Developing Digital Literacy Skills:

Mobile Device Use in Pre-Service Teacher Education

AEDT 4201U Thesis II
Assignment: Final Paper
Submitted To: Dr. E. Childs and Dr. R. van Oostveen
Submitted By: Joanne Hunter















Developing Digital Literacy Skills AEDT 4201U Thesis II 1


Abstract

This paper explores mobile device use in pre-service teacher education, where mobile
devices are used in an educational context. Technology use in pre-service teacher university
education has evolved as part of curriculum design to meet the changing needs of educational
activities. Published research studies are reviewed in order to provide a taxonomy toward
addressing skill categories of pre-service teachers digital literacy skills. The review of this
research assesses digital literacy skill development and the potential connections between
frequency of use and confidence of use of mobile devices.


Introduction

It can be recognized in todays technology enhanced world that digital literacy skills are
necessary to function at school and at work (Jones &Flannigan, 2006). Although the definition
of digital literacy can be expressed in various ways, the focus on pre-service teacher education in
this project can be described as the ability to access, manage, integrate, evaluate and create
information from digital sources (Jones & Flannigan, 2006).
The current literature indicates a need for pre-service teachers to improve their digital
literacy skills which include accessing, managing, integrating, evaluating and creating
information from digital sources (see for example Martinovic & Zhang, 2012 ; McPherson,
Wang, Hsu, & Tsuei, 2007; Branch, 2004; and Leneway, 2013). These studies suggest that pre-
service teachers benefit from actually using a device or software program, as opposed to learning
Developing Digital Literacy Skills AEDT 4201U Thesis II 2

indirectly and generally about technology. This paper will specifically explore if the use of
mobile devices have any affect on the development of pre-service teachers digital literacy skills.
Teacher education programs in Ontario have not demanded technology education as part
of the curriculum despite the rapid progression of twenty-first century technologies and the
associated social changes that have taken place (Hunt, 1997). In June 2013, the Ontario Ministry
of Education officially announced several changes to teacher education curriculum in Ontario
programs to begin in 2015, which will include preparation and practice for technology use in the
classroom (Brown, 2013). As such, an opportunity exists to explore technology education as a
developing subject area in a pre-service teacher university program.
This paper will describe a review of current literature on mobile device use in pre-service
teacher programs and will then provide a framework and methodology for exploring data and
present interpretive findings.


Literature Review

Technology in Pre-service Teacher Education
Recent studies have reported that technology education in pre-service teacher programs
does not go beyond the operational aspect of technology use. Studies conducted by Tondeur,
Braak, Sang, Voogt, Fisser, & Ottenbreit-Leftwich (2011) and Teo, Lee & Chai (2008) provide
data to validate the under-utilization of technology by pre-service teachers, and suggest that
limited technology education in pre-service programs leaves teacher candidates ill-prepared to
integrate technology into a 21st century classroom.
Developing Digital Literacy Skills AEDT 4201U Thesis II 3

With the Ontario Ministry of Education set to unveil the 2015 teacher education
curriculum, and the rapid progression of information technologies in the global society, students
and teachers alike require digital literacy skills for the knowledge age. Gunter (2001) states that
teachers must be able to access technology resources and plan learner-centred activities using the
available technologies with which the teacher becomes a facilitator of learning. Teachers need to
understand how to reorganize their instruction and their curriculum by integrating technology.
Investigating the potential use of mobile devices in the context of pre-service education may
provide additional data to previous studies that have evidenced personalization affordances with
regards to collecting educational resources (Elbert, Code, & Irvine, 2013; Leneway, 2013).
Betrus (2012) agrees that technology education in pre-service programs is not being used
on par with societys standards (and suggests it likely never will). Betrus offers this idea based
on evidence that suggests pre-service programs still equip teacher candidates with the
appropriate knowledge and skills that allow them to assess and investigate technologies for
teaching and learning, but does not include the acquisition of critical digital literacy skills.
Betrus (2012) presents consistent historical data that supports trends in technology
education in pre-service teacher programs, while Tondeur et al. (2011) and Teo et al. (2008)
focus their data on the future of technology education in pre-service teacher programs. With the
combination of historical evidence and predictions of future ways of learning, these studies
present solid reasons for pre-service teachers to not only understand how to use technology and
continue to adapt as technology changes, but also how technology can be used in teaching and
learning contexts to satisfy digital literacy skill development.

Pre-Service Teacher Perceptions of Technology Use
Developing Digital Literacy Skills AEDT 4201U Thesis II 4

Pre-service teacher perceptions of technology use in their learning and eventual teaching
are influenced by the research and praxis they experience in their pre-service program (Teo et al.,
2008). Investigating this influence, Pegrum, Howitt, & Striepe (2013) conducted a case study of
eight pre-service teachers that explored how the use of a mobile device impacted learning during
the pre-service teacher program. The results of the study revealed that the mobile device
supported the pre-service teachers learning in several positive ways. Four main themes were
identified: developing understanding of content, developing understanding of pedagogy, staying
connected, and staying organised (Pegrum et al., 2013). The Pegrum et al. (2013) study also
revealed there were several perceived drawbacks of using the mobile device that prompted the
pre-service teachers to use other devices based on their preferences. Some of the specific
preferences discovered were: using a device with a keyboard, viewing documents on a larger
screen, and using software that the mobile device was not compatible with. These preferences
did not hinder the collection or understanding of resources, but did limit the pre-service teachers
frequency of exposure to exploring mobile device use for classroom use. It is suggested that an
infrequency of use and lack of adoption of the mobile device prevented the pre-service teachers
from developing new technology skills.
Similarly, Tondeur et al. (2011) reported a recurring theme of attitudinal negativity
among pre-service teachers toward using technology for teaching and learning as a result of their
research. The findings suggest that active learning, such as developing classroom material using
some form of technology, correlates with positive attitude progression towards technology
among pre-service teachers (Tondeur et al., 2011). Teo et al. (2008) reported comparable
findings in pre-service teachers attitudes and technology adoption. The message being delivered
Developing Digital Literacy Skills AEDT 4201U Thesis II 5

in these studies is that pre-service teachers benefit from actually using a device or software
program, as opposed to learning indirectly and generally about technology.


Theoretical Framework

This research project will utilize the Technological Competency Use (TCU) model
(Desjardins, Lacasse, & Blair, 2001), and the Social Cognition Theory (Bandura, 1977) as it
relates to the concept of self-efficacy, as a framework to discover how pre-service teachers use
mobile devices to access, manage, integrate, evaluate and create information from digital
sources.
The TCU model considers four competency orders (competency is defined as ones
ability to effectively perform a specific task) that are categorized as: Technical, Social,
Informational, and Epistemological. All four competencies have overlapping knowledge and
skill requirements that directly relate to how, in this project, pre-service teachers might interact
with mobile devices during their teacher education process. A visual representation of the TCU
model can be found in Figure 1. This figure shows each competency interaction between the
human and computer. The technical order is the human interacting with the hardware and
software, the social order shows the interaction with other humans (across technologies), the
informational order shows how the human is shaping information by using the computers data
search capabilities, and finally the epistemological order shows how the human can manipulate
the computers capabilities to solve problems (Desjardins et al., 2001).

Developing Digital Literacy Skills AEDT 4201U Thesis II 6


Figure 1. The Technological Competency Use Model
Desjardins, F. (2013). Technology Competency and Use (TCU). Retrieved from
http://eilab.ca/technology-competency/








The TCU model was originally proposed as the Human Computer Human Interaction
(HCHI) model (Desjardins in 2001). Drawing from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers Minimal Computer model; a model that demonstrates three different information
tasks are performed by computers: transmit, store and process (Desjardins, vanOostveen,
Bullock, DiGiuseppe, & Robertson, 2010) Desjardins model translates those three tasks into
human competencies in terms of performing tasks using a computer. The model then suggests a
fourth competency; that is to tell the computer what to do, known in the TCU model as the
technical order competency (Desjardins et al., 2010).
The Informational order competency is of particular interest in regards to this project, as
it defines knowledge construction while searching for specific information using a variety of
databases or search engines, in order to extract useful procedures for identifying, selecting,
T = Technical
S = Social
I = Informational
E = Epistemological
Developing Digital Literacy Skills AEDT 4201U Thesis II 7

classifying and coherent grouping of data (Desjardins et al., 2001). The connection from the
Informational order competency to developing digital literacy skills in a pre-service teacher
education program is ones ability to search for an evaluate information for use in a learning
context.
While the TCU addresses competency as the ability to effectively do something, Social
Cognition Theory (SCT) (Bandura, 1977) addresses an individuals judgment of their
competency to perform a particular task, known as self-efficacy. SCT (Bandura, 1977, 1986)
proposes reciprocity between personal factors, environmental factors and behaviour as seen in
Figure 2, that influence the way an individual learns and develops in their lifetime.

Figure 2. Social Cognition Theory Model
Bandura (1999), (as cited in Early Social-Cognitive Concepts within Theories of Student
Motivation, Wikiversity)




Bandura (1986) proposed SCT, expanding on his original theory of Social Learning
presenting the concept of self-efficacy and the role it plays in learning and development.
Bandura describes self-efficacy as an individuals belief in their ability to succeed in a given
Developing Digital Literacy Skills AEDT 4201U Thesis II 8

situation (Bandura, 1977). Bandura, (1991) argues that people form beliefs about what they can
do, they anticipate the likely consequences of prospective actions, they set goals for themselves,
and they otherwise plan courses of action that are likely to produce desired outcomes (p. 248). It
is suggested in the literature that there is a relationship between technology use (in this case,
mobile device use) and self-efficacy that effects the development of technology competencies.
The TCU model and SCT will assist in the exploration of the relationship between developing
digital literacy skills and mobile device use among pre-service teachers.


Research Question
While digital literacy skills are defined in this projects context as: accessing, managing,
integrating, evaluating and creating information from digital sources, this paper builds on the
literature discussed above, and will investigate if the use of mobile devices have any affect on
the development of pre-service teachers digital literacy skills.



Methodology

The intent of this paper is to present current research about mobile device use and digital
literacy skill development in the context of pre-service teacher education. A qualitative meta-
synthesis approach was taken to discover interpretive relationships between mobile device use
and digital literacy skills. This method was chosen to allow for inclusion of relevant studies
offered by broader research bodies and to identify specific data related to mobile device use.
Developing Digital Literacy Skills AEDT 4201U Thesis II 9

Using a collection of scholarly articles that discussed mobile device use in education, a narrower
search was determined to include pre-service teacher education that involved primary data.
Beginning with just the topic of mobile device use in education, the project moved
through a variety of sources on the topic that included, but was not limited to, pre-service teacher
perceptions of mobile device use, digital literacy skills and mobile device use, mobile device use
in pre-service teacher education and pre-service teacher digital literacy and mobile device use.
This exploration directed the research toward the relationship between mobile device use and
pre-service teacher education. It was first determined how the studies were related through an
exercise that compared and contrasted the differences in methods and data being reported.
The commonalities between the studies were that they provided survey data based on
self-assessment ratings from the participants that centered around mobile device use and the
participants perceived capabilities of their mobile device use. The information and references
identified allowed for a gathering of several data sets to be explored for use. This led to
secondary research analysis that examines relationships between mobile device use, confidence
of use, frequency of use and digital literacy skill development.

Previously collected survey data from a quantitative study conducted by DiGiuseppe,
Partosoedarso, vanOostveen, & Desjardins, (2013), is combined with case study data conducted
by Franklin, Sexton, Lu, & Ma, (2007), and exploratory quantitative research conducted by
Newhouse, Williams, & Pearson, (2006). The literature indicated the potential to discuss
connections between the TCU model and Social Cognition Theory as it relates to mobile device
use among pre-service teachers.
The purpose of DiGiuseppe et al. (2013), survey was used to determine how post-secondary
students interact with technology as defined by a combination of frequency and confidence. The
Developing Digital Literacy Skills AEDT 4201U Thesis II 10

frequency, confidence and main use data from the survey can be linked directly to the theoretical
framework of this study and will allow for comparisons to be made with other studies in this
realm. This is the main rationale for including this study as part of this project. The collective
results of the DiGiuseppe et al. (2013) study suggest further investigation of how mobile devices
can be used in learning and teaching contexts.
Franklin, Sexton, Lu, & Ma, (2007), discussed self-reported data from two groups of
participants that examined how pre-service teachers create and use digital information and their
experiences with technology by conducting pre and post surveys during an eleven week period.
Journals and discussion recordings were also examined to gather evidence of pre-service teacher
attitudes toward the use of mobile technology. This study provides a blend of both self-reported
data and opinion based responses from the participants allowing for a richer analysis of
individualized responses.
Similarly, Newhouse, Williams, & Pearson, (2006), presented self-reported data that
compared two groups of pre-service teachers rating their information and communication
technology (ICT) skill level. The self-reported data provides an overview of the rating
differences within a ten week period. This study suggests a correlation between confidence of
use and information technology skill development, prompting inclusion of data for this paper.
In order to identify confidence in the chosen studies, a triangulation of the data was
conducted to seek validity across the studies. One of the articles had a multi-method research
approach which consisted of a blend of case study and self-reported data. One of the limitations I
discovered with the data representation was that the different social circumstances associated
with the different research methods may have reduced credibility. For example, the views
expressed in the case study data was strictly individual and of a personal nature, as opposed to a
Developing Digital Literacy Skills AEDT 4201U Thesis II 11

more general or public view, or scale-rated data that would have revealed consistent (or
inconsistent) data. Another limitation was that although the findings revealed a convergence,
there was a potential for bias to occur within the studies as well as bias interpreting the data.


Analysis and Discussion

Three peer-reviewed articles were analysed. The research stemmed from two continents:
one was conducted in Australia and two were conducted in North America (one offered a
Canadian perspective, the other, from the USA). Each article detailed that research was
conducted in a university setting, one reaching an entire student body, two focused in on pre-
service teachers specifically. All of the studies addressed the use of mobile devices in education
with an emphasis on exploring how effectively university students used the devices and reported
on use changes that occurred during the research period. The themes that emerged from the
findings presented an opportunity for a taxonomy to be prepared to illustrate the relationships.
The categories of digital literacy skill development described in the taxonomy address the
recurring themes from the studies and bring about the relationships occurring between the
frequency of mobile device use, digital literacy skills and self-efficacy (see Figure 3). The
horizontal axis (sense of self-efficacy) illustrates a sliding scale of strong to weak sense of self-
efficacy to define an individuals sense of perceived ability to perform a task, in this case, mobile
device operation. The vertical axis illustrates a sliding scale of low to high frequency of use of a
mobile device. The two axes interact to define digital literacy skill categories that an individual
might perceive themselves to fit with. For example, an individual (pre-service teacher in this
Developing Digital Literacy Skills AEDT 4201U Thesis II 12

context) who has a weak sense of self-efficacy and a high frequency of use of a mobile device
would situate themselves as a Novice.
Figure 3.
Taxonomy of Digital Literacy Skill (DLS) Development

Pre-Service Teacher Self Efficacy
Strong sense of self-efficacy Weak sense of self-efficacy










DiGiuseppe, Partosoedarso, van Oostveen, & Desjardins, (2013) introduce their main
finding as an increase in smartphone and tablet device adoption among university students within
recent years, not only for personal use purposes, but for educational purposes such as
information seeking and computation. The quantitative survey data from collected by
DiGiuseppe et al. (2013) also introduced the interaction between frequency of mobile device use
and confidence of mobile device use (Figure 5), reporting a lower confidence level for those
using mobile devices for computational purposes, resulting in a lower frequency of use. This

Mastered DLS

Novice DLS


Intermediate DLS


Limited DLS
M
o
b
i
l
e

D
e
v
i
c
e

U
s
e

L
o
w

F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
















H
i
g
h

F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

Developing Digital Literacy Skills AEDT 4201U Thesis II 13

suggests that self-efficacy and adoption of technology use are closely related. The participants
reported a high confidence of use across the technical, social, informational and computational
interactions, particularly under the personal use category. With the higher confidence scores
correlating with a high frequency of use rating, this communicates that participant digital literacy
skill development (access, manage, integrate, evaluate and create information from digital
sources) are closely related to participant interaction levels and perceived ability of mobile
device use.

Figure 5.
Frequency, confidence, and main purpose of smartphone use for the four classes of interactions.
DiGiuseppe, Partosoedarso, vanOostveen, & Desjardins (2013).


Frequency
of use
(5-point
scale)
Confidence
of use
(5-point
scale)
Main purpose of use


Personal Studies Work
T
e
c
h
n
i
c
a
l

Create/edit
documents
3.66 4.33 78.4% 14.8% 6.8%
Create/edit voice
recordings
2.19 4.02 69.2% 23.1% 7.7%
Create/edit
multimedia
3.14 4.33 85.5% 8.1% 6.5%
S
o
c
i
a
l

Email 3.92 4.69 65.1% 12.7% 22.2%
Video 2.21 4.33 92.5% 0.0% 7.5%
Texting 4.76 4.74 95.7% 1.1% 3.2%
Audio 3.86 4.62 93.2% 1.4% 5.4%
Social media 3.80 4.62 98.5% 0.0% 1.5%
Developing Digital Literacy Skills AEDT 4201U Thesis II 14

Share document 1.97 4.02 18.2% 69.7% 12.1%
Share works and
ideas
1.55 3.68 66.7% 20.0% 13.3%
I
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

Search for articles 2.68 4.57 63.9% 27.8% 8.3%
Search for short
videos
2.99 4.73 86.5% 9.6% 3.8%
Search for movies 1.25 3.60 100.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Search for music 1.59 3.84 100.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Search for ebooks 1.34 3.53 85.7% 14.3% 0.0%
C
o
m
p
u
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

Share calendar 2.95 4.18 59.5% 29.7% 10.8%
Use concept maps 1.05 2.94 33.3% 66.7% 0.0%
Use diagrams 1.17 2.74 42.9% 28.6% 28.6%
Sort data 1.25 3.26 80.0% 10.0% 10.0%
Produce graphs 1.14 3.00 14.3% 57.1% 28.6%
Complex calculations 1.71 3.88 55.0% 40.0% 5.0%

Of the two groups of participants, the pre-service teacher survey scores from the
Franklin, Sexton, Lu, & Ma, (2007) study show significant increases of self-reported technology
skills from the start of the study to the conclusion of the study. The study also suggested that the
ratio of students in both groups that had a positive attitude toward using the mobile device was
high and proved to have a higher technology skills rating at the post-survey response phase. The
ratio of less enthusiastic (negative) student attitudes toward mobile device use provided
arguments for not wanting to adopt the device into their daily lives: technical difficulties and
belief that technology is not needed in a learning environment. However, the self-reported post-
survey data suggests this (negative) group also increased their technology skill development after
Developing Digital Literacy Skills AEDT 4201U Thesis II 15

adopting a more scheduled use of the device. This suggests that there is an intersection between
how often the participants used their mobile device and their value perception of the device.
When the participants were asked to make use of their device more often, regardless of their
interest in using the device, it is evidenced that their technology skills increased during the
period of study.
Figure 6.
Franklin, T., Sexton, C., Lu, Y., Ma, H. (2007)
Course Pre survey of Technology Skills Post survey of Technology Skills


EDEC 340Science
for Young Children (n=20)

Hardware use = 2.1
Productivity = 2.7
Communication = 2.9
Palm = 1

Hardware use = 3.3
Productivity = 3.2
Communication = 3.3
Palm = 3.6


EDCI 203 Technology
Applications in Education
(n=21)

Hardware use = 2.2
Productivity = 2.9
Communication = 3.1
Palm = 1.5


Hardware use = 4.0
Productivity = 4.0
Communication = 3.9
Palm = 3.7

It can be noted that faculty members who were not involved in the study reported witnessing
an increased use of the mobile devices on campus. This suggests an increase of frequency of use
which may have affected the increase of reported development of technology skills. Based on
this data, it can be argued that both student enthusiasm toward mobile devices and frequency of
use of mobile devices increases the likelihood of developing technology skills.
Newhouse, Williams, & Pearson, (2006) present both qualitative and quantitative data
collected from two groups each consisting of twenty-five pre-service teacher participants. The
study aimed to measure student confidence and competence of mobile device use. It can be noted
Developing Digital Literacy Skills AEDT 4201U Thesis II 16

that 74% of the participants categorized themselves as regular computer users, only 13% of
which rated themselves as very experienced users (with the others rating themselves as: 25%
inexperienced, 62% experienced).
Students assessed their ICT skills on week one of the study and then again at week ten, reporting
a considerable improvement in skill and confidence of use. Members from both groups also
reported positive attitude gains toward technology in a learning context. This study is further
proof that increased frequency of mobile device use and some level of self efficacy toward
technology skills interacts with the skills and capability rating an individual places on themselves
over time.
Figure 7.
ICT Skills Self Assessment Ratings (n=45)
Newhouse, C.P., Williams, P.J., Pearson, J. 2006.

Item Group Week 1 Week 10 Diff
Log onto the Internet T 2.77 3.00 0.23
C 2.80 2.98 0.18
Access Blackboard T 2.64 3.00 0.36
C 2.74 2.95 0.21
Download files from Blackboard T 2.18 2.88 0.69
C 2.46 2.94 0.48
Insert sound into PowerPoint T 1.80 2.63 0.83
C 1.78 2.68 0.90
Use Kidspiration and Inspiration T 1.23 2.88 1.65
C 1.43 2.77 1.33
Manipulate images with Photoeditor T 1.48 2.50 1.02
C 1.47 2.48 1.01
Create a QuickTime movie T 1.05 2.65 1.60
C 1.08 2.55 1.47
Line and clip viewer in Moviemaker T 1.00 2.35 1.35
C 1.07 2.32 1.25
Developing Digital Literacy Skills AEDT 4201U Thesis II 17

Export file as QuickTime movie T 1.00 2.38 1.38
C 1.08 2.35 1.27
Ratings are on a scale of 1-3, from not at all skilled to very skilled.
Group: T = Treatment (laptop group), C = Control


Summary

This paper explored if the use of mobile devices have any effect on the development of
pre-service teachers digital literacy skills. With impending changes to pre-service teacher
education that includes technology and demands of digital knowledge expansion among pre-
service teachers, there is a need to further explore the affects of mobile device use.
Exploring the variables that interact between mobile device use and digital literacy skills,
this paper contributes to the growing body of research surrounding information and
communication technology use in education and presents a taxonomy to define user skill levels.
This taxonomy could also apply to the broader educational community by connecting frequency
of use and self-efficacy to other technological devices in other educational contexts.








Developing Digital Literacy Skills AEDT 4201U Thesis II 18

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