Chapter 4

Metal Alloys: Structure and

Strengthening by Heat Treatment
QUALITATIVE PROBLEMS
4.16 You may have seen some technical literature on products stating that certain
parts in those products are heat treated. Describe briey your understand-
ing of this term and why the manufacturer includes it.
Heat treating, in general, subjects the alloys to controlled heating and cooling cycles to
produce a microstructure that improves the mechanical properties of the alloy. Man-
ufacturers mention heat treating because it generally implies an improvement in the
properties of the parts, particularly strength, hardness, and wear resistance, although
the process is usually accompanied by an increase in cost.
4.17 Describe the engineering signicance of the existence of a eutectic point in
phase diagrams.
A eutecic point corresponds to a composition that has the lowest melting temperature
for that alloy system. The low melting temperature associated with a eutectic point is
an important aspect of soldering, and also helps in controlling thermal damage to parts
being joined.
4.18 What is the dierence between hardness and hardenability?
Hardness represents the materials resistance to permanent indentation (Section 2.6
starting on p. 67), whereas hardenability is the materials capability to be hardened
by heat treatment processes.
4.19 Referring to Table 4.1, explain why the items listed under typical applications
are suitable for surface hardening.
Surface hardening is useful in increasing wear resistance, fatigue resistance, or inden-
tation resistance, without producing a part that is hard and brittle throughout (which
would result in low toughness). The parts listed under typical applications would ei-
ther be exposed to high wear conditions (tools, dies, and gears), cyclic loading (rotating
shafts and cams), or where surface damage would render the parts useless (bolts, gears,
cams).
51
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Metal Alloys: Structure and Strengthening by Heat Treatment 52
4.20 It generally is not desirable to use steels in their as-quenched condition.
Explain why.
Steels are rarely used in their as-quenched condition because they are very brittle and
thus lack toughness. These detrimental conditions are overcome by tempering the steel,
which restores toughness.
4.21 Describe the dierences between case hardening and through hardening, in-
sofar as engineering applications of metals are concerned.
Case hardening is a treatment process that hardens only the outer surface of a part; the
bulk retains its toughness, which allows for blunting of surface cracks as they propagate to
the core. Case hardening generally induces a residual compressive stress on the workpiece
surface which, in turn, helps retard fatigue crack initiation. Through-hardened parts
have a high hardness level across the whole part; consequently, a crack could propagate
easily through the cross-section of the part, causing failure.
4.22 Describe the characteristics of (a) an alloy, (b) pearlite, (c) austenite, (d)
martensite, and (e) cementite.
i. Alloy: Composed of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal. The
alloy may be a solid solution or it may form intermetallic compounds.
ii. Pearlite: A two-phase aggregate consisting of alternate lamellae of ferrite and ce-
mentite. The closer the pearlite spacing of the lamellae, the harder the steel will
be.
iii. Austenite: Called gamma iron, it has a face-centered cubic structure. The fcc
structure allows for higher solubility of carbon in the crystal lattice. This structure
also possesses a high level of ductility, which increases the steels formability.
iv. Martensite: Forms by quenching austenite. It has a body-centered tetragonal (bct)
structure, and carbon atoms in interstitial positions impart high strength to the
structure. It is very brittle and hard.
v. Cementite, also known as iron carbide (Fe
3
C). Cementite is a hard and brittle phase.
4.23 Explain why carbon, among all elements, is so eective in imparting strength
to iron in the form of steel.
The size of the carbon atom allows it to have high solubility in the high-temperature fcc
phase of iron (austenite). At low temperatures, the structure is bcc and has very low
solubility of carbon atoms. Upon quenching, the austenitic structure transforms to bct
martensite, which produces a large amount of distortion in the crystal lattice, enough
to allow the solubility of carbon, but not other larger atoms.
4.24 How does the shape of graphite in cast iron aect its properties?
The shape of graphite in cast iron has the following basic forms:
i. Flakes: Have sharp edges which act as stress raisers. The shape makes cast iron
low in tensile strength and ductility, but it still has good compressive strength. The
akes also act as vibration dampers.
ii. Nodules: Spheroids formed by graphite when magnesium or cerium is added to the
melt. This form has increased ductility, strength, and shock resistance over akes,
but the damping capacity is reduced.
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Metal Alloys: Structure and Strengthening by Heat Treatment 53
iii. Clusters: Much like nodules, except they form from the breakdown of white cast
iron upon annealing. Clusters have properties similar to akes.
iv. Compacted akes: Short thick akes with rounded edges. This form has properties
that are between nodular and ake graphite.
4.25 In Section 4.8.2, several uids are listed in terms of their cooling capacity in
quenching. Which physical properties of these uids inuence their cooling
capacity?
The main physical properties of the uids that inuence their cooling capacity are
thermal conductivity and specic heat. Agitation (rapid movement of the quenching
medium) is an eective way of increasing the cooling capacity of the quenching medium.
4.26 Why is it important to know the characteristics of heat-treating furnaces?
Explain.
The size, shape, and heating media of heat-treating furnaces make them useful in various
applications. For example
Batch: Usually large furnaces that allow a large number of parts to be treated
simultaneously. Batch furnaces are important for parts such as bolts or cams that
are produced in large but nite quantities.
Continuous: Oers close control over heating cycles. Some parts have complex
heating cycles, requiring controlled heating and cooling rates to develop desired
microstructures, and this can be best achieved in a continuous furnace.
Gas-red: Can be used for gas carburization of parts. Carburization is a valuable
hardening process that can be used for gears, cams, etc.
Electric: Oers closest control over furnace atmospheres. Sometimes it is important
to exclude oxygen or nitrogen to avoid oxidation or the formation of nitrides during
heat treating.
4.27 Explain why, in the abscissa of Fig. 4.16c, the percentage of pearlite begins
to decrease after 0.8% carbon content is reached.
Pearlite is a eutectoid transformation of steel that occurs at 0.77 weight percent carbon.
Its microstructure consists of about 88% ferrite and 12% cementite. As the carbon
content is increased, more than 12% of cementite is formed. The microstructure consists
of pearlite and excess cementite, and the excess cementite reduces the percentage of
pearlite.
4.28 What is the signicance of decarburization? Give some examples.
Decarburization results in a loss of carbon from the surface layers of a part. The lower
carbon at the surface consequently results in lower strength and hardness. Fatigue
life and wear resistance are also reduced. If a bolt or screw is decarburized during
heat treatment, the tendency to strip the threads will be increased. Decarburization is
especially harmful in the heat treatment of tool and die steels, since the softer surface
would have less wear resistance.
4.29 Explain your understanding of size distortion and shape distortion in heat-
treated parts, and describe their causes.
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Metal Alloys: Structure and Strengthening by Heat Treatment 54
Because of microstructural changes during heat treatment and variations in the rate
of heating and cooling in dierent regions of a part, heat treatment can cause distor-
tions. Size distortion involves changes in the dimensions of the part without a change in
shape, whereas shape distortion involves bending, twisting, and similar nonsymmetrical
dimensional changes. These are illustrated below; the red image shows a size distortion,
although greatly exaggerated compared to shrinkage from heat treating or casting, for
example. The green image shows a shape that has distorted, but the nominal size of the
part has remained constant.
Size distortion:
Shape distortion:
4.30 Comment on your observations regarding Fig. 4.18b.
Several observations can be made: (a) Hardness decreases with increasing distance from
the quenched end, due to the slower cooling rate. (b) For plain-carbon steels, hardness
increases with increasing carbon content, as shown in Fig. 4.18a on p. 116. (c) The
hardness is higher for nickel- and chrome-alloy steels (see Table 5.3 on p. 138 and the
discussion of austenite and ferrite formers on p. 109), with nickel having a greater eect
on hardenability.
QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS
4.31 Design a heat-treating cycle for carbon steel, including temperature and
exposure times, to produce (a) pearlitemartensite steels and (b) bainite
martensite steels.
The heat-treat cycle for these conditions can be obtained from Fig. 4.17c. For part (a), it
is desired to produce a pearlite-martensite steel, so it is important that the cooling rate
be maintained between 140

and 35

C/s when cooling the material from the eutectoid

temperature. Such a cooling rate can be achieved with a salt or oil quench, where the
bath temperature will determine the cooling rate and the ultimate percentage of pearlite
and martensite. For part (b), it is desired to have bainite, which forms under very rapid
cooling (see the discussion on p. 112). Thus the two heat-treat cycles desired can be
sketched as shown below.
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Metal Alloys: Structure and Strengthening by Heat Treatment 55
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(

C
)
200
100
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
300
400
500
3
5

C
/
s
1
4
0

C
/
s
600
700
800
Eutectoid temperature
Time (s)
1 10 10
2
10
-1
10
3
10
4
10
5

F
Pearlite Martensite
Martensite
+
pearlite
TTT diagram to
produce martensite
and pearlite
TTT for
bainite
4.32 Using Fig. 4.4, estimate the following quantities for a 75% Cu25% Ni alloy:
(a) the liquidus temperature, (b) the solidus temperature, (c) the percentage
of nickel in the liquid at 1150

C (2102

F), (d) the major phase at 1150

C,
and (e) the ratio of solid to liquid at 1150

C.
i. Liquidus temperature: 1400

C (2550

F).
ii. Solidus temperature: 1372

C (2500

F).
iii. At 1400

C (2550

F) the alloy is still all liquid, thus the nickel composition is 80%
.
iv. The major phase at 1400

C is liquid, with no solids present since the alloy is not
below the liquidus temperature.
v. The ratio is zero, since no solid is present.
4.33 Extrapolating the curves in Fig. 4.14, estimate the time that it would take
for 1080 steel to soften to 40 HRC at (a) 300

C and (b) 400

C.
From the graph of hardness of tempered martensite, for 200

C the time is 10
7
s and for
300

C it is 10
4
s.
4.34 A typical steel for tubing is AISI 1040, and one for music wire is 1085.
Considering their applications, explain the reason for the dierence in carbon
content.
Music wire is formed by wire drawing processes (see Sections 15.7 through 15.10), and
the combination of high carbon content and large amount of work hardening (that ac-
companies the drawing process) gives the wire a very high yield stress. The high yield
strength is necessary to allow the strings to be pulled in tension to obtain the proper
pitch. Tubing requires higher ductility for subsequent forming operations (such as bend-
ing, anging, and bulging) where it undergoes more rigorous deformation. The lower
carbon content gives the steel the required ductility for processing.
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Metal Alloys: Structure and Strengthening by Heat Treatment 56
SYNTHESIS, DESIGN AND PROJECTS
4.35 It was stated in this chapter that, in parts design, sharp corners should be
avoided in order to reduce the tendency toward cracking during heat treat-
ment. If it is essential for a part to have sharp corners for functional purposes,
and it still requires heat treatment, what method would you recommend for
manufacturing this part?
Cracking could be eliminated by having a suciently low cooling rate to avoid thermal
shock. A lower cooling rate could be achieved by using a less severe quenching medium,
such as air or oil instead of water; die quenching also may be benecial. Sharp corners
can be produced by subsequent machining or grinding of the heat-treated part without
any danger of cracking.
4.36 The heat-treatment processes for surface hardening are summarized in Table
4.1. Each of these processes involves dierent equipment, procedures, and
cycle times; as a result, each incurs dierent costs. Review the available
literature, contact various companies, and then make a similar table outlining
the costs involved in each process.
By the student. Specic costs will vary with location. Costs will also vary with the
number and size of parts, specic processing parameters, and the required hardened
depth.
4.37 It can be seen that, as a result of heat treatment, parts can undergo size
distortion and shape distortion to various degrees. By referring to the Bibli-
ography at the end of this chapter, make a survey of the technical literature
and report quantitative data regarding the distortions of parts having dier-
ent shapes.
By the student. This problem appears straightforward, but it is quite challenging because
of the call for quantitative data. Distortions will be given as tolerances or deections, and
these need to be translated to particular shapes by the students to gain an appreciation
of shape distortions.
4.38 Figure 4.18b shows hardness distributions in end-quench tests, as measured
along the length of the round bar. Make a simple qualitative sketch showing
the hardness distribution across the diameter of the bar. Would the shape
of the curve depend on the bars carbon content? Explain.
Hardness proles will be somewhat similar to the curves shown in Fig. 4.20b on p. 117,
with the abscissa indicating the distance from the outer diameter, instead of the distance
from the quenched end. The shape of the curve will depend on the carbon content
since the hardness of martensite increases greatly with increasing carbon content. The
magnitude of the hardness will depend on the position along the length of the bar.
However, because the radius is smaller than the length, the dierence in the cooling rate
between the outside radius and the center will not be as high as the dierences along
the length. An acceptable qualitative curve is as shown below. Note that the curve is
increasing, and one expects higher hardness at the outside radius than at the center.
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Metal Alloys: Structure and Strengthening by Heat Treatment 57
0
0 0.25
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
12.5 mm
Radius
H
a
r
d
n
e
s
s

(
H
R
C
)
0.5 in.
4340
4140
4.39 Throughout this chapter, you have seen specic examples of the importance
and the benets of heat-treating parts or certain regions of parts. Refer
to the Bibliography at the end of this chapter, make a survey of the heat-
treating literature, and then compile several examples and illustrations of
parts that have been heat treated.
By the student. There are numerous examples of heat-treated parts; for example, cutlery,
gear teeth, nuts and bolts, hand tools, shafts, tools and dies, crankshafts, sprockets,
springs, and cams. Most parts that require wear resistance have been heat treated to
increase their hardness. In addition, applications where impacts occur and could lead
to surface damage often use hardened parts.
4.40 Refer to Fig. 4.24, and think of a variety of other part shapes to be heat
treated, and design coils that are appropriate for these shapes. Describe
how dierent your designs would be if the parts have varying shapes along
their length (such as from a square at one end to a round shape at the other
end).
By the student. For constant cross-sections, the coils can closely match the contour of
the part, and this represents a fairly straightforward design problem. If the cross-section
varies, there are a number of possible solutions, such as:
Using a series of coils that have a contour matching the prole at a given axial
location. Thus, the part could be inserted into the coil over the entire length to be
heat treated, and it could be treated along the entire surface at one time.
A coil can be used that is compliant, either because of a helix integrated into the
coil (like with a spring) or because of geometry as in the support for the coil ends.
Instead of a continuous coil, a series of coil segments can be used, similar to the
aperture for a camera.
4.41 Inspect various parts in your car or home, and identify those that are likely
to have been case hardened. Explain your reasons.
By the student. As discussed in the chapter, parts are through hardened when the
mechanical properties through the thickness need to be improved, and in case hardening
they are hardened to a certain depth. Case hardening is desirable when the surface
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Metal Alloys: Structure and Strengthening by Heat Treatment 58
should be hard but the substrate should maintain ductility. Examples are gears (as
in automobile transmissions), knives, ice skate blades, hammers, screwdriver bits, nuts
and bolts and woodworking tools such as drills and saws. Case hardening gives wear
resistance while preserving ductility and resistance to stress concentrations.
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