,i.c. (;r) clry hclrt,
or (b) wet heat (steam).
(r) Dry Ilcat S(tring
Hot air or gas at 190-193'C.may bc uscd, thc cxposurctinrc
being 20-30 seconds,depcnding on the flbric bcing proccsscd.

2'16 277
i
I

-l rl 'l r j r t f
I t t
l i
i
: -ll"lr-r]-]-]'-lrlrll-,-i
IIANDIIOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
B : S Y N T I IE T I C F I N R E S
'l'he
Where steanrinjection is available,lessdegradationand yellorving stage in proccssingat which scttingis crrricd
out dcpcn<.ls
of the nylon 6 occursand heat settingtentperatures can be raised upon a number of factors. Frorn thc ccononric point
of vierv,
to l950C. Infra-redsettingrnay alsobe usedon sinrilarequiprnent, it is dcsirableto sct as the final operation,as
this rcduccs thc
the fabric being passedunder speciallyarrangedinfra-redunits. total numbcr of opcrations.This may bc intpossiblc,
howcvcr.
Very short settingtimes are possiblewith infra-red,owing to the b e c a u s co f i n s t a b i l i t yo f t h e f a b r i c ,or thc possibilityof danrngc
high penetrationachievcd. to dyc or finish,and scilirrgrnight bc c n r r i c do u t i n l l r c l o o r n s t l r t c
P.in stentcrsare tlre most suitable equipment for heat-setting or aftcr a scour.
nylon 6, eithcr by hot air or infra-rcd. Clip stentcrsare not Setting in thc loornstirtcrcquircsgrcat carc, or sllins tluy
bc
suitable,owing to their inferior control of the fabric, as they do fixcd resulting in discolouration..scttirrgaftci scouring
lxrs thc
not ovcrfeed and nray cause dyeing variations at the selvedge. drawback
.of increasing tlre numbcr of opcrations ncccssary,
Hot roll machinesusing heatedcylinders are suitablefor stable and difliculty may be expericncccl in obtainir;g thc rcquircclyiciJ
*bcen
fabrics, but there is insulllcient width control to permit less from a grcy fabric unlcss ullowancc has nrirdc in thc
stable constructionsto be processed.This latter method is thus construction.
unsuitablein most cases.
Plclting
(b) lVet l{eat Setting Pleatsmay be heat-sctin nyron 6 fabrics,n.d will withst.n(r
thc
e f l e c t so l ' r v e a ra n d w a s h i r r gN. y l o n 6 n r o r r , . , l i l i r , , r (cci i.tg .
Stearn setting is carried out at 105-ll5'C., dependingon thc 22 dtcx;
fabric and yarn. This technique is most suitable for weft-knit fabric,
tbicxin,ple,
iso[tor ti;ri;it for lirrgcri;
?9^l::l]::k"it
a ppllcanons.
fabrics, as penctration is good with this type of construction.
Ilcfore.pleating, thc cloth nrust bc scourctl
It is difllcult to set tubtrlar weft fabrics in any other rvay. wcll lrt 60.C.,
o p t i c a l l y b l c a c h c do r c r y c d ,a n < rt h c n c r r i c c or n . s r c . t c r
When batching on a mandrel for steaming,the greatestcare ilt ir
nraxlmutn temperatufcof IjO"C. plcating should bc cirrrictl
nrust be used to get even tension from inside to outside, and out
at 170-180'C.,dependingon thc plcatinglpcccllncl sizc
to avoid steam escapesthrough the edgesof the batch. Quality of lrlcul
required.
of steam is. also important, as excesscondensedmoisture must
When optical brightcning agcnts or <Jycsarc applic<lbclorc
be avoided if even dyeing propertiesare to be achicved.The .
plcating, care nlust be taken to sclect tliosc rhat
stcam rnust bc saturatedbut not superhcated.A vacuum cycle ,,r" ,,o, ,,.,,t_
scnsitiveat thc tcntpertturesused.
before steanringis of great value in obtaining even setting,and
should be used whenever possible. Tcxluring
Slight variationsin treatment may result in noticeabledyeing In cornnron with other thcnnoplaslic yarns, rrylon
differencesand it is essentialthat settine treatments should be 6 rlay bc
<lcforrncdby hcrtt Ircatn]ent.to producc Lulked,
uniform betrveen steaming batches. Siniilarly, the size of the sirctch or torquc
yarns.The false twjst technique,for example,
fabric roll should be limited to ensure complete and unilonn is conrnronlyuscd.
Nylon 6 nray be used to produce fatie twist yarns for
p e n e t r a t i o no f s t e a mt h r o u g h o u tt h e p i e c e . l n - s o r ncea s e sp, a r t i c - nll
crinrp yarn outlcts,and gtrntents ntadc fronr corrcctly proccsscd
ularly rvith warp-knitted faltrics processedon the bcarn, it is
nylon 6 yarrrshavc a dillcrcnt charactcrfr.ont thosc nratlc
possibleto obtain a good degreeol set by treating in hot rvater front
nylon 6.6.
at the boil or I l0oC-.This iI knorvn as irydrosetiing. Unfortu-
Nylon 6 has a lower bending nrodulus lhln nylon 6.6,
nately, fabric shrinkage is often excessiveand special fabric nncl
constructionsto allow for shrinkageare necessaryrvhcn scttirrg .this,resultsin an- unusuallysoft yarn, thc softncssbliug a111rnrc,,r
'fhc
ur tlrc gilnltcnt. c[Icct is plrrticularly noticcablcin ttic clrrc
b y t h i sr n e t h o d .
of garnrents1>roducccl on nr.,ii,,m gaugc knitfing units.

2'tB 279
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
S Y N T I I E T I C F TD RI ] S

ln thc production of false Lwisttcxturcd yarns,lowcr tempera-

turcs ilre used with nylon 6 than with nylon 6.6.

Filatrrent ortd Yanr Denier

I n the production of false twist tcxtured yerrrs, thc filarnent
count is selectedwith the etrd-useof the yarn in mincl.Filanrents
of high cou.nt "vill havc a high rctractivc potvcr in yarn and
fabric, atrd they are.suitable,tlierelorc, for fonn-fittiug garnrents
such as srvintwear,slacksand trews, stockings,etc. Lowllament
counts will have less retractive power, producing a softer and
fuller hlrnclin a fabric; they are morc suitablc,for cxarnple,for
outcrwear garntents.

S]'IIUCTUITEAND PROPERTIES
liinc Slructrrrcurrd Appcar:rncc
Nylon 6 fibres arc sntooth-surfaccd, rvith no striations.jn nticro-
scopic appearancethcy arc sinrilar to nylon 6.6 ancl are as
fcaturelcssas glassrods.The {ibresare cornnronlyof round cross-
scction,bul.spccialty1;csof n.,lorrof nrultilobalcross-scction arc
n o w p r o du c c d .
'l'en
acity
'fhe
tenacity of nylon 6 may be varied within limits by adjust- N1,lon6
nrcnt of the ntanufacturingconditiorrs.In general, the grcater
the dcgrcc of strctch during drawing, the higher the tenaciiy ancl EIonga(ion
the lowcr the elongation.
Slandard: 23-42.5 per cent, <Jry; 27-34 l)cr ccnt, wcr.
J'enacitiesof typical nylon 6 yarns are as follorvs:
Higlr tenacity: 16-19 pcr cent, dry; 19-22
Starrdarcl:39.7-51.2 cN/tex (4.5-5.8 giden), dry; 36.2-45.0 1.;crccnt, wct.
Staple: 23--50per ccnt, dry; 3l-55 lrcr ccnt, wcl.
c N / t e x ( 4 . 1 - 5 . 1 g / d e n ) ,r v e t .
Fliglr tenacity: 66.2-73.3 cN/tex (7.5-8.3 g/den), dry;41 .7- Mastic Rccovery
6 2 . 7 c N / t e x ( 5 . 4 - 7 . 1 g / d e n ) ,w e t .
Stalrlc: 33.6-48.6 cN/tex (3.8-5.5 g/dcrr),dry; 30.9-41.5 Like nylon 6.6, nylon 6 is a highly clastic fibrc, irr thlt it rvill
recover its oliginal dirlcnsions aftcr lrcing dc[orrtrcd by llrc
c N / t e x ( 3 . 5 - 4 . 7 g / d e n ) ,s e t .
application of a strcss..standardfilarnenthai irn clirsticrccovcry
Tensilc Slrength of 100 per cent up to an extcnsionof 6-g pcr ccnt. Ilccovcry
from 10 pcr cent extensionis about g5 pcr ccnt.
S t a n d a r d 5: , l l 0 - 5 , 8 8 0 k g / c n r z( 7 3 , 0 0 0 - 8 4 , 0 0 0l b / i n : ) . _ Recoveryfronr cxtcnsionalso follows ilre pattcrn sct by nylon
I l i g l t t c n a c i t y : 7 , 7 0 0 - 8 3 0 0 k g / c r n z( l 1 0 , 0 0 0 - 1 2 0 , 0 0 0l b / i n : ) . 6.6, only part of it being instantnncous,
and tirc rcnruirrdcitaling
placc over scveral lrours,

2B0 LI 28I

r.I tI .-I r-l r r r r

 t f f i - E F ' lI t t t t t t t
I I A ND B O O K O F ' I - E X I ' I L I ] F I B I I E S
l t : s Y Nl t u : l l c t ; l l r t t L s
ElJact ot' Low T crnpcrature
Initial Modulus
Nylon 6 retains its strengthwell at low tcnlpcraturcs.I.hcrc
is,
Nylon 6 has a low initial ntodrrlus, i.c. it stretches readily when in fact, a slight gain in tensilestrengthaftcr cxposurcof nylon
6
subjected to a stress. at low (- 17.C.).The;ficct is rcversiblc,thc nylon
,te.nrperatures
Regularfilanrerrt:309-44 1.5 cN/tex (35-50 g/den). 6 regaining its original strcngth wlrcn returnctl to roonl tcnt_
pcrat ure.
Avcrrgc Stillncss
I:tJect ol ITiglt 7'cnperuture
llcgular filanrent: 203.1 cN/tex (23 g/den)
Nylon 6loses strength with incrcasein tenrpcraturc..l-hccflcct
High tenacity filarnent:388.5 cN/tex (44 g/den).
is a condition of the thermoplasticnaturc of thc librc, antl
is
Avcragc Toughness not. permanent.The tensilestrengtlt is rcgained whcn
tlrc fibrc
is returned to roont tcntpcraturc.
Itegular Iilament: 0.67. Prolongedexposureof nylon 6 to air at clevatcdtclt)pcrlturcs
High tenacity filarnent: 0.68. causesdetcrioration,with pcnltancnI loss in breaking
strength,
elongationand toughness.'fhcfibrc <liscolours(ycllowg
Flex Resistnncc to sonlc
cx(cnt.
Exccllent.
F lutttt trali Iity
Abrasion Resislance
Nylon rescmbles'ylon 6.6 in lrarnnrabirity. rt r'crts rvrrcrrhcarcd
Like nylon 6.6,nylon 6 has an outstandingresistanceto abrasion. -6_
above 215'C., and thc moltcn <troplctstcnti to fall nway.
Scvcral factors contribute to this, including inherent toughness, A nylon
6 fabric does not norntally support conrbuslionon tts own,
natural pliability, and high flex rcsistance. but
il-s Ilammability may be increascclby thc prcscncc
oI ccrtaitr
chcmical finishcsand d yes.
SpecilicGravity
t.t4. Iillcct of Agc
Negligible.
Ellect of l\'Iois(ure
Regain: 4-4.5 per ccnt. Eltcct of Sunlight
'fhe
moistureabsorptionincreasesto a nraxintunrof abor.rt9 per
Nylon 6 sufTerssonre loss o[ strengthorr prolorrgcd
ccnt at 100 per cent r.h. cxposurcto
-l-he lig.ht' u'ith superficialycrrowingancr a gc.cr':rl licicriorrrion
tenacity of wet nylon 6 is 80 to 90 per cent of its dry ot
(conditioned)tcnacity. The elongatiorroI wet nylon 6 is sonre other fi bre propcrties.
.5 pcr cent grcatcr than its clry (conditioned)clongation.Tlrcrc , Thc <lcgrccof dctcriorationduc [o light is allcctcd by ntarry
factors,of which thc follorvingarc inrpo-rtant: '
is a slight arnount of lateral srvellingof nylon 6 fibrc in water,
but the lcngth renrainsalnrost unaffected. ( l ) 1 ' h e t r a n s p a r c n co
y r _ o p l c i t y o f t h c l i b r c . l l r i g h t n y l o r r6
.
ts lnore resistantthan dull.
l'hcrnral Propcrlics
(2) 'l'he.count of thc yarn. yarns of highcr counr
lrc nlor.c
Irlcltittg point : 215"C. resistantthrn those of lowcr corrnt.

282
283
 I I A N D I ] O OK O F T E X T I L E F I B R E S
n : s Y N T l lE . i lC F l n R t i s
(3) Dyes and linishes used on the yarn. -fhese
ntay have a
considerableellect on light sensitivity. 7. Exposcd to stcaln atmosphercat 99.C.
for 6 drys.

Chcmical Propertics il.Iuterials Having a panttutrctrt ElJect

ort Nylott 6 yurtr
In gencral,._nylon 6 is highly resistantto chcnricalclcgradation, A 3 pcr cent solution of oxalic ac.iclin wlter
at 99.C. for 3 hours
and is sinrilar in this respectto nylon 6.6. causqsa Ioss of alnrost30 pcr ccnt in
strcngthnn,l "long"tion i,,
,,1:l- 6 yarn. Flig.hercoriccntrarions,
hit;;; i.i.,i.rnrrr" .n.r
A,[aterials l:Iaving No Pcrnancnt Eflect ott Nylon 6. yurn rongercxposuretimcs causc. rapid incrcasc
dcgradation.
in crrc'rical
Under ordinary conditions,nylon 6 yarn is not adverselyaffectecl Nylon 6 yarns hclted in <iry air for 5 hours
by cornpoundsof the following types: at 150"C.undcrgo
dcte.rioration,
Iosing hrightncssanrl bcconri"g
V"fi"*.
Most of the cornmon bleaches,other than ipii."i,,g.n,r,
Alcohols Esters ' "uur"
'l'hiols somc degradationin nylon 6.
Aronratic tlytlroculbons
Alipbatic Hydrocarbons Alkalis Solvents for Nylon 6
Ketones Soaps antl 'l'hc
Ethcrs Synthetic l)ctcrgcn(s following will dissolvcnylon 6:
I. Concentratedformic acid (a 50 per ccnt fornric
lcid solution
at 80"C. will dissolvc nylon 6 rapi<liy).
Conditionsand chemicalagentsused for some testson nylon 6
yants arc listed bclow. Strength and clongation determinations 2. Concentratedhydrochloric, nitric ancl sulphuric
acids.
were nrade on untrealed yarn and on treated yarn after rvashing, 3. A 25 per ccnt solutionof zinc chloridc in nrcthanol
at
drying and conditioning. 50'c.
Undcr the statedconditions,test resultsindicatcdno significant 4. Phenol and phenolic compounds.
loss in strength or elongationfor yarn sanrplesas follows:
l. Imnrersed in l0 per ccnt aqueous solution oI sodiunr Acids
hydroxide at 85'C. for l6 hours. Dilute acids hirve littlc effect oll nylon 6 un<lcr
the conditions
2. Imrncrsed in I0 per ccnt aqucous solution of potassiunt e.ncounteredin practical use. Hot mineral acids
will, howeucr,
hydroxide at 65"C. for 3 hours. decompose nylon 6. The fibres disintegrate
in- boitirrg lyAro-
chloric, acid of per cent strength, and in cold concentratcd
3. Irnmersedin 3 per ccnt aqucous solution of acetic aci<lat .5_
nycrocnlonc, sulphuric and nitric acids.
99'C. for 3 hours.
4. Inrnrerscdin 3 pcr cent aqueoussolution o[ fornric aci<lat A lkalis
99'C. for 3 hours (50 per cent fornric acid solution at g0"C. Nylon 6 has exccllent resistanceto rlkalis. lt
dissolvesnylon 6 after l5 seconds). cirn bc boilcd irr
strong causticsoda solutionswithout <tanragc.
5. Immersed in rnethyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, acetone,cartrou
tetrachloride and benzene for 72 hours at roont tentperature. Ellcct of Organic Sotvenls
Concentratedformic acid, phenol ancl crcsol arc
. 6. Exposcd in a nitrogen atmosplrcreto tclnpcraturesof 150, solvcnts for
175and 200'C. for 3 hours. nylon. The fibrc is not attaclie<lby solvcnts "r.O-i"
dry clcanirrg.

2S5

' I ' l r'" r-r r-J

ttt
II NDOOOK OF I'EX'TILEFIBRES
l usects
Nylon 6 cannot serve as food for nroths or beetles.
I\'licro-organisnrs
N y l o n 6 i s n o t a t t a c k e db y m o u l d so r b a c t e r i a .
Elcctrical Propcrlics
Surface resistance: 2.0 x l0tz nregohrns.
Spccific rcsislattcc:2.6x l0s nregohnrs.
Powar lactor: 0.04 at I rncgacyclc;0.07 at I kilocycle; 0.20 at
50 c.p.s.(All valuesdctcrnrinedat 60-70 per cent r.h.)
Diclcctric strctrgtlt: 90 kV/cnr.
Allcrgcnic Propcrlics
Nylon 6 is absolutelyfree of all toxic propertics,and is chemi-
cally inert. It will not causeirritation to the skin.
Idcntificationof Yarn as Nylon 6 or Nylon 6.6
The follorving tesI is used (o clislinguishbetwcen nylon 6 ancl
r ry l o n 6 . 6
Preporation ol Solutiott
A 50 per cent forrnic acid solution is prepared by dilution of
lhe 90 per cent fornric acid solution comnronly available,e.g.
I litre of acid is diluted with enough cold water to bring the
lotal volume to 1,800c.c.
Proccdurc
The 50 per cent fornric acid solution is heatetlcarelully to 80'C.
Severalpiecesof yarn or individual filamentsare dropped into
the solution. Nylon (r will shrivel or ball up rnd dissolvealrnost
inrnrccliately,
vcry littlc agitation bcing necessary.Nylon 6.6 will
float in the solution and appear not to bc aflccted.
286
B : S Y N ' r 'Er T IC F I I } R E S
The temperaturecontrol is vcry inrportant. At Icntpcrarrtrcs
scveraldegrecslower than g0.C., ncitbtr nylon 6 nor nylon 6.6
will appearto bc,dcstroyed.If thc temperaturcis at aboJt 90.C.,
bolh nylon 6 and nylon 6.6 will rtisintcgratc.
Wh-enmaking this tcst, it is advisablcto carry out prclinrinary
tcstsfirst on knowtr sanrltlcso[ nylon 6 ancl nylorr 6.6.
NYLON 6 IN USE
Gcncral Clranrctcrislics
Nylon 6 offers a range of propcrtics that arc gctrcrallys i r r r i l a r
to_thoseof nylon 6.6. 'the chirractcrist ics of nylon 6.6, as thcy
influence the applications of thc fibre, lpply cqualty rvclI
to
nylon 6, apart from the effectsof the dittcrcric"s bciw"cn thc
'l-lrc two
polyanridclibres as outlincclon pagc 201. follorvrngp o i t r l s ,
irr particrrlar,are inrportant in this icspcct:
(l) Melrittg Point
'lhc
l o w c r n r c l t i n gp o i n t o [ n y l o n 6 ( t b o u t 2 1 5 . C . )u s c o r u p acr t l
with nylon 6.6 (aboLrt250"C.) nrcansthat grcirtcr crrc rtrust bc
takcn with nylon 6 in all proccsscsinvolving thc usc of clcvatctl
temperatures. Carelcssironing, for exantple,wilI damagcnylorr 6
more rcadily than nylon 6.6.
-fhe
Iower nrclting point of nylon 6 influcnccsthc optinrunr
temperalurewhich nray bc uscd in proccsscssuch as hcat settitlg.
Nylon 6 is heat sct xt temperatureswhich arc lowcr than thosc
useclfor nylorr 6.6.
(2) AlJiniry lor Dye.rtufls
'fhe jnc-reased
aflnity of nylon 6 for sonrc typcs of <JycstulI
rnakes for greatcr vcrsatility in dycing, with the possibiiity ot
producing brightcr, dccper prints (secpagc 272).
The extra dye aflinity of nylon 6 is :rdvantagcousalso in thc
procluctionof wool/ n ylon blcnds.
(3) Light Sensiriviry
Despite the increascclresistanceto thc c[Icct of light rvhich is
showrrby nylon 6, it is still not gcncrnllyrccorrr ntcnclc<lfor tlrosc
r r s c si n w l t i c h c x p o s u r ct o l i g l t t i s a l r i r r r p o r t a n (f : r c t o r ,c . g .
cur(ains.
287
 t

-
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
B: SYNTIIETIC FTORI]S
l t
(1) IIeat Rcsistonce
'I'hc (8) 7'oughness
lorver nrelting point of nylon 6 means that it nray not be
Nylon 6 a
used at elevated tetnperatureswhere nylon 6.6 is still e{fective. -has breaking tenacity in thc sarnc rirngc ts ilrat o[
n y r o n o . o , b u t t h e c l o n g a t i o n . a tb r c a k o f r r y l o n
At tcmperaturesbelow its melting point, on the other hand, 6 is gcncrally
greatcr,than that of a nylon 6.6 of sirnilar tcn:rcity.-f
nylon 6 has a sornervhat bettcr rcsistance to the effect of pro- his means
rnar nylon o has a greater toughncsstlran nvlon 6.6
longed heating.This can be an important factor in some uppii.^-
tions, e.g. tyrcs, rvhere thc fibrcs must withstan<l elevated (9) Modulus
tenrpcrat urcs.
The initial modulus of nylon 6 is lowcr tharr that of
nylon 6.6,
(5) Fatistrc Resistance which me_ansth_atnylon 6 defornrs nrore rcaclily undcr
a loa<I.
This is a factor.in jts solter hancl,as high rnodulus
Nylon 6 has a bettcr flligue resistancethan nylon 6.6, and this -givingnylon 6
tentls to result in incrcascd stillncss.
is important too in applicationssuch as tyl.es,where the fibre
Thc low initial modulus of nylon 6 can nrakc for tliflicultics
is subjectedto rcpeateclstresses. in processing,as the yarn will stretchcasily at rclatively moclcst
(6) Hand tens-ions. In general,howcvcr,nylon 6 nray bc handlcd at tensions
sinrilar to thosc uscd for nylon 6.6
In general.nylon 6 goods have a softer hand than those nrade
frorn^nylo_n6.6. This nray be arlvantageousin applications where (10) Sltrinkagc
a soft, full hand is desirable, e.g. in tricot and in fabrics made O t l r c l I h i n g sb e i n g e q r r l l , n y l o n 6 l i b r c s t c n d f o s l r r i r r kn r o r c
from textured yarns. Nylon 6 has been particularly successful in
Dolltngwatcr than sinrilar.yarns of nylon 6.6. .l.his
in the tricot ntarket, where its softness has provcd an attractive is :rn inrpor_
taxt factor in thc processing of nylon yo.n.. t,i
feature. itr" productiorr
of,hosiery, for exanrple,it has the foilowin! "ons"or.u"".,
_.In applications where nylon 6.6 has benelited from its greater knit.hoserathcrlooscrrhauwhcnnylon
filanrent rigidity, e.g, in texturecl yarns which have a crisp hand ^o.o
.(ills 1:^5,
uscd,-t11Tsa,ry.roobtain
ln order to proper
widthwisestrctch.Dcpen<l-
associated with maximum stretch and recovery, it is advisable ing on the mill handling conditions,this can
to use nylon 6 yarns containing filamentsof increaseddiameter ...Ji'ln incrcascd
snagglngrn urc greigc hosc.
and in fewcr nunrbers. Small increases in cliameter produce (b) To ollset the abovc disaclvantagc,
Iarge incrcasesin rigidity, and it is possible in this way to bring - the -i"*",
stitch in finishcd
hose of nylon 6 is somcwhat tighter,-an<l
nylon 6 yarns more into line with nylor.r 6.6 yarns of similai .o picks will
be encountered after boarding.
total denier. The increasein filament denier also increasesstretch (9) a high
and recovery. . _shrinkagcnronJfilamentmay bc a<lvanragcous
'tutrirtai in
hosiery nranufacture. In the procluction of
stockings, for
example, the finished shape.is obtnincd
(7) Affinity lor Soltening Agents entireiy by shrinking
the knit tube to the boarding fornr, and thc
Nylon 6 has a greater allinity for softening agentsthan nylon 6.6. ligh shrinkage
coupled with.hjeh elongation is of de,inite
Cationicsoftenersare absorbedmore rapidly and completelyfronr a.tvontul"'in producing
a stocking with proper fit.
solution, and lhere is a grcater softening eflect from a given In certrin non-run stvrcs,-machinc limitationsnrakc it ncccssary
amount of softener. 'l'his nrakes necessarythe use of finiihing that the anklc be knii raiher.foo... ,f iiigi,"rfiri"f,-g.nylon
procedures lhat ensure slow enough absorption of finish to againadvantageous is
provide a uniform absorption of softener.
in producing a stockirri- wiifr-soiirfo"torvnt.

288
289

-1 --I --l --l -l '[ 'r 'I , t

 I . I A N D D O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S I ) : S Y N T I IE T I C F I B R E S

lVashing
Dry Clcaning
Nylon 6 goods are rvashed preferably in handJtot water (up to
43'C.); blends of nylon 6 and cotton may be washed at rather Nylon 6 is not aflectecl by any of the solvcnts
c--'
onrnronly uscd
higher tenrperatures,up to about 70'C. White and coloured in dry cleaning,and no difl'icuitiesar. inuolu.ii.
fabrics may pick up tints from coloured fabrics, and the two
should be washed separately. Many garments are nrachine- End-Uscs
washablc. 'I'he
Bleachingis generallyunsatisfactory,and should be avoidccl. encl-uses
of nylon 6 aregcnerally
sirnilarto thoscof nylon6.6.

I)rying Note.
I'yre Cortl. Like rrvlon 6_6, nylon
Nylon 6 fabrics absorb very little water, and they dry quickly. 6 has rna<JcgrcaL headway
in- the tyre cord ficli. It is'cliinred
Drip drying or cold tumble drying are preferred. Carnrents iil',;;lrroi " hrs ccrrnirr
advantagcs over nvlon 6.6 in this
should be given a cold rinse and a short spin (15 seconds) "ppfi.iti*, "otably thc
following:
followed by line drying. It is advisableto avoid overloaclingthe
spin tlricr with too lrrany garmcnts. (a) Nylon 6 hns grcatcr thcinral stability
nt thc tclul)crilrurcs
encountcredin tyrcs.
Ironing (b) The adhesionof nvlon 6 to
rubber is strongcr ilran thflt
Nylon 6 has excellcnt qualities of creaseresistanceand shape of nylon 6.6.
rctention, especiallywhen it has been ellectively lreat set. A (c) The flex rcsistanceof nylon
6 is grcatcr tharr that of
nrininrunrantount of ironing is required;if necessary, this should nylon 6.6.
be carried out with a warm iron (HLCC Sett.ing2), and the
garnrent must be damp. Ironing tentperaturesabove 150.C.
should be avoided. Glazing may occur at higher temperatures,
especiallyif the galrnent is dry, and sticking may occur at
temperatures betwecn 180 and 200"C. Excessive exposure to
ironin( temperaturesrnay causdyellowing.
Previous treatnlent of the fabric has a considerableeffect on
its rcaction to pressingand ironing cond.itions. Certain <lyesmay
change colour at clevatedten)peratures. I[ a change of forrn is
desired, e.g. in creases,pleats or wrinkles, the conclitionsof
temperatureand ntoistureunder which the form was established
nrust be exceededto produce a permanentchange.
Nolc. Certain garntentssuclr as rainlvear and anoraks will
often have beentreatcdwith specialwatcr-repellent finisheswhich
rvill require lessseverewashing treatmcnt.The same nray apply
to quilted and lined garments,and these should be washed in
warnr water and ironed rvlrcre ncccssary with a cold irorr
( l t L C C S c t t i n gl ) .

290 291
 w

I,IANDDOOK OF TEXTILE F I I]RES

S Y N T I I E ' I ' IC F I D R E S
(3) NYLON 1r PITODUCTION

Nylon ll fibre is spun frorn polyundecanamide,nrade by the ReaclantSyntbcsis

sclf-condensationof 1l-amino-undecanoic
acid: The I l -arnino-unclecanoicacid usccl
in production of nylon II
may be made by rhrce comrncrci"lly_i,;,;;;;;;;'r"or,"r,
rom eilrylcne . fronr
(a)
ancl carbout.t,.,,.i,ro.ia", !
*, J i"j
HH, (cr2),0 cooH --->
O M E G AA M I N OU N O E C A N O A
I CC I D
;:jl:i$:.!%.f I
(it) Castor Oil Route
Nylon I I hasbeenproducedin Franccarrcl

It
- - N H ( c H 2 ) , 0c o N H ( c H r ) , o c o H n ( c H . ) , o c o - - - llrnzilfrorn I l_:unirro_
u1de.can9i9 acid madc frorn castor oil (sec bclow). -I-hc
obtained fronr castor beans;it i, "*ii,,it"i oil is
N Y L O NI I fry ii'r" cornbirrc<l
actionof pressurcan<torglnic solvcnts.
Thc oil contairrs g5 pcr
cent of triglycerylrjcinolcate.
INTRODUCTION Triglyceryl ricinoleatcis couvcrtcd to
nrcthyl r.icinohntcby
tfentnrentwilh rncthylalcohol.
For sonreyears,a nylon-typepolyrnerhas bcenmadcin Francc MetbyI ricirroleatcis nyrolyzcdat high {cnrpcrirturc, I
yicltlirrg
under the nanrepolyamidel l, polyundecanamicle or 'Rilsanite', ^cplaldchydc,rrrcttrylunclccyl;;;;i.;,,,i':;'.;;;ii;,;,;r,,,
prinrarily lor usc as a plastic.The polymer is made by self- rcid-s(l). Pureheptaldehyctc of f. rry
anctmcthylurrJclfi.;;;i; ,,,."isotarctl
condcnsationof I l-arnino-undecanoic acid, and under the by frnctionalclisiillation.
nomcnclatureschemeused for polyamidefibres (seepage207) Methyl
.undecylcnate is hydrolyzcdlo undccylcrric
Undccytcuic rtcitl(2).
i t i s ny l o n 1 1 . aci<tis anririar.,l'
by-r;;"ii;; r'uiii,'i,'.,,.',o,,i,,,
Nylon I I may be melt spuninto fibres,and the productionof {onu I I -amino-unclccanoic ru
acid (3).
nylon 11 libreswas developed in Franceby OrganicoS.A.,with
the cooperation of the Italianfirrn SniaViscosa.
cr7ilr. (oH) coocH3 o c G t . l rr c i l o
METI.IYL NICTNOI.EATE I.IEPTALDETTYDE
TYPESAryp SrZESOF NYLON lr
yarns,tnonofilaments,
+
Nylon I I hasbeennladeas multifilanrent cHa : cH (CHr) COOClrr
stapleand tow, in a rangeof deniersand staplelengths.It was ^
(2\ ---'
produced under the trade nanle 'Rilsan', for. example, *-
)7 METI{YL UI.ID[-CYI.E
NNI E
in the followingsizes:
Cl-t. = 611(Ct-tr)oCOOt.t o
F i l a n r e n: t l 2 l l , 1 2 1 21, 8 1 32, 9I 1 0 ,4 5| 1 6 ,5 71 2 09, 01 3 2 1
, 45i50, UNDEC''/LENtCACtO
290/ro0. -y!.rlrc.l!.r_o_
Lr_{u.{-o_: rc-ac ||)
Production of I I-A nrirro-unclccanoic
Acid l.nrru C_.nstor
S t a p l e :I . 4 / 3 2 , 3 7 ,6 2 m r n . ; 2 . 91 3 7 , 6 2 , 9 5 l,l 2 m m . ; 6 / 4 0 ,7 0 , Oil.
100,120mnt.
'l'orv: Castorojl is availablcin very lerrge
qunntitics,
I 1 0 , 0 0 0d t e x( 1 0 0 , 0 0 0d c n ) . nntl lhc proccss
for producingI l-anrino_urrac",i,,oi""n"i,i'ir';;t^i;i;
straiglrtforward. sirrr'tcarrtt

292 293

!r
Fftttlr
I

I I A N D I } O OK O F T E X T T L E F I B R E S I ] : S Y N ' T I IE T I C F I N R E S

Important by-productsare produced in this process,including

glycerol, heptaldehydcand residual oils from the cracking stage. n C.H. * C Cl. o cr (c,t-t{)nc ctr
'fhese
are an important factor in the economicsof nylon I I n _ 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, ctc.
production by the castor oil route.
Glycerol is used in innumerable industrics,and is always in (2)
cl (c? Hr)s C Ct3 1. Hzo -:. cr (cH?),o cooH
demand. Heptaldehyde is converted into heptyl alcohol and
heptanoicacid, which are raw nraterialsin the plasticsindustry, ^ I I - C H L O R O - U N D E C A N O I CA C I D
and are a uscful source of organic chenricalscontaininga chain @-.-
of sevencarbon atotns.The residualoils arc uscd for thc nranu- NH?(CHr),ocooH
facture of detergen ts.
1 '- A M I N O- U N D E C A N O IACC t D
The economicdevelopmentof the castor oil route to nylon 11
is influenced,therefore,by a number of factors, and it renrains P--rodLrctionof I I-Anrin o-undccanoic acid fronr
'l'etrachloride - -"' U t h y l c r r ca l r r l C a r b o n
to be seen how successful the process can become' Not least (Tclonreriz_ation).
among the many considerationsthat must be taken inl.o accol'lllt
is the fact that castor oil is an agriculturalchemical.It is subjcct
to all the variations and fluctuatiousthat are inherent in the (c) Dotlecane
production of a natural product.
n proccssfor thc produclion oI urrtlcc:rrr<llaclirnt
fronr durlccarrc
(b) Etlrylenc and Carbon Tetrachloridc Telonrerizatiort has been developecl.

Telomerization.is, in eflcct, a polymerizationreaction which is
stopped after only a few monomer units have linked together.
'fhis
is achieved by carrying otrt the polymerization in the
presenceof a relatively large anrount of a chain-stoppingmaterial,
which provides radicals which block the active ends of the
grorving polymer chain and so prevent further polynlerization.
When ethyleneand carbon tetrachlorideare heatedtogetherat
high temperature in the presence of a catalyst (e.g. benzoyl
peroxide), the ethylene undergoespolymerization until such tinre
as the ends of the polymer chain are blocked by Cl and CCl.
radicals formed from the carbon tetrachloride.Conditions may
bc adjustedso that this occursafter only l, 2, 3,4 or 5 ethylene
molecules, for example, have linked together ( l).
The product obtained by telomerizing ethylene and carbon
tetrachlorideis a mixture of compounds of gencriil structure
CI(C.H.,),,CC1.,where n is a small number, e.g. I to 5. One
of the products, which may be separated by clistillation,is
l -chloro-I l -trichloroundecane i.e. Cl(CHr), nCCl".
Hydrolysis of this by aqueous sulphur.ic acid yields
1l-chloroundecarroic acid (2), which is reactedwith anrmonia to
producc I l -amino-undecanoic acid (3).
294
I'olyrncrizallon
Polymerization of ll-unclccanoic acicl is carricd
out in thrcc
stages,the monoller being fed as an aqucoussuspcnsion
into the
reaction vessel.
Stage l. Water is renrovecl, and the I l_undccanoic
-foty"o,r.l"nsa-
acicl .is
rneltcd.The temperatureis raiscclto 215"C., ln,l
tion begins.
S.tag92. Polycondensationis allowecl to procccd until
. thc
desired degree of polynrerization has bcen rc:rchcd.
.|toge 3. The ntolten polynrcr is hcld for a (irue a t 2 1 5 ' C .t o
a l l o w t h e m o l e c u l a rw c i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o nt o a t t r i n a
sntisfactory
state.
. The molten polymcr is passedto a storagctank, fronr rvhiclr
it may be fed directlyto the spinncrets.
Note.Tbe basicreactionwhichoccursduringnylon I I prorluction
is as follows:
nI-I"N (CFI,),,,COOH+H(FIN(CH,),,,CO),,O
fI _r-n _ I I I,O
Spinrring
Moltcn nylon II polynrcr is very stablc it thc tcnlperatureusctl
295
 I
--l

T I A ND B O O K O F 1 ' E X T ' I L E F I B R E S
I]: SYNTIIETIC FI NIIES
during nrclt spinning (about
215"C.), and it nny be .storcd
to'g pcriods wirhout acterioration-."d;";.r^i,,;rccarrions for
ar.c
lll;L:: ffi:$'r:lJl"ionbv mainiai; ;;s;;ii ;Jr'"rvrn
CASTOR OIL
crundcr
There is littie tendency_
for l2-rlcnrbcrccl
occur during polymerization, ring forrnationto
"n.1.
ALCOHOLYSIS wergrrtmater.ialin thc polynrer tt,. nn.,oirrrt."li"* nrolccular
i.. u.ry "iinif ."l.l," potynl".
ff ilillIifrJl l,fi::aficr
prod i,
uctio;;
;i r;;,,
; ui,vi,it.,.u,t,riu
i"
Spinning jscarriid out.in n^,tualtncr
Mc thy I r i ci n o l e a t e sirnilar to thut usctl irr
rrylon 6 producrion. and.
rtr,c_firarn;;;i;
;;;"i;,,*;
clcpendingon thc type ro r rrcgrcc
ol rrDrc rccluircd.
PI{OCESSING

l)1.cing
Nylon ll ltas :r lowcr. rrr
oisltrr
c bs<_rr.ptiorr
lhirrr ",arty
rrylotr (r or 6.6,
andthiscausc<l .tr
sonrc<rvcirrs.,llllliiuf1i"l-.fi,',ii,,""'i,
sarisfacrory .;,;; rlcvclo'_
i:iJJ,,,s;:F:' rrycingt"crrni,l;;;: now bccn
antl acctate dyes.give.good
rcsurrs,wirrr cxccilcrrt

U n d e c y l e n iacc i d
y.iji,1,,i,i'i^ll*,,11*',1,:,lH
,^.,|{;t-a]tizea

i:i:liii":!"fl:!llii; i;",j,-*llt
are usccl with tfiesc dvcs.
Nylon ll has an exccllent
resistanccto acicl solutions,
acid dycing batlrs of pH and
as low rs 2 can be trscj
AMINATION Nylon I I can bc spun_.tv",t'.:tr9"riu.lv, cllcctivcly.
rangeof colouriug *lrfl"tf,i f",.fp o, n *i.f"
marrers..Thc
t"* rpii"i"e'
-ro."fi,;,;,u;;;r..
t",;urlij,rr.pcrrnirs
or rhc useof nranyorga.ic.ry"rrun
1 1 - a m i n o- u n d e c n
aoic
STRUCTUI{E AND PTTOPEITTJES
-l-hc
p r o p e r t i e so f n v l o n , l l
a r e c s s e n t i n l l ys i r r r i l a rt o
tlloscof
"l i,irsrrruch
POLYCONDENSAT
ION
- ",iI
ii,,J".,ff.f.;llll,"J1""]""1 ,,, ii;;i ,,.',,,iiporv,,,,,i.r.,.
NYLON ,II
:p::|F ;i,,i
crrarn oI carbon alonts separating
11,,.1',i,.,
h,1,.,
;'J';'1,
illl_,f
;f,rill"f li:
30e).'l-hcnroisrurc thc arnitlc lio,,-p.
1r". p"g.
u
absorrrion
"'* -riel't..i"
J,;r-.i;.;;;;;;;,
i,iii, rr," .p..iri"
f,il;'llili1;.",l;il;"1 rivron
rr tr'" r"*iii"r;r',"orr,.,.
Nylon ll Florv Clmrt
-l'he
m e l t i n gp o i n t o f n y l o n l l i s l o r v c r
t h i r r rt h a t o t n y l o n6 ,
296
29"1

I
I
 HANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES A : S Y N T TEI T IC F I B R E S

in accordancewith the tendency for melting point to fall with [lastic Ilccovcry
increasein the number of methylene groups between the amide 100 per cent at 6 per ccnt elongation.
groups.But as the methylenegroupsare an even number,nylon 1l
ialls into the higher of the two series of polyamides. For this Inilial Modulus
reason, the melting point is not very much lower than that of
Nylon has a higher
nylon 6, which has 5 metbylene groups between amide groups' -lI initial nrodulus than eithcr nylorr 6 or
-
'odd-number' series. n y l o n 6 . 6 . l t i s t y p i c a l l ya b o u t4 4 1 c N / t e x ( 5 0 g / t l c r r ) .
and therefore comes in the
The higher rilidity of nylon I I givcs it a blttcr <tirncnsional
stability to repeatedstrxins and a l>cttcrrcsistirrrcc lo crccp tltln
otlrer polyam.ides.

Flcx Ilcsislancc
Exccllent.

Abrasion Rcsislancc
Exccllent.

Spcci{icGrnvity
r.04.
Nylott I I
Elfect of l\loislurc
Fine Structureand APPcarauc" / Nylon 1l absorbslesswater than nylon 6 or 6.6. lt
has a rcgain
of l.l8 per cent. The nroistureabsbrptionao"s ,iot
Nylon I t filaments are sim.ilar in appearanceto those of other rapidly with increasinghunri<.lityas in thc .ur. of
incrclsc as
nylons. They are smooth surfaccd, and comtnonly of circular 6.6.
nylon 6 untl
cross-section. Water absorptionat 20.C. and 65 per cent r.h., 1.3 pcr
-- ccnt.
\ Nylon 6 and 6.6 unclcr sirnilar conditlonsabsorb 4 and
Tcnacity 3.6 pcr
cent respectively.
Fibres miy be producedin a ratlge of tenacitiesby varying the
-Tenacities
drawing and other conclitions during productio,n. are
Thcrlnal Propcrlics
comm;nly in the range 44.15-66.23 cN/tex (5.0-7.5 g/den).1'he
tenacityis virtually unaffectedby rnoisture. Melting Poinr: 189"C.
Soltcttirtg Point: l7O"C.
'l'cnsilc Strengllt
IJlJcct ol
.lIigh. 7'empcrature. Thc behaviour of nylorr I I on
Fibre of tenacity 66.23 cN/tex (7.5 g/den) has tensilestrerlgthin prolonged hcating is similar to that of nylon
6 or 6.6.
.l.hc
the regionof 6,deOkg/cmz (98,000 lb/inz ). librc yellows in dry air at I50.C.
Deco_nrposition takes place at about 300.C. in itn itrcrt
Elongation rtnrosphcre.Moltcn nylorr I I can bc nraintaincdfor rvccks
at
Regularfilament: 25 per ccnt wet or dry' s p r n n t n gt e n t p e r a t u r(e2 1 5 " C . w
) i t h o u t u n < l e r g o i ndgc c o n r p o s i t i o n .

298 299
 K F T E X T I L EF I B R E S
I I A N D B O OO D : S Y N T I IE T I C F I B R N S
'fhc
Iilfect of Sunliglt( initial nrodulus of I I is higher lhnn lhosc of
.nylon thc
Sinrilar to nylon 6.6 (special sunlight-resistirrg grades are rcsutring
in.inircrse<t
stithrJss .t.his
arrttr:igioiry.
ljll,ll.llt9::
aovantageousirr applications is
available). such as brush bristlc.s,arrtr it arso
nrakcs for easier processing.Nylon f f y,i,.,r.
Jo'not strctch so
ClrcrnicnlPropcrlics casily as nylon 6 or 6.6 yarirs whcn'
,"lri".t.i to physicrrl
ploccssingsuch as winclrng.
.,1cirls.Nylon I I is fairly resistant to diltrte nrineral acids. There
is slow deteriorationat high tenrperaturesirnd high concentra- The high initial nrorlultri of nylon ll srrggcsts
lhlt this is lr
us.cful nylon for thc hugc tyre cortr nrlrrkii. 'l.yr.cs
tlolls. rcirrfor.ccrr
with nylon ll woulcl not-bc iubjcct r" ff,,i_rrl"t
Alkalis. Nylon I I has a high rcsistanceto alkalis. tilig ro ilrc cxrcnr
llrat.nylon 6 anrl nylon 6.6 rciniorcctl ,1,,.".'ni.."''
G cneral. Nylon 1l has a highcr resistancethan other polyamidcs . The low moisture absorptionof nylon I I eriablcsit to rctain
to oxidizing agents.It is inert to common reagents. its
-cxcellenrinsulation propcrtics nt lriglr fr,inii.firi"r; lhis is :r
ruscfulcharactcristicin eicctricalapplicatiorrs.
Iiftcct o[ OrganicSolvcnls Nylon I l, with a snccific grdviry. of only
1.0.t, is a vcry
Nylon I I has a bigh resistanceto cornnrolrorganic solvents,and light fibrc, with nrucrr grerter covcrirrg porvcr
tharr lrrc otrrcr
is gcncrally sinrilar in this rcspect to nylon 6 rrnd 6.6. It is polyarnidcs.
soluble in plrenolsand 100 pcr ccnt forttric itttd acctic acids.
Wnshing
Irrsccts Like..other polyanride fibrcs, nylo-n il is easy
ro rv:rsrr,trsirrl;
Nylon II is not attacked by nrotlt grtrbs or beetles. c o n d i t i o n ss i n r i l a r t o l h o s c u s c i l f o r n y l o n
6 ' u n'-'
d 6.6. I:ilbrics
tray be waslredrepcatcdlywithorrt ycllorviirg.
I\{icro-organisms
Drying
Nylon I I is not attacked by nrildewsor bacteria.
Nylon I I has a low ntoistureabsorptiorr,atr<ltlrics
vcry rnpidly.
Dlec(ricll Propcrlics It should be dried in thc santc rvuv its rrylorr
6 arrcl6.(r rrsing
tctnperaluresas low ns possiblc.
Nyton I I has excellcntelectricalinsulationpropcrties,whiclt are
r c t a i n c du n d e r c o n d i t i o n so f h i g h h u m i d i t y .
Ironing
Ilandlc Nylon I I fabric nray be ironcd slfely lrI
tcnll)cnrturcsin thc
region of 80-100"C. Great carc ntust [)c
Nylon I I has a plersant, soft handle. lakcn to nvoid usirrg
tenrperaturcswhich tnight softcn the fibrc.
NYLON II IN USE
Dry Clcaning
Gcncrnl Chnraclcristics Nyl_onI I nr:ry.bc dry crcancdwitrr.trt <riilic.rty.
Ir is nor rrilccrcrl
Nylon I I rescrlblcs nylon 6 and 6.6 in nrany o[ its irnportant Dy rne usual dry clcaning solvcnts.
propcrtics, but it posscsscsfeatures which aflect its potential
End-Uscs
applicationsin sevcral ways.
'fhc
nrelting point of nylon I I (189"C.)is otr thc low side for N y l o n . I I i s . u s c di n a g r c a t v a r i c t y o f t c x t i l c
l p p l i c r t i o r r s .I t i s
gencral textilc use, and great care tnust bc tal:cn in ironing rn<l rrndc inlo tricot kniilcd lingcric:rrriltrntlcnvcrr,
Lnr" a,,.1,uuu.,,
othcr c lcvu(e<l-tcmperat
rrrc treatnrcnts. fabrics. lt scrvcs in thc sanrc sort of fickls :rs
rrylorr 6.6 irrrtl
300 301

- t
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES S YNTII ETI C F I BI(ES

nylon 6. Fabrics of nylon I I are hard wearing and comfortable, rcspects.The moisturc absorptiono f n y l o n 6 . 1 0 i s l o w c r t h a n
rvith all the ease-of-carecharacteristics associated with nylon that of eithcrnylon 6 or 6.6, and n y l o n 6 . 1 0l i b r e sa r c u n u s u l l l v
6.6 and 6. resilient.
Heat-setting processesare used in the same way as with other
thermoplastic fibres. Permanent pleats and creases may be Rcgain
obtainedeffectively. z.o-

Mclting Point
(4) NYLON 6.10
214"C.
Nylon 6.10 libre is spun from polyhexamethylcneseblcrtc, nrade
by the condensationof hexanrethylene diamine and sebrcicacicl: (5) NEW'tYPES OF POLYAMTDEI;tBtrE

lulroduction
H.r.r(cr.r.)otl-r. lrooc (cr. )ocoorr
Polyamide fibres in widespreadusc today, i.e. nylon 6 ancJ
6.6,
H E X A M E T H Y L E N ED I A M I N E SEBAC|C AC|O have a range of characteristicswhich scrv" ttrcnr wcll in
'l'hcsc_ thc
general textile ficld. Iibrcs hitvc lrigh tcnsilc strcngth,
which is associaledwith a high dcgrce of jasticity; thcy
lu-rvc
---NH.co (cH.)"co ruH(cH.)or.rx.co(cH.)oco ruu-- exccllcnt.bending strcngthand outstandingrcsistanccto nbrasion.
Nylon fabrics havc good clirncnsionalstaliility rvhicli is cnhnnccd
NYLON 6 : IO by heat setting.
The polyarnide libres have-a rclativcly low spccific gravity,
nraking for lightweight fabrics. Thcir rnoistur.'^brorplio,,
INTRODUCTION i.
low.enough_topermit of easy washing and clrying.
"thosc
Polyhcxamethylenesebacate is produced in relatively small This combination of properties,togcthcr rvith dctailcd
.
rnrounts, largcly for use in plasticsancl in the manufactureof rn the.sectionsdealing with the individual nylons, has
crcatcd
synthetic bristle. Fibres have been spun front it, and they ltavc for polyamide fibrcs a vast which sians alnrost every
_market
field. of. textilc application. But it is incvitaLle tlrat
a number of interesting characteristics.Sebacic acid, however, thcre arc
is expensive,and there seemsllittle likelihood of nylon 6.10 fibre applications for which the range of propcrtics o{Iercd
by nylon
being manufacturedon a major scale for textile applications. is inadequate.Characteristicsa.luan[og.ousin one applicaiion
rnay be less desirablc irr other applications,for which n
diflcrcnt
PRODUCTION balance of properties is required.
The. relativelylow moistu-reabsorptionof nylon, for cxantplc,
l
Sebacicacid is produccd from castor oil. It is condensedwith contributes to its case-of-care chartcteristlcs. llut
it also
hexamcthylenediarnirre,thc proccssbcing sinrilar to tllat uscd cncouragcstlre accumulationof static clcctricity,wlrich
nray bc
in the production of nylon 6.6. The product, polyhexanrethylenc tundesira-ble or cven dangerous in ccrtain circurnstanccs.-I,hcrc
sebacate,may be melt spun rvithout difliculty. are applicationsin which it would be advantagcousto
havc a
nylon with higher water absorption.
STRUC'I'URENND PROPERTIES O.ther.propertics too have provccl inarlcqualc irr spccitic
applicalions.Polyamidefibrcsgcricrallyhavc I sunlightrcsistancc
N y l o n6 . 1 0f i b r e sa r es i n r i l atro t h o s eo f n y l o n6 n n d 6 . 6i n m a n y which is adcquatefor normal textile uscs,but thcy arc
attncked
302 303
 -rEX
nANDBOOK Olr l'lLE. FIIiltES n : s i Y N T i l D , f l ct : t n R l i s
too readily by ultra-violct Iiglrt to nrake thcm the preferrctl lbst-rrb,.greatquantities of 'l.yrc
'spccializcd' .fi.brc. cor.d, for cxarnplc, is a
choicc in applicationsthat rnust withstand continuoussurrliglrt. application which js I nr,rjor or',ti"i fo. nylon antl
Degradation by light is cornuronly less serious in the lustrous other fibres.
types of nylon fibre than in fibre which has becn dulled by During the I960s ancl 1970s there rvas an
increaslllgawtre-
addition of titanium dioxide. Much can be done to improve nessof theneedfor developing polyarnidc fitrr.,iuitf, pr"op.rii.,
light resistanceby the usc of chemical additives, but nylon's tlratwouldenable themto iorrr.-pcte
i'ore effcctivery in spccializctr
tcndcncy to undcrgo dcgraclatiouin sunlight has told aguinst fields.rndanurnber of newtypesof p"iyuiii,i.'iiiric'canrc
it in curtains ancl sinrilar applications. nrarkct.Sonreof thescarrcicsig,,eit on ure
ti, ,.ru. iii-.u,,,plrativcly
Whcn uylon is washedin watcr containing iron salts,it tends narrorvspecializcd fields.Others.
h:rvecxtordedtl,.';;i;;-;1
to absorb the dissolvedmaterials,and acquiresa yellow colour generaltextileapplications anclbrouglrtiirrpioicrircrrts
which is diflicult to remove. characteristics ' '- - ' in thc
of irylonfabricgcnerally.
The initial modulus of nylon is low, and thc fibre tbus extends
rcadily at low loadings.This nrakesfor difliculty in processing, 1'hc.developrlerrtof polyarniclefibrcs with propcrtics
. tlillcrcrrt
and in ccrtain applications. It is a factor in thc flat-spotting from the 'standard'nylon fibres has followcd tl,r".'fi,.,",,
which occurs when nylon is used for reinforcing tyres.
(l) Physical morlificationof cxisting nylon
Nylon r's sensitiveto bleaching agents and to acids, and it lypcs.
tcnds to lose strength when heatcd for prolonged pcriods, c.g. (2) Chcrnicnl rrrodificttionof cxistin6
rrylon typcs.
at lentperaturesdbove 150'C. (3) Production of ncw typcs o[ polylrnitlc.
Thcse characteristicsof nylon fibres are of little significance
over a vast range of nylon's textilc applications. But in cer-tain
applications, they are sufi"icientto rnake nylon less competitive (l) pHystcAl I\,IODIFICATIONOl: EXtst-tN(; Nyt_oN .t.\,l,tjs
than it might be. And in spccificapplications,they may render
nylon altogetherinadequate. of polymer
.lVlodilication
For most purposes, for exanrple, nylon has an adequate The polyamides from which nylon 6 ancl nyl<.rn6.6
resistanceto heat, and the melting point - especiallyof nylon fibrc.s lrc
spun trave been subjcctcct to intensive stucly ovcr
6.6 - is high cnotrgh for rrorrnal textile applications.In rccenL a vcry lorrg
period. A great deal is known about thc cxtcrrt
ycars, howcver, developnrcntsin space travel, supersonicflight to which thc
propcrtiesof the fibrc may be nrodificclby
suitablc control o[
and other lields have created a demand for fibres which can the molecularstructurcof the polynrer.
w.ithstandtemperatureshighpr than those ericounteredin every- The physical properties of nylon 6 and nylon 6.6 rnay
day appl.ications.The normdl nylons offcr a rangc of properties bc
nrodified within lintits by irrflticncing thc nvcrlgc
which is attractive for these specialized applications, but in nrolccular
weight, nrolecularweight distribulion,dcgrcc of ciy".strrllinity
many casestheir melting points are too low to permit of their use. und
dcgree of orientation of the polymers. Full arlvantagc
In nrany clectrical fields, similarly, the characteristicsof is now
taken of teclrniquessuch as <trawing which allow
polyamidc fibres are generally attractive,but there are specific thc rnantr-
facturer to control tenacity, flexibility and othcr trrcchanical
applicationsin which they would be more satisfactoryif the properties.
moisture absorption was lower. The extent to whicll the propcrtieso[ thc fibrc nray [:c varicd
It is apparcnt,therefore,that nylon would be able to play an .i' this way is linrited by thc functar'c'tal chcnricil struct,r"
important role in rnany specializcdllelds of applicationif-ceitain of- the. polyanride. 'I'hc nrelting point of polyhcxanreilrylcnc
characteristicswero changed to suit specific needs.Sonre of these adipamide. (rrylon 6.6. polynrer).inny b" incr"irs"il, for cxanrplc,
ficlds, though spccializedin the sensc that they rnny rcquirc by rncrcasingthe lnolccular wcight. But a poinl is soorr rcachcd
particular propcrtics in thc fibrc, arc of great inrportanccarrd lt rvhich furthcr incrctsc in nrolccultr wcighf has no cllccl:
thc
30{ 305

-l
 }IANDTIOOK OF TEXTILE F I I ] I TD S B: Syr.{tilEt.lC FIDRES
optimurn rnelting point for this particular polyanride has been m a k i n gn o n - w o v e n
f a b r i c s( e . g .t . C . t . F i b r e s , C a r r r b r c l lt cr y' )I
reached. .:ll..d,rnelcling (a coribination-of rrreltirrJ
f:lTt.l._ andrvciclirig;.
The possibility of effecting dranratic changes in properties, lne nererolltlibres tnay havea core of relativclyhich rncltiiic
beyond those already known, by adjustment of the physical state polnt potymer and a sheathof relativclylow' rrrcltingpoini
of the polymer is thus remote. polyrrer,which is designed. to florv on hcitirrg.Fibre websarc
lll:11.1 9y tlre applicationof controlledhear antl pressurc, tlrc
Modification of Fibre nDresoelngbondedat cross_over points.

M ult i Io bal C ross-Sect i o tt (2) CIIEMICAL MODIFICA'I'IONOF IJXI.SI,INC

It has long been recognized that the cross-sectionalshape of a
fibre has an important influence on many important characteris-
tics, and nylon - in common with other synthetic fibres - is
bcing produced by some manufacturersin a variety of non-
circular cross-sections. Multilobal cross-section nylons, for
example, are now in large scale use.
The advantagesclaime<lfor multilobal nylon hbres include:
(l) increasedcover, (2) crisp, silk-like, firn'r handlc, (3) rcduced
pitling in spun yarn fabrics, (4) iucreased bulk, (5) a sparkle or
highlight eflect, (6) resistan'ceto soiling, cspeciallyirr carpet yams.
The increase in surface area of a multilobal filament, on the
other hand, means that nrore dyestuff is required to achieve a
particular shade, and the wash-fastncssis reduced.
'l'e.r
! urct! untl Bulked Yarns
In common with other thermoplastic fibres, nylon may be
textured and bulked by the various processesin comnon use.
A wide variety of yarns modilied in this way is now available.
NYLON I,YPI:S
-Ihe
polyamides fronr whilh nylon 6 and 6.6 are
spun irrc
chemicallyactive materials,and ihe structurc of tlicsc polynrcrs
br modified by carrying otrt chcnricll rclctions on thcrn.
T.u.y
This provides an opportunity for'rodificrtion of trrc chilractcris-
tics of existing nylon fibre types.
During the production of nylon fibrcs, lltc polyrrrcrrrrolcculcs
come togcther in placcs to fornr rcgiorri of crysltrllirrily.
_ .
Elscwhere,the long molccules rcr'ain i'i nror. o,. rcssrartrorr
arrange.ment,forming regions of anrorphous polyrncr. ,l.hc
.
crysl.allineregiorrsnrc much lcss rcarlily pcrrctr:rtctl
by cltcrtric:rl
rcagcnts than the antorplrousregions, rincl it is rnuch
casicr,
therefore,to bring about chcnticalmodificationof lhc polyirntidc
in the arnorphousrcgions.crremicar 'rodification thus
lcnds to
have_a
_more significantellcct on those propcrtics of thc librc
which depend chiefly on the.anrorphous,"gionr, c.g. tlycability
and moisture,absorption. The mcchanical-propcrlics,such
irs
tcnacity.and flexibility, wlrich dcrjvc prinrarify fionr thc crystul-
tlne regrons,are lessreadily influenccd.

Bicornponett Fibrcs I Cross-Linking

A rrunrber of bicornponcnt polyanride librcs arc now on lhe The long chain molcculcs.of nylon rnay bc linkcd togcthcr
by
market. in rvhich two lllaments of dillerent constitution have reactingthem with chemjcalscarrying an activc group at cach cntl
'
been brought togetherduring spinning to form a single biconr- of the nrolecule.Thc isocyanatc group, fo, "x-nn,pi",will rcrct
poncnt filament. The two colnponeuts of the trvin Iilament readily with amine or carboxylicgroups,such as rriay bc prcscnt
display dillerent shrinkagepropertieson application of wet or at the cnds of polyamidenrolcculcs.Rlaction of polyarrritlcs with
dry beat, and the application of heat to the bicomponentfibre a di-isocyanate, thcrefore,would be cxpcctcclto iink up acljtccnt
causcsdiflerentialshrinkagewhich producesa crimp. polyamide moleculcs.
l,lrj, technique has. been. used successfullyin attcrnpts to
I IeterofiI; Meltlirtg r n o d l r y n y l o n l i b r e sw i t h a v i e r vt o i n t p r o v i r r g
tlrcirflat_spottirrg
[lbres 'uvitha
Ilctcrofil fibrcs antl filatttcrttsare bicortrPorlcnt charactcristicswlrcn userlirr tyrcs. Dxposureof rrylorr6 dr;;gl;i
core/sheath structure.Nylon heterolil fibres rnay be used [or about increasedirritial nrodulus anrl [ower extcnsibility, rvitli
a
306 307
 IIANDTIOOK OF I'EXTILE I:IDRI]S
S Y N T I T E T I CF r D r r E S

significant
inrprovenrent in quantityfronr availablc-rawmatcrials.In
in flat-spotting
characteristics. acldition,lhe pr.o-
duction of nylon 6 an<t6.6 has now b""; l;;;"d;.t
of lrigh ellicierr_cy, ro u sragc
and thcre rs an enor.lous capitarinvcstrnc.t
in thesetwo libres rhroushoutrhc worlcl.
li rr;;11;;, potynrrri<tc
fibre was ro competccflirivcty ,;^i;i;;;r;"ii*"rr.r
Graf t Polymcriz.ntion ollcr convincingimprovemcnrs'in havc ro
icncrai i"iiii" ir,nrn"r.ri.ti.r,
The grafting of polynrers ancl other substanceson to the sidcs and be capableof producrioni,i .onrp*UiJ
ol polyanridcntoleculesin another chenricaltcchuieuewhich can cheaperprice. iiianfity nt a
produce substantial results. Acrylic acid grafts on nylon 6.6 Dcspitothc blcakoutlookwhich faccsclrallcngcrs
and 6.6,in the generalficl<j,thercrcnraingrcat to nylon 6
provide sodiunr salts which have an attraction for moisturc.
Jpiiortunitics in
Fibre. treated in this way has high wet-creascrecovery propcrties. lhe productiono[ new typesof polyarnidc for spcciaiizcA
trons.A numbcrof suclrpolyanriclc applica_
Calciunr salts of acrylic acid grafts tend to raise the melting fibrcsarc nf..".ly in conr-
point.of the nylon, e.g. to 360.C. or higher dependingupon th- mercialproduction,and othcisare un.lcr<Jcv"f"o,"""t.
'I'he
clcgrecof grafting. nrost obviorrsline ot. approachi"-in"'A.""f"1rnrcnt
Moisture absorpl.ionof nylon fibres nray be increasedby the theseuew polyamiclefibres has'fr."n to "*,,,"i,r" 'tlr" of
gra[t polymerizationof ethyleneoxide on to the Ilbre. Tlrij also using diamincs,<tiacids, cllcct of
amino acids ;,,J-'i;,;i;;,,;
-'ii,a conrnining
inrprovesflcxibility. nrorcor lessthan thc 6 carbol atornsprcscnt'
i,'t ,,.ru,run,.r.
of nylon 6 and 6.6. As would..fr" ,u,ii"irr"i"r'f,"tl,.'puty",,,i.l.,
(3) NEW TYPES OF POLYAMIDE prcparedin this wav arc basicallysi,ull,,r'iii
6 and 6.6, but rhc crrang".i,i ii,;';;;;;,,;' frrlrrciticsto rryl.r,r
ild;;i
groupsin rhc potynrcrcliin arrccrs;;;il;,"n;;;;;;;t., urc nrrritrc
Irilroductiott
[an[ ways. i' irrpor-
During the 40-50 years that have passedsince the intensive
investigation of polyanride fibres began, mauy thousands of poirrt of polyanridcsin a hornologous '"i
"rl13^::l!"g scrics,
polyamidcs have been prepared an<l exanrined ai potential libre- to b.e,
3:,-11f:,:njsj1'". iowerecr
", ti," "r,i,]rr., ,iil,r,rilii'"
forming.nratcrials.Evcry conceivablc<libasicacid, diamine,anrino f;:ip', ::l*:"j_ fol grou
psiu"r"*s...p'i"i
:,1,id". -*pi"r."iiil
rJ ;;";;i;,i,
acid and lactanrhas bccn polymerizcd,and thc polymer spun into ll:.-rl^"],,:"r
_t:ints lowrwocu.rvcs,
".," f;"::ii
fibre. mcthylcne
sroups, and rn;'" rii;r';l;' ;;,' ;ii,;i,.r":;
:Tl*:i_:t
methylenc groups.The
Many of thcse polyanrides have proviclecl fibres which excel evennumbcrsarc highciiii",r"ililj,i
nunbers.
in_prrticular propertiesby cofirparisonwith nylon 6 and nylon
Nylon I l, for cxanrple, whiclr h a s
6.6. But none has yct been developedcommerciallyto the eitent nn cvcn nunrbcr of
nrernytenegroups bctwecnthe arnidc groups,
of presenting a serious challenge to the position of the two has a nrclting poirrt
which is only slightlylorverthan that
establishedfibres. o[ nylon 6, with .5nlcthylcnc
groups separating the anridc groups.
The reason is prirnarily an ecorronric one. None of these
polynulid.
polyanridc libres could be produced in the necessaryquantity Il: T:l,iig.t"int.of a pt'.nvt"n"
is incrcasc<t
ro a sigrrificnnr
and. at a price which would be conrpetitivewith t6at of the :l:::,t",,:t..Jlj':1,1:1,p..
espe_cially
.r;;;';;';';' "i;i;",r":
estatlished nylons. Nor does it seem likely that this position when subsritution
is in rhe pnia p;;iri";:
could change in the foreseeablefuture. I:l:jll:.1b.:rprion is anorhcrir;;ri";a pr;pcrtywhictris
Nylon 6 and nylon 6.6 are both producedfrom raw nraterials
",t^ <tistance.bc
rwee
n trreariiiriee;; ;;."';' ;i,. ;i;:il;
:,T:l I T.,-h:
thenumber or nrettrytcrc
containing 6 carbon atoms, and undcr prcscnt econorniccorr_ :[l: f g;;i;;; ;;;:;;";,,l;;ffiti;il;
absorptionis lowerc<J.
ditions these are rnaterialswhich can be produced clreaply and
lly adjustment
of the scgnrcnt
of polyrncrchlrintltnrsct)lratcs
308

- t ' l ' I ' ' ' - -r -l --r -] '-l

 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES
SY N T I IE T I C F I B R E S
the anriclegroups in a polyamide it is possibleto nrodify the PfTODUCTION
prop.ertiesof the polyamide in signil'icantways. This technique
has been used in the production of polyamides which are now
-2-pyrrolidoneis polynrerizedin thc prcsenccof alkali catalyst.
serving in specializedfields for which the nornral nylon fibres fhe polymer has a highcr mclting pbint thun that of nylori 6,
are unsuitable. lligh-tenrpcra ture resisting polyanrides (e.g. and.it tends to dcconrposcrea<lilyni tcnr;tenrturcs
abovc 265"C.
'Nonrex')
and polyamidesof high dielectricstrength(e.g. nylon Melt spinningmay bc carricd out with tliilicultv.
I l) are casesin point.
PROPEITTIES
NYLON 3
Nylon4,.fibres.havea high
_rnclting point (273oC).'l.erracity is
i\4any polyamideshave been made by self-condensation of the 4U.U.cN/tex(4.5 g/den).Water absorptiouis higir;rcgtin il7.
lactanrsof !-amino acids. Polymers of high rnolecular weight l h r s l s .a d v a n t a . g c o
i nutsh a t i t r e d u c etsh c t c n t l c r r cfyo r b u i k l - u p
may be obtained, using polymerization techniquessinilar to oI staticelectricityandintproves fabriccornfort.Nylorr4 is rrrorc
those used with nylon 6. The ease oI polymerization decreases susceptible_ than nylon 6 to oxidationanclis s.nsitiu.to hypo_
with increasein the degreeof substitutionof the monorner. chlorite bleaches. Fabricsare easy to launclcrand tlry calily.
Fibres spun from thesenylon 3 polyrncrs are highly crystalline,
rvith nreltingpoirrtsin the rcgion of 300"C. Decompositiontends
NYLON 5
to occur at the high tentperaturcsneedeclin melt spinning.
Nylon 3 polynrcrsarc dilficult to dissolvc,but solutionshave
bcen prepared using mixturcs of ntethanol and calcium thio- Nylorr5 fibrcsarespunfrornpolyvalcrollctarrr:
cyarrate,and fibrcs have been wet-spunfronr thesesoltrtions.
Nylon 3 librcs are characterizedby their high nrclting points [-NFI(CH,),co-],,
and excellent resistanceto oxidation. The afiinity for dyes is
Iower than that of nylon 6 INl'I{ODUCTION
Polyvalerolactanr(nylon 5) Iibres have lrccn cxarnincd
NYLON 4 by a
nunrber of firms, including I.C.I., du porrt, and -l.cnncsscc
Eastman. Fibres of high quality have bcen obtaincd, rvith pro_
Nylon 4 fibresarc spunfrom polypyrrolidone
: pertiesg-encrallysinrilar to those of nylon 6.6. Furthcr
dcvclop-
ment of nylon 5 fibres on a comntercial scalc will tlcpcritl
[ - (cH:)3coNH(cH3)3coNH - ]" primarily on the economicsof mononrer production.
INTRODUCl'ION
PRODUCTION
ion of pyrrolidoneto polypyrrolidone
Polynrerizat or nylon4 has
beenstudiedby a nunrberof firnrs.Fibresspun from nylon 4 Rcacttnt Syntbcsis
polynler have cltaracteristicsrvhich make thcm interestingas
Valerolactanr nray bc tnlclc fronr cyclopcnlltlicnc, (scc p:rgc
polyarnide
speciality fibres. 312). Cyclopentadicnc is hydrogcnutccl to cyclopcntarrc(i),
which is then oxidizc<l to cyclopcntanonc(2). Corrvcrsiorr
io lhc
oxinre (3) is followe<l by tlre llccknrann transfornratiorrrvhich
oroducesvalcrolaclant(4).
310
3ll
 I'IANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FINRF,S B : S Y N T I IE T I C F I I T I I I ] S

o o t l
o t' t r-: ' -t Spccific Gravity
'c' r.13.
c.YcL()P[ l.l lA o - l l
o ll: l.JE I Ja)lI
Ellcct of Mois(ure
^,_,-'e) Regain 4. l.
(cHa).
I 1
t l
L co-r'ixJ l'hernral Properlies
VALEROLACTAM Melrirtg Poinr : 250-260"C.
P r o r l L t ci ot n o f V a l e r o l a c t l n r
CLrcmicalPropcrties
I'olyntcrization E,rcellcntresistanceto ntost conrmon chcnriclls ln<l solvcrrts.
Valcrolactanr nray be polyrnerized in a manner sirlilar to
caprolactam (seepage264) at a temperature of about 280-290'C.
-l-he NYLON 7
polynter produced in this way (molecullr rveight about
15,000-16,000)is in equilibriunr with sonrc l5 pcr ccnt of low
nrolecularweight cyclic oligonrers. Nylon 7 fibres are spun front polyhcptanor rl iclc (polyocnuntlrl_
r n i d c o r p o l y e n a n t h i r n r i d: c )
Spinning
Polyvalerolactamrnay be nrclt spun in tlrc samc way as nylon 6. [- (crl),,coNH-],,
INTRODUCTION
STI{UCTURE AND PROPERTIES
Polyheptanoamide(nylon 7) fibres have bccn dcvcloncd in thc
The propertiesof nylon 5 llbres are generallysinrilar to those
U.S.,S.l{.under the nanre 'Enant'. The physical propcrtics of
of nylon 6.6.
thesc.fibresarc,.generallysinrilar to thos; ;f nylon 6 nncl 6.6,
Tenacity but there are dillerencesin certain charactcristicswhich coutd
be of commercial significancc.
42.4-44.O cN/tex (4.8-5.0 giden).Wet is about 90 per cent of
dry. I:ibres of up to 83.9 cN/tex (9.5 e/den) may be produced. PITODUCTION
Elougation
Polyheptan
oanrideis ntadeby scl[-condcnsation
oI cithcr 7-trrnino_
20-28 pcr cent. hcptanoicacid or its lactanr.
Initial Modulus
RcnclantSynlhcsis
I-lighcr than nylon 6.6. 'fhe
ntonomcr ntay bc rnadc by thc following routcs:
Crccp Characlcrislics
Nylon 5 fibrcs have low crccp rt clcvatcd tenrpcraturcs,arrd (n) TclonrcriTatiotr
'l'he
lrc an inrprovclncnton nylon 6.6 in this respect. steps in this syntlrcsisarc showu bclow. 'l-clorncriza
tion of
312 313

-t -rt -[ --l -l r_-l r

 HANDBOOK
O F T E X T I L EF I B R E S B: SYNTHETTC FIBRES

cthylcnein the prcsenceof carbon tetrachloricleis carried out as

alrcady dcscribcd undcr rrylou ll (see page 294). Onc of the o
products is l -chloro-7-trichl
oro-heptane (l).
Hydrolysis of this material by aqueous sulphuric acid (2)
?('',,U'
yields 7-chloro-heptanoicacid. Treatment of this with aqueous CYCLOHEXANONE CAPROLACIONE
antnronia(-l) forms 7-amino-heptanoic acid. '..
7-chloro-hept anoic acid ntay also be reactcclwith auhydrous 'o,.''
lurnmonia(4) to fornr heptanoJactam.
(t
cr (cHr)5coorj c N ( c | r ) 5c o o t t
6 - C H L O R O C A P R O I CA C I D 6 -C'''ANOCAPROIC
ACtD
Qt '/
3C2H.+
o )/
.r-
c ct. cr (cHr) c cr!
('5)
I - CHLORO-7 -TRICHLORO-HEPTANE l.rll, (cl{?) coocnr - > Nlr(O.rr) cooH
@
7 - Al!'ilt{qt[P rANolc ActD
,k- .n
:
c t (cftr) cooH >- NH, (cHr) cooH I'r'oductionof 7-Anrinohcptanr..ric
AcirJ frorn Cyclohcxuonc.
7 - CIILORO- HEPTAIiOtCACtO .l - Arl rNr_o-:_11qgl4lJ_Qlq-
^c,lg
lo
Y Notc
Th.e telomerization proccss is uscd in lhc U.S.S.R.,an<.1
-.-?o
(cl-r.L I
is poten_
tially an economicroutc to nylon 7. 'I'hc raw rnatciirls nr"'.il",ip
\i," and abundant,and thc processitself prcscntsno grcat clillicultics.
Telomerizationproduces a mixture of tctrachlo-ro-alk ancs, and
HEPTANOLACl'AM
the successful commercial development dcpcnds upor.r thc
economic use of tetrachloro-alkanesothcr than I _chloro.7-
'l'clornerization
P r o r l u c t i o n n f l - I e p t an o l a c t an r . Route. t richloro-heptane.

Polymerizatiou
Self-condensation of the lnonomer is carriccl out in a ntanncr
(b) Cyclohexattorte Roule
sirnilarto that usedin making nylon 6, to yielcla nylon 7 polynrer
The steps in this synthesisare shorvrrbelow. Cyclohexanoneis of molecularweight as high as 30,000.
oxidizctl to caprolactonc (l), which is convcrtcd to 6-chloro-
caproic acid by trcatnrcut with hydroclrloric acid and zinc Spinning
clrloricle(2). ln-thc absenceof oxygcn,nylon7 is thcrnrallystablcup to lborrt
6-chloro-caproicacid is convertcd to 6-cyano-caproicacid by 300"C.As it meltsat about225"C.,mclt spirrning
trcatnrent with cyanide (3), and the ester of this acicl is then nrty be carrictl
out without difliculty.
hyclrogcnatctl lrcirl (4). IIydro-
to tllc cslcr o[ 7-arrrino-hcplanoic Uldcr equilibrium conditions,nylon ? contains only a vcry
lysis of this yields 7-anrino-heptanoicacid (5). snralIproportion (about 1.5 per ccnt) of rnonorncrand otlrcr low
3t4
315
 I
, l
IIANDBOOK OF'TEXTILE FINRES

nrolecularweight materials.There is no necessityfor extraction

B: S Y N ' T I T E T I C F TD R E S

In general,it would seemthat the usesof nylon 7 w i l l f ; r l l i n t o

of either the polymer or the fibre. line with thoseof nylon 6 and 6.6.
STI{UCTURE AND PITOPERTIES

The physical properticsof nylon 7 arc, in general,intermcdiatc NYLON 8

between those of nylon 6 and nylon 6.6.
Nylon 8 libres are spun from polycaprylumi<.le:
Tcnacity
[_(CH,),CONt-I_],,
3 7 . 1 c N / t e x ( 4 . 2 g / d e n )d r y ; 3 5 . 3 c N / t e x ( 4 . 0 g / d e n )w e t .

Elongalion
35 per ccnt.

Ini(ial Modulus PI{ODUCTION

Higher than that of eithcr nylon 6 or nylon 6.6 at 40-60'C. Ileaclant Synthcsis

SpccificGravily
(A) Butatliene Routc
1.10.
Dinrerization of butadicnc providcs cycloocl:rrlicrrc ( l), rvlriclt
Iillcct of Moisturc is hydrogenatcdto cyclooctanc(2). Tliis nr:ry bc convcrtcd to
cap.ryl lactarn by routes sinrilar to thosc uscd in convcnrrrg
Nylon 7 absorbsless nroisturethan cither nylon 6 or nylon 6.6. cyclohexarrcto caprolactanr.(see page263).
Regain: 2.9.

Thcrnral Propertics
Melrirtg poirrr: 220 230"C.
ril
v> /-\ ()
EfJect of IIigh Tentperature. Nylon 7 has a higher resista nce C H , : 6 1 ' 1- c H = C H r (-_,! -fa>-
to the effects of elevated temperatures than either nylon 6 or \J
nylon 6.6. BUTAOIENE CYCLOOCTA- CYCL O O C l A N E

Ellcct of Sunlight
C a p r y l L a c t a r n P r o t l u c t i o n . I J u t a r l i c n cl l o u t c .
lJetter resistanceLhiln either nylon 6 or nylon 6.6.

NYLON 7 IN USI:
(l)) A cctylcnc Routc
Thc highcrnreltingpoint (by conrparisonwith nylon 6) and the Polynrc.rizatio-n
of acctylcneproduccscyclooctir tctrcnc (l), which
lorv moisturcabsorptioncould bc important advantages for rs paruy hydrogcnirtc(lto cyclooctcnc(2). .l-lris is oxidizcd
nylon7 in ccrtainapplications. to
Coupledwith the increasedinitial cycloocteneepoxide (j) lnd transforrncdlo cycloocrlrronc (4).
modulus,the low moistureabsorptionof nylon 7 nrakesfor This is converted to thc oxinrc (5), rvhich undcrgocsihc Ucck-
supcriorrvash-tnd-wearcharacteristics. nrann transformationto capryl Inctant ((r).
3r6 3t7

-l ' - - ' - -r --I -r -l --I --I --I -r -L

 'I'EXTI
LE FIBITES B: SYNTTIETIC
FINRES
IIA N D BOOK OF
Elongation
or > /:\ (z) a-\
cH=cH 33 per ccnt.

ACETYLENE CYCLOOCTA- CYCLOOCTENE Specific Gravity

TETRENE
L09.
o
Ellcct of Moisture
@. /--\..o
.l o
-'------'- a-\zNoH Regain 2.9.
O" |
\--,/
I
\---l
I
'lhcrmal
Propcrtics
CYCLOOCTENE CYCLOOCTANONE CYCLOOCTANONE
EPOXIDE OXIME Melting Point: 200-205'C.
@
,.'.t-l NYI-ON 9
[-co-NH-
Nylon 9 fibres a r c s p u nf r o n rp o l y n o r r n n o l r n:i t l c
CAPRYL LACTAM

Capryl Lactanr Production.Acetylenc lttlutc. [- (cH")"coNFI- ],,

'l'hese
fib res havebeenproducccl
cornrrrcrcially
iu thc U.S.S.lt.
f<llynrcrization as'Pelargon'.

Capryl lactam polymerizesreadily to nylon 8 polynrer, in a

manner sinrilar to the polymelization oI caprolactanl. The
polyrner containsonly a very small proportion of low nlolecular
weight material (e.g. 0.5-2.5 extractablewith water). Molecular
weightsof 16,000to 23,000are readily obtained.
Spinning
Nylon I polymer melts at aborrt 200-205'C.,and may be melt-
spun without di{liculty.
STI{UCI'UI{E AND PIIOPERTIES
A typical nylon 8 polymer, of molecular weight in the region
16,000 to 23,000, has properties whiclr are gencrally sinrilar to
those of nylon 6.
l'c nacily
3 7 . 1 c N / t e x ( 4 . 2 g / d e n ) t h y ; 3 6 . 2 c N / t e x ( 4 . 1 g / t l e n )w e t '
3lB
PRODUCTION
Ileacl:rnlSynlhcsis
9-amino-nonanoicacid is one of lhe products of the tclorncriza-
tion reaction(seepage294).In any largescnlcprodrrctionof othcr
amino acids by this route, 9-amino-nonanoic acid woul<l bc a
readily availabloby-product.
I'olynrcrizalion
Self-condensation of 9-amino-nonanoicacid takcs placc rcadily,
and polymers of molccular weight in the rcgion 20,000-25,0fi)
are made without difliculty. The polynter contains otrly a vcry
small proportion of low molecularweight nratcrialat cquilibrirrrrr
(about 0.5-1.5pcr ccnt extractablcwith wntcr).
Spinning
Nylorr 9 polyrner nrcltsat 210-215"C.,and rrray bc nrclt spun as
319
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES
B: S Y N T I . IE T I C F I D N E S
readily as nylon 6. The molten polymer is thernrally stable so PRODUCTION
long as it is protectedfrom atrtrosphericoxygen.
Ilcactant Synlhcsis
STITUCTURE AND P]TOPERTIES stagesin the synthesisof lauryr lactam fronr butacricnc
arc srrown
'fhe bclow.
characteristicsof nylon 9 fibresare generallysinrilarto tltose Ilutadicnc is Lrirncrizctlto l, 5, 9-cycloclodccu
tricnc (l), which
of related polyamide fibrcs.The water absorptionis lower than
is converted to cyclododecanone(2). This is convcrted
thet of nylon 6, nylon 6.6 or nylon 7. The following propertiesare to thc
oximc. (3),. which undcrgocs thc Bccknrann trtnsfornrntion
typical of a polynrer of molecular weight in thc region 20,000- to
I2-anrino-dodecanoicacid (4). Thc lactam oI this
25,000. is lauryl
l:ctarn (-5).
T cnacily

37.1cN/tex(a.2 g/den)chy;36.2cN/tex(4.1 g/den)rvet. ' \c't

,CH;Cl1

Elongation
f'6'
o Hc' !,',
C H , = C H- C H = C H ,
40 per cent. HC
BUTADIENE \ /F H ,
cl..!r
SpccilicGravi(y .cilr_ciitct I
1.09.
@,.,- l, s,9 -cYcLoDODECATn
tENE
Ettcct of Moisturc
(cH-
' I )l t (cH,)'
I(egain: 2.5. i
6)
\C/ \c./
Thcrntal Propcrtics tl
I.lotl
N ' l c l t i n gp o i n t : 2 1 0 - 2 1 5 " C . CYCLODODECANONE C Y C L O D O O E C A N OONXEI M E
@-t"
NYLON 12
Nylon l2 fi brcs are spunfrom polylaurylamide
N H , ( C H r ) rC
r OOH o
__--________->
)_jo
: 1r,C,
/
I2 -AMINODODECA NOIC A C I D LAUnYL LACTAM
[-NH(CH"),,CO_],,
P r o d u c t i o r ro [ L a u r y l L a c t : r m f r o r u l ] L r t a d i c r r c .
IN'I'RODUCTION

Thesc fibrcs havc creatcd considerableinterest. Dcvelopment of I'olynrcrizrlion

nylon 12 fibres has taken place in France, Gcrrnany and the
Polycondcnsation of thc ntononrcris cnrricd out irr thc usull
U.S.A., and there arc prospectsof production on a commercially
w_ay,and polynrersof nrolccularwcight in thc rcgion 22,OAJ-
inrportant scale as a spcciality polyanride fibrc. Nylon l2 is
25,000nray bc obtainedwithout <lifliculty.Nylon l2 polynrer
inhcrently cxpensive,horvever,and'it is unlikely that it could
containsolly a very small proportionof low inolcculli wcight
bccome of inrportance as a general purposc polyamide fibre.
material(0.75per cent cxtractablc
wi{h watcr).
320
321

' J ' l ' I ' t ' r

n F'':F,F''it
i'
I I A N D D O O KO F T E X T I L E F I D I T E S
B: SYNTIIETIC FIDNES
Spinning
Nylon l2 polymer melts at lB0-190"C., ancl is readily nrdlt_spun
into Ii bres. QIANA IN USE

STITUCTU II.E N ND P]TOPEI{II C,S A- lustroussilky fibre witlt nranycharacteristics

sinrilarto those
of nylon 6 and(r.(r.Fabricsrlaclc'front
eiarrahavcexccllentdrapc
and
Nylon 12 fibresare similarin many characteristics to nylon 6 .lornt retcntion,-andthe fibre hai fourrcla rcatly rtrarket
ancl6.6.The moisturcabsorptionis low, ancldielectric notablyin the fieldof highfashion.
properties
arc exccllent.
The mcltingpoint (lgG-190.C.) is rathei low for
generirltcxtile applications
The following properties are typical of a nylon 12 libre of
nrolecularweight in the regiorrof 22,000. BICONSTITUENT
N YLON_POLYESl'ER
'Icnaci(y
Fibresconsistingof nricrofilarne
nts of polycsterrlispcrscd
irr a
33.6cN/tex(3.8 g/den)dry or wet. nylon o nratnxposscssunusualopticalanddyeirrgcharactcristics.
They have a higher tenacitythin nylon 6:6 a;d lorvcrregrrn.
Elorrgation
40 pcr ccnt. I] ICOMPON
I]N]' NY LON-POLYESTI]II
Spccilic Gravity Fibresconsisting
of a polyester
coresheathetl
irrnylon6.
1.08.
Ellcct o[ Moislure
Rcgain: 2.2. AROMATIC POLYAMIDES
Tbernral Propcrties It has long been knorvn that the meltirrg point o[ a polyanridc
I \ l c l t i n gp o i n t : 1 8 0 - 1 9 0 " C . may be raised by introducing aromttic iirrgs into thc polynrcr
rnolecule.These may bc incorporetcdinto tlrc <li;rnrinc,
diacitl or
both.
Many aromatic polyanrideshavc been nratlc cxpcrintcrrtally,
QIANA
Thisis the tradenanrefor a fibrespunby E.l. tlupontcleNernours and some are now of conrmercialinrportanceas spccialpurgrui"
fronr polymerproducedby condensatio (commonly high-ternpcratureresistani)poiyanri<lc'f.ibrcs.
n of a trans,trans-di(4-
aminocyclohexyl) methanewith a dibasicacidcontaininsB-14 effectof introducingaromatic rings is particularlynrlrkctl
.The
carbonatonrs,e.g.dodecanedioic acid.. when phenyleuegroups are i ncorporatecl-intlrc rnolcculc
tlrrough
the para positions.Meta substituiionprovidespolynrcrso[
Iower
STRUCTUREAND PROPERTIES melting point, internrccriate
betweentirat of thc para substitrrtcd
polynrersand those of normal straight-chain
coristitution.
Trilobalcross-section.
Tenacity26.5-3 I .0 cN/tex(3.0_3.5g/clen).
Elongation 20-30%. Good recovery fronl streiching.S"p.gr: PolymctaxylylcneAdipanrirte(Nyton MXIH)
1.03.lvloisturcregain: 2.0-2.5. Meltinspoint 2T5oClChdnriial Condcnsationof meta xylylcncdiamine and ldipic aci<lproduccs
stabilitycxcellcnt.Dycswcll to lastshadis. polymetaxylylcne adipamide,which is commonly known
bv thc
nanre nylon MXD-6. lts structure(l) is shown bn pagc
324.
322
J Z-t
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRI]S B: S Y N T I IE T I C T T I N R E S

Nylon MXD-6 has been examined by a number of firms, Fully-AromaticPolyanrides; Aranrids

rrotably by Celanese Corporation, and it has a number of The ntaximr..im e{Iectsof introducing arornatic rings into thc
attractive features. In particular, its flat-spotting characteristics polyamidemoleculeare obtained by condcnsinguronorrrcrsin
are a great improvement on those of the normal nylons, and it which, in each case,the functionalgroupsare scparltcdby
has given excellent results as a tyre cord. phenylcnegroups,Aromatic dianrincs,for cxamplc,conclcnscd
Nylon MXD-6 is very susceptiblc, however, to the effccts of with terephthalicacid providc polyanridcswith cxccptionul
hcat and moisture, and its valrrc as a tcxtilc fibre is rcstricted' 'fhc
rcsistance to high tcnrpcraturcs. intcrnrolcculnr bondingnrrtl
This rveaknessis presunrably due to thc prescncc of methylene chain stillncssarc suchas to confcr high thcrnralstabilityon thc
groups between the aromatic rings and the amide groups. These polymermolecules.
permit free rotatiou of the aromatic ring with rcspect to the When all the phenyleneunits in thc polyanridc are pirra-
anride group. Thc polarity of the amide group is low. substituted, the optinrumellectsarc obtaincd,and thc polynrcrs
Polyhexanrethylcnc Terephthalamidc(Nylon 6T) have meltingpoints or decornposition points in the rcgion of
555"C.With all phenylene unitsin the meta-su position,
bstitr.rtcd
Condensation of hexamethylene dianrine with terephthalicacid
the polymersmelt or decompose at about410'C.
produces pol yhexamethylene terephthalanride, or nylon 6T. Its
These fully aromatic polyarnidesnray bc prcparcdwith thc
structurc (2) is shown on page325). para-nnd meta-su bstitutcd unitsin any dcsircrlproportions, nntl
This structuredocs not posscssthe weakncssinhcrent in nylon
thc propcrticso[ thc polyurrritlcs ntay bc sclcctctlnccoLtlirrgly.
MXD-6, as the amide group is linked directly to the aromatic
Tlre polyanridcshown ns fornrula3 bclow, for exarnplc,is
ring. Tho moleculeis stifl, and the amide groupsare highly polar.
the basisof a fibre dcvclopcdby Chcnrstrand Corporntion.
Nylon 6T has been studied by a number of firms, including
Fibresfornredfrorn polyarnides in rvhichat lclst t|57,of'tltc
CelaneseCorporation, and it has a range of interestingproperties.
anriclelinkagesare attacheclto aroruaticrirrgsarc knorvn as
The melting point (370'C.) is too high to permit of effective
melt spinning, and fibres are spun from solutionsof the polya-
aranids (F.T.C.Delinition).Exanrplcs arc 'Norncx'antl 'Kcvlrr'
procluced by E,.1.
duPontde Nernours & Co lnc.
midc in concentrateclsulphuric acid. Also, special polynrerization
techniquesare necessary,
'fhe
structure of nylon 6T resen'rblesa conrbination of the
structuresof nylon 6.6 and a polyethyleneterephthalatefibre -[""-.n.6-cH,-NH-co-(c],,,-.o]
'Terylene' or 'Dacron'.. As would be anticipated, the \a'
such as
fibres spun frorn nylon 6T conrbine many of the propcrties of NYLON MXD-6
nylon 6.6 and the polyester fibre. Jhey have the low density,
moderate moisture regain, high abrision resistance, easy dyeing,
l- ,--o I
high alkali resistanceand excellent elastic properties associated
with nylon, ancl the high initial modulus, especially at elevated
o --FHN-(q.i^) -NH -co-(
L
\-co-l-
\.=r' l"
tempcraturcs,of the polyester fibres. Nylon 6T has an outstanding NYLON 6T
rcsistanceto stretch, and a vcry high recovery at high tempcra-
tures. The flat-spotting characteristicsof the libre are similar to
those o[ polyesterlibres. In addition, nylon 6T has good heat'
T - t
6 | "^r{)'- co-r.rrfipr.rH-cofl\er -rurr-co
-?'rrro 4-
light and chemical resistance,good dye fastness and resistance L \,t \-/ Jo
to thc cllccts of moistttt'cthat are charactcristicof polyestcr fibres. Aronrrtic I'olyanridcs.
Nylon 6't retains its full strength after 5 hours at 185'C. lt
discolotrrs after I hour al 220"C.,
) z.l 325

' r
 T I A N D R O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S
n : s Y N ' t l t E r l cr l D t t E s

PII.ODUCTION
Aramidsareproduced by reaction
of aromaticcliacid
chlorides
with
aromaticdianrinesin a solventsuch asN.N-climethvlformamide
(DMF). Polynrersare dry spunfrom solventsolutioninto a hot
air streamor wet spun into a coagulating bath, follorvedby
stretching.
STRUCTUI{EAND PROPERT]ES
Ararnidfibresarecomntonlyround or clog-bone in cross-section.
They are paleyellowto crean'lbeforebleaching. Tenacitiesare
h i g h , e . g . 3 8 - 1 9 0 c N l t e x ( 4 . 2 - 2 1. 5 g / d e n )i l r y a n d 2 8 - 1 5 9
cN/tex (3.2-18 g/den)wet. Elongationdecreases with increasing
fibre tenacity, front 3-30% <lry,4-21% wet. Recovery,froni
lorv stretchis alnrost100%.Ararnidfibresarestiff: resiliencv and
recoveryfronr bendingare excellent,anclabrasioirresistance is
high.Sp. gr: l.3B- 1.45.Regain3.5-7.0. Resistance to chenricals
is high,and aranrids areunaffectecl by nrosthousehold chernicals.
They are attackedby concentrated aciclsancloxidisingagentsat
high temperatures. Heat resistance is high,degradation oCcurring
on prolongedheatingin air at temperatures above3700C.The
fibres have very low flamrnabilityand are self-extinguishing.
Sunlightcauses somediscoloration and a slightlossof tenacity.
Aramid fabrics provide effective screensagainsthigh-energy
nuclcarradiation.A goodrangeof fastcoloursnraybe obtained
by usingdisperse dyes.

A R A M I DF I B R E SI N U S E
Fabricsmadefrom aramiclfibressuch as 'Nonrex'and 'Kevlar'
are lustrousand attractive,witK good drapingcharacteristics
and handle.Shaperetentionanrl wearresistance are excellent.
but the high strengthof the fibrescan causepilting.Like other
nylon.fabrics,aramidfabricswasheasilyancldrip-dryquickly.
Dry cleaningdoesnot presentproblenrs. lroningntay be-carriccl
out safely at ternperatures
up to 3000C.
Applicationsfor aramidfibresareconrmonlythosewhichtake
aclvantageof the high strength,lorv flammabilityand excellent
heat resistance, e.g.,specialised
astronautical
and nrilitaryuses,
industrialanclprotectiveclothing,heat and clectricalinsulatiorr
materials,
liltrationclothsand tyre corcls.
326
327
 T IA N D I }O O K O F T ! , X ' I ' IL E F I D R E S I}: SYNTIIETIC FI BRES

The position lrrs now bcen reachcclwhere

2. POLYESTER ITIBITES it is prcfcrablc to
consider polyester fibrcs as. specific typcs,
i,rscct' rrpon ttrcir
chcnrical structurcs. 'I'hc_ ,ifl'crcnc.. il;;";--il*r'
INl'I{ODUCTION irrc Ioo
signiticantto permit of rheir beingconsidcreJ;i;pi;;, .polyesrcr,
fibres.
Polyestersare polymers nrade by ir condcnsationrcaction taking
For the purposcs of the I{andbook, polyester
place bctween small nrolccrrlcs,in which thc linkagc oI the .. fibrcs trc sub-
dividcd into thc followirrg typcs, bascd
nroleculcsoccurs through thc fornration o[ estcr groups. ,,pon ii,"i, chcnricll
structures,and thc abbrcviationsshown nrc
Polycstersare conrmonly rnade by interactionof a dibasicacid irs.,f in rcfcrring to
the fibrcs :
w i t h a d i h y d r i ca l c o h o l :
(l) PolycthylencTcrcphthalirtcFibrcs (pE.f polycster
HOOC-X-COOFt -r-HO-Y-OI{ I;ibrcs).
-> - - - oc-x-{oo-Y-oco-x-coo-y-oco -- (2) Poly:l^4-Cyclohexylcne-Dirncthylenc
fcrcphthalatc Fibrcs
(PCDT polyesrer Fibrcs).
The lormation of polyesters was studied by Wallace H. (3) Othcr Types of polyester Fibre.
Carothersof du Pont during the invesl.igation of polynrerswhich
lctl cvcntually to thc discovcry oI nylon. DcvclolrrncntoI tlrc
polycsters was overshuclowed,horvever, by the polyarnide NOMI'NCLA.TURI]
research,and it rvasnot until l94l that a valuablepolyesterfibre
The first polyesterIibres to be introducedon
rvas discovered.ln that year, J. T. Dickson and J. R. Whinfield a conlnlcrciulscalc
(i.e. *"." .yrr,.' fr.orii"poty"thyl",,c
of the Calico Printcrs' Associationin England made a synthetic .'Dacron'_and,Tcrylcnc')
terephthalate.This chenrical term was,'of
fibre frotn polyethylene terephthalateby condensing ethylene "or.,ir., too cornplcx
for everyday use, and rhe fibrcs b;"n,;"-i;;r;n
glycol rvith terephthalicacicl (see pagc 332). 'polyester' sinrply as
fibres. They are still kno*n g.n.r.ily Ly ttris
Aftcr thc wnr, developmentof the fibrc was carried out under tcrrn
todav.
liccnceby LC.L Lt(|. in the U.K. and by du Pont in the U.S.A., 'polycster'
rcsulting in thc fibrcs knorvn rcspcctively as 'Terylene' and __llie lcrm is.,howevcr, a specificchcnricalnanre which
'Dacron'. rclers to any polynrcr i' which thc rinkagc of snralr
'rolccurcs
takes,place. through thc fornra(ion "f ;;;;;r""ps.
Today, polyethyleneterephthalatefibres are being made in It rcfcrs
many countries, and nrodified forms of this fibre are also jg1 exalntc,ro.polyerhyten"
:::ill",::l!,ethylene .,tii"inir. nndcby
produced. Other polyestershave been produced and spun into :onq:n.sr13 glycolwith. adipicacid,or to polypropylcrrc
terephthalatemadc bv condcnsingp.oiyi.,,. ' glycol"wirh
fibres, some of which have beconre oI commercirl inrportance
terephthalicaci<I.
(cf- 'Kodel'). .oll'icial'
- In the sclcction of names for synthctic
di{Ierenttypes,the U.S. FederalfmA" Conrnri'ssio,i fibrcs o[
TYPES OT. POLYESTIIRFIBRE 'polyestcr'. iu.tua.a tt,.
term anrl spcciliedth:rt this nrustbc uscd for fibrcs
or.tnc potyculytcne tcrcpllthalatc type (sccbclow)..l.hiswas lrrr
In the years since World War lI, polyethylene terephthalatefibres unr.onunate choice,as this dclinitionof ,polycstcr;
'Dacron'
of tho 'Terylene' and type havc establisheda dominating with the chcmicalmeaningof thc tcrrn.C;"i;i";
is at varirncc
position in the polyesler fibre lield. Other types of polyester have, coul<lhavc
beenavoidedif a conrolcrclynew, non_ctrci;;i-;,
however, been spun into fibres with varying degreesof practical -a (cf. nylon)
had been coincclinstcacloi using a tcrnr wiih
succcss. and a few of these have bcconre of conrrnercirl wcil-OcnncA
chcrnical mcaning.
inrportance. Under thc prescntF.'f.C. rcgulations,it is possiblc
for n
328
329

r-l rl rl -l .l .l ' l ' l ' I ' l ' l

rF,
O F T E X T I L EF I B R E S
HANDBOOK
polyester fibre to be marketed which does not meet the F.T.C.
delinition, and could not, therefore,be called a polyesterfibre!
Federal Trade Cotnnissiott Delinitiotr
The generic terrn polyester was adopted by the U.S. Federal
Trade Commission for fibres which satisfy the following official
definition:
Polyester. A manufactured fibre in which the fibre-forming
substanceis any long-chainsynthetic.polynrer conrposedof at
least 85 per cent by rveightof an estei of a substituteclaronratic
carboxylic acid, inclucling but not restricted to substituted
terephthalate units p(-R-O-CO-C6H4-CO-O-) and para-
substituted hydroxybenzoate units p(-R-O-C6Ha-CO-O-).
(I) POLYETFIYLENE TEREPHTHALATE FIBRES
(PET POLYESTER FIBRES)
Fibres spun from polyethyleneterephthalate:
--- o (cHr).
oco coo(cH.).ocoOcoo (cHJ.o ---
Q
POLYETHYLENT
EE R E P H T H A L A T E
INTRODUCTION
The discovery that potentially-valuable textile fibres could be
spun from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (see page 334) was
made by Dr. J. T. Dickson and Mr. J. R Whinfield in 1941.in
the laboratories of the Calico Printers' Association Ltd. in
Lancashire,England. Development of the PET fibre was held up
during the war, but in 1947the world rights to manufacturethe
new fibre, with the exception of those for the U.S.A., were
purchased by Imperial Chenrical Industries Ltd. (E.I. du pont
de Nemours and Co. Inc. bought the rights for the U.S.A.).
In Britain, the manufacture of PET fibre began on a pilot
plant scale in 1948,the fibre being marketed under the name
'Terylenc'.
Sincc then, productiorr of 'Terylene' has expanded
rapidly. At Wilton in Yorkshire, I.C.I. Ltd. have speut nrillions
330
B: SYNTIIETIC FII]RES
of pounds in the constructionof 'Terylcnc' plants. In Jtnunry
1955,a large plant came into productiorr,with an annual caplcity
of 5 rnillion kg divided alnrost ecluallybetwecn filrrrrcnt yarrr
a n c ls t a p l e .
In 1956,a second unit of similar capacity began production,
"l'crylene'plant
a n d t h i s w a s f o l l o w e db y a i n N o r t l r c r r rl r c h r r d .
In thc U.S.A., the du Pont company bcgan producing lrE'f
fibre on an experimcntalbasisin 1950.The fibrc wls known in
its early days as'Fiber V', but was subscqucntlygivcn thc tmtlc
name 'Dacron'.
PET polycsterfibresarenow beingproducctlin uranycourrtlics.
TYPES NND SIZES
PET polyestcrfibrcs are produccd as nrullifillrrncntyarrrs,rutrno-
f i l a n r e n t s s, t a p l ef i b r e a n d t o r v , i r r a r v i t l c n r r r g co l ' c o u r r t s u r r r l
staplelengthsto suit virtually all tcxtile rcquircnrcnts.
The fibres are available in bright, scnridull lnd dull lustrcs.
The propertiesof the fibres may be nrodificdovcr a rangc whiclr
is linrited by the inhcrent charactcristicsof thc polynrcr, caclr
manufacturercontrolling his proccssto produce fibrcs that will
meet specificrequirements.In general,commcrcialPE,I polycstcr
fibres fall into two main classes, (a) regular tcnacitynnd (b) higlr
tcnacity.
PET polyesterIibres are producedcomnronly in round cross-
section,but librcs of spccial(e.g.triangular)cross-scction trc now
availablefrom a number of manufacturers.
PET polyester fibres are thcrmoplastic,and lcnd therrrsclvcs
well to physical modifications associatcdwith this propcrty.
Crimped and texturcd yarns of all familiar typcs arc nvniltblc.
PRODUCTION
Polyethylene terephthalatc is madc by thc condcnsation of
3ll
 T I , \ N D B O OK O F T E X T I L E FIDIIES s YN] ilErtc FililtE.s
terephthalicacid, or a derivativesuch as dimethyl terephthalate,
9H' O H,.r- ct.t,or-l
rvith ethylcneglycol. (a) ll + f @
l - n l
c ll2 cH{ cltroll

ETHYLENE ETIIYLENE ETIIYLEI'IE

cooH coo cH. OXIOE GLYCOL
rn a\ -L cHroH
7-\,
| i l
\:,/
\.J' \,l,
cooH coocHs
TEREPHTHALIC METHYL DIMETHYL cfl. cooll coocilr
A CI D ALCOHOL TEREPHTHALATE /r; o a''x @ 4\
(b) t t

CH,
l
</ COO|I
</ COOCltr
coo cH" coo cH, cH,oH
cH,oH
6\ l7'n P .X Y L E N E
" a\ r- T E R E I } I ' I ITI A L I C D I M E TI . I Y I -
\.',
t -
cH20H
- > t t
\./
ACtO 1EREPHIHALArt:
coo cHl COO CH? CHaon
ETHYLENE DIETHYLENE PET Polycs(crF i b r c s . l ) r o r l u c t i t r r r o f r r r o r ro t r r c r s
GLYCOL GLYCOL
TEREPHTHALATE

l'oll nrcrizrtion(scc diagrampagc334).

--- o (cu.).oco 1cx.),o.o()
Qcoo
POLYETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE
Productionof polyethyleneterephthalate
Reactant Synthesis (see diagram page 333).
(a) EthyleneGlycol
This is made by the catalytic oxidation of cthylene,which is
obtainedfrom petroleumcracking.Ethyleneoxideis produced(l).
Hydration of this yicldsethylcneglycol (2).
(b) T'erepluhalicAcid; Dinrctlryl Terepltthalate
Para-xylene obtainedfrom petrolcunris oxidized(3),for exarnple
with nitric acid or with air in the presence
of a catalyst.
Terephthalicacid is esterifiedwith nrethylalcohol(4) to forrn
dimethyltcrephthalate.
332
coo(cHa)20 ---
Polyethylencterephthalale- i\.madc by conclcnsing ethylcrrcglycol
with either tcrephthalicacid itscrf or witrr <linrctliyltcrcplrtrialrtc.
Condensationof etbylenc glycol with tcrcphtlialicacid (l) is
an esterificationreaction,watcr bcing elinrinatcdas thc rcaciiotr
takes place. Condcnsation
_of cthylcnc glycot with dinrcthyl
tcrcphthalate(2) is an cstcr intcrchang","i"iion, rncthyl alcohol
being elinrinatcd as the rcaction takes placc. 1-hc polyrncr
obtained in this way rvould be expccteclto havc an cstcr cncl
group instead of the carboxylic acid cncl group in thc
case of
the polymer obtained by the tercphthalicaiicl route.
In either casc,the condcnsltion is carrictl out by hctting thc
cthylcne glycol
.and tcrcphthalic acicl or dinrcthyl tcrcphtlialnte
and removing thc water or nrcthyl alcohol irr vaclo. When thc
dcsircd degree of polyrnerizatiorr hrs bccn reachcrt, the clcar,
colourlesspolyesteris extrudcclthrough a slot on to n casting
wheel. Tlrc polynrcr solidifics into an endlcssribbon, rvhich is
fed to a cutter rncl cut into chips in tlrc lornr ol' cubcs rviflt
3 - 6 n r n (r l l B - 1 1 4i n )s i d c s .
.1'he cltips are dcspatchcdto the spinning rooru via a suction
ptpe.
JJJ

-t
 D: S Y N T I I E T I C F I I }R E S
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTTLE FI BRES
(,
t-Z
<tr
tr.rL
r- It
HO (CHr)roH

ETHYLENE
uj
GLYCOL d
g
lll

| H + H' o
J
"ol--oc(
' )coo1cu,1,o- o'
| \ / . Jn
F-

TEREPHTHALATE
POLYETHYLENE

lvv v, ,l

I 'll + Ho (cHr) oH :
@
l
coocllt o O l
i z6 rq'
7fr
\

POLYETHYLENETEREPHTHALATE ^YEL?.|!.. o
polyethyleneterephthalate u
Pro<luctionof 7a t--{
z< lrJ
zu

Spinnlng
?z
Polyethylene terephthalatemelts at about 260"C''
and the molten ?{
nolvmerisstablesolongasoxygenisrigorouslyexcluded.Every
5>
ai in th" .p.olvmerization
riett spin-nine'
i;;J'^['ft;;-;;i";
"oting in-tocontactwitb the molten loFl
il;;,'io-pr"""tt-"i'
nolvmer. . z
l@+-ol
""il"il;
spinningbuil<'ling, the chips of polymer-aredried to d l@+lofl
of-moittuttl'und the; passe<l.to.storage
hoppers' o
I t7-1-
r;;;it;;;; to the spinning
l
required
nri,. irt,j ri"ip"t" iu. chips are fed al =
"'i;i;;;t
machines. usedfor \]|}$]llrlilnlTlri|Nrn
i€
is carriedout in a mannersimilarto that through *--**"'i
pumped-
";;;;i;; nur"t, ttt" n"'oiiitt polvmer being
ili#'il; ,pi""Jt.i. a, the filamcntsemersc'thev solidifv and
arewoun<linto packages of undrawnyarn'
335
JJ'+
 1I
I
, l
,l
I
tl
tIANDDOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES B: SYNTIIETIC FI BRES I
The undrawn yarn is stretchcdto about live tirnesits original the construction of the fabric and on thc tensionsrvhich are
Icngth on drarv-twistmachines,the stretchingbeing carried out developed during setting. In othcr rcspccts,thc scqucnce is
usually at elevatedtemperature.If high tenacity yarn is being attractive,and it is linrited only by thc fastucssof thc availablc
nrade, the filaments are drawn to a higher degree than in the dycstuflsto sublinrationunder heat-scttingconditions.
nranufacturcof regular tenacity yarn.
It is normal practice for PET polyester yarns to be drawn hot, Scouring
as this gives a more uniform product than cold drawing. The PET polyesterlibrcs arc supplied in a high statc of clcanlincss,
stretchingof heavy denier yarns and monofilamentsmay, how- and it is gcnerally unnccessaryto scour thc ntatcrial prior to
cver, be carried out at room temperature,as the poor heat dycing. If, horvcver, a batch of fibrc should bcconrc so dirty as
conductivityof thc libre makes for irregularitiesin thick lilaments to require scouring,the bath may be sct with
which are drawn hot.
Water 1,000 parts
Sroplc Fibrc Sodn ash 2 parts
Staple fibrc is producedby spinning a great nurutrcrof filarnents Detergent,such as tcxtile soap,
and bringing thenl togetherto fornr a lreavy tow. This is drawn or Lissapol C, D, NC or ND I prrrt
and then crinrped nrechanically,and the crinrp is set in the fibre The tcnrpcrnturc is raised to 70'C. for 15-30 mirrutcs antl,
by heat treatment.The torv is then cut into stapleof the desircd altcr scouring,thc goodsshould bc rinscd tlroroughlyto clinrinntc
lcngth. all tracesof alkali. A small quantity o[ acctic acid nrty bc addcd
to the final rirrsc.
PITOCESSING PET polyestergoods will oftcn acquirc dirt lnd stains durirrg
manufacture,including aftcr-waxingagcntsrpplied to sizcdwarp
The basic finishing processcsfor 100 per cent PET polyester yarns, loom stains and othcr forms of soiling. II goods nrc
filanrent yarn fabrics may be arranged in the following three heat-set before removal of thcse stains, subsequentclcaning of
sequences: the goods will become di{licult and perhaps irnpossiblc.It is
(l) Scour - heat-sct- dye prcferable, thercfore to scour goods bcforc heat-sctting.A blth
(2) Fleat-set- scour - dye of the following cornpositionis comrnonly uscd:
(3) Scour - clye - heat-set
Water 1,000parts
Loonr stains and other forms of contaminationare difiicult z Soda ash 2-3 parts
to rcmove frorr cloth which has been heat-set,a.ndit is prefer- or causticsoda (llakc) 0.5 pr rts
able to scour before heat-setting.Also, goods which have not Detergcnt,
suchas textilesoap,
been heat-setbefore dyeing will tend to shrink during dyeing, LissapolC, D, NC or ND l-2 parts
and the dyed goods will be subjected to high-tenrperaturesafter
dycing. For these reasons,sequence(l) is the most gcnerally Fabrics of relatively opcn structure, such rs voilcs,
usefu[. nrarquiscttes
and lerrosmry bc scouredin a shallowwinch at
Scquence(2) elinrinatcsa drying processand is suitable for temperatures
below60'C.
fabrics which are pcrlectly clean in the loomstate.It is, however,
Illcachirtg I
rarely used for PET polyester fabrics except in the case of
curtairr ncts. Thc nrtural white colour of PET polyeslcr fibrcs is usunlly I
I
lf sequcnco(3) is uscd,sornestifTeningof the fabric is likcly to satisfactory for nrost purposcs,and blcnclring is unrrcccssrry. I
occur following hcat-sctting.The degreeof stiflcningdependson Whcn fabrics arc to be finishcd white a slightly inrprovcd I
336 337
I
I
i
I
I
.' tI i ' t ' r
 IIANDDOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
colour nray be obtainedby bleachingin a bath set with 2-3 parts
o[ soclium chloritc per 1,000parts of watcr at pH 3-4. Other
common blcechingagentshave little or no ellect on the colour
of PET polycster fibres.
The best results are obtained by making use of fltrorescent
brightcning agents.Those used with PET polyesterfibres com-
monly havc the following characteristics
: An exccllcnt white is obtained by trcating thc hcat-sct flbric
(a) A relatively high dyeing temperature is required. One
result of this is that they are virtually non-eflectiveas additives
in domesticwashing powders.
(b) Hieh wet fastness.This ensureslittle loss under normal
washing conditions, obviating the need for restoration of the
white during washing.
(c) Lightfastness is high enough for all apparel uses, and in
most cascsis suitablealso for furnishingsand curtairrs.
Fluorescentbrightening agents are applied by the mcthods
uscd in dyeing with dispersedyes, i.e.
(a) Applicatiorr at the boil, without carrier.
(b) Application at or ncar the boil, with carrier.
(c) High temperatureapplication (130'C.), without carrier.
(d) Application by pad-thernrofix techniques.
The nrethod selectedwill depend upon the type of machinery
available, and the structure of the fabric. Most [abrics may
be handledon a bcam-dyeingmachine at or above 100"C.,while
a jig may be used for the more stable woven fabrics.
Rope processingin the winch is often used,especiallyfor warp-
knitted fabrics. There is some slight risk of rope marking, but
this can usr.rallybe removed during subsequentstentering.
The selectionof a particular fluorescentbrightener depends
upon the fluorescenttonc and fastnessrequired, and on the
method of applica{ion.The amounts of brightener and carrier
arc dctcrnrincdby the strcngtlrand eflcctivencss of the products,
and the nrrnufacturers'instructionshould be followed.
Most Iiuorescentbrighteningagcntssuitablc for PET polyester
fibres nray be applierl fronr a soditrm chloritc blcach liquor, so
that a onc-stngcclrcnricalnnd optical blcach is possible.Carriers
of the o rtho-phenyl-phcnol class nrust not be usc.d.howcver.
either during or after chlorite bleaching.
338
B: SYNTHETIC FIIIRES
Techniquesreconrmendedfor obtaininga good whitc finish on
PEI polyester and blcnds are outlincd bclow.
100 per cent PET Polyester and pEI' polycstcrlNylon IJIcnls
lI/ orp- kni I t ed F ab rics
with acidifiedsodium chloritc, followed by tlrc applicationof a
fluorescentbrighteningagent at 130.C., or 100"C. with a corn_
patible carrier, on a beam-dyeingmachinc.
With most brighteningagents,a goocl whitc can bc obtainc<l
by a single-bathmcthod in which the fluorcsccntbrightcnirrg
agent and conrpatiblccarrier are includcd in Lhcsotliuruchloritc
liquor.
lVcft-knitted Fubrics
Weft-knittedfabrics rnay bc handlcd on thc winch, using sinrilur
techniques.
Wovett Fabrics
The.beam-dyeingmachine is recommcnclccl for blcachingwovcn
fabrics. Alternatively,the jig may bc uscd, thc conccntrationof
chlorite bleachingchemicalsbeing increasci by sonrc20 per ccnt
to compensatefor thc shortcr liquor.
Pad-Thennofix Applicatiott ot' Fluoresccn! Ilrighttning Agcttt
Padding and baking the fluorescentbrightening agcnt, without
cherwicalbleaching,is often enrployccl,
cspccinllylor warp-knittcd
or woven curtain nets.The processis chcaperthan thoscdcscribc<l
above, but the results are usually in[crior.
.The taking stagemay be combined with hcat-sctting,anclllso
with chemical finishing whcre this is carricd out, providing a
very economical finishing proccdurc.Thc pa<ldingliquor "on_
tains suflicient brightening agcnt, basc<lon tl,c ""pr"ssion oI
the mangle, to give the rcquircd tntount on thc fabr.ic..l-lris
varics with thc product and the effcct rcquircd, nncl thc nurnu-
facturers'instructionsshould bc followccl.No crrricr is nccdctl,
but a wetting agcnt nrily bc incorporntcdit dcsircd.
Altcr padding ancl drying, thc fabric is hcrtcd on il srcnlcr
aL 220"C. for lG-30 sccondsdepcndingon thc chl rirctcristicsof
339

O F T E X T I L EF I B I T E S
HANDBOOK
the stenter.Excessiveexposure to high temPeratureshould be
avoided in order to avoid inrpairing the brightening ellect.
PET PolycsterlCellulosic Fibre Blcnds
Chemical bleaching should be employed, especiallywhen the
cellulosic component is cotton. For best results, fluorescent
brightening agentsshould also be applied for both components
of the blend.
Several methods of chenricalbleaching may be used, the choice
depending on the result required and the equipment available.
Acidified sodium chlorite provides a nrost effective single-stage
bleach, and a high white is obtaincd from a chlorite blcach
followed by a peroxide bleach.
A good result is also obtaincd from a hypochlor.ite bleach
follorvedby alkalinehydrogenperoxide.Hypochloritc or peroxide
used alone as a single stage proccss will givc a white sttitable
for nrany purposes, e.g. as ground for subsecluent dyeing.
Processesexcluding chlorite are gcnerally more suitable for
colour-wovengoods.
Depending on the weight and construction of the fabric, it
rnay be possible to heat-set and then process in rope form at
temperaturesup to 100'C. without undue risk of rope marking.
Lighter weight fabrics, and those of tight construction generally,
must be handled in open rvidth on the bearn machine or jig.
PE1'polyestcr/{lax blends may be bleachedaccordinglo these
gcncral principles,but nrore intcnsetrcatntcutis rcquircd.
PET Polycster I lVool Blends
The PET polyester component canuot be bleached with chlorine
compounds in the presence of the wool cotuponent. Chernical
blcaching of PET polyester/wool blends is virtually restrictcd,
therefore, to the blcaching of the wool. Hydrogen peroxide is
the preferred agent, and bleaching is carried out after a fluores-
cent brightcning agent has bcen applicd to the FET polyestcr
component. This corrects any yellowing of the wool which may
have occurred during the application of the ageltt to the PET
polyesterfibrc.
Prc-Sctting
Urrset PET polyester filament yarns will shrink when allowed
340
--t
I
L
II
I
I
I]: S YNTTIETI C FI BRES I
to relax in boiliug water, comrnonlyby sonrc7 pcr ccnt. At.
130'C.,shrinkage is of the ordcrof l0 pcr ccnt.
If unsetyarns in packagefornr are subjcctcdto any proccss,
suchas dycin[,involvingclevatcdtcnrperaturc, thc shrinkagcwill
bring aboutconsolidation of the packagc. In dycing,this rcstricts
thc evenflow of dye liquor and causes unlcvcldycing.
Beforedyeing,PET polycstcrfilanrentyiuns rrc wound on to
colhpsiblepapertubcsand relaxcdfor 20 nrinutcsin sirturrtcd
steanr,preferablyat a temperature 5'C. highcrthan thc uurxinrurrr
temperaturewhich will be reachedin thc dycing.
Precautions shouldalwaysbe takcn to cnsurcthat conditions
in the stearning chamberare as unilorm as possiblc.Variation
.in the steamscttingconditionscan causevnriatiouin clycirrg
properties,and it is prclerableto steamthc wholcof cachdycing
batch at the sametimc.
IIclt-Sclling
Tho purposcof heat-settingis to stabilizethc fabric to thc cflccts
of any hcat trcatmcnt which it nray rcccivc in subscqucntfinish-
'l'hc
ing processcs,in making-up, or in usc. sclcction of hc:rt-
settingconditionsis controllcd,thcreforc,by thc intcndcrlcnd-usc
of the fabric and by thc thcrnralhistory of thc yarus fronr which
it is constructed.
For PET polyesterfabrics,tho heat settingtcmpcraturcshotrltl
which are to be uscd in plcatirrg,
bc highcr than the tenrperirtures
cnrbossingor calcndcring,so as to clinrinate thc possibility of
uncontrolled shr.inkagein thcseproccsscs.It should bc cnrphirsiz-ctl
that the. ability of PEf polyester fibre to acccpt.a pcrrnancnt
set is riot inlluenced by the temperaturcof prior hcat-sctting.
In this respect, PET polycster fibres difler from sonrc othcr
synthetic fibres.
Steant Sclling
Prcssurcsterming is not rccontnrendcdfor thc scttirrgof I'l:'l'
polycsterfabrics, bccauscof vrriations bctrvccnthc insitlc nrrtl
the outsideof thc batch in thc dcgrccsof shrirrkagcatttl rcstntint
which arc produccd.
IIot-Air Sctting
A hot-air stenteris commonly uscd in hcat-scttingPDT polycstcr
341
I r - r r r f t - r - r I r r r r M I
lr ii

ll,\Nr)llOOK OI: I liXl'lLE IiIIIRES

D : . S} ' N I I I E ' r I C I ; I I } I TI ] S
I ' r l r r n r c r[r:tr b r i c s . ' l - h cp i n s t e l l t c ri s u s r r a l l yp r c [ c r r c d f o r t l r e I:ttbric Mcllrotl ,Sctrittg . < i l t r i r t k t t g tz, l I l t t n ' t t rt t' t ( ' ) ! , )
s c t t i n go I r v o v c nf t r b r i c sb, u t f o r f : r t r r i c si n r v l r i c ha p i n - n r a r k c d C/rr.r',r' 'l
ctrrp. (-C.) lllttrlt ll,clt
s c l v c r l g ics u n : r c c c p t u b ltcl r, c c l i p s t c n t c rn t a y b c u s c di n a s s o c i a -
3a Itin r 5 0 , 16 0 0
t i o n ' , r , i t hc y l i n c l c rs c t t i n g( s c eb e l o r v ) . 0
-l'hcrc stenter
a r c d i l l l c u l t i c s a s s o c i t r t c dr v i t h t l i c c o n t r o l o [ r v a r p
3b l,in r 50-200 0 5
s h r i n k a g ci n c l i p s t c n t c r s . ' l ' h c l i p s t c u c lt o r n a r k t h c s c l v c d g c s 0 5
o f t h c c l o t h t r n c l c rt h c t c n s i o r r sw h i c h a r e c l c v c l o p c di n h c a t - stcntcr
4 Clip 1 5 01 6 0 n
s c t t i r r ga, n r l t i g l t t s c l v c c l g cnsl l \ y b c t o r n f r o r r r t h c b o d y o I t h c 0
f a b r i c . I - o c a l c o o l i n g a t t l t e s c l v e c l g ciss a l s o n r o r c s c v c r oi n t h c stclltcf
c l i p t h ; r ni n t l r ep i n s t e n t c ra, n d r r r a yp r o d u c er n a r k c du n l c v c l n e s s p lu s
i r r s r r l ' s c r l r r cr n l yt c i n g . cylinclcr 200 l : r cc l;rcc
'l'lic 5 Cylindcr 2t0 l 0 : r p 1 ; r o x I r r c c( 1 5a p p r o x . )
h i g h d r y - h e a ts h r i n k a g co f l r E ' f p o l y c s t c rf i l a n r e n tf a b r i c . s
n c c c s s i t a t casc c u r a t cc o n t r o l i n s t c r r t c r i n gi n o r d c r t o a v o i c l
[ : r b r i c r l i s t o r t i o n . ' ] - l r cs c l v c d g c ss h o u l d b e p i n i r e d a c c u r a t e l y , c l u r ' r I i ' c l u c r c sI c n o c u r t ^ i ' [ ' b r i c s u r r r
l v i t h o u t c x c c s s i v co v c r f c c d . sirrir.r vcry or)c'
strtrctrrrcs.

Cylitttltr Scttirtli C l u . r '2s i n c l u d c sl l r c l ' ^ j o r i r y o f I r r : ' r ' p o r y c s t c r

f i r . r r r c . tw o v c l r
C y l i n r l c r o r c y l i r r d c r - t r r r d - b l a n ks c t t i n g n r a c h i n c sa r c u s e r l f l b r i c s ( t n l l c l n s t, r v i l l s s, r r i i n sc, t c . ) .
p ri n c i p ; i l l yi n t l r c s t a b i l i z a t i o o r rf h c a v y i n d u s t r i a P l L - ' fp o l y c s t c r C l u s s3 i r r c l u c l ccso r o r r r - r v o v cf a n b r i c s -. r - l r cr r r : r j o r i t y , ff : r b r . i c s
l ' a b r i c s , ' , v h c r sc t c n t c r sc o u l c l r r o t r . v i t h s t a ntdh c l r i g h t c n s i o n s t t t u d cf r o n r h i g h - t c n r ' c r i r t r ror cr c ^ r r i c r t r y c c r
-[-his y r r r i r s , , i cs r , , t , i .i .u
r l c v c l o p c t il n s c t t i n g . r t r c t l r o ci ls a l s o u s c c l' , v i t h[ a b r i c s s u c h t t r . k i ' g - r p ^ r r l t . r r i l d l a u r r t r c r i r rcgo r r r l i t i . r r s .
a s s : r i l - c l o t h rsv l r i c l rr c c l u i r cc o r r s o l i c l a t i odnu r i n g f i r r i s l r i n gI.n I ; r r b r i c'Jf r, r. ,oi p" rc,r, li i cy s
s r r c h a s h l r r c l l c a r r < lc r c : r s cr c c o v c r y ; r r c ,
l r o wcvc,.,
c o r r j t r n c t i ornv i t h s t c r r t c r i r r igt , i s l l s o u s c r lt o ; r r o r l t r c ct l r c c x c c l t - ttrtrrrovcb d y t l r c r r i r t.r s c i l . i r r tgr c ^ t r r r c l ' t
s r r g g c s t cIror r ( _ . r a sl s: r .
t i o n a l l y r r n i f o n r r f i r r i s h r v l r i c h i s r c c l r r i r c cfl o r I ) l t ' l - p o l y c s t c r I r a b r i c sl r r a c l cf r o r r r y a r r r sr r y c c rb y o t l r c r
r r r c a r o r r s . rw r r i c l r
b ; r s cf : r b r i c su , h i c h : r r et o r e c c i v ca p l a s t i cc o a t i l l g . c o ' t a i r r . u n s cw. tl r i t e y a r . s f a i l i n t o c r . s s
3 [ r , : r r r rsr r r o t r r b t rc l r c l r t -
s c t a t t l i e h i g h c s t c ' r p c r a t r r rpcc r r r r i t t c d
II cut-S
c tt i t t g C o t t d i t i o t r s bi.tlrc sublirratio..f
t l r c d y c s t u f l su s c c l .
I ) l r - l ' p o l l , c s t c rf i l a n t c n t f a b r i c s a r c c o l l t n t o n l y s c t b y c x 1 ' r o s t r r c
i o r l 0 J 0 s c c o n d si r r t h c I t o t z o t r e o f t h c s c t t i n gs t c n t c r .- l - h e Q l o s ' r' l i . c l u d c s f a b r i c s [ o r r v r r i c hc o r r p r c t c l yf r c c s r r r i r r k a g ics
n o t p c r n r i s s i b l cb, u t r v r r i c hr r t r s t b c f i r r i s l r c r r
c x t r c r r r c so l t h i s ^r a l t g c c o r r e s p o n dr v i t h l i g h t w c i g h t f a b r i c s o f f . c cf r . r r r p i , , o i ' . r ; i . ,
r r ti rr k s .
l e s st l r a r r6 8 g / r n 2 ( 2 o t . . l s q . y t l . za) n c lr v i t l t h c a v y l - a b r i c o
sf up to
2 0 3 g / r r r ' ( 6 o z . l y r l . ' ) . ' l ' h e l ' o l l o r v i r rtga b l c s u t g c s t ss e t t i n g C l t t s . t5 i n c l u i l c si a b r i c s i n w l r i c h s l r r i r r k a g c
i s r l c s i r : r t l l cs ,r r c l r
t c r u p c r a t t r r easn d s h r i n k a g ea l l o r v a n c c s u i t a b l c [ o r t l r e f i a t a s s a i l c l o t l r so,r r v l r i c ht r r ct o o I r c : r v yf o r
s t c n l c rp r o c c s s i r r g .
f i n i s h i n go I a r v i c l cr a n g c o f I r t i - l ' p o l y c s t c rf i l a r n c n tf a b r i c s :

I:abric LIcthod Scttitrg S l t r i n k o g eA l l o v , a n c c( " / " ) A l t l i t i o t t a l F i t t i t l r i t t go l I I c u r - S t ,It; u b r i c s

'l-crtrp.
Clo.r.r ('C.) lVorp IVell I l a r s h n c . s so r ' p l p c r i n c s s 'p r o c l r r c c dt , y
I I ) in 2t0-220 3-5 l r c l r t - s c l t r r rngl a y b c
3-5 r c r r o v c d b y . s r r l ; s c q r r cr' vt c t
s t c nt c r ' r o c c s r " . , r , , i r r r r sj i g - s c o r r i i ' g , , i , r . , i . . r . ,
') g i v c s o ' r c n r c c l * r i c i r la c t i o ' . ' l ' h c r ^ t c
l'irt 200-2I 0 o I s o f t c r r i . gi s a c c c l c r ^ r c r l
l-5 3 5 b y t h c p r c s c n c co f c a r r s l i cs o r l ' i r r t l ' , cs . o L , r r , . , g
stentcr b.tlr. Irabrics
r v h i c hh a v e b c c o r r r c x c c s s i v c rhya r s hs h o r l c r
[ r c p r o c c s s ca r rt t h e
342 l.ll
 IIANI)llOOK O| I I:Xlll-l: I:ll]lllrS ll: sYNr-lilittc 1,ilil{Es

[ r o i i o r r r r r ]c n c l o s c (j li g i n a b l t l r s c t \ v i t l )5 l ) i r r t so f c a r r s t i sc o ( l r r ( t ) 100 pcr ccttt I'l:.'l' I'oly7'.e1r, G ttotls

-l'irc
( l l r r k c )p c r I ( ) 0 p l r t s o I w , u t c r . p ro c c s sp r t t t l L r c cas l o s s i n
'l
I r L b l i cr v c i g l r to f t l r c o r d c r o [ 0 . - 5l t c r c c n t . l r c c l l c c t l t r o r l r r c c r l
i s c l L r i l ct l i l l c r c n t f r o r r r t l r l r t o l t l l c c o n v c r r l i o n a' lc l u , l s t i sc o ( l i l
s o f t c n i r ) , l l ' l ) r o c ci ns sr v h i c h6 - 1 0 p c r c c n t o I t h c I a b r i c r v c i g h ti s
Io s t .
I); cing
l ' l ' .l ' p o l l , c s t c rf i b r c s a r c h y ( l r o l ) h o b i ca, n d r l y c i n g so I r r s c f u l
t l c p t l rr uc o b t l i r r c t lb y r r s i n gt h o s cc l u s s c o s I t l y c s t r r f lrsv l r i c l ra r c
s u b s t r r n t i l l l iyr r s o l t r b lrc' n r v a t c r . ' l - h c sien c l u r l ct h c r l i s p c r s cr l y c -
s t u l l . s ,i r z - o i cc l v c s t u l l s( a p p l i c c lb y a n r o d i l i c r l t c c h n i q u c ) ,a n c l a
l i r r r i t c trl r r r r n b cor I v a t r l y c s .
D i s y r c r s tcl l , c s t ul 'fs p r o v i c l cb r r i l t l - u 1at n d c o l o r r rf a s t n c s st h a t i s
a r l c r l u a t cf o l r r r o s tp u f l ) o s c sa, n c lu r . r , i r lrca n g c o f c o l o u r si s a v a i l -
i r b l c .A z , o i cd y ' c s t t r f lpsr o c l r r c rcr r i u r g co I b r i g l r t r c r l su r r t ll ) l l r o o n s ,
: r b l a c k a n c li r n a v l , b l t r cl,r l l o I r v l r i c hh i r v cg o o d f u s t r r c st so s c v c r c
r v a s h i r r - q . ' l 'rl r sc c f t r l r r cosfsl l r c i r z o i cr c c l sa n r l r n u r o o n si s l i r t r i t c r l ,
I t o r v c v c r b, y t l t c i r t c r r t l c t r c tyo b c t l u l l c c li r n t l t o l o s c r r r b b i r r g
l i r s t r r c sasf t c r s t c l n r - s c t t i nogr h c a t - s c t t i nlg) r o c c s s c s -
V l t r l y c s t r r f l)s, i c l c a l l i n r i t c dr a n g e o f s h u d c so, n c o r t r v o o [
r v l r i c ha r c v c r y b r i g h t ,b u t t h c y b u i l d u p t o o n l y u t c d i u n rd c p t h s .
l ) l r l.' p o l ! ' c s t c frl b r c sl r : r v c; r l r i g l ra f i i r r i t y[ o r < l i s p c r st cl y c s t r r f l ' s ,
b r r l t h c r l t c o f r l i l l . L t s i o nI t h c s cd y c s t t r l l isn t l r c l i b r c i s r c l : r t i v c l y
l o w , . ' l ' h cr l t c o f r l y c i r r gn r a y b c r a i s c ctl o a c o r r r r r r c r c i aal lcyc c p t -
: r b l c l c v c l c i t l r c l b y r v c l r k i r r rgr t t l r c b o i l i r r t l r c l . r l c s c n cocf l r r
r t c c c l c r a t i rirt g c n to r c a l l i c r ,o r b y r l i , c i r r u g n c l c rs u p c r a t n r o s l t l r c r i c
l ) r c s s r r ract l c r r r p c r i r t u r ci ns t h e r c g i o n o f 1 3 0 ' C . ' l - h ch i g h t c l r r -
p c r a t r r r cr l l , c i r r gl t r c t l t o rils p r c l c r ' : r b lacr r c sl l r o u l t lb c r r s c crlv l r c r c
p o s s i L r l ci r, r o r c l c r t o t a k c t r t l v l r r r t a gocf t l r c c x c c l l c n tl c v c l l i r r g
a c t i o r ro b t l i n : r L r l cu r r r l c r t l r c s cc o n c l i t i o r r s . ' l ' h itsc c h n i c l u ca l s o
a v o i d s t l r c a c l v c r s cc f l c c t o f c c r t a i n c a r r i c r so l l t h c l i g h t f a s t n c s s
o f s o r r r et l l , c s t r r l I s .
'l'lrc
f t r l l r l r r g c o I t r v l i l l b l c r l i s l t c r s cr l y c s c a n b c a l t p l i c r l: r t
h i g h t c r n p c r a t u r e sr ,v h c r c u ss o l n c o I t h c n c r v c r c l i s p c r s cd y c s c l o
r r o t l t u i l c lr r l t r v c l l r v h c n r l y c r l a t t h c b o i l i n t h c p r c s c l t c co I a
cIil lcr.
I ) i s L r c r s ca n c l rs c l c c t c d v a t d y c s t u f l s n t i l y l r l s o b c a p p l i c c lt o
p i c c cg o o r l sb y : r p t r t l - l r l k c (' c c l r r r i r l t r ct r, s i r r gt l r y l r c l r t a I t c n l p c r a -
t t r r c si n t h c r a r r g c1 9 0 -r2 5'c.
3.1.1
Loose Slock utrrlS'lrtbbirtg
P t l ' f p o l l , c s t elro o s c s t o c k a n d s l u b b i r r ga r c c o r ) u ) t o l l l iyl y c d b y
t l r e l r i g l r - t c r n l e r i r l r rpr cr o c c s s r, r s i n g< l i s p c r s o
c r a z . o i cc o l o r r r s .
'l'hc
c u l r i c r l ) r o c c s sr r r a yu l s o b c u s c c lb, t r t i t r r r a yt l r c n [ r c r r c c c s -
s a r y t o r c p a c kt h c n t a t c r i a l sc l u r i n gc l y c i n gi n o l d c r t o c l b t l i n a
Icvclrcsult.
I n l r a n c l l i n gs l u b b i n g ,g r c a t c i t r e s h o t r l d b c t a k c n t o r r v o i r l
t l r c i r t s c r t i o rorf ' r c : r l ' t r v i s ta, s t l r i s n r a y b c c o r r r c ' s c t - i n ' d r r r i r r g
d y c i n g a r r c l c l c l t o c l i f l i c u l t i cisr r s u b s c r l r r c r rl rt a I t i r r gl ) r o c c s s c s .
Stttplc I:ibrt: )'ortr.r
I t ' l o s t 1 0 0 p c r c c n t P l t - l ' p o l y c s t c rs t l p l c l i b r c y a r n s n l r y I r c
r v r l t t r r tcl l i r c c t l yo n t o c l r c c s c os r c o n c s f o l r l y c i r r gS. o n r cy l r r r r s ,
I r o ' , v c v c rc,s l ) c c i i l l l yl l r o s c s p r r n f l o r r r s t r c t c l r - b r o k c tno r v s ( c , g .
y l u . n ss l ) r u ro n I l l c S c l u r p p co r S t i t i n ss y s t c r r r s l)r, l v c u I r i l i l r
p o t c n t i r r sl l r r i r r k ; r g ac ,r r r l t l t c s cs l r o t r l rbl c s t l b i l i z - c rbl y p r c s s L r r c
stcatnittg p r i o r t o r v i r r c l i n tgl r c r l y c i n gp t r c k : r g c .
[ t - i l a t t r c t tYt t r r t t s
'l-rvist
i rlr I ' l l - l ' p o l y c s t c rf l l : r r r r c nytl r n s t o o b t l i r r
r r r t r sbt c i r r s c r t c <
a c l y c i n gp a c k a g co f s u l l i c i c r rpt c r n r c a b i l i t y . ' l ' l rncr i n i r r r u r tn' , v i . ; t
l c v c l sv a r y r v i t h y a r n t l c n i c r s [, > u ta s a g r r i r l ci t i s r c c o l r r r r r c r r t l c r l
t l r a t I 6 7 r l t c x ( 1 5 0 t l c n ) b c t l r r o r v r tro a t l c l s t 2 3 5 t u r n s / r l
( 6 t u r n s / i n ) .- l ' l r et l r r o r v ny a r n s s l r o u k lb c r v o u n r lo n c o l l a p s i t r l c
'l
t u b c sa n d r e l a x c di n s t c a r r r . l r i s c l i r n i n l t c st l r o p o t c r r t i asl h r i r r k -
: r g e ,r v l r i c l rw o r r l c lo t l r c r w i s cr r r a k ct h c p a c k a g cc o r r s o l i r l l t ci r r
t l y c i r r g . ' l ' l t cr c l a x c r ly a n l s a r o r c r v o r r n di n t o s u i t u t l l cp u c k : r 1 3 c s
f o r d y c i r r gW . h c n t rn d y c d y a r n sl r r c t o b c u s c di n t l r c s l r r r cI a t r r i c
a s t l y c d y a r n s , i t i s c s s e n t i atlo s t a b i l i z -tcl r c u n d y c t l y a r r r st r . r
iI
I
p r e v c n tp u c k c r c dc f f c c t sr l u r i n gc l o t l r l ' i n i s l r i n l i .
lJttlkedl'arns I
S p c c i a lI r a n d l i n gt c c h r r i r y t rncist r s tb c r r s c ciln r l y e i r r g[ l t r l k c t l ' l : l '
p o l y c s t c rl i l a n r c n ty a n r s . I n g c n c r n l ,c r r r i c r < l y c i r r gp r o r l r t c c s : t
I
r a t h e ri r r [ c r i o rh a n c l l ct o t h a t o b t a i n c (iln l r i g h - t c r r r p c r n t udrycc i r r g
; r t 1 2 0 ' C . I ) y c i r r ga t l c r r r p c n r t t r r h
c a t t s cI o s si n b u l k .
c si g l r c r t l r : r t 1 2 0 ' C . t c t t c l st t . r
II
l.l s
I
tl

i i
I I
'!j
I I l- I l U ti I I I I I ti t' L tj I U I ll
Il/\Nt)llOOK Oli I llx.lll-li liilllllrS
I'ict'c O rtorl.r
\ \ ' o v c n I ' l l - l ' p o l ) , c s t c r f a b r i c s a r c h r t t t c l l c ct lr s t r l l l y o n j i g s o r i n
b c a r r r - r l y c i n ng u r c l ) i n c sS o r r t cl i g l r t r v c i g h ft a b l i c s o f o p c t r s t r t t c t u r c ,
I r o * ' c v c r , s t t c h a s l c r t o s l n d t t r r t r t l t t i s c t t c sl l,t a y b c h a n d l c c l o n
r v i r r c h c sK . n i t t c r l [ a b r i c s , I a c c s a t t c lt h c h c : i v y t y p c o f s t a p l c f i b r e
g o o d s r r l r y l l s o b c d y c c l o n t l t c r v i n c l t r t l a c l i i t t ca s w c l l a s o t r t l t c
b c u r r r .I I o s c , I r l l f - h o s c a u c l k n i t t c d g i l r l ) l c l l t l c r r g t h sa r c t l y c d i r t
p u c l c l l cr n u c l i i n c s .
l l i g h - t c n r p c r . a t t r rccq u i p n t c r t ti s a v i r i l a b l ef o r b o t h j i g a n c l b c a n t
r l y c i r r g ,[ ; r r t t l r c b c a r r r r n a c l r i r t ci s p r c f c r t c c l f o r a l l b u t t l t c t t t o s t
closcly wovcn fabrics, bccausc oI its supcrior lcvclling action.
N J i u o r c h a r r g c si n s c t t c a r t r r t a k c e v c t r v e r y c l o s c l y w o v e l t f a b r i c s
s u i t a b l c f o r b c a r r r d y c i r r g r v i t h o u t a [ ] - c c t i n gt h e i r s r r i t a t r i l i t yf o r
n r i n c o u t s ,o v c n r l l s u r r c ls i n r i l a r c r t r l - u s c sD . c s i g r t c r ss l i o r r l d t l r c r c -
[ o r c b c a r i n n r i n r l t h c p o s s i b i l i t yo f b c a r n d y c i n g r v h c n t l c s i g r r i r r g
ncrv [:rbrics.
(2) Illt'rtrlctl G ootl.r
I'li'l' I'ol;,cstcr f ll/ool Illcnls
'l-lrc
I t l , - ' l ' p o l l , c s t c r c o n r l ) o t t o n to l t h t : s c [ t l c l t r l s i s t l y c t l r v i l h
r li s p c r s cr l y c s ,a n r l t l r c r v o o l c o n r l l o n c n tr v i t l t s c l c c t e t n l rillirrg-lcid,
c l r r o n r c o r n c L r t r a l - c l 1 , c i pn rgc r r c t a l l i z - c dc o l o t t r s , ' l - l r cl t r c s c r t c cc t f
t l r c * , o o l r c s t r i c t st h c r l y c i n g t c r n p c n t t t t r ct o 1 0 5 " L - . a, n d t l t c b l c n t l
n r r r s t b c r l 1 ' c c lt,h c r c f o r c , b y t l i c c a r r i c r p r o c c s s .l ' i c c c g o o d s l r r c
r r s r t : r l l yr v' i r t c l rc l 1 ' c <al t 9 5 - 9 8 ' C .
I t ' l o s t t l i s p c r s c t l y c s t t r [ I sr v i l l s t a i n t h c r v o o l c o l l r p o r l c r ) [ o I t h e
b l c n r l , b L r t b y c a r c i u l s c l c c t i o t to f t h c c l y c s t t r [ l ' sc ,a t r i c r a n d c l i s -
p c r s i n g l g c r r t s i t i s l r o s s i b l ct o c l 1 , ct r p t o t l r c ( l i t r l r sl l ) a ( l c sb y i I
o r r c - b a t l r l ) r o c c s s . A t r v o - b n t h I ) r o c c s s i s r c c o r r r t t t c t t c l c cf ol r < l c c p
s l r : r r l c ss.o t l u r t t h c r v o o l c a t r b e ' c l e a r c t l ' a f t c r t h c I ) E - l ' p o l y c s t e r
h l s b e c r r d y c c l . ' l ' l r e b c s t c o r r r b i n a t i o no f l r t s t r t c s sl ] r o p c r t i c s o r t
l l r c t * , o c o r r r p o n c n t si s o b t a i n c r l b y d y ' c i n g t l r c I i b r c s s c p a r a t c l y
beforc blcrrding.
A largc proportion of PE'l' poli'estcr/woolgootls arc uscd itr
'rvush-lrrrl-*'cilr'
cn(l-uscs, an<l clycs for thc rvool corltl)ollcl)t
s h o u l d b c s c l c c t c d c a r c [ u l l y t o g i v c t l r c b c s t c o r t t b i l ) a t i o r to f
-fltc
c o l o u r f u s t n c s st o l i g h t a n c l r v l s h i n g . r v c t f i t s t l t c s so f t h c
r v o o l c o n r p o n c n t i s y r l r t i c t r l : r r l yi n r p o r t a r r t i n d 1 ' c c ly r l r t t s ,w l l i c h
r r r r r s rt v i t h s t l n d t h c c o n d i t i o l l s c l r c o u n t c r c di n r v o r s t c do r w o o l l c n
346
Il: .SYNl llI: l IC t:lllttt:S
I i r r i s l r i n rgo u t i n c s .I r i n i s l r c rssl r o r r l rcl n s u f ct l r l t y l r n t l y c t l g o o t l s
s p c n c la r r r i n i n r r r norI t i r r r cp i l c t l i n l h c r v c t s t l ( c ; s t r c l rf i r b ri c s
sitoulrn l o t b c a l l o r v c dt o s t a r r tw l ' c to v c r r r i g l r t .
I ' l : ' l ' p o l y c s t c r l l b r c h u s l t r ' t r c h g r c u t c r u t t r u s i o rrr. c s i s t : r r r c c
t l l r n " v o o l , a n c l r v i t l r c r o s s - c l y csdt y l c s t l r c r c i s a r l l r r l l c r t l r n t
c l l r n g c si n s l r a d cl n a y o c c r l r r l u r i n g r v c l r r .S r r r r r ltll i l l c r c r r c cisr r
s l u r r l co r i r r I o r r c b c t w c c r rt l r c t l v o c o r r r p o r r c n rl sr r c , l r o r v c v c r . ,
t o l c r a b l c .w h c r c t h c s t y l c r l c r r r a r r rtllsr c p r o t l t r c t i o nc l I t c r o s s -
c l y c c cl [ I c c t ,i t i s p r c f c r a b l ct l r a t t h c l ' E l ' p o l y c s l c rc o l n l ) o . c . t
s l r o u l ccl a r r y t l r c c l u r k c ls l r a t l c ;a r l c c p c n i r rigr r s l r l t l c i s r r s t r ^ l l y
l c s sn o t i c c a b l ct l r a n a c h i r r r g icn t h c o p p o s i t cr l i r c c t i o r r .
I'l:)'l' PolyastcrISilk Illutrls
'l'hc
p r o b l c r n sc n c o u r r t c r citnl r l y c i r r gt h c s cb l c r r t l sa r c s i r ) r i l l rlro
t h o s c o I P [ r ' l ' p o l y c s t c r / r . v obollc . d s . D i s p c r . srcr y c sr v i i l r r s t r r r l l y
s t l i n s i l k ; r p p r c c i i r b lbyt,r t t l r c s t n i r r n l y [ r c c l c r r r . cr tr lr r rtll r c s i l k
r l y c r l i . a s c c o r r t bl l r l r . ' l ' l r c s i l k r n n y l r c r l y c t r ( o l l r s r , b r i g l r t
c o l o u r sr v i t h r c . c l i v c c l y c s a , s ' , v c l la s r v i r r rt r r c t r y c s r v l r i c l ri i rc
t r a c l i t i o n a l luys s o c i a t crrvl i l h t l r i s f i b r c .
I'l'.'l' Itrtlt'r.ster
I C'cllrtl6:ir:l;iltrc lJl.ttl.s
l ] l c n c los f I ' E ' l ' P o l y e s t cf irb r c sr v i t l rc c l l r r l o s il ci [ r r c ss r r c l ar s c o t t o r r ,
f l ^ x a r r l v i s c o s cr a y o r r r ) u l y b c c l l , c r lb y r r s i r r gr r i s p c r s ct l y c s r r r
t h c I ) l l - l ' p o l y c s t ccr o r r r p o r r c nl tn,c l v a t , I ) r o c i o no r c l i r c c tc o t t o r r
r l y c so r r t l t c c c l l r r l o s c .
'l'lrc.sc
o I v . t r l y c s r r c c c s s i t : t t^c st r ' o - b t r t hp r o c c s s b, t r t i t
g i v c s t l r c b c s t c o l o r r r - f i r s l r r cpsrso l r c r t i c sI.) r o c i o r r l y c s t t r f l lsl s c r
r c t l r r i r ca t r v o - b a t h l ) r o c c s s , : r ngrilv c g o o r lc o l o r r rf a s t n c sts0 g s 1 l l c r
r v i l h b r i g l r t ,c l c a r s l l r c l c ss. c l c c t c crll i r c c tc o i l o n r l y c s { u l l n sily [,c
l u p p l i c cf rl o r r r t l r c s a n r cb a l h a s c l i s p c r srcl y c s ,[ r t r tl n : r I t c r t r c u t -
t t t c n Ii s n c c c l c ct ol c o r r f c r c l s o r r a b lrcv c tl r r s t n c s E s .v c r rr v l r c rur [ l c r -
t r c . t c d , c l i r c c t c o t l o n < l y c s l r r f Ta sr c s l t i s [ ; r c t o r yo r r l y t o r l i 1 3 l r t
s l x r r l c sc, x c c l ) t i n t h o s c c n c l - r r s crsv l r c r cg a r r r r c l r t isr r c r v : r s l r c d
i r rl r c qt r cn t I y .
A s i r r t l r c c a s c o I I ) l l - l ' p o l v c s t c r ' / r v c[rrol cl r r t l st l, r c p r . r r r r c r i o r r
o f c r o s s - c l y ccdl l c c t so ' I ' l : ' l - p o l y c s t c r / c c l l r r l o sr i b c r c b l c r r l si s
I i r n i t c cpl r c [ c r a b l yt o o L r t l c t rsv h c r ct h c r l i r l ' c r c nl tr t r r l s i o rcr l l . c c l s
r l u r i r r gr v c a r r v i l l b c s r r r : r l l l.r r o r r l l c l sr v h c r c s c v c r . c* , c l r i s
a n t i c i p l t c d ,o r r l y v c r y s l i g h t d i f l c r c n c c si n s l r l t l c b c t r v c c nt l r c
c o n r p o n c n t cs a r r b c t o l c r a t c c l .
)4 1
 )llOOK OI|I I:X'l'll-lt l:l lll{trS
I}: SYN'I'IINTIC FIIIIIIS
I ' l r I ' p o l l ' c s t c r / c c l l ' l o s i cf i b r c y a n r s f o r c f l . c c tt r r r c u c r s l r o t r l t i
l i b l c t o r c s c r v c ,a ' c r i t s r v h i t e c . . a r s o b c c r r r ^ r r c c t l
b c t l ' c d r v i t h d i s p c r s c( l y c s a r c l r v i t h v a t t l y c s s c l c c r c ctlo w i t h - [ry llrc
a p p l i c u t i o ror I u f l t r o . c , s c c b. tr i g l r t c . i r r g . g c r r tA. r v i t i e
s l l n d t l t c p r o p o s c d { i n i s h i n gr o t r t i n e .D i s p c r s cd y c s n u L y b c r a r r l 3o
cI
s h a t l c sc . ' b c p . o r l t r c c co lr r t l r c n y l o r c o r r r p o ' c r rr tv i t l r o t r t
s c l c c t c r lt o r v i t l r s t : r n chlc a t - s c t t i n ga t 1 8 0 " c . i n r l a r k - r n c < l i r r n r stirirrirrg
t l r c I ) l lI ' l t o l y c s t c r .
s h a r l c sb , u t l o v a r c a b l c t o r v i t h s t a n ccl h l o r i t c - b l e a c h i ncgo n -
I f y ^ r r - d y c c Il ) r r ' f p o l l c s t c ri s . l s o i . c o r . p o r . i r t ci ' rt l r c f t r b r i c
t i i t i o n s .o t l i c r n r c t l r o d so I b l c a c h i n gn r u s t b c c h o s c n ,t h c r c f o r c ,
r r r r l . t i - c o l o t r rscttrli p c cor r c l r c c kc f i ' c c (csr n b c ; r r o d r r c c c l
f o r c o l o r r r - r v o v cl n a t c r i a l s . by.rurr-
r l 1 ' c i r r gS. l r ' d c s ^ ' t l r l y c s t t r r l [so r t l r c s ct r y c c i
I . a t l r l i t i o nt o t h c b : r t c hn r c t h o c l sr v h i c h a r c i r v ; r i l a b l ci ,t i s 1 , . r ' s s h o u r r rb c
s c l c c t c t lc i r r c f . I l y ; v c r y r l c c P s r r ^ r r c ss l r o u i r l b c ^ v o i r l c r l
p o s s i b l ct o c l 1 , cI ) E - l ' l t o l y c s t c r / c c l l u l o s i fci b r c p i c c c g o o c l sc o n _ rvlrcrc
p o s sbi lc .
t i n u o u s l yb y a p a c l - b a k pc r o c c s su, s i r r gn r i x t r r r c o s i c r i s p c r sl cn c l
I ) r o c i o n c l y c s t r r { [ sA. s c n r i - c o r r t i n r r o rpr sa c l - b a k c - j i gp r o c c s s i s
Prirr(irrg
a l s o a v , i l a b l c ,u s i n g r r i x t t r r c so I c l i s p e r sac . c l v u t c l y c s t u f l so,r
r r s i n go n l y v a t r l y c s t t r f l s c l c c t c ctlo i l y c b o t h f i b r c s .l ) a s t c ls l r a c l c s 100 pcr cttrt PE'l' Polyc.rtcr IVov,crrItttbrics
r r r a yb c p r o c l u c c r b [ y a p a c l c l i n gt c c h n i c l r r e using tlre solubiliz-ccr
' a t c l y c s ;t h c s cr l y c t h c c o t t o n o r v i s c o s cr i t y o n ,b u t p r o c l u c co n l y I r a b r i c s\ v o v c l lf r o r r r 1 0 0 l ) c r c c r ) [I r r : - l ' p . l y c s t c rI i b r c y r l r l s i r r c
a p c r s i s t c nst u r f u c cs t t i n o n P l i ' l ' p o l y c s t c rf i b r c s . t r s t r a l lpy r i r l t c crlv i t l tc t i s p c r srcl y c s t r r f irsr,l l h o r r gll r l i r r r i t c ipl s r r r f r c r
o f v . t t l y c s t t r f l s . ' r 1 ' b c r r s c t r . ' r ' h cr r i s p c r s tcr y c s
l r r . v i r r cr r
r v i r l c .r . ' g c o I b r i g l r t ^ r r t r r r c c ; r s r ' r r r c s ,[ r r t i l r c
I' ll'l' I'olycsrt:r| 7'riocctutc IJ!attd.r . ' r , , , i c c. r .
i r r r l i v i d t r acl l y c s t r r f l i' .ss g . v c r r r c t rr r c l to r r r y [ r y ( l r c p r o j c c r c r l
I ) i s p c r s cc l l , c s t u f i 'asr c u s c c lf o r d y c i n g b o t l r c o n r l . r o n c n tosI t l r i s crrtr-
ttsc,.btrt.lso b 1 ' t l r cr r c t l r o t tl o b c r r s c tilr r r i x i r r gt l , c ' c . , l , r t rtr, sr
b l c n c l ,a r r c lr l 1 ' c i n gi s r c s t r i c t c c tl l, i c r c f o r c ,t o t h c p r o c l L r c t i oonl to tltc fibr.c.
t o n c - i n - t o n c : r n ds o l i i l c [ T c c t s-.l ' h c p r o d u c t i o no I s o r i c ls h a c l c s
r c c l t r i r c sc a r c f r r l. s c l c c t i o no f r l 1 ' s 5 1 1 1p1i1crc. c g o o r l sn t a y b c r l y c d A4ctltodsol Colottr Iii.ratiott
r u s u a l l l ' o r rt l r c r v i n c h r v i t l r r r c a r r i c r , b r r t t l r c b c s t r c s r r l t sa r e 'l'lrrcc
r r r c t h o c lasr c c o r r r . r o r r l l , r r s cfdo r t l r c [ i x a l i o n o [
o b t l i r r c r lo n l l r c l t i g h - t e r n p c n r t r rl trcci r n t - r l l , c i rnr rga c h i n c . |,r.irrtctl
c o l o u l s o n t o I r l j - l ' p o l y c s t c r .I u t r r . i c s :
( a ) P r o l o r g c c ls t c a r r r i r r(gl - 2 h o r r r s )a t . t r r r o s p h c r i cp r c s s r r r c ,
l'li'l' I'olyc.tlcrf Nylott Urriorr I;ubrics
u s i r r ga c a r r i c r t o p r o r r r o t cc l y c s t r r rl lr r i g r : r t i o t r .
K n i t t c <a l n t l w o v c r )f i l a r n c n tf : r b r i c sb a s c t lo n t h i s u n i o n n r a y b e ( ( b ) s t c a n r i r r gf o r
h a r r r l l c co r r t l r c t y p c s o I c q u i p r n c n Iu s c d f o r t h c c o r r c s p o n c l i n g 2 0 - 3 0 r r r i r r u t ci-' a s h i g h p r c s s t r r sc t r r r - f . r r r r c
s t c a r r c r ,u s i r r I l r i r l r - t c l l l l ) c r a t usr tcc a r r(r | . , 1 _ . 2 . 0
1 0 0p c r c c n t l ) l l - l ' p o l y c s t cfra b r i c s -. l - h ep r o r l r r c t i oor rf c o n t r a s t i . g i k g / c r r r;22 0 2 f ]
I b / i r r2 ) .
s l r : r r l ciss l i r n i t c r lb y t h c h i g h : r l t i n i t y o f r r r o s tc r i . s p c r tslcy c s f o i
'l'he I
botlr flbrcs. d c p t h o f s h a c l cp r o d u c c c lo r t l r c n y l o ' c o r r r -
p o r r c n tn r a y b e r c d u c c d ,h o w c v c r ,b y c a r c f u l s e l c c t i o no I c l y c s t u f r s
I
i
by
^ ^ ( c ) ^ F i x a t i o . t r c a l r r r c rr ot r J 0 - 9 0 s c c o . t r si ' r r r y r r c : r t( r 9 0 -
2 0 0 ' C . ) ,u s i r r gl r s t c n t c ro r b l k i r r g o v c r r .
l n t l t l r c t r s c o f h i g h - t c n r p c r a t r rrrl cy c i r r gn u r c h i n c r yc. o n t r a s t i r r g I I I i g h - t c r r r p c r a t r r sr c( c a r r r i r r lgr r r c lr l r c < l r y - l r c u t
I ) r ( ) c c s s[ r . t l r
p r i r r u r r yc o l o u r sa r c t h c r c [ o r cr l i l l i c u l tt o o b l l i n , r r r r ci lt i s a c l v i s - g i v c c x c c l l c r tc o l o u r 1 , i c l t r sr .- o r v
a b l c t o p r o c l r r c cp r i n t a r y c o l o u r s o n t h c I r l i - l ' p o l y c s t c r r v i t h II r ) r c s s r r cs t c ^ r r r i r rigs t r r c l c r r s t
c l l c c t i v co f t l r e t l r r c cr r c t h o c l s[,l t r t i t r r r a k c st r s co I c c l . v c . t i . r r r r l
I r r r r n i o n i z - isncgc o r r c l r rcroy l o u r so n t h c n y l o n .A s r g c n c r l l g t r i c l c
t l r c r v c : r k c ro, r r v h c ' c t l r c y a r c o l s i r n i l a rs t r c r r g t l r st h, c b r i g r r t c r I c qr r r p l r r c n t .

s l r l t l cs l r o r r l rbl c o n l l r c l r E ' l ' l t o l y , g s l cs or n t l ) o n c l l t . j l' l:'l' I' o I)' t,sI cr I Ct'II trIo.ri c I;'i br c IJIctttI t,t! I,-ttbri c.r
\ \ / l r c n r v h i t c r c s c r v c c f f c c t sa r c r c q u i r c r l ,l l r c s cs h o u l c la l r v a y s 'l-h.c

II
r n o s t r v i r l c l ya p J r l i c r b l cr r r c l h o r fr o r t l r c p r i r r r i r r g. I I ' l : l .
b c p r o d ' c c d o . t h c I r E , - fp o l y c s t c rc o l t ) p o r ) c t r-tl.' h i si s t h c o a s i c r p o l l ' c s t c r / c c l l u l o sfiicb r c b l c r r d c cf r; r b r i c sr r r a k c s, , r . u i r r r i x t t r r c s
l . rt i :t.1e

I
I i
F I F I I t I!& tii IC TI 3 I{ rt IT II - I - F -

I I A N D E O O KO F T I ] X T I L E F I I l N . E S I]: SYNl'IIETIC FII}R[,S

o I r l i s p c r s ca n r l r c u c t i v cd 1 , c s . ' l ' h i g s i v e sa r v i r l er a u g e o f s o l i d Slrippirrg

s l l r t l c s r v i t h g o o d b u i l d - u p a n d f a s t r r c s sp r o p c r t i c s .l : o r t h e I r r p c r l c c tr l y c i . g sr . ' y r c s u l tf r o . r c r . o r s i ' l r a r r d l i r r g' r f r . r r r
h i g l r c s tc o l o u r - f a s t r t c sr e
s c l u i r c n t c n t sn,r i x t u r c so I d i s p c r s ca n d v i t t f a u l t y n r ^ c h i . c o p c r ; r t i o u .- r ' l r c s ci . r p c r [ c c t i o ' s r v i l l s l r o r v ' s
t l 1 , c sn r l y b c a p p l i c c l u , s i r r ga t w o - s t a g cf i x a t i o n p r o c c s s . p o o r c o l o u r f a s t n c sp s ,o o r c l y c p c n c t r a t i o n s, t r c a k y o r u n c v c n
A r a t h c rr r r o r cr c s t r i c t c cr al n g eo I s h a c i elsr a v i n gh i g h l i g h t a n d d y c i . g , s h u d i ' g f r o r r r s c l v c c l g c - t o - s c l v c rol rg cc r r r l - t o - c r r tr l .v c
g o o c lr v a s l i i n gf a s t n c s sb,u t o n l y n r o c l c r a tbc u i l c l - u pa n d r t r b b i n g s p o t s c, a r r i c r . s p o t so,r r c s i s ts p o l s . ' l - l r c a u s c so f s r r c l rp r c l l l l c r r i s ,
f u s t r t c s sc, a n b c o b t l i n c d v c r y s i r r r p l y b y n r l k i r r g u r r r i n o r r l i s c o u r r t i r r gr r a c h i r r [ca i l u r c , n r a y t r s r u r l l yb c t r l c c r l t o o n c o r
r r r o c l i I i c u t itoonl l r c ' u l l - i n 'v a I l ) r o c c s sA. l c i l n ' X ' < l y c sn r r y b c o t h c r o [ t h c I o l l o r v i r r:g
p r i n t e d l l o n g s i c l ct h c v l l " d y c s t o c x t c n t l t l r c a v a i l r b l cr a n g c o r -l'oo
l. r a p i d s t r i k eo f d y c c * r s c t lb y i . c o r r c c tc . r r . i c rs c l c c t i . r r ,
slr;rrlcs.
c x c c s s i vrca t c o I t c l n p c r a t r r rrei s c ,o r . i r r c o r r c catr n o r r r o r tf l c v c l l i r r g
U n f i x e c rl l y c s t t r {rIc s i c l u casr c n o r r t u r l l yr c r r r o v c cf rl o n t 1 0 0 p c r
i r g ur )t s .
c c r r t I ) l i ' l ' p o l y c s t c rn l r t c r i a l s b y a r c d u c t i o n - c l c a r i rpr gr o c c s s .
'l'hc 2 . I ; a u l t ye r r . r L r l s i f i c a o
r r s co f s u c ha p r o c c s so n l ) l l - f p o l y c s t c r / c c l l L r l o sf i b c rc blcnos t ifocr ra r r i c ro r i n s r r l l l c i c ncti r c r r l u l i o .r r
r v o r r l c l ,r o r v c v c rs, t r i p t h e c l y e s t t r [f Ir o n r t l i c c e l l u l o s i cc o r n p o r . r c n t . r l i s t r i b u t i oo
n [ c a r r i c ri n t l r c c l y cb a t h a n d t h r o t r g hl l b r c o r f r r b r i c .
I t i s c s s c n t i atlh, c r c f o r ct,h a t t h c ' s o l p i n g ' a n dr i n s i r r g trcatnrcnts 3 . P o o r d i s p c r s i o no I c l y c b c [ o r e a r l c l i n gi t t o t h c c l y c b . r t h .
s h o r r l t lb c r l a r l c a s i n t e n s i v ca s p o s s i b l c T . lrc use of a good
4 . I r r c o r n p l c t sc c l l r r t i o no f t h c a s s i s l u n t [sr c f o r c i r r l c l i r r tgl r c r r r
l r r o r l c r ns o u p i r r ga n d r i n s i n g r a n g c ,f i t t c c lr v i t h s y t r a yp i p c s a r r r l
to tlrcdycb;rth.
t l c v i c c sI ' o r i n r l u c i n gt u r b u l c n c ei n t l r c s o a p i r r gl i c l u o r si,s r c c o n r -
tncnrlccl. 5 . U n c v c n h c a t - s c t t i r rbgc [ o r c d y c i n g .
W h c n ' s o a p i n g ' a n trli r r s i n g l r r cc l l r i c d o u t i n r o p e f o r n r o n a 6 . I n c o r r c c tp r c p r r n r t i o no I t h c f a b r i c b c [ o r . cr l y c i r r g .
r v i n c h , ' s o a p i n g ' s l i o ucl od n t i r r u [eo r a t l c l s t 1 0 n r i n u t c sD. i s l l e r s c / -l-lrrcc
r c l c t i v c l l r i n t ss h o u l r lp r c f c r a b l yr c c c i v ca r v a s h i n g - o[[r[ c a t r n c n t ^ p p r o a c l r c ss h o r r l d b c c o . s i r r c r c c rl . o p r o b l c r r r so I t l r i s
r v i t ha r r r i . r t r r rocf a n o n - i o n i cr l c t c r g c nat n d l r o l y v i n y pl y r r o l i c l o n e typc:
p r i o rt o t h c ' s o a p i n g ' p r o c c s s . l . ' l ' h c s h a t l ci,. s o ' c c a s c sr, r r a yb c l c v c l l c di ' a b u r h c . r -
t a i r r i . gt l r c o r i g i r r : ral r r r o r r ror tf c a r r i c r r v i t h t l r c a r r r l i r i o r o
r sf t l y c
I l 1 ' t l r o c rt r : r c l i o r t
t o c o r r c c tt l r c s l r a c l cw. l r c ' : r [ : r b r i ci s s l r a r l c rirt, i s ^ t l v . r r r ; r g c . i r s
t o r c l r c l r t - s cbt c l o r c r c c l y c i r r g .
A l n r o s t a l l t l r c n r o i s t u r ei n i r r v c I I ) l i 1 ' p o l y c s t c rf a b r . i ci s h c l d 'l'hc
r n c c h a n i c l l l yi n t h c i n ( e r - f i b r es p a c c s ,a r r d r n o s t o I i t c a n b c 2. c l y c i r r gl r a y . a l s o b e s t r i p p c car s r ' r r c h a s 5 ( ) p c r c c r r t
.
'l-hc b y t r c a t r n c n itn a b l t h c o n t a i n i n gn o n - i o n i cc h l o r i r r n t c st lo l v c r r r s
r c r n o v c ci ln h y d r o c x t r a c t i o n . q u a n t i t yo I r v a t c ra b s o r b c db y
a ' d . o n - i o n i cd c t c r g c ^ t A . [ t c r r i . s i ' g , t l r c g o o t r sr r r a yb c r . c d y c t r
t h c f i b r c i t s c l Ii s v c r y s r n a l l .
r n a n c r vb a t h .
3 . l l - . e i t h c ro f t l r c a b o v c, c t h o r l s i s s u c c c s s f irrrl c, a r l y
I)r-f irrg a l lt l r c
d y c c a . b c s t r i p p c db y t r c a t r r r c r frot r l h o u r a t g 2 - - 9 3 " c .
PIr-l- polycstcr fabrics arc readily clricd at 120"C., and are i. a
l r u t l rc o r r t l i r r i r r c :
t l n p i n o r c l i p s t c n t c r sC. a r c r n u s tb c t a k c n t o
n o r r r r a l l yI r : r n t l l c o
c n s r r r ct l r l t t l r c f l b r i c i s n o t s t c n t c r c dt r n d c r l r c a v yt c n s i o n .I I . S c l d i r r cr thr l o r i t c | , 1g . l t .
i t i s t t c c c s s : r rtyo r c n r o v cs c o u r i n gc r c i l s c st,h c d a n t l t f a b r i c s h o u l d Irorrnicor oxalic acid | .l g.ll.
b c s t c r r t c r c rol u t , r v i t l r o u to v c r [ c c d ,t o : i r v i c l t hr v l r i c l rc x c c c d s N o n - i o r r i cc h l o r i n l r t c <s lo l v c r r t s
t l r c s c o u r c crl v i d t h b y 7 - 1 4 r r r r n1 ' t c nr ( l / t - t A i n . p c r y d . ) , a n d ( c . g . ' - l - l r n ; r l oSnp c c i a l ' ) | 4 g.ll.
t l r c r rt l r i c crl t l , l 0 - 1 5 0 ( ' C .I { c l r x c r tl l r y i n gr r r c t l r o ral sr cP r c f ' c r r c r i A i t c r t r c . t r r r c ' t , t l r c g o o c l ss h o t r l db c r i r r s c t lt l r . r o r r l l r r l yl r r r r
I r r r c u t r s t i cs o r l u s o f ' t c r t c tfl' r b r i c sa t t r l s < , r n rvca l n - t l y c r ll ' a l r r i c s . nctrtruIizcd.

350 351
 I I , \ N D I ] O O K OI: I I:X I ILL trllll{llS
I}: .SYNl'IIll'rIC III ItRI]S
S I I i L l C Il t - rI { l r z \ N D I ) l { O I ) l I: i ' l l l : , S
I r i . r c s r r i t r r b rf .cr , o r r r a r r c x t i r cp . r r ) o s c s . r
s r a . c r a r cprr o c c s s c sc,. g . f a r s c - t r v i s t i r r g , f . r b u r k i r r gr r y
I ' L ' l ' p o l y ' c s t cfrl b ' c s a r c s u p p l i c di . t r r c f o r r r ro [ i s p r o r r L r c c aI r.r a t l r r i i i . r r ,
fira're't ylrrrs,
s t a p l c f i b r c a n r l t o r v . - f h e p r o p c r t i c so I t h c I i b r c ; r P I c l r r L r c c r - t r t r r yk ac rcnr . ,k.l r o r v na s
t y f r c j , , , r , r r v : r i l i r . r cI.r r s . r r r c
can t.st rr" c : r s c st,r i l o b ' l c r o s s _ s c c l i oy n
c . r s i d c r e db y d i v i d i ' g t h c v , r i o r r st y p c so I I r b r c a . l i s p r o v i c l c ct ln g l u " " u i l . ' , i . , ,
into thr..,.,.,,,i,., i,,
8ro.l)s, ( l) lrigh tc'.city h a n c l l ca n < ll t r s t r c .
.lil.rrrc.t y^r', (2) ,rcdiunr t.,,;.iit
l l l ; r r r c _ r1r 'ta r . , ; r ' r l ( 3 ) s t ; r p S t a b i l i z c db u l k c d y . a . r . ra) sr c r l s o p r o t i L r c c t l
r cf i b r c . ' r - i r c sgcr . o . l ) sr i i [ [ c rc o ' s i r r c r - froru,.l.crylcnc,
a b l y f r o r r r c u c h o t l r c r i n r c s p c c ro" f c c r t r i i r p h y s i c . r p r o r r c r t i e s , polycstcrfibrc.'r'rr ey rlif'r'.r' h o,,,ccrtJirr'.otlrc, rr,ir[.,ry;,;;,i:;.;.
b . t r v i r l r i r rn.r ) y o r c g r o r r l ld i [ I c . c r ) c eusr e g c . c r a i l y f t r l s c - t r v yi s. tr r s , i r r h a v i r r gr . r v s r r r i ' k . 1 ; c ,
o'ly^slight, l o r v. * t . , r . i t , i t i t y ' . , , , t
a l t h o u g l r . l t c r : r t i o , i ' c l c . i c r l r ^ y a f l c c t s o r r r cc h a r a c t c r i s t i c s . frccdornfronr torcprci^ sirrgrcs rnr,ri."i.r,.,,clrts
'l to sizc rrorc ca.sil1,. c.,, bc krrittcrl
h c v a l u c s f o r t r r c p h y s i c a rp r o p c r t i c s d c s c r i b c d
berorvarc
arcl is f.cilitrrr.,f;fri"rt.frif;;;ii;;,
t h o . s cw ' l r i c h . ' r y b c r c g a r r r c cars t y p i c a l o f f i b r e bclorcclycingis noi rcrruircd. .flrris^irg
i . t h c s t a t ei '
r v h i c h i t i s r r a ' r r [ a c t u r c d a r r r r . u i ' r 1 r t i . a c, r t r r c r I - l i g ht c n a c i t yI i l a r l c n jt r ^ . : i . l r r i g h t
as flla'c't or I r r s t r ci n a n r r r g co I
sluplc.
-l-lrc
p r o p c r t i c so I n r a t c r i a ll v l r i c h h a s b e c n p r o c c s s e r l y a r ' c o u ' t s .' l ' l r ei r r d i v i d L rf ial rl r r r r c ' t s
irr a r c ,r v i t l , i . r r ; . * ; ; ; i ; , , ; ,
s o n r cl l t a n l l c r ,c . g . h c a t _ s cot r s p u l l i n t o s t a p l cy a r n " t 5 , ( l d t e x ( 5 r t c n )a t ) p r o xS. . ; ; ; ; i t y l c s
tvill usually y: ia: lrl ' v a r yi r rt e ' r r a c a o t . h i g hr c n a c i r y
r l i f f c r f r o n r t l r c p r o p c r t i c so [ f i b r c a s s r r p p l i c cLl y
thc pro,ltrcci.
i t ryr da l s oi ' e x t c . s i o rcr l r r r r c t c r i s t i c s .
'l'lrc , S t . ' l c f i l l r c i s r i r u , t li cr r , , , r , , g . u i . : c , r r r r t s
i ' [ o r r r r . t i o ' i ' t r r i ss c c t i o ' i s r . , n i c <r t, 1 . , o t, r , c p r o p c r t i c s f r . r r r 1 . 7 _ _I l t lr c x
clI I' l: l' polyeslcrfibres supplicd by l.C.l. l]ibrcs 'trnrlcr ( 1 . 5 j . L Jr l,c n )i r r t l r r l l
I_kI., . l u s t r cV s .l i r i o r r st y p c s ,r v l r i c lrrr l r yt l i l l c r
t h c t r l r r l cn i u r r c ' - l ' c r y l c n c ' .
ll]l]i!.l,,bl.v in propcrrics,
'rc.rlc,sigrrcrt
slic:cir.icrllt li;,',;;J,i;,',j;;
"l'crylerrc'filarucnt v;l:l.orl: s y s t c r r rssu, c ha st l r cr v o r s t c c l , , u , x , l l c , r , . , , t l ; , , ' ; ;
y a r n s a r c p r o ( l u c c ( lr n a * , i t l c r a n g c o I : ] r i ' ' r i r r g
t y p c s a n r l c o t r r r t sN . l a n y l r c i n t c r i r r i r r g l eocrl p r o r l u c e rt c xt ur c t l . l l i r x s y s t e r ) ) s' S. . r r r cs t u p l cr b r p l r r t i c t r l a r
''l'crylcnc' p r . r l ' c e di ' b r i g h t l u s t r c a, r r l r r r a i s - c c l l o a p ' r i c . t i o i r si i , , r i , ,
ulri lcrtrrci s . v , i r r r l l ci r r
f i l a n r c n t y a r n i s s r r p p l i c cri v i t h a n o n r i n a l ' S ' t r v i s t
o [ ] t u r n / i r r c h ( 3 0 t u r r r s / r n c t r c ) . ' I . l r i s k r r o r v r ra s ' pr o c l r r c c c c r t a l l lt y p c s .
r
t r v r s t ' ,a n r l t l r c a c t t r t r l c v c l v a r i c s r v i t h t h c d c n i c r o I
t I r e y ar r r c r i r r y r c c lt o r v i s s r r p P r i c cf o
c o n c c r r r c cal s, s l r o * , ni n t h c f o l l o r v i n gt a b l c : r r p r o c c s s i r ) go ' t r r c c o r . r v c r t c r
s y st c n ts .
P r o t l t t c c r ' l ' w i s to f , 7 ' c r 1 , ! s 1 1F"i 'l u t r t e t t tI , t t r t t
I r r a c l r l i t i o nt o ' s t : r r r < J a r a ' _ s tfai p r c
Yonr itttx(dut) Avcrogc',S''1'rli.r.r b r c , t , " v .v a r i c r i c sr v i r l rr o * , c r
p i l l i ' g t c . c l c . c i c sa r c r r r a r r ct o r
1'ttrtrsfittclt i r s c i , , , u o o i l " , .a, r r t rr v . r s t c r rb l c . r r s
7'trrtr.rf trtclrc rvit^ woor' Sincc t'is, crraractcristi.
2 8( 2 s ) 0.1 ;r g.i,r.,r .t t'c cx'crrscoI
l2 t c ' a c i t y a n d d t r r a b i r i t yt,r. r c p a rt i c u l a r ' L y j r c
4.t(40) 0.3 t2 g i v c . c r r d - u s c' r r s [ [ r e c l r o s c ' ' r v i r r r t o b c r r s c t li r l a . y
-56 (s0) 0.3 ; ; , ; . . ' i t ' o . . * , , , . , . , 1 ' ,trrcr c, r o r v c s l
12 , i l l i r r g v a r i c t y c a r r ' c u s c r li r r l u n r " t y - i u o u . rI r. t l i c s ,
B 4( 7 s ) 0.4 t6 r v c a r ,r v l r c r c
il0(t00) rcrluired a,rcl,uli.rc';*i',;;;.rrrr'rtriliry
is 'ot .t.
0.5 20 :1,l,?,i
p r t r r r,1::f1c,is
rcr r r p o r t a n c c .
r40(125) 0.5 20 I I i g h t c n i r c i t yh, i g r rr. r r o t r r r r uf isb r c i s p r . t r r r c c r r
r67(ls0) 0.[J 32 c ( ) t t o r )s y s t c . r . ' r ' r r i si s f . r r r s c. r r r l r c
2 t6 ( 2 s 0 ) 1.0 | : r r t i c r r r urry t r c s i g r r c dr t , r b t . , , , t i , , f , u i 'tr,
40 c o t t o nr v l r c r cy . r r s r t r r rf . b r i c s r . , fi i r c r c , r s l d
l t l c c l i r r rtrc r r ; r c i t yf i h r ' e r r t y a ' r i s p r o t r t r c cirrlr s r r c . g r r r rr . cr c r l r r i r c t l .
, a ra.gco{' l r J c t l i u n rt c n a c i t y ' ' r ' c r y r c r r ca' ,r t l r o r r g l r
I t r s t r ccsl a s s i f i cads b r i g J r t r, r r i al ' c l c x t r ar l u l r , , , , i . a s r r . , , , 1 r3jb r c , l r i r s l r
i , , ' . ' , r ' , , " *; i,- c o r r r ' a r ; r t i v c l lyr i g h c x t c ' s i b i l i t y ,
c o r . t s a ' r i . u r r r bres o f f i , l l r ' c r r tp. sc ' y a r ' . I . t r r c t l r c c x t c r r s r o r r r .b r c . k [ r c i r r g
w r , r c i iyi s c r i 3 0 5 0 p c r c c r r t .L a r 1 l c< 1 . . r r r i t i cosf t r r i s
c . r r r r t .sl - 5 6 , 8 . tl,l 0 a . d .l 6 f - t l t c x( 5 b , 7 5 , 1 0 0 , f i b ' c : r r c b r c r r r r cst .r c c c s s -
150;l;,,i';1,; f t r l l y r v i r ' c o t t o . b t i t r t r . r r r r r c llro r v c r
i r r t l i v i r l tfri al al r r r c rlrrtcsc l c l ro l 2 . 2 d t c x( i t l c n )i l p p r o x . c x i c r r s i t . , i r (i r yr r o t l . r r r s. r).
c o t t o r r i, v h o s cc x t c l r . s i ot ,r t b r c ^ k i s
o r r l 15, l 0 , , c r : . . , , t ,1 , , . u i , , - t ,
352
I5:r
:LljL-uuffi}I. IUI. ITIJ
-TLXTILE
]OOK OI: I:II}I{I]S I]: SYNI IIEI IC I:II]III:S

t i r c a t t l i n n r c n ot I r r r a x i r n L rsrtnr c n g t hi n t h c b l c n d .A s : r r c s u l t , I ' c n : r c i t y( c N / ' l ' c x )

6 7 / 3 3 n r c t l i t t t ttrc l t a c i t l , ' ' l ' c r y l e r r c ' / c o t tyoatrtr t sa n d f a b r i c sh ; r v c I;ilatttt,ttt Sttltlc
-l'ltc
s t r c r r g l l r lsi l t l c g r e l t c r t h a n t h o s e o f l O t l p c r c c n t c o t t o n . IIigh ltlcrl. IIilllt Alctl. Lott,-
i n c r c u s c rllr r o c l u l r rosI t h c h i g h - t c n a c i t y ' - l - c r 1 , l c sn tca' l t l c f i b r c lL'n. lctr. l(n. l(,n. ltillirt.ti
r r i a k c si t n r o r e c o n r p a l i b l cr v i t h c o t t o n , a n c l y a r n s a n c lf a b r i c s o f S t c l(. d r y ) 5 6 . 5 ' - 7 0 . 61 5 . 3 - 4 4 . 41 f t . 6 - 5 7 .34- s . : t - 4 , 2
12. 1. t 3
. o
g r c l t l y i n c r c a s c ct cl n s i l ca n d t c a r s t r c n g t l i sc a n b c o b t a i n e d . S t d .( r v c t )
''l-crylcnc' . S t r (l .l o o p ) A b o u t8 0 ' l i A b o u r9 5 , ) l
s t a p l c I i b r e c l i f l e r sf r o r r r ' ' l ' c r y l c n c 'f i l a n t c n t y a n l -
i n t r v o i r r r p o r t a nrtc s p c c t sF. i r s t l y ,s t a p l cf i b r c ( r v i t ht h c c x c c p t i o r r S t r l .( k n o l ) Aborrt70',/, Aborrt8_5,/,
o I s o r r r cf o r p r o c c s s i n go n t h o l l a x s y s t c r n )p o s s c s s czsr h c a t - s c t
l'crrsilc S(rcrrglh
c r i r n p ;s c c o n d l y a , l l s t a p l cf i b r c i s h e a t - s t a b i l i z cdcr lr r i r r gn l a r ) u -
I a c t u r c . ' l ' h cl a t t c r r c s u l t si n s t a p l ca n c lf i l : u n c n th a v i n gd i l l c r i n g
s l r r i r r k r r gccl r : r r a c t c r i s t i c s . I l i g l r , t c n a c i t yf i l a r r r c ' i :7 , 3 5 ( ) _ _ g , 7 5k 0 g / c r r r 2( I 0 - 5 , 0 0 0 _| 2-5,0,0
I b / i n z)
N { . : ] ' l , l ] ) . . . t c r r a c i rf yi l a n r c n t : . 1 , 9 0 0 5 , 9 . 5 0
liirrc Structurcand Appcnrance l < g / c r r r 2( 7 0 , 0 0 0
'-l-crylcnc'
t J 5 , 0 0 0i l ; / i n 2)
f l b r c s a r c s n r o o t h a n c l r o c l - l i k c ,g c n c r l l l y r v i t h a c i r c u l i r r I l i g l r , . t c r r e c i tsyt a p l c :5 , 2 - 5 07 , 1 - 5 0l < g / c r r r 2
c r o s s - s c c t i o nb, u t s o n r c t y p c s h a v c a t r i l o b a l c r o s s - s c c t i o nS. t a p l c
(75,0(X)-105,000
l b / i n 2)
fibro is crinrpccl. l'hc fibrcs nray or nray rrot contain pigrncnt. N,lctiirrrrr
. t c . r c i t y s t u P l c :4 , g 0 0 _ 5 , 9 - 5 0 l < i 1 / c r ' 2( 7 0 , 0 0 0 l t 5 , 0 ( X )
I b / i r r )2.

l',1orrg:rtiorr

I l i g l r t c r r : r c i t Iyi l r r r r r c r r [t ]: , 1I p c r c c r r [( r l c p c r r r l i ror g
n t1,pc)
l r , l c d i u nltc n a c i t yf j l a r r r c n t :1 5 _ j 0 1 . , . . " , . , i
I I i g h t c r r a c i t ys t a p l c : 2 0 . 1 0 l ) c r c c n t
I r { c r l i L r rtrcrn a c i t ys t l p l c : 3 0 5 0 p c r c c r r t
'l'lrc
c x t c r r s i o r r .bI r c u k i s v i ' t r r ^ l l yr r . l r l [ c c t c [t rl y r r r ' i s t r r r c .

I r l : r s l i cl l c c o v c r y
''l'crylcrc'
f i b r c s h a v c . g o o t l r c c o v c r y f r . t l r r s t r c r c l r ,. r r t l f r . r r r
c o n r p r c s s i o n b, c r r d i l r ga r r r l s l r c l r r . .

Inilial I\Iorlulus
'l-crylcnc'
l r l s l h i g h r c s i s t : r r r c ct o t c n s i l c t l c f o r . r r r r t i o r irn l l r c
t . c g i o r r. f c x l c r r s i . . [ ' r v l r i c l r [ i b r c s : r r . cr r r o s ts t r t r j c c t
r l L r r i r r gr r s c
( 0 - 5p c r c c . t ) . - l ' h c i r r i t i n l r r r o d t r r oi f cr.sticity for thc fo,,r iyl.,cs
t ' f I i b r c : r r ca s f o l l o r v s :

I l i g l . r t c r r l c i t y [ ' i l l r r r c r rt t 9 1 . , 1 . , 4 , g c N / t c x (
,I | l() | .10
r / t l c r r)
' \ l c r l i u r rt r. ' a c i t y | i l u r r t ' r r t : - l c rN5/ t c x( 1 0 0 | r 5 g i , r c , , j
. . - 3 s 3 - - ! . . 0
I I i g ht c n a c i tsyt r p l c7: 0 6c N / t c x1 { 1 r0: / t l c r r j l l ) l ) r o x .
''l l \ 1 c ' t l i r rt rcrnr r c i t ys t u P l l .2 ( r . 55- . 1 0c N / t c x( l i l ' f , Og . / r l c r r . a p p r o x .
cr1'lettc )
I 5.1 J)-')
 IIANDNOOK OF 1'IIX'I'ILE, III I}ItLS
I}: .SYNI tII: I IC IiII,}I{I,S
r\ r'cr:rgc T'orrglurcss 'r''ttltcrrtrtrrc:
lilJact ()l Ltrv AL - 40.c., tlrc tcrr.city of
I I i - g ht c n r c i t l , f i l ; r r r r c n t0 : . 3 2 5g . - c r n . / t l c n i c r - c n r . 'l
c r ; ' l c ' , . ' i ' c r c u s c sb y 6 p c r c c r r [. . t r i t s c . r t c r r s i b i r i t y
N ' cl r l i t r r r rt c n a c i t y l j I l n t c n L : 0 . 5 0 g . - c l u . / c l c r r i c r - c n r . ,t..,",,r",
b y 3 0 p c r c c r r tr c l r r t i v ct o t l r c r . c . . c i t y^ t 2 0 , , c .
rrt _i00.c., rt,..
N l c d i r r r r rt c n l c i t y s l r p l c : 0 . 6 1 g . - c n r . / c l c n i c r ' , c n r . t c r , c i t y i . c r c . s c s b y a b o u t .- 5 0 ' c r c c r r t u ' r l
tlrocxtc,rsibiriiy,
c t c c r c u s cbsy l rb o u t 3 5 p c r c c r rl .
(lrccp (llr:rrac(cristic.s

. , \ t " t l r c l o r v c x t c n s i o n s t c l r v h i c h , p u r t l y b c c a r r s co I t l r c i r h i g l r
''['cr1,1g11.'
I . i l J . c ^ c t I I i l ; l t ' l ' c r t t p . r t t t t r r cA:
t 1 6 0 " C . ,, . 1 . c r 1 , 1 gr1c.t,l.r,i n sa b o t r t
ttttttlttltts, yants apcl fiblcs 1r'c rrroststrbjccIi1 trsc, .of
h:rl[ t c . . c i r y a t n o r r r r r l t c r r r p c r ^ t u r c' r. r r c c f l ' c c t o . t r r c
t l r c y c x l r i b i t n c g l i g i b l c c r c c l ) . ' 1 ' c r 1 , l c n c 'f i l l n r c n t y a n r , f o r .ils
I c ' ^ c i r y o [ ' ' r ' c r y l c . c ' o . fp r o r o . g c d c x , o s u r c
c . t u n r p l c ,r c c o v c r s c o n t p l c t c l y f r o r n a n c x t c n s i o n o f I l t c r c c n t , to'igh Ic.rl)cra-
t t r r c si s s r n . l l i . c o . r p a r i s o rrr, v i t ht l r c c r l c . cot ' , r r r . y . i l r c r
l r r r l r c c o v c r y i s n r o r c t h : r r r9 0 l t c r c c r r t c o r n l t l c l c a [ t c r a r r c x t c n - fibrcs,
[ r o t h r r r a r r - r n l cal cn r l n a t r r r a l .
s i o n o f 3 p c r c c n t . ' l ' l t c r c c o v e r y f i g r r r c sf o r s t a p l c f i L r r c su r c l o r v c r I l c a t c c li . i r i r a t r - 5 ( ) " c .' ,' r - c r y r c ' c ' i so ' r y s r i g l r t l y
t l r r r r t l r o s c f o r f i l a r r r c n ty l r r n , c l t r ct o t l r c p a r t i i r l l y n o u - r c c o v c r a b l c trisc<lrorrrcrr
a l t c r o . c r . o ' t h ; i t . r c t ' i . s r r b o L r gt 5 p c r c c r r t
r c r r t o v l l o f c r i r r r p l r o r r r s t i r p l c f i b l e r l t r r i r r gl o u d i n g . oi' irs origirr,l
s t r c n g t ha l t c r I r r r o n l ha n c l5 5 p c r c c n I a l . l c r6 r u o n t l r s .
A l r r : r s i o l tI l c s i s ( u n c c
I r o r i r l c r r t i c a l l yc o r r s t r t r c t c rrl n a t c r i ; r l s t, l r c : r b r . : r s i o rrtc s i s t l r r c co f I ; l o n rr t t rbt i l i l y
''l'cr1,lcnc'is ''-l'crylc'c'
stlncllrrcl oi a lrigh ordcr corrrparccw l ith tlrat ol I i b rc f u s c s . . t l f o r r r r s. h a r t l b c . r l r v l r c l rl r c r r r c t l
^t rr
l r t o s t t c x t i l c f i b r c s , b o t l r n u t r r n r l i r n r l r n : r n - r r r l d c ,b c i r r g c . r c c c r l c c l t c r i p c r a t r r rb ccl'w its ig.itior poi,t. A flurrrc.pplicrr
'l-hc t c lt l r c( i r r r c
o n l y b y n 1 , l o n a n r o r . r gt l t c c o n r r n o n c r f i b r c s . lrbrasionrcsis- c i . . r s c sr I t o r r r c l t ,r v i t l r t l r c f o r r r r ^ t i o ror [ ^ r r r t , i t c r l
bc.tr wlriclr
t u r r c c s < ; f t l r c l o r v c r - p i l l i r r gv a r i c t i c s l r r c I c s s t h a n t l t a t o f t h c i g ' i t c s r v i t h d i f l i c u r t ya n d b u r . s r v i t h : r s o o r y | r ; r r r t c .
Gcrrcr;rily,
s l r r r r r l u r t tl y p c , b c i n g g c n c r i r l l y o I t h c s u n t c o l r l c r a s r v o o l . I l r c n r o l t c ' b c . d r r r . o p sf . o r r r t r r c b L r . r r i r r rgr r . t c r i : r [, " v l r i c l r
is
l l r c r c b y c x t i r r g t r i s l r c cl cr ^, v i . g n c l a f ' t c r g r o l v . ' r ' r r c
S l r e c i { i c( i r l r i ( y 'l'c.ylc.o' {irc risk .l
l i b r c i s ^ s r o r va s t r r : i Io f l o o s cr v o o l .' r ' l r c, , , , , J u r i i y
,,i
r. 1 8 . 1 0 0l r e rc c r r t' ' r ' c r y r c . c ' f ^ b r i c sr v, r r c 'l c s r c rrrr c c o r c r i . g
to ti >^.zycr,
c u t t b c < l c s c r i b cads b c i r r go I l o r v f l : r r r r r r r a b i l (i rl ty. , i . i ' i
l , l l l c c to f l \ l o i . s t u r c ril. i:,,,,-
s t . r L r c t i oart,l t l i t i v c sI ,r r r i s l r cusr r c trl r c
''l'crylcnc':r[tsor'trs r ) l . c s c . cocr .o t r r c rf i r r cr s r v i l r ,
o r r l y a v c r y s r u t r l la n r o r r r rot I r r r o i s t r r r c , : r r r c l o I c o u r s c ,i r r l ] r r c ' c cc o r r s i c l c r : r brlryr c b L r r . r r i rcr rgr , r r l , c t c r i s t i c s
,,f
t h c t c r r a c i t ya n d c l o n g a t i o n : r r c u r r a f l ' c c l c br ly l r r o i s t r r r c- .l ' h c a r r y p a r t i c u l l r rf a b r i c .
r r c l i s t L r rrcc g l i n i s a 1 ; p r o x i n t a t c l 1 , 0p.c4r c c n t a t 6 5 p c r c c n t r . h .
trrrt2 l 0'C. , S p c t ' i f i cI I c u t : 0 . 2 ] c a l . / g . c l c g .C . a t 2 0 " C .
I ) r o l o n g c cclx l ) o s r r roc [ ' - l - c r y l c n ct' o n r o i s t t r r lct h i g l r t c n t p c r a -
t r r r c s ,c . g . b o i l i n g u ' a t c r o r s t c l r r r , u , i l l b r i n g a b o L r ta s l o r v
I - u t c n ! I I c u t o l I : t t . t i o r t .I l - l 6 c l r l . / g .
t l c t c r i o r r r t i oinr r t l t c y r l r y s i c lpl r o l r c l t i c so f t l r c f i b r c t l t r ct o I r 1 , , 1 ' . , , -
l 1 ' s i so I t h c p o l l , c s t c pr 'o l l , r n c r .
'l l ' l t c r t r t t r lC o t t t l t t c ' t i v i t S2, x. l 0 - . t c l l . / g . ctrr. tlcg. (-..
h c r r n ; r Il ' r o p c r t i c . s

S r t l t L ' r t i r lrtgt t i r t ! ' 2. 6 0 "C . l p p r o x . CoalJiciattt ol C ttbic Ii-r potts.ittrr

l l t : l o r v 6 0 " C ) :. 1 . 6x l 0 . r
St i <ki rt1i I L'ntl)(r0l u t c 2 1 02 1 0 " c . 9 0 1 9 0 " ( 1: . 3 . 7 x I 0 - ' .
356
357

t l l t l l I
r r t \
ft}}tlhLhLhhhLtrtttllI
I:l IlllES B : SYN'IIIE I IC I:II}I(I]S
IIANDIIOOK OF'fl:X'tlLE

f i b r c s . ' - l - c r y l c n c ' n l r t c r i a l s r n a y b c s L r b j c c t c t rl v i t h o t l t t l a t t i l t g c
S h r i n k a gIe' r o P c r t i c s
t o a l t y o f t h c u s u a l b l c a c h i n g n g c n t s ,i n c l t r d i n g t l t o s c b a s c t l o r t
' ' l ' c r y l e n c ' f i l l t r l c n) t' a r l l a s s t r p p l i c ds h r i n k sa p l l r o x i t r i a t c l3y p e t
hypoclrloritc, cliloritc, lrydrogcn pcroxidc, pcr-sltlts ltlltl tlrc
c c t t t j t t i l l r a t a t c l n l ] c r a t u r c o l . l 0 0 '.' lC- c. rayrl red l y0 apret tf hcrct sl ]at i r t l r i r a t r c d L r c i n gs t t l p h t l r c < - t l t t l l o t t l i d s .
nc'
^"'i.,t,p...,urcof 150'C' I tigh tcnacity
j . * i . c o f s h r i n k a g ct l i a n n r c c l i u ntrc n a c i t yy a r n , p i r r t l c u -
i.rrrr.r.r' h4i.rccllattcotts A 11t' trls
^l a" :r iliyr .a t h i g l i c r t c l l l p' 'cl 'rer rl tyrl rcrnccs' ' ' l ' c r y l c n e ' h a S a n e x c c l l c l t t r c s i s t a r t c ct o t h c c h c r t r i c l r l sc l l c o t l l l -
.ttritkagc of f r l a n r c n ty . a . r nisn b o i l i n g w a t c r l s
h i g h c t 't h a n t h c h o t - a i r t c r c i l i n n o r r n a l t c x t i l c u s c . ' l ' h c o n l y c h c n r i c a l sr v h i c h , a s : r
a p p r o x i t r t a t c l(yr p c r t t n t , ^ " 4 t l i i s i s .
t c r r a c i t yy a r r l s l t o r v si r s l i g l t t l y c l a s s , r v i l l c l i s s o l v c ' - l ' c r 1 , l c n c ' f l b r ca t t t o r t t t ; t lo r t t t o t l c r r t t ct c t t l -
s h r i n k a g ca t t 0 0 " C . A g a i r i ,h i g h plrcnols rvilI srvcll or tlissolvc
r n c c l i t t t rt c
l l l i t c l t y y arll' 1.'.."t,,r., arc thc pltcnols. N,lost
h i g l r c rs h r i r l k a g ct l r l l t r ;-l'crylcle', tlcpclcling o. thc tcrrrpcratttrc atrtl cortcctrtratiott
,I.lreslrrirrkag.clrur^.t"risticso[.-l.erylcrlc'[ilarrrcrltyarr.rcliflcr
t c l l l p c r : r t r t r casb o v c 1 2 0 ' C ' crrrploy'ctl.
f r o n t t h o s e o I n y l o n , l l a r t i c t r l a r l ya t ' ' [ ' c r y l c t r c 'a n c l
:r:nr.,r, r v a t c r s h r i n k a g c so l l L c s i s t a n c ct o d i l u t c [ o r r r r s o I p l r c r l o l , s t l c l t l t s c t c o s o t c I r o t t t
.urt.r.ts tirc toiti"g
6 ancl l0 pcr ccnt w o o c l t a r , i s g o o r [ a l n o r n r a l t c t ) l p c r a t t l r c sC. r c o s o t c l l l c s c lv l t t i v c s
n y l o n n t c t l i t l r ut c r l a c i t yy a r n s a r e . a b o u t '['crylcnc''
a r c 10 antl 7 pcr cettt' a r c n o t l i a b l e t o c a t t s c s c r i o t t sc l a t r t a g ct o
r J s p c c t i v " l yi,n h o t a i i n i t C O " C 't h c y
p c r c c r t t ' C y c l o h c x y l : r r r r i n c ,r v h i c l r i s c o n i n r o r t l y a t l < l c d t o b o i l c r r v l t c r
r" u n r rl t t 2 0 0 " C . , l 4 a r t c l9
i L . r y t . , r . ' s t a p l c f i b r c c l i t l " r sl r o ' r ' ' I ' e r y l c t t c ' f i 1 ; r r l r yc ar trll l l r l t o l r r i p i r t r i z -cco r . r o s i 6 r tr,v i l l a c c c l c r a t ct I c t l c g r l d l t i o l c l t t t s c t lb y
a n c ls t a p l eI l L r r cs h r i r r k s stcanr itr cotrtacI rvitlr'-l'crylcnc'.
f r . i , rg ' i t " ^ t s t a b i i i z c c. ilt u t i ng r l l a t t t taf c t t t r c ' . ''fcrylcnc'.
r v a t c r 'S h r i n k a g c si n c x c c s ' o sf this P c r s p i r a t i o n c l o c s n o I h : r v c a n y c l c l c t c r i o u sc l l c c t o n
l c s st h a t r I p c r c c n t r n b o i i i n g
" * p t t i i n t t c l i n d r y a i r a b o v e 1 2 0 " C ' 'a n d
a n r o t r r l ta r c , h o l v c v e t ,
n l a y c x c c c c2l . p c r c c . t r t ' / t:id.s
' , , i i o ; C . t i r c s h r i n k a g co I s t i r p l cf i b r c
l s r a i s c d s t i l l f u r t l r c r .N o f c l t i t r g ' - l ' e r y l c n c ' i s a p o l y c s t c r , a t t t l i s t l r c r c [ o r c s r r b j c c tt o l r y t l r o l y s i s '
i n c r c a s i n ga s t h e t e r n i c r a t u r e
r v i t h f a b r i c sc o t t s t r t t c t c c l A c i c i s , a l k a l i s o r w a t c r n l o n c c a n a l l p r o r r r o t c t h c l r y t l r o l y s i so I
s l r r i n k a g eo c c t l r sr r n c l e 'n'r-rlo' ci sr tyclocnndci't i o n s
w h o l l y o i 1 0 0p c r c c n t y a r n s ' t h c p o l y c t h y l c n c t c r c p h t h a l a t c ,b t t t t h c c l T c c t sn r c n o t t l t c s l t r t l c
in cuch casc.
U r r t l c r t l r c i l f l r r c r r c c o I i r c i r l ,g r l t t l t r l r lt l c g r l t t l r t t i t : rt t tl ' t l r c f i I r c
I , . f l e c to I S u r t l i g l t t r v i l l O c c u r t o a n c x t c r r t c l c l t c n r l c r tot l t I l t c S c v c r i t y t l I t l t c c o t t -
'l'cr)'letrc' has a higlt rcsistattccto dcgraclatioll by light' A{tcr c l i t i o n s . l l x c c p t r r n c l c r c x t r c r i l c c O t t t l i t i o t t s ,t l l c r l r t c o f a c i t l
l o s s o f s t r c n g t h ,b t r t c l o c s
p r o l o n g c d c x l l o s r t r c , i t s r t [ T e r as g r l d t r a l h y c l r o l y s i so f a p o l y c s t c r i s r r n c x p c c t c r l l ys l o r v , i t t t r l c 0 t t s c t l t r c t t t l y
g l l s s , ' ' l ' c r y l c t t c ' s l t o r v st g L o r l r : c s i s t a n c tco t l t c r n uj o r i t y o I r t t i r r c l : r l t t t t l o t g l t t t i c l r c i c l si s
n o t c l i s c o l o t r r ' .W h c n c x p o s c d b c l r i r r c l
r c s i s t i r n c c t o sutrligltt, lrtrd sltorvs a a c h a r a c t c r i s t i cp r o p c r t y o [ ' ' l - c r y l c n c ' I i b r c .
consitlcrablc itlcrcasc iri
rlnclcr thcsc corlclitions'
n r a r k c t l s t r P c r i o r i t Yt o n t o s t o t l t c r f i b r c s
Alkttli.r
'l'lrc
a c t i o p o I a c l t t c o t l sa l k a l i s ( r v i t l r t I c c x c c l l t i o l t g I l t t t t t t t g t l i l t
a n c l i l s d c r i v a t i v c s )i s f t r r t c l u t r r c r t t l l tl lyi l l c r c r r tf r o r l t t l t l r t o I r v n t c r ,
C h c r t t i c aP
l roPcrtics
a c i c l s a n r l a r n r n r t r r i nl r n d i t s r l c r i v n t i v c s . I r l t l r c [ o r t t l c r c l t s c ,
Oiliz,irrg orrtl Ilcdttcirtg Agcrrls p r o g r c s s i v cs o l U t i o n o I t l r c f i [ t r c o c c t t r s , r v l t c r c l t s i r r t l r c I l t t t c r
.-I-crylcnc'polycsterfibrelrlrsarlcxccllctttrcsistlllrcetooxicliz-irlg c a s e ,c l c g r a c l n t i o o n c c t t r sr v i t h o t r ts o l t r t i o r t a k i r l g p l l t c c .
'l'hc ' ' l ' c r y l c n c ' f i t r r ct o t l k l r l i s i s t t r l l y s i l t i s f l c t o r y
fibrc rvill withstantl blcacltirrg r c s i s t n n c eo [
a t r t l r c c l t r c i n ga g c n t s , l t t t t l t l l c
scvcrc t h a n t l r o s e t l o r t t l a l l y c t r l l l l o y c df o r t c x t i l c f o r t l r c l ) r l r p o s c so I a t c x t i l c l i b r c . l t r v i l l , [ o r c x l t t t t p l c ,r v i t l r s t a r l t l
I ) r o c c s s c sl l l o r c
35E 159
 IIANDBOOK Oli lhXI'lLL I;lllltlrS ",,". ",1,
t l r c c o n c l i t i c l n cs n c c ) u n t c r e ri lt r t t r c r c c t i z i r r .r'trn: t l i r t c l y c i r t gr v i t l r v l r t vcrr
rs,rvi
rrr j,i,'i]:
],i,,,;,:'
c t r i o r r r s .O r r t l r c o t l r c r l l r n c l ,
''l'cr1'lcnc'
shotrld Itot bc l)rcsstlrc ;;r;jr.
;qr :, .,.,,,,.,,
ro^,c,
r,:,
rc
( 1 4 6 ' C . )c, y c l o l t c . r a n o n c . ( l - 5 5 6" (c...z1_, y l
. c,lrrl
k i c r b o i l c c l i r r t l r c 1 . l r c s c u c c a l k a l i s , a s t h c s e c o r t c l i t i o r t fsl t v o t t t '
o f , c ' z c r r c ( 2 1 0 " C . ) , , . ' ' t h ; r l c r r c( Z fS " C i , < l r ' l r c r fy:lt X : i . i , - , , i i , , , -
( 2 - 5 . 1 " ( .:.r)r,r t l
a r r u c c c l c n t t c t ll t t r r c k c l n t h c f i b l c . rlinrctlrlp , l h t l r r r l : r t(c2 g 2 . C . ) .
'-l'crylc.c'
i s v i rt r r ^ i l ; , u r : r r i ' c c r c tl r y t l i r r r c r l r ypr r r r l r . r : r r c
I ' . l cl c t o I O r g : t r t i cS o l v c n l s ' o a r * l I c r r p c * t t r . c s .I ) i c l r l o ' . r l i i l t r o r - a r r c t r l r r c l rt
'l-crylcnc' 'lrrcor' ( . A r c t o r r (, r , r
p o l 1 ' c s t c rf l b r c s l r o r v sl r i g l r r c s i s t a r t c ct o t t t o s t o l ' t h c l 2 ) a r r d . r , r o c r r r o r o r r i f l r r o r o . r c r r r(r,rAr rr .cc r . r r.,r
'l;r'c.rr'22),'s or
c o n l n l o r ' ro r g u r r i c s o l v c t t t s .l i x a r r r p l c so [ t l t c s c ,r v l r i c h i n c l t r t l c t l r c c o r r r r r r . r r r. lrys c tilr r r c f ' r . i g c r . r r rLr rorrrri ttsl .
'l-cr rr.I ullccr
i r g c n t s r r o r r n a l l l ,t r s c c [ o r c l r y c l c a n i n g , a r c i l s l o l l c l w s : a c c t o r t c , y l c l c ' t o u n y r r o l i c c a b l ct l c g r c c l l I
t c l l l l ) c r ; r t r l r cl sr c t r v c c r r
t l i o x u r r c ,c t l r c r , l r t c t l t y ll r t t l c t h l ' l a l c o h o l , b c t r z c t t ct,o l t t c t t c ,x y l c r t c , - 2 0 " C . : r r r d. t 2 0 " ( . ' .
l i g l r t p c t r o l c r r n r ,t r t c t l t y l c r r cc l t l o r i d c , c l r l o r o f o r t t r ,c r t r b o t r t c t r a - l { c s i s t ; r n coc[ . l ' c r 1 , l c n ct o' l r y r l r o c r r r . t r o r r
oilsis 13ootl.
c l r l o r i d c , p c r c l r l o r o c t l r l ' l c t t uc r t r l t r i c l r l o r o c t l r y l c n c A . t roorl) tcnl-
'l-crylcnc'.
p c n r t t r r c ,t h c s c l r a v c l i t t l c c f l ' c c t o n t l t c s t r c r r g t ho [ Inscclr^
( l o r r t i n t r o u si r r r r u c r s i o nI o r 6 r n o n t l r s i n n r c t h y l l l c o l r o l a t 3 0 " C .
I ) 1 1 ' l ' p o l 1 ' c s t ci sr r r o t ^ s o r r r c co f r r o u r i s l r r r r c r r t
c i r u s c sn c g l i g i b l c l o s s o f t c t t i r c i t y ,r v h i l c a l 5 0 " C . r c c l t r c t i o ni s o l t o r i v i r r gc r c : r ( r l r c s ,
: r r r < l ' ' l - c . y l c . ch' : r s ^ ' c x c c l l c r r Lr c s i s t . r r c c
tlrcordcr of l5 llcr ccnt. r o r v r r i t cu r r r s ,t l c r . r r r c s t i t l
-['hc ''l'cr1'lcrtc', b c c t l c s ,s i l v c r - f i s l r ,n t o t l l l n f v i r c u r r t l s i n r i l u r
trcatnrcrttoI unsct forrtts o[ sttclt lts trrr[inislrctl llcsls.
f i l r r r r r c r ryt: t r r t , i r r s o l v c t t t sl n i t y c i r u s c a l r p r c c i : r b l cs h r i r t k a g c .W i t l r l\ I icro-org;rrrisrrrs
l r r c t h y l c n cc h l o r i c l cu n < l c l t l o r o f o r r r r ,t l r i s r v i l l o c c u r c v c n i I t r o o n l
t c n r p c n r t u r c ,a n c l r v i t h r t u r t t y o I t l r c o t l r c r s o l v c t t t s t t t c t t t i c l t t c c l I : u r r g il n i l b l c t c r i : rt l o r r o t : r i l : r c k , ' l - c r y l c r r c . i t s c l [ ,
l r r r ti t r r r r r sltr c
r u t r o v cs, l r r i n k l r g ci s c o n s i t l c n t b l c : r tt h c i r i r r t l i v i t l t r l lb o i l i n g p o i n t s . r c r r r c r r r b c r ctrllr : r ts . r r r c I ' r r r r l g: ri r r r lb ' c r c l ri '
: r r c c r r p : r [ r r.cr ' g r o w i r r l ;
cvon o. tlrc vcry srrtrll;r.r.rrat ol'co.l;l'rirrrrrls
S o l v c r r t s c a t r s i r r gt l r c g r c l t c s t s h l i r r k : r g c a r c b c l t z c t t c , I o l t t c t t c , , u t , i a t , ' ' a , ,i ,r,a
x y l c n c , t l i o x a r t c : u r r l l h c c l t l o r i n l t c c l s o l v c t t t sr v i t h t h c c x c c l . r t i o t t P t c s c l t t o n t l t c s t r r l ' l r c co i I i b r . c s c o r r r p r . i s i r r l l
) , i l r . r r so r f l r l l r i c s .
o 1 ' c a r [ r o nt c t r a c i r l o r i d c r, v l r i c l ic a t r s c sI r o s l r r i r r k a g c(.] i r r c t t t t t s lb e s t r c l r g ro r v t l r r v i r r l r r r ' c r r o c i l c c t o . t r l c t c ' s i r c
' - l - c l 1 ' l c l t cy' i i r t l s 1 l r . . 1 r c r . t i.cr s t r r c
t : r k c r r ,t l r c r c [ o r c , t o c n s u r c t l r l t t r t t y s t r c h or l t r a . l c r i r r lb' r t J r r t > c l r r c gt sc r t c ' ' t c r r b y t r r c
o r . g i l a r s , r sc : r r c . r s c
f : r b r i c s r v h i c h u l c t o b c c x p o s c c lt o h o t s o l v c n t s h l v c p r c v i o u s l y s c . o r s r l i s c o r o u * t i o ' . r t i s d c s i r u l ; l c ,t r r c r . c [ o r . c ,
to tirkc ,.,u,,,,,,r
prccuutions aglrirrst[rrng;rl lttt:rck,
bcen lrcat-sct. strclr ;ls Urc :rvoitllrrcc of
'l'hc (liunl) Storirgc.
r a n g c o f c h c r n i c a l sr v h i c l r r v i l l c l i s s o l v c ' - [ - c r y l c r rpco' l y c s t c r
f i b r c l t t r o n n a l o r t r t o t l c r ' : t ttcc r r r l ) c r l t t t t r ci s l i r r r i l e t l , : r n t tl l l c o n l y
Illcclric:rlI'ropcr(ics
c h c n r i c : r l sr v h i c h a s a c l r t s s" v i l I d o t l r i s a r c p l t c n o l s .N I o s t p h c r t o l s
r v i l l s r v c l l o r r l i s s o l v e ' . 1 ' c r y l c n c 't,l c p c r r c l i n go n t l r e t c t l ) p c r a t t l r e I r r c o r r ' r r o n r v i t l r o r r r c r s y . r r r c t i cf i r r r c s
rr^virrg;rr.rv rrr.isrrrrc
r u r r r cl o r r c c n t n r t i o nt t s c c l .S o l r r t i o l ri s t t o t r t c c o t t l p t r n i c tbl y i r t t t t t c - r c g t r i r r , ' - i ' c r y l c r r ics' l r v c r y g c t o t li n s r r l l t o r .
''l'crylcrrc'
< l i r r t ct J c g r l r l i r t i o r ra, n c l t l r c v i s c o s i t y o f i r s o l t r t i o n o [
i r r o r t l r o - c l r l o r o p l r c r t onlt a y b c t t s c c il t s r I l l t c l s t l r c o I t h c t l r o l c c t l l a r I ) i t' I c c't ri c (.o I t.\-| (t tr | ..
r v c i g l r to I t h c p o l y c s t c r . 3 . 1 7a t 2 0 ' C . a n d l k c . / s c c .
''l'crylcnc'rvilI 2 . 9 8 a t 2 0 " C . i r n d I l v l c/.s c c .
a l s o c l i s s o l v ci t t t . t . t o t t od- ,i - , a r t d t r i - c l r l o r o a c c t i c
'l '-l-crylcnc'
l c i d . l r c s c c r ' r t t p t l t t t t t ltsl i s s o l v c i l I t c t l ] 1 r c l i t t t t r casb o v c
t l r c i r n r c l t i n g y r o i n t s ,t v l r i c h a r c r c s p c c t i v c l y 6 l ' C ' . , l 0 ' C . a t l c l l/ o I tr rrta rc.yi.sli vi t), :
.55"C. 1 . 2x l 0 ' o o l t n r - c r r:rr.l 2 - 5 " C :. r r r r 6l 5 p c r c c r r l r . l t . ,
''['crt'lcrtc' n t c l r s t t r c rol r r
S o r n c o t l t c r s t t b s t a t t c c st v i l l t l i s s o l v c lrt lrighcr a I r r i l . f i l r n . ' l ' h i si s s c l r n cl 0 r l 0 r r i i r n c st n c
rcsistivitl,of silk,
lclrl)crirlufcs, s o l t r t i o r b
r c i r r gr a p i d i n t l r c b o i l i r r gs o l v c t t t .A t l r o l l g n)'lolt, coltoll or llyon.

360 l6l

r l r l
t
I T I I T F F F F F F F F F F F I. F F I. I
'TI]X'I'ILI]
OOK OF I'I S YN-TIIII'I C I:I I]III]S

I ) u c t o t h c l o r v n i o i s t t r r er c g a i n o [ ' - l ' c r y l c r r c ' ,t h c c x c c c c l i n g i l ' I r r g l r - s t r c n g tf h i b r c s r v l r i c hc l i s p l u ya , c x t c r ) s i r r ;rr [

rcllccts [ ; rc i r k t r r : r t
h i g h r c s i s t i v i t yi s I r r u i r r t r r i r t eact l h i g h I r t r l r r i c l i t i c s . . g r c a t o r g l l . c s s-. t L r t o ' - r o o k i r r l l r r . r c c r o s c r y: r t t l r c
t
A t h i g h l c t n p c r a t t t r e s ,t o o , t h c v a l t r c I o r v o l u t t l e r c s i s t i v i t y rrc-c'a'icaI prolrcrticsof t^c trvo typc:s
oI librc, i".r1rurr"',li
r c r n a i n st r i g h .A t 1 8 0 " C . ,f o r e x a n t p l c ,i t i s a b o u t 3 x l 0 t 2 o l t t t t - c t r l ' d i f l e r c n c e sn r a y b c s c c n .
M o s t s i g r i f i c a ' t o [ t l r c c r i f l c r c r r c cr sr c t r v c c r r
Brcukdo*,tt voltugc:
I ) r :r ' p o r l , c s t c ^r r r t l
n y l o ^ f i b r c sl i c s i r t r r c i ' i t i a l r ' o r r u r i .I ) r r ' r ' p o r y c s r c r
2 . 5 k V . / r n i l . , n t c a s t t r c col n 1 n i i l . t h i c k f i l n r . r i t r r . . ,r , , , u .
a h i g h c r i n i t i a l r n o d u l u st r r a r n y l o n I i b r c s .' r r r i i
''l'crylcrrc'
i s r r o n - t r a c k i n g s, o t h a t a c c i d c n t a [f l l s l t - o v c r c a n l l o t r r r c u ' sr t r , , ti l t , i
p o l y c s t c Iri b r c sl r a v ca g r c . t c r r c s i s t u ' c c
t o s t r c r . c r r i ri ,gr , . r 1 r u u . .
p r o r l u c c a c o r t t l t t c t i v et r a c k . t o a t c r r s i l cf o r c c . ' f l r c a p p l i c a t i o no I a s n r a i l
lo.rl rviil.,,,,r.2
Allcrgcnic I'ropcrlics o r 3 t i l r r c sa s g r e a ta ' c x t c ' s i o ' i ' n y l o . as i'l,Il.l.f,.l1,.l.f
' - l ' c r y l c n o ' i s p l r y s i o l o g i c a l l yi n c r t , a t t c l c l o c s r l o t c a t t s ci r r r y i r r i t a - {ib rc.
l ' h i s h i g h r c s i s t a n c1co d c f o r ' r a t i o rcr r i s p r ^ y c r r
tion to thc skin. b y I , EI ' p o r y c s r c r
f i b r e si s s h o w n a l s . i . t l r c i r h i g h r " s i r t , , , , . .
to bc'rli'g. I,l:.1.
Cocflicicntof liriction p o l y c s t c rf i b r c s a r c l t r u c h s t i f l - c rt h a n n y l o n
-I'he librcs.
'-l'crylcnc'has a rclativcly high cocfllcient of [riction against h i g h r ' o c l r r l u sa . d s t i r l , c s so f I r r i - r ' p o l y c s t c[ ri
b r c sc o r r f c r
g r c a I c l i r r c n s i o . aslt a b i r i t yo n [ . b r i . . , r , , , i "
s l i o o t I s u r [ 1 c c s ,c s p c c i l l l y o f r r r c t a lo r p o r c c l a i l . ' l - [ c c o c l l i c i c l t f r , r , r r r c r r r( .i o o r r s
c o r r t . . i r i ' gl ) l i - r 'p o r y c s t c fri b r c sl r r c . . I r c ; r t r i r y :t
of friction of a yartt against,lor cxartlplc, a yarll gtritlc tlccrcascs , t . t ' u , , , , . , r .r , . , ] . i
i s a c h . r a c t c r i s t ifci r r r r ' c s tso I r L - r ' p o r y c s t c r
rvitlr incrclsing tctrsiott. f : r l l r i c s*,t . , i . r ,, i l . j r r , , y
'l'hc I r c n s p c r h a n d l c t l r t n t h o s co f n v l o n .
c o c l h c i c t t t o f f r i c t i o n a g l i r t s t a t l t a t t g t r i c l c ,i . c . : r g t r i t l e 'l'he
s t i l l ' c s so i P E ' r ' p o r y c s l cIri b r c s . r r y [ r c r r c r r r o r r s r r - : r t c t r
r v i t I a c l i s c o n t i n t , t o t tssL t r f a c c ,i s t l l t r c l t l c s s t l t l t t r a g a i n s t a l l o l i s h c c l by
PE-t' ,,virh ivool of conrpar:rtrtc
g r r i r l c ,o r v i n g t o t l r c s n r a l l c r i t r c i l o I a c t t r a l c o t t t a c t b c t r v c e n t l t c .( :l :r]:]']'lcl ,tlci irr ., g . ,nolycsrcrtibrcs
A ' 1 . ' l r rt c x ( ' 1 t r c r r )l ' i b r c ,f i r r c . r l r r r P l c , , ,, tr i , " r ' , i i . i ,
y a r n l r r t r l l h c r r t a t t s r r r [ a c e . ' l ' l r c r l y n a r r r i cc o c l l i c i e r r lo f f r i c t i o l l 'rv,ol
'-l'crylerre'filanrcnt i s ,c t . ' ' P a r , l ; l t 'i r r r l i u r ' c t c r r v i t l r a 7 0 s (2d;j.-;i;
of 1'ltrttegeiltst a ttllttt stccl stlr[ace, [or ri 9i l:'](tt c , r l o w c v c r ,i s r r o r c l i l < c t l r a t o 1 - l r ( r . l s
c x a r n p l c ,i s t t t u c h l o r v c r t h a t r t h a t a g a i n s tL r r i g l r st t c c l . 1r \
r v . t l l (rli.rrrctcr
W i t h s t : r p l cI i b r c , l r o r v c v c r ,I r i g h I r i c t i o n a l c' lo - c l l i c i c n t sb c t w c c l t
C ) n t h c o t l r c rl r a n d ,I f i n c c o t t o l l w i l l p r o v i < l ca c r i s p c r
s l ) L r ny u n l s a n t l g t r i r l c s a r c I l o t o b t l i t t c t l . l r i s i s c l u c t o t l r c t h a n a I r t j . l - p o l y c s t c rI i b r c o I c o n r l t : r r : r b rl cl i t r r r r c t c r . ;
llrntllc
a r r a n g c n ) e n to I t h c i n c l i v i d t l : r [l i b r c s i r t t l l c y a r n b c i r l g s t r c h t h a t r n o d u l u s o I l ) [ , - f p o l y e s t c rs t a p l c I i b r c i s
tlrc irritiul
intinrate contact bctrvcctr the yarn and tllc guidc srrr[acc tlocs l o r v c r t l r t r r rt h l t t . l f
co [[o lt.
not occttr. -l'lrcsc
c h a r a c t c r i s t i oc fs h i g h s t r c r r g t rrrr,i 1 3rlcr s i s t . r r ctco
strcrclr,
Ilcfrac(ivc Ilrtlcx (20'C.) t o t r g h r c s sa n d s t i r T ' c s sa r e o I i n c s r i r r a b r J
- f ' c y v ^ r r r ci ' , . , , , , , , f t i . i . t ,
of
I)arallcl to fibrc axis: 1.72 . t c x t i l ea p p l i c a t i o ' . c o r r f c r g r c a t t r i r r c r r s i o r r s, ri . b i t i t f
a n d c o . t r i b u t ct o t h c c r c r r s c - r c s i s t ^ . c c - u s lrrrr, pl c - r c l c ' t i o r vr l r i c l r
I ' c r p c n d i c u l u r t o f i b r c a x i s: 1 . 5 ' l
a r c .s u c h i r n p o r t a r r ft c a t u r e so f P l l ' r ' y r o r y c s t c r
r]ut tlrcy
t t r i l i t a t ca g a i ' s t t l r c r r s co f I ' E I ' p o l y c s i c iri b r " s 1 ; o o t r s .
l ) l l ' l ' I ) O l . Y F - S ' I ' F . lF{ I I l l t l i s I N U S I I i , r s o r r c: r p l r r i c ; 1 -
t i o n s 'J ' l a d i e s ' s t o c k i r r g sf o , r c x a n r l r l ci t, r s c s s c r r t i r r l
t r.t rlrc
f i b r c s h o r r l dl r a v c s r r f h c i c n t ' g i v ct o' : r c c o r r r r r o t l ; r t c
(lcncr:rl Chlrrrclcris(ics r r cs r r c l c r r i u g
t h a t t a k c sp l . c c a t t l r c k ' c c . ' r ' h c f i b r c r r r t r s t . r s o
l r : r v cs u r r i c i c r r t
iYf at' lttt rtic rtl I' ro pc r t i t s c l a s t i cr . c c o v c r yf r o r r r s L r c l sr t r c r c r r i r gt o . c ( r r r r
tu its origirrrrl
C o r t s i t i c r c t l s t r p c r l i c i r r l l y ,I ' l i ' l ' p o l y c s l c r ( i b r c s r l r c g c r r c r l l l y s l r u l t cr v l r c nl l r c k r r c ci s s l r l i g l r t c r r c t l .
s i r r r i l a ri n t h c i r t n c c l i a r t i c a lp r o p c r t i c s t o n y l o n { r b r c s . l - l i c y a t ' c N y l o r r ,r v i t h i t s l o r v i r r i t i . i n r o d r r r t r s . r dr r i g h
c r l r s t i cr c c o v c ' r , .
l6l
 'l
IIANDIIOOK OF EXl'lLll l:l Il: .SYNI'ltt:I lC FIIIRF.S

i s n c l r r r i r a b l cf o r t h i s c n c l - r r s cI.l L r t l ) l t - f p o l l ' c s t c r f i b r c , r v i t h i t s i r t t r r c I c l t r s t . ' r l c l i r t ,b c c o r r r i r gs o i l c c rl r r o r cr . c : r r l i ltyl r : r l r

^ fibrc
l t i g l r r c s i s t u n c ct o s t r c t c h : r n d l o r v c t ' c l a s t i cr c c o v c r l ' , i s l c s s s : r t i s - t h a t t l o c s . o t s o r c l r c r i r ya c c l u i r cc r c c r r o s r l r t rccl r r r r g c s'.r
rris
frrco
t ry. d i l l i c L r l t y ' r i r yb c o v c r c o . l cb y t h c a p p l i c , t i o r o r I lt'tistrr(ic
f i r r i s h c so,I r v l r i c l ai ' t r r r r b c r o f r v u s h . b l ct y l ) c si r r c r r o r v . v . i l r r b l c .
A t t h c l o r v c x t c n s i o n s t o r v h i c h , p l l r t i i r l l y l l c c a t t s co i t h c i r I r i b r c so I l o r v ' r o i s t u r c^ b s o r 1 . , t i o ' t c r tr .i l b c u r s r r t i s f . c t u r y
h i g l r r r r o d L r l t t st l,r c y : l r e t t l o s t s t r b j c c t i t t t t s c ,I ' l i ' l ' p o l y c s t c r y l l r l l s f o r u s c i r r r r ' r l c r r v c u 'rr r d o t l r c r g a r r r r c . t si ' c o r t ^ c t r v i t l r
tlrc
l r n d f l b r . c sc x l r i b i t r r c g l i g i b l cc r c c l l . I : i l a l l l c l l t y : l r l ) s r c c o v c r c o l ) l - s k i r r . ' l ' l r c yc l o r o t a b s o r bt h c p c r s p i r ^ t i o rars r v ' ' 1 , [ . r c x . r r r p l g ,
plctcly, for cxltttltlc, froltl ltrt cxtctlsitlttoI lllcr ccttt, ltntl r l o c s , . . r l t l r c y r r r . y l ' c c lc l r r r r r^pr r t l c l . r r r r r y . ' l ' l r i si s r r r i t i g . t c r i
t.
i..ou"ry is 'rorc tSan 90 p c r ccllt c o r ' ' l c t c a l t c r ^ 3 ' c r c c t lI s o n r cc x t c r t i . t l r c c a s c o l l , I l ' p o l y c s t c rf a b r - i c sr ,r s t l i c
-l'hc fibrcs
cxtcrrsion. r c c o v e r y f i g u r c s [ o r s t l t p l c { i b r e a r c l o r vcr tltittr l c r r r lt o ' r v i c k ' r c a r l i l y .l t 4 o i s t r r ri sc c : r r r i c t rl r r p i d l yt l r r . r r g l r
tlrc
tlrosc Ior fillrrrcnt yurns, rluc to tllc pirrtilrlly tttltt-rccgvcrltblc f l r b r i c ss, o t l r u t i t c : r r c v : r J r r l r . ttcl t r i c k l yi r s i t ' c . i l r c s
tlrc orrcr
rcrnovlrl oI critnp fronl stallle fibrc tltrrillg lolclirrg' srrrIircc.
'l'hc
I r l t ' l ' p o l y c s t c r f i b r c p o s s c s s c sa n i r n t l l l c i t t r t o t l t r t o I d c l a y c d lorv rnoisttrrp c c n e t r l b i l i r yo I l , l i ' l ' p o l y c s t c r[ i t r r c sc l t r s c r l
' g i v c ' t t r t c l c rs l l o c k - l o a d i n g c o n c l i -
c l l l s t i c c l c [ o r r r ] l t t i o nt o p r o v i r l c co'sirlcr:rbl< c l i l l i c r r l t y . i rt h c r r c v c l o p ' r c r rot i t l y c i r r gt c c l r r r i r l r r c *
t i o n s . N c v c r t l t c l c s si t a l s o i l i s l t l a y s n' l h i g l l c l c g r c c o I s l l r i n g i n c s s f o r . t h i s f i b r c . I ' E ' l ' p o l y c s t c rf i b r c si r r c ' o r v d y c c rc o r r r r r r t l r r r y
ur
t u n c l c rl c s s r a l t i t l l g a t l i r r gc o n t l i t i o r l s . l r i s h i g l r i p t t t t c c l i n t c l a s t i c h i g h t c n r p c r l t u r c sl ,n d c l f t c nu n d c r p r c s s t r r c .
rccovcry oI l,lt t' ltolycstcr libre cxltllins tlrc good wrinklc pcr- 'l'
f o r n r a n c c i n t v c a r o f f a b r i c s c o n t a i n i n g l r r g l rl l r o p o r t i o n s o f I ' E - l '
lttrrrtol I'ropcrtics
polycstcr hbrc. Al'tcr having bccn strbjcctcil to tllc bcnclirrg I r r c . r r r r . r r r v i t l r . t l r c r{ l r c r r r r . p r u sftiibcr c s I, ) l : ' l ' p o l y c s r c r
filrrcs
clclorrilationsrvhiclr fabrics urtdcrgo itt ttsc, l'l-'l'polycstcr Iibrcs r v i l l s o l t c r rr v h c r rr r c : r t c t -r r. ' l r cs t i c k i r r gl r r r r rr r r c l t i . l S p'irts.I
r c c o v c r c l t r i c k l yt o t h c i r o r i g i r l a l c o r t f i g t t r l t t i o n ' t h c s cf i b r c sa r c , l r o r v c v c rr,r i g r cr r r o t r g lfro r a i l r r o r . r r r : r r ' i c x t i r . , , r . i r ,
I n c o n l l r . r o r rr v i t h o t h c r t c x t i l c f i b r c s , I ) l J ' l ' p o l y c s t c r I l b r c h a s : u r c ln o c l i l l i c t r l t i casr c c x p c r . i c r r c ci nt l l l t i s r c s p c c t .
lorv shcur s{rcrrlillrbccausc of its non-isotropic nirtttrc. As PI],'l- I ' l : . ' l ' p o l 1 ' c s tfcl rb r c sh l v c a r r c x c c l l c r rrtc s i s r ; u r ct co
rlrccfl-cct
p o l y c s t c r i s n o t , h o r v c v c r , a b r i t t l c f i b r c , h i g h s l t c a r - s t r c s sc o t r - o I y r r o l o l r g cct xl p o s r r r ac t c l c v r r l c tI lc l l r l ) c m l l r r cbsc l c l r vt l r c
soflcrr_
c c n i r a t i o l s c i y l n o t b c s c t u p b c c a t t s ct I c f i b r c o r y r t r l l r v i l l d c [ o r t l t i r r g p o i . t , . r r d t l r i sc l r i r r . c t c r i s ri isc p r . o v i . gi r r p o r t l r r ri t, , , . , , r , , y
:rnrl convcrt tlrcsc to lcnsile forccs. Iror this rcrrsotl, thc loop i r r t l t l s t r i ltrrII P I i c l r t i o r r s .
strcngth of lrtj'l'polycstcr fibrc is noI apprcciablylcss tltan tllc I ' l l ' l - p o l y c s t c ry ^ r ' ' s ^ s s u p p r i c d b y t h c r r r ; r r r r r f r r c t u c r
rrrc
s t r a i g h t t e n s i l es t r e n g t l l . r r s . a l l y l r c i r t s c n s i t i v ci r r t l r . t t l r c y r v i l Ls h r . i r r kr v l r c ,
lrc.tcd i.
r v a l c r . r r r i r . I f r r c c c s s . r ' 1I ), r, .r1' p ' r y c s t c r r r r l r t c r i u r s
rr'ry [rc
ItIoislttrt: s t a b i l i z c ct o l h c : r t .o r r c r r c t r r o cir. st o s l r r i ' k t o s t r r b l cr r i r r r c . i i . r r s
I r E ' l - p o l ' , c s t c r f i b r c s h a v c a v c r y l o r v r r r o i s t t t r c: t b s o r b c t t c y ,a t r c l c i t l r c rb y s t c ; r . r i ' gc l r b y s u b j c c t i r gt o c l r y l r c . t r r r r r r c r - c o r r t l i t i . r r s
this allcits thc practical usc oI thc fibrc in a trrttttbcroI rvays. r v l r i c llrl l o r v f r c c r c l l x : r t i o r r .
-l'hc
'l'he
n r c c h l l n i c a l p r o p c r t i c s o f t h c f ' r b r c ,f o r c x a t l l p l c , a r c v i r t u l I l l y r r c t l r o r l o I h c : r t r c r a . r u t i o ' ,r r o r , , , c v ccro, r r f c r si r r c r c ^ s c r l
r u r r : r I I c c t c rbl y u t o i s t u r c , t l r c t c n s i l c s t r c r r g t l r n t i d c l o r l g : t t i o t t c x t c r r s i b i l i t ya,r r t l a n i r l t c r r r r r l i vrcr r c t l r o tils l o l r c l r t _ s c t
lo fixcrl
r c r r ] l l i n i r r g u n c h u r r g c c l .l r l J l ' p o l y c s t c r [ l b r i c s l t a v c g o o i l t l i t r l c l t - r l i r r r c . s i . . s ,a l l o r v i r r gv c r y l i t t l c o r l r ' s l r . i r k r r l i c [. J . r r c r -
tlrcsc
s i o n a l s t t b i l i t y c l t r r i l r gr v c t l l r o c c s s i r r ga n d r v l s l t i l t g ' c . o . t l i t i o r rlsc s sc h u r g c t ^ k c s p l . c c i r r t r r c p r r y s i i r r l
'fhc l.,ropcrtics.I
lorv rnoisttrrcabsorbctlcl'tlrllkcs for rapid <lrying, and t h c f i b r c ,t h c v . l t r c sf o r c r c ' i c r ,t c r u c i t 1 , , , , r u i l , , [r ,r,.,r,i c . r i c r r s i b i r i t y
Irli'f polycster [abrics have cxccllent easc-o[-clrc pro|crtics. r c r r r a i n i r ragl r n o s tr r n u l t c r c r l .
I n c o n r r r r o nr v i t h o t h c r h y c l r o p h o b i ct l b r c s ,l ' l r - f p o l y c s t c r t c r l t l s
lltttt-,\'cttirrTi
t o a c c t t t t t t t l a t c l t l r g c s o f s t a t i c c l c c t r i c i t y ,: t t t t l t h c s c n l a y l ) r o v c
lttay
t r o u b l c s o r n ci n p r o c c s s i n ga n d d u r i n g f l l b r i c t r s c . G l I r t t t c t l t s o r r c o I t l r cn r o s ti r r r p o r t a rl r nt t lr r s c f t lr )l r o l ) c r r i c. Is I , t :I '
rr.lycsrcr
36.r 365
F - F - F F F - - -
ITIDRIIS
IIANDIIOOK OF'l'I:XllLIl
fibres is tlrcir ability to ttrkc orl a'pcrlrlitttctltsct'rvhcn sltapcd
r t l r i g l r t c r r p c r a t t t r c s .I ; o r c x a t r l p l c , p l c a t s l n a y b c i n s c r t c t l i n
a I , l i r l ' p o l v e s t c r I i r L r r i ci n s U c l r a w a y t h i l t t l r c y i l r c l r i g h l y
t l L t r a b l c t o r v c l r i r r g a n c l l a u u c l c r i n g .P r o v i d c d i t i s p r c s c l t t i t t
sullicicnt proport.ion, Plr-f polycstcr fibrc also confcrs this
p r o p c r t l , o n b l c n d e t l f a b r i c s c o n t a i r r i n gi t .
'l'hc
nbility oi Plr'l'polycstcr fibrc to acccllta'pcrtttancttt sct'
i s n o t i r r f l u c r r c c db y t h c t c u r p c r : r t r t r co I a n y p r i o r I i c a t - s c t t i r t g
l r c a t n t c n t c a r r i c d o U t t o c o n f c r r l i n t c n s i o n a ls t a b i l i t y . l n f a c t ,
i t i s c s s c n t i a lt h n t l r n y f a b r i c t o b c p l c a t c d o r c t t r b o s s c cbl c p r c -
vioLrsly Ircat-sct at a substlrntially lriglicr tcltrpcratitrc thart
t l r a t r c r t r r i r c r il n t l r c s h a p i n g t r c a t l l ] e n t i r t o r c l c r t o c l i r l l i n a t c t l i c
p o s s i t r i l i t yo f r r n c o u t r o l l c r sl l r r i n k a g et l L t r i n gt l r c p l c i r t i n g p r o c c s s .
I ) l c : r t ss c t i n a g a r r n c n t i n t h i s r v a y r v i l l b c p c r t t t a r t c n ts o l o n g
a s t l r c s c t t i n g t c l t l l ) c r a t r t r ci s n o t s u b s c r l U c n t l yc x c c c d c c l . ' l ' h c
I c n t l ) c r a t r l r cu s c r l i n s c t t i n g i s s c l c c t c t [r v i t h t l r i s i n v i c r v ,c s p c c i i r l l y
r v l t c n t l r c g l r r r r r c n tr r r u s t r v i t l r s t a n r li r o r r i n g . A r r a 1 1 1 l I r c fl a b r i c ,
f o r c x u r i l p l c , r v i l l c o r n n r o n l y b c l r c a t - s e ta t t c n l p c r a t t r t ' c isr l t l t c
rcgion o[ 200-220'C.
ln l propcrly hcat-sct iabric, thc fibrcs rvill tcrlclalways to
r c v c r t t o t l r c i r s c t 1 ; o s i t i o r r .I I e l t - s c t t i r r g c o n t r i b u t c s g r c a t l y ,
t l r e r r c f o r ct,o t l t c t l i n r c n s i o r r asl t a b i l i t y a r t t l r v r i r t k l c r c s i s t a r l c co I
I ) l r I ' 1 r o l 1 ' c s t fc;lt l ' ti c s .
[ ) t r r i n g h c n t - s c t t i n g , f t r r t h e r c r y s t a l l i z - a t i o no I t l r c p o l y c s t c r
t a k c s y r l r r c cr, e s u l t i n g i n a n i n c r c a s c i n t l t c s t i [ I n c s so f t h c f i b r e .
-l'lris
r n a y a { l - c c tt l t e h a n d l c o I t h c t a b r i c , r v l r i c h b c c o t r r c sc r i s p c r .
-l'lris
cflcct is alleviatcclby subscqrrcnttnccltanical trcatnrent of
tlrc f a bric, atrtl tltc scqtlencc o[ {inishing operations is oftcn
s c l c c t c d t v i t h t l t i s i r t r - I l i n d . I f h c a t - s e t t i r r gi s c a r r i c d o u t b e f o r e
s c o r r r i n g a r t t l/ o r d y c i r r g , [ o r e x a n t p l e , t h c i n c r e a s c c ls t i f l n e s s o I
tltc fabric rvill bc largcly workccl out cluring thc lattcr opcratiotrs.
It is csscntial that hcat-scttingshould bc carricd out undcr
a c c u r a t c l y c o n t r o l l e d c o n d i t i o n s ,a s a 5 " C . v a r i a t i o n i n t c r l r p c r a -
I r r r c t l r r r i n g h c a t - s c t t i r r gi s s u f l i c i c n t t o c a t t s c a c l t a t l g e i n s h a t l c
o n s r r b s c r l t r c rdr ty c i r r g .
I f h c a t - s e t t i n g [, o r o l t c r c a s o l l o r a t t o t h c r , i s c a r r i c i l o L t t a f t c r
c l l , c i r r g ,i t i s n c c c s s l r r yt o s c l c c t t h c r l y c s t t r f l sw i t h l l l r r t i c t r l a r c l t r c
i n o r r l c r t o l i l i r r i u r i z ct l r c c l l c c t o I r l y c s t t r l lv o l a t i l i z - a t i o r lt t. r t l a y
b c n c c c s s a r y r r r r r l c r t h c s c c i r c u r r r s l l t t t c ctsO s o f t c r t t h c h c l t - S c t
flbr ic b1' crrlcrtdcriltg t l r o t l t c r l t t c c l t l t l t i c atlr c a t r t t c t t t .
'l'lrc
r l c v c l o p r n c r rot [ ' p c r n t a n c n t p r c s s ' t c c h t i i q t t c st l t t r i t t gr c c c r t t
166
: S}'NI'III:1 IC FII}ITt]S
v c a r s h ; r s s t i r n u l u t c t l u r r i n c r c : r s c r lr i c n r : r n r lf o r I , l r ' l ' p o l y c s t c r
I l b r c s . I t c r n - r a n c . tp r c s s i s i r l o g i c a l s t c p f o r , , v r r r ri l' t l r c c r c a t i o r r
o I c a s c - o f - c r r r cg i r r n r c r ) t si,n w l r i c h t l r c l r c : r t - s c i l i r r o g{ r l r c l l b r c
t l r k c s p l : r c c u f t c r t l r c g a n n c l ) [ l r l r s [ r c c n r r l r t l c r r p . ' l l r c g u rr r r c t r t
i t s c l f i s s c t i r r t h c c l c s i r c r ls l l n l ) c .
I ' o l y c s t c r f i b r c s g c r r c r a l l yh a v c p r o v c r l l n o s t s r r c c c s s f t ri 'l t l r i s
r c s l ) c c t ,c o n r r n o n l y i r r b l c n d s w i t l r c o l t o n , a r r t l t l r c n r p i r l r r r l v l r r c c
o f P c r r r u r n c n pt r c s s l r ; r sb c c r r a r r . . j o r f a c t o r i n t l r c p o l y c s t c r f i c l t l .
S t t t t lgi l r t
A l l l i b r e s a r c a l l ' c c t c db y t l r c l a r l i r r r i o r r is. s u r r r i g l r t r, v l r i c l rb r i n g
a b o u t c l c t c r i o n r t i o r ro n p r o l o r r g c t l c x g r o s r r r c l., l . rl ' p u l y c s t c r i s
b e t l c r t l r a n r r y l o n i n i l s r c s i s t a r r c tco s u r r l i g l r t r, r r r t lt l r i s s t r p c r i o r i l y
r s n r o s t p r o n o u r r c c dr v l r c n I l r c t i b r c i s b c l r i r r t g l llss. I)l:1 1.,olycstcr
f i b r c s l r n v c c s t ^ b l i s l r c ral r r s c I L rrln r r r k c Ii r r t l r c c r r r . r r r ilri rc l r l , l u r g c l y
t l r ' o t r g l r t l r i s i r r c r c . s c r lr c s i s t : r r r ctco t l r c c l l c c t s o I s t r r r l i g l r r .
C ltctrticul I) t ttpc rt ic s
I ) l : ' [ ' p o l l ' e s t c r [ i b r . c sl r : r v c a ' r c x c c l l c r r t : r l l - r o r r n rt cl s i s r . r r c cr o
c l r c r n i c r r l s . ' l - h c yl r . v c i r s r r r p l i s i r r r l y g r o c l r c s i s t : r . c c t , : r c i t l s ,
b r r t ; r r c I c s s r c s i s t a n t o a l k : r l i ,a n c l t i r i s r r r t r s b I c b o r r r ci r r r r r i n d
i n t l r c s c l c c t i o r or f ' [ i b r c s l o r i n t l r r s t r i a: lr p p l i c : r t i o r r s .
l ' l i . l ' p o l y e s t c rI i b r c s a r c l r o t a f l c c t c da J r p r c c i r r b b l yy . r r y , I t r r c
n o r r r t r l b l c a c l r i n gI c c l r r r r c l r - r c s .
I',ltct ri col I' ro pt r I i t's
'l'he
c x c c l l c r r t c l c c t r i c a l p r o p c r l i c s o f l r L .l.' p . l y c s t c r [ i b r c s a r c
a l l i c d r v i t l r g o o c l r c s i s t a n c ct o t l r c c f l c c t c l I l r i g l r t c n r p c n r t r t r c sc,. g .
1 o 1 8 0 ' c i . A s t l r c r r r o t l c . nt r c r r d i s r o r . ' c l c c r ' i c . l r r r o t o r sr i t
l r i g l r c r I c n ) l ] c r ; r t u r c st h
, c r c i s a c l c r r r : r r r[rol r g o o r l i r r s u l l t o r sr v l r i c l r
r v i l l w i t l r s t a r r ccl l c v a t c r lI c r ] r l ) c r u t u l c sI ,. l r .l ' p o l y c s t c r f r r b r i c s ,l r c l t -
. s c t a t t e l n l l c r a t r r r c sa b o v c t l r o s c c r ) c o u n t ccl d i r r p r l c t i c a l u s c ,
I r l v c [ o r r n c lr n n r r l ,l p p l i c a t i o r r si r r t l r i s f i c l t l .
I'i lli trg
'l
l r c P l r c r r r r r r c ' o no f - p i l l i r r g i s a f a r r r i l i u r. r r c i n t l r c u , c r r i r r r i
o i f l r b r i c s f r o r r r l l l t y p c s o I s t l p l c f i b r c . S r r r , l l [ r L r r r t l l cosI l i b r . c s
c o l l c c t o r r t l r c s t r r l r r c co f l l r c I l b r i c t l r r r i r r gu s c , l o r . r r r i r r g ' p i l l s '
r v l r i c h a r c I r c l d o r r t o t l r c [ r r L r l i cs r r r l ' i r c cb y f i b r c s g r i p p c r l l t o n c
361
 'I
III\NI)IIOOK OII EX'TII-I.,FII}III]S n : - s Y N 'i tl [ . t t c F t t ] t U : S
c n ( l b y l l r e ! ' a n t r u r d a t t h c o t l t c r c n c l b y c n t l t t t g l c t t t c nitn t h c I l l c n d c c l r v i t h r v o o l . ,P E ' l ' I r o l y c s t c r a t l c l s
c r i s l l n c s so I h ' . c l l c ,
prlI buncllc. \ r ' c r r rr c s i s t a n c c ,t o u g l r n c s sa n c l s t r c n g t h . ' l ' l r c
cllcct of tlrc IrE I-
In thc case o[ fibres sttcltas u'ool, tltcscpills Itray be rcntovccl p o l y c s t c r i s t t l o s t l t o t i c c a b l ci r r f a b r [ s
s u b j c c t c r lt o c l . r ) l ) c o r -
fairll, casily,e.g.by brushing.Rut in tltc case oI a strotrgfibrc c l i t i o r l s ,j n r v l r i c h t l i c r v o o l b c c o r r r c .lsi n r p
ani clsily.,..,,r".l.:iil''.
srrch as Plr'f polycstcr, thc fibrcs holcling the pills clo not brcak p r c s c n c eo I I ) E - l ' p o l l ' c s t c r
l l r o v i c l c s . , ' . i r . r ' c . s i s t a r r c c . r rr rl il r r r c r r -
c a s i l y , a n d t h c p i l l s r c n r a i r ta t t a c l t c c tl o t h c g r t r t t t c n ts t t r f a c c . s t a b i l i t y , f o r c x a r r r P l ci r t l r . s c r . c g i o r r o sI tlrc body *r,.,.
;i9nal
I ) i l l r n g r r r a y b c r c c l r r c c cbl y u s i r r g t i g l r t l y c o r t s t r t t c t c d1 , 1 1 1 1a1nsc l l r i g h h t r n l i d i t y i s l i a b l c t o r u r r r p l cr r r r r lc - r c : r s c
a..ll-rvool f.br.ic.
\ v c l v c s , a n c l t h e t c n c l c t t c yt o p i l l c a n b c r c t t t o v c d c f l ' c c t i v c l yf r o r r r
I ' E ' l ' p o l y ' e s t c r c l o t h b y c a r c [ L r ls i r r g c i n g o f t h c l o o s c f i b r e c n d s . 1l'ashirrg
-l-lris
is carriccl out prc[crably altcr clycing, as fusccl polyester I \ 4 o . t f a b r i c s c o n t , ' i r t i r t gl ) l l ' l ' I r o l l , c s t c r f i b r c
lr.c rvaslrrblc, btrt
fibrcs tcnclto dyc to a darkcr colour. i n b l c n d f a b r i c s t l l c t t i t t u t ' co I r i r c -o t h c r c o n r l ) o n c r r t
rvill g " *c, r, rr ic, ri ,: .rrl sl y
Ir'lany nranu[acturcrs are now producirrg polyestcr fibrcs of control tlre bcltirviolrr oI tlrc fabric rrrrrl.lr
tlill'cr.crr,
l o r v e r t c n i i c i t y , r v h i c l ' r l t a v e a r c d r - r c e dp i l l i n g t e n d e n c y . cortditions1 . - h t l s ,r v o o l , s i l k , r c g c r r c r : r t c cd c l l u l o s c s ; r r r r l
cclltrlclsc
'I' acctatc fibrcs are rcr:rtivcry rlclicatc Iibr.cs
c.rI ttrc rl I' rtt' tt.r rvlriclr corrlrl t;;
darltagcd j f t o o ^- s c v c r cr v : r s h i n gc o r r r l i t i o l s r v c r c t r s c r J .t ] l c r r t l s
of
P l i - t ' y r o l y c s t c rf i l l n r e r t t y a r n s t n a y b e . s u b j c c t c ctlo L h c p r o c e s s e s I'13'f llolyestcr fibrcs rvith cottorr or flax,
c l n l h c o t l r c r .l ; r 1 r l , 1 r . c
t r s c c l i n 1 ; r o c l t r c i r r gt c x t t t r c t l y l l t ' n s . S o t t t c o I t l r c s c y r r n r s s h o t v g c t t c t ' i l l l yl t t o r c r o t l t r s t . ' l ' l t cc o n t l i t i o r r s
r r s c r li r r l n r r r r t l c r . i rbr gl c . r r t l s
a c l v : r n t a g c so v c r t e x t u r c d n y l o r r y a n r s , f o r c x a t t r p l c i n l r r a i n t a i n - oI I' E'l' PolycstcrIibrc witlt otlrcr fibrcs lrrc
t l r c r . c l ' o r .cco n t r o l l c r l
i n g s t r l l c r i o r r v a s h / r v c a r c h a r a c t c r i s t i c s ,r v r i n k l c r e s i s t a n c c a n d r)rore by the otlrcr fibrcs trra' by trrc I)E'r' porl,cstcr.
r c c o v e r ' ) /[ r o r n . s t r c t c l r . Plr'f polyestcr Ilbrc ltlts tlrc valrr:rblcclurrirctcristic
, oI con-
P r o r l t r c c r - t c x t u r c cyl a r n s h a v c h a d a n o t a b l e s u c c e s s ,s u c h a s [ c r r i r l g ' l t l i t t i t t t t l l lcl a r c ' p r o l ) c r t i c so n f a b r i c s
' r l t i t l i t r l t t t t r c o r r t ; r i p i r rigr . ' l ' l r c
t h e f a l s c - t r v i s t b u l k c c l y a r n s r v h i c h a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e c lb y l o r v dcgrce o[ c a r c ' a c h i c v c c lc l c l l c n c l sl r r r g c l y o 1 t l r c
s t r e t c h a r r c hl i g h l e r r g t hs t a b i l i t y . ' l ' h e s yc a n r s a r e u s c c l ,f o r e x a n r p l e , portiott of PII-f poll'cstcr flbrc prcscrrt, 1rr:.-
b u I r r r o s t r r r . t i c l c sc o n -
i n t l r e r r r e n t r f a c t t r r oe I c l o L r b l cj c r s c y a n r l o t l r c r k n i t t e d f a b r i c s ; t a i n i n g I ' E - l ' p o l y c s t c r f i b r c , i I l v l r s l r c ccl o r - r
c c t l y , r . c c ; u ci r 1 t l r e s t
t h c s c a r e r l l o r e s t r e t c h r c s i s t a n ta n c l [ c s sl ) r o n e t o s l r r i n k a g ec l u r i n g only liglrt irorring.
p r o c c s s i r t gt l t a n c o r r t p a r a b l ef a b r i c s n r a c l e f r o n r b u l l < e d n y l o n . P E ' - l ' p o l y e s t c rf i b r c s l r a v c h i g h s t r e n g t h l n r l l t l r : r s i s '
rcsistlrrrcc,
a t t d t h c y w i l l w i t l l s t : r r t cvli g o t ' o t r sr r r c c l i a n i c r l
r v l s l r i p gl r . c u t r r r c r r t s .
It is 'ot ,cccssary to t.cut 100 pcr cc't
I r [ , ' l ' l l o l y c s t c r .g . o r l s
a s i I t l r c y w c r c l l l l l c l c l r o n t l c l c l i c a t cl r a g i l c
Illcnds n r n t c r . i r r cl ,v c p r l i o r r g l r
Iiglrtly co'strtrctcrt fabrics rr:ry givc rrrIs,,yr1r..,,.,,,.,...
A l r i g l r p r o p o r t i o n o [ - t l r c o u t p u t o f I ' 1 1 ' l ' p o l y c s t c rf - i t r r ci s i n t l r c I ' E ' l ' 1 ; o l y c s t c fr i b t ' c sl t a v c a l r i g l r r c s i s t , , , . r i . .
tu clrcrrricra r It t : r c k ,
f o r n r o l ' s t a p l c , r v l r i c h i s r v i c l e l yu s e c li n b l c n d s r v i t h r v o o l , c o t t o r r , a n c l l t o l l c o f t h c t l c t c r g c r t t so r c h c r n i c ; t l s
c o r r r r r r o r r l yt r s c r l i r r
viscoscand flrx. r v l t s h i t l g ,i r r c l r r c l i n gl l c r o x i c l c s ,p c r - s l l t s ,
l r l , l l o c l r l oirt c s , : r c i r t s l r r c t
I l l c r r c l c c rl v i t h c o t t o r r , I ) E - f p o l y c s t c r f i b r c i n c r e u s c s t h c r v c r r r a l k a l i s , r v i l l b r i t t g a b o t t t i t t t y s i g r r i f i c l n tc l c t c r i o n r t i o n
of tlrc I,li'l'
; r n r l i r b n r s i o r r c s i s t l n c c ,c s l ) c c i a l l yr r s t h c 1 ' r t ' o p o t ' t i oo nf p o l y c s t c r l l o l y c s t c r f i b r c t t t t t l c r c o r t t l i t i o n s l i k c l y l o l r c c p c o r l r l c r . c t li r r
f i b r c r c a c h c s 5 0 p c r c c n t a t t c l n t o r c . C r c : t s c l ' c c o v c r \ /i t t t p r o v e s , t l t c l a t r r r c l c r i nogf t c . r t i l c s V . i g o r o t r s t c c l r n i c l r r cr sr r r r yl l r t r sb c I r s c c l ,
a r r r l : r f a b r i c c u n t a i n i n g 6 7 l t c r c c n t I ' E ' l ' p o l y , c s t c r / 3 3l l c r c c r t t c n r r b l i r r gs o i l t o l > c r c r r r o v c r cl f l - c c t i v c l y .
c c > t t o r rl u r s p r o v c t l p : r r t i c t r l r r r l ys r r c c c s s [ ' r rI lo r s l t i r t s , t ' r t i t t r v c r t t ' , I r : r b t ' i c st t r a y b c l r : l v c l-) c r i c c t l y s : r t i s f i r c t o r i l y
. r l t r r i n gl l r r r r r l c r i r r l S ,
jackcts anrl suits. Thc fabric lurs thc harcl wcar, cuse-o[-citrc b t r t t l r c y r c r f o r " r r c c o I l r r ^ r r c - r r fg r l r f r c . r t sr v i i l
r r c r r c r r tcr l r rc o r r . c c t
;rropcrtics associatcrl rvith tlrc l'11-l' pclll'cstcr fibrc, ltttcl tlrc t I i r t t r l t i t r g sa t t c l o l l l h c t l s c o f i t r i t a b l c r r r l k
'l'lttts, ir)g-up tcclrrrirlrrcs.
I u r r r r l l co, p a c i t l , a r r r l a b s o r b c t t c yo I c o t t o r r . l l ' l l l l ' l yg i l r l l r c n t s r r r r c l cf r o n r I r c a v i c r - w , c i g l rl i, l : l ' p g l y c i t c r l

I6fi ( ) n
369

t L |.
I t l l l t l l t l l r r t L h h h h h h

I I A N I )A ( J O K O I : I I ] \ I I I , I : I : ] I I I t I ] S IlI S).NIlttrtai f l!Ilt:s

* o o L r r n i f o l t t t f l L h r i c s ,s L t i t i n g si t t t d t r ' c l L t s c r i t r gl lsr c s t l i t l L b l co l l l ) l:o11 lvltrkiug

f o r r l r r ' - c l c r n i n g ,r s l l r c ! h a v c i ) o t L r c c nd c s i t l l l c d t o b c r v a s h a b l c '
l r l o s l c l L r r e h l l - p l c n i c dS r r r l l l c l l l sc o t r l r r i r r i r t gI ' l l l ' I o l l c s t c f i i b r c
n r L v l , ' c * l s h c d s i l t i s t a c t o r i l y i r t a r r r a c l t i r r co f b y l l a l l ( 1 ,b u t t l r c
r r s c o I c x c c s s i v cr v a s l t i n gt c n l p c r l i l l . r r e sI t t a y I c s L t l ti t t < l i s t L t r L t a n c c
o f t l i c p l e i l l s ; h a n c l o r t r l i l t l I t t l t c l l i t l c* a s l t i t l g i s g c n c t i r l l y t o b c
r c c o n rr r t ct t dc d f o f f l c l l t c d g l t r n l c n t s
A l l l r r o p c r l l ' c o n s t i t r c t c d l t l d l j n i s l r c d I ' l r iI ' p o l l ' c s t c r f a b r i c s
w i l l p o s s c s s s . r t i s f a c l o r y c l i t l l c n s i o t t l t ls L l b i l i t y t o t h c \ \ ' e s l i i r l g ,
c l r1 , - c i c a n i n g a n d i r o n i n g c o n r l i t i o t l s t h c , v a l c c x l ) c c l c ( l 1 o
c n c o r rDt c r i r l t l s c .
'I
I r c r l c f c t s i L i o no I d L t s t a n d s r l o k c p l r r l i c l c s n l r v c t r L r s c, f o g
r r r l r k i n g ' o f t c x l i l c s ,c s l ) c c i l l l l ) ' i n
d r . t , r r L n r o s p l r clrLcrsr tol u I - r L b r i c s
\ \ h i c l t a c c l r n t L t l i l l lcn c l c c l r o s t i l t i cc l t i l r g c l : o ! n l l i r k s i u 0 n o l i c c ,
a b l c a s c l u r kb a r s i n f o l d c d c l o l h , o r a s a ' g r c 1 , i n g ' r o r r n tr l r c l o r v c r
c d g c s o I s l i p s o r s i n t i l a r g a n l c r ) l s .' l l r c c l l c c t i s o I s c c o n d u r y
l n r l ) o f l a ' l c ci n s l t i . t s a n d o t l t c r a r t j c l c s* . l t i c l r s o r l
I r i r l ] r t r i l yb y
p l r t ' s i c lI c o n t l c t .
V i g o r o r r sl a L r r t r l c r i nrgv i l l g c r r c r a l l yr c n t o v c f o g r l r r k i r r g , l r r r t
l h e a ( l d i t i o no f a D o n i o n i c d c t c r g c r ) ot r c i r l i o n i cs o f l c c l l o t l l c
l i r r a Lr i n s i n g r v a l c r w i l l p r c v c r ) tr e c u r r c n c c .

ll/ us lti)ig /l !si.\lult I s

L o c a l i z t t l S o i l i n g o l G u n t l c t r ts
N o r n r n l I i c l r r i c ld c t e r g c n l s a r c g o o d g r c a s c' l -l lrtnctll o i l c n l u l s i f i e r s ,
ale illii(leqLralc S o i l i n g a t t l t c c o l l l r s a n d c u l l s o f s l r i r t s , b l o L r s c si i r r r l s i n r i l ; t r
bLrt I)arc l)oor soil-sLtspcnding pfol)crtits.
n l l t y [rc rc-(]cpositcd l i t t e ( l g a n 1 1 c n l si s d u e p r i n l i i I i l y t o c o n t l l c t w i l l r t l t c s k i r t f t r l l t c r
for r.,rrslting hcevily s o i l c d r r t i c l c s , a s t l t c s o i l
t h i l n l o s t i r { i cc h r r g e s . S L r c hs o i l i s c o n r p o s c t l
on thc fil)rc. Sv llrcLic fiblcs in llrlictlllrr ^lc pronc to thc l)lttly oI glcirsy
r ) x r t ( c rl,) l l f t l yo I t l t c s k i n p i g n t c r r nt r c l u r r i r r , l r n r l
c l c p o s i r i o no l s o i l f l o t t t s u c l l l v a s l l l i c l L t o r s a, l l d i r b c t l c r r c s t l l t i s l l r r l l y r _ rpf l u . t i c l c . s
o f s o l i d n n I e r , , v h i c l rh e v c r v o r k c r j j n t o t l t c y r r r n s . '
o b i l i n c c l L r s i n ge i t h c r s o l p o r a ' b L r i l t ' ( l c t c r g c l l t l, t o t h o f l v l i i c h
I f l l t c s t l i n s a f c I t c . r v j ' ,t l t c y a r c b c s t r . c r l ] o v c rbl y s l ) o t t i l t { l\ \ , i t l r
I t a v c s L r p c r i o rs L l s p c n dnlg p o l v e r s .
neiit seiLl) or dclcfgcnt aDcl flcxirrg lhc [rrbtic by llrncl. llrc
S o a p i s s r r i t a b l ef o r s o i t $ ' l t c r a l c l s , b t t t i t c l t t t r l o tb c t l s c c la l o l t c t r t c c l r a n i c a lt r c t i o n l t e l p s t o w o f k l l l c s o l i c l
i n h a f d w r t c r . l r l h i l r d w x t c r d i s t l i c l s , l l l c a c l c l i t i o rot f 1 rs c' lq t l c s t c r - llrrticlcs oLtt eI llrc
) ' i l f n s l r t t h c s l n t c l i n t c l l t c g r c l s y r ) ) l r l l c ri s c r r r L r l s j l i c b c lo. t l r
ing ilgcnt \\'ill prcvent lllc depositiotroI a litttc scLltll llc rtsc t ) l c s o f s o i l b c i n g r c n t o v c ( l b y s L l b s c q u c n tr v l i s l r i n g .l r r r l i l l i c r r l t
u i ' t r u i l L ' , l " t " . g " n t - b e s e t l r v a s l r i n gp o r v d c l s o f t l r e t y p c t l s c d f o r c i l s c s , a i n c t a s i l i c i t t ct r c a t t c n t i s t l c s i r a b l c .
\\'liitc collon articlesis llso rccoltlnlcndccl
- (l rcrt.rt, attl Oil ,Stoitts
l l : asI t i t r g ' l c t t t l c r a t u r c
'I I r g r a i n c c l g f c x s c s t i r i n sl r r c d i l l i c u l t l o r c r ) t o v c f r o r t r l , l i - 1 .p o l l . c s t c r
h c $ r s h i n g I c I l ] f c l i r l L l l cs l t o L r l r b l c k c l l t ; r s l o w a s p o s s i b l c .a n t l
jn <lonlcslic washinS, f a b r i c s , a r r d l r c p l r r l i c u l l r r l vo b v i o L r so r r
in gcnctal shottld not cxceccl 40 50'C. llllin, sclf-colorrrctl
a l r h o r r g hh i g l r c r t c r r l p c l l t L l r c sc l t t b c r . t s c din conlntercialIlLundry r r r l c r i r l s . l l t c b c s l n l c l h o ( l o I r c r n o v a li s l o s l ) o l t l t c s ( l i n r v i t l r
n c a t l i c l r r i c l( l c t c r g c l l l , r v o l k l l r i s i n t o t l t c f t r b r i c , a n r l I c r r v c f o r
Pr o c cs s cs .
I'lJl pollcslcr is I llicrntoplastic librc, rncl it is Iiablc to 2 J h o L r r sp r i o r t o l l L t n d c r i n g .A l t c r n l L t i v c l yc, l r v c l c l r r i n g n r r r y
c r " l s " a i t c t t r p c r r i t t t r c tst b o v c 5 0 6 0 ' C . I f c o o l c d i n t l r i s c o l l d i t i o l l , [rc nccesslry.
l l r c c r c l s c s p c r s i s t i l n ( l c l i n b c I c r t l o v c t l o n l y b y i t c l t r i r t gC r c l t s l l t g l : o r g , r n l c h t sl h i r t i u c c r ( c n s i v c l ys o i l c dr v i t l ro i i , c . 1 gc.n l l i n c c r s .
()l tl]c ()vcrirllsd , c{clgcnls tathcf llrln soltltsetc tccont
l c n ( l c r ) c i ccsl t r h c I t c l l l v t c d t l c c r lh y p t o r l r c s s i v c o o l i r r l l tcntlcrl [ot
r i n s c l i q t r o r f r o t t t r v r L s l l i r l gt c l l l l c r a t t l t c t l o r v r l l o c o l d -rvatcr ) u t t n d c r i n g .b ^ o i t ps l t o u l ( l n o t b c u s c d i n t l t c c l r l l y s t l r g c so f
l c n r p c r : l lrt c \ ! l r i l c c o l r ( i n L l i l l tgo a ! i t l l l c t l l c g l l l n l c n l s ' l l u n r l c r i n g a r l i c l c s r r l t i c l r l r r c l r c a v i l l . c o n l i u ) t i r r a l c ( l* . i t l t o i l y
I ' r r r 1 l , " s s i v cc o o l i n g o I l l l i s t l a ( L t r c i s r ] o t i l r f r l c ( i c l t b l o i r l s o i l , b c c ; r u s co f t l r c r l l i n g c ro f l l t c s o l r p / o i l c r r r L r l s i ocnr l c k i r r l S .
( l o ' r r c s l i c\ \ ' i ! \ l r i r r ga s i r t c o t n r t l c l c i ; r ll l L t r l l t l c r i l l go r f l h t i c l i t t i s l t i t t l i , O v c r r l l s r v h i c h a r c c o n s i s t c n t l yu s c d t r n t i c r c o r r r l i l i o r rrsv h c r c
I ' u t i t i s l . o s s i b l et o f o l l o r v a h o l r v a s l t r v i t l t I r v a r n l r t n s c i l t l ( l l l ) c y b c c o n l c h c l v i l l ' s o i l c d r v i l h o i l - b o L r l d< l i r l * i l l b c n c l i t f r o r l
lclricvc a tcrrsottlblccotttprotllisc. d r 1 ' c l c a n i n g a t i n l c r v a l s o f l 5 2 0 r v ; r s l r c s I. l r c r ) r o s ts L r i l l b l c

-170 371
 I I A N D I } O OK O F T E X T I L E F I N R E S
B: SYN'rIIE'IIC FI I]IIES
freqtrency rvill be deternriucd by expcricncein each particular I0. Cood rcsistance to most contnotr
case. chcnricals, i n c l u d i n g
oxidizing
. l n d r c d u c i n gt g c n t s . G o o ( l 1 ' " r i r f , , , , " t' "o l | c i d s .
Drl i g u o o d r c s r s t i r n c lco d i l t r t e a l k a l i s , b u l a
a c k c d by co[-
c e n t r a t e dh, o t a l k a l i s ,
PET polyestcr fabrics absorb very little watcr, and most of the l l , C o o d r c s i s l a t r c tco c o n l n t o ns o l v c n l s .
water in a wct article is ir the intersticesof the cloth. Garments
dry quickly and easily whcn hung in the air.
Thc spin<lrying of hot wet articlcs,followed by rinsing in cold
","#i"lll":'::"i',,1:J,.::.,.i,".?:l:T,,i'lll'.ii;
l i b r c st o b c c o r n co n c o f t h c r ) o s t v c r s n t i l c
water, is particularly to be avoidcd, as is prolonged spinning, uf,,ff i,o,f.rn lv,,if,"ti"
fibres.
wlrich has a strong cooling eflect. Bad practice of this nature is
most. likcly to occur whcn using 'twin-tub' washing machincs. Apparel Fabrics
Tumblcr drying in hot air helps to rcmove washing crcases. P E f p - o l y e s t cfri b r c s l r l v c r n l d c l l t c i r w y
After the garme ts arc dry, tumbling should be continucd for i r ) t o v i r l r | i r l l vc v c r v
typc oI apprrel cnd usc. Alonc or irr blcrrtls
5-10 minutcs without heat to allow progressivecooling. ,"i,fr *",,i,r"",i",,1
i;[; :'l ;l?::*o":n;,'i"i, "',ir,'cspro
uii,";,;;";;'';;;
Ironing ["]J:'l
wrrh hishrri,ncnsionar,," si'rn,c,,rs
PEI polyestcr articles rvhich havc becn washcd corrcctly will
0,,,,,;illi'#ljll;'?:l;l;ili:'
I n c s n . c n g l ri r n ( t( l i n l c n s i o n si rlll l ) i l i t yo f
necd little or no ironing. If necessary,however, ironing nray be
I , l i . l ,p o l y ( , s t cl irl l -
r ) r c nyt i r r n sc r r a b l tcl r cr r u r r r u f a c t utroc p
carried out cllectively by steam ironing or dry ironing at 'j:i,
:"J,1'
Jii'";,J:"n,:1[:"",;.J::ll;
r i . o c l u c. 1c, . ; r ,l i A i u r ; . ; ; ; , ;
'synthctic'setting
on thc rcversoside, or with the help of a press
cloth. Ironing tclrpcraturcs should not cxceed about 135"C.
:llnll;;:l*,i:lifl
shapeand appcarancc.Contirruo Ilflii
Sticking occurs at about 250'C- havc t",p",.lniit-o,,rl"r,"lii
.foun<r' iiilil:ll,ftil,iljf x;i,il,fi;
lingcric.
Dry Clcnnirrg Full-handling filamcnt fabrics
arcnracrcr,o,,ip,.oa "
P E T D o l y c s t c rf i b r c s a r c h i g l l l y r e s i s t a n tl o n l l t h e c l r c n r i c a l s u.".-i
"*iiilt'.'li ; Jir":lfj:i:l;::l'*lli'::
likcly to be cncountcrcd irr dry clcaning, and no spccialprecau-
tlons arc nccessary. iil,'J"3i,'|,',ft
i'i,,l,li,.ilT"r",,ll",ll,tT*;,ili',"?l;t".;
Errd Uscs :xli;J,#iifui, iili.i:,:"Tffi'J:i,,,v ;i;bi;;;;,,';;;;;
il;';
The inrportant propcrties of PET polyestcr librcs, filanrent and polycstcrstaplcfibrc provi<lcs
yarns
.PEf arrdfrrtrricswitlr rhc
staple, may be sumrnarizedas follows:
1. Low moisturc regrin. o f c n t r a p p e da i r .
jli;
Ll,lr:_i:J!:q'i[,'Tilflii,i"",:i,:,J,lilt"i:ti
2. FIigh dry and wct strcngths. Suiting fabrics ntadc fronr pE'f
3.
4.
[Iigh initial nrodulus.
Fligh rcsistanceto and recovcry from bcnding.
;:1
i:tfiyjlr;:
-a 1i"J,#i1i"ltii lti];
L$,il;ilt";t:,:?'i;i
5.
6.
Lorv crecp.
Ability to be hcat-set.
i n crc_q
uate
;;;";i;;;' ; ;u,i:'"i,l,il,llii", :lffi li[l:"l;li
cvcrraflcr prolongcdconlintrorrs
rvcar.
7. Fligh abrasion rcsistance.
8. Good clcctrical insulation propertics. Curtains
9. Good rcsistanccto cxposurc to elcvatcd tcnrpcraturcs. Thc good resistirncc
to srrnlightwhich is n fcuturcof pl].l. poly_
J t !
J73

r l r - l r I r l r I r [ r I r J r-t
l-I
[ l ' F l r II ' I
I , F l II F IF |F, F
tF IF L l tt IF tFr IFr F
l r |l'|l
] f'''i
F I
l L ) l

B: SYNTIIETIC FIANES
IIANDDOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
thgse llbres to like. Polycstcrfibre filling js casy to wash and dry, non-allcrgcnic,
ester fibres, espcciallybehirrclglass,has cnabled
the curtain trade' The fast dyes springy and crush-resisting.
"ri^tlirf, I'i iniportunt outlet in greatly
polyester fabrics have contributed
rt"o i"'Jtlrf "-g'pET Sewing Thread
to successin this lield.
High strcngth and high nrodulus arc useful charactcristicsin a
Floor Coverittgs sewing thread, and PET polycster yarns havc comc into widc-
good headway in the field oI spread use in Lhis application.
PET polyester fibres have made
sliver knit rugs and
it*r iou'"tlngr, notably in the production of Ilosiery Dye ing
tufted carpcting.
PET polyesterdye-bagsarc uscd in thc hosicry tratlc for dyeilg
nylon stockings.The PET polyester libre resistsdyes uscd with
LaunclrY EquiPnrent nylon.
allied with strength'
The hcat resistanceof PET polyester{ibres, Papernuking
have
resistance proved ot.great value in
fr^ri *."t ancl abrasion
Laundry-bags, dye bags' polrslredhcaq press The felts used in paper manulacture must have a good rcsislatlcc
laundry applications.
and calender sheettng to moisture, heat and abrasion, and nlust bc ablc to stand for
"o1"", t"tnOrv blankets, packing flannel
;;;-;;;;;;;""tv maii r'orn-pet polvesterfabrics' which long pcriods without rotting. PEI polycsicr librc has provcd
previously
used' especially satisfactory in this application, hnving thc nddcd
outlastthe fabrics
advantage of resisting the acitl conditions which rcsult wlrcn
ConveyorBeUs aluminium sulphatc is used as [iller.
in rubter
PET polyesterlilamcntyarnsare usedas rcinforcement in indus- Electrical I rtsulatiott
ancl havo proved particularlyvaluablc
""]i"Juti belts,
are subjectedio acid conditions'The PEt The good dielectricpropcrtiesand high strcngthof l'DT polycstcr
;;;;-;i";'il1;
up well to acid which penetrates fibrei are maintained at temperaturcsabove 100'C., and fabrics
o"iv"t*fi.i"ftt""mcnt stinds nrade fronr these fibres are used in the insulation of elcctric
into damagedbelts. motors designedto operate at elevatedtcmperatures'
Fire Hose Tyres
polyester
The high ^ifi"" strengthand high initial modulusof PET
possible the production of fire hoses which are PET oolvester corcls have made substantial hcadway in tlris
ni'i", ."4'"
r o t - r e s i s t a a
n tn' d
. i r " " g ' " " a - i i g h t . ' T n e s eh o s e s - a r a
ebsolutely a o o l i c i t i o n .T h i s d e v e l o p n t e nht a s r e s u l ( e dt o s o t t t ed c g r c ef r o t t t
without sullering cant
signifi damrge' thi increasinguse of radlal ply tyrcs, ilr which tlrc rcill[orcclrlcrlt
;";'"b"];i, o"utside
Io strctcll. llle lllgll
i s r e a u i r e dt o l t a v e r t t o p t i r n u n t r c s i s t a l l c e
Ropes,N ets, Soilclotlr modilus of PET polyestir fibres is an arlvantagcwhich enlblcs
The strength,high modulus,resistance to light' heat' microbes' t h e n r t o c o m p e t e e f f e c t i v e l ya g a i n s tr a y o r l a n d n y l o n i l l t l l l s
;;;;;;l;:;;';;;<l other influenceshave openedup.an impor- field.
nets'sailcloth'awnings
i""i'n.la of applicationin ropes,twines,
and other goodsof this type wbich are uscd outooors'

Filling
-polycster
the
PET stapleis uscdas lilling in pillows'qLrilts'and
37'l 315
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI DRES B: SyN'r|ETtC rt 0Rlls
(2) POLY_I, 4-CYCLOI'IEXYLENE_DIMETI-IYLENE 'I'lrey
a r e a v a i l a b l ci n a r a n g co I c o u n t s ,c r i n r p a n t l s t r p l c l c n g t h s
TEI{EPIITHALA'I'E FIBITES (PCDT POLYESTER to mcet all requircrncnts,
FIBRES)
PRODUCTION
tcrephtha-
Fibresspun from poly-1,4-cyclohexylene-dimethylene
late: PCDT polycsterfibres arc spun lronr poly-t ,4-cyclohcx
ylcnc-
dimcthylcncterephthalatc nrudeby condcnsingtcrcphthrrlic
rrcid
ct I1-c.lt' with I ,4-cyclohexancd
inrcthanol :
--[ -ocl-tr-cH \"*.u,o.o-O-.o-],,
Ll1!-Ltti
cltr-cll,
HOCU'-CH ru-cHlorr
+ lrooc-o-coolt
I NTRODUCTION

In 1958,a new type of polyes{erllbre was introduccdto thc cHr-cr r,

tcxtiletradeby EastmarlCher ical ProductsInc.,underthe trade r /
-=+L-ocl{,-cll \ il-cr,oco-O-.o-].
mrrk Kodel.r
Kodcl fibre is spun from the polynrermade by conclensing ./c
cHr-clt,
tereplrlhalicacid rvith I ,4-cyclohexanedinlcthanol (scepage37'l)
and il is thercforco[ Iundamcntallydillerentconstitutionfrom
the polycthylcnetercphthalate polycstcrswhich fornt the bulk Ilmctrnt SyDthcsis
of commericalpolycslerfibres.The polynrerfron which Kodel
2l I is spunis poly-(1,4-cyclohexylene-dinretlrylcneterephthalate), (a) Terephthalic Acid
rvhichmay be shorlcncdconvcrriently to PCDT polyester( This is produced from p.xylcnc as dcscribcdon pagc 332.
SinccKodcl rvasinlroduced,EastnranChcnricalProdubtsInc.
have marketedanotllerfornl of Kodcl, which is basedon poly- (b) | ,4-Cyclohexoue Dine thanol
ethylene terephthalate(PET polyester).The PCDT polyester 'fwo
isomeric fornrs of this substanccare possiblc,lhc cis and
fibres are now designated Kodel 200-series,and the I'ET poly- lhe trotts. The nraterial used in producing PCDI' polynrcr is a
estcrfibresarcKodel4O0-series fibres. mixture of tllc two isomcrs.
Thc infornrationwhich follorvsis basedupon datr available -
for Lodcl 2ll, which rnay be rcgardedas the original fibre ot I'olyurcrizttiort
the PCDT polyestertype.
Dimethyl terephthalatc,made by estcrification of tcrcnhthrlic
TYPESAND SIZES a c i d , i s n r i x c r l r v i t h 1 , 4 - c y c l o h c x l i r (cl i n t c t l l i l n o l n
, nd thc l!vo
rcactanls are healcd to 200"C. in lhc prcscncco[ nn cstcr inlcr-
PCDT polycsterfibresare produccd nrainly in the lornr of staple, changc catalyst.As condcnsationprocccds,nrctlryl alcohol distils
t o w a n d t o p s u i t a b l efor proccssing on all thc usual systcnrs. olT.Thc tcmpcraturc is raiscd gradually to about 300"C., vncuunr
b e i n g a p p l i e di n t h e l a t c r s t a g e sa, n d h c a t i n g i s c o n t i n t r c du r r t i l
' R c g i s t c r c d( r r d c m a r k o f Easlmrn Kodlk Conrpany,llochcstcr. t h c p o l y m c r h a s a u a i r r c dl h c d c s i r c dr r r o l c c u l l rwr c i g l r t . ' l ' l ) cp o l y -
N.Y., U.S.A. rncr produccd in this way lrolr a nrixturc of cis and /rrrrlr
176 37'l

' l " l ' [ ' [ ' L ] : -

tF.tlnnnnnnnnFFEnF
II NDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIARES
isonrersof I,4-cyclohexancdimethanol has a melting point of
about 290"C.
Slinning
Thc polyn'reris melt spun in the usual way, thc filamcntssolidify-
ing is tirey nrcet the cold air. Tlrcy ate drawn to 4j to 5 times
thcir original length at a temperaturcof about 120'C.
PI{OCESSING
DesiziIlg
Knitted and woven fabrics will ofter.rcoutain sizing naterials in
addition to clirt, oil and grease.Dcsizing and cleatringmusl bc
carried out bcforc dYcing.
Water-insoluble sizing materials may be removed with a
proteolytic or antylolytic enzynte. Thesc enzynres arc usually
ictive at temperaturesup to 60"C., and 30-60 minutes at this
tcolperaturewill usually bc sufiicicnt to solubilizc tl]e sizes.Thcre
or" lrlony rapid desizingagentsavailablc which will digest starcll
in 2-3 minuies. Sodiunr bromite desizing is also used.
Scourirg
Except lor lubricants applied in nranufacturing,PCDT polyester
fibre is usually clean and free from foreiSn matter./The lubricants
can bc rcmovcd prior to dyeing by a wartrt wate\(71"C.) rinse.
Y a r r r sa n d o t l r c r g o o d s I n a y b e c o n t a m i n a t e dw i t h d i r t o r o i l '
and a mild scour with non-ionic detergcntand alkali (tetrasodium
pvroDhosDllatc) should bc used. lI the material is extremely dirty
oi "ont"iir oii or greasestains, it is advisableto scour with 3
Detroleum solvent tltat has been emulsified with a non-ionic
enrulsifying agent. Alkalis, such as tetrasodium pyrophosphate'
trisodium phosphate, sodium carbonate or sodium hydroxide
should be used with the petroleunr solvent for best results'
lf thc PCDT polyester fibrc is blended with other man-made
or natural fibres, the ustlal scouring or bleaching ptocessesused
to prcparc the otller libre will not normally aflect the PCDT fibre'
A thorough rinsing should follow any preparatory treatment
to ensure that residual chenicals or foreign matter have becn
c o m n l e t e l yr e m o v e d ,
It is advantageousto boil ofi or scour rnany fabrics in open
3i8
B: SYNTTIETIC IIIBRES
width form bcfore proccssing in rope fornr. -l-his trcatnrcrrt
partially stabilizcs thc goods and hclps to ptcvcnt cracks
or
streaks,Carc should be takcn, however,to v;id fix tion of itny
identificationtint that might be prescntin thc goods.
Miscclltncous
Blcnd fabrics containing pCDT polycstcr fibrcs will withstil)d
all the usual lreatmcnls cncoutrtcrcdin rnill proccssing.I3y con-
trast with PET polyestcr librcs, PCD-l' polycstcr iibrc.s rvill
withstand kier boiling, ancl this proccss nray bc uscd on blcucls
of cotton and PCDT fibrcs. Mcrcerizing will not allcct pCD.l.
polyesterlibrcs, so long as thc tenrpcralurcof lhc causlicsolution
is kept at 32.2'C. or lowcr.
Illc_ndsof PCDT polycster fibre and wool nray bc crrbonizc<J,
.
but they should bc ncutralizcd as soon ts possiblc attcr baking.
llcra-Sctliug
Fabrics.of ICDT polyestcr do not requirc hcat-scllir)g,Firbrics
should bc llcat-trcirtcd to rcnlovc rcsirlurrlcarricr aftir tlycirrg.
'I'he
tinre and tcnrpcrirtrrrcrcquircd to rcnrovc thc clrr.icr vtrric-s
with type of carricr used. Nlanuf cturcrs' instructionsshoul<lbc
followcd closcly.
BI€nclri||g
PCDT polycstcr fibrc is prodtrced as r whilc fibrc wlrich docs
not nornally rcquirc blclching. ln blcnds with othcr fibrcs,
however, bleachirrg rnay bcconrc neccssary,and any of thc
tcchniquesuscd to blcach the contplcmcntary fibrc nray bc uscd.
PCD"| polyestcr blcnds havc bccn blcachcd by both'batch and
continuousrnethodswith hydrogcn pcroxidc.Sodiunrhypochloritc
and sodium chlorite nray also bc uscd to bleaclr blcntlcd fabrics
wilh no ill elTecton thc ?CDT polycstcr fibrc.
I t i s c o m m o n p r i l c t i c ct o i n r p r o v c t l t c w h i l c n c s so I b l c n c h c d
f i l b r i c s w i t h t h c a i d o I v a r i o r r sb l t r c a n d / o r v i o l c t r l y c s o r
pigments,optical blcachcsor whilcncrs or conrbinationsoi both.
Optical brightcncrslhat producc good whitcs on ccllulosicshavc
little or. no efcct on PCDT polyestcr fibrc. Expcricncc has
shown that a comtrination of two optical briglrtcricrs.onc for
PCDT and the other for thc ccllulosic fibre, protlucc gootl
whiles.
319
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIDRDS
A: S Y N T I IE T I C F I N R E S
DJcitlg tlre polycslcrfibrc and aftcr-trcatcddircct dycs
on thc ccllulosic
PCDT polycsterfibres may be dyed either wilh disperseor librcs. classcs.oldycs,lllc carricr ",,,t iny n"."rr,,ry
azoic(devclopcd) dyes. tanlsshould ,llolh. nrir'ir.
bc addcd to rhc dycbulha[ rhc sr;rr "iifi"
Av"i,"
Disperscdycs provide a conrpleterangc of shadcsfrom cycre.
pastelsto blacks.Azoic dyesare mostcomnronlyusedto produce In caseswhcrelastncssrcquircmcnts ctnnot bc nlct willl aftcr-
.
blacks. trcated. dircct dyes,a two-baihcxhaustiontcchniquc",,,r'L'";r",I
In conrnronwith otheriypesof polycstcrfibrc,PCDT polyester to n r p l r t h o l ss,u l p h u r ss,o l u b l c" " , . , j , i f r r "
- a ntop l y . , v a t s , *,oi""
libres requirc the use of temperatures above the boil, or of dycs lhc cotton or ravon..l lrc pCD.f polycsrcilt-br;
f i r s t w i t h d i s p c r sdc y c s . : f h cc c l;;;;;
carricrs.
orra.yon,
i" rr,"n
ay!J-
In-n,,;.'11"';l"illl:'J,,[tl?.;lli"i,ffi::i]
Carricrs forthc spccificdyc uscd.
Bccauseof a lack of prcssurizedequipment,nlost dycing is dycr slrould usc the scqucncco[ nlclhod bcst
,.Thc suilcd to
done with the aid of a carrier.The proper selectionand use nrs own equrpmcntwhcn handling l,CD,l. polycstcr/ccllulosic
of a carricr is importflnt.The self-enrulsifyingbutyl benzoate blends.The polyesrcrfibrc nray bclyccl by
r1,";;;ri;f;;;i;;;,
"onb"ay"i.on; ;;;i;,,;;,;;';:;
carricr is suggestcd
for knittedand wovenfabrics.This material the heat-fixationpro""sso, uui
has low loxicity and produceslevel, well-penetrated dyeings.
If the productis properlyformulated,it yieldsa stableemulsion
T.;"f
Jl,.,ii l'i"..,i1,?:',,";
a I:rtcrtinrc.If rhccorronor ra-yorr ;T:ll
is r" r,.-iv..ti'irliii'"l,ir.
merclyby addingwarm water while stirringvigorously.
Biphcnylcarriersare widely usedfor dyeingcrrpctsof PCDT
polycstcrfibres.Thcse carricrs should be used accordingto
*:,;;l* .kilk'iii
;:illi:l',,:":i,lil,",""'
)ll:"J:[*
scouringnrust bc carricclout "tt.r. tl," ,".oiil
.fr"f ,,*""i"r,i r""
manufacturers' instrtrctions. PCD7' I,olyesruIlVoo! Dlcnds
Emulsionsof mcthylsalicylate havealsogivencxccllcntrcsults.
A largcr conccntrationof this carrier is neccssary,however,to P C D ' f .p o l y c s t cfri b r ci n b l c r r d w
s i t l rw o o l c r r r b c t l y c t lb y c i t h c r
produce dye exhaustioncomparablewith that obtainedwith a one-batchor two-batchmctho(
butyl benzoate. For this reason,methylsalicyl4teis moreexpen- n)enrs.rhepcDr por
ycsrcr
n,j;"'ll"lilir ;l,l"lil;::J""rj,J:.:-
sive to use. I with nculral-dyci'g acicts,ctirorrrc "," pi'""i"t., rij'..,,r
[""r:*'
I I igIt Tenrperotura Dyeing Dispcrse dyes wilt stain thc wool to various
. dcgrccs.Ctrrcftrl
A reductionin both time and chenricalcost may be obtainedby ro mini.tizcthcst.i' aticluotirrrpaii
iJril.'J1t"Trli"r:ecessarv
dyeingPCDT polycsterfibre under pressurctt clcvaledtenlpera-
'?;:'*fi
""1,,"^fi ":*1,,,"i:
tures.Tcmperatures of up lo l2l'C. arc recommended.
of a carrier is necessary
The use
to obtain completeexhaustionof the
mcrhod
li.:iifl
"':,,11."
::'i::l;:,lTi,fl:
'i,;
is uscd,lhc dycs for ltrc *";i
dycbath,and the butyl benzoates are particularlyeffcctive. ;l;;;,t,i
'l'hc s9l*9"1h"
e r c c t c dl r o t | l l h o s c t l l a t w i l l t l y c l r t l h c s l i g h t l y
hcat fixation proccssfor dyeing polycslcrsis espccitlly acitl corrtlitiorr
effectivein the rpplicationof dispcrsedycs Lo PCD-| polycstcr alplying <tispcrsc
<tycsorr rtrc iufV"rr.. nLr". if,"
nll:"1
curra {"1 rd y c t n g p r c r n c l r l l i z c dd y c s c i r n b c u s c c l p r o v i t l c
frbresand to blendsof thesefibreswith ccllulosiclibres. to trrcrr.s
w c a r r a s t n e sls) r o p c r l i c sI.f c o l o u r sb r i g l r l c r
l h l r r rl h n s co b l ; r i n l b l c
w j l l l t l l i s . c l a sos f d y c s a r c r c q u i r . c dl,l i c r c
PCD'f Polyestcr I Ccllulosic Illends " . " " n u , , , f r " ,u i * , " 1 , i
i r c r <ur yctngnltlltng(lycslltat ,n:ty bc trscd.
Blcnd labrics of PCDT polycstcrfibres with ccllulosicfibrcs S r r r l l i t ( l d i t i os o f
l n r r n o r r i u | | sr u l P l r u t en r i g h t b c n c c r t c <tto a i t l
can bc clyc<lin a one-bathproccclureusing dispcrscdycs on tlyc ;*"-,;,J;;; ;;,
u r c w o o l i l c r l h c p o l y c s t c rf i b r c h l s b c c r rb r o U g t l l
o sh (lc.
380
381
j

r--l i I , l ' l ' l ' l . '-l .-l

L- n .-.._..-n . . . . . . . - . . - - - -
A: SYNTII ETIC FI I]RES
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
be strippedalnlost completclyby thc following trcrt lcnt
The wool stain may be clcaredby treatnent at 60'C. for one hour at 82-93"C.:
for
20 minutcswith thc following:
Sodiumchlorire l-4 g./1.
Non-ionicdetergent2.0 Per cent. Formic or oxalic acid l-4 g./1.
Ammoniumhydroxide1.0 Per cent. 'Tanalon
Spccial'l-4 g.ll.
The reducingnrethodoI clearingis usuallyunnecessary, as
Rinso thoroughlyand ncutralize.
thc clcarcclwool will pick up dye fronl the polyesterduring the
rvooldyeing. Notc. This slripping formula must not bc uscd on
fabrics
lf it-sbould be necessary to use the reducillgnrethod,the containingwool.
following formula nay be used:
Shcaring
A m n o n i u r nh y d r o x i d e2 g . / 1 .
Sodiumhydrosulphite1 g./1. l1:yg i: commonlycarricdout on pCDT polycstcrrvorslcd,
/
Non-ionicdetcrgcnt2 g./ l. PCDT, polyestcr/woollcnand sonre pCD.f ply"rr.r7."li ,f,rri"
blend fabrics.Shcaring-fias I significant"n".t ",, if," .fip."i""..,,
Trcatat 54'C.Ior 30 n)inutes. penorrnanceand I)audlcoI thcscfabrics,
It optimumfastncssis requircd,a two-bathprocedure .should Fabricswith a fuzzysurfaccrcquiringr clc n, sn)ootllfinisllc(l
be usci. After applyingthe normalprocedttre for dycing100pcr a p p c n rn c c s h o u l df i r s t b c s h c l r c da r l c ll h c r rs i r r g c r l .
Slrcnrirrtt
ccnt PCDT polyestcr,the fabric is scottredto clcar the stitin on rcnrovcsthc Iongcrlibrcswlriclrworrklottlcrwiscrrrclt
arr,lfnnii
thc wool. Rinsingand then dycing in a new bath will give the largc
. b c a d sd u r i n gs i n g c i n gg, i v i n gr l r c r " f r r i " " i , , , ^ i i l , " " . i l " .
dcsiredshadeto thc wool. )ncanng atso rncrcilscs tlrc pill rcsistitncc of tllc fabric.
Stripping Singcing
Whenimperfecldyeingsarc obtainedwith PCDT polyester{ibres' Singcing may bc carricd orrt wilhout dillicully on
shouldbe considered: fabrics con-
the followingapproaches laining PCDT polyesterfabrics,rcsulling in i,,,riror"O
nrrir""r",i."
1. The shade,in some cases,can be levelledby placingthe o u e t o a c i e t n c r s u r f a c c .A s i n d i c a t c dt b o v c , i t n l r y
6c aclval-
fabric in a bath with the original amoun\ of carrier plus lageous to sbcar the fabric bcforc singcing in orclci
to rcmovc
additionaldye to correctthe shadeif ncccssary. the longcr librcs.
2. The problemof shadingin the fabric can also be solved .Cas-flamesingeing or plate singcirrgnray bc uscrJclTcctivclv.
a o ; u s r m e n t i l o r o p t i m u r n c o n d i t i o r r sb c i n g m : r t l c
by reheat-ietting the fabric at a higher temperaturethan that on """ji
l n o r v r o u aml a c h i D eL. o w f a b r i c s p c c d sr r n d / o r h i g h l l a n r c s
oiiginally uscd prior to dycing. Fabrics unevcnlyheat sct in bc avojdcd,as i scvcrcslrcn8tlrloss-rna
shotrltl
thc bcginningcannotbc dycd levelunlcssunifornrlteatis applied v,rcsrrll.fr6rrr ou".ri,ig""i,,g,
S p c c c l so f a t I e a s t6 7 . 5 r t r / r n i r r( 7 5 y r l / r n i r r )a r e , c c o , , , , r r c - n , l c i .
during reheat-setting. The reheat-setting lemperaturemust be
temperature. Streaks,spots M e l t e d f i b r c - e n d sr c s u l t i n gf r o m s i n g c i n gw i l l , t v " u o t i . " " U i u
higher than the originalheat-setting .
by the originalheat setting n e f l v r e rb y c x h a u - s (l .c c h n i q u c st h a n t l t c r r o r n r n li i b r c
oisinrilar fabric defcctsnot causcd a n d s t n g c r n gs h o u l db c c i r r r i c do u t n f t c r d y c i n g i n o r ( l c r
srrrflrcc.
should not, of course, bc sct
re-heat to void
elTcct.
Frbricsdycrtby hcar-fixaiionincrhotts,
tiowcv"i
3. The dycing nay also be strippcdas uruch as 50 per cent 1 :ry:kl"g
ntry bc srngcd prior to dycing.
by treatrncitin a bath containingl0-15 g./litrc butyl bcnzoale
The goo<Is
cirricr, plus 24 g.llirre of non-ionicdetergcnt. should Chcrlical Finishirg
thcn be rinsedand redyedin a ncw bath.
Chenricallinishcsare uscclon blcndsof pCD.f polycstcrlibrcs
4. l[ noneof the abovcnrethodsis successful, thc dyeingmay
382 3tJl
 K F T E X T I L EF I B R E S
It,\NDt]OOO B : S Y N T I I I I T I CF I I ] R E S
'I'cnacily
with other fibres,notably ccllulosics,to modify handle and impart
spccial charactcristics.These finishes may be resins, rcactants' 22-26.5cNltex(2.5-3.0g/dcn)
antis(atic agents,softeners,water repcllcnts or combittations of
such products. lil0o g:tt ion
24-34per cent.
McchnnicalFitrishing
The handlc of PCDT polycster blended labrics may bc altercd Iilastic I'ropcrlics
signi0cantly by rncchanicalfinishing, wlrich may or may not bc 2 6 5 .c N / t c x ( 3 0 g
carricd out in conjunction with chcrlical {inishiug. - / d c r r )a t y i e l dp o i r r t( c t ' .J 5 J c N / r c x ;4 0 g / t l c r r
for l'E'l'[ibre).
Averflgc S(iftncss
Colen<leriug
97 cN/tcx (l I g/dcn).
All types of calenders,e.g. polishing, Schrcincr, cmbossing and
silk calendersrnay be used lo good advantage.Calendcringmay At eragc Tougbncss
be carried out in any of the following stagcs oI the chemical
finishing operation: (l) before thc resin finish is applied, (2) 0.5 gramspcr cm./dcn.cm.(cf. pET polycstcr: 1.04).
bcl.wccnthc drying and curing opcrations,or (3) aftcr thc curing
operation. Ilcsilic cc
Work rccovery perccntagcat 2 p e r c c n tc x t c n s i o ng : 5 95
Seni-decotizing 5 p c r c c n t c x t c [ s i o n :5 t )6 ( ]
This stcp may be carried out in the nnal stagcsof thc finislring l 0 p c r c c n tc x t c s i o n : 3 0 . 1 0
procedurc, giving additional crispness and snloothnessto the (Corresponding
figures{or P E T p o l y c s l c ra r c 7 5 8 5 , 1 5 - 4 5 ,
fabric. ts-zs.)
Spccific Gravity
CotnpressiveSlfinkoge \
t.23.
All fabrics of PCDT polycstcr/cotton blcnds\llould bc compres-
sion shrunk to ensurcd i m e n s i o n a ls t a b i l i t y ,a n d t o p r o v i d c a
Ellcct of Moisturc
luxurioushandlcwhich is not obtainablc with olher nrcchanical
finisbingdeviccs. Ilegain: 0.4 pcr ccnt.

STRUCTURE AND PIIOPERTIES l'hcrrnnl Propcrlics

The propertiesof PCDT polycstcrfibres are generallysimilar Melting point: 290. C.

to those of PEI' polyesterfibres, but tlrcrc are imporlant
for exantplein mechanical
diflercnccs, spccificgravity,
properties, Flantnwbility: Yarns and fabrics b u r n s l o w l y ,b u t t h c
burnirrg
etc.The informationwhich followsin this sectionis bascdttpotl rlntcrial mclts and drorrs o[I whcn h a n g i n gf r c c . b l c r r r l s ,
In othcr
data for thc PCDT polycsterfibre Kodcl 2ll. fibrcs nrust bc consiclcicd.

lrine Slructurc nnd Appcarancc lilfcct of Sunlight

S nrool h -surfaccd fibre of rottnd cross-seclion. Exccllcnt resisltncc.

384 385

I
"l ' l I
f-l r f I
t t t F . F . t F . F . Fl -, l,' : f ' , I , t rt F : i l
I i A N D B O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S B: SYNTIIETIC FIDRES

Chcmical Properties PCDT POLYESTER FIBRE IN USE

Excellcnt resistance,comparable generally to PET polyestcr,
including high resistanceto acids and alkalis.
Dflcct o[ Organic Solvcnts
Excellcnt rcsistanceto solvents and cleaning agents commonly
encounicrcd in nornral textile usc. Trichloroctlrylene and
nrcthylene chloride may cause soms shrinkage, and should bc
avoided. The fibre is swelled by phenols, toluene, ethyl acetate
and acctonc. It dissolvcs in a 60/40 mixture of phcnol and
tctrachloroethaneat 100'C.
Insecls
Similar to PET polyestcr.
Micro-organisnts
Similar to PET polyester.
Gcncral Chlraclcristics
PCDT polyester fibres havc a gcneral rescmblancc
to pE-f
polyesterfibres, but the difercnces are suclr as
to cxcrt a signili-
cant elTecton the uscs of the fibres. pCDT polycslcr nUr"sjiou"
lower-tcnacity and clongation than thc pEI'poiy"rf., fifrr"r,'Ui,t
thcy havc supcrior rccovcry fronr strctch.1.hcy scrvc in rl,pticii-
Irons whcre rcsilicncc arrd bouncc arc of grcitlcr irrrporilncc
lltan high tcnflcity,c.g. in cllrpcts, rugs, knitwcar, ctc.
. . l . h ot o w c r t c n a c i t yo f t h c s cf i b r c sc o n t r i b | | t c st o l h c i r i n r p r o v c d
pilling propcrties.Fabrics will shcd thcir pills nrorc
rcactilyitrlii
fabrics nradc fronl the stronger polycstcr hbrcs.
. - l h c m o t s t u r ea b s o r p t i o no f P C D T p o l y c s t c rf i b r c s i s v i r t u a l l v
i d e n t i c aw l i t h t h a r o I r h e p E T p o l y e s t c fi i b r c s ,a n d r f r i sn f l c c r ii i i l
bchavrour.o[ thc PCDT polycstcr librcs in a sinrilar rvry. .fhc
n l c c r r : l n t cl p r o p c r t i c sa r c n o t a f l c c t c ( b
l y r n o i s l r t r ct;l t c c l c c t r i c n l
propcrtiesarc exccllcnt; thc accurnulalioirof clcctrostutic

w
ch:rriis
nray cause dilllculties.
PCDT polyesterfibrcs have a lowcr spccilic gravity than pE.f
polyestet Iibrcs, giving them iocreased coucring pow"r,
. Tlrcy
provide.lightweight fabrics oI grcat warmth and
con)fort.
. . I ne nrgh meltrng point of PCDT polycster fibrcs makcs for a
3.O high safe-ironing temperature labotit itA.C.).
pCDT polyesterfibrc may be
.Fabrics.containing hcat-sctirt a
r c r a r r v e r tvo w l e n r p c r a t u r ec,. g . a b o u t 1 6 0 " C , ,a n d t h i s i s
nrrtic_
u l a r l y u s c l u l i D t h e f i n i s h i n go [ b l c n d c df a b r i c sc o n t a i n i r r gw o o l .
.i2 o
.9
o l'5

F t o

IVas[ing
Similar to PET polyesterfibrcs.
5 10 !5 20 25.30
STRAIN(% ELONGAIION) Dryirrg
Similar to PET polyesterfibrcs.
lroning
PCDT polyester fibrcs may be ironed safcly at tcr.npcraturcs
up
to about218'C.
I'CDT Pol),csterFibrc ('Kodcl'\
386 387
 IIANDAOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES A: SYNTII ETIC FI BIT[S

Dry Clcanirg nrany firnts throughorrl.thc workl.

Trichlorocthylcncand mcthylencchloridc should not be used PE1' polycster fibrcs have rcachcd this position, rs irr tlrc
casc
in dry-cleaning P C D T p o l y c s t e rf i b r c s ,a s l h c y m a y c a r r s e o I n y l o n 6 . 6 a n d n y l o n 6 , b y p r o v i d i n gt l i c t c x r i t cu , " n r i , " , r i " ,
shouldbe uscdwilh care' w t t h l i b r c s t h a l s e r v ce l l c c t i v e l yo v c r : r w i d c r a r r g co f t c x t i l c
shrinkage.Percltloroethylcne nnr.l
rndustnaa t p p l i c a t i o n sD. u t , i n c v i t n b l y t, l l c r c t r c f i c l d so f a n r r l i c l l -
trnd Uscs l r o n i n w h i c h . t h e r a n g c o f p r o p c r t i c so l l c r c d b y I , D . f p ; l y c s l c r
I r D r c si ! r c I n i l d c q u l l l co r r r n s i l t i s cI t o r y . A d l i l ) r c r t l i l n U f i t c t r t r c r s
havc souglrtways of produciug ncrv tylrcsof polycstcr filrrc ;ll;l;
A pporal Fabrics
to pilliDg would rctain thc broad charactcrislicsassocintcj witll polycstcrs,
The cxccllcntrccovcrylronr strctchand high resistancc but providc fibres capable o[ scrving whcrc cstablishcj potycst"i
have bcen intportitntIactorsin lhe acceptance oI.PCDT.poly-
Iibres are inadcquatc.
estcr fibrcs in thc apparelfnbric field. Illcnds with wool arrd As in- thc case o[ polyamidc fibrcs, tttcn]pts to provirlc ncw
for k-nittcd
acrylic or moclacryliihbres are parlicularly. s-uitable
ease-of-care, types of polyester fibre have followc<l thrcc main roulcs:
goocls, providing good dinrensional stability'
Iomfort ind rxarmth,togetherwith the characteristics associated (A) Physicalmodi{icationof cstablislrcrt typcs o f p o l y c s t c r
with polycsrcr fibrcs gcncrally.Swcaters,for cxamplc, are fibre.
machinervashablcand drYablc. (13)Clrcnricalnrodificationof cstablisllcdtypcs o f p o l y c s t c r
fibrc.
Floor Coverings (C) New typcsoI potycstcr.
Thc cxccllcntrcsilienceand rccovcryof PCDT polyestcrlibrcs Already,as we huvesccn,thc third routc hrs Drovirlcda ncrv
has stood them in good steadin the lloor coveringfield' Rugs' typc of polycsterfibrc, PCD'f polycstcr,which has bcconrc
nratsand broadloomcarpetsare madefrom 100per cent PCDT establishedon a comrnercialbasisalongsidc,l,EI' polycstcr[ibrcs.
polyesterllbre. They are soft, luxuriousand hard wearing,with
pood resistance to matting and clumping.

Fibcrfill (A) Pr'lysrcAL MoDlFlcATroN oF ESTAIIL|SI.IED

Tbe low spccificgravity of PCDT botyesterIibres.-isa uscful POLYESTER TYPES
characterisiicin applicationssuch as pillows, quilts, padd-ed Modificrtion of PolJ mcr
clothingancl the li[e, where the fibre is usedin the form of a
thc mostinlportant
fiberfili Low spccificgravityis not nccessarily The mcchanicalpropcrticsof polycstcrfibrcsnray bc vrricd by
oropertv of a'fiberfill nratirial, PCDT
howevcr. polyesterfibre controllingthc physicalcharactcristics o[ thc polynrcr.Itcduction
iras'ouistanding resiliancethat permitsit to support the voids of the molecularwcight,for cxamplc,will allcct the ntcchanicrl
witlrin the nberfillbatt. properties,and this is usedin producingpolycstcrfibr.cswith
reducedpilling tcndcncics.
T h e o r i c n t a t i oann dc r y s t a l l i n i loyf t h cp o l y m c rn l a yb c a l l c c t c ( l
(3) OTHER TYPES OF POLYES-|ERFIBRE by adjustmento[ thc conditionsuscdin drawingthc fibrc.Two_
stagcdrawing, for exanrplc,is uscd for thc productionof high
Sinceits introductionduring the early 1950s'polycthylerre tere- modulus polyesterstaple which is suitablc for blcndingwitlr
pt',thnlot"librc (PET polycstcrfibrc) has nradc.r'rpidlrcadway cotton,
anrl attaincrla clominatingposition in the field of synthetic Controlof thc drawingprocess alsomakcspossiblcthc pro<tuc-
tcxtilc fibrcs-PET polyestcifibresarc now bcing produccdby tion o[ filanrcntsin which thcre are seclionsof drawn nralcri:rl
388 389

-1 --l -_l -t -ll -t -11 . 'r 'r r r 'r'l 11

t " t tt t t t t E E Et n t I n t n t n t
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIDRES B: SYNTII E'I'IC FII]RES
of
alternating with unclrawn material. This thick-andlbin type
filameot
---itr" gives attractive dye-fleck eflects' n r o l c c u l ep,r o v i d i n gs i t . c s w l r i c hb a s i ct l y c s t u f f sr r r a yb c c o r r r c
sht]nk^g" of filamenisis influencedby the drawing
process' s n c r r o r e dl . l r l o g cs o r p.ht o o s p l l o n a tgcr o u p ss u b s t i t u t c di n t l l c
""i ii,l. it ur"i in th" production of yarns which provide special p o r y m e rs t r u c t u r ee n l l a n c et l t e n a r n er e t c r d a r ) c e s. D c c i i l l l v
if
surlace effects on fabrics. anti|nono y x i d ei s i r r c l u d cidn t l l e p o l y n r errn a t r i x .
Amnity for dyestullsand other rnodi0cationsto the fibrc
Modificrtion of Filrrc propcrticsarenlso bcstowcdupon pE'l polycstcrlibrcsby
intro-
d u c i n ga s n l a l l a r n o u n to f a n o t h c rc o n t p o n c nitn l o t l r c p o l y _
M ultilobal C ross-Section r r r e r i z a t i oA n . f i b r e' G r i l c r r c f' ,o l c x r n : p l ew, a sr r r a d b ey Nippon
As in the caso of polyamicle fibrcs, polyester fibres of special I h y o n C o . . L t d .b y c o n d e n s i nt g c r e p h t i r a lai cc i r l ,e t h y l c l cg i i c o l
cross-scctiorrmay be made by extruding the f'llamentstbrough , T u , l ,a l o u n t .o ' p . h y d r o x yb c n z o i ca c i dL o f o r r : ra p o l y -
holes of appropriateshape. e: lsl ot e1r / p o l y e t hceorp o l y r n e r .

Bulk Staple
the
Dillerential cooling of the filaments as they emerge from. (C) NEW TYPES OF POLYESTER
spinncr"t protlucesa spiral ellect in the filaments'This technique
is uscd in producing bulked polyesteryrrns' 'l'hc
n)ostradicalwly oI prorJucing polycstcrlibrcswith dillcrcnt
rangesof propcrtiesis to spin the fibres fronr ncw typcs oI
Textured and Bulked Yarrts p o l y e s t e rP. o l y - p . e l h y l e n c o x y b c r r z of oart ec,x a n r p l c .
l , i , sb . c , r
Polyestersare thermoplastic,and the libres may be subjectedto W u n r r ) t ol l D r e sw h i c l l w c r el l t a r k e t c di n J : r p ; r na i A - . l . c l ll., r o _
all the tcxturing processesrn common use' r l u c e dt y r e a c t i r regt l l y l e n eo x i r l cr v i t l rp - t y, i t r u * y t ru. r , ,i . ' " . i , f
.
t l l c p o l y n l e rn l c l t sa ! 2 2 4 o Ca n d i s r : r e l ti p u , r ., 1 . 1 ,l ". i b ; . , ' ; ; ;
Bicomponent Fibres ,_il'illr
i'l _rlany respecrsto I)E'l polyestcr'nbrcs.t.elccliv' ii
Bicomponent lilaments are prodtrcedfrom polyesters,.witheflects 35_.32-46.80cN/rex (4.0_5.3 gi,t"i,y, "to,,giriou-"f-iii"u'[
similai to those obtained frorn bicomponent polyamide
yarns' I 5 - 3 0 7 0 , r v i t f r a l r r r o s tI O A ' / or c i o v c r y "t o , , , ' i o * " f " " " , i i i o , i .
Moisturereg,rirrQ.4,i/o and spcciticgrav'ity1.34;;; ,;;:i;;;ii;;
to thoseof l,ET polyesterfi-bres.l{eiistariccto o.i,fsu,iif,ff."ii",
(B) CHEMICAL MODIFICAT/N OF ESTABLISHED
r sg r e a t etrl ) a t h a t o I P E Tp o l y e s t cfri b r c s .
POLYESTER TYPES roly-p-e rylelleoxybcnzoatcfibres, rcscrrrblilrgcloscly
thc
e s t a D i l s t l cpdo t y e s t c r{ l b r e s ,w c r e u n a b l c t o o f t c r a r l v a l t a u c s
Tbe polyesters from which PET and PCDT polyester fibres are u r a Ln ] l g l t tt.r a v cg. i v c n r c r n a w o r t h w h i l ep l a c ci t h c t c x i i l c
spun-arc chemically inactive materials, and this has.been- an n l a r K e ta,n dp r o d u c t i o rnv r sd i s c o n t i n u c d .
important factor in the di{Iiculties associated with dyeirrg these
frbies. There ate no active Sroups in the polymer molecule to
which dyestulls arc attracted.
ycars
Much of the rescarchon polycster fibrcs during recstlt
has becn concerncd with this problem of improving the dyeing
iira.i"t"risti"s of the Iibre, ond ptog,"st has been made by
modifying the chemical natttre of the polynrer molccule' Special
-PfT
tuo"t bt polycstcr ftbrcs are norv produccd, for cxarnple,it'
ihiclr sulphonic iroups havo bcen introduced iDto tllc polycstcr
390 391
 IIANDAOOK OF TEXTI LE I'IIJRES D : S Y N T I rE T IC F I I ] R D S
f o r m j n g p c n d a n t g r o r r p so f a t o n t s a t t t c l t c d t o t h c
l o r r qc l r r b o n
3. POLYVINYL DERIVATIVES D a c K D o nocl t h e p o l y n t c rn r o l c c u l c .
A s t h c . f o r n r a t i o no f p o l y r n c r t i r k c sp l a c c b y l r c l < l i l i o n
of onc
l!r(roduclion s r r a t t n r o t e c u l et o a n o l h c r ,w i t h o U t t l t c c l i n r i n n l i o n
of rvalcror
a other nraterials,this type of rcaclion is an eddition poly,,t",i
It has long bcen known tl')at cert in compounds containing P.oly.linyl compounds wcre arr.tongthc nrst polyrncrs-to
z,,iiui,,.
.f""frf" ft"ri t rvoul<lunclcrgo spontaneous change, during which bc
solid st.udicdasrolcntial sourcqsof synthciic fibrcs..f.li" ".rlv
: r l i e L r i d ,' ft o r c x l t t t p t c , r v a s c o t t v c r t c t lg r d t r l l l y i n t o a . rrDrc ' f c . C c ' C"li,,"u
w a - sn l r t l c b y c x t r t r d i n gs o l r r t i o r ros f i r c i r l o r i n : r t c d
n r n t " ' r i r t . t t " l o w - b o i t i n gl i q u i d v i n y l c l t l o r i t l c ,n r o r c t h i r n a p o r y v r n y ct h l o r i d c .I t r , v i l sn o t u n l i l t h c c a r l y y c l r r s
c c r t l r r y i r g o .w a s s h o w n t o c h i l n g ci l l t h i s w a y ' Il, howcr,,cr,-that polyvinyl conrpounds
-tcg,,,, o f W o r k l W r
'lhcse
cltatrgcsarc tlow lccogtlizcd as polynlcrlzil(lons'otlrlllg p r o r n r s c , r nt h c l i c l d . o f g c n u i n c t c x t i l c f i b r c s .
io ,l;r; ;"i,i
rvhich thc smill molcculcs join togcthcr via tlre double bond to Fibrcswcrc spun
r r o m s o l u t r o n so t p o l y a c r y l o n i t r i l (cp o l y v i r r ycl y a r r i d c ) ,
fornr long clrain trtolccttlcsof llolyntcr. lSr:c bclo,w') -,- r r r v cs r n c cd c v c l o l ) c di n t o o n c o f l h c ) o s ti r l r p o r l a n t
ald tlicsc
C o r n n o u n d sc o n t l i n i t t g t h e v i n y l g r o u p , i c ' C H " = C H - ' wtll of lrll cltrsscs
tllis w y, ntl thc polylncrs of synthctic llbrcs.
conrmorrly undergo
'fo'nt"tt-arc potylne rizat iotr in -the
ili"i nr" ialletl polyvinl'l cotttpotuttls' linking
o
r o s c t l l c ro I l l r c s n t a l l t l r o l c c t t l c s f a v i n y l c o n ) p o u n dr c s u l l sl r l POLYACRYLONTTRILE,
FI BIIES
thJ fornration o[ a long nroleculc consisting of calbon lttonls'
tl)c rerrrrining atoms that werc prescnt in the vinyl compoul](l
Fibrcsspun lrom polyntcrsor copolynrcrsof lcrylonilrilc
:
cI{" =CI'I.CN --! -cl'r,-cH-Cr,rr-cH_
i l
NF V I N Y L C O M P O U N D
P OL Y M E I I , I Z - A ' I ' I OO CN CN
Acrylonitrilc Itolyacrylonitrilc

h:.gh:{ h:{ INTRODUCTION

Acrylonitrilcwls rnadein Cernranyby Mourctrin 1g93.

that tirnc,up to almostrhc outbrcakof Workl
rilc rcnraincd laboratorycuriosiry.Dur du;ing-ilr;'irii; jil.
W,,, f f , ".iuionii-
Irronr

i;
r r a c q u l r c oa n c w s t a t u sb y b e c o m i n ga c o n s t i t 0 c n t
of onc of
t{lT gf synrhc(icrubbcr undcrctcvctoprrclr
::]",1]-":
lu uermat)y ilp:.,;.Lr
and thc U.S,A.
D u r i n gW o r l dW a r I I , t h es y n t h e t ircu b b c ri n d u s t r vu D d c r w c n r

ffi+-$+-* n nushroomgrowth il thc U.S.A.,and this prccipititcd

scalenar)ufaclurco[ acrylonirrile.By rh" ;,i.i ;i
rontt le wils ir rcliltivcly cltclp induslrial chcrnicll,
ava iluic lD targe(luantitics. polynrcrsof acrylonitrilccrrrrc
r r r r c n s t vrcc v t c w l n l h c r u b b c r , p l a s t i c sn u d
industries.
i;; ,;,,;.
a ';;i;_
larec-

;rnrl w:rs
rrndcr
s y n l t r c t i cl i b r c
A c r y l o n i t r i l cu n d c r g o cas d d i t i o np o l y r n e r i z a t i or n c n c l i t va. r r d
poryflcrytonilrilc hlrl bccn cxamincdts a polcnliitlfibrc_tointinc
l ) o l y r n cdr r r r i n gl h c l a t e l 9 l 0 s .p r a c t i c a<l j i i T i c u l l i1c,,, . fp r * " , , i " j
392 391

--l . [ " " t r I , - l ' t - '-l - l ' [ - [ r l ' l ' l "-1 "-1
I I I
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIARES
B: SYNTII ETI C FISItES
any substrulial progress beiug made jn lhis direction, howcvcr,
the nrain problenr being to nod a way of spinning a polymcr a pilor plantr f'his was followc<.lby
a conrnrcrcial l)lirnt lvlrich
rvhich was virtually infusible and insoluble in any of tlte solvetrts
then cxanlincd. Al that tinre, attempls to spin polyacrylonitrile
rvcre directcd largely at prodncing ntore soluble copolymers,e.g. Tlr""Jdlliil i,lli"ll:,i':,:1,1""1,',i;x;:ll,*
i'r3"",lill
iiff: []ffi#
*,i;i';l
T;ll,';1
r ll,"'m;i**fx
containing vinyl chloride, which would dissolvc in common
solventssuch as acetone.Fibres werc spun fronr tllesocopolymcrs
by dry spinning techniqucssuch as those used in spinning acetate pt:rnr wrsopcucdi r Cotcrainc ;,, N;;it,";;;
fibres, and sonre of the copolymer fibres had propcrties of i,?"]lJu:".""u'Acrilan'
considerableinterest. O"y-r-,,i.*_
thepcriod1.955-60, polyacrylon
,^ irrilc fibrcplar)tsbcla
Shortly before the war, solvents for 100 per cent polyacry-
lonitrilc were found, such as dinrethyl fornranride, and the "i::Tiion::inerli: 1,"J1,1".o
ir!d,!ll:,.:: ::i:ilJ;,iJ1T j,:ll
experimental production of polyacrylonitrile fibres continucd
i,",X,j''l:, d.sirrccrhcn,
",:;;;,;i;;, :;ii i;ii;
throughout the war years in Gerntany by I.G. Farbcnindustrie, 1:oJ:.r:",ltucri
and in U.S.A. by E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Co. Inc. lly
1942,du Pont rvcre producing a polyacrylonitrilehbre which was
o[Iered to the U.S. Governrneut (or military applications.1'hc 't"t'ptrs
evrluation of this polymcr rvasso promising that in l9{4 du Poni o t ; I ' o L y A c R y L o NI . fRt L I : l i l B R t i
announced their decision to begin pilot plarrt producliorr. lly
Polyacrylonitrilc fibrcs are now proclucccl
1945,du Pont were producing tlre world's Iirst polyacrylonitrilc
c;,,i - "i
by tnrrry ntrlul.irc-
fibre, whiclr was provisionally named Fiber A. rncs
lratrc';r
1"1:'i,,:?f;;;l; ";l;i:ir",,", r\r
"';' " i;
;;' ;;,;;
Thcse carly polyacrylonitrile fibres werc alnrost as siroDg as
nylon, r.nd had a high resistanceto chernicals(notably acids)
and to sunlight. They rvere very dillicult to dye, and it seemcd t t'n-i": l'ill':'
il:il livil'"'*'l'
r';liLi
'u'T''""1';'l'i;,'iff ll^":o#
l';
tlrat their most promising comnrercialoutletsmust lie in industrial
and outdoor applications. As dycing lcclrniques rvcre cvolvccl, :?*"r'"",,:.3ffi :
:iJ:ii:,t,Ji:::i;,,:i
ni?i,
however, it becamc apparent that polyacrylonitr ilc fiblcs could
also become of importance in tlr/ apparel labrjc field. e::{fj :;i}ill
:ij:fJ,jff;::i:,i $x:t,,':i*,,"Ji:.,1t::':",t"f
rcspcct, ,,1
In 1948,du Pont made plans for the largc-scaleproduction of it i' n'o'"JlrriJiio
SJil'rt".ti,Tiltii',f,'ii,J",;i::
Fiber A. and in July 1950a plant came into production at Canrdcn, ns'r Scncrnlclassth.rr irr thc
South Carolina. The ftbre was produced as continuous filanrcnt
cascor.poryanjdeor porycsrcrl.
yarn, and it was given the trade nanre 'Orlou'. This first fibrc tibrcs'rrrcrc
wasi,
lvas a 100 per ceot polymer of acrylonitrile,and it still presente(l ,""1'"#';';1:1",1i1'",it,,1$ti9"'"nitrirc
,oo'b".o,n
" ofp"-r-",,i,'
ffi ;";:':i"t1',,t,,?,T;tTit".lrlffi
problenrs in dyeing, In due course, howevcr, thc introduclion oI
snrall proporlions of t sccond mononlcr providcd nrodificd fornrs ',x'i?:[
t":::ff -,i3$t,li["T:t;:lii*;iilJl':i:f
;,,,j
of ,ibre \',ith improved dyeability.
I n M a r c h 1 9 5 2 ,a s c c o n d' O r l o n ' p l a n t a t C a n r d c nb e g a np r o - which
nbres
oi si,ritar
xti
"r'"'i'i"'i'ii.'"",,ii
ducing staple fibre- ;?ii:1,!;l"fl,jilii'
This. problent rvas considcrcd by lhe
^ U.S. Fcdcrlrl .l-nrrlc
l r l c a n w h i l c ,i n 1 9 5 0 .a s c c o n d U . S . r n a n u l a c t u r c cr n t c t c ( lt h c
poly crylonitrilc fibrc ficld, when ChcnrstrandCorp. constructcd FlJll''i:Tl;:'^li::,'"Jilil,'1,::,11,:',lli:
lii::X lililr:l,:ll
394
395
 IIANDBOOK OF TEX'I LE FIBRES B : S Y N , T IE
I TI C I,''IIRI]S

Polvrcrvtonitrile fibresweresubdividedinto two classcs, dcpcnd-

ing-upon lhe proportion oI acrylonitrile in thc polyntc-r- (scc Nolc
lr"'io*).Thos" iolyacrylonitrilefibrcscontainingat lcast85 pcr Jn, tlrc scction which follows, polyacrylonitrilc
librcs rrrc corr-
ccnt of acrylonitrilcunitsarc describcdas ocrylicfibtcs,wherca; srocrr,.t undcr two classcs, dcpcnding
rrpon {hc proportion oI
thosellbrcscontainingbetwccn35 and 85 pcr ccnt of acrylonitrile acrylouilrilcunits in thc polynrcr:
lic rlcscribctl as rrtorlccryfic fibrcs.
'this
subclivision is hclpfrrlin lhat it scl)irrirlcs Iwo grorrpsof -(l) Acrylic Filr.cs,which arc spun frorrr polyrrrcr.s conrposcrl
itl contttrott frorn tlrc of irt.lcirst85 pcr ccnt.by wciglrtoi acrylonirrilciniirif".
Dolvacrvlonitrile fibrc which havc Iittlc pondrr)gto the F.T.C.dcfinirionot acrylic .l,rr"i_
oracticaiooint of view. But it still lcavcs rootn lor great varifltion fibrc).
'fhc (2).M9tla:crylic
irr the characteristics of individualfibreswithin eachgroup ,Fibres,which arc spun frorn polynrcrsconr_
tcrm 'acrylic', for examplc,docs not distinguishbctweenthc poscdoT lcss.t.han 85 pcr ccnt bu! t lcnst50 pcr ccrit bv wcirhl
fibrewhic'his a copolynrerof acrylonitrilewith a smallproportion ot acrylonrtnlc
-units(i.e.corrcspoDding to thc I..-I..C.rictirritiori
of a seconcl conrponent,atrda fibre spunfrom a graftcopolymer "'lllili":",T,llffi
;l'l?1j,:",i:l,lj;i;,lJ'.}"j,:u'i,l
oI acrvlonitrile.
A firrrhcr sottrccoI cott[rtsiottariscsfront thc fact that lhc copolyncr).
I,,"",",1:J
'ntodacrylic'rcfcrs to polyrlcrs containing
olllcial Ir.-f.C.tcrnr
35-84 per cenl of acrylonitrilc.It thus i[clttdescopolymcrsirr
rvhichacrylonilrilemay form the minor conlponent;a fibre spurl
from a copolymercotttaining60% o[ vinyl chlorideantl 40%of
. r e x r t t l p l ei,s r r t o r cp r o p e r l yc o r ) s i d e r e[ r(ol n rt l r e
a c r v l o l l i t r i i cf o
c l r e r n i c rsl t a r r r l p o i nati a p o l y v i n y tl y p e f i b r c ,d c s p i t ei t s F - ' l - C
classificaIio an sr r l t o d a c r y l fi ci b r c

NOMENCLATURE

Federal Trude CotnnrissiottDelinitioys

The generic
-Fcricral nrmes ncrylic and ntotltlcrylic were adopted-by thc
U.S. -fhe TrarleCommissiorr for fibrcsof the polyacrylonitrile
class. dcfinitionsare as follows:
Acrylic.A manufactured. fibre in which the fibre-formingsub-
stancgis any long chain syntheticpolymercomposedof at least
S5 per ccot by weightof acrylotrilrilcunits.
Moducrylic.A n'ranufacturcd hbre in which the {ibrc-forrning
substance is any long chain synthelicpolymercomposedof Iess
than 85 per ceni but at leflst35 per ccnt by weightof acrylonitrilc
u n i t s -c x c e n tf i b r e sq u r l i f y i n gt r n d e rs u b ' p a r a g r a p ( 2l r) o f p a r a '
a rpal ig( ir)r p( h
rtrbbero (
) i t h i s s c c t i o na n t l f i t - r r c sl u a l i l y i l r gu n d c r
-qpr a
( q ) ( g l a s so)I t h i ss c c t i o n '

396 397
Ii
-1 ' -1 r 'f 'l I r l r
E E ll E E E l': f: f: f: f: f:': fr h H H H
II NDUOOK OF TEX] ILE FII]IIES SYNTIIETIC FTBRES

(I) ACRYLIC FIBRES

PRODUCTION
Fibrcssptrnfronr polynrersconsislingof at lcast85 per ce[t by
rvcightof acrylonitrileunits (-{H,-CH(CN)-). MottorDcr Sylrthccis

TYPESAND SIZES ',lii",,ln

Acrylonitrilejs availablein rnr
1'"'ll;',il,,l;f
l1:li,1;
-fhe 'O
early types of polyacrylonitrilenbre,e.g. rlotl'Types 4l and
ffiih.illTg,#'iL"J'";'ii,r,i'fi
81, were spun from l00 per cent polyacrylonitrile,but almost all (a) nh1'lsna Cyanhyd n Delrydrction
Inodcrn types of acrylic 0bre are spun from copolyn)ers Thesc Ethylene cyanhydritr is nrade citltcr by
'normal' type of copolyrner in which the secolld
lliJ?ff;"""x1lL:,(/1,
trclttnrcnI of cthylcrrc
may be the
conlponent is polymerized with the acrylonitrile, or they ma1' :ili.:;,;il,l o.u,;";'i;;i;i ;ii;ii;;
be of the'graft' copolynrertype, in rvhich thc sccond cornponctlt
is incorporated by grafting on to thc polyacrylonitrile ,,,ill',o:31ii'li" ,jl (,iq,ri,r
prursc)nr
The nature and proportion of the second component used ill
;llllilt
.r 150"c.ir tr)cprescnce
;^ll:l':ll,:uot'(vaPr-rur
phasc)
ot ",,,rlljlt rti"t'tsl'
individual acrylic fibres are rarely disclosed,but a very large
number of acrylonitrile copolynrers has becn described in the
patent lilerature. Vinyl acetate, vinyl chloride, methyl acrylate
itnd 2-vinyl-pyri(line are anrong the ntotromers which are
probablyuscdcomntercially.
Acrylic fibresare usedas filamenl yarn,tow lor c o n v e r s l o n , cH,-cH, + HCN
antl ai staple fibre. Staple is protlucedin counts and length
suitablelor all spinningsystents.
ETHYLENEOXTDE
( HOCltr cH, CN
@..r E T II Y L E N E
Iligh Bulk Fibre HO CH, -CH, " .r.*r^ / CYANIIY{)RIN

Acrylic libresarc unusualin their ability to attain a metastable ETI-IYLENECHI.OROIIYORIN I

Whenhot-stretched
stati on hot stretching. libresare cooled,they lo
will rcmain in their strctchedstate until subsequently heated, Y
High shrinkage c H ,- c H c N
whenthey revertto their unstretched climensions.
hbresmay be madein this way, with shrinkages of 30 per cent ACRYLONITEILI
I'rodrrctionot.Acr),lonitritc.
and higher, and by blendingthesehigh-shrink fibreswith normal
staple,followcd by subsequent steaming,bigh bulk cllectsare
obtained.
Many typesof high-shrinkagc lcrylic fibre aro now produccd.

398 399
 'IANDBOOK OF TI]XTILE FII]IIES s YN ' r ' c r t c
(b) Acet;,leue mcl IICN
Acrylonitrile is rllilde direclly front acetylencby the addilion ol'
HCN.
CH=CH+IICN-+ CH,=q11q1

(c) Propylcnc Roulc

Propylcnc is oxidizcd to acrolcin (l) which is thcn rcflctcd with
anrnronia to fonn a hydroxy antino compound (2). This is
dchydra(cd and dehydrogenatedto acrylonitrile (3).

(l) (2) ,/NH.

:Ct1--911,-rCH!
CI-1, :CFl-CHO+CHr =CI-I-CH(O
ft-
,/
'1
(3)
CH,=CFI.CN 5 a i

\<J)Acctoldchyde Route
n3 aE+
Hydrogcn cyanide is added to acetaldehydcto lorm the cyxnhy- d= E*El
drin (l). This is dehydrated to acrylouitrile (2). ;'

9]"", :.*r."^
/6if$'t
]t l,t t'-
+IrcN9cH"cH<3$
cl{.cHo \-
"z
J 12.
\
ii
tt lt H
5
Polynlcrizn(iorl
I LZ-Y * F
Thc polynrcrization o f f l c r y l o n i t r i l ea n d i t s c p - m o n o m e ri s c o m - I t/
r r r o n l yc a r r i c d o u t b y s l i r r i n g t h e m o n o m e r ( w i l h w a t c r i n t h e I tt €;l
fl-l l!
presenccof catalysl and surfactants. Sonrc of thc acrylonitrile i l \ . = +
dissolvesin the water to form a 7 per ccnt solution, the excess -l .!-r
rlonorner fornring an cnrulsion.
As polymerization proceeds,tlre polymer (which is irrsoluble
i|r rvatcr) is prccipitatedto form r slurry.'fhis is liltercd, and thc
polynrer is washccland dricd. ,
Polymcrization may bc carried out as a batch process,or on
a continuous basis,In thc lattcr case,mononter, wrter and othcr
nra(crials rc fcd into a rcaclion vcsscl,irnd slttlty is withdrawn
contintrously.Unrcactc(l rllononrcr is rccovcrcd and rctutlred to
t h c o o l v n r c r i z ai ot n .
400

r- -l - -11 '--l --l ,."1 -_1 'r-l 'l--f tr1

I
 Fl - l"i F:.f''lFi Fl n F
n n F'i|.,,if'':1"1
I I ^ N DI } O O KO F T E X T IL E F I I ] I I E S B: S Y N T I TE T I C F ] l J N E S

Spirring f l c t o r i l y . B r s i c d y c s w c r e u s c d , b u t l i g h l .f i l s l n c s sw i r s
noot. A
s a l r s l a c t o r yr a n g c o [ s h a d c sw a s p r o v i d c d ,h o w c v c l ,
P o l y e c l y l o n i t r i l e1, 0 0 p c r c c n l o r c o u l a i n i t r gt l p t o l 5 p c r c c n t by n11fti11p
co-rrononter, tends to deconlposcou mclting, and fibres cannot ion lroccsstlcvclolccl
irr l95t)ior ,i";i;;;;;;
be produced by nrelt spinning processesls ttsed lor polyatnide
||".31i:i,""n,o.'s
and polyestel libres. Acrylic fibres are thelclore pro(luccd fronl 1-heprcferredtechniqucrvirsto nrtkc usc of ncicldycs
prcscncc in thc
s o l u t i o D sc,i t h e r b y d r y o r \ v c t s p i n n i n g rous ions.Thc proccsslrast"",, of gr""i u.i,," iu
,of^cul)
(|yctng ilu ttbrcs birsc(lon lrcrylorritrilc;
tltc col)Pcr itcts its ir
Dry Spinning
blidgewhich links rhe nitrile grout)oi rl," tiUJ"r" iii.';y;
-fhc nrolecule.
polymcr is dissolvedin an orgauic solvent,such as dimethyl
fornramide, to fornl a soltrtion containi0g 25-40 per cent of - U s i n g t h e c u p r o u s i o n t c c l r n i q r r ci ,t r v a s p o s s i b l ct o o b l a i n
firs.t colours covcring a wiclc rangc on ,Oilon,
polymer. This is degassed,hltcred and licated alnost to boiling stlrnlc libr.c-
llthough the rnorc highly oricntatcd conrinuo,,,
point, and then extruded through spinnerets. frfu,ii",'ii-.O.iou:
o y " s o r c a d i t y . C o o d r e s u l t sw c r c o b t i r i n c ( 1l ,l o r v c v c r ,
Thc fine jets of solution en'rcrgeinto a vertical tttbe or spinning loy-_ayellg
::,'l9l
undcr prcssure at tclnpcrrlulcs up to 120"C.
ccll, throtrgh which air or olller gas at high tenpcrattrre (e.g. W h c n n r a n u [ a c tr e r s b c g a D p r o d u c i n g c o D o l y , r r c r s - o f
400"C.) is florving. As the jets fall through thc tube, the solvenl ,
r o n r l l i e , .U r c p o s i l i o nc l ) a n g c dT. h c r n a i n r c n s o n
ac.u_
evaporates1o leave solid filancnts of polyruer' for introduciriu
'fhe l sccond conrponcnt into thc polyrrcr rvrrs
filanrcntsare brought togcthcr at thc base of thc spinuing to cstlblisir ii;.;;;ll
cell and strclchedhot to 3-10 times their original length. If con- ;|"'::i,i",:'?l;"Jl]",lt,l::ill""sattcrtor
poittrs
ror trvcstrrrr
tinuous filament yarn is being prodLtccd,the lilaments are oiled,
trvistcd and thcn wouncl on to bobbios.
cop.oryn,crs
'l'l:c
;",,;;il;,,i;; ;;;,,1':1rl:llJ:T"t:'1,,
ll,;'iill,l']ll'',"
ntorrolrers u s c ( l t o ( l a y a s s e c o n ( lc o l t l ) o l c n t s i n a c r v ,
lf staplc fibre is rcqtrired, a number of yarns are brotrght ,
l o n l r n t e c o p o t y n t e r sa r e c o n ) t l o n l y o I t h r c c g c n c r l l
together into a tow. This is then criulpcd and cut into staple d e p e r r c l i lo
g n t h e L y p eo f s i t c t h e y o l f c r t o t l y c s t u i l s :
classt,s,
of thc dcsired length. Uncut tow is ttsed for convetsion. (l) I4onom-erswhich providc non-ionizing polar
groups wlrich
are able to form co-ordination conrplcxeJ
lVrt Spituting *itl, jy".f'uffr, l'g.
vinyl acctate,mctlryl acrylate,
Polymcr is dissolvcd in din'lethyl [orl]lamidc or othcr solvcnt, ( 2 ) M o r r o m c r sc o n l a i n i n c b a s l
and the solution .is degasscd and ftltered. It is then punped oI formingionic bonds*iii., ""ili "fut ulr];t:')""ttttps c:tprblc
t h r o u g h s p i n n e r e t isn t o a c o i r g t r l a t i nbga t h g d n t a i n i n ga l i q u i d i n
which thc solvcnt is soltrbtebut thc polyn{er insoluble.TIre jets
of solution coagtilalc into finc filanrents,fornring a tow wl]ich
is washeclafter emerging from the bath.'fhe tow is heated and
"f,j rl:jliTfi,t,]!l;
uu!'],"y"""11T"";i,";":Uiiji""
;i"il,ii,Td':
drarvn, driecl, oiled and crimpcd. It nay then bc healcd lo relax Jn addition to providing anchor points
the libre beforc bcing cttt into staple.
.,
f;
,,tif'lffi.;ti: for dycstrrll nrolcculcs,

if:'i;:iilliliilr':;"l,li
PROCESSING
ii:!1:lfi andttrcdesrcc
l:.^r1:'j"d, ot crysrrtiinity
i. i.i*"i.,i.
xl;ij:Ti:
'ir'rrr".
.p,"i
trom.thasc opolynrcrn
s r c n r o r c r c c c p l i v cl o s o l v c n t s ,
t r c i n gn i o r c
andnrorccasiry
pcncrrarcd
by <tycsttirt
,,,,i otl"i
Dycit|g lllilll,,l;"t,"o
T h c c a r l y f o r m s o I p o l y a c r y l o n i t r i l cf i b l c , s u c has 'Orlon'Typc e f l e c ti s n o t a p p a r e n ht ,o r v c v c irn, t l r ec a s co f s r a f t
4l staple and Type 8l lilanrcnt yarn, werc dimcult to dye satis- c- -o] p- lo] sl ylni ttteerras s, u s e ( il n t h e p r o d u c t i o n
o f t h e r r i t r i l ea f t o yf i E i c s .
402 403
 IIANDI]OOK OF 1'EX'I'ILE FIDRDS
r , : s Y N . I .[l .t ] - t c F I t r R u s
T h e i n t r o d u c t i q no f t h e g r a l l d o e sn o t a f f c c t t h e f o r l n o l ' t h c -f'hc
acrylic
fibrcs o[cr unus
p o l y a c r y l o n i t r ibl {a c k b o n ea,n ( lt h e r e s i s t a n ct oe s o l v e n tisl r t h i s
casemay actuallybe increased.
or rhc'brc",", tl jf,gll Jl,llll'",1":l]::i;,,lli:
.hi,rircrcrisrics
(rcgrcc.by selcction oI a pirrticullrtypc of acrylorritrilc
Today, acrylicfibresare proclucedi[ wbich receptivityto all c o n t r o l l i n gl h c s p i n n i n gc o n d i l i i ;;;;r,;i;;;,;1.
typesof dyestulfhas bceu built irr. rrrc
arrerria.ricrii
i;;. ?;i;;;",:',,jffii,il"t;to,:,1j'
:lii,:l"',::ll
liiDc S(ructurc anrl Appcar;rncc
Acrylic fibrcsarc ploduccclin tr v
irrgu'onrr'";;,i;iri;;.;';,,;;;,'Ji::il",1,:'lii;::'""'i,:.:''.l:11 '
ger:cral,wc1 spun fibrcs havc a roun<l
STI{UCTURE AND PROPEITTII]S or t i,l,i"y_ i*-",, ,i,,,n".i
cross*ectiorr. Dry spun fibrcsrnay bc of dog-bonc,r, ft,,t'.llrrr-
s e c t i o nM . a n yb i c o n r p o n c rarct r v l i i f i b r c s. , ; ' 1 , - , f , , . . , i ,
The propcrtiesoI polyacrylonil.rilc
fibrcsvary ovcr a widc range, ' yij.ii,il
I t i g h - b u lfki b r c so n p r o c e s s i n g .
each manufacturerproducinga fibre or fibres that will have
the blend of propertiestbat hc feels will meet his particular 'fcD:tcily
rcqurremcnts, 'fhc
eady typcs of..polyacrylonitrilclibrc, wlriclr
consistcttoI l{X)
l)cfccntrcrylonitr-ilc
polynru,rvcrchighlyori.,,rnLJ,,uii..,:u*i"i-
)\i9 (€r- \3 4.O

{o9*@ lix'
{-\ dl
z
9^@r"*o
j20
6s%i.h.2ooc

@886
@"{
26.5

@ .-}
.-c
o
o -
.^@@rN^ffiR@ -2o 17.5 r. onroru@az
z, zernlr@
F
20 30 g. cnrsuru@5o
EXTENSION
% a. acntLar@ro
1.O

lo 3020 40 50 60 70 BO
sTnatN (% ELoNcATtoN)
'Coutlellc' Slrcss-stritin Ctrrvcs
.for,.Sonrc Corrtrrrcrcitl Acrylics. (Singlc librcs
tcslc(l tt strrrrtlartl
crlr<litiorrs)-Cheustran,t Lt .'
404
405

*--t lr.1 ,r-I i. . rr s

tlnrEnEnntEhhhh-ht
IIANDsOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
a: sYNl ll E.nc TII IES
Iinc Iibres in rvhich the moleculesrverc held togcthcr tightly by 9 1 p c r c c r t i r t l _ p c r c c n t e x t c r r s i o r,rl.. l t c r c c o v c r yt r o n l
the intcnrolcculaI forces acting througlr thc uitrilc groups. lurgher.
, g - ;? 0 extcnsions
is.nrodcra{e,e,g. 50_60pcr ccDt at l0 pcr ccnt
Thc introduction oI a secolrd coll]ponent into lhc polynlcr, exrenston.ln general,tbc rccovery charactcristics..r"nlb!"
rvith lhe primary object of increesiug dyeability, rcduccd thc tl,or"
of wool.
prckability of thc long moleculcs and aflected thc mechauical
propcrties of thc libre. The tcnacity of copolynrer acrylic fibres, lui(ial ll{odulus
f o r e x a m p l e ,i s l o w e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e 1 0 0 p e r c e n t a c r y l o n i t r i l e
Acrylic fibres have a high initial nro<lulus,conrnronly
fibres, other things being equal. in thc
region of 353-44.1 cN/tex (40_50 g/rlcn).
It soon bccamc apparent, however, that acrylic fibrcs werc
going to make their way in the textile nrarket through attractive AveragcStitlness
lrandle, resilience,case-of-careand other properties,ralltcr than
by virtue of high tenacity. The recluction of tcnxcity which Strplefibre: (,?-99 "N/lg"(7_l0 g/ctcn;.
follorveclintroduction of a second componcnt inlo the polymer, l.tlamel|t: 1 4 l _ 3 6 2c N / t e x ( l 6 _ 4 t g / ( l c l l ) .
thcrefore,was not oI seriousconscquence. The tcnacity of acrylic Avcrrgc Tougllrcss
fibres remains high enough for the type o[ applicationsin which
t hese fibres serve. Staple: 0.40-0.70
T1'picallenacity rangesof nrodern lcrylic fibrcs are as follows: Filament: 0.2T0.49

SpccilicGtavity
(l\ Stalle atrd Totv
Dry: 1 7 . 7 - 3 1 . 8c N / t e x ( 2 . 0 * 3 . 6 g / d e n ) l. t 6-l .18
\Vet: I4.l -23.9 cN/tex ( I .6-2.7 g/den)
Dltcct of Moislurc
S t d . L o o p : 1 5 . 9 - 2 0 . 3c N / t e x ( 1 . 8 - 2 . 3 g / d e n )
S t d . K n o t : 1 5 . 0 - 2 0 . 3c N / t e x ( 1 . 7 - 2 . 3 g / d e n ) l{egain: 1.0-3.0 pcr cent.
Il.T.: 29.1-37.l cN/tex(3.3-4.2g/den),
ary Water absorption at 20"C. and 95 per ccnl rh: 2.0_5.0
Dcr ccnt.
25.6-31.8cN/tex(2.9-3.6g/den),
wet. T h e w a t e r a b s o r p r i o nb y a c r y t i c si s r c l a t i v c l yl " * , l i , r
ia i.
s u l t r c r c n t o. r c d u c c t h e d i f [ c r r l t i c sa s s o c i a t c dw i t h ( l c v c l o n n ) c l | t
(2) Filantent ('Creslau') of static chargcs (e.g. by comparison wirh polycsrcr fib.";j.
ii i;
D t y : 3 5 . 3 - 3 6 . 2 c N / t e x( 4 . 0 - 4 . 1 g / d e n ) a r s oa s r g t t r c a n tl i l c l o r i n l h c c o r n p l r a t i v c l yg o o t l d y c a b i t i t y
of
wet: 26.5-33.5cN/tex(3.0-3.8el(len). -,.- acrylic fibres.
Tbe tensile propertics of acrylic fibres arc allcctcd lo
. sotnc
Tensilc Strenglh by waler, rhc tcnacity, for examplc, bcing reclucedto
::gle-e
/)-y) per cent ol the dry tenacity,
Staple: 2,100-3,150kg/cnr?(30,000-45,0001b/i'r1)
: 3,500-5,250
Filaruent I (50,000-75,000
kg/cm lb/inr). Thcrmll I'ropcrlics
Iilorrgation Acrylic fibrcs do Dot havc lrLrcrlelting poi[ts, but lcnd to stick
lo nrctal surfaccst\t Z|5-Z5S"C,whcn prcsseclagliust thcm.
S t r p l c : 2 0 - 5 5p e r c c n t .
F i l a n r c n t :3 0 - 3 6p e r c e n t . ElJect ol IIigh 7'en pcrat ure
[l.slic l{ccoyery 1 h c m c c h a n i c usl t r c n g t l o l f a c r y l i cl i b r . c si s n o t s c r i o u s l yi r l p a i r c t l
b y c x p o s u r ct o l l e i l t .' l ' h c t c n a c i t yi r f t c r I 0 0 l r o u r s i r t I 5 5 " C . i s
Acrylic libres have a bigh clastic recovcry fronr snrall extcnsions, typically about 96 pcr cent of thc original tcnacity.
406 40'I
 I I A N D B O O K O l ' l - C Xf l t , E F l l ] l t r r s i R : S Y N T l l Er u C F l t t l 1 . I s
After l5 nlinutes at l30oC., acrylic fibre nray becotnecream- t h e ,f i b r e .s t r c r r g t hb c i r r gl p p r c c i r b l y u l t a l ' l c c t c db y c o r r c c l t t n r t c t l
colouretl. As heating bcconrcs more sevcre, the fibre bccomcs crrDoxyltc..acids,phenols, rlcolrols, kctorrcs, hydrocarborrs,
progrcssivelyrnore discolourcd.At 150"C. it is noticcably yellow c l rl o r i l l a t e dh y d r o c a r b o r rosr ( l c t c r g e n t s .
ftcr I hour. At 250"C. the libre darkens through ycllow and Sornc. Jess conrnron organic substal)ccssuclr lts tlirrrctlryl
.
brown to black within 5 minutes and bccomes insoluble in the r o f l n a m l o c , d - b u t y r o l a c t o n c ,d i n r c t h y l s u l p h o x i dicr d c l h y l c r r c
rrsualsolvcnts, c rbooatc are solvcnls for acrylic fibrcs.
Whcn acrylic fibres are hcated, thc mocltrlusfalls and thcy arc
'Ihis _Most salts are without cflcct, but vcry conccotratcd solltions
casily strctched. strctching, iI carricd out carcfully, is a o f s o d i u n r a r d c a l c i u n r t h i o c y l n i r t c ,z i i r c c h l o r . i d c. , , . t . . i r i , i n
revcrsibleproccsscausedby increasedoricntation of the polynrcr o(ber salts act as solvcnts.
nrolcculcs,without nny apprcciableplastic flow taking place. lI
the stretchcd fibrc is cooled before tension is rcleascd,the fibre Eltect of Organic Solvenls
rcrnains in its stretchedform. If the stretched and cooled libre Acrylic fibres gencrally havc a goorl rcsisllncc lo comnlon
is lrcated again, however, it will rclax and returl to its original organic solvents,including those lornrally uscd .in tlry clcaning.
lcngth.
Iosccts
This ability of acrylic Iiblcs to assumca tnctastablcstate ttttcr
bcirrg strctched at high tcnlpcrature is used iu tlle prodtrction oI Acrylic fibres are not attflckcd by moth llrrvac or othcr itrscctti.
high shrinkage libres.
Micro-orglnisms
Flonnnbility Acrylic fibres arc not alttcked by nricro-orgunisnrs. Flrbric buricrl
Acrylic fibrcs will burn, but thcy arc uot dangerouslyflantnrablc I n . s o r r .c o n l a t n r n g v a r i e l y o f n r i c r o _ o r g : r n i s r r cr st l i n c d
ils
li brcs. o n g r n a l b u r s t i n gs t r c n g t hi l f t c r 6 r n o t r t h sC
. olton, un(lcrsinril r
conditio.ns,had undergonc a complctc loss of sircngth aflcr 2
Eftccaof Sunlighi weeks' incubation.
Acrylic libres have cxcellent resistanccto thc ellccts of sunlight. Elcclric{l Propcrtics
Aftcr 600 hours cxposure, lhs tcnacity of a fibre is typically 'fhe
clcctrical resistancco[ acrylic fibrcs is o[ thc santc ordcr lrs
96 pcr ccnt of the original tenacity.
that of other man-madc fibres.'fhe follorvirrgtablc, for cxrnrple,
ChcmicalProperlics shows lhe electrical rcsistanceo[ ,Courtcllc' in colrp;,rison ruirti
some other fibrcs. Thc mctsurcntcnts wcre lakcn on scourctl
Acicls '/'
sanrples,altcr conditioning at 50 per ccnt.r.h. and 20.C. For cach
Acrylic libres arc unaflectcdby dilute solrttionsof strong mincral measurement1.5 grams of thc sanrplc wcrc placc<lbctwccn two
acids, but they tcnd to bc attacked on prolonged itnmersion in circular electrodes,and thc.rcsistancc nrcasurcd oll thc l).1).L.
conccntrated solutions. Ivlcgohntcterat a tcst pressurcoI 500 volts rvhilc thc sarrrplcrvlrs
rundera load o[ 30 g./sq.cm.
Alkrlis
R c s i $ t u t c c( x l 0 ' 1 o l t r n s )
Ditutc solutions of caustic socla and all solutioris of sodiunr Acctate -5.0
carbona(c and bic:rtbontlc havc no cflcct on lltc trtcclrtnicitl Cotton 0.006
propcrtics o[ acrylic fibrcs. Stroug alkrlis attirck the [ibrc. 'Courtclle'
5.0
Nylon 6.6 3.0
PET Polycster 5.0
Acrylic 0brcs are rcsistant to nlost colnnton orgattic substances, I{ayon sraple (,Fibro') 0.014
408 409

--l -l r r'-l r ' l . F 't - -]| a l r l _F r-I r t-F Hi

 I I A N D B O O KO I : I E X I I L D I I I I ] I I E S A ; S Y N T F IE T I C F I D R E S

r\llcrgcuic I'rottct(ics bcnrling sti{Incssof a 0atlcncd cross-scctionwith n lhrcc-to-onc

long pcriods hrve ratio of principal axes is approxinurtcly onc-thir(l th t of ir
Acrylic libres applicd {o tlrc hurrr l skin for 'fhe
librcs have no
round fibre of cquill oricnlittion. Many clry-sPurrliblcs lrirvc
shorvn no dcrnratological o[ other ill cllccts.
rbout r tltrce-to-oneratio oI principal axcs.
known toxicological cffcc(s.
IJending stiffncss is also dircctly rclrtcd to nrotlultrs,anrl it
follows, thercfore, that oricntation (which strongly nllccts
Ilcfrlctive lndcx
nrodulus).will havc a significant clTcct on bcnding stillncss.
1.52('Courtellc'). Changcs in oricntation may thus tend to nlilsk or rcitrforcc thc
cllects of cross-scctionon bcnding sti{Incss,dcpcn<lingotr lhc
r'.CITYLICFIBI{ESIN USE way the two factorc arc combincd.
1'hc high bcnding stilTncsso[ thc round or bcan-shrncdcross_
Gcncrrl Charactcristics scction acrylic fibrcs is particularly advantagcousin carlrct fibrcs,
contributing to rcsilienccor spring-brck. A fll(tcnctl or'tJog-bonc
Cross-Sccliotr cross-section,on thc other hand, is conrltrciveto ft so[tncss of
Acrytic fibres lre ntatle in a valicty of cross-sectionalshapes,and touch in fabrics nradc lrom this typc of fibrc. Thc dog_bonctypc
this has an inrportant cllcct on tltc naturc of the fabrics produced of acrylic libre also has a dislinctivc cffcct otr thc rcncctio,i,rf
from thenr. Wcl spinniug, in gcncral, yields fibrcs of round l i g h t , r n d t h i s i s o l t c n n o t i c c a b l ca s a s l r c c r ro r l l s l r c i n c c r t l i n
or bean-shapetlcross'section.Dry spun fibres are generally of fabric construclions.
tlog-boneor flat cross-section.

is lessthan that
Thc bcnclingstillncssof a fllttcDed cross-section
of a rourrclcross-scction {ibrc o[ equal cross-scctionalareir; thc
lvleclnricul PK)pe ics
T l r c . s t r c s s - s t r aricnl l t i o n s h i p so f d i t l c r c n ta c r y l i cf i b r c sv i t r v
CHARACTERISTIC S T I F F N E S S R E L A T I V ET O ovcr
C R O s S .S E C T I O N A L I D E AL I ZE O NATIO R O U N D F T B R EF O R a wr(tc_range(scc pflgc 405), cach fibrc bcirrg tlrc pr"o(lltct
B E N D I N GA L O N C A B A X I S
of its
SHAPE STIAPE AB/co p u r t i c u l a rc h c n r i c ; ral n d p l t y s i c a ls l r u c t u r c s .
Thc dcgrec oI orientation r.csullingfronr rlrawing is :r ntosl
irnporlant faclor in dctcrrnirring thc- nrcchrnicrl
c 1riof",:ii."'oi

a) ,.\
A (-l-) s
v
1 ulc lore. uls tnay bc sccn froll llrc cliagrarrron pagc
showing the stress-straincharactcristicso[ a spcctrunr;ii*yli;
fibre typcs. Continuous fiLrn)cnt,as excntplificd try ,Ci"ri"ni
405,

o .Orlon' :,
ROUNI] is usuallynrorehighlyoricnrc<1. zb, o,, tt,i "rli;;'ti",,;:
c has a vcry Iow degrceoI oricntation.
Ali possiblcunri,iiio,i,
,.\ betwcen,and cvenbeyond,lhcselirrritsarc possiblc.
C' A {-.I-J-B
v
D
12 0.82
In gcncral,thc tcnaciticsof acrylicfibrcjnr:ry bc rcgurdccl :rs
BEAN lying in a rangc bctrvccnllrirt o[ standar(lr"ivun .,i.1 i,uin,,.
Acrylicsarc strongcnorrghfor all lhc uoru,"l "pp"r"l "p1il;c,r-
c tions bu(.are not usuallyconsi<lcrcrl for high_sticngrh airplicu-
20 0.5?
L:f-jJ u 3.O O.54 t i o n ss u c h r s t h o s ci n w h i c h n y l o n a n d p o i y c s r ciri .b r " r ' r " r u " .
OOG IJONL D Allied with good tcnacityarrdcxtcrrsionis an cxccllcntcl;rstic
(- ross.acclionxl shnt-'c, Lilcct o n llcrrilir)g Siiillrcss-Cltct,tttrattl Ltd.
tccoveryanclhigh initial motlulLrs.'lhcnrcclrntrical l)rol)crtics ils
410 4u
 II NDI]OOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES B : S Y N ' r I IE TI C F I I T R E S
a whole, thercfore, arc sucl'ras to nltke for the production of 50 pcr ccnr or rnorcrcrytic litrrc rrlry trc
fabrics oI good dinrensional slability. Most inrportant of all, }l:"']it.?l!)illj"r
q r r r a D l yp t c a l e d .
perhaps,is thc fact that these nlcchanical propcrtiesare rctaincd Acrylic goods arc modcrltcly flanrnrablc.
irr conditions which rvould tend to bring about deterioratio[ in
nrany other Iibres. Acrylics are not significantly afccted, for High Bulk Fibrcs
exarrple, by cxposure to sunligllt, moisture, nricro-organisrns, Thc. Iong polymcr molcculcs in a polyrcrylonitrilc
chcmicals or solvcnts. .l:,,19::Shthcy.areconrposcrl -*"if-
fibrc bchnvc
The rncchanicalpropcrtiesof acrylic fibres combinc to providc
ot I nrixtuicof r""*onuifv
orocrco crystallrncarcas and lcss rvcll-orttclcd
the attractive handle which is so irnportant a charactcristicof or lrntoinhoLrs
arcas.Evcn fibrcsspun fronr ptrrc acrylonitrilc.to
fabrics coustructedfrom thcse llb|cs, ,,oi ,t,o* iio
samedcgrecol order.flsis possiblcin [ylon antl polycstcr
lll)rcs.
r ' u r t h c r m o r cn,c r y l i cf i b r c sd o n o t d c v c l o pn i u c i
additiorrrl
Spccific G ravity crystallinityon orientationor hcat-sctring. i-trcy Aitfcr iir rtiis
Acrylic fibrcs have a low specific gravity, slightly higher than rcspcctfrom polyamideand polycslcrlilics, arri
u"ryii"'iirii.""
that of rrylon. Thcy providc lightweight fabrics which bulk well. lrc ln cot'tscquence moredilliculIlo heat_sct.

L4oislta'c r{t1 tlotsrun€

I|tt
The rvalcr absorbcncyof acrylic fiblcs is geucrally low, but it is 5PrRi!cniMpREtIxts
ll/D IllE fl0RE Lrv{
highcr than that o[ polycstcr librcs. Aclylics do not,:rs a rulc, srnitc I lS 0uT 6
prescnt the dimcultics causedby accunrulatiorrof static clectrjcil.y 0
to thc c-\tentthat polyestcrlibrcs do. Also, thc snrall watcr absorp-
tion contributcs significantly to thc dycability of acrylic fibres.
Watcr brings about only a ncgligible amount of swelling oI
acrylic fibres, and it has little ellect on nrechanicalproperties.
-fhis
contributcs greatly to the climensional stability, wrinkle
rcsistanccand easc-of-carcchalactcristicso[ fabrics n1adefronr
acrylic fibres.
Despite the low moisture absorption,acrylic fipresare conr-
'l-his
fortablc whcn worn next to thc skin. is due,Vcrylargelyto ls lllllurAclUnto,'oRLoN'
thc reat.liucssrvith rvhich thcse fibrcs will rctnovc watcr by srcoHPoNEltI hrrTflDnYlllcrutI cRtftPtNc
ftEnElls A 0tvfl.ots. tT ts lt s cnfiP-
wicking. HOD€RAT€ AI.IOUIIT
OTR NOOH n{Gltin0u6fiDnYtNc
SPIRAL CNIMP TI|AI
ls l(l{0tt As RtvERSt0Lt
7'hcrnral Propertics
'Otlur'
Acrylic fibrcs tcnd to be heaLscnsitivc, ancl heat-sctting is I)iconp<tn<,ntItilrt?. 1.1\c crinrp iD this fibr.c is
nrr irrhcrcrrt
n€ccssaryto achievegood stability. I'Ieatcd Lo higlr tenlpcratures,
the fibres deconrposc rathcr than nrclt, but the tenrperature ill'jg!'i lul*:jl,llnlliir;lil:
i"fili|iiJ;i:il"lli.Ji'::il';iliil
at which this takcs place is suflicicntly high to causc no practic l
difficultics in Dornral tcxtile applications.
*",tl'il*l:1,,:i:lll,x,ji:lji;il
l1l+*i1jirdl"iiii,,l,
In conrmoD with other thermoplastic libres, acrylics may bc ";."T.'
,*i,i."' ii.:'ili:'Jll,:,illl
heat-set.Fabrics made fionr 100 Der cent acrvlic fibrc or fronr lll?lHll ;il:,il,1"'"ll"l:l,,lili_'ilf
".,lll:l
4t2 4t3 I
I
' [ - [ ' [ ir
-t
\
r-r
t
I
r-I
['11ft1lt1F.t Fi l"i t l''i l"i Fi l''l F.l"i Fl"t l''l l''l_11FJ
'TEXTI
}IANDBOOK OF
lVhcn antorlthous polynrcrs arc slretcllcd, thcy ttndergo sonlc
n r o l c c r r l aor r i c r r l i l l i o n \. \ ' i l h i r r c r c l r s i t tsgt r c l c l l i l l l d l c t l l P c r i l l t l r c ,
llrc rnolcculcsbegin to slidc past ooe anotlter, and plastic florv
lirLcs plrrce. If orictrtltion is allowecl to occur wilhout pl|lstic
florv, ancl lhe stlctchcd fibtcs arc coolcd, thcy will rcrnain.in thcir
slrctchcd fornl tllllil such linle as they are agaitt hcatcd to thc
point at which thc nrolcculcsare lrec to move The ftbrcs rvill
{trcn retract lo thcir unstretchcdform.
Acrylic fibrcs bchavejn this tnanner when hcatc(land slretchcd'
buL thcy also hrve a proPortion oI well-ordcrcd crystirllinc
lcgions.'fhcse act as anchor poin(s for tlre molecules,prcventing
plustic florv fronr taking placc and cnstlling that the molcculcs
icturn to thcir original positions rvhen the stretchcd fibrc is
hcu(cd antl allowed lo relax.
1'his shrinkagernenroryof acrylic fibrcs rnay bc lost, o[ course,
iI cxccssivcplaslic flow trkcs pl;tccby pcl'sistcn!strctchingnt high
l c n r p c r r t u r c i ,o r b y a n n c a l i n gt h c l i b r c r r t c o n s t n t l c n g t h . ' l ' h c s c
tccliniqLrcsare, in fact, usetl by libre prodttccrsto l.Dirke(ibrcs of
highertuodulus.
Prcciselycontrollcd, shrinkablefibrcs are macleby most acrylic
,ibre mirtrulacturcrsfor usc cspccillly in swcatersand knit goods'
l-hc:c fibrcs havc built-in shrinkages of 20-23 per cctrt for
optinrunr bulking e{fccts,and arc rcferred to as rcgular slrriulilge,
h i g h - b u l ko r h i b u l k a c r y l i c l i b r c s .
1-hcsehigh-bulh acrylic fibres are used for crcrting lightwciShl
yirrns ancl fabrics rvhich are bulky irnd warm. High-bttlk yarns
lrc nradc, for cxamplc, by spinrling togcther slrclchcd xn(l
rcgular fibrcs. Attcr tlre yarn has bccn spun, it is thcrlcd urdcr
.oi<'lition. rvhich bring about rclaxatiotr of thc sllplchcd fibrc.
-l'his
shrinks to ils prc-stretchcdlength, forming a
yrrn. The unsifetchedfibrcs buckle and crinrp, and arc fotccd to
thc outside of the yarn as lhe stretchcdfibtcs shrink.
Fabrics nradc flonr high-btrlk acrylic yarn are lofly anrl wartrr.
ancl yct posscss lhc sttbility to wcar and washing thitt
chrracleristicof acrylic fibres gcncrally.
Acrylic fibrcs of even higher controllable shrinkagesare also
froducccl. Fibres of 30 to 45 pcr cent shlinliagc, for exatnplc,arc
tuscdin pilc fabrics,wherc they are conrbinedwith non-shrinking'
'gurrd hair' acrylic fibrcs. The shrinkrge ltbrcs
hcavy-ricuicr
b c c o | l l c l h c d c n s c ,s o f t i n n c r l t y c r o I s i n r u l a t c cflu r , w h i l c t h c
gu:rrd hrir fibrc gtrovidcsthc solt acslhcticsattrl :tppcarrncc of
414
Il: 5YNl||ti1 tc t:ltrttDs
LE FIBIIES
n a t u r aflu r -
l l e a v y d c n i e ra c r y l i cf i b r c sc a p l b l co f s l r r i n k i n gI 5
l ) c rc c l t
a r e u s c d f o r s p c c i a sl t y l i r r ge f f c c t si r r c a r p c t so, r l b r r c l r i c v i r r r
espccially.(len p si l c f o r h c l v y r v c r rl p p l i c a t i o r r M s . c t l i u l rs l r r i r r I
t l t ) r c so l t l r i st y p c r r c a l s ou s c rrl v l t c r cl c s ss l r r i r r k i rrrrgt l t l t c r c l i r r c
l e s s - b u l k i r irsgd e s i r a b licn b o t h k n i t t c ( la n d , v o v e iar p p l i c i t i o r x
Processirrg techli(lucslrirvebccndcvclopctlfor r:n'kin,.: rrsc,rI
t l r c h i g h - s h r i n k r gcch a r a c t c r i s t iocls: r c r y l i c I i l r r c s,,l . h c 7 t o Z
p r o c e sds e v c l o p c b c ly t h e L i n c nI n c l u s t r i cl lsc s c a r c h Associrtion
i n N o r t h c r nI r e l a l d i s b a s e do n s t r c t c l r i l ga c r y l i ct o w o r o l l l c r
syntheticsto.approxirnately 20 pcr cent andthcn l'ectli|gtlrc torv
t h r o u g hi r c l a x i n gz o n ew i t h c o l s t a n tt l k c - o l f a r r dv i i r v i n ut h c
speedof the input.'l'he torv is tlren cut to strplc antl piocissc,l
i n t l l e c o D v e n t i o n ravl o r s t e r ln a n n c rc, n a l t l i n ra r v l r o l cr l r r r co I
I i b r es h r i n k a g ef iso r r r0 t o 2 0 t o . b cp r o t h r c c r l l lrIc r ; u i r c thl ,i g h c r
s h r i r r k l g cnsr a yb c a c h i c v cbdy t l r i sp r c c c s s .
. A c r y l i ck n i t t i l s y i r f l s p l o c c s s cbt ly l h cA I o Z ( c c l l n l u t rl lcx v c
l ) c e n. u s c ds u c c e s s f u lillyt t h c [ i e l t lo f c h i l d r c r r 'ssc l r o o l i v c rA rr.
l l l g l l .l ) u l k - t o . w c i g lrlat .t i o l a k c sl l t i s y s r n v c r y c c o r X r r r r i cl iur lr
n t l l ( l - K n l t U I | ga.n ( l l e g a f l| l e t s a r e r | l a c l r ic - w l r s l t a h l c .
Another proccss which rnakcs usc oI thc high_shr.inkugc
pcrbul proccss dcvclopcd iy
:lpabllitl. of aclylic fibrcs is lhc
N l i t s t r b i s h iR a y o n a n c l D a i d o W o r s t c d M i l l s o t J a p u r i . . f h i s
p r o c c s s d c v c l o p s t r l l c r r t l r t i n gs c g r n c n t sw i t l l s h r i D k , n o - s h r i r r k
propcrtics within individual fibrcs; it is dcsigncd for thc wooltcrr
rcore'iu thc systenl.
ItLvit oturre tal Conlitiort-s
Acrylic fibres have outstanding rcsistarrccto sunlight, nticro_
js
organisms, insects and agci[g, and havc cxccllcrrt outdoor
wcathering rcsistance.
Chenia ,llcsistttnce
A c r y l i c f i b r c s h l v c a g o o d r c s i s t a n c ct o a l l t l r c c h c r r r i c r r l isl c l v
t o b c c n c o u t ) l c r c di n r r o r r r n l t c x l i l c u s c , i r r c l u d i r r gb l c a c h c i .
dilutc acids and alkalis,dry-clcaniugsolvcnts,ctc.
4t5
 lt r.rD
sooK ol: r8x1ILll l:lllllLs
Iilcct ricol P ro perties
'l'hc
lorv nroisturc absorption lcnds 1o cocourageaccunrulirtiono[
sla(ic electricity,but this nray bc ovcrconrcby the use of suitable
antistatic firrishes.
Hclical Critnp
Fibrcs with a hclical crinrp develop morc bulk than fibres rvith
a planar, zigzag crinrp. Also thc hclically-shape<l librc has rnorc
rcsiliencc lhln a sirnilar Iibrc o[ z-igzaglorm. Such fibres resisl.
matting and inter-fibre slippage belter than fibres with planar
crimp.
Crirnped nalural fibres, like wool, teud to have a helical crimp,
rvhcrcasrnan-nradefibres comrnonly have a planal, zigzagcrinrp
rcsulting from a gear or stulling-box proccss opcrated with the
hclp of hcat and prcssure.
lvlcchanically-inducedcrimp tends to be pullcd out ra(hcr
readily from acrylic fibres during norrnal textilc proccssiug.'flris
can be prevented to some cxlenl by lreat settiDg.
l{elical crinrp lnay bc introduccd into aclylic libres by
mechanicalmears, e.g. by a falsc tlvisting and sintultancoushcat
sctting operation like that uscd ior nylon and polyester fibres.
It nray also be introduced by spinning the fibre in bicomponent
Iortn.
In 1959,du Pont introduced their 'Orlou'Type 2l fibre, which
subsequeutlybccanrcknown as'Sayelle'.This fibre cornbinestwo
filatrtcntsin a single strand, lhc filarnentsbeirrg luscd lengthwisc
to form an acorn-shapedcross-scction.A dillcrence in shrinkagc
charactcrislicsproduccs a permanent and revcrsible crimp, pro-
viding a fibrc with exccllcnt covcr and compfessionalrcsilicncc,
inrprovcd bulk and lo[], good wrinklc rcsislautc und case-of-carc
properlies.Helically crirnped fibres rverealso devclopediu whiclr
tlre hclical crimp was unaffected by moisturo
This typc of bicomponcnt acrylic staplc has proved particularly
uscful as a liberlill for pillorvs, quilting and the like. Thc librcs
lend to rcsist Inatting by rcruainiug inlcrlocked, even through
w a s h i n ga n d d r y i n g .
IJclically crinrpcd acrylic continuous fil:rmcnt yarns wcrc sub-
sequentlyinlroduced lor srvcltcrsand knit goods,thc crinrp being
fully dcvelopcd after boiling ofT. Coods made from thcse yarns
hrve a crisp, wool-like haudlc and cxccllcnt clasLicity and
d i n r c n s i o n asl t a b i l i t y .
416
*'l r l
o : S I , N T E - l t c r :I t ! R I s
Co inuotts I;ilaucnt ),anrs
'l'hc
orig-inal uscs [or acrylic fibrcs rvcrc prinrrrrily in irrdustliul
and outdoor applicalions.'fhis rv:rslargcly bccuLrscof
lhc porxl
solvcot and chcnricalrcsistanccancl thc outclooragcing p,.rp"ifi.r.
lt_soon bccalne apprrcnt thrt voltrnrc woulcl UJf l,,,i",l
iu if,"
rclatively high-priccd conlinuous filamcnt fi brc. f:"rfy i""tiui,r,i",
for confcrring dycability an<llcvcl dycing in "onri,u,'u,i,
rii,,i,i.,"i
wcrc not sullicicntly succcssful to bc ccottotuically rrttr
clivc,
however, and most of thc devclopnrcnto[ acrylic titr", c"nir.,i
tupon staplc fibre.
. Despitctllis concentration on staplcfibrc,I l.crvfirrrrspcrscvcrcrl
w i t h c o n t i r ) u o u sI i l a r r r c nat c r y l i cf i b r e . a l x bl c g u r rp r u , fu i i u g -y . , i , .
F a b r i c sr r r a t l cf r o n r c o l r t i n u o r risl a n-iu,,i
rcnt
rtcrylic fibrcs havc a dry, silkJikc lr:rrrd,
n,,,f ,,r" .,,,uoiii
r u s l r o u s t n i r l p c i r t a n c cF l c c c c a n d l c x t r t r c d
k n i l f r r b r i c sl r l c
|lirl.urallydry and soft to thc (ouch.
Producer Colourccl Fibrc
'[ho.
dispcrsion of pigntcnts in the spinning solution providcs
producercolourcd or spLrn-dycdyarns, Altcru:tlivcly, it is
ltossiblc
to uso slrbstantivcdycs to colour tlrc librc rvhilc it is in thc
swollcn statc aftcr coagulation arrclsolvcrrtrcrnovlrl.
Pignents or dycs arc sclcclcdwilh cxccllcnt laslrrcsspropcrlics
rnd this type of fibrc is idcal for ouldoor uscs,srrchas tirrpirulins,
awDiogsand tents.
A_number of produccr colourcd acrylic fibrcs llrvc rppcarcd
on thc market in rccent years.
Ir[oclifictl Surlaces
'['ho
surfacecharactcristics
of acrylic [ibrcs nray trc changctlto
4 t'l
' t ' t ' t
t.n..-- - - - - - - - -. - - -. - |
lIANDBOOK OF 1f,.X' rILEl:lslrIIS t r : S Y N T HD T r C I I I AR E S
allccl important propertiessuch as surfacefriction, antistatic
Lrchaviour and wcltability.
liibres rvhichcornbinedog-bonecross-scctiorr, low crinp and P l c t t c d g a r n t c n t ss h o r r l cbl c w a s l r c db y
. l r a r r cal n r l g i v c r ra w a r r t r
lorversurfacefrictionprovidea smoothhandandlustrousappear- rinse fotlowcd by a hand_hor(48"C.,
I ld"tr.)';ir;;;;;;;;-j;::i:
anccto fabrics.Fibresof flat cross-sectiott tntl lorver{han-nornaI Acrylic swc tcrs arrcl "i;:i.j,,^t^"]s.l lithLlv ruclcd
r"rourv*,rsr.,J'i,;l'':,;;. 8^rnc.rs .r'c prc-
o r i c n t r t i o nr e s u l ti n a f a i r l ys o l t h a n c ly, c l s u c l lf i b r e sa r cs u l ' [ i c i - tt
cntly rcsilientand stiff to form loops for fablic surfaceeffecl. rvhicrr
arclabeled asruir"rrr"ro.'liln"iJo,li,,""il:"u s.rnrct)ts
Acrylic fibres with a durable antistaticsurfaceltave bcen
clcvelopetl cspeciallyfor blankcts.Thesefibresdo not build up
staliccharges asreadilyasunmodifiedacrylicfibres,anclclissipate
staticelectricityquickly.The antistaticpropertyis permanent, at Dryirrg
Ierstthroughten wrshingsin a homelaundry. A c r y l i c l i b r c sa b s o r bv c r v l i t t l c ,
Silicone-trea t ed acrylicfibresare proclucedfor the U.S.Navy.
Thesefibresare madeinto jacketswhich are water-repellent and :::lil*i -'i' ; :J;'i';;l;':il';:'l$ lilr':::;.il,:'
i::'li
l1;,
llave excellentlife-saving flotation properties.The jacketshave
high thenlal insulationvaluc ancloffcr protectionalso against ilii"iiiliJ'il;il.:IJ,iii,[x!:,';:txt;'::*r
IliIJ *".:*:l
v c r y c t u i c k l ya,l t h o u g hs l i g htty r r o r c ' i i o l i -,;;";,;;. "
ng,,r,;y-ir;
shotgun o rnt t cl v c t b
b l a s t sf ,r a g n r e n t a t i a t ullcts.
"#;; "Jli,';:i:"1'il'.1il
n c r y l i cg i t l ) c n t sr c q u i r cl l t c r n
,,'.r"r
i il ;;;;;;,,;'
l;
cxcecded,
l; llili):'j'
andrharrhcnrachinc
;ili ;
ganDcnts.
is ""r p"lt"j il,j'li*i,irr",,jilii
The
, .nrajority of woven and {irnrly knittccl glrrncrrts ntav
'iiirrrli
trc
A4odilied Ileavy I)atier tor Carpels
d_rip-dricd,
burtrcavy t " .riifJl"i :ii"l,iirr"r
krritsshould
ls not lecontmcndcdunlcssthc tcnrpcraturc
Special types of heavy denier acrylic libre are produced for ",,n bc "ontroli",i
"" """''
lo keepbelow60.C. (I40"F.)followcrtby colct
use in carpets. rurnblirrf.

Ironing
\ K n i l t c d g a r n l c n t sa r c u s r r a l l yr c a d y t o w c i t r i l s s o o D
I i r st l r c vh a v c
lYashing oflco. Sonlc garmcnts and wovcn goods nrly rcqtrirc
a nririinrrrnr
of ironing,whichshout<l
be carricdout wirira J"of iro" irili--C
l i n i l t c t l a n d l i g h t w c i g h lg. a r n l c t r t so f I 0 0 p e r c c u t a c l y l i c f i b r e
Setlingl) on thc rcverscsicteot the fubricwtr"ii iir;'g;;;i
should bc washcdi[ warm watcr (40'C., 104"F.) using a detergcnt
is dry.
or soapflirkcs,whilc morc tobust glrorctrts such ls slritts lnay bc
rvashedin hand-hot water (48'C., ll8"F.). Thorough rinsing in
lukewarm watcr, followed by cold watcr, is reconrmendedto
prcscrvc the soltncssfor which acrylic ftbrc fabrics arc outstand-
ing. The usc o[ a proprietary softcr]ing agcnt in the linal rinsc Dry Clcnoiug
rvill also hclp lo rctain softncssancl colour.
H*[:*i H:'flt"fi:"l
BJ ':iJ:l::,'iliil,J,iT;l,i:',fl1i
418
fi
419
 T I AN D A O O K O F T E X T I L E FIBRES B: S Y N T I I E ' I ' IC F I I } I I I ] S

trrustrot cxcecd60'C., (140'F.).Atry

The tumblinglcn'rpcraturc founrl rc:rclyacccptancc
tor blcndingrvitlr bnsicdyc:rblcfibrcs
givenshouldbe lighl to avoid glazing.
pressirgtreatnrent lo producecr.oss-dycablc
fabrics.

End Uscs
ChcapRaw Material
'l'here Kni cd Outenyear
were a number o[ reasonsfor the rapid incrcasein thc
procluctionof polyacrylonitrilefibrcs. Acrylonitrilc,thc basic As thc dyeing
' 1>roblcnrs wcrc
";;;. rttttl
raw maLerial,rvas availablein plentiful supply attd at a vcry graduaI y, porjal;yr;;i,;ir. -t"."-':otnc., .lriccs tctlttcctl
low pricecomparcdwith raw materialsfor othersynthcticfibrcs.
Also,theproductionof polyacrylonitrile fibresis rclativelysintple, lt*il,i:,*itrffr*ilrur"r"".':.lidi'ilfiii"l'T
"r*l1;
and the patent position makes it possiblefor a producerto
manipulatethc basicprinciplcsand slill evolvea polyacrylonitrile rri',i"Tif jti{itixil.l:{1""11i"lillii{'illtilii
. hbrc with traditionalcharacteristics of this typo of fibre. *h","0,
*ooi-.i""i*.'
r,"i"ii dJl;:"uT::n:1i,,;illii,Ji''.]l[t:
Despitethe astonishing progressoI polyacrylouitrile fibres,and
their rcadyacceptance into a wide rangeof applications, theearly
yearswerebesctwith many troubles.Flighfibrc pricc and scrious
dyeingproblenrsheld up progressduring the early years.
At first, djspcrsedycstullswcrc virtu lly thc only classthat
'fhcsc
could be usedon polyacrylonitrilcfibrcs. dyesgavc s:rtis-
factory Iastness in palc shadcs,and they are still usedmainly
for this purpose.But they do not build up to mcdiumand deep ,lii:::,,.,,115tii!ft
l;y
iilit,,:'j:r,';,',..l:iitil?fift{i:ltff
shades,and lor the productionof heavy shades,acid dyesl"uffs
rvereapplied,using the 'cuprousion' technique.Tbis was not .;*
::l't'fr'','l".,ljl L
i;"ii:':TfilIlil'
x1## llllliil:i
'
r adoptcdwidely,horvever,owing to difncultiesin obtaininglevel
dyeingsand thc restrictedrange of acid dyestu{Ishaving good
dyeingproperliesby tl)ecuprousion tcchnique. [:lff;l;,1fiif ::i*i*#tnfi ji t!i.,
:,ii,1#l"i?,'"1;i",',f,
rvcre.supenor rcsistrrcr',
nrrtl
The brsic (cationic)dyestullswerefound to bs complcmentrry in clcar*biliry,"u'ji:1ff#luo,i,',i:lt
dyestuflsin that they would profide deepshades u r l g n l c r c, l e a n esr h r d c sc o u l db c o b l a i n c d
to tbe disperse
yarn yicld factorsof 95-9gpcr c w i t h . A c r i l l r r ra. ,r r d
of vcry good fastness to washing,and moderate /fastness to light.
Thcy were nol cltirely salisfactoryfor plle shadcs,howevcr,
bccauseof a very high initial rate of dyeing.The mein defccl
of the old type basicdycs on polyacrylonitrile fibreswas thcir lit**'*i'll-ir.l**;i[i[-$*i
nodcratefastncss to light.The ncwertypesof cationicdyeshavc
a very high fastnessto light and irnproveddyeingproperties.
Inrprovemcntin the dyestullsand dyeingtechniqucs
acconrpanied by the development of polyacrylonitrilc
nrodi[icd propcrtics.The incorporationof sntall amounts of
has been
fibreswith tlurl'ffi [['',i{*;nd*[ii;ll
fr
;i::{"'.'J::"1"-"io::'"i:,l'lH"ll,^u"lrlxllil.,'
secondcomponcntmononrcrshas providedacrylonitrilccopoly- p.rncticcs
with poly_acrylonirrilc
car.pct
sriplc,-.nrl "irri"i,"lfii",''
mers rvith incrcascdamnity for anionic dyestufs applied by "t. tonsslapteworsrc<t
spinning
is'r,sc.r
ir, y,i;;;;,,;;,,,',f*l
conventionaldyeing methods.These acid dyeablefibres have i#::.
420 421

-1 - --t
 nnnnnt nnt nr t t EF,l_
It AN DTIOOK OI: TtlX'IILE l'IBRES B: SYNT}IETIC FI BRBS

Funrishing Fabrics Cirarlar Sliver Knit Fabrics

Acrylic libres bave madc substantial progrcss in thc field of Acrylics have bccomc cstablishedin lhe Wildnratr circular
slivcr
Iurnishing fabrics, providing nralerials that combine luxuriotts l(nittiog tradc. Liner fabr.icsand ccrtain typcs of
oL,tcrwcrrfabiics
appearancc with lirst-rate practical perfornlancc. Curiains are sinrulating natural anirn:rl fur fabrics wcrc first prod;;"j"i;;;
mads in a wide variety of wcaves,ranging frotn sheerfabrics thrrt slock-dycd fibre and lalcr with solution-clyccl or.ri,"i-,fu",f n'fr-.
have cnough body to hang wcll as pcrfeci sulnnler curtains' to In this cnd_usc, the acrylics oficrcd arJvantrgcr'ifr^i'.""fi-,_i
heavy velvetsthrt provide richnessancl vrarmth allied with easy- oc mttcl)ed by othcr fibrcs, cnabling rnan u filctrlrcrs
lo rnflkc '-
clean properties that are a featurc of acrylic libres. reasona_b_ly. priced, high qurliry fabricifor rt," ,".,
,n.it "i.
These sanre characteristicsof acrylic fibres scrve them wcll "oo,t,?n to thc-.lincrand outcrwcilr fabrics procluccd
,,,],", usinr
in blankcts and bcdspreads,ttpholstcry fabrics, tnblcclotlrs and r v l t o n ] i l n c t r c U l a rs l l v c r k n i l t i n g n r l c h i c s , n o t h c r
i I | t c r cstinI
othcr furnishing and houschold applications. use jras devctopcd in thc mcdical ficld. -I.csts
conductcr.lii
hospitals wirh. acrylic Debicurc pacls madc frr^,-
;li;;;;,;ii
Apparel Fabrics rau. cs provcd U)at thcse corrld bc a rcnrc(ly
for bctlricldcn
patients sullering fronr becl sorcs. Moreovcr,
Following the success[ulintroductiorl of acrylic llbles inlo lhc f^f]r1". "iilri,1"""
do not support bactcria,ancl can be clcanctl cariLy,
knilrvear and carpct trades, thc acrylic n'la[ufacturersexplorcd ari.j'q"i.'tiv
aucl prrt back into scrvicc,
othcr tnarkcts lor this type of fib[c They had a fibre with ntany
propeltics sirnilar to thosc o[ wool, Lrtttwith charactcrislicswhich
Outdoor lrqbrics
made it pre[erablc to rvool in n]any instauces.Rcsistanceto
nricro-organismsand insects, dimensional stability lo washing, Acrylic fibres havc cxccllcnt rcsislanccto suntight,
iDscctslnd
exccllcnt resistanceto ouLdoorexposure,surlight resistancc'bulk nrrcro-organisms, and acrylic fabrics havc "t*"vi'fo,,n,t ,i i",,.tu
without wcight, gooci covering power and a steady ptice are o u u c LI n o u l d o o r t l p p l i c a t i o n sW
. i t h t h c a d v c n to f s o l r r t i o n - d y c t !
sone of thc attractive fcatures offcred by acrylic fibres which or spun -d-ycd. acrylics. ncw opportunlrrcswcrc crcalcd in ltris
ficl(1.
pronrpted manufacturersto usc the libre in blankets,blendswith / i w u r n g t a b n c s n ) o v e di n l o t h c a c r y l i cp a i n l c dc o t t o n
and vinvl-
viscosc for nen's and boys' slacks,blends with wool for ladies' corted cotlon arcas lnd ma<lcgood hca<twryagainsi
"ri"frfiri,l.f
cotton fabrics-
dressesand skirts, siuglejersey fabrics for rneu'saud boys'shirts,
ladies'blouscsand dresses,and blendswith wool for metr'sslacks Pillnrcnts with cxccllcnl fastnesspropcrtics
. arc available for
and suits. this..typcof. usc, caprblc of withstaridinb
lhousrnrls "i l,"i"r'"i
srnlighl wirhorrt rroliccrblc clrangc of ,lo.l". l],i.,
I ";,r;l"J i;i;,
Singlc lcrsey Fabrics labric slrcngth rctcntionof rcrylics a[tcr lrours
) 1 n " , . C 9 9 t ' t oI
sunr|gnt and weathcr cxposurc, has nradc
Singlc jersey fabric made from a blend of rcgular and high-bulk such as flags,- ski-jilckcts, hunting jirckcts, fr""t
ollrcr ouldo(,r uscs
staple spun on the cotton system to 2ls count was an imnrcdiatc swrolmtng pool covers natrrral oullcts for the
."".r. ",J
success.The piece-dyed fabric is machine washable and very fibrc
stable. Acrylic jersey sports slrirts are now establishediu a licld
Floc*ing
that was previously dorninated by cotton.
Thc processof flocking has bcconrcan importtDt
tcxlilc nltnu-
Tulred Pile Liners in rcccnr.ycars.
This trnsbccn<tucparrlyro
ll:,!l,l]q
Inc rnlrod ,pr?:...
u c t l o no f
In tuitcd pile lincrs, tho ttsc of acid dyeablc and basic dyeablc s y n t l ) c t i cf i b r c s g c n c r a l l y ,r n c l a l s b t o - t h c
acrylic fibres in combinations or blends has cnablcd pattcrned corrsiderablc-advarltagcs oftcrcd by thc rcrylics nna nvfonr-ou.i
'fhis U1cnil-lrlratIlbrcs. ncrylics c:rn bc shippctl in tow forrrr
liners to bc madc, has bccomc fln important outlct for whiclr is
acrylic fibrcs. r ( r c i r tl o r c u l l i | l g i r ) t o f l o c k . ' f h c a v a i l : r b i l i t y v i l r i o U s
of t y p c so I
422 4?3
 II NDAOOK OF TCXTILE FIBRES
A: S Y N T I IE T I C T I N N E S
acrylicin low counts,its luxurioushandandgoodrecoveryfront
crushingnrakeit adnrirable for apparclflockinguse.

ffiffi*t,ffifiqtr
Acrylic flocked[abricsarenow established in variousntarkets.
Pilc flocked furlike fabricsmay be matle from acrylic fibre,
f o r e x a n r p l ea, n d t h e n p r i n t c d ,b r u s h c da n d l i n i s h c t l .O t h e r
applicationsincludevelvetand corduroyapparelfabrics,sucde,
toy aninralfurs,souvcnirpcnnants,wall panels,paint rollcrsand
rccorclplayer turn-tables,
Flockedfloor coveringsare now beingproducedfronr acrylic
fibre, aud acccptance has becn good in many applications.
'fhc ,,t",'#1ltl;d;jl,T*;$f
,1',;;;"*'ffi itfi
nrotorcar industry,for exanrple,is usingflockedfloor coverings
in appreciab!c amounts, :ft'i,:jd:;xi{,'#:"*ki
Tulting
Fine gaugclufting has assumeda positionof someinrportancc
in thc tufting trade, espcciallyin tbc blanket scctiono[ lhc
industry.Tulted blauketsand linershavcaddedto existingavail-
able productsand exlenclcd consumcrchoiccin this field.
ffi-fi*rr.;ffi'nr
ffrfir**Nmfiffi
lly usingvariouscombinationsol'bright and dull fibre a witle
r a n g eo f a p p e a r a n c easn d t e x t u r c sm a y b e o b t a i n e da, n d b y
polishingand tigeringsuch fabric a variety of cloths has bcen
producedfor a rangeof markets.

Certaintypcs of acrylic fibrc n

Nott-wovcttFabrics
p pcrs.
are,cxpensiu",r,u r.:,.;'i
t ioi;#^ii"l.ll,il,llli",i."i,li;
pnp""
In the non-wovenfabricstrade,the ClrrthanrFibrc$pvcnproccss
for producingneedle-punchcd blanketswas the firAt sigoincant
;""'i:"-l:l"lll,i':;";,,$::'"" o" uic'r'to' *iii"i'r",' i"
tcchnicaldevelopment. in which acrylicsplaycdan importantrolc.
l'he l.ibrewovenprocessis r sophisticated improvementover
ordinary neeclle-puuching techniqucs.The usual needleloorrr
enrploysnecdlesoperatingreciprocallyin a vertical position tvp.c.r,rvc
XiT:il':il,1-1Ti""1,1,J',lllili'l"l'nc r,rougrrr
rcvoru-
normalto thc plrne of thewcb.Thc Fibrewoven
nccdlcsoperatingat an angulardisplacement
nracbineemploys
with respectto the
line of travelof the web.By suitabledcsignof ncedlepenetration
:, tu:;1:,uil..*sru;iil:lllt;;Ti,il
ancl wcb advancc,a nrechanicalintcrlockingof frbrcsin thc i:'J::Jli::1fl
i.";i$,f:ili',;lii r,'iiiili"Ll
f,t,'.iu'r.,i,ii'"
nr:rchinc<lircctiouis clfcctcd, rcsulling in improvcd fabric
propcrtics. ",;lJ';i;::"Jii
il,;i,l,'fi,'i;t?*:,,n:l*:::i
il,lil.:
Tl;;
.t2,1
425

- T - l . T . l
I
' t r l
:
t l
h h E f: h F,f': n E_n n R F-n [ IFL f':-l'':
i ' r l r ! r ' l

H NDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES

I
I B: SYNTI]DTIC FIBRES

other fibres are being used as the sheath fibres around the VEREL
"l,ttto*"ti" core. This typc of yarn is being used in cuffs' neck
bands and waist bands of sweaters, and in some iustances V E R E L f i b r e i s o l t h e p o l y a c r y l o n i t r itlycp c ; i r i s p r o t l u c c rblv
,ttio"gfr"ut [he sweater,providirrg cornfort, good shape r€tentio,n 'o'":,
Tenrtessee ErstnranConrpany, U.S.A.lt it riri',,'iioii, poly-,, i.',
and itnoroved elastic propertics. Bathing suits' socl(sand douDle o r u n ( l s c l o s ecdo r n p o s i t i oinn,r v h i c lar c r y l o n i t r i lics p r o b : r b ltyl r c
jersey iabrics are in which acrylic/ elastomcr corc- n)ajorconlponcnt,beirrgpresentto theextcntol'sorni60 pcricnt.
.applications
spun yarns are gaining popularity. By F.T.C.definition,VEREL is a modacrylicfibrc.
In the wcaving industry, core-spun yarns are.assumlng-.an
incr"asing impoitance, with stretch woven {abrics linding TYPESOF FII}ITE
inrmccliaic tttoik"ts in ladies' slacks, mcn's tlousers and suits'
yarns are
shirtings.andupholstery fabrics. Elastomericcore-spun VEREL libfe is manufactured olly in staplc form. A rangc oI
being irocluced on cotton, woollen and worsted spin!ling systenrs'
staple lcngths is available to suit all plocessiugsystcnrs,in tbc
p.oui,ting another outlet for acrylic fibres in thc years ahead' following deniers : 3, 5, 8, 12, 16,2.4 aln<!40. Tha fibic is procluccd
in bright or dull lustre, and various crinrp lcvels and diffcrcnt
(2) MODACRYLIC FIBRES degrecsof crimp permanenccars availablc.
VllllEL tibre is protluccrl in trvo l:asic cross-scctions, pcanul
This catcgory of polyacrylonitrilc fibrcs includcs modacrylic a r t r lr i b b o n .
per cent-by
l.ibrcsspun fiom polymers consislingof lcss than 85
weicht o[ rcrvlonitrile units (-{l{1- cH(cNF). btrt excludrng
in which acrylonitrile is not the malol
tlroic copolymers
comPonelrt.
jllglg
IYPII
rangc PITODUCTION
Thc nbres in this category are sptttr from an extensi'r'c
in which the nature and propor-
oI coDolvnrcrsof ncrylonilrile, Mononter SyEthcsis
vary
rion of ihc sc:ond (rnd possibly othcr) componcnts Inay
bc
within wide linrits. The types of modacrylic fibre that- can Acrylonitrile. Sec page 399.
are caprblc wide varia-
oioJu."o wit}lin this broad cateSory \of
iion.-in prop"tti"t, clepcn<ling on their compositio\ and method I'olymcrizalion
of
--Aslrlanu[acttlre. No iuformation available.
in the caseof acrylic fibres,detailsof the chemicalstructure
lllc
of individual motlacrylic fibres are not always avallable' Spirrning
chosen
.""on,l "on',pon"nt of ihe polyrncr is, however,commonly -fhe
polynrcr is dissolvcd in solvcnt (probably acctonc) nnd thc
-ii" vinyl ihloridc, vinylidcnc chloride or vinylidcne drcyanr(lc'
'frorn spinningsolutionis pumpcdthrougha spinncrct..fhcIinc jcts of
iniorrnoiion whicir follows is based on data for vEREL* solution_emergeprobablydntoa coagulaliolbath (wct spirining),
fib;;, ;;l;it may be rcgarded as a rcpresentativelibrc of this in which thc solventis removcdto lcavcsolid lilanrcnt-s. .l.hc-sc
tvDe. are gathcrcdinto a bundleor tow which is proccsscd to slnbili?.c
it. Lubricatingoils are addcdto aid i|l thc subscqucnt
spinningof
* l{egistcredtrxdc |rlark of EastmanKodak Conlpa[y, Itochestcr,
yarns,and a crimp is addcd.
N.Y., U.S.A.
426
 I I A N D I } O OK O F ' T E X T I L E FII}RES a : s Y N T I I [ . 1 . ]c F l t t . I i s
The tow n]ovcsto x cutting machincwhere thc continuous or tinrc'rhc uscor rlresc
<lvcs
shourd
strandsarc cut into staplenbrc. :'ifi,iT 1""':":i,i::1'
Pl{ocEsslNc - iriji* :tfts:ffif JT,:x:| ",,,",
i,",#;::ll,Jli,,l,Jul
Scourirtg *;i:!!!"t#J":,:,i'
fi ifih",.f
riiJl';iili,i*i,i:,:"i,';
Scouringof fabricsof VEREL iibre follows the generalpattern fJ:ll'":ilii:'f,ji,lfi
lli:",liiil1; ;''ii',lJi,,l
I |.i#"","J,1,,',1';T
established lor other rnan-rrtacle fibres.A ncutral scouringwith
(letcrgentrvill renrovedirt acquircdfront previousprocessing.
I""#l:ijnJlt"Xu:
,",:::l,l;""r""t",:";.""1::j5ll,lnillffi
Alkalinc scouringshouldbe carriedout when necessary
r r n i l d a l k a l is u c ha s d i s o d i u npr h o s p h a toer t e t r a s o ( l i u m

V ER[,L.
rvith
pyro-
p l r o s p l r a taet 6 0 0 C . A s t r o n g e ra l k a l i n cs c o u r w i l l d i s c o l o u r e".fu tuii:iiHilq*llllliu,,illr
r'r{ii,,,,,;i!if bcobtairrctl
bv usirr!
u rr3)i,l.r:of re^perarurc
,ir. ( I'J3'/',t'!i,,;t']
lllexching
'[T u:;:i"',,
;11;:]::"',,li"'""""'l,i
flii:.Il'llii
i"ll iI
VEREL iibre doesnot as a rule requirebleaching,fls il is whitc
#.,yf*ifi
enoughfor most enrl-uses.Socliumchloriteancllormic acid nray Disperse Dycs
be usedto slightlybleachV[,llEL if neccssary.'l'he
useof optical
plussmallanrountsofcationic(lycis themostpractisal '1""?""'.llJ;.',"",*ifi
;:iTl;',i:ff
brighteners
andeffectiveway to brightenVEREL.
"';i:",*",
-,:'Jl i:**il;.iiilj*iii
Dyeing il"'l"i,l;,3ii"'ii;'"x1
6) 100 per cett VEREL Fibre

V E R E L d y e s r e a d i l ya n d n o s p e c i a l e q u i p nnet j s n e e d e dI.n d y e i n g
:","i'"J;ii',r,llilT*t;i#illx1:l,1i:i
Neutrc Prentctdlized Dyes
nrost shades a rlyeing assistant is used to ensure conrplete
exhaustion of the dye and to provide bcst fastnessproperties. Thesodycshavebccnuscdvcrv s
V E R E L c r n L : ed y e d a s r a w s t o c k . s k e i n o r p
o p c r a t i n gt e n r p e r a t u i e
of?loC f o r beit results. \
' i e c e"s o o d s a t a n
* j.::li"i
;t*fr :xl,ti,'t;,il'"":ti
jf::,Jf,lthitt;ii:Tffi
Thrcc classes of clycs ntay be used successtull'yin dycing Y:,*
VEREL: (l) besic, (2) disperse,and (3) neutral prcrnetallizcd. l. VEIIEL Dyci g Assistan
Bosic D),es I
Basic or cationic dye conrbinationsarc available with cxccllent

ii:d*d*ihi.ffi,:ffiii*
fastnesspropertieson VEREL fibrc. When uscd ilr combination
with thc proper dyeing assistants, basicdyes level wcll and exhaust
elnrost corlrplctcly.In addil.ion,r cotltplelc rangc of shadescan
b c o b l a i n c dw i t h t l l c s cd y c s .
Propcr scleclion of dycs is jnlportant. lvlany basic dyes havc
poor fastnesspropcfties and certain basic blues are sensitivc to r',.i"T'T1",,#?*;,1,'"',.
iii'',,i1.fffi'JliiliJ'L ?,l.iil,,,i
il;
hext; they tcnd to discolour or rcduce iI exposedto high tempcra-
428 429

r I
I
tf f f f F_F.f111l"ll''l11l''il''ll''iF'll"'it ll I'l t I
I T N D A O O K O F T E X ' T IL E F I B I T E S B: S Y N ' I ' I IE T I C F I D R E S

(b) Blends ol VERDL ond jcctote

2. Low TenPeratureDYe IS
A l t h o u g hI u o c l a c r y l [i ci b r e sc a n b e d y e d a t l e m p e r a t u r easb o v e
i8;C. E-;'i;;i;;il;;s'tlcvelope<l a rnetltoclot dveirisvEREL. nbre
a t l i 6 C t t r a tp r e v e n tps a c i e dd y e t lc a k e sy, a r na n df a b r i cd i s t o r -
t i o n , a n d s e v l r ed e l u s t r i n gS. h a d e sw i t h S o o dp e n e t r a t i o n ^ a n d
l a s t n e scsa n a l s o b e o b t a i n e (al t t e m p e r a t u r eass l o w a . sb u - L '
L o w t e r n p c r a t u rdey e i n g ,h o w e v e rr, e q u i r c sa g o o d b a l a n c eo l
d-v e i r r a e s i i s t a r tat sr t dc a r e f usl e l e c t i oonf d y e s
A l i t v p e s o f V E R E L f i b r e c a n g e n e r a l l yb c d y e d a t l o w
t e n r o e r a i u r e sb.u t b a s i c d y e n r a y n o t a d e q u a l e l yp e n e t r a t e
t i e l r i l vr v o v e n l r b r i c sl n x d ew i t hh i S h ' t w i syta r n sC ' o o dp e n e t r a t i o t l
w " i l lr ; s u l t f r o n tt h c u s e o f t l t e p r o p e rr e t r r d i n ga g e n tt,o p r e v e n t
l a s t s t r i k e a n d p c r r n i t s l o w e x l r a u s t i o nI .f i t i s n e c e s s a rt yo
e x i e e d? l o C , 50 " / oc o m n r o ns a l ts h o u l db e i n c l u d e df o r t l t e l a s t
3 0 m i n u t e so f t h e d y e c y c l e .V E R E L f i b r ec l y e di n t h i sm a n n e r
c a b c d r i c d i t r r r n c d i r t c lryt 8 2 - 1 3 8 " C i l r l d r c s t o r e (tlo l u l l
lustte.
VEI{EL can be dyed and rcctalc Ic[1.rcasorrlbly clcirr tllrouqh
thc use of sclectedneutral prcnrctallizccl<.lycs.If is lot nossibio
t o d y c t h c a c e t a t ca n d l c a v c V D R E L w h i t c . A n y d y c l i r a t w i l l
colour ac€late rvjll also dye VEREL. By propcriy sclecting
dispersedyes, unions may bc obtaincd on thcsc two librcs. Ii
necessary,thc VEIIEL can bc dycd to shadc by adding ncutral
premctallizeddycs which will not allcct the rcetatc. Cross-<tyc<l
clTectson this blend are linrilcd. It is possible to sclect colours
that will dye acetateheavicr than VEI{EL. Thc VEIIEL can thcn
be shadcdwith basic or neutral prcmetallizcddyes for two-colour
efiects.Such dyeings are, howevcr, dillicult to control.
(c) Blends ol VDREL and Auylic
Becauseof the wicle variation in dycing bchaviour o[ dilTcrcut
acrylic fibrcs, it is not possibloto nlflko gcncull sltttcntcnlsnborrt
colour cllccts on VEREL/acrylic bleuds.

3. Delustrittg (d) Blends ol VEREL s d Co o , and VE.REL ond Royo

After fabricsof VEREL fibre havebeendried,they can exhibii VEREL blcnded wilh cellulosic fil.rrcspcrnrils a wirlc rirnsc or
c l e l u s t r i nr e v h i c hi s e a s i l yr e c o g n i s ebdy w e a ks h a r J ed ,u l la p p c a r - colour c{fects,Such blends may bc union rlycd, cross_clyc-rl,
o n . . u u , i h a r s hh a n d .D e l u s t r i n o g f V E I I E L [ i b r e c 0 n o c c u ra t cither fibre can bc colourcd and the othcr lcit whitc. Cornbinr-
or
wet-Drocessing t c t n p e r a t u r a
e ss l o rv ls 60"C, and it beconles
tions of direct and ncutral prenretallizccldycs cau bc applicrl
i r r c r i r s i n s l sv i v e r eb e t r u c e6n0 0 Ca r l dt h c b o i l . A d d i t i o n a l l ya,i r from a single bath for unions or cross-dycswith good fasincss
t l r v i r r sc f l - r i i n c r c at sh e s e v e r i toyf d e l u s t r i r rlgf .d e l u s t r i t togc c u r s . properties.Disperscdyes may also be used in thc samc bflth witlr
trbric'sof VEREL tibrc can be restoretlto norntalappearatlce (lirect dyes. Basic dyes can bc applicd in tlrc first of
a n c cl h a r a c t ei n r a n yo f s e v e r awl a y s f; o r e x a n r p l eb,y e x p o s u rteo followed by direct dyes on the cotton or rlryon. Succcsslrrlplllrrl
two baths
d r v s t e a mo r t o I I o t 1 7 l o C 1a q u e o us a l ts o l u l i q . nIso, l l o w e db y runs havc bccn madc by dycing with basic and tlircct dvcs in
o r o p e rc l r v i n eT. h e u s eo f d r y h e a ti n c o r r vnet i o n a \ s t o c kp,a c k a g e ' o n e - b a t h .T h c c o r n p r t i b i l i t yo f b a s i ca n d ( l i r c c t d y c s s l r o u k lb c
i t . i r r . l o o bo i t e n t e rd r y e r sh, o w e v e ri s, u s u a l l yt h et r l o s P t rac-tical
verifierl
r v a vo f r e l u s t r i nm g i l d l yd e l u s t r e dV E R E L f i b r e .
D r y i n g t h el i b r e
V E R E L f i b r ct o i t s Bright. shndes of outstanding wct fastrrcsspropcrtics can bc
at b2- l 3 8 o C s h l o u l c o
l n l p l e t e r
l e
y s t o r c
e l y e d produceclby first dycing the ccllulosic fibrs witli napllrols an<l
o r i s i n allu s t r o u cs o r r < l i t i o n . ' l 'fhi ber cs h o u l db c k e p tn r o i s b t elore
lhcn topping thc VERIIL in a sccond bath with 6asic dvcs.
bci"nsdricd. I-ixposure to l)ot aqucous sillt solutiorls (20'50'/"),
is.the Selcctcddispcrscor nculral prcmctallizctldycs will lcavc cottorr
folliwed by drying at tlte ntaxiltluludrying ternperalure., or rayon vhite or slightly staincd. Basic dycs crn also bc uscd
n l o s te [ [ c c t i v e r v a yo f r c l u s t r i nsgc v e r e ldye l u s t r evdb l < r L l r b r e ' for colour and white ellccts whcn bright shlrtes are rcquircd.
T h e l a r e e rd e n i e rV E R E L f i b r e sr r e n r o r ed i f l i c u l t t o r c l u s t r e Sclectcddircct dycs and naphthols, in thc prcscnccof cotiot or
than thd srrrallcr dcnierfibrcs. r a y o n ,w i l l l c l v c V E I L E L w h i l c . M i r n y v l l a n c ls r r l p h u rd y c s w i l l
stain VEIIEI- in thc prcscncc of cotton or rayon. 'l'lic high
430 431
 IIANDI]OOK OF TEXTI LE IiII]RES a: sYNTt.tITtc Ft|]nES

conccntrrtion of sodium hydroxide used in vat d y c i n g n r a y Prin(ilg

c i r r r s eV E I { E L t o d i s c o l o u r . 'l'hc
inherentflanteresistance
of VERIIL fibrcstulkes thcrrr
usclul
(c) Dlcnds ol VDIIEL and Nylott for,nrarry
kindsof printetl
tronrc
ft,r,ristri,r!s.-.ii;iil;:
;;i,;;;ii;,i
VEIIEL can bc dycd rvith sclcctedbasic tlyes lcaving nylon whitc
or only slightly staincd. Nylon catr bc clyedwith sclectcdacid or llllllli:li:ilriilnffi'"i'J1.:'n1]',,lfl;il.,,
"l;,?xiliii
;llil
j:i*
acid prenretallizcddyes leaving VEREL whitc ol only slightly iii.?i,11''difli'J'il
;i''ilL'll,
li,u,,'.T'ifi :lIl l,l"ililll
s t a i n c d .U n i o n s a r e p o s s i b l cb y a n y o n e o f t h r e c n l e t h o d s : ",tf-!
:i:'*1iT,li li:fl::l'[],*i.,i:i"H.illll'l
t . Selcctcdncutral prcrnctallizcddycs rvith a nylorr relardiug
agel)t to achieve balarcc.
*llirul
Printi g Assistantsad ltlcthods
Sclcctcddispcrsedycs using a rctarding agcnt lor nylon to
achieve balsncc. VEI{EL nrodacrylicfibre
is easilr
3. Combination of acid and brsic dyes applicd from either a rn(rneutrar.pre,nctariz.ed
rryes.
i,i;:'j:jl,il;li,illi:ili:i,iiili.:::i
onc- or two-bath method. Unions or cross-dyescan bc oe apptledto tabrics|lradcfronrVEI{ELfibrc.CJrrvcrrtiorrrl
obtaincd. printing-equipmcnt and nrcthodscnrrllc usr,tltu pri,,f,i ,uiii.
varictyof ftrbrics
rnrdcwith VU{IL fibrcs
(0 Bleuttsol VDREL and Polycstcr
WscosityControl,'l'hickcrrcrsarc usctt t o
This blend is uscd in scattcr rugs and knit goods- It is possible I r o d u c c o pl i I t u t
l ) r i n t - p a s t-ev i s c o s i t y .S t r o n g l y a r r i o r r i ct l ) i c k c | l c r s ,h 0 r v c v c r ,
to obtain solid colours by dyeing lhe VEREL anclpolyesterfibres s l r o u l (nl o t b e u s e ( ol n [ a b r i c sr r r a d cf r o r r rVEILllL rvhcn print
separatcly,and thcn blending ths libres. irrg
rvithcationicdyes.
In yarn or piecc dyeing, selectcd basic dyes ntay bc used to
cryethc VEIIEL only and leave the polycsterrelatively trnstained. p I I A L l i u s t n r e nl ltl-a d d i t i o t o t l r cu s u r lp l I - l t l i u s t r r r c n l
Basic dycs will produce a rvide range of colours witb excellent atltlitivcs-
agerrt
suchasglvccrirc
sloi,l,ll,;;rd.i;d
io ii;;i;;t,ii
liglrt and w^sh lastness propcrtics. A limiled range of colours i,llf5t"*"n'"
nray be obtained by using cithcr dispcrscor neutral prentetallizcd
dyes. Dryingond DeuclopingD),cs.Alt.crthc ftrbrichls becrrprintctl.
it
nrry,t)e d f l c d .l l u s s t c p ,l t o w c v c ri s, n o t c s s c n l . i i r l .
(g) Blendsol VEREL and Wool l n e . ( y e s o r p i g n l c n t su s c dt o p r i n t t l r c f r l : r i c : r r cI i x c d
bv
x t n r o s p l l c rsi ct c a n ) i n gt ltl c u s co f c l i r i c r so , o t t , . r , t y c i , ,,e, i i i i i ; , , i i s
Scvcrat nlethods may be used for dyeing this blend. Ily using
r s . n o tn e c e s s a rW y .l ) c n l e d y c sh a v cl l c c r d r c v c l o l l c rtll.r cn r i r r t r , d
sclectedacid, chrome, or acid prenretallizcddyes, the wool can
l a D n c sl l a y b e s c o u r e (al r r dd r i c r l .D u r i r : gs c o u i i r r gs,t l r i r r i l g
bo dyed leaving thc VEREL fibrc white. llasic dycs ntay bc r-rf
t l r cu r ) p r i n ^ t bc (al c k g r o u r b l dy c a ! i o r r i d
c y c sc r r b c i r r i i r r r i z clr>' iv
used to dyc the VEREL and lcavc thc wool rclalively unstrined.
u r c u s c o l . r s t r o n g l ya n i o n i cr c t r r d c r .S r r c l r c t n r t l c r s
Stain may be rernovedfrorn the wool by meansoI zinc sulphoxy- l m v cr r o
c | l c c ro n ( l l s p c r socr n c u t r a l - p r c t | tlcl itz c dr l y c s .
late formaldehyde reducing agents, without allcctirtg thc sltadc
of the VEREL. Unions rnay be dycd with sclcctedncutral pre-
Pign,tuttPrinting..As pjgntcnt prirrtilg irrvolvcslltc
mclallized dyes. Retarding agents of various typcs have bcet't ust, of a
'frvo-batlr u r l ( l I r g a g c l t t o t ) o I d ) c p i g l c n t t o t l r c f t t l r r i ct,l r c a l " l i r r i t v
uscd to control unions. proccssesusing acid and basic ol.
I r t v r ( t u atlt D r c sl o r l c p i g t ) t c ni ts n o t i l f : l c t o ri r r
dyes may also bc uscd for dcsirable ulions. P r i r r t i r ri g
vitlt
412 433

I
,}}ff, F,F.F-Fl' h h F h h h h h t, I, I
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES SYNT}IETIC I:IIIRI]S

'l'he is thatcuringtenlperatures
suchcolorants. mainconsideration Stripping
an(l tin)esnust be kept below thosewhichcancausethe fibre to
yellow. BasicDycs
Dles for Printittg VEREL S t r i p p i n g _ ol cr v e l l i n go f b a s i cd y c sc a n p r e s c n p t r o l > l c r nM s .o s t
overothers.
Eachclassof coloranthassomeadvantages t l y e sc a n b e s t r i p p e d l r o n rV D l l D L ,h o r v c v c br ,v u i i l u r c o r r r b i r x r _
ll t i o r r . . o fa d y e i t ) ga s s i s t a l()'tl r n a d c lV - I ' n r i r t c x6 h c r n i c l r l :)t.
levellingagent (MigrassistAC - 'l'atratexChcrnical),and rrrr
Cationic Dyes. Thesedyes producevivid coloursof excellent
They are generallythe best
tinctorialpower and good fastness. oxidisingagentor rctlucingagcutor both, tlcpcntlirrg on which
(yes areused.
dyesfor printingVEREL fibre.

DisperseDyes. Theseare lessexpensivethan cationicdyes,but Dkperse Dyes

thc wash and sublimationfastuessanclthe colour brillianceare
l st h o s eo f c a t i o n i cd y e s .
n o t , i n g e n e r aal ,sg r e a a M o s t d i s p e r scel y e s . c abne p a r t i r l l ys t r i p p c cwl i t h 5 _ 1 0 p c r c c n t
s o a p c h i p s a t 6 0 0 C . f o r - 3 0 n r i n u t e s .S o ( l i u r l c h l o ; i t c ; i i i
Neutral-PrcnrctallizedDyes- Thcsc are usually colourfast atttl cornplelcly
. s l r i p .n. r i r r r yt l i s p c r s cd y c s , a n t l z i n c s u l p h o x y t n f c
easy to apply, but are not as bright or as fast to washingancl l o n r ) i l l u c t r ywd cl I s t r r p t c d i s c h : r r g c t bt yl cp c sV . a r i o r rrsr o r r - i o r r i c
s u b l i m a t i oansc a t i o n i cd y e s . materialshave bccn usedsucccssfully to lcvcl shadc<t <Iyciirgs.

Resfu-lJonded hgDrc ts. Althougheasyto apply and econotnical Net ral PrenrctollizedDyes
pd
i n l i g h t t o m c d i u n rs h a d e sr ,e s i n - b o n d e i g r n c n lcsa r la d v e r s e l y Sodiumchloriteand sodiumhypochloritchavc both bccn uscd
affeit the hand,dry-cleanability and flanrmabilityof fabrics.With to slrip lllesedycs from VEREL fibrcs\.vjthgoods cccss.Miury
carefulselection,however,thesecolorantsgiveacceptable colour- o I t h e l e v e l l i n g , a g e nstusg g e s t cf do r n c u t r a lp r c r n c t a l l i z cdcytc ' s
fastness. Ily liniting the amountof coverage, most flarnnrability on wool and nylon also work well on VEIiEL.
r e q u i r e m e nctas nb e m e t .
Finishing
D elustri ng D uring St eanling VEREL fibre is used in a wiclc varicty of blcncls ancl fabric
constru€tions,each having dilrcrent end_uscrcquircnrcnls.Finish-
D e l u s t r i ndgu r i n gs t e a t n i noBf V E R E Lp r i n t e df a b r i pissa p o t e t t t i a l ing techniquesare selccled to suit particular riccds,and thcrc is
p r o b l e r ro n l y i f t h e p r i n t c ( l a b r i ci s w e t ( o l h e rt l i a n w i l h p r i r l t
-Daste) no single finishing proccsswhich applics to all fabrics.
or if saturated steamis usedto fix the dyes.lf delustringis
e n c o u n t e r eddu r i n gt h e s t e a m i nogP e r a t i o nt h , e f a b r i cs l r o u kbl e
( l O : 2 0 g / l ) i n a w a s hb o x a t 9 4 o C Resirt T.reattncnl
exposed t o a h o t - s o l u t i o n
arrit cooled slorvly tlrrotrghsubsequentwash'boxes. The fabric Rcsins bchavc on VEREL fibre as thcy do on othcr hydrophobic
s l r o u ktlh e nb e d l i e di n ) n l e d i r t e layt 1 0 4 - l 2 l " C . fibres, i.c. they simply form a coat on thc surfacc oi fn" nUr"
A nroreclesirable solutionto thisproblernwouldbe to eliminate or fabric. They do not crossJink or olhcrwisc react with thc
the causeof delustringby drying the printed fabric prior to fibre.
stearringand by usingrvell-trapped steamto developthe dyes. A blend of VEREL and ccllulosicsnray bc succcssfullyrrcntcd
Otrjcction:rblc clelustrecl spots nlay also occur ifcondcnsatetlrips wilh rcsir if curing tinrcs and tcmporatur;sarc closcly confro cd.
o n t o t h c f a b r i cd u r i n gs t e a t n i n g .

434 435
 I I A N D D O O K O F T E X ' T IL E F I I ] I I E S
o : s Y N _ I .l : _ r c F t u t u i s
n t a curingtenlperature of 135'C.,for example,5nrinutesnight
bc the mininrumtinre to effecta cure.A curing temperature of fcnsile Strcngth
149"C.nright requireonly lI minutcsfor culing.Temperaturcs _3 ,290k}lclrn2
2,940 tb/inz.).
G2,0oo_47,000
exceecling 150"C rvill causeVEREL to yellow, the extentof the
cliscolouration dependingon the lengthof time of exposureto trloogaaion
e l e v a t etde r n p e r a t u r e s . 35-40pcr cent,dry or wct.
The usc of rcsins or other finisheson fabrics clcsigned for
maxinrutnflame resistance may sometimcscausethe labric to Iilastic Rccovcty
Iosesomeof its inherentresistance to burDins. 88 per ccnt at 4 pcr ccnt; 55 per cent at l0 pcr
ccnt.
Slu'itrkagcControl
lDitinl Modulus
Fabrics containinghigh percentages of VEREL fibre may be
linishcd rvith good dimcnsionalstability it they are relixcd 247.2 cNltex (28 g/clen)
completelyby hcating in the finishingroutinc. This may be Avcragc S{illncss
accomplishcd in a loop or airlay dryer,or sirnilarequipment,at
lenrperaturcs up to 127"C.Stretchingof the fabric during any 8.0.
phaseof processing shouldbe avoided. AvcragcToughncss
Shcaring
4.33 cN/tcx (0.,19g/(tcl)
Fabrics of VEREL fibre are easily shcaredon conventional
shearingequipnrent. The fusing of fibre tips mry be a problenr Yield Strcss
on densecul pilc fabric, but this can be elirninatedby passiug 5.83 cN/tex(0.(16g/cten)
the goodsthroughthe shearat a slowcrspced.lt is importcnt
that the shearbladesare kept sharp. Yicld Strain
Singcing 3.6 per cent E.
VEREL nbre forms charredblack beadson the fabric surface
duringsingeing.Fabricscontaininga low percentage ComDliauccRntio
of VEREL,
howcvcr,may be singedsuccessfully both in greigcand linishecl I.t8.
Iorms.
Spccilic Gravity
STI{UCTUREAND PROP r.37.
'l
hc infornrationwhich [ollorvs rclcrsto Va[ts] rype te:,
Iillcct ()f Moisturc
3 D / F l u s t r ef i b r e .
Finc Struclurcnnd Appcarancc Regain: 3.O-3.5pcr ce0t.

A rvhitcfibrc, availablcas bright or dull lustrc.Sornetypcsarc 'lllor

ltl Propcr(ics
rvailablein spul dyed black.Pcrnut-shapccl cross-sectioi.
X-ray
dillractionpatternsshowVEREL to be a well-orientatcd, slightly StickinS Ig0_Ig5oC. Maxirrrurrrsrfc irorrirrg
crystallincfibrc. p e r a t u r e\ylqcyarure..
:l 5 0 o C - tcnr_

Icrncily ElJcct ol Lov Tenrpcrature

| 5 . 9- 2 2 . 1c N /t e x ( I . 8 . - 2 . 5g / t l c n )t,l r y ; Physical characteristicsntlintaincd lo cxlrcnrcly
| 5 . 0 - 2 1. 2 c N / t c x( | . 7- 2 . 4 g / t l e r r )r ,v c t . tutcs.
low tcnrpcnr-

436 437

- l
' I
' I
f t l' l' 'll' 'll" li " li l n n n f n n F ' E n n n n l
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTI LE FIl]RES 8 : SY N , r lD
t 1 .Cl F I U R E S
Ellcct of A8c
-fhcre
is virtually no changc in thc propcrtics of VEITDL
E[]ect ol IIigh Temperature titrre
over an extendedperiod of timc.
R e g u l a rf i b r e : s h r i n k a gien b o i l i n gw a t e r ,0 . 2 p e r c e n t ;I l o t a i r trrtccaof Suntight
( 1 4 0 " C ) ,s h r i n k a g4e- 6 p e r c e n t .A r a p i dc h a n g e of properties V E R E L , h a s g o o d w e a t h c r i n gc h a r a c t c r i s l i c s ;
takes place,with fall in tenacityanclmodulus,and increasein r e s p c c tl h a n a n y n a t u r a l f i b r b a n d m o s t .
it is bcttcrin llris
c l o n gtai o n . o [ l h c s y r r r h c'"r i c""'""'
tiUics.
'l'errperatures inclLrding viscosc, accrntc, polyanridcs r"r'l
e x c e e d i n gl 5 0 o C w i l l c a u s eV E R E L f i b r e t o ;"iy;l;;;;.
Affer 50 weeks' outdooi "^posur", VEI{E.L
yellorv,the extentof discolouration clepending on the lengthof rctails lood
strength and elongation unclcr conditions *lri"t,
time of exposureto elevate(l temperatures. wool and cotton.
.1";a;;;;d;i;

Flcttrunbility
Chemicrl Propcrtics
VEREL fi1.:re hasa vcry goodflameresistanbe. lt is very dimcult
Acitls
to ignite, and is self-extinguishing.
It leavesa hard black char,
and docs not drip. Exccllent resistanceeven at high concentrations,

Alkalis
Good general resistance.Alkalis unricr modcratc conditions
no clfecl on tenacity, but causc somc discolourrtion. havc

Getteral
h". a lrigh degrce o[ rcsisralcc to a wiclc rarrgo
Y-:.la_!, of
cilcn)lcals.
3.0
Ellcct of Org:tnic Solvcnts
2'5
V E R E L f i b r e r e s j s t sa l l d r y c l e a n i n gs o l v e n f sa n d
2.O nloslconrnlon
organlc solvents.It dissolvcsin wafln acctonc,
t.5
t,o
Insectr

0.5
Not attacked

Micro-organisDtr
STRATN(% ELONG^TION) VEREL fibre is not attacked by mildew and
othcr nricro_
organisms.It is unalTeclcdafter being buricd for fz *."iir'i,
moist,,biologically acrivc rivcr loam at 25.C. Corto,, A1"oiniu..,
after 6-7 days iD the same test.

Electrical Propcrlics
Diclcctric
.strcngth cxcccds 1,500 volts/rnil (lilrrr); diclcctric
,VEREL' c o n s t n n t4 1 0 a t 6 0 c y c l c s .

438 439
 I I A N D B O O KO F T [ , X ' I ' I L t ]F I U R E S
Allcrgcnic Propcrlics Il: sYNTltEfrc FltrnEs

VERIIL liblc is non-allcrgcnic.

llcfrrctilc Indcx h . f , - l : l - n " u ' , | l " b i l i royt v E J { E L

,l l,U. ,s1l r b r e I n t o i s : r g l c r r ta d v l n t l g c p
, Lrtring
1.533.VERE,Lfibrc exhibitspracticallyno bircfringcncc. altr)ostlhe sant

*;::j;f"|il ;;ii,,';;.J"1:",::lll,"'.,il"J#i'i:.ili:l'u
fili
V L I T I ] LI N U S E llnvi rctntrcnt ql Corul i t i ons
Gcocrtrl Cltrrac(cristics VEI{EL fibrc ltas cxccllcntrcsistancc
gcncral wcl lhcrirrg conditions- l o s u t r l i g l t l ,a g c i n g a r r u
VEREL- fibrc po-ssesscs tnuny illtractivc chanrclerislicsfrom tlrc is cotr]flctclv rcsistlrrl lo irltirck
pornt ot vtew ot gcncral tcxtile usc. It contbjnes bv insecls ";; ,rrtil;;;i[')rrt
a soft. warrn
hlnd_lc with thc captcity for absorbirrgmoisture that Chunical Rcsistonce
";;i".1;;
c o n r t o r t i t b i cw c f l r . I t h s a g o o d r v l r i l c n c sas n d c l y c s 'l
c a s i l va n c l ltc rcsislalcc of VEt{LL fibrc
c c c t r v c t y a, n d n l a y b c e l e c l r o p o l i s l r et d
o il lligh llistre. to ntost ty|cs of clrcrrricll
acid.and
:l:]:jlli'lS.'d is ,ol a[Iccrcd arkati,
iscxccucnr.
rr wirrritirisrai.l
cor(rrrrors ;i:;i;,ii:;i;;
lt,Iechanical I'ro part ics by thcchcnricrrtsirscti
r,,.iil,iiiil,i
Ir\tilc.Iro^ccssing.NorrcoI thc corrrrrrn
Vff{EL is strong, loUgh fibre. Its nrecltlnical propcrtics arc i r l l c c Il h c f i b r c . rlry .1.,,;i;,;.
_,;i;.,,i,
or urc slmc or(lcr ils thc avcragc typc of acrylic
fibrc. Tenlrcitv.
c l o n g i t U o na t ) ( l c l i t s t i cr c c o v e l y a r c a d c q u : r t cf o r Pilling Resi.trance
norntal tcxtiic
ilpplcarlons, xnd alc nol affcctcd significantly by walcr.
yPIIL n9r" cxhibits lirrlc lcndcncy
t o r v r ( l s P i l l i r r g ,c v c in
IrDncsnladcwilh low lwist ynrls.
Spccific G ruvity
Thc spccific graviry of VEREL fibrc is relarivcly high (1.37). lYr|shing

Moisture ili':iliJ:,1,'"t,|#'"ft of,ll,l:u-.,_!r.,,*cr,i,,c,

I,,T"-i',ll.A,
-,Lri"ir,,"lii"ril
T h c n r o i s t r r r cr c g r i n o f V E R E L f i b r c i s - u n u s u a l l y or clctcrgcnr.
C"",r" a neulrirlso.p
high by corrr_ i"'rusrng
prrisorr rvith other potyacrylonit rilc fibrcs,
anrt this is all
r n r p o r t a n tl c a t u r c o f r c f i b r c . l t n r a k c sf o r g r c i l t c r c o n t f o r t j n Drying
rvcrr, cspccially in fabrics rvoru closc to thc ski\ Fabrics.nrayl.:ctrrnrblc<Jriccl
O"spii" ifii, or drip dricd. Elcv:rtcdtcu)l)crltrrrcs
chnrrcrerisric,VEREL is nor advcrscly off".r"A should bc avoidcd.
Uvt,uoL'tri". ii."
nrechanicalpropc-rliesbeing only slighity affectcO.'Ralr;il;;i;
goocl dirncnsionalstability and wrinkle resistancc Irouing
'l'herntal prcfcrabty
Propenies ,fi!ri1 ilol..t 9.iionect,
rron-it_'synrhetic' usinga danrl ctorh,wirtrrtrc
sctting.Mirximrlnirtc iroriinf"i;,;;;;;,,;;:
V E I T E L i s a t l r e n r r o p l a s t i cf i b r c , w i t l r r f a i r l y
lorv soltcninI Careshoutttb; takcl ro rVoirldistoJi,r!
leirpcrrtrrre
(1,20-l25oC) ::_]?9-C
produce a glazcd effect.
,i;;"i;;; i;
by conrparisorr*iti, r.ivfi. i,rrr.rl
an(tcarcr)nrst
bc takcnil :rllproccsiirrg
rulriclr
irruolutsclcvaic,i
r c n rp c r i l t u r c s

440
441

- I r - l r l l r t r l r l
t E f'||I l''il'l l''it fl li E E E E t f: f: f: H Ir l'l
i l

I I A N D A O O KO F T E X ' T LI E F I B R E S A : S Y N T T I E T I CF I B R E S
Dry Clcrning
I:abrics of VEREL fibre may be dry clcancd by the normal Catpcts
nrethods. The fibre is not affccted by thc usual dry clcaning VEREL fibre.has many valuablc characlcristics
lo ollcr to lhc
solvents. carpet tradc,_including good abrasion rcsistancc,
g"oJ
'i, ;";"r;;;;
rangcof dyeabitity,
highresistancc *iii"e ;;i
End Uscs l^"-1.ll
case ot l,l]dl
cleitnl|lE-
Pilc Fabrics reta.inlhcir appcarancc and tcxtlrrcovcr lorrc
-.!urn"tt
or scrvice,and testshavcshownvEl{lL ro bc bcrtci ncriods
Thc softnessof VEREL fibre, cornbinedwith whiteness.excellent ifi,,;;;;;i
flanre-resistance and controlled shrinkagc have provcd advan- in this respcct.
tageousin the production of pile fabrics. These include both the The soil resislance of VEREL is excellcnt,and it
woven and knitted types of construction for a wide varietv of easity and cficctivetywjrh lhe aid .r ;i;i;i;i;;;;;;:'];is clcancd
crrd usesranging front coatings,liner fabrjcs and floor .ou"rings, w e a r t e s t s .V E R E L c a r p e t sg a v c 2 0 t o
- SOp.r."ni-gr"nt"i
to trimmings for collars, cuffs, boots and shoes. wear life lhan acrylicfibies.
The availability of VEREL in both regular cross-sectionand Carpetsof VEREL fibre havc a crush rcsistancc
wool.They_ simihr to
ribbon cross-sectionforms has been put to good use in the displayexcellcntstainresistancc ",Jn;;; ;;;;i;;;
r l r r r uf u c t u r eo f s i n r u l a t e df u r f a b r i c s . and are inherentlynlothproofand rot_rcsisti[s.
Pile fabrics nrade fronr VEIIEL provide warmth without
r v e i g h t ,a s s o c i a t ew d i t h s o f t , a t t r a c t i v ei r a r r c l lren r l q r e r t c o n r f o r t .
Note
Knit Cootls
Lastrile.(F.T.C. Defrniti)n )
The ability of fabrics oI VEREL libre to rctain a solt hand
after repcatcd washing and drying is advantageousin knitwear A m a r r u f r c t u r efdi b r c i r r w l r i c l r . t h ef i b r c . f o r r u i r r g
s u b s t a r : ci sca
such as sports slrirts,underwearand children'sgarnrents.A blend c o p o l y n r e ro f a c r y l o n i t r i l er r r d a d i e r r c( s u c l i
as Uuta,tlc,ioj
containing some 25 per cent of VEREL with cotton realizesthe conrpos.ed..of not morethanS0%tur ot t"oii-iijZ,t,i;;j;il';l
attractive propertiesof VEREL at an economic price. a c r y l o n i t r i luen i t s .

7'hr ee-di nrcnsion al Fabrics

The use of VEREL shrinkablelibre nrakespossiblethe production
of three-dinrensionalfabrics with a wide ranse
- \ of blister ancl
p u c k er e f f e c t s .
I nd ustrial A p plications
Tltc rcsistancc of VEREL fibrc lo nany types of chemicll,
i n c l u d i n ga c i d sa n d a l k a l i s ,h a s b r o u g h t i t m a n y a p p l i c a t i o n si r r
tlre industrial neld. It is used for filter cloths, protectiveclothing,
etc.
Dropcry; U pholstery
VE-ltEL fibrc provides cxccllcul drapery ancl upholstery fabrics
rvhiclr havc the spccial advantagcof firi rcsistancc.

442 443
 l.
II NDAOOK OF TEXTILE FIBIIES
POLYVINYLCHLORIDE FIBRES
Fibrcs spun from polyntcrsor copolymcrsof vinyl chloridc:
CH2 : CHCt -----> ---cHr-cH-cH2-cH ---
ct cl
VINYL CHLORIDE pouvvipvu cHLoRIDE
INI RODUCTION
Polyvinyl chloridc (P.V.C.) was 0rst tnade by the French chcnrist
I-Ienri liegnault, who prcparcd and polynrerizeclvinyl chloride in
1838. Whcn all kuown polytners came under examination as
potential sourcesof synthetic libres, during the early part of thc
prcscnt ccntury, it was natural that polyvinyl chlolide should bc
anlorrg lhosc considercd.
I\'[any atlen]pts were made to dissolvc polyvinyl chloride ard
produce filanrents by extrusion of solutions through spinnerets.
llut thc polynrcr rvas clifiictrlt to dissolve,alrd solvents suitabla
for usc ou a corrrmcrcialscalc were not discovcred.
Alr experirrcntal P.V.C. fibre vr'asspun in Cermany in 1913,
but did not come into largc-scaleprocluction,During tl)e ycars
follorving Worlcl War I, atten)pts rvcre madc to modify thc
polynrcr in ordcr to make it morc readily soluble, It was found
tbat. this could be achievedby introducing a surall proportion ol
anothcr vinyl compound into the polymerization, forming a
copolyntcr in which the nrolecular chains did not pack togethcr
so closcly rs in lhc caseof P.V.C. itsclf. Experinrentallibres werc
rnade lrom a copolymer contaiuittg 85 per cent vioy{ chloride
and l5 pcr cent vinyl acetatein Gcrmany in 1928.
In 1934,jt rvas found that lhe solubility of polyvinyl chloride
coulcl also bc incrcasedby chlorinnting lhc polynrer. The large
chlolinc atonrs introduccd at irrlcrvulsaloug the.P.V.C.rnolcctrlcs
had an cllect similar to that of thc acetategroups in the copoly-
nrer, reducirtg the degree of attraclion exerted between the long
nrolcculesand incrersing solubility.
'Pc Cc' fibres, nrade frotn chlot'inatedP.V.C., were introduccd
in Gernrany in 1936.Thcy achicvcd sonrc limited success,btrl.
havc ncver rrradcrcal progrcssin thc gencral textile ncld. In 1937.
M4
l . r
t ] : s y N . l| | t i . tI c F t l r R u s
lib,rcs.
spun frorD a copolyntcr of vinyl clrloritJcarrclvinyl acctlrr:,
callcd 'Vinyon', wcrc prodrrcccljtr lhe U.S.
Iu 1940, French chcmisls discovcr.c(lthlt I,.V.C. itsclf coulcl
bc clissolvcdirr a rnixlurc o( acctonc lrrcl crrborr disrrlptrirlc,:rrrtt
this solution was suitablc for thc pr.r:tlrrctionof p.V.C. iibrcs
on il conlDcrcirl scalc.
P.V.C, fibres arc |low lrrilrufilcturcd in a valicty of for|lrs arrtl
nrodilications.'fhcy have achieveda linritcclsucccssin thc tcxtilc
tradc,.but their range of applicationsis rcslrictcd by thcir lorv
softening poiot. Many P.V.C. nbrcs will soltcl at tcnrpcraturcs
as lorv as 70'C.
On the other hand, it.V.C. fibrcs havc churactcr.istics rvhiclr
Irrvc crcatcd a clcnranclIor ihcnr in ccrtain rpplications. .l-ltcy
(lo not burn, anrl havc a lrigh rcsistlncc to nrany chcnric:rls..l.hcii
l c n ( l c n c yl o s h r i n k i l l r c l i l l i v c l yl o ! v l c n l p c r i t t r l . ciss r r l r t l c r r s co f
r l l l r c p t o ( l u c t i o no f h i g l r b r r l k y l r r n s ,
]'y|r::soF pol-yvtNyl-cr.l!.glrpE
I|lry
l:ibres are prorlLrccdfront 100 pcr ccnt polyvinyl chloritlc, frorrr
copolyrrers contrriningsrnall proporlions o[ variorrss".o,.,,i",,,,.,-
pooents,and frorn polyvinyl chloridc rvhich hirs bccn clrcnricllly
n r o d i f i e dc, . g . b y c h l o r i n r t i o n .
Thcsc fibres arc availablc in a vilriety of fornrs, c.g, of
controlled shrinkage, to suit particular applications. 'l.hcy rrc
produccd as conlifluotrslllamcnt yarns, sttplc Iibrc and tow.
In tl)c scction which follows, polyvinyl chlori<lc fibrcs llc corr-
sidercd under thrce typs classifications,
as follorvs:
( l ) PolyvinylChloridc Fibrcs(100pcr ccnt I).V.C.)
(2) Vinyl ChloriclcCopolynrcrIribrcs
( 3 ) Chemically-ModificdPolyvinylChloridct:ibrcs.
NOMENCLATUI{E
The name 'Vinyon' rvas rcgistcrcd ils a t r a c l cn r r r k b y U n i o n
I
Carbiclc Corporalion for thc fibrc spun fronr a copolyntcrof
44s
i
i
L E N E E tTt tTt h t E h h h h h - l : _ h
i .

lr NDllooK oF TEXIILU l:lllRES

o: :iYN tIttc t:tnl{LS
-fhis
vinyl chloridc and acrylonilrilc. pllfticul r filanrcnt yurn
'Vinyon' .lrlovil.
rvas dcsignated N.
'Vinyon' N was subsequentlyfollorved by anolher type oI _ . l r r I t : r l y , b y 1 9 6 7 , S o c i c t : rl l o l y n r c r r v c r c p r o t l u c i r r g
P . V . C -f i b . r e si r r a p h n t r v i t h n c l p n c i t y o f 4 r r r i l l i o nk , l p c i l t n r , , r , ,
polyvinyl chloride fibre, called 'Vinyon' HH, which was spun a n d A p p l i c a z i o n i C h i n r i c h eS o c i e t ap c r A z i o r r i ( A ( ) S A ) b c r l n
lronr a copolynrer of 86 pcr cent vinyl chloridc ancl 14 per ccnt p r o d u c i n g ' L e a v i n ' I > . V . C .f i b r c s i n a p l a r r t r v i t h a c a p i c i t y " o f
vinyI rcctatc. 5 r r r i l l i o nk. g - , p e r
, a r r n u n r .I , . V . C . f i b r c i r v c r c l l s o p r t x l r r c c , li , r
J a p a nl r r d W e s tC e r r r r a r r yI ).r o d u cito n i r r l t r r l yan r lW cs t C c r r r r rar y
'fhc 'Vinyon' .irr
lrade rnrrk was ncvcr cD[orccd by Uniorr s u b s e a u et lnv c e a s e d .
'fl)e
Calbidc, and it rvas rclcascd for gcncric usc. lcnr wus Thc'progrcssof lr.V,C. fibrcs sincc 1949lras trcor slcil(lv riltltcr
acloptcd by the U.S. Fedcral Tradc Conrmission as au oflicial l h i r n s l ) c c t a c u l i lfrl,n d t l t c u s c o f t h c f i b r c f o r l l r g c - v o l u r n ct c x t i l c
dcfinitiou lor fibrcs of lhe polyvinyl chloride type. pplicationshas bccn rcstrictedby a lack of stabilily to llctt rud
to dry clcaning solvcnts.'fhe attrilclivc clttraclcristicsof I,.V.C.
Fcclcrol 7'radc CotrrrtrissiotrDcfi tiort fibtcs (scc pagc 455) couplcd with tlrc lorv pricc o[ thc polynrcr
lravc, ltowcver, cncouraged produccrs Lo scck rvays oI ovcr-
The gcncric ternr vi,ryo,r was cstablishcdby the U.S. Fcderal
Tradc Connrission for fibrcs of the polyvinyl choride type, thc coming the fibre's dc{iciencicsin ordcr to cxtcncl thc rantc of
its lcxtilc applications.
ollicirl dcfinition bcing as follows:

Vitryott. A manufacturcd libre in which the Iibre-fornring - I J y _ . 1 9 6 4r n . i n l p o r t a n ts t c p I b r r v l r t l h : r t l b c c r r t l r k c r rI r y l l r c

f i r r r rR l r o r r eP o u l e n cl ' c x t i l c , w l t o t l e v e l o p c tal b l c r r t o
l l polvrrrcrs
s u b s t n c c i s a n y l o n g - c h a i ns y n l h e l i c p o l y m e r c o m p o s c c lo f c o n s i s t i n go f s t a n d a n lI ) . V . C .a r : r lc l r l o r i n r t c c Il ' . V . C - i o o b t u i r r
rt lcast 85 per cent by wcight of vinyl chlolidc u[its b e l t e r d i D r e n s i o n aslt a b i l i t y a t h i g h e r t c l | r l ) c r a t u r c sc ,. g . b o i l i r r g
(--cH,--cHcl-). water.

C hlorolihre
-l'lre
lcrfrr chlorofibrc is also widcly used to denoto polyvinyl
chloride fibrcs as dcfincd by thc Federal Tradc Comnrission.This
l c r r n h a s t h c a d v a n t a g eo f a v o i d i n ga n y . p o s s i b i l i t yo [ c o n f u s i o u
with the trade namc 'Viuyon'.
PRODUCTION
(l) PoLYVIN'l' LCHI.ORlDEI:lIIILS\. Monomcr Syntbcsis
(lo0 PER CENT I,.V.C.)
Vinyl chloridc is produccclin vcry largc quantity
for thc procltrc-
I N ' f R OD U C ' fI O N t i o n o f p o l y v i r r y cl h l o r i c l cp l a s t i c sn, n c j f i t r c
n , , i , , u f " . r , , r ", n . 1 " ,
u s co t o n t y a s n ) n l lp i r r t o f t h c o u l p u l . f w o r o u t c s
l r r cc o r r r n r o n l y
1'he productionof 100 per cent P.V.C. libres has madesteady rused.
progressin a few countries.The Frcnchfirnr of RhonePoulenc
(a) Acctylcne and Ilydrogcn Chloridc
Textile has, in particular, perseveredwith the development
fibres. A c c t y l c n ei s . r c a c t c dw i t h h y d r o g c nc h l o r i c l ci n l h c p r c s c n c c
'of
l thcse - L h r r oThe first P.V.C. fibres rverc sDun at the
i sp l a n t i n 1 9 4 9 ,a n t lb y l 9 ? 6 s o r i r c9 r r r i l l i o l ,r r'llcrcuricchloridc catalyst of
rorrvillc+rt
kg oi libre rvercbeingprocluced annually. CH=CI.I + I-ICl->CH, =CHCI
446 447
 'TDXTILE
II ND ROOK OF FIIIRES a : S Y N T i I D TcI F r o R E s
(b) Etlrylcne arul Chlorine t)lrocEssrNc
Etltylere dichloride is produccd by rcaction of etbylcne with 'l
he infornrationrvhich follow

i:ifi:i;ili'iih:
chlorine (l). This is then hcated under pressurorvhen hydrogen
chloridc is reledsed,leaving vinyl chloride (2). i"i1:* jllii;
i;",ii"i,i.ll,.','iiX,,:f,i,l,t:,1,.",
(l) (2) L X : S t a n d a rpd. V . C .
CH, =CH, + Cl"--+CH,CI.CH,CI-+CH,.:CHCI
ii'":f3:'..61,i,X;';.i n" .
illl:;:;li.u
l'olyntcriza{ion
Vinyl chloride is polymerized typically as an aqueous emulsion
i'roirins
:'iii#il,ri{,iixi':,xdllliii'i:llll"iisc
warcr
(s5%)
'lletractyl.':
in autoclaves, under pressures of 45-50 atlnospheres and a Sraplcfibre*itlL sfiri,i*glcfiarrctcristics
tenrperaturcof about 65'C. The polyrner lorms a suspcnsiouiu
the water, and is recovered by spray dryiug.
,ii!i!f,ii
:{i:",,m"iit,i:::xrfit*
;",,
;:rljit;i_,
irtcr.

t h c r n l asl t a b i l i t v _
'Fibravyl'ZC:
Sirrinkage in boilingw tcr 25_30,/o.
Dycirrg
(')' " "''
'l'lre Ji,?liii,! "rhtcnds)'
il! :!,,:;,,[X!""
!1,
standarclproccdureis to
Dlxrnrtlg
P . V . C . f i b r e s n r a y b e s p u n b y d r y o r n r e l t s p i n n i n gp r o c e s s e s . *:,?,"ili:$i ll :fij,llxl;"l''fiL':
j"'";"li:"ll ii{fi:lif
l:
Dry Spi ning (2) 'Thernovyl' (100per cenror
blends)
l'.V.C. is dissolvcd in a solvcul, e.g. acetone/carbon disulphidc 'l'lr
e t c c h r r k ; r r tel se s c r i b cat lb o v e
nrixture, aud tbc solution at 70-100"C. is pumpcd through spin-
nercts.The line jcts emergeinto a stream o[ hot air, thc solvcllts
evaporaling to leave solid lilaments of l'.V.C. Thc solvents arc
rccovcrcdand re-used.
[aeiq1;:*; [ii:rr*t,j rilul,
j j lij:.,
Li,.::,,Ti:'#l::;;tl[: "ri n,]i[ {nli:,ii
-';;irr,iji',.,ii.'
i'ir,]iiii
This processis used almost exclusivclyfor the conrmercial lL
spinningof textile-grado
P.V.C. fibres.
"j;-oli1",i,:
,,r.,j'::'jl'""."il] irisco'r,r,,r,
Ji,i"lnl:li:';J1,', rrv
;?,:i'
Ir'Iclt Spinning
Molten P.V.C. may be spun by extruding it through spinnercts,
bul the spinning temperaturcscannol be raised high enough to
(3) 'Fibravy.l'LX or ZC (100 pu cent or blctttls).
permit of the production of finc denicrs necded for staple and Shriukqe Conditiorts.
tow. P.V.C. begins to clecontposoat about 200'C., and belorv 'l'lte
t e n r p e r a t u rceo n d i t i o r : su s c t l [ o r s h r i r r k g
i t l r c s c[ i b r c s
lhis tcnrpcraturethe viscosity o[ thc moltcn P.V.C. rcstricts ihc
fincncssof thc cxtruded filaments to a dianrctcr of about 0.2 nll). il"iill''l,ilil,'"ji;tfi
llr,::l;:t
ll,-l;,;,I:ill.';i
1f,il1-l
448 449

-t -1 -l -l 'I
 t
[F, t f t t t t I F,
l'}}] I
I
Hl''F-F,t , t
ITANDtrOOK OF TEXTILE FII]RES B: SYNTII ETI C FIBRES

bc userl c r e a t i n gl ) u l k r r r r l r c l a t c rcl l f c c t s ,i l s i r ] t l r c c i l s c
ResisrDyeing; CrossDYeing r u c r y l il ci .b[ roer s . ol.
P.V.C.fibresresistmost of the typesof dyestuffusedfor dyerng Shrinkage. n]ay be brou8ht about by dry, wct or slcarni|c
natural fibres,and resistor crossdycing eflectsare obtainable trcatnlcnt,the
-choicedcpendingupon il," nliturc of tf," noo.l.i
in blcnds. o ' 1" i , . : r , r t r se s s e n t i taol c a r r yo u t t h c t r c r t n r c oat s u u i [ o r n r l y
l!
as Dosslble-
Printi!rg Iiry treatmcnt may bc carrictl out by subjccting thc goods
, -on to
"l'hcrrnovyl'ZC nray be printeclcffectivclywitlt clisperse clyes, Itot air in a stcntcr. Steanringnray bc acbicvctl
n'"yli,i,l",
o n e r o r t n a n e n c l o s e dc b a m b c r .
c o n v c n t i o n as lt e a n l i n bg e i n ga l l t h a t l s r e q u i r e ct ol s e t t h e ( l y e s
Wet treatmentsare carried out on thc jig, etc., thc tcchui<ruc
tuscddcpcnding on tlre naturo of the gooG. y"r,r. "ro
tr"^i"J
il hank form, and piecc gooclsarc in opcn width,
SholYcrprooIng scwn cnd (o
eno. Alter treatment, piece goods may be passcr.l
P.V.C. fibres are hydrophobic, but water will nevertheless lhrough thc
stenter to smooth oul the fabric and sct the rcquirctl sbri-nklac.
penetrirte through thc intersticcs of a cloth made lrom thcm. Shrinkagc carricd out on mixed yarns, doublci u"",, o, u"ir.
P,V.C. fabrics nray bc showcrproofcd by mcans oI the standard sprrnfrorn blcnds ot p.V.C. r,vithotlicr llbrcs cr..l"i n
paraffin rvax type ageuts, with or without the addition of iiilfr-,f'.oi""
of bulking. Sbrinkagc carricd out on fabrics ;il
aluminium salts, . k;;ii"J;;;;
brings about a.tightcning of tbe yarns, anrl this rnay
b" u.]"d to
aqvantagcto obtain various cffcclsdepen<.ling upon ihc conslruc_
tion of the fabric.
Wa(erproofig
P.V.C. fabrics may be renderedcompletelyimpermeableto water l. Fabric witlt,Varp ol One Moterial and Welt ol
Auorher
by the applicationof a suitablecoating,and all forms of standard When fabrics are made with p.V.C. we[t, for cxanrplc,
and
coating agents may be used. Thcre are advantagesin using a cottoo warp,_the shrinkageof the p.V.C. produccs
a fnbric which
coating which rvill have the same non-Ilammabilityand resistance rs very trgbuy packed and very strong. Fabrics of
this tvne arc
to dcgradation of the P.V.C. fibres, and special matcrials for used ror.motor-car hoods, sports clothing and rainwear:
tiicv are
this purpose'are available. very reststant to tearing, are showcrproof and dirncnsioitally
If rubber coatings are required, it is best to use a self- stable.
vulcanizinglatex at low tcnperaturc, rather than a processwhich Very dense velvets (collar vclvets)mry be ntlde b y
slrrinking
r e q u i r e sv u l c a n i z a t i o n a t t e n r p e r a t u r easb o v e7 0 o G - f o rc o n t i n u o u s a relvet of normal construction, but woven with
a g r o u n do f
[ i l i r n e n to r ' F i b r a v y l ' , o r l 0 0 o C . f o r ' T h e r r n o v y l 'Z C . P.V.C.
lypes o[ jersey trave bcen crcatcd by knitring p.V.C.
, J\gw on
rnreumK machrn-cstogether with olher typcs of yarn (cotton,
llondirg rafon, uylon), and shrinking ttlc kr)irrcd fabric during
I_o.!j].
|lnrslrlng.
Specialadhesivesare availablc lor the bonding of P.V C. fabrics'
2. I{orrrogeneous Fabric nnde with Mixed Doublctl yarns
tligh'bulk and SltrinkageTreatments Shrinkageof the P.V.C. yarns in this casccrcatcs a bulky
fabric.
l' .V.C. fibres of the shrinkable typc rvill undergo a high dcgreeof 3. Ilontogcncous Fabric nade vitlt Dlentlcd yarnt
s ,n d t h i s n l a y
s h r i n k a g er v h e nh e a t e dt o a p p r o p r i a t et e n r p e r a t u r e a The ellects of sluinkage in this casc are similar to (2),
but thc
450 451
 I I A N D B O OOKF T E X T I L EF I B R E S I ] : S Y N T I IE T I C F I D R E S
gcneralappearance is lhat.of a tightly packcdplaiu cloth wovcn lilonS:rlio|l
with bulky yarns.Additionaleflcctsnray bc obtrincd by raising
I l-20 per ccnl, wet or dry.
this type of fabric.
4. Fancy and Cloquc ElJects SpccificGravity
Shrinkageellectsmay be localizcdby usingthe abovetechniques 1 . 4( " I ' h c r n r o v y lZ' C : l . 3 t r ) .
as pattcrnsin the fabric. Using a plain fabric as a basis,fabrics
rvith designsin relief,cloqucs,plaitedweavc,knop eflects,etc., liltcct of l\toisturc
may be produced. The-.watcr absorption is virtunlly nil, and thc fibr.c docs
not
swcll in watcr. Moisture has no cllccl on mcchanical pruri.rti"a.
Shaping; MouldiDg;Ernlrossing
Tho thermoplastic natureof P.V.C.fibre,and the low temperature flctntal Propcrlics
at which softeningtakesplace,are put to good use in shaping
S h r i r r k so n h e a t i r r ga b o v e7 0 o C .l " l h e n n o v y l ' Z C : i l l ) o v cl 0 0 o C . I
lechniqueswhich are used on labrics containingP.V.C. fibres.
i l s t h e e x t e n ( l e dn r o l e c u l e st c r ) d t o r c t u f l t t o t h c i r p r c - s t r c t c l i
Fabricscorlsistingtotally or in part of P.V.C. libres suchas
'Fibravyl' confilluration.
LX nray be shapedby heatingthernin sucha way thal
t h e ys h r i n ko n i o a f o r m e r . . At highcr tcnrpcraturcs,softcning contintrcs,urrddcconrposiliorr
Fabricsrvhichhavealreadybeenshrunkin the piece,or fabrics b c g i n sa t a b o u t 1 8 0 ' C -
nradefronr therrnallystabilizedlibre suchas"l'hernrovyl'LXnray
be enrbossecl or nloul(ledunder pressurc,with or withoul the I;lontnability
h e l po l h e a t . P.V.C...fibrcsarc r'nhcrcntlynon-flurrrnrablc. 't-hcy will not
'shriuking-on' brrrrr.
Usingtho method,il is possibleto coverflexible nor \vrtt they cntit 0atncs or rclclse nrolten incantlcsccnt
drons
metal or rubbertubes,electricalconductors, ctc.,with sleeves of capable oI sprcading a firc on combustiblc nralcrials-
P.V.C.tubularfabric,and then to shrink the cloth on to the tube When subjccted to an intelse {lanre, fabrics nratlc fronr prrrc
or wire it covers P . V . C . f i b r c s w i l l d i s i n t c g r a t cb, u t t h c r c s i d u c sn , n y t "
tuuiti"j
On the other hand, by mouldingfabricswhich have already D y , r a n q l o r t h c y a r c n o t h o t . l ' l l c r c i s , t l t c r c f o r c ,n o r i s k
of
been shrunk,it is possiblcto make a range of useful articles burning.
rvhich are unallectedby humidity, such as loudspeaker grilles,
upholsteryand car fabrics. ItlJcct of Low I-a11pstt1r,r.
P.V.C. libres rctain their flcxibility and strcngth at lcnlpcraturcs
STRUCTUREAND PROPERTIES --,.' as low as - 80'C.
(llasedon continuousfilarnent)
Finc Structurcand Appcarance Thernrul Conductivity
Smooth,rod-likefibres,of ncar-circular
cross-section. 1 4 x l 0 - 2 1 w . n r - l. K - l ;

Tcnacity Iiflcct of Sunlight

2 4 - 7 7 c N l I e x( 2 . 7 - 3 . 0g / d e n )w
, e to r d r y . E x c c l l c r r tr c s i s l a n c cy. a r n s c x p o s c r lt o d i r c c t s l r n l i g l ) t
lost l0
" " | : o , t c r r .s l r c n g t hn f t c r 5 r r r o r r l l r s . c x l ) o s r r r c , p c r
Tcnsilc Slre Slh f :l,lrc r l 5 ccnt
a l u D r o n t D sc' x P o s u t . ca, n d 2 5 p c r c c r r t l r I t c r l g r n ( ) r r t h s .
32-36 kg/mm2. cxposurc.
452 451 j

l F - |
t
l
\
'
\
r '
t
r '
l
 l'rF,I
H A N DD O O KO F T E X T I L EF I I ] R E S B : S Y N I ' I IE T I C F I B R E S
ChcmicalPropcr(ics Itrsccls

A citls Completely rcsistant.

No eflect. The fibrcs remained unharmed, for exanrple, alter Micro.organisms
4 years' steeping itt concentrated uitric acid, sulphuric acid or
aqua regla. Completcly resistant.

Alkalis trlectrical Propcrtics

No ellecl. The fibres remained unharmed, for example, after P.V.C. fibres have a high dielectric constant.
4 years' steepingin caustic soda or caustic potash (50 per cent).
Allcrgcnic Propcrties
Getteral P.V.C. tibres do not cause any irritation
when in coutflct with
P.V.C. fibres have outstanding resistanceto a wide range of the skin.
chemicals, .including bleaches, urine, perspiration, reducing
age0ls,oxidizing agents.

Eflcc( of OrgnnicSolvcnls
Alcohols, ether and petroleum hydrooarbonsdo oot affect P.V.C.
libres, but the nbres are swelled by toluene, trichlorethylcne,
bcnzcne, carbon disulphide, ethyl acetate, acetone,chloroform,
methylene chloride and nitrobcnzele. They are also a[tacked
by pbenols.

L X C o n ti r r u o u F
s ilaruerrt

P.V.C. FIBRES IN USE

GcneralCharactcristics

Fibre Structure
I ) . V . C .f i b r e s . l r ec o r r r r r r o n rl ya t l l e rf c r t u r c l c s s
a r r t lr o t l - l i k ei r r
15 s r r u c r u r ea, n d i n t h i s r c s p c c tc o n t r i b u t cn o t h i n g
E L o N G A T T o N% u r r u s r r :trol
p o t e t i a la p p l i c a t i o n s .

Mcchanical Properties
I'olyvinl,l Chlotidc Fibrc: Co linuous Fihntctrl 'I'he
r e g u l a tr y p c so [ I r . V . C .f i b r e I r a v er u s c f u cl o r l b i n l t i o r o
rl
454
' 455
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
l l : s Y N . t -e r I C F I n n E s
l)rviron rncnt ul C onl i t i ons
t e n a c i t ya n ( le l o n g a t i o nw, e l l s u i t c ( lt o g e n e r a l t e x t i l ac p p l i c r t i o n s .
'l'he J ' . V . C . f i b r c s l r a v c u n c x c c l l c n t r c s i s t i u l c cl o t l r c < J c g r . ; r t l i r l i v c
r n e c h a n i c aplr o p e r t i e sa r e u n a f f e c t e dl ; y l l t o i s t u r e .
i n 0 u c r ) c eesn c o u n t c r c d i n o u l d o o rr r p p l i c u t i o r risn,. t , , ,ifn g l u , i i i g l i i
Fabrics madc front P.V.C. fibrcs have atl atlractive handlc,
insectsand nlicro-organistns.
aod arc \vlrnl and co|uforlirble against the skin. Thcy havc a
h i g h a b r a s i o nr c s i s l a t r caen d g o o d w c a r i n g q u r l i t i e s , Chemicul Rcsistacc
-l
Spacific G ravity hc higlrrcsislanco c f p . V . C . l i b r c s t o c l r c n r i c a l si n, c l r r t l i n sa c i r l s
lundalkalis, ntakesthcsellbrcs lhc lirst clloicc for rrlrny
The specilic gravity of 1.4 is fairly high, in the same rcgion as ;,,r'"n,rfri,ii
applications.
thc modacrylics. -fhc
p o o r r c s i s t a n c cl o c c r t a i nc o m n t o n s o l v c n t s o , n tirc otlrcr
hand, has createdproblcrrrsin ccrtain textilc applicrtions. p.VC
Moist ure Reluiottshi ps
g o o d s c a n n o t b e d r y c l c a n c d w i t h t r i c h l o r o c t h v l c n cl r r t l c r r c
P.V.C. Iibres are absolutely non-absorbent,and the fibres do r r u s t t l r e r c f o r eb e t r k c n i n d r y c l c r n i n gt o e n s u r ei l r a t t h c c o r r c c t
not swcll in water. The ntechanicalpropertics of the llbre are s o t v e n t sa r e u s e d .
unaflccled, and fabrics nrade from P.V,C, are dirnensionally
strblc ;rnd crcasc rcsisllnt rvhcn subjcctcd to ny form o[ wct Elccrricity
processing.I'.V.C. fabrics wash and dry casily and quickly. ['.V.C. g c n c r f l t cn c g t i v c c l c c l r i c i l y b y t r i c t i o w i t l r
.fibrcs thc
s K l l . w l r c r c a st r ) o s lo t l l c r f i b r c sd c v c l o p
Thcnnal Propertics l l o s i l i v cc l c c t r i cc l | i t r p c s .
It is cl:rirrred r l r l t t l r i s n c g . r l i v cc t c c l r i c i t yt , , , . r f , " r " | ' r " i i r i " - " i i t ? . r r .
P.V.C. fibres havc exccllelt tlrermal insulation propcrties, and and is o[ valuc in thc trcatnrcnt of ihcunratisrn ",,A
,i,,iii,,i
this contributes to the warmth of properly-constructedP.V.C. complal'uts.
ganlrcnls.The good low-tcr perature propertiesare an advantage W h c n P . V . C . l i b r c i s b l c n d c dw i t h w o o l t h c ; : o s i t i v cc l c c t r i c i t v
i n c c r t a i na p p l i c a t i o n s . g c n c r a t c col n l h c w o o l n c u t r a l i z c st h c r r c g a t i v c l c c t r i c i t y
on itrc
Thc low softening terlrperaturcof P.V.C. Iibre, on the other P.V.C,, so that static is reduccd or clinrirratccl.
hand, has always been a drawback to its use as a gencralpurpose In-tr.l91ds
.. _ w i t l rc o t t o n o r r r y o n , t h c c l c c l r i c i l y g c n c r l t c d b y
lextile nbrc. Thc introduction of the newer types of l,.V.C. fibrc l h c . P . V . C . f i b r e s i s c l i s s i p : r t cbdy t h c c c l l r r l o s i i i b r c .
Nvlo,i.
spun fronr stan(lar(lan(l chlorinated P.V.C. rvith increasedheat acrylic, acctatc or silk fibrcs do not dissipttc ttrc ctrrrgc
io'a,iy
s i s t a n c eh,a si n c r e a s e tchl e v e r s a t i l i t yo f t h e f i b r e .
r e'fhe s i g n i l i c a n ct x t c n t .
high dcgrec of strctch that" may be locked into P.V.C. static
,lI ^ c l c c t r i c i l iys c a r r s i n gt r o u b l c i r r t l r c p r o : c s s i n go r r r s c
fibrcs by slretcbing when warm, and subsequcntly.cooling, o r l ' . v . U . - t r 0 r c s ,i t l l a y b c p r c v c u t c db y u s i r r ga r r l p p r o p r . i r r t c
bestows upolr these fibrcs the high bulking charactc/stics that a n l i s t a t i cl i n i s h .
havc bcen so useful in acrylics.
P.V.C. librcs are absolutely llaneproof, and this has proved \YnshiDg
one of their nlost in'rportantfeatures. Mixed rvith otber fibres, Fabrics containing P.V.C. fibrcs nray bc wrshcd crsity arrtl
they will suppressthe flarnrnabilityof thcsefibrcs to a rentarkablc cffcctively,so long as care is takcn to cnsure thnt lukcwflnn watcr
dcgree; 25 pcr cent ol P.V.C. fibrc blcndcd witl cotton or other 'fhe
only is uscd. water tcmpcralurc ntust not bc highcr than
ccllulosic Iibrc, for exanrplc,will prcvent the fabric or yarn from
6 0 0 C a r r dp r e f e r a b l yb e t r v c c n3 0 a n d 4 0 o C .
s u p p o r t i n gc o m b u s t i o nw h e n i g n i t e d i 7 5 p e r c e n t o f P . V . C .
llbre in a blend of this sort will rencler the ntixture alnrost
non-flarnnrable.
4s6 R* 457

T----l
L
- - L ' 1 t t ' f
t
, - Ut
 r
II NDEOOK OF TEXTILE FIARES B: SYNTII ETI C FINRES

Filtration.One oI the nrostirrrDorlant of rhcsciDdustrialuscsis

Drying I n t h cI l t t r a t t o n
o [ c o r r o s i vlei q u i d si,n c l u d i n sg t r o n ga c i t l sn, l k a l i s
P.V.C.fibre doesnot absorbwater,and fabricsdry quickly and a n d o x t d l z l n ga g c n l sI.r t o r g a l r iccl r c n r i c a lass, a g c n c r arl r r l c ,d o
casily. Moderatetemperaturesonly (below 65"C.) should be not attack P.V.C.fibrcs,but.carc must.bc lakcri to ",,sur" th"t
used. organicnaterialsdo not swcll thc librcs.
. In the filtration of gascs,thc humirJityof thc grs docs uot
IroDing inlluencethe pore sizeof the fabric. Als'o,thc accinrLrlation oi
static€lectricityby the fibresmay hclp in tiltrationby rrtracting
Fabricsmade frorn 100 per cent P.V.C. fibre, or from blends particlesof dust and dirt to tbe filtcr fabric.
containinga high proportion of this fibre, are dimensionallv
stableand wrinkle resistant.They do not usuallyneedironing, , Controlledshlinkageol the filtcr fabric nray bc usedto crcllc
fabricscapableof filteringultra-fineparticlcsirom liqui<lnrcclia.
but if it is considerednecessary
a cool iron shouldbe used.with
a damp linen cloth betweenirorr and fabr.ic. , P.V.C.libresmay be usedin thc form of lintcrs,rva<l<ling or
Fabricsmade from blcndscontaining25 per cent or lessof flock,in additionto the nornralfabric fornr.
P.V.C.nbre may bo ironedusuallywithoutdilliculty,usinga low The choiceof fabric to bc useddcpcncls upon thc tcnlpcraturc
temperature setting. of the materialto be filtered.If the tempcrature is bclow about
7 0 o C . , . f t r b r incrsa d ef r o r r r c g r r l :lr)r. V . Cf.i b r e( . 1 ; i b r r v y lr' 1nly bc
Dry Cleaning u s e ( 1n. t t c n l P e r a ( u r ac b s o v ct l t i s ,l t i s l ) r c l c r i l l ) ltco l t s c : tl l c u t -
stabilizedtype of P.V.C.suchas.'l'herntovyl'.
FabricscontainingP.V.C.tibresmay be dry cleanedrvith petrol
( g a s o l i r r eo)r r v h i t e s p i r i t , b u t b e n z e n ea n c l t r i c hl o r et h v l er r e
s h o u l cbl e r v o i d e d P. e r c h lroo et h yl e n es h o u l t bl e u s c dc a u t i o u s l y . Upholstery; F urnishi ngs
End-Uscs The resistanceof P.V.C.fibresto dctcrioration
hasbroughtmany
applicaiionsin upholsteryand furnisbing,cspcciallyii tropicr-l
P . V . C .f i b r c sc a n b e u s e di r r n r a n ya p p l i c a t i o n sT.h e r n a i nu s e sf o r countries.Mosquito nctting,furnishingfabrics,awnings,tcnts,
Rhone P o u l e n cT e x t i l e P . V . C . f i b r ; i a r e h o s i e r ya r r d [ u r n i s h i n g etc., are not afiectedby noulds even undcr t.hc most humid
fabrics. conditions.The resistance to insectsand othcr aninralpcstsis
I ndustrial A p plications conrplete.
The chemicalresistance and non-flammability of p.V.C. fibres , Thcse sams propcrties, allied cspccially with thc non-
flammabilityof P.V.C., have opencd up inrportant ficlclsoI
haveenabledthem to find importantusesin tho industrialfield.
applicationin the furnishingof cincnrai,thcatrcs,ships and
Typical applicationsinclude:
aircraft. P.V.C. libres provide fabrics for curtains,nwnings,
Waddings,Iiltcr cloths,braiding,piping and other usesin the upholstery,carpets,netting, hammocksand the likc. p.V.C.
chemioalindustry; waddings and fclls are used as non-flanrmablcinsulation
Brtlery fabrics: materials.
Protectiveclothing; The motor car tradeis an importantoutlct for I,.V.C.fabrics.
Tarpaulins,awnings,curtains,lishingnots,etc.; providinghoods,seatcovcrirrgsand othcr filbrics.
Fairings and canvas awnings for aircraft, gliclcrs,boats, The largovarictyof cloquc,knop and other clTcctswhich arc
DUOyS,elc.;
Orthopacdicmaterials,artificiallimbs,saddlery,etc.;
obtaincdby usingthc thcrnralshrinkage of p.V.C.fibrcsnrovides
novelty c{Tcctsfor furnishingfabrics,which rnay bc obtainccl
Accessories
for textilemacbinery,billiard cloths. simply and cheaply.
458 459
 IIANDAOOK OF TEXTILE FIBII,ES B: SYNIIIE'ItC FIr]IIES

A ppat cI cost oI a fabric wilhout dctracling

signiliclutly frou thc
chilrncteristicpropcrlics of wool, lntl
The sensitivityoI P.V.C. fibres lo heat has tencledLo restrict their at ,i," ,.,,t"'ri,,,"",,.f,fi,,"
lesirable_propcrtics,
suchasnon-namnralriliiy,
use in the lield of apparel fabrics. UnstabilizcdP.V.C. libres begin
rhcP.V.C. wi;;il;;ili;;;,:
to shrink at tcmperatureswhich may be as low as 70'C., and
grcat carc rnust bc excrciscd in the washing and ironing of
fabrics containing thcse fibres. Also, the fact that certain com- Blarulswith Co o tl llqol
nonly-used dry cleaning agents will soften P.V.C. llbrcs has P.V.C.fibrcsarc blcndcdwilh cottonlntl
provcd a drawback to their use in clothing applications. othcr ccllulosicfibrcs "it,"
'fhe t o -b l i n g a b o u t i n c r c a s ci n s l r c n g t l )i ,r l d
dcvelopmcnt of thc ncwer typcs of P.V.C. fibre (seepage ro ,,,"t. pu.rriLt"
c l l c c l so b t l i n a b l cf r o n r c o n t r o l l c ds h r i n k r r g c ,
447) has greatly improved the prospectsof P.V.C.0bres in this "c. lr"i,.ij ..1i".,..
l'he tandlc, war'rtlr anl crcrsc_rcsist'ncc"of
hcld. ;;;";'i;,;r;:';;':
tncrcased.
Despito the ditlicultiesinherent in P.V.C. fibrcs,they have made
considerableprogressin some apparel applications.P.V.C. fabrics
Illcntls vith N ylon
have an allractive handlc, aucl arc very plcasant to wcar next to
thc skin. Uscd alone or in blends with othcr flbres, P.V.C. fibres P V , C . f i b r ch l c l d c r lr v j t hr r y l o rpr r o v i c l eas f u t r r i c
i r rw h i c hl l l l v
arc used for hosiery, sports and travcl shirts, and baby clothes. o l . . t t 1 ce s s c i r t i ac lh a r l c t e r i s t i cosl t h c n y l u r r*
ru.t,.i-iui'"iiif
These garnlents may be washcd easily in lukewa[m water, dricd r r r i l t l e r vc s i s t a n c- ei l r cr c t a i t r c d .
overnight, and used again without ironiog.
Spccial cfl-ectsare obtained by making usc of thc shrinkagc of
P.V.C. when boiled in water. Cloque fabrics, Ior cxample, arc ( 2 ) V I N Y L C I I L O t rI D E C O I , O t . _ ylti t t{
lllt}t{lts
made by weaving alternate bands of P.V.C. with other yarns,
Fjbres.spun
followed by heat treatment which brings about shrinkagc of the
proPortioD -fronrcopolymcrsof vinyl chtor.idcrvith u sntlllcr.
P.V.C. of a sccorrd Inonontct.
The use of a P.V.C. weft and a warp of a dillcrent nbre - T h e f i b r e ' V i n y o n ' H H ,f o r e x a n r p l ei s, s p r r nf r o n rI c o l t o l l , n t c r
provides a fabric which may bc weft-shrunk to produce a tightly- o f v i n y l c h l o r i c l ca r x l v i n y l a c c t a l cw
, h i c i rc o n r l , i r rSs j ' t o ' t i r s
packcclwarp. Vclvets of great pilc dcnsity, for cxanrplc, nray be p c r c c n t o f v i n y l c h l o r i d cb y w c i g h t .
made by using this technique. Wrtcr-resisting lapiics, likcwisc,
may bc nradc lor use in rainwear, sports iackets,riniforms, ctc, CI'lr- CHCI 1- c f i ,= c H o c o o t r - > -cHr-iH-o!_fH_

CL OCOCHT
Bletrds with Wool VINYL CIILORIDE 'vrNyoN,
VINYL ACETA]E l t
P.V.C. staple libre is blendcd wilh wool for the production of
woollcn goods, providing fabrics of incrcased strength. Thc 'flrc
milling capacityis incrcascdby shrinkageat clcvatcd temperature, l i b r c . ' D y n c l ' - i ss p u t rf r o r r a c o p o l y n r c ro I v i r r y l c l t l o r i t l c
yielding a cloth which would not otherwise fclt. Shrinkage a n o a c r y l o n l t f l l c ,w h i c h a r c i r r t h c r l ( i n o f 6 0
l l i t r t s t o . 1 0p l l r t s
capacity is likewiseadded to labrics which are normally incapable b y w c i g h t r e s p e c t i v e l y( p. r o d u c t i o ns u s p c n ( l c ( l ) .
d being milled.
In worsted goods, the addition of P.V.C. fibres brings about
CHz-Cllct + Cftr= C|.|CN - > - c l t :- c f t - c l t r _ f l t _
an incrcasc in strength, and nrakcs possible lhe produclion of
bouclC clTects. cL cN
The addition oi P.V.C. to wool is also a way of lowering the VINYLCIILORIDE ACRYLONITRILE 'DYN
EL,
460
461

'*1 --l --l ,-.'l -l .l . n . f t

I
I-==[Fttl'll.,l t l . i F lf . '1i .F1,Fi . l _ f i F
IIANDDOOK OF TEXTILE FIARES
D: SYNTIIETIC TI BRES
IN'II{ODUCTION is used for thosc fibrcs in which thc polynrcr is conrposcd
o[
lcss than 85'per ccnt and at lcast 35 pcr'ccrrt ,i
Difticulties experienced in spinnilg 100 per cent polyvinyl ""ril"iriiri[.
chloride during the early 1930slcd to many attempts to increase Ih"l i,fibl: bascd or a polyrncr
coutaining,
sry,60 p", "",ii'oi
the solubility of the polymer. One techniquewas to introduce a ]llYt,.!ftonctc unirs aud^.40prr cenroI acrylonitrilc
irlits is by
uctrlltron a rrrodilcrylic fjt)rc. Its nnnlc irssociltcsit with ircrvlorri-
small proporlion of another monomer into the polymerization, "'
t r i l c , .w h c r c a s _ t h cb u l k o f r h c p o l y n r c r i s p o l y v i n y l f i , f " * i r .
to fortl.I a copolymer wlrich would be expectedto have increased
r l b r c s l n t h t sc a t c g o r yh a v c b c c o m co [ c o r r r 0 t c r c i a j rlr r D o r t l r r c c .
solubility.
and are propcrly considcrcd as fibrcs of rh" polyvinyl'chioritl.:
In 1933,Carbide and Carbon Chemicalsin the U.S. dcveloped
typc.
a copolymcr of vinyl chloride which was capable of being
As in the caseof any fibres bascdon copolyntcrs,thc propcrlics
clissolvediu a solyent and dry spun into libres of useful properties.
'lhess vary grcatly, cvcn thougll the n)iljor contpot)cDLis
fibres wcrc given thc name'Vinyon'. lltc sarrre.
'Vinyon' ftbrcs did not ttkc placc ,,t) ,ll" whiclr follows, two fibrcs arc takcn as cx nrplcs
Commcrcial developmcntof .q"".tlon
oI vlnyl chloflde copolymcrs:
until 1938,whcn American ViscoseCorporation began producing
the libres for the first time. ( a ) ' V i n y o n ' I - l H , w h i c h c o n t a i n sm o r c t h r n g 5 p c r
'Vinyon' was markoted originally as a continuous lllament . ccnt vinyl
chloridc,and thuscomcsrrnclcr
rhc f-.-f..C.
,icn"irii,iil ri,,l"l,',
yarn,'Vipyon'CF. Production of this has sincc bcen disconlinucd, an(l
'Vinyon' I{H.
and'Vinyon'is now available as a staplc fibrc, (b) 'Dyncl', rvhich contains60 pcr c c l l t v i n y l
c h l o r i t l c ,n n d
Today, a number of fibres are spun from copolymersin which comesunder the F.T.C. dcfinition o[ tttodacrylic bccarrsc
vinyl chloride lorms the major component. thc
minor componcntis acrylonitrilein morc than 35 pcr cct|t
ploportioo.
NOM ENCLATURE
(a) ,VINYON' HH
Tlre system of classificationused in the Hantlbook ol Textile
Fibres is based on the chemical constitution of the fibre, the
polyncric unit which is present in greatest proportion being
ti
ilxil,"J.; ii,l,.'..',a,?i,l|:
0tiii",1',,"llj;li
ti"lfi ""J,:i"Jl,,:;
regarded as the chemical type of the libre. Using this system of of vinyt,chtoride
(8s-86.sperccnr),,r,i,i,yi ;;;i;i;?i;"jii:i
classilication,all copolymer fibrcs in which vinyl chlrride provides
P e rc e n t ) .
the major proportion of polymeric units are included under the By F.T.C.dcfinition,,Vinyon' HI{ is a virryorrfibre.
headingof Potyvinyl Chloride Fibres.Thus, any copolymer madc
from two iironomers, of rvhich vinyl chloride forn)s more than
50 per cent by weight, is regarded as a polyvinyl chloride fibre. PRODUCTION

F'cderol Trade Conunissiott De linitions Mononrcr Synthcsis

-fhe
dcfinitions rdopted by the U.S. FccleralTrade Commission (l) Vinyl Chloride, sce prgc 447.
do not, unfortunatcly, follow a straightforward chemical system
of classification.This leads to some confusion, for example, in (2) Vinyl Acetate
the considerationof vinyl chloride copolynters. Vintl acetlte is produccd by thc rcaction of acctylencwith
According to the F.T.C. delinition, vinyl chloride copolymers acctic
acid:
in which vinyl chloridc forms at lcrsl 85 pcr ccnt by wcight nrc
known as virryorrfibrcs.Tltc tcrm moducrllic, on thc othcr hltrd.
cl{=ct-I -fcI{3cooH-+cH, = ct{ococl I,
462
463
 II N D B O O K O F T E XI I L E F I I ] R E S
r]: syN]ttctlc rltRES
Thc rcaction nray bc carried out in onc of trvo w:rys: PROCISStNC-
(a) acetylcncis rcacted with liquid acetic acid at temperatures
up to 100'C., using mcrcuric saltsas catalyst.Ethylidenediacctate lrJcrng
is produced as a byproduct: D i s p e r s ed y e s a r c u s c d i n c o n j u n c l j o n
w i t l t s r v c l l i n gl r g c n t ss rr cl r
ls p h t l ) i r l l t co r o _ h y d r o x y c l i p h c r r y l .
- d r , b u t y l I ) y c b i t l ht c r ) ) p c l . i t l u r c
cFr=ct,t + 2 CH"COOH+(CHTCOO),Cr{cH. s n o t d n o t e x c c c d5 5 . C .

This is pyrolyzcd to split it into vinyl acetateand acclic acid. SII{UCTUIiE AND pl{OpEt{l.II:s
(b) Acctylene is bubblcd through acetic acicl to provide
a Irinc S(ruc(urc :rnd
nrixturc of the two reactants in vapour fornt. 'I-he gas mixture ppclrrncc
is passedover a zinc or cadrriun salt catalyst at 200_250.C. S r n o o t hs u r f r c e df i b r c s o l . r o u n d
o r d o g _ l t o nc r o s s - s c c l i o l t .
'l'cnacily
Polynlcriza(ion
Vinyl chloridc and vinyl acctate alc copolyntcrizcd by enrulsion 6 . 2 - 8 . 8c N / t c x( 0 . ? * I . 0 g / ( l c n )w
, c ro r ( l r y
polymerization or in a solvent for thj copolynrer, tlr. pro..ri 'I'cnsilc
Strerrgtll
b e i r r gs i r n i l a rt o t h r t u s e d i n n r a k i n gp o t y v i r i y L ' c L r l o i i(cJi ;e; ; ; ;
448) 'Ihe 'o 8 4 0 - I , 1 9 0k g / c l r 2( 1 2 , 0 0 0 _ l ? , 0 0 l0b / i n 2 . 1 .
polynrerizarior
is conrirriccl
",,tit prfv,ii.,oi,i,6i.i"-
-rco"ii",i.
ular rvciglrtin thc rangc12,000to ZZ,0OO ir.s'Uceu IloDgtlion

Spirrning 100-125pcr ccnl, wct or dry.

Thc polymcr is dissolvctl in acelonc, ancl the solution is thcn
Spccilic Crnvily
Iiltcrcd, de-aeralcdancl storcd in hcated tanks. Front the storace
t a n k , l h c s o l u l i o n j s p u r n p c d t o t l t e s p i u n c r c t .A s l h e f i n c i e t s 1.33-I.35.
e r n c r g e[ r o m t h c s p i n l c r c t b o l c s , t h c y f a l l t h r o u g l t / r s p i n n l n c
t u b c t l ) r o u g l tw h i c h h o t a i r i s p a s s i n gT. h c a c e t o n J i s ' " u o p o r n t " J Ellcc( of lltoisturc
to lcavc-solidfilantentsof vinyl chloridc/vinyl acctate.opbly."r. 'Virryon'l{H
a b s o r b s v c r y l i t t l c n r o i s t u r c .l t hils it rcgitin
The nlanlcnts produccd in llris way are brought togeihei into U . l p c r c c n t . I t d o c s n o t s w c l l i n w i l l c r ,f l n d ol-
t l l c tcnsilc prol.rcrtics
a low which is rvound or to a spiudle. Thc early types of rcntain unallcctcd by watcr.
'Vinyon',
c . g . ' V i n y o n ' C F , w e r e s t r c l c h e da f t e r s p i n n i n g i n
o r ( t e r t o o n c n l n l c t h c n t o l e c l t l c sl r n d i n c r e a s ct h c s t r c n g t h o f 'l
hcrDlirl ltroltcrtics
thc fibre. lvlodcrn 'Virryon' I-ll"l is scl<lomrrsc<lin applic-ations 'Vinyon'soflcns
requiring grcat tcnsils strcngth, howevcr, and it is oioclucetl in a t 5 2 . C . a n d s l r n n k so ! I t b c c o r r r csst i c k y
a t 8 5 ' C . a n d n r c l t sa t I 3 5 . C .
l l l c r r n s l r c l c l l c df o ] l .
-fhe
t o w i s l u b r i c a t e da n d c u t i n t o s t a p l c . Flanrnohility. Chars, but will not brrrn.
N o l c . T i t u n i L r ndt i o x i d c n r a y b c n t i x c c li n t o l h c s p i n n i n gs o l u t i o n
l o p r o d u c ca d u l l y a r n , a r r dc o l o u r . c dp i g n r c n t sn t i i y b c i n t r o c l u c c c l liltcct of Agc
t o p r o v i d c a s o l u l i o n - d y c do r s p u n - d y e dy a r n .
Ncgligiblc.
464
465

"-trl r-l --[ .. r I r-t

 trJJJJJ-F. N
F. T
F. F
F, F
F, F
B: SYNTII ETI C FI I]RES
H A N D B O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S

tiflcc( of SurliSha lillcct of OrgarricSolrcnts

Ncgligiblc. Ilcsists alcohols,pet.rol(gasolinc),para in antl nrincral oils. lt is

softened by aronratic hydrocarbons,cslcrs trrd cthcrs, Dissolvcs
Chctnicrl Properties in ketonesand to sornecxlcnt in chlorinrtcd solvcnts.

Ackls loscc{s
Unaflectcd at normal tempcratures by mincral acids. Hot acids Not attacked by moth grubs or bcctlcs.
cause deconrposition and embrittlement.
Micro-orgaoisnts
Alkalis Not at.tackedby rnoulds or bactcria.
Unaflected by 30 per cent causticsoda or causticpotash.
ItlcctricalPropcrtics
uenetar I{igh dielectric strcngth o[ 650 volts pcr nril nt 60 cyclcs.
Coocl resistanccto nlost comulon chemicals,including perspira-
tron, Allcrgcnic Propc(tics
Not toxic to skin surfaccs.
.VINYON'
HH IN USE

Ccncral Cllarnclcristics
The low softcning[emperature of'Vinyon' Hll, quitc apartfronl
any other factor,deniesit anythingbut very spccializcd tcxtllc
applical.ions. This being so, there is littlc jnducemcntfor lhc
nranufacturcrto improvc tcnsilc and clongationpropcrlicsin
orderto makethe fibre moresuitablclor nornralproccssing tcclr.
niques.In thisconncction, it is interesting to notc that lhc tcnacity
o f t h e e a r l i e rV i n y o n ' C F r v a si n l h c r e g i o no l ' 3 0 c N / t c x( : 1 . 4
g/den), and tlre clongationl8 per ccnt, so that it rvoultl trc
possible to effect consitlcrableinrrrroverrrcItiI rrrcchanical
p r o p e r t i eosf ' V i r r y o nt' l l l i i t h c n e c t il h o u k lr r i s c .
The chemicaland biologicalpropcrticsof 'Vinyon' I.I[I nrc
g e n e r a l l ys i r r r i l atro t h o s eo f 1 0 0 p c r c c n t i , . V . C .l " i b r c sl.h c
30 60 90 120 [ibre is corrrpletelynon-flarnrrral>le, alld is resistclt to ntany
S T R A T N( % E L o N c A T T O N ) chemicals.lt is attackcd,horvcvcr,by a fairly rvitlc rangcof
commonsolvcnts.
Ind-Uses
V i n y o n ' l l l l i s u s e da sa b o n d i n gf i b r ci n n o n - r v o v calp p l i c : r t i o n s .
'Vin!o!t'HII
M i x e dw i t h o l h c r f i b r e si t b e c o r n ci sa c k yr v l r c rl r c a t c ral n db o n r l s
466 467
 II N D B O O K O F ' T E X - t I L E I : IN R E S sYNIl|EItCIrtUl([s

Thc rcaction nray bc carried out in onc of trvo ways: PROCT:S.SINC

(a) acetylcneis rcactcd rvith liquid acetic acid aI ten]peratures

I)ycing
up to 100'C., using mercuric saltsas catalyst.Ethylidenediacetate
i s p r o d u c e da s a b y p r o d u c t : Dispersedyes arc uscd in conjunction with swclling lgcnts sttcll
rrs di.bltyl phth:rlatc or.o-hydroxyrJiphcnyl.Dycbrrtli tc.-nr1.,,j1;11111,:
s l r o r r l dn o t e x c c c d5 5 ' C .
cH=clI + 2 cH"cooFI+(cHscoo)!cI{ct{'
S]'I{UCTUI{E AND PITOPEIU'I[iS
This is pyrolyzcd to split.it into vinyl acctate and acctic acid.
(b) Acetylene is bubbled througb acetic acid to provide a Il'irc Structure a d Appcrrancc
'l-he gas
nrixture o[ the two reactants in vapour fornr. mixture
Snlooth surfaced fibres ol round or dog_tlonc cross_scctioll.
is passed over a zinc or cadnrium salt catalyst at 200-250'C.
'l'cDncity
I'olynrcrizntion
6 . 2 - 8 . 8c N / t c x( 0 . 7 - 1 . 0g / ( l e n )w, c t o r ( l r y
Vinyl chloridc and vinyl acctate arc copolynrcrizcciby enrulsion
polymerization or irr a solvent lbr the copolynter, the process I'cnsile SIrc|lgtlr
b e i n g s i r n i l a rt o t h a t u s e d i n m a k i n g p o l y v i n y l c l t l o r i d e( s e ep a g e
,148 'fhe polynlerization is continue(l until a polynrer of nrolec- 840-I ,190kg/cru2 lbiin2.y.
1t2,000-t7,000
).
ular wcigllt in thc range 12,000 to 27,000 has bccn rcachcd. lilongulion
p c r c c n t ,w c t o r d r y .
100-125
S p i nn i n g
T h c p o l y m c r i s d i s s o l v c di n a c e t o n c ,a n d t h e s o l u t i o n i s t h c n Spccilic Cr:lvity
filtercd, dc-acratedirn(l stored in hcated tanks. Fronl the storage Ll3-1.35.
tank, the solution is pumpcd to the spinneret.As the llne jets
ernerge from thc spinneret holcs, thcy fall through fi spinning Ellcct of Moisiurc
l u b c t l ) r o u g l lw h i c h h o l a i r i s p a s s i | l gT, h c a c c t o o ei s ' c v a p o r n t e d 'Vinyon'
to leave solid filanrentsof vinyl clrloridc/vinyl acctatecopolymer. I'lH absorbs vcry littlc ntoisture, Jt has I rcg:rirr ol-
Thc filanrentsproduced in this way are brought together inlo 0 . 1 p c r c c n l . l t d o c s n o t s w c l l i n w a t c r ,a n d l h c t c n s i l cp r . 6 p c r l i c s
a torv which is rvound on lo a spiudle. The early types of rcnlain unallcctcd by w tcr.
'Vinyon', e.g. 'Vinyon'
C F , w e r e s l r e t c h e da f t e r s p i n n i n g i n 'l
ordcr to oricntltc thc nlolecules and incrcase thc strcngth of hcrlrll Itropcrtics
'Vinyon'softcns
t h c l l b r c . l v l o d c r n ' V i n y o u ' l l l { i s s c l d o n ru s c d i n a p p l i c a l i o n s a t 5 2 ' C . a o d s h r i n k sa [ 6 0 , ' C .I t b c c o r r c ss t i c k y
rcquiring great tcnsile strcngth, howevcr, aucl il is producetl in a t 8 5 ' C . a n d n r c l t sa t I 3 5 ' C .
l h c u n s t r c l c h c df o r n t .
-lhc
tow is lubricated and cut into staplc. Flarntnohility. Chars, but rvill not brrrn.
N o l c . T i t a r r i u r nd i o x i d e n r a y t r c r n i x c c il n t o l h c s p i n n i n gs o l u t i o n
t o p r o d u c ca d u l l y a r n , a l l c lc o l o u r c dp i g n r c n t st r ] a yb c i n l r o d u c c d lilfect of Agc
t o p r o v i d c a s o l u l i o n - d y c do r s p L r r r - d y cyda r n . Ncgligiblc.
464 46s

rl-t r-T 11 --t .-T r-J -J ''l - . ' r ' t - t - t 'I -l ---[ '--Ed
:t NhTFTIIF-FTTTT}T
I ' A N D A O O KO F T E X T I L [ , F I B R E S D : SY N T I E
I T IC F I I ] R E S
IilTcct of Sunlight lillcct of 0rgrtrricSolvcDts
Ncgligiblc. llcsists alcohols,pctrol (gasolinc),paraliin anrl rrrilcral o i l s .
lt is
s o l t c n c ob y a r o r ) ) a t i cl t y d r o c t r b o r r se, s t c r sa r r d c t l r c r s .l)issolvcs
ChcrDicrlProperlics in ketonesand to sonte cxtcot in cltlorin;rlcdsolvcnts.

Acitls Insecls
Unallected at normal tcmperaturcsby mineral acids. Hot acids Not attackcd by nroth grubs or bcctlcs.
causedecompositionand embrittlement,
Micio-orgaDisnrs
Alkalis Not attacked by rnoulds or brc(cria.
Una(ected by 30 per cent caustic soda or causticpotash.
Illcclricrl Propc.tics
General Iligh dielectric strcngth of 650 volts pcr nril ut (r0 cyclcs.
Good resis[anceto n]ost common chemicals,including perspira-
Il o n . AllcrgcnicPropcrtics
Not toxic to skin surfaccs.
.VINYON'
HH IN USE
@@
?xp
Gcncral Ch:lr:lclcrislics
T h c l o w s o l t e n i n tgc m p e r a t u roef , V i n y o nI' . l ll , ( t n i t ci r n x r tf r o n r

:'@
Y\ig
tfll %
^l
any_.otber
applications.
nra.oufacturer
factor,deniesit anythingbut very spccializcrJ
This being so, rhcre is littlc j|lclucenrcrrt
to improvc lcnsilc and elongationprop"rti"s i,i
order to makethe fibre moresuitablcfor nornralproccssing
n i q u e sI .n t h i sc o n n c c t i o n
of,the earlier
tcxtilc
Ior thc

tcclr.
i t ,i s i n t e r e s t-irnteoggni o rt rci h r t t h c t c ] r a c i r v
jn
g i ( l e n ) ,a n d U. V i r r y o n 'C F w a s t h e o f : O . f . f l L " *i - i . i
l e c l o n g a t i o nl 8 p e r c c r r t ,s o t l r i t i l r v o u l r lb c
p o s s l b l et o e l l e c t c o t ) s i ( l c r r b lier I l p r o v c t l r e ri rt tl r r r c c l r l
icll
p r o p e r t i eosf ' V i n y o n 'I l l j i f t h en e c di l r o u l t rl r i s c .
The chemicaland biologicalpropertiesof .Vinyon' I.ll.I rrc
generallysimilar to those of 100 pcr cent i'.V.C. fjbrcs. ,l.hc
f i b r e i s c o n r p l e t e l yn o n - f l a n r n r a bal er ,r d i s r e s i s t a ntto n r a r i v
chemicals..lt is altacked,horvcvcr,by a llirly rvirlc ralgc oi.
c o m m o ns o l v c n t s ,
End-Uscs
'Vinyon'ItH . V i n y o n ' . l l l li s u s e da sa b o n d i r r fgi b r cj n n o n _ r v o v :crrpr p l i c l r t i o n s .
M i x e dw i t h o t h c r l i b r e si t b e c o r i r ct a s c k yr v h c rhr c a t c rai r r cbl o n t i i
466 467
 I I N D I } O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S
t h c n m s so f l i b r e st o g c t l r c rI.l . i s t r s c t il n t l r i sr v a v [ o r r r r : r k i r r p sl'NT|ll]TIc Ft nREs
.TYPES
f c l t s ,b o r r d c df i r b r i c as r r t lh c a t - s e r l a bpl ca p c r sl .t n D o ; t t n rt D D l i c x : OF IIII]RI]
t i o n s i-n c l u d ef i l t e r f a [ : r i c st,e r . b a g sd. o o i p r n e l ; a n d w e b t ; i n e s .
'Vinyon' 'Dynel'
i s u s e df o r i n t l u s t r i aal n t l o u t t i o o rf a b r i c si n c l u t l i " n s r v a sn l a r k e t c a
( lss t a D l e ,
g i t r t l e rf :u r n i t u r ct,a r p a u l i r :rsw, n i n g sf,i l t e rc l o t h s3 n d p r o t c c t i v E .niriuo*ii. ffi;;l;ili',i,ij'l"low'trislrt' scnri{ull
rrrtlrlull,
c l ot h i n g . ,Dylrcl,:
l n c r c w c r et h r c c ) a i nt y p c so f
(b) .DYNEL' (l) Rcgulur.Stanclardgr.adcslaplc
'"
(2) Controlledl! igll-slu.inkart
nd row (.ll,pc lti0).
' D y r r e l r' v a s
a f i b r e o f t h c p o l y v i r r ycl h l o r i d ct y p e p r o d u c e db y
t h e F i b c r sa n d F a b r i c sD i v i i i o ; o a U n i o n C a r b i i l eb o r f o r r t i o , i ,
i,ii,,l;:iJl,i',1lJTi,::il
Titf:fitijlJ,il'ltfiifiilj,ti
i r r ^ t l r eU . S . A .I t w a s . s p u nl r o n r a c o p o l y r r r corf v i r r y l ' c h l o r i c l e (3) Cupc.t ,Filrc. A spccirl
( 6 Up e rc e n t )a r ) da c r y l o n i t r i l(e4 0 p c rc e n t ) . fibrc for c;rrpct rrsc, rvitlr lowcr
Ily F.'f .C.dcfinition,'Dyneliwis a notlicrylic fibre. H*il?;.i'f, f"";r';";;-"';'
llii,"];1,fl::'1,,T:*il "L',;'i;i
I NTII,ODUCTION
PRODUCTION
T h c m o s t s e r i o u sd i s a d v a n t a g e
t o l h c u s e o [ p o l y v i n y lc h l o r i d c
type fibrcs for generaltextile applicationslies in thcir low soften- l\'IonorrrerSJnthcsic
tng point. Many attcmpts were nrade lo raise the soflcning point
oI. vinyl chloridc/vinyl acctatc copolyntcrs, a s u s c d i t r n l a k i n g (a) Vinyl Chloridc. Scc prgc447.
'\'inyon'
I'lH, by adjustnlenl of the relativc proportions of thc (b) Acrylonitritc. Scc
t]flgc 399.
two conrponcnls,but without succcss.
Durirrg I'olyntcriz:rtio|r
w a s l o u n .dt h e w o r k o n v i n y l c h l o r i d cc o p o l y n r c r Iso, w c v c r ,i t
t h s t l l b r e so f s a t i s f a c t o rsyo f t c n i D p go i n t c o u l d b c
spun.from
.copolymcrs of vinyl chloridc arrJ icrylorritrilc,iri "'". (40pa
I:l''iJ"i?'l;l'"%,i:,i*"';1,;i:i,11: rrs)nrcpor
v-
w h r c ht h e v i n y l c h l o r i d cr c m a i n c dt l t c n r a j o rc o r p o n c n t .
.-.ln "lrll fibre produccdfrom copolymersof lhis type was Spinning
'Vinyon'
N . 1 - h i sw r s a c o n t i n L r o uf ish m c n t l i b r c * h 1 ; i ; ; ;
is.dissolvcd
d r y - s p u nl r o r r a s o l u t i o no [ v i n y l c h l o r i d c / a c r y l o n i t r i l c ) c o p o l y - Ij: o":jt19, in ncerr
n ) e r .I l i s n o l o n g c rp r o d u c c d .
I n - 1 9 5 1 ,U n i o n C a r b i d cC o r p o r a l i o rirn t r o c l u c cot ln t o t h c "",.diii,'i"";"'j
;:,,1":l
rr,c..warcr, "tit*.ili'1";iii"[x
Jlil):*,:""-
t c x l i l em : r r k e at n c w f i b r ec a l l e d, D y n c l ' T .
h i s f i b r c w a ss i n r i l a r r.ndsorid nr,,,ii",,o'
Ji ;::1,:,T,':,:X"r*;il.ll,'t,
lil
l o . ' V i n y o n 'N i n t h a t i t w a s s p u n f r o r r ra c o p o l y n r eo, f u i n v i
;il':l;'r",nj[T;;;
i;:,:,1;':l:;l r'oi"'ir
ri'",i.i'.,'i;,r'i;;,'';;,1;
c h t o f l d ea n d a c r y l o n i t r i l ew, i t h t h e v i n y l c h l o r i d ef o r m i n gt h e
mirjorcomponcnt.IJutit waswet-spuniristcadof bcingdry_lpun, ;;;;;,:;;' ;;;"':i;;;lljii:']fi ^::,1
fffJf:1"';
J,':l H';i"il?:i
-coniinuoui
a n d i t w a s a v a i l a b l ea s s t a p l ea n d t o w , i n s t e a do f
I rl a m e tn-
'Dyrrel' PROCESSINC
. P r o c l u c t i oonf w a sl a t e rd i s c o n t i n u ebcul ,t i n f o r n l a t i o n
about it has beenretainedfor its historicartdfechnicalvalueirr
t h c f o l l o r v i r rsge c t i o n'.D y t r e l 'w a so f i n r p o r l . a n ,c,e , , , . * r u , r i . I)csizirrg
o f a f i b r es p u nc o n r n r e r c i a lflryo r na c o p o l y r n eorl ' v i n y lc h l o r i d e D-csizingwith cnzyn)cflgcnlsis
rcconrnrcndccl,
cspccillly irr blcrrtls
a n da c r y l o n i t r i l e . o f ' D y n c l " , v i r I c c l l r r l o s tf i b r c s .
468
469

' t
 T
ft1n Rn n n t I F F F F f: |', t,E-]'r_t_-h
IIANDDOOK OF TEXTI LE FIBRES B: SYNTII ETI C FIDRES

Scouring
Goodswhich havc bccnsoilcdduringproccssing may bc scourccl
-.r -.lul,,r b y t r e a t m e n t - f our p t o I h o u r a t 7 0 " C . i n a b a t h c o n t a i n i n g
:E ?!E non-ionicsurfaccactiveagcnt.

t t (,z Illcachirrg
v p i t
f
'Dynel'is
a white nbre which doesnot normallynecdblenching.
3\ | If bleachingshould be considercdnecessary,- sodiunt chloriic
" < \ I nray be usedin a liquor acidificdwith nitrii acid.
: l---J
9 t zI Dyeing
(a) 100 per ce l 'Dynel
T
F 'Dynel'-fibre,
stock, tow, yarn or picce goods may bc <.lycrl
F
ellectlvely by conventionalmethods,on convcntional equipmcnl.
F A full rangc of.colours nray bc obtaincd, from lights tirrough
= darks, with cxccllcnt laslrlcssto pcrspirfltion,crock-ing,wnshiig
d
u and Iight, and rcsistanceto gas fading.
4 o Dycstuflsuscclinclude thc cntirc rangc of dispcrscdycs, ncutrll
I
premctallized dyes, most of thc cationic dyci, ancl cc.inin
vni
dyes._From this wide range it is possible to sclcct dycstulTsto
F' match any rcquiremcnt, and to withstand virtually cvciv tvpc ot
scrvice required of thc finisheclfabric.
'Dynel'may
be dyed at temperaturesbclow thc boil by usirrg
L a carrier. This adds to dyeing costs, however, ancl subitantilJ
o quantitiesof 'Dynel'are dyed at temperaturcsof 96.C. and abovc
J
without a- carrier. At tcmperaturesof 96"C. with a carricr, thc
,
fibre'smoisture absorptionbecomeshigh enough to bc of practical
value in dyeing. When the colour has been fixed in thc fibrc bv
the dyeing process,it is unavailable to the action of wrtcr nni
the various chemical agents that might be expectcdto dischargc
or alter the colour. This results in cxccllent fast.nssspropcrtic-.s.

_6 Restoritry Lustre
o 'Dynel'
s< A absorbs watcr at dycing lcmpcraturcs,and this rnav bc
lrappcd in thc bot fibrc, c:rusing a loss oI lrrstrc. l.his has a
r,rx rr
J

z :( v signincant eflect on the shadc attained. As light fastlcss is

markedly better on lustrous than on dull fibre, if is csscntialto
e4. bring the.dyed matcrial up to its fult colour value by restoring
lustre. This may be dono by application of dry hcat'at l2l"C]

4'10 471
 II N D B O O K O F T E X ' T IL E F I I } R E S
B: SYN'TIIETIC FII}ITES
by scnri-decat izing with stcanrfor shorl cyclcs,or in thc ctsc of Iillslic Ilccovcry
p a c k a gdc y c i n gb y u s i n ga b o i l i n gs o d i r r nsru l p h a tsco l u t i o u .
(l)cr ccut) 100@ 2 %
') 93 @ s'/,
hernoplosticity 95 @ to'i1"
'Dyncl'
is a thcnnoplaslicfibre, and (his nrustbc consideredin
all processcs involvingelevatcdtemperaturcs, Avcr:rgc Stillncss
inclu<.ling dyeing. cl\/ tcx 90.9
.lt must be given specialatrent.ion during piece<tyeinglCoolirig 218 8.8
at the cDd of dyeingnlust be done very slowly to avoid settin!
(g./dett.) (r 0 . 3 ) (24.7) ( 1.0)
c r c a s c isn . l h e f a b r i c .T i g l r t l yw o v c nf a b r i c sj n p a r t i c u l anr r u s i Avcragc Touglncss
ue grvcllthts careto ayoidcrelsing. 0.58 0.13 0.60
Spccilic Gravity
(b) Blends
l.J
I n a d d i t i o nt o 1 0 0p e rc e n ta p p l i c a t i o n s , , D y n e ul ' si se riln b l e n d s
w l r n a t u r a la n d r n a - r n a d cf i b r e s ,a r r t lr n a y b e c o r n n r e r c i n l l v Ellec( of Moisturc
u n i o l - a n d c r o s s . t l y epdr i r r t e di n a r v i t l er a n r eo f , t , r , f . , S i i i , i r i i R c g a i n :0 . 4
procerlures are usetl for dycirrg blcnds with rayon, rryon anrl W t c r . h a sv i r t u a l l yn o c l T c cot n t l r cn r c c l rn i c r rpl r o l ) c r l i c s
f l c e r a t e , . . r a y oann d w o o l , r : r o l r a i rw of tltc
, ool, cotton,acrtlic at)(l fibr,e.There is no shrinkagcor fclting ", t"",r,"rl,i,i.,
polyauriclc libres. potnt.
il"f"*
DO tng

Ihcrmal Proper(ics
STRUCTUREAND PROPERTIES
Rcgnlar fibre: slrain releasc slarts at 120.C.;
fibrc trcconrcs
mouldable in thc rangc 135-163"C.(dry hcar) "il"
Fine S{ruclurc and Appearance fr"ifi"g *"i"r.
H-igh-shrinkfibre: shrinks 30 per ccnt in loiling
;ii;; ;;;i
White (or spun-dyed)fibre. Cross-section of regular and high 127"C. in dry heat.
shrink typcs: irregularribbou; carpetnbre: roun.l to elliptical. Carpct libre: strain relcascbeginsat 130"C.

\ Flotnmability
Regular Mglt-Shrink Cdrpct 'Dynel'will
Tcucilv - burn if held iu a flanre, but it gocs out if thc llanrc
cN/tex 18-31 37 8.8 ,. .ryg]:t! it.wi supporr
combusrion.
(g./clen.) (2.0*3s) ,nor li docs""i .riit,lil."j,
(4.2) (1.0) o I m o t t e nm a t e t r a l.
Sarrrcwc[ or dry E[ec( of Sunlig[t
Tcnsilc Slrcngllr Prolonged exposure causcs sonrc loss of tcnsilc
strcngth.1'lrc
kg/cnr2 fi bre darkens gradually.
4,060 4,900
(p.s.i.) (58,000) (70,000
[,long4tiorr CLcrnicalI'ropcr(ics
(pcr ccnt) 30-42 t4-t7 90_t20 Acids
Santc wct. or dfy Exccllcnt rcsistanccto acids of all conccnlrillions.
4'12
473

- l ' l r I
I
 I I A N D A O O K O F T E X T I L E F I A RE S

Alkalis B : S Y N T I IE T I C F I B R E S
I\{icro.orgalisnrs
Exccllcnt rcsistanceto atkalis of all concentrations.
Completelyrcsistant.
Certeral
",f:"1.,t by strong dcrergcnrs,soaps,ctc. Dleclricalproperaies
l:! Rcsistaatto a widc
rangc ol Inorganicchcnticals- Die.lectricconslant; 4.g6at 60 cyclcs;4.29
morstureabsorptionencourages at 1,000cyclcs.l_ow
accumulltion"f r,"ii","i".i,iiiirl
Ellcct of OrgaDicSolvctrts
Unaficctcd by hydrocarbons, dry_cleaning .DYNEL'
solvents and nrost IN USE
othcr organic solvents. Acetone, cycloheianone
u"A'.iinr",f,"i
formamideare solventsin varyinj d;sr;;.6;;i;i;

'^;uo
ii,"lt'l","lJj General Cbaractcristics
and somc a''.'ines exert ,otu"nt o.* .*"tti.,g';;;;,;,;;;il;;
temperatures.
i:Ii?i:
Insects
Conrplctelyrcsistant.
***ttg1$ffi''i"'ffi
;flpifrg]h5[ilffit
Mechanical properties

**+r;t*ifr
;t$i;#;frf
;1;fr$i'"',,qffi
?o 30
(% ELoNGATToN)
40
$,'ffiil;;frti''ffirffi
ifi,;d,iil"$-.T",l:d,l.,if
*itm
'Dy

474
el'
*tlry;*n$:ili'*le-;:',l'4
ffi\,#i* 475
 TIANDDOOK OF TEXTILE FIARES
Dinrc sio al Stability
'Dyncl'fibre
i s n o t a h i g h l y c r y s l a l l i n em a t c r i a la n d i t d o c s n o t ,
therefore,have a sharp melting point. Whcn heated,the l'ibre will
shrink slightly as it reachesa strain-rclcasetentpcrature.l[ the
tenrpcralurc is incrcased furtl')cr, a grcatcr shrinkagc will occur
until finally all the strainsimparted to the fibre have becu relieved.
Whcn a'Dynel'fibre has had strains rclicvcd at a given tent-
perature and time, it bccomesdimcnsionally stable thereafter up
to this temperature for that time. Fibres held under tension
may be heated considerablyabove their strain releasetempera-
turcs with only minor changes in molecular structurc. When
'Dynel'fabrics
are stabilizedby dycing at the boil, or by boiling
o[[, they are dimensionallystable in boiling water and dry-heat
tenpcraturcs up to 120'C.
If 'Dynel' is heated in air at high tempcmtures, it darkens
gradually and loses weight. lts nrechanicalproperties,however,
arc prescrved to a remarkable degree. When 'Dynel'is heated
for prolonged periods under tension, the tenacity at elevated
tcmperaturesincreases.
In order to take full advaotagcof thc dinrensionalstability of
'Dynel' in
blendcd fabrics for apparcl, it is prcferable for thc
Ioom rvidth of the goods to be greater than the desiredwidth of
the finished fabric. Finishing, then, should include one stagc
at rvhich the fabric is allowed to relax complctely, under heat
and rro tcnsion, to its natural length and width.
Novcl Fabric Constructiotrs
\ to attack by insccts.
The controllecl shrinkage of 'Dyncl' nray be used to obbin
selectivediflcrencesbetween parts of a fabric in which ,Dyndt'
is used in conjunction with other fibres. PLrckeredand bouclC
ellects,for example,are obtained in this way.
Fabrics may be knit or woven and stabilizedby heat shrinkage
to give extremely tight constructions. The selection of olher
synthetic and natural libres for blending extcnds the range of
novel fabrics o[ this type.
Heut Sctting: Moulding
Thc application of hcilt to 'Dyncl' [abrics at tcn"rpcrflturcs
irbove
thcir strain-relcasetcntpcraturcs is uscd in thc inrparting of
permanent pleals, and in moulding fabrics into desired shapes.
476
' t ' t
A: SYN'TIIETIC FI I]RES
Thcsc shapc<lftbrics arc dintcnsionally stlblc, and rcrunin
:;o
-
tunlcssthe slupiug tcntpcriltLrrcis agnin cqtrall"j or "x.""dJ
use.of bolh.lhc shrirrkagcand tlrc tircrnroplnsticpropcrticr
.The
or -uyncl w e l l c x c n t p l i l i c di n t h c n r o r r l d i n go f h i l t s ,w l l c r c
.are.
t n c l b n c r s s h r u D ko r t l o a f o r n t c r i l u d l l l c t r s c t i n t l r i s s h p c .
F o r r a d i o a n d h i g l r - f i d c l i r yg r i l l c s a r r d r h c f i t c , h i r l r i c n r u c f " -
trrrcs arc uscd to provitlc fabric stilhcss arrtl rigiility
to tlrt,
finishedarticle.
Fire Resistance
'Dynel'
will not supporl conrbustion,'l-hcfibrc rvill btrrn if hcltl
i n c o n t a c t w i t h a n o p c n 0 a n r c ,b u t i t s t o p s b u r n i r r ! , " f , " n - - r f i "
l i l n r e l s r e r n o v c d .l ; a b r i c s m a d c e n t i r c l y o f . D y u c l , p a s s t l t c
ASTM Test D626-41 for flarne-retardcdicxtilcs, Lut sou,c ,tv"_
slulTsirnd finishescontributc lo nantnrability,rnd fabrics stror'rl,.l
be testcd beforc clainrs are ntadc as to their firc rcsisltrncc.
Outdoor Exposure
'Dyncl'Jras
o u t s t f l n d i t )rgc s i s t a n c tco o l l t ( l o o tc x l t o s l l f cu l d c r n l l
typcs.of. conditions, Wtrcn 'Dyrrcl' fabrics wcrc burictl irr soii
a n q n c t o u n d c r L r o p t c a lc o u d i t i o D so f 3 1 " C . a D d g Z p c r c c r l t
rclative humidity, no dcterioration oI the cloth was tlctcctcri
after 6 months. Eight-ouncecotton duck disintcgrated"ourpf"r"lf
in l0 dtys under the samc condilions.
In othcr tests,such as thc mineral-bnsc-agarand frcc-hanlitr,:
t c s l s ,n o f u n g u s a l t a c k w a s o b s c r v e d . , D y n c l ' i sc q u a l l y r c s i s i a n i
. After uncovered cxposures in Floricla for 250 sunJrotrrs
{approximately60 days) on yarns and tapes of low dcnicr librcs,
'Dynel'
retained more tl)an 50 pcr ccnt of its originrl tcnaciry
an(l clongatron.
Blertcls
'Dynel',
by itsclf, combincs nrany of thc chlracteristicsof tlrc
tnore expensive nalural fibres with a nunrbcr of ntan-maclc
fcalures not availablc in any natural fibrc.
'Dyncl'
. In blends with wool, nrakes slrongcr fabrics lhat hold
their shape.and prcss.Wilh rayon, ,Dyncl' provitlcs t varicty of
texturcs with.-inlprovcd shape and prcss rctcnlion and Iongcr
useful wcar life. In blcnds with cotton, ,Dyncl' hclps thc fab-rjc
477
i ' l I ' l n
' |
I
 HAND BOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
to keep its loft, and thercfore its softnessand warmtb, even after
long use and repeatedlaundering.From 25 to 4Qper cent'Dyoel',
stock blended, is generally most advantageous.
W:rsbing
'Dyncl'libres
are non-feltingand non-shrinking.Theseproperties,
coupled lvith high rcsistanceto chenrical attack and high wet
strcngth, make possible repcatcd laundcring cven with stroDg
detergentsunder vigorous conditions.Fabrics may be disinlected
with sodium hypochlorite solutions without alfecting tensile
properties or handle.
'Dyuel'
fabrics may be washed either by hand or by machine,
tho lemperature of thc wasb water being as low as possible,
preferably belorv 50"C. (lukewarm).
As with all textile fibres, nappal fabrics may pill if subjectcd
to extreme agitation jn automatic 'home laundries'.With proper
fabric construction, howevcr, nappcd 'Dyucl' fabrics can bc
washed with confidencein automatic machines-
Drying
The low moisture regain makcs 'Dyncl' one of tl)e fastestdrying
fibres, In certain constructions,r,atcr is beld mechanically,and
this may be rcmoved immediately by centrifuging.Heavy napped
fabrics that are whirl-dried and hung up at room temperatures
will dry with remarkable rapidity.
Drip drying is preferred if possible; tumble drying in honre
dricrs may cause sofle shrinkage. Drying temperaturesshguld
not excced60"C. \ with wool, up to 35 per ccnt,Dyncl' contributcs itrcngth and
Ironit|g
Wrinklcs are removed very easily from 'Dynel' fabrics by ironing
at low temperatures. If the ironing temperatu_resare too high,
thc'Dynel'nlay stilTenand shrink. To preservethe beauty and
luxurious hand of 'Dynel' fabrics, the following pressing and
ironing instructions must be closely observed.
Wben ironing all 'Dynel' fabrics, the lowest iron settitg and
a dry cover clolh of cotton or other fabric sbould be used.
lf no cover cloth is used,an iron witb a lowcr thao 'rayon'setting
is ncccssary.All 'Dynel' fabrics can bc steam-prcssed at rcduced
prcssurcs,and wrinkles can be removed by jet steanring, but
418
B: S Y N T I . I E T IC F I B R g S
steam iroDs, manglcs, or hot-hcad prcsscsshoulcl not bc uscd.
The resistanccof 'Dynel'-conlaining fabrics to slrrinkrtc bv
h c r t i s i n c r c a s c t rl n : r r k e d l yb y s t o c k - b l c n d i n gw i t h n r o r c - h c e i
rcsislant.-fibrcs.When 25-40 pcr ccDt .Dynct' js prcscnt, lllc
frbric will be stabilizcd ancl will rctain crcascssct by an iron.
l n g c n c r a l ,s u c h f a b r i c s c a n b e i r o n c d f l t l l l c , r a y o n ' s c i n g o r
with a steam iron.
Dry CIclrniDg
Fabrics of'Dynel'nray be dry clcanedcllcctivcly, bcing rcsislant
to the solventscommonly uscd. As alwnys,clcvalcd lcnipcraturcs
n)ust bc avoided.
Dnd Uscs
Pile Fahrics
O n o o [ t l l c n r o s ts u c c c s s f uol u t l c t sf o r , D y n c l , i s i r r l h c p r u l r r c -
tion.of furlikc pile fabrics. 'Dynel' provitlcs pilc lhrt is soft
and lustrous,yct stable to st.etchingand shrinking. Fabrics nrrrdc
from 100 per cent 'Dynel' and from ,Dyncl'in conrbination
w i t h ' O r l o n ' a n d o t h c r f i b r e sh a v e p r o v c d c x t r c r n c l ys u c c c s s f u l .
Sttits; Dresses, etc.
Dresses,suits, skirts, slacks, jackets and rainwcar arc son.rcof
the applications for 'Dynel', conrmonly in blcnds wilh othcr
fibres.In blendswith rayon and acetatc,2j-35 pcr ccnt of,Dyncl'
markedly increasesfabric wcar lite, wi rout pilling. In blcnds
resrstanceto wear and tear.
To wovcn goods generally,,Dync['inrpartswannllr, washability,
good draping qualitics, creasc rctctrlion cvcn whcn wct, and ri
long useful rvcar life.
Uttdcrvear; K nitwcar, e!c.
In knitted goods, 'Dyncl' jmparts rcsistancc to shrinkrcc ancl
s t r c l c h i n g i, n r p r o v c dr c l c n t i o n o I l o f t , a , , v : r r r rl rr r x r r r i o r rlsu r n t l .
and resilicncc, Blcnds of 'Dyncl' with olhcr fibrcs arc rrsctl irr
nlen's, women's arrd chilclren'sunclcrwoar,slccpwcar antl socks.
A blcnd o[ 25-50 pcr ccnt of ,Dyncl' wilh cotton h:rs nrovccl
p a r t i c u l a r l ys u c c e s s f ui nl t h i s f i c l d ,t h e , D y n c l ' c o n t r i b u t i n g
i:rstirrg
479
 IIANDAOOK OF TEXTILE FIBITES
B: S Y N T I I E T I C I : I I IR [ , S
softness,shape and size retention through many washings and Many ntodificalionsof polyvinyl chloritlc hrvc
-I'be bccrr nrndc orr
long wear. cotton contributcs high absorbcncy and assures :tn cxpcflt cntal btsis, but thc only corrrrrtcrcilrlly-irtlporlarrt
that garments stay comfortablc next to lhe skin. froccss at thc prescnt time is chlorjnaiion. f.ifr,", "r" .n,,ir-iiuiii
lo^ri3arcd. polyvinyl i'l wtrich rhc.1,i";;,;';";ii;;;;;
Furrishitrg F abrics; Curlains, etc. ;.h
n i r v c o c c n I n c r c a s c df-chloric.t_o
r o r r r5 7 p c r c c n l l o a s h i g l r a s 7 9 l r c r c c t r i
'Dyncl's
flamc-rcsistanceltas provcd an important propcrl.y irr
the usc of the fibrc lor curtains and drapcries.'Dyncl'drapcrics,
INTITODUCTION
for exanrplc, are uscd on lhe luxury lincrs Unitcd S/o/eJ and
ADteice. I n . 1 9 3 4 , G c r m a n w o r k c r s d i s c o v c r c dt h t r t t h o
sollrbiLryof
polyvinyl chloridc could be incrcasccl
Corpets by clrlorinatiorr of tlic
polymer. The introduction of additional "irt.ri".,rioi""r,f",
The spccial grade of 'Dynel' produced as carpet libre has pro- thc. polynter Iorced thc Iong nrolecrrlcs"p"rr, "nofrf
i"io
pcrl.iesdifferent from those of regular 'Dyncl'. These properties i,*'-*lu",,i
nlotccrrtesto pcnctrate ntorc casily bctwccn tllcnl.
have been built into the nbre to make it particularly suitable In 1936, chlorinated polyvinyl chlorirJc fibrcs wcre
for carpet use. Carpets nrade from 'Dyncl' combine strength . nrxrketcd
In Lrcrmnny undcr thc traclc narrrco[ .Pc Cc'. Thcy
and easc of nlaintenance characteristics rvith cxccllcnt soil wclc snun
f r o n r i t c c t o n cs o l u t i o n so f t l t c c h l o r i n i r t c (pl o l y r r r c r . '
rcsistance,high resilicncc, good appcarancc and rcsistancc to
moth and mildcw- -'Pc Cc' nlcltcd irt too low it tcmpcrllrrrc (bclorv lm.C.) f o bc
o{ rcal value as a tcxtilc fibrc, bui it ha,l a rrurirbcrci
;;ir,;;
cnrrlctclstrcs which scrvcd it rvcll in spccillizcd
Blankcts applicarioirs.
ln p a r t i c u l a r ,
it wasnon-flanrmabtc.
'I'he
Blankels nrade lronr 'Dynel'are shrinkproof and mothproof, and produclion of ,pc Cc' fibrc continucd in
Gcrnrany until
wilt withstand repeatedlaunderingand cleaning.They dry quickly a.nd.during Workl War ll. lt is pror.luccdirr East Ccrrrrlly
'l)iviacid', as
and retain their warnlth and handle over a long period of hard and in the U.S.S.lL.
wcar. In this applicalion, again, flamc rcsistanceis an important
assct.
PRODUCTION
Industricrl Applicatiotrs
\
Chernical resistanceand flame resistanccarc important charac) Molrorlct Syntllcsis
tcristicsin a fibre uscd for protcctive clothing, and'Dynel'excels
Vinyl chloridc.Sec pagc447.
in both respects.It is used for shirts, trouscrs,unifomts and other
clothing worn by people exposedto corrosive chemicals.
'Dynel' I'olyltcrizalion
is used also in launtlry nets, Illter fabrics.paint rollers
and overlays for boats and industrial equipment. Vinyl-.chloride is polymcrizccl in cmulsion as dcscribcd on
p a g e4 4 8 .

(3) CHET,TICALLY MODIFIED POLYVINYL CTILORIDE Chlorirra(ion

FIBRES Polyvinylchloridcis dissolvccl in tctrachlorocthanc to lornr an
8 p:.-
Fibrcs spun frorn polyvinyl chloridc (or a copolynrcr o[ vinyl 9"rrt solution,and chlorinatcdby trcllnlcnt *irf, "fif.riiii
rt 80-90'C. Attcr 24-36 hours, rhc'ctrtorin" "onr"iit
chloride) which has bccn subjectedto chenricalmodification. oi'iii"
polymcrhasincrcascd front 57 pcr ccnt to aboul 62,65pcr cuit.
480 481

'-f
t
r I
l
r I
l
--1--1
 r
II NDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES I]: SYNTII ETI C FI BRES

The hydrochloricacid produccdduring the reaction,together DlTcctof Sunlight

chlorine,is removedundervacuum,and the polymer
with excess l0 per ccnt lossjn strcogthaflcr I yeart cxposurc.
may be isolatedeither by precipitationwith methanolor by
spray-drying. Chenrictl I'ropcrlics
Cood resistanceto rnost chemicills,including acids antl ulkrlis.
Spinning
ChlorinatedP.V.C.is dissolvcdin acctoneto form a 28 pcr cent lillcct of Orgrnic Solvcnts
solution.After nltration,this is pumped through a spinnerct,
the .ictsof solutionemerginginto a water bath' The acetone S o l u b l e i n n r c t h y l e n cc h l o r i d c , b u l y l l c c t l l c , a c c t o n c ,x y l c r ) c ,
dissolvesin the waler, leaving solid lilamentsof cblorinated o-otclllorobenzcne-
P.V.C.which aro stretchedand dried.
The lilarnentsare broughttogetherinto a tow which may be Insecls
crinrpedand cut into staple. Not attacked.

Micro.organisms
AND PROPERTIES
STIT.UCTURE Not attackcd.

Fine S(ruclureatrd Appcarance Ilcctrical Propcr(ics

Smooth-surfacedlibre, of bean-shapedcross-section. The fibre softens at too low a lempcraturc to bc of rcal valuc
as an electricalinsulator,
TeDacity
I 5 . 9 - 1 7 . 7c N / t e x ( I . 8 - 2 . 0 g / < l e n )d, r y o r w e t .
CFILORINATED P.V.C. FIBtlE IN USE
Elongation
Chlorinatsd P.V.C. fibrcs are of limitcd valuc rs tcxtitc fibr.cs.
24-40 pcr ccnt, dry or wct. largcly as a result o[ their low softening point. Thcy havc tounj
a number of specializeduses,howcvcr, which dcrive rnainly fronr
Spccifc Gravity \ the flame-rcsislanceand resislanccto clrcmicals.They nrc uscd.
1.44. for examplc, in flanlc-rcsislantclothing, protcctiv" "tottii,*
i,i
indtrstry,tarpaulins,tents, filtcr fabrics ind thc like.
Eficct of Moisturc
Regain: 0.2 per cent. Moisture has virtually no efect on
mcchanical propertics.

Thcmral Propcrlics
Chlorinated P.V.C. fibres shrink usually at about 70'C., and
soften at 100"C.

Flannnbility. Non-llammablc. Do not support combustion.

482 483

II NDAOOK OF 1'EXTILE FIARES
P O I - Y V I N Y L I D E N EC I I L OI I I D E F I t ] R E S
F i b r c ss p u nf r o m p o l y m c r o
s r c o p o l y m c rosf v i n y l i d e nceh l o r i d c :
t t
CH2 - C CLz ->- --- cH,- c- cH,- c -cH,-
t l
V I N Y L I D E N EC H L O R I D E CHLORIDE
POLYVINYLIDENE
INTITODUCTION
ln 1940, tho Dow Chcmical Co. of Anrcrica introduccd a ncw
typc o[ synlhetic fibrc consistiug o[ l copolyntcr oI viuylidcnc
clrloride and vinyl chloride. It was givcn the generic nanle Jcralr.
Vinylidcnc chloridc, thc chicf cornponcntof saran,.isa colour-
Icss liquid tlrat was nradc as long lrgo as 1838.In conrnron with
other vinyl-typc unsaturated compounds, jt will polylrlerize to
form an csscntially linear polymcr capable of fonning fibrcs.
Polyvinylidene chloride was examincd as a possible source of
uscful synthctic fibres during thc carly 1930s.The lack of a suit-
ablc solventcauscdspinning difficulties,howcver,and thc polymer
$'as scnsilivc lo hcat.
'fhc
introduction of saran by Dow Chemical Co. in 1940
followed an intensivc rescarch projcct, the copolynrcr con14in-
ing a srnall proportion of vinyl chloriclc bcing sclcctedas nrbst
satis[ac(oryfor 0bre production.The polynrer made by Dow was
spun by several lirms, including Pierce Plastics and Firestone
lndustrial Producls Co., who nrarketed their saran libre under
t l r e n a m c s ' P e r m a l o na' n d ' V e l o n ' r e s p e c t i v c l y .
Production o[ saran fibres rvas subsequcntlytaken up in othcr
countrics,and it is now establishcdas a specialitytcxtile fibre.
.TYPIS
O F P O L Y V I N Y I - I D E N EC I I L O I i I D I I F I B R E
'l
hc polyvinylidcnc chloridc fibrcs procluccrltodily are copolynrcrs
containing a snrall (lcss than l5 pcr ccnt) proporlion of othcr
484
- U U L L ' L ' L ' L L L t
I
I
B: S Y N ' r ' II E T I C F I I } I I E S
n r o n o m c r sc, o n l n r o n l yv i n y l c h l o r . i r l cO . t h c r l r o n o n t c r sr r u r v b c
i r r c l r r c l ci dr r r l l i n o r f r o l l o l l i o n s ,s r r c l r s a c r y t o r r i t t . i l c .
'l'hc
Amcrican Ir.l'.C, rcgLrlirtionsrcstrjcI lltc rrsc of llrc lcrrrr
,r4r.r/rlo llrosc fibrcs spun fronr polyntcrs corrtairring t lcast g0
pcr ccnt o[ vinyliclcncchloriclc(scc bclorv),rud this (lcnnitiorlllrs
corlrc inlo gcncral usc fol such polyntcrs.-[t.covcl.sall lhc ilrrnor.-
t t t t t p o l y v i n y l i d c r rcch l o r i d ct y l ' c p o l y r t r c r sr r o w r r s c cfjo r s D i n i r i r r g
-- fibrcs,,and the propcrtics of saran fibrcs protlrrccclIry .iitlcrcri
nlanufacturcrsarc sullicicntly alikc in gcncrrl lrroltcrlics for thc
tcrnl saran to bc o[ prtctical valuc.
Saran rvas producc<Ioriginally in thc lorrn of hcavy dcnicr
nronofilaments,and it is still widcly uscd in tllis forrir todav.
Ir,[orrofilarrrca n rt sc s ; l r r n i r r r o u l ( l c r o s s - s c c l i o rirr,r r t l a l s o i r r a
v a r i c t yo f f l l t a r r dc l l i p t i c l l c r o s s - s c c l i o n s .
- . S a r a l i s c o m n r o n l ys p u n - d y c da, n d a w i d c r a n g c o [ c o l o u r c d
fibrcs is availablc.
NOMENCLATUITE
l'edcral Tradc CottrtrtissiorrD efinitiotr
Thc gcncric lcrm.r.r/"al wils adopled by tltc U.S. Ircctcrlrll.mclc
C o . n r r n i s s i ofno.r f i b r c s o I t l : c p o t y v i n y l i d c n cc h t o r i t l c t y p c , t l r c
o f T i c i adl c f i n i t i o nb c i r r ga s f o l l o w s :
Sqratr. A trlanufilclurcd fibrc in wlrich tlrc librc-fornring srrb_
stancc is any long-chain synthctic polyllcr corrrposcdof li lcast
8 0 p c r c c n t b y w c i g h t o f v i n y l i d c n cc h l o r i c l cu r r i t s
( - c l I , - c . c l "- ) .
PRODUC'TION
Mononter SynlLcsis
(a) Vinylide nc Chloritle
'I-hcrc
a r e a n u n r b c r o I r o r r l c st o t h c f r c p r l r i l l i o t ro f v i r r y l i r t c n c
diclrloridc, con'rlrrorrlyvia tricltlorocrrnnc,
. 1 . , 2 - D i c l r J o r o c t h lnr rl icy b c c h l o r i r r a t c ttlo t f i c l r l o r o c l h : u r(cl ) ,
r v l t i c - jl sr a l s o f o l r r r c t lb y t l r c c l t l o l i n t t i o r ro f v i r r y l c l r l o r . i t l (c2 ) o i
ctllylelle (l).
485
 , t I I t' I ti I'

I.I NDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI ARES n: sYN' rEttc Fli:Rus

Trichloroethane is conYcrted to vinylidene chloride, either by

pyrolysis at 400"C., or by treatmcnt with lirne (4). In cither case, E L E CT R I C I I Y COMMON SALT
hydrochloric acid is rcmoved. NaCt

(1)
cHr ct cHrcl + cl, > cH,cr cHcL,

I , 2- D I C H L O R O E T H A N E TRICHLOROETHANE H Y D R O C E NC H L O R I D E

l
tlct

CHr: Cllct + CL?

VINYL CHLORIDE

cHr: CHr + Ct, CH.:661t

ETHYLENE VINYLIDENE DICHLORIDE

Productionof VinylidcncChloridc

(b) Vinyl Chloridc' Sec Pagc447.

Polynrcrizrtion
Vinylidene chloride and the vinyl chloride or other co-monomer
are polymerizeclin aqueouscnltllsion in the presenceof.a-catalyst'
Commercial polymeri are commonly of molccular weight in the
region of 20,00G22,000
(
Spinnirrg l
MELT EXTRUSION
The copolynreris mclt spun through spinncretsat about 180"C'' I
the liliments being quenched rapidly before being drawn to cooLrN6
Y
develop satisfactorytcnacitY. ORIENTATION
Pigmcnts may be incorporatcd in the molten polymer- belore
spiniing, titaniun clioxide bcing uscd to provide a dull filament

B v s u i t a b l ci r d i u s t n r c not f t h e p r o p o r t i o n so [ v i n y l i d c n cc h l o r i d c
an,l uinyl chloridc in lltc polynrcr, [ibrcs can bc made witlt
s o f t c n i r r gp o i n t s i n t h c r r n g c 7 0 - 1 8 0 " C .A t y p i c a l c o n l m c r c i a l
s r r a n r n c l t sa t a b o u t 1 6 0 - 1 7 0 " C . Sotan flow Cfutrt
486 487

.4
 IIANDAOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
u : s Y N T l |U T t CF l n R r , s
PROCESSING lallec( of Moisturc
Dycing Regain: 0.1-1.0 per ccnt.
A . b s o r b c n cayt 7 0 ' F . a n d 9 5 p c r c c n t r . h . : 0 . 1 - 1 . 0 c c n t .
Saranmay be dyed by usinglechniques and dyestu[Issimilarto fcr
thosc uscd for vinyon and acetalc[ibres. Dispersedycs, for Moisture docs not swcll tlrc fibrc, and it hls a ircgligiblc cllcct
exanrple,are used,but the fastness on the ntechanicalpropcrtics.
propertiesare poor.
Conrmercialsaran fibres are contmonlyproducedin a wide t hcrnlal Propertics
rangeof spun-dyedcolours,and thcseare uscdin prcferenccto
dycing. S o f t c n i n gp o i n t : I l 5 - 1 6 0 . C .
Sticking point: 99-104"C.
STIIUCTUREAND PROPER'IIES Meltingpoint: l7l.C.
S a r a nf i b r c sn r a y b c w e a k c n c tilr t t c r p c r a l u r c sb c l o w t h c b o i l i r r c
lii c Structurc xnd Appc:rrancc point of water. At 100'C., srran toics ntout ou"_rtri.,t
oi'iii
The filamcntsare smooth-surfaced strength.
and regular.They m a y b e
round,oval or flat in cross-seclion,
l;lanwnbility
Saran is a faint golden-yellowor straw colour,and ts trans-
luccnt in non-pignrcntcd form. S a r a ni s a l m o s tn o n - f l r n r n r a b l cn,n r l w i l l n o t s u f p o r t c o o l b u s t i o n .

1ctlxcily Eftcct of Age

Up to 20.3 cN/tex(2.3 g/tlen),wet or dry. Ncgligiblc.
S t d .L o o p : 6 . 2 - 9 . 7c N / t e x( 0 . 7 - l . l g / t l c n ) .
Iiflcct of Sulligb(
S t d .K n o t : 8 . 8 - 1 5 . 0c N / t e x( 1 . 0 * 1 . 7g / d e n ) .
Good resistancc,but discolours slightly on prolongcd cxposurc.
Tensile SlrcDgtlr
CherrricalPropcrlics
0 kg/cm2
I ,050-3,15 1I 5,000-45,000
lb/irr2
).
Elongalion General
15 lo 30 per ccnt, wct of dry. Cood rcsistanceto bletchcs and to nlost conrnron chcnricals.
Not corroded by salt spray.
ElasticRccorcry
9 8 . 5 p e r c e n t a t 3 per cent elongation;95 pcr ccnt at l0 per cenl Acids
elongation. Excellentrcsistanceto nlost acids in all strcngths.

A!crlrgc Stilhrcss Alkolis

4 4 . 1 -8 8 . 3c N / t e x( 5 - l 0 g / d e n ) . Exccllcnl resistanccto nost alk lis, cxccpl ilnltrro|liunlhydroxidc,
which causcsdiscolouration.
Avcrrgc'l oughDcss
0.16-0.26 Iillcct of Orgllic Solvcnls
Not tllcctcd by nlcohols or aliphalic hytlroc rbons. nronr
Spccitic Gr:rlily tic
nydrocilrbons, llnlogcnatcd hydrocarborrs, kcloncs, cslcrs
l.l-t;t ilrd
elhcrs lnay bc dctrinrcntalin varying dcgrccs.(l.cnrpcralurc
is an
488
489

T - t ' ' ]' ' \ ' | , . ' r l

l-'
I- -. - -.... n f , F ;n . F , _ T ,-J; l_1I: l
K F T E X T I L EF I BR E S
HANDDOOO I}: S YN'TIIETI C TIr}RES
!
importaot factor in the efiecls of any of thesematerials.)Soluble SARAN IN USE
in cyclohexanone,dioxan and tetrahydrofuran.
Gcncral Chaiactcrislics
Irlsccts Saran is a fl_exiblcfibrc, with a soft wrrnt hrndlc. ,I-hc
smooth
Saran is not attacked by moth grubs or bectles. roundedsurface
of rhefibrcconrributcs
ro rfr" ,"sisr,i,i."
il'!Jii-
ing and the easy rcnlovfll o[ dirt.
Micro"orglnisnrs
Saran is not attackcd by mildew or bacteria. Mcchonical Propu!ics
Saran i-s-unusu,allytougb aud durablc, wifh cxccllcnt
EleclricalProperties flcx rcsist-
ancc. Woven fabrics lravc exccllcnt abrasion ,"rhtnn""-nnJ-a
Dieleclric conslant. Power Factor (1") remarkable resistanceto hard wear.
100cycles: 4.7 6
1,000cycles: 3.9 Spccilic G ravity
cycles:
1,000,000 2.9 3 The spcci0c gravity of saran is fairly high. 'Ihis
would count
againstsaran if the Iibrc had potentir'ily iilporra,rt
Refractive Indcx "frp^i"i"".i-
uses.
L60
Moisture
The moisturc absorptionof saran is vcry low, ancl
thc nrcchanical
p r o p e r t i e so I s r r a n f a b r i c sa r c u n a f f c c t c d
tV ,,,.ir*", Li,""',,r"
dimcnsionatty srabtc,an<twastrancl.rry "*ly "".i'qiitui;;l'r".i::
low mo-isture ii,;
absorptionconlributcsto the ciccllcnt' .sl;,i;
tanceof saran_ fabrics;iuk, food and driuk, .f"., ,ri" frl'r",r,ou"J
with soapand water. V'
As saranis not uorntallyusedin makingunrlcrrvcar
gaunenlsworn ncxt to thc skin,the low nroistrrr" lncl othcr
absorptionJocs
not derrlcr lronr rhe valuc of rhc fibrc as ir doc;
i;ii;; .il";;
apparclIibrcs.

Tlrcnnal Propertics
Sarantcndsto softcnat.tcrnpcraturcs so|lrcwhat lowcr thln thosc
fa.vou.redfor gcncraltextileusc.Its low rcsistancc r" il"i:';;;;ri";
with its n_cgligiblc
nroisrurcabsorprio,,, h,,u; ;;;;i";;';ir"i"#';;
garmcntfabrics.
-l'hc-norr-flanrrlrability
of saranls an t|nportantassct,ls in lhc
5 t o 1 5 Z O caseof polyvinylchloridcfibrcs,and sararif,,frri.,
srRArN (% ELoNcATToN) ". i",r,,,""i"
ruscdin drapcrics,clc.,\vhcrca firc hnzlrd js nrcsc,ri_
Dttyirontnentol Conditions
Soran Slran has cxccllcntrcsistanccto sunlight,agcing
and gcnclrl
491
 TIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
weathering conditions. It is completcly resistant to attack by
insccts and micro-organisms.
Chatrtical Rcsisttuce
The resistanceof saran to most conlmon chemicalsis excellent,
and it will withstand most of thc bleachesand other chemicals
cncounteredin nonnal proccssing.It is attacked by ccrtain sol-
vcnts, but is not afected by those normally used in dry cleaning.
Pcrchlorocthylcneshorrld be avoidcd.
\Yashing
Saran will wash quickly and easily in soap and lukewarm water.
It should be rvashedby hand, and Sreat care is necessaryto en-
sure that the temperatureof the water is kept as low as possible'
Drying
Fabrics should be drip dricd at roonr tcmpctaturc.Tumblc drying
should not be uscd,
lroning
Saran labrics do not generally nced ironing, but if ironing is
nccessarya wct press cloth must be uged.The tcmperaturemust
be as low as possible.
Dry Clcaning
Stoddard solvcnt is recomnlended for saran. Perchloroethylene
should be avoidcd.
End.Uscs
Despitc the restrictionsitnposcclon end-uscsby the low softcni{8
tempcratureof saran, the specialcharactcristicsof the fibre haVe
ensured it a n)arket of considcrable importance in the textile
trade,
Exantples ol A pplications
Cirr seut covers; luggage;filtcr fabric; handbags;
fcnder cloths; drop cloths; ropc; car and public vchicle trp-
holstery;outdoor ftrrniiure tapc and broad [abric; insectscreen-
ing; beach umbrellas; doll hair; mannikin wigs; fishing lurcs;
scouring pads; vacuum cleaner hose covering; grille fabrics;
shade cloth.
492
A : S Y N ' r I I E T I CF I U R E S
POLYVINYL ALCOIIOL FI BITES
Iribrcsspunfrorn polymersor copolynrcrs
of vinyl alcohol:
CII!=CHOH -) -CI tr-CFl-CI I,-C11-
I I
or'l otr
Vinyl Alcohol P o l y v i r r yAl l c o h o l
IN T R O D U C T I O N
P o l y v i n y la l c o h o l w a s l l r s t s y n t l r c s i z cidn C c r r r u r n yj n I 9 l . l , a r r d
rorcs w€rc s!bscqucntly produccrl irr l9Jl by Wackcr_Chcrrric
\ r . n r . D , i { .u n d e r l l ) e n t r r r c. S y n t h o f i l ' .
Thc polyvinyl alcohcl molcculc conltios fl grctrt nurlrbcr oI
.
h y d r o x y l g r o r r p s r, r r d p o l y v i n y l r r l c o h o il t s c l f i s i o l r r b l c i n w u t c j r .
l l r c - - u s c sf o r ' S y r r t h o l i l ' t, h c r c f o r c ,w c r c l i r r r i t c t lt o s n c c i : r l i z c d
applications for which a wirlcr-solublc tibrc is of *,fu"
fi""
Alginatc Fibrcs, pagc 148).
t l t c l a t e 1 9 3 0 sp, o l y v i n y la l c o h o lf i b r c s l t r i r c t c da g r c i l td c l
.ln
o L a l l e n t i o n i n J a p a n . I n 1 9 j 9 , l . S r k r r r r c l a ,S . L c c r n t t c o _
workers at the Kyoto Univcrsity discovcrccla proccss for pro_
ducing a rvater-rcsistant.polyvinyl alcohol fibrc by dry hclt trlcni-
nrcnt and acetalizatiou.ln the samc year, lvl. yaziwa :rnd
his
colla_borators at the KancgafuchiSpinningCo. Lkl. inrlcpcntlcntiv
rlcvelopeda wet hcat lreatr)rcot(hcat trc;tnrcnt in a sali solrriioir
under pressure).
Eflorts rverc ntadc to ntanrrfaclltrc wtrlcr-rqiislilnt nolvvinvl
alcohol Ibrc by thc-Japrn Synlhctic lcxtilc ttcscarchn syrci1,ti.,ir.
Krnega.IuchiSpinning Co. Ltd., Ktrrashiki l{;ryon Co. l_tcl.,
rnri
o r h c r s .I t l c w o r k w a s i n t c r r u p t e db y W o r l d W a r l l , h o w c v c r ,l r r r d
rt wes not until 1950 that thc Kurashiki ll.ayon Co. Ltd rnd tlrc
N i c h i b o C o . . L t d . b c g r n p r o d u c i n gt l r c f i r s t p o l y v i n y l u l c o t r o l
r o r c s u n d c r u t c t r a d c n f l n t c s. l ( u r a l o n ' n t l . l r 4 c r v l o nr c' s D c c t i v c l y .
'l'ltc
o u t p u t o l p o l y v i l t y l a l c o l r o ll j b r c l r n si r r c r t a s c tLl : r p i t l l vi n
.
J r p a r ) . I ' i l ) r c i s a l s o p L o d u c c riln o t l l c r c o u n t r i c su f l l t c l i l r i i ; r s t
t r ) ( |c t s c \ v l t e I c .
493
"n I I t t t F F n F,F:f',F h_}-t} '}:-r;-
I I A N D I ] O OK O F T E X T I L E F I I ] R E S B : S Y N ' n cl T tc r t D R E S
usc the lcrm vinyon tor polyvinyl chloritlc typc fibrcs,
lhcrc is
o a n g c r o I c o n l U s r o ub c l w c c nt h c t w o c l o s c l y - s i n t i l a r
l c f l r r s ,a n t l
tlrc name yr'rralhas conrc into usc for dcscribiirgpolyviuyl
llcohol
T Y P E SO F P O L Y V I N Y L A L C O H O L F I B R E fibres. ifhis is rhe lcrm adoprccloflicially Uv if,"'U.S1
f..J"i^i
r ril(lc L omn)lsslon.
Polyvinyl alcohol llbrcs arc commonly insolubilizcd altcr spin-
ning by heat treatmentand lreatmcnt with formaldelrydc,and this Fult:ral Trade Connission Dcfinitiotr
type of fibrc represcntsthe bulk of the output. It is manufacturcd
as continuous filament yarns, staple and tow. Staple is available flre gcncric tcrnr-r'irrrrlrvas arJoptcdby thc U,S. Fcdcrnl .frrdc
in sizesand denierssuitablefor processingon the col.ton,woollen Lonlmrssron tor librcs of thc polyvinyl alcohol typc, thc ollicial
and worsted systems.Tow is processedon the usual types of definition being as follows:
tow-to-top systems. Vinal. A manuftcturcd fibrc in which thc fitrrc-fornrirrc
sub-
Polyvinyl alcohol fibres are also acetalized with ald€hydes slance is any long-chainsynthctic polynlcr conrDoscrl
of li tcasr
other than formaldehyde,providing llbres of modified character- )u c c n t b y w c i g h t o [ v i n y l r l c o h o l u n i t s ( _ C H . , C H . O tl _
.per )
istics. Benzaldehydeis used, for exanrple, to produce libres of a n d t n w h r c h t h c t o t a l o l t h c v i n y l a l c o h o lu n i l s i r r r d, , u y
nn" oi
high resiliencewhich are used in uniforms, ladics'and children's nrore of the various acetill units is at lcast g5 pcr c"nf t,y ,u"igi
i
clothing. of thc nbrc.

lvatcr.SolulrlcFibre
Polyvinyl alcohol fibre is produced without the heat and aldehyde PRODUCTION
trcatmenls which bring about water-insolubility. These water.
Vinyl alcohol js an unstablc nralcriat, ancl polyvinyl
soluble fibrcs are used for special purposes, such as surgical alcohol is
-accfttc.
ntade indirectly by thc hydrolysis of polyviriyl
thrcads. lvlixed with other fibres or yarns, soluble polyvinyl al-
coho[ fibrcs scrve as scafloldingfibres and yarns; when the fabric
has been made, the polyvinyl alcohol fibres arc washed out with Mononlcr Syn(hcsis
hot water.
Vi yl Acctote
Vinyl acetaleis rnadc by the rcaction o[ rcclylcnc (or
cthylcnc)
with acctic acid in tbe prcscnccof a cntalyst:
/
CH*-CH j. CH.,COOH -> CH, =CI.tOCOCI{.
Acetylcne AceticAcid Vinyl Acctltc

NOMENCLATUI{E
I n J a p a n , p o l y v i n y l a l c o h o l fibrcs rrc known by thc gcncnc
nanrc virrylor, ln thc U.S.A., U . K . , a n d o l h c r c o u n t r i c sw h i c h
I'olynrcrizntion;S:rponitictli r
Thc vinyl acctate is dissolvcdin nrcthanol, and is polynrcrizcd
with the help.of a catalyst(c.g. pcroxidc or. nro_.o,,lpJ,u,rJi,
ioii,i
I n g p o l y v n y l a c c t i t c ( l ) . C r u s t i c s o d a i s a r l d c dl o l l t c n r c t h r n o l
solution,.brjng.inga-boutsaponificationof thc polyvinyl acctlic
to.polyvinyl alcohol (2). This is prccipitarc<ttron'ttrc incrhririiil
solution, prcsscdand dricd.

414 495
 II,{ N DI] OOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
B: SYNT}IETIC FIBRES

cH,:oi o cocHr-lU- -fc,,-cxJ aldchydc. Acctal grolrps arq fornrcd, rvhich

nray link adiaccnt
nyoroxyl groups on lhc $nlc nrolcculc (2), or
ococHl belwcen 'r:i;;
crcalc crosi-lirrks
groupson two adjoiriirig
nrol".,,i";'it
VINYL ACETATE POLYVINYLACETATE
qegreeor-hydrox.yl
acetattziltionachicvcdinduslria y is bctwccrr
3d and 40
mol per cent.

-cHz - cH - -cHr- c H-
I
{cx.-cr-} oH (t) I
OH o
OH
POLYVINYL ALCOHOT - c H r - c HI - - cH,- cH -I
Productionof polyvinyl alcohol

Spinning
*cH, -cH -cHr-CH - _cHr_cH_ct,t,_cll
Wa Spittniug . _.. - (2)
-ri Lnru+ | |
OH OH o _
Polyvinyl alcohol fibres are comntonly produced by wet spinning. c l t r_ o
The polymcr is dissolvcdin walcr to fornr a l4-16 Dcr cent solu-
tion, which is filtcred and pumpcd through spinncicts.The jcts
cnrergeinto an aqueouscoagulating bath containing sodium sul-
- cHr-cH - - c H r - c H-
phate solution.
OH o
Dry lMelt Spinning + cx"o __ll']-_r_ I
OH !11'
Polyvinyl alcohol fibres nray also be spun by a proccss whicl.r
combincs fcaturcs of dry and mclt spinning. Thc polyrhcr is dis-
-cH,-lrr- ?
- cll2 - ct.t-
solved in water undcr pressureand made into a highly concen- Insolubilizationof polyvinyl Alcohol
tratcd solution (30-50 per cenl). The hot nrolten mass is forced
through spiunerets,and the jcts cmerge into a hot air streanr
rvhich evaporatcsthc solvent to lcave solid 0laments of polyvinyl Aldehydcs olhcr than fornraldchydenray bc uscd
alcohol. These are hot drawn. in lhc accllli-
zation. Dcnzaldehyde,for cxnnrplc, proviclcs "
nb; oi-l;i;i,
resttlcnce;atdchydcsconlaining active groupings
Insolubilization such as antiio
groups may bc uscd to confcr spccial<tyc
ailiniiy ou rfrc nirc."-
Polyvinyl alcohol fibrcs produccd by thc rcgular wet spinning
process are heat treated, e.g. at about 240'C. This produces a
nrore compact Iibre in which hydrogen bonding bctwecn the PROCESSING
hydroxyl groups of polymer moleculesis grcatly intcnsilied.This
is connrntcd by the incrcascin spccificgravity which takcs placc, I)csizirrg
and by X-ray cxamination of lhe heat trcated librc. 'fltc.rrsua.l
tcchniqrrcsarc usctl, <.lcpcndirrg oD lltc nallrrc of fllc
flcnl trcittnlcnl is followcd by acetalization,usrrallyrvith fornt- s r z cu r a t l l i l s b c c u s c d .p o l y v i n y la l c o h o la r r t lo t h c r
wltcr-solublc
496
497
_-I:
f, h h h - - ts - F;f, h h fr h h h hl
I I A N D I } O OK O F T I X T I L E F I B R E S
SYNTIIETIC TI DRES

srzcs nray bc rcnlovcd with wtrnr walcr at 80-90.C.

.Starcht s
rcnrovcd with an enzytn tic dcsizingagcnt, c.g. diastasc.

Scouring
A l k a l i n es_c o ur i n g t r c a t n c n l ss,u c ha s k i c r b o i l i u gt,c n dt o s h r i r r k
-t
polyvinyl alcohol goods,and cruse y"tto*iug.-.t-t,"y
ar" .ri
avor'ded.
A soaprinsingwith ncutrll dctcrgcntis prcfcrrcd,c.g. for
30
minulcsat 80-90'C.,usinga 0.5pcr ccntsolution.
C A L C I U MC A R B I D E
C aC ? IllcrcLing
l)lcaching by hydrogcn pcroxidc, sulphur rlioxidc antl
siurilur.
agentsis nol ellcctivc, Chlorinc blcaclicsarc prcfcrrccl.
Flypochlorite ancl chloritc blcachcsarc uscd'cllcctivciy
for rhc
bleachingof polyvinyl alcohol fibrcs.
VINYL ACETATE Optical blcachingagcnts nray bc uscrl aftcr tlrc norrnll blclrch.

Dycing
P o l y v i n y l a l c o l r o l f i b r c s h a v c a g o o d n t l i n i t y f o r ( l y c s t r r. s ;
causlrc sooA tlrc
| l u r e s r c s e t ) t b l cc o t t o n n d o t h c r c c l l u l o s i c l i b r c s
NaOH
.l.hc in llirvinr
hydroxyl grorrpsalong tlrc nrolccule. follorviu;1tvr.,",ui.tu.,]
sltrll nray bc uscd: dirccl, acid, basic,nrctul conrplc,'x, ii,liif,"r, "i,r.
S O D I U MA C E T A T E
Iraphthol,acetale.

h) 100 pcr cent Polyvirtyl /lcolrol Fibrc

WET SPINNING Dircct Dyestu[Js

I T h e s e a r c g c n c r a l l yo I l o w f a s t n c s st o s u r ) l i g l t a
t nclrvlrshirrr:.
DRYING
lnd are uscd for light sltadcswhcrc faslncssis uot nn
i,,,t,o,i",ii
HEAT TREATMENT faclor.
ALDEHYOE
I
TREATMENT Acid Dycst ulJs
I n g c n e r a l ,a c i d d y c s l u l T tso o a r c o f i n i r ( l c q U i t lt icg l t t D ( l w l s l r
.
r a s l n c sw
s h c n u s c dw t l h p o l y v i t r y la l c o h o lf i b r c s .

Basic DyestulJs
B l s i c d y c s l u f f sa r c g c n c r a l l yp o o r i l I i g h t f a s l n c s sw l r c n
trsctl
o n p o t y v r n y la l c o l r o l[ i b r c s . ' f h c f a s t n c s si s i r r r p r o v c tbl y
t r s co f
a n o r d a n t , . b u t l h c s ed y c s a r c n o l r c c o n l n l c n d c d whcrc srrnligltt
I'oll,vitryl Alcohol (V inal\ Fibrc Flow Clnrt resistantis inlportant.
498 499
 T I N D D O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S
I}: SYNTIIEl'ICrt BRES
14etal Contplex DyestflJs Acct;ltcdycs rnay bc uscdfor aflcr_dycing thc polyvinylnlcohol
l:2 typc mctal complexdycstuffsare uscdvery eficctivelyfor fi brc.
dycingpolyvinylalcoholfibrcs; they are distinguishcd
by excel- Direct and acid dycstuflsarc uscdnrainlyfor light shadcs.
lcnt light fastness.
I'rinti|lg
Sulphur DyestuAs R e s i np i g r n e npt r i n l i n gi s u s c dc l l c c t i v c l w
y i t h p o l y v i n yal l c o h o l
Somcsulphurcoloursand sulphurvat colourshavegooddyeing goods.Aftcr bcing prinrcd and tJricd,rirc frrlrr.ic
i. t,..,-rr""il.i
a(finitylor polyvinylalcoholfibrcs.Thc coloursarc not brilliant. to completcpolynrcrization of thc rcsinand sct thc pig";;;i;i;;;;
in (hc fibre.
Yat DycsrulJs prinrcdin.rhis way arc fast to srrrrlighr arrd rvashing
- -|"-b]i::
ano coloursarc bflcbt.
Theseare the nrostellectivedyesfor usewith polyvinylalcohol,
providinga rangeof bright coloursof excelleutfastness.A wide
rangeoI shadesis available. Singcing
Polyvinyl alcohol fibrc docs not burn rcatlily, ;rnd it r.s
not c:rsilv
Naphthol Dycstuts singcd cllcctjvcly. 1'hc lurnps oI burncd tibrc tcntl
to sri"i ru ii,l
Naphthol dyes are usedfor dycing polyvinyl alcohol fibrcs, surlace of thc fabric.
providinga rangeof bright,fast colours. If polyvinyl alcohol sizc has bccn uscclon thc flbric,
. this nrust
bc rernovcd by dcsizing
bcforclhc.t"rt,ir.l;;;;ii. ifir,i,'ri',,i,i
Acctate DyestulJs may.irrsolu
bilizcrhcpolyvi0ytirlcohot sizc,rrr:rkirrg
ll?,t_".'_11!
]l*t
[ s r c m o v a lm o r c d i m c u l t .
Acetatedyestuflsare suitablegencrallyfor the productionof
l i g h ts h a d c s .
STITUCTUREAND PROPERTIES
(l:\ Polyvinyl Alcolol lCellulosic Fibrc Blends
Irinc Structurcand Appclrance
Sulphur arrl Sulphur Vat DyestulJs Fibres are smooth-surfaccd. Thcy arc whitc, wirh a silkJikc lustrc.
Aftcr-dyeingwith ntetal complcx dyes may be necessary
to l nc I on js gcncrrlly U_shapcd,Iikc a fllltc|cd tubc.
.cross-sect
_,
obtain good results. nere ts a pronounccd skin laycr, which is nlorc crystallinc
,r tlltn
lre corc. Mean vlluc o[ crystallinity is about 50 pcr
ccnt.
Vat DyestulJs 'l'cnacity
After-dycingwith ntetal complexdycs nray be necessary Staple IIigh_.j'cnocity lVnu_Solublc
to
obtain good results. cN/tex Fikutlent Filonrcnt
(g/tlel)
Naplthol Dyestu0s Dry 3 3. 5_ 54 . . 1 5 3 . 0 _ 7 5 . t 2 6 . 5 _ _ - t 5 . 3
Thesedyes are used preferablywhen blendscontain a high
p r o p o r t i o no [ c o t t o n . Wet -(J.q*(,2) (6.0-8.s) (1.0_4.0)
28.3_44.t 44.1*67.)
. cent) (1.2_5.0) (5.0_7.6)
(c) Polyvinyl / lcohollllrool Blends Elorrgalion (pcr
Dry l1-26 I .22
Dircct acid,acid nrordantand mordantdyestulTs
nray be used. ll-20
Wct t4-2'1 l0-26
500 501

-1 --l r-1 -l] .[ , 'l r r

TF. F.f F.F,F.F,NF.F.F.F.F.F
TIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES S Y N T I IE T I C F I B R E S

Stople HigltTetncity ll/atcr-Soluble

Filattrc Filarttent
Itlaslic Rccovcry(per ccnt)
From 3 per cent strain 65-85 70-90 85-95
From 5 per ccnt stririn 50 60

I n i t i a l l v f o d u l u sc \ / 1 s 1 220_6lg 6lg_1,5g9 44t-795

(g/tlcn) (2s-70) (70- 180) (s0-e0)
Young'slvlodulus(kg./mnr")
300-800 800-2,000 600-l,000
Averigc Stifncss cN/tex 150_459
(g/dcn) (r7_52)
Avctngc TouShllcss
0.41*0.52
Specific Gravity
1.26-1.30 1.2G1.30 1 . 2 61- . 3 0
Ellcc(of luoislure
l{cgain(per cent) 4.5-5.0 3.0-5.0 9.0
Absorbencyat
100pcr centr.h. 12.0per cent Polyvinyl Alcohol Ftbre ('M ewlon')

-l'hc
following propcrtics rcfcr to thc rcgular (watcr,insolublc)
polyvinyt alcohol fibre. Eltect of SuoliSht
Slightly a{Iccted after 100 days cxposurc, brrt loscs strcngth
Thcrntal Propcrlics more prolonged exposure.Tlre colour rcrnains good.
Polyvinyl alcohol fibrc undcrgocsa shrinkagc of l0 pcr c c r r ta t
220-230'C. At 220"C. it bcgius to turn yellow, and it s h r i n k s Chcnlicll Propcrtics
and softensat 230-250'C.
In boiling water (30 nrinutes immcrsion) shrinkagc is 0.2 Acitls
per ccnt. Polyvinyl alcohol fibre has a good rcsislancc to aci<.lsundcr
nornlal conditions.Hot or conccntratednrincral ircidsclusc swcll-
Flannrability ing aud shrinkage.
l'olyvinyl alcohol fibrc docs not burn readily.
Alkalis
llllccl of A8c
R c s i s t a n cies g c n c r a l l yg o o d . S t r o n g a l k a l i sc a u s cy c l l o w i n g ,b u t
Nonc tcnacity ls not allectcd.
502
503
rl
, 1
ri
I IIANDAOOK OIi TEXTILB FIDRES D : S Y N T I IE T I C F I B R E S
Gerrcrol lhc high proportion of hydroxyl groups whiclr rcnrain evcn irr
Resistanccis gcnerally good. the acetalizedfibre. Dcspitc lhis, thc mcchanical propcrtics arc
not unduly allected by watcr.
Elloct of OrganicSolyenls 1'he ability to absorb ntoisturc contributcs to thc conrlort o[
Incrt to anirnal, vegetableand mineral oils, and to most common garmenls worn Dexl to thc skin.
organic solvents.Swelled or dissolved by pbenol, cresol, formic
acid and hot pyridine. Thernnl Properties
'fhe
shrinkagc/soflcning tcnlpcraturc rangc, bcginning at aborrt
Insccts 22W23Q'C.,is a little on thc low sidc for sornc tcxtilc rpplicr-
Completely resistant tions, but is adequatefor most purposcs.
Polyvinyl alcohol fibres do not hcat-sctas cllcctivcly as nylon,
I\licro.organisnls polycster and othcr thernroplusliclibrcs.
Fabrics made lrom polyvinyl alcohol fibrcs rvill burn only with
Conlplctely rcsistant
difiiculty, much depending,as always, on othcr factors such us
Elcctriqtl I'ropcrlics finishcsused,cloth construction,ctc.

Surface resistivity (nrcasuredon yarns) l.3x 10tl ohrns/cm. Dnviro rmrcnIal Condi ti ons
Polyvinyl alcohol fibres are resistantto insccl.s,rrricro-orgrnisnrs
POLYVINYL ALCOHOL FIBRES IN USE and othcr influcnccs cncountcred in outrloor appliclliorrs.

Polyvinylalcoholfibreshavethe tlexibilit.ythat is associated

with CIrcnticol Resis!ance
a flattened-tube
type of cross-section,
and the handleof fabrics The high resistanccto acids,alkalis and many othcr chcrrricnlsis
madefrom thesefibresis excellcnt.Polyvinylalcoholfabrjcsare an important factor in thc industrial applicatiols of polyvinyl
soft and warm, and lcel very comfortablewhen worn next lo alcohol fibres.
the skin.
Cost
Mechatical Propertias
Polyvinyl alcohol Iibres are potenlially very clrcap, and lhcir
Fabricsbave high tensileand burstingstrengtl.l,and excellent futurc would seem to lic in thc field o[ hard-wcaring,low-cost
impactand abrasionresistancc.Thcy are extremelydurablcand fabrics and garments.
hard wcaring.
Thc clasticrecoveryof polyvinylalcoholfibrcsis on the low Washirrg
side,and this wouldsuggest
thatdimensionalstabilitvand wrinkle Polyvinyl alcohol fabrics may bc washcd wirhout dilliculty, no
resistancemay not be high. specialprecautionsbcing ncccssary.
SpccificCravity Dryirrg
The specificgrayity is lowcr than that of cotton or ravon. and Fabrics are quick-drying, and any of thc normal mctlrods mty
a b o u tl h e s a n r ca s s i l k , w o o l a n d a c c t a t e . be used.
M oisturc Relationships Ironirg
-fhc
rcgainis highcr than that o[ nrostvinyl-typefibrcsdue to Carmelts may bc ironcd safcly bclow 150'C.whcn dry,prcfcrably
504 505

-t '
l-L ' \
r i r i :' L, , 1 L - . - t - l
I F'lt t l": I - - - - - [l - - li r . r n r;
ri
ll HANDAOOK OF TEXTI LE FIBRES B: SYNTIIDTIC FIARES

l;r at 100-ll0'C. (rayonsetling).Wet fabricsshouldnot be ironed,

as thcrcis a tenderlcy
for the rnatcrialto harden.
Monolilamcnts trc uscd for l)l king synthclic bristlcs, nd for
nets usedin cultivating scawced,

Dry Clcaning Water-Soluble Polyvinyl Alcohol Fibrc

Polyvinylalcoholfabricsare dry cleanedwithout dimculty,and A small proportion of the output of polyviuyl alcohol librc con-
are not aflectedby the solventscommonlyused. sistsof libre wlrich has not.bccn hcat-trcatcdor acctalizctlto rcn-
der it insoluble in water. These watcr-solublc{ibrcs arc uscd for
specialapplicationsin which thcir solubility is irdvantagcous, c.g.
surgical threads and scaflolding fibrcs. Frabrics of novcl cllccts
may be obtained by knitting or wcaving yarns spun from blcnds
End-Uses containing polyvinyl alcohol fibrcs; lacs and othcr opcnwork
ln Japan, rvherc polyvinyl alcohol fibres have beconreof major fabrics are made by incorporatingpolyvinyl nlcohol yarns which
inrportance, they are being used in virtually every textile fiild, are subsequentlywashed out.
rarrgingfronr the finestrvearingapparclto thc toughestol ildustrial Important uscs incluclc base cloth for Cuipurc crrrbroiclcry,
applications. draw thrcads in knitting half-hose socks an(l swcatcrs,wc[t]css
felts for paper nraking, support for low-strcugthyurrs, c.g. lorv-
Apparel twist wool rnd cotton yarns.
Staplc fibre is used in 100 per cent form, or as blends with other
fibres. Excellent materials are made by blending with cotton or
rayon,
Apparel applicationsiuclude materialssuch as denims,poplins,
shirtings,serges,gabardines,suitings,linings, etc. These are made
into all manner of garments,including uniforms, sportwear,suits,
dresses,stockings, socks, gloves, hats, children's clothing and
foundation garments.
In all these apparel applications,Lhe hard-weariogqualities of
polyvinyl alcohol are associatedwith warm, con.rfortablehandle
and easy-washability.

I{onte Furr:jshittgFabrics, etc.

Polyvinyl alcohol fabrics are used for curtains, upholstery,car-
pets, umbrellas,tableclotbs,sheetsand the like.

I rrdustrial A pplicotions
The durability, chemical resistance,nater resistance,strengthand
resistanceto outdoor exposure have enabled polyvinyl alcohol
fibres to establishmany important industrial end-uses.They are
nradc into fishing nets, ropcs, hoscs, tarpaulins,convcyor bclls,
tyrc cords, Iilter cloths, tents and sacks for grain storage.
506
507
 I I A N D D O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S
A: S Y N ' I ' I I I , , I ' t CF I N R E S

POLYI'ErI{N FLUOIiOEfFIYLENE I;IDItES

l;ibrcssptrn from polymersof tctraflrrorocthylcnc:

F F F F F I :

CF2= CFz - _ _ _ _ t _ _ - _ ct _ c _tc _ c t_ c _ ct _ _ _t l

t t t t t t
F F F F F F
TETRAFLUOROETHYLENE POLYTETRAFLUOROETHYLENE
(PTFE)
I NTRODUCTION

j#i[i:",,iii,:;*.'":,il;ixi,T,,l"l
i':._,*i*,t
"Jit.,;l,
JJil,
I
lt;'fiI;::i"lii:, [:i *lJ;,ff itflItff:
t t u o r o c t h y l c n hc a
. d p o l y n r c r i z c df,o r r r r i r r gp o l y t c t r a l l " " ,
;;;,;i;;,;
l n c n c w p o t y n l c rl ) i l d u l l u s u i l a
l n d . p o t c n t i r l l yu s c f r r l
and cllorts were nradc to devel, ; rr.o|crlics,
rr4
any dirncurriei*;;; ; ; ;,'.-,"",i;: ;:":.:;X, lfli,,,"Lj'/'"',1',1;
,fiidiii"iilf
[:';:iffi ",,"jt;
]Jl:li,J;T:,.T;lt;;;l;f
undcr the trade name .'I'ellon'.

,"'T:1,::;i;,,:ifl:ll,ll,,:".'i""
il,;:,l,y
:1,1i';
lilfJH,;i,,"T;
anJn;;;r;; h"1
ll,i':ll,1l1,'l.ffjll'r:T,""";:""f'i"ro'ii" ;;'
arnorrnal
t"mp"ratur..,"
an<rl;;fill#r:"[Tl j:',:'i:r::1ill::
pro'ti"' iffi;;;;:
;,|ff ;1xifi rLii"gi'i'
;L!:'"i"ii1,l'$':'3:
",,;,,1T:l'.":l;",.:i,u",'li"",,lllllll
:dixii:"yll''""Yfl
conrinucd
J]ii'ii',,y.i.h"!::';::t';*,,,:,:ll
[ii,-!;p*l't,ll,ili*,
lo scrycnsa spccirt_-pur.posc
pi;i;;;;;
;fiiiii:-,
In 1954, ''fcflon, fibrc was in
.,""'r,,*"lj",,,",.".';:lil"hi]l
:;mffll;li#il"'ffi UT":r;:
508 509

; r l T - 1 r - 1 r l r l r l r l f l I
 'J
L Ff1" fl " ti t F t F E n f r F F H f r - F - l - ] : ]
I li lj

IIANDAOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES B : . S Y Nr . I t ! . . t . 1FcI D R E S

a n d i s p r o d u c e di n r c l e l i v e l ys m a l l a m o u n l s ,b u t i t h a s found a Polyltcrizltion
nurnber oI highly specializcdapplications for which rlo othcr 'l'ctra
fluoroethylene is pLrrificd and polynrcrizccl un(lcr
fibre is cqually satisfactory. hcat trnd
pressurein stainlcssstccl autoclavcsin tlic prcscncc
uf " i,.,;*;,i;-
type catalyst.Thc rcaclion takcs placc rapi<lly, rvith
ffi" r"f"u"
of hcrt, and must bc kcpt careftilly rrndcr ci",,r"i
i;:i.. r..li. i,
ronrcd as w h i t c p o w ( l c r w h i c l r i s s r r b s c q r r c n l twyi r s l r c t il r r r t l
NON4ENCLATUI{E dricd.

Polytelranuorocthylcrreis comrrronly known by the initials Spirnirrg

P.T.F.E., whicb is a conyenie[t lvay of avoiding the unwieldy P.T.F.E. is insolublc and it <lccomposcs bcforc rnclling, lt cannot
chcnrical nanrc. Thc fibrcs spun frotn the polyure-rare describci be spun,,thereforc, by the dry, wct o-r nrclt .pl"ui"r,"r*f
,,iiiiii".
as P.T.F.E. fibres, and thcy arc conlnonly inclucledin the nrore c o m m o n l yu s e df o r p r o d u c i n gl i b r c s f r o r n s y r r t h c t i cp o l v l r c r i -
gencral ternl fluorocarbons or lluoroltolymers, which inclucle other It
rvas nccessary to devisc spccial tcclrniqucs
for sirinnirrg thc
n'liltcliills wilh a high proportiou of IluoriDc irtontsas substituent.s polymcr.
on thc carbo| chain of the polynrer nrolccule. In thc produclion of p.T.F.E. fibrc, tlrc polynrcrizltion
Thcrc is no U.S. Fedcral Tradc Commission(lcfilition lo cover is
cirrricd in
P.'l'.F.E. tbrcs. Thc uscs of thc fibrcs arc spccializcclancl lic _o_rrt such a wiry irs ro protlrrcc . l . h
a rtislicrsionli,,ii"liii,i,i
c
ill)orr pcr cclt of tltc l)olynlcr. l i n c ; l r r r t i c l c si n t l t i :
.t)
outside the gcncrirllextile ficld; an ollicial definition of the F..I..C. o r s p e r s r oanr e r r b b o n J i k ci n s h l p c .
typc would serve little uscfLrlpurposc, Whcn. tlrc polynrcrizrr tion ii conrplctccl. thc rlisrrcrsiorri,r
c x t r u d c d t h r o u g h a s p i n n c r c t t, h c j c t s c r r r c r g i r r g
i , , r . ,, u i , , , , i , " u , , .
Pti.oDUclloN coagularlng
- b a t hc o n s i s t i n go [ a d i l u t c s o l r r t i o no f l r y c l r o c h l o I i c
:rcro.. r,te dtspersion is co;rgulatcd. the pilrliclcs
l\lononrcr Syutbcsis ut p.t..F,L:.
n o r o r n gt o g c t h c rn s w c a k f i l i r n r e n l isr r w h i c h t h c p a r t i c l c s
'1.etofuoroetItyle rc ljtitl
ne cntircly separal.e.
'fhc
Calciurn fluoride (fluorspar) is reacled with sulphuric acicl to filaments arc healed rapidly to about.3g5.C., rvhcrc
thcv
forn hydrogen I]uoridc (l). This is relcred wiih chlorofornl are nraintained for a fcw scconds.-l.hc pofvu,", pnrri.i.r',rii
producing chlorodifluoronrcthane(2). pyrolysis of the lattcr sinle.rcd,and fusc inlo l cohcrcnt nlanrcnt.'itiis
ai Ii q".,"f,"i
quickly, and drawD at roonr tclnpcralurc
600-800"C.gives tetralluoroethylene(3). to lllrcc or forrr lintcs
r r so n g l u i u t e n A l h .
f i b r c s p r o d u c c r li n t h i s w a y a r c n l i l r k c t c d; r s r r r u l t i -
caFa + H,sor -lll. zHr * "uro. ^,PT.F.E,
|lrirnleot )aflts, staplc llbrc and tow.

2HF + CHCI, c H c rF , + zHCt

PIiOCESSING
cf{LoRoFonM CHLORODIFLUONOMETIIANE
Blcachirrg
t3) ,/.
P,T.F.E. fibrc has a nro lcd [rrowrr or tirn nlpcirritncc,
l)ul il
can be blcachcd cffectivclv-
cF, cF. + 2HC1.
Exposure of thc librc to fhc rir for 3-6 days at
. 260"C. rvill
TETRAFLUOROETHYLENE bring about partial blcaching to a grcy. I,ligircr
tcrnpcr:;rrrrrcs
510 5lI
 l t AN D r l o o K o F ' l E X l l L E F l l l l l l l s
rcduce the linrc llcccssary,bul this ntay be otl-set by sontc
dcgradltionoI lhc fibre.
Wct oxidatior) with hot miucral acid mixtures is thc quickcst
and nrost cllectivc way of bleacbing P.T.F.E. fibre, produciug
a purc wbitc.
Dl cirrg
P.T.F.E. fibrcs arc virtually undycable.
Siziug
In proccssilg lo!v-twist continuous-filamentyarns through plying,
trvisting,spooling, rvarping aud wcaving, it is preferable to use
a siziDg agent. A 2 per cenl coating of a polyvinyl alcohol type
agcnt is rcconrllrcnded.lt kceps the {ilamellts together during
quilting, warping or weaving, and may be removed easily by a
s u b s c q u c nst c o u r i n go I t h c f a b r i c .
Plicd filarncnt yarns or highly twistcrl singlc cnd yarns may
be processedwithout sizing.
Tl ing
A dorrblc weavcl's knol is rccornrDcndedfor tyiog togetl]er two
continuous filamcnt yarfls of l'.'f.F.E.
Spinnirg Staplc ffibrc
The slick, waxy fcel oI P.T.F.E. conlinuous-[ilanent yarn is
trndesirrblc in some applications,such as protective garments.
ll thcse cases,spun yar[ made from P.T.F.E. fibre nray be used.
Thc proccssingof a low friction fibre such as P.T.F.E. staple
crcatcsspccialdifficultics.Card rvebsand slivcr tcnd to fall apart
rundcrtheir own rveight.Tlrc low cohesion of thc lllamcnls can
bc overcome lo sonredcgree by blending in 3 per ccnt of rayon
staplc. Porvdering with rosin is also efiective, a|ld lhe addition
of snrallqualtilics of asbestosmay help with carcliugand spinning.
Dircct Spi0nirg
Spun yarns of I'.'l'.F.E. fibrc arc ntadc satisfactorily by direct
low-twisl
spinning.1'hc filaments in a hcavy contiruor.rs-lilalncnt,
tow arc brokcn in random fashion, and thc nbrcs are twisted into
a spun s{aplc yarn. Thc troublcsonre carding slep is thus
e l i m i n a l e de n t i r c l v .
5t2
A: SYNTII ETI C FIBftES
Excellcntyarn unifornrity has bccn achievcdwith lhis lcchniqrrc,
nd tho rcsulting fabrics havc a mrrclr lcss wlxy fccl lharr fubrics
nradc from conlinuous filamcnt P.'|,F.E. yarns of conrparablc
rvcight.
'I'cxlurcd
Ynms
Continuous filanrcnt P.T.F.E. yarns nray bc '-I-rrslan'tcxtrrrcd lo
p r o v i d c a n r o r c u n i f o r n r ,h i g h l y p o r o u s y c t d i r r r c n s i o n t l l sy t a b l c
fabric having a dry, spun-yarn-typchandlc.
llcat Setting
For service at modcratc tcmpcralurcs(100"C.), hctt scIing nlty
bc achicvedby convcntionalboil-oll. Furthcr exl)osurcsin boilirrg
water will cause very littlc additional shrinkagc. Considcrrblc
additional shrinkageof thc boiled-oft fabric nrry occrrr,lrowcvcr,
if it is subjcctcd lo scrvicc lclnpcr lrtrcs wcll ubovc thc boil-oll
conditions.
STRUCTURE AND PROPI]IITIES
Firre Struclurcnnd Appcnrance
Thc carbon atonrs forming thc backbonc of thc p.-f.F.E.
molecule are complctcly surrounded by fluorinc alonrs, wlriclr
act as a barricr that protccts the carbon chnin. p.'l'.F.8. fibrcs
are extremely stablc to heat and chemicals.
The molcculcs of P.T.F.E. arc elcctrically nculral, ancl lhcrc
are no strong polar forccs binding thc nrolcculcstogcthcr as iu
the casc of polyamidc, polycstcr, cellulosic and othcr fibrc
molecules,Tlre molccules of P.-f.F.E. havc an cxlrcmcly rcgrrlar
structure,however, and this makcs possiblca vcry closc packing
of the chains. P.T.F.E. librcs havc n high dcgrcc of crystalliniry-,
and thc rclntivcly wcnk but vcry nunlcrous v;rn dcr. lVnlis
forces combins lo crcnlc il strbsllnlial inlcrnrolccular altrncliorr
withir the crystallitcs.
'fhc
nrolcculcs of I'.'f,F.E. arc clsily dcforructl by gross
nrcchnnicalforccs.and lhc lrrrorphorrszoncs of thc fibrc irc soft.
5t3
'L '
]
 f'l
f_F'Jr.-FJJ'1'1 f''it -
F"i - n r n r r r n
r l
I
I
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILD FI BRES N : S Y N T I T E T IFCI B R E S
By contrast, thc closc packing o[ thc largc fluorine atoms rouncl SpccificGravity
lhc c rbon chairr ntakc thc nolccules rclativcly inrmobile to
Ll.
forccs o[ the order that producc Brownian movement.The linal
(ransfornration, thcrefore, fronr an interlaced fibrous structure
to a frecly-moving nrollcn nrassdoes not occur unlil quite high [,Iccl of Moisaure
levcls of thcrnral cnergy are reachccl. P.T.F.E. clocs not :rbsorb trroisturc. Most non-wcttrblc of irll
P.f.[:.E. fibre is thus solt and vcry llcxible, and yet has a known hbres.
high nrelting point. Thc close packing oI 0uorine atorns around
{he carbon and thc close fi[ing of molcculcs jn thc crystallites 'l
hcrrnrl Propcrlics
are also rcsponsiblclor thc high dcnsity of the fibre.
Filanrents are smooth surfaccd and of rorrnd cross-scctiorr. P.T.F.E.has the bcst thernralstabilily ot thc tough, flcxiblc fibrcs.
-l'hcy Sonrc inorganic fibrcs, sLrch as glass or xsbcslos, ltxvc bcttcr
are lan to brolvn il colour, but can bc bleachedwhite in
thcrmal stabilily, but are not as tough or chcntical-rcsislirntirs
slrong oxidizing mincral acids.
P.T.F.E.
'fctritcily On being heated,P.T.F.E. shrinks to son)c cxtcnl. l?abricsnray
b c p r e - s h r u n kb y a b l i e f h c a t - t r e a l m c nat t a t c n l p c r a l u r c : r b o v c
Monofilanrctt
llre proposcd servicc tcntpcrature,
cN/tex(g/cten) P.'l',F.E.fibre losesils nbrc propcrticsan(l rcvct.tsto its nlirssivc
std.: 10.6-12.4 (1.2-r.4) 4.4(0.s) form at 327"C. It retains a use{ul strcnglh ult to 205.C., irnd
wcf: 10.6-t2.4(1.2-t.4) 4.4(0.5) for ccrtain ilppliciltions can scrvc at tcnrpcr;tlrtrcs;rs high lrs
Std.Loop: 9.7-11.5(1.1-1.3) 288'C. At 290'C., dccontpositionproducts ilrc lost irt th; rrtc
s r d .K n o t : 9. 7- 1 . 5( l . l - 1. 3 ) o f 0 . 0 0 0 2p c r c c n t p e r h o u r ; a t 4 3 0 " C . , a t t h c r a t c o f 1 . 5 p c r
t"tttt'"stt"tt*tltkg/.ult ccnt per lrour.
2,20s-2,62s 980 P.T.F.E. retainsa good sct and abrasionrcsislunccwlrcn ltca(cd,
(lb/in/) (31,500-37,s00) ( 14,000) and can be r)scdelfectivelyfor many applications:rt 20J.27.5.O.
Elongalion
(per cent)Std.: l5-32 52 Usclul Environmantal 7'cntpctature.,-73.C. lo 2?5"C.
Wet: | 5-37 52
Initial Modulus Zero Strcngth Temperat re. 3lO"C,

1 2 3 . 6c N i t e x ( 1 4 . 0g / d c n )
C cl l crttpcruturc.32'1'C,
lYork of ltupturc
0 . 1 2 g . c m /. d e n . c m . Spccific I I car. 0.25 Il.T.U./lb./ " F.

Avcragc Stillness 'l'hennal

C o n d u c t i v i t y .t ; l B : t . u . l h r . / s q . f t /. . F . / i n .
Staplc; 1 3 2 . 5c N / t e x ( 1 5 g / d c n )
Filanrent: 1 9 . 4 - 6 2 . 7c N / t e x ( 2 . 2 - 7 . 1 g / d c n ) F latntnability. Non-flirmmablc;nrelts with ctcconrposition.

Aycragc Touglulcss
Eflcct of SuDligh(
0.12-0.15. Negligiblc.
514
515
 I I A N D T ] O OOKF T B X T I L EF I B R E S SYNTII ETtC FIDN[,S
ChcnricnlI'ropcrtics

Acitls

-R#$r
P.'f.l:.E.-fibrcis conrplctclyincrt, lor exanrplcto boiling sulphuric
acid, lo luming nitric acid or to aqua regia.

ffi#*u
Alkalis
P.T.F.E. is conrplctcly incrt, cvcn to boiling stturaled sodiunr
h y dr o x i d c .
z
Cenersl

!.T.F-E. has an cxtraordinary rcsistanceto chcnricaldegradalion.

F
-extremelv
On lhe one hand, the carbon-to-carbon boncls are
stro0g, thc ouly reagcnts that will break them being molte;
alkali metals. On the other hand, the fluorinc atoms aie packed
so closely around the carbon chain that the carbon_to-;arbon
bonds in thc chain arc thoroughly protectcd from any reagcrlt
cxccpt luorine gas at high tcmpcratureand pressure,oi chloiine
trilluoride.

Elfcc( of Orgtnic Solvcnts

The only knorvir solvenls for P.T,F.E. are ccrtain perfluorinatcd
organic liquids at tcmperaturesabove 299"C. PolytetrunuoroetIIJIcc ("1'clo ')

Inscets
P.T.F.E.FIBRES IN USE
Not attackcd.
P.T.F.E._ fibrcs are uniquc in that they conrbincthc rcsistancc
Micro-orgaoisms to chemicals, solventsand elcvatcdtcnipcratr,r"* nr.o"iot".i*iif.,
Not attacked. inorganicnbres,with the flcxibilityand torrghncss ftratarc iypici,i
of many organicfibrcs.
ElectricalProperlics Front the oulsct,P.-l'.F.8.librcs havc bccn cxtrcnrclycostly,
andfor this_rcasorr ulonclhcy coulclrrotbc corrsidcrcd f.; g";;;,ii
Exccllent insLrlator. t c x t i l cu s c .I n . a d d i t i o nt,l l c y l l a v cn n u n p l c t s a ngt ,r c a s yi i r n d l c ,
oo rnoistureabsorption,high dcnsityand low nroilulus;cvcn ii
Arltcsivcncss costwas not an importantfactor,thcy would bc of littlc intcrcst
Fcw nraterialswill stick to P.T.F.E. for apparclapplications.
Thc outlct for P.'I.F.E.fibrcs must obviouslylic in cncl-uscs
Cocllicicnaof Iiilrrc-to-Filrre Friction where performanceis of greatcrsignilicanccihan initirl
high
About 0.2 - lowest of all known fibres.
cosl, and such cnd-uscsh vc crcalcd a rclalivcly snra lrr-ii
importantnrarkctfor p.T.F.E.fibrcs.
516
5t7

l ' l ' l | l t l r l t l r
 ||ANDD00K OF l EXl ll-E FIaRES B : S Y N ' r T E ' I ' IC F I D R E S
'l'o,\icit
y I a u n d r yp. a d s ,l a u n c h yr o l l c o v c r s ,s p c c i a lc o n v c y o r
bcltinns.
Although l,.T.F.E. itsclt is not poisolous in ally way, it givcs crcclncat tapcs and wral)s for corrosivc scrviccs,
nrolccti-vc
olf toxic gascswhen heated above 204'C. The releaseo[ thesc crothlng,corrosion-rcsistant cordagc,anti-stick bandigcs,and
gascs incre3scsas thc temperature rises. Care should be taken, hoseand V-beltcuringtapes.
therelore, when P.T.F.E. is being used to ensure that snrall
portions of P.T.F.E. libre do not contaminate tobacco. A piece
Bearirtgs
of P.T.F.E. lint picked up by a cigarettecould evolve poisonous
vapours which might causediscomfort if inhaled.Srnokingshould The Iow coefllcient of frictionand high load bcaringcharaclcris_
bc prohibited whenevcrP.T.F.E. fibre is being processed. tics of this fibrc havc rcsul(cdin its wiclc acccptiric"
'8";;j;;'.
i"-i;;;
duty bearingswhere low rclativespccus"r. i,;;;i;;
rnay be fabricatedfrom wovcn fatrricsor conrpositc
Dnd.Uscs ,;"1;;;;j;
containingP.T.F.E.fibre flock.
Tltc rpplications fo; P.'l'.t:.E.fibres are alnrostentircly in the lield
of iudustrial specialties,where there arc lnany small-volumeuses
for a fibre that combinestoughnesswith unprecedented corrosion
rcsistance. FLUORINdfED ETHYLENE.PROPYLENECOPOI-YMEI{
FIBRES
Draidcd I'ocking
l' .T.F.E. braids arc uscd with grclt succcssin the packing o[ Fibrcsspun fronr fluorinatcdethylenc_propylcnc
copolynrcr:
chemical pump shafts, whcre the material nrust withstatd highly
corrosive materials. Irr a pump handling 102 pcr cent funting
nitric acid, for examplc, a braidcd packing o[ P.'I'.F.E.Iibrc was
I
still in good condition afler T rnonths,whereasthe best previous
packing lasted 2-3 weeks. The packing in a centrifugal pump t l t l
handling molten urea nrixture lastcd 34 days, whereas lhe best c-c
previous packing lasted 2 to 5 days. t l I I
The low coelTicientof friction of P.T.F.E. fibre contributes to
its successin this application. Best rcsults were obtained by
F . E . P .R E S I N
inlpregnating the braid with P.T.F.E. dispersion.

Filtratiotr Fabrics
The high resistanceto corrosion of P.T.F.E. Iabrics enablesthern INTRODUCTION
to serye as filtration fabrics for spccial industrial applications.
The introducrjon of p.T.F.E. plasticsand fibrcs has bccn
P.T.F.E. is used successfullyfor.the filtration of hot, corrosivc followcd
oy the developmcnl.of many resins bascd uporr copolynrcrs
liquids and gaseso[ nrany types. o[
tctrafluoroethylcne.Onc oI the most irnporlrnt of tlicsc'is
; c;-
p o l y m c r o f l c t r a . 0 u o r o c t h y l c nacn d h c x a l l u o r o p r o p y i . , , " ,
Gaskels, clc- * f , i . fi i
xnown as ltuorinatcd ethylcnc propylcnc copolyrrrcr,
-l'he or I:,lf.p,
chenricalresistancc,softnessand toughnessof P.-f.F,E. fiblc l lures spun Irorn F.E.p. arc vcry similar to l',1..F.E.
fibrcs-
rre charictcl'isticswhich scrvc it wcll in thc production o[ gaskcts cxccpLlhat thc F.E.p. fibrcs are thcrmoplastic,."ltiug
ot nlroui
for pipe flangcs handling corrosive liquids. Othcr uses include 290"C.
518 519
 'TEXTILE
IIANDI}OOK OF IIII}ITES

PITODUC'TION
I t t i , t i a lM
, odulks t0,500-38,500kg/c r2 (150,000_550,000
F.E.P. r'csinsare prcducccl by the copolyrnerizationoI tetra- l D / nr . )
f i u o r o e t h y l e aud
n e hexallu oropropylene:
I,lssticProperticsljWo recover!up to l(y/oextension
RelativeStiflrcsst76.6-397.3 cN/tcx (20_45 g/dcrr)
ti I l-'t ,
l i : ifl
-[r
LF
TETRAFLUORO.
FI

E TH Y L EN E
I +y I
l ' -c :fc-l -' >i ll- c - cl -' +- cf - ' i / i
l
L F
r
IIEXAFLUORO-
PROPYLENE
tF I l l
L F
r rF l
\F
F,E.P. RESIN
iIl
l
RclativeTouglnrcss
0.3-0.6 (est)
&;efiicient of Friction 0.1
Resistanceto AbrasiortVcry good
RelractivcIndcx | .42
Specilic Gravity | .76
PROPt:I{'fIES
liflcct of Moisturc Surl'accrcsists\vcttirrgarrtltlocs not rctain
water. Adsorption0_042o Shrinkagcin rvaierat l00oC. :rl.tcrid
Sinrilarto P.'f.F.8.,but thc Iibres are thermoplaslic,meltiug
a b o u t2 9 0 ' C . ltinutes, 4-2A,/o
Tlrcrnul Propcrties
M e l t i n gp o i n t : l ? 0 o C
U s r l ) l et c r n p c r i r t r r raen e c-: 6 2 0 t o l 5 0 o C .
L o s so f t e r r s i lsct r c n g t h i t l O O o C . : 2 g , / o
POLWINYL I?LUORIDEFIBRES L i f ea t l 5 0 o C . :u r l i i n i t e c l
F l a r r : n r a b i l ist ye:l f - e x t igl u i s l r -i nagl ( l n o r r - t l r i p p i r r g
S p e c i f ih c e a r :0 . 3 3c a l / c l o C .
'l
Fibres spun fronr polyurcrsor copolymcrsof vinyl fluoricle: fr c r r l r fc o n d u c t i v i :t y1 . 9 x I 0 - 4 c a l / s c c / c l r r 2 / u C / c r l

C I Iz. = C l l F - ) - C l2 l ^ - C I ' l F - C t l 2^- C l l F - Elfect of SunlightExcellcntrcsistance

CItcnt.ico.l
lopenics Very good rcsistanccto nlost corunt()n
PRODUCTION c n e | lc a l s l. ( e s i s t a nt ot n t o s tc o n ) n l o a
n c i d s , o x i r l l r t t s l rsrodl v c n t s ,
except funring sulphuric acid, prinrrry aliphatic arnirrcsirii
are producedby extrusionof
Polyvinyl fluoride nronofilaments
SCetolle
polymcrfollorvedby orientation.
Resistancato AgcrirgI3xccllcnt
AND PROPEIITIES
S'TRUCTUIIE
ht sects: Micro{ rgorrrtrrrs
Exccllent rcsistilncc
Tbnocity19.4-38.8 cN/tcx (2.2-4.4 g/clen)
Elcctrical hoperties
TcttsilcSoengtlt3,500-7,000kg/crn2(50,000-100,000lb/in2)
lilongatiott l5 -30% 60 cyc l0l cyc 1 0 6c y c
D i c l e c t r icco n s t a n t : 8.4 8.0 6.6

521

' [ u . . l l
INNF.E F,FTFT}
D: SYNTIIETIC FI OITES

Dissipa
i ot n f a c t o r : 0.049 0.018 0.t7 P O L Y V I N Y L I D E N ED I N I I ' I T I L EI : I I } R E S
Dielectricstrength
Fibresspunlrom polymersor copotymcrs
( v o l t Y m i l )3 . 1 8m m 260 ot vinylidcnedinitrile:
0.2 mm 1280
CN CN CN
V o l u m er e s i s t i v i t y
(ohrn.cn.) 2 x l}ra C:r."=c/ -, -cn,,_J_cu-_J_
\ r l
POLWINYL FLUORIDEFII]RESIN USE CN CN CN
Monofilamenthas been woven into filter cloths and installed Vinylidene
Dinitrilc p o l y v i n y l i d e nDci n i r r . i t c
in a number of pulp mills to take advantage of the excellent
resistance to chlorineand chlorinedioxi(le.Filter clothsareused INTRODUCTION
in other corrosiveenvironmentsat temperatures rangingfrom
- 6 2 0 t o l 5 0 o C . O t h e r a p p l i c a t i o nisn c l u c l em i s t e l i m i n a t o r s ,
s u r e i c aslu t u r eas n de l e c t r i c ablr a i d .
n #,,"i:{*r-
;1qiffi'.;itilf i:n[i*
fi}, ri
;,:
q;r#i;;i*ll'r*j:{l+ ixiti:
"ltlixr*:,;1",1"
'ft,it ?i'.I
a":1' 'st
*:;ilu*lrJffiH.;i+'ii"ffi [:"
fllq:r"ffi itT
[fftrh:r#H{t1,,"i:
NOMENCLATURE

Federal Trade Comnisdon Dcfinition

ff,:"lX',],',ifl
:
hln:iUl,:i:i
#t'.1"i,,,1'iilii,"'i,i:;""*,
IrlnlS,*,*i,r,{#
:"-,#*fttrii#i[txffi
Ik::"iT:lt"T#,,Hltil:::
i*:::.'lil,ttiit,{:,fil;
522 523
 IIAND BOOK OF TEXTILE FIBITES
r r : s Y N T E T tc I : l l t l t u s
PRODUCTION (b) Acetic anhydrirlcancl hyrJrogcn
. cyrnidc arc rc:rclc(lto lornl
'l)arvan'is a l.-acctoxy-1,'l -dicyanoc ianc
copolynrcrof vinylidcnedinitrileand vinyl acetate pvtolvsis oI rcclicacidbv
madeby polyrnerization of a mixturcof thc two monomers.
results
in vinytidcnc
,',rillli"'l:it]"""'
Thc
polymcrhas the followingempiricalstructure: cH.co. CN
' I
I.I FI I] CN f + lJcN > cllj co coclt.
cl{! co t -
l l
-c--c-{-c- ACETICANHyDntDE H-YDROGEN
CN
t-^cEroxy-l,|-DICYANOET
l l CYANIDE ANE
H 0 t { c N
I
CO
CN
I I
CH - l + CHr COOH
Ir{onourcr Synlhesis CN

Vitryl Acctarc. See prge .4(r3. VINYLIDENE

AC E TIC
DINITRILE
ACID
Vittl'lidr,tu 11,,t',r'r, I)roduction of vinylirlerrc dinitrilc frorD lcctic
'fhere lnhytl.itlc
are severalpossibleroutcs to vinylidene dinitrile, including
thc following: I'olynrcriza{ion
(a) Malonitrile and formaldehyde are reacted to form tetra-
cyanopropaoe(l). This is then heated to drivc off malonitrile and A . n r i x t u r e . ovf i n y l i d c n d
c i n i t r i l ea n d v i n y l i r c c t a ticn 5 0 : 5 0
ratio-is polynrcrizcdby hcalinga solutionof nrol
folm vinylidene dinirrile (2). thc two ,rr;;;,;;;;
CN
I ' - - -
.
- - j - : i - >
1
CN
) l
CN
l
1ffi n,;l',?:,X'il:"::,f,1;
o(r and washed,
Xl,?i',u,",lll,llii,,,;li:,tlffil
2 H-C-H + cH,o - t H-C-CH"-C-H l
I Spinning
CN CN CN
MALONITRILE FORMALDEHYOE TETRACYANOPROPANE The copolyrncr of vinyliclcnc dinilrilc nd vinyl flcctatc is
:i::::i::.^:,.9li.ln{, fornrarnirJc,
"n,rrl,c,ol,iiiol,
i;-;,;l;;,cj
"il'l:illi,::;:l;,1.?,'"1'",T;::
*-"'
Q) _-.-"
illl;"Jll
:illH'$;,:i:,;iilf
cipitatcd
iJ
CN CN
and lol srrctclcd
bcforc bcirrt;r;i;;j ;;; .i; i;i;;
t l slaplc fibre.
C:CH. + CH"
l l
CN CN PROCESSING
VINYLIDENE MALONITRILE
OINITRILE Blcaching
Productionof vinylidcnedinitrile from nralonitrile 'Darvan'
may bc bleuchccl cffectivcly rvith acidic so<liurn
524
525

' t
LfftfnEEnnltFF_F
IT,\NDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES B: S Y N T I I E - I ' IC F t A R E S

calcium hypocirloritc oi sodium chlorilc. Alkalinc hydrogen .X-ray dillraction pa crns show an almost cornDlclc abscncc
pcroxidc should not bc uscd. o[. crystallinity in ,Darvirn' fibrc, with u.ry ,figf,i
""i1""""'oi -'
oricntation.Thc fibrc thus has no l'irstor<Jertraniitio,.Ip;;;;;
Dyeing
'Darvarr' Fibrc Fornr
can be dyed with disiperse,cationic or azoic dyes. It 'Darvan'
has little or no allinity for direct, acid, metallized, chrome or has a IIat, curled cross-scction.
lt is slightly oll-whilc.
vat dyes.
Tcnacity
Pastelshadesare produced on'Darvan'by using dispersedye-
stu[Is or combinations of disperse and cationic dyes. Mediun) D r y : l ' 1 . 7c N / t e x ( 2 . 0 g / d c n )
and deep shades are obtained rvith disperse or calionic dves. l Y e t : 1 5 . 0c N / t c x ( I . 7 g / d e n )
Azoic dyes devcloped with p-oxynaphthoic acid are rrsed for
L : l a c kn
, a v y a n d s o m er e d s h a d e s . lensilc Slrcngth
i,ledium and deep shades require carrier or pressuredyeing. 2 , 1 0 0 g l c m 2 ( 3 0 , 0 0 0l b / i n 2 )
Vigorous afler-scouringis neededto renlove excessdyestu{Isand
carrier (if used). Elongation
Strong alkaline conditions,dry temperaturesabove 162"C.,and 30 per ccnt, wet or dry.
wct Lemperaturesabove 120"C. should be avoidcd.
Elaslic Recoycry
STRUCTURE ND PROPERTIES Fronr 3 pcr ccnl cxtcnsion: I00 pcr ccnt.
I : r o r r r5 p c r c c l l l c x t c n s i o l | : g 5 p c r c c t | t .
liirreSlructureand Appcaratrce Inilial Modulus
Molccular Slructure l'l 6.6-22Q.'1 cN/tex (20-25 g/dcn)
Vinylidenedinitrilewill copolymerize with many monomers, and Yicld Point
il tends to lorm alternatingcopolymcrsrather than random
copolynrers. S t r e s s : 6 . 6 c N / t e x ( 0 . 7 5g / d c n )
Thc structureof the copolymerwith vinyl acetate,
for example,is virtually the same no matter wbat proportions Strain : 2-3 per cent.
of the two monomersare used.The monomerunits ;lternate AYeragcSailltress
to form a polymercontainingthe two unitsin 50:50 molar ratio.
In practice,the polymeris made from a mixture of monomers 53.0 cN/tex (6 g/cten)
in this ratio.
Avcrnge Toughncsg
The alternationof monomersin the polymer structureof
'Darvan'is probably 0.3.
due to the strongelectron-attracting forces
of the two nitrile groupson a singlecarbon atom. Hydrogen
Spccific Gravity
bonding results in strong intermolecularattraction between
polymer chains.This resultsin high secondorder transition 1.2.
temperatures in vinylidenedinitrile copolymers.The transilion
lemperaturefor an equimolarcopolyrnerof vinylidenedinitrile ElTccaof Mois(ure
andvinylacctate i s I 7 l ' C . T h i s i s s o m el l 0 . C . h i t h e r t h a n f o r Regain: 2-3 pcr cent.
a comparlblecopolymcrof acrylonitrilcand vinyi acetate. After 3 nrinutes in watcr at 100.C., ,Darvan,
fabrics show a
526 527
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
N: SYNTITETIC FII]II,ES
s h ' i n k a g eo [ I p e r c e ' t ; : r f t c r 3 0 n r i n u t e sa [ I 2 0 " C . , t h e y s l r r i ' k
G encrnl
b c t w e c nI a n d 1 5 l t e r c c n t . 'Durvan'
has ii g.ood_ gcncral resista.cc to .ttlck rly chc'ric.rs
I'hernral Properlics l n c o m l n o l l u s e . ' I ' h ef i b r e s h o w sn o l o s s o f s t r e r r g t h
aitcr 4 hours
S o f t e n i n g / m e l t i n gp o i n t : 1 7 0 - 1 7 6 " C .D i m e n s i o n a l l y s t a b l e a t i n a l 0 p e r c e n t z i n c c h l o r i d c s o l u t i o na t 1 0 0 " C .
150"c.
Dllect of Organic Solvcnls
ElJect ol fliglr Tcmperature 'Darvan'
i s i n s o l u b l ei ' a c e t o ' c a n d i n r n c t r r y r c n c r r r o r i d c ,
A f t c r 8 d a y s ' d r y h c a t a t - l 6 5 ' c . , t e s ts. a . r p l e so f ' D a r v a ' ' r c t a i n c d .rcl
rl.ot a{Iected by the solvcnts usc<lgcncraliy jn
t h e i r o r i g i n a l t c n s i l c s t r e n g t h sa l n r o s t u n c h a n g c d .A l t e r 4 d a y s , if dry .l;;;,i;;;.
It dissolvcs
at roo' rempcrature
in triircthyr
iuiiunuiir..'-"""'"'
clry
_hcatat 180"C., the tensile strength was 70 per cent of tle
original. Insccls

Flamntabilitt' ' Not attacked.

'Darvan'
compares in ease of ignition ard rate of flame travel l\{icro-organisnrs
with untreated cotton, acetate and viscose rayon. .Darvan,
f a b r i c sr n e l t - b u r n T Not attacked.
. h e a p p a r e n ti g n i t i o n t e r ' p c r a t u r ci s 4 i i . c .
Eflcct of Age
Nil.
lillcct of Sunlight
'-Darvan'has
a high resistarce to the e{fectso[ clirect sunlight.
continuous lllament yar's exposeclin Floricra for z+ months
retained 88 per cent of their original strength.
Fabrics made from 'Darva'' staple fibre exposccrto Arizo'a
sun for 5 months su{lercd no measurableloss of strength, and
retained over 85 per cent o[ their original strength in 36 months.
ChcnricalPropertics
Acids
Resistanceto acids is good. After 4 hours in l0 per cent sulphuric
acicl or nitric acid at 100"c., there is a loss of strengtharnounting
to 6-30 per cent.

Alkalis 15 20 25
'Darvan' (% euoNcarroul
has a good resistanceto dilute sodium hyctroxicleat low
tc,nperatures.After 168 hours in 0.5 per cent sodium hydroxide
at 44"C.,'Darvan' suffers a loss of strength arnounting to 6-30
per cent. The libre is degraded by heating for 4 hours in 5 per
c c n t s o d i u m h y d r o x i d ea t 7 5 ' C .
Polyvinylidene Dinitrilc (,Darvai)
528
529

_:t
 lF,HFFr--l-_l-ltrF,Tt
TI NDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES A: SYNTIIETIC FII]RES

POLYVINYLIDENE DINITRILE FIBRES IN USE solventsencountcrcd in normalusc,but thcir chcnricalrcsisllncc

is not as high as that of fibrcs suclr as polyvinyl chloridc or
'Darvan'is unusual antong synthelic Iibres in the combination of
polycstertypes.'Darvan'fabricssbouldnot bc subjcctcdto Kicr
s o f l n e s sa n d l e s i l i e n c ew h i c h e n d o w s i t w i l h x r t r o s ti l l l r a c t ; v e boiling.
handle. It is very like wool in this respect.
I'Iigh Bulk Yurns
Mechanical Properties
'Darvan'is a medium strengthfibre, comparablewith rayon, and Whenfibre is crimp-setundcrstcanrpressurc, the crimp bccotucs
more permanent.Fibrcsin yarnsspun fronr crimp-sct,Darvan'
it has good elasticrccovery.Fabrics are durable and longJasting, appearto have lost thcir crimp, but a fcw minulcsin boiling
being cornparablewith acrylic fibres in their wearing properties. water,or evena few rveeksat room tclltpcraturc, will pcrmit thc
They havc good crease-retention and wriukle-resistingcharacteris- fibresto revert to their crimpedstate,giving a lotty high.bulk
trcs. yarn.
'Darvan'
tow may be convcrtedto bulky yarnsby thc Turbo-
Specilic G ravity Perloksystem.The difierentialshrinkagcattainedis considcrably
The specilic gravity is lovr, a factor which contributes to the lessthan that of the acrylics,but it is cnoughto give a sorrrcwhat
good covering properties of 'Darvan' fabrics. lofty yarn.
Moisture Relaionships IIeqr Seui g
'Darvau' is intertnedialcbetween
With a regain of 2-3 per cent, F a b r i c sm a d cf r o n r ' D a r v a nn' l t t yb c l l c i l t - s c t .
the hydrophobic libres, such as polyolcfins,and the more absor-
ben[ fibres such as nylon. Tbe accumulation of static electricity Washing
could prove troublesonre. 'Darvan'
[ibre absorbsonly a sn]allatnountof watcr,and fabrics
Thernnl Properties wash readily in water and dctcrgcnt.Dimcnsionalstability is
'Darvan'is on the low side, and good.
The softening temperature of
care is needed in processesinvolving elevated tcmperatures.A Dryitrg
safe ironing temperatureof 160-175'C. is recommendcd. 'Darvan'
'Darvan' retains its fabrics dry qLrickly antl casily, drip-drying bcing
Despite this low softening lemperature,
mechanicalpropertieswell at temperaturesclose to the softening especiallycllective, Thcy ntay bc tunrblc dlicd al tctnpcratrrrcs
polnt. up to 60'C.
Flammability is comparable with that of cotton, rayon aod
acetate. IroDiDg
Fabrics have good wrinklc resistance,and do not gcncrally nccd
E nvi rorutrerrtal C o trdit io trs ironing. If this is consideredncccssary,'synthetic' sc(ing slrould
'Darvan' fabrics are rot-proof, insect-proofand resistantto sun- be uscd. Maxirnum safc ironing lcmpcrlturc is 160-l?5.C.
light. They will withstand exposure outdoors for long periods
witbout deterioration. Dry Cleaoing
There are no diflicultics inhcrcnt in thc dry clcrning of ,l)arvan'
Chetnicol Resistance fabrics, as the fibrc is rcsistant to all cornlnon dry clcaning
Fabrics of'Darvan'are resistantto most of thc chemicalsand solvents.
530 531
 II NDNOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES I } : S Y N ' r I I E TI C F I I } R E S
llnd-Uses
'Darvan'
conrbinesexccllent haudle with rcsilicnccand excellcnt POI-Y.SfY I.I,I.]NE I II I}IIES
resislanccto degradalion.Its uses are essentiallythose in which
thcsc characteristicsare oI particular importancc. Fibressprrnfronr polynrersor copolynrc,rs
of styrcnc:
Deep Pile Fabrics - cH c H ,- cH - cH. -
P i l c f a b r i c s c o n l r i n i r r g1 0 0 p e r c e n t ' D a r v a n ' p i l c a r c s o f t a n c l I I
r c s i l i c n t ,w i t l l l i t t l c t c n ( l c n c yt o n r l t . T h c y n r r y b c d r y c l c a l c d
ellectively.
(\
h
I'olvstyrcnc
Suitings
'Darlan'/rvool I N]'RODUCTION
worsted suitings have good wrinkle resislance,
cxccllcnt crcasc rcl.cution,good durability ancl exccllent pilling Polystyrenc is onc ,:f thc Dtost iruporlunt synlhctic
rcsistancc.Woollen typc fabrics bencfit fronr lhe soft luxurious nlastic
rrralcrr'aJs, polynrcr is tvniltblc i,, l^rg"
handle of Ihe 'Darvnn'. lcr:lttvcly low .arrd lhc -fllc l,,,,ur;ii";-'"i
cosl. tllononlcr, slyrcnc, was rliscovcrcd irr
l8ll, arrclirs polynrcr.iz_alion wls obscrvcd.r,n,rfy nfl"*urifi. ii
Knittcd Goods was no1 until the htc 1930s,howcvcr, lhat polystyrcnc
lr..,uii. ,ii
100 pcr ccnt 'Darvan' crimp-set, high-bulk yarns arc usccl in rra.,or lDtportanccas a pllrstic.
womcn's sweatcrs, which have a remarkably soft, wool-likc I ' o l y s l y r c Dn
c r a y t t c c x t r r r t l c ct ol f o r n t n t o n o , i l i l n r c | r l s ,
. rrd tlrcsc
handle.Thcy are capablc of withstandingrepeatednrachinewash. I.rvc bccn producctl ftrr sonrc ycurs for spccirrlizctl
,,r;;: _;,;i;-,,;
ings and dryings. UftlSll Drrslles

PRODUCTTON

Monotrrcr SynlIesis

Styrcnc
Styrcle.h produccd by rcaction of bcnzcnc tnrJ cthylcrrc,
bolh
o r w n t c t rm a y b c o b t a i n c df r o r n c o a l o r p c l r o l c l I | n ,
l i l h y l c n c ,i n
addition, is madc fronr alcohol.
532
533

- l
I
f )
l
r t
l
r t
l
l a
t
' I -[ -] -l -l --1 --l --I --r "-r
JJJJTI
ll
T TF F F l}T-F}}}}}
i' , r N D B o o K o F T E X T I L EF r r J r ( r . : s I}: SYNTHETIC FI DRDS

l,olyDrcriznliotr POLYSTYRENDFIDRES IN U.SE

Styfene polymerizes rcadily to a transparenl, glass-likeplastic.
It will polymerize quickly on standing at room temperature,at]d Polystyrene monolilameflts are used largcly as brush bristlcs.
tho proccsscan bc acceleratedwith the help of heat and catalysts.
Polymcrizationis commonly carried out jn solution, or simply
by allowing the liquid itself to polymerize in the mass. Styrene
is also polymerized as an emulsion, including the special form
of emulsion techniquecalled pearl polymerization.Tlris consists
of stirring the styrene with water and a dispcrsingagent in such
a way that thc styreneforms droplets about the size of a pinJread.
These droplets polymerize to form little beads or pearls of
polystyrene.

CH : CH2 --cH - cHz-cH - cH2---

I
h, O O
STYRENE P O L Y S T Y R E NE
(vrNYL SENzENE)

Irtrusion
Monolilaments are made by extrusion of polystyrene through
heated dies, followed by severalstagcsof drawing-

S'IRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES

IllolccularStructure
N,[onolilamentsare extruded usually from 100 per cent poly-
styrenc.The phenyl groups fornring the side chains on polystyrcne
molcculesarc so large and bulky as to interfete with the close-
packing of the long molecules.lt has long been assumed,there-
Iore, that polystyrene could not be expected to provide strong
fibres of the type spun from polymers capable of a high dcgree
ot crystallinity.
'fhe
deyelopmcntof polymerization techniquesin recen[ years,
horvcver, has made possible the production of isotactic poly-
styreoeswhich are highly crystalline and melt sharply at 218-
220"C. (cI. isotactic polypropylencs,page 567). 'l'hese polymcrs
could becorneof commercial importancc in thc nbre neld.
534 535
 IIANDBOOK OI' TEXTILE FIBRES
A: SYNTIIETIC FIITRES

I l l t a t l . c x - c e l l ccnl ct c t r i c apl r o p c r t i c sa n ( l
4. POLYOLDTT|N
tr tllDs l l ) i g l rr c s i s l u n c tco r c i d s
a r t c la l k i r l i s .

Fibrcsspunfront polymersor copolyntcrs

of olelinhydrocarbons, Polyctbylcne
such as ethylencand pr-opylerre:

- C H 3- C H , - C H , _ C H -_
l,",ii:irilff
:Lj,iJ,l:.",fl1t;"
:"TJir'ti,1T,:,
lf:
CH":611"-*
Ethylcnc polycthylcle i:!{i.;,J:: "'il',,1:
C l'{.,- Cl-l=CI-I"--: --Ct{.--CH-CFI"-CFI- Tj:iy":']"[llli!'i:eilr,],
liilliii:".r,',',',""i*1'
Propylene
t
cH:'
Polypropylene
l
cl{r ffii,",rdft.'.i:"ril:{*,lrt,}i*illliT;:;,l*
successfully.

I N T RO D U C T I O N
iinii1# r,r#l*lr#,#flri{il|t*.,;#{l::r#
ln conrnron rvith nrauy otltcr compounds conlaining a doublc
boncl olcfins are caprble of uudcrgoing adclition poll,merization.
;i",:i:ili:li"i:",,T,,:"i,:i;r"ry,"][;t".;l_il,t
Ethylcne and propylenc,for.cxanrplc,polynrcrizcis sliorvn nbovc.
Olefirs arc opcn-clrain unsatufatcd hydroctrbons, ancl poly-
olefin lnoleculeshavc Ihe backboneconposcd of a successionof
il;ffi
ir*h:iiTf
rijrii,;+l:liiTrr,t:,ffi:,
i:i,lj,:,i.'':;
carbon ittonls rvhich is tvrrical of all vinyl-type polymers.
'I'he ',,'1"'"t,lf ".'":,:"l'i'u'I:l"iiil:
table on pagc 538 lists somc ot the sinrpler olellns and
thcir polynter slruclurcs.-I'hcscare all alplra-olc{ins,io which thc
;;"":tln".h
cstabrished ;;,,1;;; *,ffilfi'3"ff
;"#;,lj"ifr,illTiiii{f
doublc bond lics betweenthe first and seconrlcarbon atonls..l-he ,fi{"lilji
i;;?::,:i
-r;."il];;l"ili
$i,|":''lii:'iT,?j.,'lll.f
iilll;ll'If;,'.?i',:,,,,;'#:,,:?,ll
rctnairring portion of thc ntonontcr rrrolccule forrrrs nenrlant
g r o u p sa t t t r c l t c dt o t h e s i d c o f t h c p o l y n r e rc h l i n . r,"#
l'olyisobutylcnc
fi .,.;l
Thc first olclin to bc polymerizcdsuccessfullywas isobutytene,as ,'|il.:I'i:.1,',,J;
Iong ago as 1873. f ,i::1,,'l'"",'n:iffi:;:"'J":lli:l;fij'1:]:,1,,'ff
ct{, l;ll;s:xt:ff
f [i':,1'"1ff
ftiTllt"*i:ln:;t'fui",,,;
al.t - c I'olylrropylcDc
CI{"

l)olyisobut ylcnc rvas obtaincd as a viscousli<1uict,

until thc l910s tbat uscfirl Iincar polynrers of isobutylcnc werc
but it was not j"",l'*i[ititi
-i-,f;#i:{,fi#i:{:,::,illl*r:};i
nradc. A rubbcrlikc polyisobutylencwas nritrkctcd bt I.C. Far_
b e n i n d u s t r i eA . C . i n C c r n t r n y , n n d e r t h e t r a c l en a m e , O p p a n o l ' . :l:'il"lTf
,:::"ilt"l.:f
;:"lti,i,i:{ii'}:fi ";1,",,r"l,,;;il'::
536
537

' 'l ' - 'l -[ r - - 1F i

 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI ARBS B: S YNTII ATI C FI BRES
-fhis
changein tbc statusof polyolefin fibres was brought about mt.totiFI19
by the successfuldevelopment of polypropylene librcs, Thesc Sp.clflc Crnvlllcr .hd t.lttnr ttihr..
libres display a combination of propcrtics which can servc then')
rvell in applicationsthal extend throughout the tcxtile field as a
whole. ln addition, they are nrade from a cheap raw malerial, Pol:a.r
propylenc,whiclr is availablein almost unlimited quantitiesfrom -q-
the pctroleum industry.
I'oUctrvl.ie (brdrcrEd) o.9I-0,91 l0?-l2l
rob6l$yr.hc (u!.dr) o.95-O,9t ll0-rl0
rolr"&ryl;n. (isot.cttc ) o.n-o.n r6J-t?0
FotJbulen.-! (isolacuc) o,9 l2t-rlo
r.ryrEnl€no-l (liotacllc) o.87 .lr-uo
roly-3-!ellul-brlc!c-l ( t3ol,!c|Ic ) o.9l l0o-ll?
Iory-4{clhyl-!e!tq.o-1 ( L.otacttc ) o.8J 21tO-2rO
fory-lFn.tlvl-l-hexo. (rJo|actlc ) 0,86 l0!
rory!lt!.n. (atlcUc) r.o{-r.05 tt-110
rolFtyrcno (IlotacUc)
ALPIjA-OLEFINS AND THEIR POLY\,IERS
Irregularities,_such as branching o[ chains and cnd-groups of dilfcrcr)t
MONOMER POLYMER composttton(whrch are morc inllorlnnt tlrc lowcr tltc rnearrrrrolccrrlar
weight) may- impair crystallinity in a polynrcr. Sonrc of thcsc irrenular-
) ITHYIENI CH.-CH. -cH2- cH2-cttr- cHr- rtles result in a melting point which is lowcr than thtt of thc iidcal
polynrer', and whicb is therefore lesssharply dcfincd than lltnl of Durc
substances.of low rnolecular weight. This-gives risc to a transiiiori
{2j P R o P Y L t I I E C t l r = C H C H ! -cH2- clt- cHr-cH- Iegron, wllrch bcgins whcn thc s rrllcst and torc irrc[ultr crvstjrts
mclt, and.which attains its. upper limit (which is oftcn r-norcshirply
c[" cfl. structurallv
morepure polymers)
whcnlhc Inr,:cst
t J l SUIEtlt-l C H r = C H CC
HH2, -cHr- cH-cHr-cH- :.',jlu[ Xi:i.""
cHrcltr cHrcH!
( { )P E N T T N € - 1 CHr=cH(cH?lclrl -cHr- cH- cHr-cH-
(cn,trcH3
(cHJ,citl 0ther I'olyolclin liibres
$ ) J - M E T l l Y t - 8 U I t I E - l C l t r = C t t C( C H : ) , -cfir- cH- cH?-cH- The table above lists somc of thc crystallinc polymcrs which
cH(cHJ,cH(cH,), may be made from simple olefins,with their nrclting points aod
( 6 ) . l- I I E T H Y L - P t l i l l t t l t - 1C H r = C ( C t t r C H ( C H ! )-cHr-cH
densities.For most textile applications,it is ncccssarytirat n fibrc
, -cll, - cH-
should retain dimensionalstability on bcating to at lcast l0O"C.
cn,cr(cH,tr
cH,cH(cfir) If the fibre is to be used in makiirg apparcl fabrics, it shoulclbc
( 7 }S T Y R t N t C h a = C l l- C 6 H 5 -cHr- cH-cfir- clt- capable of being ironed without softening, and this rcquircs
coH" coH" stability to much higher temperatures.
Severalof the simple olefins melt at tempcraturcshigh cnough

538 539
 IIANDtrOOK OF'I'EXTILE TIBRES o : s Y N T l i . l . IC l : t t l l t D S
l o r v i r r r a | l tc o r r s i r l c t a t i ofno r g e n c r a l t c x t i l c u s c . p o l v o r o n v l c n c - ' r ' ) ' t , t . s( ) t ; p o L t , o t _ t i l . t N
t;ltlt{E
poly-l-rncthyl butenc, poly-4-rncthyl_I _pcntcnc,
n,i,i oofu_a_ -[wo
r l e t t r y l - I - h c x e nacl l n r c l t a b o v e 1 6 5 . C . ,a n d c o u l d b e r c g a i d e r i typcs o[ [ibrc, polyethyleucand polypropylcrrc,
as tlonrinllc
potentially uselul textile fibres. lhe polyolc{infibre lield.As alrca<Iy poiycthytcnc
inclicatcrj, fibrcs
llclow this leflrpcrilturcregion,tl)e range of applicatiou irrc.of rclativelyninor irnportancc,
.. becornes scrvingin spcciaiizctl
appti-
I l n l l t c d ,a n d l i b r c sc i t n b e u s e d o u l y w l l e r e t l l c y d o n o t cations;.polypropylcnc
h vc lo fibres,on thc othcr lrarrd,arc of rriiclr
withstand morc tban a modest rise in temperatJr" "b;;; greatcrsigtrilicance in the tcxtile field.
;;;;;i
P o l y c t h y l e n ci s t h e . o n l y c o m p a r a t i v c l yl o w _ n r e l t i npgo f v o i . n i i
i"
oc..uscdconlmcrclally iu Iibre_productiou,and its rarrge
of atrpli_
cuuon ls tcntpcrllure-reslricted in this wav
Practical expericlcc lras slrown ttrat all ibe polyolelins NOMENCLATUITE
. mcltiut
belorv polypropylene are inadequate fronr tbc poi"t
oi "i"*'o?
rcxurc tlbrc production. And sorne o[ those nlelting above poly_ Faderul 7'rada CorrrtrrissiorrDclinitiotr
propylene nray bc disregardeclbecauseof the 'fhe
higli "o.t of',"'* gcneric tern olcfin was cstablishctlby thc U.S. Fc<lcml.l-radc
nraterial; polynrers nade from them woultl tr" to Conrrnissionfor fibres bascdon polyolcfiirs.'l'hc ollicill rlefiniliorr
litl-fri""l
to bc colnpctitive, is as follows:
I'olypropylene itself is ccouornicallythe nrost attractive
oI thcsc Olefin. A nranuflcturcd tibrc in which thc librc-l.ornringsub-
higher-rnelting poiyolefins. Another polynrer wtricl, tras ionle
u r r d e r c o r r r r r e r c i l l s c r u t i n y i s p o l y 4 _ r r r e t h y l - l - p e n t e n ;i.i i ; stance is any long-chain synthctic polynlcr composcd of at lcast
raw. ntrterral, 4 -mcthyl- I _pc|ltcoc, is poteutially aviilable 85 pcr ccnt by weight of elhylcnc,propylcrrcor otlrcr olc(in units,
at rcas- exccpt amorphous (noncryslllline) polyolcfins qLralifying undci
o n x b l e c o s t , a n d i n a d c q u a t cq r r a n t i i y .
U n l o r t u r ) a [ e l y ,e a r l y s t u d i c s o n t h i s p o l y r l l e r s l l o w c d t h i ] t category( I ) o I I)aragraph(j) of lt.ule 7.
.
rls pllysrcal propcrties deteriorate more rapidly thaD
anticioatcd Notc
at clcvatcd tempcraturcs.Wbcre polypropylene-fi bres
retain sornc In the se:tion that follows, tlre two cor))rrrcrcilly-irvailublct1,pcs
50-60 per ccnt of lheir room lcnpcrrture streDgthat I00.C.,
for ot polyolclin fibrc arc discusscdindividually:
cxanrple,librcs spun from poly-4-mcthyl_ l1)c,rtJ,r" ."tuin ooty fO
per cent. l. polycthylenc Fibrcs.
scen)sunlikcly, thcrcfore, that any oI thcsc sirnplc 2. Polypropylcnc Fibrcs.
.lt olefins
wl oller a serjous challengc to lhc chcap and rcadilv
avrilablc
propylcnc as a ralv nlirtcrial for polyolclin nUr" pro,tu"fio,r.
noiv_ (t) PoLYETIiYLENEI:llllrts
propylenc rs ure ooe polyntcr in [his classrn wltich
thc outstarrcliric
advantagcsoI polyolefins as fibre-fonling ,n"t"riuf, ,r*V
t"'r""il Fibresspunfrom polymcrsor copolymcrs
ized.
'llrc
of cthylcnc:
. I a r g c - s c a lcco r r r r r r e r c iparl o c l u c t i o ror l p o l y o l c f i r rl . i b r e si n
CH,:Cll.,
u r c l o t e s c c a D llcu t r r r ew i l l p r o b a b l yb e c e n t r c ( o l n two polynrers.
un ttre one lrand, we have polyel.hylcnewhich is being'produced
l n e n o r m o u sq u a n t i t y a s a p l a s t i c :r n o n o f i l a r n e n tssp u ni r o m t h i s INTRODUCTION
polynler have bccorne established il nraly specializcd fiel<Js.
On the other hand, we have polypropylcne, wlticlr has becolne (a) lI i gh-t et npcru t urc Process
an .important rnan-madefibre rvith a wide range of textile appli- 'fhc
p o l y n r c r i z a t i o no f c t h y l c n c w u s l r c h i c v c crl l r r r . i n ct l r c
canolls. c rlv
1 9 3 0 sb y c h e n r i s l si n I r n p c r i l l C h c n r i c a lI l d u s t r i c s L t t i . , t j n s l a n j ,
540 541

*L t ,' ,' ' r' L' 1' - ' 1' '' r' - '
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES r l : s Y N - t . l t u . r tIc: t n R E S
and a patent covcring tlre proccss was applied for in 1936 liinrililI proccsscswcrc dcvclopcrlby thc l,lrillips l)ctrolcrnr
(8.P.471,590). Corrr-
ii'lf 1!,:lg.Pat. 530,617)
a d by SrrndardOit Co. (U.S.i, r.
The corditions used in this polymerization processwere un- 2,69 |,647)
-flresc in rheU.S.A.
usually sevcre.Pressuresof 1,000-2,000 atmospheresand tempera- ncw proccsscb s r i n g a b o u t t h c p o l y n r c r i z a l i o no f c l h v _
.
tures of 150-200"C.were required, and the processwas activated lcnc at nlucll lowcr prcssurcs,and irl tcnlpcrtlurcs bclotv
100"C-
by tracesof oxygen.The product was a solid resemblingparaflin Undcr lhese
vIurJr Lutssc conditions,
conoltlons, tne
the nrolcct.tlitr
nrolccullrr cllitins
cltltirrs trc arc tttttclr lcss
wax. branched than lhosc produccd by thc hiSh-lcnrpcraturc/high_
'fhc prcssurc-proccsscs.
industrial dcvclopment of clhylcne polymcrization pre- Zicglcr-typcpolycthylcnc,for- cxatnplc,irus
scntcd nrany difliculties,but by 1939polyethylenewas commer- sorne4-5 branchcs pcr 1,000carbonatonrsin thc nrolccultrcitain:
cially available in the U.K. Licenceswere granted by l.C.I. Ltd. Phillips-typepolyethylenehas fcwcr than 2.5 sidc trunctl"s ;r.i
to du l,ont and Bakelite (a division of Union Carbide) in the U.S. 1,000carbon atoms.Thc high-tcmperaturc process,by contrist,
I'olyctbylene'scombination of cxccllcnt.dielectricand mechani- producesa polyethylcncwith 25-30sidc briinchcspcr't,000
crr-'
cal propertiesmadc it invaluablc as an insulatingmaterial. During DOll Alot1ts.
ln p r o v i d i n g p o l l , r n c r si r r w h i c h t h c r r r o l c c r r l c s
World War ll, the cntire outpul was usedin higb-.trequency radar . - a d d i t i o nt o
cquipmcnt,subrtrarinecablesand other esscnlialapplications.Pro- nave tewcr brancl)cs,thcsc low_tct)lpcratltr.c proccsscsyicltl poly-
duction was expanded continually to mcet thc growiDg wartime nrcrs oI highcr molccular wcight.
necds. Tlrc ntolcculcs of polynrcr lrot)r low-lco]pcrilturc polynrcriz.n_
.
At the end of the war, new applicationsfor polyethylenewere Iron ploccsscs,with fcrvcr sidc br.anchcs. arc ablc lo pick tolcthcr
Iound, not only in the electricalinsulation field but in the produc- rrrorccflcctivcly thar thosc frorn thc high_tcrnp"r"tur"pr*"ir.tiii"
tion o[ films, shcct,tubiog, extrudcd and moulded products.Poly- low-tcmpcrarurcpolymcrs arc morc highly ciystallinc'th;;iil;;
ethylenebccalnc one oI tbe n'lostiluportaut of the post-war plas- rnade by high-ternpenture polymcrizl rioir, "i<t rtris ntt"cts
itic
tics, and production has increascdsteadily in recent yea$. physrcap t .r o p c r l l c so f t h c p o l y m c r .' f l r c d c n s i t yo f
low_lcrrrpcra_
r u r c p o l y t n c r , l o r e x a l | l p l e ,i s h i g h e r t l ) a n l l l a t o f t t ) c
Polyrnerizationof ethyleneby thc high-pressure/hightempera- high-
t c m p c r a l u r c f o l y n r c r ; t h c I o n g u n b r a n c h c dn r o l c c u l c so f i h c
turc processdoes not result in straightforward linear molecules
of polyethylene.Thc ntoleculcsare branched, and polymer pro- I o r m c r c a n p a c k c l o s e r t o g c l l l c r ,s o t l l t t l l c w c i g l t t
v o r u r n ct s t n c r e a s c dZ. i c c l c r _ t v n ep o l y c t h y l c r r h Dcr Unit
duced by this method may have as many as 30 brauches c a s n d c n s i t yo f
for every 1,000carbon atoms in the nrolccularchain. 0 . 9 5 ,a r r d P l : i l t i p s - t y p pc o t y c r t i y t c n co f O . O C. .f t , " i " " , i , l ' " i , f , "
c i l n r e r r y p c o t p o t y c t h y l e n ies 0 . 9 2 .
Ilranching restricts the ability of polymer moleculcs to pack
dilTercncein dcnsity is comrnonly uscd in rcferring lo lltc
togcther,and prcvcnts them aligning themselvesinto the orderly ..-l-his
d r t t e r c n t t o r m s o f p o l y m c r . p o l y e t h y l c n cn r : r d e b y t h ;
patternsthat make for regionsof crystallinity,Polyethylcnenradc 'Low-dcn.ii hiAh_
tcfnperat urc / high-prcssurc(carlicr) proccssis c lc<l
by high-tempcrature/highpressurepolymerization is not bighly- tv
I.',olycthylenci polyntcr ma(lc by thc low-tcrrrpcrirturc/lorv prcssrrrc
crystalline material, and this is reflectedin its properties,especi-
{fater)-proccsses is callerl //rglr-rlcasityl,olycthyl( c.
ally with respectto the characteristicsof filamentsspun from it.
By 1956h . i g h - d e r r s i tpyo l y c t h y l c n cw a sc o m n r c r c i a l l a v vailablc.
The melting point of polyethylene made by this process,for
I t w a s b c i n g . p r o ! t r c c dn o t o n l y b y t h c Z i c g l c ra n d I ' i r i l l i p sp r . o -
cxanrplc,is co,r]parativelylow-about I l0-120'C,
ccsscs,Dut also by a modification o[ thc origirrll I.C.l,
nroicss,
The incrcascd degrcc of crystaltinity and tlrc highcr rrrolcctLlai
(b) Lo w-tenrp erct urc P rocesses . -
\r'ergntallectcd thc propcrtics of lhc polynrcr in ways rvhich
cx_
In 1954,ProfessorKarl Ziegler of thc Max Planck Jnstitule in tcnded.its range of- practical applications.Thc mclting poini,
fo|-
Germany discovereda new techniqie for the polymerization of e x a m p l c r, v a sn o w h i g h c r : I 3 0 - l 3 g " C .c o m p a r c dw i r t r l i O _ t Z b . C .
ethylene, using organo-metallic catalysts (Belg. Pat. 533,362). for lhc low-dcnsitypolyethylcnc.

542 543
 I I A ND I } O O K O F T E X T I L E F I D R D S
l,ibrcs fronr l,os.l)cnsily Polj'lrcr
When supplies of polyethylcne became available for general use
jn tlre latc 1940s,the successful developnent o[ nylon hud already
slimulated ,ntercst in the possibility of producing other types of
synthctic nbrC. lvluclr had been learncd about tlrc spinning of
finc fillmcnts by extrusion o[ molteu polynrcrs at high tempcra-
tures. lt was natural, thcreforc, thrt the newly-availablcsynthetic
polynrcr, polycthylcuc,should bc considercdls ir sourcc oI syn-
thctic fibrcs.
'I'he 'clcan'
shapc oI lincar polycthylenc ntolcculcs suggests
lhat thcy arc capableoI packing togetherinto the orderly arrange-
nrents thfll result in regious of crystallinity. Extru.lcd lilamenls
oI polycthylene might be expectcd to lorm slroug Iibres when
slretchedto orienlate the molecules.
Unlortunatcly, polyrnerizationof etlryleneat high ten)perature
aod pressurcdoes nol produce straightforward lincar molecules
-I'hc
of poll,cthylenc. cxtcnt of branching is such as to prcvcnt thc
ntoleculcspackiug togcther jnto the ordered pat.ternsthat makc
for a high degrceof crystallirrity.
Despite the low degree of crystallinity of this type of poly-
cthylene,and the conrparativclylow molecular weight, the poly-
nrcr can be extruded and drawn to form filarnentsof moderatc
strcngth. The early post-war polyethylcue was spun into com-
!)aralivcly tbick monofilamcnts which fouud their way into a
numbcr of practical applications.But the tcnacity of the material
was too low to allow of the production of filarnentsfine enough
for generaltextile use,
-l-hese
early filaments of low-density polyethylene had many
interestingproperlics.They were chemicallyinert, and rvcre quile
unaflccted by water. They wcre llcxible and resilient, and rverc
not attackedby nricro-orgauisntsor insccts.1'heir gcneral charac-
teristicswere such as to encouragefurther dcvelopmentby pion-
eering firns. Hcavy spun-dyedlilamcnts wcrc woven into fabrics
which were tcstcdcxpcrintcntallyin a numbcr of applications,in-
cluding cnr-seatcovers and furnishing nratcrials.
Thc early polyethylcnefabrics sullercd, however. fronr serious
shortcoolings. Dinrcnsional stability was poor and abrlsion
rcsislanceIow; thc filaments deterioratedrapidly in sunlight; thc
softeningpoint was too low for normal textilc use.It soon becarne
clear lhat fabrics ntade from thc early low-density polycthylcncs
wcre not going to bc a conrmcrcialsuccess.
544
r-i r l
I
' l ' l ' [ ' l ' l t l
A: S Y N ' I ' I I E 1I C I : I T R l : S
_Dcspitcthcscsctbacks,a fcw lirnts corrtinucdthcir dcvcloprncnt
o[ polyelhylcne [ibrcs, nolably I.C.l. Ltd. and Courtflulds i((1. i;
the U.K., arrd Rcevcs Dros. lnc. tnd Nxtion l l)lasticsI'roducts
Conrpauy in tlrc U.S.A.'fhcir cflorts brought a stcatly inrprovc-
nrcnt jn thc quality of fibre produccd fr.onr thc poiynl"i th"n
vailable. But-rcill progrcss wits lo conrc cvcntuiilly'frorn thc
( l c v c l o p r r r c l t isn p o l y n r c r i z a l i o nt c c h n i q r r ct l t t t l c t l
io lhc rrro_
( l u c t i o no I h i g h - d c n s i t yp o l y c t l r y l c n c s .
liibrcs front lliSh.Dcnsity I'olylncr
B y I 9 5 6 , . h i g h - d c n s i tpyo l y c t h y l c n cw a s c o n r r r r c r c i l l l ya v a i l : r b l c :
r t w a s b e i n g p r o d u c c dn o t o n l y b y l l r c Z i c g l c r a n r j t ' h i l l i n s n r o -
cesses,but by a l)odiliciltion of thc original I.C.l. proccssioo.
-l'his.nerv
.. type o[ polynrcr madc possiblcthc spiirning of nruclr
[ i n c r f i l a n t c n t sl l r a n t h o s c o b t i r i n a b l cf r o r n l o w - d c D s i l v ; o l v c t t r v i _
cire. ns rnticipiltctl, thc rcducctl dcgrcc of ruolccular Lrlrnctrii,g
ancl tlrc.highcr molcctrlar rvcighls o[ thc ncw polynrcrs brorrglii
rcnnrkable inlprovcmcntsin thc physicalprop"iti"s of thc tibics.
I-tigh-dcnsitypolyethylcnc fibrcs wcrc strongcr lhan lhc lorv-
dcnsity types; thcy rcachcd tcnacitics conrpiirablc with lh t of
nylon.
.'Ihe soltening rangc was highcr; I30-1j8.C., conrprrctl
with ll0-120'C. for lhe low-dcnsity fibrcs. .fhc stillncss ;f
tl,a
fibres had increascd.
l
Dcspitc thesc.and rclatcd improvcnrcntsin physical propcrtics,
..
nrgn-oensrtypotycthytcncrclaincd dclicicncicswhiclt havc contin_
ucd lo rcstrict jts developmcntas a tcxtilc fibrc. Filanlcnls spuD
fronr it havc low rcsilicncc,an<Iarc srrbjcctto rclativcty high'<ic-
formation Indcr strcss(crccp).'fhe soflcning
Doint is still t; l;;
to nteet lhe rcquircnrcnlsoI nornral tcxtilc usc.-fhc tilan)cnlslcnd
to splil. Icnglhwisc,cirusing Practictl ttillicultics irr proccssirrl.
_ n d d c d t o t h c s cs h o r t c o r r r i r r gl rsc o l h c r s i n h c r c n i i n t l t c i o l v _
olcfin struclurc. I-hc lack of any aflinity for w tcr, tor cxanrplc,
precludcsdycing by norntal lcchnrqucs.
1'YPESOF POLYEI'I.IY[,IJNI! FIBRE
l,olycthylcncis corrrrnonlyprocluccdtoclayby onc or otlrcr o[ thc
t rvo ion proccsscsotttlined Irovc, thc polyrrrcrsdillcr-
.polyn)erizat
ing in density ancl othcr physical charrctcristicsticpcnding upon
tlrc processuscd.
545
' t ' ' l - r - I
t|-fTJ-NT F NIETTT
'tEXTILE
II NDBOOK OF FIaRES B : S Y N T } I E T I CF I D R A S
i
'I'hc
two fonns o[ polyctlrylcncutadc availablc in this way arc l'olyrllcriza(ion
dcscribcd as
(a) Low-density Polyethyleue, (a) I{igh Pressurc I ltigh Tentpcratura process
(b) High-densityPolycthylcnc. Ethylcnc is by hcating at tcrnpcraturcs in thc rcgion
-polymerizccl
lloth l.ypcsof polyelhylenenray be spun into ntonolilamenls, of 150-200'C., and prcssurcsof t,000-2,000atnrosphcrcs.;I.hc
and it is in this lorm that the bulk of polyethylcnelibre is pro- rcaction is pfomotcd by tracesof oxygen or othcr catilysfs. poly_
duccd. Sonre hcavy denicr mulli(ilament yurns are also availablc, ethylene is procluceclin thc fornr o[ a mollcn nratciitt which
aud fiuer denier multifilament yarus are spun in small amounts. solidifieslo a waxy solicl.
Polyethylcne monofihments arc available in a range of dia-
(lt) Lotv PrcsstrclLov 7-cnperaturc process
metels and spun-dycd colours. They are produced norrnally in
round cross-section,but nlay be exlruded also in llat, oval and Ethylcne is polyrncrizcdat ntuch lowcr prcssurcsand {rt tctnpcrl-
othcr cross-sectionsto rlreet spccial lequircnelrts. l u r e s b e l o w 1 0 0 ' C . A v a r i c t y o f c a t i l l y s ts y s t c n t sn r a y b c u s c c l .
I l r e p r o c c s sd c v c l o p c db y P r o f c s s oK r a r l Z i c g l c ri r r l 9 5 l _ 5 4n r a d c
t r s c o f . o r g a n o r n c t l l l i cc o n r p o u u d sc, . g . o f l i t h i t r r r rs, o r l i r r r nt r r d
NOMENCLATU RE i r l u r n r n r u n lt,| l c o j u n c l i o t r r v i t l t a s n t a l l a t n o u | l t o f l r a n s i t i o n
nretal contpound, e.g. tita|lium tctrachloridc.
O lclit
Spirrling
Polyethylcnefibres alc defined as o/cfrs under thc U.S. Fedcral
Trade Conrnrissiondcfinition (sce page xxvi). (l) Low-dcnsity Polycrhylutc Fihrcs
I - o w - d c n s i tpyo l y e t h y l c n ics c x t r u d c di D t on r o n o f i l a n r c nol sf r o u n d
I'olyolelin f l a t o r o t l l e - rc r o s s - s c c t i o nuss, i n gc x l r u s i o nt c c h n i q u c s , i u , i l u i
o
Ethylene is chernically a menrber of the olclin class of hydro- thosc uscd in nraking morrofilanrcDls o[ othcr thcrrtroplaslicpoly_
carbons,ancl polyethylcneis a polyolcfin. Polyetbylenefibres are I n . r s , c . g . n y l o n ,s a r a n ,c l c ,
thus a type of polyolefin fibre. M o l t c n p o l y c t h y l e n ci s h c l d , f o r c x a n r p l ca, t a b o u t 2 0 5 " C . ,a n d
c x l r u d c d t l l r o l r g hd i c s o f a p p r o p r i n t cs h n p c .F i h n t c r r t sc r r r c r g i n g
Poll'thene Ironr the dic arc coolcd lo I5-60"C., ln(l itrc tllcn p,,ss"r'_t roi,nJ
a set of oricnting rolls which draw tl)ct].Ito bctwc;n 4 lrnd l0
Thc term polyethyleneis often uscd in the shortencdf.orm, poly- t i r r c s . t h c i ro r i g i n a ll c n g t h .T h c < . l r a wr l i o d c p c n d su p o n t l , " t y f "
tlrcne and polyethyleue fibres are son]ctimes called.polythene o[ polyrncr uscd.
fibres. Tho oricntcd monofilarnentsarc collcctcd on st)oolsor tubcs.

(2) Itigh<lensity Polycthylcnc Fibres

PJTODUCTION
l - l i g h d c n s i t y p o l y c t h y l c n ci s c x l r u d c d i n t o r r r o n o l i l a r r r c nul s i r r t
tcchliqucs similar lo those uscd for thc low-<lcnsitypolymcr. .l h!
IUonomcrSynthcsis
cxt.rusrontcrnpcraturcis prclcrably abotrt 210.C,
D r a w i n g o f t h c e x t r u d c d m o n o f i l l n r c n l si s c n r r i c ( l o u t a t n
lirhylane
higher tcmpcraturc.'fhc filanrcntsarc hcntcd by hot wirtcr, stc nl
Ethylene is oblaincd from petroleunr processing. or hot air to 100-125"C..ancl arc thcn passcdrouucl hcatcd rolls
a t l l 5 - l l 0 " C . T h c y a r c ( l t . a w nt o a h i g h c r d c g r c ct h r r r t h c l o w -
546 547
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI NRES B: S Y N T I IE T I C F I I I R E S

( l c n s i t yl ' i l a n c n t sc, o r r r r n o n l iyn l h c r a t i o o f l 0 : l . l : h c l c n t p e r i r l l t r c t h c f i r c tl h a t b o l l l l i b r c sa r c p o l y c t h y l c n cw

s i l l c o n f i n ct l l c s cv a r i i l -
o f t h e c l r a w i n gi s c r i l i c : r l ,r n d i s l r c l d w i t h i n c l o s cl i m i t s . t i o n s w i t h i n r c c o g n i z a b lIci n r i t s .

Lo rrt-d c tt.riIy I'o Iy ct lry|cne

PITOCESSING
I'olycthylcnc prodtrccd by thc h igh-prcssurc/ h iglr-tcnrpcraturc
proccssrrrayhavc rs ntany as 30 branchcsfor cvcry 1,000carbon
D-r'cing
alonrs iu thc ntolccular chain.
I'olycthylcnc fibrcs cannot bc dycd cflcctivcly by rrornral dycing
tcchrriqucs.Colourcd Iilanrcnls :rrc produccd by dispcrsing pig- I I i glr-D c nsit y Polycthylcttc
r'ncntsin thc ntollcn polymcr bcfore extrttsion,and a ratrgc oI
Polyethylcnep:oduccd by thc low-prcssrrrc/lowtcn)pcraturcpro-
thcsc spun-dyqd filanrentsis available.
ccsshas fcwer branchcsin thc nrolcculc.T-icglcr-typcpolyethylcnc
for cxrrnplc. has sontc 4-5 branchcspcr t,000 ctrbon irtontsin tl)c
n t o l c c u l r r c h a i n l P h i l l i p s - t y p ep o l y c t h y l c n ch a s f e w c r t h a n 2 . 5
STRUCTURE N ND PROPEIITIES
side branclrespcr 1,000carbon atonrs.
'l'he The polynrersproduccd by lhcsc proccsscslrc of highcr nrolc-
nrolccules of polyclhylcne are conrmonly branchcd, lhe
dcgrcc o[ branching dcpcnding uporr thc contlitions unclcr whiclt crrl;rrwcight thitn tllosc ploduccrl by llrc highlrlcssurc proccss.
-fltc
the ethylcne polynrcrizationtakes placc. polymcrization tcch-
niquc also influcnccslhe averagemolecular weight and the nrole-
cN/tex
cular rvcight distribution of the polymer. Polymerization can be
controllcd to provicle a 'tailor-nrade' polymer with spccified 7.O 62
HIGH
llrarrchingand rnolccular wcight charactcristics. O R I EN T A T I O N
'l-hc
nature of polyethylcnein these respectshas an important 6.0
in0ucrrcc on lhe mechanical properties of fibres spun from it.
Decreascirr the degrce of branching, ancl incrcasc in nolecular 5.O MT D I U M
^ O R I EN T A T I O N
rveight,rcsult in increasedtcnsilc strcngthand stiflness,and highcr
soltcning point.
'fhc
physical propertieso[ thc fibre are also influencedby thc e 4'o
conditions under which ii is spun antl stretched.As thc dcgrce
u 3'0 STARTING
of oricDtalion iDcrcascs,for examplc, so does the tcnsile strength F ORIENTATTON
increascand the clongation at brcak dccrease,
Thc subsequcnttreatmcnl.of the orientcd fibrc is important too. ?.o
Hcat treatnrcnt at tcnrpcraturcsbelow the softening point will
infltrencc lhc flcxural strcnglh, clastic recovery and shrinkage. I O
Thc propcrties of polyethylcDclibrcs are thus subjcct to grcat
variation, depcndingupon lhc avcrage molccular weighl, the size
(lislribution of the molccules,the degrcc of branching, and thc o l o ? o 3 0 4 0 5 0
'l'hc srnarl (g elorcerron)
way irr rvhich the oricntation of the moleculcsis controllcd.
nrcchanical propcrlics o[ a polyethylene fibre produced by onc
nrilnu[lcturcr nr:ry dillcr consiclcrrbly frorr] tlrosc of fiblc pro-
duccd by auothcr nranufacturcr. But dcspilc thcsc clillcrcnccs, I'ol 1'cthl,lcnc(l Iigh Dcnsit!'l')' pc)
548 549

-]J-L-L--L-
i l " 1f l l ' ' F
i lF . E E E t t t - | : l " i l " il ' l f "li' 'ti t
T I A N D B O O KO F T E X T IL E F I B R E S S YN'I'IIETI C IiI DNES

Fine S{ructurc it|d Appclfarrcc

Polyethylene fibrcs are spun commonly irr round cross-scclion,
but may be produccd in olher cross-sections for special applica-
tions. The fibres are smooth-surfaced and of waxy appearance.

Tcnsilc Slrctlglh
3 iieS E l q R+ i :r ii:t
xi t.:i
3,
;1 d i
The branched molecules of low-density polyethylene do not per-
nrit of thc high degree of crystalliuity and orientatior that is pos-
sible with linear moleculesof high-density polymcr.The tensile 5,;
strengthof lorv densitypolyethylene monofilamerts is low; tena-
c i t y a r o u n d 8 . 8 - 1 3 . 2 c N / t e x ( 1 . 0 - 1 . 5 g / d e n ) .L i n e a r p o l y - ? q $ + . ? ? I I
. ' , 9 l l n q 9
e l h y l e nm
e o n o f i l a m c no t sn, t l r eo t h c rh a n d ,m a y b e l h r c eo r f o u r :l:3 I
tinlesas strong,and are conrparablcin this respectwith nylon.
Tensilestrengthis 2.,100-5,950kg/cm2(30,000-85,000lb/in2); e.s.
s-e.Ea" ;i.s.
ti.s.
s.a" a a ii.u. s"E't l : l
tenacities are70 cN/tcx (8 g/den)or more.
Exanrpleso[ the tenacitieso[ variousgradesof polyethylene rl.,, a$ $:i liR FS Ai fis
:.1? iil:]

ilil
nronofilamcnt are shownin tlre table on page551.
f.h$ i ' l f S s ) S
i $ 5 1 . - , ? , u

rlrl e " g . g _" ! . u " ri ti

ilr:il :i 6\ .'i l1) ri ?. r: li
,,fjl

ii|rl " 1 " \

d i : i : : i i ri

ilir
") {: .l
d . i " i ; , i . ;

iit ;I ;I

R R

ii
?9f;g! [3 n
; E i" ;c -;iP^- :E
-d ^i ^
1 5 1: i t t;
it ;1 !,o d'- -,.:
'dE 'rX i: 3 I9 if 1l
,,i F"r ll"i {t
;i5
{! lt il ii
ro 20 30 40 ,ji:: ,,i3 >19 ;9
s r R A r N( % E L o N 6 A T T o N )
,iil

I'ol 1'cth1|etrc (Lote Dcnsity 7'), lc)

550 t,* 551

 I I A N D B O OO
K F T E X T I L EF I B R E S I ] : s Y N I t | t s r ' l cr JtU]
'l
Ijlongalion hcrrtlxl I'r()Icrlics
The elongation at brcak of low-densil.ypolyethylcne monolila-
nrentsn)ly be as high as 50 per cent. The more highly orientated Soltenirtg Point
lincar polyethylencmonolllamen(s,on thc other hand, may bave The sofl.eningpoirrt oI polycthylcnc r.isesns tllc (tcgrccof cryslll.
elongationsat break of olly l0 per ccrt (sectable, page551). linity increases.A low-dcnsityoricntalcd filamcnt o[ low nrolccu-
lar weight will soften in thc rangc 85 96'C., whcrcrs a higlr-
Mastic I'ropc((ics dcnsify oricntatcd filanrcnt will soltcn in thc rirDgc 126-132"C.
(scc tablc, pagc 551).
Polycthylene filanrents generally are llcxible and rcsilicnt, the
low-dcusity nraterial being nrore flcxible than the high-dcnsity
ElJect ol Low T'unltcn urc
type. lncrcascdorienlation resultsin increascdstillness(seetable,
p a g e5 5 1 ) . Polycthylcnerctains its flcxibility to vcry Iow tcnrpcralurcs;it is
outstandingin this rcspect.
I]littlcness tempcrature (ASfM -Icst [4erhod D746-55.f) is
Creep Characteristics
lcssthan-lt4'C.
Polyethylcnc fibres tcud to undcrgo crcep when sub.icctcdto a
pcrsistcnt load ovcr long pcriods of tinrc. 'fhc dcgrcc o[ crcep lilJatt ol IIigh l'(t perutrrtc
incrcascswith dccrcasc irr chain-branching,thc no[-rscovcrablc
elongation being nrore pronounccd in thc high-densitypolymcr l'olyclhylcnc rlocs not dcgrldc r.crdily on lrclting. With thc hclp
than in thc low-densitypolynrer. of stabilizcrs,it nlty bc hculcd for shor.t pcriotls up to jl5"C].
'fhe w i l h o u t d c c o n r p o s i nogr y c l l o w i n g . ' l ' l l i lsl c t s t b i l i t y r | l k c s r r r c l t -
Phillips-typepolyethylene,with less lhan 2.5 side branchcs
cxtrusion of thc polynrcr a prrcticill proposition,
to cvcry 1,000carbon atoms in tlle chain, has the worst crccp
propertics.Ziegler-typepolycthylene,with 4-5 side branchesper
1,000carbon aton)s is bcttcr. And low-dcnsity polycthylene,with Shrinkagc Propcrties
perhaps20-30 branchespcr I,000 carbon atonls,shows tbe lowest Polycthylcnc fibrcs do not show irny rpprccilrblc incrcirsc in
rlcorec al nrncn nf rll clystallinity ou hcating bclow tlrc softcniug point, and pcrnraDcnt
hcat-scltingdoes not takc placc. Sonre dcgrcc of hcat-scttingis
possible,howevcr,due to lhc thcrnloplasticnatrtrc of lhc polynrcr;
Specilic Gravily
lhe lcndency lo shrink can bc rcduccd by hol<Jingoricnt tcd
The specificgrrvity incrcascs
as rnoleculesnre ableto packmore filirmentsnt l7-26'C. bclow lhc nlclting point for I short timc.
closcly togethcr.Lorv-densitypolycthylencrrronofilamcnis havc -I
his rclicvcs inlcntal slrcsscs.
specificgraviticsin the rcgion of 0.92; highly+rysiallinchigh- I n g c n c r a l ,o r i c n t r r t c (f li l a n r c n t a
s r c d i r n c r r s i o n ; r lul yn s l l b l c ,a n t l
density(lincar)polycthylcnchasa spccificgravityof 0.95to 0.96 t c n d t o [ c t r a c l i n l c n g l hw h c n h c u t c t l . ' l ' h cc x t c n to f l h c s h r i n k a g c
(seetable,page551). dcpcnds upon lhe typc ol polynrcr and thc hcat-lrcirlnlcntit h s
rcceivcda[tcr oricnlntion,
lilTccl o[ Mois(trr A l o w - d c n s i t yp o l y c l h y l c n cr v i l l c o n r n r o n l ys l r r . i n ko, n h c a t i n g .
-fhc l r u c l t I n o r c l h a n a h i g h - d c n s i tnyr o n o l i l l n r c u(ts c ct a b l c ,p l g c 5 5 1 ' ) .
n r o i s t u r cr b s o r p l i o n o f p o l y c t h y l c n ci s v i r t u n l l y r r i l , r n d
for nrost practical purposcscan be regardcd as such. Dry and
wct strcngths are identical, an<l nroisture has no elTcct on thc lt'luntnobility
other rlrcchaIical propcrticsof the fibre. l ) o l y c l h y l c n cb u r n s s l o w l y i n r i r , b u t l i n c I i l a r r r c r r tl cs n d t o n ) c l l
'l-csl
lydtcr Absorptio (ASTM Method D570-541-):0.01 per ccnt. arrrl drop away bcforc propugating r fllrnrc. Vitriorrs inorganic
552 553

-t-L}-ut-I I | t t ' t t | r r I r I
!ttttl,,'i El:
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES I]: SYN'TIIETIC FIBRES

conrpoundstnd pignents are uscd to improvc llanrc resislancc. lt rootn lcnrpcrirt u rc. 'fhcy swcll and n'llly ultinlntcly dissolvcin
-
Flarnrnability (ASTM Test Mcrhod D635-44); sonrc ch_lorinaledhydrocarbonsrnd aronratic solvcrils,c.g. bcrr-
S l o w , 1 . 0i n . / m i u . zcnc, lolucnc and xylcnc. Solulions arc obtaincclat 70-gi.C.
Nlineral antl vcgclableoils arc absorbcd and tcud to swcll tllc
Spccific IIeat- 0.47*0.50Cal./'C./grarn. librcs,especiallyat high tcntpcralurcs.
In gencral, rcsislance to solvenls incrcascs witlr incrcascd
Dffcct of Sunlight
c r y s t a l l i n i t y h; i g h - d e n s i t (yl i n e a r )m o n o f i l a n r c r r tasr c r n o r c r c s i s l _
The polyelhylcne nolccule is attacked by oxygen, the rcaction ant tlrlln low-dcnsity(branchcd)ntonolilalllcnts.
being stimulated by ultra-violet light. Low-dcnsity polyethylene
is nrore susceptibleto oxidation than high-densitypolymer. Insects
The eflect of light is particularly seriouswhen the polymer is
P o l y c t h y l c n cf i b r c s a r e n o t d i g c s t c db y i n s c c t sa n c l o t l r c r l i v i r r t
in the form of finc filarnents,which have a high surface-volume
crcatures.Thcy nray bc bittcrr throrrgh irr ln lttctrrpt to rclrcii
ratio. In the carly days of polyethylenenbre, light-sensitivitywas
olhcr matcrials tltat are uscd as food.
a s c r i o u s d r a w b a c k , b u t t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o no f s t a b i l i z e r sh a s
e l f c c t e dg r e r t i n r pr o v e r r c rt rs . Micro-organisnrs
ClrernicalPropcrtics Polycthylenc fiblcs lre contplclcly rcsistant lo birclcriir, uriltlcw
rnd othcr nriclo-orgtrrrisrns,
Acids
Polycthylcnc librcs havc a high rcsistanccto lcids lt all conccn- Iilcc{ricxlI'ropcrtics
trations, and up to contparatively high tcrnpelaturcs,1-hey arc P o l y c t h y l c n cm a d c r a p i d h c a d w a yr s t r p l s t i c , l l r g c l y l l l r o l r g l r
attacked by nitric acid (oxidation - see below). ils excellent elcctrical propcrtics. It is ari outsiandi-ng'cl"ct,.iciii
Resistuuceto Icids (ASTM Test Mcthod D5ll-56) insulator, especilly to higlr-frequctrcy currcnls.
!\'erl,. acids: No eflect The electticalcharactcristicsof lhc polynrer.arc irs follorvs:
-acids:
Strong Oxidizing acids attack slowly.
Diclc.crric Sr.,,r.g//r (Volts/Nlil. Short tinrc,
Alkalis { inch thickncss)
(ASTM Tesr IUcrhodDl49-59): 500-5t5.
Polyethylenelibres are highly rcsistant to alkirlis at all conccn-
trations and up to comparatively high tenrpcraturcs. Dielccrric Consrcar(AS1'M Test Mcthod I)l-50-54't'):
Rcsistatrccto Alkaiis (ASTM Test Method D54l-56) I kc. 2.30-2.41
Weak alkalis: No eflect I nrc. 2.30-2.41
Strong alkalis: No effect.
(i etteral
Volur.tte ry (ohnrs/cnr.)(AS'l'M -l'cst l\tctlrorl D257_5g):
.Resisrivi
4 x 10r5.
Polyclhyleuc, being a paralliu hydrocarbon, is inltercntly iuerl.
Polycthylcnefibrcs rrc higl)ly rcsistant(o a witlc rlngc o[ chcnri- Disiptttion (pot'rt\ l:(ctor (nsl Nl lcst I\4ctho(lr) r50-,54'l'):
cals at ordinary tcnlperaturcs.'lhey arc susccptibleto attack by I kc. 0.00023
oxidizing agents. 100 kc. 0.00012
Ellcct of OrS ric Solvcnls Olhcr I'roDerlics
Polyethylenelibres are insolublein most com0ton organic solvcnts P o l y c t h y l e n ci s o < l o t r r l c s a
snd non-loxtc.
554 )))
 IIANDNOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES I}: SYNTIIETIC Ft NNES

I'lonlucss ol Polyncr bv incorporaling

'l-cst spccialpigrncnls
nnrlst.bilizc.s
Rockwell R (ASTM Method D7ti5-51): 40.45 l:tli,""t^j,f"ll|
-icsr
shofe D (4.5 rl"-l Merhod D6'76-449D: 65-70
Abrasiott Re stance ol Polynter (CSl7 Wheel, nrg. Ioss/1,000 ,".til;i:TllJ,1lf
il,l'",1"u",,,n1;.;i,:,il,J,,,ril,,:,:'ff
l":lllTi
"iil; [:
cycles). (ASTlvl Test h4cthod D 1044-55): 5.6-6.1
:'i[;i,,;"H:;'i
1'J',, ""'i"iro*-i"'e"i"
Il,
i,'i,fi;l:;'1": il;
porycrrryie'c bvrxsins
low-dcnsitv
POLYETFIYLENE FIBI{ES IN USE i"u.r"r-"r'i"i",ir#;'Jil'l;ii,:
I - o w - d c n s i t yp o l y c t h y l c n e
fib
Thc mauufacturc of polyethylenes,o[ both thc low- and high- ap'ticrrrions,
l,'i*ii,iJ'i"p..'
iiit "*.,,,tit"lu,,l',1,'iJl"LJl*t|,|ll
dcnsity typcs, is now an important branch of ihe world's plastics
industry. Polyethyleneis a cheap and rcadily-availablefibre-form-
"."","")
v."i.-ii'"v
ili",';:';:J1,".',',':',','"fi,,;:::,;"rl,:,:1il;'li[t!
ing material. But, as yet, only a relatively small proportion oI the
world outpui of lhe polymer is uscd in fibre manufacture. And M gh-D cnsity polyct lty lene
thc prospcct of polyethylcne fibrcs being used on a large scale porycthyrcnc
a s g c n c r a lt c x t i l c f i b r e ss c c m sr c n l o t c . l[,,:'li:r."T*:l S H',"tlil rmsovcrconrc sonrc
Produclion of polyetlrylcnc fibres is rcstricted almos! entirely crysrarinity or rrigrr-trcnsiry,,d:1,$ill:':l,jl$:i;"',
1::""f:;::ill
to the cxtrusion of monofilamentsor heavy-dcniermultililanlcnt
rotr
y a r n s ,e . g . 1 , 1 0 0 - 3 , 3 0 0d t e x ( 1 , 0 0 0 - 3 , 0 0 0 d e n ) .
Sonre lorv-denier rnultifilanrenl yarns are spun fronr high-
;:[:1;;i,[l'l;.':1;liil].'ii,,'" r tin:csthat
rr'"r urio*-l''uli"
or low-dcnsirv
, 1;olycrhyrcnc),
anaa hrgh"rsortl:,,lru;ji:ii:'
density polycthylene, but these are of minor comrnercialimport-
ance.
'I'he
development of polypropylene fibrcs, wilh important
j,l ",';
;[;Jllilil:'J.l];
advantagesincluding higher sofl.ening point, supcrior stfeogth,
rcsilienceand processability,has lelt littlc incentive for intensive
:[,!J?'
;h1,,,';T^l]:,";fu"1il,,'$,1;il*.,i':
fibrcpropcfl
ics,rrrcrcnrc sri||
study of polycthylene fine-denieryarns.
The conrmercial devclopnrent of polyethylene fibres jn lhe
gcncral textilc field has, fronr thc very beginning,been hampered
by lorv softening point, high shrinkage.lorv stiffness,poor creep
"n
,,,,3::il'"uJli:i"1,:'i:iff
ff
:,,,"?::,
T.l,:iiiil
;iiri" i;:::.'*'i*# itilfil I
ll

apparclfabrics;dycingrcrrrrins" oro'bt",ir. .;4if,.,;"; is

;.',:^:-:,,:;
charactcristics,and an inability to takc dyes. These and other rcsilicncc poor,anrl
crclscspersistin fabrics"ft", r;rl;:s1l""t'
shortconlings ilave prevcntcd widespread acceptance of poly- Thc_applicrtiorrsfouncl for trigh_itcnsity
. polycthylcncfibrcs
cthylene fibres sincc they first becamc available, and they arc
still rcstricting ils usc to spccializednon-apparelapplications. l;il:::+H:i Jl';,i;:, tv "'i'',r'""'l
Ti'i,,:$::i$1 tvrj"i,",
n'i"'ii
Lov- D etrsity Polyethylene
i" n-"i.r''*i'"'"'il,;'',j,;;,:;ii*1"1.'j':Tili,if':'i;ii:ll"J
r-o,ycrnyrenc t t b r e s h a v e t h c l o w c s t d c r r s i t yo I a l l c o n r n t c r c i n l
The poor tensilc propcrtics and low melting point of low-density
polyethylenelibrcs are deliciencicsinherent in the polymer, and *l]ll"Tl',li::i1i"'1";,l'Jl^
[i,;[1.,,:,]l Uj:ixln:i,l*:;ii
iiliii:lfi:[.J'';"xni,l;"
little inlprovcmcnt in theserespcctscan be expcctedfrom develop-
ments in processing.The poor resistanceto rrltra-violct light
shown by early fibres is no longer a significant problem; protec- E"-"-n
1, .-
J,"l:li*ilx;jllil*t
x;:
100'C.,polyclhylcncfibrcshavc nor bccor;;
l;itr-h.
tion is given by incorporating spccial pignlents and stabilizersin
the polymer. ,,,iil;il:xii'J:'"
""]il::,"J"J;,'lruffi
,ixt;:;:,,11"!tlx*1,:
556 55'1

1-1J-.L-L--L-I '--L '--L - ' . '

IFJJJJ-NF
r
l
rr L-r
1
'-'r

I , I A N D B O OK O I ' T E X T I L E FIBRES A: SYNTII E]-IC FI ARES

conditions,where the retcntion of strenglh and flexibility at Iow I!a:d lltcar. 1-lrehigh initirl strcngth,couplcd
tenlperaturcsare invaluablc charactcristics. wirh crccllcnl
'fhe wct abrasionrcsistrncc,is nrairtaincO tt.,iouet,orii'tti"'iil'i,f"';i
strcngth, Iightncss, water- and rol-rcsistanceof poly- .
a net. Experience
pory.tr,yr"n.
i"qui,l,l
has shown tl u"'',r,igl,-dc,rsirv
ethylene fibres have enabled tlrem to becone establishedin the
marine cordagefield. Thcre are great advantagesin ropesand nets
,i,iir,,ii,,iilr1ll[.illl;:"
ihat float, do not rot and do not absorb water. O!t". ul Ilanlli.ng; polycthylenc r)cts rc
FurDilure fabrics, car upholstery fabrics, curtains, proteclive Iightcr th n thosc
I n a d ct r o n l n a t u r a lf i b r c s T
. h i s r r r a k c st h c n c t c r r s t r f o l r r r U l c , , , r i J
clothiDg, tarpaulins and filter labrics are otl.rerapplications in "i:..:f]r"" andhautingin.Thcrcis l"r. ar"e,,"r"rii,ie
rvhich the special properties of polyethylenefibres enable tlrem ::
In rower tuelil,.!:9.ling
costs. polyethylcnc docs nol absorb wlitcr. lrncl
to compete ellectively with other libres, despite their inhcrent soakednet will comnronty 'il,".ii
i
weighonly "rr",ii-ri*-,riiri".l
shortcomingswhich restrict their use in general textile fields. as a wet manila net.

Irrallat ion
,Cleenlincss, Polyethylenc filanrcnts arc snrooth-srrrfrccd,and
When polyethylencis irradiated rvith gamma rays or rvith high- do not cling to sand particlcs,marinc grolvth
irnd othcr un*i ,ir"J
speed electrons, cross-links are formed bctween the polymer materials.This sirnplifiesthc work o[ tlrc crcw_
-lhc
molecules. movenrcnlof the moleculesrelativeto one anolher
is rcstricted,and the polymer beconresmorc resistantto softening Rc-tistttrrce tct E:tlcrnc Colu/.trolycthytcncrctirins its flcxibililv
-not
wbcn healed. If cross-liuking is sumciently extcnsive,the poly- ilt vcry low lctlpcrltlrrcs, anrl docs bccorrrc r"iCiJ ;;,;";
frcezing conclilions. 'fhc
c l h y l c u ew i l l n o l o n g c r n r c l t . wct knot strcngrlr -f oI twincs incrcascs
as Ihc^tcnpcrnturc <lccrcascs. T]rcsc f'ctirrs "'""i:v l,,,ir".i,,ii
whcn fishirrg.takes ptacc in Arctic watcrs,whcrc
thc l,ir t"nrp"rii-
t u r e m a y f a l l t o _ 1 0 " C .o r l o w c r .

End-Uses B.rtoyoncy.The spccific gravity oI polycthylcnc

., is lcss thlrr
r n l l o r w a l c r ,t n d n e t sf l o a t n a t u r a l l y T
. h i s r c t l t r c elsh c c h l r r c co f
Twines and Nets a, nel fouliug,thc propcllcrs,and cut! tlorvrr rl," ,,,;,r,b".
;i ;;,,i;
High density polyethylcnc nonotilanrent yarns are widcly used rDilr arc rc(lulrcd on Dcls.TItc ntouths of tllc tritwls
rcnlirin witlc
for the Inanufactureof twines and nelting for the fishing industry. open.
The main featuresof polyethylenetwines and ncts are as follows:
Stabiliry, PolycthylcDc nels do not shriDk on irrrnrcrsiott
in
Rot-resistqnce.Thc inhcrerit resistance of poiyethylene to walcr. 1-hey rctain thcir shrpc and nrcsh
sizc, ,ui,,i,,liiiut rf,i
nricro-organismsand to chemical attack make rot-proonng treat- oangcrot an lntringetncno t [ r c g u l a t i os .
ments rnnecessary. S i n g l ck u o t s o n l y a r c n c c c s s l r yi n t t r c n r i l D U f a c t u r c
.r r a w r s , of ncls rrd
Tlre strcngth and olher nrechanicalproperties of polyethylcne s o t o n g a s l c k n o l s i r r c f i r s tp u l l c d l i g l l t . . l - l l c r ci s r r o
rrcctl
nets an(l twin€s are un:rlTectedby immcrsion i[ the sea or by for hcat-trc tnrcnt to stabilizethc Ktrors.
btrrial in the ground for long periods. Ncts and twines made
from natural libres will rot under comparable condilions. Ropes
A trawl made from high-densitypolycthylcneyarn ('Courlcnc R o p c sr n a d e . f r o r nh i g h - d c n s i t yp o l y c t h y l c n cr ) r o o l i l a n l c l t
X3') rvaslost at sea,and recovereclalnrosta year later. The twi[es vilnts
:rre now betng used for a wirlc rangc of rpplications.
showccl no (letcrior tiol.l, rnd thc trawl wns put into intnrccliatc irorn
p a i n t e r so n d i n g l l i c st o l r o o r i n B r o p c sf o r t a r r k c r s .
s c r v i c ca g a i n .
558 559
 II NDDOOK
O F T E X T I L EF I D R E S lr: SYNTIIETIC FII]I(ES

E,rpcricuccwith mooring and gig ropcs on Lugshas proved that
polyelhylcnc is eminently suitable for this Lype of heavy work.
Three-strandnrooring ropes of 16.5 cnr (6% in) diameter are still
i n e x c c l l e n tc o n d i t i o na f t e r t w o y e a r so f c o n t i n u o u su s e .
lleavy ropes of 20 and 23 cnr (8 and 9 in) circuruferencearc
used in a variety ol constructions,including 4 x 2 plaited. Finer
ropes of 6.3-9 cn (211.- 3 % in) circumferenccare now acccpted
in thc fishing ilclustry as quartcr ropcs, rvhilc codJines,life-lincs,
nrooring ropes,etc., arc also uscd in increasirrgquantitics.
Main C lnracteristics
J'lle nrost i|lrportant leaturcsof polyethylencropesare as follows:
Buoyatrcl,. Likc ncts and t.wincs,polycthylcnc ropcs will noat
on water, rcducitlg thc risk of fouling propcllcrs.
...Colouration. Ropcs arc conrmolly lraclc fronr nrass-colourcd
librc, Thc colours arc vct.y fast to light arrd wlrshing.
Filtratiort Fabric.s
Onc of thc
-carlicst a;.rplicationsfor polycthylcnc yarns was in
tlre production of iudustrial filtratior jabrlcs. .t.i,. .ono"
oi
properties olTcrcd by polycthylcnc is prrticularly
suitnbli for
ttl|s apptrcatiorr,and tlrc fibrc is being trscd incrc singly for llris
purposc.

Lightness. Polyetlrylcncropcs arc only two-thirds the wcight Jtfdn Characteristics

of manila or sisal ropes of equal circumfercnce.A polyethylenc
rope is only about balf the rveight of a nranila Grade I special
quality rope of equal strcngth, and 4l per cent thc weight of a
corrrparablesisal rope.
When the ropes are wel, the dillerence in weight is even more
slriking, as polycthylenedoes not absorb water-
Strength. Polyethylene ropes are about 33 per cent stronger
than manila ropes (Grade I spccial quality) and 50 per cent
stronger than sisal ropes o[ equal circunrferencc.Polyclhylenc
ropes of the sanre strength arsmanila or sisal ropes are thus of
l3 and I9 pcr cenl.less circumlcrencercspectively.
Ro!-rcsistencc.Sea-watcr, acids, alkalis and other materials
comnronly encountcrcd in usc havc no deletcrious elfects on
polyethylcneropes.They nccd ncver be dried out, and are rcady
for usc tl a nlontent's noticc.
Resilicncy.Polyethylene ropes are very resilient and casy to
usc.'Ihey do not hardcn whcn wet, nor do thcy freczc or harden
even in lhc most scverc wcatbcr conditions.
'fhc
main
_featurcsoI polycthylcnc firbrics rvith rcspcct to indus-
trial fillration fabrics arc as follows:
Strength. yarns rctain thcir trigh strcngthin t h c
prcscnccof-Polyethylenc
walcr, and fabrics arc not rvcukcncd<-hrring
tl t c
fillralion of watcrsolutiolls.
Chcnrictrl Resisto,tcc-fhc cxccllcut rcsistanccof polvctlrvlcnc
l o a w i d c r a n g c o f c h c n r i c a l sa n d s o l v c n t si s o f o b v i o u s v a l u "
in a fabric uscd for filtration o{ induslrirl liquids.
lbra o Resislatrcc.Filtration fabrics rnay bc subjcctctl
to
considerableabrasiorrduring rrsc,ancl lhc high ibrasion i"riri"n""
oI polyethylcnc cnxblcs lhc fabrics to withitancl ,u"f, rr."i,ri",ii
Cake Rclcase.ln thc filtriltion of scwagcIi<luids,solid particlcs
build up into cakcs bctwccn thc laycrs oi nltcrs. .ihcsc ";k", ,;;;
rcrnovcdpcrhapsscvcrll tintcs a day by openirrgthc filtcr prcsscs,
ar)d it is irnportant that thc solid rrrirciinl sl]ould "o,n"
o*"u
clcnnly lnd ctsily fronr ttrc fillcr fabric. I'otyctlrylcnc is prr'_
ticularly good iu this rcspcct.

Abrasiotr Rcsislance.Abrasion resistanceof polycthyleneropcs . Thc cornplctc rcsisl:lncc of pol),ctllylcnc to

is goocl,an<l thcy arc very durablc. The surfacc of the ropc may
bcconrc flufly aftcr prolongcd wcar and tcar, but therc is no
apprcciable loss of tcnsilc strenglh by the ropc itself.
.llo.t-resistat.tce
attack by nricro-orgarrisms is of grcilt u"lu" i,r'n.,"ny iittrotion
applicalions,srrch as thc tillrntion of scwagc.Cotton-anrt
otircr
susccptiblcfibrcs arc attackcd rapidly un<lci such contlitioni.

560 561
II
I
I
- t I
l
\
r l
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FII]RES
; DintensionelSlcriitt. Filtration fabrics ntust be able to with-
stand Prcssurc used in forcing thc liquid through lbc press.
Polyethylene[abrics are heat-sc[to provide excellcntdimeniional
stability.
Corl. In scwagenltlation, which is onc of the most.itnDortant
iudustrial filtrations processes,cotton fabrics have long bcen
rusedin thc filter presses.Polyethylenefabrics are initially more
expcnsivc than cotton, but their extra useful life outweiehs this
cxtra cost. lxpcrimcnts carried out by SpenborougltCorporation,
England, shorvedthat in sewageliltratjon, cotton;loths cost O.gl
pencc per pressing,comparcd with 0.492 pence per pressingfor
a polyethylene('CourleneX3') fabric. Cotton disintegratedafter
76 pressings,rvhereasthe polyctbylenefabric was satisfactorvuD
to more than 350 prcssings.
Other synthctic fibre fabrics wcre used in this year-long
practical experiment, but they had thc disadvantug"of blinain!
afler some 200 pressingsjtheir costs were iD the rigion of 0.62i
pence per pressing.
Illinding rcfcrs to the blocking oI thc liltralion [abric to the
point.at which rvrshing does not lree the fabric of filterecl
parucles,
Blintl.r, Ay;nings and otl:cr Ouldoor Fobrics
Polyethylene offers an attractive range of properties to the
inanufacturer of blinds, arvnings,deck-chair and olher fabrics
for use ouldoors.
Main C harccteristics
Thc nrain characteristics
of interestin this respcctare as follows:
Colour ond Transparency.Piglr)ented polyethylene is avail-
able in a rviderange of attractivecolours.The yarnsare contmonly
trauslucent, but opaque matcrials may be obtaincd by using
darkcr coloured warp and wcft yarns.Tests show that 95 pcr ccni
o I t h c r r l t l a - v i o l c tr a d i a t i o r r i n s u n l i g h t i s d i s p e r s e do n l h c
surfacc of thc polyelhylenefabric.
Rot-rcsistatrce.
Itolyethl,lenefabrics arc completely resistantto
rrricro-organisnrs
and insecls,and are ideal in lhis respectfor usc
outdoors. Polyethylenefabrics need not be dried belore storagc.
562
U: SYNTIIE'rIC
rISIIES
Ligltt-t.ctistancc.Polyctlrylcnc llrbrics arc slabilizc<lto rcsist
.
d - c g r i r ( l i r t i oslt i n l u l a t c ( b
l y lighl, antl havc a long out(loorlifc.
'fhe
pignents lockcd in the filanrcntsbcforc spinriirrgarc flst
to
light and water, arrd colours rcmain bright.
ChettricttlIlcsist4ttce.Ouldoor frbrics arc subjcctc<lto tIilck
b y t l ) c p o l l u t c du i r o f t o w n s a n t l c i t i c s ,w h i c l l c o n t i r i n si l v i l r i c t v
o f a c i c l sa n d o t h c r c o r r o s i v cc l r c n r i c l l sp. o l y c t h y , l c l ci s u n a l l c c l c t l
by thesc pollutanls, rvhich bring about lhc rapid dccay of rrrorc
sensitivefabrics.
Watcr Re;istance. Polyethylcnc retaius ils strcllgtlt an(l lcitr
resistanccwhen wct. lt clocs not absorb nroislurc, incl is quick-
clrying. Fabrics are stain rcsisling, and arc c:rsily clctrncd rvith
detergenIand waler. Polycthylcncfabrics ntty bc coalctl to nurkc
them watcrproof if dcsircd.
A hro.\io Ilcsistutrc.c.Otrldoor faltlics ntrrst rvilhst rrcl rorrgh
handling, antl arc oftcD subjcctcclto gt.cirl rvci[. arrd tc:rr. I.iic
a b r a - s i o nr e s i s t a n c co f p o l y c t h y l c r r ci s c x c c l l c r r ta r r c l o u t c l u o r
Iilbflcsare lough and hard-wcariug,
Lotv-tentieraturc Rcsi a;cc, Undcr thc scvcrcstwinlcr condi-
tions, polyethylenercrn ins strong and Ilcxiblc.
Dcusity.'fhe low dcnsity of polycthylcnc in conrparisonrvitlr
other libres is a greflt ldvanta.gcin dcck-chairand sinrilar fabrics.
fhc lightnessof polyethylencfabrics sinrplilicshanrlling problcrrrs
in outdoor furniture which is constantly nrovcd about.
Sig t riting. Awnirrgs anr.lthc likc lrrc oftcn rc<luirccllo clrry
aclvcrliscntcntsancl signs, arrd polycthylcnc firbrics ollcr |lo
dillicullics in tltis rcspcct. Spccial inks lrc irvailablc for tlris
purposc.
I!edt-scuing. Dinrcnsioual slability is cxccllcnt in hcat_scl
polycthylcnefirbrics,and r varicty oI attrflclivc cntbossc(lc{lccls
nray be obtained by hcat-trcatnlcnts.
563
 I I A N D D O O K O F ' I ' E X - I 'LI E F I D R E S
sYN tEl tC FItrt[s
(2) POLYPROPYLENEF]BRES
rN f tToDUCTTON
Fibresspunfrom polymersor copolymcrs
of propylcne: -l'hc.
succcsslulpolynrcrization of cthylcnc, using
organomclallic
ill"lLi,i;111,
i!'i1i:i
"?'';li:lHl.,ll'
" il:,ff:ii{*,*liilll
CH!:CHCH,

[!f"f:l!i,i]:x!
t)rolcssor
x?l
llil:i._:::
Jr,:"lt jilhll
I::,1":i' 'oi*"".;'j
cit|tio Natraot Mihn notyr""l,i,
7 ';{:'tJff:,'l'l'fi
lilil:T;ffi
i",' rinif,

\ ;il,,l,,,"111';l'i,,;,':ii;[";
;i,1[':,;:'*i:::
:i!!i'r.,:: il',ff','::ilJ];l',:';iy,:,,ili"lli
""*:l'n,
:i n;:..*
:::r il'i,:
arrd sonle crystallizcd whcrc otlt
fil :l,r;liln,l;ru:,t
;ii;;;;: ;J;i;fi; ;:; ;,;'"##;ililT"liffi
i1"",1,";,":1il;
:ti,,:", ',l;
. X-ray and infra-rcJ invcsligat
j*i::nll
%ii';il:*fTi;lr
hi.",? ir"r ","m
"lffi;::i1l;l'l':1;::
illrangcn)cnt of lhc ntolcculcsin

;;;:;1'11l,l"h[,,[rl
o,,r..ryr",riion,'n;
...0'

melting, low-Jcnsily
iii::"";,';i;.11i","',*;l:lJ'i,,y*"::::1,1,",:iJ
polypropylcnc.

Polyptopylqre: S!ctic,ltructdLt Stereorcguktrity

-l
Riqht: Thc rnrin chain of carbonatomsforminl ti:r.b]ckbo c'of ir lrc nrolcculcof polypropylcncconsistsoI
molcculc .of vinylic. (Cl.l,=CHR) polymcr may- bc considcrcd as a a long chain of carborr
zr8-zagryrng on a ptanc.
ll) Isotacric l,ollt,rcr (top).
'I'hc ;l;ll'i#iil1":i'l
#""1,',,:"leiril,l'i#:,:'rf,.:',,",txlfl,
if:i
plane.
R groups are all on one side of thc
inavarictv
i,1",;'lil':;'i;,i"lllfi;:,l:Jil:' "r r"i"i'*i'li, )irri,
(2\ ,Sr',tdiotacticl,ollrrrcr (nridrJlc).Tlrc I{ groups lic irltcrnatcly abovc
ilno uclow llle nlanc.
(r)",J,f:i;"_t[ilJ,l",i,{bottonr).
TheR sroupsappcar
in anyor<lcrabove ll.d;i:,ii ;li;':l';lilil,,l'-lli-i',';"Jll.,li,l,J:"1:?"r
rtrcnotynrcrn,ot".ut.
;j
ll.I9:-:. lf .oniist*"; "';ti:;;;t;tl:
, . L c t t : S t r c s s - s t r l i nc u r v e so [ ( l ) i s o t n c t i cp o l y p r o p y l c n c(, l l ) s t c r e o -
1,"co,,,'ta","J.
:l :::o::.:,:,'ll.:hict,nr;ry i,-iri;;;;'iffi ;il;i:
DlocK Dolypropylr c, n (l (lll) nl:rctic polyf'rop),1(nc.
.Evcry
ll..'11:._lir-"I: ,i",y'ir,i,,'it'r,,'",i1"'ji
trrf
.si<lc-gr.oupi"e
,'";;,1?:lliu''l,ll.,',:ry
I trc (tttlcrc[ces bclwccn lhc c rvcs arc not duc lo tltc diflcrc,tt
nrolecular_rveighls of thc thrcc types of polypt nDylelrc but to tiilTei-
ucrrtirvc
ir,"l,r"n"i,rii"i'";";, ;';j.iiu i:
crrccs fn lhcrr slcrrc slructUrc - Ciba RCvicw. ii::,i::,::jll::.1:cosnizccr,r
srructrrrc
har ccrriir,i
il,.L'i
Jp.i;i ;il 1,:
wcrc nradcpossibtcby rtrcscaltcrriaiiv;,;;,;;,i;;'ii;:
564
565

--L_-"L-L'I.'Ll
,-1-
.ITIFIlFFFF.
IIANDAOOK OF TEXTILE FIORDS SYNTIIETIC FI BRES

(I) I S O T A C T I CP O L Y P R O P Y L E N E

O = CAREONATOM
O 5 METHYLGRoUP
l.rota.tir .pol),propvlcrrc.'l lrc bulky Dtctltyl
Sro ps t!rkc lrn n qlcs of
120'r!ith respecrro ncigtrbourrng inc rhyl'grf,upsi tt Lrts-nr" t".' ,?i*irrr"ri
CH" CH" CH. CH, cH. n regUtar I)cllctl or sptr.:llstructurc as sltowrt.
l -
-cHz cH cHz cH cH2 cH CH2CHCHz c H c H ? -

s;dc groups, lnd hc glvc tllctn narucs by which tltcy rc now

( 2 ) S Y N D I O T A C T IPCO L Y P R O P Y L E N E generally known.
Atr isotacticstructurc is onc in which lhcrc is a rcg litr rcpcti-
t i o r o f u n i t s o I t h c s r r r r cc o n f i g r r r a t i o nf .t , " s i d c g r i u p s a r l
;il
r o c i l l c do n l l t c s i l n l cs i d c o f l h c b a c k b o n cp l l r r r c , ; r si l
lhc rrppcr
diagranr of figure on page 564,.
A sy diotactic s|Ictrtrc is, onc in which thcrc is a rcgtrlar
s c c l u c n c co I a l t c r r r a t i n gu n i t s o I o p p o s c d c o n f i g u r l t i o r r s . " . l l r c
sloc
CH. CH. . g r o u p sa. r c I o c n t c d i n s c q U c n c co f a l t c l n a t c s i d c s o f t h c
-cH, cH cH, cH cH? cll cHz cH cHz !".
t ) r c Kb o n c p i a n e ,a s i n t l r c m i d d l c d i a g r a m .
cH cH2-
At1 otoctic structure is onc in which the unils arc distributcd
CHT CHT
irrcgularly fllong thc nrolccularchain. Thc sidc groLrps,ir; i;;i;i
on cithcr sidc o[ thc backbonc chain in rnndonr iashion,
as in
(3) ATACTIC POLYPROPYLENE the lowcr diagram.
In thc_casc of polypropylcnc, Incthyl groups arc attrchcd
. to
lhe Dackbone c h a i n o I c r l . b o na t o n ) s a, n d t h c t l ) r c cc o r r e s D o n d i r ) !
s l c n c s l r u c t u r e sa r c s h o w n o n p a g c 5 6 6 .
(l) Isotactic P<tlypropylcnehas all thc nlclhyl groups
on the
same side of thc backbonc olane.
(2) Syndiotocricpolyptopylcnc iras nrcthyl groups
on altcrnatc
cHl cH,
sides of the planc.
-cH:
l - t _ (3) Atactic Polypropylcne hls mcthyl groups clistributcd
cH cH, cH cH2 cH cHz cH cH2 CH CHz- in
r t l randonr fashion on both sidcs of lhc planc.
CHT €H: CHT -l'he
. slcric arrangcnrcntof thc polypropylcnc nrolcculc has an
important. influencc on thc properties of thc polymcr. Isottrctic
ilnd p o l y p r o p y l c n c s( i . c . l h c , t a c t i c ' p o l y r n c r s )a r c
Polypropylene .syndtotactic '
rcgular struclurcs, and lhcir regularity "nutrt"s it.,c nlote",ii"s
566 5b7
 II.\NDBOOKOF TEXTILE TIIJRES N: SYNTIIETIC FI BRES

Thc first cryslallinepolymer of propylcnc was cxanincd shorlly

-l'hc
aflcr it was madc in 195.1,and found to bc isolactic. sidc
groups in this polymcr rvcrc arrangcd in lrclical fashion, thc
c'r/c,,c'',), conccpt of the flat plrne o[ thc backboncbcing only a convcntion
?!cir,0 which cnablcs us to rcprescnt the steric slructurc on prpcr,'l'hc
nglrrc on page 568 shows thc difcrcnt typcs o[ hcliccs prcscntin
isolactic polynrcrs of known structurc.

() clt StereoblockPolyncrs. ln addition to thc isotirclic,syndiotnctic

O or, and atactic types of polymer, lhcrc arc intcrmcdialc typcs having
On isotacticor syndio(acticsequcnccsso short that crystallizrblc alrd
non-crystallizableparts cocxisl.in the sante long moleculc.Thesc
are 'slereoblock' polymers. They arc lcss crystallirrc Lhan idcal
isotaclicor syndiotacticpolymcrs,and thcir nrechanicalpropertics
arc inlermediate bctwcen thosc of the tactic a|ld thc tactic
polymers. Stereoblockpolymcrs thrrs havc lowcr lcnsilc strcngth
but grcfltcr claslic clongittion than isotrctic polynrcrs (scc figurc
on pagc 570).

Ilolical S!ru.cturc. Thc asyntrnctryof thc -CII,-CHR- nlonorncr Stcreospacific Polynk'rizutio l,roccs:tcs
unit oI tlrc isot;tcticpoly-a.olcfinmikcs thc lorruttion of svn,rnctricirl 'l'hc
polynrcriz;r
t ion proccsscsdcvelopcd by Karl Zicglcr, Giulio
crystalsirnpossiblesave in tbc caseof helical chains-thc onlv casc
wlrercall the mononrerrrnitsof a poly-a-olcli cnn attcin structural Natta and their colleagucw s c r c i n r p o r l a n tn o t o n l y i n p r o v i d i n g
equivalencc. All thc Nain chainsof isotacticpolymcrsare thcrefore
h c l i c a li n t h c i r c r y s i a l l i n sc t n r c .S h o r t l ya f t c r - i r i d i s c o v e r ivn 1 9 5 4 .
thc first crystallie polynter of propylcnewas found to be isolacli;
a n d t o h l v c _a h c l i c r lc h n i n l. n d c c dc, r y s l a l l i n i toyf t h c v i n y l i cp o t y n l c r s
ciln rcsult fro|lt lrvo sir plc strUctrlrcs only, iarncly the'isoticti6anrl
lDc syndrolircttc. I
llca(l-to-ta;l n(:ll - CII r-crrr-cr r-crr,-crt-
r,cn,-cr
, Thc. figurc abovc shows thc di[Icrcnt types of helices present in [-clrt-.cr I
'solact,c polyrners ol knorvn structurc. -f hrcc-dimcnsionfll crvshls I R r{ R n J n/*
r c q u i r c n o t o n l y a r e g u l a rs t n t c t u r co f t l t e i n ( l i v i ( l u ncl l r a i n s .b u I l l s o
r r c g u l a r p a c k i n go f t h c c h a i n s i n n d i r c c t i o l r t r i c h t a n r l c s t o t h c R
ilxis of thc cl)rin. II only tltc lirst conditior) is rict, airl not rhc tlcad-ro-hcad- I
:
ncl I. CII
sccond, as tn orie litted and qrrcnchcd rnxtcrials. sntcctic and inconr-
plelcly crysl:tllizcdstructurcs of lower density and greatcr transpxrcn.y tril-lo-tiil [-ClrrCI{-CI[-cl]r-Cllr-cll-C}l-cIIr- I
L Ir R R R I u/l
rcs\tlt - Ciba Revlctv.
l'ol\"ttcrization. llcul onl Toil Linkages, Polyllcrs wilh n chcnric:rllv
regular structurc arc fornlcd by tsymmctricirl nto|lo crs (Cll,=CIllt)
only whcn the nronorlrcr units nre linkcd in l particular ordcr, i.c.
to pack logcthcr in an ordcrcd fashion. These polvnrers are hcad-to-tail or lrcad-to-ltcad-tail-to-tailscqucncc.
c r y s t il l i r c . llcrd-to-tail scqucncc is frc(luc t, but'in sonrc polyntcriz.:rtionsit
Alac(ic polypropylenc, orr thc othcr hand, is an irregular nray bc accompanied by irrcg[laritics duc to rtrrdotil llcnd-to-hcndor
slfucturc, lnd tlrc nrolccrrlcscannot assun.lc
a crystallincslruclurc. lail-to-tail linkagcs. lf thcsc irrcg[lirritics cxcccrl ccrtrin lirni(s. thct.
'fhis nr.ry lcad lo a rcdrrction or conrplctc disappcitranccof crystallinill
typc o[ polynrcr is anrorphous. - Ciba llclicl.
568 569

i l I I l l l l r t
L1 t t L T L \ I

Stcreoblock Poll' pro p5'lcnes. Strcss-Stoitr Diagranrs. Stereoblock poly-
nlcrs have lo\r'er tensile strength and grcater elastic elongation than
isotactic polynrcrs. (l) refers to a polymer with a hiSher nrolecular
lvciglrt than (Il) - Ciba llevicrv.
lirrcar polynrcrs of propylenc aDd othcr alpha-olefins,but in
establishingsuch control over the polynlerization that polymers
of dcsired steric structure could be made. Thc proccsscould be
controlled to piovide an isotacticpolypropylenc,or r syndiotactic
'l'he
polypropylcne, or an atactic polypropylene. tcchnique has
bccome known as stcrcospccificpolynrcrization.
This renrarkablc developn'rentin polyner cherristry was
achicvcd by using vcry spccialtypcs of catalystarrd by controlling
lhc rcaction conclitionswith great carc. Tlrc production of au
isotaclic polymcr, for cxarnplc, rcquircs not only rcgular 'head-
to-tail' linl<ingof thc monomeLnrolecules(secfigure on page569),
bul also a constirnt opening of the doublc bond (always crs or
always lrarrs) and conslant positiorriug of the monomer with
rcspcctio the plane in $hich thc double bond lics.
570
sYNr||t:itc FltlRDs
'l'hc
tcchniqLrcsusctl prcviously in polynrcliziug alplra-olclirrs
c o r r l d n o t b r i n g a b o u t u p | c d c t c r n r i n c dp o s i t i o n i n g o f t h c
moDomcr iu rclation to thc growing clr;rin. ltcgularity of
p o s i t i o n i n gi s a c h i c v c d o n l y b y a c c u f a t c o r i c n t i l t i o u o f t h c
r]louonrertowards the c talysts i\t thc stilgc inlnlcdiutcly prcccd-
i n g i t s a d d i t i o nt o t h c g r o w i n gc h a i n .
l ' h c c t a l y s t s u s c d b y Z i c g l c r i n t l l c l o w - t c t r r p ct u r c p o l y -
nrerizalion of cthylcnc nradc possiblc lhc lirst slcrcosDccilic
lcchniqucs. Ethylcne itsclI is ir symnrcllical llolcculc, und lltc
lincar polyethylcnc rnolcculc docs not displuy stcric dillcrcnccs
of lhc isotactic,syndiotxctic :tnd rtirctic typc. nlso, clhylcnc is
a morc rcactivc subs(anccthutr propylcoc and thc higlrcr olclins,
and thc Zieglcr catalysls uscd for polymcrizing clllylclc do uot
ncccssarilypolymcrize propylcnc at all, nruch lcss polyltrcrizc it
lo a stcrcoregularpolymer in high yicld.
Delorc thc disrovcry of stcrcospccilicpolynlcriz.illiott,thc ooly
l i n c r r rp o l y o l c l i n so f h i g h r l o l c u L r l uw
r c i g l r tr v l r i c hc o r r k l b c n r i r d c
rvcrc tlrosc dcrivcd frorrr olclins rvitlr il synltnctricrl slruslurc
(cthylenc, isobutylcne). llrtt the ncw slcricirlly-cot)I Iollc(l l)oly-
t|rc[iziltion proccsscsrrrakc possiblclltc Dolylrrcliziltion ol olclirrs
h i g h e r t h u t c t h y l c n c ,a n d t h c c o l ) o l y n rrci z i tl i o n o f t h c s c w i t l l
cthylcne. Higlr nrolecular wcight products atc oblilincd which,
dcpcnding upon thcir slnrcturc iurd contposition, uuy bc of
commcrcial valuc.
Conrrtrcrcial l)cvcloprDcnl
-fhc
lirst pitcnt fll)plicirlions on polypropylcnc wclc filcd by
P r o f c s s o rG i u l i o N a t t a i n c o n j u n c l i o n w i l h P r o l c s s o r K l r l
Ziegler in 1954.1'hcy covcrcd thc nrcthod :rncl conrposition of
nratter, with spccilic claims for thc productio|l of finc filtnlcnts.
Produbtion bcgan in ltaly by thc firnr of Montccatiui .Socictl
(icneralc, first in onc irnd thcn in two pl nts. lly 1957,conrntercial
quantitics of isolactic polypropylcuc bccanrc availirblc fronr
Montecatini in ltlly. N4canwhileplans for largc-scalcproduction
of thc polyrrcr htd bccn nradc in thc U.S., U.l(. i\ud othcr
coutrtries,and by I962 scvcral nrtnufilclurcrs in thc U.S., anrt
I.C.l. Ltd and Shcll Chcnrical Co. in thc U.l(. had bcgrrn pro-
r l u c i n gp c l y p r o p y l c n c .
lvluch of thc initirl irnpctus bchind lhis dcvclopnrcrrtof poly-
propylcnecanrefrom thc potentialit olTcredas a plasticsnrllcrill.
Polypropylene is similar in nlany rcsl)cclslo polycthylcnc, l)ul
571
 I
t
I , l

IIANIJI]OOK OF TEXTI LE FII}IIES r]: s]'Nl GrICI;tIttES

thc incrcasedtcmpcraturc-resistancc, greaters(i[Incssand slrcngth, 1 9 6 1 ,i t f c l l s o r ] l c w l r i r tb,u t s l i l l r c n r r i r r c dt o o h i g h f o r ( i b r c t o

bcttcr surfacc linish and otl]er propcrtics
polyethylenein nlany applications.Like polyethylene,it is made
give it advantagesover bc produccd at x rcirlly conrpctitivc pricc. lry 1964,thc pricc of
polycthylcnedroppcd, bringing polypropylcncdorvn too, rcaching i
ironr a r"w material rvhich is availablein almost unlimited quan- a l e v e lo f I I t o l 4 c e n t sp e r k g , d c p c n d i n go r t g r r d c . ' l l t c p r i c co l -
tity at a low cost. polypropylene staple fibrc in latc 1964 rwrs 29 ccrtts qrcr kg.
t)lans for the production of polypropylenewere pushed ahcad I\,lc:rniin1e, thc priccs o[ cstrblishcd synthctic fibrcs wcrc also
with grc t entlrusiasm,tbe U.S. production capacity for 1964 nrovinl down, partly to nlcct lhc thrcrt ofltrcd by polypropylcnc
b e i n q s e t a t n r o r e t l l a t l 2 5 0 m i l l i o n k g a y e r r , r i s i n gt o a b o u t in ccrtrin nrarkets. ln lrlc 1964,nylon staplc was sclling in thc
4 5 0 l n i l l i o n k g a y e a r b y 1 9 6 1. l n o t l t e r c o u n t r i e sn. o t a b l y l t a l y , U.S. at $0.45 to $0.40 per kg, polycster fibrc at $0.44 atttl
the U.K. and Japan, polypropylcne production went ahead with a c r y l i c sa t $ 0 . 4 9 t o $ 0 . 3 6 p c r k g , d e p c n d i n go n B m d er n d d c n i c r .
eqrral vigour, ths planned total capacity of countries outside the Ily this time therefore polypropylcnc hatl achicvcda substtntial
U . S . A .b e i n gg r e a t c rt h a n 4 5 0 m i l l i o n k g a y e a r b y 1 9 6 7 . c o s t a d v a n t a g ew , h i c h w a s i n c r c a s c ds t i l l l u r t l t e r b y i t s l o r v
Tl're aclual ploductiorl of polypropylene, horvever,wa-svery d e n s i t y( i . e -m o r e b u l k p e r k g ) .
n l u c l r s l o w c r l h a n a n t r c t p a t e da, n d t h e d e v e l o p m c n to l p o i y -
propylene nbres did not procced as rapidly as the more optimistic
forecastshad pledicted. lt was not until the early 1960s that l
small quantities oI ltalian-made staple fibre and multifilamcrt 7'cchniu Factors
yarns began to appear on the market. Soon, this was followed
In the developmcntof polypropylgrc Iibres,n nuntbcr of tcclrItical
by supplies of ftbre from U.S., Britislr, Japaneseand other pro- problcnrs havc hacl to bc faccd.
ducers, but evcn by 1963 thc U.S. consumption of nne textile
sracle olelin 0bres rvas still belorv 5:utillion kg per annunr.
-'fhe L IIear Satsitivity
reasonsfor this comparatively slow developmentof poly- Polyolcfins are inhercntly pronc to dcgradalion by oxidrtion,
propyleue fibrc rvere partly economic and partly technical. which bccomcs progrcssivcly morc scrioLrsas thc tcnrpcr lurc
-fhe
Ecottotnic Faclors rises. firsl. conrmcrcial polypropylcncs tcndcd lo rrndcrgo
cousidcrablcmolccular brcakdown at thc cxlrusion tcrrpcrirturcs
ln thc early stagcs of polypropylctrc dcvclopment, too nrtlcl) (ll0-190'C. higher thln lhc mclting point). As bcttcr-grildc
crnirhasiswas placed upon thc prospcctivelow cost of the isotactic polynicrs bccanreavailablc, lhc heat-stabilityimprovccl.
'fhe
polynrer itself. raw nraterial, propylene, is available in This problcm ol hcat stability is inrportant, too, io ils influcncc
quantity at a low cost, and many prophets assumed that the on thc bchaviour of the nbrcs thcnrsclvcs.and it has bccn ncccs-
polypropylene polynrer and fibre would necessarily have an sary to dcvisc strbilizing systcnls which will prcvcnt or rcducc
inrprcssive and imnrcdiate cost advantagc ovcl competitivc tlte dcgradatioucauscd by clcvulcd tcnrpcraturcs,Indivi<lualpoly-
products. propylcne manufacturcrs havc dcvclopcd thcir own systcms for
Early forecaslsoI polypropyleneas cheap as, or cheapcr than, this purpose, and a rangc of fibrc-grirdc polymcrs has l>ccornc
Dolyelbylcrc provcd to bc trtrrcalistic.Thcy did not takc into a v a i l a b l c c, a c h w i t l r i t s o w n h c r r t - s t u b i l i lcyh a r u c t c r i s t i c s .
i c c ' o r r r rtIl r c v i : r y h c a v y( l c v c l o p r t t c rcl to s t s ,r v l r i c hl c l t l c t lc o t t s i t l c r -
ably lo the cost per kg of polypropylerlc produccd.
2. Light Stabiliry
Thc oxidalivc brcakdown of polypropylcnc is accclcralctl by
ln lhc U.)-., whcrc tltc (lcvcloplncnI of polypropylcne was l i g h l , a n d t h c u n D r o t c c t c d[ i b r e i s s c n s i t i v ct o u l l f t r - v i o l c ln r ( l i : r -
pushcd ahcad with great cnthusiasm,thc cost of polymcr was tion. ns i|r lhc casc of hcat-scnsitivity,lhc arrsrvcrhls bccrr
n r a i n t a i n e di n i t i a l l y a t a r o u n d2 0 c c l l t sP e r k 8 . l } e t w e e nl 9 6 l a n t l to dcvclop stabilizcr systcnrs.Thcsc may includc ultrl-violcl

5'12 573

|
1r I r r' lt-r ir ir -'r ,.-- I l, I
lF
L-- L_
r lt r I f r . r r \ r r
 'TE
IIANDAOOK OF XTI L E FIOI'ES
absorbers and conlbinations oI scvcral antioxidants acting
syDcrgistically.Non-extractablcsyslcmsnre prefcrrcd for gcncral
usc, and arc essentialIot some applications.
3 Meltirrg Point
The softcning and melting poirrts of polypropylene are low by
comparison with most (but not all) cstablishedsynthctic fibrcs.
-fhcy
are sufiicicntly high to enablc polypropylenc fibres to bc
uscd in gencral textile applications,including apparel uses,and
do Dot raise any rcrl dilliculties iD this rcspcct: Polypropylenc
Iabrics can bc ironed, but a grcatcr dcgreeof caulion is rcquircd
lhan is nccessarywith most othcr establishedhbrcs.This linritation
has lendcd to be a promotional disadvantagcwhich wcighs nrore
hcavilythtrn it should.
-fhc
comparatively low softening point has provcd a more
scrious disadvantageby placing limitations ou tlte lemperaturcs
whiclr may bc uscd in fiuishing opcratiorrs.ln blcnds wilh cot{on
or rayon, Ior example, polypropylene nray be subjccted to
finishing procctlurcs which wonld nornrnlly involve heating to
tcnrperalurcshigher than it can st Dd without softcning. lt is
necessary,therefore, to use finishing tcchniques which do not
i n v o l v et e n l p e r a t u r egsr e a t e rt h a n a b o u t l 2 5 o C .
4. Spinting uul Ptoctssirtg
The cxtrusion of polypropylele, and the processingof the fibre,
'I'he
do not present any basic difiicultics. tcchniques used are
esscntiallysimilar to those already developedfor melt spinning
other synthetic polymers, notably polyanridesand polyesters.
Thc stagdsof spinning and processinghad to be adapted to
suit thc charactcristicsof the ncw polymer, however, and con-
'fhese
trolled to providc for requirementsof specilic cnd uses.
lactors raised sorrreproblems.
Variations io the characteristicsof diflerent polypropylcnes
wcre alrcady causingdifiiculties,as outlincd abovc. But the fibrc-
rnanufacturerfound also that he was rcqtrircd to produce more
gradcs oI polypropylene fibrc than was usual with othcr typcs
of synthctic fibre.
lnitially, polypropylcnewas introduccd as a Irigh-strengthl'ibre
rvhich compared in tcnacity rvilh nylon. Once lhe lreat-stability
and otller polymer problems had been solved, there was no
5't4
a: SYNT A IIC FlllRES
difficulty in producing fibres rvith tcntcitics itt tllc rcgiort of
53 cN/tex (6 g/den).
It was thcn found, horvcvcr,lhat for ccrtain rpplicllions it wls
prcferable to use a u]orc rcsilicnt crinrpccl stlplc librc wilh lr
lower tenacity,e.g.in the regionof 26.5 cN/tcx ( 3 g/tlcrt).lior sotrtc
applicatioDs,on thc otlrer hand, such as ro1>csirnd lishing ncts
a high tcnacil.ycontinuous filirnrcnt polvDroDvlcncwls rc<luirctl
with tenacity ol 7l -80 cN/tex (8-9 g/dcn).
-fhe
ability to influcncetlre physicalpropcrticsoI polypropylcrrc
by varying thc conditions o[ spinning irnd proccssirrglrls rrr:rtlc
polypropyleneinto onc o[ lhc nlost vcrsatilcof all synthcticfiblcs.
But it has, at the sarne time, creatcd unusual problcrrrsfor thc
Iibrc-manufacturer who must spin and proccss polypropylcrrc
runderprccisely controllcd conditions.
Control of elongation and shrinkagc, crirrrping irnd crirrrlr
retenlion becanreneccssaryto providc fibrcs with spccitl chrrrrrc-
tcrislics, sLrchrs high brrlk pcrfornlrncc, or for blcrrrlirrgrvith
othcr librcs. Spccial considcratiouhltl to bc givcn to Ilrc plo-
duction of polypropylcne filarncntswhich worrld bc sul)icctc(lto
tlrc various bulliing and tcxturing proccsscsrrow in widcsplcrrtl
USC.
5. Dycing
U n m o d i l i c dp o l y p r o p y l c n cf i b r c i s v i r t u a l l y u n t l y c r b l cb y n r c r r n s
of the stand rd products nd tcchniqucsusctl in tlrc tcxlilc lritdc.
This problcm has bccn a major factor in slowing up tlrc acccp-
tance of polypropylcnc as a gcncral tcxtilc liblc.
The use of pignrentetlfibrc has provcclsntisfnctory for rrrrrry
a p p l i c a t i o n sM. o d i f i c a t i o no f t h c p o l y n r c ro r o f t h e f i b r c s t r u c t u r c
to pronrote dyeability has not provcn to bc ;r pronrisirrglirrc of
'l'hcre
ruack on this problern. are now sevcrrl ntodifictl polypro-
pylene fibres on the nrarkct which arc rlycablc but thcy rcprcscrt
a v e r y s r r r a lpl a r t o l - t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n .
lrn(urc ltrolrrcc(s
Wltcn thc dyeing and olhcr problcnls havc bccn solvcd, poly-
propylcnc fibrcs will bc avirilablcfor unrcslriclcd usc in l)lirrkct\,
knit goods,upholstcry frbrics, swcirtcrslutl othcr apparcl fubrics.
It will bc in widcsprcadusc in thc wontctt'slrosicry nrrrkcl.
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIARES
A: SYNTIIE'TIC FI EI{ES
ll. is safc to predict that the next decadeor two will scc a
lrcnrcndousdcnrandfor an incxpensivc,serviccablc, Polyoleliu
available
textilc nbre that will be necdedin very large quantities.At Plopylenc is chcrrricallya nrcnrbcr o[ lhc olcfin class o[ hydro-
the presenltime, polypropyleneis the only fibre developedor carbons, and polypropylcne is a polyolcfiu. I'olypropylcrrciibrcs
theoreticallyfeasiblethat can combineserviceability witli econ- are thus a typc of polyolclin fibrc.
onry and availability.It seemscertain,therefore,that polypropy_
Ienefibresnrustbccomctbe'cotton'of syntheticlibrcsbeforcihe
PRODUCTION
etrd of the twcntiethcenturyhas bcenreached.
Monorner Synlhcsis
l\'opylcuc is a constituentof lhc rrrixturcsobtaincd front thcrnlirl
and c.atalyticcracking proccssesin thc pc(roleutn industry.
lt
is available.in virtually unlimited quantity and at potcntia y'vciy
TYPES OF POI-YPROPYLENEFIBRE low cost.

B y v a r y i r r gt h c c o n d i l i o n os f p o l y m e l i z a t i osr r ,r i n r r i nagn d o r o _ I'olynrcrizalion

ccssing, it is possiblcfor themanrrfacturer to influeuccthc phyiical Tllc actual conditions undcr which stcrcospccificpolynrcrization
propertieso[ polypropylenefibres to a rcnrarkableaegree. of propylene
is carrictlout arc not tlisclosctl
fn iri .firrif iiv ij,.
conscquence, thereis a very wide choiceo[ polypropylene fibres rfranufacturers.
Zieglcr-typecatalystsarc usctllsccpre. ilil.
on thc markct, which difler iu physicalcharacterisiics over a s u c na s a n o r g l l o . r n c t a l l icco r l p o u r r rolf a l u r r r i r r i uini tt i l t c r l r c i _
corsidcrablerauge. Each ruanulactulernrarketsthe types of e r ) c eo l t i t a n i u r nt r i c h l o r i d ca,n t lt l r er c : l c t i o li s c a r r i c rol r r tu l r r l c r
libre rvhich he believeswill satisfy the needsof his oiiticulai l u a t r n o s p h e rpcrsc s s u raet l c s st h a r 8 r 0oC.
-l'he
customcrs. catalystjn this rcactioncontrolslhc rvay in which tlrc
In additionto this variationin the propertiesof polypropylene polyrneris built up, fccdingeachnronotncrntolccrrlcto thc
cncl
fibrcs2er se, variationsare introducedin a cmptsio nioAifvtt. o[ the polynrcrchainin sucha way that it addson in llrc dcsirccl
dycabilityand othcr characteristics of the fibre.Thus, Iibrci are position.Thus, an isolacticpotypropylcncrrrolccLrlc is brrilI rrrr.
norv on the nlarkctin which afl)inityfor particulartypcso[ dye posscssing lhe charactcrislics which are intrcrcrrtin llris shaucoi
has becn increascdby physicalor chemicil nrodificaiionof thc molccule,as djstjnctfrom thc atacticor syntliotactic,"ofJ"i,t.,
p o r y te r , (seepage566).
Polypropylcne fibresare producccl in thc form of rnultifilantcnt
yarns,monofilarncnls, staplefibre and tow, Thcrc is a widc ralec
o l p r g r n c n t el(ilb r e sa n d t h e r ei s a l i n r i t e dl r u r l b e ro l c l y e r b l e
polypropylcnefibres. Spirnirrg
lvlnrrymanufacturets arc now producingpolypropylcnchbril_ Polypropylcnc fibrcs arc ntadc by cxlrusiorr of rrroltcrrpolynrcr,
latingnlnr or slir-lilrnIibres. followed by drawing to oricntatc thc ntolcculcs ,,,r,.t"ry.f,iL, ;ii
thc.filfln)cnls.Polymcr of high viscosityis spun, irr or.t", fo ot i^i,,
NOI\IENCLATURE opumunl trbrc propcrlics.Thc filantcntsarc coolcrl irr lrir as tlrcv
cnrelgc from lllc spinncrcl, arrd arc collcclctl on bobbirrs.
Olclin
.Bundlcs o{ filamcnts are hot-drawn, twistcd fln(l l)rckl.r}cdto
Polyprolrylene
fibrcsare delincdas olefinsunderthc U.S. Fcdcral providc nrultifilamcnt yarns contrining, for cxanrplc, IO
Tradc Conrnrission io SfXt
definition(secpage xxvi). s f 2 . 2 t o I ( r . 5d t c x ( 2 - 2 0 d c r r ) .
f i l a r n e n to
576

. U U U U U U U U L J
 TIANDBOOK OF'TEXTILE FIARES R: SYNTIIETIC FIT]RES

ln thc production of staplc fibre and tow, bundlesof fine fila- slretch,for cxamplc,the highcrthe tcnsilestrcngthand lorverlhc
nlcnls are combined lo form a tow containing hundreds o[ elongation.
thousandsof individual filaments.The torv is drawn and crimped, The stretchcdlibre nray bc furthcr conclitioncd by hcirt-trcitt-
and thcn cut to an appropriatestaple length. ment at temperatures bclowthe softcningpoint. Hcrt-sctting, Ior
exanlplc,aflectsthc elasticrecovcry,shrinkirgccharactcristics ancl
S pinning and Processing Conditions flex resistanceof the nbre.
Polypropylcne crystallizesso rapidly that the undrawn lilaments The effectsof spinniugconditionsand subscqueul. lrcatlrrcnI
are highly crystalline.In this respect,polypropylenedi{Iers from
of the fibre are duc largclylo thc way in which thcy inllucncc
other syntheticpolymerswhich arc mclt-spun,such as polyamides t h e a n o r p h o u so r i c n t a t i o na n d c r y s t l l l i r r es t r u c t u r co f t l t c
and polycstcrs. p o l y p r o p y l e nTel.r ca b i l i t yt o c o n t r o n
l r o r p h o l o edyu r i n g s p i r r n i r r g
Thc unusually bigh crystallinity rcnders fibre-production very i n t h i s w a y i s u s e dt o a c l v a n t a gpcc, r n l i t t i n gt h c p r o t l u c t i o no l
sensitiveto conditions of spinning and subsequentproccssing,and fibreswith a wider rangcof propciticsthan-rvoukjotltcrwiscl)c
permils a fiuc degreeof control over libre propcrties, possible.
Thc lemperatureat tvbich extrusiotr is carricd out, commonly
8 0 o C . o r m o r e a b o v e t h e p o l y m e r r r l e l t i n gp o i n t , a n d t h e c o n - Stahilizatiott
ditions under which the filanrentsare cooled, allcct the naturc Dcgraclationof polypropylcnetnkcs fl cc prinrnrily throtrgh
irnd cxlcrrI o[ crystallinity. Rapid cooling or qucnching rcsults in o x i d o t i o t rw, h i c h i s c n c o r r r n g cbdy h c t t n n r l l i g l r t .S t n b i l i z r r t i o n
snrall crystals,whercasslorv cooling allows Iargercrystalsto fortn. of polypropylcneis esscntialto conlcr light nnd hcat stability,
Thc dcgree of orientation achicved by drawing thc lilaments and substanccs are commonlyaddcdfor this purposcbcforc thc
influencesthe mechanical properties; the Sreater the degree of moltenpolymeris spun.
Stabilizcrsare mainly conrpoundscapableo[ (lctclivxtiog
free radicalswhich prornotethe oxidativech:rirtrcaction.Coru-
poundswhich are primarily U.V. absorbers rrc of little valucirr
the stabilization of fibres(too !righsurfrce/voluure ratio).
Hcot Stability.Heat stabilizationcan bc providcd for poly-
propylcnc fibres whicb enable thc fibrcs to rctain uscful
mcchanical propcrticsafter cxposureto air lor cxtcndcdpcriods
al temperatures of, for examplc,120"C.
M O O E R A T E L Y O R I E N T E DY A R N A particularproblcrn ariseswhcn polypropylcncfibrcs nrc
cxposedto solvenlsor aqLreous solutionsfor long pcriods,as
thc stabilizerstend to bc removcd by extrrction. Rcpcalc(l
laundering, for example,may resultin thc graduallossof sontc
stabilizers. Spccialformulationslrave bccn dcvclopcd,howcvcr,
LOW ORIENTED YARN
to mcet this dimculty.
Liglu Stability.Thc uscof polypropylcnc fibrcsin applications
such ns car upltolsteryrequiresthat thc fibrc shouldbc ablc to
10 60 ..withstandlong exposure to light at elcvatcdtcn]pcraturcs. liinding
E L O N G A T I O N( % ) stabilizers for suchapplicirtions has bcena clrallcnging problcnr.
^ Pigmcntedformulationshavc bccndcviscd.and arc uscdconr-
Stress-SttainCurves lor I>olt propylc|c Fibrcs Courtcsy Itercules
Powder Co, m e r c i a l l yi n c a r p e t s u, p h o l s t e r ya n d r v i n d o wc h a n n c lt a b r i c s .
578 5't9
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTI LE FIARES
D: SYNTII ETI C FII}RES
For rcasons of cconortty, it is prelerablc to stabilizc poly- Sincc polypropylcne fibrcs bccarnc lvailablc, cvcrv
propylcne fibres to nrect lhe requitcments of specilic cnd-ttses, . cllbrt lrirs
l)ccr nrade.to dbvisc satisfactoryrty"ing r""liniqi,"r.;,ri;;;:;;i
rathcr than to use fibre which has bcen stabilizedto give adequate
protection in all applications.Manufacturerscommonly market a
range of polypropylcne fibres of difering stability characteris(ics.
illi",',li'rill,llil'",liii"0,'"*'"Xo.i,'"X"li,"",ll*il:ull:
p r o p y l c n ea, n d d o n o t i n v o l v cc h a r r g i n g
t h c c h c r l i c a-r;ill;;il;;;
lc o r r s f i t i r t i o n
of tJre polymcr. Olhcr tcchniqucsrcqiirc clrcnricll
Pt{ocEsstNc or rnc porymer sl.ructurcin ordcr lo achicvc llrcir
clfccts.
Scouri g l. Techniques bosetl on IJnmotlified polypropylanc
Thc size nray be renrovedfornr the warp yarns of a polypropylene
or polypropylenc-viscoscor polypropylcue-cotton blcnd Iabric Couvc.ntional Dyeing processes
by an appropriatc scourirrgprocess.
Scouring may be carricd out in winch or jigger, using, Ior
exanrple, a solulion containing 2-4 grans per litre of sodiurn
,u,t;i,.",1:'ir?:,1I:',lillil
tion, but n-one,
lT,:"::f :l.,iif
has provirJeda conrmercially
?iJ:":""i ::,ffll:
carbonateand 2-3 grams per litrc of non-ionic syntheticdctergent ur"f,if "ofo,,i-iiiig".
Flat, pnle.shfldes
with poor fastncsspropcrfics,Ir. ;";;pj;:
(c.g. Anionico SCL) for 45 minutcs at 80-95'C. Caustic soda
(2 ml./litre conc. 36 Bi) may be usedinstcad o[ sodium carbouatc.
After thorough rinsing, llrc fabric is dlied in the tenler frame, il:::i:,:":fl
[l"::"uf ili"1,11i:1":ff
bc added slowly lo thc rcduccd li lHh''ijl;"lif
,il.,t
bearing in mind that the dried fabric can withstand 125-130"C.
without suffcring danragc.
'ui,"
o."u,.,
ir,"'r;i,-u;;;;;;;;;;;'::i:li;::l:i'lij:".'rT,illll,:lilJ;.
lVhilcning
liiel,:1111
:L';'ff nl'lli,
"T,lilJ,ll',1,::1".#l','
".;i'il:,
tlfl,-i']:
rcsistantto washingor dry cleluingoi. ro iigfii.
Polypropylcne fibre itself does not rcquire whitening, but it is
,"i;;1'."..ii::";"J:J'.
;;llJl';.iffi'",fi
[.,1.-]';:'"J'
often neccssary to rvhiten blends containing other fibres. In
gcncral, lhe processesconrmonly uscd for the individual fibrcs poinl of walcr. A dyc bath of rnoltcn i.r'""T:l?,ll
u*0, for. "^^,",r1"1'*"i
of the blend rnay bc used. Fluorescentbrightenersmay also be
addcd. iil-'"j1,,'Tll,"llj'
il:,,'l"j:f,;i,
.jij,"l;,lTllru;;.1i, ili:.:ii
rcadily acceptable.
Dyeirrg
Polypropyler:efibre, in its unnrodifiedfornr, is virtually undycable l'[ass Colouratiort
by any of the familiar dyestulfsand techniqucs.This factor has, Polyplopylcne, likc polycthylcnc,
more than any other, restricted the {ibre's progress in the apparel ad<ling
suirabri
pigmenis
to'iire-irl:llJ"T"',r'l"jxfl
;T:.lil"J,l,i"l
and gcncral tcxtilc ficlds.
'fhc
rcasonsfor polypropylcne'slack of dyeability are twofold.
On thc one hand, the parallinic chemicalstructureof the polymer
iillt,il]li:i;[lJ':]"
iil{:,,'fl
iocrcases
I rulnl",llN
:1*lml
the productio' costs.Th; i*tr" ."rt
'ii.r'"";,'iil;:;
is almost complctely non-polar; there are no centresof chcmical provedtoo exorbitantin nracticc
aflinity by which dyestullscan be held in the fibre. On the othcr T h e r r r a i nd i s a d v a n t abgfep i g r r r c r r t cl jdb r c sl i c si n t l r cn c c ( l
hand polypropylenc fibrcs are hydrophobic and almost cntircly to
srorc and market a widc rangc of colorlrsof cvcry gradc
imperrneablc to watcri waler-borne dyestuffs cannot penetrate type o[ 1]bre.In recentycarslas cxpcricr." in an<l
riiJ
readily inl.o the interior of the libre. a n o u s eo t p i g n t e r ) t eI idb r e sh a sg r o t v nt,l l et c c l t n i ( l ulc;;;;Ji;;;
ils bccorrrc
580 58

_L' '' I
'l t t F.|l| r t r F.F.I- f.,F.n E
I T A N D B O O KO F T E X T I L E F I A R E S
econonrically acceptablc,and thc pigntented libre continues to
rnakesteady progress.
Atltlirion ol Dye Reccplors
The dyeability of polypropylene libres may bc improved by
mixing dye-receptivesubstanceswith the polyrner before it is
spun. Additivcs of this sort include (a) mctallic compottnds,(b)
polymers,and (c) misccllaneouslow molccular wcight compounds.
A numbcr of fibres are now on the nrarket,in which dycability
has been increased by introducing additives of this type. The
techniquesused in dyeing libres of this lype arc specillc to each
fibrc, and depend upon the nature of the additive.
2. Techniques basc(lon Chcnticalty-ModifiedPolypropylcnc
As the non-polar nature of the polypropylenemolecule is partly
rcsponsiblefor the dycing ditlicultics,au obvious approach lo thc
problem is to nrodify the polymer to improvc its dyc-receptivity.
lr{any developnrentsof this sort have been made, and modified
polypropylene fibres are now on the market. They include
copolymersmade by incorporating a dye-receplivemonomer into
thc polymerizationprocess,or by grafting dye-receptivesegments
on to the main polymer chain,
Chenricaltreatiuentof the nbre, such as halogcnation,has also
becn used to improve the dyeability of polypropyleneby altering
its chemical structure.
These tcchniques,and others like them, bring about fundamen-
tal changesby altering the chemical nature o[ the librc, and thcy
inevitably change the characteristicsof the fibre too. These
changes may be small, lhe libre retaining its polypropylcne
characteristicsrvith only minor changes.They may, on thc other
hand, be so severe as to create a fibre in which the properties
<iiller-significantly from those of a typical 100 per ccnt poly-
propylene fibre.
Singci g
Polypropylenelibre fabrics, in common with most fabrics made
from synthetic fibres, have a tendencytowards pilling.'fhis nray
be avoided by light singcing treatments.
Owing to thc conlparatively low sotlening poillt of poly-
582
B: SYNTIiETIC FIBRES
p.ropylcncfiblc, particular clrc is ncccssaryin cttrying
out thc
sin-geingopcration. This is cspcciallyso in ihc casc of i"frrL, "i
100 per cent polypropyle0c.
Singeingis carried out on the usual machincs,ancl onc or both
sides of tbe fabric rnay be treatcd.Thc tlistancc ancl inclination
of the flanle are set in the normal way, but singcing is usually
carried out at high spced e.g. 140-t50 mcters pcr nrinutc. This is
about twicc thc spccd commonly uscd for iotton anrl viscosc
fabrics.
Altcrnatively,the speedmay be sct at ?0-g0 mctrcs pcr nrinutc,
and the numbcr o[ burncrs rcduccd to lralf that usctl for co on.
Whcn light and loosc-wcavcfabrics arc trcatcd, ii is advisablc
to wet tltem bcforc singci0g.
Singeing usually brings about sonrc supcrficial soflcning o l
p-olypropyJcncfabrics, causing sornc stifiening. .f.tris cnri
bc
elinrinatedby passingthc fabrics throrrgha cllcnrlcr.
Sy[(ltclic llcsi lrcltlntcna lo ltrDrovc Illrn(l
1-hc hand-of a labric may bc intprovcd and ils tcndcncytowtrds
pilling reduced by trcaiment wilh spccial finishcs con.sisting
oi
synthctic rcsins, usually in entulsiou fonn, 'l'hcsc linislrcs arc
especiallyuscful in thc case of loose-wovcnfabrics and fabrics
made fronr ply yarns, such as Ioose-wovclr or twill-rvcavc
upholstcry fabrics.
Modcrn resin-bascdfiuishcs o[ this typc arc usually rtrlc to
resist.rcmovalby laundcring an<tdry-clcaning,and thcy ntay bc
considcrcd as pcrmancnt finishcs
CrcascproofTrcnlnrc|lls
Fabrics pcr ccnl polypropylcnc librc cilInot bc trcatcd
.of 1.00
cltectrvelywtth creascproof rcsin, as t.hc fibrcs arc so incrt
thilt
the resins are no! fixcd pcrnrancntly to thcnt.
Fabrics made from polypropylcnc fibrc blcn<lcrtwith ccllulosic
^.
llbres, howcver, Inxy bc crcascproofcdby nrcansof rcsins rvhiclt
act upon the ccllulosiccomponctrls.
O w i n g t o . t h c . c o m p a r a t i v c l yl o w s o f t c l i n g p o i n t o f t l r c p o l y _
propyrcnctlbrc. rt rs ncccssiry lo sclcctllnishcstlr l (lo n('l
rcquirc
heatirU lo tcmperaturcsabovc 130.C.'l.his rcslricts thc sclccfiotr
cousiderably, and many of thc ntost efcctivc of thc crctsc.
proofing finishcs cannot be used.
583
 I
I
W|lterproofing
I I A N D D O O KO F ' T E X T I L ET . 'tIrRE S
Acrylic Resin Finishes
Fabrics of I00 per cent polypropylele may be waterprooled by
coaling with acrylic rcsins dissolvedin organic solvenls,or in the
fornr o[ aqucouscmulsions.This rcsultsirr an impcrrneablcfabric,
and is not recommcndedfor apparel applications.
Silicone Finishcs
Polypropylene fabrics may be given a high degrce of rvater
repellency by treatment rvith silicone Iinishes. These have thc
advartagc of leaving the fabric air-permeable.
Cltrotnirrttt Co:nrplc.res
ol Stcariclcid
Finishcs bascd on the chromium conrplexesof stcaric acid nray
bc uscd to inlpart good watcr-repellcncyto polypropylcnc fabrics.
Permrnent Antistatic Finishing
For certain applications,such as laboatory coats, overalls, etc.,
it is neccssaryto providc an antistaticfinish that rernainsellcctive
throughout the life of the garment. A number of products are
available for this purpose.
C:|lcndcring
Calenderingmust be carried out very carefully, bcaring iu mind
the relatively low softening point of polypropylcne fibres. lt is
recommendedthat the temperatureslrould be no more tlran 90"C.,
and the cylinder load 15-20 tons. It is possibleto use 30-40 tons
on the silking calcnder.
Fornr Ilrckiflg
Foam-backed fabrics nray be made satisfactorilylrom l00 per
cent polypropylene fabrics, and also from blendcd polypropy-
lene/cotton and other fnbrics.
The.ppcedurcs used for applying polyurethane foams are
similar to those used with fabrics made from other fibres.Acrylic
resins may be used as adhesives,or the foanr may be applied by
fusion techniques.
584
- 1- U U U U U U U U U
Ia
I
D : S Y Nl l l l l ' l r c l : l t R e s I
I\{ouldirrg
Polypropylenefibrc is thcrmoplastic,softcning at about 150.C.
and mcltitrg at about 160-i70"C. Fabrics colsistiug rvholly or irr
part of polypropylenc fibrc nray bc mouldcd untlcr propcr contli-
lions o[ tirnc ancl lcnrpcraturcinto fllnrost any tlcsircd slrlpc.
-fhis
mouldability nray bc uscd in innumcrablc npplicatious
rvhcrc a fabric is rcquircd in t thrcc-dirncnsionalslrnpc,such lrs
brassilrcs, hats, handbags,inncr and outcr linings lor lrrggrrgc,
pancls for furniturc and car upholstcry.
Fibre Content antl Fubric I'ype
A nrininrum of 70-80 per cent polypropylcnc fibrc in tlrc fablic is
rccolnmendedin ordcr to cnsurc good mouldability. 'l'hc fitbrics
nray bc tnadc from staplc or continuousfilanrcnI yarns, an<l nrly
bc jn almost any typc of weavc,Vcry dcnseflbrics rcquirc highcr
tcnrpcralurcsthan lhinucr fabrics.
Non-wovcn fabrics rnust lrrvc lrigh nntl cvcrrly-tlislLibtrlctl
strength propertiesin nll dircctions.'l'hc nrain problcnr prcscntcd
by non-wovenfabrics is thc rcadincsswith which thcy tcrr during
the hea(ing cyclc, duc to shinkagc.Chcmical bonding agcntscan
oftcn overcome this dilliculty.
IIcat-Sctling
In common wilh other thermophstic fibrcs, polypropylorc fibrcs
and fabrics can bc hcat-sct against subscqLtc|rtshrinkilgc and
deIormation.
A tempcrature of 130"C. is thc maximunr practiclbly-usablc
temperaturefor hcat-setting.Fabrics sct at. lhis tcmDerrturc will
resisl.sl)rinkxgcin boiling wllcr, and :rrc s(lblc rrl) t; 120.C.
Blended{abrics containingnrorc lhan 30 pcr ccnt polypropylcrrc
can be hcat-set,(hc cllcctivcncssincreasing with thc prol)ortion
of polypropylenc in the blend.
Plcats and crcasesmay bc hcat-sctin polypropylcnc fabrics or
blcnds, and thesefabrics nray also bc mouldcd into thrcc-tlinrcn-
sional shapes (sce abovc). Thcy may bc calcndcrcd ancl cnr-
bosscd to givc pcrnt ncnt cllccls
Hcalsettirg inrprrts rcsistanceto wrinkling during wushing.
Bonding
A variety of adhesivesmay be uscd in bonding polyolcfin firbrics
585
,F-F.tfFJJ.r F.F t F,F f=,n F,n
" I
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES B: SYNTII ETIC FII}RES

and yarns, including (l) contact adhesivcs containing volatile averagenrolccularwcight and nrolccullr wcighl dislribUtiou,and
solvcnts,(2) hot mclt resins,and (3) cpoxy compounds. on thc content,of isotlctic polynlcr, lt nrity vnry bctwccn two
extremes,representedby a con)plclcly nnrorl)l)ousilt ctic poly-
propyleneon the onc hand, to thc 100pcr ccnl crystallincisoiactic
STITUCTUREAND PROPEITTIES polypropyleneon the otlrcr. Thc norntal "o.nlnr"riinl poll,nrcr
has
MolccularStructurc a d e g r e eo f c r y s t a l l i n i t yo f a b o u t ( r 0 t o 7 0 p c r c c n t .
T h e d e g r c e _ o [ c r y s l a l t i n i t yo f a p o l y p r o p y l c n cl i b r c i s i n -
Unlike the natural libres and most of the importantsynthetic ^
IUenccd also Dy thc lrcatnlcnt to which tlrc llbrc is sutrjcctcd
hbres,polyolefins baveno polar groups.Prior to the devclopment during procesing. Stretchingand hcat-trcatnrcntmay rtlcct thc
of isotacticpolypropylene,it was consideredthat polar groups way in which the lincar nroleculcsarc packcclinto llicir ordcrctl
wereessential to the productionof textilefibresof high strength. crystallinepattcrns.
'fhey provided
the forceswlrich held the linear molcculestogethcr Thc high degrecof cryslaltinityachievccljn isotnclicnolvDronv_
as they lay alongside ons anotherin the orientatedfibre. lcle fibres is reflcclcd in thc high strcngth ald stitilcss, rrirtlitic
The presence of polar groupsin a linear moleculedoesmake low elongationof thc libres.
the manufactureof high-strength fibrespossiblefrom polymers
of relativelylow nrolecular weight.Polyamicles yieldstrongfibres, lsotacticity Indcx
for example, when the rnolccular weight lies betwecn 10,000and 'fhc
c o n t c n to [ i s o l a c t i cp o l y p r o p y l c n ci s r n c l s r r r c dl l v c s l i n r n t i n u
30,000.
th:, arlto.llntof rcsiduc rcnrainingaflcr cxtmction of ihc polyrrr"i
In polypropylene, it is crystallinityalonethat providestensile
wrrn Dotjtng n. hcPtirnc;il is cxprcsscdas llrc isota..i..ityitular.
strengthby preventingslippageof the linear molecules.And
Connrercial polypropylcnc has an isolacticity ina"x of ov"r qO
higher molecularwcightsare necessary to obtain the necessary pcr cent.
strength.Polymersof molecularweightgreatcrthan 50,000arc
nccded,for examplc,to eliminateintracrystalline llow, corres-
FiDe Struc(urca d ApJ,enrflcc
p o n d i n gt o t e n a c i t i eos f a t l e a s t4 4 - 5 3 c N / t e x ( 5 - 6 g / d e n ) .
Monofilanrents with tenacitiesabove88.3 cN/tex (10 g/den) Polypropylcnc fibres are produced as colourlcssIilanrcnts,nnd irr
require polymersof molecularweight greater than 100;000. a range of pigntented shadcs. They are srnoot h -surlhccrl ariri
The averagemolccularweighlso[ polypropylenc usedin fibre a r e s o n l e w l ) a tw a x y i n : l p p c a r ac e . ' l ' h e f i l a n t c n t sa r c o l . t c r ro f
manufacturearc commonly higher than 200,000.Lligh-density round cross-scctior), but thcy arc nlso proclrrccdin a varictv oI
polyethylene fibrcs,by contrast,have molecularweightsin the otlter cross seclions for spccill applicltiorrs. Dianrctcls lic iorrr-
region50,000to 150,000, and low-densitypolyethylene 20,000to r l l o l l l y D e t w c e n 0 . 0 2 _ 0 . 5 r r r r r r( 0 . 0 0 0 g _ 0 . 0 2 i r r ) , b u t
hcilvicr
25,000. nronofilsare proclucedfor use as bristlcs.
The linear moleculeof isotacticpolypropyleneis thus, on 'fensile
average, twiceas long as a linearmoleculeof high-density poly- StrcnSlh
elhylene,and more tbrn l0 times as long as the nroleculeof Polypropylcncfibrcs arc produccd in a varicty of typcs of <lillcr-
low-density, branchcdpolyethylene. r r g l c n i l c ' t t c sd c s i g n c dt o s U i t v a r y i n g n r i t r k c tr c q U i r c r n c D t s .
Most applicationsare adequatcly icrvcd by fibrc of rrrctliunr
Dcgrcc of Crlstxllinity .
t e n a c i l y , - a n dc o m m c r c i a ls t a p t c a n d c o n l i n u b u sf i l n l c n t
vanls
The crystallinity of a polypropylene fibre, rvhiclt has such au p J o d u c c dt .o r g e t l e r a tl c x t i l c u s c sl l a v ct c l t a c i t y2 ( r . 5 _ 4 4 . 1
c N /tcx
imporlant infiucuce on lcnsilc strength alld other nrcchanical (r -)-
_ g / d e n l ;t c n s i t e s t r c r ) g t h2 , 4 5 0 _ 4 , 2 0 0 k g / c l r 2 1 J 5 , 0 b 0 _
propcrtics,is controllcd prinrrrily by thc uaturc of lhe polynrer 6 0 , 0 0 0l b / i n z) .
itsell. The dcgree of crystallinity attainable dcpends upon the y a r n s r e a c h i n g8 0 c N / t c x ( 9 g / t l c n ) x r c r r r a t l c .F o r
spcci:ri
586 587
 I { A N D D O OK O F T E X T I L E F I D R E S D : S Y N T I I E T I CF I D R E S
p u r p o s e s ,y a r n s o f t e n a c i t y u p t o l l 5 c N / t e x ( 1 3 g / d e n ) a r e Crecp Clnractcristics
produccrl.
Cold flow or irecp churactcristicsoI polypropylcnc
the other haud, does not need to be of very high tensilestrength. arc satisfac-
tory, and.a great inrprovcmenton polyctliylenc,
High resilielcc is a more desirable characteristic,and fibres of Uut,fo nor i"o"i,
serby potyamidc-or polycsrcrlibrcs.potypropylcnc
lower tenacity are produced for this type of application. ll",-.-,1lglro
ltDrcswt undergo cold flow of up to 0.5 pcr ccttL
Knot and loop streogthsare usually some l0-15 per ccnt lowcr of tirc oricinal
ierrgthwhcnsubjccred ro r loatlof lJ.2 cN/tcxf f .Ss/(fc,rir.;i'ii
than Lhe strength o[ thc straight libre.
noursat roonltenlpcrature_
lilorrgation l;lcx R(sistqnce
Contmercial polypropylcne monoRltmcnls have an elongation at Exccllent.
brcak in thc region of l5 to 25 per cent..Multifilament yarns are
in thc rangc of 20 to 3(l pcr cent, and staple libre 20 to 35 pcr Spccilic Gravity
cent. As in.the caseof polycthylcnc fibrcs, thc spccificgravity
of nolv_
propyrcnevarieswilh thc dcgrcc oI crystallinity.
lilastic I'ropcrlics Amorplrorrsilolv-
propylenc has a spccificgravily o[ 0.g5; conrmcrcial
nbr"s ai" iu
The elastic properties of polypropylenc fibres, in common with tlrc rlnge 0.90-0.91,and highly crysta inc fibrcs rcach 0.92_0.94.
other mcchanicalproperties,may be varied over a wide range by l'olypropylcnc librcs arc tltus (hc liglrtcst.of all conrrrrcrcini
choice of polymcr and processingconditions.Fibres can be pro- lcxtilcfibres,evenrhehigtrtycrysrainc-fibrcst"i"g rieiii"i it,;,,
duced to meet the requirements of specific applications with all bul polycthylcne.
rcgard to elasticproperties.
Dltcct of Moisturc
I{igh Tenacity Fibre Polypropyleneis a parafl'inichydrocarbon,and it docs not absorb
Thc elasticrecovery propertiesof commercial high-te[acity fibres watcr. Thc nroisture regain of polypropylcnc nbrcs is so smtil
are excellenl,and similar to those of nylon. Immediate recovery as to be insignilicanl,and walcr has no cfiect on tcnsile strcngllt
afler l0 per cent elongationis about 90 per cent with virtually no and other ntcchanical propcrties,
permanent set. Water docs not cause auy noticcablc dcgradation irr nolv_
;>ropylenefibrcs. Fibres subjcctcd to boiliug *nt". o, ,t"n,i, lo.
Metliwn Tenacity Fibre long periodsshow no losso[ slrcnglh.

Initial Modulus.fhe nrodulusof elasticityon l0 per cent exten- Thcrrnal froper(ics

sion is in the range263-795 cN/tex (30-90 g/den) for nrultifila-
nrents,and 221-353 cN/tex (25-40 g/den) for staple. Solre ing Point; Mclti g Poinl
Ektstic Rccovery, Elastic recovcry at 5 per cent clongation is Thc^solteuing polypropylcnc fibrcs is in lhc rcgion of
90-98 pcr cent for mtrltifilanrentsand 90-95 per cent for staple. _poiot of
150'C., anrl thc fibres mclt ar l60-17o"C. .l-hc soltcniij aurl
melting points of spcci{icpolypropylcncsare clctcrnrincd5y thc
Lov Tenacity Fibre nature of the polymcr and by thc way in rvhich crystallinity has
Yarns of tenacity 17.7 cN/tex (2 g/den) are made under special oecn tn uenccd dunng trcatmeut of thc fibrc aftcr spinning.
condiliolls of hcat-trcatmcnt at high temfjerature.Thesc yarns
show a 95 pcr cent irnmediaterecoyery front 50 per cent cxten- Efect oJ Lotv Ternperature
sion, and conrplcterccovcry after 5 minutes. Polypropylene fibre retains its flcxibility to tonpcrnturcs oI
588 589

F1-'Y1--1--L-I '[ 'I ' I ' I

|:--|:------r--.nn
IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
D: SYNTUETICFIBRES
-70"C. or lowcr, It docs not rcach thc rcntalkablc standard sct Polypropylenc has thc lowcstthcrmalconductivityof all conr-
by polyethyleneill this respect,but its low tenrperatur€Ilexibility mercialfibres,and ir this rcspeclis the'warmcst'librcof all.
is excellentfor most practical purposes.
Etfcct of SuDlight
EIJcct oJ H igh'I' etnpcratute
-lhc Like polyethylcne, polypropylcnc is attackcd by atmosphcric
rnechanicalprot)ertiesof the fibre deterioratewith increasing
oxygen,and the reaction is stimulatedby sunlight. Polypropylcne
tcmperature bclow the softening point, but polypropylene per- fibre will deteriorateon exposureto light, but it may bc protcctcd
Iorms bctter than pol,ethylcne in this rcspect. c{Ieclivcly by mcans of stabilizcrs.
Shrinkage Properties
Chemicrl I'ropcrties
Shrinkage of polypropylene fibres depends greatly upon the
trcatment ihe frbre receivesduring proccssing,In boiling water, Acitls. Excellenl resistance, similar to polycthylcuc.
monofilaments may shrink as much as 15 per cent after 20
minutes; mullililament and staple yarns rnay shrink between 0 Alkalis. Excellent resistance,sinrilar to polycthylenc.
and l0 per cent.
General
Flanunability Polypropylcneis inert to a widc rangc of chcnricals.lts rcsistrncc
Polypropyleneis a hydlocarbon, and it will burn. On being cx- and susccptibiliticsarc similar to thosc of polycthylcnc (scc pngc
posed to a flame, however, the fibre melts and draws away from 554), but its high crystallinity tcnds to nrakc it morc rcsistant
the flame, extinguishiugitself. thar polyethylcncto those chcnricalsrvhictrdcgradc olclin fibrcs.
Polypropylene fabrics exceed tbe requirementsof Class I of
the ASTM Standard for textile fabrics. Tcsted according to Eflcct of Org{nic Solvcnh
8.S.2963,they are self-e>.tinguishingand thereforeof low llamma- Excellent resistance,gcucrally similar to polycthylcnc. Thcrc is
bility (B.S.3l2l). no known solvent for polypropylenc at room tcmf,craturc.
Construction,additives,finishesand the presenceof other fibres
have a considerableinfluence on the burnirg characteristicsof Insccts
any particular fabric or structure. Polypropylenecannot bc digcstcdby iDscctand rclatcd pcsts,such
For the purposesof fire insurance,polypropylene fibre is in- as white ants, dernrcstidbcetles,silverfishand moth lurvac. polv-
cluded in tl)e sarrc class as n,ool. propylcne fibre is not liablc to attack unlcssit bccorncsa barricr
'f beyond which the insect olust pass to rcach an objcctivc.ln this
herntal Cottductivity
case,the insect may cut through the fibre without digcstingit.
Thc following table lists tbe tbermal conductiviticsof polypropy-
lene and other important textile Rbres: Micro-orgnnisms
rtore T lrcnnal Cottductivity Polypropylene fibre will not support the growth of mildew or
(relativeto air 1.0) fungi. Some micro-organisms, lrowcvcr,rnny grow cvcn on thc
Polypropylene 6.0 very smallamountsof contalninaDts which lnay bc prcscnton thc
PVC fibre 6.4 surfaceof libresor yarnsin usc.Suchgrowth has no cflcct on
Wool 7.3 the strengthof any nraterialsnradcfrom polypropylcnc fibrc.
Celluloseacetate 8.6
Viscose I1.0 Elccltical Propcrlics
Cottoo 17.5 Polypropylene is an exccllcnt insulaling matcrial, and sincc thc
590 591
 'I NDBOOKOF TEXTILE FIDRES B: SYNTHETIC FIBRES

absorption of nroisturc is so cxtrenrelysmall there is little or no

changc in thc elcctrical propcrties at high hunridities - an im-
portant point in eleclrical applicalions.

Cocllicicntof liriclion
Polypropylene has a rclativcly high coeflicient of friction
agninstsnrooth surfaces,particularly rnetal or porcelain.Thc co-
cfiiciclt of friction of yaln againsl, for cxarnple, a yarn guidc
dccreaseswith jncreasillg tcnsion.
-l'hc
coeflicientof friction ngainsta matt guidc, i.e. a guide with
a discontinuous surface, is much less tlran against a polished
guide, owing to the smaller actual area of contact between tbe
yaflr and nratt surface.

Coeffcicnt ol Filamenl to Filanent Frictiotl

Static friction (avcmge speed 2.5 crn./rrrin.) o.32-0.42
Dynamic friction (averagespccd 95 cnr./rnin.) 0.?9-0.40
Olltcr lropertics
I Iandle
Polypropylenehas a much less waxy feel than polyethylene,and
its fabrics havc a pleasanterhandle.
I'olyptopIlc,rc
Etrvirorurrct al Stress Cracking
Polypropylene d o e s n o t s h o w a n y t e n d e n c yt o ' c r a z e ' o r d e v e l o p continuedcontactwith the sourceof hcat wilt burn with a bluc-
surfacecracks when sublectedto strcsscsin the presenceof deter- and-yellowflame similar to that of a candlc.A charnctcrislic
gents or other substanccs. odour.isgivcnoll wlrenthe burningmalcrialis cxtinguishctl.
Idcntilicatio[ of PolypropJlcrc liil.rrc (c) Density
The following testswill help in the identilicationof polypropylene Polypropylcne and polyclhylcnc arc thc only tcxlilcfibrcsrvhich
fibres: arc lighter than watcr, and this is tho basisof onc of thc nlost
(a) Apperu'ance useful methodsof identification.
Polypropylene seen through the microscoDeis smooth and A tcst sanrpleis cut into lcugthsof { inclr (6 nrur.)or lcss,
featurelcss in appearance. Circular, trilobal and tlclta cross- tclscd irto individunlfibrcsand stirrcd into watcr containinc!r
scction filanrentsarc comnronly encountercd. l i t t l c w c t t i o ga g c n t( l g . / l i t r eL i s s p o l N ) . I f t h c s m r l l p i c c c io t
fibre float, thcy are almostcerlainlypolycthylcncor polypropy-
(b) Burning Test
lenc.Thesenray be distinguishcd by thcir mclting pointii poly-
When a flamc is brought up to a polypropylcneyarn, lhe fibrcs propylcnelics in the region160-170"C., and polyctlrylcnc in tlic
melt and retracl. A bearl of nrolten polymer is formed, wlrich on regionll0-140"C.,dcpendingon thc typc of polyrncr.
592 593

. l
I
' l r ' r r r-l '--1
 TI NDAOOK OF TEXTTLE FIBRDS
I ' O L Y P I { O P Y L E N EF I B I T E SI N U S I :
Gencral Characleris(i(so[ Polypropylcnc Fibrc Goods
Initially, polypropylenemonofilamcntsmade their way into appli-
cations which had already been pioneeredby polyethylene.They
oflered highcr streugth,increasedtoughness,resilience,abrasion
resistanccand crecp resistance,and a higher mclting point; thesc
properties werc allied to the water-resistance, chemical inertness
and other propertiestbat had enabledpolyethyleneto competein
a range of applications.
Polypropylcne monofilaments on this basis, were soon en-
trenched in a number of fields where they competed very eflec-
tively with other ljbres; thcse fields included ropes and cordage,
fishing nets and twlnes, filter fabrics, protectiveclothing and the
like.
With the introduction of line-denier multifilament yarns and
staple fibre, thc range of poteutial applicationsfor polypropylene
libre was extendedinto the generaltextile and apparelfields.This
brought them into ccmpctilion with establishednatural and
sy[thetic fibres in applicationswhere the shortcomingsof poly-
propylene fibres often place them at a disadvantage.Despite the
many attractivecharacteristicsof polypropylenefibres,less dcsir-
able properties - such as dyeing difficulties and relatively low
melting point - have lended to limit progress.
Processitrg Belnviour
Polypropylene libres have a filamenl-to-filamentcoeflicient of
friction higher than that of any other textile libre. This, in com-
bination with crimp stability and low static charge accumulation,
makes for excellent processing characteristics. Polypropylene
libres blend easily and ellectivclywith otlrer texlile nbres.
Covering Power
The lorv specilicgravity of polypropylenefibre gives it a covering
power which is, weight for weight, greater than that of any other
textile fibre. This has been particularly helpful in the development
of polypropylene blankets,upholstery,carpet and apparelfabrics.
'l-
lrcrnnl Insulatiott
-fhe
thernral insulation characteristicsof a fabric are determincd
s94
B : S Y N , r l lE . I .C
l FlnRr,s
l a r g c l yb y t l r c a n r o u n Io ( t i r c n t r p p c d i n t h c f : r b r i c . . l . h c
llrcrnral
conductivity o[ polypropylcnc libic is, lrowctcr, I"*;;
it;,;;';i ;i
ot othcr tltjrcs,and irr lhis rcspccl polypropylcnc is lhc ,wanlcst,
Oreln commcrcial usg-
Crease Rcsistance
The ability of a tcxtilc labric to rcsist crcirsc Iormatiorr durirrt
use is inlluenced by the physical naturc of lhc nbrc itsclf. Irl th;
casc of polypropylcnc fibrc, this charactcrislic varics with thc
molccular weight of thc polyncr, and with thc conditions o[
sp-inning and dra.,ving. Polypropylcnc yarns arc protlucccl iu
which the crease resisl.ingpropcrtics are at optinrunl valuc for
applications where this is imDortant.
In gcneral, the crease-resistinccof polypropylcnc Jibrcs is of
the same order as that of wool. Uniike wobi, howcv"r, poly_
propylene fibre docs not losc its high crcase-rcsistancc whcn wct.
Shrinkage
By.controlling the condilions of proccssing,lhc shrinkngcchirrac_
tcristicsof polypropyleneyarns may be varicd ovcr a considcrablc
range,
Shrinkage of polypropylene yarns is quitc low under thc
tusualconditions of Iabric scouringand dyeing. Speciolcarc must
be
.taken, however, whcn high-lenrpcraturchnislting treatmcnts
sucn as rcsln curing ilrc uscd. Shrinkagcmay bc lrigh ilt clcvatcd
lemperatures.
This shrinkagc causedby high tcmpcraturcsis not progrcssivc,
and polypropylcnc fabrics nray be hcat-sct. In cornnron witlr
other
-syntbetic fibres, hcat-treatedpolypropylcnc yarns which
have been allowed to shrink and Ueconicsrribitizc<]at a givcn
tcmperatureare essentiallystable to subscqucnttrcatmcnt up to
t h i s t e m p e r a t u r eT. h i s p r i n c i p l ei s u s e c il n p r o v i d i r r nd i r n c r r s i o r r r l
stability to [abricsnrade frorn polypropylenc fitrrcs.-
. . F a b r i c .s h r i n k a g eu r r d e r c o r n r n c r c i acl l r y - c l c r r r i r rcgo n r l i t i o r r s
w l r n p e r c l l l o r e t h y t e nte n d sL o b e c x c c s s i v e .l.rl i s l i r n i t st l t c u s c o f
p o l y p r o p y l e n ei l s o m e t c x t i l e a p p l i c a t i o n s .
Higlr-shrinkagepolypropylcnc fibrcs may bc prcpnrcd by lhc
usc-of.appropriatcproccssingconditions.fibrcs of-this typc arc
useful in the plodrrctiorro[ ccrtain typcs o[ tcxtrtrcd and-bulkctl
yarns.Jn blends, thc high shrinkagc o[ a polypropylcnc corrrpo-
ncnt of Lhistypc may lrc used to crcatc bulkcd or pirckcrctlcfc:cts
rn yarns and finishcd fabrics.
595
 ilI
IIANDBOOK OF 1'SX'I'ILE FI DRI]S
I : S Y N l l : r I C r r tu R E s
Creep
ll/ osh qntl ll/ utr C I nrac tcrist ic.s
Polypropylenc yarns generally cxhibit nrore creep than polyester
Polypropylcnc fibrc is unusually rcsistant to soiling. -l-his is
or nylon yarns, but tlte amount is so sntall thal il is rarely of
practical signillcance. It is usually appreciably less than the in0trclccd in thc nrain by two factors:
normal extensionof the yarlr under the load. (^) Electrcstdic AItt 0ctiotl
Wherea rope or otherconslructionhas to withstanda contin-
uousheavyload,it is usuallydcsigncdso that the averagcloading Polypropylcnefibrcs shorv Iittlc tcndcncy to accurrrultrtc clrirr.gcs
oI static electricity throLrgh friction duiing usc. .t.hcy do iot
i s q u i t el o w , c . g .4 . 4 - 8 . 8 c N / t e x( 0 . 5 - 1 . 0g / c l c r r 1) .' h i si s n c c e s .
atlr ct dust nnd dirt to thq cxtcnt thirt nlosl.othcr syntltctic fibr.cs
s i t a t e db y s a f e t y c o n s i d c r a t i o nU s .I d c r t h c s cc o n d i t i o n st.h e do.
e f f c c to f c r e e pi s v c r ys r n a l l .
(b) Chenical Inert css
Din(nsionul Stability
Polypropylerrcdoes not rc ct chcmically with thc substanccs
Dinrensional stabilityof polypropylencfabricsis excellent,and cncoulltcrcdin gencral usc,nor is il. attackcd by contnronsolvcnts,
the water-rcpcllcncy of the fibre enablcsit to retain its Irigh grcascs,oils, ctc. Jt. js not rcadily stainccl,thcrc[orc,
stability through repeatcdlaunderings.Polypropylcncfabrics and such
staining-as docs tflke place is conrnronly supcrticial.'.l.hc sfaiir
retainthcir shapcin changingconditiousof nroisturcand hunrid- i s h c k l i n t h c i n t e r s l i c co
s f t h c f a b r i c b y c a p i l i l r y n l t r l c t i o n ,l n d
ity, and on lhe strengthof this stabilitylhcsc [abrics lound a is rcadily renrovcdby lrrLrndcring
readymarket in upholsteryand industrjalfabrics,laundry bags, or rlry clc:rrring.-
seat belts and protectiveclothing. ln such applications, poly- Ilourl ond D roping Clrrructeristicr
propylenefibrc provideshigh strcngtlr,low elougation,
toughness,
rcsilienceand abrasionresistance Hand arrd_dr ping chtt cteristicsdcpcnclgrcatly <ltl lhc rvcaving
which do not chansc undcr
rnd finishing ol fabrics.
normalconditionsof use.
Flct Resistencc
Abrasiotr Resistancc
Fibres havc good [1cx rcsistanceand rrrotlcratclygootl rccovery
Polypropylene fibreshavca high resislance to abrasionwhendry,
and cvcngreatcrrcsistancc I r o r r _ b c r r d i n ga, n d l h c s c p r . o p c r l i c s c r v c l h c r r t w - c l l i n " l r r n " t s
whcnwet.The abrasionresistance of a r , n d t t o o r c o v c r i n g s .f c x t r r r c ( lf i l i r n r c t rat n c l b u l k c t l s t : r n l c
blend containingpolypropylene fibre increasesin proportionto 'v i r t l s
hav-ernadc good hcadway in thcsc and othcr pilc fabric.s.
thc amountof polypropylene libre in thc blcnd.
Abrasionresistance High flcx rcsistancc couplcd with cxccllcrit loop- anrl knot_
is of particularimportancein applications
s t r c n g l ha r c i r ) t n o r t a | | itt r t h c p r o d u c l i o no f k t r i l t c i l g o o d s ,
such as carpels,wherethe ability to withstandwear is esscntial. antl
polypropylcncfibrc has foLrndmany applicrtionssuch
In con'rmon with othermechanical properties,
abrasionresistance is srvtiatcrs
nray be influenccdby the nrolecular cardigans,swirttwcarand undcrwcar.
weightof the polypropylene,
cross-section,and the conditionsof spinningand processing.
- Pleal Pennanence
Fibres may be produced with optimum a6rasionresistancl
characteristics
for specialapplications. Plcats may. bc ltelt-set in polypropylcnc fabrics, lrrrd tllc
l)lcills
snow exce ent relcntio . A blcnd of polypropylcnc fibrc (60 pcr
FeltingBehoviour c c r t ) a n d w o o l ( . . | 0p c r c c n t ) w i l l t a t c p t c a t i w c l l l t t r c y , i , r y ' l r c
troncd into thc I bric al I40.C. In most cirses,plcati nray
Polypropylene fibres,like nrostothersyntheticfibres,do not felt. l.rc
presscdinto polypropylcneIflbrics at 130"C.,wtricli givcs
In blcndswith wool, polypropylene reduccsthe tendencyto felt a bctrcr
nrargin o[ safety, especinllyin fabrics of l0d pcr *ni p"ffpi.py-
in proportionto the arr,ountof polypropylene fibre jn the blend. leuc fibre
596 59'1

-l - ' l ' t ' l ' l ' I ' l ' l - I

I l l
 HANDAOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRBS
Clrcapttcss
Pcrhaps the most important of all the featuresof polypropylcne
to bc taken into account when assessingjts use for a particular
applicationis its cost. Polypropyleneis potcntially the cheapestof
all synthetic fibrcs, and this must give it a telling adyantagein
competition with other Iibres where lecbnical dillerences are
marginal.
lVaslring
The resistanceof polypropylenefibrcs to a wide range oI cherni_
cals including acids,alkalis and normal textile bleaches,enables
fabrics to withstand all the chenrical conditions commonly en-
countered in waslring and laundering.In addition, the fibre does
not absorb moisture,antl it does not felt.
Wasbing may be carricd out without dilliculty, using tenrpera-
tures up lo 100"C. It is preferable to use warm water at about
40"C., witb soap, soap powder or detergent.The goods should be
rinsed rvell, and a small amount of detergentor softeniog agent
may be addcd to thc final rinse to increasc softncssof handle
aod antistatic properties.
Drying
Polypropylene libres do not absorb moisture. and fabrics wjll
dry quickly at room temperature.Spin drying or drip drying are
preferrcd; tumble dryinu should be used with great care to ensure
that the goods tumble freely.
Ironi g
The soltening point of polypropylenefibre is lower than that of
most other commercial textile apparel fibres,and ironing must be
carricd out with care. A steam iron may be used,or ariordinary
iron in conjunction with a damp cloth. If ironing is done withoui
cither steam or cloth, a low setting sbould be used, bearing in
mind that the fibre softensat about 140"C.
Dry Clcaniog
Polypropylenegoods nay be dry cleaned satisfaclorily with tri-
chloroethyleneor white spirit ai temperaturcsbelow 50"C.; poly_
propylene behavesin this respect like wool. perchloroethylenc
598
R: SYNTI{ETIC FINRAS
is rrot rccomnrcrrrlcdas a clry clclning agcnt, as it nrty llcct lhc
d i r n c n s i o n aslt a b i l i t yo [ t b c f r b r i c .
trnd-Uses
Ropes
fhe principal rcquirementso[ a fibre to bc uscd in making ropcs
for maritime, agriculturaland industrial usc includc thc following:
(l) lrigh strength,wet or dry
(2) resistanceto repeatedloading and ficxing
(3) resistanceto abrasion
(4) minimum waier absorption
(5) lightness
(6) rcsistanceto weathering,light, seawatcr,chenricals,solvcnts,
micro-organismsand othcr potentially dcgradativc agcnts
encountercdin normal use.
'lhis
is a formidtblc combination of propcrtics,nnd fcw conr-
mercial fibres arc ablc to satisfy all rcquircnrcnts to a high
dcgrcc. Polypropylcnc fibrcs compctc favourably with othcr
fibres, natural and synthetic,in this respect,and thcy havc found
an important outlet in the field of rope manufacturc.
Polypropyleneropes will float in water, and this can bc a sig-
nificant advantagein certain circumstanccs.It rcducesthe losscs
when ropes fall overboard,for example,during fishing and othcr
marine opcrations.
Fishing Cear
Amongst lhe most important propertics of yarns to bc usctl in
lishnets,trawls and lincs are:
(a) high sl.rength,wct and dry
(b) great toughness
(c) low weight
(d) low moisturc absorption
(c) dimensionalstability
(Q resistanceto degradation by weathcring, light, scawatcr,
chemicals,solvents, micro-orglnisrnsancl othcr potcnlially
degradativeagcnts encountcredin normal usc.
This combination of rcquirernentsis csscntiallysinrilar to thc
requirementslistcd in thc scction on ropcs (abovc), In thc p:lst,
500
 IIANDDOOO
K F T E X T IL E F I B R E S
B: SYNTII ETI C FIORES
J
c o l t o n t n ( l r r r i u r i l a n d a f c w o t h c r n a t u r i t lf i b r c sh a v c . a s i n t h c
for convcntional cirrpcls lnd 'lhosc containing polypropylcnc
c l s c o [ r o p c s ,b c c n u s c t lI o l r r r l k i r r gf i s h i n gg c u r .l . l r c i r i l t o r t c o l l -
filanrcnt chain warps.
rr)gswcrc.slrcll,howcvcr, that synlltctic fibrcs matie rapiclprogrcss
Dimensionalstability and luft anchoragcof lhc polypropylcne
i n t h i s f i c l d ,a n d n y l o n i n p a r t i c u l a rh a s b e c n a b l e t o t a k i o i c r a .
lalgc plrt of the production of fishing gcar since the end chain warp carpets are at least equal to thosc oi "oiion'"hnin
o{ warp carpets.
World. War I I. More rcccntly,nylon hns becrrjoincd by polycster,
polyelhyleneand polyvinyl alcolrol llbres wlrich have'ail
securej
a place in thc world nrarket for fishing gear. 'l'xlled
Cqrpers
In I961, polypropylcne was introduced into this ficld, ancl it
. Polypropylcncllrrllililflnrcnt yrrns havc gained wiclc and rapidly_
has madc rapid progrcssin direct colnpetitionwith its establishcJ
s y n t l r c t i cf i b l c r i v a l s . B y 1 9 6 4 ,t o r c x a n r p l e ,l h c p r o d r r c r i o no f growing acceptancefor the production of tuftccl carDcts.
polypropylcnc ncts in Great Britain cxcccdedthe B_rrlkedyarns, in particular, ofTcr rnany aclvantigcs in tlris
overall total o[ application, among which thc following arc inrportant:
nels produced frorr all othcr syntlrctic fibres.
Thc rcasonsfor the rcady acceptanceof polypropylenein the
productiou,of fishing gear are to be founcllinits unique IItuul.'fhe finished carpet lras a firm, lotty fccl, without harsh_
corn_
bination of propcrtics,and in its low cost. ness.
i\'lany polypropylcnc fibrc l)roduccrsare now nrrrkeliug ltigh_
.
tcnrcity polypropylcneInultifilirmclt yarus lor use in tltc p-rotlic_
Cover. The naturll bulk or covcr of polypropylcnc, with its
lion, of fishing
-q_ear. - l'hesc y:rrns commonly provide a ienacitv low spccific gravity, is grcater than rt'"t of "ny oilicr fii:re. .fhis,
i n t l l c r c g i o no f 7 l c N / t e x ( 8 g / d e r r ) a, n d e i t e i r s i o ni n t h e r c g i o i l
c o u p l c d w i t h a ' b l o o m i n g 'a c t i o n o f t h c y l r n c l u r i n g t i r r i s h i r r g ,
o f 2 0 D c rc c t r t - p r o o u c e sa c a r p e tw t t h n t o r e c o v e r p c r k g , t l r r r r c a n b c o l ) t a i n e d
lvlonofilamcnt.yalns may also bc uscd with advanlagc for with any other fibrc.
certain applicatjons. Fishncts maclc fronr nronofilameni
lravc
properties similar to those o[ the equivalent nrultinlament
nets, Soiling and Stqin llesistance.Dirt and stlrins arc rcmovcd
rvith,.h orvevcr.a higher resistancelo abrasionand usually
a'siiffei easilyfrorn polypropylenccarpctswith warrn watcr and dctcrlcllt.
handlc.

Resilience.Thc Iarger ratio of fibrc dinntctcr to <lcnier.thc

Chuitr lVarps in Corpets natural resilienccof the fibrc, and thc largcr fibrc lo rrca rclation-
The yarns, e.g. of spun colton, which are nornrally used for chain ship in cnrpctsmadc from polypropylcneproducc ir fabric with a
warps ltr carpcls ntay bc rcplaced by high tenrcity polvpronvlene good resistanccto foot tramc and furniturc marks.
y r n . A 1 2 0 l i l a r n c n t p o l y p r o p y l e n ey a r n o f j l O
aenici-(Cf:
d e c r t c xw) i t h 5 t u r n s / i n c h( 1 9 7t u r n s / m e t r e ) , S ' t w i s tf ,o r e x r n r p l e , lVear. Polypropylencfibres-aretough and havc a trigh rbrasion
i s s u b s t i r n t i a l l y . s t r o n gt cl )ri r 3 / 9 s c . c . ( 1 5 / j r n c t r i c jc o f t o n y a r n . resislance.Carpcts nradc lrom thcm havc outstanding wcrrirrg
l n n d d i t i o n i t h a s s o n r c t h r c c t i n r c st l r c r u n n i r g c^ , i , t , C . o " , i l i , i n qualltics,which arc 1>rrticularlynoticcabtcon stair-nosintsand ii
upon lhc pricc of lhe cotton yarn, it efiectsi pricc saving high-traffic areas.
oi
about 40-50 Der cent_
Carpcls nridc with polypropylenc clrain warps are similar in 'l'he
G) loLU Fastness. colours of pignrcntcd polypropylenc
lppcaralrcc ancl llcxibility to carpcts nradc with cotrvcntiorlal
fibrcs, as uscrl il lhc production of tuftcd carpc(s.arc flsi tnd
colton clrain warps.1'he abrasionrcsistonccof the pile is ictenlical
p c r n r i r n c n la. t l d w i l l ! l s t t l t c l i f c o f t h c c a r n c i
600 60t

-1 r-l --l -ll -l 'l - 'l II , I

TF.F NF F.F.TH:FF F F I NNFJ}
IIANDBOOK OF'TEXTILE FI ARES
Sl4fic. Carpets of polypropylcue are alntost static-Iree.They
shorv liltle lendcncy1o dclivcr shocks to pcople who havc walked
acrossthem, and then tcuch metal objccts.This absenceof static
ch:rrgc rlso coIlributcs to the soil-rcsislanceof polypropylcne
carpets.
Carpet Pro(luctiott
P o l y p r o p y l c n cb u l k c d c o n t i n u o u sl i l a n r c n t y n r n m a y b e u s c d
clncicntly (or high-speedlufting on a variety of diflercnt types
of cquipnlent. A few sinrple adjustmentsand precautionsare all
thirI is necessaryto ensurcexcellentperformanceand a minimunr
o I o l l - q u a l i t yc a r p c t .
Scwing'fhreud
I{igh strength, cxccllcnt chernical resistance,versatilitv and low
cost havc contributed greatly to thc acceptanceof polypropylcnc
fibrc for sewing tllread uscd in multiwall bag and other industrial
sewing applications.
Polypropylene yarns give approxinralely 65 per cent grealer
coveragetltan yarns of thc same weight pcr lenglh or deuier in
c o t t o n o r r a y o n . P o l y p r o p y l e n eo f 1 , 1 5 5 d t e x ( 1 , 0 5 0 d e n ) , f o r
exrmple, provides the same bulk or coveraqeas a theoretical
1,897 dtex (1,725 dcn) rcyon lilarnent.eoupied with the
i r r h e r e r r t l yh i g h e r s t r e r r g t ho f p o l y p r o p y l c n e , i h i s b u l k . y i e l c l
a(lvantagepernlits a greater yarrlage per kg, per sinrilar tliread
cross-sectlon.
Laurulry Nets
Polypropylenc continuous ntultilllament yarrs are used with
advantagein the production of laundry nets.The following com-
parisonshavc been made with nylon in this application:
(a) Polypropylcnenets slrrink only half as nruch as nylon nets.
(b) I'olypropylenc nct; last twicc rs long as those nrade fronr
nylon.
(c) Attcr 150 washings,polypropylene ncls wcre still in use,
having sufleredlittlc loss in strcngth.Nylon nets were of no
further usc after 70 washings.
. (d) I>olypropylencncts have a bctter rcsistancelo blcaclr than
nylon ncts.
602
S Y N ' I ' I IE T I C F I I } R I J S
Illa kcts
Comparcd witlr wool, viscoscrxyon, coiton or. lrcrylic libr.cs,pol1,-
propylenc is thc strongcst,lightcst and nrost cxtcnsiblc fibic o[
thesccoDtntonly-usccl blankct librcs. It tlso hils thc lowcst )ois-
ture. and shows ncgligiblc shrinkagc or fclting durirrg
.rcgain,
wasnlng.
Polypropylcnc fibrc has provccl pnrticullrly srritcclto thc r.rlo_
d u c t i o uo f b l a n k c t sr, n d t l l c n ) a n r r f i r c l u rocf b l ; r n k c t so f t l i l l c i c r r t
types,weighls antl sizesis irrcreasingrapidly.
Polypropylene blankcts havc low flarrrnrability (conrpanrblc
with wool), and thcy arc light in wcight conrparcdwilh bl nkcts
oI sirlilar cover and thickncssntade from other librcs.
Becauseof the high strengthand cxtcnsibilityof polypropylcnc,
more sevcreraisiug treatmcnlsnray bc r,rscdthan arc possibicwith
wool or othcr weaker fibrcs. This also rcsults in bulkicr, rvarntcr
blankets, as lofticr naps can bc procluccdwilh dctcriortlion jn
blankct strcngth or incrcasc in fibrc slrcdrlingduring usc.
. Polypropyleneblankcls nray bc hLrndcrcd quickly rnrl cllcct-
t i v c l y ,b u t t h c y s h o u l dn o t b c i r o n c <ol r l r o t p r c s s c t l , ' l ' h csyl r o r r
not be dry-cleancd,as this hils a dclctcriouscllcct on tlrc hlntllc.
Cqrlrets, MoErettes a d Rxgs trcm Staplc l;ibrc
Polypropylcne staplc fibrc is now bcing widcly rrscdin thc pro-
duction of carpcts,Inoqucttcsand rugs, in which lrpplicrtions it
oflers a combinatiou o[ propcrticslhat cnablc it lo cor)1)clccllcc-
tivcly with othcr fibrcs.
Potypropylenefibre is light and strong, and has I vcry good
resistanceto abrasion.It does not fclt, cvcn aftcr prolongcrlic;tr.
It,doesnot soil or slain, and is of very low flamrnability.'t h" typ",
of polypropylene fibre used in carpct production arc cornnronly
p i g m e n t c d ,a r r d t h e c o l o u r s a r e v e r y I h s t t o l i a l r t a n t l r u l ) b i r r r .
Manufaclurcrs produce gmdcs ol polypropyicnc librc whij
are specially designc<lfor usc in carpcts,with nro<lcralctcnsilc
I t J c n g t ha b o u t 2 ( r . 5 c N / t c x ( 3 g , / ( l c r rr)l d h i g h c l o n g l r t i o r(ra l r r r t r t
8 0 / o ) . F i b r c so f t h i s t y p c l t n v ce x c c l i c r rct l a s t i cp r o i r c , r t i crsv h i c l r
render them particularly suitctl to usc in carpcts.-' rcy h:tvc ir
high rcsilienceoI the sanreordcr as rvool.
Polypropylene carpcts, rugs and nloqUcltcs havc cxccllcnt
dimensionalstability,are easily cleanedand driccl,do not pick up
603
 I I A N D t r O O K O I ' f E X ' T IL E r : I t r R E S
l ] : s Y N - n l l j I I Cr l A R e S
t l i r t r e a d i l ya, n dr c s i s st t a i n i n g1. ' h cc o l o u rf a s t n c sosf p i g n r c r r t c d
P-olypropylcncyarns itrc irlso slrong, tough nnd highly fcsist:urt
fibrc is good,and abrasionrcsis(ancc is hidr. l o f l c x i n gr r b r a s i o na n d c h c n r i c i ral t t r c k . ' l h c l o w s g r c c i i igcr r r v i t y
Carpctsand rugs are light in weight,dJ not fclt with washine and high coverirrg powcr arc irlso ;ldvar)lirgcousiri ttr" kriitrv"r,'r
or wear, and are conj[iletelyresislantto inseclsancl micro] licld.
organisnls. Thc fibresnrclt when subjectctlto heal, for exanrole. nll thc stirndirrd.tcxturingplocc$scsltay bc trscdon polypropy-
Ironr a cigarcttestub,and can bc regarde<I ns sclf-extinguishirrg. ,
l e D c y a r n s , I n c i u d r n gl l s c t w i s l i n g ,s t l t l l c r b o x c r i r r r P i r r gc,d g c
lr.larkslelt on a carpetare no larger thatr the stub whilh rnaal crinrpiug aud other systems.
I ncnl.
Polypropylcne yarns lravc lorv shrinkagc iu llot witlcr, goo(l
PolypropyJcncjs allccted by Iight to a degrceconrprrablc with
rcsiliency,and high wrinklc-rcsislancc.
polya|rltde ttbrcs.
lllcnds vith Rt)'on
U pholstery
1 ' h e b l e u d i n g o f . p o l y p r o p y l c n e w i t h c c l l u l o s i cI i b r c s , s u c h . a s
Thc production of uplrolsreryfabrics lrom polypropylcnc staple r l y o n , . i s a n . c x c c l l c r r Iw a y o f c o n t r o l l i n gs l r r i n k a g cc a r r s c cbl v
trbrc ts an application of rlpidly_growing irrrportancc.In tiris lctaxatton crinlping. -l-cDsilcstrcngth a d abfirsion |.csisturrcc arc
ficld, the properries of polypropylene libie olier -onu uduoii_ also im.provcd by incorporalion of thc polypropylcnc fibrc.
llgcs ovcr conrpctitive fibrcs. Thc low spccilic gravity;csults in F a b r i c s h r i n k a g cn r a y b c . r c t l r r c c db y a i - n r u c l r f l s 6 0 t o ? 0
Iightncssand cxccllent covcrirrg power. Higlr abiasion rcsistancc. per ccnt in this way at vcry low cost.
reslslanccto lclling, stilin rcsistancc,low 0anrrnability,negligiblc
walcr-absorption,icsistancc lo nricro-orgaDisnl,on,l' in."iti oti Paper
these.are useful ch racteristicsin a fibre that is to be usccl'Ior 'fbc
upholsteryfabrics.The pigmentedpolypropyleiienfri.r-r* "ir"" a d d i t i o no t l o l y p r o p y l c n c s t a p l c{ i b r c t o w o o d p u l p U s c di D
papcr-making aflects thc physical propcrtics ot laicx_.satrrratcri
fast to.light,to rubbingaud to washing.
papcr tn.a nurnberoI ways. In particultr, it brings
Upholstcryfabrics are commonly made from 100 per cent about a
polyplopylcncfibrc,.arrd nrany n)anulnclurersproducc marked incrcasc in lcill. strcngth, trolypropylcnc-sirclgtlrcn"J
st:rptc prpcrs o[ this lypc rre valuablc for nranyipciiality
D r c w n l c l l r s s u r t r b l el o r t h i s p u r p o s eF . a b r i c sa r e g e r r e r a l l y appliiltions.
backcdwith latexconrpounds.
Cortyeyor Dclting
Upholsteryfabricsmadcfrom polypropylene are easilycleaned
usins water and synitreiii <teiergent.. Polypropylenenrulti0lamentyarn cornbincsnrany of thc tlcsirablc
,lukcwarnr D,t'"i;;;;;; propcrtics.of_a convcyor bclting yarn, ilclurlirrg irigh
should be avoidcd. .rr",,eti, iu,
ln.conrnron with oUrcrtypcsof polypr.opylcne low cosl, t gtl I|todulus,high cxtensionnt l.rrcaklrrrdhigh work
labric,theyshow of
excellentstability to rvear. lhc high abrasionresistanceis an ruplurc. Also, polypropj,lcnc yarn is corrrplctcly inscnsitivc
to
i r n p o r t a n tc l l a r a c t e r i s tiinc t l l i s a p t l i c a t i o n a, s a r e p o l y p r o p y - morstule.
lene's resistrrrceto nricro-organisrls and iirsects,uu,t ik t'o'* fhere are two.main problcrnsin lhc usc of polypropylcnc yarrr
.
flanrnrabilitv 1S,.,.^onl"ror.bctrirF r gi r. s t l y ,i r i s d i l t i c u l r t o b o r r i t l i r ' r . u b b c io r
r . v . u . s c c o n d l y ,j t n r c l t sa t b o U t .1 6 5 . C .l r r r r ls l t r i n k sb c l o w
( c n r p c r a t u rief h c l d i n a n u n r c s l r n i n c d tlris
K iuvear 'Ihc cotldi(ion.
problcnt oI adlrcsionhas tcndcd to rcstrict tlrc usc
P o l y p r o p y l c r r cf i b l c i s n r a k i n g s t c x d y p r o g r c s si n t h c k u i t w c t r o[ nolv-
propylerc fibrc in bclting applicatiols to trlcrr<l
| l c r u . t r o c r s n t i r n y a t ( r l c t i v c p r o p e r t i e si n t l : i s a p p l i c a t i o n i, n _ flbrics rvjih
c c l l u l o s i cs t a p l c f i b r c . l l l c r r d sw i t h c o t t o n : r n ( l . l ) r r r l r l i l ,p r o v i t l c
c l r r ( l tg i r t t e x c c l l c t t ltl a n d , l o f t , d i m e n s i o n asl t a b i l i t y c, o l o u r f a s t _ reinforccrncnl fabrics whiclr arc compctitivc wirtr olttcr typ"s
ness,casy care, atrd all-rorrnd wearing qualities. oi
bclting fabric on a strcngth/cost basis.
604 605

i
I
- - l ' l ' t r l
l
I
r l
a
FFf_F F FroF F F FJJJJJJ
i IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES l]: sYN I El lC Irllllrts
ApparcL Fabrics A'IisceI Iuttco ru U v' "^

Ltulics'I!osiety I'ibcrfil
Pigrnented continuous filarnent pclypropylcne yarns provicle Polypropylcnc fibcrfil is uscd in slccping bags, rnilllrcsscslnd
com[ortable,soag-resistant
stockings. quiltcd fabrics. It is lighl, washcseasily and is con)plctcly rcsis-
lant to insectsand micro-organisms.
Ktrit I'ilc l1abric Bucking Yarns
The strength and Iight weight of polypropylcnc staplc fibre servc Car Upholslery
it well in this applicatioD. Polypropyleue monofilirrncnt yarns providc upholstcry llbrics
with long lifc, soil resistanceand low static charactcristics.
Men's Stockings
KDit Pilc Boor Li itgr
Exccllcut stockingsare nladc frortr blcnds of polypropylcnestaplc
I'igntentcd polypropylcne staplc is usc(l for this applicatbrr, pro-
with acrylic libre.
viding cxcellent thermal propcrtics,inrprovcd pilc rclcrrtion and
Drcss l(tritvear rcsistauccto insects,rnildcw, ctc.
lllended rvith rayon, polypropylcnc staplc librc pr.ovidcsknitwcar
of excellenthand. Blcnded with wool, it is uscd for swcatersand POLYPITOPYLENESPLff FILM III I}I{I]S
olhcr garmcnls o[ this type. ( F t B R I L L A I ' I N Cl r r L M )
Continuous lllanrenl.texturcd yarns arc also usc<|.
lN f I{oDUCl tON
Ccllulosic BIetds
It has long bcen knorvn that fibrous mn(crills could bc produccd
Illcnds of polypropylcnc staplc librc with cotton and othcr ccllu- by splittiog synthclic polymcr lilurs. A pirtcnt coverirg lhis tcch-
losic fibrcs show great promise as apparel fabrics. Blends with nique was filed duliug thc 1930s,but little practicirl usc of thc
cotton conlaining up to 20 pcr cent polypropylenemay be ironed 'l'hc
process has bccn nadc rnlil conrparativcly rcccnt tinrcs.
without difliculty. The dcvelopmcnt of low-tcmpcftrlurc curing conrnrcrcial dcvcloplren'r.of polyolcfins has stirrrulttcd rcncwcd
rcsinshas incrcascdthc vcrsatility and scopcof blcndcd ,naterials i[tcrcst in tlrc produclion o[ split tilnr libres.
oI tlris sort. Many polyolefin manufacturcrs are now prorlucing split l'illn
libres, notably from polypropylcnc, which oflcrs thc optinrunr
t'tIu ou() I,dDftcs price/ properties coinbination for thc typc o[ uscs forcsecn Ior
Staple fibrc and contiuuous nlultifilantcnt yanls rc wovcn into thcse libres. Polypropylcne split lilm 0brcs rnay bc as nruch as
fabrics that have exccllentchentical rcsistancc,high strength and 25 per cent cheapcr to produce than thc corrcspontJingntultilila-
long li[c. ment yarn, and for this rcasorrtlrcy arc making mpid hcadway
ilr Drarketsthat wcrc prcviously closcd to polypropylcnc tibrcs.
I'yre Cord Outlcts for polypropylene split film fibrc includc nrooriug
-lyrc ropcs, fishnct twinc, ropcs and cords, packaging twincs, fishing
cords arc nradc fronl slaplc,multifilantcnt and rrronolilanrent nets, balcr twinc, hosc rcinlorccntcntand clcctricll cords. Spccial
yarns. Polypropylenccan be madc in vcry high strengthsfor this types of polypropylcnc split film fibrc suitablc for wctving hirvc
application, but the low melting poirlt placcs sonre restriction bccn developcd;thcy arc uscd,for cxanrple,in thc protluclion of
on usc. carpct backings nnd packiug flbrics.
606 607
 T I A ND B O O K O F T E X T I L D FIBRES
P I { O D U C ' | I O NA N D P R O C E S S I N C
lvlany mcthods havc bccn invcstigatedfor thc conversionof syn-
thctic polymer films into fibrous matcrial. These include scribing,
cutting, abrading, air blowing and othcr tcchniques ainred at
splitting the lilm along weak spots which would develop into
cracKs.
Initially, thc production of fibrc fronr filrn rvas regardcd as a
rcsponsibility o( thc manufacturcr, but this attitude has norv
changed with thc developmentof librillating lilm which is con-
ycrtcd to librous yarn by spinning undcr standard conditions of
tcnsion,spccdand twist lcvcl. The manufacturcr supplicsfibrillat-
ing tapc or filnr, wlriclr is uscd as raw matcrial by the spinncr.
This tcchni<1ueof using fibrillating film avoids tbe complete
brcakdorvnof the filrn into librils, which was a feature of manv
carly lcchniqucs.Thcre is no sacrificc o[ lhe advantagesof co-
hcsion, knot slability and strcngth which products based on
partly-fibrillatcd yarns possess.
STITUCTUREAND PITOPERTIES
Thc properticsof yarns made fronr split filnr arc basicallysimilar
to those of conventionalpolypropylcnc nultifilament yarns. The
split filn yarns tend to have a firmer handle, however, than the
conventionaltype of yarn.
POLYPROPYLENESPLIT FILM FIBRE IN USE
'fhe
inilial dcvelopnrcntof polypropylcnc split filnr has been in
lhe llelds of coarscr industriirl products, rather than in the filcr
industrial or apparel yarns. Use of the film o[Iersgreat ccononries
in raw malcrial and ptocessing;several stagesof processingare
clinrinated by using a fibrillating tapc in placc of convcotional
fibres, for cxanrplc,in the production of twiDcsand ropcs.
Thc use of split lilrn has made fastcst progrcssin thc highly-
compctitive markets whcre chcap, strong rotproof n')atcrialsarc
requircd, e.g. ropcs and trawl tlvincs, packaging twine and baler
twrne.
608
B : S Y N ' I ' I I D - T I CF I T } R E S
I'uckagiug T vinc
Singlc-trvisttrvincs ur;rclcfronr polypropylcnc split lilnr hilvc thc
lrropcrlics desirablein packaging twincs, c.g. of thc lrcavicr typc
uscdin tying buntllcsoI [cwspapcrs,parccls,lc(crs, clc. 'l lrcy lrc
also kind to tbe hands and arc trouble-Ircc whcn uscd in iuto-
nratic tying machines.
Ilopcs
Polypropylcnc sPlil. lil|lr ropcs contpilrc lavourably ir) strcn8th
with otlrer syntlrcticsof conrparlblc pricc, show cxtrcrtrcly lorv
crccp, and lravc an cxccllcrrt rcsislanccto kinking or hockling.
l]ccausco[ thcir high rcsistancc[o conrprcssion,thcsc rol)cs do
not rcndily mclt rvhcn running ovcr wiuch barrels, fair-lcatls,
pulley-blocksor otlrcr bcaring surfaccs.
lJeciiuseof lhcir high strctch resistancc,low conrprcssibilitylnd
lorv cncrgy absorption,polypropylcucsplit [ilrn ropcs arc s:rfcr to
handlc lhau sonrc othcr typcs o[ rol)c, nncl tlrcy do not tcnd lo
cxhibit 'whiplash' whcn suddcnly rclcascd frorrr slrrin. 'lhcy lrc
cspcciallysuitable for npplicationswlrcrc a nraxirrrulnrcsisllncc
to strctch is rcquircd, ratlrcr than for orttlcls rvhcrc I rrr;rxirrtun]
-fhis
cDcrgy absorption is nccdcd. nrakcs thcnl suiloblc ptrticu-
Iarly for eld+rses such as fishnct rnounting ropcs, lnooring ancl
hauling ropes, ancl cargo slings.
Baler Twirte
'l-his
is onc of thc lalgcst polcnlitl nrarkcts for polypropylcnc
splil film. Attempts to rcphcc lhc conlltonly-uscdsisal with olhcr
typcs o[ fibrc havc gcncrally failed ou ccononricgrounds,and on
poor knot slability. Ilalcr lwillc rnadc fronr polypropylcnc split
film fibre has good knot stabilily, lorv wcight, good rcgularity,rrrd
high strcngth.
'l'vines
l'ishnct
l:or ccrlain typcs of lrottorn Irilwl iltr(l I)anish scinc nct. it is
sonrctirncsdcsirablc to llavc fl twjnc with u grcatcr stillncssthiln
that obtainablc with polypropylcrrcnrultifilanrcnt yarns. 'l'wincs
basedon polypropylcnesplit filnr htvc thc rcquircd stilfncss.\.vith
a highcr straight and knot strcngthtlran polycthylcnctwilcs conr-
nronly uscd, a highcr rcsistanceto slrclch lnd crccp, and a
knottnbility compnrnblc vith lhat of thc natur l fibrc trvincs.
609
r l r--l
'F.FF.[F-FJJ,F. F. I'.FJJJJJ
r-
t t
il-
i

B: SYN'I'TIETI C FI BNDS
I HANDaooK oF TIIXIILE Fllll{us
othcr small ntolccules,and it is thercforc an additiorr rrthcr
5. I'OLYUltli'l'lrAND FII'RES than a condcnsationpolyrncrization.

Fibres spun fronr polyntcrs ntade by a reaction taking place be-

trveen small noleculcs, in which thc linkage of the molecules
'Pcrlon' U
occurs through the folmation of urelhanegroups ( - NIICOO - ).
Linear polyurethanesmay bc nrade by reaciion of a glycol with During World War II, a fibrc was spun in Gcrnrany front a poly-
a di-isocyanatc.The reaction of butanc diol, for exanrple,with urcthanc fornred by thc rcaction of I ,4-l:tttnncdiol with hcxa-
tolucnc di-isocyanatcresults in the formatiotl of a polyurethane nrethylenedi-isocyanate:
in lhc following way :
HO(CH").,OH r- ocN(cFI!),,NCO->
cHr - ],,
r-r(cLr,),,Nr.rco
[- o(cH,).ocoN
BO (CHTJ4OH <\l
ocN\.! Nco 'l'crlon' U. lt
This first polyurcthanc fibrc was markctcd as
EUTANE DIOL . TOLUENE DIISOCYANATE borc a gcneral lesenrblarrccin nrany rcspcclsto nylon, bttt it wus
I infcrior to nylon as a tcxtilc libre. It nrcltcd at 180'C., Ior
Y cxamplc, which is lorvcr than is dcsirablc in lrn Dpurcl fibrc. lt
was stifl, with a harsh wiry handlc; il had a nroisturcrbsorption
CH:
lower than nylon.
'Perlon' achievedsome linrited succcssduring World War Il,
--- U
Q "".o.o 1.n';"o
o(cH,).o.coNt,
linding markets in rather specializedapplicatioDssuch as brush
POLYURETHANE bristles, nltration fabrics and othcr industrial uscs. lt did not
compcte e{Iectivelytlilh the rapidly developing nylon, howcvcr,
and polyurethane fibrcs of this typc haye madc littlc hcurhvuy
INTI{ODUCTION since the war.
lvlorethan a centuryago,it was discovcred that a reactiontook
place betwecnthe isocyanategroup, -N=C=O, and the hy- ElastomcricFibres
droxyl group, -OH, resultingin the formation of a urethane ln recent years, polyurethrncshave nchicved a ncw and incrcns-
group, -NHCOO-. During tlle rcaction,thc hydrogenatom oI ing importancejn lhc textilc rvorlcl.Thcy havc bccontc lhc brsis
the hydroxylgroup urigrates to the nitrogenatom of the isocyan- o[ a novcl type of clastomcricfibrc which is knorvn gcnct.icirlly
ate: the residueof the alcoholis transferredto the carbonatom ls .r2arrrlc.r(sec dcfinition bclorv).
of the isocyanate group: Elastonrcricfibrcs irrc thosc which display clasticity chilractcr-
is{icriirssocintcdrvitlr natural rutrbcri thcy will slrclch lo scvcrtl
n-NCO +R'-OII-+ R- NIICOOI{' t i r r r c st h c i r o r i g i n r l l c n g t h ,a n d o n r c l c l s cr v i l l s r r a pl ) x c k q u i c k l y
to rccovcr thcir originul lcngth alntostcomplctcly.
During the late 1930s, this reactionwasusedfor makingpoly- Natrrral rubbcr filanrcnts hlvc long bccn lrscd in lhc lcxlilc
nrcrs,by usingil. to link togcthertwo typesof snall molecule,one induslry lo providc strclclr propcrlies in fabrics and gnrnlcn(s.
of whichcontainstwo jsocyanatc groups(i.c.a di-isocyirrrate)
and R r r b b c rf i l a n r c n t sw i l l ' g i v c ' u n d c r t h c a c t i o n o f r f o r c c , a n c ll h c
'l
thc othcr trvo hydroxylgloqrs (i.c.a glycol). he polynrerizrtion slretchcd filanrcntswill thcn cxcrt r rccovcry forcc rs lhcy try to
'Powcr
which occursin this way doesnot iuvolvethe lossof water or rcturn lo thcir originrl shapc. slrctch' frbrics uscd in

610 6li
 } T A N D B O OOKF T E X T I L EF I B R E S
clastic rvebbings,support and foundation gitrntcnts,[or cxamplc,
derive their propcrtics frorn filanrentsoI rubbcr or sitnilar matcr-
ials incorporated in thc fabric.
Natural rubber filamenls have been supplying thc power to
strctch fabrics for morc than a hundred ycars, and thcy have
establisheda position o[ some importance in the textile industry.
Unfortunately, natural rubbcr has seyeralshortcomingswith res-
pcct to its r.rseas a textile matcrial (see page 153), and fibrc
chcmistshavc long bccn sccking to dcvclop clastorncricnraterials
which would be superior to rubber in recovery force, resistance
to abrasion, chcnrical stability, dyeability and olher properties.
Thc elasticity of natural rubber derives from its long, fol<led
polymcr molecules,which are linked together at intervals by tbc
chcntical bonds introduccd during vulcanization.Whcn a filament
of vulcrnized rubber is pullcd, the loug rnolcculesunfold and thc
rubber stretchcs.Thc extent of lhe defornation is rcstricted bv
tlle links bctwccn tlrc rnolcculcs,and whcn lllc tcnsiotris relelsci
thc long moleculestend to rcvcrt to their relaxccl,folded statc.
So the filament springs back to its original form.
Elastic fibrcs produced from natural rubbcr bavc exccllent
clasticity, bul lhe tensilc streugth and force of recovcry from
strctch arc lcss thnn adequatefor the production of lightweight
garmcnts. Iu addition, the double bonds which remain in the
rubber molecLrlesafter vulcanization impart chemical reactivitv.
espccially with rcspect to oxidising agents. Finally, tt" hyAro-
carbon nature of the rubber nroleculeresultsin a low acceoiauce
of dycs.
In tllc search for ncw typcs of claslotnericfibre, chcnristshave
sought.to dcvelop nrolecularstructureswhich would provide thc
f u n d a n r e n l a rl c q u i r c n r e n t so f r u b b c r - l i k ee l a s t i c i t y ,b u t d i d n o r
have the disadvantagesinhercnt in the hydrocarbon structure of
rubbcr itself.
lilns(ic PolJanridcs
ln rubbcr, thc tic-points holding thc long nrolcculestogcthcr at
intcrvals cotisist of covalent chemical bonds introduced durinp
vulcanization.lt was realizcd,howcver, that lincar polymcr nrolel
culcs could be linked cffcctively by tie-points resulting from
hydrogen bonding devcloped by polar groups in the molecules.
If a polymer rnoleculecould be ntadc, for exanrple,in which long
segmcntsof 'amorphons-type'moleculc were liuked together by
6t2
-L--l--ft---
B: S Y N T I ID T I C F I N R E S
polar groups, lhc rcquircnrcntso[ rubbcrJikc chsticily nlight
bc
met.'fhc polar groups would cstnblishstrong forccs bctwccn thc
ntolccules,providing tic-points scparatcclby scgmcnls on non_
polar ntatcrial.
A grcat dcal o[ rcscarchwas cirrricd out in tttcn]pts to nlakc
elastomericfibres from polyamidcsin lhis way. polyanitJcs wcrc
nradc by condensing dicnrboxylic acids with I nriiturc of two
diamines,onc of which had substitutcd(sccontllrry)tnrinc grorrps.
1'hc polynrcr fronl this condcosltion includcd tr;o "lcnr",ii, ui"_
essary for thc cstablishmcnt o[ high clasticity; (t) a pliablc
c o n s t i l u e n to f l o w m c l t i r r gp o i n t w i t h p o o r i n t c r c l t a i nb o n d i r l
Iorcc.(thc N-substitutcdpolyamidc scgmcnt,and (2) an intcrclrairr
b o n d i n gc o n s t i t u e n(t t h c u n s u b s t i t u t cpdo l y a r n i d cw i t h i t s h y d r o -
gen bonding capability).
Elastic p_olyanridcs of this typc wcrc madc, for cxamplc, fronr
.
hexflntcthylcncdiarninc and scbacicacid (i.c. nylon 6.lti typc) in
rvhich a proportion of thc hcxnnrcthylcncrJianiinc*n. ,.riln.",j
by.a dianrilc carrying bLtlky butyl groups. .l.hoscrcgions Lf tlrc
-and
nolcculcs formcd frorn lhc hcxnntethylcncdianrinc sctracic
acid wcrc ablc to align thcrrrsclvcscioscly, and dcvclon stronc
hydrogcn bonds bctwccn thc molcculcs:thoic rcgionsof tir" nroi"j
culcs fornrcd from the substituteddiaminc, on thc othcr hand,
wcre unable to align thelnsclves,forming rcgions o[ anrorphoui
polyamidc.
When thesc fibres wcre strctched,thc rnolcculcsin lhc flmor-
phous rcgions wcre ablc lo unfold, thc dcgrcc of strctchinl
of
thc libres as a wholc bcing rcstrictcd by the powcrful borrdirr-n oi
-wls
thc lnolectrlcsin lhc cryst:rllinc rcgions. Wlrcn thc lcnsion
rclcasc<l, the molcculcsin the amorphousrcgions tcnclcdto rcvcrt
to thcir original positions as the fibre rccovcrcd fronr its strctch.
SegmculcdPolyure(ltares
In the random copolymers produccd from nrixcd cliamincs,thc
average lcngth of the two conslitucnts was rathcr small, Thc
scqucnccsof N-substitUlcdpolyanridc urrits wcrc loo short to
pcrnrit of thc dcveloprncntof thc chain ncxibility ncccssary
for
high rubbcr clastic forcc, whilc l.lrc scqucnccsof unsubstiiutcd
polyanrideunits wcre too short to prevcnt.rupturc during strctch_
jng-or hcatilg (rupturc drrringstrctching
c a u s c sf l o w i r u l > l u r c
during hcating rcsults in lorv softcning point). Whrt was ncc,l"J
was a polymcr moleculein which lougcr scgntcnlsof nmorphous-
6t3
'' n [ , , [ ' L ' L , t u L , ' u L , t
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
type structure were separatedby segmentsof nlolecule capable
of developingpowerful hydrogen bonds.
The solution to theseproblems was found in the development
o{ polyurethanepolymersin which segmentsof the molecule are
deliberatelytailorcd to perform the desired functions. The lack
of flexibility of the pliable conslituent (with low melting point)
was overcom€ by using preformed segmentsof molecule of con-
'soft'scgments);the cohcsionof the interchain
siderablesize (the
bonding constituents('hard segnrents')was assuredthrough the
use of urethaneor urea groups.
The devclopment of these scgmentcd polyurethane polymcrs
has providcd the textile trade \vith an entirely new type of
clastomcric librc-the spandex fibrc. Dcrived lrom n polynrer
that dillcrs [undarnentally from tl]e hydrocarbon polymer of
natural rubber, the spandcx fibre is strongertltan rubbcr, ancl has
'recovery power'. lt is a white or clear and near-
a greater
t r a n s p a r e nfti b r e ,c a p a b l eo f b e i n gd y e d t o m a t c h o t h c r f i b r e si n a
'Sheerspan' produces
fabric. Globek sheer-looking labrics in
rvhite, and its high degree of dye receptivity results in a fabric
r v i l h s h a r p ,d e e pa n d d i s t i n c ts h a d e s .
Spandex fibres have a high resistanceto chenticals,sunligltt
and other degradativeinfluettces,aucl ntay be rvashedrepeatedly
rvithou t ill-effect.
'Lycra', was introduced on
The first spandex libre, du Pont's
to the market in 1958,and commercial production beganin I960-
6t.
Since then, many firms have followcd suit, and tlrcre are a
nunrber of spanclexlibres now available.
1"I'PESOF POLYURETIIANE I:II]RE
Thc process used iu producing segnreutcdpolyurethane Iibres
(see 'Protluction' bclow) is such as to allow of almost infinite
variiltiorrin thc chcnricalstructurc of thc polynter thut is fornrcd,
Modcrn segnrcutcdpolyurcthanc fibrcs nray be corrsidcrcdas
falling into one or othcr of two gencral typcs rvhich difTerin the
chemical structr.lreof the 'preformcct'segmcntsof the molcculc.
In this respcct,scgnrentedpolyurethanefibrcs arc cither
(a) polyether types, or
(b) polycster types.
614
B: SYNTIIETIC FIARES
IJolh types of scgmcntedpolyurethanc fibrc are produccd by
fibre manufacturcrs in considerablevariety, providing a rlngc
of elastomericfibres which neet many diffcrcnt cnd-trscrcquirc-
ments.
The polymers formed by linking preforrned scgmcntso[ poly-
cther or polyester molecules,via the urethans group, nray bc
cssentiallylinear molcculcs, or they may bc branchcd an<l/or
'fhc
cross-linkedinto three dimcnsional structurcs. lincar typcs
arc generallycapable of mclting, and will dissolvein nppropriirlc
solvcnts.Thc thrce-dimcnsionaltypcs may bc cornplctelyinsolublc
and non-melting.
Fibrcs spun from tl]ese scinrcnted polyurcthtncs may bc in
the form of monolilan]ents,or they may bc mullifilament yarns
in wlrich a number o[ 0ne filamcntshave coalcscedafter spinning.
Monofilanrentsmay also be produced by cxtruding shcctsof thc
polyurclhaneand then cutting this into lilamcnts.
NOMENCLATURE
Elustoncric Fibra
Thc segmcntedpolyurethanc llbrcs now on lhc markct arc rll
characterized by thc high cxte0sion and snap-l>ackrccovcry
associatedwith rubber-like clasticity.Thcy are thcrcfore propcrly
describcdas elastomericlibrcs in that they rre fibrcs which bchavc
in a rubberJike way.
Tlre tcrm elastotneric fibre <1ocsnot, of coursc, rclrtc to thc
chcmical structure of a fibre, and it should bc realizcd thflt it is
not synonymot|swilh 'scgmcntcdpolyurethane'or 'sprndcx', l]oth
of tlresc lnttcr tcrnls arc basctl upon thc chcmical sttuctrrrc of
thc librc (see below).
Federal Tradc Contnission D?littiliotl
1-lrcgcncric nanlc spandc.rwls adoptcd by thc U.S. l:cdcr:rl'l'rrtlc
Comnrission for fibrcs oI the scgmcntcdpolyurcthlnc lypc, thc
ollicial defiuition bcing as follows:
Sparulex. A manufacturcd fibre in which the fibrc-forrling
substanceis a long-chainsynlhctic polymcr conrposc<lo[ at lcnst
85 per ccnt of a segmentcdpolyurclhane.
615
 T I A N D U O O KO F T E X T I L I ] F I D R E S I } : S Y N T I I E ' T IC F I B R E S

PRODUCTION I'hc slrl,jturc o[ thc soft scgmcnt influcnccs thc propcrlics of

.
l h c r c s u l l a n tp o l y n r c r ,c . g . m e l t i n gp o i n t , n c x i b i l i t yi n d c h c n r i c a l
Spandcx fibres are spun from segmentedpolyurethanesrlade by slability, aud thc selcctiono[ the type of soft scgnrcntto bc usctl
a sericsof chcnlical stagcs,as follows: d c p e n d su p o n t h e t y p c o f f i b r c r c q r r i r c d a, n c l o r r r v r i l r b i l i t v a n d
(l) Producl.ion of low molecular wcight polymer (pre- cost oI rlw rrratcrials.
polymer)
(2) Rcaction of prc-polymer with di-isocyanate (2) llcaction of ltr.c-polt'llrcrrvith l)i-isocyrnlrtc
(3) Coupling of isocyanatc-tcrnrinltcd prc-polymcr to 'l'llc
ncxt stcp in thc prodtrclion of tl)c scgnlcntc(lpolyrrrclhancis
form segmcntcd polyurethanc. to convcrt thc so[t scgn]cntrnacroglycolinto a prclrolynrcr which
hns isocyanatccnd groups, Thc nracroglycol is rcrctcd with an
(l) I'roductionof Lory Molccular Wcight Polyncr (Prc-polynrer)
cxcesso( di-isocyanatc.thc hydroxyl groups otr lhc cn(ls of ttrc
The lirst stcp in the synthcsisoI a spandex fibre is to crcate tl'rc nracroglycol molcculcs rcacting witlr isocyflnltc groups to forrn
sofl segment of the molcculc, i.e. that segment that provides urcthanc groups. lI two nrolcsof di-isocylnatc rrre usc<lpcr molc
thc amorphous region in which the unfolding of the nroleculcs of nracroglycol,lor cxarnplc, a prc-polynrcr is forrnccl in which
permits extensionof the fibre to takc place. cach molccr.rlcnow lurs isocyanatccrtd-groups.
'I-wo
clirsscsof compounds,polycstcrsand polyethcrs,are conr-
nronly used for this rubbery solt scgment,the naterials produccd
bcing polymcrs o[ lorv molccular wcight (500 to 4,000) wirh HO-Pot-OH + 2OCN-R-l\tCO ->
'fhcy
reactivc hydroxyl groups at each cnd o[ thc ntolccule. arc
mactoglycols, which are nradc by normal polymerization tcch- PRE.POLYMER
r ques.
o C N - R - N H C O O - P o t- O C O N H - R -t.tCO
Polyeslersare madc by condensationof dicarboxylic acids with
liocvnDr lc trctlntcnl ol prc-polyntcr.
a slight excessof glycol; thc condensationtakes place until there
are glycol units at each end of the polynrer molccule,which thus
has hydroxyl cnd groups (A). 'fhc
rcactivity o[ thc di-isocyauatedcpctrdsut)on ils structurc.
In gencral, thc aronralic di-isocyflnatcsarc nrol.c rcactivc thiln
Polyctlrcrs are nrade by the ring-opening polynrerization of the non-aromatic.Aronurlic (li-isocyanttcsarc also conrnrcrcially
epoxidesor cyclic cthcrs (B).
availablc,aod thcy arc uscd prcdon)inantlyin thc rcrction uscrliir
building spaudexpolynrcrs.
(A) Hooc-R-cooH + tlo-R'-otl+
(3) Coupling of Isocyaltlc-lcnlinltcd prc-polynrcr to forrl Scg.
r r o l n ' o o c - R - c o o - J IN R ' o H nrcnlcd Ir0lyurcth:roc
L
'['hc
P f t E- P O L Y L , l E n( P O L Y E S T E n )
linal stcp in rruking lhc scgmcnlcd polyrrrctlrlnc consislsin
lhc crcation of lhc hard scgntcntby .chain cxlcnsion',or couplirrg
of thc isocyanate-tcrminfltcdprc-polynrcr by rclction with lo;
{s) P-cli?o { r i , o . - > r r o ( n - o . r . o ) n -n - c r . r , o r r nrolccular weight bifunclioral conrpouncts,sLrch as glycol or
l I dianrine. Thc
P n F -- P o L Y M E R ( P o l - Y F r l l E R ) .rcaction product is a polynrcr having hy<trogcn
bonding sitcs in tlrc form of urclhanc or urcn groups, nt tJrst
Production of Prcl)ol!tDcr two o[ uhich will occur in thc rcsulting .hard scgrncit'-
616 6t7

- - lr ! , n t
\
 n fi F-FFT.FJJI fi r'i-t: 11 '-E
HANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
(1)9!199!
O C N- P o r - N C O + H O - R - O H - - >
- ocoNH - Pot- NHcooRoCoNH- Po1- NHCoo-
(2) DIAMINE
ocN - Pol - Nco + H2N- R|-NH, --->
_ NHCONH- POT_ NHCONH- RI - NHCONH- POt- NHCONH_
Chain extension with glycol or diamine.
This final chain extension stage may be carried out also by
addition of water to the isocyanate-terminatedprepolymer, instead
of a glycol or a diamine. Water may be added, for example, in
quantity sumcient to react with a proportion of the terminal
isocyanate groups, forming pre-polymer molecules with an
isocyanate group on one end and an amine group on the other
end (l). When this polymer is heated,the amine and the isocyanate
groups react to bring about firrther polymerization and cross-
linking of the molecules (2).
- Pot - NHrn co,
ocN - Pot- Nco + Hro $ocN
g!
oct.r-Pol-NH, t oCN- Por- NH, ocN - Pol- NHcoNH- Po1-NHz
Chain extension with \rater
This reaction results in only one urea group for each two
isocyanategroups,carbondioxide beingliberatedas a by-product.
The evolution of gas during chain extensionmay be regardedas
desirablein ihe productionof polyurethanefoams,but it is usually
to be avoidedin the production of polyurethanefibres.
Spandexpolymers produced in this way may be essentially
linear molecules,in which end-to-endlinking of bifunctional
moleculesis the predominantreaction.Such materialsare com-
monly soluble in appropriatesolvents.
If branchingoccursduring the polymerizationprocess,however,
e.g. by reaction of the isocyanateend-group with an active
hydrogenin the molecularchain, the polymer may build up into
a branched or cross-linkedthree-dimensionalstructure. Such
polymersmay reach the stageof being insolublein any solvent,
and incapableof melting.
618
l l t : s Y N tl t E I l c F I B n E S
Spinniug
The techniqueusedin spinningspandcxfibresdependsupon thc
type of polymerthat is spun.Somesegmented polyurethancs,
for
example, are essentiallylinear molecules,and are solublc in
solvents.Other segnrented polyurethancsmay be branchc<.I or
crossJinkedstructureswhich are insoluble.
(a) Lirrcar (Soluble)Polyurethunes
Solublepolyurethanes are dissolvcdjrr an approprialesolvcnt,
and the solutionsmay be extrudedthrough spirincrctsinto a
coagulating bath (wet spinning) or into an atmospherewhich
removesthe solvent(dry spinning). The techniqrrcs aic csscntiallv
t h e s a m ea s t h o s eu s e df o r s p i n n i n g , h a r d ' s y n t h eftiibcr c sd, u e
allowancebeing madefor the fact that spandexfibres arc elastic.
(b) Bronchetlor Cross-linkcd(lnsoluhlc) polyurdhunrs
When the nrolcculeof polyurethane is allowcd to grow into a
three-dirnensional structure,it is insoluble and cannot bc spun
by the abovetechniques. ln tbiscasc,a ,chemicalspinning'pro""s,
may be used.The isocyanate-terminated pre-polymcrii spun at
a stagewhen it forms a viscousdopc, tlre iets enrercinrinto a
gaseous or liquid environmentcontaininga ihairrcxteirtlirwhich
diffusesinto the fibre and reacts.The pie-polynrer nrolecules
are
'branched
linked into their final fonn, producine
producingtlre or cross-
lirrkedpolyurethane
linkedpolyuretlrane in fibrousforrn.
form.
Spaldex fibres nray be spun as ntonolilaments. or as multi-
lilanrentyarnsin tvhicha nuntbcrof finc filamcntshavecoalcscc<l
after spinning.Squaresectionmonolilaments may be produccd
by extrudingsbeetsand lhcn cuttinglhcseinto filaments.
An importantfeatureof spaudexfibresis that thcv mav bc
spunin very fine filanrents.The finestrubberyarnsareiommonly
ofabout 167^dtex (150-den),but spanrlexfibresnraybeproduccd
as44 dtex (40 den)or finer.
PROCESSING
Scouring
Fabrics containing spandcx fibre may be scourcd with an
emulsifiedsolventsuchas perchloroethylene
at aboutg2oc..l.hc
6t9
 HANDBOOK OF TEXTI LE FIBRES
fabric is after-scouredin a fresh scour bath containingdetergent
but no solvent,to relrove the last tracesof solventand finish.
Bleachingor Whitentug
Bleachesmay be used on fabrics containingspandexfibres, but
care should be taken in the selectionof the bleach.Individual
spandex fibres differ in their reactions to different bleaching
conditions.Hypochlorite and sodium chlorite bleachesgenerally
cause discolouration,and peroxide or perborate bleachesare
preferred.
Optical whiteners may be used on spandexfibres, but they
should be chosencarefully to provide optimum light fastness.
Optical whiteners should be selectedwhich give a colourless
residueafter the whitener has been broken by light.
Dyeing
Spandexfibres generallyhave a marked afllnity for a wide rangc
of dillereot types of dye, but colour fastnessis achicvedonly
with dyes substantiveto the Rbre. Basic dye sites on the fibre
provide for bondingof the dye moleculesthroughthe acid groups
in the acid dye. Greater fastnessmay be achievedby the use of
top-chromeacid dyes,but the colour obtainedwith thesedyes is
lessbrilliant. Dispersedyesare also used,especiallywherecolour-
fastnessis not critical.
Finishing
After whiteningor dyeing,a rcsin finish may be applied to
spandex-containjng fabrics to improve hand and body. Certain
special finishes which provide good whiteness retcntion on
exposureto atmosphericfume contaminants are recommended
for white or lightly-dyedfabrics. They provide good protection
in severelycontaminated atmospheres.
Hcat-Sctairg
Spandexfibres are thermoplastic,and may be heat-setlike other
thermoplasticfrbres.Heat-settingis used to ensuredinrensional
stabilityof fabricsand garmenls.
The reaction to heat shown by spandexlibres is comparable
to that of most heat-settableman-madefibres and no special
handling short of variation of conditions is required. Fabrics
* t'
I
T - "
I
' l
B: S Y N T I JE T I C F I A R E S
requiring heat-settingshould be handled with the followin!
principlesas basis:
.(I) Tempcratures shouldbc kept as low as possiblc.cor.tsistcll
wlltr enectlvesettrnc.
(2) TensionsloJd U" kcpt to a minimum,corrsistcntwith
control of fabric dinrensions.
(3) Exposuretime should be balanccdwilh tcnrncrtlurcto
avoid over-sctting wilh a consequcnt dccrcascin powcr.
(4)_Heat-scttingshould not in principlcbc uscdto conrpcnsatc
-
lor shortcomings in fabricconstruction and manufacturc-
S T R U C T U RA
EN D P R O P E R T I E S
Fine Slructureand Appcaratce_
Molccular Structure
Spandexfibresmay be regardcdas ,block'copolyntcrs
in which
long llexiblescctionsof the nrolcculearejoincciby urclhanclinks
to shortersd{fersections.
The chcmicalstructurcirf thc polynrcrs
may be varied through an infinitc rangc,to providc nbies of
the desiredcharacteristics.
Modern spanrlexIibrcs arc dcrivcd
usually from low molecular weight polyethers or polycstcrs
(macroglycols).
When the polynrer is spun into libres, lhe nrolcculcsarc
establishedin a stateof random disorder.If a strctchinsforcc is
appliedto the fibrc,thc foldedor coiledscctionso[ thc molcculcs
lendto straighten out and bccomcaligncd.'fhcslrort,still scclions.
however,are bonded to one another by intcrmolccularlinks
derivedfrom hydrogenbondsor van der Waals'forces.Thcsc
bondedregionsact as 'anchorpoints'whichpreventthe molcculcs
slidingpasteachotherto takeup newpermancntpositionsrclative
to one another.
The distortionof tlre fibre under thc tction of thc strctchinc
forceis thuslimitedto thc extcnsionpcrnriltcdby the straightcni
ing of the foldedmolecules. Whenthe slretchingforccis rclcuscd,
the molcculesrevert to their foldcd statc,and thc libre rcturns
(ideally)to its originallcngth.
The segmented polyurethancs have two characl.eristic fcaturcs
which explaintheir superiorphysicalproperticsrclativclo con-
ventionalrubber structures.
621
| --[
 F.F,F.N F-F-F'J
FF.FN NF,T:FF,
H A N D B O O K O T TT E X T I L E F I B R I ] S
First, the long-chain polyurethane molecules are synthesized
from preformed, soft-segment polymer blocks, and. the hard
seeme;b forming the tie-pointsare spacedmore regularly along
thi chains than those in randomly vulcanizedrubber' In rubber,
ihe occuuence of tie-points close together may limit the flexibility
and hence the elastic effectivenessof the in-between soft-segments;
rhis is avoided in lhe case of the segmented polyurethanes' Also,
the more regular network of the polyurethanes should result in
greater elongation before breaking, by minimizing the number of
ihains which are stretched prematurely to the breaking point'
The second characteristic of polyurethanes is the occurrence
of iie-points which may be broken and re-formed during stretch-
ing. This behaviour minimizes the concentration of points of
stress,leading to an even more regular network structure with the
advantages outlined above.
Finally, the hard-segment bonding is not necessarilylimited.to
the tying together of moleculestwo-by-two, as is thc casc with
covalent crosslinks. The effect of multiple hard-segment
'packages' provides additional reinforcement similar to that
obtained in conventional rubbers by the use of active fillers,
such as carbon black.
B: SYNTH ETIC FI BRES
Spandexfibresare conrmonlyclearand ncar-transparent,
{rr
white.The colournraydeteriorate with rgc.
sonlewhat
Tcnacity;TensileSarength
Becauseof their segmented structure,spandexfibresnray bc nrldc
strongerthan natural rubber lilaments.The brcakingtenacitics
of spandexfibresare4.9-8.8 cN/tex(0.55- I .0 g/den),conrparcd
with 2.2 cNi tex (0.25g/den)lor naturalrubbcr.
'lensile
s t r e n g t hosf t h c s p a r r d cfxi b r c sa r c i n t l r c r a r r q (cr l ( r -
994 ke.lcnt2 ( 8,8-00-14,200ib/in2).
Tensilepropertiesare aflectcdonly slightlyby w{rtcr.
Elongation
It is a characteristic
of spandexfibresthat they are capablcol
beingstretched to severaltimcstheir originallength.Thc breaking
clongationsrangefrom 450to 700pcr centand may vary accord-
ing to dcnicr wilh thc sanrctypc of spandcx[ibrc,

Fibre Fornt
o.7
Spandex fibres are produced as monofilaments, e.g. of round
cross-section, or as partly-fused multifilaments. Monofilaments o.6
made by cutting thin sheets of polymer may also be produced. n o.5

-9 o.4

MoNoFrL
EX'TREUDED "r*n.lillixBF?".,ur MoNoFrL
| :f"ti.^T* F ^ ^

o.1

'Ly.cra'.Bottom right: GktspanS

Spandet Fibtes : Crost-scctiolts Left attd upper right: 5
622 bzJ
 H A N D D O OOKF T E X TLI I ] F I B R E S B: SYNT}IETIC FIBRES

ElasticRecoYery This time-recoverablcsct is a rcsultof tenporarydcformation

Spandexfibres have a snap-backrubber-likeelasticity,but of the moleculesas a resultof the viscosityof thc systent,rathcr
recoveryfrom stretchingto a givenextentis not usuallyas com- than being due to molecularflow. Gcnuine'pcrmancntset' is
pleteas in the caseof naturalrubber.In somefibresof this type, inducedby stretchingthe Rbreso far that ruplure of someo[
'fhcsc
there is a small residualextensionwhich is not recoveredafter thc intcrchain lie-points occurs. bonds rc-form aftcr
stretching,i.e. a degreeof permanentset. This is not usually a rnolecular{low has ttken placc,and causcan uilrccovcrcd strain.
progressive .effect,reachinga constantvalue after a few repeated As seenin the tablc below,sct incrcases with lhc dcgrccof
cyclesof loading and unloading.The
'permanence'of the set is stretchin the casc o[ 'Lycra', particularlyabovc a strctch of
also a matter of degree;the set gradually diminisheswith time 300 Dercent-
when the fibre is allowed to relax. Recoveryis speededup by
increased temDeratule, Set Indtrccd by Vuiorrs Dcgrees ol Strctch
Glospart 57 arul 55; 467 dtex 1420 den)
Set (per catt )
Stretcll (pcr c( t\ ,s5 s7
200 4 2
300 l0 5
500 29 t3
600 40 16
'fhe
Norc. fibre was cyclcd fivc tintes on
'Instron'tensile
tcstcrto designatcd strctch.Sct
expressed as increascirr originallcngtho[ fibrc.

d Modulus of Elasticity
Spandex fibres havc a low nrodulus of elasticity, c.g. abont
l/1,000 that of I convcntional 'hard' fibrc such as nylon or
cotton. They havc a higher modulus of clflslicity than nrtural
rubbcr, however. To achievc a givcn strctch, spandcx fibrcs
require a force twice as high, over the cntire rangc of elongation,
as the force requircd by rubber.

SpcciffcGravity
1.2 to 1.25.

EIIecaof Moislurc
o 100 200 300 400 soo 600 Most spandex fibres have a ntoisture regain of thc ordcr of 1.0
STRAIN(% ELONGATION) to 1.3 per ccnt ('Vyrcnc' has a lower than avcragc rcgain of
Load-elongation curves for spandex and rubber libres. about 0.3 per cent).

624 625

' . l r f r l r l r-.l
F.F'F.F.FJ'
|
E F.t F.F.1"L
F-F, i
f'l-F F-F, l I
" f ,
!' "ANDBooKoF TExrrLE FTBREs { B: syNTttEtlc FttREs

30

2.O

I
L ,1 . 5

1.O
lst and 5lh

PERCENT
Slrcss-Sttain DiagraDt, Spatdex Fi lttc (' V l rcut )
'fhis
200 300 400 diagram shows the strcss-slrain relationships of a 'Vyrcnc'
'lhc
I% ELONGATION)
STRAII'I spandex nbre, 75's count, firs1 and sixth cycle of cxtcnsion.
modulus is higher than tbat of a rubber tlrrcad.-Laslc.t Yant e d
Typical stress-straincurves for spandexfibre ('Effective tex' is Loclrotr Thrcad Ltd,
the tex at the point of measurement).
Chemical Properlics
Thermal Prope ies Acids
Spandex fibres are commonly thermoplastic,sticking becoming Resistancevaries according to lhe typc of spandcx fibrc, Most
noticeablein some casesas low as 150'C., but in others as high fibres have a good resistance lo cold dilutc acids, but rnay be
as 280'C. Melting points are in the range 230-290'C. attacked under more severe conditions,

Ellect of Sunlight Alkalis

Resistance generally is excellent, with discolouration occurring Resistance to alkalis is generally good.
in some cases on prolonged exposure.
General
Effecaof Age Good resistance to most commonchcmicals,includingcosmctic
Spandex fibres show little deterioration on ageing. oils and lotions. Good resistanceto oxygen.
626 627
 IlAl.'DBOOK OF TEXTILE FI tlR ES
I } : S Y N T H E - r I CF I N R E S
'l-hc
rcsislanccto blcachcs is gcncrally good, but sonlc carc harti librc suchas nylou,howcvcr,spandcxfibrcshavcl vcry lorv
is nccessary in the selection of bleaches lor use with specilic modulusof elasticity.
fibrcs. Discolourationgenerallyoccurs, lor examplc, when hypo-
chlolites or sodiunt cblorite bleaches are used, and petoxide and . In many of the applications for elasticfibrcs,onc of thc most
inrportantpropcrtiesis rccoveryforccaftcr slrctching,,u.Ip;;ii;i
perborate bleaches are preferred. rcraxatlon. Attentionmust be givcn,lhereforc,to bolh lhc,loird.
Ilflect of 0rganic Solvenls
and the 'unload' cyclesin the strcss-strain curvcs.
.Ihcrc
is a
lime-dependcnt differenccin stressbctwecnloaclanclunlondcvclcs
Spandexfibres havc a good resistanceto most contmon solvents, rcsult.ing in a lossof cnergywhich is dissipatcd
including dry-cleaning solvents. They nray be affected by pro- by hcat.
Ihis hysteresis resultsfronr R strcssdccay wLich rcachcsa
longed exposure to unsaturated hydrocarbons, but are not bonstant
gcnerally allectcd by saturated hydrocarbons. _yalueafter rcpcatedcycling, no cirangebcing notcd
beyondthe.fifth cyclc.Thc hystercsis allcctsnoi only ,'c.ovcry
Insecls lorce but also degrceof rccovery.
The lackof recovcry,usuallyrefcrrcdto as,set'isonlv nartiallv
Completely resistanl. pcrmxnent.lf thc fibrc is allowedto rclax conlplctcly,
tt " ."i
Micro-organisms diminishes graduallywitb timc.
Completely resistaDt. .. Ilecauseof strcssdccayand sct as faclorsin recovcryforcc,
ii ts necessary to asscssyarnsrrndcrcondilionswhichapproximntc
thc dcgreeof stretchand cyclingthc yarn will unrlcrto durirrc
SECMENTED POLYURETHANE (SPANDEX) FIBRES IN USE
manufacture into fabrics,and duringwlrr. l.hc cxtcnt*ofstrciclf,
GcneralCharactcristics requiredin elasticyarnsvaricsaccordingto thc lypc and rccuircJ
An elasiicfibre is characterizcd elasticityo[ the fabric into which iiis ro Uc m"nuf"ciur"A
by a high breakingelongation
(in excessof 100pcr cent,ard usually450 to 700per cent),a low Figrrre-controlling garments, suchaswomcn'sgirdlcs,arc dcsigncd
modulusof elasticity(aboutl/1,000 that of a conventional,hard' to have stretch.50to 100per cent grcatcrtitan thc clongition
fibre such as nylon or cotton), and both a high degreeand a during wear. The restrainingforce of such garmentsis r-elatcd
high rate of recovery from stretching.The following table lists drrecllyto the recoveryforcc o[ the elasticlibrc at its clongalion
typical propertiesof a spandexfibre, rubber and nylon. whenit is in use.
The term'effective power'hasbcenuscdfor tlre recoveryforcc
pcr unit of lineardcnsityo[ a yarn at a given elongation.
7'enacily Elongation It4odulusol Recoverylront Thc
hgure on page632 showsthe elleclivepowcr of ttie du pont
(cNftcx) (perccnt) Elasricity 100par cent spandexfibre 'Lycra'and of rubber ov"r a rong" of avaii"Lte
(cNltex) ttretctt strelch.The spandcxfibre has about twicc thc iticctivc po*ci
U)ercetll) of rubbcr.atthe importantclongations at whichadditionai;r;rcl;
('Lycra') 8.0 oI )U to ttru per cent is availablc.
Spandex 550 0.4 95
Naturalrubber 2.1 540 o.2 9'1 . Analytical procedures, basedon the principlcsgiven abovc,
have been deviscdfor predictingthc performance- o[ a yarn
Textilenylon 37.l 26 220.8 rncorporatedin a given fabric from measurcmcntof thc sircss
slrain propertiesof thc yarn. For thcsca""aur"r"ntr, t"rt-"on_
Becauseof their segmentedstructure, spandex fibres may be ditionswere established which simulatcclthc strctch"onJitioi"
made stronger than rubber fibres. To achieve a givel str€tch, yarn_-would
lo. yhit. bc subjectcdduring nranulactureof itrc
spandex fibres require a force twice as high, over the entire range tabnc. thc tollowingtable showsa comparisono[ ,powcr,for
o{ elongation.as the force required by rubber. In contrast to a the yarn and for the fabric.
628 629

r l r l
IFFF h hf'f'F F F lirf''F,f: h}}ft
' ; l
ITANDBOOK OF TEXTI LE FIBRES B: SYNTH ETI C FIDRES

Corrclolion ol Efrective Power ol Yorn atd llovert Fabric FIet Rcsislanccol Elastic Yarns in Itosicry
ElJectivePower (cN lefrectivetex )<tt Cyclcs to lVaslings Growtl{tl
'Lycra' Spandex Natural Rubbcr Rupture(t) (pcr ccnt)
s\y" nT 50",', 7ty;. 'Lycra' spandex,
308 dtex 50,000 l8 t'l
'Lycra' spandex, 50,000 l8
Uncoveredyarn 0.78 I.15 0.36 154dtex l0
0 . 5I
Covered yarn 0.76 Rubber,550 dtex 5,000 !0 45
| .22 0.34 0.47
Coveredyarn removed Nores:(r)A picce o[ sock top 2.5 cm. widc was subjcctcrlto
from fabric(3) 0.75 l 13 0.37 0.50 cyclicflcxingat elongationof 100per cent.
rannc., 0.66 I .10 0.42 0.54 (,)'Growth' means incrcasein length of thc sanrplc
'Effectivetex' is the tex at the point of measulement. sub.jectedto cyclic flexing relativcto original length.
Notes..tt)
(!) Percentagesindicate actual fabric stretch, or, in thc ClrcrnicalProperlies
case of yarns, simulation of in-fabric' stretch, of 50 Spandexfibreswere the nrst elastomcricfibres to acceptdycstulls
or 70 per cent. readily.This dyeabilityresultsfrom the chcmicalnntureof thc
(r)Stretchablewoven fabric, 100 per cent total stretch polyurethane nrolecule,which containsactivcgroupscapablcof
available. holding appropriatedyes.
Dyeabilityhas opcnedup many new applications to spandcx
fibres,which were servedinadequately or not at all by natural
The data in this table show good agreement of values for the rubber yarns.Bare spandexfibresmay now be incorporatedin
original yarn, the yarn in covered form, the covered yarn after fabrics, and dyed to match other fibres in thc fabric.
weaving and subsequeotremoval {rom the fabric, and the fabric As would be anticipatedfrom the chemicalstructureof thc
itself. segmented polyurethane,spandex fibresare rcsistant
to hydrolysis.
'Lycra', for example,
The durability of spandexfibre in garments,where flex, abra- retains 100 per cent powcr aftcr boiling in
sion, and needle-cuttingare very important, is high. This dura- waterfor l hour at pH 3 to ll. In addition,spandcxfibrcshavc
bility results from the regularity of polymer structure and the a good resistance to ultra-violetradiation,oxygcn,hcat,perspira-
strengthof the interchain hydrogdn bonding. The'power'of two tion, body oils and lotions.They are physicallyand chcnrically
commercial power-net fabrics - 467 d,tex (420 den).Lycra'and stableto a rangeof heat,pH and reagcntconditionssuchas arc
56 dtex (50 den) is virtually unchangedafter 500,000 flex cycles used in processingoperationson other libres.
at elongationof 100 per cent.
The following table shows the durability and dimensiontrl lYashing
stability of the spandex-fibre fabric when it is subjected to cyclic Spandexfibresare not afiectedby the conditionsusedin washing
flexing at elongation approaching the limit of stretch of the fabrics made from other fibres, and no specialprecautionsare
fabric. Spandex-fibre fabrics of two different weights show high necessary.Soap and detergentmay be used,and garmcntsmay
resistance to fleK and low growth compared to their rubber-libre be washedeflectivelyby machineor by hand.
counterparts. Moreover, because of the durability of spandex
fibres,very fine fibres (e.g. 22 d,tex;2O den) can be produced.The Drying
availability of these fine yarns has opened up new applications No specialprecautionsare neededin drying fabricscontaining
for elastic fibres. spandexfibres, other than the avoidanceof unneccssarilyhigh
630 631
 ti
i I'A
I N D B O OK O F T E X T I L E F I B R E S D : SY N T IEI TI C F I B R E S
lind-Usrs
Spattdexfilanrentsarc uscdin lhrcc fornls:
( l ) B a r eF i l r r r r c n t s
(2) CovercclYarns( I
(3) Core-spunYarrrs
(4) Core-twisted Yarns.

Bare Filarnet s
Natural rubber filamcntsarc conrmonlyuscd as covcrcdyarns,
in which the rubber is prolectcdand hiddcn fronr viov by I
sheathof'hard' fibre suclras nylon,cotton,ctc. Becausc of thcir
high resistance to abrasion,whiteness,high'powcr'and inhercnt
dyeability,it is possibleto usespandexfibresin thc uncovercd or
'bare'form, and this has now
bcconrecornmonpracticcin ntarry
sectionsof the stretchfabric field.
The major applications of barespandexfibrcsarc irr thc pro-
duction of foundationgarments,swimwearand hosiery.'l'llc
fabricsusedincludepower"nets, tricot, lacc, and circular knils.
The rapid penetrationof spandexfibrc into thcsc nrrrkcts
followedthe reductionin cost rcsultingfrom clinrinationo[ thc
expensive coveringoperation.All rangesof fabrics,from hcavy
to lightweightgarmenlsare now produced.
In the power-netfield,spandexfibre hasnot only lakcn over a
major portion of the market,but it has also enrblcdthc nlarkct
to expandby increasingthe versatilityof thc fabrics.-l'hishas
o 50 too 150 200 250 beenparticularlynoticeablein the lightweightfabricsainredat
% AVAILABLESTRETCHlbeyonduse dimcnsioo, areassuch as the teenagemarkct. Dyeabilityof sprndcx has
Relstionshr'pcf 'power' to stretch beyond the trsc dimension. beenan importantfactor in this respect, allowingof Lhcproduc-
tion of a wide range of coloursand shadeswhen spundcxis
temperatures.In general,the drying condiiions-may be selected dyed,for example,in combinationwith rrylon.
to suit the base fabric. The introductionof fine count spandexfibresand of bcanrcd
spandexfibreshas pernlit ed tricot mallufacturers to produccc
Ironing wide rangeof nylon and spandextricot stretchfabrics.Spandcx
It is generally unnccessaryto iron the types of fabric in which can be knittedin combinationwith nylon in thc fornl of hfllf-
spandexfibres are used,but ironing may be carried out effectively gaugeor full-gaugcwarp combinations to providea vnricty of
if necessary.A low temperaturesetting should be used. fabric texturesand constructions. The fact thirt tricot frbrics
are knit, coupledwith the stretchof thc spandcxfibre,allowstlrc
Dry Clcrning
productionof tricot fabricswith considerably |l]orc stretchin
Spandexfibres are Dot afTectedby the usual dry-clcaningsolvents, both directionsthan was hitherlopossiblc.
and garments may be dry cleanedwithout difnculty. The useof finer countsallorvsof the productionof fabricsof
oJz 633

l
J
l
' l ' l ' l r
 H A N D B O O K O F T E X T I L E F I B RE S
B: SYNTHETIC FTBRDS
a high degreeof 'femininity'for the foundationtrade.A variety Spandcxyarnsmay bc covcrcdin this tashion,trsingslandard
of tricot fabricsrnay be createdby usingfine count spandex typesof covcringmachine.'l'he spandexyarn is slrong,unifornr
fibresundervariousheat-setting conditions. and highly resistantto abrasion,permittingths usc of very tinc
Covered Yarns coveringyarnswithout risk of damageto the spandcxlilamcnts.
In the coveringmachine,the elasticlilamcnt of rubber or
R.ubberfilamentsare coveredby winding yarns of'hard'fibre spandexpassesthrough the centreof a hollow spindlewhich
round themin spiralfashion.Eithercontinuousnlamentor spun rotates at high spced. As it rotates,thc spindlc wrrps lhc
stapleyarns may be used,and two layerswound in opposite coveringyarn spirallyon to the elasticfilament,which is hcld
directions are cornmonly used to provide a balancedstructure. undera controlleddegreeof stretchduringthe covcringoperalion.
Coveredspandexyarnsare usedprimarily for thc foirndation
garmenttrade.Coveringprovidesmaximurnfabric powcr wilh
controlledstretch,lhe covcr settinga Iinlit to lhc anloUlltof
stretchthat ran takeplace.This typeof yarn is nradcinto porvcr-
DRIVESPOOL nets.wovenlenos,laffetas,salins,narrow fabricsand brrri<ls.
The purposeof coveringspandexyarnsis rathcr<li{fcrcnt frorn
COVEREDYARN that of rubber.Spandexyarnsare covcrcdprimarily to prcvent
the slippagcof extcndcdthread within thc unstrctchcrlfabric.
Wherethe fabric construction(e.g.powcr-nct,tricot) provirlcsa
TOP STRETCH ROLL sufficientlyfirm anchorage, then marked thrcadscan bc uscd,
but in ryovenconstructions, for example,it is prcferablcto usc
covered,core-spunor core-twistedyarns.
OUTSIDECOVERYARN Core-SpunYarns
A core-spunyarn is orrc in which a non-clasticfibre sheathis
spun arounda core of spandexor other clastontcric yarn, 'fhis
type of_yarn is made by introducingthc elastomeriifilamcnl,
-=.-*
rNsrDEcovER YARN stretched to a carcfully-controlled
dcgrcc,into the spinningframc
wlrerestaplcfibre is bcingspun,in sucha wiry that thc staplc
fibre is twistedinto a yarn with the elastomcric filamentforming
a core. Any type of staple fibre, such as co .on, wool, acrylic-,
polyester, etc.,may be usedin forming thc spunsheath,and'ali
STRETCH ROLL typesof spinningsystems may be used.
ELASTIC YARN The power and stretchof the resultingyarn dependupon thc
denierof the elastomcricyarn, and the dcgreeoi stretchundcr
which it entersthe spinningzone.Only a comparatiyclysmall
proportion(e.g.5-7 per cent) of elastomeric yarn is uscd,as a
YARNPACI(AGE
rule, the_amountdepending upon the end-usefor which thc yarn
is intcnded.
It is obviousthat the structureof a core-spun yarn is differcnt
DRIVE ROLLS
from that of a coveredyarn made by applying spirally-wound
Covering elastic filaments. yarns to an elastomericcore, The core-spunyarn may bc madc
634
635
 H A N D E O O KO F T E X T I L E F I D R D S B: SYNTIIETIC ITINRES
'fhc
vcrsatilityof corc-spunspandcxyarnsis incrclscdby thc
fact that theycirn be hcat-set.
This may bc carriedout cllcclivcly
at temperatures as low as ll0'C., with cxposurctinrcsof about
30 nrinutes,or at highertcmperalures for shortcrtincs.
Heat-setting of yarns or fabrics providesa broad rangc of
ellcctivepower, from zero lo the maximum. l'hc pro.css js
importantbecauseit providesa nrcansof adjustingthc elrslic
propertiesof flbrics to the requircmcnts of thc application.
Core.spunspandexyarnsarc use<lfor nrakingwovcnlnd knit
goodsof many types.

Woven Fqbrics
Fabricsof a wide rangcof weights,from lawnsand batistcsto

SPANDEX
DRAFT ZONE
HARD FIBRESTAPLE
IN ROVING FORM

I CORESPUN
(7odcn.)
i oAcRoN/coTroN/LYCRA
CORESPUN
YARN
6,
\ ,o -*,.rr*
SPINDLE
on a convcntionalspinrriugframe
Core-spinning

in a wide variety of different forms by varying the spinning

conditions, type of staple fibre and the subsequent treatment of
the yarn. too% SUPERLoFT
NYLON(2/70d.n.)
As they cnrerge front the spinning frame, core-spun spandex
t'arns have a tendencyto relax as the elastic core recoversfrom o roo 200 300 400
the stretch imposed during spinning. By using adequatetension, (% ELONGATTON)
STRATN
however, the core-spun yarn may be held in the stretchedstate
Slrcss-straincurvc lor corc-spun spandcx yr.lr'tlconrp:lred rvith crrrvcs
while it is woven or knit into fabrics. for spandcx and strctch nylon.
636 63't

| r r r-l r-[

fJJJJJ-FJ.T-f--
I
t
H^NDB'.K FTBRE.
oFrEXrrLE
I
heavy ducks, have been made from core-spunspandex yarns
with polyesters,acrylics,polyamidesand their blendswith natural
fibres.Spandexof 44-78 dtex (40-70 den), for example.mav
be usedfor lightweightfabrics,and I 56-3 l2 dtex( l4O-2Adaeni
for poplin or duck weights.
Knit Fabrics
Two generalclassesof knit garmentsare made from core-spun
spandex yarns, (l) low-power or easy-stretchfabrics, and (2)
high-poweror restrainingfabrics.
Knitted fabrics are inherently stretchableby reason of the
fabric structure,but the recovery characteristicsare often poor.
Core-spunspandexyarns introducedinto thesefabrics will sup-
plementthe recoverypropertiesof the knittedfabric, addingio
the dimensionalstability of the knitted garment.
Spandexyarns are widely used in the warp knitting industry,
where the combinationof high power and low weight is advan-
tageous,
The productionof Raschelpower-netsfor foundationgarments
is a maior outlet for spandexfibres.
638
NF
A: SYNTHETIC FIARES
6. MISCEI,LANDOUS SYNTHETIC FI8Rr6
GLASS FIBRES
Fibresspun from sodiumcalciumsilicateand relatcdsubstanccs
forming the materialsknowncommerciallyas glass.
INTRODUCTION
The knowledge that fibres could be made fronr glass is probably
as old as glass itself. Molten glassis viscouslike trcaclc, and on
being touchedwith anything,it will'string out'to fornr a filamcnt
when it is drawn away. As glassis in a molten condition durinc
its manufacture. these filaments must have bcen discovcrcd al
an early date. Nature herself produces glass tibres of this typc
from nroltcn volcanic glassthat is spun into libr.csby thc wiud.
The ancient Egyptians were skilled in the art of drawins coarsc
filamenls from rods o[ ghss made by rolling moltcn glrsi wilh a
metal bar. The rods, about as thick as a pcncil, wcrc rclrcirtcdat
one end, filaments being drawn away front the moltcn material.
These coarsefilamentswere used to ornalncnt glassvessclsin thc
New Kingdom from about 1600r.c. They can be regardcdas thc
lirst syntheticfibres made by man.
The Romans perfected the art of using glass filanrcnts for
decorating their glassware,and developeda tcchnique in which
a glassvesselwas spun on a potter's wheel,drawing olT glassfiln-
ments from a nrolten rod so that the filamcnts wcrc woutrd
continuously on to the rotating vessel.
ln the sixteenthand seventeenthcenturies,thc great Venctian
glassmakersmasteredthe art of glassfilament manufacturcwhich
they, too, used for decoratingtheir glasswarc.Even at this tinrc,
howevcr, there was no real attcmpt bcing rnade to usc gltss fila-
ments in textiles,despitethe fact that the manufacturingtcchniquc
of producing the filanrentshad rcached a high degreeof pcrfcc-
tron.
Robert Hooke; Re i-At oi,te Ferclnult tle Rttrurttur
In his pubfication Microgrqphia (1665), Robert Hookc, thc
famous English physicistmentionedthe drawing of finc filamcnts
639
 H A N D B O O KO F T E X T T L E F I B R E S B : S Y N T I I E T I CF I D R E S
from a heatcdglassrod, and speculated about the possibilityof
producingsyntheticnbres.
In 1713, the French physicist RenC-AntoineFerchault de !::l ff*htol
iq"*I!1"1"$T;,,.."*,Inif
was.keptru.rning
?u:ll,?lr;i,il,.,ll
itf."jl:li",i:il:,
l]9-t11 at abour
650,.p.. ty n "oit_
Riaumur describedthe making of glassfilamentsfor the manu-
facture of imitation heron feathers: Two men work together,the
one heatinga pieceof glassover a flame and the other plucking ii'!iil!ii'',: Ll:Hn.l;iifi,iTi",,-,
x
a nlament from the softenedglasswith a glasshook, which he
attachesto the rim of a wheel like that used for spinning,and iidfl';"'*:-1"*,;oi,:"1;:i;:,#-lli;n.*#x
as 6 microns diameter.
then reelsup the lilament by revolvingthis wheelrapidly.
Riaumur speculatedas follows on the possibilityof usingglass N i neteentbC entury Bicontpottent G lqssF i bre
filaments in textiles: 'If we knew how to manufacture slass The glas filamentspinningprocessdescribed
threadsas ptiabteas lhosein which spidersenveloptheir iggs, aboveis still uscd
loday rn scarcelymodifiedform in the cottage
thesethreadscould be interwoven.Even if glassis not pliable, it ln.fustri"s--oiil,"
Thuringianand Bohemianforests,to make the _"dium-nne-nl,i
cannot be said-to use the expression-that it is not .,textile".' ments for'Angelt Hair' and other Christrnas_rree
Rdaumurexperimentedin the production of fine glassfilaments, 'Angel's ;;";;;ii;";l-
Hair'is interestingas an early""".p1" ;i'i;;'L;;;rn_
and succeeded in making lilamentsfiner than thoseof silk. They
were, however,very short. f ?l:nt.qb* whichis becoming
of er""i'ini-"ri'L;;;'?s;';;;;

IncontbustibleClassFibre Lomp llicks ""i'f;n"ill,:l

iit :i,il:',xfil?ll"*, fi:lii,'jTil,:i:,.1,Jiljlf
welded a strip of platc glass.Th
The comparativelycoarse glass fibres which were produccd at
that time wereso brittle as to be of little valuein varnsor fabrics.
and their applicalions lay outsidethe fieldof textiles.In 1822,for
nli':;*i:i;l;i,fiitfix'tr
ffii":t3l":?,f,
During-themid-nineleenth
: if"":ilil;"1li:
"i;;:
century,the use of glassfilamcnls
hars'^
example,the use of glassfilamentsin the production of incom-
*art-co;;;s;'
S*"::Tfht"l?"l""TX?iY,l"li"s'.
st;"f'[T"il:'J:n,
bustiblelamp wicks was patentedby two British inventors,Alex-
anderand David Gordon.
Early Spinneret Process ]t;:';il.:l
iiilp;{nl[i",f-t'Hij
and a. glassthreadwefr (filling)for tf,"-er"rf"r" 'ri"i "rlil
One of the earliest referencesto the use of glass filamentsin CreorgiaCayvan.A similar'dresi wasmadefo. p.ln"".r''grf"ii^
fabrics is found in a report issuedin 1842.It descr.ibes
glassfila-
ments and fabrics made by Louis Schwabe,a prominent Man- ,;l"ilffi,,,ffi
chestersilk weaverand supplierto QueenVictoria and the French
iT,!l_'!4q:,J"i'Td:,in.Ift ;'ir|;:\:ijf;
j*X*i*iru;i::
Court. Schwabedevelopedhis own techniqueof spinning glass
lilaments,and his machine was demonstratedat a Manchester
meetingof the British Association.It producedglassfilamentsby
lf"^.'"11i'.*::,H',i"#,"1il:J.;.l.il
A -description ';iiil;i;
of the melhodof rn"nufo"tu.ing-;i;;.
drawing molten glassthrough small orifices,and may thus have an<I_fabrics
at the end of the nineleenth
"""tr.'y ;;;;;;';;;;,
*;,-";;;;;;"r-h.;;:3H"!1ft
been the forerunner of the modern techniqueof spinning man- 1897issueof the Germanperiodi
madefibres by extrusionof liquids through spinnerets. aworkshop ,rT ljli ii"_l,",Ji
Old Method ol Spinning Gloss
From the end of the eighteenthcentury onwards,glassfilaments
were commonlyproducedby the old techniqueof drawing them
iiti:'1:1u1ii:ii1i1,,11,il:n,nlr"tn
j::Tt"J"_.".*Xlii;;lf
:-T:::X',::,ij,',i3',il"i3l$i;?il
641

i
' l r l , l r l r l r l r'l r-l

fffrFjql:FF
.1 metres (13 fcet) in diameter and revolving at 400 r.p.m. Whert
the cylinder is full of spun glass the filament is transferred to
small spools which can be inserted in shuttles. The glass filament
is combined with one of silk to make the weft in a fabric with a
silk or cotton warp. The looms used for this weaving are hand
operatedand have Jacquardheads.Furniture and clothing mater-
ials, umbrella and necktie fabrics are woven in the public sight.
Bu! a metre of curtain material, for instance,costs 100 francs!'
l\{odern Glass Fibres
The production of glassfllamentssuitable for textile use requires
that they should be flcxible enouglr to stand up to normal wear
-fhis
and tear. is achieved not by changiog the composition of the
glass itself, but by making the filaments so fine that thev can
bend without breaking.
Thick rods of glass will bend only very slightly, but the mini-
murn radius to which a glass rod or libre may be bent without
breaking decreaseswith decreasingrod or fibre diameter. Yarns
consisting of very fine fibres may be bent quite sharply without
breaking, as it is unlikely that any individual fibre will be bent
to breaking point when the yarn is flexed.
The early methods of producing glass filaments were capable
of spinning very fine filaments suitable for textile use. But the
processeswere not able to produce uniform fine filaments at a
cost low enough for commercial textile applications.
From l9l2 onwards, methods of spinning glass frlaments
cheapiy were developed,notably by cenrifugal processesin which
lhe molten glassis thrown from holes in a metal spinner rotating
at high speed. The early high-speed production tcchniques pro-
vided tangled,coarselilaments,however,of diametergreaterthan
l0 nricrons, and the fibres were not suitable for textile use.
The production of textile-type fibres presupposesthat they can
be made in dianreters smaller than about l2 microns, in adequate
quantitiesand at an economic cost, in the form of a continuous
strand, or of a sliver of staple nbres of adequate length, both
being suitable for spinDinginto a yarn.
During the 1930s,this was made possibleby the development
of glass fibre production processes,notably by Owens{orning
Fiberglass,an American company formed by the Owens Illinois
and Corning Glass Companies. This firm developed three pro-
cessesbefore 1939:
642
FFFFF}
D: SYN'II]ETIC TIARES
(l) Conlinuous Filanrcnt Process.ln this proccss,slrands of
glass fibre of very great length (e.g. scvcral thousandsof yards)
were drawn fronr platinunr bushingsand uscd for twisting and
doubling into yarns.
(2) Long Stqple Fibre Proccss. ln this proccss, streanrs of ghss
rvereallowed to flow from a bushing bascplatcinto the slot o[ a
steam blower. The streanrswere drawn into long (7(r cnt; 30 in)
single fibres which were collectedon a rotating pcrforatcd drum
which was kept under suction,The web so formed was drawn o{T
after a quarter-turnof the drum and drafted into a sliver of morc
or less parallel fibres. The slivcr was spun into coarsc woollikc
yarns and fabrics.
(3) Short Staple L-ibre Process. A process similar to (2) wrs
developed for the nranufactureof largc quantities o[ short ( l3-
100nrrn;/r-4 in) fibrcs.Streanrs ofnroltcnglass werc ttcnuttc(l
by thc blowingol slcarrror air, brrtthislinlc lhroughtl)cusco[
highcr prcssure the fibres were drawn anrl rippcd into sho/rt
lengthsdue to the strong turbulcnceof the blowing ntcdiurn.
In processes(l) and (2), individual clcctrically-hcatcdnrclting
units or bushings were used, but in process (3) mctal brrshings
were fixed to the forehearthsof big glass-nrelting tanks. lt is only
in comparatively recent times (1950s)that tcxtilc bushingshave
been fixed to glasslaDks lor the production of continuous fila-
mcnt glass yarns.
Fronr 1938 onwards, the traditional proccss o[ drawing glass
filan'lentsfrom rods was also perfected by Glas-Wollc K.G.W.
Schuller and Co. (Germany) and other firms. Spccial proccsscs
for the production of superfine filaments with diamctcrs of I to 3
microns have sincebeen developed,e.g. by Owcns-CorningFiber-
glass and by the S.A. des Manufacturcs des Glaces de Saint-
Cobain, Sociiti du Vcrre Textile.
These modern methods of spinning glass fibres havc opcncd
the way to the manufacture of glass yarns and fabrics suitablc
for a wide variety of industrial, furnishing and apparcl uses.The
development of new types of glass has increascd tlre vcrsatility
of glass fibre, and extendedstill further its potcntial nrarkct.
Between 1937 and 1967, the glass fibre industry cxpandcd
three-fold,and it continuesto increase.Initially, glassfibrcs wcrc
643
li
I]ANDBOOK OF TEXTI LE FIBRES
uscd largelyill insulationand liltralion applications.
Thc intro-
duction of glass-libre-reinforced plasticsbroughta new market
which is still expandingrapidly, and the acceptanceof glasslibrc
into genuinetextileapplications is makingsteadyheadway.
TYPESOF GLASSFIBRE
Glassis madein a wide variety of diflerentcompositions, and
Rbremay be spun from virtually any glassto providematerial
suitedto particular applications.
ln general,there are two main types of textile glassfibre in
large-scalecommercialproduction;'E' glassand'C'glass. Both
types are similar, but each is designedto serve to advantagein
specificend-uses,
'E' Glassis a boro-silicateglassof low alkali content.It has
a very high resistanceto attack by moisture,and has superior
eleclricalcharacteristics
and high heat res.istance.
'C' Glasshas
superiorresistanceto corrosionby a wide range
of chemicals,including acids and alkalis. It is widely used for
applicationswhere such resistanceis required, e.g. in chemical
filtration.
Glasswool fibre for non-textileapplicationsis also spun from
glasses of other compositions.Continuousfilamentis spunfrom
'A'glass (alkaliglass;windowglass).
FORMSOF CLASSFIBREAVAILABLE
Glass fibre is producedin two basic forms; continuousfilament
and staplefibre.
Continuorc Filanlent
Continuousfilamentglassfibresare madeusuallyfrom 'E glass.
They are producedin a rangeof filamentdiameters,with an upper
limit in the region of l2 microns (for textile applications).The
increasingbrittlenessof filaments of diameter greater than this
rendersthem of littlo valueas textilefibres.Textile glassfilaments
with a diameteras small as 2.5 micronsare commercially avail-
able ('Beta' fibres) and filamentsof diameter I micron and less
may be made for specialapplications.
644
B: S Y N T I I E ' T I C F I I }R [ , S
Continuousfilanrcntsarc producedin thc fornt o[ s t r i r n d s
contairringnrarryindividualfilanrents-e.g.from 5l to 4,000
depending on specificrcquirenlents.
StapleFibre
Classstaplefibresare madeusuallyfrom 'C'glass.Thcy are pro-
t l u c c t li n a r a u g eo [ f i l a r n c nct o u n t sa n ( ll c n g t h sc, . g .l r o r l 2 0 *
3 8 c n r( 8 - l 5 i n ) .
Cornmercial
Producls
Glasscontinuousfilamentstrandsand staplcfibre arc commonly
marketedby the manufacturers
in a varietyof madc-upforms.
Con!inuousFilattrcnt Yart
This is madeby twistingand/or plying a numbcrof continuous
Iil$nent strands. Thc numbcrwhich arc twistcdor plicd togcthcr
aflcctthe yarn'sstrength,diametcrand flcxibility.
Continuousfilamcntyarnsare conrmonlysizcd(c.g.2 pcr ccnt
starch-oil) to facilitatesubsequenthandlingand fabricationopcra-
tions.They are also furnishedin a varictyo[ treatedfornrs,e.g.
dyed, waxed,pre-saturated,vinyl-coatcd;thcy may also be com-
bined with other textile fibres.
Continuous,ilamentyarnsare fabricatedinto cordsand scwing
threads.They are widcly used,for examplc,as reinforccmcntin
electrical insulation nraterials,wirc and cable, plastics,ctc., as
filtration materials,and in decorativefabrics.
StapleFibre Yant
Yarns spun from staplcfibre are wovcn irrto fabrics uscdlor wct
and dry filtrationoperations.
They are uscdalsoas reinforccmcnt
in conveyorbelts handlinghot materials,and as braids in clectri-
cal insulationapplications.
Staple libre yarn is commonly supplied in combination with
flame-proofwaxes,lacquersand comnrcrcialinsulationvarnishcs.
JlaDle JItver
-Ihis
is a low-costwaddingmatcrial.lt is used,for cxamplc,in
aquariumRltrationapplicalions. Woven into fabric, it providcs
elcctricalturbinegeneratorthermalblankets.
645
I , r l
I r- t- r- a .. - - - - - l'-r,- r, - - - - r,
t . I I I t I i I i I . I I . I ,l I ' ' t t r
F Ii
l [ i
I
HANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES E: SYNTIIETIC FI BRES

Bulk St.tple Fibre can be combincd-in the lanrinating and cxlrrrding proccsscs-
A fluffy, bulky libre that is used for air and liquid filtration, with paper, film and foil. The resulting producls arc uscd cxtcn-
pharmaceutical wadding and dunnage. sively in the packaging industry.

Fine Fibres-Unbonded Mat

A mass of soft, fluffy fibre, ranging in diameter from + to 3 mic-
rons. They are used for'all glass'papers and high efliciency
nltration applications.
Bonded Staple Sliver
A ribbon of parallel libres bonded together with an alkyd resin.
It is used as a filler, and also as an outer braid for many electrical
cable applications.
Cordcge
Cordage is made by iwisting, plying and cabling continuousfila-
ment yarns. lt is commonly available in a variety of diameters
ranging, for example, from 0.4-4 mm (1164-10164 in). It nay
be untreated,or treated with variouscoatings.
Cords are used in cable wrapping seals, reinforcement of
high pressure steam hose, etc.
Sewing Thread
Sewing threads are made from very fine continuous filament
yarns. They have the highest teosile strength, flexibility and resis-
tance to high temperatures of any textile sewing thread.
A non-woyen material used primarily in plastics rcinforccnlcnl.
It is distributedin a random paltcrn to cnsurc nraxinrunrurri[or-
mity in thc finishcd lanrinatc. N4ats are lrcrlcd wilh various
bonding resinsto proyide optinum compatibility with thc lanrin_
ating resin, and the dcsired handling and fabrication charactcr-
istics.
There are severaltypes of mat available:
Chopped Strand Mar consists of choppcd strands bondcd
together by a resin. It is used in most applicationsof rcinforcctl
plastics usually when large and complicatcd shapcs arc to bc
rnadc. Exanrplcs arc corrugatcd shccts,bonls, nrotor cirr botlics,
building components,containcrsand thc Iike.
Continuous Slrqnd Mat consistso[ uncut continuous stratrds
held togetherin sheet form by a bonding resin. lt is uscd mainly
irr matched metal die moulds, where relatively decp arrd complei
contours require maximum'draw' charactcrislics.
Neccllcd Mat consistsof cut strands which are nccdlcd lo a
carrier tissue.It is used where a particularly bulky rcinforccnrcnl
mat is wantcd.

Scrim
This is a low-cost. non-woven reinforcement fabric made frorn
continuous filament yarn in an open mesh construction. It is
made by coatiflg length-wise yarns with a hot-melt adhesive and
applying cross-yarnswhile the adhesiveis still motten. Asphftlt
base and polyethylene adhesivesare used, for example, in making
scrim.
Glass fibre scrim is moisture-resistant and rotproof. The glass
yarns provide exceptional tear and tensile strength in two direc-
tions, and materials reinforced with glass fibre scrim have a very
high dimensional stability.
Glass fibre scrim is available in a wide varietv of sizes. It
646
Bonded Mat or Stoplc Tissucis a thin highly porous nrat rnl(lc
from monolllamentsof type'C'glass arranged in a vcilJikc pat-
lern. This mat is nsed mostly in thc rcinforccrncntof bilunrcn
which is applied to buried pipes as protcction againstcorrosion.
It is also uscd as a surfacing mat on top of olher rcinforccmcnl
malerials to producc a smooth rcsin-richsurfacc.
Rovirtg
This is a low-cost,high-strengthrcinforcemcnt matcrial nrade by
gathering a number of continuous filantent strands and winding
them into a cylindrical package. It is availablc in two forms:
continuousstrand roving and spun strand roving.
64't
I
'TEXTI
IIANDBOOK OF LE FIBRES B : S Y N T T I E T I CT I N R E S

CorttittttottsStrond .Roving consistsof parallel strands which

providehigh unidirectional strength. includiugintlustrialfiltratiou,clcctric:rlinsulationantltlccorativt,
fabrics.

Spun Strand Roving- This roving consistsof one or more

D ougIt M oulclirtgConrpound
continuous strands looped back and forth upon themselves.
It is held togetherby twistingit slightlyand applyinga cohesive I'his is a mixture of shortglassfibrc straldsrvith rcsinrntl lillcrs,
sizing.The rovinghaslessunidirectional strengththancontinuous rvhich is dried but not curc(1.'l'hc conrpourrrl is finllly curcrlby
strand roving, but it posscsses greaterbulking characteristics. t h c l a n r i n a t oi rn n r r t c h e dn r c t atll i c sr v i t l rt h c a p p l i c r t i o on f h c a t .
Continuousstrandrovingsareusedin processes wherethey are
choppedinto short lengths.Thesechoppedstrandsgive a non-
directionalreinforcementto plasticssimilar to choppedmats.
Rovings can also be woven into fabrics, continuousfilament
rovingsgiving higher strengthsand spun rovings better interlam-
inar adhesion.
Rods and other profiles can be produced by dra'wingresin-
impregnated continuousandspunstrandrovingsthroughdiesand NOMENCLATURE
a curingoven.Rovingsmay alsobe wound on to fornterswhich
can be rotated to providecylindricalvessels Classesusedfor the manufactureof fibresarc eithersodaJirnc.
and similarbodies
rvhichpossess greatstrength.(FilanrentWincling). (suchas 'E' or 'C' glass).Othcr matcri ls
silicatesor boro-silicatcs
can be addedto the silicanetworkto modify the propcrticsof 1he
ClroppedStrands resullingglass.
For this reason,it is not possibleto givc a gencralchemical
These are availablein a wide variety of fibre lengths.They are formula for glassfibres,but eachglasscompositionfrom which
used as a reinforcementfor resins,and for reinforcing putties, they are drawn may be accuratelydclincdin chcmicaltcrrnsby
caulking compoundsand foam rubber. They are also used for
gypsumwallboardreinforcement.
the ingredientswhich go into the melt.

Milled Fibres IicdcralTrarlc ConrnrissionDcfnilion

-l'radc
Theseare madefrom hammer-milledcontinuousfilamentstrands. The generictcrm g/asswas adoptedby thc U.S. Fcdcrrl
They are usedwhere shorter fibre lengthsare required for rein- Commission for fibresof this type,the omcialdcftnitiorrbeingas
forcement applications. follows:
Gla.rs.A manufacturedlibre in which the fibrc-fornrinc sub-
Fabrics and Tapes stanceis glass.
These are made from continuous filament yarns, rovings and
stapleyarns,by weavingon conventionallooms.
'Broad PRODUCTION
fabrics'refer to woven glassfabrics46 cnt (18 in) or
wider.'Narrowfabrics'ortapesreferto wovenglassthat rangesin
width from 6.4-200 mm (lzr- 8 irD. GlassManrrfaclurc
Fabricsand tapesmay be processed throughmoulding,laminat- Glasses of many dilTerentcompositions are madeby thc glassin-
ing and coating techniques.They are usedin applicationsrequir- dustry,the type producedbeingselectcd to suit thc end-uses
for
ing the most exact control over thickness,weight and strength, which it is required.Silicasand (silica)and limestone(calcium
648 649
: - - - - - - - - - - n--n
H N DB O O K O F T E X T I L E F I B R E S B: SYNTTIETIC FI BNES

carbonate)may be regardedas basic ingrcdients,to which are lip to form a fibre, and attachingthc fibrcs to a high-spccd
added varying anrounts of otber materials such as soda ash windirrgcollet.The btrshingsmay be nrounlcdon ttosrln,"itiuo
(sodium carbonate),potash (potassiumcarbonate),aluminium tanks.or lhey may forrn lhe basiso[ independcnt fiberizincunits]
hydroxide or alumina (aluminium oxide), magnesia(magnesium beingfed with glassby remeltingglassmarbles.
oxidc) or boric oxide. As the 50 or more nlamentsare drawn from the oriticcs.thcv
The glasses commonlyusedin making textile nbres-'E glasses are broughttogetherinto a strand.A lubricalingsizc is applicrl
and 'C' glasses-are made from compositionsof the following to facilitatesubscquent processing.
tyPe: If the strandis to be usedfor rcinforcenrcnt of plastics,thc
lubricantor sizewill be chosento be compatiblcwiih polycstcr
'E or epoxidelaminatingresins,and the strandmay bc convcrtcd
Glass
ltryrcdient Amount (N, approx.) into variousforms of choppedstrandmats,rovingsor choppccl
Silica 52.5-53.5 strands.
Linrc 16.5-17.5 If the strandsare intendedfor use in tcxtilc werving,lhey
Magnesia 4.5-5.5 mry.be processed through convcntionaltcxtile proccsscsinto
Alumina 14.5 suitableyarns.Theseyarnsare availablein standardbasiccounts
Soda; potash Lessthan 1.0 e . g . o f 5 . 5 ,1 1 , 2 2 , 3 3a n d 6 6 T e x .
Boric oxide I0.0-10.6 Thc diametcrof thc filamentsproduccdin this wav dcncntls
'C'Glass uponthe rate at which the glassis drawn fronr thc oiificci, thc
sizeof the orifices,and the viscosityof the mclt. prodtrcrioniatcs
Ingredient Anount ("/,, approx.)
a r ce x t r e n : e l y - h i gr h
e ,a c h i nJg k r r r( 1 . 9r n i l e sa) n t i n u t c l ( l n t o r c .
Silica 62.0-65.0
u n e r n a r b lwe l l tp r o v j ( laesn ) u c ha sl 6 0 k r n( 10 0 r r r i l e) so I l l h n r c rt r.
Lime 6.0
Potash 1.0-3.0 (B) SrqpleFibre
Alumina 1.0
Soda I 1.0,15.0 Therc are a numberof methodsof producingglassstaplcfibrc.
Boric oxide 3.0-4.0 the most importantof which may be considercd
as tlrc Ccntri-
fugal, Jet and Rod Drawing processes.
The ingredientsare charged into a furnace, whete they are
fused at high temperature,forming molten glass.Filamentsmay Certrilugol Process
be spun direct from this melt, or the glassmay be formed into In this process,moltcn glassis thrown out o[ holcsin thc basc
marblesof l6 mm (5/8 in) diameter. Themarblesareinspected, and of a mclal spinncrrotatingat high specd.Fibrcsof this tvnc arc
any that contain impurities are discarded.The others are then bondcdinto a web, and are uscd in heat and soundinsi,intion.
passedto the spinniugmachines, fiberizingunits or'bushings'as This techniqueis not generallyrrscdfor producingtextilegrade
lhey are calledin the glassfibre industry. glassfibres.
Fiberising Jet Ptocess (Steam Blowing, Batwool or Slaplefibrc proccss)
(A) ContinrousFilamentProcess
Staplehbre is producedby a process in which ntoltenglassflows
Continuousnlamentstrandsare producedby allowingmolten undergravitythroughholesin the baseo[ ptatinumbrrshinss. rs
glassto flow through perforatedtips on the baseplateof a plati- in the productionof continuousfilament.Thc strcarns
o[ glaisnrc
num melter('bushing'),drawingaway a streamof glassfrom each then drawn into fibrcs by the action of high-speed strianrsof
650 651
 T I A N D A O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S B: SYNTHETIC FINNES

turbulentgas or steam.The soli<tilicdfibrcs are btoken by thc

t u r b u l e n cien t o s t a p l eosf u p t o 3 8 c m ( l 5 i n ) a r l dc o l l e c t e idn t o
a web on a revolvingvacuumdrum.'Theweb.lnaytllen be guldefl
fronr the drum anddraftedinto the lorm ol glassstaplesllver'I nrs MOLTEN GLASS
i s l l l e np r o c e s s e
odn c o n v e n t i o ntaelx t i l en l a c h i n el os r w c a v l n S l n l o
slassfibre staplefabrics. SPINNER

Rotl Draritt-gProcess
This is a modern developmentof the traditional process-for
making glasslilamenls. ln a typical modern machine, 125 glass
roOt,u-su-utty about4 mm' (0.1575 inch)in diameter,-are mounted +GLASS STAPLEFTBRE
'spinning SPRAY -
verticallyand adjacentto one anothet in a so-called -:__j_.-::]-=_.

frame'. ihe rods are kept moving slowly downwards,and are

simultaneouslymelted at a temperatureof about 1200"C',either
bv in<tividual.movableand adjustablegas burnersor by electric CONVEYOR

heatingcoils in a fireclaychamber.Drops of glassfall away from ( I ) S T A P L EF I B R E .

the endsof the rods,drawing glassfilamentsafter them' Theseare CENTRIFUGAL PROCESS GLASS MARI]LES
lecl via an inclinedplane on to a rapidly r-evolvingcylinder
{ u s u a l l vl 0 l . 6 c m ; 4 0 i n w i d e 'a n dr o t a t i n ga t E U Ur ' p ' m ' 's o t a K ' FURNACE

ingry 2,475m; 2.?50yd perminutel)on to whichtheyarewound MOLTEN GLASS

n"i.t io, but independentof, one another. Lateral movementof HIGH PRESSURE
the spinningframe next forms a glass nlament-web-on.the STEAM OR GAS JETS
cvlind-er.from which it is at intervals cut and after doubling GLASS STAPLE
formed by horizontal doffing and repeatedslight stretchinginto
glassfibre slubbing. SLIVER
Atternatively,the filamentsare merelydrawn off and out by the MOLTEN
cylinder,not being taken up but being doffed, atter about three- GLASS SPINNING
MECHANISM
quartersof a rotation,by a combinedlifting and cutting apparatus'
ih"ir flo* direction is then deflectedand they are tossedon to YARN
a stationarysieveand collectedand doffed as a glassfibre sliver
FILAMENTS
composedof fibres of unequal length. slzlNG
SPRAY

PROCESSING (2) STAPLE FIBRE,

JET PROCESS
Sizing
The applicationof a suitablesize is important when glassfibres
CONTINUOUS
are to 6e subjectedto textile processing.The size must lubricate FILAMENT
the fibresto minimizethe effectof fibre-fibrefriction, and hold the Glass Fibre Production. Three important mcthods of nraking glirss
inclividuallilamentstogetherin the strand.At the sametime,the fibre are sbown above,
(l) Strple Fibre. CcntrifDgalProcess.
652 (2) S:aple Fibrc. Ict Proccss.
( : l) C o n l i n u o u sF i l a m c n t .
653

' ''_.L ' '

,F-F-T FJJ, F T I T I,' F F F.F.T F.F.F,
lt i l ,
- r l N D B o o K o F T E X T I L EF I B R E S
ii
r size nrust not Inake thc strandsaclherein pn:k1gci
Jhc.
i Dextrinizedstarch gum, gelatine,polyvinyl alcolrol,hydro-
genated vegetableoils and non-ionic detergentsare commonly
rrsed.
Heat-CIeaning
Glassfabrics and tapcs are usually combinedwith other materials
such as coatingsand resins.In order to ensurethat the union of
glass with these materials .is eflective, it is usually necessary to
remove the sizing that was applied to the yarn during the manu-
facture of the goods.This may be done by heat<leaning at high
temperatures.
There are various techniquesand conditionsunder which heat-
cleaning may be carried out. Continuous heat-cleaning, for
example, may be achieved by passing fabric through an oven at
about 650"C. The organic material is burned away to leave the
white fabric.
For some applications, such as the use of glass fabrics in the
production of melaminelaminates,a partial heat-clcaningmay be
carried out, Some of lhe organic matter is caramelized, the starch
being converted to carbon which remains on the fabric.
Hcat-Sctting
Class is a thermoplastic material, and the strains introduced
during processing and production of yarns and fabrics may be
relievedby treatmentat an adequatetemperature.In the Coroniz-
ing treatment, for example (see page 655), dimensiooalstability
is conferred on glass fabrics by a heat-treatment at 650"C. This
is a form of heat-setting but it is not a true heat-setting such as
that \Mhich occurs in the heat-treatment of a partially crystalline
fibre.
Dyeing
Glass fibres absorb only a negtigible amount of water, and their
aflinity for dyestuffs is virtually nil. It is not possible to colour
glass by using the normal dyeing techniques.Many specialized
processeshave been developed, however, for the colouration of
glass fibre fabrics. An early technique was to mix pigment into
lhe molten glass before spinning, but this has not attained real
commercial importance, Most modern processes rely upon the
654
I u : s y N T H E T l cF T D R E S
applicrfion of sonrc sort of coating to thc tibrc, thc colling trcing
I
| either pigmenttd bcfore applicationor colourerlsubsc{ucntli
I by dyeing.
(l) Pignu atiott ol Molten Glass
The techniqueof adding 6nely-dispcrsed pignrentsto lhc nrclt
before spinning,as used in the productionof rnany typcs of
spun-dyedsynthcticnbrcs,ntay be uscd in thc colourationof
glassfibre.
In view of the high tempcratureat which glassfibrc is spun-
around 1,200'C.-it is necessary to usc inorgflnicpignrcnts,A
rangeof prstclshadesnraybe obtainedsatisfnctorily in this wry.
Productionof spun-dyedglasslibre sullcrs from the drawbaclis
inherentin this process.The nranufacturermustallocatcspinning
machinesto the productionof specificcolours,or bc picpnrcd
for tediousand expensive cleaningopcrationsin changingfronr
onc colourto another.Also,eachadditionalcolour inciclscslhc
storageproblems, and the raDgemay be restrictcdon thisaccount.
(2) CoroniTatiotr
Coronization is a systemof trertmentof glassfabricwhichbrings
about significantchangesin the charactcristics of thc cloth.lt
nrakespossible, too, the applicationo[ colourin an cfTcctivc
wav.
. The colouration of glass fabric by Coronization tukcs plaic
in the following stagcs.
..(a) Glass fabric is passedthrough a dispcrsiouof colloidal
slllca,
(b) The silica-impregnated fabric is passedthrouglr tn ovcn at
650"C. for 5-15 seconds.Sizes and other organic matcrials arc
burned away, leaving only the finc particlesol silica actherincto
the surf3ce of the glass fibres.
During this heat-treatment, the libres are relaxed an<l thc wcavc
is set, thus establishingthe dimensionatstabiliry of thc fabric.
(c).The heat-treatedfabric is passedthrough a bath containing
a resindispersion,comnronly a brrtadiene-acrylonitrilc copolymci,
and coloured pigment. The labric then passesthrough i cirring
'fhe
oven at 160"C. resin is cured on the cloth, binding thc pig-
ment to the fibres.
655
 H A ND B O O K O F T E X T I L E F I B R E S
(d) Thc pigmentedcloth now passesthrough another-padding
process,in-which a solution of stearatochromicchloride is ap-
ili"a. Tnis is followed by drying in anotheroYenat 160"C.
Stearatochromicchloride has a high affinity for glass,and it
establishesa powerful bond between the glass and the resin
coating.
Coronizedfabrics display increasedabrasionresistance'crease
resistanceand water repellency'The fabric acquires a softer
handle,antl becomesmore flexible,Ageing and sunlightresistance
are improved; fabrics can be washed,and dried by rolling in a
towel.They do not needironing.
Printing
The Coronizing processmay be modified to permit the screen
printing of glassfibre fabrics. The stagesin the processare as
follows:
(a) Silica treatment,
(b) Heat treatmentat 650"C.
(c) Application of cationic softening agent to lubricate and
protect the fibres.
(d) Screenprinting, using a printing paste containingpigment
and resin latex which has been thickenedwith alginate.
(e) Curing at 160'C. for 5 minutes.
(0 Paddingin stearatochromicchloride, followed by drying at
120'C.for l5 minutes,
Fabrics printed in this way have good washfastness and resis-
tance to crocking.They are creaseresistantand water repellent,
and havegooddrape and handle.They may be wasbedeffectively,
and need no ironing.
Finishing
A wide variety of finishing Seatmentsis availablefor use with
glass fibre goods. Most of these are intended to increasethe
im"i"n"y oi glassgoodswhen used as reinforcementin plastics,
and are not thereforeof immediateinterestin the consideration
of glassas a textile fibre.
There are, however, some finishing treatmentswhich are of
great importance in the eflect they have on glass in textile
applications.
656
' u:l,.l
8 : S Y N T H [ , T I CF I B R A S
Coronizing
Coronizingis ir linishingtreatmcntwhich hrs r signilicanlcllcct
on glasslibre and fabrics used for tcxtilc upplications.lt in-
creascsthe resistance to abrasion,watcr rcpcllcncy,crcascrcsis-
tanceand flexibilityof glassfabrics,and inrprovcsthc handlclo
an inrpressivedegree.It also makespossiblcthc cllcctivccolour-
ation of glassmaterial.
Corrosiorr Resist4nt Finisll
Dispersionsof polytctr.rfluoroethyleneare applicd to glassfabrics
followedby drying and thc applicationof prcssureat tcmpcra-
tures in the region of the P.T.F.E. sintering teNperalurc.Cloth
producedin this way is usedlor liltration fabrics that mr$t with.
stand corrosiveconditions,pump diaphragrnsand the likc.
Antistatic Fitrislr
Glass fabrics arc hcat-clcancdand thcn dippcd in conrpositions
containing potassiumisobutyl polysiloxanolatc. Thc trcalcd
matcrialis hcatcd at 150'C. for up to 30 nrinutcs,dricd irnd
rinsedwith dilute hydrochloricacid.It is thcn dricd and washcd
in water,
Sterryllrcning Fittishes
Glassfabricsare coatcdwith a rcsinophobic nlaterill that prc-
vcntsadhesionof resinousmaterialsto thc surfaccof thc glass
fibre. The treatedcloth is then coatcd with a rcsin linish, which
penetrates into lhe interstices
of the fabric wilhoit adhcringto
the individual strandsof fibre. The frecdom of movcmcntwhich
is left to the fibresimprovesthe tearingand burstingstrcngths
and the flex resistanceof fabrics to be usedin hcavy-dutyfabrics
such as awnings,tarpaulinsand tent naterials.
STRUCTUREAND PROPERTIES
linc Slructure and Appcarancc
Molecular Stuclure
'glass' describes a range of materials madc by fusing
The term
together one or more of the oxides of silicon, boron or phos-
657
"
 I r r
|.l
r
-
--I
[
-
h_r
1
-
!. FF.-F
ti
i
H A N D B O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S SYNTHETIC FIBRES

phorus,with certaiubasicoxides,c.g. sodium,potassium, mag- Crccp

nesiun, calcium,and cooling thc product rapidly to prevent None
takingplace.
crystallizal.ion
Class is thus a mixtule of silicates,sornewater-soluble, like Avemg€ Stillness
sodiumand potassiumsilicates,and otherswater-insoluble, like
2,843 cN/tcx (322 g/dcn)
calcium and magnesiumsilicates.It is an anrorphousmaterial,
in which the atoms do not take up the orderedpositionsassoci- Spccific Gravily
ated with regions of crystallinity, and it differs in this respect
from those syntheticorganic polymers which produce fibres of 2.54 ('C' type: 2.49)
partially crystallinestructure.It is a supercooledliquid with such
Hardness
a high viscositythat no perceptibleflow takesplace,
(Moh Scale) 6.5
Fibre Fontr
trlTectof Moisaure
Glassfibres are smooth-surfaced
and commonlyof circular cross-
section.They are transparent. Absorbency: up to 0.3 per cent (surface)
Regain: Nit
Tenacity
Thcrm{l Propcrlics
D r y : 5 3 - 6 4 . 5 c N / t e x( 6 . 0 - 7 . 3 g / d e n ) ;w e t : 3 4 . 4 - 4 1 . 5 c N / t e x 'E' 'l 'c"1
(3 .9*4 .7 gl den) vpe 1'pc
Softcning point ('C.) 846 752
Std.loop: 8.0-9.7 cN/tex(0.9-1.1 g/den) Strain point ('C.)
S t d .K n o t : 1 5 . 9 - 1 9 - 4c N / t e x( 1 . 8 - 2 . 2g l ( l e n ) 507 415
Annealing point ('C.) 657 58i
TerrsileStrength Specincheat 0.l9
14,000-15,400km lcm2Q\o,0oo-220 p00 1b/in2). Flammability: Glass fibre docs not burn.

Dlorgaaior(per cent)
Dry: 3.0-4.0('C' type: 4.5)
Wet: 2.5-3.5
ElasticRecovery EII€ct of Agc
100Dercent None.

Itllect of Sunlight
None,

Poisson'sRa(io Ch€mical Propertics

o.22 Acids
Glass fibres are resistantto acids of normal strcngth and undcr
Hysteresis
ordinary conditions. They are attacked by hydrofluoric, con-
None centratedsulphuric or hydrochlorrc,and hot phosphoricacids
658
 I{ANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
B: SYNTIIETIC
FIDRES
Alkalis l\licro-organisnrs
Hot solutionsof weakalkalis,and cold solutionsof strongalkalis Not attacked.
will attackglass,causingdeterioration
and disintegration.
l.lkclrical l,ropcrtics
Generul -fhe
following valueswcre obtained front measurcnlcnlso u b u l k
Highly resistantto all chemicalsin common use. glass:
'E'
Glass ,c,G loss
Ellect of OrganicSolvents Dielectricstrengrh(volrs/ nril) Up ro 2,800
Glass fibre is not attackedby organic solvents,but the size on Dielectricconstant(22'C.)
the yarn may be attacked. 1O' cycles 6.4J
l0a cycles 7.t4
l0ro cycles 6.1I 6.'t9
Insects Power factor (22"C.)
Not attacked. l0! cyclcs 0.0042
l0r cycles 0.m9
l 0 r oc y c l e s 0.0060 0.0t1
Volumeresistivity - solidglass(ohrns/c.c.)
22.C. 2 - 5x l 0 r r
'1
15"C. l0?
€.0
788.C. 10"
7.O 871'C. 105
982"C. t0'l
6'O r093.c. t0r
r260"c. 10,
g Coeltcictt of Friclion
With glass: 1.0 for clean glass.

OplicalPropcrtics
2.O
Index of refraction(at 550millimicrons;0"C.): 1.549('C' Type;
1.O r.541).
Clarity: transparent,
0 Ultra-violettransnission:opaquc.
o 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0
SIRAIN (% ELoNGATIoN)
Acoustical Propedics
Velocity of sound: 5,786.4 nVsec(18,000 ftlsec)
Acoustic impedance(g.7cmx/scc.): l.4x 100
Velocity of crack propagation: 1,603.25 m/sec (5,2(,0 ft/scc)

661

.I l,- t
I
r i
I r l

HANDBOOK OF TEXTTLE FIBRES
CI,ASS FIBRE IN USE
Gencral Characterislics
Plrysical Propcrties
Glass is a heavy fibre, with a specific gravity of the order ol
aluminium. It has good transparency,
The moisture absorbencyof glass is negligible,and the fibre
shows no swelling or shrinkage. This is a useful characteristic in
applications where dimensional stability in the presenceof water
is desirable, and in electrical applications. It is detrimental in
apparel applications, however, where absorption of moisture is
a useful attribute.
Water affects the tensilc properties of glassfibre, bringing about
a reduction in tenacity after a very short time. This is due to the
leaching out of some of the solublc materials from the glass,
including alkali silicates. 'E glass, with its low alkali content, is
better than'C'glass in this respect.
The high coemcient of ftiction of glass against glass, taken in
conjunctionwith the high llexibility of line glassfilaments,makcs
for poor abrasion resistance.The movement of filament against
filament during use brings about fracture of the filaments, and
the creation of a hairy fabric. The use of suitable lubricants and
finishes minimizes the efiects: metal coatings, for example, may
be applied to glass fibres to reduce surface friction.
Mechanical Properties
Glass fibre has the highest strength-to-weight ratio of any fibre,
and one of the lowest elongations. These characteristics are useful
in applications requiring high dimensional stability, such as the
use of glass fibre as reinforcement in plastics. The low elongation
is not a useful attribute in apparel fabrics, however, where
resiliency is an important factor.
Glass exhibits almost perfect elasticity, returning instantly and
completely to its original dimensions on release from strain. This
elasticity is exhibited over a very small range, as indicated by
the low elongation of the fibre.
Tlternul Properties
Glass has an excellent resistanceto the effects of heat over a wide
temperature range. Fabrics show an increase in strength up to
662
l', -, -JJJ
- - l'''1,
FIBRES
B: SYNTTIETTC
about 205"C.,after which the strcngthand flcxibilitybcgin lo
fall. At 370"C.,glassfilamentsretain50 per centof thcir original
strength;at 538"C.they retainabout 25 per ccnt. Thc c[Iccto[
tempcratureon glassdependsgreatlyupon thc compositiono[
lhe glass.
Glassis completelynon-flammable, and this is one o[ the most
important factorsin its textile applications.Glassfabrics are uscd
where resistanceto the spread of flame is of overriding irnpor-
tance.
The hieh heat conductivity of glass is a useful attributc
in electrical insulation applications,where close-wovcn glass
fabricsdissipate heatrapidly.Despitethis high hcatconduclivity,
however,glassfibre finds an important outlet as heat insulation
material.In this case,it is usedin the form of matsand waddings,
whereinsulationis providedby the entrappedair.
Elearical Properties
Glass is an excellentelectrical insulator, and glass fibre finds
important outlcts in thc clcctricalficld. 'E' glassis dcsigncd
speciallyfor this application.
Chertical and Biological Properties
Glass has a high resistanceto most chemicals.It is, howevcr,
attackedby alkalis, which disintegrateit. Glass fibres may also
be attackedby somestrongmineral acidsand by phosphoricacid.
The resistanceof glassto biological degradationis complctc.
Washing
Glass fabrics wash easily, but they should be subjectcdto a
minimum of mechanical action. They are best hand-wnshcd,
without rubbing, squeezingor drying. Mechanicalwashing may
be carried out carefully.
Drying
Glassfabricsare bestdrip dried.They shouldnot bc tumblc dricd.
IronlDS
In general,ironing of glassfibre fabrics is unnecessary.
Ironing
may be carriedout, however,usinga'cotton'setting,
663
 li
l i
rl
I
H A N D A O OOKF T E X T I L EF I B R E S
Dry Clcaning
Glassfabricsmay be dry cleaned,but greatcare must be takc[
to avoid mechanicalaction.
End.Uses
Insulation
Glassfibres are widely usedfor electrical,thermal anclacoustical
insulation purposes.They are less bulky and more efficient in
many respectsttlan other insulators.
In electricalinsulation,glassfibre offersa combinationof hish
sl.renglh,non-flammability,excellentcorrosion resistance,goocl
dielectricstrength,high heat conductivity and excellentmoiiture
resistance.End-usesinclude rotating equipment, transformers,
switchgear,wire and cable insulation, and other applicationsof
this type.
For thermal insulation,glassfibre is usedin the form of mats
and waddings,wherethe high heat conductivityof the glassitse.lf
is a
Irctor,of minorimportance comparedwith'theinsuiationpro-
vided by the trappedair. Glass wool is usctl,for examplc,in the
insulationof houses,and for lagging hot water and stJampipes.
Reinlorcententin Plastics
The_use of glass fibre as reinforcementin plasticshas become
the largestsingleend-usefor textile-typefibres.Glassfibresrein-
force plasticsin the sameway as steelreinforcesconcrete.The
highstrengthof the nbres,coupledwith their resistance to stretch,
ensu-re a productof greatimpactstrengthand high dimensional
stabiltty.Tbe non-flammability of the fibres,and their resistance
to corrosioJrand biologicalattack, have addedto their efficiency
in this application.
. Glass-fibre-reinfor,ced plasticsare used in building boat hulls,
rn car bodies,aircraft, radio and televisioncabinets,iot air ducts,
flexibletubing,petrol(gasoline) storagetanks,UuitOing panetiin!,
rranslucent sheet.lurnilureand innumerable otherend_uses where
high strength,durability, light weight and resistanceto deteriora-
tlon are lmportantfactors.
Industrial F iltrqtiott
Glass fibre and fabrics are usedfor filtering gasesand liquids in
many industrialoperations.
D : S Y N T I TE T I C F I D R E S
I'yrc Conls
Glassyarns uscd as reinforccnrent in rrdial ply tyrcs rcsult in
bcttcrmiles-pcr-gallon,grcatertreadlife, inrprovcdcorncringand
coolcr running than tyres reinforcedwith othcr typcs of yarn.
'l'his
is a major rnarketfor glassfibres,especiallyirr thc U.S.A.
Beltitrg
GIassfibreis uscdasreinforccment in industrialbelting,including
conveyor belts for handlinghot matcrialsrnd driving bclts,
particularlytoothed timing bclts for car engirtesand irtdustrial
machinery.
7'extiles
Glasslibreshavenruchto recommend themas tcxtilcfibrcs.1'hcy
are strongand stablcto moisture,heatand otherinllucnccs;thcy
are not easilysoiledor stained,and ihcy can be cleancdrcadily
in soapand watcr; thcy are non-flammablc, llut thc dclicicncics
of glassas an apparcltextilefibregreatlyoutwcighits advantages,
rnd therc is little prospcctat thc prcscntlintc o[ glassfibrc
becorning a reallyinrportantfibrc for gcncraltcxtilcusc.
Classfabricshavea poor resistance to abrasion,the filamcnts
breakingas they rub againsteachother during use.Glassfibrcs
have only a very small clongation,and do not have the'give'
that is so desirablca characteristicof a textilcfibre.Thcy do not
absorbmoisture,and thc fabricsare uncomfortablc againstthc
skin.They cannotbe dyedby normaltcchniqucs.
Despitelhescdrawbacksto thc usc of glassfibrcsfor gcncrll
textileapplications,the fibrcshavcestablished importantcnd-uscs.
'fhey
are made into fircproof fabrics for curtains and drapcrics
in cinemas,theatresand othcr public buildings,and thc newcr
typesof fibre (e.g.Betafibre)are now beingusedincreasingly in
domesticapplications of this type.Tableclothsmade from glass
fibre, Ior examplc,are not damagedby cigaretteslcft burning on
them.
Glassfibres are used for apparelfabricsin specialapplica-
tionssuchascar racinssuitsandsuitsfor astronauts.

665

- l l t l t t r t l
l r ! l l l l
I I L T I I I I
LI: r, - I: li - - |: - - il - !: l.,,:- !"i -J."
ri I
it I
t'
HANDBOOK OF TEXTILE F I BRES
B: SYNTHETTC FIBRES

Long slaplcfbrcs o[ controlleddiamctcrsarc produccdfront

ALUMINIUM SILICATE FIBRES an aluminiumoxide-silica melt which containsa small propor-
tion of zirconia.Staplelength 12.1-254 mnr (|4-10 in); fibrc
Fibres spunfrom aluminiumsilicate,with or without the addition
diarneters:fine, l-8 (mean5) 1-r;ntediumcoarse,3-25 (nrcan
of minor amountsof other materials: l0)u
A I 203.SiO2
FORMSAVAILABLE
INTRODUCTION
Aluminium silicatefibre is availablein a number o[ forms,
Glass, asbestosand mineral wool fibres provide excellent service
including short staple bulk fibre; paper; long staple bulk; both
in specialized applications for fibres up to temp€ratures of about
short and long stapleblanket;rope; yarn; roving; tape;coating
540'C. At higher temperatures, they tend to become .ineffective.
cement;choppedfibre; washedfibre; block; board; tubes;millcd
and there is a need for special-purpose
fibre; felt; cloth; tubular shapes;cord; hollow braid; wicking;
fibres which can withstand squarebraid;tampingmix; laminates: preforms;hydrauticsctting
temperatures aboye this level. A number of ceramic-type materials
have been spun into fibres for this purpose, among them
compositions.Non-rigid forms are capableof being made into
aluminium silicate.
rigid or resilientforms by additionof a liquid,rcfractoryhardcn-
ing agent termed Rigidiscr.
Aluminium silicate fibres were developedoriginally for use jn
iet.engines.providing a high-temperal.ure-resista;t (540-1,260.C.),
light-weight,strong,fibrous material of Iow lhcrmal conductivity.
These fibres have since become of great value in manv apolica_ NOMENCLATURE
tions outside the jet engine field, including high temperature
-electriial
filters, packings, gaskets, insulation (thermal, and Ceramic Fibres
acoustical) and the like. Aluminium silicatefibres are relatedchemicallyto the silicate
-.Tbe manufacturing pr<ress for producing aluminium silicate mixturesthat form the basisof ceramic(pottery)nratcrials, and
fibres is relatively sinrple, and the raw materials - alumina and they are often includedin a generalclassificationcallcd cuonic
silica - are cheap and readily available. These fibres can be fibres. This is an impreciseand unsatisfactorytcrm which is,
produced at lower cost than other lypcs of high-temperature. however,widely used.
resisting fibres, such as the silica fibres.

Inorganic Fibres
TYPES OF ALUMINIUM SILICATE FIBRE
Aluminium silicateis an inorganicmaterial,and fibresspun from
Aluminium silicate fibres are produced typically as short staple
it are inorganic fbres.
hbre. or as long staple,lextile grade fibrcs. The lonp staole tvoe
is produced as finc or mediurn fibres to meet partic-ulariecuiie_ High Temperature Fibres
menls. The growing importanceof fibres capableof retaininguscful
propertiesat elevatedtempcratures has lcd to lhc usc of tr
Short staple libres are made from an aluminium oxide_silica general descriptivelerm high tempersturcfbrcs. This tcrm is
melt which containssmall amounts of soditrmand boron (sodium
commonly applied to fibres which can be used above about
D o r a t e ) t o h e l p i n c o n t r o l l i n gt h e m e l t . S t a p l e l e n s t h
- is 6.35_ 40O"C.,and aluminium silicatefibres qualify for inclusionin thc
z ) . 4 m m ( ' / a - l i n ) ; f i b r e d i a m e t e r0 . 5 _ 1 0 p . group.
666
 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES B: SYNTIIE'IIC TIBRI]S

PRODUClION SpccilicGrnrity
2;13.
AluntiniunrSilicate
A l: I mixture of alumina and silica, containing a small propor- Thcrmal Propcrties
tion of sodium borate (for short staple) or zirconia (for long
Mching point: above 1,760'C.
staple) is fused in an electric furnace.
l+4
axitrttun Use 7'ct,tparaturc'.
about 1,260'C.
Fibre Production Aluminiunrsilicatefibre showsno tendencyto mclt or sintcr
Molten aluminium silicateis poured from the furnace in a small cvenat temperatures but thereis a gradualchangc
up to 1,370'C.,
slream. As it falls, the stream of liquid mects a blast of com- from the amorphousglassystructureto the crystallincslructurc
pressed air or steam. -fhe stream of aluminium silicate is disinte- at temperatures above 1,000'C.,the changeprocecdingfrslcr at
grated into fine droplets or particles, and these are attenuated highertemperatures.
into fine libres as they are blown through the air. The fibres are
collected on a mesh screen, forming a mat of llbre which is Specific Heat: Bulk fibre, measured at 60"C., pcr nSfivl
coilectedfor processing. designationC-351: 0.20.

j
Thernnl Conductivity: Ihe diagranr on pagc 670 shows curvcs
STITUCI'URI] AND PITOPERI'IL:S of tlrcrnrrl conductivilyflgainsl nlcln tcnlpcrntrtrcsfor foltr
fabricatcdfornrs.
!'ine Strucaure
and Appearance
ChemicalProperaics
Molecular Stuclure Acids
Aluminium silicatefibresare amorphousin structure,sinrilarin Good resistanccto mostconrmonacidsundcr nornrll conclitions.
this respectto glass.If they ale held at ten]peraturesabove but attackedby hydrolluoricacid and phosphoricacid.
1,000'C.and below the meltingpoint for long periodsof time,
the meterialundergoesdevitrilication;the amorphousmaterial Alkalis
acquircsan ordered crystallinepattern. This change makes the
fibre more brittle, lower in tensilestrengthand more easily Cood resistance to dilute alkalis at normal tcmDcraturc.
but
abraded.There is also someevidenceof shrinkase. attackedby strongalkalis.

Metals
Fibre Fornt
The fibres exhibit non-wetting charactcristicsto nroltc|l
Aluminium silicate fibres are white. Thev are smooth-surfaced aluminium,zinc, etc.; they are frequentlyuscdfor the conlain-
and of round cross-section. ment of thesemolten mctals.

TcnsilcStrcnglh Gcneral
L o n gs r a p l ef.i n e : 1 2 . 6 0 0k g / c m ?( I S 0 , 0 0 0t b / i n 2 ) Good gencralresistance
to mostcommonchcnricals.
Rcsislsboth
m e d i u mc o a r s e :8 . 1 0 6k e / c m r( I 1 5 . 8 0 0l b / i n 2 ) oxidizingand rcducingatmospheres.
No significantchangcon
c o a r s e :3 , 5 0 0k ! / c r n 2( 5 0 , 0 0 0t h / i n 2 y ' ( e s r . y cxposurcto hydrogenat 1,300'C.
668 669

|
\
[-
I
I f-
I
t rT t
\
I
\
I ll
\
| 1
L
| |
I
| lt
I
| 'r
I
I l
L
l l
L
I t r
L
l t
L
I t t
L
l
L.- -l
F
t H A N D E O O K O F T [ , X T IL E F I B R E S B: SYNTIIETIC FIBRES

\COATING wool and asbestos arc often inadequalc,to about 1,260'C.It

CEMENT can be usedfor shortexposurcs at higherlcmpcraturcs,but thcrc
l2Olb/cu.1t. -l'hc
is somelossof resilience and someshrinkage. dcvitrification
which takesplace al thesetemperatures doesnot, howcvcr,allect
the insulalingproperticsof thc Ilbrc.
BULKFIBRE
Extremelylow thermalconductivityis one of the outstanding
+3 featuresof aluminiumsilicatefibres,valucsrangingfroln lcss
/\TAMPING
than + to 3 B.T.U.lhr./sq.ft. "F.
MIX / /inch of thickness,
depcnrling
.. upon temperatures and the form of the matcrial.
Aluminium silicateprovidesa lightwcight,high tcmpcraturc
F
,z-BLANKING heat barrier with excellentthermal shock rcsistance,flamc rcsis-
6lb/cu.1t.
tance,resilience,chemicalstabilityand clcctricitlpropcrtics.
'fhe
--BLOCK-Ft3 fibresof aluminiumsilicateinterlock.Thcre is no brittlc
z structure to develop stressesduring suddcn heating or chilling.
o
/ZSOARD
Z\PAPER End UseE
,/ 4 Alunriniumsilicatclibtcs are uscdfor a varictyof high tcnrpcrl-

4
I ture applications,including thermal, acousticaland clectrical
insulation,filters,packingsand gaskcts,contrinrrrcntand con-
veyanceof molten/ non-ferrousmetals.

Bulk.
One of the major usesin bulk fornt is in high tcmpcraturc
OF
MEAN TEMPERATURE. insulation. End-uscs include furnacc hot-topping, hcating
'l'hc
Alttttritriurrrsilicqte Fibrc; Thernul Conductivill'.This graph showsthe elementcushionsand jet engineblankcts. bulk fibrc is also
thermal conductiyity of diflerent forms of aluminium silicate fibre used as an expansion-jointpacking in kilns and furnaccslo
('Fiberfrax') plotted against temperature.
reduceheat lossesand help maintain uniform furnacc tcmpcra-
tures.

lifrcct of Organic Solvents Brazing Furnaces,Short staplefibre is usedin placeof asbesios

in continuousbrazingfurnacesto cushionaluminiumand coppcr
The fibres are wetted by organic solvents, but resist attack by parts.
nost of them.
FurnaceRolls.Many of the insulationapplications for which
bulk fibre is used also require that thc insulation should bc
ALUMINIUM SILICATE FIBRES IN USE
vibration resistant,i.e. fibres must not be shaken loosc during
service. Long staple fibres provide better vibration resistancc
GcneralCharacaeristics than short staple;this is an importnntfactor,for example,whcn
Aluminium silicatefibresare usedlargely for insulationpurposes, bulk fibresare usedfor irsulating rolls that conveysteeland alloy
filling a gap that existsfrom about 400'C., where glass,mineral sheetmctal through annealingfurnaces.
6"tQ 6'tI
 t
IlANDIIOOK OF TEXTILE FIARES
Ggt Filtcrs. Long slaplc aluntinium silicatc fibrc is uscd [or
filtration of hot gasesio thc region of 760"C.
Balls
il[ rr" fornred by bulking the fibre into a blanket-likeshape,
which is held togethermechanicallyby wire or a similar fastening
device.
Air Conveyors,When exlremely hot materials are being con-
veyed, the Rbre in batt form is placed jn the bottom of an air
chanrber. Hot solids from roasting or calcining operations are
fed into the upper part of the chamber, and air passingthrough
the fibrous batt keeps the solids suspendedfor transfer to other
processingareas.The air nray atso serve to cool the solids.The
fibre balt is suitablefor such usesbecauseof its high temperature
resistance,its air permeability, and the fact that it does not
deleriorate rvlren hot suspendedsolids are depositedon the batt
dufing shutdown.
Engirrc SilertcTs. The good acoustical absorption characteristics
of aluminium silicate fibres, coupled with rcsistance to high
tcmperatures and vibration, makes them suil.ablematerjal for
acousticalinsulation for jet engines.
Paper
Aluminiunr silicate paper is made in a range of thicklesses,e.g.
20,40 and 80 mils. Applications for paper include high tempera-
ture linings, filters, gaskets, fabrication aids and electrical
applications.
Higlt Tentperature Lirings. The thin gauge and low thermal
conductivity of aluminium silicate papers make them useful lor
high temperatureliuing materials.Many non-ferrousmetals,such
as aluminium, magnesium,and some brassesand bronzesdo not
readily wet or attack the fibrc. Paper nrade from.it may therefore
be used to line metal ducts, ladles, crucibles, spouts, launder
systems,ingot nrouldsand other metal componentsused to handle
these molten metals.
Aluminiurn silicatepaper is also usedas a lining for combustion
-LIL_i-L_l
B: SYNTII ETIC FI INT,S
'lhc
ch;rrrrbcrsin oil-fircd tionrcstichcirting unils. flpcr prolccls
tlrc slccl wall of thc chambcr fronr dircct flanrc inrpingcnrcnl.
'fhe
Goskets. papcr is uscd for grskcts on pressurc vcsscls,
flanges,orifice blocks and othcr cquipmcnt lhirt encountcr high
ternperaturesand make use of nrodcraicly low prcssurcs.Sccausc
of the rclatively high porosity of thc paper, it can be inrprcgnatcd
with siliconcs, fluorocarbons and sirnilrr hcat-rcsislantinrprcg-
nants to adapt thc papcr to highcr prcssurcg skct ap;.rlications.
ProcessirtglirLr. Aluminium silicate papcr can also bc uscd
as process and firbrication aids. lt is usctl succcssfully,for
example, as a braking cushion in nraking brazed stainlcssstccl
honeyconrbsandwich structurcs.Dimensionalstability and incrt-
nessarc pnmary rcqulrcments.
Blocks or Boards
Pr.clornrcdblocks arc nradc of short slaplc fibrcs arrrl srritlblc
l i l l c r s a n d b i n d e r sw h i c h d o n o t r c d u c e t h c 1 , 2 6 0 " C r. r r a x i r r r u r r r
service temperature o[ the matcrial. Aluminium silicalc blocks
l
or boards rcduce hot wall tenrperaturesin industrial firrnaccs,
'Ihe
kilns aud combustion chambcrs. block providcs lowcr hcrt
losscs and lightcr walls as compared rvith nrany convcntional
rcfraclory fire bricks.
Devitrilication nrly take placc in conrbustion applicutions,
owing to the high lcrnperalurcsinvolvcd.'fhc tcnrpcralurcgrarlicnt
throtlgh lhe block is srrch,howcvcr,that dcvitrilication is gcncrally
confined to the hot face of the block. The block oltcn appcars
to be stronger after exposure to dcvitrifying conditions thun
before.Exposureto high hcat conditionsdoes not appcar to havc
a serious eflect on lhc insulating propcrties of thc blocks. and
such blocks may be re-used,even though the hot faccs nrry bc
more easily abraded and show somc surfacc shrinkage.
l
Oil-Jired Furnaccs. Illocks or boards line thc corrrbustion
charnbers of oil-fired furnaccs. Thc usr.:of alunriniunr silicatc
blocks reduccs slag build-up on thc chanrbcr wall, and littlc if
'l'hc
any corrosion from direct llamc impingcnrcnt occurs. light-
rvcightblock also elinrinatcsthc necd for a forccd air'tflcr purtlc'
of the furnace. Purging is norv done entirely by blccd-dorvnof
613
t r t l t
\ \ l
t.nnnF,E.F
nn nF,nnnnhE f}
HANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES
lhe prinraryair prcssure
chanrberand by naturaldraughtthrough
the secondary air controldamperand blower.
Tunnel Kilns. The good resistanceof aluminium silicateblocks
to thermal shock is of particular advantagewhen the blocks are
usedas roof tiles in tunnelkilns. Tunnel kiln operationsocca-
sionallyinvolve jam-upsbecauseof movementof skidrailsor
war€-supportingsetter plates. Substantialproduction time may
be lost in waiting for the kiln to cool slowly in order to avojd
fractureor spallingof the insulatingbrick. Kilns insulatedwith
aluminium silicateblock can be cooled more rapidly becauseof
the matcrial's superior resistanceto thermal shock. Also. the
block may be re-usedafter the tunnelhas beendismantledand
the jam-up straightened out.
Electric Furnaces. Aluminium silicate blocks are used for
lining electric furnacesused to form graphite tubes,The blocks
proyide eflectiveinsulationwhile maintaininga furnacetempera_
ture of 900'C. for severaldays.The blockshaveproved satisfac-
tory over several years of operation, without deterioratios
in
-witb
either oxidizingor reducingatmospheres or atter contact
pitch vapoursand sulphurgases.
Tex.tiles
Severaltypes of alumirrium silicatetextile products are available,
made from long staple fibres. These include blankets, roving, yarn,
rope, lape and broad woven textile goods. yarns reinforced with
glass filaments, alloy wire and other materials are also made.
Blat*ets. Aluminium silicate fibre blankets are used as hich
temperature insulation in furnace tops, sidewalls and ducts;
turbine exhaust lines, and superheatedpiping. In piping
-for applica_
tions, the bla-nket is particutarly welt suited insuiating
tabflcated section such as flange and valve covers and elbows.
These_insulatiorrsare usually assembledby encasingthe blanket
ln a flexrblc alloy screenor heat-resislantcloth and stitching the
a-ssemblytogether. Removable coverings may be made u! in
this way.
. The degree of insulation obtaiDable witb these blankets is
indicatedby an installationin an incineratorusedto burn exhaust
674
B: SYNTHETIC FI BRES
fumesgenerated in a paintsprayoperation. The blankctrcduccd
a combuslionchambertemperature of about 900"C. to a srfc
levelof about65'C. on the outsidcshell.
Aluminium silicateblanketsare also usedas a packingbetwccn
firebrick linings of a petroleum refining furnace. fhe'lircbrlct
expands and contracts with lluctuating temperal.uresin thc
furnace,and the blanket acts as an expa-nsion joint fillcr as wcii
as a seal againstgas leakage.
Combinationsof aluminium silicateblanketsand glassfibresor
asbestosmaterials offer interestingpossibilities.Tf,e blankct is
used10 reducethe temperature: to a saferangefor thc glassor
asoesros. A flange cover used for supcrheatcdslcam DiDiuc
reduceda hot facetempcrature of 600.i. to aboutS0.C.on iiri
cold^facethrough63.5 mm (2tAin) o[ aluminiunrsilicatcbirrriet
andJ6_.tmm ( I )4in) of Blassfibre blanket.The assernbly is about
o n e , h a lt,h ew e i g h ot f c o n v e n t i o nianls u l a t i o n .
Othcr Taxtilcs.A variety of applicationsfor othcr tcxlilc
proouctsrncludegaskctsand scalsitr hcat-lrcting furuaccs.
ronc
packiugsfor moulds(bctwcenlhc hot top ,rn,fr-n"l,rg"i-niourul
in steel manufacture,bag filtersfor coliectingnot c-arbonanj
.
cnemlcats,and electrical
wire windingandwrapping.
Castables
Castablealuminium silicate fibre conrposilionsarc availablc,
which incorporatehigh lemperalurebinding nratcriats.
Alu.
mrnru.nr
s lcate ollers extremelygood tbcrmal shockrcsistancc,
Iow--thermalconductivityan4 muchlowerdensitythan prcviouslv
availablecastablerefractories.In addition to'drving' lirls-anj
pressure
vessellinings,castablealuminiumsilicatshbrc has becn
usedon b-oileraccessdoors,and as incineratorlinlngs,Ouciinsu_
latronand inductionfurnaceshielding,
Drying Lids. Castablealuminium silicate is used in lids for
drying _and settling ceramic linings in casting pots. Thc lid- is
to a temperaturecyclc of room tcmperatureto more than
9x-p-9s99
1,093"C.Burner blocksare mountcdon thc lid, and "n nir_o"i
mixture is burned to providea heat sourcc.ln operation.ihc
castablesurfaceis suspendedover the castingpot and thus is in
direct contactwith the flamesweepduring nring. Lias madc froin
675
 I I A N D B O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S D : S Y N T I IE T I C F I D R E S

other types of castablerefractoriesweigh675-900 kg (1,500- insulationnrry bc uscd cllcctivclyin thc rlcsignof pllnts for
2,000 lb). For an equivalentthickness,thc aluntiniurnsilicatelid burningwasteat thcscincrcascdrcmDcraturcs.
weighsonly 257.5kg (350 lb).
Filtrution ol Rudioactit,cparticy'c.r.
Alunriniunr silicatc fibrc is
PressurcVessels. Castablealuminium silicatecompositionsare used in liltering radioactivcparticlesfrom hot gas strcanrsin
usedas liningsfor pressure vessels. The lining is installedon the a l o m i ce n e r g yp l a n t s .
inner wall of the vessel,conforming to the contoursof the top

I
and bottom,as well as the inlet and outletports.In one applica- Missilesund Rockets.'fheresistanccof lightwcightalunrinium
tion, the vesselis designedto withstand2l kglcnt2(300 lb/in2) silicatelibre to crosionand thermalshock is advantagcous in
g a sp r e s s u raet 8 1 5 " C .T h e l i n i n g .a p p l i e d5 l m u r ( 2 i u ) t h i c k . nrissiieand rocketinsulation.
permitsthe original5l mm (2 in)-thick stainless steelwall to be
replacedwith a l3 mm (% in) carbonsteelwall. Firc-resistant Products.The non-flanrmability o[ alunriniunt
silicate^
fi bre_is_a useful property in the manutaciureof fireproof
Moulded Shapes srfes,files,desks,panelsand partitionsand thc likc.
Rigid,structuralmouldedshapesof aluminiumsi[catelibresand
high temperaturc bindersare usedfor many applications. These
include re-usablerisers for non-ferrouscasting,which have the
advantagethat the riser is not wettedby molten aluminiumor
magnesirrm. Other applicationsare combustionchambcrliners,
baftlesand flamedetectors,small furnaceand ovenliners,and can
sctter platesand shields.Corrugatedsbeetingservesas spacersin
high temperature absolutefiltersand may be adaptableto base-
platesfor heatingelementwires.

ItrtprcgnatedMoulclings.Rigid :noulded products nrade from

aluminiumsilicatefibre,because of their relativelyhigh porosity,
may be impregnated by vacuumand immersiontechniques with
commonlyavailablebinders,includingirorganicbinders,rubber,
phenolic,epoxy and siliconesolvent or latex-basematerials.

Other Applicatiotts
Aluminium silicatefibres are being usedcommerciallyand ex-
perinrentallyin a great number of applicationswhich show parti-
cular promise for the future.

Snog Control.Incinerationof wastematerialat temperaturcs

lrigherthau thosecommonlyemployedcan reducecontamination
of the atmosphere. Burnedat 760'C., raw scwageproducesno
objcctionable odours or air pollution.Aluminium silicatefibre
676 677

-tiu-L_-li
I ' ' t
\
l t
\
t t
L
l r
L
l t l
L - -
 f[-l- - F I-
H ANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
I\{ETALLIC FIBRES
Fibresproducedfrom metals,which may be alone or in conjunc-
tion rvith other substances.
INTRODUCTION
Filam€nts of mctal haye been used as decorativeyarns since the
very earliesltinres. Nletal threads,for example,were used by the
Persians for producing the intricate and attractive patterns in
their carpets; the ancient Egyptians woye threads of gold into
the fabrics of their ceremonialrobes.
These metal filaments were made by beating soft metals and
alloys, such as gold, silver, copper and bronze, into thin sheets,
and tben cutting the sheetsinto narrow ribbonJike filaments. The
filaments were used entirely for decorative purposes, providing a
glitter and sparkle that could not be achieved by other means.
As textile fibres, these metal filaments had inherent short-
comings which restricted their use. They were expensive to pro-
duce; they tended to be inflexible and stiff, and the ribbon-like
cross-sectionprovided cutting edges tlrat made for a harsh, rough
handle; they were troublesome to knit or weave, and they had
only a limited resistanceto abrasion.Apart from gold, the metals
would tend to tarnish, the sparkle being dimmed with the passage
of time.
Despite these shortcomings, the metallic ribbon-lilament has
remained in use for decorative purposes right up to the present
day. The development of modern techniques of surface-protection
has brought cheaper metals into use; aluminium foil, for example,
may be anodized and dyed before being slit into filaments which
are colourful and corrosion-resistanr.
Ribbon-filaments are now manufactured in considerable ouan-
lity, e.g. as tinsel. but they remain an essentiallydecorative
material. The filaments are weak and inextensible. and are easilv
broken during wear: they lack the flexibility that is essentialin a
genuine textile fibre.
Mullicomponent Metallic Filanlents
In recent years, the ribbon filament of metal has undergone a
6't8
i - ; l- . Fl lr -. l. -t t - I F ' Lr
I r l r l '
I ,
I
B: SYNTH ETIC FI ARES
I
transformation which has changcd thc comnrcrcial ouflook
for
this ancientproduct. The metal of the lilamcnt is now sonj*i.ti".t
between layers of plastic, which protect it from the ;t;;;il;;;
and from other corrosive influences.
The multicomponcnt filaments produccd by slitting srndwiclr
materials of this type are strong-r and moie,obusi ih;; i;;
filamcnts cut from metal foil alone. They retain tt" giitt.,
oi
the mctal during prolonged pcriods of use, onO trauJ a iof1,
pleasant handle. Coloured pigmenls may be addcd
to the ad-
hesrve_used in sticking the plasticfilms to the mctal foil or mctal_
Itzed film-
Mctallic fibres of this type are now widely used in the tcxlilc
.
Industry, and are produced in a range of colours anrl
forms bv
many manufacturers.They remain, however, esscntiallvdcco#
Itve materiats,and their applicationsare rcstrictcdto this typc
of
use.
Single-componcntMctallic Fibrcs
With the rapid dcvclopmentof the nrissilcand spacc_vchicle,
thc
single-componcntrnctallic fibre has assumccln n"* i-poriin"".
Metals are being made into filamentsso line that tht;;i";;;
degree
-of flexibility which enables them to scrve i. pi""ti."i
texlile fibres.These fine-filamentmclallic fibrcs may Uc,p,,,r
nn.i
woven and knittcd on normal textile mrchincry, ind
rhev havc
physical and chemical characteristicsrhat ."nOii
rt.- oi oi"ni
importance in many tcxtile applications.
Many tynes of nretallic filantcnt arc now bcing proclucc<I
conrnrcrcially;sorne,like stainlcsssleel,are nraking go-odprogr"r,
in a variety of tcxtile end-uses.
TYPES OF METALLIC FIBRE
Metallic fibres usedin the moderntcxtile industryare of two
m a i nt y p e s :
(l) I4.etallic (Singlc-component)Fibrcs, or Mctallic (S.C.)
Fibres.
(2) J\4etallic(Mulri-component)Fibres, or Mcrallic (M.C.)
Fibres.
In. the sectionwhich follows,the two typcsof mctallicfibrc arc
consideredseparatelyunder theseheartings.
679
 I J A N D B O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B I I E S
:
NOi\,II]NCLATURF,
Thc tcrnr nrctdlic lihrc, in its generalsense,nlcanssinrply a liblc
that is nrade fronr metal. Fibres of this typc also comc into thc
catcgory of inorgunic {ibrcs.
Fedcral Trade Connissiotr Dclinitiott
The gcneric lcrm Drclallic was adopted by the U.S. Federal Trarle
Commission for fibres of this type, the oflicial definition being
as follows:
Meiqllic- A nranufactured fibre composed of metal, plastic-
coated mctal, metal-coatcdplastic, or a core completely covered
by metal.
(I) METALLIC (SINCLE.COMPONENT) FIBRES
INTR,ODUCTION
The ductilityof metalsmakespossibletheir conversion into wire,
by drarving the nretal tbrough dies that bccome successively
smallcr.This processresembles,in some degree,the production
of a syntheticfibre suchas nylon by extrudingmoltenpolymer
throughthe orificeof a spinneret.In eachcase,the nraterialis
bcingforcedinto a continuouslengthof narrow-diameter rod by
forciugit througha hole of appropriate diameter.
The productionof wirc is a traditionalhurnancraft that has
its origins in the earliestdays of the metal-workingcivilizations.
As the techniqueof rvire-drawingbecamemore relined,it became
possibleto producewires of smaller and smaller diameter,but
the nature of the processset a limit on the finenessof the wire
that could be producedeconomically in this way.
Fine wire is, in eflect, a mononlamentof metal, and it bas
long been woven into fabric-like structures such as window
screens, wire supportstructures in industry,filterscreens,and the
like.The metalwiresusedfor theseapplications, however,do not
have the flexibilitythat is a characteristic of a genuinetextile
fibre; they retain much of the inherent stiffnessof the bulk
mctalfrom whichtheyare formed.They are quiterigid materials,
and this rigidityimposes mechanical in the weavingor
difficutties
680
- l r-l r-l r-[ r-l r r r
B: SYNTIIETIC FI'IRES
k n i t t i n g o p e r a t i o n si;t l i m i t s h a n d l i n ga n d p r o d r r c t i o nr r l c s , i t n d
rcstricls lhc cnd-Lrseapplicalionsof rvovcrrwirc flbrics.
On lhc olhcr hand, mctals havc inhcrcnl chanlclcrislicslhirt
could bc of very great value in many modern tcxtile applicatiorrs;
thcy could serve in cnd-usesfor which organic, glasj antl othci
'normal'
textile fibres are inadccuale.
During the lrte 1950s.lhc devclopmcnt of high-spccd flighr
and spacetravel createddemandsfor flcxiblc rlalcrials ihat worrld
be caprble of withstanding uniquc cnvironnrcntal con<.litions.
These materialswould be used, for cxamplc, in the manufaclurc
of protectivcgarments,antennamcmbrancs,parnchulcsand othcr
structuresused in thc spaceprograntme.It bccanretpparcnt that
lhe requirementsfor such applicationscould bc mct bv thc nro_
duclion of fibres of adequatc flexibility frorn h igh-tcirrpcrri u rc
nretalsor alloys,c.g. of the stainlcssstceltypc.
The flexibility of mater.ialsis a function of cross-sectional arcu.
As thc diameter of a rod is rcduccd by onc-hal[, its flcxibility in_
creasesby a factor o[ four, The problcm of producing rrrclll
fibrcs of adcquatc flcxibility rcsolvcs ilscl[, thcicforc, irito thrt
ctl producing lilancnts of thc lcccssury lincncss,ln thc casc of
a metal likc stainlesssteel, with a nrodulus of 29.000.000.it is
nccessaryto reduce the diameter of a rod to form a filtnrcnt of
approxinralely one-half-thousandlhof an inch (lZ nricrons. rD_
prox.)^to attain a flexibility equivalcnt to that of r -t..] tltcx
n y r o nn n n e n t .
l)uring the 1960s,methods of producing mctal lilanlcnls oI thc
rcquired finenesswerc dcvelopcd. lnitially, thc proccss wirs so
expcnsivethat thc lilanrentswere rcstrictcdin thciiusc to csscntiIl
nrilitary.a_ndaerospaceapplications,rvherc low volunrc and high
cost could bc lolcralcd. Subsequcntly,dcvelopnlcnto[ thc procc-ss
has lcd lo increasedprodtrction n(l a sUbstanlill lowciinc ot
costs. Ivlctal fibres havc bccorncavailablc in qrr:rntiticsantl il a
cost which entitlesthem to considcrationas gcnuinc textile fibrcs.
TYPES OF METAI-LIC (S.C.)FII}t{E
Continuousfilamcnt yarns and staplefibre are produccdfrtrnt
a nunrberof difier.cntmetalsand alloys,thc st:rinlcss
stccls0(X)
series l8/8 alloys) bcing particularlyimporlant. Nickct trlsc
supcralloys,suchas ChronrclR and Karnra,and scvcnrlof tlrr:
681
! - E n n f : r r t l - r : r : f: fr f: f: fi frE
l,
HANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
refractory metals such as niobium and tantalum have also been
formed into filamentsof 12 microns and finer.
These metal fibres are available as twisted multifilament yarns,
tow and staple fibre.
Multinlament yarns are heat-set and without torque. They.are
tvoicallv of 90 .na t OO,I Z micron diameter filaments,equivalent
Atix tiO-l3O (den 100-300) approx.; 25 tnicron diameter
filament yarns are also available for industrial applications such as
high temperature conveyor belting or cordage, where iigh tensile
strength is particularly important. Filaments of 8 p diameter and
finer are available.
Core-spun and wrapped yarns may be made with organic and
glass fibres, the metal being either core or wrap.
Filament yarns may be bulked by the conventional processesto
provide an unusually elastic textured yarn which lends high cover
to fabrics.
Staple fibre is available usually in the form of sliver.
PRODUCTION
Metallic (S.C.)filamentsare produced by drawing either single
lilamentsor mullifilamentstrands.
Single filament drawing prodtrces excellent quality metallic-
ftbres, but multifilament drawing offers the best possibility of
reducingcost and increasingavailability.One methodof drawiog
multifiliment yarns is to enclosea bundle of 2 mil. (0.002inch)
wire in a sheathof a dissim.ilaralloy.Thesheathedbundleis drawn
to the requiredextent,and the sheathis removedwith nitric acid
to leave ihe multifilament yarn ready for sizing, warping and
weavlng,
PROCESSING
StapleFibrc
Staplefibre may be producedfrom continuousfilament tow by
processingthrough tlre Perlok Systemfor fibre breaking.Tension
control, specialguides,especially-hardenedbreakerbars' etc., are
required,but the processis essentiallythe sameas that usedfor
breakingorganicfilameottow.
682
B: SYNTHETTC FIBRES
The sliverformedin this way of 9.8-15.2 cm (4-6 in) staplc,
by conventionalgilling techniqucs(c.9.
may then be processed
pin-drafter)' Sliversaslight as 16.7g/m ( I 5 g/yd)
Warner-Swasey
may be madewith very few fibresin the cross'section.
Metal fibres may bc made more amenableto proccssingby
rougheningtheir surface to improve drag or drafting,charactcr-
istic-s.Thii property is reflectedin excellentfibre-to-fibreintcr-
action during drawing, and high translationof fibre strengthto
yarn
- strengthat appropriatetwist multiplicrs.
Roving1nd spinning processesmay be applicd-in a convcn'
tional nianner ind yarns of 100 per ceni stainlessstccl, for
example,have been spun successfully.
Blcnds
The primary applicationfor stainlesssteel fibre has bccn in
blencli with organic fibres l{any important cnd-uscs,rcquirc
blendscontainingvcry snrallproportionsof stainlcss stcclfibrcs'
On the American Worsted System'thc blcnd is gcncrally
achievcdat the pin-drafter'
Sliver of stcel'ibrc is introduccd to
numberof organicnbrc tops'
the pin-dra{terwith an appropriate
Thrie or four passesthrough the pin'draftersachicvc-a-good
blendwith aslittle as+ percentby wcightof stainless stccllib-rcin
the Rnalyarn.Worsledyarnso[ 60scountand highcr'containing
?1per c€nt steel,may be made in this way.
When a low is bcing used,the blend may be startcdat thc
filament-breaking machine by introducingstainlcssstcel and
organicfibre low simultaneouslY.
Worsted-yarnblends containingsmall proportionsof nrctrl
fibre may also be made satisfactorily by introducing Jlood or
Turbo-brlken metallic fibre sliver along with Pacilic Convcrtcd
organic fibre or top to the pin-draftersfor gilling and blcnding'
Ya-rnsmacle in this way are more applicable to linc worsted
woven fabrics than the tll-Turbo yarns describedabovc, which
havebeenusedprimarilyin knittedstructurcs.
Conventionalopening,cardingand spinningsystemsarc suit-
ablefor processing metalfibrein blendswith wool or man-madc
woollen spun carpet yarns.The various settings
fibres foi use in
on the machinesare determinedby the predonrinantfibre in thc
blend.
Metalfibreis fed to the cardweb afterthefirstbreakersection.
683
 {j
i' H A N D B O O KO F T E X T T L EF I B R E S
B: SYNTIIETIC FINRES

S T I { U C T I J I { EA N D P I t O P E R T I I : S
The tow end is fed from an overheador sicle_feed position
into the centreof the card web beforedeliveryto tfre cJnr"- oi 'l
he propertiesof a metalftbrearc esscntiallythoscof thc metal
side draw feed.Care should be taken to unwind tbe tow end iiom itself.The generalcharacteristics
of metallibrcsas they rclatcto
thc side o[ the packageand not over the end of the Dackapc to lheir usein textilcsare discusscd
in the next scction.
prevelt unneccssary twisting.The metal fibrc should be a-dded stcclfibrcs
Detailsof the Structureand Propcrticsof stainlcss
to the blend subsequent to peraltaor burr crushingrolls. are given on page690.
The advantages of usingthis techniqueare as foll6ws;
l. No alterations in machinesettingsor productionoutputsare
necessary to manufacturecatpet yarnscontainingmetal 6trc. METALLIC (S.C.)FTBRESIN USE,
^.2. Uniform blendingof the small percentages of the metal
GcncralCharactcristics
fi bre is obrained.Depending on the widih of thelard w"b. w"iJi
perccntages of mctal fibre in the spun yarn will uary fr6m Metalshavea numberof generalcharacteristics
whichcan be of
approximately + to + per cent. greatpractjcaluslrin textileapplications.
.3..The low percentage additionsby weightof metal fibre are
obtainedby direct feed. Meclrurical Propu|ics
blendingtechniqueswhich are necessary The potentialhigh yield and fracturestrengthsof most mctals
...,,4;
wfln 11.:-"9:.ru.ing
staptelibresare avoided. makepossibletlre productionof fabricswhich exccedin strcngth
thosethat can be produccdfrom cxistingorganicor glassfibrcs,
5. The additionaladvantageof significantreductionof in_
The molecular architectureof metals imposcs a cbaractcristic

l
processstatic in operationssubsequentto the addition
of metal behaviourunderstresswhich diflers from that of a typical organic
fibre is obtained.
textile fibre. The stress-straincurve of a metal fibrc, for example,
_ Cottonlength stainlesssteel fibres may be made by roller-
-long showsa completelyelasticbehaviourup to a yield point. It is
drawing a Hood-brokensliver on super dratt "quipr*ni. devoidof a viscouscomponentsuchas we lind in orgnnichigh
Blendingof organicfibre and sleel nU.e ,nJv tt.n U. ilcom_ polymers,and which we identify as primary crecp;this enablcs
plishedby appropriatedoublings. textile structuresto be made with designloads far in cxcessof
thoscachicvable with organicmaterials.
Non-wovens The absence of a signincant viscousbehaviourcharactcristic irr
nretal fibrcs ensurcsdimcnsionalstability in ccrlain struclurcs
Staplesteel fitre may be processedinto 100per cent cardedand which, at best,would be difficultto achicvewith convcntional
garnettedwebs to form non-wovenstructrlres. textilematerials.
It may also be
fed.to air-layweb-formingsystemsas sliveror card *"1 ro-iorrn The mostsignificant diflerencebetween organicfibresandnlclal
unrrormttbre densll.ywebs.Thesewebs may be comoacted fibreslies in the Yorng's lr4odulusof Elasticity,which is most
bv
variousnreansto form highlyefficient,high "Lpu"itynii", readilyrecognized as the rigidityor stiflnessof a material.Most
-.OL',
vrorattonlsolators.etc. organic textileshave a Young's Modulus of around 50(),0(D,
wbereas most lnetals exceed 10,000,000,Stainless stccl. for
Dyeing example,has a modulus of 29O00,000.
It was this high modulusof elasticity, and consequcnt stillness,
Stainlesssteel(304 type) fibre rnay be.dyed with certaincom_
which previouslyexcludedmetalsfrom usc as tcxtilc nrntcrials;
inercialtextiledyesto producedark shadei.
it placedseverelimitationson the proccssability and cnd-uses of
684 685

-[ ' ' ' t

I
l l
\
l
.l
 j
ffi frTT-l
HANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES
the fibres.lt is only with the adventof modernultra-linemetal
fibresthat adcquete flexibilityhasbeenachieved.
Spccific Gravity
Most metals have a high density in comparisonto those of or-
ganic materials,and this can be a seriousdisadvantage in the use
of metal fibresfor many applications.Stainlesssteel,for example,
has a specificgravityof 7.88,comparedwith nylon at 1.14and
polypropyleneat 0-9. lt is difficult, therefore,to use the denier
or tex designations for fineness,or the cN/texor g/denvaluesfor
tenacity,without compensating for thiswidedifference in density.
The high theoreticalstrengthsof some metals,however,will
result in high strength/weightratios,as well as the high modulus-
to-weightratios now realized.
Chenical Properties
The resistanceof metalsto chemicalsat room and elevatedtem-
peraturescovers ranges which differ generally from those of
organic flbres. Metal fibres can be exploited,oo this account,in
many military and industrial end-useswhere specific chemical
resistanceis a requiremeut.There are, however,applicationsin
which metals may sufler corrosion due to chemicalaction.
T lrcnnal Properties
Many metalsare able to tolerateand enduretempetatureshigher
than those which organic fibres will generallywithstand. Most
organicfibres may be usedin practiceup to 120-260"C.,whereas
metals can be expectedto perform useful structural functions
in temperaturerangeswell in excessof 260"C. Metal textile fibres
can operate usefully, for example, at temperatureswell over
1,000'c.
Most metals are good conductorsof heat, and metal fibres
may function as heat-sinkswhen used in adequateproportion in
blends.Thus, metal fibres may protect organicfibres in the blend
from the effectsof elevatedtemperature,by conductingawayheat
before the temperatureof the fabric is raised to a level where
damageto the organicfibre may occur.
This property is of significancein applicationssuch as protec-
tive clothing, the metal fibre acting as a safeguardagainstthe
effectsof brief exposureto high temperatures.It is also useful
l
B: SYNTHETI C FIBRES
in industrialapplicationssuch as drycr fclts in paper'nating'
wherethe thcrlnalconductivityof thc blcndcdyarnscontributes
to dryingefnciency.
Electrical Properties
Resistance Hearing. Metals. as a rule, are excellentelectrical
conductors. Within tbe rangeof highconductivity, howcver,therc
matcrialswhoseresis-
is a broad spectrumwhich inclrrdcs metallic
tance to thi flow of electric current enablssthem to bc usedas
resistanceheatingelements.
Elinination ol Stalic.The high electricalconductivityof most
metal fibres providesan eflcctivemcthod of eliminatingstatic
eiectric charges. Blencls containing low percantagcsof mctal
fibre providJ fabrics that are essentiallystalic'free. If a single
metal fibre is incorporatedin the cross'scctionof a yarn, nnd i[
the metal fibres along the yarn are within a critical distancefronr
eachother(withoutnecessarily touching), suflicicntclcctricalcon-
tinuity is providedto obviatethe accumulation of high concen-
trations of static electricity.
In sucha structurc,the eliminationof staticchargcsnray bc o[
much greatereconomicsignificance lhan at 0rst appcars.Apirrt
from tLe nuisance createdby clingingof garmcnts, staticclcctri-
citv encourages soilingof fabrics by atlracling particlcsof nir-
bornedirt. And withoutihc electricchrrgc to hold it to thc fibrc'
suchdirt as doesaccumulateon tlre fabric is casilyremovcd This
meansreducedmaintenance costsin applications suchas carpcts'
and ease-of-care propcrties in apparel fabrics.
In someenvironmints,the possibilityof a sparkarisingfrom
a static charge n.taybe a potcntial hazard. When inflammable
fluids are bcing handled, e.g. in fuelling stations or holpital
operatingroomi, the dangerof explosionmay be matcriallyre'
ducedif clothingis static-free.
The use of metal libres in static control providesan antistatic
treatment that is permanent,and lasts the lite of thc garment'
Wear,Iaundering ind dry cleaning,heat,light or comm-on chcmi'
cals will not influence the retention or eflectivencss o[ thc clcc'
trical conductivityof the yarns or fabrics. Furlhermore,by thc
verv nature of this techniqueof static control' thc efiectivcness
of the treatmentis completclyindependent of thc moislurccontcnt
687
 i
l HANDAOOK OF TEXTILE FIARES
o[ the fabric, its finishes,or the environmert. The antistaticpro-
pcrties rre retained even after fabrics are clried ilr an oven to
constant weight.
lvtost organic antistatic agents depend for their eflectivencss
on the absorption of nloisture fiom the atmosphere,and their
eflectivenesswill comnronly be reduced as the relative humidity
falls. This is unfortunate,as under theseconditionsthe accumula-
tion of static is most evident.
Organic antistatic agents are often wax-like substaucesin which
soil nray become embedded, and they tend to act as soil-traps.
Thc incorporation of metal fibres as antistaticagentsdoes not in
any way contribute to soiling of the fabric.
Pilling. In structures composed of bulked, lofty yarns, the
climination of static reduces the tendency to pilliog. Static electri-
city encouragesthe accumulation of lint, dander and fly, which
serve as nuclei around which unlike charged fibres aggregate on
the face of the fabric to form an incipient pill.
Magtrctic Properties. The magnetic properties of some metals
make possible the development of novel textile applications.
Micro-wat,e Reflectivity.Fabrics made from blcnds containinq
a low percentageof metal fibre have a high micro-wave reflecli-
vity. This makes possible the production of micro-wave reflective
garments, reflective tow targets and other military applications
where radar reflectivity is important.
END.USF,s
Continuousfilament metal yarns may be woven into a range of
[abric constiuctions,includingthe plain weaves,twills and sitins.
The1,rr1ut be knitted on both warp and weft knitting systems,
and braided, flat and tubular; they may be used io filament
wound compositesystentswith variousresin matrices.
Thc propertiesof thesetextile structuresconfirm the exDecta-
tionsof high temperature lolerance,high fiex-life,excellentabt.a-
sion resistance,corrosion resistanceand dimensionalstability.
The structuresare, in fact, true textiles,manifestingdrape'and
hand as a textile technologistindgesthesecharacteristics.
688
f-l r l
\
' l t ' [ ' l
B: S Y N T T JE T I C F I I ] R E S
The labricationof nretalfibrc textilcsis achicvcdon convcn-
iionaI textile processingequipntcntat conrmcrcialproduction
rates,and without inordinatemodifications. In sonrcinstanccs,
in order to achievegood running characteristics, spccial finishes
are applicdto the yarnsto improveinternalfilarncnl.-on-filamcnt
abrasionresistanceand to add lubricity ro lhe yarn surfacc to
reduce wear on guides, needlesand other nraclrine surfaccs.
Certainof thcscfinishcs,rvhcnlcft on thc filatitcnt,contriburclo
the end-usepcrformanccof the fabric by cnhan;ingwcar lifc,
corrosionrcsistance, colouringand bondingto othcr nlatcrials.
Staplelibre yarns spun from 100per ccnt nrctrl fibrc, or lrorn
blendscontainingmetal fibre in all proportions,nray bc knittcd
or woven into a wide range of Iabrics.
Very short fibre, with aspcctratios oI I to 100to 1,000arc
usedas reinforccment in resin,metalor ceramicmrtriccs,lcnding
structural,electrical,thermal and nragncticpropcrticsto the con)-
positestructure.
Carpets
Blendsof metal libre with carpctfibresprovidcc rpctsthat arc
essentially As little as * to + per ccnt o[ a stainlcss
static-{ree.
steelfibre, for example,will reducestatic to bclow thc levcl whicb
is noticeableto an individual.
I nrlustrialA pplicatiorts
Metat fibres,such as stainlesssteel fibres,may be usedin many
industrial applications.They provide reinforccmcntin nrcchanical
rubber goods,includingtyres,high-temperaturc-lolcrtnt flcxiblc
conveyorbclts, Fourdrinierwire and papcr nrachincwct and
dryer felts,filtration fabrics,both wovenand non-wovcn,cordngc,
braided hose and webbing where high flerlifc, corrosion rcsist-
ance, dinrensionalstability and strength are dcnrandingperfor-
nrancecharacteristics.
Raschclknitted commercialfish nettingand cargo handling
systemsalso hold attractive prospectsfor ntetal fibre textilcs.
Sewingthreadsare ntade efiectivelyfrom metal librcs.
Apparel Fabrics: Honte Furnishings,etc.
Low percentage blendsof metalRbreswith bulkcdacrylics,nylon,
polyesterand wool are madeinto knittedfabricssuchas men's
689
I
l F , t Fn' n
t ' i
i r:nr:r:r: trhh-h ffi:
HANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI BRES B: SYNTHETTC
F I D RE S

hose,ladies'swcatcrs,double-knitfabrics,woven worstedfabrics Tenacily

and specializedwork clothing fabrics. Standard: 22.1-28.3cN/tex(2.5-3.2g/den)
The incorporationof higherpercentages of metal fibresin these \tlet:22.1-28.3 cN/tex(2.5-3.2g/den)
applicationsmakes possiblethe resistanceheating of the mater- Std.loop:159-21.2cN/tex( 1.8-2.4g/den)
ials, e.g. in various items of clothing, and in home furnishings Std.knot:16.8-22.1cN/tex (1.9-2.5g/den)
such as draperies,upholstery fabrics, bedding, etc. Static-free
Tensile Strength
and electrically heated transportationfabrics hold considerable
promisefor an expandingmarket. A n n e a l e d 7: , 0 0 0 k g / c n r 2( 1 0 0 , q 0 0l b / i n 2 )
3.500kg/cpr;50000lb/inz
Yieldstrength:
lb/inr )
kg/cmr(2^50,000-385,00p
Hard: 17,500-26.950
STAINLESS STEEL FIBRES 15,400
Yieldstrength: lb/inz
kg/cmr;220,000
Elongation (per cent)
Fibres spun from stainlesssteel. Annealed : I I
Hard: 1.5
INTRODUCTION
Stainlesssteel was one of the first metallic (s.c.) fibres to be [laslic RccoYcry(pct ccnt)
developedcommercially for textile applications.A number of 100 at I per cent; 66 at 1.5 per cent
firms have taken part in the development,and severalstainless
steel fibres are now available.The information which follows
Modulus of Elasdcity
relatesprimarily to a fibre of 304 type austeniticstainlesssteel
which is essentiallya high grade 18/8 chrome/nickelalloy steel.
kg/cm2(29,000,000
2,030,000
Annealed: lb/in2)
Hard :

AYerage Stiffness
1475-1881 cN/tex ( 167-2 l3 g/den)
PROCESSING
Avcruge Toughness
Dyeing
Metallized dyes give deep sbades.
0.019-0.024

Abmsion Resislance
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES High

Fine Strucaureand ApDearance Specific Gravity

Grey filament of near-roundcross-section. Filament diameter4
to 50 microns.Coemcientof variation of filament diameter for
nominal 12 microns is approximately4 per cent. This figure
Effect of Moisture
appliesto the variation from filameot to filament and also along
the length of a particular filament. Absorbency: Nil.
690 691
 OKF T E X T T L EF I B R E S
TTANDBOO B : S Y N T H E T I CF I B R E S

Thcrnal Propefties Micro-orSanisms

M eUing point : 1,426'C. aPProx. Not attacked.

ElectricalProperlies
Efrect ol IIigh Temperature
Comparedwith natural and other man'nade fibres,metal libres
Less than l0 per cent strength loss at 426"C. Up to 90 per cent geneially are good conductors of electricity. Compared with
toss at 980'C.
copper, nickel and some other metal fibres, stainlesssteel is a
pooi conductor; stainlesssteel libres may bc used for rcsistancc
T hennal Conductivity
heating.
Stainless steel is a poor conductor but a good resistor compared
with copper or nickel.
STAINLESSSTEELFIBRE IN USE
Stainless steel is a good conductor of heat.
GeneralChatqcteristics
F lamm abili ty : Non-fl ammable.
Stainlesssteel fibres have the basic mctallic fibre characteristics
Efiect of Sunligbt alreadydescribed,providing textile goods of high modulus'high
abrasionresistaoceand
tensilestrength,flexJife, tear-resistance,
Nil. compressionalresilience.The libres have a high resistanceto
many typesof severechemicaland physicalenvironments'
Effect of Age
Nil. Etrd-Uses
The end-usesfor stainlesssteelfibresinclude thosedescribedfor
Chemical Properties metallic (s.c.)fibres generally.
Acids In comparison with some other metals such as coppcr or
Resistant to nitric and phosphoric acids. Attacked by sulpburic nickel, stainlesssteelis a poor conductorof electricity.Stainlcss
and halogen acids. steelfibres are particularly suitablefor the production of heatcd
structuressuch as pads,draperiesand blankets'
Alkalis The thermal conductivity of stainlesssteel is put to good use ]
in protectivefabrics, the steel fibres acting as a hcat'sink that i
Not affected by common alkalis. protectsother fibres with which it is blended.Smalt conccntrn'
'Nomcx'high I
iions of steelfibre (about 5 per cent) blendedwith I
General temperaturenylon, for example, have a remarkable cffect on I
The chemical properties of stainlesssteel fibre are similar to those the high temperatureresistanceof fabrics' The stainlessstcel I
of the bulk metal. Not attacked by common bleaches unless they fibre conductsaway heat and preventsthe temperaturerising to I
are halogen dedvatives. a point at which the 'Nomex' becomesinadequate.
The relatively high cost of stainlesssteel librc has tcnded to l
Effccl of Orgrtric Solvetrts encouragethe developmentof applicationsin which small pro- |
Not attacked by common solvents portionsof steelfibre may be blendedwith other fibres,to prodttcc I
valuablecharacteristicssuch as thosc describcd.As little as l/5 |
lnsecas per cent steel fibre blendedinto a carpet yarn, for examplc' re- |
Not attacked. ducesstaticalmostto negligible amounts.
I
6e3
|
I
I
- l
I
a ) l '
I
t t l
t
l
I
l l
t:
l ' I
rr-r_
I
r'i n F.F.ff,Ji n r: nF-F, l:
t
tANDBooK oF TE*TILE FTBRES E: SYNTHETIC FI BRES

ConsumerTextiles characteristicin many medical applications.Thcse include thc

developmentof a cardiacpacemakerelectrodesystcm,whcrcgood
Stainlesssteel fibre is used in carpets, upholstery, worsted suitings,
blankets,uniforms and work clolhing.
electrical conductivity and long-term fatigue life are esscntia[.
Multifilament stainlesssteelyarns of fine diametersare uscd for
surgicalsufures.
Industrial Textiles The easeof textile fabrication of stainlesssteel libres is ad-
vantageousin many aspectsof medical engineering,including
Fiters. Becauseof fine fibre diameters,it is possibleto design vascularprostheses,heart components,and orthopaedicdevices
structureswith high internal surface and high fatigue life. In for tendon and bone repair.
consequence,filtering emciencyis increased.Using fine metal
fibres in non-wovenstructures,with speciallypreparedfibre sur-
faces,baltery plaques,fuel cell electrodesand capacitorscan be
made.
The high temperaturetoleranceof stainlesssteel fibre is an
importantadyantagein many industrialapplications.For example,
it is possibleto caffy out high-temperature filtration of hydraulic
fluids,fuels and hot gases.This has resultedin higherproduction
ratesin many industrial processes,
Using stainlesssteel fibre, high efficiencyoperation may be
achievedat temperaturesup to 700'C.
Stainlesssteelfibres are now being usedin a variety of indus- (2) METALLIC (MULTI.COMPONENT) FIBRES
trial applications,in addition to those described.They include
sewingthread,conveyorsystems,cordage,fishing lines and nets,
cargo restraining devices, tarpaulins, vibration isolators, heat Fibres made from metal in association with other nraterials,
transfersystemsand paper-makers'belts. commonly plastics,

Fibrc Reinlorcement INTRODUCTION

Stainlesssteel fibres used as internal support in metals,plastics,
ceramics,rubber and filament wound structureshave many ad-
vantages.Systemsof this type can meet the rigorousdemandsof
many modern end-uses,providing high flexJife, tensilestrength,
dimensionalstability and heat tolerance,The metal fibre con-
ducts heat away from the matrix, which may thereforeperform
better.
Applications in whicb stainlesssteel fibres provide reinforce-
ment in this way include power belting, hosing,conveyor belts
and inflatable structures,including tyres.
Medical Applications
Stainlesssteel is physiologicallyinert, and this is a valuablo
694
Modern metallic fibres of the multi-componcnttypc are bascd
largely on aluminium, which provides sparkle and glittcr at a
fraction of the cost of the early types of decorativefibre bascd
for example,on gold.
The aluminium in these fibres is in the form of a narrow
ribbon-filamentof either (a) metal foil, or (b) a plasticfilnr which
'fhis
has been vacuum-platedwith vaporized aluminiunr. is
coatedwith a layer or layersof plasticlilm.
In these composite structures,the metal is protcctcd frorn
corrosive influencesof its environment,and from mechanical
damage. Muliicomponent metallic fibres have achicve<lgrcat
popularity as decorativefibres,and are an important facct of thc
modern textile industry.
 H A N D B O O K O F T E X T I L E F I BR E S D: S Y N T T I E T IC F I N R E S
TYPES OI: METALLIC (M.C.) FIBRE
poses(seetableon page698),and prcscribcda strndardsystcnr
ivletallic(m.c.).fibresmay be madein almostinfinitevarietvbv of designationand tcrms of refcrenccfor thcscyarns.
usingdifferentmetalsand plasticsin their manufacture. The following definition of a nrctallic yarfr was cstablishedby
Alumin- the lostitute,and in generalit is still in commonuse:
ium is, however,the ntetal most commonlyselected, and it is
sandwichedbetweencelluloseacetatebutyrate,cellophane(cellu-
lose)or polyesterfilms. Metallic Yant. A continuousflat monofilamcntproduccdby a
The followingare the typesof yarn commonlyproduced: combinationof plasticfilm and metalliccomponcntso that thc
mctallic componcntis protected.
(l) AcctateBulyrate,AluminiunrFoil. A continuous This definitiondillerssomewhatfronr thxt cstablishcd
by thc
flat mono-
filamentcomposed of aluminiumfoil Iaminatedon both reflective U.S. FederalTrade Commission(seepage xxvii).
surfaceswith celluloseacetatebutyratefilm.
Terminology
(2) Cellophane,Aluminiunt Foll. A continuousflat monofila- Metallicyarnsare designated by a group of threcsynrbols, cach
ment composedof aluminiumfoil laminatedon both reflective separated by a hyphen,settingforth the two dimensions o[ width,
surfaceswith cellophanefilm. and gaugeor thickness,and generic type.
1. Width. The width of thc yarn is expressed as tlrc frnction of
(3) Polyester,AluminiuntFoil. A continuous
flat monofilament an inch to which the yarn has beencut, viz., 1132,l/64, ctc.
composedof aluminium foil laminatedon both reflectivesurfaces
with polyesterfilm. 2. Gauge (or Thickness\.The thickncssor gaugeof thc yarn
is expressed as the sum of thc thicknessof thc plasticfilnr and
(4) Polyester,Aluminiunt Metallized polyester.A continuous metallic componentin hundred-thousandths of an inch, as a
flat.monofilamentcomposedof aluminiummetallizedpolyester w h o l en u m b e r v, i 2 . , 3 5 , 5 0 ,1 5 0 , 2 0 0e, t c .
laminated on iis metallized surface or surfaceswith polyester 3. GenericType.The type of the yarn is expresscdon the basis
film. of two componentsof the laminate- the gcncricnamc of thc
plastic film and the metal.
(5) Polyester, Aluminiun Metallized,Non-Laminated.A con_ The componentsare separatcdby a comma, viz., Polycstcr,
tinuo[s,flat monoRlament composed of a singlelayerof alumin- Foil.
ium metallizedpolyesterprotectedon its metallizedsurface.
Exantple:A Polyester, Aluminium Foil Yarn, l/64 inch widc
The acetatebutyrate types of metallic fibre are best used for and 150/100,000 inch thick, is cxpresscd in the industryas:
applicationswhich are not subjectedto wet processingof other | 164- 150- Polyester, Foil
-wet
than very mild forms. Polyestertypes will withstand treat- A manufacturer's trade name or mark may accompany,but
ments or dry-heat operationsas commonly usedwith most man_ whereutilized,eitheralone or in combination,thc abovc must
made fibres, but referenceshould be made to manufacturers' be separatelystatedor refetred to.
recommendations regardingtime,pH and temperature conditions.
METALLIC YARNS - STANDARDS
NOMENCLATUREAND TERMINOLOGY
The following minimal standardswere cstablished for mctallic
In the U.S., the former Metallic Yarns Institute establishedmini- y arns by the U.S. MetallicYflrns Institlrle.
mum quality standardsfor metallic (m.c.) yarns for textile pur_ I tn determiningstandardsfor basic yarns, a | / 6 4 - i n c h w i d t h
696 zr
2 697

l lI t r t t t t t l
L I \ \ I
 - Fth-hlt
B: SYNTE
H T I CF I B R E S
of rollcrs togetherwith lwo shcctsof cclluloseacetatebutyratc,
in sucha way'thatlhe aluminiunrfoil bccomesthe centreof thc
arithmetic proportion. sandwich.
The laminatedmaterial is then slit into narrow ribbonlike
w i d t h .e . g .3 . 2 - 0 . 2n r u r( l / 8 - l / 1 2 8 i n ) .
f i l a m e n tos f t h e d e s i r e d
Colour In some typesof metallicfilament(c.g.Types4 and 5), the
Toleraoce centre of lhe sandwichconsistsof a plastic (e.g. polycstcr)film
to Light
BreakingElonga-Yield (hrs.) which has beenvacuum-coated with aluminium.This may then
Yield Strength tion Pt. (Gold and be protectedwith layersof lacqDeror plastic film as above.
Type (yd./lb.) (e.) (%) (g.) silver) Many types of coloured metallic filament are now produccd,
the metallicglitter of the aluminiumshiningthrough the colourcd
l^ 270 Acctate Butyrate, adhesiveor the coloured outer plastic films. Gold-colouredfila-
foil 10,500 t60 30 10 100 mentsare made,for example,by using an orange-yellowdyestufl
lB 310 Acetate Butyrate, or pigmentin the adhesive;silver is obtainedby relying only on
foil t0,000 170 30 100 i00
the natural glitter of the aluminium.
2 230 Cellophane,foil 10,000 200 20 n.a. n.a.
3 150 Polyester, Alum.
foil 16,000 r75 80 t2s 100 Pt{ocEsslNG
4^ 100 Polyestcr,Alum.
Metallized Poly-
ester 28,000 t75 8() 90 t00 Dcsizing
48 l5O Polyester,Alum. Conventionaltechniquesand equipmentmay be uscdfor polycster
MetallizedPoly- type metallic yarns.
ester 18,000 2i0 80 t25 r00
5 50 Polyester, Alum, Scouring
Metallized, Non-
Laminated 47,000 90 80 40 100 Polyestertype yarns are best scourcd on ropc or opcn-width
machines,the squeezeroilers being adjustedto give as light a
n.a.:not available. nip as possiblein order to avoid unnecessary
damage.

PRODUCTION
Modern metallic filamentsare made by sandwichinga thin layer
of metal, usually aluminium, betweenthin sheetsof the appro-
priate typesof plasticfilm. There are severalwaysof carryingout
the lamination.
In the production of the Acetate Butyrate, Aluminium Foil
(Type 1) metallic fibre, for example,a thermoplasticadhesiveis
appliedto both sidesof a sheetof aluminium0.01 nrm (0.00045
in) thick. The adhesive may or may not be coloured.The coated
foil is then heatedto about 90'C., and it is passedthrough a set
698
trleaching
Polyestertype metallic yarns may be subjcctcdto nornal blcach-
ing operations.Care should be taken to minimize exposureto
alkalineconditions,temperaturesin excessof 90"C. and prolongcd
cycletimes.
Nore. Coated polyesteryarns are not recommendcdfor high
temperatureconditions,i.e. in excessof 70"C.
Dyeing
Somemetallic(m.c.)fibresmay be dyed eftectively,the techniqucs
and dyes being selectedaccordingto the type of plastic in the
699
 HANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FI ARES B : S Y N T H E T I CF I B R E S
'IcnsilcSlrcnglb
fibrc. The acetatcbutyraletypesshouldbe treatcdgenerallyas
acetatc,and dyeing carried out at ternperaturesnot exceeding 'fhc
standarrlsoriginatlysct up by thc fr4clallicYartls lnstiltrtc'
70'C. Polyesteryarnsmay be dyed at the boil, with the exception U.S.A., are shown in the table on pagc698'
of most coated types.
It is generally more satisfactory to make use of coloured fetracity
metallic yarns where possible,rather than to dye the metallic
yarns in the fabric. Dyeing problems are commonly concerned AcetateButyrate,foil: 2.6 cN/tex.(0.3g/dcn;'
with the avoidanc€of colouration of the metallic yarns during Polvester. foil: ().2cN/tex(0 79 g/tlen).
the dyeing of the basematerial of the fabric. This is usually a P o l y e s t errn, c t a i l i z e d| :1 . 0c N / t e x( 1 . 2 5g / t l e t t ) '
matter of careful choice of dyes,avoiding those which dye the
plasticin the metallic fibre, Elongrlion
Seetable on page698.
Acetate Butyrate, foil: 30 Per cent.
STRUCTURE
AND PROPERTIES Polyester,foil: 140Per cent.
Polyester,metallized: 140per cenl.
The propertiesof a metallic(m.c.) fibre dependupon the nature
of the plasticfilm usedin its production,andof the metalusedas Yield Point
the centreof the sandwich. See table, page 698.
In general,the fibres behavein a manner similar to n.rpn-made
fibres spun from polymer on which the plastic film ls based. DlasaicRccovcry
Acetate butyrate metallic filaments,for example,have a resem- AcetateButyrate,foit: ?5 per cent at 5 per centclongalion'
blance to acetatefibres; polyester type metallic filaments are Polyester,foil: 50 per cent at 5 per cent elongation.
similar to polyesterfibres in their generalcharacteristics. Polyester,metallized: 100 per cent at 5 pcr ccnt elongation'
The nature of the aluminium layer inside the sandwichalTects
the properties of the metallic filament to a significant extent. trlex Resisaanc€
ln Types 1,2 and 3, the aluminium is a continuouslayer of Relative flex resistancesof the main types arc in thc following
foil; in Types 4 and 5, on the other hand, it is in the form of ratlos:
discreteparticleswhich have been depositedon a layer of plastic
Acetate Butyrate, foil: I
film. The discontinuouslayer of the latter types results in a
Polyester,foil: 18
finer, softerand more pliablefilament,with propertieswhich diller
Polyester,metallized: 70
in many respectsfrom those of the foil-type metallic fibres, as
indicated below. The figures quoted refer to specific metallic AbrasionResistance
fibres of the various basic types, but there is considerable
variation in propertiesbetweennbresof the sametype. AcetateButyrate,foil: fair.
Polyester,foit: good.
Polyester,metallized: excellent.
Fine Struc(ureand Appcarance
Metallic (m.c.) fibres are flat, ribbon-like filaments,commonly Effectof Moisture
3.2-O.2 mm (ll8-lll28 in) width. They are smooth-surfaced, Regain: AcetateButyrate,foil: 0.1 per cent.
andmay be colouredor uncoloured. PolYester,foil: 0.5 Per ccnt.
Polyester,metallized: 0.25 per ccnt.
700 701

-L_i I ' '--1 '

 IIANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES
B: SYNTHETIC FIBRES
Tbermal Prop€rties
Insecas
Softening point: AcetateButyrate,foil: 205'C.
Not attacked.
Polyester:232'C.
Micro-organisms
Efrect of Age Not attacked.
Nil.
AllergeDicProperties
Effect of Sunlight Non-allergenic.
Some loss of strengthon prolonged exposure. Electrical Prope ies
Metallic (m.c.) fibres conduct electricity, the metallized types
Chemical Properties having a lower conductivity than the foil types.
Acids
Generally good resistance. METALLIZED (M.C.) FIBRES ]N USE

Alkalis
Acetate Butyrate: good resistanceto weak alkalis; degradedby
s t r o n ga l k a l i s . I Mctallic (nr.c.)yarns are used in thc textile industry almost
Polyesler: ditto. Metal foil types are more resistant.
Generql
Acetate Butyrate: Similar to acetal€ yarn. Not affected by sea-
water, chlorinated water, or perspiration. Generally resistant to
bleaches,but sensjtive to caustic soda used in peroxide bleaching.
Also sensitive to copper sulphate and sodium carbonate at high
temperatures,
Polyester: Generally good resistance.
Effect of Organic Solvents
Acetate Butyrate. Attacked by acetone, ether, chloroform,
methyl alcohol, tetrachloroethane. Not attacked by benzene,
carbon tetrachloride, ethyl alcohol, perchloroethylene, trichloro-
ethylene.
Polyester. Attacked by acetone, benzene, chloroform, tetra-
chloroethane, trichloroethylene. Not attacked by carbon tetra-
chloride, ethyl alcohol, methyl alcohol, perchloroethylene, white
spirit.
GencralChar:rclerisaics
Appeardnce
entirely as decorativematcrials.Thcy providc a mctallic glittcr
and soirkle that cannotbe obtainedin otber ways.The aluminium
foil ihat provides the glitter in a modern mctallic yarn is-pro-
tectedfrom corrosivematerialsof its environmentby the plastic
film in which it is enclosed.It remainsuntarnishedthrough long
periodsof wear, and polycstcrtypcs will withstandrepeatcd
iaunderings without losingtheir sparklc.Metallic yarns arc not
a{Iectedby seawaterol by the chlorinated water of swimming
^oools.and are widelyuscdin modcrnswimwcar.
The dvestutrsusedin colouring metallic fibres are usually fast
to light, and the colour remainsbright to match the sparklefrom
the aluminium foil.
MechanicalProPerlies
As metallic (m.c.) yarns are used primarily for decorativepur-
Doses.they do not as a rule contributesignificantlyto lhc
itrength oi fabrics or garments.Nevertheless, they may bc lscd
". *ift o. warp yarns, and are strong enough to withstand the
weavingand knitiing operations.If necessary, the metallic yarns
are combinedwith supportyarns,suchas n}'lon.
The plastic film of the metallic yarn is flexible,and the yarns
are extensibleto a degreethat dependsupon the type'
703
 H N D D O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S
ChcuricalProperties
Aluminiumwill corrodcand tarnishin air, and in contactwith
seawater,but in metallic fibres it is protectedso effectivelythat
it retainsits glitter for long periods.The chemicalresistanceof
a metallic lilament is, in general,the chemicalresistanceof the
plastiofilm. In the caseof polyesterfilms, this is outstanding.
If metallic fibres are held in contact with strone alkaline
solutionsfor prolongedperiods,the aluminiummay bi attacked
at the unprotectededgesof the ribbon. Metallic fibres should
not, therefore, be subjectedto alkaline reagentsof significant
strength.
Organic solvents,too, may attack the laminate adhesiveor
lacquer coating; grcat care should be taken in dry cleaning to
ensurethat an appropriatetype of solvent is used,
B : S Y } . I T HE T I C F I N R E S
than I05'C. Polycslcrtypesmay bc ironcd at tcmperaturcs
up
to 130"C.'llayon'settingis preferable
for both typcs.
Dry Cleaning
Metallic fibres may bc dry cleancdwithout ditliculty, provided
care is taken in the selectionof solventto suit the typc of fibrc.
End-Uscs
Metallic(m.c.)yarnsare usedfor decorativcpurposcsin almost
every lield of textile application.Important end-uscsinclude
women'sdressgoods,upholstery, curtains,tablelinens,swimwear,
packaging,footwear,car upholstery,suits and hats.

Thernnl Properties
The plastic films in nretallicfibres are thermoplastic.
and will
softenat clcvatedtemperatures. Dclaminationmav occur it the
fibres are hcated.and acctalc typcs in particuiarlhould bc
processedonly at low temperatures.
The plastic films may be permanentlyembossedby heat and
pressure,and specialeffectsmay be introducedinto the fibres in
thls way.

Washing
Acetate butyrate types may be hand washedin lukewarm water
with a mild soap.If processedas silks or woollens,they may be
-
safely washedin home or commerciallaundry equipment.
_ ?olyester-typesmay be washedat temperaturesup to 70.C.
Dimensionalstability is good and creaseresistancefair.
Most coatedpolyesteryarnswill not withstandtreatmentsother
than thoseusedfor silks or woollens.
Drying
Acetatebutyrate types must be dried at as low a temperatureas
poss-ib-le.
Polyestertypes may be dried at higher tempcraturesas
usedfor polyesterfibres,with the exceptionof most coatedtypes.
lroning
Acetatebutyratetypesshouldbe ironed at temperatures
no higher
704 705

T I
I
't] ' ['L_]
l-, r*r I- r r r r'' t, n J-'JaF
'I B : S Y N T H E T I CF T B R B S
HANDBOOK OF IiXTILE FIBIIES

POLYUREA FIBRES

Fibres spun from syntheticlinear polymerscontaining the urca

grouping,-NH-CO-NH-, as part of the repeatingunit.

.----'. + znHH'
nNH,-R-NH, + NH2CoNH2 fn-runcoNl|
DIAMINE UREA POLYUREA
Productiol o! Polyurca

INTRODUCTION
Following the introduction of nylon, many typesof condensation
polymer were examinedas possiblesourcesof syntheticfibres.
Among those consideredas vr'orthyof detailed study were the
polyureas,formed by condensationof diamineswith utea' and
ihaiacterized by the recurring urca group, -NH-CO-NII-'
in the polymer molecule.
Polyureafibres were spun in America,Gcrmany and thc U.K.
during the 1940s,but despitca considcrablercsearchellort thcy
did n;t yield a fibre that was selectedfor commercialdevelop-
ment. It was not until 1950 that polyureasagain canre undcr
intensiveinvestigation,this time in Japan,where the nrm Toyo
Koatsu lndustriesLtcl. beganseekingnervoutletsfor urca.'lhis
chemical,producedin ver/largequantities,is a che:rpllld rcr(lily
availableraw material for the production of syntheticproducts.
There is an obvious attraction in using it as the starting point
for the marufactureof syntheticfibres'
within 5 years,Toyo Koatsu had developcda laboratory-scale
processfor the production of a polyurealibre made by condcns-
ing urea with nonamethylene diamine.

nNH, (CHr) NH. + nNH2 CONHT

DIAMINE
NONAMETHYLENE UREA

----> ",y" NHcoNH + 2n NH'

{t l-
POLYUREA
'Urylon'
Proluclion of
706 70'l
 H A N D B O O KO F T E X T T L EF I B R E S B : S Y N T H E T I CF I B R E S
ItI tr\
By 1958,a pilot plant was in operation,producing I ton per 2NHr + CO2 + NH, COONH{ -r:r+ NH?CONI|,+ HrO
day of the polyurcafibre - now known as'Urylon'- and it AMMONIUMCARBAMATE UREA
seemedlikely that large-scaledevelopmentwould be undertaken
in a matter of a year or two. Since then, however,'Urylon' has Prcdtctiort ol Urco
made little apparentprogressas a commercialfibre.
The propertiesof 'Urylon' are comparablein generalwith those (b) N onantetlrylerteDianritre
of nylon 6.6 and PET polyesterRbres-The fibre melts at 240"C. Rice bran oil containsoleic and linolcic acids.Whcn thc oil is
and hasa tenacityof 39.7-48.6 cN/tex(4.5-5.5 g/clen),with an reacted with ozone, the oleic acid forms pelargonic acid and
elongationof 15-20per cent. It has a low specificgravity -- 1.07- azelaic acid (l), and the linoleic acid forms caproic acid and
which makesit the lightestsyntheticfibre other than polyethylene azelaicacid (2).
or polypropylene.'Urylon' has good chemicalresistance, moisture The azelaicacid is reactedwith ammoniato form ammonium
regain of 1.7,and in other respectsseemseminentlysatisfactory azelate(3), which is dehydratedto azelaicdinitrile (4) and thcn
as a textile fibre. hydrogenatedto nonamethylene diamine(5).
-Ibe
The problem with 'Urylon' and other polyurea nbres lies not Note. produciion stepsfrom azelaic acid are similar to
in the characteristicsof the fibre itself. but in the economicsof those used in making hexamethylenediamine from adipic acid
production. Urea is cheap and plentiful, but nonamethylene in the production of nylon 6.6
diamine is expensive;it has been made until recently almost
entirely from rice bran oil.
In the section which follows, information 5n polyurea libres (a) cH, (cH,), cH = cH (cH,), CoOl{ + zo, -lJI.
relatesprimarily to'Urylon', and was provided by Toyo Koatsu OLEIC ACID
IndustriesLtd.
cHr (cH,)7 cooH + Hooc (cHr), cooH

P E L A R G O N I CA C I D AZELAIC ACID

g
cH= cH- cs = cH (cHr)rcooH + 20,
(B) cH!(cH,)5
LINOLEIC ACID

cH3(cH')! cooH + Hooc (cH'), cooH

cAPROtC ACIO AZELAIC ACID
PRODUCTION

Polyureaused in 'Urylon' production is made by tbe condensa-

tion of ureawith nonamethylenediamine(seepage707). (c) Hooc (cH,),cooH+ arx, J:)- 1.",rr(:::::.
' \cooNHr
AZELAIC ACID
MonomerSynthesis AMMONIUMAZ€LATE
(a) Urea NH2
/ /\ ,"CN a<l ,/2CH2
Urea is manufacturedon a very large scaleby the reaction of -!:-1+ fCH^) ----l:r+- (cH-)
. ..,\cr,
-ctt *",
carbon dioxide with ammonia at high temperatureand pressure.
Ammonium carbamateis formed (1), and this decomposesto AZELAIC DINITRILE NONAMEIHYLENE DIAMINE
yield urea and water (2). Prcduction ol Nonanctltyle e Diantine
708 709

r - l
I
' l r l l
t
l r l ' ' r '
 r. F. l'. F F. |., l-.FJ'nF.F I
n
I
B: SYNT}IETIC FTBRES
H A N D B O O KO F T E X T I L E F I B R E S
Polyme.izaaion ElasaicRccovery

Nonamethylene diamine and urea are dissolved in water, using a 70 per cent recovery from 8 pcr cent exlension aftcr 30 seconds;
slight molar excessof diamine. The solution is heatedat atmo- 92 per cent recovery after 5 minutes.
spheric pressure,the temperaturebeing raised from 100'C. to
Spccific Gravily
about 250'C. over a periodof 15-18hours.Vacuumis applied
in the final stages. 1.07.
The polymeris milky-white,with a meltingpoint of 225 231"C.
It contains only a very small amount of low-molecular-weiglrt Dflcct of Moislurc
material,and may be spun directly. Regain: 1.8 per cent.
Hydrolysis occurs on exposure to stcam at 130'C.
Spinning
Thcrmal Propcrai€s
The polyureais melt spun, and is hot drawn, c.g. in three stages
a t l 0 0 oC . ( t o p r o v i c lfei br eo f t e n a c i t y4 8 . 6c N / t e x ;5 . 5g / ( l e n Soltening point: 205'C.
) .I r
i s w o u n do n t o b o b b i n sa.n dn t a yb ec u t i n t o s t a p l e .
Mehittg point: 240"C.

ElJect ol I Iigh Tunpcmtnrc

PROCESSING
Some loss of strength on continucd exposureto air at 150.C.
Dyeing Eltcct of SuDliglrt
Polyurea fibre may be dyed with acid, disperse,direct and vat Similar to nylon.
dyes.The polymer moleculeprovidesexcellentanchor-pointsfor
acid dyesat the twin imino groupsof the urea linkage,and at the Chemical Propertics
terminal amino groups. Acids
Acid dyes provide colours of good light and wash fastness.
Tannic acid treatmentis recommendedto increasefastness, Good resistance.Retains morc than 90 per ccnt strcngth aftcr l0
Sulphur and basic dyes are not satisfactory. hours at roont temperaturein 40 per cent sulphuric acid.

Alkalis
STRUCTUREAND PROPERTIES Good resistance.Retains more than 90 pcr ccnt strcngth llllcr t0
hours at room temperature in 40 pcr cent caustic soda.
l-ine Strucaureand Appearancc General
Smooth surfaced filaments of round cross-section. Cood resistance to most common chenricals.

Tenacih/ Eflcct of Organic Solvcnls

Similar to nylon.
3 9 . 7 - 4 8 . 6 c N / t e x( 4 . 5 - 5 . 5 g / d e n ) .
lnsecas
Elongalioo
Not attacked.
15-20 per cent.
7lo 7tl
 HANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES B : S Y N T H E T IFCI B R E S
Micro"organisms DyeabiLity
Not attacked. It is not possibleto predict at this stagelvhcther dycability will
be signilicantlybctter than that of nylon, but it sccrnsproblblc
thai this will be so.
POLYUREA FIBRES IN USE
Ilnd Uses
GeneralCharacteristics
The end usesof polyurcalibreswill lie in the sanc hcldsas thosc
Handlc, etc. o[ nylon and PET polycsterfibrcs.
Polyurea fibres have a soft, attractive handle, and fabrics are
comfortableand warm when worn next to the skin. Ittdustrial Uses
Polyureafibres will probably find a useful outlet in fishing lincs,
MechanicalProperlies nets and ropes,where its lightnesswill be advantageous. It could
In general, the mechanicalproperties of polyurea ftbres are prove a useful reinforcementfibre for tyres,conveyor belts and
comparablewith nylon 6.6 and PET polyester Rbres,with a the like.
closerresemblanceto nylon.
Apparel Uses
T hennal Properlies Polyurea fibres could find a variety of applications in the
The meltingpointof 'Urylon' liesslightlybelowthat of,rrylon6.6, apparelfieldsimilarto thoscscrvedby nylon.Thc lowcr nroisturc
and above that of nylon 6. Thermal stability is gdod up to rcgainnray provc disadvantagcousin this rcspccl.
140"C.,but the Sbre degradeson exposureto temperaturesabove
this.
In common with other thermoplasticfibres, polyurea fibres
may be heat set, e.g.by heatingfor lt minutesat 160'C.The
fibre shrinks13 per centat 180'C.

Clrcnical Propeflies
Polyureafibres haveexcellentchemic:rlstability.They resistacids
better than nylon, and alkalis better than PET polyesterfibres.

Moisture
With a regain of 1.8polyureafibre has a lower moistureabsorp-
tion und€r standardconditionsthan eithernylon or PET polyester
fibres.This could be a disadvantagein appareluses.

Specific Gravity
Polyurea fibre is tighter than any synthetic fibres other than
polyethyleneand polypropylene.This could nreangreatercover-
ing power than nylon or polyesterfibres, with which it seems
likely to compete.
712 713

'l ' ' ' ' r 'ti

' r l n n - F . L :- - trrt
HANDBOOK OF TEXTILE FIBRES B : S Y N T H E T I CF T B R E S

POLYCARBONATE FIBRES CHt ct cl -l

"/ -> T l-\ | .z-r\)o--c-
Fibres spun from synthetic linear polymers containing the
Hotr\-E- OIt * rr C l:l -O(/ ) -c-( | cl
1 L \ : / | \:,/ Ja
characteristicgrouping -{--{O-O- as part of the repiating CH. o CH, O
unit.

INTRODUCTION (b) Carbonic Acicl Estcrs

An csterof carbonicacid,such as diphenylcarbonatc,may bc
Polycarbonateresinshave been used for some years as plastics, trans-€sterified
with bis phenols:
their applications being determined largely by their- usefui
electricalald high-impact-resistan€e
characteristics.
Melting points
are_typically in the region 150-300.C.,and some of the-poly_
carbonateshave good spinning properties.The low cost oi thLe
starting materialshas sustainedan interest in fibres spun from
polycarbonate resins,and monofilaments
ciallyon a limitedscale.
are producedcommer_ , ' I r o,^\
CII3
( ) - c| ; (,r-\ ) o r r r , o - c
| \_,/
cl-t3
/*o
t*O
cH,

NOMENCLATURE
',[-"O
-l*a\"-.-l-l'. c_)
,',,,.:' 3
In the chemicalsense,polycarbonatesare polyestersderivedfrom
carbonic acid, H,CO". They do not qualify for the description
polyester,however,under the U.S. Federal Trade Commiision Filamentsarenlelt spun.
delinition.
STRUCTUREAND PITOPIR]'IES
PRODUCTION Tenacity 16.8cN/tex(L9 g/rlen)
Polycarbonatesnay be made by condensing an aromatic Elongation 40,6O,,/o
dihydroxy compound with suitablecarbonicacid derivatives,e.g. lnitial Modulus 397.3cNitcx (45 g/tlcn.y
carbonyl chloride (phosgene)or estersof carboiricacid.

(a) Corbonyl Chloride (Phosgene) POLYCARtsONA'|E

FII]RESIN USE
Carbonyl chloride nray be condensed, for example, with p, Monofilaments areusedastemporarythreacls,
c.g.b:rstingthrcrtls
p'-isopropylidene-diphenol (,Bis phenol A'), which is readily in men's suits which can be renrovetlsubserlucltlyby solvt'nt
obtainable from phenol and acetone. In the presenceof alkali, treatmelltin a dry cleaning
nrachine.
the following reaction takes place:

714 715
 ITANDBOOK OF TOXI'I LE FIBRES B: SYNTII ETIC FIITIII'S

F i n a l l y ,t h c c a r b o n i z eldi l a n r c n tlsr c h c l t c t lt o t ! ' r r p c r i l l u r r ' s

o f u p t o 3 0 0 0 0 Ca, g a i ri rn a u i n c r ta t n r o s p h c r cl .r'ilsi r r c r r ' a stchse
CARBONFIBRES orderly arrangeurent of the crrbon atonrsrvhicharc oLqirniz.e(l
i n t o a c r y s t a l l i nset r u c t u r es i r n i l atro t h a t o l g r a p h i t c l. h c l t o r n s
INTRODUCTION a r e i n l a y e r so r p l a r r ersv h i c l lri e v i L t u r l l yp l r r l l c l t o c l c h o t l r r ' r .
'lhe
p l a r t ea s r c w c l l o r i c r t c ( li r r t h c d i r c c t i o no l t h c l l b r c l x i s ,
ln 1963 a team of British scientists. W. Watt. W. Johnsonancl this beingan inlportantfactorin producingltiglt rrtorlultrs l'ilrrt's.
'l'he
L.N. Phillips, working at the Royal Aircraft Establishment. nrechauical properticsof carbonlibrcs prorlucctlin tlris
Farnborough, U.K., developedtechniquesfor proclucing carbon rvayare afl'ectedgreatlyby thc conditiorrsrtnclerrvhiclrtlrcy rrt'
fibres of high strengthand outstandingrigidity. Theie fibres treatedin the final stage,ald by varyirtgtllcsecolditior)sit is
wer€ in commercial productionby 1968and havesincebecome possibleto produce fibres of diflcrent ntoduluslrttl strcttgtlt
of greatimportance, especially
in the field of compositesin which characteristics.
the fibresareembedded in resinsor othermaterials.
Most of tbe importanttextile fibresin use today are derived
from organicpolymers,i.e.,polymersin which the backboneof STRUCTUREAND PROPERl'IES
the molecularstructureconsistsof carbonatomsto which are 'l'he
attachedatomsof other elements,conrmonlyhydrogen,oxygen p r o p e r t i eosf c a r b o nf i b r e sv a r y ,d c p e t t t l i ror g
n t h cc o r l ( l i t i o r l s
'l'ltc
andnitrogen. untlcr whiclt they arc p rotluccd . ittfortrt:tt iott rvlrichlirllorvs
It haslong beenknown that pyrolysisof thesefibres,suchas relatesto a typicalrangeof fibrcs.
rayon, could resultin the rernovalof the nonparbonatomsto
leavea filamentconsisting Fine St.ructureantl lltpcarattcc. Clrbort libres rrc ltllck rttd
essentiallyof carbon.But the carbon 'l'hey
atomsin thesefilamentsarearranged rfaced, with a silky lustre.
snrooth'su lre cttttttttottlyttl-
in a moreor lessdisordered
form; the structureis amorphous possiblyrvith flattencdsidcs.
roundcross-section,
iather than crystalline,
andthe
filamentsare weak and of little practicalvalue.To achievehigh
strengthand nrodulus,it was necessary to devisea processfor UltirnateTensileStrength.I.8O-2.40 kN/rnrrr2.(cf. stccl 2.80'
producingcarbonfibreswhich would orientatethe carbonatoms 4.00).
andresultin fibresof a highdegreeof crystallinity.
Brcokitrglixtcnsbn. 0.5'/".(ct . stccl2.O'/o).
PIIODUCTION
D e n s i t y 1. . 9 5g i c n r 3 . 1 c sf .t e c 7l . 8 0 ) .
The startingmaterialfor productionof carbonfibresis comnronly
an acrylic fibre, such as 'Courtelle',in which the backboneof Stiffness.350-4 I 0 kN/nrrn3(cf. stccl207).
carbonatomsis attachedto hydrogenatomsand CN groups.A
three-stageheatingprocessis usedin convertingthe acrylicfibre Stiflnessllleight Ratio. 180-210 (cl. stccl 27).
IO CatOOn.
Elastichopcttics. Loacl/extertsion curve altttostlintrr to brcali.
The initial stageis to heat the acrylic fibres at 200-300oC
under oxidisingconditions.This is followed by a secondstage I lookean r .e r l e c t lcyl a s t i ct o b r c r k .
b e h a v i o uP
when the oxidised fibre is heatedin an inert atlnosDhere to
temperatures around l0000C.Hydrogenand nitrogenaiomsare SpecificCravity. I .75- I .85.
expelled,leavingthe carbon atoms in the form of hexagonal
ringswhicharearranged in orientedfibrils. Eflect of tr'loisturc.Ntl.

716 7t7

r l f l
I
t \
 'h -t--T-
I- r r- r I
IIANDBOOK OI" IltXl lLE t:ll]llIrS INDI'X

Flannnbility. Not fl arnnrable.

Eflect of Age, Jal/rgftt, Nil. Bra ching,rtlolecular,xxii

Acetatefibres, 80, 82
Acctyl value, 82
[flbct of Chenicals,Sobents.lnert. I Iot air oxitlationanclstrong Acrylic fibres:scc l'olYacryloni
oxidisingagcnts(e.9. sodiumhypochlorite)causesonreerosion. trile (acrylic)fibrcs
Acrylonitrile, 393, 399
Adipic acid, 2l l
Effects of hrects, Microtrganisnts. Nil. 'A' glass,644
Alginatefibres, 7, 148
CAIII]ONFItsREIN USE Alsinic acid, 148
Alkali cellulose,l2
Carbonfibresarccharacteriseci by highstrengthaudgrcatstiffness Alpha-cellulose,66
againstbendingand twistingforces.Steelfibres,rvhichapproach Alpha-kelatin,xiii
nearestto carbonin stiffness,are four timesas clense Aluminium alsinate, 149
as carbon, Alunriniumsiiicatefibrcs, 666
anclcarbonfibreshavea very nuch superiorstiffnessto weight AmcricanViscoscCorporation
ratio. process,l9
T h eb r e a k i negx t e n s i oonf c a r b o nf i b r e si sl o w ,a n du n s u p p o r t e ( l Anrino acid, I l5
9-anrino-nonlnoic
fibres are brittle. Applicationslie very largelyin the lleld of
I l'^mino-undecano
compositesfor specialised uses,where the high cost oI carbon Amorphousregions, xxi
Ilbre relativeto steel,glassand other reinfofcingfibres is of Anecl'sHair, 641
mininral consequence. Carbon fibre compositesare used, for A r a m t ol l D t e s ,J I J
'Ardil', 135
exantple,in aircraftstructuralcomponents, in brakesanclengines. 'Arncl', 101
They have proveclof inrmensevalue in spacevehicles,where Artificial silk, 8
weight reduction is at a premium. As carbon fibres beconre AstburyP , r o f .w . T . , l l 5
cheaperwith increasedproduction,they are finding their way Atactic polyproPYlcne.;566
Audemars,Georgc, 5
steadilyinto more mundaneapplications suchasgolf-clubshal'ts, 'Avccranr', 189
fishingrods,boatsandsubmarines, pressure vessels in thechenrical Azlonr seeI'rotcin Fibrcs
a n da l l i e tiln d u s t r i e s . ll.T.C, dcfinition, xxvii, I l6
Specialgradesof carbonflbre are useclin prolectiveclotiring
fabrics,rvheretheir inertness and heatresistance servethen well. Basified viscosc, 39
Carbonfibre labricsnray bc rvashed at 40oC(HLCC6) anddried Bcadle,C,9
rvitha shortspintumbleclryor calender. They nraybe ironecland B e m b e r gJ,. P . , 6 5
c l r yc l e a n e d . lleryllium alginatc, 149
lleta-keratin,xiii
Bevan,E.J.,9,80
Bicomponentfibrc
acrylic, 413
glass,64l
nvlon.306
nylon/polycstcr,323
lliconstitucntfibre
nylon/polycster.323
Bobbin sninning,viscosc, l6
Box sniniring.viscose,l5
718
Bubblc-lillcdviscosc,2l
Ilulkcd nylon, 306
L^alciurn alginatc, 149
Caprohctarrt,262
Capryl lactrfil, 317
Cirbon fibrcs, 716
Carothcrs,WallaccI I., 196, 328
L t s c l nI l D l c s .l r /
Cclhrloscacctatc, 80
nrinlary,8l,82
sccondary,8l,82
Celluloseacctatefibrcs:sdc
Acetate, friacetatc
Cclluloscdircctatc, 81, 82
acitl, 319 Collulosccslcr flbrcs, ?9
ic acid, 292 Ccllrlosc tibrcs,xii, 9
Cclluloscnitrntc, 4
Ccllulosc.rcacrtcriltcd, fibrcs:str'
Cupro, Saponiticdccllulosc
ester,Viscosc,
Ccllulosctriacctatc, 81, 82
Ceramicfibrc, 667
c],"iii-tl.n.tiinc, cffcctsof, r\ii
Chardonnct,Co-untllilairc de, 5
Chardon|lctsilk, 5
Chibnall,I'rof. A. C., I l5
Clrlorofitrro,446
Collaqcnfibrc, 146
Continuousfilanlcnt ycnls, xvii
Continuousspirning,viscosc, l6
Coronization, 655
Cotton, viscoscrayo fron), I I
Crinrpcdviscose,21, 22
Cross,C. I;., 9, 80
Cross-linked nylon, 30?
Cross-linked rayon, 38
Cross-linking, cffcctsof, xxii
Cross{inks,\,ool, xiii
Ctoss-section, clfcct on propcitics.
410
Crj'stalli|lc-.rtrorphous tttio, xi
Crystallinity,xi, rixi
strctchingard, xx
 Cuprarnmonium tayon:Jee Hexamethylenc diaminc,2l I Metallic(stainlesssteel)fibrcs, PDTpolycstcr fibrcs;scc I'oly-
Cupro lligh bulk fibres 690 cstct(polyc(hYlcnc tcrcPhthll'
discovcryof, 6 acrylic,398, 413 Mineralsilicatcfibres:J?e latc)fibrcs.
Cupro,6,9,65 nytril,53l Silicate(mineral)fibrcs PolyacryloDitrilc fibrcs:sccI'oly-
High-temperature fi bre, 667 Modacrylicfibres:seePolyacry-- acrylonitrilc (acrylic)rnd
tligh tcnacityviscoserayon;see lonitrils (modacrylic)fibres Polyacrylonitrilc (nrodacrylic)
'Darvan',523
Viscosc(lrightcnacity)rayon Monkeynut fibre:tec Groundnut fibrcs.
Dcnaturing of protein,ll6 Highwct fltodulus viscose rayo : Drotcinlibrc introduction,393
Dcspeissis, LouisHenry, 65 secViscose(highwet nylon, 210, 211, 306
Multiioba.l nourcnclaturc, 396
ulawtng,xx modulus)rayon. typcs,395
Drcyfus,Henry.andCamille,8l Hooke,Robert,3 Polyacrylonitrilc (acrylic)tihrcs,
ury
' D u rsptn
a f i l 'tng,
, 4 0xlx Naturalrubbcl fibre: seeRubber 398
(ntodncrylic)
'Dynel',468 (Natural)fibre Polyrcrylonitrile
Identification,nylor, 6 and6,6, Nelsonprocess, viscose,l8 fibrcs, 426
286 Nickelbasealloy fibtes, 695 Polyanlidc fibrcs:sccPolyalnidc
Incorporated rayonstaple,38 Nitrocellulose,4 (nylon3) fibrcs,ctc.
Eggalbumirtfib.e, 147 lndustrialRayonproccss,l? fibrcs,5 aromatic,323
'E'glass, 'Nomex',325
644 Inorganic fibre, 66? conrparisol of 6 and6.6, 203
Elasticthreads,154 lsoprene,159 Nylon: JeePolyamidefibres. clastic,612
Elastomer,156 lsotacticpolypropylene,566 chemicalmodification, 307 introduction,194
Elastomericfibre, 156, 611, 615 cross-linkins,307 ncw typcs,303
Ethylene,541 F.T.C.defi,iition,xxvii, 209 nonrcnclaturc,20T
Ethyleneglycol, 332 Keratin,xiii grcft polylrcrisation, 308 tvncs.209
'Kevlar',325 I'oiyarrrirlc (nylonl) tihrcs,3 l0
ncw lypes,JUJ
Kohorn Oko|naticprocess.20 nomenclature,20? Polyanridc (nylon4) tibrcs,310
Featherproteinfibre, 147 Kuljian prqcess,l!i physical moditication,305 P o l y a n r i d( ncy l o n5 ) f i h r c s ,3 l l
IrederalTradeCommission Fibre Nylon6T, 324 , I'olyanrldc (rrylon6) tibrcs,20t,
Identification
Act 1958,xxvi NylonMXD-6, 323 261
FEI' fibres:seeFluorinatedcthv- 'Lanital', Polyamidc (nylon6.6) fibrcs,
ll7 Nytril fibres:seePolyvinylidene
lere-propylenecopolymer' Lastlile,F.T-C.definition,xxviii dinitrile fibres. 195, 209
trllres- 443 t . , l . L . o e u n l u o nx,x v I , J z J Polyanidc(nylon6.10)tibres,
Ferretti,Antonio, 117 Lauryl lactam, 321 302
Fibre classification chart,xxx Lilienfeld,40 Polyarrridc (nylon7) fibrcs,3l 3
I;luorinatcdethylene-propylcne l'olyanldc(nylorrd, lll)rcs,J I /
copolymerfibres, 519 Okonratic proccss;20 Polyanridc (nylon9) fibrcs,319
Fluorocatbonfibrcs, 510 Maizoproteinfibrc, 141 Olcfin,F.T.C.dcfinition,xxvii, Polyanri<lc (nylonI l) fibrcs,292
I;luoropolymcf (nylon l2) tibrcs,320
' F o r t i s a n ' , 7 5fibres,510 Man-nladcfibres,classification, 541 Polyanriclc
xxlv, xxv fibres:sceI'olyolcfin fibrcs I'olycarbonotc fibrcs,714
l:remery,Max, 65 'Marena' collagcn Poly-1,4-cyclohcxylcrc{limcthy'
fibre, [46 polymcrs,538
Meldins,306 Orientation,x lcnctcrcphthrlatc ftbtcs:scc
Nleltspinning,xix degreeof, xv Polycstcr (poly-1,4'cyclo-
Glassfibres, 639 Mercerizing, viscose,30 effect of, xiv hcxylcrrc-dirncth)'lcnc tcrc-
Globularproteins,115 Metallicfibres, 678 stretchingand,xx phthalatc:PCI)T)librcs.
Godetwheel, 15 F,T,C.definition,xxvii, 680 Polycster fibrcs:scclolycslcr
Graft polymerization,nylon, 308 introduction,678 ( poly-l , 4-cyclohcxylcnc-
Graftedrayonstaple,38 multi-conrponent, 678, 695 PCDTpolyesterfibrcs:seePoly- dirrcthylcnctcrcphthilatci
G r o u n d n uptr o t e i nf i b r e ,1 3 5 nomcnclature, 680 ester(poly-l, 4-cyclohcxylcrc- I'Cl)f) nndPolycstcr (noly-
single-conrponent, 679, 680 dirncthylcnc tcrcphthahtc; ctlrylc|lclctolhthohtc;
types,679 PCDT)fibrcs. I'll l) liltrcs.
I'leatcleaning,glass,654 Metcllic(nlulticomponent) fibrcs; Peanutlibres:JceOroundnut l,olvcstcrfillrcs
Ileptanolactam, 3l 3 metauic(m.c.)fibres,695 protcin fibrcs. clicnrical rnodilication. 39()
llctcrofil fibres, 306 Metallic(single-cotrponent) fibres; 'Pcrlon'L,208 l:,'l'.C'.dctinilior,xxvii, 310
Heveabrusiliensis, 153 metallic(s.c.)fibres, 680 'Pcrlon'U, 6ll introduction,32S
720 771

r-l I f t t- , r , r \ f - i
I t I I I
 ,:h f-.}}-F:-h -F].HF}Hh
Poly cster fibrcs hon t A.) I'olyvinyl chloridc(PVC;vinyon) Sodium cellulosexanthate, 13 'Vicara',141
modiflcations,389 fibres,444 Soya beanprotein fibrcs, 144 Vinnl:seeI'olyvi yl .lcoltol
new types, 391 Polyvinyl chioride(chlodnated)
nomenclature,329 Spandexflbres:Jee Polyurethane fibrcs
fibres,480 librcs Ir.T.C.dcfinition,x\viii, 495
physicalnlodification, 389 Polyvinyl chloride (copolymet -
typcs,328 'Dynel' F,T.C. definition,xxviii, 615 Vinyl acctnte,463
type) fibres, 468 Speakman,Prof. J. 8., 149 Vinyl alcohol,493
Polycstcr(poly-1,4-cyclohexylene- Polyvinyl chloride(copolymet -
'Vinyon'HIJ Spinning, xviii, xix, l3 Vinyl chloridc,446, 447
dirnethylene terephthalate; t y p e ) t i b r c s ,4 6 1 polyrncrization
PCDT) fibres, 376 dry, xix Vinyl conrpounds,
Polyvi yl fluoride fibres, 520 man-madefibres, xviii of , 392
lolyester {polyetllylenetcreph- l'olyvinylidene chloride (saran)
thalatc;PDT) fi brcs, 3 j0 nlclt, xix Vinylidcncchloridc,484
fibres,484 wct, xviii Vinylidcncdinitrilc,.523
I'olyesters,dcvcloptnentof, 196 Polyvinylidcncdinitrilc (nyrril)
Polycthylenc,537,541 Spun-dyedviscosc,21, 29 Vinylon:scclblyvinylrlcolrol
fibrcs,523 Spun yarns, xvii llbrcs
l'olyethylencfibres, 5 36. 541 Pot spinning,viscosc,15
Polycthylcne terephthalate fibres; Stainlesssteel fibrcs: see IUetallic Vinyon:secI'olyvinylchloridc
Propylene,polyrnerization,565 (stainlesssteel; S.S.) fibres fibrcs
s.c Polycster(polyethylcne; 5'17
PIT) fibrcs Staple yaJns, xvii F.T.C.dcfinition,xxviii, 446
Protcill fibres,xii, 7, 115 ' V i n y o n ' l l l l ,4 6 3
I'olyisobutylcnc,536 Stcarn,C. I I., 9
nrisccllaneous, 147 Stcreoblockpolyners, 569 Viscosc rayon, 9
Polyisoprere,159 nornenclatute,116
Polymerization,xxiv Stereospecific polymerization,569 Viscosc rayon(hightcnacity),39
PTI'E, Jee Polytetrafluoroethv- Stretching,xx, xxi Viscosc rayon(highwct nlodulus;
addition,xxiv lene fibres polynosic),25,4?
condensation, txiv effect on orientation, xxi
Pyrrolidone, 310 Styrene,533 V u l c r n i z r t i oo| f| r u b h c r ,1 5 4
headand tail, 569 'Supcr' high lcnacity viscosc
vrnyl conlpounds,392
Polymer-modilied viscoseravon. nyon, 42
Qiana, 322 Superpolyanrides,198 wct spinning,xviii
38 Quartz fibret, 179
Folynosicfibres:seeViscose Superpolyesters,197 Woodpulp,viscose fronl, I I
(high wet modulus) fibres Surface-modificd viscose, 2l Woolprotcin,xiii
definition,52,53 Swan,Sir Joseph, 5
Radiation,silica(G) tjbrcs, 186 Syndiotacticpolypropylene, 566
Polyolefin,539 Rayon: seeCupro, V iscose,
Polyolefinfibrcs, 536 Syntheticfibrcs, 192 Yarns
Saponificd Ccllulose Ester continuous lilamcnt,xvii
intloduction,536 f.T.C. delinition, xxvii, 9
nomenclature,54l 'Refrasil', spun,xvii
182 Tachikawa,S., 5l staplc,xvii
typcs,54l Ripening,viscose,l3 'Tcflon', 509
Polypropylene,565 Rubber (natural)fibres, 153
commercialdevelopntent,57 1 Telonrerization,294
"fenasco',26,40 Zeinfibres,l4l
production,565
stericstructure, 564 Terephthaiicacid, 332
Saponified cellulose estcr fibres. Tetrafluorocthylene,509
stcreorcgularity,565 9, 74
Polypropylenefi bres,564 Thrcad-Likcmolcculcs, ix
Saran:rc? Polyvinylidenc Toplram,C. lr., 9
I'olypropylcrrcsplit fiLn hbres, chloride fibrcs
601 Tophanrbox, 9
F.T.C. dcfinition, xxviii, 485 Triacctatc fibres, 99
Polypyrrolidonc,3l0 Schutzenberger,80 'Iiicel',
Polystyrencfibres, 533 100
Schwabe,Louis. 3 Tyre cords, 46
Polytetranuoroethylcne (PTFE) Seaweed,fibres fronl, 7
fibrcs, 509 Tyrex lnc., 42
)cflcln, xN
Polythene:JeePolyethylene Silica fibres, 178
Polyundecanamide,292 Silica(G) fibres, 181
Polyurea librcs, 707 Urban,Johann, ri5
Silica(V) fibres, 138 'Urylon',70?
lolyurethane (spandex) fi bres, Silicate (mineral) fibres, 176
6t0 Silk protein, xiv
Polyvaler6hslqm,311 Skin effect, xx, 24
l'olyvinyl alcohol (vinal) fibres, 493 Valerolactam,3 1 1
Soda celh-rlose,12 'vercl',42'l
.722
723