Jeda Volume 22 March. 2014 X

Journal of Education in Developing
Official journal of the Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt.

SECONDARY SCHOOLS STUDENTS PERCEPTION OF PROBLEMS
ASSOCIATED WITH CORPORAL PUNISHMENT IN ILORIN, NIGERIA.
Department of Arts and Social Sciences,
Abstract
This study investigated the problems associated with corporal punishment as perceived by secondary
schools students in Ilorin metropolis of Kwara
sampling technique. At stage one; the four local governments were purposively selected. Stratified
sampling procedure was used at stage two to stratify respondents into desired characteristics of age,
gender, religion, class level and school type. At stage three, simple random technique was employed to
select 50 students in each of the four local governments making a total of 200 respondents from the
four Local Government Area in Ilorin Metropolis. The ou
school students in Ilorin have similar views on the perceived problems associated with corporal
punishment on the basis of age, gender, religion and class level. A significant difference was found on
the basis school type. The problems of indiscipline among students cannot be handled by teachers
alone as such it was recommended that principals should employ the services of school counsellors.
The government should also discourage the use of corporal punishment in Sc

Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) March - Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
Official journal of the Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt. | www.jeda-uniport.com

By

BOLU-STEVE F.N
Department of Counsellor Education,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin. Nigeria.
bolusteve2002@yahoo.com

ONIYE. M. I.
Department of Arts and Social Sciences,
oniyemasud@unilorin.edu.ng

&

ABEJIRIN, M. A.
Department of Counsellor Education

schools students in Ilorin metropolis of Kwara state. The study was carried out using a multi
nder, religion, class level and school type. At stage three, simple random technique was employed to
four Local Government Area in Ilorin Metropolis. The outcome of this study showed that secondary
ol type. The problems of indiscipline among students cannot be handled by teachers
The government should also discourage the use of corporal punishment in School.
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1
state. The study was carried out using a multi-stage
nder, religion, class level and school type. At stage three, simple random technique was employed to
tcome of this study showed that secondary
ol type. The problems of indiscipline among students cannot be handled by teachers
hool.


Introduction
In Nigeria today, acts of indiscipline among secondary school students have become a major problem in
school and the society at large (Korb, 2011). These problems are manifested in the form of destruction
of school and public properties, cheating in examinations, alcoholism, drug addiction, sexual offences,
stealing, truancy, rudeness, fighting and bullying. Effective discipline techniques are needed to curb such
negative tendencies so as to maintain discipline in schools. As such,
employed the use of corporal punishment as a tool for maintaining discipline. Oftentimes, over
punishment may trigger physical or emotional problems in the affected students (Jaiyeoba & Akintepede,
2002).

Corporal punishment is defined as the intentional infliction of physical punishment on the body
(Benatar, 2001). School corporal punishment covers the official punishments of students for misbehavior
that involves striking the student a given number of times (Gould,
used to inflict punishment on the offender which includes the rod, cane, horse whip (
the use of hand. In modern times, moral and psychological considerations have brought about radical
changes in the use of corporal punishment as a disciplinary instrument. There has been evidence to show
that corporal punishment is detrimental. In 1979, Sweden protected children against corporal punishment
by banning parents from using it in any way on children as a
The use of corporal punishment in Nigerian secondary schools has always been a contentious
issue. In 1977, at the height of indiscipline in the Nigerian secondary schools, the Military Government
under General Yakubu Gowon deployed military personnel to secondary schools in order to restore
discipline. Subsequent governments after the General Gowon regime, with the exception of the General
Buhari-led government, had lukewarm attitudes towards the use of corporal punishment
secondary schools (Olajide, 2012). In addition, there are other non
are also cruel and degrading, these include punishment which belittle humiliates and threatens the child
(Cast, Schweingruber and Berns, 2006).
Corporal punishment is lawful in Nigerian schools under Article 295(4) of the criminal code
(Southern Nigeria). Corporal punishment is explicitly permitted in Nigerian schools for students under
the age of 18, under article 55 of the Penal code (North). Th
be carried out only on the authority of a head teacher. Corporal punishment is one disciplinary technique.
However, there are many other disciplinary techniques that adults can employ, such as:
appropriate supervision, making rules (appropriate to the child's age and stage of development), setting
and enforcing boundaries, firmly saying "no",
consequences, withdrawing privileges; and
punishment.
Statement of the Problem
Corporal punishment has become a contentious issue among schol
reported that physical punishment teaches aggressive behaviour, and hinders the development of
important problem-solving skills. The analysis revealed that individuals who were physically punished
during their childhood are more likely to engage in
Fayyad (2005) reported that corporal punishment can cause disorders such as Post Traumatic
Stress Disorder (PTSD), Major Depression Disorder (MDD) and Separation Anxiety Disorder
(SAD).White and Smith (2004) observed that c
could trigger sexually coercive behaviours. The purpose of this study was to identify the problems
associated with corporal punishment as perceived by secondary schools students in Ilorin metropolis.
Research Hypotheses
1. There is no significant difference in the problems associated with corporal punishment as perceived
by secondary school students on the basis of age.
rties, cheating in examinations, alcoholism, drug addiction, sexual offences,
negative tendencies so as to maintain discipline in schools. As such, Nigerian secondary schools have
employed the use of corporal punishment as a tool for maintaining discipline. Oftentimes, over
nishment is defined as the intentional infliction of physical punishment on the body
that involves striking the student a given number of times (Gould, 2007). A variety of implements may be
used to inflict punishment on the offender which includes the rod, cane, horse whip (
e use of corporal punishment as a disciplinary instrument. There has been evidence to show
by banning parents from using it in any way on children as a disciplinary tool (Couture, 2001).
n deployed military personnel to secondary schools in order to restore
led government, had lukewarm attitudes towards the use of corporal punishment
secondary schools (Olajide, 2012). In addition, there are other non-physical forms of punishment which
2006).
the age of 18, under article 55 of the Penal code (North). The Federal Government of Nigeria says it may
However, there are many other disciplinary techniques that adults can employ, such as:
ate supervision, making rules (appropriate to the child's age and stage of development), setting
firmly saying "no", explaining why certain behaviour is inappropriate,
consequences, withdrawing privileges; and using "time out", or quiet time as an alternative to corporal
Corporal punishment has become a contentious issue among scholars in recent times. Cast
solving skills. The analysis revealed that individuals who were physically punished
during their childhood are more likely to engage in physical and verbal aggression.
(SAD).White and Smith (2004) observed that corporal punishment, when used as a disciplinary tool,
There is no significant difference in the problems associated with corporal punishment as perceived
by secondary school students on the basis of age.
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2
rties, cheating in examinations, alcoholism, drug addiction, sexual offences,
Nigerian secondary schools have
employed the use of corporal punishment as a tool for maintaining discipline. Oftentimes, over-use of
nishment is defined as the intentional infliction of physical punishment on the body
2007). A variety of implements may be
used to inflict punishment on the offender which includes the rod, cane, horse whip (koboko), broom, and
e use of corporal punishment as a disciplinary instrument. There has been evidence to show
disciplinary tool (Couture, 2001).
n deployed military personnel to secondary schools in order to restore
led government, had lukewarm attitudes towards the use of corporal punishment in the Nigerian
physical forms of punishment which
e Federal Government of Nigeria says it may
However, there are many other disciplinary techniques that adults can employ, such as: providing
ate supervision, making rules (appropriate to the child's age and stage of development), setting
explaining why certain behaviour is inappropriate, giving
out", or quiet time as an alternative to corporal
ars in recent times. Cast et al (2006)
solving skills. The analysis revealed that individuals who were physically punished
orporal punishment, when used as a disciplinary tool,


2. There is no significant difference in the problems associated with corporal punishment a
by secondary school students on the basis of gender.
by secondary school students on the basis of religion.
4. There is no significant difference i
by secondary school students on the basis of class level.
by secondary school students on th

Research Design
The descriptive method was adopted for this. Bogdan and Biklen (2004) says descriptive survey describes
variables in a given situations and established relationship between variables. Yates, Starnes and Moore
(2008) pointed out that this method is preferred because it captures the complexity of everyday
behaviour.
Sample and Sampling Procedure
A total of 200 students in Ilorin metropolis were used. For administrative convenience and adequate
representation of the students across Ilorin metropolis, the study was carried out using a multi
sampling technique. At stage one; the four local governments were purposively selected and this includes
Ilorin East, Ilorin west, Ilorin South and Ilorin Central. Stratified sam
two to stratify the respondents into desired characteristics of gender, age, religion, class level and school
type. At stage three, simple random technique was employed to select 50 students in each of the four
local governments making a total of 200 respondents from the Local Government Area of Ilorin
metropolis.
Instrumentation
The main instrument of this study is a questionnaire titled Problems Associated with Corporal
Punishment Questionnaire (PACPQ). The questionna
the demographic data of the respondents while Section B consisted of 20 items which the respondents
were required to respond to on a Four
points, D- Disagree 2 points, and SD Strongly Disagree 1 point. In order to establish the validity of this
instrument, copies of the questionnaire were given to three (3) Lecturers in the department of Counsellor
Education, University of Ilorin. There correc
of the items on the questionnaire. Reliability of the questionnaire was established using the Cronbach
Alpha reliability Coefficient. A reliability coefficient of 0.70 was obtained
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed using frequency counts, percentages and mean ranking of mean values. The t
and Analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistical tools were employed to test the research null hypothesis at
0.05 alpha level of significance.

Results

Table 1: Mean and Rank Order on the Respondents Perception on the Problems Associated with
Corporal Punishment
Item No. As far as Im concerned,
12 makes me angry
11 causes physical injury
4 can lead to depression
1 promote stubbornness
14 causes truancy
16 creates unacceptable barrier between the teacher and student
There is no significant difference in the problems associated with corporal punishment a
by secondary school students on the basis of gender.
by secondary school students on the basis of religion.
by secondary school students on the basis of class level.
by secondary school students on the basis of school type.
pointed out that this method is preferred because it captures the complexity of everyday
Sample and Sampling Procedure
dents across Ilorin metropolis, the study was carried out using a multi
Ilorin East, Ilorin west, Ilorin South and Ilorin Central. Stratified sampling procedure was used at stage
nments making a total of 200 respondents from the Local Government Area of Ilorin
Punishment Questionnaire (PACPQ). The questionnaire had two (2) sections. The Section A contained
were required to respond to on a Four-Point Likert Scale of SA Strongly Agree 4 points, A
Disagree 2 points, and SD Strongly Disagree 1 point. In order to establish the validity of this
Education, University of Ilorin. There corrections and suggestions were considered in the final selection
Alpha reliability Coefficient. A reliability coefficient of 0.70 was obtained
The data were analyzed using frequency counts, percentages and mean ranking of mean values. The t
Mean and Rank Order on the Respondents Perception on the Problems Associated with

concerned, corporal punishment
causes physical injury
to depression
promote stubbornness
creates unacceptable barrier between the teacher and student
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3
n the problems associated with corporal punishment as perceived
pointed out that this method is preferred because it captures the complexity of everyday
dents across Ilorin metropolis, the study was carried out using a multi-stage
pling procedure was used at stage
nments making a total of 200 respondents from the Local Government Area of Ilorin
ire had two (2) sections. The Section A contained
Strongly Agree 4 points, A- Agree3
Disagree 2 points, and SD Strongly Disagree 1 point. In order to establish the validity of this
tions and suggestions were considered in the final selection
The data were analyzed using frequency counts, percentages and mean ranking of mean values. The t-test
Mean and Rank Order on the Respondents Perception on the Problems Associated with
Mean Rank
3.29 1
st

3.22 2
nd

3.15 3
rd

3.06 4
rd

3.04 5
th

3.03 6
th



5 create anxiety and fear in students
15 leads to child abuse
13 encourages bully behavour
10 promotes violent behavior
8 can lead to poor academic performance
18 can create low self
3 can be ineffective when constantly used
6 lead to inferiority complex
17 can cause psychological damage
19 causes the students to dislike their teachers
20 can be humiliating
2 makes students to develop aggressive behavior
7 causes students to disrespect the school rules
9 can lead to drug addiction

Table 1 showed that item 12 ranked 1
concerned, corporal punishment makes me angry. Ranked 2
which states that As far as Im concerned, corporal punishment causes physical injury Ranked 20
item 9 with a mean score of 2.25 and it states that As far as Im concerned corporal punishment can lead
to drug addiction.
Hypotheses
Hypothesis One: There is no significant difference in the problems associated with corporal punishment as perceived
by secondary school students on the basis of age
Table 2: Mean, Standard Deviation and t
Associated with Corporal Punishment as Perceived by Secondary School Students on
the Basis of Age
Age N
7 -17 years 174
18 years and above 26
Table 2 shows that the calculated t
accepted. Therefore, there is no significant difference in the problems associated with corporal
punishment as perceived by secondary school students on the basis of ag
Hypothesis Two: There is no significant difference in the problems associated with corporal punishment as perceived by
secondary school students on the basis of gender
with Corporal Punishment as Perceived by Secondary School Students on the Basis of
Gender
Gender N Mean
Male 110 60.44
Female 90 59.08
Table 3 shows a Calculated t-value of 1.35 is
hypothesis is accepted. Hence, there is no significant difference in the problems associated with corporal
punishment as perceived by secondary school students on the basis of gender.
create anxiety and fear in students
leads to child abuse
encourages bully behavour
promotes violent behavior
can lead to poor academic performance
can create low self-esteem in students
can be ineffective when constantly used
lead to inferiority complex
can cause psychological damage
causes the students to dislike their teachers
can be humiliating
makes students to develop aggressive behavior
students to disrespect the school rules
can lead to drug addiction
Table 1 showed that item 12 ranked 1
st
with a mean score of 3.29 and it states that As far as Im
concerned, corporal punishment makes me angry. Ranked 2
nd
is item 11 with a mean a score of 3.22,
by secondary school students on the basis of age
Mean, Standard Deviation and t-value showing the Difference in Problems
Mean SD Df Cal. t-value
59.64 7.20
198 0.98
61.11 6.42
that the calculated t-value is less than the Critical t-value as such the hypothesis is
punishment as perceived by secondary school students on the basis of age.
There is no significant difference in the problems associated with corporal punishment as perceived by
secondary school students on the basis of gender
Mean SD df Cal. t-value Crit. t
60.44 6.96
198 1.35 1.96
59.08 7.25
value of 1.35 is less than the Critical t-value of 1.96. Thus the null
punishment as perceived by secondary school students on the basis of gender.
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3.01 7
th

2.96 8
th

2.95 9
th

2.94 10
th

2.69 11
th

2.38 12
th

2.37 13
th

2.31 14
th

2.30 15
th

2.29 16
th

2.28 17
th

2.27 18
th

2.26 19
th

2.25 20
th

with a mean score of 3.29 and it states that As far as Im
is item 11 with a mean a score of 3.22,
th
is
erence in Problems
Crit. t-value
1.96
value as such the hypothesis is
wing the Difference in Problems Associated
Crit. t-value
1.96
value of 1.96. Thus the null


Hypothesis Three: There is no significant difference in the problems associated with corporal punishment as perceived by
secondary school students on the basis of religion
Table 4: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showing
Corporal Punishment as
Religion
Source Df
Between Groups 2
Within Groups 197
Total 199
Table 4 shows a Calculated F-value of 0.46 and a Critical value of 3.00. The calculated F
the critical F-value, therefore the hypothesis is accepted. Hence, there is no significant difference in the
problems associated with corporal punishment as percei
religion.
Hypothesis Four: There is no significant difference in the problems associated with corporal punishment as perceived
by secondary school students on the basis of class level
with Corporal Punishment as P
Class Level
Level N Mean
J.S.S 83 60.38
S.S.S 117 59.44
The t-test result on table 5 reveals that a calculated t
Therefore the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference in the problems
associated with corporal punishment as perceived by secondary school students on the basis of class level
is accepted.
Hypothesis Five: There is no significant difference in the problems associated with corporal punishment as perceived
by secondary school students on the
the Basis of School Type
Table 6 shows the Calculated t-value of 3.52 is greater than the Critical t
hypothesis is rejected; hence there is a significant
punishment as perceived by secondary school students on the basis of school type.
School Type N Mean
Private 129 58.56
Public 71 62.15
secondary school students on the basis of religion
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showing the Difference in Problems Associated
nishment as Perceived by Secondary School Students on the Basis of
Df SS Mean
Square
Cal. f-value
2 46.712 23.35
0.46
197 10016.843 50.84
199 10063.555
value of 0.46 and a Critical value of 3.00. The calculated F
value, therefore the hypothesis is accepted. Hence, there is no significant difference in the
problems associated with corporal punishment as perceived by secondary school students on the basis of
by secondary school students on the basis of class level
Standard Deviation and t-value showing the Difference in Problems Associated
Mean SD Df Cal. t-value
60.38 6.40
198 0.92
59.44 7.57
test result on table 5 reveals that a calculated t-value of 0.92 is less than the Critical t
corporal punishment as perceived by secondary school students on the basis of class level
by secondary school students on the basis of school type
the Basis of School Type
*Significant, p<0.05
value of 3.52 is greater than the Critical t-value of 1.96. As such, the
hypothesis is rejected; hence there is a significant difference in the problems associated with corporal
punishment as perceived by secondary school students on the basis of school type.
Mean SD df Cal. t-value
58.56 7.80
198 3.52*
62.15 4.89
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5
the Difference in Problems Associated with
Students on the Basis of
Crit. f-
value
3.00
value of 0.46 and a Critical value of 3.00. The calculated F-value is less than
value, therefore the hypothesis is accepted. Hence, there is no significant difference in the
ved by secondary school students on the basis of
value showing the Difference in Problems Associated
Students on the Basis of
Crit. t-value
1.96
value of 0.92 is less than the Critical t-value of 1.96.
corporal punishment as perceived by secondary school students on the basis of class level
Problems
value of 1.96. As such, the
difference in the problems associated with corporal
Crit. t-value
1.96


Discussion
Most secondary school students of different age groups in Ilorin metropolis perceive the problems
associated with corporal punishment the same way. This observation disagrees with the report of
Adeyemo (1999) that secondary school students differ in their perception of corporal punishment on the
basis of age. This locational disparity might be due to the dynamic

That corporal punishment is viewed in the same way across the gender divide this further supports
the report of Gershoff, (2002) that most students hate corporal punishment because they believe that
such form of punishment can predispose aggressive behavior. On the basis of religion, no significant
difference was found in the students perception. Robert (2000) in his studies found that most religion
prescribed the use of punishment as a means of correcting wrong doers. Henc
to perceive corporal punishment the same way. In Nigeria for example, majority of the religion endorse
the use corporal punishment as a disciplinary measure when and where necessary.

There is no disparity in the problems associate
secondary school students in Ilorin metropolis on the basis of class level. This is in agreement with
Greydanus (2010) whose finding indicated that students have the same attitude towards corporal
punishment, regardless of class or level. This means that students are likely to attribute similar problems
to corporal punishment.
There is a significant difference in the problems associated with corporal punishment as perceived
by secondary school students in Ilorin
students in public schools are frequently punished than those who attend private schools. The finding
reveals that students who attend private schools tend to be better behaved than those wh
schools. It is clear that students can be influenced by their immediate environment, that is, what
constitutes schooling may vary form place
place. It is therefore no surprise that t
Conclusion

Generally, the findings reveal that there is no significant difference in the problems associated with
corporal punishment as perceived by secondary school students on the basis of ag
differences on the basis of gender, religion, class level and school type.

Implications for Counselling Practice

The findings of this study have colossal implications for counselling. The disadvantages of corporal
punishment clearly outweigh the advantages. During Parents Teachers Association meetings, the school
counsellor can give enlightenment talks, encourage teachers and parents to use disciplinary measures
which are non-violent and that they should avoid subjecting student
any form. Through group counselling, the counsellor can teach the children how to be assertive without
being aggressive. They should be taught how to express anger and frustration without violence.

Recommendations
The problems of indiscipline among students cannot be handled by teachers alone as such
principals should employ the services of school counsellors.
The government should discourage the use of corporal punishment in School. Parents should be
encouraged to give moral education to their wards at home.
Teachers should be exposed to behaviourial modification techniques such as assertive training,
positive reinforcement as an alternative to corporal punishment.
with corporal punishment the same way. This observation disagrees with the report of
basis of age. This locational disparity might be due to the dynamic nature of each of the society.
can predispose aggressive behavior. On the basis of religion, no significant
prescribed the use of punishment as a means of correcting wrong doers. Hence, respondents are bound
the use corporal punishment as a disciplinary measure when and where necessary.
There is no disparity in the problems associated with corporal punishment as perceived by
gardless of class or level. This means that students are likely to attribute similar problems
by secondary school students in Ilorin metropolis on the basis of school type. Wasef (2011) found that
reveals that students who attend private schools tend to be better behaved than those wh
constitutes schooling may vary form place-to-place, depending on the environment and culture of the
place. It is therefore no surprise that there are disparities between the public and private schools.
corporal punishment as perceived by secondary school students on the basis of age. Also, no significant
differences on the basis of gender, religion, class level and school type.
Implications for Counselling Practice
ly outweigh the advantages. During Parents Teachers Association meetings, the school
violent and that they should avoid subjecting students to harsh physical punishments of
problems of indiscipline among students cannot be handled by teachers alone as such
principals should employ the services of school counsellors.
moral education to their wards at home.
positive reinforcement as an alternative to corporal punishment.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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6
with corporal punishment the same way. This observation disagrees with the report of
nature of each of the society.
can predispose aggressive behavior. On the basis of religion, no significant
e, respondents are bound
d with corporal punishment as perceived by
gardless of class or level. This means that students are likely to attribute similar problems
metropolis on the basis of school type. Wasef (2011) found that
reveals that students who attend private schools tend to be better behaved than those who attend public
place, depending on the environment and culture of the
here are disparities between the public and private schools.
e. Also, no significant
ly outweigh the advantages. During Parents Teachers Association meetings, the school
s to harsh physical punishments of
problems of indiscipline among students cannot be handled by teachers alone as such


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Aucoin, K.J., Frick, P.J. & Bodin, S.D. (2006). Corporal punishment and child
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MATERIAL RESOURCES AS PREDICTORS OF SPORTS DELIVERY SERVICES
IN SPORTS COUNCILS AND RECREATION CENTRES IN SOUTHWEST NIGERIA
OMOLAWON KAYODE OMOTAYO,
Department of Human Kinetics & Health Education

Abstract
Material resources are integral and
availability of facilities and equipment are some of the constraints confronting sports and recreational
administration. Moreover, the cost and maintenances of efficient system for the purchase an
of supplies may be lost if proper care are not given to the material resources before, during and after
use. Therefore, the researcher examines material resources as predictors of sports service delivery in
the sports councils and recreational ce
design was used in this study. A total of 2,385 respondents were sampled using purposive sampling
technique of proportionate distribution from Southwest sports council and recreational centres i
Nigeria. Two hypotheses were tested, while two instruments were used, named: Material Resources
Questionnaire (MRQ) and Sports Delivery Questionnaire (SDQ). These were structured in 4 point
Likert scale format of Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, and Stro
yielded a reliability coefficient of r=0.78 for MRQ and SDQ (r=0.85) respectively. The data collected
through questionnaire was analyzed using multiple regression analysis. The hypotheses were tested at
0.05 alpha level. The results showed that there was significant determinants exit in the variables. It
was recommended that, land properties should be free for sports and recreational centres in strategic
places. Moreover, the government monopoly of sports and recreational spo
to allow corporate and individual sponsors encouragement to assist for effective sports delivery
services.
Keywords: Material resources, Sports delivery services, Recreation centres


By
OMOLAWON KAYODE OMOTAYO, Ph.D
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
Tel: +2348055133706
e-mail: kayodesport@gmail.com
Material resources are integral and necessary parts of recreation and sports programme. The non
administration. Moreover, the cost and maintenances of efficient system for the purchase an
the sports councils and recreational centers in Southwest, Nigeria. The descriptive survey research
technique of proportionate distribution from Southwest sports council and recreational centres i
Likert scale format of Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. The instruments
results showed that there was significant determinants exit in the variables. It
places. Moreover, the government monopoly of sports and recreational sponsorship should be reduced
Material resources, Sports delivery services, Recreation centres
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
8
necessary parts of recreation and sports programme. The non-
administration. Moreover, the cost and maintenances of efficient system for the purchase and issuing
nters in Southwest, Nigeria. The descriptive survey research
technique of proportionate distribution from Southwest sports council and recreational centres in
ngly Disagree. The instruments
results showed that there was significant determinants exit in the variables. It
nsorship should be reduced


Introduction
Sports resources are physically important to the sports development, of which material resources are
prerequisite part of the basic conditions in sports activities.
facilities have grown significantly in recent years t
physical activities. (Garca-Ferrando, 2006). The same trend is occurring internationally (Bayle, 2005;
Mahony & Howard, 2001). Therefore, effective management of these sporting facilities constitut
particularly important challenge within the sports and physical activity sector. It is hardly surprising that,
interest in professional management of sports and recreational facilities which are growing rapidly, with
increasing demands for training and
field are now confronted with a job that requires knowledge and understanding of numerous areas,
including sports legislation, economics, human resources, facility maintenance, and equ
installation management, and others.

Material resources are integral and necessary part of recreation and sports programme. The non
availability of facilities and equipment are some of the constraints confronting sports and recreationa
administration. Moreover, the cost and maintenances of efficient system for the purchase and issuing of
supplies may be lost if proper care is not given to the equipment before, during and after use. Over the
last two decades, demands on the provision of
in the demand for provision of facilities in sports and recreation centres. Eze (2010) stated that, the quest
for effectiveness and efficiency is imperative and facility managers have knowledge o
would contribute to the success of facilities, even from the time when its construction is first considered.

However, the difficulty of fulfilling this potential is that, they have inadequate or inexperienced
management. In relation to new facilities, the development of suitable management plans should
commence before the decision is made to construct the materia
facility management plans must be prepared in conjunction with the design plans; because once the
facility has been erected, many management options may be lost. However, the success of any facility is
often aligned to the design not just its management. It is important therefore to have knowledge of the
planning and the design process for material resources. Fenker (2004) opined that, material resources
should be readily and directly accessible for the individuals

Sporting organizations are not immune from environmental influences and have had to adjust to a
more demanding consumer environment (Doherty, 1999, Dorado, 2006). Municipal sports services, for
example, have had to adapt to ensure that, they offer the qual
Martelaer et al., 2002). Many of the problems encountered by sports managers exist, due to lack of
understanding of the specific requirements, specifications and characteristics that apply to management of
sporting installations. The issue is complicated further by the fact that, the task included management of,
not only sporting areas, but also non sport
facility maintenance, food services, emergen
users.

In addition, the employee force is a particularly important resource to manage effectively as they
are the depository of most of the knowledge that, a business handles and they are di
imitate (Barney, 1991, 1995; Lado & Wilson, 1994). Organizations which aspire to improve their internal
management procedures must have the capacity to specifically address the needs, motivations and
interests of both clients and employees. Improvements in service quality will increase customer loyalty
and satisfaction, resulting in greater use of the service (Ahire & Dreyfus, 2000; Choi & Eboch, 1998;
Hendricks & Singhal, 1997) and a more competitive position within the sports and
market (Aaker & Jacobson, 1994; Fornell et al., 1996).

Similarly, Mason (2000) maintained that, sport facilities provider should consider the site or venue
for the construction of sports and recreation complex. This he stated, should be
accessibility, which should be well
are not available in their right quantity and quality, there will be a continuous lack of social and
infrastructural services which are the major threat to its development. These problems point to a number
prerequisite part of the basic conditions in sports activities. The numbers of sport and recreational
facilities have grown significantly in recent years through increased interest in both sporting activities and
Ferrando, 2006). The same trend is occurring internationally (Bayle, 2005;
Mahony & Howard, 2001). Therefore, effective management of these sporting facilities constitut
increasing demands for training and technological support at various levels. New professionals within this
including sports legislation, economics, human resources, facility maintenance, and equ
installation management, and others.
Material resources are integral and necessary part of recreation and sports programme. The non
availability of facilities and equipment are some of the constraints confronting sports and recreationa
last two decades, demands on the provision of leisure services have increased with a consequent increase
for effectiveness and efficiency is imperative and facility managers have knowledge o
commence before the decision is made to construct the material resources. Mason (2000) postulated that,
ed to the design not just its management. It is important therefore to have knowledge of the
should be readily and directly accessible for the individuals who will be using them.
example, have had to adapt to ensure that, they offer the quality of service that is now being expected (De
ting installations. The issue is complicated further by the fact that, the task included management of,
not only sporting areas, but also non sport-related auxiliary areas as well as elements, such as equipment,
facility maintenance, food services, emergency response, contractor services, the employee force and
are the depository of most of the knowledge that, a business handles and they are di
mployees. Improvements in service quality will increase customer loyalty
Hendricks & Singhal, 1997) and a more competitive position within the sports and
market (Aaker & Jacobson, 1994; Fornell et al., 1996).
for the construction of sports and recreation complex. This he stated, should be in terms of safety and
accessibility, which should be well-located. Ezugwu (2005) lamented that, when facilities and equipment
ich are the major threat to its development. These problems point to a number
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
9
The numbers of sport and recreational
hrough increased interest in both sporting activities and
Ferrando, 2006). The same trend is occurring internationally (Bayle, 2005;
Mahony & Howard, 2001). Therefore, effective management of these sporting facilities constitute a
technological support at various levels. New professionals within this
including sports legislation, economics, human resources, facility maintenance, and equipment and
Material resources are integral and necessary part of recreation and sports programme. The non-
leisure services have increased with a consequent increase
for effectiveness and efficiency is imperative and facility managers have knowledge of the factors that
l resources. Mason (2000) postulated that,
ed to the design not just its management. It is important therefore to have knowledge of the

ity of service that is now being expected (De
ting installations. The issue is complicated further by the fact that, the task included management of,
related auxiliary areas as well as elements, such as equipment,
cy response, contractor services, the employee force and
fficult to substitute or
mployees. Improvements in service quality will increase customer loyalty
Hendricks & Singhal, 1997) and a more competitive position within the sports and physical activity
in terms of safety and
located. Ezugwu (2005) lamented that, when facilities and equipment
ich are the major threat to its development. These problems point to a number


of challenges facing material resources, hence the study examines material resources as predictors of
sports delivery services in sports councils and recreation centres in Southw

Hypotheses
Two hypotheses were tested in this study.
1. There is no significant relative effect of material resources as predictors of sports delivery
services in the selected sports councils and recreational centres in Southwest, Nigeria.
2. There is no significant composite effect of material resources as predictors of sports delivery

Methodology
The descriptive survey research design was used in this study.
elicit information from the respondents. This is because it reveals current conditions that exist between
specific events, through basic analytical interpretation, appropriate collection, and situational facts and
information concerning the study. A total of 2,385 respondents were sampled, using purposive sampling
technique of proportionate distribution from Southwest, Nigeria.

Instruments
The instruments used for this study were the structured validated questionn
Resources Questionnaire (MRQ) and Sports Delivery Questionnaire (SDQ). These were structured in 4
point Likert scale format of Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. The instruments
yielded a reliability coefficient of r=0.78 for MRQ and SDQ (r=0.85) respectively.

Procedure for Data Analysis
The completed questionnaire forms were collated, coded and analyzed using multiple regression analysis.
The hypotheses were tested at 0.05 alpha level.
Results
Ho1: There is no significant relative effect of material resources as predictors of sports delivery services in
the selected sports councils and recreational centres in Southwest, Nigeria.

Table 1: Result of relative contribution showing independent variabl
Variables) on sports services delivery.
Variables
Funding 1.652
Availability of
Facilities
1.555
Provision of
Equipment
1.618
Acquisition of Land 1.779
Sponsorship 1.935

The result above shows relative contribution of each of the independent variables on the dependent:
Funding ( = .057, p <.05), Availability of
p<.05), Acquisition of Land ( = .058, p<.05) and Sponsorship ( = .058, p<.05) respectively. This
showed that acquisition of land, sponsorship, provision of equipment; funding and availabili
facilities were all significant. Whereby sponsorship contributed about 60% to the variance than the other
variables of study.

Ho2: There is no significant joint effect of material resources as predictors of sports delivery services in

sports delivery services in sports councils and recreation centres in Southwest, Nigeria.
Two hypotheses were tested in this study.
There is no significant relative effect of material resources as predictors of sports delivery
e is no significant composite effect of material resources as predictors of sports delivery
The descriptive survey research design was used in this study. This involved the use of questionnaire to
technique of proportionate distribution from Southwest, Nigeria.
The instruments used for this study were the structured validated questionnaire, named: Material
f r=0.78 for MRQ and SDQ (r=0.85) respectively.
The hypotheses were tested at 0.05 alpha level.
: There is no significant relative effect of material resources as predictors of sports delivery services in
Table 1: Result of relative contribution showing independent variables (Material Resources
Variables) on sports services delivery.
Standard error Beta t-value
1.652 0.057 0.541 28.745
1.555 0.057 0.522 27.366
1.618 0.051 0.515 31.447
1.779 0.058 0.566 30.690
1.935 0.058 0.595 33.140
Funding ( = .057, p <.05), Availability of Facilities ( = .057, p <.05), Provision of Equipment ( = .051,
showed that acquisition of land, sponsorship, provision of equipment; funding and availabili
There is no significant joint effect of material resources as predictors of sports delivery services in
sports councils and recreational centres in Southwest, Nigeria.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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10
est, Nigeria.
There is no significant relative effect of material resources as predictors of sports delivery
e is no significant composite effect of material resources as predictors of sports delivery
This involved the use of questionnaire to
aire, named: Material
: There is no significant relative effect of material resources as predictors of sports delivery services in
es (Material Resources
value Sig.
28.745 0.000
27.366 0.000
31.447 0.000
30.690 0.000
33.140 0.000
Facilities ( = .057, p <.05), Provision of Equipment ( = .051,
showed that acquisition of land, sponsorship, provision of equipment; funding and availabilities of
There is no significant joint effect of material resources as predictors of sports delivery services in


Table 2: Showing Analysis of Variance on the joint effect of independent variables on dependent
variable.
Sources of
Variance
Sum of Square
Regression
Residual
Total
2356.933
5678.854
120085.008
R = .734; R
2
= .538; adjusted R
2
The result showed that, there is significant relationship between the independent variables (Material
resources) on sports delivery service (F
rejected. The result also indicated that R = .734; R
joint effect variables accounted for about 54% of the variance.
Discussion
The relative contribution of the result revealed that, all the variables positively contributed to sports
delivery services. This corroborates Obiyemi, Adesoye and Ojo (2006) assertion that, such methods as
renovating existing plants, retrofitting and converting
present facilities are methods that will in no small measure see to the conduct of quality sporting
programmes. This also supports Jewels (2002) view that, sports facilities are essentially not new con
developed and utilized for the health and well

The study examines material resources as predictors of sports delivery services. The result of the
joint effect revealed that, there was significant relationship.
facilities management is a process that ensures other technical systems that support the operations of an
organization. Also consistent with the International Facilities Management Association (2002) that,
facilities management as the practice of co
work of the organization; it integrates the principles of business administration, architecture and the
behavioural as well as engineering sciences. Furth
quest for effectiveness and efficiency is imperative that, facility managers have knowledge of the factors
that would contribute to the success of a facility from the time of planning and construct

Conclusion
In the material resources category, the most important needs are for installation, maintenance protocols,
the standards and criteria for safety evaluation of facilities, and identification of quality parameters for
sports facilities, to establish sound quality control plans.
the availability of quality material resources for both sports councils and recreational centres. This is due
to the nature of services rendered to the society. It is ther
be adequately and properly taken into consideration when setting such venue. Moreover, the technical
skills and important areas concerning the human resource functioning should also be well taken care of,
for sports delivery services. Finally, in relation to users/clients, the most important needs identified were
the control of suggestions and complaints, the use of technological tools for reservations, the
development of satisfaction questionnaire, specific t
user access in the sporting installations.

Recommendations
In view of the outcomes of the findings, the following recommendations were made:
1. Land properties should be free for sports and recreational centres in strategic places.
2. The era of government monopoly of sports and recreational sponsorship should be reduced to allow
corporate and individual sponsors encouragement to assist for effectiv
3. Provision of standard, modern and up to date facilities at the sports and recreational centres for use,
to enhance good sports delivery services should be made available.
4. Clients individuals and organizations must cultivate the
facilities and equipment at the sports and recreational centres.
Showing Analysis of Variance on the joint effect of independent variables on dependent
Sum of Square Df Mean Square F

5
2379
2384
635.235
5.546
75.625
2
= .537
resources) on sports delivery service (F (5, 2384) = 75.625; p<.0.05). Therefore, the hypothesis raised was
rejected. The result also indicated that R = .734; R
2
= .538; adjusted R
2
= .537. This revealed that, the
joint effect variables accounted for about 54% of the variance.
lative contribution of the result revealed that, all the variables positively contributed to sports
renovating existing plants, retrofitting and converting existing structures and instituting multiple uses of
programmes. This also supports Jewels (2002) view that, sports facilities are essentially not new con
developed and utilized for the health and well-being of the people who utilized it.
joint effect revealed that, there was significant relationship. This agrees with Fenker (2004) assertion that,
ilities management as the practice of co-ordination of the physical workplace with the people and the
behavioural as well as engineering sciences. Furthermore, the result is consistent with Eze (2010) that, the
that would contribute to the success of a facility from the time of planning and construct
establish sound quality control plans. Emphasis worldwide has always been placed on
to the nature of services rendered to the society. It is therefore concluded that, material resources should
Finally, in relation to users/clients, the most important needs identified were
development of satisfaction questionnaire, specific to activities and to sports facilities, and the control of
user access in the sporting installations.
Land properties should be free for sports and recreational centres in strategic places.
The era of government monopoly of sports and recreational sponsorship should be reduced to allow
corporate and individual sponsors encouragement to assist for effective sports delivery services.
Provision of standard, modern and up to date facilities at the sports and recreational centres for use,
to enhance good sports delivery services should be made available.
Clients individuals and organizations must cultivate the habit of good maintenance culture of
facilities and equipment at the sports and recreational centres.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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11
Showing Analysis of Variance on the joint effect of independent variables on dependent
Sig.
0.000
= 75.625; p<.0.05). Therefore, the hypothesis raised was
= .537. This revealed that, the
lative contribution of the result revealed that, all the variables positively contributed to sports
existing structures and instituting multiple uses of
programmes. This also supports Jewels (2002) view that, sports facilities are essentially not new concepts
This agrees with Fenker (2004) assertion that,
ordination of the physical workplace with the people and the
ermore, the result is consistent with Eze (2010) that, the
that would contribute to the success of a facility from the time of planning and construction.
Emphasis worldwide has always been placed on
efore concluded that, material resources should
Finally, in relation to users/clients, the most important needs identified were
o activities and to sports facilities, and the control of
Land properties should be free for sports and recreational centres in strategic places.
The era of government monopoly of sports and recreational sponsorship should be reduced to allow
e sports delivery services.
Provision of standard, modern and up to date facilities at the sports and recreational centres for use,
habit of good maintenance culture of


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Physical Education and


CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR
LEARNING WITH TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Department of Curriculum and Instructional
School of Education, Emmanu
Abstract
WebQuest, an inquiry method that uses web resources for teaching and learning, is an effecti
approach that has been proven
framework for WebQuest development to support learning with technology in higher educati
application promotes student-centred learning environment, where students are motivated and
increased in developing thinking skills and cooperative learning. The framework for the development
is anchored on grounded constructivist, cognitive and
integration in learning. Evaluation in the development also anchored on the Kirkpatrick evaluation
model which comprised the foremost evaluation methodology in the world. Among the stated
recommendations was that educators should endeavour to see the endowed benefits of WebQuest in
teaching and learning, since the application serves as a motivator which encourages students to have
positive attitude towards their programme.
Keywords: Conceptual Framework,
Higher Education


CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR WEBQUEST DEVELOPMENT TO SUPPORT
By
BADMUS, AYODEJI MUIDEEN, Ph.D
Department of Curriculum and Instructional
School of Education, Emmanuel Alayande College of Education
Oyo, Oyo State

method that uses web resources for teaching and learning, is an effecti
approach that has been proven to benefit students globally. This paper developed a conceptual
framework for WebQuest development to support learning with technology in higher educati
centred learning environment, where students are motivated and
is anchored on grounded constructivist, cognitive and connectivist theories as they relate to media
at educators should endeavour to see the endowed benefits of WebQuest in
Conceptual Framework, WebQuest Development, Learning,
Higher Education
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
13
DEVELOPMENT TO SUPPORT
el Alayande College of Education,
method that uses web resources for teaching and learning, is an effective
This paper developed a conceptual
framework for WebQuest development to support learning with technology in higher education. This
centred learning environment, where students are motivated and
connectivist theories as they relate to media
at educators should endeavour to see the endowed benefits of WebQuest in
earning, Technology and


Introduction
The instructional effects of media have provided a platform for diverse opinions. On one hand, Clark
(1994) maintained that media do not influence learning in any condition. In c
argued that technologies such as ICTs influence learning by interacting with an individuals cognitive and
social processes in constructing knowledge. Most importantly, recent studies have shown that ICTs (e.
Web, video, computers etc.) can influence the learners psychological factor (Swan, Mitrani, Guerrero,
Cheung, & Schoener, 1990).
The impact of ICT on learning is currently discussed almost entirely in relation to the use of digital
media and the Internet (Thorpe, 2010). Educat
data and reference materials, researching information, displaying projects, delivering in
programmes, posting news, participating in continuing education and talking with colleagues (Ekok
Ekoko, 2004). The Internet has become an indispensable tool in the twenty first century (Ibrahim, John
& Michael, 2006).
As an increasingly powerful, interactive, and dynamic medium for delivering information, the
World Wide Web (www) in combinati
Wide-Area Network (WAN), Internet, etc. have
educational use which includes W
an educational tool has provided learners and educators with a wider range of new and interesting
learning experiences and teaching environments not possible in traditional class education (Khan, 1997).
The World Wide Web is the second major w
the personal computer in the 1980s. Like many technologies, the web brings into being the ideas of early
innovators which brings the ideas about hypertext and universal sharing of documents and te
A Web-based lesson is simply a lesson that incorporates a web site or many web sites
(Badmus, 2013). A Web-based lesson can be conducted entirely online or it can be a traditional classroom
lesson with an online component. A web site
limited to research, reading, writing, publishing, communication and collaboration with teachers and
learners around the world (Mendoza, 2006). Aremu and Morakinyo (20
based lessons are Cyber Guide, Filamentality and WebQuests. WebQuest is an activity of guided inquiry
that requires Internet access to complete a given task (Eugene, 2004).
Vidoni, and Maddux (2002)
task or solve a problem, elicit higher
These tasks should involve problem solving, judgment, synthesis, and analysis of information (Kathy,
2009). Perkins and McKnight (2005) ex
of problem solving, students learn skills in an interactive, involved manner rather than in isolation (p.
124). In addition, Abu-Elwan (2007) adds
authentic, technology-rich environment for problem solving.
Web-based Instructional strategy such as WebQuest is one of the new teaching approaches that
has been proven to be effective in its ability to teach students. This approach
central stage of the learning process, where they are responsible for their own advances in the knowledge
acquisition (Hafizoah & Zuranina, 2007). The present teaching strategy in our institution does not
encourage stakeholders to develop strategies to improve students learning, whereas the introduction of
WebQuest will challenge developers, academics, and students into various innovative approaches that
could enhance teaching effectiveness and encourage students to learning. Tsai
impacts of using the WebQuest model in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) program. In his study, the
students who completed the WebQuest activities were rated higher on measures of vocabulary
performance and story reading performa
Learning with technology means to use the technologies as cognitive tools to create constructivist
learning environments. Moreover, researches have shown that the learning process might be changed as
(1994) maintained that media do not influence learning in any condition. In contrast, Kozma (1994)
social processes in constructing knowledge. Most importantly, recent studies have shown that ICTs (e.
tc.) can influence the learners psychological factor (Swan, Mitrani, Guerrero,
media and the Internet (Thorpe, 2010). Educators see the internet as a medium for locating and retrieving
data and reference materials, researching information, displaying projects, delivering in
programmes, posting news, participating in continuing education and talking with colleagues (Ekok
World Wide Web (www) in combination with information technology e.g. Local Area Network (
), Internet, etc. have many applications. One popular application ha
educational use which includes Web-based, distance, distributed or online learning. The use o
The World Wide Web is the second major wave of the digital revolution that began with the advent of
innovators which brings the ideas about hypertext and universal sharing of documents and te
based lesson is simply a lesson that incorporates a web site or many web sites
based lesson can be conducted entirely online or it can be a traditional classroom
lesson with an online component. A web site can be used in education for a variety of purposes
research, reading, writing, publishing, communication and collaboration with teachers and
learners around the world (Mendoza, 2006). Aremu and Morakinyo (2008) assert
d lessons are Cyber Guide, Filamentality and WebQuests. WebQuest is an activity of guided inquiry
that requires Internet access to complete a given task (Eugene, 2004).
Vidoni, and Maddux (2002) explain that WebQuest makes students access the web to
task or solve a problem, elicit higher-order thinking rather than simple information searching and recall.
ns and McKnight (2005) explain one of the benefits in the following words: In the process
Elwan (2007) adds that, in order to develop students skills, WebQuests provide an
rich environment for problem solving.
based Instructional strategy such as WebQuest is one of the new teaching approaches that
has been proven to be effective in its ability to teach students. This approach positions students at the
develop strategies to improve students learning, whereas the introduction of
could enhance teaching effectiveness and encourage students to learning. Tsai (2006) investigated the
performance and story reading performance.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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14
ontrast, Kozma (1994)
social processes in constructing knowledge. Most importantly, recent studies have shown that ICTs (e.g.
tc.) can influence the learners psychological factor (Swan, Mitrani, Guerrero,
ors see the internet as a medium for locating and retrieving
data and reference materials, researching information, displaying projects, delivering in-service
programmes, posting news, participating in continuing education and talking with colleagues (Ekoko &
Local Area Network (LAN),
many applications. One popular application has been for
based, distance, distributed or online learning. The use of the Web as
ave of the digital revolution that began with the advent of
innovators which brings the ideas about hypertext and universal sharing of documents and texts.
based lesson is simply a lesson that incorporates a web site or many web sites in its delivery
based lesson can be conducted entirely online or it can be a traditional classroom
can be used in education for a variety of purposes, not
research, reading, writing, publishing, communication and collaboration with teachers and
08) assert that the main Web-
d lessons are Cyber Guide, Filamentality and WebQuests. WebQuest is an activity of guided inquiry
WebQuest makes students access the web to complete a
order thinking rather than simple information searching and recall.
one of the benefits in the following words: In the process
, WebQuests provide an
based Instructional strategy such as WebQuest is one of the new teaching approaches that
positions students at the
develop strategies to improve students learning, whereas the introduction of
(2006) investigated the


an effect of predominant media being used, technolo
of cognitive mina tool (Kenny, 2001). With all these advantages of WebQuest and other ICT
Instructional strategies, it is necessary to integrate them into teaching and learning for students at all l
of education most particularly in higher education. The techniques and skills required to develop any
WebQuest is highly imperative for the students, teachers as well as instructional designers.

Constructivism, Cognitive, Connectivism
This paper is based on the theoretical foundations of constructivist, cognitive and connectivism learning
theory. The web can also be a vehicle for realizing the vision of educational thinkers like Dewey, Piaget,
and Vygotsky, who long ago advocated a con
currently the most structured, accessible and promising application of constructivist thought in online
education because students use information on Internet to solve problem on their own.
describes web as information highway, digital library, cyber space and global village. All are compatible
with learners constructing meaning through self
participation. Constructivism refers
learner individually (and socially) constructing meaning as he or she learns (George, 1991). Consequences
of this view are two folds viz: focus on the learner in thinking about learning and
of the meaning attributed to experience (constructed) by the learner or community of learners.
Constructivists view learning as the result of mental construction. Students learn by fitting new
information together with what they alre
own understanding. A central point in constructivism is that learning is always a unique product
constructed as each individual learner combines new information with existing knowledge and
experiences. It is important to note that constructivism is not a particular pedagogy. Constructivism is a
theory describing how learning happens, regardless of whether learners are using their experiences to
understand a lecture or following the instruction
Cognitive theorists see learning as an internal process, and contend that the amount learned
depends on the processing capacity of the learner, the amount of effort expended during the learning
process, the depth of the processing and the learners existing knowledge structure (Ausubel, 1974).
Cognitive learning theory influenced the development of learning materials with the introduction of
computer-based instruction. Cognitive theory was influenced by information proces
proposes that learners use different types of memory during learning.
Web-Based learning materials should include activities for the different styles, so that learners can
select appropriate activities based on their preferred learning s
which they can be involved, and they relate to peers more than to people in authority (Ally, 2008).
Learners like group work and peer feedback, and they see the instructor as a coach or helper. These
learners prefer support methods that allow them to interact with peers and obtain coaching from the
instructor (Ally, & Fahy, 2002). They prefer that all the information be available for learning, and see the
instructor as the expert. Like active
and participating in group discussions (Ally & Fah
establish their own criteria for evaluating situations while adequate supports should be provided for
students with different learning styles.
Connectivism is a learning theory which is based on the premise that knowledge exists in the world
rather than simply in the head of an individual (Wikipedia, 2010). According to Siemens (2004),
connectivist theory is for the digital age, where individuals learn and work in a networked environment.
As a result, we do not have control over what we learn since others in the network continually change
information, and that requires new learning, unlearning old informatio
information (Ally, 2008).
Siemens (2004) proposes some guidelines for designing learning materials for the learner, based on
connectivist theory. Below is an elaboration of these guidelines for the development of Web
learning materials.
an effect of predominant media being used, technology or media as being successfully evaluated as type
of cognitive mina tool (Kenny, 2001). With all these advantages of WebQuest and other ICT
Instructional strategies, it is necessary to integrate them into teaching and learning for students at all l
Connectivism and Web Design
and Vygotsky, who long ago advocated a constructivist approach to learning and teaching. WebQuests are
education because students use information on Internet to solve problem on their own.
web as information highway, digital library, cyber space and global village. All are compatible
with learners constructing meaning through self-directed inquiry, guided activity, or community
participation. Constructivism refers to the idea that learners construct knowledge for themselves, each
of this view are two folds viz: focus on the learner in thinking about learning and knowledge independent
information together with what they already know. People learn best when they actively construct their
periences. It is important to note that constructivism is not a particular pedagogy. Constructivism is a
understand a lecture or following the instruction to a task (Leslie & Jerry, n.d).
processing and the learners existing knowledge structure (Ausubel, 1974).
based instruction. Cognitive theory was influenced by information proces
proposes that learners use different types of memory during learning.
Based learning materials should include activities for the different styles, so that learners can
select appropriate activities based on their preferred learning style. Learners prefer specific examples in
er support methods that allow them to interact with peers and obtain coaching from the
instructor as the expert. Like active-experimentation, learners prefer to learn by doing practical projects
and participating in group discussions (Ally & Fahy, 2002). Cooper (1993) depicts
udents with different learning styles.
is a learning theory which is based on the premise that knowledge exists in the world
s for the digital age, where individuals learn and work in a networked environment.
information, and that requires new learning, unlearning old information, and/or learning current
some guidelines for designing learning materials for the learner, based on
connectivist theory. Below is an elaboration of these guidelines for the development of Web
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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15
gy or media as being successfully evaluated as type
of cognitive mina tool (Kenny, 2001). With all these advantages of WebQuest and other ICT-based
Instructional strategies, it is necessary to integrate them into teaching and learning for students at all levels
structivist approach to learning and teaching. WebQuests are
education because students use information on Internet to solve problem on their own. Brown (2000)
web as information highway, digital library, cyber space and global village. All are compatible
directed inquiry, guided activity, or community-based co-
to the idea that learners construct knowledge for themselves, each
knowledge independent
ady know. People learn best when they actively construct their
periences. It is important to note that constructivism is not a particular pedagogy. Constructivism is a
processing and the learners existing knowledge structure (Ausubel, 1974).
based instruction. Cognitive theory was influenced by information processing theory, which
Based learning materials should include activities for the different styles, so that learners can
tyle. Learners prefer specific examples in
er support methods that allow them to interact with peers and obtain coaching from the
ers prefer to learn by doing practical projects
that students tend to
is a learning theory which is based on the premise that knowledge exists in the world
s for the digital age, where individuals learn and work in a networked environment.
n, and/or learning current
some guidelines for designing learning materials for the learner, based on
connectivist theory. Below is an elaboration of these guidelines for the development of Web-Based


1. Because of the information explosion, learners should be allowed to explore and research current
information. Learners of the future need to be autonomous and independent learners so that they
can acquire current information to build a v
Internet is an ideal learning strategy in a networked world.
2. Some information and procedures become obsolete because of changes in the field and innovation;
learners must therefore be able to unl
information and mental models. The information that is valid today may not be valid tomorrow.
3. The rapid increase of information available from a variety of sources means that some information is
not as important or genuine as other information. As a result, the learner must be able to identify
important information from unimportant information.
4. Learners must have the ability to recognize what knowledge is no longer valid so they can acquire
the new knowledge for a discipline. This requires that learners keep up
active participants in the network of learning.
5. Because of globalization, information is not location
telecommunication, technologies experts and learners from around the world can share and review
information. Learning and knowledge rests in a diversity of opinions. As a result, learners must be
allowed to connect with others around the world to examine others opi
thinking with the world. Mobile learning promises to help learners function in a networked world
where they can learn at any time and from anywhere (Ally, 2005, pp. 5).
As technology emerged, there was more emphasis on student
the use of constructivist theory in the development of learning materials. Constructivists claimed that
learners interpret information and the world according to their personal reality and that they learn by
observation, processing and interpretation and then personalize the information into their own
worldview. Also, learners learn best when they can contextualize what they learn for immediate
application and to acquire personal meaning. The student
problem-solving skills and learn by doing rather than by being told (Ally, 2008).
Conceptual Framework for WebQuest Development
The framework shown in Figure 1 explains the process by which WebQuest can be developed. This
covered some factors that need to be considered when developing a WebQuest such as technical
usability, product development, and product evaluation.

Figure 1: A Conceptual Framework for a
Technical
Usability
Because of the information explosion, learners should be allowed to explore and research current
can acquire current information to build a valid and accurate knowledge base. Appropriate use of the
Internet is an ideal learning strategy in a networked world.
Some information and procedures become obsolete because of changes in the field and innovation;
learners must therefore be able to unlearn old information and mental models and learn current
The rapid increase of information available from a variety of sources means that some information is
important information from unimportant information.
Learners must have the ability to recognize what knowledge is no longer valid so they can acquire
e new knowledge for a discipline. This requires that learners keep up-to-date in the field and be
active participants in the network of learning.
Because of globalization, information is not location-specific, and with the increasing use of
ication, technologies experts and learners from around the world can share and review
allowed to connect with others around the world to examine others opinions and to share their
where they can learn at any time and from anywhere (Ally, 2005, pp. 5).
As technology emerged, there was more emphasis on student-centred education which promotes
ssing and interpretation and then personalize the information into their own
application and to acquire personal meaning. The student-centred approach allows lea
solving skills and learn by doing rather than by being told (Ally, 2008).
Conceptual Framework for WebQuest Development
usability, product development, and product evaluation.

A Conceptual Framework for a WebQuest Development
Product
Development

WebQuest Application
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16
Because of the information explosion, learners should be allowed to explore and research current
alid and accurate knowledge base. Appropriate use of the
Some information and procedures become obsolete because of changes in the field and innovation;
earn old information and mental models and learn current
The rapid increase of information available from a variety of sources means that some information is
Learners must have the ability to recognize what knowledge is no longer valid so they can acquire
date in the field and be
specific, and with the increasing use of
ication, technologies experts and learners from around the world can share and review
nions and to share their
tred education which promotes
ssing and interpretation and then personalize the information into their own
centred approach allows learners to develop
Product
Evaluation


Technical Usability: The use of web
rather than teachers, educators and learners (Nam & Smith
education had made the use of computers more
involved. Usability of web refers to the organi
the learner is able to move through the sections of websites and effective web use (Al
Technical usability of web develop is important to minimise the cognitive load and helps to
resources for the learning process. It enables learners to easily focus on learning process. It enables
learners to easily focus on learning materials without having to make an effort to figure how to access
them. Technical usability involves te
(Al-Badi & Naqvi, n.d). Technical usability in the WebQuest development is relates to how web
learning is convenient, practicable, and usable for the students. Nielsen (2000) signifie
usability as content, page, and site design. Page design indicates how easy it is to read the content of the
web-based learning and related to cross platform, speed of page access and page linking. Content design
depends on writing, importing files and medium use. Site design is about linking and navigation.
Product Development: These are the activities or processes that bring about WebQuest. The product
development utilized ADDIE model and WebQuest design components. Computer programmes such as
Macromedia Dreamweaver, JPEG, Microsoft PowerPoint and Word, and many other computer
were made use of in the development of WebQuest. The figure 2 illustrated the chain of WebQuest
development

The procedures of WebQuest development as shown in Figure 2 are in three phases. Phase I
which is referred to as Development Phase, involved Analysis, Design, and Development; phase II
(Validation Phase) involved Implementation and formative evaluation, and phase III (Product Evaluation
Phase) involved summative evaluation.
The analysis stage in phase I is a stage of
developing any instructional multimedia package or material, several questions that are relating to the
target audience, the nature of instructional package, the learning styles, the conditions under w
be utilised, the purpose for the package and the nature of the content need to be answered
(Commonwealth Educational Media Centre for Asia, CEMCA, n.d). The analysis stage
WebQuest involves a process of determining the need asses
of the students that are expected to use the instructional package, whether the students possess the
required skills as well as desire to work with the package. It also considered choosing instructional
contents; instructional resources and establishing what must be learnt. These analyses provided important
inputs into design, development, implementation and assessment considerations.
Analysis
Task Introduction
Design
Phase I
Figure 2: Model of WebETC Development
The use of web-based learning is still the domain of technical and software
rather than teachers, educators and learners (Nam & Smith-Jackson, 2007). The influx of ICT tools in
education had made the use of computers more-easier and lesser the technical difficulties that are
involved. Usability of web refers to the organization of information on the site and the method by which
the learner is able to move through the sections of websites and effective web use (Al
Technical usability of web develop is important to minimise the cognitive load and helps to
them. Technical usability involves techniques for ensuring a trouble-free interaction with the software
Badi & Naqvi, n.d). Technical usability in the WebQuest development is relates to how web
learning is convenient, practicable, and usable for the students. Nielsen (2000) signifie
based learning and related to cross platform, speed of page access and page linking. Content design
ing files and medium use. Site design is about linking and navigation.
These are the activities or processes that bring about WebQuest. The product
Macromedia Dreamweaver, JPEG, Microsoft PowerPoint and Word, and many other computer
Development Phase, involved Analysis, Design, and Development; phase II
Phase) involved summative evaluation.
The analysis stage in phase I is a stage of capturing requirements and set expectations. Prior to
target audience, the nature of instructional package, the learning styles, the conditions under w
(Commonwealth Educational Media Centre for Asia, CEMCA, n.d). The analysis stage
a process of determining the need assessment of the WebQuest application, the type
instructional resources and establishing what must be learnt. These analyses provided important
inputs into design, development, implementation and assessment considerations.
Development
Conclusion Process &
Resources
Formative
Evaluation
Implementation
Phase II
Model of WebETC Development
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17
based learning is still the domain of technical and software experts
Jackson, 2007). The influx of ICT tools in
easier and lesser the technical difficulties that are
zation of information on the site and the method by which
the learner is able to move through the sections of websites and effective web use (Al-Badi & Naqvi, n.d).
Technical usability of web develop is important to minimise the cognitive load and helps to free more
free interaction with the software
Badi & Naqvi, n.d). Technical usability in the WebQuest development is relates to how web-based
learning is convenient, practicable, and usable for the students. Nielsen (2000) signified factors of web
based learning and related to cross platform, speed of page access and page linking. Content design
ing files and medium use. Site design is about linking and navigation.
These are the activities or processes that bring about WebQuest. The product
Macromedia Dreamweaver, JPEG, Microsoft PowerPoint and Word, and many other computer tools
Development Phase, involved Analysis, Design, and Development; phase II
capturing requirements and set expectations. Prior to
target audience, the nature of instructional package, the learning styles, the conditions under which it can
(Commonwealth Educational Media Centre for Asia, CEMCA, n.d). The analysis stage in developing
sment of the WebQuest application, the type
instructional resources and establishing what must be learnt. These analyses provided important
Summative
Evaluation
Phase III


The design stage of phase I involved identification of the instructional objecti
strategy that will be employed to achieve the objectives, and instructional media that are most effective to
achieve the objectives. The design stage considered three sub
design strategy, visual design and technical design. At the development stage of phase I, the output of the
analysis and design stages with the WebQuest design components will be transformed into WebQuest
application (an Internet-Based instructional strategy) which is the final prod
component involved Introduction, Task, Process and Resources, Conclusion and Evaluation. The
Introductory part of the WebQuest development will contain information that give the students the
background about the instructional conce
selected concepts. The Task contextualized the adventures. It is motivating and challenging, as it implied
that the students assume the role of self
and giving their solution about the questions. The Process shows all the steps and useful websites that
students will have to follow and use in order to solve the Task. The Resources consist of the list of the
Web sites that the students needed to complete the given task in the WebQuest. The Conclusion part
contains satisfactory remark on the completion of the task. The developed WebQuest will be subjected to
validation in phase II involving implementation and formative stage.
Phase II of the WebQuest development. It involved implementation and formative evaluation
stages as shown in Figure 2. The implementation provided the raison detre of WebQuest, this is where
the product will be put into action and takes a holistic view of pres
learning problem. During the implementation stage, the developed WebQuest will be used as a medium
of instruction to teach students for field testing and usability testing. The usability testing referred to the
quality of the website or resources that allow the students to use developed WebQuest with satisfaction,
efficacy and efficiency (Carvalho, 2001). The formative is for the determination of the feasibility of using
the WebQuest to teach students in higher institu
as validation of the product.
Phase III of the development involved summation evaluation, which referred to as product
evaluation. This phase required instructional designer to expose the WebQuest
technology experts as well as students for final evaluation.
Rationale for Evaluation in Web Design
Every instructional designer wants to have assurance that his topic, or course, or total system of
instruction is valuable for learning in the schools. This means that designer wishes to at least know
whether his newly designed instructional product works in the sense of achieving its objectives. The
indications of how well an instructional product or system performs are best ob
gathered evidence (Gagne & Briggs, 1979). The means of gathering, analysing, and interpreting such
evidences are collectively called methods of evaluation. In most general sense, evaluation in education is
to assess the worth of a variety of states or events, from small to large, from the specific to the very
general.
Evaluation is the systematic determination of merit, worth, and significance of a learning process
by using criteria against a set of standards (Badmus, 2013). Evalu
actually meet the new performance standards once they have completed their training and returned to
their jobs as well as ensuring that the teaching and learning process or instructional goal is actually being
met. Evaluation is the process of examining a program or process to determine whats working, whats
not and why. Microsoft Encarta Dictionary (2009)
examining something in order to judge its value, quality, importan
systematic, rigorous, and meticulous application of scientific methods to assess the design,
implementation, improvement or outcomes of a program (Rossi, Lipsey & Freeman, 2004).
Bramley and Newby (1984) identif
1. Feedback Linking learning outcome to objectives and providing a form of quality control.
2. Control Making links from training to organizational activities and to consider cost effectiveness.
The design stage of phase I involved identification of the instructional objecti
achieve the objectives. The design stage considered three sub-processes. These include instructional
ign and technical design. At the development stage of phase I, the output of the
Based instructional strategy) which is the final product. The WebQuest design
background about the instructional concepts and involved the pictures that are relevant or related to the
that the students assume the role of self-learning, inquiring for information to solve the given questions,
udents needed to complete the given task in the WebQuest. The Conclusion part
validation in phase II involving implementation and formative stage.
II of the WebQuest development. It involved implementation and formative evaluation
the product will be put into action and takes a holistic view of presenting the WebQuest as a solution to a
y of the website or resources that allow the students to use developed WebQuest with satisfaction,
the WebQuest to teach students in higher institutions. The results obtained from this phase will be used
evaluation. This phase required instructional designer to expose the WebQuest package to educational
technology experts as well as students for final evaluation.
Rationale for Evaluation in Web Design
learning in the schools. This means that designer wishes to at least know
indications of how well an instructional product or system performs are best obtained from systematically
a variety of states or events, from small to large, from the specific to the very
by using criteria against a set of standards (Badmus, 2013). Evaluation process ensures the learners are
aluation is the process of examining a program or process to determine whats working, whats
Microsoft Encarta Dictionary (2009) defined evaluation as an act of considering or
examining something in order to judge its value, quality, importance, extent, or condition.
Bramley and Newby (1984) identified five main purposes of evaluation, these include:
Linking learning outcome to objectives and providing a form of quality control.
Making links from training to organizational activities and to consider cost effectiveness.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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The design stage of phase I involved identification of the instructional objectives, instructional
processes. These include instructional
ign and technical design. At the development stage of phase I, the output of the
uct. The WebQuest design
pts and involved the pictures that are relevant or related to the
lve the given questions,
udents needed to complete the given task in the WebQuest. The Conclusion part
II of the WebQuest development. It involved implementation and formative evaluation
enting the WebQuest as a solution to a
y of the website or resources that allow the students to use developed WebQuest with satisfaction,
tions. The results obtained from this phase will be used
package to educational
learning in the schools. This means that designer wishes to at least know
tained from systematically
a variety of states or events, from small to large, from the specific to the very
ation process ensures the learners are
aluation is the process of examining a program or process to determine whats working, whats
evaluation as an act of considering or
ce, extent, or condition. Evaluation is a
ive main purposes of evaluation, these include:
Linking learning outcome to objectives and providing a form of quality control.
Making links from training to organizational activities and to consider cost effectiveness.


3. Research - Determining the relationships between learning, training, and the transfer of training to
the job.
4. Intervention - The results of the evaluation influence the context in which it is occurring.
5. Power games - Manipulating evaluative data for organizational p

Evaluation describes how to assess the nature, impact and value of an activity through the
systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of information with a view to making an informed
decision (Saiful, n.d.). Evaluations are normally divided into two broad categories:
summative (Clark, 2008).
Methods of evaluation are applicable to many different aspects of educational systems and
products. Among these include Scrivens evaluation procedures, St
Kirkpatricks four-Level-Evaluation model. This paper discussed only on Kirkpatricks four
Evaluation model because it has been best known as evaluating methodology for judging learning
processes. It is also the most used evaluating method of instructional product in the field of educational
technology.
Donald Kirkpatrick is Professor Emeritus of the University of Wisconsin in the United States and
he was known for originating the 'four level' model for training cour
first published in 1959 in the US Training and Development Journal. It became well
he published in 1975 entitled, "Evaluating Training Programs". Kirkpatricks four levels are designed as a
sequence of ways to evaluate training programmes or instructional product. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
(2006) noted that none of the levels should be bypassed simply to get to level that the students consider
the most important. The four levels of Kirkpatrick's evaluat
1. Reaction How well did learners like the learning process?
2. Learning what did they learn?
3. Behaviour what changes in learning performance resulted from the learning process?
4. Results What are the tangible results of the
quality, increased production, efficiency, etc.?

The Kirkpatricks model comprises the foremost evaluation methodology in the world and its
concept is quite important as it makes an excellent planning, e
(Badmus, 2013).

Conclusion and Recommendations
The Internet is expanding education into a global classroom, with learners, teachers, and experts from
around the world. As a result, learners must network with other st
they are continually learning and updating their knowledge. Information for learning should not be taken
from one source but should be assembled from many sources to reflect the networked world and the
diversity of thinking. Learning should be delivered in a multi
communication technologies are used to deliver the learning materials to facilitate optimal learning.
Because of the information explosion, learners of the future must be willing
an ongoing basis. Online teaching strategies must give learners the opportunity to research and locate new
information in a discipline so that they can keep up
to deliver flexibility, instruction must be designed for experiential and authentic learning. The following
recommendations suggest that
1. teachers in higher education should work hand
developers to develop and come out with
use in the school;
2. teachers should endeavour to develop and utilise WebQuests for teaching and learning in higher
education. This will further increase teachers knowledge on new innovations in ICT
instructional strategies;
Determining the relationships between learning, training, and the transfer of training to
The results of the evaluation influence the context in which it is occurring.
Manipulating evaluative data for organizational politics.
Evaluations are normally divided into two broad categories:
products. Among these include Scrivens evaluation procedures, Stufflebeams evaluation methods and
Evaluation model. This paper discussed only on Kirkpatricks four
t used evaluating method of instructional product in the field of educational
he was known for originating the 'four level' model for training course evaluation and these ideas were
first published in 1959 in the US Training and Development Journal. It became well
ays to evaluate training programmes or instructional product. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
the most important. The four levels of Kirkpatrick's evaluation model essentially measure:
How well did learners like the learning process?
what did they learn?
what changes in learning performance resulted from the learning process?
What are the tangible results of the learning process in terms of reduced cost, improved
quality, increased production, efficiency, etc.?
concept is quite important as it makes an excellent planning, evaluating, and troubling
Conclusion and Recommendations
around the world. As a result, learners must network with other students and experts to make sure that
king. Learning should be delivered in a multi-channel system where different
Because of the information explosion, learners of the future must be willing to acquire new knowledge on
information in a discipline so that they can keep up-to-date in the field. In addition to using the Internet
lexibility, instruction must be designed for experiential and authentic learning. The following
teachers in higher education should work hand-in-hand with computer programmers or software
developers to develop and come out with relevant ICT-based instructional tools like WebQuest for
teachers should endeavour to develop and utilise WebQuests for teaching and learning in higher
education. This will further increase teachers knowledge on new innovations in ICT
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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19
Determining the relationships between learning, training, and the transfer of training to
The results of the evaluation influence the context in which it is occurring.
Evaluations are normally divided into two broad categories: formative and
ufflebeams evaluation methods and
Evaluation model. This paper discussed only on Kirkpatricks four-Level-
t used evaluating method of instructional product in the field of educational
se evaluation and these ideas were
first published in 1959 in the US Training and Development Journal. It became well-known from a book
ays to evaluate training programmes or instructional product. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
ion model essentially measure:
what changes in learning performance resulted from the learning process?
learning process in terms of reduced cost, improved
valuating, and troubling-shooting tool
udents and experts to make sure that
channel system where different
to acquire new knowledge on
date in the field. In addition to using the Internet
lexibility, instruction must be designed for experiential and authentic learning. The following
hand with computer programmers or software
based instructional tools like WebQuest for
teachers should endeavour to develop and utilise WebQuests for teaching and learning in higher
education. This will further increase teachers knowledge on new innovations in ICT-Based


3. educational technology teachers should expose the students to ICT
like WebQuest to promote students autonomy to knowledge acquisition, discovery learning and
student-centred instructional app
4. educators should endeavour to see the endowed benefits of WebQuest in teaching and learning,
since the application of WebQuest serves as a motivator which encourages students to have
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PLANNING STRATEGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY
CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN NIGERIA
Department of Education
Abstract
The study addresses the educational and social relevance of early childhood education, especially the
strategic planning in respect to
Education is widely recognized to impact positively on the later years
though Nigeria is seen to have embarked on policies aimed at pedagogical renewal through its UBE
programme. It is observed that no specific plann
of any aspects of the programme on early childhood development. In view of its societal relevance, the
study advocates for a desirable and necessary educational process which are desirable and necessary
for ensuring the successful implementation of early childhood education policy in Nigeria. This paper
provides justification for the planning of early childhood Education and recommends the formulation
of appropriate policy framework; the inaugur
appropriate curriculum and establishment of appropriate data bank as effective planning strategies for
a sustainable early childhood Education Programme in Nigeria.


CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN NIGERIA
By
MRS. ODIGIE, V.O., Ph.D
Department of Educational Foundations
Faculty of Education,
University of Port Harcourt
strategic planning in respect to childs cognitive, emotional and social development. Early Ch
Education is widely recognized to impact positively on the later years learning abilities of children;
hough Nigeria is seen to have embarked on policies aimed at pedagogical renewal through its UBE
programme. It is observed that no specific planning strategy has been adopted for the implementation
of appropriate policy framework; the inauguration of a functional planning agency; development of
a sustainable early childhood Education Programme in Nigeria.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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22
cognitive, emotional and social development. Early Childhood
learning abilities of children;
hough Nigeria is seen to have embarked on policies aimed at pedagogical renewal through its UBE
ing strategy has been adopted for the implementation
gency; development of


Introduction
The importance of children in any national planning and development is acclaimed worldwide. This is
why the slogan that children are
Significantly too, education is also central to the growth an
development to be witnessed, education at the foundation level is crucial, specifically the early childhood
period. Early Childhood Education has been defined as the systematic and sustained exposure to and
transmission of knowledge for early Childhood development in formal learning situations where the
teacher performs quasi parental functions (Odigie 2003). While it is true that development in the global
world order (such as globalization) have intended to precipi
nations education policies and that in order to be part of that convergence
effect reform in her education policy and system. By position, it is meant that a policy is a composite of
wishes, goals, objectives and implementation strategies set forth for accomplishment of agreed plans.
Amaeles submission perfectly agrees with this position
into documents which are in turn translated into re
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004:11) defines early childhood pre
children between ages of 2 to 5 years. It includes the crche, the nursery and the kindergarten.
In this regard, evidence from the fields of psychology and physiology indicate
conception to about eight years, the childs attitude towards learning is developed through doing,
experimenting, manipulating and exploring. It therefore follows tha
in early years of life influences the childs later years learning ability and that children will develop to their
full potentials if at the early childhood stages, their need for learning, interaction and affectio
fulfilled and their need for protection, nutrition and health care are satisfied.
than any other factor led to the concept fostering and furthering early childhood care and development
which was articulated at the World
Jomtiem Declaration and Dakar Framework for A
children enter schools and gave international recognition and sanction to early children educat
Following the 1990 World Conference and the d
framework for action, a number of developing nations have produce
blueprint aimed at pedagogical renewal
country had demonstrated serious commitment in pursuing the goals of the Jomtiem
implementing the Universal Basic Education programme which has been applauded for its inclusiveness.
While reforms are still ongoing and the search for
the numerous problems facing basic e
strategies for planning effective and sustainable
Justification for Planning Early Childhood Education
The initial insight for the planning of early childhood e
philosophy, psychology and health. Evidence from these fields indicates that the early years of a
crucial in the childs life when his mind and body are
intelligence, motivation self image and his ability to relate
substantial portion of future school achievement is determined before the statutory school age. If this is
the case, it is rational then we plan early childhood education in order to give the child the right start and
ensure solid foundation for his future educational achievement.
The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human R
to basic education that the least capable person can attain. This will be made possible through the
instrumentality of government machinery. Since government has to at
needs such as health, security, welfare etc, there is the need to optimize resource allocation and use and
since early childhood education is to compete for resources and government attention with other levels of
education, it will only be rational to plan it in order to maximize the resources that will be allocated to it
and give proper direction to its goal attainment.
why the slogan that children are the leaders of tomorrow remains an unquestionable
Significantly too, education is also central to the growth and development of any society. For the
Early Childhood Education has been defined as the systematic and sustained exposure to and
ion of knowledge for early Childhood development in formal learning situations where the
world order (such as globalization) have intended to precipitate a convergence of many a sovereign
nations education policies and that in order to be part of that convergence, an individual nation must
hes, goals, objectives and implementation strategies set forth for accomplishment of agreed plans.
tly agrees with this position, when he describes policies as visions translated
into documents which are in turn translated into reality via disparate strategies (Amaele, 2005). The
(2004:11) defines early childhood pre-primary education as learning given to
vidence from the fields of psychology and physiology indicate
experimenting, manipulating and exploring. It therefore follows that the experiences a child is exposed to
full potentials if at the early childhood stages, their need for learning, interaction and affectio
fulfilled and their need for protection, nutrition and health care are satisfied. Perhaps
the World Conference on Education held in Jomtiem, Thailand in 1990. The
Dakar Framework for Action acknowledged that learning begins long before
children enter schools and gave international recognition and sanction to early children educat
1990 World Conference and the declaration of Education for All (EFA) as a
framework for action, a number of developing nations have produced comprehensive and innovative
nt aimed at pedagogical renewal. Within the Nigeria context of Education for All (EFA),
had demonstrated serious commitment in pursuing the goals of the Jomtiem
going and the search for innovative strategies in tackling and surmounting
ing basic education in Nigeria, this paper seeks to develop appropriate
effective and sustainable early childhood education.
or Planning Early Childhood Education
he planning of early childhood education was provided by studies in the fields of
philosophy, psychology and health. Evidence from these fields indicates that the early years of a
s life when his mind and body are growing which will influence his later health, his
intelligence, motivation self image and his ability to relate with other human beings. It then follows that
hool achievement is determined before the statutory school age. If this is
ensure solid foundation for his future educational achievement.
ited Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights confers on every individual the right
instrumentality of government machinery. Since government has to attend to other equally important
it will only be rational to plan it in order to maximize the resources that will be allocated to it
and give proper direction to its goal attainment.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
23
leaders of tomorrow remains an unquestionable standpoint.
d development of any society. For the
Early Childhood Education has been defined as the systematic and sustained exposure to and
ion of knowledge for early Childhood development in formal learning situations where the
tate a convergence of many a sovereign
, an individual nation must
hes, goals, objectives and implementation strategies set forth for accomplishment of agreed plans.
when he describes policies as visions translated
ality via disparate strategies (Amaele, 2005). The
primary education as learning given to
vidence from the fields of psychology and physiology indicates that from
t the experiences a child is exposed to
full potentials if at the early childhood stages, their need for learning, interaction and affection are
Perhaps, these reasons more
held in Jomtiem, Thailand in 1990. The
that learning begins long before
children enter schools and gave international recognition and sanction to early children education.
eclaration of Education for All (EFA) as a
comprehensive and innovative
of Education for All (EFA), the
had demonstrated serious commitment in pursuing the goals of the Jomtiems conference by
tackling and surmounting
his paper seeks to develop appropriate
ducation was provided by studies in the fields of
philosophy, psychology and health. Evidence from these fields indicates that the early years of a child are
will influence his later health, his
other human beings. It then follows that
hool achievement is determined before the statutory school age. If this is
confers on every individual the right
tend to other equally important
it will only be rational to plan it in order to maximize the resources that will be allocated to it


It is an established fact that industrialization and innovation brought about by modern science and
technology brought with it changes in the structure and role
wage earnings systems which are the features of
home for the most part of the day. This phenomenon ha
nursery schools. The high demand for this category of schools only suggest
actions that will bring about a more realistic early childhood education programme for its citizens. This
can only be possible through a rational planning process. Besides, if government is serious and desirous
to provide early childhood care and socialization as contained in the implementation guideline for the
UBE programme, a more sense of urgency deman
so that children of all socio-economic background
The proliferation of day care centres and nursery schools
Childhood Education should be pla
care centres and nursery schools have been found to exist in homes, churches and other such
establishment designated as day care centres. These are expected to ca
environment for the children. Presently
exorbitant fees. While some of them are re
of Education or Social Welfare supervising
Besides, there is no unified and defined curriculum for nursery education. In a study by
Onuchukwu and Ifeanacho reported in the Association for the Development of Education in Africa
(ADEA) Newsletter (2003:15), it was revealed that 32% to 80% of the
were of western origin; poems, nursery rhymes and play were completely American or European; English
was the predominant language followed by French while no Nigerian language was used; and in some
schools there was prolonged electronic bombardment via CNN on television, computers and computer
games. This situations call for urgent government intervention and provide justifications for the planning
of early childhood education in Nigeria.
Research evidence shows that investment
welfare in terms of health care, nutrition
basic education. It is equally proven that early childhood education helps in reducing repetition a
dropout rates and therefore increases the effectiveness of Primary education (ADEA 2002:2). For this
reason it is important that we plan early childhood education and tailor it towards the attainment of
sustainable interest of children in schooling.
A planned early childhood education programme will promote social and economic equality and
help to redress the socio- economic inequality created by private investors, which made early childhood
education very expensive and an exclu
childhood education programme will therefore eliminate unequal opportunities and the disadvantages of
poor mental development and readiness for school that is mostly experienced by children from low
income group. This will help reduce juvenile delinquency and drug abuse, which is also prevalent among
these groups of children.
Strategies for Planning Early Childhood Education i
The Nigerian Education system as presently constituted is in serious crisis. The diff
education suffer from poor conditions of learning, high students
classrooms, preponderance of unqualified teachers etc. These collapsed, have resulted in the poor
attainment of educational objectives in the co
challenges facing government renewed interest and initiatives in early childhood education in Nigeria.
Some of these strategies include;
(a) Formulating Appropriate Policy Frame Work for Early
The policy provisions for early childhood Education in Nigeria can best described as regulatory and show
no real government interest to goal attainment in early childhood development. Government merely
outlined the fundamental policy ob
logy brought with it changes in the structure and roles of the family. The white colla
the features of modern society are known to keep parents away from the
home for the most part of the day. This phenomenon has resulted in high demand for care centres and
nursery schools. The high demand for this category of schools only suggests that government initiate
an only be possible through a rational planning process. Besides, if government is serious and desirous
UBE programme, a more sense of urgency demands that adequate planning arrangement be put in place
economic backgrounds will be catered for.
The proliferation of day care centres and nursery schools is also another major reason why Early
Childhood Education should be planned for. Their establishments have been most uncoordinated. Day
establishment designated as day care centres. These are expected to care for and provide socializi
environment for the children. Presently, these centres are uncoordinated, unregulated and charging
exorbitant fees. While some of them are registered and controlled by the Ministry of
of Education or Social Welfare supervising others.
Newsletter (2003:15), it was revealed that 32% to 80% of the books used in nursery schools
electronic bombardment via CNN on television, computers and computer
of early childhood education in Nigeria.
Research evidence shows that investment in early childhood development contributes to child
welfare in terms of health care, nutrition, psychological balance; helping more children complete their
basic education. It is equally proven that early childhood education helps in reducing repetition a
sustainable interest of children in schooling.
lanned early childhood education programme will promote social and economic equality and
economic inequality created by private investors, which made early childhood
education very expensive and an exclusive preserve of certain socio-economic class. A planned early
poor mental development and readiness for school that is mostly experienced by children from low
will help reduce juvenile delinquency and drug abuse, which is also prevalent among
ning Early Childhood Education in Nigeria
The Nigerian Education system as presently constituted is in serious crisis. The diff
education suffer from poor conditions of learning, high students teachers ratio, overcrowded
attainment of educational objectives in the country. The above scenario constitute some of the major

Formulating Appropriate Policy Frame Work for Early Childhood Education
outlined the fundamental policy objectives of early childhood education and for goal attainment the
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
24
s of the family. The white collar job and the
modern society are known to keep parents away from the
s resulted in high demand for care centres and
that government initiates
an only be possible through a rational planning process. Besides, if government is serious and desirous
ds that adequate planning arrangement be put in place
another major reason why Early
been most uncoordinated. Day-
re for and provide socializing
rdinated, unregulated and charging
inistry of Health, the Ministry
books used in nursery schools
electronic bombardment via CNN on television, computers and computer
in early childhood development contributes to child
more children complete their
basic education. It is equally proven that early childhood education helps in reducing repetition and
lanned early childhood education programme will promote social and economic equality and
economic inequality created by private investors, which made early childhood
economic class. A planned early
poor mental development and readiness for school that is mostly experienced by children from low-
will help reduce juvenile delinquency and drug abuse, which is also prevalent among
The Nigerian Education system as presently constituted is in serious crisis. The different levels of
teachers ratio, overcrowded
untry. The above scenario constitute some of the major
Childhood Education
jectives of early childhood education and for goal attainment the


policy states; The responsibilities of government for pre
training of qualified pre- primary school teachers in adequate number , contribute to the
suitable curriculum, supervise and control the quality of such institutions and establish pre
sections in existing public schools (NPE 2004:11)
The above policy only indicated supervisory role and not real commitment from government
development of early childhood education. A more pragmatic approach needs to be adopted. The first
step in this direction will be the formulation of appropriate policy for Early Childhood Education should
define the role of government in terms of fu
of involvement of the private sector, parents and communities, the support from the education system
and the provision of learning materials and facilities.
(b) Developing a Functional Framework
Planning is fundamental to the success of any educational programme. For any realistic achievement to be
made in the area of early childhood education there is the need to establish a functional framework for
the development of short and long range plans for the attainment of the goals of early childhood
education . This calls for the establishment of inter
education in Nigeria. The agency should be compris
Education , Finance , Health, Educational policy making organs, NGOS, the organized private sectors
etc.
The agency should have the legal status to co
childhood education programme and related activities in Nigeria. They should co
micro planning activities between ministries, the private sector, NGOs and international organizations
and harmonize the planning objectives with the overall socio
Development, set priorities, device means and procedures for obtaining resources and distribution as well
as develop technical plan forecast and projections.
(c) Development Appropriate Curriculum for Early Childhoo
The need to develop appropriate curriculum for early childhood education programme in Nigeria is long
overdue. An appropriate curriculum will be tailored towards the need of the children between ages 0
Presently what is offered as curricul
childhood development. In most schools, which pose as day
merely hospitalized and treated with food, drink and sleep. This practice will in
childrens psychic development. In this circumstance, existing curriculum need to be reviewed and new
ones developed to reflect the Nigeria background and the development needs of our children. This calls
for a holistic approach in early children education curriculum development to cater for the emotional,
physical, social and mental development needs of the child.
(d) Developing Appropriate Funding Frame Work for Early Childhood Education
Planning for fund should form a vital aspect of
Before now, governments have not been directly involved in the funding of early childhood in Nigeria.
This was left in the hands of private investors and non governmental organization (NGOs) and
International donor Agencies. There is the need to revise this trend. Modalities for funding early
childhood education should be worked out to include government, the organized private sector, NGOs,
International Agencies, parents and communities. However, gov
funding arrangement and make budgetary allocations for early childhood education. This should cover
capital and recurrent expenditure on early childhood education programmes.
(e) Developing Appropriate Data Base f
Most of the educational programmes initiated in Nigeria are known to have failed because of wrong
statistical data. Published figures are known to be marred by imperfections and great deal of irregularities
that they cannot be of good use in planning. For the programme/ initiatives for early childhood
The responsibilities of government for pre-primary education shall be to promote the
primary school teachers in adequate number , contribute to the
suitable curriculum, supervise and control the quality of such institutions and establish pre
sections in existing public schools (NPE 2004:11)
The above policy only indicated supervisory role and not real commitment from government
define the role of government in terms of funding, management of schools, teacher recruitment, the level
and the provision of learning materials and facilities.
Developing a Functional Framework for the Planning of Early Childhood Education
education . This calls for the establishment of inter-ministerial agency for the planning of early childhood
education in Nigeria. The agency should be comprised of representation drawn from Ministry of
The agency should have the legal status to co-ordinate, regulate, monitor and supervise early
cation programme and related activities in Nigeria. They should co-
and harmonize the planning objectives with the overall socio - economic objectives of Early Childhood
as develop technical plan forecast and projections.
Development Appropriate Curriculum for Early Childhood Education
overdue. An appropriate curriculum will be tailored towards the need of the children between ages 0
Presently what is offered as curriculum content by private investors lack the basic ingredients for early
childhood development. In most schools, which pose as day care, nursery or kindergarten, children are
merely hospitalized and treated with food, drink and sleep. This practice will in
y children education curriculum development to cater for the emotional,
physical, social and mental development needs of the child.
Developing Appropriate Funding Frame Work for Early Childhood Education
Planning for fund should form a vital aspect of the activities for early childhood education provision.
rnational donor Agencies. There is the need to revise this trend. Modalities for funding early
International Agencies, parents and communities. However, government has to play a leading role in the
capital and recurrent expenditure on early childhood education programmes.
Developing Appropriate Data Base for Planning Early Childhood Education
annot be of good use in planning. For the programme/ initiatives for early childhood
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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25
primary education shall be to promote the
primary school teachers in adequate number , contribute to the development of
suitable curriculum, supervise and control the quality of such institutions and establish pre-primary
The above policy only indicated supervisory role and not real commitment from government in the
nding, management of schools, teacher recruitment, the level
for the Planning of Early Childhood Education
ministerial agency for the planning of early childhood
ed of representation drawn from Ministry of
ordinate, regulate, monitor and supervise early
-ordinate macro and
nomic objectives of Early Childhood
overdue. An appropriate curriculum will be tailored towards the need of the children between ages 0 -5.
um content by private investors lack the basic ingredients for early
care, nursery or kindergarten, children are
merely hospitalized and treated with food, drink and sleep. This practice will invariably retard the
y children education curriculum development to cater for the emotional,
Developing Appropriate Funding Frame Work for Early Childhood Education
the activities for early childhood education provision.
rnational donor Agencies. There is the need to revise this trend. Modalities for funding early
ernment has to play a leading role in the
or Planning Early Childhood Education
annot be of good use in planning. For the programme/ initiatives for early childhood


education to make any head start, there is the need to develop the technical for data collection and
analysis in terms of equipment and technical manpower. There is import
making. There will be need to extrapolate the popula
population. This will help in the projection of teachers that would be required for the programme, assess
facilities, needs and equipment supplies. This is important because the success or failure of the early
childhood education programme will largely depend on their accuracy.
(f) Developing Appropriate School Mapping Strategy for Early Childhood Education
Presently early childhood educational provisions tend to be concentrated in urban centres. This does not
provide equal access to early childhood education for children resident in the rural communities and does
not reflect the social framework on which the society is esta
education programme which should satisfy the early childhood educational needs of Nigerian children,
there must be in place a machinery capable of evolving a dynamic process of identifying logically and
systematically sites where early childhood education facilities are to be located. In this regard, there is the
need to take inventory of already existing institutional facilities to ascertain their adequacy or otherwise of
accommodating early childhood programme. In a
reflect the socio economic distribution of the population and should seek to provide equality in access to
every child between ages 0 5.
Conclusion
Early Childhood Education has been proven to form
years of the childs development. Early exposure to learning has multiple benefits to children, Parents and
society and therefore should be a major concern of all. However, government should play a vital
its provision by developing appropriate national policies and plan of action for early childhood care and
development. There should be a broad multi
education as we must take advantage of the f
Childhood education, as portrayed in Abdulrahman (2013)
the implementation of the UBE programme as the overall success of the UBE scheme depends on the
early foundation laid for those entering into the primary segment of the programme.
Recommendations
Government, through the ministry of education
charged with the running of early childhood education.
Since early childhood education appears to lack family support services in less literate homes,
NGOs and youth bodies need to engage in mass enlightenment programmes to educate them on
the needs to send their children to pre
Pre early childhood education centres have to be evenly established in all the communities and
properly staffed with qualified teacher.
There is need for effective school policies to achieve pre
emphasized. One problem conf
educational policies.
Meal programmes should also be included in the programme. It will not only motivate children
towards embracing the early education, it will also help to cater for the n
and children of poor parents. Poor diet stunts potential abilities.
There should be provision of portable water and implement measures that would deter both
teachers and pupils from bullying children.
The importance of training and retraining of teachers can be emphasized.
There a need for government to set up a task force to control and prosecute both parents and
children who engage in economic activities thereby denying children the accessibility to both pre
primary and primary education.
Curriculum planners should produce a unified curriculum and recommend textbooks appropriate
for the children at this level. In addition the textbook should be writing according the nature of the
environment.
analysis in terms of equipment and technical manpower. There is importance for planning and decision
making. There will be need to extrapolate the population of children between ages 0
s and equipment supplies. This is important because the success or failure of the early
childhood education programme will largely depend on their accuracy.
Developing Appropriate School Mapping Strategy for Early Childhood Education
childhood educational provisions tend to be concentrated in urban centres. This does not
not reflect the social framework on which the society is established. For a viable early childhood
y sites where early childhood education facilities are to be located. In this regard, there is the
accommodating early childhood programme. In all cases, early childhood institutional provisions must
Early Childhood Education has been proven to form the foundation for effective learning in the later
society and therefore should be a major concern of all. However, government should play a vital
development. There should be a broad multi- structural approach to the funding of early childhood
education as we must take advantage of the financial assistance offered by donor agencies. Early
, as portrayed in Abdulrahman (2013) must be considered as a vital component in
undation laid for those entering into the primary segment of the programme.
Government, through the ministry of education should establish a board that would be solely
the running of early childhood education.
the needs to send their children to pre-school education.
re early childhood education centres have to be evenly established in all the communities and
staffed with qualified teacher.
There is need for effective school policies to achieve pre-primary objectives cannot be over
emphasized. One problem confronting early child education in Nigeria is the issue of managing
towards embracing the early education, it will also help to cater for the nutritional needs of rural,
and children of poor parents. Poor diet stunts potential abilities.
teachers and pupils from bullying children.
training and retraining of teachers can be emphasized.
children who engage in economic activities thereby denying children the accessibility to both pre
nd primary education.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
26
ance for planning and decision
tion of children between ages 05 from the overall
s and equipment supplies. This is important because the success or failure of the early
Developing Appropriate School Mapping Strategy for Early Childhood Education
childhood educational provisions tend to be concentrated in urban centres. This does not
blished. For a viable early childhood
y sites where early childhood education facilities are to be located. In this regard, there is the
ll cases, early childhood institutional provisions must
the foundation for effective learning in the later
society and therefore should be a major concern of all. However, government should play a vital role in
structural approach to the funding of early childhood
inancial assistance offered by donor agencies. Early
must be considered as a vital component in
undation laid for those entering into the primary segment of the programme.
establish a board that would be solely
re early childhood education centres have to be evenly established in all the communities and
primary objectives cannot be over
ronting early child education in Nigeria is the issue of managing
utritional needs of rural,
children who engage in economic activities thereby denying children the accessibility to both pre-


Language of the environmen
concepts taught.
References
Abdulrahman Yusuf M. (2011) Early Childhood Care Education and Development (ECCDE): A Silent,
but Significant Component of Universal Basic Education (UBE)
Education, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State. 3
153-160
Anero, N. (2005). Funding pre-primary education in Nigeria.
Studies. 1 & 2 (1), 280-286.
Association for the Development of Education in Africa(2003) Emerging Trends in Research on the
Quality of Education; A synthesis of education reviews from 1992
west and central Africa. Mauritius: ADEA.
Amaele, s. (2005) Understanding the Philosophy of Education. Ibadan Bounty Press Ltd.
Odigie V. O (2003) Philosophical Perspective of Nursery and Primary Schools
Publishers.

Language of the environment (mother tongue) will help in conceptualization and understanding of
but Significant Component of Universal Basic Education (UBE) in Nigeria. Niger Delta Journal of
Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State. 3 (1&2), December, 2012.
primary education in Nigeria. African Journal of Education and Development

Quality of Education; A synthesis of education reviews from 1992 2003 in eleven countries of
west and central Africa. Mauritius: ADEA.
maele, s. (2005) Understanding the Philosophy of Education. Ibadan Bounty Press Ltd.
Odigie V. O (2003) Philosophical Perspective of Nursery and Primary Schools. Port Harcourt: Pearl
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
27
t (mother tongue) will help in conceptualization and understanding of
Niger Delta Journal of
(1&2), December, 2012.
African Journal of Education and Development
2003 in eleven countries of
maele, s. (2005) Understanding the Philosophy of Education. Ibadan Bounty Press Ltd.
. Port Harcourt: Pearl


ENTREPRENEURIAL EDUCATION: A

Department of Educational
Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology
Abstract
This paper presents entrepreneurial education as a possible way of addressing the problem of
unemployment. It has been identified that entrepreneurial education has enormous potentials to solve
the problem of unemployment on the teeming population of the unemployed persons b
entrepreneurs with knowledge to establish and efficiently manage small businesses. The paper holds
that a successful entrepreneur would not only become self
employer of labour. Based on the poten
recommended that the successful self
expansion and for creating opportunities.

ENTREPRENEURIAL EDUCATION: A PANACEA TO UNEMPLOYMENT IN
NIGERIA

By

SUNDAY D. OSAAT, Ph.D
Faculty of Education
osaatsundan@yahoo.com
GSM: 08036731057

DINAH SUNDAY OSAAT, Ph.D
Department of Educational Management

&

ONYINYECHI O. OCHUBA

entrepreneurial education as a possible way of addressing the problem of
the problem of unemployment on the teeming population of the unemployed persons b
that a successful entrepreneur would not only become self-reliant and gainfully self
employer of labour. Based on the potentials of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial education, it is
recommended that the successful self-employed persons should form relevant associations for
expansion and for creating opportunities.

Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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28
PANACEA TO UNEMPLOYMENT IN
entrepreneurial education as a possible way of addressing the problem of
the problem of unemployment on the teeming population of the unemployed persons by providing the
reliant and gainfully self-employed but also
tials of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial education, it is
employed persons should form relevant associations for


Introduction
Every nation has the responsibility of
ensure excellent and possible adult roles for the development of individual and collective well
the society. The potential contribution of individuals to the collective well
opportunity or its alternative must be provided by the society to the individual. The young adult who has
transited from childhood stage is in most cases full of energy to undertake and accomplish a task
expected of him/her. This developmen
Adeboye (1999) claims that psychological development, social transition and changes in status are closely
related while to Olaleye (2012) young people are expected to establish a sense of p
become progressively more independent of parents.
On the contrary, unemployment and underemployment bring perpetual dependent on others such
as family members or friends. In this vein the growing sense of autonomy, self responsibility
independence become a mirage in the young adults and other unemployed persons. Obviously, access to
a good job and earning of at least a living wage enables one assumes feelings of self
actualization and sense of being socially and financ
majorly the young adults (youths) who are active, diligent, creative, innovative and energetic. According to
Chapman, Weatherburn, Chilvers and Roussel (2002) the youths can prove more productive and
constructive in any field of life. It is, therefore, unfortunate that youths in Nigeria are unemployed. It is
for this study to show that entrepreneurial education to an extent can be a solution or an alternative to
unemployment among the youths
Entrepreneurial Education
The definition of concepts becomes mandatory here for someone to have a proper understanding of this
study. The entrepreneur according to Hornby, Gatenby and Wakefield (1971) is a person, controlling a
commercial undertaking while for Webster and Mckechnie (1979) entrepreneur is one who organizes and
directs a business undertaking, assuming the risk for the sake of the profit, also the originator or manager
of public entertainments. Meredith, Nelson and
to see and evaluate business opportunities gathers the necessary resources to take advantage of them and
initiate appropriate action to ensure success. Another direct definition of entrepreneur may
made by Collings, et al in Nwachukwu (2009) as a risk taker, a man who braves uncertainty, strikes out on
his own, and through native wit, devotion to duty and singleness of purpose, somehow creates a business
and industrial activity where none
Education: Education as a popular and an important concept is defined as what the receiver is capable
of doing in consequences or as a result of what has been received/experienced in the process of
educating ( Osaat 2012:155). This is very
fact that entrepreneurial education becomes worthwhile.
Entrepreneurial Education: This is education that deals with the process of undertaking a business
initiative as an application of kn
sustenance and for the overall individual and societys development , (Osaat 2012: 155). According to
Okebukola (2011:2) entrepreneurial education is an offering which tools learners with
and attitudes to be an entrepreneur
market, or a new means of production. He further explains entrepreneurial education as all activities
aiming to foster entrepreneurial mindse
generation, start-up growth and innovation.
Approaches to Entrepreneurial Education
In National Agency for Enterprise and Construction (2004) two main approaches of entrepreneurial
education have been identified. They are the Focused Approach and the Unified Approach. The focused
approach addresses the students and staff in academic business area while the unified approach considers
Every nation has the responsibility of creating the best possible opportunities to its young people to
ensure excellent and possible adult roles for the development of individual and collective well
the society. The potential contribution of individuals to the collective well-being thr
expected of him/her. This developmental stage needs perhaps a corresponding change in status. To this,
related while to Olaleye (2012) young people are expected to establish a sense of p
become progressively more independent of parents.
as family members or friends. In this vein the growing sense of autonomy, self responsibility
a good job and earning of at least a living wage enables one assumes feelings of self
actualization and sense of being socially and financially relevant. The unemployed population constitutes
nstructive in any field of life. It is, therefore, unfortunate that youths in Nigeria are unemployed. It is
unemployment among the youths young adults and the existing adults.
of public entertainments. Meredith, Nelson and Neck (1983) see an entrepreneur as one having the ability
initiate appropriate action to ensure success. Another direct definition of entrepreneur may
and industrial activity where none existed before.
Education as a popular and an important concept is defined as what the receiver is capable
educating ( Osaat 2012:155). This is very likely referring to productive/functional education. It is on this
fact that entrepreneurial education becomes worthwhile.
This is education that deals with the process of undertaking a business
initiative as an application of knowledge acquired competently for the purpose of self
Okebukola (2011:2) entrepreneurial education is an offering which tools learners with
and attitudes to be an entrepreneur an innovator, the person who develops a new product, a new
aiming to foster entrepreneurial mindsets, attitudes and skills and covering a range of aspects such as idea
up growth and innovation.
Approaches to Entrepreneurial Education
tion have been identified. They are the Focused Approach and the Unified Approach. The focused
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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29
creating the best possible opportunities to its young people to
ensure excellent and possible adult roles for the development of individual and collective well-being of
being through employment
tal stage needs perhaps a corresponding change in status. To this,
related while to Olaleye (2012) young people are expected to establish a sense of personal identity and
as family members or friends. In this vein the growing sense of autonomy, self responsibility and
a good job and earning of at least a living wage enables one assumes feelings of self-esteem, self-
ially relevant. The unemployed population constitutes
nstructive in any field of life. It is, therefore, unfortunate that youths in Nigeria are unemployed. It is
Neck (1983) see an entrepreneur as one having the ability
initiate appropriate action to ensure success. Another direct definition of entrepreneur may be the one
Education as a popular and an important concept is defined as what the receiver is capable
likely referring to productive/functional education. It is on this
This is education that deals with the process of undertaking a business
owledge acquired competently for the purpose of self-reliance, self-
Okebukola (2011:2) entrepreneurial education is an offering which tools learners with knowledge, skills
an innovator, the person who develops a new product, a new
ts, attitudes and skills and covering a range of aspects such as idea
tion have been identified. They are the Focused Approach and the Unified Approach. The focused


non-business students and staff outside business, school
is no longer considered as a discipline for Business School or Technical Department of Colleges of
Education or University only. The approach being used in Nigeria today can be described as
comprehensive approach. In this approach the illiterates/literates, graduates and non
given orientation to embrace entrepreneurial education with passion. When a nation embraces
entrepreneurial education with diligence and passion giving proper orienta
the belief is that unemployment within the economic system of that nation would to an extent be
eliminated or minimized.
What is Unemployment?
Unemployment has become an issue of global concern because of its devastating e
economically, politically and psychologically. At a certain period in life, one begins to feel sense of
independence and responsibility; he needs to establish a sense of personal identity. This is mostly among
the youths-young adults and other unemployed persons whose desire is to move from different levels of
training/education into work-force. This desire can be hampered in the absence of gainful employment
opportunities. Consequently, young people and adults with the expectation to estab
identity and progressively become independent and acquire change of status as a mark of psychological
development and assume social/political transactions as well as becoming economically independent may
be able to do so. Unemployment th
It can also be defined as the unavailability of employment opportunities to those who are active, energetic
and qualified to be gainfully employed into an existing work
Reasons for Unemployment
There are a lot of reasons/causes of unemployment especially among the youths in the developing
countries. Some of the reasons include:
1. Incessant search for the unavailable jobs: A good number of young gradu
for jobs instead of creating them.
2. Rapid population increase/growth: Population is growing at a rate several times beyond job
creation.
3. Underdevelopment: The development of third world countries are mostly in the Urban not
including the Rural areas so jobs are unevenly created/distributed for the right persons.
4. Mal-functional or inefficiency of education system: Education system that is not properly
channeled towards the needs of the people and the existing companies may lead to
unemployment.
5. Inadequate school curriculum: The school curriculum that cannot holistically empower the
graduates but result in half
solving the problem.
6. Lack of career guidance and counseling.
7. Late retirement age: This is an obstacle for the employment of the youths who may stay for too
long a time for their turn to come.
8. Technological advancement: Job for many young people can now be performed by a single
industrial machine creating more problem of
problem.
9. Lack of suitable job training and qualification: Sometimes where there are job opportunities the
suitably qualified graduates are not available; and
10. Government policy on minimum wage sometimes leads
Effects of Unemployment
Unemployment can grievously affect individual lives and entire society. It affects the people socially,
economically, politically, psychologically and health wise adversely. These effects cover all aspects of the
society including individuals, families, communities and running of business outfits and political activities.
It is pertinent to identify the effects of unemployment on the populace so as to proffer solution and
strategies to forestall future occurrence. T
business students and staff outside business, schools and discipline. Today entrepreneurial education
proach. In this approach the illiterates/literates, graduates and non
entrepreneurial education with diligence and passion giving proper orientation at every level of education,
Unemployment has become an issue of global concern because of its devastating e
ther unemployed persons whose desire is to move from different levels of
force. This desire can be hampered in the absence of gainful employment
opportunities. Consequently, young people and adults with the expectation to estab
be able to do so. Unemployment therefore is simply the difference between supply and demand of labour.
and qualified to be gainfully employed into an existing work-force for at least a sustainable salary.
countries. Some of the reasons include:
Incessant search for the unavailable jobs: A good number of young graduates continue searching
for jobs instead of creating them.
Rapid population increase/growth: Population is growing at a rate several times beyond job
Underdevelopment: The development of third world countries are mostly in the Urban not
the Rural areas so jobs are unevenly created/distributed for the right persons.
functional or inefficiency of education system: Education system that is not properly
Inadequate school curriculum: The school curriculum that cannot holistically empower the
graduates but result in half-baked employees open ways to more unemployment instead of
Lack of career guidance and counseling.
rement age: This is an obstacle for the employment of the youths who may stay for too
long a time for their turn to come.
Technological advancement: Job for many young people can now be performed by a single
industrial machine creating more problem of unemployment instead of actually solving the
Lack of suitable job training and qualification: Sometimes where there are job opportunities the
suitably qualified graduates are not available; and
10. Government policy on minimum wage sometimes leads to retrenchment.
ociety including individuals, families, communities and running of business outfits and political activities.
strategies to forestall future occurrence. The following effects can also be identified:
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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30
s and discipline. Today entrepreneurial education
proach. In this approach the illiterates/literates, graduates and non-graduates should be
tion at every level of education,
Unemployment has become an issue of global concern because of its devastating effects socially,
ther unemployed persons whose desire is to move from different levels of
force. This desire can be hampered in the absence of gainful employment
opportunities. Consequently, young people and adults with the expectation to establish personal self-
erefore is simply the difference between supply and demand of labour.
t a sustainable salary.
ates continue searching
Rapid population increase/growth: Population is growing at a rate several times beyond job
Underdevelopment: The development of third world countries are mostly in the Urban not
the Rural areas so jobs are unevenly created/distributed for the right persons.
functional or inefficiency of education system: Education system that is not properly
Inadequate school curriculum: The school curriculum that cannot holistically empower the
baked employees open ways to more unemployment instead of
rement age: This is an obstacle for the employment of the youths who may stay for too
Technological advancement: Job for many young people can now be performed by a single
unemployment instead of actually solving the
Lack of suitable job training and qualification: Sometimes where there are job opportunities the
ociety including individuals, families, communities and running of business outfits and political activities.



Frustration and Low Self-esteem:
individual at this level of unemployment will lose self
cannot provide for him/herself.
Poverty: Unemployment has been the greatest generator of poverty among the world population. It leads
to greater risk of lower future wages. Low wages can in turn force some workers out of employment.
Over-Dependence: Unemployment and lack
members, relatives, friends and state. The growing sense of autonomy, independence and responsibility
are halted by unemployment.
Marriage/Family Problem: To Blakere (1992) unemployment makes marriag
more of a dream than a reality for some people. These unemployed youths find it difficult to marry and
raise children.
Financial problem: A very serious problem emanating from unemployment is a financial problem where
a grown-up (youth adult) cannot maintain his/herself. These unemployment girls/boys wallow in abject
poverty with the high cost of living.
Increase Criminal Tendencies:
burglary, vandalism, illegal activiti
suicide (Papps, 1999).
Dwindling Health Conditions:
According to World Health Organization (WHO) (2011) health is a state of co
and social well being and not only the absence of disease/infirmity. This is the case in Nigeria. In this
situation tension can easily rise over every little provocation. Many things that would have improved the
well-being of unemployed persons are lacking as a result of lack of money. This in turn adversely affects
their health physically, mentally, socially and otherwise.
Entrepreneurial Education as a Remedy to Unemployment Problem:
or reduces the scourge of unemployment is entrepreneurial education. The provision of entrepreneurial
and value added oriented education is required as a panacea for unemployment. This education makes the
recipients to be self-reliant, job creators and innovative. It attempt
innovation, character development, skills, competence and knowledge into the individuals. For
entrepreneurial education to successfully solve the problem of unemployment two approaches should be
applied namely: First, entrepreneurial education should be made to train the potential recipients to be able
to have alternative job to salary white collar job and secondly to deal with sources that generate
unemployment.
Entrepreneurial education among others promotes scientific an
therefore pertinent to develop the entrepreneurial education which creates and provides the potential
recipients with the following, according to Ebirim (2008) in Osaat (2009:36):
More access to employment opportunities.
Adequate physical assets such as land and capital and access by the poor (especially women) to
credit, even on a small scale should be made available to them.
Development should be made evenly to both the Urban and Rural areas by enhancing the means
of supporting rural development.
More effort should be made towards the improvement of rural roads to the markets where the
poor can sell their goods and services.
Investment on human capital should be improved upon for sustainable economic development.
Destruction of natural resources leading to environmental degradation and reduced productivity
should be seriously controlled or eradicated.
Provision of assistance for those living in the margin and those victimized by disasters should be
of paramount importance
Those living in the rural areas should participate in designing, implementing and monitoring
development programmes concerning them, etc.
esteem: Unemployment generates frustration and low self
individual at this level of unemployment will lose self-confidence and hope in life as long as he/she
Unemployment has been the greatest generator of poverty among the world population. It leads
Unemployment and lack of an adequate income lead to over-dependence on family
To Blakere (1992) unemployment makes marriage and having children
A very serious problem emanating from unemployment is a financial problem where
h adult) cannot maintain his/herself. These unemployment girls/boys wallow in abject
poverty with the high cost of living.
Increase Criminal Tendencies: Unemployment leads to increase rate of crimes from armed
burglary, vandalism, illegal activities to violent crimes (Bushway 2002). It also links up with murder and
Dwindling Health Conditions: The unemployed youths are often not in good frame of mind.
According to World Health Organization (WHO) (2011) health is a state of complete physical, mental
oyed persons are lacking as a result of lack of money. This in turn adversely affects
their health physically, mentally, socially and otherwise.
Entrepreneurial Education as a Remedy to Unemployment Problem: The education that evaluates
rge of unemployment is entrepreneurial education. The provision of entrepreneurial
reliant, job creators and innovative. It attempts to inject values of creativity,
epreneurial education should be made to train the potential recipients to be able
Entrepreneurial education among others promotes scientific and technological development. It is
recipients with the following, according to Ebirim (2008) in Osaat (2009:36):
More access to employment opportunities.
credit, even on a small scale should be made available to them.
porting rural development.
poor can sell their goods and services.
tion of natural resources leading to environmental degradation and reduced productivity
should be seriously controlled or eradicated.
of paramount importance.
development programmes concerning them, etc.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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31
Unemployment generates frustration and low self-esteem. The
confidence and hope in life as long as he/she
Unemployment has been the greatest generator of poverty among the world population. It leads
dependence on family
e and having children
A very serious problem emanating from unemployment is a financial problem where
h adult) cannot maintain his/herself. These unemployment girls/boys wallow in abject
Unemployment leads to increase rate of crimes from armed-robbery,
es to violent crimes (Bushway 2002). It also links up with murder and
The unemployed youths are often not in good frame of mind.
mplete physical, mental
oyed persons are lacking as a result of lack of money. This in turn adversely affects
The education that evaluates
rge of unemployment is entrepreneurial education. The provision of entrepreneurial
s to inject values of creativity,
epreneurial education should be made to train the potential recipients to be able
d technological development. It is
tion of natural resources leading to environmental degradation and reduced productivity


From the above views, the potential recipients of entrepreneurial education can appropriately be
provided with enabling environment and good business conditions that to an extent can eradicate or
minimize unemployment.
The entrepreneurial education as a solution to unemployment: As shown above under remedy,
unemployment is a problem but not an insurmountable one. A coun
methods/approaches to solve the problem of unemployment to include entrepreneurial education among
others. This method identified above can be used to find suitable jobs or skill acquisition for the teeming
unemployed persons. Today in Nigeria the unemployment of educated persons is assuming an alarming
dimension that prompted the application of entrepreneurial education. Consequently, the emerging
entrepreneurs are not only gainfully self
In serving as a solution to unemployment/alleviate poverty Ikpefan and Sholarin (2008:566) maintain that
entrepreneurship/entrepreneurial education
Leads to creation of more jobs thereby reducing the rate of unemployment in the country.
Boosts the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Product (GNP) of a country.
Leads to an improvement in social wellbeing and standard of living of the people in a
community or country.
Leads to the availability of more goods and services at an affor
Boosts the level of economic growth and development in a country.
In a different study, Osaat (2009:38) argues that entrepreneurial education can serve as alternative
to the scarce employment opportunities as it:
1. Provides specific competencies
occupational morbidity.
2. Improves the ability of individual to take part in diversified models of employment.
3. Promotes partnership between employers and employees.
4. Acquires knowledge and skills tha
5. Addresses the needs of self
6. Promotes workplace literacy especially for unskilled workers.
7. Provides skill development and provides employment for people at the
The above proffered solutions or views can equally deal with the sources that contribute to
unemployment problem.
Conclusion
Entrepreneurial education has the potentials to bring about creativity as well as innovation in the
entrepreneur who undertakes business initiative, bears the risk and provides the needed leadership
prowess for the business. The entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial education create the opportunity of
establishing and managing new small business drives by th
becomes competent in applying the knowledge acquired for the purposes of self
and self-actualization for the overall individual and societys growth.
Recommendations
To get rid of the unemployment syndrome in Nigeria the unemployed persons need to be self
instead of waiting for salary paid white collar jobs that cannot be enough to the teeming population in
search of it. Entrepreneurial education in Nigeria should be accorded prior
management given to experts. For further improvement, all self
association for expansion, profit motive and affiliation with educational institutions and non
governmental organizations, soft lo
entrepreneurs.

ing environment and good business conditions that to an extent can eradicate or
unemployment is a problem but not an insurmountable one. A country can device various
in Nigeria the unemployment of educated persons is assuming an alarming
entrepreneurs are not only gainfully self-employed but have also become potential emplo
entrepreneurship/entrepreneurial education
sts the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Product (GNP) of a country.

Leads to the availability of more goods and services at an affordable rate.
Boosts the level of economic growth and development in a country.
to the scarce employment opportunities as it:
Provides specific competencies and skills that can serve as entrance into labour force and
Improves the ability of individual to take part in diversified models of employment.
Promotes partnership between employers and employees.
Acquires knowledge and skills that should be recognized to an extent.
Addresses the needs of self-employed worker and others in the informal sector.
Promotes workplace literacy especially for unskilled workers.
Provides skill development and provides employment for people at the grassroots/rural settings.
repreneur who undertakes business initiative, bears the risk and provides the needed leadership
establishing and managing new small business drives by the desire to make profit. The entrepreneur
becomes competent in applying the knowledge acquired for the purposes of self-reliance, self
actualization for the overall individual and societys growth.
ployment syndrome in Nigeria the unemployed persons need to be self
search of it. Entrepreneurial education in Nigeria should be accorded priority and its teaching and
management given to experts. For further improvement, all self-employed persons should form relevant
association for expansion, profit motive and affiliation with educational institutions and non
governmental organizations, soft loans and every necessary assistance should be provided to the
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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32
ing environment and good business conditions that to an extent can eradicate or
try can device various
in Nigeria the unemployment of educated persons is assuming an alarming
employed but have also become potential employers of labour.
sts the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Product (GNP) of a country.
and skills that can serve as entrance into labour force and
Improves the ability of individual to take part in diversified models of employment.
employed worker and others in the informal sector.
grassroots/rural settings.
repreneur who undertakes business initiative, bears the risk and provides the needed leadership
e desire to make profit. The entrepreneur
reliance, self-sustenance
ployment syndrome in Nigeria the unemployed persons need to be self-employed
ity and its teaching and
employed persons should form relevant
association for expansion, profit motive and affiliation with educational institutions and non-
ans and every necessary assistance should be provided to the


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edition). New York:
World Health Organization. Retrieved


AN ANALYSIS OF THE CAUSES OF ABANDONMENT OF COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS BY LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCILS IN
ETIGBAMO ESUEFIENI JUBILEE,
Isaac Jasper Boro College of Education
Abstract
This paper examined the causes of abandonment of community development projects by local
government councils in Bayelsa State. The study was carried out in thirty nine communities
randomly sampled from the six local government areas of Bayelsa State namely; Yenagoa, Ogbia,
Sagbama, Southern Ijaw, Nembe and Kolokuma/Opokuma. Two thousand questionnaire were
distributed to the sampled respondents in the thirty nine communities. One thousand nine
and ninety five were successfully retrieved and used for the study. The test
to ascertain the reliability of the instrument and a correlation co
the Pearson Product Moment correlation. D
a criterion mean of 2.5 used in taking decision. Findings from the study shows that
mismanagement/embezzlement of local government funds, interference in the funds of local
government by the state government as well as lack of community participation among others were
identified as factors that causes abandonment of community development projects by local
government. Based on the findings, it was recommended among others that anti
as EFCC and ICPC as well as the Auditor
local government regularly so as to check the high rate of mismanagement/embezzlement of local
government funds by local government officials, local government
the operation of State-Local government joint account be abolished in order to reduce the level of
interference of state government in the funds of local government, community development projects
should not be imposed on the people rather the people should be consulted to know their felt needs in
order to evoke community participation and ownership of projects.

Keywords: community, development, community development, project, project
abandonment

BAYELSA STATE.

By

ETIGBAMO ESUEFIENI JUBILEE, Ph.D
Isaac Jasper Boro College of Education
Sagbama, Bayelsa State
E-mail: dretigbamoej@g-mail.com

mpled from the six local government areas of Bayelsa State namely; Yenagoa, Ogbia,
distributed to the sampled respondents in the thirty nine communities. One thousand nine
and ninety five were successfully retrieved and used for the study. The test retest method was used
to ascertain the reliability of the instrument and a correlation co-efficient of 0.92 was obtained using
the Pearson Product Moment correlation. Data collected were analysed using the weighted mean with
vernment as well as lack of community participation among others were
government. Based on the findings, it was recommended among others that anti
as EFCC and ICPC as well as the Auditor-General of local government should check the account of
government funds by local government officials, local government should be made autonomous and
Local government joint account be abolished in order to reduce the level of
people rather the people should be consulted to know their felt needs in
order to evoke community participation and ownership of projects.
community, development, community development, project, project
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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34
mpled from the six local government areas of Bayelsa State namely; Yenagoa, Ogbia,
distributed to the sampled respondents in the thirty nine communities. One thousand nine hundred
retest method was used
efficient of 0.92 was obtained using
ata collected were analysed using the weighted mean with
vernment as well as lack of community participation among others were
government. Based on the findings, it was recommended among others that anti-graft agencies such
General of local government should check the account of
should be made autonomous and
Local government joint account be abolished in order to reduce the level of
people rather the people should be consulted to know their felt needs in
community, development, community development, project, project


Introduction
One major developmental challenge especially in the third world is the issue of project abandonment.
Projects are basic elements in the assessment of the development of a country. The aim of any
developmental project is to improve the living s
project(s) are sited. Regrettably, most projects embarked upon by individuals, communities, government,
corporate bodies and even donor agencies do not see the light of the day as they are abandoned at one
completion stage or the other. Every level of government have been affected by this scourge to the extent
that it is now a common feature in the hand

The situation is pathetic as most rural communities are littered
electricity projects, classroom blocks and staff quarters, health centres, feeder roads, markets, pipe
water e.t.c most of them embarked upon by local government councils. Indeed, it is catastrophic to
evaluate the quantum of human and material resources that have been recklessly sunk, wasted and
forgotten by government, corporate bodies and even individuals. The Presidential Project Assessment
Committee (2011) estimated that over 11,886 Federal Government projects valu
abandoned after government had spent
them. This figure according to the Federal Ministry of Finance (2013) has climbed to 20,000 by 2013.

The situation is not different in Bayelsa State as most projects embarked upon by the state or local
government councils are abandoned at one stage or the other. Noticeable projects abandoned include; the
Umaro Musa Yaradua International Cargo Airport, the tower hotel and resort,
Okaka water project, Akaba health centre, Gloryland Drive dual carriage road, Ayama water project,
Agbura market stall, Emeyal water project among others.
The 1976 local government reform bestowed on local government, the power to in
provision of services as well as to determine and implement projects so as to complement the activities of
the State and Federal governments in their areas. This responsibility has not been fully adhered to as most
projects embarked upon by local government councils are still begging for completion or remain
uncompleted or abandoned.

The effects of these catalogs of shamelessly abandoned projects are very disturbing because of its
untold negative impact on the economic and social w
are sited. When community development projects are abandoned, the effects are felt by individuals,
communities and government. No wonder Thompson (1983) affirm that when community development
projects are abandoned, community members are automatically robbed of the expected changes and
consequently leave them worse than they were before the project. The negative effects of project
abandonment are very devastating. Hence, the need for this study so that so
be proffered.

Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study are as follows:
1. To investigate the causes of abandonment of community development projects by local government
councils in Bayelsa State.
2. To proffer solutions to the problem of project abandonment by local government councils in
Bayelsa State.

Research Question
This study is based on one research question which is intended to achieve the objectives of the study.
What are the causes of abandonment of commun
in Bayelsa State?

Literature Review
This work reviewed the following concepts; community development,
The concept of community development has its root and strength in
development. Hence the proper understanding of the concept of community development requires a
developmental project is to improve the living standard of the members of the community where the
that it is now a common feature in the hand-over note of successive administration.
The situation is pathetic as most rural communities are littered with abandoned projects such as
electricity projects, classroom blocks and staff quarters, health centres, feeder roads, markets, pipe
ntum of human and material resources that have been recklessly sunk, wasted and
Committee (2011) estimated that over 11,886 Federal Government projects valued at
abandoned after government had spent N2.2 trillion on them, and N9.0 trillion is required to complete
erent in Bayelsa State as most projects embarked upon by the state or local
Umaro Musa Yaradua International Cargo Airport, the tower hotel and resort, Kpansia health centre,
Agbura market stall, Emeyal water project among others.
The 1976 local government reform bestowed on local government, the power to in
upon by local government councils are still begging for completion or remain
untold negative impact on the economic and social well-being of the people in the localities where they
e abandoned, community members are automatically robbed of the expected changes and
abandonment are very devastating. Hence, the need for this study so that solutions to this menace could
The objectives of the study are as follows:
To investigate the causes of abandonment of community development projects by local government
ions to the problem of project abandonment by local government councils in
What are the causes of abandonment of community development projects by local government councils
This work reviewed the following concepts; community development, project and project abandonment.
The concept of community development has its root and strength in the term community and
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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35
tandard of the members of the community where the

with abandoned projects such as
electricity projects, classroom blocks and staff quarters, health centres, feeder roads, markets, pipe-borne
ntum of human and material resources that have been recklessly sunk, wasted and
ed at N7.7 trillion were
9.0 trillion is required to complete
erent in Bayelsa State as most projects embarked upon by the state or local
Kpansia health centre,
The 1976 local government reform bestowed on local government, the power to initiate and direct the
upon by local government councils are still begging for completion or remain
being of the people in the localities where they
e abandoned, community members are automatically robbed of the expected changes and
lutions to this menace could
To investigate the causes of abandonment of community development projects by local government
ions to the problem of project abandonment by local government councils in
ity development projects by local government councils
project and project abandonment.
the term community and


survey into the meaning of the term community and development. It is after these terms have been
explained that one can then clearly and

What is a Community?
Osuji (1984) opined that a careful review of the literature on this subject would reveal that the term
community is not static. It entails the interaction of several elements w
clear functions of time, place and the context or issue under consideration. Hence there is no universally
acceptable definition of the term community thus different scholars sees the term community from
different perspectives.

Anyanwu (1981) defined community from a six
i) Shared territory which gives them recognizable identity and unique features.
ii) Shared beliefs which give them common ideals, objectives, attitudes, values, traditions which they
cherish and nurture.
iii) Shared bonds of fellowship which distinguished them from other people or groups.
iv) Shared set of standards and pattern of behavior which gives rise to common values or norms by
which they are identified.
v) Common culture- the sum total of their cheris
they jealously protect and pass on to individuals from generation to generation.
vi) Common administration which helps them in the preservation of their culture and civilization
through effective regulations of

According to Bola and Bello (1987) the term community means a territorially bounded social
system within which people live in harmony, love, intimacy and share common social, economic and
cultural characteristics.

They also see a community as a population living within a legally established city limits where the
people have some social and economic features in common which enable them to pursue common goals.

They opined that the most important characteristics of a co
i. Population which could be large or small
ii. Geographical limits which could be large or small
iii. Common socio-economic problems or characteristics such as poverty or affluence, hi
industrialized or agricultural, lack of infrastructures or availability of facilities, highly socialized or
every apathetic and
iv. A feeling of oneness and sense of belonging which enable them to pursue common goals such as the
development of the people and

Considering the various definitions and descriptions of the concept of community, it is clear that
the following elements constitute what a community is,
Group of people
Shared territory that has geographical boundaries
Common goals or interest, and
Common ways of life

What is Development?
The term development is blessed with avalanche of definitions. Different scholars conceptualize
development in different ways. Development can be viewed from economical, social, cultural, p
technological, agricultural perspectives and so on.

Kidd (1989) associates development with the ability of the people to solve their own problems
with their own wisdom, experience and resources such that they are able to eliminate poverty, pesti
and starvation in their midst.

explained that one can then clearly and meaningfully say what community development is all about.
community is not static. It entails the interaction of several elements whose geographical boundaries are
Anyanwu (1981) defined community from a six-fold approach.
Shared territory which gives them recognizable identity and unique features.
Shared beliefs which give them common ideals, objectives, attitudes, values, traditions which they
Shared bonds of fellowship which distinguished them from other people or groups.
Shared set of standards and pattern of behavior which gives rise to common values or norms by
the sum total of their cherish custom, beliefs and usages as a community which
they jealously protect and pass on to individuals from generation to generation.
Common administration which helps them in the preservation of their culture and civilization
through effective regulations of community operations and processes.
y also see a community as a population living within a legally established city limits where the
They opined that the most important characteristics of a community include:
Population which could be large or small
Geographical limits which could be large or small
economic problems or characteristics such as poverty or affluence, hi
A feeling of oneness and sense of belonging which enable them to pursue common goals such as the
development of the people and their physical environment.
the following elements constitute what a community is,
Shared territory that has geographical boundaries
goals or interest, and
development in different ways. Development can be viewed from economical, social, cultural, p
technological, agricultural perspectives and so on.
with their own wisdom, experience and resources such that they are able to eliminate poverty, pesti
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36
meaningfully say what community development is all about.
hose geographical boundaries are
Shared beliefs which give them common ideals, objectives, attitudes, values, traditions which they
Shared bonds of fellowship which distinguished them from other people or groups.
Shared set of standards and pattern of behavior which gives rise to common values or norms by
h custom, beliefs and usages as a community which

Common administration which helps them in the preservation of their culture and civilization
y also see a community as a population living within a legally established city limits where the
economic problems or characteristics such as poverty or affluence, highly
A feeling of oneness and sense of belonging which enable them to pursue common goals such as the
development in different ways. Development can be viewed from economical, social, cultural, political,
with their own wisdom, experience and resources such that they are able to eliminate poverty, pestilence


Adesina (1984) viewed development as involving the development of man, the unfolding and
realization of his creative potentials exalting him to improve his material conditions of living through the
use of resources available to him.
The preview of the concepts of community and development no doubt throw some light on the meaning
of community development. At least it is clear that community development is a people oriented
programme geared toward the improvement of the

According to the Great Britain Colonial Office (1955) the term community development was first
mentioned internationally at the 1948 Cambridge Conference on Africa administration organized by the
British Colonial Office. There it was agreed that the compound word community development should be
used in place of mass education and defined it as a movement designed to promote better living for the
whole community with the active participation and if possible on the initiati
this is not forth coming spontaneous, by the use of techniques for arousing and stimulating it, in order to
secure its active and enthusiastic response to the movement. Since then the concept has undergone
some form of semantic metamorphosis and has therefore been used in different context to refer to
mutually related development activities and situations. Accordingly, varieties of meaning are ascribed to
community development by different scholars and practitioners.

Okujagu (2000) opined that community development is the getting together of the people of a
particular community, to bring about the progress of the people, through self
projects organized by the people for the social, political, health, cultur
people of the community. Barikor (1984) sees community development by contemporary standard as an
amalgam of many dynamic and complementary factors including educational, economic, social, political
and cultural transformation of the community and their subsequent emancipation from regressive
tradition, poverty, ignorance and diseases.

Community development can be seen as a deliberate plan of action undertaken by an individual or
group of persons, government or non
members of the community or by the community themselves with or without the support of external
agencies in order to bring about economic, social, political, technological and cultural improvement in t
overall living conditions of the people of the community.

From a broad point of view, community development is aimed at promoting better material and
non-material living conditions for the entire community relying on their resources, initiatives and
participation. Their initiatives and participation can be aroused by specialist as well as support from
government and non-governmental organizations. This is where the role of local government councils in
community development becomes very important being t
people especially rural dwellers.

Concepts of Project and Project Abandonment
The term project is conceived differently by different scholars depending on the perspective of the
scholar. However, this work is focused on tangible projects that is, the execution of infrastructural or
physical projects which are geared toward the improvement of the general living conditions of the people
including their physical environment. Based on this, Amirinze (2005) conceived
deliberate programme of activities which can provide the support base, to complement efforts of
individuals to enhance their well-
project as an instrument of change
resource combination and level so as to contribute to the realization of a countrys development
objectives.

Project abandonment on the other hand
contract such as refusal or failure to complete a contract before practical completion. To Olapade and
Anthony (2012) project abandonment refers to structures on which taxes and mortgages are no longer
paid, and for which services are n
boarded-up, deteriorated or those which have unmaintained grounds. Longman Dictionary defines
abandonment as the act of given up an action on something completely, with no certain inten

programme geared toward the improvement of the living standard of the populace.
There it was agreed that the compound word community development should be
whole community with the active participation and if possible on the initiative of the community, but if
metamorphosis and has therefore been used in different context to refer to
community development by different scholars and practitioners.
(2000) opined that community development is the getting together of the people of a
particular community, to bring about the progress of the people, through self-help programmes and
projects organized by the people for the social, political, health, cultural and educational wellbeing of the
mation of the community and their subsequent emancipation from regressive
tradition, poverty, ignorance and diseases.
group of persons, government or non-governmental organizations with the active participation of
agencies in order to bring about economic, social, political, technological and cultural improvement in t
overall living conditions of the people of the community.
material living conditions for the entire community relying on their resources, initiatives and
rticipation. Their initiatives and participation can be aroused by specialist as well as support from
governmental organizations. This is where the role of local government councils in
community development becomes very important being the tier of government that is closest to the
Concepts of Project and Project Abandonment
scholar. However, this work is focused on tangible projects that is, the execution of infrastructural or
including their physical environment. Based on this, Amirinze (2005) conceived project as any plan or
-being and solve their peculiar problems. Tamuno and Otto (2000) saw
project as an instrument of change, a coordinated series of action resulting from policy decision to change
Project abandonment on the other hand and according to Ntamere (1995) is
paid, and for which services are neither paid for nor provided. They are unoccupied, vandalized, unused,
up, deteriorated or those which have unmaintained grounds. Longman Dictionary defines
abandonment as the act of given up an action on something completely, with no certain inten
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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37

There it was agreed that the compound word community development should be
ve of the community, but if
metamorphosis and has therefore been used in different context to refer to
(2000) opined that community development is the getting together of the people of a
help programmes and
al and educational wellbeing of the
mation of the community and their subsequent emancipation from regressive
nmental organizations with the active participation of
agencies in order to bring about economic, social, political, technological and cultural improvement in the
material living conditions for the entire community relying on their resources, initiatives and
rticipation. Their initiatives and participation can be aroused by specialist as well as support from
governmental organizations. This is where the role of local government councils in
he tier of government that is closest to the
ocused on tangible projects that is, the execution of infrastructural or
project as any plan or
being and solve their peculiar problems. Tamuno and Otto (2000) saw
, a coordinated series of action resulting from policy decision to change
according to Ntamere (1995) is the abandonment of
either paid for nor provided. They are unoccupied, vandalized, unused,
up, deteriorated or those which have unmaintained grounds. Longman Dictionary defines
abandonment as the act of given up an action on something completely, with no certain intention of


when to resume. When actions and activities on development projects are suspended without any stated
time of resumption, the project is said to be abandoned.
In a nutshell, an abandoned project is an uncompleted project in time frame of the contrac
construction activities are totally suspended.

Causes of Project Abandonment
The list of possible causes of project abandonment is endless. Osas (2012), Transparency (2001) and
Ayadongha (2012) among other scholars attributed the abandonment
embezzlement of funds especially at the local government level because of the low demand for
accountability. STAND (2010) and Etigbamo (2012) added the overbearing interference by state
government in the funds of local gove
government councils in Nigeria especially in the Niger Delta region.

Others, such as Onyeozu (2007) and Jones (1980) identified ineffective planning, lack of
community participation, poor leadership
Nigeria. Etigbamo (2012) and Dagana (2005) also identified diversion of funds from one project to
another, inadequate funds, dearth of manpower in the local government system especially community
development officers among others as factors that causes abandonment of community development
projects.

Hanachor (2012) identified choice of project site, embarking on projects without needs analysis,
project imposition, lack of social analysis of projects,
projects and lack of technical analysis as causes of project abandonment. Furthermore, Bello and Bola
(1989) and Etigbamo (2006) observed that leadership choice of project rather than the felt
people will automatically leads to under
identified ineffective and uncoordinated mobilization of community members as a factor that causes
project abandonment. To Olapade and Anthony (2012), t
projects include; incorrect estimation, lack of available skilled personnel, inadequate planning, poor risk
management, misunderstanding of work requirement, poor quality control by regulatory agencies,
corruption and communication gap among the personnel, cost, inability of clients to engage contractors
or designers capable to do the work, failure on the part of the contractor to obtain vital inputs such as
materials, manpower and machines among others.

Methodology
The survey design was adopted for the study. The population of this study is made up of the population
of six local government areas of Bayelsa State used for the study viz; Yenagoa, Ogbia, Nembe, Sagbama,
Souther Ijaw and Kolokuma/Opokuma. The adult
hundred and ninety two thousand and sixty one (492,061) persons. Below is the population distribution
of the local government areas.

Table 1: Population of the Study
S/N Names of LGA
1 Yenagoa
2. Ogbia
3. Nembe
4. Sagbama
5. Southern Ijaw
6. Kolokuma/Opokuma
Total
Source: Independent electoral commission INEC 2011

A total of two thousand (2000) respondents were drawn from thirty
government areas used for the study as show below.

time of resumption, the project is said to be abandoned.
In a nutshell, an abandoned project is an uncompleted project in time frame of the contrac
construction activities are totally suspended.
Causes of Project Abandonment
Ayadongha (2012) among other scholars attributed the abandonment of projects to mismanagement and
government in the funds of local government as possible cause of project abandonment by local
government councils in Nigeria especially in the Niger Delta region.
yeozu (2007) and Jones (1980) identified ineffective planning, lack of
community participation, poor leadership among others as major causes of project abandonment in
velopment officers among others as factors that causes abandonment of community development
project imposition, lack of social analysis of projects, improper financial analysis, under bidding of
(1989) and Etigbamo (2006) observed that leadership choice of project rather than the felt
ple will automatically leads to under-utilization or abandonment of projects. Similarly, Oduaran (1994)
project abandonment. To Olapade and Anthony (2012), the reasons advanced for abandonment of
nd communication gap among the personnel, cost, inability of clients to engage contractors
materials, manpower and machines among others.
Souther Ijaw and Kolokuma/Opokuma. The adult population of these local government areas is four

Population
127,309
72,753
70,188
68,290
127,973
25,548
492,061
Independent electoral commission INEC 2011
A total of two thousand (2000) respondents were drawn from thirty-nine communities in the six local
government areas used for the study as show below.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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38
In a nutshell, an abandoned project is an uncompleted project in time frame of the contract which all
of projects to mismanagement and
rnment as possible cause of project abandonment by local
yeozu (2007) and Jones (1980) identified ineffective planning, lack of
among others as major causes of project abandonment in
velopment officers among others as factors that causes abandonment of community development
improper financial analysis, under bidding of
(1989) and Etigbamo (2006) observed that leadership choice of project rather than the felt-needs of the
utilization or abandonment of projects. Similarly, Oduaran (1994)
he reasons advanced for abandonment of
nd communication gap among the personnel, cost, inability of clients to engage contractors
population of these local government areas is four
communities in the six local


Table 2: Number of Communities, Sample communities and sample respondents
S/N LGAs
1 Yenagoa
2 Ogbia
3 Nembe
4 Sagbama
5 Southern Ijaw
6 Kolokuma/Opokuma
Total
Source: Etigbamo 2012

Whereas the sampled respondents were selected through the simple random sampling technique,
the thirty-nine communities were selected through the proportionate sampling technique. The instrument
used for data collection was the questionnaire.

The test re-test method was used to ascertain the reliability of the instrument. The scores were
correlated using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistics and a correlation co
was obtained.
The administration and collection of the instrument was done by
trained research assistants. Out of the two thousand (2000) copies of questionnaire distributed, a total of
one thousand nine hundred and ninety five (1995) were successfully retrieved from the respondents and
used for the study.

The weighted mean was used to analyze the research questions. A criterion mean of 2.5 was used
in taking decision. Thus any item response that receives a mean equal or greater than 2.5 was considered
to be positive response while any item tha

Results
The results of the mean analysis of the subject responses presented in tables are based on the research
question:

What are the causes of abandonment of community development projects by
in Bayelsa State?

Table 3: Mean analysis of mismanagement/embezzlement of local government funds
Item
Mismanagement/embezzlement of local
government funds is one main cause of
abandonment of community
development projects in Bayelsa State
Weight of Responses
Table 3 above shows that the weighted mean 3.5 is greater than the criterion mean 2.5,
response of the respondents is positive. Hence mismanagement/embezzlement of local government
funds is one main cause of abandonment of community development projects by local government
councils in Bayelsa State.
Table 4: Mean analysis of interference of local government funds by state government
Item
Interference by state government in the
funds of local government also leads to
the abandonment of community
development projects
Weight of Responses
of Communities, Sample communities and sample respondents
Total number
of communities
No. of sample
communities
Population of
sample communities
74 7 10,003
50 5 6,098
102 10 8,049
46 5 4,100
102 10 9,960
17 2 1,806
391 39 40,016
sampled respondents were selected through the simple random sampling technique,
nine communities were selected through the proportionate sampling technique. The instrument
used for data collection was the questionnaire.
was used to ascertain the reliability of the instrument. The scores were
correlated using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistics and a correlation co
The administration and collection of the instrument was done by the researcher with the help of four
to be positive response while any item that receives below 2.5 was considered to be negative response.
What are the causes of abandonment of community development projects by local government councils
Mean analysis of mismanagement/embezzlement of local government funds
Responses
SA A D SD Total
W X

Mismanagement/embezzlement of local
cause of
abandonment of community
development projects in Bayelsa State

1066

899

26

04

1995

4264 2697 52 04 7017 3.5
Table 3 above shows that the weighted mean 3.5 is greater than the criterion mean 2.5,
terference of local government funds by state government
Responses
SA A D SD Total
W X
Interference by state government in the
funds of local government also leads to
the abandonment of community

989

867

108

34

1995

3944 2601 216 34 6795 3.4
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39
Population of
sample communities
Sample
respondents
500
305
402
205
498
90
2000
sampled respondents were selected through the simple random sampling technique,
nine communities were selected through the proportionate sampling technique. The instrument
was used to ascertain the reliability of the instrument. The scores were
correlated using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistics and a correlation co-efficient of 0.92
the researcher with the help of four
t receives below 2.5 was considered to be negative response.
local government councils
Mean analysis of mismanagement/embezzlement of local government funds
Remark

Positive

Table 3 above shows that the weighted mean 3.5 is greater than the criterion mean 2.5, therefore the
terference of local government funds by state government
W
Remark

Positive



From table 4 above, it is observed
Hence the response of the respondents is positive. Therefore interference by state government in the
funds of local government also leads to the abandonment of local government community d
projects.
Table 5: Mean analysis of lack of community participation
Item
Lack of community participation is also
responsible for the abandonment of
community development projects
government
Weight of Responses
Table 5 shows that the weighted mean 3.2 is greater than the criterion mean 2.5, thus the response of the
respondents is positive. Therefore,
abandonment of community development projects by local government councils in Bayelsa State.
Table 6: Mean analysis of dearth of manpower
Item
The dearth of qualified manpower
especially community development
officers in the local government system in
Bayelsa State also causes abandonment of
community development projects
Weight of Responses
The weighted mean 3.1 is greater than the criterion mean 2.5, hence the response of the respondents is
positive. Therefore dearth of qualified manpower especially community development officers in the local
government system in Bayelsa State also causes the abandonment of community development projects
embarked upon by local government councils in Bayelsa State.
Table 7: Mean analysis of lack of proper planning
Item
Lack of proper planning is a serious
problem militating against the successful
completion of most local government
community development projects in Bayelsa
State
Weight of Responses

From table 7 above, the weighted mean 3.0 is greater than the criterion mean 2.5, thus the response of the
respondents is positive. Therefore, lack of proper planning is also a problem militating against the
successful completion of most local

Table 8: Mean analysis of diversion of funds from one project to another
Item
Diversion of funds from one project to
another also leads to the abandonment of
local government community development
projects in Bayelsa State

Weight of Responses

From table 4 above, it is observed that the weighted mean 3.4 is greater than the criterion mean 2.5.
funds of local government also leads to the abandonment of local government community d
Mean analysis of lack of community participation
Responses
SA A D SD Total
X
Lack of community participation is also
responsible for the abandonment of
community development projects by local

894

796

152

153

1995

3576 2388 304 153 6421 3.2
respondents is positive. Therefore, lack of community participation is also responsible for the
Mean analysis of dearth of manpower
Responses
SA A D SD Total
X
The dearth of qualified manpower
especially community development
officers in the local government system in
Bayelsa State also causes abandonment of

764

788

340

103

1995

3056 2364 680 103 6203 3.1
in Bayelsa State also causes the abandonment of community development projects
embarked upon by local government councils in Bayelsa State.
Mean analysis of lack of proper planning
Responses
SA A D SD Total
Lack of proper planning is a serious
problem militating against the successful
completion of most local government
community development projects in Bayelsa

697

859

255

184

1995
2788 2577 510 184 6059
successful completion of most local government community development projects in Bayelsa State.
: Mean analysis of diversion of funds from one project to another
Responses
SA A D SD Total
Diversion of funds from one project to
leads to the abandonment of
local government community development

865

729

266

135

1995
3460 2187 532 135 6315
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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40
that the weighted mean 3.4 is greater than the criterion mean 2.5.
funds of local government also leads to the abandonment of local government community development
W X
Remark

Positive
3.2
lack of community participation is also responsible for the
W X
Remark

Positive
3.1
in Bayelsa State also causes the abandonment of community development projects
W X
Remark

Positive
3.0
government community development projects in Bayelsa State.
W X
Remark

Positive
3.1


The weighted mean 3.1 is greater than the criterion mean 2.5; hence
positive. This means that diversion of funds from one project to another leads to the abandonment of
local government community development projects in Bayelsa State.

Summary of findings
This research work on the analysis of causes of abandonment of community development projects by
local government councils in Bayelsa State has identified the following as causes of project abandonment
by local government councils in Bayelsa State.

1. Mismanagement /embezzlement o
2. Interference by state government in the funds of local government councils
3. Lack of community participation
4. Dearth of manpower especially community development officers
5. Lack of proper planning; and
6. Diversion of funds from one project to another.

Discussion
Table 3 shows that calculated mean 3.5 is greater than the criterion mean 2.5. This proves that the
respondents agreed that mismanagement/embezzlement of local government funds is a major cause of
abandonment of community development projects embarked upon by local government councils in
Bayelsa State. The response indicates that 98.25% agreed that mismanagement/embezzlement of local
government funds cause project abandonment in Bayelsa State. This finding is in harm
of Osas (2012), Oyadongha (2012) Transparency (2001) and STAND (2010) that mismanagement and
embezzlement of local government funds had crippled the local government system and prevented them
from carrying out their primary responsibilit
abandoned half way.

The finding of the analysed data in table 4 shows that interference by state government in the
funds of local government also leads to abandonment of community development pr
government councils in Bayelsa State. This finding buttressed the submission of STAND (2010) that the
over bearing interference in the funds of local government by state government especially in the Niger
Delta is one major cause of abandon
government councils in the region.

Similarly, the result of the analysed data in table 5 indicates that lack of community participation
also causes abandonment of community development projects. Th
Onyeozu (2007) and Jones (1980).
Table 6 shows that the dearth of qualified manpower especially community development officers in the
local government system in Bayelsa State also causes abandonment of community deve
This is supported by the weighted mean of 3.1 which is greater than the criterion mean of 2.5 which
means that the response of the respondents is positive. This finding is in harmony with the observation
of Etigbamo (2012) that there are
system in Bayelsa State except one in Yenagoa local government. The lack of manpower in the local
government system in Bayelsa State is also echoed in Dagana (2005).

The analysis in table 7 shows that lack of proper planning is a serious problem militating against
the successful completion of most community development projects by local government councils in
Bayelsa State. This is supported by the weighted mean of 3.0 which is greater tha
This proves that the response of the respondents is positive. The result of this finding is in line with the
views of Onyeozu (2007) and Jones (1980) who emphasized effective planning for every successful
community development programming.

Finally, the result from table 8 shows that the weighted mean 3.1 is greater than the criterion mean
2.5. This means that the response of the respondents is positive. Hence, diversion of funds from one
project to another also leads to the abando
The weighted mean 3.1 is greater than the criterion mean 2.5; hence the response of the respondents is
local government community development projects in Bayelsa State.
analysis of causes of abandonment of community development projects by
by local government councils in Bayelsa State.
Mismanagement /embezzlement of local government funds
Interference by state government in the funds of local government councils
Lack of community participation
Dearth of manpower especially community development officers
Lack of proper planning; and
from one project to another.
munity development projects embarked upon by local government councils in
government funds cause project abandonment in Bayelsa State. This finding is in harm
from carrying out their primary responsibility of developing the rural communities, leaving most projects
funds of local government also leads to abandonment of community development pr
Delta is one major cause of abandonment of most development projects embarked upon by local
government councils in the region.
also causes abandonment of community development projects. This finding is in line with the views of
Onyeozu (2007) and Jones (1980).
local government system in Bayelsa State also causes abandonment of community deve
of Etigbamo (2012) that there are no qualified community development officers in the local government
government system in Bayelsa State is also echoed in Dagana (2005).
7 shows that lack of proper planning is a serious problem militating against
Bayelsa State. This is supported by the weighted mean of 3.0 which is greater than the criterion mean 2.5.
gramming.
project to another also leads to the abandonment of community development project by local
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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41
the response of the respondents is
analysis of causes of abandonment of community development projects by

munity development projects embarked upon by local government councils in
government funds cause project abandonment in Bayelsa State. This finding is in harmony with the views
y of developing the rural communities, leaving most projects
funds of local government also leads to abandonment of community development projects by local
ment of most development projects embarked upon by local
is finding is in line with the views of
local government system in Bayelsa State also causes abandonment of community development projects.
no qualified community development officers in the local government
7 shows that lack of proper planning is a serious problem militating against
n the criterion mean 2.5.
nment of community development project by local


government councils in Bayelsa State. This finding buttressed the views of Etigbamo (2012) and Dagana
(2005) that most projects are abandoned by local government councils in Bayelsa State because of
diversion of funds to preferred projects because of the interest of one godfather or another.

Table 9: Below are some abandoned community development projects by local government councils in
Bayelsa State.
S/No L.G.A
1. Southern Ijaw
2. Southern Ijaw
3. Southern Ijaw
4. Yenagoa
5. Sagbama
6. Sagbama
7. Ogbia
8. Yenagoa
9. Yenagoa
10. Kolokuma/Opokuma
11. Nembe
12. Nembe
13. Nembe
14. Nembe
15. Nembe
16. Nembe
17. Ogbia
18. Ogbia
Source: Etigbamo 2012

Conclusion
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn:
Project abandonment is a common feature in the Nigeria society especially in the rural
communities.
The quantum of loss resulting from abandonment of community development projects are
enormous and adversely affect the community, government and individual
Mismanagement/embezzlement of local government funds, interference by state government in
the funds of local government, lack of community participation, dearth of qualified manpower
especially community development officers, lack of proper planning and
one project to another are all causes of abandonment of community development projects by
local government councils in Bayelsa State.

Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made:
Anti- graft agencies such as EFCC and ICPC as well as the Auditor
should check the account books of local government councils regularly to reduce the massive
fraud in the local government system.
Local government councils should b
account should be abolished. This will help to reduce the high rate of interference of the state in
the funds of local government councils.
Projects should not be imposed on the people rather needs analys
project execution to ascertain the felt needs of the community in order to evoke their
participation and ownership.
of funds to preferred projects because of the interest of one godfather or another.
Below are some abandoned community development projects by local government councils in
NAMES OF
COMMUNITIES
PROJECT REMARK
Anyama Water project Non
Amatolo Classroom block Poorly finished
Azama Water project Not completed
Agbura Market stall Abandoned
Toru-Orua Electricity Abandoned
Bolou- Orua Walk way Not
Oruma Water scheme Non
Azikoro Health centre Completed
Bebelibiri Health centre Abandoned
Sampou Water Scheme Non
Ologoama Concrete walk way Completed
Ologoama Community play
ground
Completed
Ologoama Water project Poorly finished
Akakumama Water project Not completed
Akakumama Community play
ground
Abandoned
Dorgu-Ewoama Concrete walk way Completed
Otakeme Community Town
Hall
Abandoned
Ewoi Concrete Culvert Completed
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn:
enormous and adversely affect the community, government and individuals.
especially community development officers, lack of proper planning and diversion of funds from
local government councils in Bayelsa State.
Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made:
graft agencies such as EFCC and ICPC as well as the Auditor-General of local government
fraud in the local government system.
Local government councils should be made autonomous. The State-Local government joint
the funds of local government councils.
Projects should not be imposed on the people rather needs analysis should be carried out before
participation and ownership.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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42
of funds to preferred projects because of the interest of one godfather or another.
Below are some abandoned community development projects by local government councils in
REMARK
Non-functional
Poorly finished
Not completed
Abandoned
Abandoned
Not-completed
Non-functional
Completed
Abandoned
Non-functional
Completed
Completed
Poorly finished
Not completed
Abandoned
Completed
Abandoned
Completed
s.
diversion of funds from
General of local government
Local government joint
is should be carried out before


Local government councils should engage the services of qualified manpower especially
community development
programming successfully.
Community development projects should be properly planned to ensure successful execution and
completion.
Diversion of funds from one project to another because of god
discouraged.
The ministry of local government should be effectively empowered to be able to supervise and
monitor community development projects embarked upon by local government councils in the
state.

Finally, appropriate legislations should be enacted to curb the excessive rate of project
abandonment in the country.

References

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GENDER: A PREDICTOR OF COMMUNICATION AND ADMINISTRATIVE
EFFECTIVENESS IN KWARA SOUTH SENATORIAL DISTRICT PRIMARY
FASHIKU C. O., OLOFINNIYI O. E.
Department of Educational Administration and Planning,
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife, Nigeria.
GSE Department Kwara State College
Abstract
The research was an investigation in to influence gender has on head teachers communication and
administrative effectiveness in Kwara South senatorial district primary schools. Simple random
sampling technique was used to
sampled primary schools headed by 40 male and 40 female head teachers from four different local
government areas of the senatorial district. Head teachers Effective Communication and
Administrative Effectiveness Questionnaire (HTECAEQ) was used to collect the used data from the
teacher respondents. The validity of the instrument was ensured by three experts in the field of
Educational Management .its reliability was equally ascertained while t
analysis was used in determining the differences that existed in male and female head teachers
communication and administrative effectiveness in the senatorial district primary schools. The
findings reveal that male head teach
effective school programmes, administration, staff and students personnel administration and effective
public relations while their female counterpart were found to be better than their male count
the financial management of the schools. The paper concluded that gender should not be a
determining factor in the appointments of head teachers in schools while it was recommended that
government should encourage staff development programmes fo
tomorrow and that appointment of school heads should be based on merit but not on gender.
Key words: Gender, communication, administrative effectiveness, primary schools.

SCHOOLS
By
FASHIKU C. O., OLOFINNIYI O. E.
Department of Educational Administration and Planning,
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife, Nigeria.
fashxtopher@gmail.com

&
FASHIKU, B. C.
GSE Department Kwara State College of Education, Oro.
sampling technique was used to select 324 respondents randomly sampled from 80 purposively
ve Effectiveness Questionnaire (HTECAEQ) was used to collect the used data from the
Educational Management .its reliability was equally ascertained while t-test statistical method of data
findings reveal that male head teacher were found to be better than their female counterpart in
public relations while their female counterpart were found to be better than their male count
government should encourage staff development programmes for teachers as head masters of
Gender, communication, administrative effectiveness, primary schools.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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45

select 324 respondents randomly sampled from 80 purposively
ve Effectiveness Questionnaire (HTECAEQ) was used to collect the used data from the
t statistical method of data
er were found to be better than their female counterpart in
public relations while their female counterpart were found to be better than their male counterparts in
r teachers as head masters of
Gender, communication, administrative effectiveness, primary schools.


Introduction
Campaign for women empowerment and
dailies as the issue transcends not only local but international boundaries. The phenomenon is all about
granting equal social-economic, political and educational status to the women fold worldwi
such opportunities required by women in the society is the position of headship in the
educational system. More so, now
can do. On this premise, its essential to invest
administrative effectiveness of head teachers in Kwara South Senatorial district primary schools in the
state.
The school as a living organic structure has certain fundamental roles to play in the society
serves. However, the school like any formal organization is bureaucratic in nature
complexities and changing nature of its component parts as
politics, goals, shared powers, communication,
school leadership without the requisite orientation may cause a lot of disruption in the
organizations effectiveness. The head teachers administrative performance can therefore be measured by
the extent to which his/her job behavio
reference group (Liptian, 2001).
In African society, gender discrimination has for long been a matter of concern as a result of the
general assumption that the joy of a woman terminates in child
have always been considered as weaker sex who are fragile and thus may lack the enduring capability of
man and may not be able to hold grip to leadership position because of these
as a variable in social behaviour that c
psychologist had tendered to keep the door of gender discrimination closed.

School administration and leadership
According to Haplin (1996) and Kadir (2002)
There has never been any specific or predominant way of leadership pattern. Choice of leadership should
be based on an accurate diagnosis of reality of the situation in
(2008) observed that there is no pre
predispositions is that the leader ought to first diagnose the realities on ground before adopting any
leadership style, irrespective of the gender.

Katz and Kahn in line with Dyke (1995) hold that there is no distinction between leadership and
administration. Leadership consists of all acts of influencing other people towards organizations goal
achievement. Leaders need to be guided by certain leadership principles which have been tested in human
experience and found to be all embracing.

Dungan, Jerome, and Peter
with female principals, discovered that there was no significant difference between the female and male
population sub set score, secondly, there was no significant difference between male and female
population as measured by organizational climate development questionnaire.

The result of the research showed no marked difference in the performance of male and female
teachers and principals. However, men were found to have shown superiority over their women
counterpart in their devotion to duty while women were found to be better t
relation aspects of administration (Nwezi
sensitized to the needs that may be met in goal attainment as he/she cannot single
groups in a co-operative effort need
gender.

Campaign for women empowerment and gender equality has been on the front burner of the national
not only local but international boundaries. The phenomenon is all about
political and educational status to the women fold worldwi
such opportunities required by women in the society is the position of headship in the
now that women are claiming to perform better what their men counterpart
can do. On this premise, its essential to investigate the influence gender has on communication and
The school as a living organic structure has certain fundamental roles to play in the society
serves. However, the school like any formal organization is bureaucratic in nature,
complexities and changing nature of its component parts as its being affected by some variables in
politics, goals, shared powers, communication, leadership and internal control mechanism. Therefore
school leadership without the requisite orientation may cause a lot of disruption in the
effectiveness. The head teachers administrative performance can therefore be measured by
extent to which his/her job behaviours meet with his/her roles expectation by his significant
of a woman terminates in child bearing and in the kitchen. Also, women
man and may not be able to hold grip to leadership position because of these weaknesses. Of late, gender
as a variable in social behaviour that came out of the closet in the 1970s when personality and social
psychologist had tendered to keep the door of gender discrimination closed.
School administration and leadership
o Haplin (1996) and Kadir (2002), effective leadership depends on a number of factors.
be based on an accurate diagnosis of reality of the situation in which the leader finds him or herself. Bush
here is no predetermined best way of influencing the people. The only prescribed
irrespective of the gender.
Leaders need to be guided by certain leadership principles which have been tested in human
experience and found to be all embracing.
Dungan, Jerome, and Peter (1992) in their comparative study of organizational climate of schools
iscovered that there was no significant difference between the female and male
population as measured by organizational climate development questionnaire.
result of the research showed no marked difference in the performance of male and female
counterpart in their devotion to duty while women were found to be better than men in their public
relation aspects of administration (Nwezi, 1996). It should be noted that leaders in leadership becomes
be met in goal attainment as he/she cannot single
effort need to work together in achieving a common goal
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
46
nt burner of the national
not only local but international boundaries. The phenomenon is all about
political and educational status to the women fold worldwide. Among
such opportunities required by women in the society is the position of headship in the nations
that women are claiming to perform better what their men counterpart
igate the influence gender has on communication and
The school as a living organic structure has certain fundamental roles to play in the society it
with some degrees of
being affected by some variables in
leadership and internal control mechanism. Therefore
school leadership without the requisite orientation may cause a lot of disruption in the school
effectiveness. The head teachers administrative performance can therefore be measured by
/her roles expectation by his significant
earing and in the kitchen. Also, women
weaknesses. Of late, gender
70s when personality and social
effective leadership depends on a number of factors.
which the leader finds him or herself. Bush
determined best way of influencing the people. The only prescribed
Leaders need to be guided by certain leadership principles which have been tested in human
(1992) in their comparative study of organizational climate of schools
iscovered that there was no significant difference between the female and male
result of the research showed no marked difference in the performance of male and female
han men in their public
1996). It should be noted that leaders in leadership becomes
be met in goal attainment as he/she cannot single-handedly attain. The
to work together in achieving a common goal, irrespective of their


Organizational structure and Leadership style
Leadership in the view of Mbiti (1994) has to do with those policies and decisions which help to direct
the activities of an organization towards its special aims .It is seen as a status of dominance and prestige
acquired by the ability to control intimate or set the pattern of behaviour for others. No constitution can
function without an effective leadership .A suc
communication and leadership. Nworgu (1998) identified fair desired leadership qualities that are
personalities purpose, knowledge and professional skills. It is a totality of an individual character
through which the person influence other people and wins their support and cooperation. A good leader
would probably have qualities of fairness, enthusiasm, spontaneity and self confidence (Kenneth2013)
.Leadership varies from one organization to th
note that no two leaders are alike in the way they administer their organizations. This, Summerhill (1996)
categorizes in to four leadership styles as: coercive, laissez fair, democratic and cha
Administrative principles and functions
School heads are faced with the tasks of performing managerial functions in order to ensure efficiency
and effectiveness within the school system. In the view of Ogunsaju (2006),planning, organiz
motivating and evaluating are the main managerial functions of a school head .others feel that managers
should perform as many functions as possible as it would allow them to achieve organizational aims and
objectives. Such other administrat
authority (Raymond1998).
It is expected that the school
domineering attitudes have an influence on administration
goals .Thus, it becomes necessary that all administrators recognize the fact that attitude of people within
the school will definitely influence the effectiveness of their work. It is obvious that a highly motiva
teacher will apart from being dedicated to his normal duties, be ready and willing to arrange make
lessons for his students if and when the need arises. His zeal is not only to justify his pay but in finding
solace in personal joy and satisfaction s
and willingness to help in solving his personal as well as official problems. By having this, goals and
objectives of the school can be achieved. A teacher then assumes that academic succes
own responsibilities, joy and satisfaction. A school head should know that human efforts are affected by
quite a number of factors.
Methodology
The design of this study was a descriptive survey as it enables the writer to obtain inform
representative sample of the population in order to infer a generalization on the perspective of the
respondents on the issue at hand and draw conclusion on the findings.
Research hypotheses
The following hypotheses were drawn and tested in t
Ho1: There is no significant difference in male and female head teachers effective communication and
programme administration in kwara South Senatorial district primary schools
Ho 2: There is no significant difference in male and female head te
administration in kwara South Senatorial district primary schools
Ho 3: There is no significant difference in male and female head teachers pupils personnel
Ho4: There is no significant difference in male and female head teachers financial administration in
kwara South Senatorial district primary schools
Ho5: There is no significant difference in male and female head teachers public relations in kwara
South Senatorial district primary schools

Organizational structure and Leadership style
vities of an organization towards its special aims .It is seen as a status of dominance and prestige
function without an effective leadership .A such, effective administration depends greatly on effective
personalities purpose, knowledge and professional skills. It is a totality of an individual character
.Leadership varies from one organization to the other. In ensuring the leaders styles, it is important to
categorizes in to four leadership styles as: coercive, laissez fair, democratic and charismatic leadership.
Administrative principles and functions
and effectiveness within the school system. In the view of Ogunsaju (2006),planning, organiz
objectives. Such other administrative functions include: accountability, decision making and delegation of
ed that the school-head should note that head-teachers activities and his/her
influence on administration and achievement of the school educational
the school will definitely influence the effectiveness of their work. It is obvious that a highly motiva
teacher will apart from being dedicated to his normal duties, be ready and willing to arrange make
solace in personal joy and satisfaction such a teacher must be able to see in his school manager the spirit
objectives of the school can be achieved. A teacher then assumes that academic succes
The design of this study was a descriptive survey as it enables the writer to obtain inform
respondents on the issue at hand and draw conclusion on the findings.
The following hypotheses were drawn and tested in this study
: There is no significant difference in male and female head teachers effective communication and
There is no significant difference in male and female head teachers staff personnel
There is no significant difference in male and female head teachers pupils personnel
There is no significant difference in male and female head teachers financial administration in
kwara South Senatorial district primary schools
There is no significant difference in male and female head teachers public relations in kwara
rial district primary schools

Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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47
vities of an organization towards its special aims .It is seen as a status of dominance and prestige
h, effective administration depends greatly on effective
personalities purpose, knowledge and professional skills. It is a totality of an individual characteristics
e other. In ensuring the leaders styles, it is important to
rismatic leadership.
and effectiveness within the school system. In the view of Ogunsaju (2006),planning, organizing, staffing,
ive functions include: accountability, decision making and delegation of
teachers activities and his/her
and achievement of the school educational
the school will definitely influence the effectiveness of their work. It is obvious that a highly motivated
teacher will apart from being dedicated to his normal duties, be ready and willing to arrange make-up
uch a teacher must be able to see in his school manager the spirit
objectives of the school can be achieved. A teacher then assumes that academic success of pupils is their
The design of this study was a descriptive survey as it enables the writer to obtain information from a
: There is no significant difference in male and female head teachers effective communication and
achers staff personnel
There is no significant difference in male and female head teachers pupils personnel
There is no significant difference in male and female head teachers financial administration in
There is no significant difference in male and female head teachers public relations in kwara


Sample and sampling Technique
The sample of the study was made up of 324 randomly selected primary school teachers
The respondents were made up of 162 male and female teachers and 40 male and 40 female
teachers selected from 80 schools
Instrumentation
The instrument used for the research work was a structured questio
Effective Communication and Administrative Effectiveness Questionnaire
questionnaires were statements on administrative performance of head teachers to which
rated the head-teachers. The rating scale on the performance ranges from 4,
questionnaire was in five different sections as it related to ad
organizations. They are programme administration, staff and students personnel administration, and
financial and public relation administration. The used instrument was given to test experts and senior
colleagues in the field of administration to asce
was equally carried out using a split half method on 50 respondents. The result obtained was 0.78 which
was considered enough for use.
Procedures for data collection and data analysis
The researchers and four other research assistants personally visited the sampled schools to make
contacts with the school heads who assisted in contacting the respondents. The data collected was
analyzed using descriptive and t-test
Result and discussion
A total of 324 respondents were randomly sampled from 80 sch
the State. The respondents have equal gender representation of 162 each from the sampled scho
Table1: Analysis of male and female head teachers ratting on effective communication and programme administration
Group N X
Male
Female
162
162
55.5
61.5

The t-test analysis shows that the calculated value was 9.46 while the table value was 1.66 at alpha level
.05 significant levels. There is a significant difference in male and female head teachers rating on effective
communication and school programme administratio
schools.
Table2: Analysis of male and female head teachers rating on effective administration
Group N X
Male
Female
162
162
66
66
Analyses of male and female head teacher rating on effective staff administration indicated that the
calculated value 4.75 is greater than table value 1.60 at .05 level of significant and 322 degree of freedom.
It therefore, connote that there is a significant different in male and female head teacher rating on
effective and staff personnel administration in Kwara South senatorial district primary schools.
Table3: Analysis of male and female head teachers ratting on effective student
Group N X
Male
Female
162
162
56
53.5
The t-test analyses of the rating of male and female head teachers on effective student personnel
administration indicated t-value 4.62 while the table value was 1.66 at 0.05 level of significant and 322
Sample and sampling Technique
The sample of the study was made up of 324 randomly selected primary school teachers
The respondents were made up of 162 male and female teachers and 40 male and 40 female

The instrument used for the research work was a structured questionnaire tagged Head T
Effective Communication and Administrative Effectiveness Questionnaire (HTECAEQ).
were statements on administrative performance of head teachers to which
teachers. The rating scale on the performance ranges from 4, 3, 2 and
questionnaire was in five different sections as it related to administrative strategies in formal
eld of administration to ascertain its validity before it being used. A test of reliability
n and data analysis
test statistical method of data analysis.
A total of 324 respondents were randomly sampled from 80 schools in Kwara South senatorial district of
the State. The respondents have equal gender representation of 162 each from the sampled scho
Analysis of male and female head teachers ratting on effective communication and programme administration
SD Df Cal t value t-table value

10.11
11.57
322 9.46 1.66
analysis shows that the calculated value was 9.46 while the table value was 1.66 at alpha level
communication and school programme administration in Kwara South senatorial District primary
Analysis of male and female head teachers rating on effective administration
10.11
11.57
322 4.75 1.66
hat there is a significant different in male and female head teacher rating on
Analysis of male and female head teachers ratting on effective student personnel administration

10.11
11.57
322 4.62 1.66
test analyses of the rating of male and female head teachers on effective student personnel
value 4.62 while the table value was 1.66 at 0.05 level of significant and 322
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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48
The sample of the study was made up of 324 randomly selected primary school teachers as respondents
The respondents were made up of 162 male and female teachers and 40 male and 40 female head-
nnaire tagged Head Teachers
(HTECAEQ). Items on the
were statements on administrative performance of head teachers to which the respondents
2 and 1 accordingly. The
ministrative strategies in formal
used. A test of reliability
outh senatorial district of
the State. The respondents have equal gender representation of 162 each from the sampled schools.
Analysis of male and female head teachers ratting on effective communication and programme administration
table value Decision
Rejected
analysis shows that the calculated value was 9.46 while the table value was 1.66 at alpha level
n in Kwara South senatorial District primary
Analysis of male and female head teachers rating on effective administration
Rejected
hat there is a significant different in male and female head teacher rating on
personnel administration
Rejected
test analyses of the rating of male and female head teachers on effective student personnel
value 4.62 while the table value was 1.66 at 0.05 level of significant and 322


degrees of freedom. Therefore, there is a significant difference in male and female head teachers rating in
on effective student administration in Kwa
Table4: Analysis of male and female head teachers rating financial administration in schools
Group N X
Male
Female
162
162
60
60.2

On the rating of male and female head teachers effective financial management in schools the calculated
value of 1.04 is less than the table value of 1.66 at 0.05 level of significance and 322 degrees of freedom.
Therefore, there is a significant difference in male and female teachers rating in their effective financial
administration in Kwara South Senatorial district primary schools the hypotheses is hereby accepted.
Table5: Analysis of male and female head teachers rating on effecti
Group N X
Male
Female
162
162
61-3
46.25
As indicated in the table, the calculated table value 4.78 is greater than the table value 1
of significant and 322 degrees of freedom. There is a significant different in male and female head
teachers rating on effective public relation in Kwara South Senatorial district primary schools. The
hypothesis which says there is no signific
relation is therefore rejected.
Conclusion
From the analysis of data and results interpreted the male head teachers were found to be better
their female counterparts in effective school
administration and effective public relation of the schools. However, the female head teachers were found
to be better in financial administration of the schools. How
factor in the appointment of head teachers, since both male and female teacher were not shown to be
enkindled or debased in the performance of their duties. In view of this, it is evident that that leader are
made by the level of exposure or
the assignment and the type and nature of the environment.
Recommendations
Based on the above the following are recommended:
i. Staff development and leadership training programme sh
head teachers of tomorrow without any gender discrimination. The State Ministry of Education and
the LGEA should therefore organize periodic workshops and seminars for staff development.
ii. Appointment and promotion
professional merit and experience irrespective of gender, accountability should be considered as a
criteria for their appointment to the post of responsibilities.
iii. The Ministry of Education, LGEA, Primary Education Board and even National Primary Education
Commission should intensify their supervisory roles in the schools. Through monitoring and
supervision competence of teachers and their efficiency can be guarante

References
Abdulkareem, A. Y. (1986). The personal effectiveness of communication system in Nigeria higher educational
institutions: A case. Study of Kwara State College of Education. Post graduate seminar paper.
Abdulkareem, S. O. (2002). A comparative study of personnel
schools in ilorin Metropolis Kwara State. An unpublished researcher project: University of Ado
on effective student administration in Kwara South Senatorial district primary is hereby rejected.
Analysis of male and female head teachers rating financial administration in schools

10.11
11.57
322 1.04 1.66
significant difference in male and female teachers rating in their effective financial
Analysis of male and female head teachers rating on effective school public relation

46.25
10.11
11.57
322 4.78 1.66
As indicated in the table, the calculated table value 4.78 is greater than the table value 1
hypothesis which says there is no significant difference in male and female head teachers rating on public
From the analysis of data and results interpreted the male head teachers were found to be better
in effective school programme administration, effective staff student personnel
to be better in financial administration of the schools. How-be-it gender should not be t
training they have, the value of establishment in operation, the nature of
the assignment and the type and nature of the environment.
Based on the above the following are recommended:
Staff development and leadership training programme should avail the teachers as they are assumed
Appointment and promotion of teachers and head teachers should be based on academic excellence,
criteria for their appointment to the post of responsibilities.
The Ministry of Education, LGEA, Primary Education Board and even National Primary Education
supervision competence of teachers and their efficiency can be guaranteed and adequately rewarded.
The personal effectiveness of communication system in Nigeria higher educational
: A case. Study of Kwara State College of Education. Post graduate seminar paper.
A comparative study of personnel administration problems of public and private primary
in ilorin Metropolis Kwara State. An unpublished researcher project: University of Ado
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
49
ra South Senatorial district primary is hereby rejected.

Accepted
significant difference in male and female teachers rating in their effective financial
ve school public relation
Rejected
As indicated in the table, the calculated table value 4.78 is greater than the table value 1-66 at 0.05 levels
ant difference in male and female head teachers rating on public
From the analysis of data and results interpreted the male head teachers were found to be better than
programme administration, effective staff student personnel
it gender should not be the determinant
training they have, the value of establishment in operation, the nature of
ould avail the teachers as they are assumed
of teachers and head teachers should be based on academic excellence,
The Ministry of Education, LGEA, Primary Education Board and even National Primary Education
ed and adequately rewarded.
The personal effectiveness of communication system in Nigeria higher educational
: A case. Study of Kwara State College of Education. Post graduate seminar paper.
of public and private primary
in ilorin Metropolis Kwara State. An unpublished researcher project: University of Ado-Ekiti


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ffectiveness. European
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SCHOOL PHOBIA AND STUDENTS ADJUSTMENT IN JUNIOR SECONDARY
SCHOOLS IN OBIO-AKPOR LOCAL
Department o
Department o

Abstract
This study is a descriptive survey
adjustment among junior secondary
Government Area of Rivers State.
Students One (JSS 1). The sample consists of 200 respondents who were composed
through purposive sampling technique from five public secondary schools in the area
of study. Relevant data for answering the three research questions posed for the
study were collected through 28 items structured questionnaire developed by the
researchers and personally administered to the respondents. The split
co-efficient of this instrument was 0.79. The research
percentage rank order and the results show that school phobia is very prevalent
among junior secondary I students
phobia impacts negatively on r
were discussed and some recommendation
that effective guidance services should be provided in schools.


AKPOR LOCAL GOVERNMENT OF RIVERS STATE.
By

CHIKWE AGBAKWURU, Ph.D
Department of Educational Psychology,
Guidance and Counselling
chikweagba@yahoo.com
0813520936

&

MRS. B. N. IRULOH, Ph.D
descriptive survey which investigated school phobia and s
junior secondary school students in Obio/Akpor Local
Government Area of Rivers State. The study only targeted Junior Secondary
The sample consists of 200 respondents who were composed
levant data for answering the three research questions posed for the
personally administered to the respondents. The split
instrument was 0.79. The research questions were answered with
among junior secondary I students in Obio/Akpor LGA. It further shows that school
phobia impacts negatively on readiness of fresh students for learning. These results
were discussed and some recommendations offered. One of the recommendations is
that effective guidance services should be provided in schools.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
51
GOVERNMENT OF RIVERS STATE.
investigated school phobia and students
students in Obio/Akpor Local
The study only targeted Junior Secondary School
The sample consists of 200 respondents who were composed
levant data for answering the three research questions posed for the
personally administered to the respondents. The split-half reliability
questions were answered with
. It further shows that school
eadiness of fresh students for learning. These results
. One of the recommendations is


Introduction
Life is a dynamic process. Being such,
one to any setting one finds oneself in. Those who succeed in adjusting to any setting they find
themselves in succeed and survive while those who fail in adjusting to new settings fail and
school is no exception to this order. In fact, successful academic career depends to a very significant
extent on ones level or degree of school adjustment. School adjustment is the process of bringing an
individuals behaviours in conformit
process that is geared towards the adaptation of the individual to school life and culture. Those who
adjust successfully feel relaxed, happy and comfortable. They also manifest great i
pursuits. On the other hand; those who fail to adjust with relative ease display their maladjustment
through physical symptoms such as stuttering, stammering, scratching head, and so on while their
behavioural deviations manifest throug
hand, the emotional symptoms of poor school adjustment are excessive worry, fears, inferiority, hatred,
extreme timidity, temper tantrum, persistent anxiety, conflicts and tension (Chauhan,
Fear and phobia are related terms. While fear means the dread of unknown objects, consequences
or events, phobia is an anxiety disorder characterized by an intense and irrational fear of particular objects
or situations (Gleitman, Fridlund and
objects and situations which should not normally evoke any fear because they present no actual danger to
the person (Nwankwo, 2013). Therefore, phobia is an extreme irrational fear that i
the reality of the situation. There are many types of phobia however, the scope of this study is restricted
to school phobia. It is an aspect of social phobia in which the learner manifests profound but irrational
fear for school. School phobia is severe apprehension about attending school, often accompanied by
physical complaints that disappear once the child is allowed to remain home (Berk, 1999). Like other
forms of phobia, school phobia is a psychopathological problem.
School phobia has many negative effects on th
performance. This condition marks the beginning of academic underachievement and failure. School
phobia is also the enemy of mental and bodily health. It destroys intrinsi
which are the bedrocks of academic success; suppresses purposive action; distorts perception and inhibits
clear thinking. When these situations prevail, the chances of success are lessened and mediocrity and
failure are experienced (Hurlock, 1956). School phobia is an emotional problem and like any other
emotional problem, it has negative consequences on development, learning and social relationship of
individuals. Research report in Peterson
Potential disruption in the establishment of reciprocal patterns of social interaction with caregivers.
Potential disruptions in attachment and the development of affectional bonds.
Potential negative influences upon the formation of self
Potential interference in the mastery of social skills and in the development of security and
confidence, which help a child enter readily into activities that promote further learning.
Many teachers in Rivers State speculate t
facing many school children in the state. They also maintain that the high rate of non
high rate of failures in external examinations, low level of academic motivation and other anti
behaviours which are currently the culture of school children in the state occur because many of them
have school phobia. Sadly, these speculations of teachers have not been verified by research reports
conducted in the state. The implication of
are suffering from school phobia, the causes of their school phobia and how school phobia affects their
school adjustment/readiness to learn.
The need to investigate school phobia and educa
by three major points. The first is the fact that
secondary school. The culture and characteristics of primary and secondary schools are not the same. In
Life is a dynamic process. Being such, the survival of one largely depends on the degree of adjustment of
themselves in succeed and survive while those who fail in adjusting to new settings fail and
individuals behaviours in conformity with the norms of the school setting. It is a continuous or on
adjust successfully feel relaxed, happy and comfortable. They also manifest great i
behavioural deviations manifest through aggression, lying, bullying, negativism and so on. On the other
extreme timidity, temper tantrum, persistent anxiety, conflicts and tension (Chauhan,
tman, Fridlund and Reisberg, 2004). It is an excessive and irrational fear or dread of
the person (Nwankwo, 2013). Therefore, phobia is an extreme irrational fear that i
ool phobia is severe apprehension about attending school, often accompanied by
forms of phobia, school phobia is a psychopathological problem.
a has many negative effects on the childs school adjustment, leading
. This condition marks the beginning of academic underachievement and failure. School
phobia is also the enemy of mental and bodily health. It destroys intrinsic motivation and se
rocks of academic success; suppresses purposive action; distorts perception and inhibits
erienced (Hurlock, 1956). School phobia is an emotional problem and like any other
Peterson (1988) identifies four of these consequences as:
Potential negative influences upon the formation of self-identify and self-concept.
Many teachers in Rivers State speculate that school phobia is one of the most common problems
facing many school children in the state. They also maintain that the high rate of non
high rate of failures in external examinations, low level of academic motivation and other anti
conducted in the state. The implication of this is that no one is certain if school children in Rivers State
school adjustment/readiness to learn.
The need to investigate school phobia and educational adjustment of JSS 1 students is underscored
by three major points. The first is the fact that JSS 1 students have just transited from primary to
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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52
the survival of one largely depends on the degree of adjustment of
themselves in succeed and survive while those who fail in adjusting to new settings fail and weather. The
y with the norms of the school setting. It is a continuous or on-going
adjust successfully feel relaxed, happy and comfortable. They also manifest great interest in academic
h aggression, lying, bullying, negativism and so on. On the other
extreme timidity, temper tantrum, persistent anxiety, conflicts and tension (Chauhan, 1981).
4). It is an excessive and irrational fear or dread of
the person (Nwankwo, 2013). Therefore, phobia is an extreme irrational fear that is disproportionate to
ool phobia is severe apprehension about attending school, often accompanied by
e childs school adjustment, leading to poor school
. This condition marks the beginning of academic underachievement and failure. School
c motivation and self-confidence
rocks of academic success; suppresses purposive action; distorts perception and inhibits
erienced (Hurlock, 1956). School phobia is an emotional problem and like any other
consequences as:
concept.
hat school phobia is one of the most common problems
facing many school children in the state. They also maintain that the high rate of non- school completion,
high rate of failures in external examinations, low level of academic motivation and other anti-academic
this is that no one is certain if school children in Rivers State
students is underscored
students have just transited from primary to


addition, secondary school is more complex than primary school in every respect. Exposure to the new
culture and complex nature of secondary school can cause school phobia among junior secondary 1
students. The second point is the fact that first impressio
confront information that discredits them (Gleitman, Fridlund and Reisberg, 2004). Since junior
secondary I students are fresh, it is therefore necessary to find out at this early stage of their secondary
education if they are suffering from school phobia. Thirdly, since junior secondary I students are in a
period of transition from childhood to adolescence, it is also necessary to carry out this study to
authenticate the report of Berk (1999) that most ca
during the transition from middle childhood to adolescence owing to the youngsters experiences with
overcritical teachers, school bullies, jeering remarks of insensitive peers, and too much parental pres
for school success. This knowledge will assist professional guidance counsellors, school psychologists,
teachers and school administrators to take necessary steps to eliminate the factors that cause school
phobia among them. The achievement of this ta
of the school adjustment of fresh learners. This will impact very positively on their academic motivation.
This study is therefore undertaken to resolve the problem of apparent lack of research
school phobia among Junior Secondary I students in Obio/Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers
State in particular and Nigeria in general. It is hoped that the results besides contributing to the store of
existing knowledge will also provide a basis f
necessitated by the results of the study.
Research Questions
The following research questions are posed to guide the study:
1. How pervasive is the incidence of school phobia among Junior S
Obio/Akpor Local Government Area?
2. What are the major causes of school phobia among
3. How does school phobia influence the readiness of
learning?
Methodology
This study was carried out in Obio/Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State. The study adopted
descriptive survey research design. The target population of the study consist of all junior secondary I
students in all public secondary schools in the area
week of the first term of 2013/2014 academic session) the population size could not be ascertained
because they were still arriving and registering in schools. The conduct of this study in the third we
arrival of the students in secondary schools was considered appropriate because the study is interested in
investigating the pervasive nature, causes and influence of school phobia on school adjustment of fresh
school entrants. The target population
(Asagwara, 1989, & Agbakwuru, 2009) have shown that fresh students normally experience fear about
school. When the fear is not mitigated, it may degenerate to phobia, anger, apathy towards sc
eventual withdrawal from school. The sample consists of 200 respondents who were composed through
purposive sampling technique from five public secondary schools in the area of study. Purposive
sampling technique was adopted in this study because
no basis for randomization to take place. Using this sampling technique, 40 students, were drawn from
each of the five public secondary schools for this study.
Relevant data for answering the research qu
method of administration of copies of a 28 items researchers
Questionnaire (SPQ) on the respondents by the researchers. The questionnaire was divided into four
parts. Part A contains four items eliciting information on the bio
hand, parts B, C and D contain 5, 15 and 4 items respectively. These sections elicited information for
answering the three research questions posed for
difficulty in completing the questionnaire, the items were worded in very simple English language and the
framing of the items was simply done in the yes or no format.
the fact that first impression often stick like glue even after we are forced to
authenticate the report of Berk (1999) that most cases of school phobia appear later around 11
overcritical teachers, school bullies, jeering remarks of insensitive peers, and too much parental pres
phobia among them. The achievement of this task will be a significant contribution to the improvement
of fresh learners. This will impact very positively on their academic motivation.
This study is therefore undertaken to resolve the problem of apparent lack of research
econdary I students in Obio/Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers
existing knowledge will also provide a basis for evolving reasonable intervention strategies that may be
necessitated by the results of the study.
The following research questions are posed to guide the study:
cidence of school phobia among Junior Secondary Students
Obio/Akpor Local Government Area?
What are the major causes of school phobia among Junior Secondary Students One (JSS 1)
How does school phobia influence the readiness of Junior Secondary Students
students in all public secondary schools in the area of study. At the time of conducting this study (third
because they were still arriving and registering in schools. The conduct of this study in the third we
school entrants. The target population was also considered ideal for the study because research reports
school. When the fear is not mitigated, it may degenerate to phobia, anger, apathy towards sc
sampling technique was adopted in this study because since the population size was not known, there was
each of the five public secondary schools for this study.
Relevant data for answering the research questions were collected through the personal contact
method of administration of copies of a 28 items researchers-developed instrument called School Phobia
parts. Part A contains four items eliciting information on the bio-data of the respondents. On the other
answering the three research questions posed for the study. To ensure that the respondents will not have
framing of the items was simply done in the yes or no format.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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53
n often stick like glue even after we are forced to
ses of school phobia appear later around 11-13 years
overcritical teachers, school bullies, jeering remarks of insensitive peers, and too much parental pressure
sk will be a significant contribution to the improvement
of fresh learners. This will impact very positively on their academic motivation.
This study is therefore undertaken to resolve the problem of apparent lack of research reports on
econdary I students in Obio/Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers
or evolving reasonable intervention strategies that may be
tudents One (JSS 1) in
One (JSS 1)?
tudents One (JSS 1) for
of study. At the time of conducting this study (third
because they were still arriving and registering in schools. The conduct of this study in the third week of
was also considered ideal for the study because research reports
school. When the fear is not mitigated, it may degenerate to phobia, anger, apathy towards school and
since the population size was not known, there was
estions were collected through the personal contact
developed instrument called School Phobia
data of the respondents. On the other
the study. To ensure that the respondents will not have


To ascertain the reliability co
adopted. Since this method of reliability estimate represents the reliability of a test only half as long as the
actual test, (Gay, 1996) the Spearman
Finally, the reliability co-efficient obtained was 0.79. This was considered very ideal hence the instrument
was certified appropriate for the study. The three research questions were answered with simple
percentage rank order statistic.
Results
The results of the statistical analysis of the three research questions are presented in the following tables:
Table 1: Percentage rank order of prevalence of school phobia among junior secondary I
students.
Rank
1
st
When I remember school, I become very much fearful
2
nd
I always feel uncomfortable whenever I remember I will go to
school
3
rd
I have much fear about school but I dont know why
4
th
Going to school gives me pleasure
5
th
I do not feel disturbed going to school
The results on table one show that the yes percentage scores of items 1, 2 and 3 which show presence of
school phobia exceeded 50 percent and thus
from school phobia.
Table 2: Percentage rank order of causes of school phobia among junior secondary I students
Rank
1
st
I dont want to cut grasses
2
nd
The teachers flog us too much
3
rd
The teachers punish us when we fail to answer questions
correctly
4
th
Our teachers are not friendly
5
th
I dont understand what they teach
6
th
The senior students punish us
7
th
There are many dos and donts in the school
8
th
They give us too much home work
9
th
There are too many teachers in the school
10
th
There are too many students in the school
11
th
The school compound is too large
12
th
I dont have all the books that are used in the school
13
th
We stay too long in the school
14
th
Our school building is bad and it may fall on us one day

The results on table 2 show that the yes percentage score of the respondents in items 1
exceeded 50 percent. These results therefore show that those factors are causes of school
junior second I students.
Table 3: Percentage rank order of influence of school phobia on readiness of junior secondary
I students to learning
Rank Items
1
st
I feel restless in the classroom
2
nd
I dont understand what teachers teach
3
rd
I sometimes hide away from classes
4
th
I have no interest in learning

To ascertain the reliability co-efficient of the instrument, the split-half reliability procedure was
actual test, (Gay, 1996) the Spearman-Brown prophecy formula was applied to correct the co
efficient obtained was 0.79. This was considered very ideal hence the instrument
Percentage rank order of prevalence of school phobia among junior secondary I
Items Yes %
When I remember school, I become very much fearful 121 60.5
I always feel uncomfortable whenever I remember I will go to 119 59.5
I have much fear about school but I dont know why 119 59.5
school gives me pleasure 99 49.5
I do not feel disturbed going to school 81 40.5
school phobia exceeded 50 percent and thus show that many junior secondary I students are suffering
Percentage rank order of causes of school phobia among junior secondary I students
Items Yes %
I dont want to cut grasses 142 71
The teachers flog us too much 129 69.5
The teachers punish us when we fail to answer questions 130 65
Our teachers are not friendly 130 65
I dont understand what they teach 126 63
The senior students punish us 124 62
There are many dos and donts in the school 123 61.5
They give us too much home work 120 60
There are too many teachers in the school 119 59.5
students in the school 112 56
The school compound is too large 99 49.5
I dont have all the books that are used in the school 99 49.5
We stay too long in the school 89 44.5
Our school building is bad and it may fall on us one day 20 10
The results on table 2 show that the yes percentage score of the respondents in items 1
exceeded 50 percent. These results therefore show that those factors are causes of school
I students to learning
Yes %
I feel restless in the classroom 141 70.5
understand what teachers teach 137 68.5
I sometimes hide away from classes 120 60
I have no interest in learning 96 48
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54
half reliability procedure was
to correct the co-efficient.
efficient obtained was 0.79. This was considered very ideal hence the instrument
Percentage rank order of prevalence of school phobia among junior secondary I
% No %
60.5 79 39.5
59.5 81 40.5
59.5 81 40.5
49.5 101 50.5
40.5 119 59.5
show that many junior secondary I students are suffering
Percentage rank order of causes of school phobia among junior secondary I students
No %
58 29
61 30.5
70 35
70 35
74 37
76 38
77 38.5
80 40
81 40.5
88 44
101 50.5
101 50.5
111 55.5
180 90
The results on table 2 show that the yes percentage score of the respondents in items 1-10
exceeded 50 percent. These results therefore show that those factors are causes of school phobia among
No %
59 29.5
63 21.5
80 40
104 52


The results on table 3 show that the yes percentage scores of the respondents for items 1, 2 and 3
greater than 50 percent. These results/items show that school phobia has negative influence on readiness
of junior secondary I students for learning.
Discussion
The results of research question one show that the yes percentage scores of items 1, 2 and
percent. These results show that junior secondary I students fear school too much; feel uncomfortable
whenever they remember going to school, and have unidentified reasons for fearing school too much.
These results show that the incidence of
students. This finding is not surprising as research report (Isangedighi, 1996) has shown that when people
meet for the first time or enter a new environment, they initially experience a sense of sho
differences between them. It also vindicates the assertions of Agbakwuru (2009) and Agbakwuru and
Onyekuru (2008) that fresh students fear school.
In a related way, the results of research question 2 show that the causes of school phobia amon
junior secondary I students are:
Cutting of grasses or manual labour.
Being flogged by the teachers.
Receiving punishment from teachers for not answering questions correctly.
Teachers not being friendly.
Not understanding what the teachers teach.
Being punished by senior students.
Many dos and donts in the school.
Too much home work from teachers.
Presence of too many teachers in the schools, and
Presence of too many students in the schools.
These findings collaborates the assertion of Asagwara (1989)
entrants hate school because of excessive punishment, the strange and difficult subjects, the numerous
rules and regulations, the regimented life in school and the hostile attitude of older students towards
them.
Finally, the results of research question 3 show that school phobia impacts negatively on the
readiness of junior secondary I students for learning. It makes them to:
Feel restless in the classroom.
Makes it impossible for them to understand what they are taught; and
Causes them to hide away from classes.
These findings also lend credence to the assertion of Hurlock (1956) that school phobia suppresses
purposive action, distorts perception and inhibits clear thinking.
take necessary measures to improve the ease of adjustment of fresh students to school.
Recommendations
In the light of the results of this study, it is recommended that professional guidance counsellors,
teachers, school administrators and pare
Take appropriate measures to facilitate the smooth adjustment of fresh students to the new school
environment. This calls for organizing timely and comprehensive school orientation programme for
them.
Ensure effective guidance and counselling services in
Help fresh students to experience at least initial success by matching school assignments with their
cognitive abilities and interests.
The results on table 3 show that the yes percentage scores of the respondents for items 1, 2 and 3
of junior secondary I students for learning.
The results of research question one show that the yes percentage scores of items 1, 2 and
These results show that the incidence of school phobia is very prevalent among junior secondary I
meet for the first time or enter a new environment, they initially experience a sense of sho
Onyekuru (2008) that fresh students fear school.
In a related way, the results of research question 2 show that the causes of school phobia amon
Cutting of grasses or manual labour.
Being flogged by the teachers.
Receiving punishment from teachers for not answering questions correctly.
Teachers not being friendly.
Not understanding what the teachers teach.
punished by senior students.
Many dos and donts in the school.
Too much home work from teachers.
Presence of too many teachers in the schools, and
Presence of too many students in the schools.
These findings collaborates the assertion of Asagwara (1989) that many new secondary school
e results of research question 3 show that school phobia impacts negatively on the
readiness of junior secondary I students for learning. It makes them to:
Feel restless in the classroom.
Makes it impossible for them to understand what they are taught; and
Causes them to hide away from classes.
purposive action, distorts perception and inhibits clear thinking. These situations underscore the need to
ssary measures to improve the ease of adjustment of fresh students to school.
teachers, school administrators and parents/guardian should:
Ensure effective guidance and counselling services in the school.
cognitive abilities and interests.
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55
The results on table 3 show that the yes percentage scores of the respondents for items 1, 2 and 3 are
The results of research question one show that the yes percentage scores of items 1, 2 and 3 exceeded 50
school phobia is very prevalent among junior secondary I
meet for the first time or enter a new environment, they initially experience a sense of shock due to the
In a related way, the results of research question 2 show that the causes of school phobia among
that many new secondary school
e results of research question 3 show that school phobia impacts negatively on the
These situations underscore the need to
ssary measures to improve the ease of adjustment of fresh students to school.


Help the fresh students to find meaning in school work by relating lessons and other school
activities to real life outside school.
Make lessons practical, lively and interesting.
Diagnose and identify fresh students problems and take appropriate measures to assist them to
solve them.
Avoid unnecessary threats and punishments of the students.
Avoid unnecessary rigidity in dealing with fresh students.

Beside the above recommendations, it is also recommended that parents/guardians should:
Ensure that their children and wards report at school on the day of resumption. This is necessary for
them to participate fully in the school orientation programme.
Parents/guardians should also endeavour to accompany their children/wards to the school on the
day of resumption. This according to Asagwara (1989) helps to make the handover of the fresh
students to the school a smooth one. This is particularly important if the school is a boarding
institution.

References
Agbakwuru, C. (2009). School adjustment
Agbakwuru, C. and Onyekuru, B. (2008). Orientation programme and adjustment of fresh students in
Nigeria universities. Trends in Educational Studies, 3, (2), 79
Asagwara, C. G. (1989). Students orientation in Nigerian secondary schools.
Berk, L.E. (1999). Infants, children and adolescents, 3
Chauhan, S.S. (1981). Advanced educational psychology.
Gay, L.R. (1996). Educational research: competencies for anal
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Gleitman, H., Fridlund, A.J. and Resisberg, D. (2004).
Company.
Hurlock, B. (1956). Child development.
Isangedighi, A.J. (1996). Child: the learning organism.
Nwankwo, O.C. (2013). Abnormal psychology: the clinical approach, 3
Port Harcourt Press.
Peterson, N.L. (1988). Early intervention for ha
childhood special education. London: Love Publishing Company.

eal life outside school.
Make lessons practical, lively and interesting.
Avoid unnecessary threats and punishments of the students.
sary rigidity in dealing with fresh students.
fully in the school orientation programme.
a smooth one. This is particularly important if the school is a boarding
School adjustment. Owerri: Joe Mankpa Publishers.
Trends in Educational Studies, 3, (2), 79-83.
Students orientation in Nigerian secondary schools. Uyo: Legacy (Ni
Berk, L.E. (1999). Infants, children and adolescents, 3
rd
ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Advanced educational psychology. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, PVTT Ltd.
Gay, L.R. (1996). Educational research: competencies for analysis and application, 5
Gleitman, H., Fridlund, A.J. and Resisberg, D. (2004). Psychology 6
th
ed. New York: W.W. Norton and
Child development. New York: McGraw Book Company Inc.
Child: the learning organism. Calabar: Bon Universal Ltd.
Nwankwo, O.C. (2013). Abnormal psychology: the clinical approach, 3
rd
ed. Port Harcourt: University of
Peterson, N.L. (1988). Early intervention for handicapped and at-risk children: an introduction to early
childhood special education. London: Love Publishing Company.

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56
a smooth one. This is particularly important if the school is a boarding
Uyo: Legacy (Nig) Ltd.
ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, PVTT Ltd.
ysis and application, 5
th
ed. New Jersey:
New York: W.W. Norton and
ed. Port Harcourt: University of
risk children: an introduction to early


ANALYSIS OF TEACHERS JOB PERFORMANCE IN SECONDARY
SCHOOLS IN BAYELSA STATE
MAJOR NANIGHE BALDWIN,

Abstract
Teachers are generally considered remarkable variables within the school system
involving students in experiences that could bring about changes in their behaviours through the
acquisition of requisite knowledge. This work was carried
teachers perform their jobs using students perception i
research design adopted was the descriptive survey of the ex
students was drawn from a population of 10,305 SS2 students across 152 senior secondary schools in
Bayelsa State based on proportional representation. A Students Perception of Teachers Job
Performance Questionnaire (SPTJP
percentage of teachers mastery of their subjects, average in their use of teaching methods and
involvement in co-curricular activities. Teachers were rated low in their use of instruction
in lesson delivery and their ability to manage
recommended that conferences and seminars be organized
ability and skills in the making and use of instructiona
modern professional practice.


SCHOOLS IN BAYELSA STATE
By
MAJOR NANIGHE BALDWIN, Ph.D
Niger Delta University
Bayelsa State
E-mail: majornanighe@gmail.com
&
OMEMU FELIX, Ph.D
Niger Delta University
Bayelsa State
Teachers are generally considered remarkable variables within the school system
acquisition of requisite knowledge. This work was carried out to determine the extent to which
teachers perform their jobs using students perception in secondary schools in Bayelsa S
research design adopted was the descriptive survey of the ex-post facto type. A sample size of 1,125
from a population of 10,305 SS2 students across 152 senior secondary schools in
Performance Questionnaire (SPTJPQ) was used for data collection. The result revealed high
mastery of their subjects, average in their use of teaching methods and
curricular activities. Teachers were rated low in their use of instruction
in lesson delivery and their ability to manage their classrooms during lessons. It was therefore
recommended that conferences and seminars be organized, targeted at improving teachers managerial
the making and use of instructional materials for lesson delivery in
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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57
Teachers are generally considered remarkable variables within the school system, given their roles in
out to determine the extent to which
n secondary schools in Bayelsa State. The
post facto type. A sample size of 1,125
from a population of 10,305 SS2 students across 152 senior secondary schools in
Q) was used for data collection. The result revealed high
mastery of their subjects, average in their use of teaching methods and
curricular activities. Teachers were rated low in their use of instructional materials
their classrooms during lessons. It was therefore
targeted at improving teachers managerial
materials for lesson delivery in line with


Introduction
Performance can be regarded
accomplishment (Sharri, Yaakub, & Awang
coordinated in such ways that could promote teaching and learning objectives effectively. The general aim
is to meet the needs of individual learner and the developmental aspirations of the nation.
Okeke (2004), Okure (2004) and
the core roles teachers have to play if schools
ensuring students instruction and learning. Teachers must ensure that students are pr
involve in the required learning experiences that would engender desired change in their behaviours. The
school and teachers particularly
upbringing of students academically, mentally, morally, emotionally, physically and spiritually. These
duties demand expertise and dedication on the part of the school teacher.
Generally, it seems likely that the Nigerian public have passed a vote of no confidence on the
school system. The extent to which school system is responding to the needs of individual and
development aspirations of the nation could right
variously been put forward as possible causal factors. According to Ogbo
school system suffers from serious underfunding (grossly
annual budget) in the midst of an ever growing students population,
and facilities. The various supervisory approaches adopted could generally be regarded as outdated. Over
politicization of the appointment of boards and principals, corruption within the system which has
become endemic and general indifference among all categories of schools staff. The prevalence of these
circumstances in the school system could pose a serious threat to acceptable teachers job performance as
the needed work environment could be unhealthy.
Regrettably, it could be observed that there is a general likelihood of low academic standards across
the secondary schools in Bayelsa S
to prepare their lesson notes except for the purpose of escaping the
promotion interviews. There seems to be an overt laziness in teachers completion of working records
such as assessments as deadlines are usually exceeded. More
instructional materials in teaching their lessons. Most times they would abscond from school to attend to
personal issues, using official time and would not want to get involved in co
school. As a result, students loiter and abscond from scho
bound to negatively affect their future
Recently, the Bayelsa State government in 2012 declared a state of emergency in the education
sector as part of the efforts in search of a health
optimal service delivery.
The purpose for which this study was carried out was
performance of their jobs in secondary schools in Bayelsa S
The study was guided by the following
i. To what extent do teachers demonstrate mastery of their subject matter?
ii. Do teachers prepare and use instructional materials in their lesson delivery?
iii. To what extent do teachers exh
iv. To what extend do teachers manage their classrooms during lessons?
v. What is the extent to which teachers involve in co
Methodology
Research Design
The research design adopted for
reason for the choice of this design
almost as any behaviour which is directed towards task or goal
accomplishment (Sharri, Yaakub, & Awang-Hashim, 2002). The activities of school teachers need to be
Okure (2004) and Nnabuo, Okorie, Nwideeduh & Uche (2006) etc. have identified
the core roles teachers have to play if schools must succeed in their assignments of building character and
ensuring students instruction and learning. Teachers must ensure that students are pr
act in-loco parentis (Igwe, 2003 and Obi, 2004) in the comprehensive
emically, mentally, morally, emotionally, physically and spiritually. These
duties demand expertise and dedication on the part of the school teacher.
that the Nigerian public have passed a vote of no confidence on the
em. The extent to which school system is responding to the needs of individual and
development aspirations of the nation could rightly be described as inadequate. Several reasons have
been put forward as possible causal factors. According to Ogbodo and Nwaoku (2007)
school system suffers from serious underfunding (grossly, below the recommended UNESCO 26% of
annual budget) in the midst of an ever growing students population, and a general decline of resources
eral indifference among all categories of schools staff. The prevalence of these
the needed work environment could be unhealthy.
be observed that there is a general likelihood of low academic standards across
e secondary schools in Bayelsa State. Teachers tend to always report late to school, and would not want
to prepare their lesson notes except for the purpose of escaping the sanctions of inspectors and to attend
such as assessments as deadlines are usually exceeded. More so, teachers could hardly prepare and use
aterials in teaching their lessons. Most times they would abscond from school to attend to
personal issues, using official time and would not want to get involved in co-curricular activities of the
school. As a result, students loiter and abscond from school, develop bad habits and other vices which are
tively affect their future.
sector as part of the efforts in search of a healthy school climate where schools would be repositione
The purpose for which this study was carried out was to critically analyse the extent
their jobs in secondary schools in Bayelsa State.
ollowing generated research questions, thus:
To what extent do teachers demonstrate mastery of their subject matter?
Do teachers prepare and use instructional materials in their lesson delivery?
To what extent do teachers exhibit flexibility in their teaching methods?
To what extend do teachers manage their classrooms during lessons?
What is the extent to which teachers involve in co-curricular activities?
The research design adopted for this study was the descriptive survey of the ex-
reason for the choice of this design was because the manifestations of the study variables under
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58
almost as any behaviour which is directed towards task or goal
school teachers need to be
& Uche (2006) etc. have identified
succeed in their assignments of building character and
ensuring students instruction and learning. Teachers must ensure that students are properly galvanized to
(Igwe, 2003 and Obi, 2004) in the comprehensive
emically, mentally, morally, emotionally, physically and spiritually. These
that the Nigerian public have passed a vote of no confidence on the
em. The extent to which school system is responding to the needs of individual and
be described as inadequate. Several reasons have
do and Nwaoku (2007), the
below the recommended UNESCO 26% of
general decline of resources
eral indifference among all categories of schools staff. The prevalence of these
be observed that there is a general likelihood of low academic standards across
tate. Teachers tend to always report late to school, and would not want
sanctions of inspectors and to attend
so, teachers could hardly prepare and use
aterials in teaching their lessons. Most times they would abscond from school to attend to
curricular activities of the
ol, develop bad habits and other vices which are
e schools would be repositioned for
to critically analyse the extent of teachers
-post facto type. The
was because the manifestations of the study variables under


investigation had already taken place prior to the commencement of the study (Karlinger, 1986; Denga
and Ali, 1983; Isangedighi, Joshua, Asim and Ekuri, 2004).
Population
The 10,305 students of SS2 in the 152 government owned senior secondary schools in Bayelsa state
constitute the population of the study.
The sample and Technique
The sample of the study was made up of 1,125 students
represents about 10% of the total population.
The Instrument
The researchers developed and used a data collection instrument titled
Performance Questionnaire (ATJPQ). The instrument cont
asked to tick YES or NO for each item. All the questionnaire items put together measured overall
teachers job performance.
Administration of the Instrume
The researchers and two research assistants
their teachers job performance based on the study variables. The teachers assessed were those of English
language, Mathematics, Economics, Biolog
Validity and reliability of Instrument
The face validity of the instrument was determined by experts in tests and measurement of the Faculty of
Education, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa state. The reliability
instrument was determined through the split half method. The calculated correlation coefficient stood at
0. 79.
Method of Data Analysis
Simple percentages were used to analysis data.
Results and Discussion
Research Question 1. To what extent
Table 1. Percentage response on students perception of teachers mastery of subject matter.
S/N Statement Item
1 Ability to break topic into smaller units
2 Ability to use proper examples
3 Ability to explain terms and concepts
4 Ability to provide satisfactory answers
5 Ability to teach lesson step by step
Mean (x) percentage
Table 1 above portrays the responses to the question
their subjects. Item 1 which sought responses on teachers ability to break topics in to smaller units, 866
students said YES while 259 said No. This represented 77% and 23% respectively of the total responses.
Item 2 which sought information about teachers ability in using pro
YES while 360 said No. The figures represented 68% and 32% respectively. For item 3 which sought
teachers ability to explain concept to students understanding 754 tricked YES and 371 ticked No. There
represented 67% and 33% respectively. On teachers ability to provide satisfactory answers to students
questions 641 respondents said YES while 484 indicated No. These also represented 57% and 43%
respectively of total response. For teachers ability to present lessons step by
YES while 540 indicated No responses. Their respective responses were 52% and 49%. Overall teachers
subject matter mastery as responded
competence about their subject matter.
ighi, Joshua, Asim and Ekuri, 2004).
constitute the population of the study.
The sample of the study was made up of 1,125 students randomly drawn from the population. The figure
represents about 10% of the total population.
The researchers developed and used a data collection instrument titled Analysis of
(ATJPQ). The instrument contained twenty five items
Administration of the Instrument
and two research assistants distributed the questionnaire to the sampled students
job performance based on the study variables. The teachers assessed were those of English
athematics, Economics, Biology and Agriculture Science
nstrument
Education, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa state. The reliability
Simple percentages were used to analysis data.
To what extent do teachers demonstrate mastery of their subject matter?
Percentage response on students perception of teachers mastery of subject matter.
Yes No
Ability to break topic into smaller units 866 (7%) 257 (23%)
Ability to use proper examples 765 (68%) 360 (32%)
Ability to explain terms and concepts 754 (67%) 371 (33%)
Ability to provide satisfactory answers 641 (57%) 484 (43%)
Ability to teach lesson step by step 585(52%) 540(47%)
64% 36%
Table 1 above portrays the responses to the question on the extent to which teachers gained mastery of
which sought responses on teachers ability to break topics in to smaller units, 866
Item 2 which sought information about teachers ability in using proper example, 765 respondents said
3% respectively. On teachers ability to provide satisfactory answers to students
respectively of total response. For teachers ability to present lessons step by step 585 respondents said
responded by students stood at 64 %. The result showed that teachers had
t matter.
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59
drawn from the population. The figure
Analysis of Teachers Job
ained twenty five items. Respondents were
distributed the questionnaire to the sampled students assessed
job performance based on the study variables. The teachers assessed were those of English
Education, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa state. The reliability of the study
do teachers demonstrate mastery of their subject matter?
Percentage response on students perception of teachers mastery of subject matter.
Total
257 (23%) 1125
360 (32%) 1125
371 (33%) 1125
484 (43%) 1125
540(47%) 1125
1125
on the extent to which teachers gained mastery of
which sought responses on teachers ability to break topics in to smaller units, 866
per example, 765 respondents said
3% respectively. On teachers ability to provide satisfactory answers to students
step 585 respondents said
by students stood at 64 %. The result showed that teachers had


Research Question 2. Do teachers prepare and use instructional materials in their lesson delivery?
Table 2: Percentage response of students on the question of teachers use of instructional materials during lessons
delivery.
S/N Statement Item
6 Ability to bring drawings to lesson
7 Ability to bring real materials to lessons
8 Ability to use charts and real materials in explaining lesson
9 Ability to ask students to identify issues in charts
10 Ability to use arrange, charts and materials lesson
Mean (x) percentage
The results in table 2 reveal that for item 6 which sought whether teachers brought drawings to class, 326
respondents said YES while 799 indicated No. the figured accounted for 29% and 71% of total response.
For item 7, on whether teachers come to class w
Their respective percentages were 34% and 66%. Item 8 concerned itself
teachers ability in using charts and materials in explain
indicated No. These represented 44% and 55% respectively. For item 9 whether students were asked to
identify or explain drawings or charts, 405 responded YES while 720 said No. The percentage response
were 36% and 64% finally for item 10 which was
board, 495 students responded YES while 630 indicated No. These responses represented 44% and 56%
respectively. Overall teachers used of instructional materials as perceived by students stood at 37
result showed that teachers hardly prepare and make used of instructional materials in the process of their
lesson delivery.
Research Question 3. To what extent do teachers exhibit flexib
Table 3. Percentage response on students perception of teachers use of teaching methods during lessons.
S/N Statement Item
11 Ability to present lesson from known to unknown
12 Ability to involve students in the lesson
13 Ability to create links between lessons
14 Ability to demonstration lesson in as organized manner
15 Ability to evaluate student learning in ckss
Mean (x) percentage
Table 3 above reveal that for item 11, 720 respondents indicate YES and 405 No, on the ability of
teachers in presenting lesson from know to unknown. On teachers ability to involve students in the
lesson, 641 indicated YES and 484 said No. These figure represented 57% and 43% respectively of the
responses. On teachers ability to link lessons, 529 respondents said YES and 596 said No. Percentage
responses war 47% and 53% respectively. For item 14 which sought responses on tea
demonstrate lesson, 641 responded YES while 484 indicated No. Their percentage responses were 57%
and 43% out respectively. Finally for item 15 which sought to find out whether teachers encourage
students participation during lesson, 585
representing 48%. Overall teachers ability in the use of teaching methods as perceived by students stood
at 55 %. The result showed that teachers had average competence about their use of teachin
the lesson delivery.
Research Question 4. To what extend do teachers manage their classrooms during lessons?
Table 4. Percentage response on students perception of teachers classroom management abilities.
S/N Statement Item
16 Monitor students movements during lessons
17 Command the respect of students in class
18 Ensure that a single class (lesson) is maintahed
19 Ensure students take instructions during lesson
2: Percentage response of students on the question of teachers use of instructional materials during lessons
Yes No
Ability to bring drawings to lesson 326 (29%) 799 (71%)
Ability to bring real materials to lessons 382 (34%) 743(66%)
Ability to use charts and real materials in explaining lesson 495 (44%) 630 (55%)
Ability to ask students to identify issues in charts 405 (36%) 720 (64%)
Ability to use arrange, charts and materials lesson 495 (44%) 630 (56%)
37% 63%
For item 7, on whether teachers come to class with materials 382 respondent said YES while 743 said No.
Their respective percentages were 34% and 66%. Item 8 concerned itself with eliciting information about
teachers ability in using charts and materials in explaining lessons 495 respondents ticked YES
were 36% and 64% finally for item 10 which was to know teachers ability in effectively using the chalk
respectively. Overall teachers used of instructional materials as perceived by students stood at 37
To what extent do teachers exhibit flexibility in their use of teaching
response on students perception of teachers use of teaching methods during lessons.
Yes No
Ability to present lesson from known to unknown 720(64%) 405(36%)
Ability to involve students in the lesson 641(57%) 484(43%)
Ability to create links between lessons 529(47%) 596(53%)
Ability to demonstration lesson in as organized manner 641(57%) 484(43%)
Ability to evaluate student learning in ckss 585(52%) 540(48%)
55% 45%
and 484 said No. These figure represented 57% and 43% respectively of the
responses war 47% and 53% respectively. For item 14 which sought responses on tea
students participation during lesson, 585 students represent 52% indicated YES while 540 indicated No
at 55 %. The result showed that teachers had average competence about their use of teachin
Yes No
Monitor students movements during lessons 450 (40%) 675 (60%)
Command the respect of students in class 518 (46%) 607 (54%)
Ensure that a single class (lesson) is maintahed 450 (40%) 675 (60%)
Ensure students take instructions during lesson 551(49%) 574 (51%)
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2: Percentage response of students on the question of teachers use of instructional materials during lessons
No Total
799 (71%) 1125
743(66%) 1125
630 (55%) 1125
720 (64%) 1125
630 (56%) 1125
63% 1125
ith materials 382 respondent said YES while 743 said No.
eliciting information about
g lessons 495 respondents ticked YES and 630
to know teachers ability in effectively using the chalk
respectively. Overall teachers used of instructional materials as perceived by students stood at 37 %. The
ility in their use of teaching methods.
response on students perception of teachers use of teaching methods during lessons.
Total
405(36%) 1125
484(43%) 1125
596(53%) 1125
484(43%) 1125
540(48%) 1125
45% 1125
and 484 said No. These figure represented 57% and 43% respectively of the
responses war 47% and 53% respectively. For item 14 which sought responses on teachers ability to
students represent 52% indicated YES while 540 indicated No
at 55 %. The result showed that teachers had average competence about their use of teaching methods in
Total
675 (60%) 1125
607 (54%) 1125
675 (60%) 1125
574 (51%) 1125


20 Ensure a noise free class during lessons
Mean (x) percentage
Table 4 above concerned itself with responses teachers classroom management ability. Item 16 on
teachers ability to monitor students movement during lessons, 450 respondents said YES while 675
indicated No. For item 17, 518 students indicate YES while 6
students respect. The percentage response stood at 46% and 54% respectively. 450 students represent
40% of the responses indicated YES on teachers ability in ensuring the maintenance of a single lesson.
675 respondents representing 60% of total responses indicated No. Question 19 sought to know whether
teacher has ability in ensuring that all instructions during lessons are followed. 551 respondents
representing 49% indicated YES while 474 representing 51% said
whether teachers could ensure noise free classrooms during lessons. 394 respondents indicating 35%
indicate YES while 731 respondents indicating 65% said No. Overall teachers ability to control their and
manage their class rooms during lessons stood at 42%. The result showed that teachers where ranked low
in their ability to discipline and manage their students during lessons.
Research Question 5. What is the extent to which teachers involve in co
Table 5. Percentage response on students perception of teachers involvement in cocurricular activities.
S/N Statement Item
21 Involve in the organization of sports
22 Involve in organizing clubs and societies
23 Involve in organizing quiz event
24 Involve in organization cultural events
25 Involve in end of year activities
Mean (x) percentage
Table 5 above was concerned with the extent to which teachers involve in schools cocurricular activities.
For item 21, 686 representing 61% agreed that teachers were involved in the organization of sporting
activities while 439 respondents represen
involvement in school clubs and societies. 701 respondents said YES representing 63% while 416
representing 37% said No.
Item 23 was on teachers involvement in organizing quiz. 641 respondents said YES
while 484 respondents indicating 43% said No. Item 24 was concerned with teachers involvement in
organizing cultural events. 540 responded Yes representing 48% while 585 indicated No representing
52%. Finally for item 25, 878 respondents said
and 22% respectively. Overall teachers involvement in cocurricular activities of the school stood at 61%
This result showed that teachers where ranked high in their involvements in cocurricular activit
Overall teachers job performance as perceived by students was 52%. A reflection of this result
could show base on the overall mean percentage of 52% that teachers were moderate, on the average in
terms of their job performance in secondary schools
Conclusion
The study considered the extent of teachers job performance from the perspective of the students.
Overall teachers job performance was show
State. Areas of low performance were in teachers managerial ability of classrooms and their use of
instructional materials in lesson delivery.
Recommendations
With the outcomes of the findings, i
should be organized for teachers in the areas of classroom management abilities and the use of
instructional materials in lesson delivery in line with modern professional practice.
Ensure a noise free class during lessons 394 (35%) 731 (65%)
42% 58%
indicated No. For item 17, 518 students indicate YES while 607 said No on teachers ability to command
ondents representing 60% of total responses indicated No. Question 19 sought to know whether
representing 49% indicated YES while 474 representing 51% said No. Question 20 sought to know
rooms during lessons stood at 42%. The result showed that teachers where ranked low
in their ability to discipline and manage their students during lessons.
What is the extent to which teachers involve in co-curricular activities?
Percentage response on students perception of teachers involvement in cocurricular activities.
Yes No
Involve in the organization of sports 686 (61%) 439 (39%)
Involve in organizing clubs and societies 709 (63%) 416 (37%)
Involve in organizing quiz event 641 (57%) 484 (43%)
Involve in organization cultural events 540 (48%) 585 (52%)
Involve in end of year activities 878(78%) 247 (22%)
61% 39%
activities while 439 respondents representing 39% indicate No. Item 22 sought to know teachers
Item 23 was on teachers involvement in organizing quiz. 641 respondents said YES
52%. Finally for item 25, 878 respondents said YES and 247 indicated No. Their percentages were 78%
This result showed that teachers where ranked high in their involvements in cocurricular activit
terms of their job performance in secondary schools in Bayelsa state as perceived by students.
Overall teachers job performance was shown to be moderate across the secondary schools in Bayelsa
instructional materials in lesson delivery.
With the outcomes of the findings, it is therefore recommended that periodic training and retraining
instructional materials in lesson delivery in line with modern professional practice.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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61
731 (65%) 1125
1125
07 said No on teachers ability to command
ondents representing 60% of total responses indicated No. Question 19 sought to know whether
No. Question 20 sought to know
rooms during lessons stood at 42%. The result showed that teachers where ranked low
curricular activities?
Percentage response on students perception of teachers involvement in cocurricular activities.
Total
439 (39%) 1125
416 (37%) 1125
484 (43%) 1125
585 (52%) 1125
247 (22%) 1125
1125
ting 39% indicate No. Item 22 sought to know teachers
Item 23 was on teachers involvement in organizing quiz. 641 respondents said YES showing 57%
YES and 247 indicated No. Their percentages were 78%
This result showed that teachers where ranked high in their involvements in cocurricular activities.
in Bayelsa state as perceived by students.
to be moderate across the secondary schools in Bayelsa
s therefore recommended that periodic training and retraining


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Isangedighi, A. J.; Joshua, M.T; Asim, A.
education and social sciences. Calabar: University of Cala
Kerlinger, F.N. (1986) Foundation of behavioural research.
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Owerri: Totan Publishers
Obi, E. (2004) Law and education m
Ogbodo, C.M and Nwaoku N.A (2007) Funding initiatives in higher education in Nigeria. Implications
for University Administration in J.B Babalola et al (eds).
NAEAP.
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Okure S. J. (2004) Educational Supervision
Sharri, A. S, Yaakub, N.F, & Awang
school teachers. Malaysian Management Journal

An introduction to research methods and statistics in education and social sciences
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Isangedighi, A. J.; Joshua, M.T; Asim, A. E. and Ekuri E. E (2004). Fundamentals of research and statistics in
. Calabar: University of Calabar Press.
Foundation of behavioural research. New York: Rinhart
o, P.O.M; Okorie, N.C; Nwideeduh, S. B. & Uche, C. M (2006) Leadership & supervision in education
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Teaching in Nigeria: The bureaucracy and professionalism. Enugu: Mercum Intl Publicity
Educational Supervision. Calabar: Eastland Press
Sharri, A. S, Yaakub, N.F, & Awang-Hashim, R (2002) Job motivation and performanc
Malaysian Management Journal, 6 (1&2) pp 17-24.
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An introduction to research methods and statistics in education and social sciences (3
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Leadership & supervision in education,
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Enugu: Mercum Intl Publicity
Hashim, R (2002) Job motivation and performance of secondary


RE-THINKING SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION FOR EFFECTIVE CITIZENSHIP
TWENTY

Department of Curriculum a
e

Department of Language, Arts a

Abstract
The paper premised the inability of school Social
emphasis on cognitive rather than on the Affective domain of l
re-thinking and re-positioning of the subject in terms of its objectives, content and methodology. It
also advocated for a regular exposure of Social Studies teachers to professional development
programmes. Finally, the paper recommended the development of test instruments for the measuring
of the Affective domain of learning.

THINKING SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION FOR EFFECTIVE CITIZENSHIP
TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY NIGERIA
By
IBHAFIDON H. E.,

OTOTE O. C.
Department of Curriculum and Instruction,
Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma
e-mail: ehinorgodgrace @yahoo.com
phone: 07038913727

&

JIMOH A. S.
Department of Language, Arts and Social Sciences,
Lagos State University, Ojo- Lagos
Phone 08033310592
premised the inability of school Social Studies to attain its set objectives o
ognitive rather than on the Affective domain of learning. Accordingly,
positioning of the subject in terms of its objectives, content and methodology. It
of the Affective domain of learning.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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63
THINKING SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION FOR EFFECTIVE CITIZENSHIP IN
Studies to attain its set objectives on the lopsided
earning. Accordingly, paper calls for a
positioning of the subject in terms of its objectives, content and methodology. It


Introduction
The re-engineering of the Nigerian educational system, following the 1969 National curriculum
conference was expected to reposition Nigeria in its rightful place among the committee of nations. This
position was seen to be in line with Fafunwas (2003) view of
by means of which a person develops ability, aptitude and other forms of behavior of positive value in the
society in which he lives. The conference resulted in a series of seminars and workshops which led to t
publication of the 1977 National policy on education which until then was lacking. The 1977 National
policy on education in pursuance of this task, observed that education in Nigeria is an instrument per
excellence for effecting national development
national development plans because education is an important instrument for change and any
fundamental change in the intellectual and social outlook of any society must be preceded by an
educational revolution. Accordingly, the (2004) revised National policy on Education identified the
national objectives of a free and democratic society; a just and egalitarian society; a united strong and self
reliant nation; a great and dynamic economy; and a lan
(NPE, 2004 p.6).

It is pertinent to note that the policy went a step further to identify in specific terms the objectives
education was expected to achieve in Nigeria and they include the following:
the inculcation of national consciousness and national unity;
the inculcation of the right type of values and attitude for the survival of
Nigerian society.
the training of the mind in the understanding of the world ; and
the acquisition of appropriate skills and the development of mental, physical and social abilities
and competencies as equipment for the individual to live and contribute to the development of
the society.

In line with this vision of the government, the
subjects were introduced into the Nigerian educational system. The restructuring led to the introduction
of Social Studies education into the Nigerian educational system.

Social Studies education was con
attainment of the aims and objectives enunciated in the national policy on education (Akinlaye,1996).
Advancing reasons for these, Akinlaye (1996,p.15) posited that Social Studies was a subj
geared towards self-realization, better human relationship, individual and national efficiency, effective
citizenship, national unity and national consciousness among others. This is in line with Peters (1972)
view of education as being the transmission of what is worthwhile to those who become committed to it.

Accordingly, the subject was viewed as capable enough to address and modify the
dysfunctionalities of the inherited educational system. The Nigerian Educational Research Council
Nigerian Educational Research and development council (NERDC) defined the subject as a way of life of
man, it focuses on how man influences the environment and is in turn influenced by the environment.
However, after nearly four decades of the introd
social, economic, and political life has had any remarkable improvement. For instance, Nigeria has
featured prominently at the top in the ranking of the world most corrupt nations in the world. The
has actually been silver and a bronze medalist in recent years (2003 and 2004) respectively. The Nigerian
culture is fast changing. It is also quite obvious that while some of these changes are on the positive side,
a greater percentage of it is on the reverse side and regrettably with respect to the cherished values of the
nation. Also obviously discernable is the direction of these changes which with very little exception, is
westernization. The changes in the society culturally speaking have been
experience, education, and the unrestricted exposure to western mass media. Over time, the cumulative
effects of these factors reflect in virtually every aspect of Nigerian lifestyle and have been blamed for the
numerous social ills of the society. For instance, the poor dress habits of the youths, religious intolerance
and riots, ethnic intolerance and disturbances, sectarian violence youth restiveness, cultism, political
thugeries, kidnapping, homosexualism, lesbianism, same sex
in greed, avarice, embezzlements of public fund, violent and other social criminalities). Nduka (2004)
engineering of the Nigerian educational system, following the 1969 National curriculum
position was seen to be in line with Fafunwas (2003) view of education as the aggregate of all processes
society in which he lives. The conference resulted in a series of seminars and workshops which led to t
excellence for effecting national development and accordingly, should continue to be highly rated in the
al revolution. Accordingly, the (2004) revised National policy on Education identified the
national objectives of a free and democratic society; a just and egalitarian society; a united strong and self
reliant nation; a great and dynamic economy; and a land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens
education was expected to achieve in Nigeria and they include the following:
inculcation of national consciousness and national unity;
the inculcation of the right type of values and attitude for the survival of the indiv
the training of the mind in the understanding of the world ; and
In line with this vision of the government, the school curriculum was restructured and a number of
of Social Studies education into the Nigerian educational system.
Social Studies education was considered an innovative and versatile subject that will lead to the
Advancing reasons for these, Akinlaye (1996,p.15) posited that Social Studies was a subj
realization, better human relationship, individual and national efficiency, effective
ansmission of what is worthwhile to those who become committed to it.
dysfunctionalities of the inherited educational system. The Nigerian Educational Research Council
However, after nearly four decades of the introduction of this subject it cannot be said that the Nigerian
featured prominently at the top in the ranking of the world most corrupt nations in the world. The
the reverse side and regrettably with respect to the cherished values of the
westernization. The changes in the society culturally speaking have been traced mainly to colonial
lls of the society. For instance, the poor dress habits of the youths, religious intolerance
thugeries, kidnapping, homosexualism, lesbianism, same sex marriage and excessive materialism (resulting
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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64
engineering of the Nigerian educational system, following the 1969 National curriculum
education as the aggregate of all processes
society in which he lives. The conference resulted in a series of seminars and workshops which led to the
and accordingly, should continue to be highly rated in the
al revolution. Accordingly, the (2004) revised National policy on Education identified the
national objectives of a free and democratic society; a just and egalitarian society; a united strong and self-
d of bright and full opportunities for all citizens
the individuals and the
school curriculum was restructured and a number of
sidered an innovative and versatile subject that will lead to the
Advancing reasons for these, Akinlaye (1996,p.15) posited that Social Studies was a subject that was
realization, better human relationship, individual and national efficiency, effective
ansmission of what is worthwhile to those who become committed to it.
dysfunctionalities of the inherited educational system. The Nigerian Educational Research Council now
uction of this subject it cannot be said that the Nigerian
featured prominently at the top in the ranking of the world most corrupt nations in the world. The nation
the reverse side and regrettably with respect to the cherished values of the
traced mainly to colonial
lls of the society. For instance, the poor dress habits of the youths, religious intolerance
marriage and excessive materialism (resulting


observed that many of the Nigerian bureaucratic elites operate
efficiency, accountability, merit and with reference

That education is the key to addressing these social ills of the Nigerian society is no longer a matter
of debate as Nduka (2004p.33) observed that although the Nigerian value disorientation is pervasive and
has in fact reached a crisis proportion, it is the firm belief of the Nigerian Academy of Education that the
best hope of rescuing the ethical shipwreck and enabling
smoothly and confidently on the high seas is revamped education. The question is can education be an
instrument per excellence in this onerous task? Again Nduka (2004) suggestions are that the first task is
identify a set of trans- cultural, trans
Nigerian society must subscribe. These basic values should include but not limited to the following
honesty, truthfulness, justice and fair play,
consciousness, service to the nation, patriotism, respect for elders and constituted authority, and service to God and human

To this end education will be seen as
It is pertinent at this juncture to recall that the social studies education though may not claim monopoly
over these basic values, but to a large extent addresses them in its content. As Jim
Social Studies is the most equipped subject in the school curriculum that has the capability to inculcate
moral and social values. A critical analysis of the objectives of the subject revealed that knowledge taught
in social studies is considered essential for worthwhile living in the society, since much of the content of
this knowledge is drawn from the realities of the learners own environment (Adejuwon, 1991). The
development of thinking and decision making skills, critical think
problem are stressed in social studies. In addition, there are attitudes and values which are considered
desirable and which a good citizen should possess. These are: co
honesty, integrity, hard- work and fairness. Furthermore,
Studies in our schools must

Inculcate national consciousness and aspiration towards national cohesion, unity and
progress;
Make learners become good citizens capable of
development of the society;
Inculcate the right type of attitudes, skills and values in the learners;
Make learner acquire basic knowledge, feelings and skills as essential pre
personal development as well as
man in the society; and
Develop in the learners, intellectual capacity and ability, self confidence, self
self-realization, initiative, thinking, resourcefulness for the socio

These objectives, were identified by NRRC (1971) in its guidelines on primary school
curriculum report of the national workshop on primary education held between April 26
May 8
th
1971 (p.262-263) The report states among others that Social S
students, positive attitudes of togetherness, comradeship and co
nation; the inculcation of appropriate values of honesty, integrity, hard work, fairness and justice
at work and play as ones contribut
Social Studies is structured to reflect these aims and objectives of the subject.
However, the present happenings in Nigeria portray that these objectives are not being realized but what
is however the issue today with regards to Nigeria search for an effective Social Studies education is how
do the nation reposition the subject to reflect the present national challenges?

The study by Ibhafidon (2011) shows that the inspite of the fact that Social Studies as a
subject has been in the school curriculum for the past four decades, the conduct of Nigerians
consequently, the issues is that something significant is wrong with either Social S
curriculum itself or with its implementation .Literature search revealed that something
fundamental is wrong with the objectives of social studies at the classroom level. (Jimoh, 2004)
revealed that 64.1% of the junior secondary school Social Studie
while just 25.37% of the objectives were affective. The study further revealed that the content
that many of the Nigerian bureaucratic elites operate without rigid and widespread adherence to
efficiency, accountability, merit and with reference to the primacy of service to the majority of the populace
Nduka (2004p.33) observed that although the Nigerian value disorientation is pervasive and
best hope of rescuing the ethical shipwreck and enabling the Nigeria developmental ship of state to sail
instrument per excellence in this onerous task? Again Nduka (2004) suggestions are that the first task is
cultural, trans-religious and trans-ethinic basic values to which the mass of the
Nigerian society must subscribe. These basic values should include but not limited to the following
honesty, truthfulness, justice and fair play, discipline, courage, tolerance, humanness, courtesy, right attitude to work, national
consciousness, service to the nation, patriotism, respect for elders and constituted authority, and service to God and human
To this end education will be seen as an agent of values clarification, orientation and transmission
over these basic values, but to a large extent addresses them in its content. As Jimoh (2003) observed that
is considered essential for worthwhile living in the society, since much of the content of
development of thinking and decision making skills, critical thinking and the ability to analyze and solve
desirable and which a good citizen should possess. These are: co-operation, comradeship, togetherness
work and fairness. Furthermore, according to Olayiwola (2000)
Make learners become good citizens capable of and willing to contribute to the
development of the society;
Inculcate the right type of attitudes, skills and values in the learners;
Make learner acquire basic knowledge, feelings and skills as essential pre
personal development as well as to a positive contribution to the better quality of life of
Develop in the learners, intellectual capacity and ability, self confidence, self
realization, initiative, thinking, resourcefulness for the socio-political order.
263) The report states among others that Social Studies will develop in the
students, positive attitudes of togetherness, comradeship and co-operation towards a healthy
at work and play as ones contribution to the development of the national goals. The content of
the present happenings in Nigeria portray that these objectives are not being realized but what
er the issue today with regards to Nigeria search for an effective Social Studies education is how
do the nation reposition the subject to reflect the present national challenges?
Ibhafidon (2011) shows that the inspite of the fact that Social Studies as a
consequently, the issues is that something significant is wrong with either Social S
revealed that 64.1% of the junior secondary school Social Studies objectives were cognitive
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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65
without rigid and widespread adherence to the principle of
to the primacy of service to the majority of the populace.
Nduka (2004p.33) observed that although the Nigerian value disorientation is pervasive and
the Nigeria developmental ship of state to sail
instrument per excellence in this onerous task? Again Nduka (2004) suggestions are that the first task is to
ethinic basic values to which the mass of the
Nigerian society must subscribe. These basic values should include but not limited to the following:
discipline, courage, tolerance, humanness, courtesy, right attitude to work, national
consciousness, service to the nation, patriotism, respect for elders and constituted authority, and service to God and humanity.
an agent of values clarification, orientation and transmission.
oh (2003) observed that
is considered essential for worthwhile living in the society, since much of the content of
ing and the ability to analyze and solve
operation, comradeship, togetherness
according to Olayiwola (2000) Social
and willing to contribute to the
Make learner acquire basic knowledge, feelings and skills as essential pre-requisite to
to a positive contribution to the better quality of life of
Develop in the learners, intellectual capacity and ability, self confidence, self-expression,
l order.
th
to
tudies will develop in the
operation towards a healthy
ion to the development of the national goals. The content of
the present happenings in Nigeria portray that these objectives are not being realized but what
er the issue today with regards to Nigeria search for an effective Social Studies education is how
Ibhafidon (2011) shows that the inspite of the fact that Social Studies as a
consequently, the issues is that something significant is wrong with either Social Studies
s objectives were cognitive


of the subject was 57.45% while the affective just 15.96% and psychomotor was even 26.6%.
This ratio failed to reflect the objective
domain having the lions-share.

Further more, many empirical studies have shown that at the implementation stage, the
method of teaching the subject significantly deviates from the modern teaching strat
child-centred of inquiry discussion, discovery, problem

Strategies for Repositioning Social Studies for Effective Citizenship
The findings of Jimoh (2004) that the cognitive domain has 64.18% of the objectives of soc
studies at the junior school level should be reversed. Social Studies concerned with the
inculcation of attitudes, skills and values pre
Ibhafidon (2011) asserts that students academic attainment in the subje
attainment stems from this greater emphasis on the cognitive aspect of the subject. This being
the case, concerted effort should be put in place to begin to emphasize the affective domain in
stating social studies objectives at the c
5:3:2 in favoure of effective domain should be enthroned in stating behavioral objectives at the
school level. This, we hope well guarantee a reversal of citizens conduct.

Closely related to the above
not available by way of measuring instruments in the area of affective domain. Efforts should be
put in place by curriculum experts in developing test instruments for the affective domain. It is
argued that the dearth of these test instruments accounts for the relative emphasis on the
cognitive aspect of the subject.

The findings of Okon (1999) and Ibhafidon (2011) that for Social Studies teachers at both
primary and secondary levels were using
inability to articulate the goals in the affective domain and learners inability to internalized the
learned attitudes and values. Social studies teachers must begin to realize that it is a taboo to
lecture method in the teaching of a subject. This is because this method has been found to
promote superficial learning. If the subject must promote positive attitudes and values in our
citizenry the subject should be taught using methods of teaching t
conceptualize, analyze and synthesizes issues. Teaching method that encapsulates learning
experiences which stimulate students interest and perceptions should be used more. These
steps will go a long way in helping learners to i
and by extension help in restoring our values out the same time change our orientation. Finally,
the inculcation of social norms, teaching of co
morals and sound attitudes will be guaranteed.

Over the years, social studies content was relatively remains static. Except for some
specific emergent issues such as sex education, drug abuse, environmental education, and some
few other areas, the subject has not r
our firm convinction that the content of the subject deserves a major surgical operation in order
to reposition it so as to address the issues facing the Nigerian nation. Presently, Nigerian socie
is bedeviled by a number of problems. These problems include lack of patriotic zeal, unity,
greed avarices, embezzlement of public fund, religious, cultural prostitution, intolerance, youth
restiveness among other. These problems have been identified to
quest for growth and development (Ibhafidon, 2012). In order to successfully overcome these
evils, the social studies curriculum must be revisited and revamped. The starting point is to
review its content and align it to equip an
be effective players in the restructuring and transformation of the Nigerian nation.

Social studies teachers need to undergo regular on a basis professional development
programmes. The programme env
addition, social studies teachers should also be encouraged to present research papers. This will
assist in identifying the various curricular problems at the classroom level.

This ratio failed to reflect the objectives and content at the curriculum level with affective
share.
method of teaching the subject significantly deviates from the modern teaching strat
centred of inquiry discussion, discovery, problem-solving, story-telling, etc.
Strategies for Repositioning Social Studies for Effective Citizenship
The findings of Jimoh (2004) that the cognitive domain has 64.18% of the objectives of soc
inculcation of attitudes, skills and values pre-disposes to emphasis the affective domain.
Ibhafidon (2011) asserts that students academic attainment in the subject was high. This high
objectives at the classroom level. This study recommends that a ratio of
school level. This, we hope well guarantee a reversal of citizens conduct.
Closely related to the above is the point that literature search has revealed that much is
cognitive aspect of the subject.
primary and secondary levels were using lecture method to teach has been traced to the subjects
learned attitudes and values. Social studies teachers must begin to realize that it is a taboo to
citizenry the subject should be taught using methods of teaching that enable the learners to
steps will go a long way in helping learners to internalize concepts and principles of the subject
the inculcation of social norms, teaching of co-operation and team-spirit, good habits, character,
sound attitudes will be guaranteed.
few other areas, the subject has not really been made to reflect modern social environment. It is
to reposition it so as to address the issues facing the Nigerian nation. Presently, Nigerian socie
restiveness among other. These problems have been identified to be the bane of Nigerians
review its content and align it to equip and reposition the citizens to such a point that they will
programmes. The programme envisaged here involves seminars, workshops and conferences. In
assist in identifying the various curricular problems at the classroom level.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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66
s and content at the curriculum level with affective
method of teaching the subject significantly deviates from the modern teaching strategies of
telling, etc.
The findings of Jimoh (2004) that the cognitive domain has 64.18% of the objectives of social
disposes to emphasis the affective domain.
ct was high. This high
lassroom level. This study recommends that a ratio of
is the point that literature search has revealed that much is
lecture method to teach has been traced to the subjects
learned attitudes and values. Social studies teachers must begin to realize that it is a taboo to use
hat enable the learners to
nternalize concepts and principles of the subject
spirit, good habits, character,
eally been made to reflect modern social environment. It is
to reposition it so as to address the issues facing the Nigerian nation. Presently, Nigerian society
be the bane of Nigerians
d reposition the citizens to such a point that they will
isaged here involves seminars, workshops and conferences. In


Social studies is one of the subjects in the social curriculum that is expected to inculcate
cultural values to the learners. However, it has been found that this aspect of the subject is given
less attention by teachers at the classroom level. At a recent international con
Africa, a Nigerian presented a very brilliant paper titled Cultural Education a Strategy for
National Development. The comment that was made by the participants after the brilliant
presentation was that his paper advocating the wearing of
three-piece English suite. That paper it was observed would have made a more effective impact
if the presenter has worn a native African dress. The point being made here is that teachers
should teach Cultural Education
they teach. After all, there is an adage that says that the Act of playing a part is to think yourself
into it Teachers should ensure that the content and learning experiences for Cultural
are stimulating and interesting and are presented with conviction. Culture is defined loosely as
the way of life of the people. Culture involves both materials and non
Nigerians need a cultural revolution. As it is today
variety of foreign cultures that are erroneously mistaken for Nigerian culture.

Social Studies has the onerous task of teaching culture. Through culture societal values,
attitudes and norms are transmitted fr
see increase social crimes as having relationship with acceptance of western culture. Ibhafidon
(2012) noted that with increase exposure to western culture, Nigerians have abandoned her
cultural heritage. This trend he claimed is mostly responsible for the increased crime rate in the
country. Nigerian must return back to its cultural heritage and Social Studies as one of the
carrier subject must be restricted to address cultural education with all seriou

The society we live is dynamic and Nigerian society is not an exemption. Development is
good and should be encouraged by all. However, one should not loose sight of the facts that
these developments generate
Studies is in a position to address these issues and should accommodate these issues. For
instance, the issues of gender balance, sex education, examination malpractice, youth restiveness
quota system, ethnic and religious conflict and a host of other issues should engage the attention
of our young learners early enough. Through, early exposure, learners will come to appreciate
the evils they constitute to peaceful co

Conclusion
This paper has taken the position that social studies as a subject as it is in both content and
methodology is structurally defective and as such cannot achieve the set goals. For it to do this,
the subject should make to under go a
review envisaged will be in line with repositioning it to meet the modern day challenge of the
Nigerian state and the Nigerian child.
Consequently, it has argued that social studies as a subject need
drastically different from the lecture method. B
methods that are child-centred. A
subject should be reviewed to include c
Nigerian state. Furthermore teacher
objective to be based on affective dormain.

Finally some challenging
for inclusion into the content of the subject.
named strategies taken seriously, social studies would be
learners for effective citizenship
for the survival of self and the Nigerian nation among others.

References
Ainlaye F. A. Mansaray A. & Ajiboye J.O.
Nigeria Ltd.
one of the subjects in the social curriculum that is expected to inculcate
less attention by teachers at the classroom level. At a recent international con
presentation was that his paper advocating the wearing of local outfit was at variance with his
piece English suite. That paper it was observed would have made a more effective impact
should teach Cultural Education with all the emphasis and not by precept but by practicing what
into it Teachers should ensure that the content and learning experiences for Cultural
the way of life of the people. Culture involves both materials and non-material aspect of life.
Nigerians need a cultural revolution. As it is today Nigerian cultural heritage has given way to a
of foreign cultures that are erroneously mistaken for Nigerian culture.
attitudes and norms are transmitted from one generation to the other. Teacher must begin to
e. This trend he claimed is mostly responsible for the increased crime rate in the
carrier subject must be restricted to address cultural education with all seriousness.
issues and these issues often than not may be negative. Social
a system, ethnic and religious conflict and a host of other issues should engage the attention
the evils they constitute to peaceful co-existence and national development.
to under go a surgical operation by way of curriculum review. The
Nigerian state and the Nigerian child.
argued that social studies as a subject needs a teaching method that is
drastically different from the lecture method. By its nature, the subject lends itself more to
centred. Also, it is the opinion of the researchers that the content of the
subject should be reviewed to include current challenges due to the dynamic nature of the
Nigerian state. Furthermore teachers were encouraged to place more emphasis on
affective dormain.
challenging issues facing the Nigerian nation were identi
for inclusion into the content of the subject. The researchers are convinced that with the above
seriously, social studies would be repositioned to equip
rners for effective citizenship - the citizens who will have right type of attitude
and the Nigerian nation among others.
A. Mansaray A. & Ajiboye J.O. (1996) Fundalmentals of Social Studies teaching
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uniport.com
67
one of the subjects in the social curriculum that is expected to inculcate
less attention by teachers at the classroom level. At a recent international conference in South
local outfit was at variance with his
piece English suite. That paper it was observed would have made a more effective impact
with all the emphasis and not by precept but by practicing what
into it Teachers should ensure that the content and learning experiences for Cultural Education
material aspect of life.
age has given way to a
of foreign cultures that are erroneously mistaken for Nigerian culture.
om one generation to the other. Teacher must begin to
e. This trend he claimed is mostly responsible for the increased crime rate in the
sness.
issues and these issues often than not may be negative. Social
a system, ethnic and religious conflict and a host of other issues should engage the attention
surgical operation by way of curriculum review. The
eaching method that is
its nature, the subject lends itself more to
that the content of the
urrent challenges due to the dynamic nature of the
place more emphasis on subjects
issues facing the Nigerian nation were identified and advocated
convinced that with the above-
to equip and prepare the
attitudes and values
Social Studies teaching. Lagos . Pumark


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A. (2004). Education as agent of value clarification and orientation
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(2004) Value education: A keynote address to the Nigerian academy of education
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(2000) Social Studies education and national unity. Social Studies Quarterly
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agent of value clarification and orientation. Nigerian Academy of
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ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENEES
CLASSROOM IMPLEMENTATION
Federal College of Education (Tech
Abstract
In this study, some issues relating to two variables namely, information and communication
technology (ICT), and book keeping skills for effective implementation of entrepreneurship education
at NCE 11 level were examined. This was done to determine the ef
education in the operations of small scale business enterprises. The population of the study consisted
of 1,400 NCE 11 2011/2012 second semester vocational education students of Federal College of
Education (Tech), Omoku. This population was made up of students from the following units
Technical, Business, Fine and Applied arts, Home economics, and Agricultural Education all of
whom had offered entrepreneurship education in their first semester. Out of the entire populat
800 were randomly sampled. Two research questions and two hypothesis were formulated to guide
the study. Mean statistics was used to answer the research questions while regressive analysis was
used to test the hypothesis at .05 level of significance
curriculum does not satisfy students needs for the operation of small scale enterprises. Based on the
findings, it was recommended that practical and theoretical teaching of entrepreneurship education
should be effectively taught the students to ensure effective acquisition of needed skills.

ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENEESS OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION
CLASSROOM IMPLEMENTATION OF NCE II VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
CURRICULUM

By

PAC ORDU, Ph.D
School of Business Education
Federal College of Education (Technical)
P. M. B. 11, Omoku
Rivers State, Nigeria
08037097470
pacordu2009@yahoo.com

at NCE 11 level were examined. This was done to determine the effectiveness of entrepreneurship
his population was made up of students from the following units
whom had offered entrepreneurship education in their first semester. Out of the entire populat
used to test the hypothesis at .05 level of significance. Findings revealed that the entrepreneurship
be effectively taught the students to ensure effective acquisition of needed skills.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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69
S OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION IN
OF NCE II VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
fectiveness of entrepreneurship
his population was made up of students from the following units
whom had offered entrepreneurship education in their first semester. Out of the entire population,
. Findings revealed that the entrepreneurship
be effectively taught the students to ensure effective acquisition of needed skills.


Introduction

The increasing pace of technological changes and innovations is constantly creating corresponding
changes in the society. These changes,
the move for a better way of carrying our his activities. This innovative demand has placed higher
pressure on educational institutions to effect some of these changes. This is consequent upon
that institutions as centres of learning serve the purpose of incubators of knowledge and skills. The
government of Nigeria, in her quest for development and to become one of the first twenty countries of
the world by the year 2020 has just real
of this move is on the heels of massive unemployment rate of graduates some of whom have constantly
become part of the social problems of the country. To this change, government has pushed
to higher institutions for a solution to graduate unemployment problems which has become inherent.

There is no gainsaying that the world today has been dominated by technology driven industries
both for manufacturing, distribution of goods
dominated-industrial sector focus on what Okorie (2010) described as innovation, speed, cross
functionality and strong customer relations. This means that human skills development cannot be
undermined since technology driven society is also human skills driven. This can be shown from the
strengths of such societies as South Korea, Malaysia, Taiwan, Singapore, Thailand, etc globally known as
little Asian Tigers. For Nigeria to develop and chase the dre
workforce must be focused. This means that such skilled areas as information and communication
technology, and book keeping skills in business education aspect of vocational programme can be
harnessed to facilitated entrepreneurship in technological development of Nigeria. This was captured by
Ezemoyih and Amos (2010) when they observed that technology is a problem solving process which has
as its goals, the improvement of the quality of human life, human needs and
Entrepreneurship education has been recognized as an area of education that can re
tertiary institution graduates of this country and reposition the nation to a productive society. By this,
government hoped that future graduates of he
through their entrepreneurial activities. In this regards, institutions have been mandated to establish
entrepreneurship education centres through which all graduates would be made to go through some
entrepreneurship courses before graduation. It is also hoped that some of these graduates would have
had their mindset on self reliant economy as is obtainable in developed societies rather than relying on
government jobs. It is on record that the econom
been made by private subsector economy rather than government sector. Entrepreneurship education
and the resultant entrepreneurial activities in the western world is so attractive that private practice
employment has become the engine of their development. These entrepreneurs are in various areas of
the economy covering all human endeavours. These western countries have become exporters of goods
and services to developing nations like Nigeria.
In response to the challenge thrown to institutions by government, administrators of institutions
and faculties are re-evaluating the nature of their programme and are considering various forms of
innovations. On one hand, information and communications technological
factor in the transformation from backwardness of the present dispensation to entrepreneurial self reliant
economy of tomorrow. On the second note, book keeping skills and knowledge competencies is also
being viewed as a key factor in the effective management of enterprises. Indeed, Nwanewezi (2010),
Asuquo (2010), Azih (2010), and Ezemoyih & Amos (2010) are of the view that skill competencies in ICT
and financial records keeping need to be acquired by the entrepreneur as a
gain competitive advantage. In reference to this competitive advantage, Agonmuo in Uzo and Ike (2010)
explained that effective business operations emphasise the need for information technology skills as a
means to becoming relevant within the global economy. In that same light, Raymond and Ojo (2010)
warned that if accounting educators fail to use the technology available in teaching their students, they
will be denying themselves and their students a competitive advantage in a
changes in the society. These changes, to a very large extent, have made man to become constantly on
pressure on educational institutions to effect some of these changes. This is consequent upon
the world by the year 2020 has just realized the importance of these institutions. Government realization
become part of the social problems of the country. To this change, government has pushed
both for manufacturing, distribution of goods and offering of services. These goods and services
industrial sector focus on what Okorie (2010) described as innovation, speed, cross
ince technology driven society is also human skills driven. This can be shown from the
little Asian Tigers. For Nigeria to develop and chase the dream of 20:2020, appropriate multi
ed entrepreneurship in technological development of Nigeria. This was captured by
as its goals, the improvement of the quality of human life, human needs and resources.
Entrepreneurship education has been recognized as an area of education that can re
government hoped that future graduates of her institutions have the role to developing the nation
government jobs. It is on record that the economic development recorded by developed nations have
oyment has become the engine of their development. These entrepreneurs are in various areas of
and services to developing nations like Nigeria.
to the challenge thrown to institutions by government, administrators of institutions
evaluating the nature of their programme and are considering various forms of
innovations. On one hand, information and communications technological skills is interpreted as a key
y factor in the effective management of enterprises. Indeed, Nwanewezi (2010),
and financial records keeping need to be acquired by the entrepreneur as a means of differentiation to
vant within the global economy. In that same light, Raymond and Ojo (2010)
will be denying themselves and their students a competitive advantage in an increasing automated society
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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70
to a very large extent, have made man to become constantly on
pressure on educational institutions to effect some of these changes. This is consequent upon the fact
ized the importance of these institutions. Government realization
become part of the social problems of the country. To this change, government has pushed the challenge
and offering of services. These goods and services
industrial sector focus on what Okorie (2010) described as innovation, speed, cross-
ince technology driven society is also human skills driven. This can be shown from the
am of 20:2020, appropriate multi-skilled
ed entrepreneurship in technological development of Nigeria. This was captured by
resources.
Entrepreneurship education has been recognized as an area of education that can re-engineer
r institutions have the role to developing the nation
ic development recorded by developed nations have
oyment has become the engine of their development. These entrepreneurs are in various areas of
to the challenge thrown to institutions by government, administrators of institutions
evaluating the nature of their programme and are considering various forms of
skills is interpreted as a key
y factor in the effective management of enterprises. Indeed, Nwanewezi (2010),
means of differentiation to
vant within the global economy. In that same light, Raymond and Ojo (2010)
n increasing automated society


At the Colleges of Education, entrepreneurship education has been introduced in their vocational
education curriculum vis--vis business education programme since 2002. With the present stance of
government on entrepreneurship education as an engine of economic development, the nature of various
subunits of vocational education such as agricultural education, business education, home economics
education, technical education , etc need to keep pace with changes in the business
Institutions are currently making key decisions concerning the application of ICT and book keeping in
education to re-strategise for economic development. Across the country, Colleges of Education are
faced with the task of updating their e
contributions of ICT and book keeping skills to this update process, Ezemoyih and Amos (2010)
explained that ICT skills enhance the accounting education teachers skills of operation, reduce mistakes
and wastages, eliminate drudgery and improve the effectiveness and efficiency in an automated office.
This research work was conducted to find out how these two variables (ICT and book keeping skills) are
taught in the entrepreneurship curriculum of Colleges
Literature review
Entrepreneurship education, Ezeyi (2011) was described as an aspect of education that is geared towards
developing in students skills, ideas and managerial abilities necessary for personal reliance. She went on
to inform that entrepreneurship education can also be interpreted to mean that type of education given to
learners to instill in them the principles, skills and practices required to see and evaluate business
opportunities, to gather necessary resourcs and desire to
inform that entrepreneurship education is also poised to help learners acquire the skills of initiating
appropriate action to ensure success in any chosen profession or occupational area. These scenarios
show that the essence of entrepreneurship education is for the individual to be knowledgeable and skilled
in the effective performance of jobs in his chosen occupation. This therefore means that the value of
entrepreneurship educational can be determined if t
employability knowledge and skill competencies. These employability knowledge and skills, in this study
are found in ICT and book keeping to equip the individual in a way that he could fit into specific paid
employment or create his own niche of business outfit upon graduation from school.
Questioning the rationale behind the unrealistic Nigerian government budgetary allocation which
has never met the UNESCO recommended 26% annual budget allocation, Jibril (2010
and Ubogu (2011) demanded to know if anything had actually changed in terms of empowering students
for self reliance, or if it had provided the necessary road map to technological advancement. Ubogu
(2011) further advised that in order f
the necessary road map, the educational system has to be skilled based and entrepreneurial in nature. He
further explained that such education system has to be that which is capable of emp
individual to be self reliant through self employment. This form of education is necessary now because,
according to Okereke and Okoroafor (2011), the geometric progression and turn out of graduates from
various levels of schooling, and are no
productive skills endlessly wait for government jobs that are hard to come by. This, according to him, is
because these graduates lack the entrepreneurship knowledge and skill competencies to be
Research questions
The following research questions were posed to guide the study:
1. To what extent has entrepreneurship curriculum for NCE 11 been implemented in the
acquisition of ICT skills in vocational education?
2. To what extent has entrepreneurship curriculum for NCE 11 been implemented in the
acquisition of book keeping skills in vocational education?
Research Hypothesis
The following research hypothesis were formulated and tested at .05 level of significance.
Ho1 There is no significance influence of the implementation of entrepreneurship education (theory and
practice) on students needs for small scale enterprises operation in terms of ICT skills.
vis business education programme since 2002. With the present stance of
ip education as an engine of economic development, the nature of various
education, technical education , etc need to keep pace with changes in the business
strategise for economic development. Across the country, Colleges of Education are
faced with the task of updating their entrepreneurship education curriculum. Looking at the
wastages, eliminate drudgery and improve the effectiveness and efficiency in an automated office.
taught in the entrepreneurship curriculum of Colleges of Education.
that entrepreneurship education can also be interpreted to mean that type of education given to
opportunities, to gather necessary resourcs and desire to take advantage of them as well. This goes to
that the essence of entrepreneurship education is for the individual to be knowledgeable and skilled
entrepreneurship educational can be determined if the individual is well equipped with relevant
ployment or create his own niche of business outfit upon graduation from school.
has never met the UNESCO recommended 26% annual budget allocation, Jibril (2010
(2011) further advised that in order for our education to empower students for self reliance and prepare
further explained that such education system has to be that which is capable of emp
various levels of schooling, and are not employed is a social problem. These graduates, for lack of
because these graduates lack the entrepreneurship knowledge and skill competencies to be
The following research questions were posed to guide the study:
To what extent has entrepreneurship curriculum for NCE 11 been implemented in the
acquisition of ICT skills in vocational education?
entrepreneurship curriculum for NCE 11 been implemented in the
acquisition of book keeping skills in vocational education?
significance influence of the implementation of entrepreneurship education (theory and
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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71
vis business education programme since 2002. With the present stance of
ip education as an engine of economic development, the nature of various
education, technical education , etc need to keep pace with changes in the business environment.
strategise for economic development. Across the country, Colleges of Education are
ntrepreneurship education curriculum. Looking at the
wastages, eliminate drudgery and improve the effectiveness and efficiency in an automated office.
that entrepreneurship education can also be interpreted to mean that type of education given to
take advantage of them as well. This goes to
that the essence of entrepreneurship education is for the individual to be knowledgeable and skilled
he individual is well equipped with relevant
ployment or create his own niche of business outfit upon graduation from school.
has never met the UNESCO recommended 26% annual budget allocation, Jibril (2010), Ibrahim (2010)
or our education to empower students for self reliance and prepare
further explained that such education system has to be that which is capable of empowering the
t employed is a social problem. These graduates, for lack of
because these graduates lack the entrepreneurship knowledge and skill competencies to be self employed.
To what extent has entrepreneurship curriculum for NCE 11 been implemented in the
entrepreneurship curriculum for NCE 11 been implemented in the
significance influence of the implementation of entrepreneurship education (theory and


Ho2 There is no significance influence of the implementation of entrepreneurshi
practice) on students needs for small scale enterprises operation in terms of book keeping skills
Methodology
The study was a survey design. The population was 1,400 students and a sample of 800 was used for the
study. Out of the 800 questionnaire distributed, all the 800 were retrieved by the researcher given a one
hundred percent return. The questionnaire contained two sections of 10 items each dealing with issues
relating to the specific variables. The questionnaire was design
instrument was subjected to face and content validity by two lecturers of vocational education
programme. The reliability co-efficient of the instrument was determined by the use of Crombach Alpha.
This yielded a co-efficient of 0.72. Mean statistic was used for answering the research questions while
regression analysis was used to test hypothesis at .05 level of significance. Any item with a mean of less
than 2.50 was considered not significant while any item
significant
Result and Discussions
In line with research questions, the results of findings are summarized below:

Research Question One:
To what extent has entrepreneurship curriculum for NCE 11 been implement
ICT skills in vocational education?

Table 1: Mean rating of respondents on information communication and technology skills
S/
N
Items

To what extent has entrepreneurship
curriculum for NCE II been implemented
in the acquisition of ICT skills
1
Leading students on excursion trips to ICT
service providing companies
2
Teaching students the concepts of team
work in ICT environment
3
Using interactive packages to expand
students knowledge of ICT
4
Teaching students the use of quick media to
design maps and group objects together
5
Introduce students to handwriting
recognition technology to convert notes to
text
6
Utilising minio-capture ink recording
system to teach students interactive series
7
Application of interactive
technology to capture images for
presentation and meetings
8
Attending to all topics relating to networking
of information
9
Teaching students the concept of creativity
with the use of ICT facilities
10
Encouraging students to attend workshops
aimed at learning the relationships between
ICT skills and entrepreneurship education

Total
NS = Not Satisfy, S = Satisfies
There is no significance influence of the implementation of entrepreneurship education (theory and
800 questionnaire distributed, all the 800 were retrieved by the researcher given a one
relating to the specific variables. The questionnaire was designed using a four point Likert scale and the
efficient of the instrument was determined by the use of Crombach Alpha.
efficient of 0.72. Mean statistic was used for answering the research questions while
than 2.50 was considered not significant while any item with a mean of 2.50 and above was considered
In line with research questions, the results of findings are summarized below:
To what extent has entrepreneurship curriculum for NCE 11 been implemented in the acquisition of
ICT skills in vocational education?
Mean rating of respondents on information communication and technology skills
N = 800
VGE 4 GE 3 LE 2 VLE 1 Sum
entrepreneurship
curriculum for NCE II been implemented
in the acquisition of ICT skills

Leading students on excursion trips to ICT
service providing companies
178 95 257 270 1780
Teaching students the concepts of team
183 158 192 266 1858
Using interactive packages to expand

132 170 238 261 1773
Teaching students the use of quick media to
design maps and group objects together
145 149 290 217 1822
Introduce students to handwriting
recognition technology to convert notes to 208 162 229 202 1976
capture ink recording
system to teach students interactive series
170 175 295 160 1955
Application of interactive teaching
technology to capture images for 221 229 181 169 2102
Attending to all topics relating to networking
157 171 278 194 1891
Teaching students the concept of creativity

179 181 270 169 1971
Encouraging students to attend workshops
aimed at learning the relationships between
ICT skills and entrepreneurship education
168 190 288 154 1973
1741 1680 2518 2061 19101

Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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72
p education (theory and
800 questionnaire distributed, all the 800 were retrieved by the researcher given a one
ed using a four point Likert scale and the
efficient of the instrument was determined by the use of Crombach Alpha.
efficient of 0.72. Mean statistic was used for answering the research questions while
with a mean of 2.50 and above was considered
ed in the acquisition of
Mean rating of respondents on information communication and technology skills
Sum
_
X
Decision

1780 2.23 NS
1858 2.32 NS
1773 2.22 NS
1822 2.28 NS
1976 2.45 NS
1955 2.44 NS
2102 2.63 N
1891 2.37 NS
1971 2.46 NS
1973 2.46 NS
19101 2.39 NS


Table 1 shows a mean of 2.39 which is less than the cut
entrepreneurship curriculum implementation does not satisfy students needs with regards to what they
need to know in information communication and technology skills for small enterprises operations.

Research Question Two: To what extent has entrepreneurship curriculum for NCE 11 been
implemented in the acquisition of book keeping skills in vocational education?

Table 2: Mean rating of respondents on book keeping skills
S/
N
Items

curriculum for NCE III been implemented in
the acquisition of book keeping skills
1
Attending workshops aimed at capturing the
basics of book keeping in entrepreneurship
business activities
2
Teaching students to acquire the ability to perform
year-end routines
3
Teaching students the principle of regular checks
to ensure that sales and purchase order processing
are updated
4
Teaching students the concept of analysis of
receipts and payment record as an important
aspect of book keeping
5
Giving students series of case studies to enable
them acquire the knowledge of preparation of
income statement
6
Teaching students the rudiments to recognise the
ability to develop statement of cash flow
7
Teaching students to develop the ability of
creating bank, cash and loss account
8
Utilisation of appropriate instructional resources
to teach students the preparation of profit and loss
account
9
Encouraging students to attend conferences aimed
at discovering the use of ICT in the analysis of
inventory management records
10
Teaching students methos of using ICT facilities
in the process of receipts and invoices
Total
NS = Not Satisfy, S = Satisfies
The data in Table 2 shows a mean of 2.31. This result shows
curriculum does not satisfy students needs with regards to what they need to know book keeping skills
for small scale business operation.

Research Hypothesis
Ho 1 There is no significance influence of the
(theory and practice) on students needs for small scale enterprise operation with regards to
terms of ICT skills.

Table 1 shows a mean of 2.39 which is less than the cut-off point of 2.50. This means that the NCE II
information communication and technology skills for small enterprises operations.
To what extent has entrepreneurship curriculum for NCE 11 been
Mean rating of respondents on book keeping skills
N = 800
VGE 4 GE3 LE2 VLE1
curriculum for NCE III been implemented in
the acquisition of book keeping skills

Attending workshops aimed at capturing the
basics of book keeping in entrepreneurship 94 166 220 312
Teaching students to acquire the ability to perform
195 198 168 240
the principle of regular checks
to ensure that sales and purchase order processing 139 145 248 268
Teaching students the concept of analysis of
receipts and payment record as an important 113 147 274 266
Giving students series of case studies to enable
them acquire the knowledge of preparation of 145 143 263 245
Teaching students the rudiments to recognise the
ability to develop statement of cash flow
168 171 267 194
Teaching students to develop the ability of
creating bank, cash and loss account
202 238 190 169
Utilisation of appropriate instructional resources
to teach students the preparation of profit and loss 191 270 143 200
Encouraging students to attend conferences aimed
at discovering the use of ICT in the analysis of
inventory management records
132 133 265 270
Teaching students methos of using ICT facilities
in the process of receipts and invoices
166 181 206 247
1545 1792 2251 2415
The data in Table 2 shows a mean of 2.31. This result shows that the NCE II entrepreneurship
for small scale business operation.
There is no significance influence of the implementation of entrepreneurship education
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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73
off point of 2.50. This means that the NCE II
information communication and technology skills for small enterprises operations.
To what extent has entrepreneurship curriculum for NCE 11 been
Sum
_
X
Decisio
n

1641 2.05 NS
1948 2.43 NS
1755 2.19 NS
1706 2.13 NS
1784 2.23 NS
1914 2.39 NS
2074 2.59 S
2060 2.58 S
1727 2.16 NS
1866 2.33 NS
18474 2.31 NS
that the NCE II entrepreneurship
implementation of entrepreneurship education


Table 3: Multiple regression of joint relationship of independent variable (theory and prac
enterprises operation in terms of ICT skills.

Model
Unstandardised
Coefficients
B
1 (Constant) -1.908
Theory of NCE
11 Ent Curr

.979
Pract of NCE
11 Ent Curr

.117
Table 3 shows how the individual aspect of the NCE II curriculum (theory and practice) exerts
different levels of influence on students needs for small business operation as
23.801; practice, t = 2.808. That means the theory aspect of NCE II entrepreneurship curriculum
currently exerted a higher influence on students needs for small enterprises operations in terms of ICT
skills.
Table 4: Model summary of the influence of NCE III entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and
practice) on students needs for small scale enterprises operation with regards to ICT skills.
Model R R-Square
1 0.972 0.946
P 0.05, Critical R-value = 0.068
Table 4. shows a calculated r-value of 0.972 which was greater than the critical r
alpha level. It also showed an R
(theory and practice) account for 94.6% of enterprises operation needs of students with regards to ICT
skills.
Table 5: Analysis of variance of the influence of the NCE II entrepreneurship
practice) on ICT skills
Model Sum of Square
1 Regression
Residual
Total
2692.906
155.094
2848.000

Table 5 shows the calculated F-value of 6919.192 as against the critical F
This means that the calculated F-value of 6919.192 was significant. The result shows that the NCE II
entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and practice) exert a significan
for small scale business operation with regards to ICT skills.
Ho2 There is no significance influence of the implementation of entrepreneurship education
(theory and practice) on students needs for small scale enterpris
keeping skills.
Table 6: Multiple regression of joint relationship of independent variable (theory and practice) on
enterprises operation with regards to book keeping skills.

Model
Unstandardised
Coefficients

1 (Constant)
Theory of NCE II Ent. Curr .518
Pract. of NCE II Ent. Curr .539
Multiple regression of joint relationship of independent variable (theory and prac
enterprises operation in terms of ICT skills.
Unstandardised
Coefficients
Standardised
Coefficients

T
Std error Beta
1.908 .222 -8.583

.041

.872

23.801

.042

.103

2.808
different levels of influence on students needs for small business operation as follows: theory, t =
f the influence of NCE III entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and
Square Adjusted R-Square Std Error
0.946 0.945 0.44113

value of 0.972 which was greater than the critical r-value of 0.068 at .05
alpha level. It also showed an R
2
of 0.946, indicating that NCE II entrepreneurship curriculum
Analysis of variance of the influence of the NCE II entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and
Df Mean square F
2
797
799
1346.453
.195
6919.192
value of 6919.192 as against the critical F-value of 2.99 at P
value of 6919.192 was significant. The result shows that the NCE II
entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and practice) exert a significant joint influence on students needs
for small scale business operation with regards to ICT skills.
(theory and practice) on students needs for small scale enterprise operation with regards to book
Multiple regression of joint relationship of independent variable (theory and practice) on
enterprises operation with regards to book keeping skills.
Unstandardised
Coefficients
Standardised
Coefficients

T
B Std error Beta
-1.640 .283 -5.791
.518 .052 .473 9.879
.539 .053 .486 10.150
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74

Sig
8.583 .000
23.801

.000

.005
follows: theory, t =
f the influence of NCE III entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and
Std Error

value of 0.068 at .05
of 0.946, indicating that NCE II entrepreneurship curriculum
curriculum (theory and
Sig
.000a
value of 2.99 at P .05.
value of 6919.192 was significant. The result shows that the NCE II
t joint influence on students needs
e operation with regards to book
T

Sig
5.791 .000a
9.879 .000
10.150 .000


different levels of influence on students needs for small enterprises operation as follows: theory, t =
9.879; practice, t = 10.150. That means the practical aspect of book ke
on students needs for small enterprises operations.
Table 7: Model summary of the influence of NCE II entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and
practice) on students needs for small scale enterprises operation with regards t
Model R
1 0.952
P 0.05; Critical R-value = 0.068
Table 7 shows a calculated r
0.068 at .05 alpha level. The
entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and practice) account for 91% of enterprises operation needs of
students in terms of book keeping skills.
Table 8: Analysis of variance of the influence of t
practice) on book keeping skills
Model Sum of Square
1 Regression
Residual
Total
2460.125
251.875
2712.000
Table 8 shows the calculated F-value of 3892.251 as against the critical F
implication of this is that the calculated F
NCE II entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and practice) exert a significant joint influence on
students needs for small scale enterpris
Discussions
In the study, results of analysis show that implementation of ICT content of entrepreneurship
curriculum does not give students their needs to acquire deep understanding of what it takes to oper
a small scale business. From the analysis, Table 4 shows an r
value of 0.068. By this values, it means that the entrepreneurship curriculum have a significant
influence on the needs of students acquisition of s
show that while the theoretical contents of the curriculum was vigourously implemented (t = 23.801),
the practical content was poorly implemented (p = 2.808). From the findings of this study, it is
observed that NCE 11 entrepreneurship curriculum in the College in terms of ICT content is not
effectively implemented. This may account from either lack of qualified lecturers or lack of required
facilities or both. This may be the reason why students were
enable them have the mind-set for self employment. The need for effective ICT skills has been
underscored by Elom (2010) who opined that technology is made possible by high speed and efficient
machines operated by skilled workers either in the private or public sector economy.
Analysis of data in Table 2 shows that the implementation of book keeping skills content of
NCE 11 in terms of book keeping does not satisfy students needs for business operation in terms of
book keeping skills. Table 2 shows a mean of 2.36 as compared to the cut
Table 7 shows a r-value of 0.952 as against the critical r
theory and practice of entrepreneurship curriculum
small business operations. However, in Table 6, the findings reveal that more attention has been given
to practical aspect of the curriculum (p = 10.150) than theoretical aspect (t = 9.879). Though, thi
the case here, the overall influence of low attention on practical implementation in visible while higher
attention on theoretical is stronger.

how the individual aspect of the NCE II curriculum (theory and practice) exerts
9.879; practice, t = 10.150. That means the practical aspect of book keeping exerted a higher influence
on students needs for small enterprises operations.
Model summary of the influence of NCE II entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and
practice) on students needs for small scale enterprises operation with regards to book keeping skills.
R-Square Adjusted R-Square Std Error
0.907 0.909 0.56216
Table 7 shows a calculated r-value of 0.952 which was greater than the critical r
0.068 at .05 alpha level. The table also showed an R
2
of 0.907. This means that NCE II
students in terms of book keeping skills.
Analysis of variance of the influence of the NCE II entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and
Square Df Mean quare F
2
797
799
1230.063
.316

3892.251
value of 3892.251 as against the critical F-value of 2.99 at P
implication of this is that the calculated F-value of 3892.251 was significant. The result shows that the
students needs for small scale enterprises operation with regards to book keeping skills.
curriculum does not give students their needs to acquire deep understanding of what it takes to oper
a small scale business. From the analysis, Table 4 shows an r-value of .972 as against the critical r
influence on the needs of students acquisition of skills for small business operation. Table 3 however
erved that NCE 11 entrepreneurship curriculum in the College in terms of ICT content is not
facilities or both. This may be the reason why students were not able to acquire the needed skills to
set for self employment. The need for effective ICT skills has been
skilled workers either in the private or public sector economy.
book keeping skills. Table 2 shows a mean of 2.36 as compared to the cut-off point of 2.50. Again,
value of 0.952 as against the critical r-value of 0.068. This figure means that the
theory and practice of entrepreneurship curriculum has a significant influence on students needs for
to practical aspect of the curriculum (p = 10.150) than theoretical aspect (t = 9.879). Though, thi
attention on theoretical is stronger.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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75
how the individual aspect of the NCE II curriculum (theory and practice) exerts
eping exerted a higher influence
Model summary of the influence of NCE II entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and
o book keeping skills.
Std Error
0.56216
value of 0.952 which was greater than the critical r-value of
of 0.907. This means that NCE II
he NCE II entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and
Sig
3892.251

.000a
value of 2.99 at P .05. The
value of 3892.251 was significant. The result shows that the
es operation with regards to book keeping skills.
curriculum does not give students their needs to acquire deep understanding of what it takes to operate
value of .972 as against the critical r-
kills for small business operation. Table 3 however
erved that NCE 11 entrepreneurship curriculum in the College in terms of ICT content is not
not able to acquire the needed skills to
set for self employment. The need for effective ICT skills has been
skilled workers either in the private or public sector economy.
off point of 2.50. Again,
value of 0.068. This figure means that the
has a significant influence on students needs for
to practical aspect of the curriculum (p = 10.150) than theoretical aspect (t = 9.879). Though, this is


Conclusion
Based on the findings, the following conclusions were drawn from the study: The
vocational education curriculum offered in the NCE 11 level of vocational education is associated with
small scale business operation skills development programme. This was found in terms of information
and communication technology, and b
teaching and learning process, there was discovered absolute lack of facilities both in human and
material resources. This was responsible for the attention of teaching and learning process
focused more on theoretical aspects at the near total exclusion of practical contents implementation.
Recommendations
Based on the findings and conclusions drawn from this stud
Commission for Colleges of Educatio
concerns, the establishment of a centre for entrepreneurship education in all higher institutions. This
integration is with a view to establishing a centre f
qualified and experienced lecturer
related conferences and workshops for qualified teaching personnel to be recommended to their
institutions for employment as lecturers in the
which non-qualified lecturers have been made to handle the teaching of entrepreneurship education
courses leading to poor delivery of contents.
References
Asuquo, E. E. (2010). Business and informatio
Business Education Journal, 6 (2): 95
Azih, N. (2010). Modern accounting skills required by accounting education students.
Education Journal. 6 (2): 120-
Elom, E. (2010). An overview of entrepreneurship in vocational and technical education.
Business and Vocational Education
Ezemoyih, C. M. and Amos, O. N. (2010). Evaluation of information and communication technology
skills needed by accounting education
119.
Ezeyi, V. N. (2011). Entrepreneurship education: An indispensable tool for sustainable business
education. Association of Business Educators of Nigeria Book of Readings
Ibrahim, A. (2010). Entrepreneurship education as a necessary curriculum in higer educational
institutions in Nigeria. Journal of Business Educational Research and Development
Jibril, A. H. (2010). Towards improving the standard of vocational an
Journal of Business Educational Research and Development
Nwanewezi, M. C. (2010). Problems in business education research in ICT era as perceived by
business educators, Business Education Journal
Okereke, L. C. and Okoroafor, S. N. (2011). Entrepreneurship skills development for millennium
development goals (MDGs) in business education.
Readings, 1 (11): 83-88.
Okorie, O. (2010). Accounting for human assets: A strategy for enhancing human
resources/organizational management.
Raymond, U. and Ojo K. E. (2010). Promoting accounting education in an era of information and
communication technology.
Ubagu, R. (2011). Introduction of entrepreneurship curriculum and instructions in Nigerian
Universities: Prospects and challenges.
1 (11): 77-82.
Uzo, O. and Ike, B. E. (2010). Busines s education and employable skills in the e
and Vocational Education, 1 (1): 54
Based on the findings, the following conclusions were drawn from the study: The
and communication technology, and book keeping skills contents of the curriculum. In the course of
material resources. This was responsible for the attention of teaching and learning process
Based on the findings and conclusions drawn from this study, it is recommended
for Colleges of Education (NCCE) should integrate wholly, with the new government
the establishment of a centre for entrepreneurship education in all higher institutions. This
integration is with a view to establishing a centre for entrepreneurship education and
lecturer. The head of this unit shall ensure to scout around at vocationally
institutions for employment as lecturers in the centre. The new ideal will do away with the method by
qualified lecturers have been made to handle the teaching of entrepreneurship education
courses leading to poor delivery of contents.
Asuquo, E. E. (2010). Business and information processing skills needed by business centre operators.
, 6 (2): 95-101.
Azih, N. (2010). Modern accounting skills required by accounting education students.
-130.
iew of entrepreneurship in vocational and technical education.
Business and Vocational Education, 1 (1): 73-78.
skills needed by accounting education lecturers in Nigeria. Business Education Journal,
Association of Business Educators of Nigeria Book of Readings, 1 (11): 67-71.
m, A. (2010). Entrepreneurship education as a necessary curriculum in higer educational
Journal of Business Educational Research and Development, 1 (1):135
Jibril, A. H. (2010). Towards improving the standard of vocational and technical education in Nigeria.
Journal of Business Educational Research and Development, 1 (1): 115-120.
Business Education Journal, 6 (2): 46-54.
development goals (MDGs) in business education. Association of business educators of Nigeria Book of
ing for human assets: A strategy for enhancing human
resources/organizational management. Journal of Business and Vocational Education
communication technology. Business Education Journal, 6 (2): 276-285.
Universities: Prospects and challenges. Association of Business Educators of Nigeria Book of Readings,
Uzo, O. and Ike, B. E. (2010). Busines s education and employable skills in the e-era.
(1): 54-59.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
76
Based on the findings, the following conclusions were drawn from the study: The entrepreneurship
ook keeping skills contents of the curriculum. In the course of
material resources. This was responsible for the attention of teaching and learning process to be
y, it is recommended that the National
n (NCCE) should integrate wholly, with the new government
the establishment of a centre for entrepreneurship education in all higher institutions. This
or entrepreneurship education and headed by a
The head of this unit shall ensure to scout around at vocationally
centre. The new ideal will do away with the method by
qualified lecturers have been made to handle the teaching of entrepreneurship education
n processing skills needed by business centre operators.
Azih, N. (2010). Modern accounting skills required by accounting education students. Business
iew of entrepreneurship in vocational and technical education. Journal of
Business Education Journal, 6 (2):110-
71.
m, A. (2010). Entrepreneurship education as a necessary curriculum in higer educational
, 1 (1):135-140.
d technical education in Nigeria.
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ing for human assets: A strategy for enhancing human
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era. Journal of Business


EFFECTS OF STIMULUS CONTROL ON INCLINATION TO PORNOGRAPHY BY
SECONDARY SCHOOLS STUDENTS AND UNIVERSITYS UNDERGADUATES IN

AZUKA F.N. GODSPRESENCE
Department o
E-mail:
ABSTRACT
This study investigated the effects of stimulus c
two selected schools in Rivers State.
of the University of Port Harcourt for 2003 academic session and
First International Academy, Rumuokoro. Two research questions and two hypotheses, which were
tested at 0.05 alpha levels, were used in the study. Quasi
sample is composed of 160 students fro
another 80 non-porn users. The study sample was derived through purposive sampling. Instrument
for data collection is a questionnaire entitled: Rating Scale for Students Inclination to
Pornography. It is a five point Likert scale. The instruments reliability coefficient is r=0. 82; it was
determined through Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient. Collected data were analyzed
using mean (X) and t-test statistics. Result of analyses are
using pornography is not significantly different (p< 0.5) from mean sexual response of non
there is a significant difference (p>. 05) between the mean attitude of the students that received
treatment and those that were in the control group. The study recommends that, among other things,
the services of counselling psychologists and therapists should be enlisted in schools and colleges to
take care of students who have psychosexual problems.

RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA

By
AZUKA F.N. GODSPRESENCE
University of Nigeria, Nsukka,
Enugu State, Nigeria.
mail: pheloskky.2blessed@gmail.com;
azukaking@yahoo.com
07033637883
e effects of stimulus control on students inclination to pornography among
two selected schools in Rivers State. The population for the study consists of all the regular students
of the University of Port Harcourt for 2003 academic session and all secondary school students of
tested at 0.05 alpha levels, were used in the study. Quasi-experimental design was adopted. The study
of 160 students from both schools divided into two groups of 80 porn users and
porn users. The study sample was derived through purposive sampling. Instrument
aphy. It is a five point Likert scale. The instruments reliability coefficient is r=0. 82; it was
test statistics. Result of analyses are: (1) the mean sexual response of students
using pornography is not significantly different (p< 0.5) from mean sexual response of non
d those that were in the control group. The study recommends that, among other things,
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
77
ontrol on students inclination to pornography among
ll the regular students
ry school students of
experimental design was adopted. The study
divided into two groups of 80 porn users and
porn users. The study sample was derived through purposive sampling. Instrument
aphy. It is a five point Likert scale. The instruments reliability coefficient is r=0. 82; it was
: (1) the mean sexual response of students
using pornography is not significantly different (p< 0.5) from mean sexual response of non-users, (2)
d those that were in the control group. The study recommends that, among other things,


Introduction

This study is set against the backdrop that viewing or reading lascivious material has led many people,
especially youths of school age into some one form of deviant sexual behaviour or the other, and
sometimes continual consumption of pornography as it is
promiscuous behaviour. This study, therefore, is set out to determine how the application of a
psychotherapy known as stimulus control
pornography.

Nwankwo (1995) posits that human behaviour is goal
either internal or external stimuli or frame of reference. Human beings can respond to various forms of
stimuli at different times, in some cases the response
Therefore, our responses to certain stimuli in our environment can constitute a danger depending on the
degree of response, hence the adoption and application of stimulus control as a psychotherapeutic
technique to take care of undesirable responses.

Essuman, Nwaogu and Nwachukwu (1990, 49) defines Stimulus Control as a process by which
environmental contingencies are altered in order to reduce the probability of a particular behaviour
occurring, for example keeping medicine out of reach of children serves as Stimulus Control. Simply put,
stimulus control is the control of a persons reactions by the characteristics of the situation.

Pornography

Pornography is the describing or showing of naked people
excitement (Hornby, 1995). The American Heritage Dictionary defines pornography as written, graphic,
or other forms of communication intended to
pornography by Mackinnon (1983) focuses on male dominance, thus:

Pornography is the celebration, the promotion, the authorization and the legitimization
of rape, sexual harassment, battery, and the abuse of children all for the purpose of the
sexual pleasure of men. Simply p
of which rape, battery, sexual harassment, and the sexual and physical abuse of
children are also forms of practice. It is affirmatively employing the enforcement of
others powerlessness.

Similarly, Russell (1993) defines pornography as material that combines sex and/or the exposure
of genitals with abuse or degradation in a manner that appears to endorse, condone, or encourage such
behaviour.

Lascivious material (pornography) designed to arouse sexu
It was initially within the reach of the affluent and the royalties. Later on the innovation of photography
and motion pictures, videocassette recorder escalated the trend. Recently, the proliferation of cable
network and the internet has made pornography more readily accessible. Young people growing up in our
heavily sexualized culture are being exposed to sexually explicit material and message before they are
mentally or emotionally ripe to understand and evaluat
sex education is taking place in the media, not in the school, church or home.

According to Shahid, presented in khan (online, 2003), Muslim region has an interesting
philosophy of pornography and nudity
entertainment, but a disease and an addiction, and that Muslims should therefore avoid it. Child
pornography is another disease, Muslim position stresses further that child pornography which has
contributed to 500,000 cases of incest involving father and daughter per year in the United States of
America is totally an aberration. Record also has it that child slave trade for sex involves five million
children worldwide. In the United States alone more t
because of exposure to pornography.
sometimes continual consumption of pornography as it is fondly called has led many young people into
stimulus control could help to check inclinational attitude of students toward
Nwankwo (1995) posits that human behaviour is goal-oriented and normally arises in response to
stimuli at different times, in some cases the response (behaviour) is undesirable and in others, desirable.
technique to take care of undesirable responses.
ample keeping medicine out of reach of children serves as Stimulus Control. Simply put,
Pornography is the describing or showing of naked people or sexual acts in order to cause sexual
s of communication intended to excite lascivious feelings. Feminist definition of
nnon (1983) focuses on male dominance, thus:
sexual pleasure of men. Simply put, pornography eroticizes dominance and submission,
others powerlessness.
ssell (1993) defines pornography as material that combines sex and/or the exposure
Lascivious material (pornography) designed to arouse sexual feelings dates back thousands of years.
work and the internet has made pornography more readily accessible. Young people growing up in our
mentally or emotionally ripe to understand and evaluate what they are viewing. Unfortunately, majority of
sex education is taking place in the media, not in the school, church or home.
philosophy of pornography and nudity. It posits that pornography is neither educational nor
ibuted to 500,000 cases of incest involving father and daughter per year in the United States of
children worldwide. In the United States alone more than 100, 000 rapes are being committed annually
because of exposure to pornography.
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78
has led many young people into
could help to check inclinational attitude of students toward
oriented and normally arises in response to
(behaviour) is undesirable and in others, desirable.
ample keeping medicine out of reach of children serves as Stimulus Control. Simply put,
or sexual acts in order to cause sexual
Feminist definition of
ut, pornography eroticizes dominance and submission,
ssell (1993) defines pornography as material that combines sex and/or the exposure
al feelings dates back thousands of years.
work and the internet has made pornography more readily accessible. Young people growing up in our
e what they are viewing. Unfortunately, majority of
. It posits that pornography is neither educational nor
ibuted to 500,000 cases of incest involving father and daughter per year in the United States of
han 100, 000 rapes are being committed annually


The proliferation of pornography and easy accessibility to porn materials and porn websites on the
internet is currently causing a nasty indenture on our sense of morality and societal ethical mores and
standards. Youths, preteens and children are often th
males are also potential targets.

There are many youths out there who are finding it increasingly difficult to adjust themselves
psychologically in their growth process toward adulthood because of their
pornography when they were too young to handle the problems posed by such exposure. Some of them
evidently are growing up with traumatized personality.
that the evil of pornography can get anyone trapped
executive of a reputable company, media personnel, banker, attorney or solicitor, or an army general or a
head of department. This is so because the victims often fail to rearrange t
associated with the problem behaviours within their environment. This is where Stimulus Control is
relevant.

The awful problem with pornography consumption is that once anyone gets addicted he can hardly
throw off his dependence on porn material in spite of many associated negative consequences. Intelligent
people seem to be more vulnerable. It could be because they have greater capacity to fantasize (Cline,
1990). There are many people who are already pornography addicts to t
psychological problems. Some individuals also have grown up with perverted view of sexual relationship
and gender values because of earlier impact on their brain made by unhealthy exposure to pornography.

Hunter (2000) reports that
U.S Congress said that there are estimated 40,000 to 100,000 hardcore (porn) websites. Currently, there is
estimated more than one million porn sites today in the web
In the same vein, Representative Steve Largernt from Oklahoma testifies that 200 new porn sites are
created each day. To make matters worse, these pornography sites are easily accessible to anyone in the
internet irrespective of age of the individual. It is threatening to know that school children have easy,
unguided access to the internet.

At the moment, there is a monstrous advert of Dial
against preteens (Hunter, 2000). This p
crime in Japan which is committed through internet dating websites which involves child pornography
and child prostitution. According to police report, in 2001 above 888 internet sex crimes wer
out of which 387 cases involve child pornography or child prostitution (South
Therefore, this work is designed to propose ways of diverting or changing the growing inclination
of students toward pornography through
discriminating stimulus that genders enforcement of any appropriate response made.
Purpose of the study
This study is designed to demonstrate the resultant effects of application of a psychother
technique and therapy known as stimulus control on the growing inclination of some sampled students
toward pornography.
This study attends to the following:
The degree of influence which pornography exerts on students sexual inclination.
The effectiveness of stimulus control technique in checking/restraining students interest in
pornography.
Determining whether stimulus control was sufficient to deal effectively with students inclination
toward pornography or not.

Significance of the study
This study is an important one and would be useful in many ways, which include the following:
i. It would identify some factors that encourage ones interest in pornography.
standards. Youths, preteens and children are often the targets of such sex fashion spree. Heterosexual
psychologically in their growth process toward adulthood because of their
evidently are growing up with traumatized personality. It is critically an insidious problem to the society
an get anyone trapped - it could be a fifteenyear old as well as a chief
head of department. This is so because the victims often fail to rearrange the cues that are often
nce on porn material in spite of many associated negative consequences. Intelligent
1990). There are many people who are already pornography addicts to the point that they have
Hunter (2000) reports that Representative Robert Goodlatte from Virginia testifying before the
estimated more than one million porn sites today in the web - this is a ghastly blow on universal morality.
, Representative Steve Largernt from Oklahoma testifies that 200 new porn sites are
age of the individual. It is threatening to know that school children have easy,
At the moment, there is a monstrous advert of Dial a porn phone sex that is specifically directed
against preteens (Hunter, 2000). This poses a growing devastating danger. There is also a surging sex
and child prostitution. According to police report, in 2001 above 888 internet sex crimes wer
out of which 387 cases involve child pornography or child prostitution (South-South Express, 2002, p.5).
of students toward pornography through the instrumentality of Stimulus Control
This study is designed to demonstrate the resultant effects of application of a psychother
This study attends to the following:
effectiveness of stimulus control technique in checking/restraining students interest in
toward pornography or not.
It would identify some factors that encourage ones interest in pornography.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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79
e targets of such sex fashion spree. Heterosexual
earlier exposure to
It is critically an insidious problem to the society
year old as well as a chief
he cues that are often
nce on porn material in spite of many associated negative consequences. Intelligent
he point that they have
Representative Robert Goodlatte from Virginia testifying before the
blow on universal morality.
, Representative Steve Largernt from Oklahoma testifies that 200 new porn sites are
age of the individual. It is threatening to know that school children have easy,
porn phone sex that is specifically directed
oses a growing devastating danger. There is also a surging sex
and child prostitution. According to police report, in 2001 above 888 internet sex crimes were committed
South Express, 2002, p.5).
the instrumentality of Stimulus Control which involves a
This study is designed to demonstrate the resultant effects of application of a psychotherapeutic
effectiveness of stimulus control technique in checking/restraining students interest in



ii. This work is also meant to spell out ways to avoid developing awful penchant
iii. The results of this study will, among other things, provide the basis for a more potent and fruitful
approach towards saving our children, youths, and married couples from sore, bleak future.
iv. The study would be hitting against perverted
encourage healthy, responsive relationship among members of the opposite sex.
v. Very importantly, this study will also depict how the counselling technique known as stimulus
control could be effectively appli
vi. Finally, this study would further provide a stimulating environment for further research and
educational project on pornography in general, and on the use of behaviour modification
programme to curb or control pornographys use, its effect on users, and peoples unwholesome
attachment to pornography.

Research Questions
The researcher proposes the following research questions for the study, namely:
1. To what extent is the students inclination
2. To what extent can the application of stimulus control affect students inclination toward
pornography?

Null hypotheses
The following null hypotheses are
Also, they are answerable to the research questions posed earlier. Theses hypotheses are:
1. The sexual response of students who are exposed to pornography is not significantly different from
the sexual response of non-users of p
2. There is no significant difference in the use of stimulus control as a therapy to modify the
unwholesome attachment of pornography users in comparison with pornography users who did not
receive treatment.

Review of Related Literature
This chapter will be discussing various literatures that have to do with Stimulus Control, pornography and
perhaps some definitional positions on inclination. This review certainly will help to provide theoretical
and practical framework for this intelle

The Concept of Stimulus Control
According to the Wortman, Loftus and Weaver (1999) Stimulus Control is a behaviour therapy technique
that focuses on rearranging the environment
The association between the environment and the desired response is achieved by eliminating all other
options. A dieter, for example, who removes all snacks from the house except fruit and vegetables, is
exercising Stimulus Control.

Wortman, et al said that reinforcement is and inextricable ally of Stimulus Control. Besides
controlling the strength and frequency of operant responses, reinforcement has another important effect.
It relates a particular behaviour to stimuli that are associated with th
been conditioned to press a bar and a bulb in his Skinner box lights up. The Skinner box and the lighted
bulb have become associated with the behaviour of bar pressing and the reward that follows. Whenever
there stimuli - the box and the light
is called Stimulus Control, because the stimuli prevailing at the time of reinforcement have come to
control the organisms response. Parham (
environment is designed so that certain cues (
behaviours are performed. Selecting a place to relax where there are few cues associated with wo
selecting a place to study, such as a particular room or a particular desk that is used only for studying are
examples of Stimulus Control.

This work is also meant to spell out ways to avoid developing awful penchant
The results of this study will, among other things, provide the basis for a more potent and fruitful
The study would be hitting against perverted view of sex and gender values, and would rather
Very importantly, this study will also depict how the counselling technique known as stimulus
control could be effectively applied to modify students unhealthy inclination toward pornography.
Finally, this study would further provide a stimulating environment for further research and
to curb or control pornographys use, its effect on users, and peoples unwholesome
attachment to pornography.
The researcher proposes the following research questions for the study, namely:
To what extent is the students inclination toward pornography responsible for their sexual response?
To what extent can the application of stimulus control affect students inclination toward
are used to give direction and empirical structure to this research work.
answerable to the research questions posed earlier. Theses hypotheses are:
The sexual response of students who are exposed to pornography is not significantly different from
users of pornography.
There is no significant difference in the use of stimulus control as a therapy to modify the
and practical framework for this intellectual investigation.
f Stimulus Control
that focuses on rearranging the environment - the cues that are often associated with problem behavi
said that reinforcement is and inextricable ally of Stimulus Control. Besides
It relates a particular behaviour to stimuli that are associated with the learning situation. Suppose a rat has
the box and the light - are present, the rat is likely to press the bar again. This relationship
because the stimuli prevailing at the time of reinforcement have come to
he organisms response. Parham (1988) states that Stimulus Control is a technique in which the
designed so that certain cues (discriminative stimuli) increase the likelihood that specific
behaviours are performed. Selecting a place to relax where there are few cues associated with wo
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80
for pornography.
The results of this study will, among other things, provide the basis for a more potent and fruitful
view of sex and gender values, and would rather
Very importantly, this study will also depict how the counselling technique known as stimulus
ed to modify students unhealthy inclination toward pornography.
Finally, this study would further provide a stimulating environment for further research and
to curb or control pornographys use, its effect on users, and peoples unwholesome
toward pornography responsible for their sexual response?
To what extent can the application of stimulus control affect students inclination toward
cture to this research work.
answerable to the research questions posed earlier. Theses hypotheses are:
The sexual response of students who are exposed to pornography is not significantly different from
There is no significant difference in the use of stimulus control as a therapy to modify the
the cues that are often associated with problem behaviours.
said that reinforcement is and inextricable ally of Stimulus Control. Besides
e learning situation. Suppose a rat has
are present, the rat is likely to press the bar again. This relationship
because the stimuli prevailing at the time of reinforcement have come to
s that Stimulus Control is a technique in which the
increase the likelihood that specific
behaviours are performed. Selecting a place to relax where there are few cues associated with work, or


Stimulus Control of Behaviour
This is an instrument conditioning (operant) experiment where
particular response to one stimulus and not reinforcing the same response to another stimulus. The result
of such an experiment is that when the positive stimulus (s
be made; but when the negative stimulus (S
occur at all. Since the tendency to respond is tied to the stimulus that is present, the discrimination
process in instrumental conditioning is som
(Morgan, King, Weisz and Schopler, 1986). The following experiment illustrates discrimination learning,
or the Stimulus Control of Behaviour in an operant chamber (Hanson, 1959):

The pigeons in this experiment were positively reinforced for key
the translucent key was illuminated by a light that appeared yellow
observers. During the intervals of yellow
positive reinforcement for pecking the key. If another light, a red one, illuminated the key,
the pigeons received no reinforcement. Consequently, the birds learned to peck during the
yellow-green, but not during the red periods. After such discrimination has b
change in behaviour when the stimuli are shifted is dramatic almost like turning a faucet on
or off (p.160).
Parham (1988) sums it up by saying that Stimulus Control of Behaviour is when a persons
reactions are determined by the characte
behaviour that is cued by discriminative stimuli is said to be under Stimulus Control. Most operant
behaviours are under Stimulus Control in one way or the other; for instance, a police ca
a sufficient discriminative stimulus for you to slow down. According to Wade and Travis (1993), a
somewhat different kind of discrimination occurs when an animal or human being learns to respond to a
stimulus only when some other stimulu
stimulus signals whether a response, if made, will pay off. In a Skinner box, for example, a light may serve
as a discriminative stimulus for pecking at a circle. When the light is on, pecki
is off pecking is futile. The light is said to exert Stimulus Control over the pecking by setting the occasion
for reinforcement to occur if the response is made. However, the response is not compelled.
Furthermore, Wortman, et
seen in the treatment for insomnia devise
their beds for activities other than sleeping. They use the beds for reading, watchi
Bootzin and associates emphasize that the bed must be reestablished as a cue associated only with
sleeping. Evidently, Stimulus Control techniques are considered the most effective known treatment for
such thing as insomnia and other similar behavioural problems.
Pornography as a Concept
Pornography is any material that is designed to sexually arouse its viewers or readers. Many experts have
defined pornography as those explicit sexual depictions whose purpose or effect is to bring about sexual
arousal in the ordinary viewer or reader (Wil
Gary, 1983, p.62). The American heritage dictionary defines pornography as written, graphic, or other
forms of communications intended to excite lascivious feelings. Ntozake Shange argues that por
is the use of sex to intimidate and control women and children and anyone else who is subject to a
situation like that.

Carnes (1991) says that pornography is a sign, or symptom of inappropriate perspective on the
sacred gift of sexuality. The real problem is that our understanding of the nature of sexual relationship is
becoming increasingly polluted. We have traded that which is of most worth for something less life
giving, commitment-solidifying, joy
so doing, we also stumble onto a powerful mood
life.
Minneapolis Ordinance states that pornography is central in creating and maintaining the civil
inequality of the sexes. Pornography is a systematic practice of exploitation and subordination based on
sex, which differently harms women. The bigotry and contempt it promotes with the acts of aggression it

This is an instrument conditioning (operant) experiment where discrimination is achieved by reinforcing a
of such an experiment is that when the positive stimulus (s
+
) is present, the learned response is likely t
be made; but when the negative stimulus (S
-
) is present, the response is less likely to occur or will not
process in instrumental conditioning is sometimes referred to as the Stimulus Control of Behaviour
or the Stimulus Control of Behaviour in an operant chamber (Hanson, 1959):
s experiment were positively reinforced for key-peck responses only when
the translucent key was illuminated by a light that appeared yellow-green to human
observers. During the intervals of yellow-green illumination, the pigeons received contingent
ve reinforcement for pecking the key. If another light, a red one, illuminated the key,
green, but not during the red periods. After such discrimination has been learned, the
reactions are determined by the characteristics of the situation. Liebert and Spiegler (1990), posit that a
behaviours are under Stimulus Control in one way or the other; for instance, a police ca
stimulus only when some other stimulus called a discriminative stimulus is present. The discriminative
as a discriminative stimulus for pecking at a circle. When the light is on, pecking brings a reward; when it
al (1999) submit that a more extensive example of this technique can be
seen in the treatment for insomnia devised by Bootzin, Epstein and Wood, 1991. Many insomniacs use
their beds for activities other than sleeping. They use the beds for reading, watching television, and so on.
her similar behavioural problems.
arousal in the ordinary viewer or reader (Williams, 1979, p. 196; Malamuth and Donnerstein, 1982, p.105;
forms of communications intended to excite lascivious feelings. Ntozake Shange argues that por
real problem is that our understanding of the nature of sexual relationship is
becoming increasingly polluted. We have traded that which is of most worth for something less life
solidifying, joy-producing sexuality for transient, sensual, immediate gratification. In
so doing, we also stumble onto a powerful mood-altering experience to deal with the stresses of everyday
exes. Pornography is a systematic practice of exploitation and subordination based on
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81
discrimination is achieved by reinforcing a
) is present, the learned response is likely to
) is present, the response is less likely to occur or will not
etimes referred to as the Stimulus Control of Behaviour
peck responses only when
green to human
green illumination, the pigeons received contingent
ve reinforcement for pecking the key. If another light, a red one, illuminated the key,
een learned, the
ristics of the situation. Liebert and Spiegler (1990), posit that a
behaviours are under Stimulus Control in one way or the other; for instance, a police car up-head is often
s called a discriminative stimulus is present. The discriminative
ng brings a reward; when it
a more extensive example of this technique can be
. Many insomniacs use
ng television, and so on.
liams, 1979, p. 196; Malamuth and Donnerstein, 1982, p.105;
forms of communications intended to excite lascivious feelings. Ntozake Shange argues that pornography
real problem is that our understanding of the nature of sexual relationship is
becoming increasingly polluted. We have traded that which is of most worth for something less life-
l, immediate gratification. In
altering experience to deal with the stresses of everyday
exes. Pornography is a systematic practice of exploitation and subordination based on


fosters, harm womens opportunities for equality of rights in emp
public accommodation and public services; create public harassment and private denigration; promote
injury and degradation such as rape, battery and prostitution and inhibit just enforcement of laws against
these acts; contributes significantly to restricting women from full exercise of citizenship and participation
in public life, including neighborhoods; damage relation between the sexes; and undermine womens
equal exercise of rights to speech and action guaranteed t
the United States and the State of Minnesota (cited in Ferguson, 1995, p, 677).
At this juncture it is pertinent to declare that Dworkin (1988) opines that pornography is the
material means of sexualizing inequality; and that is why pornography is a central practice in the
subordination of women. One Germaine Greer has also remarked that pornography is already a vastly
bigger cultural presence that all our opera, ballet, theatre, music and fine art put
The concept of Pornographys E
Different groups have come up with different arguments on the various effects pornography has on
society. Involved in the debate are the liberals, feminists, and religious conservatives (Einsiedel, 1988).
The liberals view of pornographys effect is in respect of free speech. They argue that unless there is a
direct cause and effect relationship between pornography and harm to women or children the content of
pornography should be legal. The liberals point to
as justification for its availability.
conceptualization of effect. They claim that pornography enacts male dominance over women. As
pornographys main effect is to deny women full equality (Einsiedel, 1988, p. 113).

Religious and political conservatives adopt similar ideological conception of effect. They argue that
pornography is destroying (rather than enforcing) their
family value, which stress the virtues of the nuclear family, monogamous sexual relationships within
marriage, and the reproductive rather than recreational functions of sexual behaviour (McNair, 1996,
p.49). Drs. Malamuth and Donnerstein (1984) noted in their research based book: Pornography and
Sexual Aggression, that certain forms of pornography (aggressive) can produce aggressive attitudes
toward women and can desensitize an individuals perception of r
are, also, directly related to actual aggressive behaviour against women. These results suggest, again, that
aggressive pornography does increase aggression against women.

Zillmann and Bryant (1988) undertook a pains
nonviolent pornography. After many weeks of exposure, the subjects/participants reported less
satisfaction with their partners sexual performance, affection, and physical appearance. The researchers
also found an incompatibility of the sexual values implicit in enduring intimate relationship, and
particularly in marriage. The chief proclamation of pornography is great sexual joy without any
attachment, commitment or responsibility.
male and female), after intensive exposure to pornography, had a greater acceptance of pre
extramarital sex and an enhancement of the belief that male and female promiscuity is natural. Extensive
exposure also lowered their evaluation of marriage, making the marriage institution to appear less
significant and less viable in the future. It also reduced their desire to have children and promoted the
acceptance of male dominance and female servitude.

Furthermore, research findings on the powerful effects of pornography as demonstrated in the
study carried out by Hunter(2000) are predicated on these significant areas: namely sexual arousal,
addiction escalation, aggression against the opposite sex and corresponding attit
pathway to self-inflicted sexual illness, desensitizing effect, conditioned into deviancy, causal model of
rape, declining family values, ideological aspect, imprinting brain with sexual image, impact on
psychosexual development, pornography and the community.
was so deeply addicted that he could not stay away from pornography for 90 days even for
$1,000.Psychologist Patrick Cranes (1991) found among 932 sex addicts that 90% of the men and 77% of
the women reported pornography as significant to their addictions.

fosters, harm womens opportunities for equality of rights in employment, education, property, rights,
contributes significantly to restricting women from full exercise of citizenship and participation
equal exercise of rights to speech and action guaranteed to all citizens under the Constitution and laws of
the United States and the State of Minnesota (cited in Ferguson, 1995, p, 677).
g inequality; and that is why pornography is a central practice in the
bigger cultural presence that all our opera, ballet, theatre, music and fine art put together.
The concept of Pornographys Effect
liberals view of pornographys effect is in respect of free speech. They argue that unless there is a
pornography should be legal. The liberals point to the supposedly casual cathartic effects of pornography
The feminists who are of course anti-porn argue for an ideological
conceptualization of effect. They claim that pornography enacts male dominance over women. As
pornographys main effect is to deny women full equality (Einsiedel, 1988, p. 113).
pornography is destroying (rather than enforcing) their cherished and institutionalized Judaeo
Drs. Malamuth and Donnerstein (1984) noted in their research based book: Pornography and
toward women and can desensitize an individuals perception of rape. These attitudes and perceptions
aggressive pornography does increase aggression against women.
Zillmann and Bryant (1988) undertook a painstaking research on prolonged consumption of
n incompatibility of the sexual values implicit in enduring intimate relationship, and
attachment, commitment or responsibility. Zillmann and Bryant further found that their subjects (both
male and female), after intensive exposure to pornography, had a greater acceptance of pre
d their evaluation of marriage, making the marriage institution to appear less
acceptance of male dominance and female servitude.
rch findings on the powerful effects of pornography as demonstrated in the
addiction escalation, aggression against the opposite sex and corresponding attitude towards women, easy
inflicted sexual illness, desensitizing effect, conditioned into deviancy, causal model of
rnography and the community. For instance, a patient named Ralph
the women reported pornography as significant to their addictions.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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82
loyment, education, property, rights,
contributes significantly to restricting women from full exercise of citizenship and participation
o all citizens under the Constitution and laws of
g inequality; and that is why pornography is a central practice in the
together.
liberals view of pornographys effect is in respect of free speech. They argue that unless there is a
the supposedly casual cathartic effects of pornography
porn argue for an ideological
conceptualization of effect. They claim that pornography enacts male dominance over women. As such,

cherished and institutionalized Judaeo-Christian
Drs. Malamuth and Donnerstein (1984) noted in their research based book: Pornography and
ape. These attitudes and perceptions
taking research on prolonged consumption of
n incompatibility of the sexual values implicit in enduring intimate relationship, and
her found that their subjects (both
male and female), after intensive exposure to pornography, had a greater acceptance of pre-and
d their evaluation of marriage, making the marriage institution to appear less
rch findings on the powerful effects of pornography as demonstrated in the
ude towards women, easy
inflicted sexual illness, desensitizing effect, conditioned into deviancy, causal model of
For instance, a patient named Ralph


Different Forms of Pornography

Violent Pornography
Aggressive sexual crimes against women are very serious and escalating problem, especially in the United
States. Recent Senate Judiciary Committee hearings concluded that rape has increased four times as fast as
the overall crime rate over the last decade.
rape rate four times that of Germany, thirteen times as much as English, and twenty times as much as
Japan.

In recent years, there has been a considerable body of research on violent p
which is found in R-rated films. Many of these films are also broadcast unedited on cable TV and later
are available to children in nearly every video store (in America). The typical files show nude females, or
females in sexually arousing situations and postures being raped, tortured, or murdered. The results of
this research suggests the possibility of conditioning viewers into associating sexual arousal with inflicting
injury, rape, humiliations or torture in females. Where these fil
repeatedly viewed in the privacy of ones residence and masturbated
or anti-social conditioning and behavio

Malamuth and Donnerstein (1984) noted
Aggression, that certain forms of pornography (aggressive) can affect aggressive attitude towards women
and can desensitize an individuals perception of rape. These attitudes and perceptions are, furt
directly related to actual aggressive behaviour against women. The literature on aggressive porn is rather
impressive in its consistency in suggesting a variety of harms or possibility of anti
exposure to this material. Dr. Ma
exposed to sexually violent pornography, such as rape and other forms of sexual violence, two
the male subjects, following such exposure, indicated an increased willingness to force
acts if they were assured of not been caught or punished.

In a similar research by Seymour Feshback and associates, 51% of normal UCLA males indicated
the likelihood of emulating a sadomasochistic rape (seen in porn material they had been
they were assured of not getting caught. Mills College Sociologist, Diana Russell, in a study found that the
depiction and dissemination of the
them were significant elements in reducing inhibitions to the use of violence, thus habituating both males
and females to the idea of rape while at the same time accepting sexual aberrance as normal behaviour.
In another study, Malamuth and Check (1981) showed to some men at the Un
nonsexual movies or movies in which a man sexually overpowered a woman. A week later, in a separate
study, the men completed a questionnaire that assessed their attitudes toward women and toward rape.
The men who had viewed sexually violent movies expressed a greater tolerance toward rape and greater
agreement that women enjoy rape. In a replication, Malamuth and Check (1985) found that viewing
sexually violent movies increased false beliefs about rape
negative, aggressive attitude toward women.

The 10-member panel of the 1986 Attorney Generals Commission on Pornography in the U.S.A.,
after reviewing a great volume of clinical and experimental research, concluded unanimously
substantial exposure to sexually violent materials (violent pornography) bears a causal relationship to
antisocial act of sexual violence -
materials and increase in aggressive b
Non-violent pornography
Non-violent pornography is sexual
must be stated though that the absence of violence does not mean that such pornography is a heal
model of sexual behaviour; it could sometimes have more moral, health and psychological implications. It
is negative and anti-social. Examples include child pornography, incest type of pornography, sex with
animals and group sex pornography, etc.

ornography
the overall crime rate over the last decade. In fact, the United State leads the world in rape statistics with a
In recent years, there has been a considerable body of research on violent p
rated films. Many of these films are also broadcast unedited on cable TV and later
sing situations and postures being raped, tortured, or murdered. The results of
the possibility of conditioning viewers into associating sexual arousal with inflicting
injury, rape, humiliations or torture in females. Where these films are available on videotape
in the privacy of ones residence and masturbated, with the associated risks of negative
social conditioning and behaviour, as previously noted.
Malamuth and Donnerstein (1984) noted in their research-based book, Pornography and Sexual
and can desensitize an individuals perception of rape. These attitudes and perceptions are, furt
impressive in its consistency in suggesting a variety of harms or possibility of anti-social outcomes from
exposure to this material. Dr. Malamuth and associate further found that when college males were
exposed to sexually violent pornography, such as rape and other forms of sexual violence, two
the male subjects, following such exposure, indicated an increased willingness to force
acts if they were assured of not been caught or punished.
the likelihood of emulating a sadomasochistic rape (seen in porn material they had been
depiction and dissemination of the rape myth (e.g. that most women really enjoy having sex forced upon
ts in reducing inhibitions to the use of violence, thus habituating both males
In another study, Malamuth and Check (1981) showed to some men at the University of Manitoba either
ally violent movies expressed a greater tolerance toward rape and greater
sexually violent movies increased false beliefs about rape particularly in men who a
negative, aggressive attitude toward women.
member panel of the 1986 Attorney Generals Commission on Pornography in the U.S.A.,
after reviewing a great volume of clinical and experimental research, concluded unanimously
- and there is a causal relationship between exposure to sexually violent
materials and increase in aggressive behaviour directed toward women.
violent pornography is sexual-arousing material, which of course, is totally devoid of violence. It
must be stated though that the absence of violence does not mean that such pornography is a heal
social. Examples include child pornography, incest type of pornography, sex with
animals and group sex pornography, etc.
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In fact, the United State leads the world in rape statistics with a
In recent years, there has been a considerable body of research on violent pornography much of
rated films. Many of these films are also broadcast unedited on cable TV and later
sing situations and postures being raped, tortured, or murdered. The results of
the possibility of conditioning viewers into associating sexual arousal with inflicting
ble on videotape, these can be
, with the associated risks of negative
based book, Pornography and Sexual
and can desensitize an individuals perception of rape. These attitudes and perceptions are, furthermore,
social outcomes from
lamuth and associate further found that when college males were
exposed to sexually violent pornography, such as rape and other forms of sexual violence, two-third of
the male subjects, following such exposure, indicated an increased willingness to force a woman into sex
the likelihood of emulating a sadomasochistic rape (seen in porn material they had been exposed to) if
(e.g. that most women really enjoy having sex forced upon
ts in reducing inhibitions to the use of violence, thus habituating both males
iversity of Manitoba either
ally violent movies expressed a greater tolerance toward rape and greater
particularly in men who already possessed
member panel of the 1986 Attorney Generals Commission on Pornography in the U.S.A.,
after reviewing a great volume of clinical and experimental research, concluded unanimously that
and there is a causal relationship between exposure to sexually violent
arousing material, which of course, is totally devoid of violence. It
must be stated though that the absence of violence does not mean that such pornography is a healthy
social. Examples include child pornography, incest type of pornography, sex with


Methodology
Research design
The research design for this study is quasi
students inclination toward pornography are examined and evaluated. The design therefore has both the
Experimental group, which is treated with stimulus control, and a Control group, which receives no
treatment. See illustration below:

Experimental group
Control group
where:

T1 = students randomly selected for the experimental and control groups
X = treatment applied to the experimental group
0= no treatment on the control group
T2= the effect of treatment on the experimental group.

Sample and Sampling Technique
A total of 80 students (males and females) were selected as sample for this study through purposiv
sampling procedure. The researcher had to go to cyber cafes and student hostels and classrooms to find
out students who use pornography through oral examination and personal interviews.
divided into two halves (using split
students were identified and selected who do not use pornography. The 80 students represent extraneous
variable in the study.

Instrument for Data Collection
For the purpose of this study a thirty
Pornography Scale (SITPS) was developed and utilized by the researcher to be responded to on a five
point Likert scale of Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided,
received validation from experts. The instrument was used to garner data for the study.

Reliability of the Instrument
A test-retest application was used to determine the reliability coefficient of the res
(Questionnaire). This was administered on ten students once, and again after an interval of ten days. Their
responses for the two different times were recorded promptly. Persons Product Moment Correlation
Coefficient (r) was applied to correlate the students scores in the first and second tests. This is done to
determine the instruments reliability coefficient, which is r = 0.82

Treatment Programme
Eighty students whose earlier response on the
pornography were divided into two stratified groups (experimental group and control group) of 40
persons in each group. Persons in the experimental group were acquainted with the purpose of the study.
The programme was introduced
dependence on or inclination toward pornography. The control group subjects were not given any
treatment. Before treatment, both the experimental and control groups were briefed by the resear
the possible consequences of prolonged dependence on pornography.

Method of data analysis
The data obtained from this study is analyzed to determine the effect of the independent variable
(Stimulus control) on the dependent variable (inclination o
statistics was used to test the two hypotheses proposed; mean and standard deviation were used to
analyse the two research questions posed for the study.

The research design for this study is quasi-experimental design. The effects of Stimulus Control on
is treated with stimulus control, and a Control group, which receives no

T1 X T2
T1 0 T2
= students randomly selected for the experimental and control groups
applied to the experimental group
0= no treatment on the control group
the effect of treatment on the experimental group.
echnique
A total of 80 students (males and females) were selected as sample for this study through purposiv
out students who use pornography through oral examination and personal interviews.
divided into two halves (using split-half method) into experimental group and control group. Another 80
ollection
For the purpose of this study a thirty-one item questionnaire titled: Students Inclination Toward
was developed and utilized by the researcher to be responded to on a five
point Likert scale of Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. The instrument
retest application was used to determine the reliability coefficient of the res
rrelate the students scores in the first and second tests. This is done to
determine the instruments reliability coefficient, which is r = 0.82
Eighty students whose earlier response on the self-report scale skewed positively towards use of
The programme was introduced to the students as one intended to be used to help them overcome
treatment. Before treatment, both the experimental and control groups were briefed by the resear
the possible consequences of prolonged dependence on pornography.
(Stimulus control) on the dependent variable (inclination of students toward pornography). Students t
analyse the two research questions posed for the study.
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experimental design. The effects of Stimulus Control on
is treated with stimulus control, and a Control group, which receives no
A total of 80 students (males and females) were selected as sample for this study through purposive
out students who use pornography through oral examination and personal interviews. The sample was
o experimental group and control group. Another 80
Students Inclination Toward
was developed and utilized by the researcher to be responded to on a five-
Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. The instrument
retest application was used to determine the reliability coefficient of the research instrument
rrelate the students scores in the first and second tests. This is done to
positively towards use of
to the students as one intended to be used to help them overcome
treatment. Before treatment, both the experimental and control groups were briefed by the researcher on
f students toward pornography). Students t-test


Result and Analysis of Result
In this chapter the researcher makes presentation of the results of the study. This is done in accordance
with the data collected and analyzed in respect of the research questions and corresponding hypotheses
proposed earlier.
Research Question One: To what extent is students
their sexual response?
Table 1: Table showing mean scores

Groups
Users of
pornography
Mean
SD
N
Non-users of
pornography
Mean
SD
N

Research Question Two: To what extent does the application of Stimulus Control technique affect
students inclination toward pornography?

Table 2: Table showing mean scores
and Control Groups).

Groups Mean
Experimental group (post-
test)
97.85
Control group 105.0

Hypothesis One

The sexual response of students exposed to the use of pornography is not significantly different from the
sexual response of non-users of pornography.

Table 3: Independent t-test summary on the sexual response of students who are exposed to the use of
pornography comparing with those who do not use pornography.
Group Number
Users of
pornography
40
Non-users of
pornography
80

The t-calculated value is 0.487 (which lies between
significance with 118 degrees of freedom. We, therefore accept the null hypothesis, which says that
is no significant difference between the mean sexual response of users of pornography (97.9) and the
mean sexual response of no-users of pornography (which has the mean 98.6). The standard deviation of
users of pornography and that of non
accentuates to the no significant difference in the sexual appetites of the two groups. Note that the
standard deviation of 6.69 is derived out of 80 students who do not use porn, while the standard
deviation 8.8 is from 80 students who use pornography.
Hypothesis Two
There is no significant difference in the use of Stimulus Control as a technique to modify the inclination
of pornography users in comparison with pornography users who did not receive the t

esearcher makes presentation of the results of the study. This is done in accordance
To what extent is students inclination toward pornography responsible for
mean scores and standard deviation of users and non-users of pornography
Gender
Male Female
99.45
9.20
20
96.35
8.00
20
98.35
7.7
40
98.85
5.3
40
To what extent does the application of Stimulus Control technique affect
inclination toward pornography?
mean scores and standard deviation of users of pornography (Experimental
Mean SD Number
97.85 5.83 40
105.0 12.60 40
users of pornography.
test summary on the sexual response of students who are exposed to the use of
pornography comparing with those who do not use pornography.
X SD Df T-cal T-crit
97.9 8.8

118

0.047

2.00 98.6 6.69
calculated value is 0.487 (which lies between -2.000 and 2.000 critical values) at 0.05 level of
significance with 118 degrees of freedom. We, therefore accept the null hypothesis, which says that
users of pornography (which has the mean 98.6). The standard deviation of
users of pornography and that of non-users of pornography are 8.8 and 6.69, respectively. This also
tion 8.8 is from 80 students who use pornography.
of pornography users in comparison with pornography users who did not receive the t
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85
esearcher makes presentation of the results of the study. This is done in accordance
inclination toward pornography responsible for
users of pornography
Overall
97.9
8.8
40
5.3
98.6

80
To what extent does the application of Stimulus Control technique affect
of users of pornography (Experimental
Number

test summary on the sexual response of students who are exposed to the use of
Result

Ho Accepted
2.000 and 2.000 critical values) at 0.05 level of
significance with 118 degrees of freedom. We, therefore accept the null hypothesis, which says that there
users of pornography (which has the mean 98.6). The standard deviation of
rnography are 8.8 and 6.69, respectively. This also
of pornography users in comparison with pornography users who did not receive the treatment.


Table 4: Independent t-test summary on student users of pornography who received Stimulus Control
treatment in comparison with users of pornography who were not treated.
Groups Number
Experimental
group
40
Control group 40
The null Hypothesis is rejected, since the calculated t
at 0.05 level of significance, with 78 degrees of freedom, there is
the experimental group and the control group. The same goes for the standard deviations of the two
groups: experimental group mean score is 97.85 with a standard deviation of 5.83, while control group
mean score is 105.0, with a standard deviation of 12.03. This result shows that there is a significant
difference in the inclination of pornography viewers/readers/users who received stimulus control
treatment and the inclination of pornography users who were not given s
acceptability of pornography waned drastically among members of the experimental group after the
treatment programme.
Conclusion

The study presents a comprehensive graphic analysis of attachment to pornography by students,
otherwise are expected to utilize their time and opportunity to be in school to develop their potentials,
but who rather choose to be distracted with a pastime that affects both their effectiveness and efficiency
as students. Pornography, whether it is
exert unhealthy, retrogressive and immoral effects on the students malleable minds. Pornography viewing
has been shown to interfere with students attention even when the victims are in the cl
normal learning is supposed to be taking place. A grave consequence of attachment to porn is addiction,
which can result in a number of psychological and emotional problems.

The study also highlights the fact that violent pornography can in
women and can desensitize an individuals perception of rape. The reviewed literature on aggressive or
violent porn suggest among other things, a variety of harms or possibility of anti
exposure to this material. For instance, a youth who gets addicted to pornography may grow up with a
mindset that despises the institution of marriage. Dr. Malamuth and associate
when college males were exposed to sexually violent pornography,
sexual violence, two-third of the male subjects, following such exposure, indicated an increased
willingness to force a woman into sex acts if they were assured of not been caught or punished. This has
implications for education. Finally, the study demonstrates how
could be successfully applied in curbing the incidence of pornography. Stimulus Control of behaviour
could serve as remedial as well as preventive strategy.

Recommendations
The study recommends a number of measures to be put in place in order to check the incidence of
circulation and use of sexual explicit materials, especially when it is within the reach of school
underage children. They include:
The services of counselling psychologists and therapists should be enlisted in schools and colleges to
Government should use legislation to proscribe the sale, circulation, and possession of porn materials
among school-age group in the country.
Appropriate laws enforcing the use of blocking filters among web site operators should be
promulgated
There should be enabling legislation to censor audio, visual and graphic programmes, materials and
advertisements of promoters in entertainment industries, show business, and advertising firms.
There should be public/private cooperation in establishing and managing rehabilitation centres in
major cities and the countryside to take care of porn addicts.
test summary on student users of pornography who received Stimulus Control
treatment in comparison with users of pornography who were not treated.
Number X SD Df T-cal T-crit
97.85 5.83

78

3.34

2.00 105.0 12.03
The null Hypothesis is rejected, since the calculated t-value (3.34) is greater than the critical t
at 0.05 level of significance, with 78 degrees of freedom, there is a wide difference in the mean scores of
05.0, with a standard deviation of 12.03. This result shows that there is a significant
treatment and the inclination of pornography users who were not given stimulus control treatment. The
The study presents a comprehensive graphic analysis of attachment to pornography by students,
as students. Pornography, whether it is violent or non-violent pornography, are shown in the study to
has been shown to interfere with students attention even when the victims are in the cl
which can result in a number of psychological and emotional problems.
The study also highlights the fact that violent pornography can induce aggressive attitude towards
violent porn suggest among other things, a variety of harms or possibility of anti-social outcomes from
material. For instance, a youth who gets addicted to pornography may grow up with a
mindset that despises the institution of marriage. Dr. Malamuth and associates, in their study, found that
when college males were exposed to sexually violent pornography, such as rape and other forms of
third of the male subjects, following such exposure, indicated an increased
cation. Finally, the study demonstrates how stimulus control, a therapeutic technique,
could serve as remedial as well as preventive strategy.
circulation and use of sexual explicit materials, especially when it is within the reach of school

services of counselling psychologists and therapists should be enlisted in schools and colleges to
age group in the country.
of promoters in entertainment industries, show business, and advertising firms.
major cities and the countryside to take care of porn addicts.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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86
test summary on student users of pornography who received Stimulus Control
crit Result
2.00

Ho Accepted
value (3.34) is greater than the critical t-value (2.000)
a wide difference in the mean scores of
05.0, with a standard deviation of 12.03. This result shows that there is a significant
timulus control treatment. The
The study presents a comprehensive graphic analysis of attachment to pornography by students, who
violent pornography, are shown in the study to
has been shown to interfere with students attention even when the victims are in the classroom where
duce aggressive attitude towards
social outcomes from
material. For instance, a youth who gets addicted to pornography may grow up with a
, in their study, found that
such as rape and other forms of
third of the male subjects, following such exposure, indicated an increased
, a therapeutic technique,
circulation and use of sexual explicit materials, especially when it is within the reach of school-age or
services of counselling psychologists and therapists should be enlisted in schools and colleges to
of promoters in entertainment industries, show business, and advertising firms.


School heads should inculcate and incorporate moral instruction programmes in their school
curriculum, and especially to educate students on the evils associated with pornography.

References
Attorney Generals Commission on Pornography in the U.S.A. (1986). Report of 1
Carnes, P. (1991). Dont call it love: Recovery from sexual addictions. New York: Bantam Books.
Cline, B.V. (1990). Pornographys effect in adults and children
Dworkin, A. (1998). Letters from a war zone
Einsiedel, E.K. (1988). The British Canadian, and U.S. Pornography Commissions and their use of social
research. Journal of Communication, 38 (2): 108
Essuman J.K,, Nwaogu P.O. & Nwachukwu, V.C. (1990).
Owerri: International University Press.
Ferguson, F. (1995). Pornography: The theory.
Hanson, H.M. (1959). Effects of Discrimination Training of Personality.
58, 321-334).
Hornby, A.S. (1995). Oxford advanced learners dictionary (5
Khan, F. (1996). Candid talk. Retrieved on August 8, 2003 from
http://www.themodernrelgion.com
Hunter, C.D. (2000). The dangers of pornography
School of Communication, University of Pennsylvania.
Liebert, R.M. & Spiegler, M.D. (1990).
Mackinnon, C. (1983). Pornography: A feminist perspective
Council.
Malamuth, N. & Donnerstein E. (Eds). (1984).
Press.
Malamuth, N. & Check, J. (1985
Individual differences. Journal of Research in Personality, 19,299
Malamuth, N. & Check, J. (1980). Sexual arousal to rape and consenting depictions: The importance of
the womans arousal. Journal of Abnormal Psychology,92,55
McNair, B. (1996). Mediated sex: pornography and postmodern culture.
Morgan, C.T., King R.A., Weisz, J.R. & Shopler, J. (1986).
Mcgraw-Hill Book Company.
Nwankwo, O.C. (1995). Principles and applications of behaviour modification
Parham, A.C. (1988). Psychology. Cincinnati
Russell, D. (1993). Making violence sexy: Feminist
Wortman, C., Loftus E. & Weaver C. (1999).
Wade, C. & Travis, C. (1993). Psychology (3
Japans Internet dating breeds child sex crimes.
Zillmann, D. & Bryant, J. (1988). Effects of prolonged consumption of pornography on family values.
Journal of Family Issues, Vol. 9, No. 4.

hould inculcate and incorporate moral instruction programmes in their school
Attorney Generals Commission on Pornography in the U.S.A. (1986). Report of 10-
Pornographys effect in adults and children. New York: Morality in Media.
Letters from a war zone. New York: Dutton
Journal of Communication, 38 (2): 108-121.
Essuman J.K,, Nwaogu P.O. & Nwachukwu, V.C. (1990). Principles and techniques of behav
Owerri: International University Press.
Ferguson, F. (1995). Pornography: The theory. Critical Inquiry, 21:670-695.
Hanson, H.M. (1959). Effects of Discrimination Training of Personality. Journal of Experimental Psychology
Oxford advanced learners dictionary (5
th
ed.). UK: Oxford University Press.
http://www.themodernrelgion.com/misc/sex/56html.
The dangers of pornography? An unpublished Ph.D dissertation submitted to Annenberg
School of Communication, University of Pennsylvania.
Liebert, R.M. & Spiegler, M.D. (1990). Personality. California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
Pornography: A feminist perspective. Position paper presented to the Minneapolis City
Malamuth, N. & Donnerstein E. (Eds). (1984). Pornography and sexual aggression. Orlando, FL: Academic
Malamuth, N. & Check, J. (1985). The effects of aggressive pornography on beliefs and rape myth:
. Journal of Research in Personality, 19,299-320.
Journal of Abnormal Psychology,92,55-67.
Mediated sex: pornography and postmodern culture. New York: Arnold.
Morgan, C.T., King R.A., Weisz, J.R. & Shopler, J. (1986). Introduction to psychology (7
ok Company.
Principles and applications of behaviour modification. Port Harcourt: CAPIIC Publishers.
Cincinnati-Ohio: South Western Publishing Co.
Making violence sexy: Feminist views on pornography. New York: Teachers College Press.
Wortman, C., Loftus E. & Weaver C. (1999). Psychology (5
th
ed.). New York: McGraw-
Psychology (3
rd
ed.). New York: Harper Collins College Publishers.
ans Internet dating breeds child sex crimes. South-South Express, March 1, 2002, p.5.
Journal of Family Issues, Vol. 9, No. 4.
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87
hould inculcate and incorporate moral instruction programmes in their school
-Member Panel.
. New York: Morality in Media.
Principles and techniques of behaviour modification.
Journal of Experimental Psychology
. UK: Oxford University Press.
? An unpublished Ph.D dissertation submitted to Annenberg
California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
. Position paper presented to the Minneapolis City
. Orlando, FL: Academic
The effects of aggressive pornography on beliefs and rape myth:

Introduction to psychology (7
th
ed). New York:
. Port Harcourt: CAPIIC Publishers.
New York: Teachers College Press.
-Hill College.s
.). New York: Harper Collins College Publishers.
, March 1, 2002, p.5.


MANAGERIAL PRACTICES FOR QUALITY IMPROVEMENT IN PUBLIC
SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN ABIA
Department o
Abstract

This paper investigates managerial practices for quality improvement in public secondary schools in
Abia-State. In line with the purpose of the study, three research questions and one hypothesis were
formulated. The population of the study consisted of all the two
secondary schools in Abia-State. A total of 108 public senior
size of the study which was drawn using stratified random sampling technique and their
administrators served as respondents. An instrument titled Managerial Practices for Quality
Improvement Questionnaire (MPQIQ) w
coefficient gave 0.79 using Crombatch Alpha. Mean and standard deviation were used to analyze the
three research questions and z-test statistics to test the hypothesis. The findings of the study show
that the managerial practices of planning, supervision and leadership help to improve quality in
public secondary schools in Abia
should provide the direction and sense of purpose, supervi
and that leadership should provide the lead for achieving quality improvement.

Keywords: Managerial Practices; Quality Improvement; Secondary Education; Planning;
Supervision and Leadership.

PRACTICES FOR QUALITY IMPROVEMENT IN PUBLIC
SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN ABIA-STATE

By
AWAH, OKORIE AWAH
+234 8037808987
awahokorie@yahoo.com

&
AGABI EUCHARIA
+234 8034067040

State. In line with the purpose of the study, three research questions and one hypothesis were
formulated. The population of the study consisted of all the two-hundred and four (204) public
State. A total of 108 public senior secondary schools constituted the sample
Improvement Questionnaire (MPQIQ) was used for data collection and its computed reliability
test statistics to test the hypothesis. The findings of the study show
public secondary schools in Abia-State. Some of the recommendations were that planning in schools
should provide the direction and sense of purpose, supervision should prevent the occurrence of error,
and that leadership should provide the lead for achieving quality improvement.
Managerial Practices; Quality Improvement; Secondary Education; Planning;

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88
PRACTICES FOR QUALITY IMPROVEMENT IN PUBLIC
State. In line with the purpose of the study, three research questions and one hypothesis were
hundred and four (204) public
secondary schools constituted the sample
as used for data collection and its computed reliability
test statistics to test the hypothesis. The findings of the study showed
State. Some of the recommendations were that planning in schools
sion should prevent the occurrence of error,
Managerial Practices; Quality Improvement; Secondary Education; Planning;


Introduction

One major concern of every educational system in the world is the achievement of quality. This calls for
the intensive application of managerial practices which will not only bring about this needed quality but to
also improve on it. Educational managemen
management and administration. Obasi (2004) defined educational management as the scientific and
systematic process by which education experts formulate policies, plans as well as co
activities in such a way that education and national goals are achieved within the available human and
material resources. From the definition, educational management aims at the achievement of goals, and
since the principal is the primus inter pare
he is an educational manager at that level. Supporting this assertion is Nnabuo (2001) who noted that as
an educator, he is not and cannot be restricted to purely administrative task. He as
principals are sometimes referred to as school managers as well as school administrators. This means that
at the administrative level, he also performs some managerial tasks of planning and the formulation of
policies for the achievement of school goals (Maduagwu, 2004).

In order for the school principal to achieve the school goals, he performs a lot of managerial tasks
and practices. Some of these managerial practices as given by Henri Fayol (1916) as cited in Okorie (2009)
and Nwafor (2000) include planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling. Fayol was
one of the first to define administration as the functions of managers. It is however worthy to note that
managerial practices or functions are not limited to the a
leadership, record keeping, personnel and material resources management.

One major aim of every managerial practice is to improve upon the quality of educational service
delivery. Quality of an educational serv
presupposes an already set standard and spells out the ability of educational service to continually serve
the needs of its customers. Quality education delivery in secondary schools is indicated by
in provision of service, efficiency in school operations, productivity level of staff, provision in quality
service, quality control in service provision, continuous improvement of quality, conformance to quality
standard, effectiveness in service delivery, working with less supervision, and so on (Okeke, 2004).

Quality improvement on the other hand calls for the inherent workings of the educational
practitioners with the idea that education system work in balance to sustain quality in ever
educational service. It also calls for the continuous addition of more ingredients in every facet of
education which will not only satisfy the needs of the customers, but in return surpass their expectation in
patronizing that school through enrollment. I
the effectiveness of activities and processes to provide added benefits to both the organization and its
customers.

Looking at the laudable goals of secondary education as
Nigeria (2004:18), there is therefore the urgent need for the principal to exhibit excellent managerial skills
or practices which would not only help to achieve these goals qualitatively but also, improve upon the
present state of quality; but where these are lacking, one cannot help but wonder the nature of the service
given to customers; hence, the need to investigate the managerial practices for quality improvement in
public secondary schools in Abia-

Managerial practice of planning
Planning could be said to be the most delicate and important function of an educational manager because
his success or failure hinges on it. Underscoring the importance of planning, the FRN (2004) writes that
the success of any educational institution hinges on proper planning, efficient administration and
adequate funding. No wonder Koles (2001) writes that planning helps educational
managers/administrators towards accomplishing objectives in an orderly step
importance of planning for quality improvement (QI) cannot be over emphasized. QI is a continuous and
unceasing effort to make changes for a better educational service delivery. Planning compels mangers to
look ahead, anticipate the needed changes which br
impact of these changes especially as it affect the quality of education. The point of emphasis for planning
also improve on it. Educational management practices, has it roots from the theories of educational
systematic process by which education experts formulate policies, plans as well as co
since the principal is the primus inter pares in secondary school that ensures that these goals are achieved;
an educator, he is not and cannot be restricted to purely administrative task. He as well noted that school
ment of school goals (Maduagwu, 2004).
or (2000) include planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling. Fayol was
managerial practices or functions are not limited to the above but include amongst others supervision,
leadership, record keeping, personnel and material resources management.
delivery. Quality of an educational service is concerned with how good or bad the product is. It
the needs of its customers. Quality education delivery in secondary schools is indicated by
service delivery, working with less supervision, and so on (Okeke, 2004).
practitioners with the idea that education system work in balance to sustain quality in ever
h enrollment. It is the action taken throughout the organization to increase
Looking at the laudable goals of secondary education as enumerated by the Federal Republic of
ent state of quality; but where these are lacking, one cannot help but wonder the nature of the service
-Sate.
l practice of planning
educational institution hinges on proper planning, efficient administration and
managers/administrators towards accomplishing objectives in an orderly step-by
look ahead, anticipate the needed changes which bring about quality and its improvement, consider the
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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89
t practices, has it roots from the theories of educational
systematic process by which education experts formulate policies, plans as well as co-ordinate educational
s in secondary school that ensures that these goals are achieved;
well noted that school
or (2000) include planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling. Fayol was
bove but include amongst others supervision,
ice is concerned with how good or bad the product is. It
the needs of its customers. Quality education delivery in secondary schools is indicated by the proficiency
service delivery, working with less supervision, and so on (Okeke, 2004).
practitioners with the idea that education system work in balance to sustain quality in every area of the
t is the action taken throughout the organization to increase
enumerated by the Federal Republic of
ent state of quality; but where these are lacking, one cannot help but wonder the nature of the service
educational institution hinges on proper planning, efficient administration and
by-step manner. The
ing about quality and its improvement, consider the


here is to know if it has resulted in the improvement of already existing quality or not. Where
the principal goes back to the drawing board and where it has, it still calls for a continuous improvement.

UNESCO (2005) on the centrality of planning to QI opines that within the realm of educational
planning, many things are changing which
educational system. Sometimes, they may result in no impact upon quality in which case major
government expenditure on such changes has been wasted. The education manager working with this
kind of environment must plan effectively to intercept and terminate existing practices that are damaging
and wasteful. From the assertion above, every necessary change the administrator is planning for must
have peculiarities of quality improvement embedded in
more, he has actually planned to compromise the quality of the educational service and its improvement.

Planning for the improvement of quality in education requires three core areas
and output. In the area of input, the principal plans for the recruitment of adequate and qualified
teachers, procurement of the needed instructional facilities, school programmes, and so on. Planning for
process involves the principal ensuring that every necess
is evident. In this regard, he plans for adequate supervision of teaching, methods of teaching, methods of
evaluation, inspection of teachers lesson note, plan and diary; delivery process, and so on. In the p
for process, he ensures that the four pillars of learning as seen in Fasasi (2006) are considered
know, learning to do, learning to be and learning to live together. Planning for output requires a
consideration of the students perform
progression and pass rates, within and outside the school. The output unit is like the computer garbage
in, garbage out. Where the planning fails to ensure quality improvement from the input and p
needed quality improvement would be found wanting in the output.

Managerial Practice of Supervision
It is a truism to state that no organization can survive without supervision and of which, educational
institution is no exception. Madumere
achieving quality for effective management and control of schools. One of the main roles of any school
supervision system by the principal is to monitor quality improvement in education. As such, superv
forms part of an overall quality monitoring and improvement system which includes other devices such as
examinations and achievement tests, and self
(1996), supervision aims at stimulating profe
and revision of educational objectives, material of instruction, methods of teaching and the evaluation.

Quality assurance and improvement is aimed at developing procedures that avoid mistakes.
means that the process of checking, correcting and controlling is conducted in such a manner that the
education service providers are aware that all stages of the process are being conducted correctly and that
what is planned is what is gotten as output
is embedded in supervision. Administrators who make supervision an integral part of their task will
always have a very positive result as regards the improvement of quality.

Managerial practice of leadership
Leadership deals with the coordinating and motivating or stimulating individuals and groups to achieve
organizational goals. Nwafor (2000) sees leadership as an art of influencing people so that they strive
willingly towards the accomplishme
position has automatically made him a leader. The implication of the above is that the way he practices
such have far reaching consequences on the improvement of quality in schools.

Okorie (2009) in explaining the school as a social system as highlighted by Getzel and Guba noted
that it has both the nomothetic and idiographic dimensions. The nomothetic speaks more on the
achievement of organizational goals while the idiographic speaks more
personal/workers goals- needs dispositions. In this regard, the leadership style that the administrator
should, adopt should be one that will strike a balance between the two above (nomothetic and
idiographic). Given the three leaders
and last could be tantamount to the achievement of desired quality improvement. The democratic style of
leadership has always been adopted as the best leadership style. Supporting this
here is to know if it has resulted in the improvement of already existing quality or not. Where
planning, many things are changing which may lead to an improvement, or worsening the quality of an
environment must plan effectively to intercept and terminate existing practices that are damaging
From the assertion above, every necessary change the administrator is planning for must
have peculiarities of quality improvement embedded in it. But where he fails to plan for these and many
to compromise the quality of the educational service and its improvement.
Planning for the improvement of quality in education requires three core areas
tput. In the area of input, the principal plans for the recruitment of adequate and qualified
process involves the principal ensuring that every necessary thing needed for the improvement of quality
evaluation, inspection of teachers lesson note, plan and diary; delivery process, and so on. In the p
for process, he ensures that the four pillars of learning as seen in Fasasi (2006) are considered
consideration of the students performances in academic achievement test, character exhibition,
in, garbage out. Where the planning fails to ensure quality improvement from the input and p
needed quality improvement would be found wanting in the output.
f Supervision
institution is no exception. Madumere-Obike (2004) defined supervision as a mechanism used in
supervision system by the principal is to monitor quality improvement in education. As such, superv
examinations and achievement tests, and self-assessment practices by schools and teachers. To Nnabuo
(1996), supervision aims at stimulating professional growth and the development of teachers, a selection
Quality assurance and improvement is aimed at developing procedures that avoid mistakes.
what is planned is what is gotten as output. Central to quality improvement in input, process and output
always have a very positive result as regards the improvement of quality.
of leadership
willingly towards the accomplishment of group goals. This brings the principals to focus because his
such have far reaching consequences on the improvement of quality in schools.
(2009) in explaining the school as a social system as highlighted by Getzel and Guba noted
achievement of organizational goals while the idiographic speaks more on the achievement of
needs dispositions. In this regard, the leadership style that the administrator
idiographic). Given the three leadership styles of autocratic, democratic and laissez faire; both the first
leadership has always been adopted as the best leadership style. Supporting this view is Nnabuo (2011:12)
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
90
here is to know if it has resulted in the improvement of already existing quality or not. Where it has not,
may lead to an improvement, or worsening the quality of an
environment must plan effectively to intercept and terminate existing practices that are damaging
From the assertion above, every necessary change the administrator is planning for must
it. But where he fails to plan for these and many
to compromise the quality of the educational service and its improvement.
Planning for the improvement of quality in education requires three core areas- input, process
tput. In the area of input, the principal plans for the recruitment of adequate and qualified
ary thing needed for the improvement of quality
evaluation, inspection of teachers lesson note, plan and diary; delivery process, and so on. In the planning
for process, he ensures that the four pillars of learning as seen in Fasasi (2006) are considered- learning to
ances in academic achievement test, character exhibition,
in, garbage out. Where the planning fails to ensure quality improvement from the input and process, the
ike (2004) defined supervision as a mechanism used in
supervision system by the principal is to monitor quality improvement in education. As such, supervision
assessment practices by schools and teachers. To Nnabuo
ssional growth and the development of teachers, a selection
Quality assurance and improvement is aimed at developing procedures that avoid mistakes. It
. Central to quality improvement in input, process and output
nt of group goals. This brings the principals to focus because his
(2009) in explaining the school as a social system as highlighted by Getzel and Guba noted
on the achievement of
needs dispositions. In this regard, the leadership style that the administrator
hip styles of autocratic, democratic and laissez faire; both the first
view is Nnabuo (2011:12)


who recommends that the above style would help to develop the teachers professionally and this as well
will cause an improvement in quality. Likert in Oluwuo (2004) noted that where there is a democratic
leadership style, quality and productivity are high. This is based on the fact that leaders understand the
idiographic needs of the workers and try to give room for a participatory kind of leadership. Leadership
for quality improvement starts with leaders who plant seeds, create the
empower others and display quality throughout the organization (Fulmer, 2012).

Quality improvement
The term improvement according to Microsoft Encarta dictionary (2009) means the process of making
better or becoming better, a change that make something better, an advancement and increment in value.
In actual sense, there is an improvement in something when there is a positive change, making that thing
better. Quality improvement on the other hand could be defined as the general ac
an upgrade in the value of an educational service. Fulmer (2012) writes that quality improvement is any
action taken to increase value to customers or other stakeholders by improving effectiveness and
efficiency of process and activities throughout the organization. Underlying idea behind quality
improvement is the notion that people can continuously improve all process and activities through the
application of systematic techniques. It embraces the idea that efforts should be gear
eliminating sources of inefficiencies, errors, consumers and other stakeholders dissatisfaction.

In order to have a quality improvement, educational managers/principals should embrace quality
management principles. The International Standard
defined quality management principle as a comprehensive and fundamental rule for leading and operating
an organization, aimed at continually improving performance over the long term by focusing on
customers. Given the above definition, the application of these principles is a sine qua non to the
achievement of this needed improvement in quality. These principles include:
organization, leadership, involvement of people
continual improvement, factual approach to decision making
relationships

Statement of Problem
In the recent times in Nigeria, the quality of secondary education has been a major concern especially in
the public secondary schools, of which
argue vehemently that the quality and standard of education has fallen, while others argue that it remains
the same but the failure on the part of the providers of educational service to meet
is the reason why it appears as if quality is lacking in our school. The researchers have noticed through
observation that the inability of public secondary schools to provide the needed qualitative output has
resulted in the proliferation of sub
the needs of the teeming customers. It has also been observed that educational managers in these
public secondary schools do not perform their functions to the latter, whi
seemingly lack of quality in our schools. This then brings the principal, the educational manager to the
centre. The researchers are to find out whether the quality of education service can be improved upon
through effective the managerial practices of planning, supervision and leadership or not.

The purpose of this study is to examine how the quality of secondary education service can be improved
upon through effective managerial practices of planning, supe
study is to achieve the following objectives:

1. To examine the managerial practice of planning for the improvement of quality in public
secondary schools in Abia
2. To investigate the managerial practice of supervision for the improvement of quality in public
secondary schools in Abia
3. To x-ray the managerial practice of leadership for the improvement of quality in public secondary
schools in Abia-State.

nd productivity are high. This is based on the fact that leaders understand the
for quality improvement starts with leaders who plant seeds, create the environment for success,
empower others and display quality throughout the organization (Fulmer, 2012).
nge that make something better, an advancement and increment in value.
better. Quality improvement on the other hand could be defined as the general activities which will cause
ivities throughout the organization. Underlying idea behind quality
application of systematic techniques. It embraces the idea that efforts should be gear
management principles. The International Standard Organization (ISO) Technical Committee (2008)
iven the above definition, the application of these principles is a sine qua non to the
achievement of this needed improvement in quality. These principles include:
involvement of people, process approach, system approach to management
factual approach to decision making and mutually beneficial supplier
the public secondary schools, of which secondary schools education in Abia-State is no exception. Some
the same but the failure on the part of the providers of educational service to meet up to the set standards
eration of sub-standard private owned secondary schools who as well do not meet up
public secondary schools do not perform their functions to the latter, which may be the result of the
managerial practices of planning, supervision and leadership or not.
upon through effective managerial practices of planning, supervision and leadership.
study is to achieve the following objectives:
To examine the managerial practice of planning for the improvement of quality in public
secondary schools in Abia-State.
managerial practice of supervision for the improvement of quality in public
secondary schools in Abia-State.
ray the managerial practice of leadership for the improvement of quality in public secondary
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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91
nd productivity are high. This is based on the fact that leaders understand the
environment for success,
nge that make something better, an advancement and increment in value.
tivities which will cause
ivities throughout the organization. Underlying idea behind quality
application of systematic techniques. It embraces the idea that efforts should be geared towards
Organization (ISO) Technical Committee (2008)
iven the above definition, the application of these principles is a sine qua non to the
achievement of this needed improvement in quality. These principles include: customer-focused
system approach to management,
mutually beneficial supplier
State is no exception. Some
up to the set standards
standard private owned secondary schools who as well do not meet up
ch may be the result of the
managerial practices of planning, supervision and leadership or not.
rvision and leadership. Specifically, the
To examine the managerial practice of planning for the improvement of quality in public
managerial practice of supervision for the improvement of quality in public
ray the managerial practice of leadership for the improvement of quality in public secondary


Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:
1. To what extent does the managerial practice of planning improve quality in public secondary
schools in Abia-State?
2. What ways can the managerial practice of supervision improve quality
in Abia-State?
3. How does the managerial practice of leadership improve quality in p
Abia State?

Hypothesis
This hypothesis tested at 0.05 alpha level was formulated to guide this study:
1. There is no significant difference between the mean perceptions of male and female principals on the
extent the managerial practice of planning improves quality in public secondary schools in Abia

Methodology
The study adopted a descriptive research
public secondary school principals in Abia
Stratified Random Sampling Technique to get the sample size of 108 considering the three education
zones of Aba, Ohafia and Umuahia (which also imply 108 administrators and their strata are as follows
71 male principals and 37 female principals). The researchers developed one set of instrument for data
collection titled: Managerial Practices for Quality
had a total of 15 items and was patterned using the modified Likert rating scales of Strongly Agree (SA),
Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD). This instrument was validated by two experts i
Educational Management and Administration and its reliability coefficient was computed at 0.79 using
Crombatch Alpha. Data collected from the study were analyzed using mean and standard deviation for
the three research questions and z

Research Question One
To what extent does the managerial practice of planning improve quality in public secondary schools in Abia

Table 1: Weighted mean and standard deviation scores used in computing results on the extent to
planning improve quality.
S/N Extent to which the managerial
practice of planning improve quality

1 By the provision of direction and sense
of purpose
2 Monitors variation tantamount to quality
improvement
3 Provision of the best method for
achieving quality improvement
4 Reduction and the outright removal of
mistakes
5 Provides the knowledge on the changes
which will result in an improvement
Aggregate mean and standard Deviation

The data in the table 1 above showed that items 1
mean of 2.50, and thus, were accepted as the roles the managerial practice of planning play in improving
quality in public secondary schools in Abia
criterion mean of 2.50, and thus, was rejected as a way planning improves quality in public secondary

The following research questions guided this study:
To what extent does the managerial practice of planning improve quality in public secondary
What ways can the managerial practice of supervision improve quality in public secondary schools
How does the managerial practice of leadership improve quality in public secondary schools in
This hypothesis tested at 0.05 alpha level was formulated to guide this study:
no significant difference between the mean perceptions of male and female principals on the
extent the managerial practice of planning improves quality in public secondary schools in Abia
The study adopted a descriptive research design. The population of the study consisted of all the 204
public secondary school principals in Abia-State. The sample was drawn using the Proportionate
ones of Aba, Ohafia and Umuahia (which also imply 108 administrators and their strata are as follows
collection titled: Managerial Practices for Quality Improvement Questionnaire (MPQIQ). This instrument
Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD). This instrument was validated by two experts i
the three research questions and z-test statistics for the hypothesis.
To what extent does the managerial practice of planning improve quality in public secondary schools in Abia
Weighted mean and standard deviation scores used in computing results on the extent to
planning improve quality.
Extent to which the managerial
improve quality
Male
principals=71
Female
principals=37
X1
SD1
X2
SD2
By the provision of direction and sense 3.15 0.97 2.78 1.13
Monitors variation tantamount to quality 3.15 0.86 2.92 0.86
Provision of the best method for
achieving quality improvement
3.59 0.98 3.16 0.90
removal of 2.03 0.74 1.81 0.81
Provides the knowledge on the changes
which will result in an improvement

3.80

0.73

3.03

1.17
Deviation 15.72 4.28 13.7 4.87
3.14 0.86 2.74 0.97
The data in the table 1 above showed that items 1-3 and 5 had weighted means scores above the criterion
schools in Abia-State. While, item 4 had weighted mean score below the
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92
To what extent does the managerial practice of planning improve quality in public secondary
in public secondary schools
ublic secondary schools in
no significant difference between the mean perceptions of male and female principals on the
extent the managerial practice of planning improves quality in public secondary schools in Abia-State.
design. The population of the study consisted of all the 204
State. The sample was drawn using the Proportionate
ones of Aba, Ohafia and Umuahia (which also imply 108 administrators and their strata are as follows-
Improvement Questionnaire (MPQIQ). This instrument
Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD). This instrument was validated by two experts in
To what extent does the managerial practice of planning improve quality in public secondary schools in Abia-State?
Weighted mean and standard deviation scores used in computing results on the extent to which

2 / 1

Remarks

2.97 Agreed
3.04 Agreed
3.38 Agreed
1.92 Disagree
d

3.42

Agreed
14.73
2.95
3 and 5 had weighted means scores above the criterion
State. While, item 4 had weighted mean score below the


Research Question Two
What ways can the managerial practice of supervision improve quality in public secondary schools in Abia

Table 2: Weighted mean scores and standard deviation used in computing results on the ways
supervision improve quality.
S/
N
Ways the managerial practice of
supervision improve quality

6 Prevents the occurrence of error.
7 Checks the level to which quality is
achieved and the area to improve upon.
8 Ensures adequate teaching methodology
necessary to cause an improvement.
9 Ensures things are done right
10 Stimulates professional growth of
teachers for quality improvement.
Aggregate mean and Standard Deviation

The data in the table 2 above showed that
criterion mean of 2.50, and thus, were accepted as the ways supervision improve quality in public
secondary schools in Abia-State. While, items 8 and 9 had weighted mean scores below the criterion mean
of 2.50, and thus, were rejected as ways supervision improves quality in public secondary schools in Abia
State.

Research Question Three
What ways can the managerial practice of leadership improve quality in public secondary schools in Abia

Table 3: Weighted mean scores and standard deviation used in computing results on the ways leadership
improve quality.
S/N Ways the managerial practice of
leadership improve quality

11 Provides the lead for achieving quality
improvement
12 Makes staff have a sense of belonging which
will cause them to improve quality
13 Democratic style is the best way principals
can improve quality
14 Laissez fair leadership encourages quality
improvement
15 Autocratic leadership style encourages
quality improvement.
Aggregate Mean and Standard Deviation

The data in table 3 above showed that items 11
of 2.50, and thus, were accepted as the ways leadership improves quality in public secondary schools in
Abia-State. While, items 14 and 15
were disagreed as rejected supervision imp

practice of supervision improve quality in public secondary schools in Abia
Weighted mean scores and standard deviation used in computing results on the ways
supervision improve quality.
improve quality
Male
principals=71

Female
principals=37

X1
SD1
X2
SD2
Prevents the occurrence of error. 3.07 0.80 2.86 1.18
Checks the level to which quality is
improve upon.

3.03

0.84

2.89

1.02
Ensures adequate teaching methodology
necessary to cause an improvement.

1.87

1.03

2.14

0.92
Ensures things are done right 1.87 0.79 2.05 1.10
Stimulates professional growth of
teachers for quality improvement.

3.23

0.78

3.14

0.98
Deviation 8.07 4.24 13.08 5.20
1.61 0.85 2.62 1.04
The data in the table 2 above showed that items 6, 7 and 10 had weighted means scores above the
State. While, items 8 and 9 had weighted mean scores below the criterion mean
of 2.50, and thus, were rejected as ways supervision improves quality in public secondary schools in Abia
What ways can the managerial practice of leadership improve quality in public secondary schools in Abia
Weighted mean scores and standard deviation used in computing results on the ways leadership
improve quality
Male
principals=71
Female
principals=37
X1 SD1
X2
SD2
Provides the lead for achieving quality
3.50

0.78

2.92

1.14
Makes staff have a sense of belonging which
will cause them to improve quality

3.10

0.88

2.97

0.96
Democratic style is the best way principals
3.11

0.92

3.19

0.94
Laissez fair leadership encourages quality
1.56

0.82

1.84

0.99
Autocratic leadership style encourages
2.06

0.92

1.97

1.01
Deviation 13.33 4.32 12.89 5.04
2.67 0.86 2.58 1.01
The data in table 3 above showed that items 11- 13 had weighted means scores above the criterion
State. While, items 14 and 15 had weighted mean scores below the criterion mean of 2.50, and thus,
were disagreed as rejected supervision improve quality in public secondary schools in Abia
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93
practice of supervision improve quality in public secondary schools in Abia-State?
Weighted mean scores and standard deviation used in computing results on the ways
2 / 1

Remark

2.97 Agreed

2.96

Agreed

2.01

Disagreed
1.96 Disagreed

3.19

Agreed
13.09
2.62
items 6, 7 and 10 had weighted means scores above the
State. While, items 8 and 9 had weighted mean scores below the criterion mean
of 2.50, and thus, were rejected as ways supervision improves quality in public secondary schools in Abia-
What ways can the managerial practice of leadership improve quality in public secondary schools in Abia-State?
Weighted mean scores and standard deviation used in computing results on the ways leadership
principals=37
2 / 1

Remark
SD2
1.14

3.21

Agreed
0.96

4.59

Agreed
0.94

3.15

Agreed
0.99

1.70

Disagreed
1.01

2.02

Disagreed
5.04
1.01
13 had weighted means scores above the criterion mean
had weighted mean scores below the criterion mean of 2.50, and thus,
rove quality in public secondary schools in Abia-State.


Hypothesis One
There is no significant difference between the mean perceptions of male and female principals on the
extent to which the managerial practice of planning improves quality in public
State.
Table 4: Comparison of the mean responses of male and female principals on the extent the managerial
practice of planning improves quality in public secondary schools in Abia
Sex No. DF

Male

71

106
Female 37

The data in table 4 showed a summary of means, standard deviation and z
between male and female administrators on the extent
improves quality in public secondary schools in Abia
testing the hypothesis stood at 1.33 while the critical z
106 at 0.05 alpha level of significance. Since the calculated z
hypothesis therefore was accepted. By implication, there is no significant difference between the mean
perceptions of male and female prin
improves quality in public secondary schools in Abia

Summary of Findings
The findings of this study were summarized as follows:
1. The ways managerial practice of planning improves q
purpose, monitors variation tantamount to quality improvement, provision of the best method for
achieving quality improvement and provides the knowledge on the changes which will result to an
improvement.
2. The ways the managerial practice of supervision improves quality are: Prevents the occurrence of
error, checks the level to which quality is achieved and the area to improve upon and stimulates
professional growth of teachers for quality improvement.
3. The ways managerial practice of leadership improve quality are: Provides the lead for achieving
quality improvement, makes staff have a sense of belonging which will cause them to improve
quality and the democratic style is the best way principals can impr
4. There is no significant difference between the mean perceptions of male and female principals on
the extent to which the managerial practice of planning improves quality in public secondary

Discussion of Findings
The study identified the ways the managerial practice of planning helps to improve quality. These include
the provision of direction and sense of purpose, monitor variation tantamount to quality improvement,
provision of the best method for achieving quali
changes which will result to an improvement. This supports the findings of Agabi (1999), UNESCO
(2005) and Fulmer (2012) in their independent studies. Agabi (1999) argues that planning provides a sense
of purpose by which administrators can identify needed areas for quality improvement in education.
UNESCO (2005) argues that some of the changes brought in by the educational managers do not
enhance QI, rather deteriorate quality. In this regard, planning helps
changes which do not really support
educational manager to identify methodologies that will support quality improvement.

The identified ways superv
of error, checks the level to which quality is achieved and the area to improve upon; and the stimulation
of professional growth of teachers for quality improvement. These support the
(1996), Okorie and Uche (2004:58). They independently argue that it stimulates professional growth in
teachers and it is a tool for quality assurance which helps in the removal of errors.

extent to which the managerial practice of planning improves quality in public secondary schools in Abia
Comparison of the mean responses of male and female principals on the extent the managerial
practice of planning improves quality in public secondary schools in Abia
DF Mean SD Z-
Observed
Z- Critical

106

3.14

0.86

1.33

1.98
2.74 0.97
The data in table 4 showed a summary of means, standard deviation and z
between male and female administrators on the extent to which the managerial practice of planning
improves quality in public secondary schools in Abia-State. The z-test statistics calculated and used in
testing the hypothesis stood at 1.33 while the critical z-value stood at 1.98 using the degree of freedom
106 at 0.05 alpha level of significance. Since the calculated z-value is less than the critical z
perceptions of male and female principals on the extent to which the managerial practice of planning
improves quality in public secondary schools in Abia-State.
The findings of this study were summarized as follows:
The ways managerial practice of planning improves quality are: Provision of direction and sense of
The ways the managerial practice of supervision improves quality are: Prevents the occurrence of
professional growth of teachers for quality improvement.
The ways managerial practice of leadership improve quality are: Provides the lead for achieving
quality and the democratic style is the best way principals can improve quality.
There is no significant difference between the mean perceptions of male and female principals on
provision of the best method for achieving quality improvement and provide the knowledge on the
pose by which administrators can identify needed areas for quality improvement in education.
enhance QI, rather deteriorate quality. In this regard, planning helps the administrator to identify those
changes which do not really support qualitative input. Fulmer (2012) is of the view that planning helps the
The identified ways supervision helps to improve quality. These include preventing the occurrence
of professional growth of teachers for quality improvement. These support the
teachers and it is a tool for quality assurance which helps in the removal of errors.
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94
secondary schools in Abia-
Comparison of the mean responses of male and female principals on the extent the managerial
practice of planning improves quality in public secondary schools in Abia-State.
Critical Result

1.98
Not
significant

The data in table 4 showed a summary of means, standard deviation and z- test of difference
to which the managerial practice of planning
test statistics calculated and used in
value stood at 1.98 using the degree of freedom of
value is less than the critical z-value, the null
cipals on the extent to which the managerial practice of planning
uality are: Provision of direction and sense of
The ways the managerial practice of supervision improves quality are: Prevents the occurrence of
The ways managerial practice of leadership improve quality are: Provides the lead for achieving
ove quality.
There is no significant difference between the mean perceptions of male and female principals on
ty improvement and provide the knowledge on the
pose by which administrators can identify needed areas for quality improvement in education.
the administrator to identify those
qualitative input. Fulmer (2012) is of the view that planning helps the
ision helps to improve quality. These include preventing the occurrence
of professional growth of teachers for quality improvement. These support the findings of Nnabuo


Finally, the study identified three ways the man
improvement of quality. These include providing the right lead for achieving quality improvement, makes
staff have a sense of belonging which will cause them to improve quality. The study also identified the
democratic style as the best way principals can improve quality. This conforms to the earlier findings of
Nnabuo (2011) and Oluwuo (2004) who in their independent studies suggest the adoption of the
democratic leadership style because it is pivotal to achieving

Implications of the Findings
As it has been identified in the study, these managerial practices ensure the improvement of quality
educational service. Since this is true, it has a huge bearing on implementation. It could be deduced
therefore that where these are lacking, quality improvement would be far from reality. In this regard, there
is an urgent need for the administrators to exhibit these needed practices.

Conclusion
Based on the findings of the study, the researchers conclude
planning, supervision, and leadership are essential in order to drive home the needed quality improvement
in public secondary schools in Abia

Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, the rese

1. Administrators should carry out their task of planning effectively if they must record any level of
success in secondary schools.
2. Administrator while planning should be very sensitive to identify and monitor variations that
tantamount to quality improvement.
3. The government, administrators and all stakeholders in education should be allowed to participate in
the supervision of secondary schools if we must achieve an improvement of quality.
4. Administrators should take seriously, class supervision to check the
the teachers and learners. He should therefore not engage himself only with the duties in the office,
but he should also visit the field.
5. Administrators should adopt the democrat
6. Administrators should adopt policies in their leadership roles that will ensure that teachers are
carried along and have a sense of belonging.

References
Agabi, O. G.(1999). Introducing educational planning.
Fasasi, Y. A. (2006). Quality assurance: A Practical solution to Examination Malpractice in Nigeria.
International Journal of African and American Studies.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). 4th edition.
Fulmer, J. (2012). Quality improvement: A Key for Success.
18
th
of June, 2012.
Koles, M. (2001). Comprehensive planning fundamentals.
Tourism.
Maduagwu, S. N & Nwogu, U J. (2006).
Chadiq printing Press.
Madumere-Obike, U.C. (2004). Educational supervision and inspection. In P.O.M,
& O.G. Agabi (eds). Fundamentals of educational management
Press.
Encarta (2009). Microsoft Encarta Dictionary.
Nnabuo, P.O.M. (2011). Supervision and inspection: A human paradigm
University of Port Harcourt. Port Hacourt: Nigeria. UPPL.
Nnabuo, P.O.M. (2001). Essentials of educational management.
Finally, the study identified three ways the managerial practice of leadership help in the
ratic style as the best way principals can improve quality. This conforms to the earlier findings of
democratic leadership style because it is pivotal to achieving quality improvement.
herefore that where these are lacking, quality improvement would be far from reality. In this regard, there
is an urgent need for the administrators to exhibit these needed practices.
Based on the findings of the study, the researchers conclude that the principals managerial practices of
in public secondary schools in Abia-State.
Based on the findings of the study, the researchers recommended that:
Administrators should carry out their task of planning effectively if they must record any level of
success in secondary schools.
Administrator while planning should be very sensitive to identify and monitor variations that
tantamount to quality improvement.
The government, administrators and all stakeholders in education should be allowed to participate in
seriously, class supervision to check the level of quality improvement in
but he should also visit the field.
Administrators should adopt the democratic leadership style.
Administrators should adopt policies in their leadership roles that will ensure that teachers are
carried along and have a sense of belonging.
Introducing educational planning. Owerri: Nigeria. Springfield press.
International Journal of African and American Studies. 3 (2), 16-19.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). 4th edition. National policy on education. NERDC.
Quality improvement: A Key for Success. Retrieved from http://www.googles.com
Comprehensive planning fundamentals. Wisconsin: WS.US.Wisconsin Department of
Maduagwu, S. N & Nwogu, U J. (2006). Resource allocation and management in education.
Obike, U.C. (2004). Educational supervision and inspection. In P.O.M, Nnabuo, N. C. Okorie
Fundamentals of educational management . ( Pp161-171). Owerri: Nigeria. Versatile
Microsoft Encarta Dictionary. Microsoft Corporation
Supervision and inspection: A human paradigm. Inaugural Lecture
University of Port Harcourt. Port Hacourt: Nigeria. UPPL.
Essentials of educational management. Umuahia: Nigeria. Versatile
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
95
agerial practice of leadership help in the
ratic style as the best way principals can improve quality. This conforms to the earlier findings of
herefore that where these are lacking, quality improvement would be far from reality. In this regard, there
that the principals managerial practices of
Administrators should carry out their task of planning effectively if they must record any level of
Administrator while planning should be very sensitive to identify and monitor variations that are
The government, administrators and all stakeholders in education should be allowed to participate in
level of quality improvement in
Administrators should adopt policies in their leadership roles that will ensure that teachers are


http://www.googles.com. on the
Wisconsin: WS.US.Wisconsin Department of
Resource allocation and management in education. Alakahia: Nigeria,
Nnabuo, N. C. Okorie
171). Owerri: Nigeria. Versatile
ecture Series No. 74.
Umuahia: Nigeria. Versatile Press.


Nnabuo, P.O.M. (1996). Supervision and inspection: A humanistic Approach.
Press.
Nwafor, S. O. (2000). Educational administration: Concepts and practice.
Press.
Obasi, F.N. (2004). Nature and scope of educational management. In P.O.M, Nnabuo, N. C. Okorie &
O.G. Agabi (eds). Fundamentals of educational management.
Okorie, N.C. & Uche, M.C. (2004). Total quality management (TQM) in educatio
Key Concepts. In P.O.M. Nnabuo, N.C. Okorie & O.G. Agabi (eds).
management. (Pp45-78) Owerri: Versatile Publishers.
Okorie, N.C. (2009). Organizational settings of leadership: Theory into practice in educat
Gibeon Press.
The International Standard Organization 9000 Technical committee (2008).
management. Retrieved from
June, 2012.
UNESCO (2005). Quantitative research methods in educational planning.

Supervision and inspection: A humanistic Approach. Port Harcourt: Nigeria. Bengray
Educational administration: Concepts and practice. Port Harcourt: Rivers State. Bossey Joe
ure and scope of educational management. In P.O.M, Nnabuo, N. C. Okorie &
Fundamentals of educational management. (Pp161-171). Owerri: Nigeria. Versatile press.
& Uche, M.C. (2004). Total quality management (TQM) in education: Its Imperatives and
Key Concepts. In P.O.M. Nnabuo, N.C. Okorie & O.G. Agabi (eds). Fundamentals of education
78) Owerri: Versatile Publishers.
Organizational settings of leadership: Theory into practice in education. Port Harcourt: Nigeria,
The International Standard Organization 9000 Technical committee (2008). The eight principles of quality
Retrieved from http://www.globalqualityvillage.com/qmprinciples.php
Quantitative research methods in educational planning. Paris: France. IIEP Print S

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96
Port Harcourt: Nigeria. Bengray
Port Harcourt: Rivers State. Bossey Joe
ure and scope of educational management. In P.O.M, Nnabuo, N. C. Okorie &
171). Owerri: Nigeria. Versatile press.
n: Its Imperatives and
Fundamentals of education
Port Harcourt: Nigeria,
The eight principles of quality
tp://www.globalqualityvillage.com/qmprinciples.php on the 18
th
of
Paris: France. IIEP Print Shop.


PHILOSOPHY AND NATIONAL OBJECTIVES OF ADULT
NIGERIA: A CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS
Abstract
Philosophy provides an anvil for realistic education. It is the solid base on which educational aims are
measured A countrys educational system is reflective of its cultural verisimilitudes. Therefore,
education is relevant only to the extent that its philosophy guides its objectives. It is against the
backdrop of the need for connectionism that this paper examines
educational objectives of adult education in Nigeria vis


PHILOSOPHY AND NATIONAL OBJECTIVES OF ADULT EDUCATION IN
NIGERIA: A CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS

By

M.O.A. EZIMAH, Ph.D
Port Harcourt

A countrys educational system is reflective of its cultural verisimilitudes. Therefore,
backdrop of the need for connectionism that this paper examines the realization of national
educational objectives of adult education in Nigeria vis-a--vis philosophical positions.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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97
EDUCATION IN
A countrys educational system is reflective of its cultural verisimilitudes. Therefore,
the realization of national
vis philosophical positions.


Introduction
In conceiving the National Philosophy of Education during the Nigeria National Curriculum Conference
in 1969 as a precursor to the publication of the National Policy on Education, education is considered in
two ways. In one broad sense education refers to any act or experience that has a formative effect on the
mind, character, or physical ability of an individual. Ed
learn from experience throughout our lives. All these experiential influences constitute informal
education. In its technical or formal sense, education is the process by which society, through schools,
colleges, universities and other institutions, consciously transmit its cultural heritage, its accumulated
knowledge, values and skills from one generation to another.
Thus education is seen both as product and a process, that is involving outcomes and th
of producing them. Hence the philosophy of education in Nigeria was intended to be built on the
philosophy of existentialism which guarantees freedom and acceptance of responsibility of action to its
citizens.
The philosophical positions of the N
following:
i. a free and democratic society;
ii. a just and equalitarian society;
iii. a united, strong and self-reliant nation;
iv. a great and dynamic economy;
v. a land full of bright opportunities for all citizens.
Consequently, the national educational aims and objectives from which the philosophy is derived
are as highlighted below:
a. the inculcation of national consciousness and national unity;
b. the inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the
Nigerian society;
c. the training of the mind in the understanding of the world around; and
d. the acquisition of appropriate skills and the development of mental, physical and social abilities
and competencies as equipm
the society.
An analysis of the philosophy of Nigerian education indicated that it points the direction that the
rest of the educational activities will follow.
Sadly, the Nigeria National Curriculum Conference (NNCC) in 1969 did not conceive of adult
and non- formal education in its recommendations for the structure of Nigerian education. Therefore, the
inclusion of adult and non-formal education in the National Policy on Education fir
can best be described as an after thought. Rather, it forecloses the education designed for adults who
constitute the work force of the nation. This paper takes an analytical look at the provision, programmes,
content and delivery of adult education vis
History and Praxis
Adult and non-formal education (literacy education) during the colonial period left some footage which
was lost at post-independence period. Be that as it may, the National Policy on E
following goals of mass literacy, adult and non
i To provide functional literacy and continuing education for adults and youths who have never had
the advantage of formal education or who did not complete their pri
the nomads, migrant families, the disabled and other categories or groups, especially the
disadvantaged.
precursor to the publication of the National Policy on Education, education is considered in
mind, character, or physical ability of an individual. Education in this sense does not end and we generally
olleges, universities and other institutions, consciously transmit its cultural heritage, its accumulated
from one generation to another.
Thus education is seen both as product and a process, that is involving outcomes and th
The philosophical positions of the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) consist of the
a free and democratic society;
a just and equalitarian society;
reliant nation;
a great and dynamic economy;
a land full of bright opportunities for all citizens.
the inculcation of national consciousness and national unity;
the inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the survival of the individual and the
the training of the mind in the understanding of the world around; and
and competencies as equipment for the individual to live in and contribute to the development of
rest of the educational activities will follow.
onal Curriculum Conference (NNCC) in 1969 did not conceive of adult
formal education in its recommendations for the structure of Nigerian education. Therefore, the
formal education in the National Policy on Education fir
dult education vis-a-vis philosophical underpinings.
formal education (literacy education) during the colonial period left some footage which
independence period. Be that as it may, the National Policy on Education specifies the
following goals of mass literacy, adult and non-formal education:
To provide functional literacy and continuing education for adults and youths who have never had
the advantage of formal education or who did not complete their primary education. These include
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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98
precursor to the publication of the National Policy on Education, education is considered in
ucation in this sense does not end and we generally
olleges, universities and other institutions, consciously transmit its cultural heritage, its accumulated
Thus education is seen both as product and a process, that is involving outcomes and the process
ational Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) consist of the
survival of the individual and the
ent for the individual to live in and contribute to the development of
onal Curriculum Conference (NNCC) in 1969 did not conceive of adult
formal education in its recommendations for the structure of Nigerian education. Therefore, the
formal education in the National Policy on Education first published in 1977
formal education (literacy education) during the colonial period left some footage which
ducation specifies the
To provide functional literacy and continuing education for adults and youths who have never had
mary education. These include


(ii) To provide functional and remedial education for those young people who did not complete
secondary education.
(iii) To provide education for different categories of completers of the formal education system in order
to improve their basic knowledge and skills.
(iv) To provide in-service, on-the
workers and professionals in order to improve their skills; and
v) To give the adult citizens of the country necessary aesthetic, cultural and civic education for public
enlightenment.
Paradoxically, the above policy provision left adult education with no
(infrastructure, career growth content design/programming and adequate budgetary allocation) to achieve
the specified objectives. Prior to and after the establishment of the National Commission for Mass
Literacy, Adult and Non-formal E
semblance of image of its own. As a result, the programmes have not made the expected impact on the
target groups or on the socioeconomic life of the nation. Inasmuch as the national obje
in orientation, the strategies being adopted to achieve them are less practical. The objectives would
require more than blue print to achieve. Indeed, it would require more than political propaganda and
patronage to have fruitage. This explains why attempts at launching different literacy campaign periods in
Nigeria (1982-1992; 1991-2000) have failed, and there have continued to be dwindling tempo of activities
thereafter.
The rest programmes provided in the policy (ii
monitoring mechanisms to effectively implement and determine their existence and evaluate their
performance.
Egalitarianism as a Primordial Principle i
Adult education is more often than not regarded as sec
a second learning for those who have been held back in social status through inadequate education and
training. In fact, it is in accordance with the ideals of democracy that adult education can provide lea
with a means of enhancing their social status, participation and liberation. Nonetheless its emancipatory
effect is largely dependent upon the structural conditions imposed by society.
In many progressive societies, the major objective of adult educa
democracy. Rinne and Kivinen (1996) report that Nordhaug (1983, 1989) has examined public adult
education policy in terms of social, generational, gender and regional equality, and his finding is that
overall the policy being applied is one of welfare state egalitarianism, that is one where the main thrust is
to encourage adult citizens to take maximum advantage of educational opportunities open to them.
Despite the desire to support participation by adults from lower
participation rate has not in fact significantly risen, and it is suggested that the gap between participation
and non-participation may even be increasing (Nordhaug, 1983). This appears to be the case with Nigeria
where the equalitarian principle of education is enshrined in the National Policy on Education. The
reason for the declining participation by adults is offered by Courtney (1992) who emphasizes that one of
the most frequent and significant findings in the research into par
adults are more likely to study for continuity than for compensation, and more probably for
occupational and career reasons than one of a pure love of learning. In Nigeria, adult education (literacy
education) is marketed primarily as an extension of formal learning. This accounts for its poor
performance and low patronage. This is the issue examined in the discussion that follows.
Programming and Selection
Programme design in adult education derives from need. Progr
principles, and such an understanding will ease the task of selection of functional learning experiences for
adult education recipients. Selection is difficult because as Amadi (1987) puts it is one of the central
curriculum decisions. A functional learning experience is the interaction between the learner and his
environment which creates behavioural change in the learner. Thus, the task of selecting learning
experience is that of selecting the appropriate experience that w
To provide functional and remedial education for those young people who did not complete
To provide education for different categories of completers of the formal education system in order
to improve their basic knowledge and skills.
the-job, vocational and professional training for different categories of
kers and professionals in order to improve their skills; and
To give the adult citizens of the country necessary aesthetic, cultural and civic education for public
Paradoxically, the above policy provision left adult education with no structure of its own
formal Education (NMEC) in 1990, adult education has continued to maintain a
target groups or on the socioeconomic life of the nation. Inasmuch as the national obje
explains why attempts at launching different literacy campaign periods in
2000) have failed, and there have continued to be dwindling tempo of activities
The rest programmes provided in the policy (iiv) only exist as window dressing as there are no
Egalitarianism as a Primordial Principle in Adult Education
Adult education is more often than not regarded as second chance education offering the opportunity of
training. In fact, it is in accordance with the ideals of democracy that adult education can provide lea
effect is largely dependent upon the structural conditions imposed by society.
In many progressive societies, the major objective of adult education has been to promote greater
ng applied is one of welfare state egalitarianism, that is one where the main thrust is
Despite the desire to support participation by adults from lower-income groups, however, their
participation may even be increasing (Nordhaug, 1983). This appears to be the case with Nigeria
arian principle of education is enshrined in the National Policy on Education. The
the most frequent and significant findings in the research into participation in adult education is that
rketed primarily as an extension of formal learning. This accounts for its poor
Programme design in adult education derives from need. Programming and selection are related
m decisions. A functional learning experience is the interaction between the learner and his
experience is that of selecting the appropriate experience that will induce the learner to participate actively
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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99
To provide functional and remedial education for those young people who did not complete
To provide education for different categories of completers of the formal education system in order
job, vocational and professional training for different categories of
To give the adult citizens of the country necessary aesthetic, cultural and civic education for public
structure of its own
ducation (NMEC) in 1990, adult education has continued to maintain a
target groups or on the socioeconomic life of the nation. Inasmuch as the national objectives are practical
explains why attempts at launching different literacy campaign periods in
2000) have failed, and there have continued to be dwindling tempo of activities
window dressing as there are no
ond chance education offering the opportunity of
training. In fact, it is in accordance with the ideals of democracy that adult education can provide learners
tion has been to promote greater
ng applied is one of welfare state egalitarianism, that is one where the main thrust is
groups, however, their
participation may even be increasing (Nordhaug, 1983). This appears to be the case with Nigeria
arian principle of education is enshrined in the National Policy on Education. The
ticipation in adult education is that
rketed primarily as an extension of formal learning. This accounts for its poor
amming and selection are related
m decisions. A functional learning experience is the interaction between the learner and his
ill induce the learner to participate actively


in the learning process as well as apply his experience in work. This refers to the relevance of learning
experience to real life situations or the principle of felt needs which is paramount in adult education
In the view of Anyanwu (1987) the identification of felt needs helps the people to identify what
they want to do to achieve the development they want. In the case of Nigeria, the identification of felt
needs has been lacking in its literacy programme sel
of learning experiences. A very serious situation exists in which the adult learners are not involved in the
selection of their learning experiences in accordance with their occupational and vocational
Stressing the importance of relating theory to practice, Rinne and Kivinen (1996) report that adult
education has been used in many societies both to satisfy information deficits experienced by individuals
at work, and also the upgrading of educati
force. A well-intentioned ideology of the satisfaction of individuals educational needs was complemented
by the concept of conflicting structural imperatives which adult education could be used
in this light, vocational adult education became the core for new educational policies aimed at bringing
processes of structural change in the economy and society under control. Thus adult education became a
means for implementing the labour policy, in the attempt to reconcile demand and supply on the labour
market.
Viewed from the above, it is safe to conclude that the failure of adult education programmes in
Nigeria is due to a mismatch between vocationalism and formalism. For example, t
education participants are taught the primer designed for primary school pupils. This is to say the least
treating adults like overgrown children, and a reason for declining interest and participation by adults
attitude which can only change when occupational needs are integrated into the programme content of
literacy and other adult education programmes.
Adult Education and the Question o
The main aim of adult education should be to help the individual achieve personal
changing world. Traditionally, the argument rested on an appeal to fundamental rights, but in recent years
it has been argued, from both ends of the political spectrum, that there are new economic and social
reasons for promoting autonomy in
on this issue, including attempts to describe the outcomes of learning as a means of extending individual
autonomy by giving individuals more informed choice about the management of thei
Autonomy is about the distribution of power, of a more equal society, in which individuals or
disempowered groups can exert more influence.
Arguments based on principle see autonomy as a fundamental value. From this standpoint, it is
immoral to restrict another persons autonomy as it is to restrict their freedom of movement (McNair,
1996). This understanding is in line with the notion that education seeks to liberate the individual from
prejudice and misconception, through the purs
However, in practice, most societies have restricted the range of people who are encouraged to
become autonomous. Stephen McNair maintains that this notion of rational autonomy leads to the
conventional distinction between education which is open
which leads to competent performance within defined roles, and agrees well with existing social and
economic structures based upon hierarchy and control. Members of elites get more educati
with more education are gradually absorbed into these elites, Thus, those with access to power were
provided with the means to become more autonomous while those without it were relegated to
dependent roles, economically and socially.
The educational argument by autonomy is concerned with the efficiency of the learning process
itself, which proposes that the autonomous learner has a strong sense of self, of who he is and why he is
learning, and a confidence that he is capable of achieving the r
these qualities will lead to the fastest and most fundamental learning, whereas those which fail to
reinforce individuals intrinsic motivation and sense of ownership and competence, will discourage
learning, or render it superficial. These lucid arguments emphasize the need to select adult learning
experience to real life situations or the principle of felt needs which is paramount in adult education
needs has been lacking in its literacy programme selection. The learners are not involved in the selection
selection of their learning experiences in accordance with their occupational and vocational
at work, and also the upgrading of educational inadequacies among the older generations in the labour
intentioned ideology of the satisfaction of individuals educational needs was complemented
by the concept of conflicting structural imperatives which adult education could be used
our policy, in the attempt to reconcile demand and supply on the labour
Nigeria is due to a mismatch between vocationalism and formalism. For example, t
ange when occupational needs are integrated into the programme content of
literacy and other adult education programmes.
Adult Education and the Question of Personal Autonomy
The main aim of adult education should be to help the individual achieve personal
reasons for promoting autonomy in individuals. A number of recent policy initiatives have some bearing
autonomy by giving individuals more informed choice about the management of thei
disempowered groups can exert more influence.
Arguments based on principle see autonomy as a fundamental value. From this standpoint, it is
prejudice and misconception, through the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake.
n education which is open-ended and leads to autonomy, and training
economic structures based upon hierarchy and control. Members of elites get more educati
dependent roles, economically and socially.
ational argument by autonomy is concerned with the efficiency of the learning process
learning, and a confidence that he is capable of achieving the result. Teaching strategies which recognize
ender it superficial. These lucid arguments emphasize the need to select adult learning
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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100
experience to real life situations or the principle of felt needs which is paramount in adult education.
ection. The learners are not involved in the selection
selection of their learning experiences in accordance with their occupational and vocational needs.
onal inadequacies among the older generations in the labour
intentioned ideology of the satisfaction of individuals educational needs was complemented
by the concept of conflicting structural imperatives which adult education could be used to resolve. Seen
our policy, in the attempt to reconcile demand and supply on the labour
Nigeria is due to a mismatch between vocationalism and formalism. For example, the mass literacy
ange when occupational needs are integrated into the programme content of
The main aim of adult education should be to help the individual achieve personal autonomy in a
individuals. A number of recent policy initiatives have some bearing
autonomy by giving individuals more informed choice about the management of their lives and learning.
Arguments based on principle see autonomy as a fundamental value. From this standpoint, it is as
ended and leads to autonomy, and training
economic structures based upon hierarchy and control. Members of elites get more education and those
ational argument by autonomy is concerned with the efficiency of the learning process
esult. Teaching strategies which recognize
ender it superficial. These lucid arguments emphasize the need to select adult learning


experiences that are socially and economically functional. Personal or learner autonomy in adult education
is about individual growth and fulfillment; of commitment to
belief about the economic need to tap the full potential of the population.
Conclusion
To tap the full potential of adult education for individual and national development will demand a re
evaluation of present programmes and approaches. To achieve any baseline success will demand an
assemblage of professionals in the field of adult education to whom must be given the task of programme
design and curriculum development, adequate allocation of financial and materi
education as a separate sector of education, political will on the part of the government and a new psyche
or mental reorientation that will predispose all Nigerians to a new social and economic order that will
emerge.
References
Amadi, L. E. (1987) Principles of Curriculum Development
Anyanwu, C. N. (1987). Developing Adult Education In Nigeria
Coutney, S. (1992). Why Adults Learn: Towards a Theory of Participation in
Routledge.
Federal Republic of Nigerian (2004).
McBair, S. (1976). Learner Autonomy in a Changing World
Boundaries of Adult Learning.
NERDC, (1985). A Philosophy for Nigerian Education
Nordhaug, O. (1983). Distribution of Adult Education
29-39.
Rinne, R: and Kivinen, O. (1996).
Education. R.
Edwards, A., Hanson and P. Raggatt (eds).
is about individual growth and fulfillment; of commitment to a more active and democratic society; and a
belief about the economic need to tap the full potential of the population.
To tap the full potential of adult education for individual and national development will demand a re
programmes and approaches. To achieve any baseline success will demand an
design and curriculum development, adequate allocation of financial and materi
Principles of Curriculum Development. Uyo: Legacy Publishers (Nig) Ltd.
Developing Adult Education In Nigeria. Ibadan: University press Ltd.
Why Adults Learn: Towards a Theory of Participation in Adult Education.
Federal Republic of Nigerian (2004). National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC Press.
Learner Autonomy in a Changing World. R. Edwards, A. Hanson and P. Raggatt (eds),
Boundaries of Adult Learning. London: Routledge.
A Philosophy for Nigerian Education. Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books (Nig.) Ltd.
Distribution of Adult Education: The Norwegian Case. Adult Education Quarterly. 34,
(1996). The Second Chance: The Vital Myth of Equal Opportunities in Adult
Edwards, A., Hanson and P. Raggatt (eds). Boundaries of Adult Learning. London: Routledge.

Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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a more active and democratic society; and a
To tap the full potential of adult education for individual and national development will demand a re-
programmes and approaches. To achieve any baseline success will demand an
design and curriculum development, adequate allocation of financial and material resources to adult
. Uyo: Legacy Publishers (Nig) Ltd.
. Ibadan: University press Ltd.
Adult Education. New York:
. Lagos: NERDC Press.
. R. Edwards, A. Hanson and P. Raggatt (eds),
. Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books (Nig.) Ltd.
: The Norwegian Case. Adult Education Quarterly. 34,
: The Vital Myth of Equal Opportunities in Adult
. London: Routledge.


ANALYSIS OF THE FACTORS IN STUDENTS MATHEMATICS
AT THE SENIOR SCHOOL CERTIFICATE
AND SOUTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS OF DELTA STATE, NIGERIA

JOSEPH OSAMWENYOBOR AHUNSI
Ede Grammar School Umunede, Delta State, Nigeria
ahunsijoseph@gmail.com
MRS. LUCY ERAIKHUEMEN,
Department of Educational Psychology and Curriculum Studies,
Faculty of Education, University of
lucy.eraikhuemen@uniben.edu

ABSTRACT
The study examined factors in students mathematics achievement of Senior Secondary School three
(SS III) at the Senior School Certificate Examination in Ika North
Government Areas of Delta state, Nigeria. The sample for the study
sixty (360) SS III students randomly selected from twelve (12) public senior secondary schools in two
(2) local government areas of Delta North Senatorial district. The instrument used was Students
Mathematics Achievement Test (SMAT) consisted of a 50
(3) questions were asked and three (3) research hypotheses were formulated to direct the study. The
two-way (2x2) Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to analyze the data collected. Th
showed among others, that there is a significant difference in mathematics achievement of male
students and those of female students,
schools etc. Based on the findings, it is
students in mathematics at the Senior School Certificate Examination, students of single
achieve better than those of co-educational schools, etc
facilities and amenities such as library facility and mathematics laboratories be provided in schools to
help in improving students academic achievement in mathematics at the Senior School Certificate
Examination.

Keywords: Mathematics, Academ

FACTORS IN STUDENTS MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT
AT THE SENIOR SCHOOL CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION IN IKA NORTH

By
JOSEPH OSAMWENYOBOR AHUNSI
Ede Grammar School Umunede, Delta State, Nigeria
ahunsijoseph@gmail.com & ahunsij@yahoo.com

&

MRS. LUCY ERAIKHUEMEN, Ph.D
Faculty of Education, University of Benin,
Benin City, Nigeria.
lucy.eraikhuemen@uniben.edu & lucy.eraikhuemen@yahoo.com

(SS III) at the Senior School Certificate Examination in Ika North-East and Ika South Local
Government Areas of Delta state, Nigeria. The sample for the study consisted of three hundred and
st (SMAT) consisted of a 50-item multiple-choice objective test. Three
way (2x2) Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to analyze the data collected. Th
here is a significant difference in mathematics achievement of male
ts and those of female students, students of single-sex schools and those of co
Based on the findings, it is concluded that male students achieve better than female
students in mathematics at the Senior School Certificate Examination, students of single
educational schools, etc. The paper therefore recommend
and amenities such as library facility and mathematics laboratories be provided in schools to
Mathematics, Academic achievement, Gender, School-type, Interaction

Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
102
ACHIEVEMENT
IN IKA NORTH-EAST
lucy.eraikhuemen@yahoo.com
East and Ika South Local
consisted of three hundred and
choice objective test. Three
way (2x2) Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to analyze the data collected. The results
here is a significant difference in mathematics achievement of male
sex schools and those of co-educational
male students achieve better than female
students in mathematics at the Senior School Certificate Examination, students of single-sex schools
The paper therefore recommends that basic
and amenities such as library facility and mathematics laboratories be provided in schools to
type, Interaction-influence


Introduction
Mathematics as a subject affects all aspects of human life at differe
political, geographical, scientific and technological
civilization of mankind came through mathematical manipulations (Maliki, Ngban, & Ibu, 2009).
Mathematics has become so valuable that there is nothing in all human endeavour
the mathematical knowledge (Eraikhuemen & Oteze, 2008). It application in chemistry, physics,
economics, geography, statistics, engineering, accounts, business, industry, music, politics, sports,
banking, law and medicine cannot be over emphasized. Mathematics was construed as v
the intellectual development and career choice of individual

The achievement of students in mathematics has been a great concern to the society. Fafunwa
(1980), Meremikwu and Enukoha (2010), both agreed in
science and technology have become an integral part of the world culture, therefore for any nation to be
relevant; it must not over look the importance of mathematics in her educational system. The import
position occupied by the subject mathematics in the school curricular is borne out of the role of
mathematics in scientific and technological development, a sine
Usman, 2007).

In acknowledging the importance of ma
culture of science and technology, Ukeje (2005) comments that:
Without mathematics, there is no science; without science there is no modern
technology; and without modern technology there is no modern
mathematics is the precursor and the Queen of science and technology and the
indispensable single element in modern societal development (p.82).
Mathematics is widely regarded as the language of science and technology. Science is
that provides the spring board for the growth of technology; mathematics is the gate and key to the
sciences. Mathematics was seen as a means of describing various phenomena, both in physical and
economics situations using the concept of shape
1997; Odogwu, 2001). Ekoko (1998) noted that mathematics as the science of quantity and space
expressed in numbers and figures have for long been dreaded by many that has direct or indirect contact
with it. The subject mathematics is one, which is studied at all levels; it is a core subject for all the
students at secondary schools in Nigeria. The National Policy on Education (NPE), published in 1977,
revised in 1981, 1998 and 2004, accords mathematics
individuals day-to-day living and its role in science and technological advancement of the nation.
Consequently, an analysis of factors in students mathematics achievement is therefore indispensable in
nation building.

The world is becoming more and more competitive. Quality of achievement has become the key
factor for personal progress. Parents desire that their children climb the ladder of achievement to as high
a level as possible. This desire for a
schools, and in general, the educational system itself. In fact, it appears as if the whole system of
education revolves round the academic achievement of students, though various othe
expected from the system. Thus a lot of time and effort of the schools are used for helping students to
achieve better in their scholastic endeavours (Padma, 2011). As a result of the above assertion, the
researcher perceived achievemen
response to some set of learning tasks presented in a test or examination situation.

The West African Examinations Council (WAEC) recently released studies on achievement by
candidates in mathematics at the May/June West African Senior School Certificate Examination
(WASSCE) decline with mass failure recorded in mathematics and called on stakeholders to initiate
measures to arrest the trend. The Head of WAEC Research Division and Headqua
Uwadiae revealed that the fluctuation trend in mathematics and students poor achievement in
WASSCE/SSCE were attributed to several factors which include examination bodies, government,
parents, teachers and students. WAEC also found

Mathematics as a subject affects all aspects of human life at different degrees. The socio
political, geographical, scientific and technological aspects of man are centered on numbers. The earliest
Mathematics has become so valuable that there is nothing in all human endeavours
ge (Eraikhuemen & Oteze, 2008). It application in chemistry, physics,
banking, law and medicine cannot be over emphasized. Mathematics was construed as v
the intellectual development and career choice of individual, regardless of sex (Ebeh, 2000).
(1980), Meremikwu and Enukoha (2010), both agreed in different researches that we live in a world where
relevant; it must not over look the importance of mathematics in her educational system. The import
mathematics in scientific and technological development, a sine-quanor in national building (Aguele &
In acknowledging the importance of mathematics and contribution of mathematics to the modern
culture of science and technology, Ukeje (2005) comments that:
technology; and without modern technology there is no modern society. In other words,
indispensable single element in modern societal development (p.82).
Mathematics is widely regarded as the language of science and technology. Science is
economics situations using the concept of shapes, sizes, quantity and orders (Baiyelo, 1987; Abiodun,
h it. The subject mathematics is one, which is studied at all levels; it is a core subject for all the
revised in 1981, 1998 and 2004, accords mathematics this preference, because of its relevance to the
day living and its role in science and technological advancement of the nation.
a level as possible. This desire for a high level of achievement puts a lot of pressure on students, teachers,
education revolves round the academic achievement of students, though various othe
researcher perceived achievement or academic achievement as the students scores arising from their
response to some set of learning tasks presented in a test or examination situation.
in mathematics at the May/June West African Senior School Certificate Examination
measures to arrest the trend. The Head of WAEC Research Division and Headqua
parents, teachers and students. WAEC also found that students achieved poorly due to lack of adequate
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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103
nt degrees. The socio-economic,
centered on numbers. The earliest
that does not require
ge (Eraikhuemen & Oteze, 2008). It application in chemistry, physics,
banking, law and medicine cannot be over emphasized. Mathematics was construed as very important to
regardless of sex (Ebeh, 2000).
different researches that we live in a world where
relevant; it must not over look the importance of mathematics in her educational system. The important
quanor in national building (Aguele &
thematics and contribution of mathematics to the modern
society. In other words,
Mathematics is widely regarded as the language of science and technology. Science is the bed rock
s, sizes, quantity and orders (Baiyelo, 1987; Abiodun,
h it. The subject mathematics is one, which is studied at all levels; it is a core subject for all the
this preference, because of its relevance to the
day living and its role in science and technological advancement of the nation.
high level of achievement puts a lot of pressure on students, teachers,
education revolves round the academic achievement of students, though various other outcomes are also
t or academic achievement as the students scores arising from their
in mathematics at the May/June West African Senior School Certificate Examination
measures to arrest the trend. The Head of WAEC Research Division and Headquarters office, Dr. Iyi
that students achieved poorly due to lack of adequate


preparation, shortage of qualified teachers, inadequate instructional materials, lack of good school
environment and infrastructural facilities. Others include inability to understand questions that dem
high level of thinking (Higher Order Thinking), flagrant breach of rubrics, thus answering more questions
than required (Dike, 2007).

Odili (2006) expressed surprise over the un
studying the achievement rate of secondary school students in Senior School Certificate Examination
(SSCE) May/June passes at credit level and above from 1991 to 2000. The same observation was made by
Aburime (2009:2) when he stated that Adeniji (1998) and Amoo (2001) have
woes about low achievement in Mathematics in Nigeria secondary schools. Indeed, a number of studies
carried out so far have tended to show that achievement of most students in mathematics in our schools
has always been a concern to a great number of academicians, such as the studies of Azuka (1995), Kajuru
(2005) and Adetula & Ale (2005).

While educational inequality associated with class, socio
differences have been adequately investigate
either been taken for granted or lightly handled. Nevertheless, some differences which may exist between
the sexes are very vital in the curriculum and educational planning for the offsprings
organism. This is probably why a few concerned educators and psychologists have constantly wondered
whether there are really sex differences in achievement (Akinboy

Research evidence revealed that female at early adolescence tends to
than their male counterpart. Therefore, female tend
period of life. Once puberty is reached the differential in academic achievement is removed. Male at this
age and thereafter are reported to equal or even surpass the females in their academic achievement. It was
concluded by affirming that a great
attributed to the role set for the children by culture (society) a
2003). Also, the attitude of parents/guardians contributed to the superiority of males over females in
Mathematics. This was confirmed when Obodo (1997) opined that some parents encourage their boys to
take part in constructing play houses while discouraging the girls from such an activity because that
activity is not meant for girls. On the other hand, they encourage the girls to take part in toy cooking.
Construction of play houses will familiarize the boys with
parallelograms, circles, lengths, measurements, prism, and fractions among numerous other mathematical
concepts. In toy cooking, the girls at best get involved with Arithmetic
estimation, proportion, ratio, etc. He concluded that activities like construction of play houses by the boys
place them on a better advantage in studying mathematics than toy cooking by the girls. Bassey, Joshau
and Asim (2011) and Obodo refer to this phenomeno
stereotyping activity.

In Nigeria, gender-achievement studies include
significant difference in the academic achievement of male and female students and the sign
difference in achievement is in favour
a significant difference in mathematics ability of the male and female students and all cases of significant
favour the male students. Malik
females when they asserted that male students performed better than their female counterparts.
In Kenya, Bosire, Mondoh and Barmoa (2008:604) discovered that There is a statistically signi
difference in the performance of boys and girls in all the three types of schools. Generally, the boys
perform better than girls do. This implies that despite the type of school that learners attend, boys are
still likely to score better in mathema
study in Australia and found no significant sex differences in mathematics achievement on each of the
occasions.

In Ika North-East and Ika South Local Government Areas of Delta State, the
schools either for boys or girls and also coeducational (mixed) schools. The single
opportunities that dont exist in the coed classroom. Teachers can employ strategies in all
and in all-boys classroom, which dont work as well (or dont work at all) in the coed classroom. Single
sex classes are remarkably effective in boosting the performance of both girls and boys (NASSPE, 2011).
environment and infrastructural facilities. Others include inability to understand questions that dem
Odili (2006) expressed surprise over the un-impressive students achievement in Mathematics after
vement rate of secondary school students in Senior School Certificate Examination
Aburime (2009:2) when he stated that Adeniji (1998) and Amoo (2001) have expressed similar tales of
n to a great number of academicians, such as the studies of Azuka (1995), Kajuru

While educational inequality associated with class, socio-economic status, regional and ethnic
differences have been adequately investigated, inequality associated with Gender (or sex) differences have
the sexes are very vital in the curriculum and educational planning for the offsprings
whether there are really sex differences in achievement (Akinboye, 1981).
Research evidence revealed that female at early adolescence tends to develop earlier, intellectually
than their male counterpart. Therefore, female tends to perform better academically than male at this
ter are reported to equal or even surpass the females in their academic achievement. It was
concluded by affirming that a greater part of the differences in achievement of both sex
attributed to the role set for the children by culture (society) and not due to biological factors (Ibidapo,
n constructing play houses while discouraging the girls from such an activity because that
Construction of play houses will familiarize the boys with such concepts as rectangles, squares, triangles,
concepts. In toy cooking, the girls at best get involved with Arithmetic- fractions, measurement,
tion, proportion, ratio, etc. He concluded that activities like construction of play houses by the boys
and Asim (2011) and Obodo refer to this phenomenon as a direct effect of sex stereotyped interests/ sex
achievement studies include that of Eraikhuemen (2003) who found a
significant difference in the academic achievement of male and female students and the sign
difference in achievement is in favour of male students. Bassey, Joshua and Asim (2011) posit
favour the male students. Maliki, Ngban and Ibu (2009) acknowledge the superiority of males over
In Kenya, Bosire, Mondoh and Barmoa (2008:604) discovered that There is a statistically signi
still likely to score better in mathematics examinations than girls. Afrassa and Keeves (2001) conducted a
East and Ika South Local Government Areas of Delta State, the
schools either for boys or girls and also coeducational (mixed) schools. The single
opportunities that dont exist in the coed classroom. Teachers can employ strategies in all
which dont work as well (or dont work at all) in the coed classroom. Single
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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104
environment and infrastructural facilities. Others include inability to understand questions that demand
impressive students achievement in Mathematics after
vement rate of secondary school students in Senior School Certificate Examination
expressed similar tales of
n to a great number of academicians, such as the studies of Azuka (1995), Kajuru
economic status, regional and ethnic
d, inequality associated with Gender (or sex) differences have
the sexes are very vital in the curriculum and educational planning for the offsprings of the human
develop earlier, intellectually
to perform better academically than male at this
ter are reported to equal or even surpass the females in their academic achievement. It was
part of the differences in achievement of both sexes can be
nd not due to biological factors (Ibidapo,
n constructing play houses while discouraging the girls from such an activity because that
such concepts as rectangles, squares, triangles,
fractions, measurement,
tion, proportion, ratio, etc. He concluded that activities like construction of play houses by the boys
n as a direct effect of sex stereotyped interests/ sex-
Eraikhuemen (2003) who found a
significant difference in the academic achievement of male and female students and the significant
a and Asim (2011) posit that there is
i, Ngban and Ibu (2009) acknowledge the superiority of males over
In Kenya, Bosire, Mondoh and Barmoa (2008:604) discovered that There is a statistically significant
tics examinations than girls. Afrassa and Keeves (2001) conducted a
East and Ika South Local Government Areas of Delta State, there are single-sex
schools either for boys or girls and also coeducational (mixed) schools. The single-sex format creates
opportunities that dont exist in the coed classroom. Teachers can employ strategies in all-girls classroom,
which dont work as well (or dont work at all) in the coed classroom. Single-


In Nigeria, Okonkwo (1983) posited that students in single
their co-educational counterparts. In a related study, Ejiogu and Adeleye (1986) opined that academic
achievement in mathematics in the boys schools was generally better than the girls; while co
schools performed much more poorly. One therefore, wonders whether the presence of a number of the
opposite sex would tend to distract from rather than enhance achievement.
On October 25, 2006, the United Sates Department of Education published new regulations allowing
single-sex education in public schools any time schools think it will improve students achievement. Thus
far, studies comparing single-sex with mixed (or coeducational) schools have been carried out at the
national level mostly in England, Australia and Jama
been limited to Catholic schools (Diaconu, 2010).

In 2002, England National Foundation for Educational Research (ENFER) was commissioned to
study the effect of school size and school type (single
Foundation studied 2,954 high schools throughout England, where single
widely available. They found that both girls and boys did significantly better in single
coed schools. In 2000, Australian Council of Educational Research (ACER) compared achievement of
students at single-sex and coeducational schools. They found that both boys and girls who were educated
in single-sex classrooms scored on average 15 to 22 percentile ranks
coeducational settings. A classic study from Jamaica: Hamilton (1985) studied students in Jamaica, found
that students attending single-sex schools outperformed students in coed schools in almost every subject
tested. Hamilton noted the same pattern of results which has been found in most studies Worldwide:
Girls at single-sex schools attain the highest achievement; boys at single
schools next, and girls at coed schools do worst of all. These
evidence that single-sex environments provide girls with a sense of empowerment, confidence to ask
questions in class, an intimidation free classroom climate, and a positive attribute to mathematics.
The issue of students academic achievement in mathematics in public examinations, such as Senior
School Certificate Examination (SSCE) organized by West African Examination Council (WAEC) and
National Examination Council (NECO) has been of great concern to schools, p
the public have decried the poor achievement of students in mathematics at the end of secondary
education in public examinations. Most of the secondary school products cannot meet University
requirements for admission into science an

It is against this background that the research
mathematics as it relates to gender (male and female) and school type (single
well as possible causes of poor achievement of students at the end of secondary education in public
examination with particular reference to the Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination (SSCE).


Students achievement in mathematics in external
time. If one considers out puts of education (students learning and academic achievement) especially in
the mathematics and sciences, the schools seem to have failed. This is a sad feature of our nati
educational system. Research evidence revealed that students achievement in mathematics in West
African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) over ten years was very disappointing and
negates the seriousness Nigeria educational policy attach

Achievement in mathematics is also attributed to gender underling ability and partly to social
climate (school type) that does not encourage the study of mathematics. A lot of studies carried out in
Nigeria and abroad found that gend
students (Ayodele, 2009; Meremikwu & Enukoha, 2010; Smithers & Robinson, 2006; ACER, 2000;
ENFER, 2002; NASSPE, 2011). Although some other studies have counter findings (Afrassa & Keeves,
2001; Santos, Ursini & Ramirez, 2006; Lepore & Warren, 1997). It was also observed that in all the
reviewed studies on the analysis of factors in students mathematics achievement, it is either conducted at
the primary schools (Arithmetic) or at the Junior se
field of mathematics at the Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination (SSCE). And these studies
did not consider the interaction influence of gender (male and female) and school type (single
educational) on students achievement in mathematics. Therefore, the researcher sees the need to analyze
In Nigeria, Okonkwo (1983) posited that students in single-sex schools consistently achieve better than
educational counterparts. In a related study, Ejiogu and Adeleye (1986) opined that academic
achievement in mathematics in the boys schools was generally better than the girls; while co
much more poorly. One therefore, wonders whether the presence of a number of the
opposite sex would tend to distract from rather than enhance achievement.
sex education in public schools any time schools think it will improve students achievement. Thus
sex with mixed (or coeducational) schools have been carried out at the
national level mostly in England, Australia and Jamaica, while in United States comparative studies have
been limited to Catholic schools (Diaconu, 2010).
study the effect of school size and school type (single-sex vs. coed) on academic achievement. The
Foundation studied 2,954 high schools throughout England, where single-sex public high schools are
widely available. They found that both girls and boys did significantly better in single
In 2000, Australian Council of Educational Research (ACER) compared achievement of
sex and coeducational schools. They found that both boys and girls who were educated
sex classrooms scored on average 15 to 22 percentile ranks higher than boys and girls in
sex schools outperformed students in coed schools in almost every subject
noted the same pattern of results which has been found in most studies Worldwide:
sex schools attain the highest achievement; boys at single-sex schools are next; boys at coed
schools next, and girls at coed schools do worst of all. These contributions by researchers connote strong
sex environments provide girls with a sense of empowerment, confidence to ask
students academic achievement in mathematics in public examinations, such as Senior
National Examination Council (NECO) has been of great concern to schools, parents, government and
requirements for admission into science and science related courses.
It is against this background that the research is conducted to find out the level of achievement in
mathematics as it relates to gender (male and female) and school type (single-sex and co
s of poor achievement of students at the end of secondary education in public
Students achievement in mathematics in external examinations has been a great concern to all in recent
the mathematics and sciences, the schools seem to have failed. This is a sad feature of our nati
negates the seriousness Nigeria educational policy attaches to the discipline.
Nigeria and abroad found that gender differences and school type influence academic achievement of
the primary schools (Arithmetic) or at the Junior secondary schools. None of the studies conducted in the
did not consider the interaction influence of gender (male and female) and school type (single
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
105
nsistently achieve better than
educational counterparts. In a related study, Ejiogu and Adeleye (1986) opined that academic
achievement in mathematics in the boys schools was generally better than the girls; while co-educational
much more poorly. One therefore, wonders whether the presence of a number of the
sex education in public schools any time schools think it will improve students achievement. Thus
sex with mixed (or coeducational) schools have been carried out at the
ica, while in United States comparative studies have
. coed) on academic achievement. The
sex public high schools are
widely available. They found that both girls and boys did significantly better in single-sex schools than
In 2000, Australian Council of Educational Research (ACER) compared achievement of
sex and coeducational schools. They found that both boys and girls who were educated
higher than boys and girls in
sex schools outperformed students in coed schools in almost every subject
noted the same pattern of results which has been found in most studies Worldwide:
sex schools are next; boys at coed
contributions by researchers connote strong
sex environments provide girls with a sense of empowerment, confidence to ask
students academic achievement in mathematics in public examinations, such as Senior
arents, government and
to find out the level of achievement in
sex and co-educational) as
s of poor achievement of students at the end of secondary education in public
examinations has been a great concern to all in recent
the mathematics and sciences, the schools seem to have failed. This is a sad feature of our nations
er differences and school type influence academic achievement of
condary schools. None of the studies conducted in the
did not consider the interaction influence of gender (male and female) and school type (single-sex and co-


gender differences and patterns of academic achievement of students of single
co-educational schools with particular int
students mathematics achievement in Delta State of Nigeria.

Research Questions

The following research questions were provided answers to:
1) Is there any difference in mathematics
2) Is there any difference in mathematics achievement of students on the basis of their school type?
3) Is there any interaction influence of gender and school type on students achievement in
mathematics?

Research Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were tested:
Ho1: There is no significant difference in mathematics achievement of male students and those of
female students.
Ho2: There is no significant difference in mathematics achievement of students of
and those of co-educational schools
Ho3: There is no significant interaction influence of gender and school type on students achievement
in mathematics.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate and analyze the
at the Senior School Certificate Examination in Ika North
of Delta state.

In this study variables such as Gender, School type, and their influence on students academi
achievement in mathematics are considered. The possible causes of students low achievement in Senior
School Certificate Examination (SSCE) will also be analyzed. And adequate recommendations that will
help to correct these problems will be provided in o
Senior School Certificate Mathematics Examination.

Methodology

Research Design

This study employed an ex-post facto research design to guide the collection and analysis of data. Gay
(1996) described an ex-post facto research as an after fact study which does not involve the manipulation
of variables. The study focused on public schools that were categorized based on school type. These
were:
Single-sex schools (boys only and girls only), and
Co-educational schools (mixed sex), where both the boys and girls were in the same school.

Population

The population of this study comprised of all public senior secondary three (SS III) students in Delta
state of Nigeria.

Sample and Sampling Techniqu
The study sample consisted of three hundred and sixty (360) students
senior secondary schools (six in the single
East and Ika South Local Government Areas
school to make up the sample using proportionate stratified random sampling technique. One hundred
and eighty (180) of the subjects were males while equal number was females.

gender differences and patterns of academic achievement of students of single-sex schools and those of
educational schools with particular interest in the interaction influence of gender and school type on
students mathematics achievement in Delta State of Nigeria.
The following research questions were provided answers to:
Is there any difference in mathematics achievement of students on the basis of gender?
Is there any difference in mathematics achievement of students on the basis of their school type?
Is there any interaction influence of gender and school type on students achievement in
The following hypotheses were tested:
There is no significant difference in mathematics achievement of male students and those of
There is no significant difference in mathematics achievement of students of
educational schools
There is no significant interaction influence of gender and school type on students achievement
The purpose of this study is to investigate and analyze the factors in students mathematics achievement
at the Senior School Certificate Examination in Ika North-East and Ika South Local Government Areas
In this study variables such as Gender, School type, and their influence on students academi
help to correct these problems will be provided in order to enhance good achievement of students in
Senior School Certificate Mathematics Examination.
post facto research design to guide the collection and analysis of data. Gay
post facto research as an after fact study which does not involve the manipulation
sex schools (boys only and girls only), and
educational schools (mixed sex), where both the boys and girls were in the same school.
and Sampling Technique
consisted of three hundred and sixty (360) students, randomly selected from twelve (12)
senior secondary schools (six in the single-sex setting and six in the coeducational setting) in Ika North
East and Ika South Local Government Areas of the state. Thirty (30) students were selected from each
and eighty (180) of the subjects were males while equal number was females.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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106
sex schools and those of
erest in the interaction influence of gender and school type on
achievement of students on the basis of gender?
Is there any difference in mathematics achievement of students on the basis of their school type?
Is there any interaction influence of gender and school type on students achievement in
There is no significant difference in mathematics achievement of male students and those of
There is no significant difference in mathematics achievement of students of single-sex schools
There is no significant interaction influence of gender and school type on students achievement
factors in students mathematics achievement
East and Ika South Local Government Areas
In this study variables such as Gender, School type, and their influence on students academic
rder to enhance good achievement of students in
post facto research design to guide the collection and analysis of data. Gay
post facto research as an after fact study which does not involve the manipulation
educational schools (mixed sex), where both the boys and girls were in the same school.
randomly selected from twelve (12)
setting) in Ika North-
of the state. Thirty (30) students were selected from each


Research Instrument
The instrument used for data collection was Students Mathematics Achievement Test (SMAT) adapted
from West African Examination Council WASSCE/SSCE June 2010 objective test. It is a standardized
mathematics achievement test consisting of a 50
D). Scoring of the items was done manually by awarding two (2) marks to a correct option while the
incorrect option was awarded no mark

Validity of Instrument

The instrument is considered valid since it is
body. However, the content validity as analyzed by the researcher is as shown below.

Table 1: Table of Specifications for SMAT

S/N

Content
1. Number and Numeration 24%
2. Algebraic Processes 24%
3. Measuration 16%
4. Plane Geometry 20%
5. Trigonometry 6%
6. Statistics and Probability 10%
Total

However, a trial testing (or pilot study) of the instrument enable the researcher determined the adequacy
of the time allotted for the test items. The average of the actual time taken by the first, middle and last
subjects to complete the test was found and formed the time for the test.

Reliability of Instrument

The reliability of the instrument was determined by the use of Split
is a form of internal consistency reliability which meas
item; how items correlates with other items within the test, unlike the test
the stability of responses within a specific period of time. In other words, coefficient of stabil
magnitude of test-retest may be influenced by the amount of time between testing sessions, age (i.e.
examinee developmental level), and the stability of what (e.g., attribute, trait, etc.) is being measured.
Also, memory and practice effects may adve
administered to thirty (30) students from co
who were not involved in the main study. For each subject, the odd and even number items were scored
separately and Pearsons Product
coefficient of 0.44 was obtained. The half
Spearman-Brown Prophecy formula. This gave a correlat
the entire (or total) test. This was considered high enough to establish the reliability of the instrument.


The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as
well as inferential statistics such as two
package at 0.05 alpha level of significance.
Results
Results based on the data collected and analyzed for this

Hypothesis One

There is no significant difference in mathematics achievement of male students and those of female
students.

mathematics achievement test consisting of a 50-item multiple-choice objective test with four options (A
incorrect option was awarded no mark
The instrument is considered valid since it is recent and was constructed by a renowned examination
Table of Specifications for SMAT Key: HOT- Higher Order Thinking
OBJECTIVES
Knowledge
8%
Comprehension
26%
Application
34%
24% 1 3 5
2 3 4
Nil 2 3
Nil 2 3
Nil 1 1
10% 1 2 1
4 13 17
complete the test was found and formed the time for the test.
The reliability of the instrument was determined by the use of Split-half reliability measure. The Split
is a form of internal consistency reliability which measures the consistency of responses from item to
item; how items correlates with other items within the test, unlike the test-retest reliability which measures
the stability of responses within a specific period of time. In other words, coefficient of stabil
retest may be influenced by the amount of time between testing sessions, age (i.e.
Also, memory and practice effects may adversely affect coefficient magnitude. The instrument was
administered to thirty (30) students from co-educational school in Ika South Local Government Area
separately and Pearsons Product-Moment correlation coefficient (r) was computed and a correlation
coefficient of 0.44 was obtained. The half-test correlation was further stepped-up to full
Brown Prophecy formula. This gave a correlation coefficient of 0.61 as the reliability index of
The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as the mean and standard deviation as
well as inferential statistics such as two-way (2x2) analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS version 17.0
package at 0.05 alpha level of significance.

Results based on the data collected and analyzed for this study are presented below:
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
107
choice objective test with four options (A-
recent and was constructed by a renowned examination
Higher Order Thinking
HOT
32%

Total
3 12
3 12
4 8
4 10
1 3
1 5
16 50
half reliability measure. The Split-half
ures the consistency of responses from item to
retest reliability which measures
the stability of responses within a specific period of time. In other words, coefficient of stability
retest may be influenced by the amount of time between testing sessions, age (i.e.
rsely affect coefficient magnitude. The instrument was
educational school in Ika South Local Government Area
Moment correlation coefficient (r) was computed and a correlation
up to full-length using
ion coefficient of 0.61 as the reliability index of
the mean and standard deviation as
way (2x2) analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS version 17.0



Table 2: Mean and Standard Deviation of the Students Achievement by Gender in Mathematics
Dependent Variable Gender
Students Achievement
(Mathematics)
Male

Female
Total

Table 3: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Showing Difference by Gender
*P<0.05 level of significance

The descriptive statistics of the samples are shown in table 2 above. The male students (
SD=10.06) had higher mean score than female students (
to draw inference pertaining to the hypothesis, ANOVA on the data is shown in table 3. The computed
value of F for Gender was found to be 3.933 significant at p=0.048 level [F (1,358) =3.933, P<0.05]
which clearly indicates that the null hypothesis (Ho
upheld. It is concluded that there is a significant difference in mathematics achievement of male students
and those of female students. From the observed means, the significa
achievement is in favour of male students.

Hypothesis Two
There is no significant difference in mathematic achievement of students of single
of co-educational schools.

Table 4: Mean and Standard Deviation
Mathematics
Dependent
Variable
Gender

Students
Achievement
(Mathematics)

Male
Female

Total

Table 5: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Showing Difference in School Type

Source of variation
Sum of Squares

Corrected Model
Intercept
Main Effect:
Gender
Residual
Corrected Total
311.111
259424.711

321.111
29230.178
29551.289
Source of variation Sum of Squares (SS)
Corrected Model
Intercept
Main Effect:
School Type
Residual
Corrected Total
792.100
259532.100

792.100
28759.800
29551.900
Mean and Standard Deviation of the Students Achievement by Gender in Mathematics
Gender Mean SD

Female
27.79

25.90
10.06

7.88
26.84 9.07
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Showing Difference by Gender
The descriptive statistics of the samples are shown in table 2 above. The male students (
SD=10.06) had higher mean score than female students ( X
=
25.90, SD=7.88) in mathematics. In order
s that the null hypothesis (Ho1) on gender is therefore rejected and alternative
and those of female students. From the observed means, the significant difference in academic
achievement is in favour of male students.
There is no significant difference in mathematic achievement of students of single-sex schools and those
Mean and Standard Deviation of the Students Achievement by Gender and School Type in
School type Mean SD
Single-sex
Coed
Total
31.40
24.20
27.80
10.81
7.77
10.06
Single-sex
Coed
Total
25.27
26.53
25.90
8.81
6.81
7.88
Single-sex
Coed
Total
28.33
25.37
26.85
10.31
7.38
9.07
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Showing Difference in School Type

Sum of Squares
(SS)

DF
Mean Square
(MS)

311.111
259424.711

321.111
29230.178
29551.289
1
1

1
358
359
321.111
259424.711

321.111
81.649
3.933
3177.334

3.933*
of Squares (SS) DF Mean Square (MS) F

1
1

1
358
359
792.100
259532.100

792.100
80.335
9.860
3230.638

9.860*
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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108
Mean and Standard Deviation of the Students Achievement by Gender in Mathematics
N
180

180
360
The descriptive statistics of the samples are shown in table 2 above. The male students ( X
=27.79,

SD=7.88) in mathematics. In order
) on gender is therefore rejected and alternative
nt difference in academic
sex schools and those
nt by Gender and School Type in
N

90
90
180

90
90
180

180
180
360
F
Sig.
(p-value)
3.933
3177.334
3.933*
0.048
0.000

0.048*
Sig. (p-value)

0.002
0.000

0.002*


Table 4 shows that the students of Single
than those of Coed schools ( X
=25.37,
the highest achievement; females at co
next; and males at co-educational schools do the worst of all. ANOVA as shown in table 5 i
draw inference with respect to (w.r.t) the hypothesis. The computed value of F for school type was found
to be 9.860 significant at p=0.002 level [F(1,358)=9.860, P<0.05], therefore the null hypothesis (Ho
School type is rejected. The concl
achievement of students of single
the significant difference in academic achievement is in favour of students of single

Hypothesis Three

There is no significant interaction influence of gender and school type on students achievement in
mathematics.

Table 6: Summary of 2x2 ANOVA Showing the Main and Interaction Effects of Gender and School
Type on Students Achievement in Mathematics

Table 7: Simple Main Effects- the Effects of School type within each level combination of the other
effects
Dependent
Variable
School type
Students
Achievement
(Mathematics)
Single-sex

Coed


Table 6 shows that the interaction between Gender and type of school (school type) attended by students
is statistically significant, since the computed value of F for the interaction effect of Gender and School
type is 21.408 significant at p=0.000 level
rejected in favour of the alternative, which implies that, there is a significant interaction influence of
Gender and School type on students achievement in mathematics. As a follow up to the r
significant interaction influence, table 7 revealed the Simple Main Effects analysis of the mean differences
that was carried out at 0.05 level of significance. The table further declared that there are statistically
significant mean differences between males and females of single
there are no significant differences between males and females of coed schools (p=0.072; p<0.05).
The nature of interaction influence between the two independent variables (gender an
students achievement in mathematics is graphically shown in figure 1 below.

Source of variation Sum of Squares
Corrected Model
Intercept
Main Effects:
Gender
School type
Interaction Effect:
Gender*School type
Residual
Corrected Total
2729.900
259532.100

324.900
792.100

1612.900
26822.000
29551.900
Table 4 shows that the students of Single-sex schools ( X
=28.33,
SD=10.31) had higher mean scores
=25.37,
SD=7.38) in mathematics; males at single-
the highest achievement; females at co-educational schools are next; females at single
educational schools do the worst of all. ANOVA as shown in table 5 i
to be 9.860 significant at p=0.002 level [F(1,358)=9.860, P<0.05], therefore the null hypothesis (Ho
School type is rejected. The conclusion is that there is a significant difference in mathematics
achievement of students of single-sex schools and those of coed counterparts. From the observed means,
the significant difference in academic achievement is in favour of students of single-sex
Summary of 2x2 ANOVA Showing the Main and Interaction Effects of Gender and School
ype on Students Achievement in Mathematics
the Effects of School type within each level combination of the other
School type Source of
Variation
Sum of
Squares (SS)
DF Mean Square
(MS)
Contrast

Residual
1692.800

26822.000
1

356
1692.800

75.343
Contrast

Residual
245.000

26822.000
1

356
245.000

75.343
type is 21.408 significant at p=0.000 level [F(1,356)=21.408, p<0.05]. Thus, the null hypothesis (Ho
Gender and School type on students achievement in mathematics. As a follow up to the r
s between males and females of single-sex schools (p=0.000; p<0.05) while
The nature of interaction influence between the two independent variables (gender an
students achievement in mathematics is graphically shown in figure 1 below.
Sum of Squares (SS) DF Mean Square (MS) F
2729.900
259532.100
1612.900
26822.000
29551.900
3
1

1
1

1
356
359
909.967
259532.100

324.900
792.100

1612.900
75.343
12.078
3444.68
8

4.312
10.513

21.408*
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
109
SD=10.31) had higher mean scores
-sex schools obtained
educational schools are next; females at single-sex schools are
educational schools do the worst of all. ANOVA as shown in table 5 is used to
to be 9.860 significant at p=0.002 level [F(1,358)=9.860, P<0.05], therefore the null hypothesis (Ho2) on
usion is that there is a significant difference in mathematics
sex schools and those of coed counterparts. From the observed means,
sex schools.
Summary of 2x2 ANOVA Showing the Main and Interaction Effects of Gender and School
the Effects of School type within each level combination of the other
Square F Sig.
22.468

0.000

3.252

0.072

[F(1,356)=21.408, p<0.05]. Thus, the null hypothesis (Ho3) is
Gender and School type on students achievement in mathematics. As a follow up to the results of a
sex schools (p=0.000; p<0.05) while
The nature of interaction influence between the two independent variables (gender and school type) on
Sig. (p-value)

0.000
0.000

0.039
0.001

0.000*


Fig1: Interaction Influence of Gender and School type on Students achievement in mathematics

Figure 1 shows the plotted profile of the interaction effect of
achievement in mathematics. In fact, the two main effects and interaction effect are very explicit.

Summary of Findings

Based on the above analysis and presentation of results, these are the major findings of this
1) There is a significant difference in mathematics achievement of male students and those of female
students.
2) There exist a significant difference in mathematics achievement of students of single
those of co-educational schools
3) There is a significant interaction influence of Gender and School type on students achievement in
mathematics.


The findings of this study indicated that there is a significant difference in mathematics achievement of
male students and those of female students; the male students outperformed female students in
mathematics. This finding is in consonance with the findings of Eraikhuemen (2003), Bassey, Joshua and
Asim (2011), Maliki, Ngban and Ibu (2009), and Bosire, Mondoh and Barmoa (2008
and Keeves (2001) found no significant sex differences in mathematics achievement.

The findings showed that there is a significant difference in mathematics achievement of students
of single-sex schools and those of co
those of co-educational schools. This finding tend to corroborate with the findings of Okonkwo (1983),
Ejiogu and Adeleye (1986), Hamilton (1985), ENFER (2002) and ACER (2000) who reported that
students in single-sex schools consistently achieve better than their co
Further findings of the study showed that there is a significant interaction influence of gender and school
type on students achievement in mathematics. That is, the
students irrespective of the school type is statistically significant in mathematics at varying percentages.
The findings concur with the findings of Ayodele (2009) and NAIS (2005).

Conclusions

Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions are drawn:
Students academic achievement in mathematics is dependent on gender. Generally, male students
achieve better than female students in mathematics. This implies that significant differences were
detected in students mathematics achievement. It may be attributable to many factors, but perhaps
the cognitive learning styles may be favouring males in understanding and subsequent good
achievement in mathematics. Similarly, it may also be likely that witho
teachers approaches to handling mathematics
females.
Figure 1 shows the plotted profile of the interaction effect of gender and school type on students
Based on the above analysis and presentation of results, these are the major findings of this
There is a significant difference in mathematics achievement of male students and those of female
There exist a significant difference in mathematics achievement of students of single
educational schools
is a significant interaction influence of Gender and School type on students achievement in
hose of female students; the male students outperformed female students in
Asim (2011), Maliki, Ngban and Ibu (2009), and Bosire, Mondoh and Barmoa (2008
sex schools and those of co-educational schools; students of single-sex schools outperformed
educational schools. This finding tend to corroborate with the findings of Okonkwo (1983),
sex schools consistently achieve better than their co-educational counterparts.
type on students achievement in mathematics. That is, the average achievement gap of male and female
The findings concur with the findings of Ayodele (2009) and NAIS (2005).
dings of this study, the following conclusions are drawn:
cted in students mathematics achievement. It may be attributable to many factors, but perhaps
achievement in mathematics. Similarly, it may also be likely that without deliberately doing so,
teachers approaches to handling mathematics-learning interactions may be favouring males against
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
110

gender and school type on students
Based on the above analysis and presentation of results, these are the major findings of this study:
There is a significant difference in mathematics achievement of male students and those of female
There exist a significant difference in mathematics achievement of students of single-sex schools and
is a significant interaction influence of Gender and School type on students achievement in
hose of female students; the male students outperformed female students in
Asim (2011), Maliki, Ngban and Ibu (2009), and Bosire, Mondoh and Barmoa (2008). In contrast, Afrassa
sex schools outperformed
educational schools. This finding tend to corroborate with the findings of Okonkwo (1983),
educational counterparts.
average achievement gap of male and female
cted in students mathematics achievement. It may be attributable to many factors, but perhaps
ut deliberately doing so,
learning interactions may be favouring males against


Students academic achievement is dependent on school type. Generally, students of single
schools achieve better than t
differences were detected in students mathematics achievement at the Senior School Certificate
Examination (SSCE).
When the interaction influence (or effects) of gender and school type on stu
were considered, significant influence was detected. This implies that there is a significant influence
of gender and school type on students achievement in mathematics. There are statistically
significant mean differences between males
are no statistically significant differences between males and females of coed schools (p>0.05). As a
result of this gender imbalance in the educational attainment of students at the Senior Secondary
School Certificate Examination (SSCE) in Delta state, stakeholders in education should make
concerted efforts to motivate and increase female student participation in mathematics by
providing counseling that could change gender

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made:
Mathematics teaching and evaluation strategies should be gender bias
females will tend to see themselves as equal,
activities.
There is the need for government to provide basic facilities and amenities in schools such as library
facilities and mathematics laboratories. This will further enhance students achievement i
mathematics.
There is the need for a reform of Nurture in Nigeria. This will provide ample opportunities for
parents of girls to be encouraged to have higher expectations for their daughters.
The Ministry of Education and Schools should as a matter of
secondary school girls featuring women who have excelled in mathematics to deliver papers, in
order to encourage them and as well disabuse the minds of those who consider mathematics as a
masculine domain.
In-service training should be provided for teachers. Seminars, workshops and conferences should
be organized on continuous basis by Government, Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and
subject associations such as the Mathematics Association of Nigeria (MAN), Science Teache
Association of Nigeria (STAN) and Science Association of Nigeria (SAN).
Finally, members of school communities must recognize the importance of their involvement.
Rural and urban communities need to provide support for their schools. Community support c
offer a comfort zone for students in which they can feel safe and excel. Schools can be a symbol of
community pride. Students can achieve greater accomplishments when their school has the support
of the community.

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The Ministry of Education and Schools should as a matter of urgency organize workshops for
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subject associations such as the Mathematics Association of Nigeria (MAN), Science Teache
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A REVIEW OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT FINANCING OF EDUCATION IN
Department
Abstract
Stakeholders in education sector have developed interest in financing aspect of education in recent
time. This is because any educational policy,
adequate funding. It is on this note that this paper
Financing of Education in Nigeria for about ten years periods. The data for this work were collected
through the project submission from states. The finding of this pape
to education by Federal Government is too meager as compared with
3-10% of the aggregate expenditure was devoted to education. It also discovered a yearly reduction in
the proportion of Federal Government financing between 1976
in Governments finance to education to


OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT FINANCING OF EDUCATION IN
NIGERIA

By

TIJANI A. A., Ph.D
Department of Educational Management,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin
E-mail: kenny4real@hotmail.com
Phone: 08033772540

time. This is because any educational policy, no matter how good it is, its bound to fail without
adequate funding. It is on this note that this paper reviews the trends of Federal Government
through the project submission from states. The finding of this paper reveals that the total allocation
y Federal Government is too meager as compared with the aggregate expenditure. Only
10% of the aggregate expenditure was devoted to education. It also discovered a yearly reduction in
the proportion of Federal Government financing between 1976-1991. The paper called for
finance to education to salvage it from a total collapse.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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114
OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT FINANCING OF EDUCATION IN
bound to fail without
the trends of Federal Government
that the total allocation
aggregate expenditure. Only
10% of the aggregate expenditure was devoted to education. It also discovered a yearly reduction in
paper called for an increase


Introduction
The financing of education has been an intractable problem for government in most developing countries
of the world. This happened as a result of uncontrollable increase in school age population. The yearly
increase in pupils at all levels of education has alone led to expansion of education which in turn pushed
the cost of education constantly upward.

However, the public sector mode
Government financial out lay for education at all levels has been rising constantly. The observed increase
have been to meet the recurrent cost of the education system. Even when this is consid
government expenditure on education is hardly adequate to meet recurrent cost (Ogbodo 1991).

Other factors that have contributed to the problem of financing education in Nigeria according to
Coombs and Hillock (1992) include
i. The widening perception of education as the key to upward economic and social mobility
ii. The widespread adoption of public policies aimed at democratizing educational opportunities
(UPE, UBE, etc).
iii. The rapid expansion, upgra
advances in the economy and a new emphasis on economic development.

The public owned institutions are expected to be properly financed by government at all level
Sufficient budgetary allocation is however needed to meet challenges fa
problem is therefore, to what extent has government been given adequate provision to education sector?
What in the proportion of aggregate expenditure of government especially at federal level is devoted to
education? The answers to these questions called for concerted effort of all researchers in education and
on which the paper tends to examine.

Basicall, this paper examine
of ten years, 1976-84. Ultimately, the paper surveyed and
universities through PTF and ETF between
secondary sources, thus; grants to federal universities were obtained from NUC in 2003
expenditures adapted from a secondary source
government allocations to education
results were obtained in percentage on which the

Trends in Government Financing of Education i
Tijani (2003) was of the view that, until about a decade ago, financing the development of university
education in Nigeria seemed to be one of the most secured activities with
problems confronting either policy maker at the federal and state government levels or the authorities in
each university. During the last ten years, however, university education has been continually confronted
with financial crisis. This is clearly borne out by the frequency with which some universities have been
making public statements about their financial plight and appealing to the federal and state government
for help

Adeshina (1981) have shown very clearly that
smaller and smaller in relation to their actual needs. Finance therefore, determines the quality of education
a people may receive and the extent to which this education can go. This is why Nwako (1982) reg
inappropriate funding as one of the seven barriers to good quality education in Nigeria. Unfortunately as
Adam (1967) further observed our educational system is witnessing an epileptic growth and inertia at all
times due to under finding and thus

Government accepts education as expensive social services which require adequate financial
provision from all its tiers, for a successful implementation of the educational programmes NPE (1987).
The spirit in the policy seems
education initially. The story appears to be different now because governments pattern of financing
education has been on the decline since the last two decades. Adam (1967).
as a result of uncontrollable increase in school age population. The yearly
the cost of education constantly upward.
However, the public sector mode of financing education is presently at deplorable in Nigeria.
have been to meet the recurrent cost of the education system. Even when this is consid
Coombs and Hillock (1992) include
eption of education as the key to upward economic and social mobility
The widespread adoption of public policies aimed at democratizing educational opportunities
grading and diversification of manpower requirement d
and a new emphasis on economic development.
The public owned institutions are expected to be properly financed by government at all level
Sufficient budgetary allocation is however needed to meet challenges facing educational system. The
rs to these questions called for concerted effort of all researchers in education and
paper tends to examine.
examines the federal government financing of education in Nigeria for
Ultimately, the paper surveyed and analyzed federal government grants to
ies through PTF and ETF between1994-2002. Data were sourced from both primary and
grants to federal universities were obtained from NUC in 2003
a secondary source. Tables provide further information on the
s to education as compared to the aggregate federal government expenditure
results were obtained in percentage on which the discussions are based.
in Government Financing of Education in Nigeria
education in Nigeria seemed to be one of the most secured activities with little or no serious financing
l crisis. This is clearly borne out by the frequency with which some universities have been
Adeshina (1981) have shown very clearly that grants allocated to the universities are becoming
a people may receive and the extent to which this education can go. This is why Nwako (1982) reg
finding and thus failing to fulfill its role
The spirit in the policy seems to compel government to commit substantial amount of money to
education has been on the decline since the last two decades. Adam (1967).
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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115
as a result of uncontrollable increase in school age population. The yearly
of financing education is presently at deplorable in Nigeria.
have been to meet the recurrent cost of the education system. Even when this is considered alone,
eption of education as the key to upward economic and social mobility.
The widespread adoption of public policies aimed at democratizing educational opportunities
power requirement due to technological
The public owned institutions are expected to be properly financed by government at all levels.
cing educational system. The
rs to these questions called for concerted effort of all researchers in education and
the federal government financing of education in Nigeria for a period
federal government grants to
Data were sourced from both primary and
grants to federal universities were obtained from NUC in 2003 and government
provide further information on the federal
the aggregate federal government expenditures; the
little or no serious financing
l crisis. This is clearly borne out by the frequency with which some universities have been
grants allocated to the universities are becoming
a people may receive and the extent to which this education can go. This is why Nwako (1982) regarded
to compel government to commit substantial amount of money to


As a result of constitutional change in 1954, the value of education became decentralized as the
Federal government and three regions shared the responsibility of finding education. Public aggregate
expenditure in education rose from 9.7 million in 1952 to 41.7 million in

The regional provisions of the 1954 constitution enabled the western region to introduce the
Universal Primary Education In 1955. In 1955, the West budgeted 5.4 million for education, with nearly
90% of this spent on primary education alone (Fafunwa (1974:168): In 1956, the East tried out the UPE
but had to abandon it in its second year due to financial difficulties.

In 1972, the responsibility for higher education which was in the concurrent legislative list in 1963
constitution was reversed by decree to the Federal government. The Federal governments then acquire all
the existing state Universities and
government financing of education.

As at 1976, federal government of Nigeria committed as much as 10.8% of its aggregate
expenditure to education. This has sadly fallen down to3.0% in 1991.

Table 1: Trends in Federal Government Expenditure on Education 1979
Year Aggregate Expenditure (a)
1991 38,766. 0
1984 10,000. 0
1983 11,628
1982 10,930
1981 11,323
1980 23,695.7
1979 12,0914.4
1978 11.233.7
1977 11,695.3
1976 9.701.5
Source: Adapted From Ilorin Journal of Science Education (1997)

The above table shows the rate at which government has failed
education generally.

However, the decade that followed it witnessed a remarkable change in trends of government
allocation of funds to education sector. Between
education witnessed an improvement; this is shown in the table below.

Table 2: Expenditure on education 1990
Focus
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Educational services
Adult education
Special education
Student financing
Total
Source: Project submission from states

Also capital expenditure by all tiers of government in the country has gone up remarkably as shown in the
table below

Table 3: Education Sector, Capital Expenditure
States
Abuja
Federal
L.G.A.
Total
Source: Project submission from states.
stitutional change in 1954, the value of education became decentralized as the
expenditure in education rose from 9.7 million in 1952 to 41.7 million in 1962 (Adeshina 1982:149).
ucation alone (Fafunwa (1974:168): In 1956, the East tried out the UPE
but had to abandon it in its second year due to financial difficulties.
on was reversed by decree to the Federal government. The Federal governments then acquire all
the existing state Universities and set about establishing new ones, this further increase the level of
government financing of education.
eral government of Nigeria committed as much as 10.8% of its aggregate
expenditure to education. This has sadly fallen down to3.0% in 1991.
Trends in Federal Government Expenditure on Education 1979-1987 and 1991 (in Millions)
Expenditure (a) TOTAL on education (b) B as % of a
1170.4 3.0
376.2 3.8
967.4 8.3
1116.6 10.2
1001.4 8.8
1238.5 5.2
667.1 5.3
826.6 6.7
499.1 4.3
1051.2 10.8
Adapted From Ilorin Journal of Science Education (1997)
shows the rate at which government has failed in meeting its obligation for funding
decade that followed it witnessed a remarkable change in trends of government
ds to education sector. Between1990-92 the federal government expenditure on
education witnessed an improvement; this is shown in the table below.
nditure on education 1990-1992(all states and federal government N Million)
Expenditure (1990-92)
417,649
1,297,965
1,489,505
297,890
53,152
53,438
227,167
3, 836, 76
Project submission from states.
Education Sector, Capital Expenditure
Abuja
2,876,261
158,500
802,200
357,275
4,194.236
roject submission from states.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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116
stitutional change in 1954, the value of education became decentralized as the
1962 (Adeshina 1982:149).
ucation alone (Fafunwa (1974:168): In 1956, the East tried out the UPE
on was reversed by decree to the Federal government. The Federal governments then acquire all
his further increase the level of
eral government of Nigeria committed as much as 10.8% of its aggregate
1987 and 1991 (in Millions)
B as % of a

10.2

10.8
meeting its obligation for funding
decade that followed it witnessed a remarkable change in trends of government
92 the federal government expenditure on
Million)


By 1995, the UNESCOs report on selected educational and socio economic indicators for 132
developing countries and territories report an increase in budgeting allocation to all sectors of education.
Though, the figure for Nigeria during this period was not available, but gove
period suggests that there is an increase public spending on education. This was the period government
established the National Primary Education Commission and an increased government financial
expenditure to education through the Petroleum Special Trust Fund and Education Tax Fund. This trend
is reflected in the grants to Federal Universities by the bodies in the table below.

Table 4: Grant to Federal Universities through
Year
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
Source: NUC - Punch 19
th
January 2003

Conclusion
In spite of increased budgetary allocation to the education sector by all
decade; the fact still remains that, this allocations are not enough to be able to cope with increases
demand for education witnessed by high annual increments in enrolment at all levels of education. It is
important to known that the PTF and ETF
infrastructures in all levels of education across the country. This interventionist role has since been
stopped with the scrapping of P.T.F. and this has returned school, to
fund. The fact still remain that it is the statutory role of government to provide the lion
funds needed to run the education industry. It is the fulfillment of this obligation that government is
failing badly. The conclusion is that total allocation to education by Federal government is too meagre
when compared with its aggregate expenditure. Just between 3
to education sector. Added to this was annual reduction in the
financing between 1976-1991. The Government is therefore implored to be more responsive to education
upon which the growth and development of the entire economy is hung.

References
Adams, B. K. (1967). Principles of p
Printing Office
Adeshina, S. (1981). Some aspect of
Fafunwa, A.B (1974). History of Education in Nigeria. London: George Allen
Morphet, E. (1974). Educational Organizational
Mussazi, J.S.C. (1985). The theory and practice of educational a
Publishers
NUC - Punch 19
th
January 2003
Nwako, J.I. (1982). Educational Administration Theory and Practice. Ibadan. Bisi Bon Ltd
Ogunsaju, S. (1989). School Management without Crisis. Ibadan. Verily Printers Ltd
Tijani, A.A (2003). Budgetry allocation and private expenditure on education i
Ikot Ekpene: Development C

report on selected educational and socio economic indicators for 132
Though, the figure for Nigeria during this period was not available, but government activities during this
h the Petroleum Special Trust Fund and Education Tax Fund. This trend
is reflected in the grants to Federal Universities by the bodies in the table below.
rant to Federal Universities through PTF and ETF
Gross Total Allocation
32.694.828.005.00
34,621,267,696.09
33,843,491,261.43
20,902,812,580.77
9,194,839,283.00
5,507,555,312.00
7,696,732,469.00
6,238,950,798,00
41,489,261,90.00
January 2003
In spite of increased budgetary allocation to the education sector by all tiers of government in the last
PTF and ETF as interventionist programme to arrest the decay in school
stopped with the scrapping of P.T.F. and this has returned school, to the usual song Lack of Adequate
fund. The fact still remain that it is the statutory role of government to provide the lion
. The conclusion is that total allocation to education by Federal government is too meagre
when compared with its aggregate expenditure. Just between 3-10% of its total expenditure was devoted
to education sector. Added to this was annual reduction in the proportion of Federal Government
1991. The Government is therefore implored to be more responsive to education
upon which the growth and development of the entire economy is hung.
s, B. K. (1967). Principles of public school accounting. Washington D.C.: United State Government
Adeshina, S. (1981). Some aspect of school management. Lagos: Educational Industries Nigeria Ltd
Fafunwa, A.B (1974). History of Education in Nigeria. London: George Allen and Unw
Morphet, E. (1974). Educational Organizational and Administration. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Inc
. (1985). The theory and practice of educational administration.
(1982). Educational Administration Theory and Practice. Ibadan. Bisi Bon Ltd
Ogunsaju, S. (1989). School Management without Crisis. Ibadan. Verily Printers Ltd
Tijani, A.A (2003). Budgetry allocation and private expenditure on education in selected states
Ikot Ekpene: Development Consortia Nig. Ltd.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
117
report on selected educational and socio economic indicators for 132
rnment activities during this
h the Petroleum Special Trust Fund and Education Tax Fund. This trend
tiers of government in the last
as interventionist programme to arrest the decay in school
the usual song Lack of Adequate
fund. The fact still remain that it is the statutory role of government to provide the lion-share of the
. The conclusion is that total allocation to education by Federal government is too meagre
10% of its total expenditure was devoted
proportion of Federal Government
1991. The Government is therefore implored to be more responsive to education
United State Government
ndustries Nigeria Ltd
Unwin
Prentice Hall. Inc
London: Macmillan
(1982). Educational Administration Theory and Practice. Ibadan. Bisi Bon Ltd

n selected states of Nigeria.


EVALUATION OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION
PROGRAMME IN IMO STATE, NIGERIA.
PETER JAMES KPOLOVIE,
Abstract
The study evaluated the implementation of Universal Basic Education in Imo State for nine years
using summative evaluation model and utilitarian evaluation design. The population of the study
comprised 314 UBE schools and 314 PTA chairmen in the various schools as supplied by Ministry of
Education 2012. The sample sizes of the study were 63 UBE schools and 63 PTA chairmen drawn
using 20% of the population respectively. Stratified random sampling technique was
the sample. Six research questions were answered. Three instruments were used for data collection.
They are checklist on Availability of Facilities (CAF) which was used to get information on available
facilities, Checklist on Free Education
Checklist on Compulsory Education (CCE), which was used to find out from PTA chairmen on how
UBE is compulsory. Numerical data from Examination and Record Unit in the Ministry of
Education in Imo State were used to get information on numeracy, literacy and enrolment of
students. Percentage, proportion and growth rate index were used in answering the research
questions. The Kuder Richardon
CCE as 0.90 respectively. It was found out that basic facilities that are needed were available in UBE
schools; the programme was not totally free, education was not compulsory, enrolment rate has not
increased appreciably, appropriate level of nu
findings, it was recommended among others that there should be intensive sensitization campaign in
and around the communities on the importance of basic education and more useful facilities should be
provided.
Key Words: Evaluation, Implementation and Universal Basic Education Programme.
PROGRAMME IN IMO STATE, NIGERIA.
By
PETER JAMES KPOLOVIE, Ph.D
08037758445

&
AMAEZE, FIDELIS EZE
precisedfidelis@yahoo.com
07032953365

E schools and 314 PTA chairmen in the various schools as supplied by Ministry of
using 20% of the population respectively. Stratified random sampling technique was
facilities, Checklist on Free Education (CFE) which was used to determine whether UBE is free, and
State were used to get information on numeracy, literacy and enrolment of
questions. The Kuder Richardon20 gave the reliability coefficient of CAF as 0.51, CFE as 0
increased appreciably, appropriate level of numeracy and literacy have been achieved. Based on the
Evaluation, Implementation and Universal Basic Education Programme.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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118
E schools and 314 PTA chairmen in the various schools as supplied by Ministry of
using 20% of the population respectively. Stratified random sampling technique was used to compose
(CFE) which was used to determine whether UBE is free, and
State were used to get information on numeracy, literacy and enrolment of
gave the reliability coefficient of CAF as 0.51, CFE as 0.60 and
meracy and literacy have been achieved. Based on the
Evaluation, Implementation and Universal Basic Education Programme.


Introduction
It is a fact that no country can rise above the level of its education. Education and the achievement of its
objectives contribute greatly in the growth
misconception, when it is stated that evaluation which assesses the merit and worth of educational
programme has a notable and corrective role to play in the educational achievement of a country and its
citizenry (Amaeze, 2012). Evaluation could be seen as a veritable measure for assigning numbers or
figures to an event, object, activity, performance, trait and phenomenon according to a set standard in
other to pass value judgement about the merit or wort
Kpolovie (2002), evaluation is the passing of decision or judgement on a persons trait in accordance with
a test which validly and reliably measures the presence of that trait. Gbamanja (2002) stated that
evaluation is a process by which we find out how far the learning experiences as developed and organized,
is actually producing the desired results. More so, programme evaluation seeks to find out programme
effectiveness, efficacy, efficiency and or deficie
(2008: 129) that programme evaluation is to determine the effectiveness of a programme and sometimes
the organization. University of Zimbabwe (1995:8) asserts that implementation takes place as the learner
acquires the planned or intended experiences, knowledge, skills, ideas and attitudes that are aimed at
enabling the same learner to function effectively in a society. This indisputably, states that, when skills,
knowledge, ideas and attitudes enshrined in
implementation of such programme. More so, programme implementation is putting the game plan to
work on the field (Martha, 2012). Implementation is the carrying out, execution, or practice of
method, or any design for doing something. As such, implementation is the action that must follow any
preliminary thinking in order for something to actually happen (Patricia, 2012). Therefore,
implementation must be an action thrust that must be
something or work in the field.
The Universal Basic Education (UBE) of nine (9) continuous years of primary education by the
Nigeria Government brought a little modification in the system of educatio
primary, three years (3) of junior secondary, three years of senior secondary and finally four (4) years of
higher education. According to Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) these are the various subjects to be
taught at primary school level: Mathematics, English Language, Christian Religious Knowledge, Islamic
Knowledge, Science Subjects and one of Igbo, Hausa
The Educational objectives under section 18 of 1999 Constitution of Federal Republic o
(1999); states that:
1) Government shall direct its policy towards ensuring that there are equal and adequate educational
opportunities at all levels; and
2) Government shall promote science and technology;
3) Government shall strive to eradicate illit
practicable provide-
a) Free, compulsory and universal primary education;
b) Free university education; and
c) Free adult literacy programme.
It is statutory and obligatory that, every Nigerian child should have basic education as enshrined in
the National Policy on Education of Federal Republic of Nigeria cited above. No wonder Amartya (2012)
mentioned that basic education can make people get j
that when people are illiterate, their ability to understand and invoke their legal rights can be very limited,
and educational neglect can also lead to other kinds of deprivations. This recurrently, is a pr
people at the poverty and the low class in the society, whose rights and privileges are effectively and
efficiently deprived or alienated because of their inability to read or have basic education.
According to Universal Basic Education Commissi
programme are as follows:
objectives contribute greatly in the growth and development of a nation. Therefore, there is no
other to pass value judgement about the merit or worth of that programme (Amaeze, 2012). According to
valuation is a process by which we find out how far the learning experiences as developed and organized,
effectiveness, efficacy, efficiency and or deficiency (Amaeze, 2012). This agrees with Best and Kahn
knowledge, ideas and attitudes enshrined in an objective are evident as a result of measurement, there is
work on the field (Martha, 2012). Implementation is the carrying out, execution, or practice of
implementation must be an action thrust that must be put in place to accomplish or execute a plan or
Nigeria Government brought a little modification in the system of education of the then six (6) years of
ary school level: Mathematics, English Language, Christian Religious Knowledge, Islamic
Knowledge, Science Subjects and one of Igbo, Hausa-Fulani, or Yoruba Language.
The Educational objectives under section 18 of 1999 Constitution of Federal Republic o
Government shall direct its policy towards ensuring that there are equal and adequate educational
opportunities at all levels; and
Government shall promote science and technology;
Government shall strive to eradicate illiteracy; and to this end Government shall as and when
Free, compulsory and universal primary education;
Free university education; and
Free adult literacy programme.
mentioned that basic education can make people get jobs and gainful employment. He further explained
and educational neglect can also lead to other kinds of deprivations. This recurrently, is a pr
According to Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC, 2004, P4), the objectives of the UBE
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
119
and development of a nation. Therefore, there is no
h of that programme (Amaeze, 2012). According to
valuation is a process by which we find out how far the learning experiences as developed and organized,
ncy (Amaeze, 2012). This agrees with Best and Kahn
an objective are evident as a result of measurement, there is
work on the field (Martha, 2012). Implementation is the carrying out, execution, or practice of a plan, a
put in place to accomplish or execute a plan or
n of the then six (6) years of
ary school level: Mathematics, English Language, Christian Religious Knowledge, Islamic
Fulani, or Yoruba Language.
The Educational objectives under section 18 of 1999 Constitution of Federal Republic of Nigeria
Government shall direct its policy towards ensuring that there are equal and adequate educational
eracy; and to this end Government shall as and when
obs and gainful employment. He further explained
and educational neglect can also lead to other kinds of deprivations. This recurrently, is a problem for
on (UBEC, 2004, P4), the objectives of the UBE


1) ensuring unfettered access to nine years of formal basic education; (2) the provision of free and
compulsory universal basic education for every Nigerian child of school
drastically the incidence of drop-out from the formal school system, through improved relevance, quality
and efficiency; and (4) ensuring the acquisition of appropriate levels of literacy and, numeracy.
In achieving the objectives above, Achunine (2010) recommended that:
i. For access (enrolment), sanctions for failure to enrol a child or withdrawing a child before
completion be enforced as stipulated in the UBE Act 2004.
ii. Abrogation of illegal fees and payments in schools. Poverty is the c
children. At times parents cannot afford the cost of uniform, textbooks, stationery and school
meals.
iii. Reintroduction of school meals as practiced in some states would go a long way to attract and
retain children in school.
iv. Massive contribution and renovation of classrooms and provision of gender sensitive facilities,
teachers, offices etc. would help to create a healthy learning environment.
v. Communities must be mobilized as active partners in achieving the objective of UBE.

Statement of the problem
The Universal Basic Education replaced Universal Free Primary Education for children of school going
age. The introduction of UBE scheme was to ensure free and compulsory universal education for
children of school going age. Availa
UBE programme has not been conducted in Imo
achieved for complete 9 years of uninterrupted schooling from 2004/2005 to 2012/2013 academ
sessions. This is because; programme evaluation seeks to find out programme effectiveness, efficacy,
efficiency and or deficiency (Amaeze, 2012).
Purpose of Study
The main purpose of this study is to evaluate the implementation of Universal Basic Educat
programme, in UBE Schools in Imo State. Specifically, the study sought to:
1. Find out the infrastructural facilities available in urban and rural UBE schools to ensure unfettered
access to nine years of formal basic education Imo
2. Assess the free materials that are provided in urban and rural schools in ensuring free universal basic
education in Imo State.
3. Examine the various ways the UBE is made co
Imo State.
4. Evaluate the increase in enrolment rate
10% expanded access per year in the
5. Find out the percentages (%) of
State.
6. Find out the percentages (%) of
State.
Research Questions
The following research questions were posed to give direction to this study:
1. What are the infrastructural facilities available in urban and rural UBE schools to ensure unfettered
access to nine years of formal basic education Imo State?
2. What free materials are provided in urban and
education in Imo State?
compulsory universal basic education for every Nigerian child of school-going a
out from the formal school system, through improved relevance, quality
e, Achunine (2010) recommended that:
For access (enrolment), sanctions for failure to enrol a child or withdrawing a child before
completion be enforced as stipulated in the UBE Act 2004.
Abrogation of illegal fees and payments in schools. Poverty is the cause of non enrolment of some
Reintroduction of school meals as practiced in some states would go a long way to attract and
sive contribution and renovation of classrooms and provision of gender sensitive facilities,
teachers, offices etc. would help to create a healthy learning environment.
Communities must be mobilized as active partners in achieving the objective of UBE.
children of school going age. Available literature has shown that evaluation of the implementation of
UBE programme has not been conducted in Imo-State as to ascertain whether the objectives are being
achieved for complete 9 years of uninterrupted schooling from 2004/2005 to 2012/2013 academ
efficiency and or deficiency (Amaeze, 2012).
The main purpose of this study is to evaluate the implementation of Universal Basic Educat
programme, in UBE Schools in Imo State. Specifically, the study sought to:
Find out the infrastructural facilities available in urban and rural UBE schools to ensure unfettered
of formal basic education Imo State?
aterials that are provided in urban and rural schools in ensuring free universal basic
Examine the various ways the UBE is made compulsory for students in urban
Evaluate the increase in enrolment rate of pupils in primary and junior secondary section against the
xpanded access per year in the implementation guideline.
(%) of urban and rural UBE school students that achieved literacy in Imo
%) of urban and rural UBE school students that achieved numeracy in Imo
The following research questions were posed to give direction to this study:
access to nine years of formal basic education Imo State?
2. What free materials are provided in urban and rural UBE schools in ensuring
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120
going ages;(3) reducing
out from the formal school system, through improved relevance, quality
For access (enrolment), sanctions for failure to enrol a child or withdrawing a child before
ause of non enrolment of some
Reintroduction of school meals as practiced in some states would go a long way to attract and
sive contribution and renovation of classrooms and provision of gender sensitive facilities,
Communities must be mobilized as active partners in achieving the objective of UBE.
ble literature has shown that evaluation of the implementation of
State as to ascertain whether the objectives are being
achieved for complete 9 years of uninterrupted schooling from 2004/2005 to 2012/2013 academic
The main purpose of this study is to evaluate the implementation of Universal Basic Education
Find out the infrastructural facilities available in urban and rural UBE schools to ensure unfettered
aterials that are provided in urban and rural schools in ensuring free universal basic
mpulsory for students in urban and rural schools in
secondary section against the
achieved literacy in Imo
urban and rural UBE school students that achieved numeracy in Imo
rural UBE schools in ensuring free universal basic


3. What are the various ways universal basic ed
in urban and rural schools in Imo State?
4. What is the increase in enrolment rate of primary and junior secondary sections of UBE students in
achieving 10% expanded access per year as stipulated in the implementation guideline?
5. What percentages (%) of urban and rural UBE school students that ac
6. What percentages (%) of urban and rural UBE school students that achieved
Methodology
The study adopted Utilitarian Evaluation research design. Utilitarian evaluation design is adopted in pure
and unbiased evaluation research by employing an appropriate evaluation model to elicit the very best
decision alternatives about a programme that will be of greatest practical utility and propriety to all
stakeholders in the programme and the entire socie
The evaluation model adopted for this study is Provus, Malcolm Summative evaluation Model developed
in the late 1960s.
Figure 1: Provus summative evaluation model.

Source: Kpolovie (2010:154)-Advanced Research Methodology

S = standards ( general acceptable objectives)
P = performance (totality of combinations of resources in
C = comparison of the standards and performance.
D = discrepancy between performance and standards as accurately revealed by the comparison.
T = termination of either aspects or entire programme due to its irreleva
M = modification, alteration and improvement of either aspects or the entire programme for its
continuity.
R = retain the entire programme or part of it as it is.
1,2 et = recycling of the programme in parts or entirely with the elements of modified i
This model is considered appropriate for this study because it takes care of all possible variables of
interest in the study. This model deals with the standards and performance comparison.
Standard Variable: the objectives of the Universal Basic Ed
examined and evaluated here include: unfettered access to nine years formal basic education through
improved infrastructure, instructional materials, free and compulsory education, appropriate level of
literacy and numeracy.
Performance Variable: this x-rays the extent to which the various objectives are achieved, using the
totality of various combinations of resources in actual implementation of the programme.
Population
The population of the study consisted of
schools) and 314 PTA chairmen (that is: 150 urban PTA and 164 PTA chairmen) in UBE schools in Imo
State respectively as supplied by State Universal Basic Education Board, Imo State in 2012.

1 D. C.
M.
S.
P.
3. What are the various ways universal basic education is made compulsory for pupils of school going age
in urban and rural schools in Imo State?
What is the increase in enrolment rate of primary and junior secondary sections of UBE students in
urban and rural UBE school students that achieved literacy in Imo State?
urban and rural UBE school students that achieved numeracy in Imo State?
stakeholders in the programme and the entire society at large (Kpolovie 2012, 177).
Provus summative evaluation model.
Advanced Research Methodology
S = standards ( general acceptable objectives)
P = performance (totality of combinations of resources in actual implementation of the programme).
C = comparison of the standards and performance.
T = termination of either aspects or entire programme due to its irrelevance.
R = retain the entire programme or part of it as it is.
1,2 et = recycling of the programme in parts or entirely with the elements of modified i
the objectives of the Universal Basic Education Programme as the standard that is
rays the extent to which the various objectives are achieved, using the
The population of the study consisted of all the 314 Universal Basic Schools (150 urban and 164 rural

2 R C. D.

R
M.

P
S
T.
T.
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121
pupils of school going age
What is the increase in enrolment rate of primary and junior secondary sections of UBE students in
hieved literacy in Imo State?
numeracy in Imo State?

actual implementation of the programme).
1,2 et = recycling of the programme in parts or entirely with the elements of modified inputs.
ucation Programme as the standard that is
rays the extent to which the various objectives are achieved, using the
all the 314 Universal Basic Schools (150 urban and 164 rural



Sample/Sampling Technique
The sample size of this study comprised 63 Universal Basic Schools and 63 Parent Teachers Association
Chairmen respectively. This is gotten using stratified random sampling technique. The 20% of 314
Universal Basic schools in Imo St
the rural areas. More so, 20% of 314 Parents Teachers Association Chairmen gave 63 Chairmen. Of this
number, 30 are in the urban while 33 are in the rural areas.
Instrument for Data Collection
The instruments used for data collection for this study are self developed Checklist on Availability of
Facility (CAF), Checklist on Free Education (CFE), Checklist on Compulsory Education (CCE) and
recorded numerical primary source of data. Any
proportions is accepted as being available, or implemented. While any response that is below the 50% or
0.5 proportion average standard is considered not available or not implemented. Numerical Record a
primary source of data is used to collect data on Students Academic Performances in English Language
and Mathematics in Junior WAEC for 2012/2013 Academic Session as categorized in distinction, credit,
pass and fail. Those that fall under the category
numeracy. The 2012/2013 academic session was used because these students after enrolment in the UBE
schools in 2004/2005 academic session have only completed nine years in 2012/2013 academic sessi
when they sat for Junior WAEC Examination. These instruments were vetted for content coverage,
suitability, ambiguity of items and adequacy in general. The reliability of the checklist and interview
schedule was determined using the Kuder Richardson20 s
and 0.90 were respectively established for the four checklists showed that the instruments are reliable.
While Proportion and percentage were used to interpret research questions 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6; enrolment
growth rate formula was used to answer research question 4.
Results
The findings of the study are presented, analysed and interpreted below:
Research Question One
1. What are the infrastructural facilities available in urban and rural UBE
schools to ensure unfettered access to nine years of formal basic
education Imo State after nine years of implementation?
Table 1: Proportion and percentage (%) of available infrastructural facilities in Urban and Rural UBE
schools for nine years of Universal
S/N Facilities Urban schools=30
AV
1 New classroom blocks 56
2 Staffrooms 40
3 Computer laboratory 4
4 Projector 2
5 Library 32
6 Laboratory 30
7 Radio 6
8 Record player 12
9 Toilet 56
10 Play ground 46
11 School hall 52
12 Sick bay 38
13 School farm 42
14 Boreholes 6
15 Electricity 44

Universal Basic schools in Imo State gave 63 schools, of this number, 30 are in the urban while 33 are in
number, 30 are in the urban while 33 are in the rural areas.
ollection
recorded numerical primary source of data. Any item that is above the average of 50% or is above 0.5
0.5 proportion average standard is considered not available or not implemented. Numerical Record a
pass and fail. Those that fall under the category of distinction, credit and pass have achieved literacy and
schools in 2004/2005 academic session have only completed nine years in 2012/2013 academic sessi
schedule was determined using the Kuder Richardson20 statistical technique. Coefficients of 0.51, 0.60
Proportion and percentage were used to interpret research questions 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6; enrolment
growth rate formula was used to answer research question 4.
The findings of the study are presented, analysed and interpreted below:
1. What are the infrastructural facilities available in urban and rural UBE
ensure unfettered access to nine years of formal basic
education Imo State after nine years of implementation?
Proportion and percentage (%) of available infrastructural facilities in Urban and Rural UBE
schools for nine years of Universal Basic Education in Imo State.
Urban schools=30 Rural schools=33
AV NA Pro
A/%
Pro
NA/%
AV/
%
NAV
/%
56 2 .97(97) .03(3) 54 6
40 10 .80(80) .25(25) 46 10
4 28 .13(13) .88(25) 8 29
2 29 .06(6) .94(94) 4 31
32 14 .67(67) .29(29) 38 14
30 15 .67(67) .33(33) 32 17
6 27 .18(18) .82(82) 8 29
12 24 .33(33) .67(67) 10 28
56 2 .96(96) .03(3) 50 8
46 7 .87(87) .13(13) 42 12
52 4 .93(93) .07(7) 48 9
38 11 .78(78) .22(22) 54 6
42 9 .82(82) .18(18) 36 15
6 27 .18(18) .82(82) 10 28
44 8 .85(85) .15(15) 50 8
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ate gave 63 schools, of this number, 30 are in the urban while 33 are in
item that is above the average of 50% or is above 0.5
0.5 proportion average standard is considered not available or not implemented. Numerical Record as a
of distinction, credit and pass have achieved literacy and
schools in 2004/2005 academic session have only completed nine years in 2012/2013 academic session
Coefficients of 0.51, 0.60
Proportion and percentage were used to interpret research questions 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6; enrolment
Proportion and percentage (%) of available infrastructural facilities in Urban and Rural UBE
Rural schools=33
Pro
AV/%
Pro
NAV/%
.92(92) .08(8)
.82(82) .18(18)
.22(22) .78(78)
.11(11) .89(89)
.73(73) .27(27)
.65(65) .35(35)
.22(22) .78(78)
.26(26) .74(74)
.86(86) .14(14)
.78(78) .22(22)
.84(84) .16(16)
.90(90) .10(10)
.71(71) .29(29)
.26(26) .74(74)
.86(86) .14(14)


16 Renovated classrooms 8
17 Book shelves 32
18 Stores 56
19 Tables 52
20 Computers 10

Legend: A-available, NA- not available, Pro.
Table 1 shows that the proportion of these items: new classrooms, staffrooms, library, laboratory, toilet,
playground, school hall, sick bay,
percentages/proportions above the 50% or 0.5 proportion availability standard. Therefore they were
adequately available in urban and rural schools in Imo State. On the contrary these items: computer
laboratory, projector, radio, record player, renovated classrooms and computers have their percentages
below the average percentage/proportions of 50% or 0.5 proportions. Therefore, they are not adequately
available in the urban and rural schools in Imo s
What free educational materials are provided in urban and rural UBE schools
basic education in Imo- state?
Table 2: Proportion and percentage (%) of free educational materials provided for basic
Urban and Rural schools for nine years of Universal Basic Education in Imo State.
S/
N
Free education Materials
1 Mathematics textbooks
2 English textbooks
3 Intergrated science textbooks
4 Igbo Language textbooks
5 Agricultural science textbooks
6 Slide and films
7 Globes
8 Chalks/marker
9 Computer Software
10 Maps/Atlas
11 Sandals and sucks
12 School uniforms
13 Seats/desks
14 free examination registration
15 School buses
16 Answer booklets
17 Development levy
18 Handwork fees
19 Scholarship

Table 2 shows that the proportion of these items: Mathematics
Integrated Science textbook, Igbo Language textbook, Agricultural Science textbook, Slid/Films,
Chalk/Marker, Maps/Atlas, Sandals and sucks, School uniform, seat, free examination and scholarship
have various percentages/proportions above the 50% or 0.5 proportion availability standard. Therefore
they were provided free in urban schools in Imo State. On the contrary the proportions of these items:
8 26 .24(24) .76(76) 14 26
32 14 .67(67) .29(29) 46 10
56 2 .97(97) .03(3) 36 15
52 4 .93(93) .07(7) 38 14
10 25 .29(29) .71(71) 4 31
not available, Pro.-proportion; value in bracket- percentage.
playground, school hall, sick bay, electricity, book shelves, stores and tables have various
available in the urban and rural schools in Imo state.
What free educational materials are provided in urban and rural UBE schools in ensuring free universal
Proportion and percentage (%) of free educational materials provided for basic
Free education Materials Urban Schools=30 Rural School=33
PRO AVA/% PRO NAV/% PRO AVA/
.67(67) .29(29) .92(92)
.93(93) .07(7) .71(71)
Intergrated science textbooks .87(87) .13(13) .73(73)
.85(85) .15(15) .86(86)
Agricultural science textbooks .82(82) .18(18) .82(82)
.78(78) .22(22) .84(84)
.29(29) .71(71) .26(26)
.82(82) .18(18) .92(92)
.33(33) .67(67) .11(11)
.93(93) .07(7) .73(73)
.67(67) .33(33) .86(86)
.93(93) .07(7) .73(73)
.78(78) .18(18) .82(82)
free examination registration .64(64) .36(36) .65(65)
.15(85) .85(15) .08(8)
.33(33) .67(67) .22(22)
.03(3) .97(97) .29(29)
.29(29) .67(67) .08(8)
.85(85) .15(15) .84(84)
Table 2 shows that the proportion of these items: Mathematics textbook, English Language textbook,
s/proportions above the 50% or 0.5 proportion availability standard. Therefore
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123
.35(35) .65(65)
.82(82) .18(18)
.71(71) .29(29)
.73(73) .27(27)
.11(11) .89(89)
electricity, book shelves, stores and tables have various
in ensuring free universal
Proportion and percentage (%) of free educational materials provided for basic education in
Rural School=33
PRO AVA/% PRO NAVA/%
.08(8)
.29(29)
.27(27)
.14(14)
.18(18)
.16(16)
.74(74)
.08(8)
.89(89)
.27(27)
.14(14)
.27(27)
.18(18)
.35(35)
.92(92)
.78(78)
.71(71)
.92(92)
.16(16)
textbook, English Language textbook,
s/proportions above the 50% or 0.5 proportion availability standard. Therefore


school bus, globe, answer booklet, development levy and handwork have thei
average percentages/proportions of 50% or 0.5. Therefore, they are not provided free in the rural schools
in Imo state.
What are the various ways Universal Basic Education is made compulsory for pupils of sch
in urban and rural basic schools in Imo State?
Table 3: Proportion and percentage (%) representation of various ways Universal Basic Education is
made compulsory in Urban and Rural basic schools for nine years of Universal Basic Education in
State.
S/
N
Measures of compulsory education
1 Sanctions to parents
2 Sanctions to community heads
3 Punishment to out of school students
4 Constitution of education police to apprehend
out of school students
5 Sensitization campaign in the community
through the head of communities
6 Abolishment of hawking by government
7 Community policing to catch out of schools
Table 3 reveals that the responses of Parent Teacher Association chairmen are
police to catch out of school children, there was also sensitization campaign through the community
heads, and finally there was law abolishing hawking by government in Imo State as these items have there
various percentages/proportions above 50% or 0.5 acceptable standard.
More so, there was no sanction given to parents, community heads, the out of school children were
not punished and community policing were not active to apprehend out of school children as revealed by
the PTA chairmen in secondary schools in Imo State.
Research Question Four:
What is the increase in enrolment rate of primary and junior secondary section of UBE students in
achieving 10% expanded access per year as stipulated in the implementation guideli
Table 4: Enrolment growth rate of students in primary and junior Sections of UBE schools in Imo State
from 2004-2012 for improved accessa gainst the 10% expanded access per year
Years Primary schools in Imo State
Enrolment
2004 551,020
2005 591,837
2006 621,071
2007 653,397
2008 698,616
2009 716,430
2010 729,635
2011 744,221
2012 808,368
Average
Table 4 shows that their was increase in enrolment of students in the order of 7.41%, 4.94%, 5.20, 6.92%,
2.55%, 1.84%, 1.99%, 8.62% in the
secondary section has 3.69%, 5.60%, 2.59%, 1.81%, 3.81%, 6.23%, 3.16%, and 2.22% increase per year.
The 10% expanded access per year of students was therefore not achieved in the primary and ju
school bus, globe, answer booklet, development levy and handwork have their percentages below the
What are the various ways Universal Basic Education is made compulsory for pupils of sch
in urban and rural basic schools in Imo State?
Proportion and percentage (%) representation of various ways Universal Basic Education is
made compulsory in Urban and Rural basic schools for nine years of Universal Basic Education in
Measures of compulsory education Urban PTA Chairmen=30 Rural PTA Chairmen=33
Pro AV/% Pro NAV/% Pro AV/
.81(18) .82(82) .11(11)
Sanctions to community heads .29(29) .71(71) .31(31)
Punishment to out of school students .13(13) .87(87) .35(35)
Constitution of education police to apprehend .67(67) .33(33) .94(94)
Sensitization campaign in the community
through the head of communities
.79(79) .22(22) .86(86)
Abolishment of hawking by government .85(85) .15(15) .80(80)
Community policing to catch out of schools .33(33) .67(67) .31(31)
Table 3 reveals that the responses of Parent Teacher Association chairmen are that, there are education
rtions above 50% or 0.5 acceptable standard.
he PTA chairmen in secondary schools in Imo State.
Enrolment growth rate of students in primary and junior Sections of UBE schools in Imo State
2012 for improved accessa gainst the 10% expanded access per year
Primary schools in Imo State Junior Secondary School in Imo State
Rate Enrolment
- 28209
7.42% 29250
4.94% 30890
5.20% 31689
6.92% 32262
2.55% 33492
1.84% 35577
1.99% 36700
8.62% 37490
4.39% 3.23%
2.55%, 1.84%, 1.99%, 8.62% in the years from 2005 to 2012 in primary schools. Moreso, the junior
The 10% expanded access per year of students was therefore not achieved in the primary and ju
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r percentages below the
What are the various ways Universal Basic Education is made compulsory for pupils of school going age
Proportion and percentage (%) representation of various ways Universal Basic Education is
made compulsory in Urban and Rural basic schools for nine years of Universal Basic Education in Imo
Rural PTA Chairmen=33
Pro AV/% Pro NAV/%
.11(11) .89(89)
.31(31) .69(69)
.35(35) .65(65)
.94(94) .06(6)
.86(86) .14(14)
.80(80) .20(20)
.31(31) .69(69)
that, there are education
ne?
Enrolment growth rate of students in primary and junior Sections of UBE schools in Imo State
2012 for improved accessa gainst the 10% expanded access per year
Junior Secondary School in Imo State
Rate
-
3.69%
5.60%
2.59%
1.81%
3.81%
6.23%
3.16%
2.22%
years from 2005 to 2012 in primary schools. Moreso, the junior
The 10% expanded access per year of students was therefore not achieved in the primary and junior


secondary schools in Imo State. This shows that some students still have fettered access to formal basic
education Imo State.
Research Question Five
What percentages (%) of urban and rural UBE school students that achieved literacy in Imo State?
Table 5: Percentages (%) of Ubarn and Rural students that achieved literacy in UBE schools in Imo State
Location English Language
No. of
students that
passed
Urban students 15313
Rural students 11000
Total no of
students that
passed and failed
26313

Table 6 shows that 86.42% of the urban
On the contrary 84.50% of the rural students also achieved literacy and 15.50% did not achieve literacy.
These showed that the percentages of students that achieved literacy in urban and rural
reasonably higher than the percentages that did not achieve literacy in urban and rural UBE schools in
Imo State. This grossly shows that appropriate level of literacy has been achieved in UBE schools in Imo
State.
Research Question Six
What percentages (%) of urban and rural UBE school students that achieved numeracy in Imo State?
Table 6: Percentages (%) of Ubarn and Rural students that achieved numarecy in UBE schools in Imo
State
Location Mathematics
No. of
students that
passed
Urban students 12524
Rural students 15000
Total no of
students that
passed and failed
27524

Table 6 shows that 71.87% of the urban students achieved numeracy and 28.13% did not achieve
numeracy. On the contrary 88.14% of the rural students also achieved literacy and 11.86% did not
achieve numeracy. These showed that the percentages of students that achieved numeracy in urban and
rural UBE schools are higher than the percentage that did not achieve numeracy in urban and rural UBE
schools in Imo State. This grossly shows that appropriate level of numeracy ha
schools in Imo State.
Discussion
The study revealed that the following facilities were made available for students in Imo State:
new classroom blocks, staffrooms, library, laboratory, toilet, play ground, school hall, sick bay,
farm, book shelves, stores and tables which are in accordance with what is stipulated in the
implementation guideline of FRN (2000) were it was stated that infrastructures and facilities refer to the
physical and spatial enablers of teaching and lea
to list the needed basic facilities to include: classrooms, libraries, laboratories, workshops, playfields,
school farms and garden, as well as provisions for water and sanitation. These facilities we
Percentages (%) of Ubarn and Rural students that achieved literacy in UBE schools in Imo State
English Language
% of students
that passed
No. of
students that
failed
% of students
that failed
86.42 2406 13.58
84.50 2017 15.50
4423
Table 6 shows that 86.42% of the urban students achieved literacy and 13.58% did not achieve literacy.
These showed that the percentages of students that achieved literacy in urban and rural
. This grossly shows that appropriate level of literacy has been achieved in UBE schools in Imo
Percentages (%) of Ubarn and Rural students that achieved numarecy in UBE schools in Imo
Mathematics
% of
students that
passed
No. of students
that failed
% of
students that
failed
71.87 4900 28.13
88.14 2017 11.86
6917
showed that the percentages of students that achieved numeracy in urban and
. This grossly shows that appropriate level of numeracy has been achieved in UBE
new classroom blocks, staffrooms, library, laboratory, toilet, play ground, school hall, sick bay,
physical and spatial enablers of teaching and learning. The implementation guideline of FRN went further
school farms and garden, as well as provisions for water and sanitation. These facilities we
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125
Percentages (%) of Ubarn and Rural students that achieved literacy in UBE schools in Imo State
Total no of students
in urban and rural
UBE schools
17719
13017
30736
students achieved literacy and 13.58% did not achieve literacy.
These showed that the percentages of students that achieved literacy in urban and rural UBE schools are
. This grossly shows that appropriate level of literacy has been achieved in UBE schools in Imo
Percentages (%) of Ubarn and Rural students that achieved numarecy in UBE schools in Imo
Total no. of students
in urban and rural
UBE schools
17424
17017
34441
showed that the percentages of students that achieved numeracy in urban and
s been achieved in UBE
new classroom blocks, staffrooms, library, laboratory, toilet, play ground, school hall, sick bay, school
rning. The implementation guideline of FRN went further
school farms and garden, as well as provisions for water and sanitation. These facilities were all provided


in quantity and quality in the various schools in Imo State. Apart from the old classrooms that were not
refurbished, computer, projector, radio set, record player, electricity, and much computers were not found
in all the schools, which eventually draws a discrepancy between the intentions of the objective in terms
of facility provision. Fadipo (1999) stated that the school building (classroom) represents a learning
environment, which has a lot of impacts on comfort, safety and performance
Secondly, the study shows that, one of the objectives was to ensure free basic education. This has
been achieved to large extent through the provision of textbooks for core subjects, free food, chalk,
map/atlas, sandals and socks, schoo
discrepancy with the objective of free education provision. Some other resources like school bus, globe,
answer booklet, development levy and handwork were not made free of charge in the s
that the programme is not totally free.
Thirdly, the objective of compulsory education was not achieved since parents and communities are
not sanctioned, out of school students are not punished and finally, inability of community
out of school students. The variation could be as a result of poor sensitization campaign, poverty and
illiteracy on the parts of the parents.
Fourthly, the expanded enrolment rate of 10% per year was not achieved for nine years ev
there was increase in enrolment rate per year. There was a significant increase in the enrolment rate of
students in junior and senior section in UBE schools in Imo State though it did not commensurate with
the 10% expanded access per year. This ob
standard.
Finally, there was no discrepancy between the stipulated standard of appropriate level of literacy
estimation and what was achieved. This could be because of availability of n
conducive teaching and learning. This view is supported by Ivowi (2004) when he stated that for teaching
and learning to be effective, material resources, which serve as aids to both teaching and learning, need to
be supplied, utilized and maintained in school.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the UBE programme has been fairly implemented for nine years based on the findings in
line with the objectives, therefore, should be modified and continued in line with the various
recommendations made below in this study.
schools are not provided the programme may not achieve its objective.
not sustained to be compulsory as enshrined in their objective,
objectives. If the programme does not meet the 10% expanded access for enrolment of students per year,
it there means that the objective of the programme is yet to be achieved
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this research, the following recommendations were made by the researcher:
1. Government and other stakeholders should provide computer laboratories, projectors,
computers, electricity, radio, radio recorder and renovate dilapidated classrooms for a better
functioning of UBE programme.
2. The Universal Basic Education Board and the Government should ensure that school buses,
globes, answer booklets, development levies and handworks are provided free of charge to
ensure absolute free Universal Basic Education.
3. Hence forth, sanctions without mercy should be given to stakeholders whose wards are not in
schools, but are within school age.
4. The sensitization campaign in and around the community should be intensified to ensure
maximal enrolment rate of pupils in line w
stipulated in the implementation guideline.
entually draws a discrepancy between the intentions of the objective in terms
environment, which has a lot of impacts on comfort, safety and performance of students.
map/atlas, sandals and socks, school uniform, seat, free examination fees and scholarship. This has no
answer booklet, development levy and handwork were not made free of charge in the s
that the programme is not totally free.
not sanctioned, out of school students are not punished and finally, inability of community
illiteracy on the parts of the parents.
Fourthly, the expanded enrolment rate of 10% per year was not achieved for nine years ev
the 10% expanded access per year. This objective was not achieved in accordance with the 10% estimated
estimation and what was achieved. This could be because of availability of necessary infrastructures for
utilized and maintained in school.
s made below in this study. By implication, if adequate educational facilities in the UBE
schools are not provided the programme may not achieve its objective. If Universal Basic Education is
not sustained to be compulsory as enshrined in their objective, the programme may not achieve its
If the programme does not meet the 10% expanded access for enrolment of students per year,
it there means that the objective of the programme is yet to be achieved
f this research, the following recommendations were made by the researcher:
Government and other stakeholders should provide computer laboratories, projectors,
unctioning of UBE programme.
The Universal Basic Education Board and the Government should ensure that school buses,
ensure absolute free Universal Basic Education.
nce forth, sanctions without mercy should be given to stakeholders whose wards are not in
schools, but are within school age.
The sensitization campaign in and around the community should be intensified to ensure
maximal enrolment rate of pupils in line with the 10% per year expanded access of the pupils as
stipulated in the implementation guideline.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
126
entually draws a discrepancy between the intentions of the objective in terms
of students.
l uniform, seat, free examination fees and scholarship. This has no
answer booklet, development levy and handwork were not made free of charge in the school. This shows
not sanctioned, out of school students are not punished and finally, inability of community police to catch
Fourthly, the expanded enrolment rate of 10% per year was not achieved for nine years even when
jective was not achieved in accordance with the 10% estimated
ecessary infrastructures for
By implication, if adequate educational facilities in the UBE
If Universal Basic Education is
the programme may not achieve its
If the programme does not meet the 10% expanded access for enrolment of students per year,
f this research, the following recommendations were made by the researcher:
Government and other stakeholders should provide computer laboratories, projectors,
The Universal Basic Education Board and the Government should ensure that school buses,
nce forth, sanctions without mercy should be given to stakeholders whose wards are not in
The sensitization campaign in and around the community should be intensified to ensure
ith the 10% per year expanded access of the pupils as


5. More emphasis and workshops on the role and importance of literacy and numeracy for
students growth and development in communication and computation skills s
regularly by UBE Board in other to achieve absolute literacy in UBE schools in Imo State

References
Achunine, R.N. (2012). Repositioning the Nigerian education sector for development. A lead paper
presented at the maiden national co
University of Port Harcourt.
Amaeze, F.E. (2012) Evaluation of the implementation Universal Basic Education
Unpublished Masters thesis University of Port Harcourt.
Amartya, S. (2012). The importance of basic education. A speech
conference, Edinburgh. Guardian news and Media
Best, J.W. & Kahn, V.J. (2008). Research in education
Fadipo, T.O. (1999). Efficiency indicators for quality control in nigeria secondary school system paper
presented at the workshop on inspection and supervision of schools in Nigeria organized by
NGP in Ondo. August 24
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2000). Implementation
programme. Federal Ministry of Education, Abuja.
Federal Republic of Nigeria, (2004).
Federal Ministry of Education Nigeria, (2011).
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999). 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Abuja: FRN
Press
Gbamanja, S.P.T. (2002). Essentials of curriculum and instructional theory & practice: Nigeria
Publishers.
Ivowi, U.M.O. (2004, June). Teaching, learning and resources development in secondary education. paper
presented in National Workshop on developing education: Issues of standards and sustainabilit
in secondary schools in Nigeria, held at Abuja, 19
on August 23, 2011
Kpolovie, P.J. (2002). Test, measurement and evaluation in education. emhai Printing and Publishing Co.
Kpolovie, P.J. (2010). Advanced research methods. New
Kpolovie, P.J. (2011). Statistical techniques for advanced research.
Ltd.
Kpolovie, P.J. (2012). Educational reforms without evaluation designs: Nigeria at risk. New
Nigeria: Springfield Publishers Ltd.
Martha, N. (2012). Programme implementation process
www.cbccromne.org/.../programme
Patricia, V. (2012). Programme implementation.
Universal Basic Education Commission (2004). Education for all Is the responsibility of all. Retrieved
August 9, 2011 fromhttp://ubeconline.com/index3.html.
University of Zimbabwe (1995). Curriculum implementation
Distance Education, University of Zimbabwe.

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students growth and development in communication and computation skills s
presented at the maiden national conference 2010. Issues on Contemporary Nigerian Education.
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Unpublished Masters thesis University of Port Harcourt.
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conference, Edinburgh. Guardian news and Media
Research in education. New Deihi: India. Printice-Hall.
). Efficiency indicators for quality control in nigeria secondary school system paper
NGP in Ondo. August 24-25.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2000). Implementation guidelines for the universal basic education
programme. Federal Ministry of Education, Abuja.
Federal Republic of Nigeria, (2004). National policy on education. Lagos: NERDC Press.
Federal Ministry of Education Nigeria, (2011). Digest of educational statistics (series 2006
Essentials of curriculum and instructional theory & practice: Nigeria
presented in National Workshop on developing education: Issues of standards and sustainabilit
Nigeria, held at Abuja, 19
th
-11
th
. http://www.accs.org.uk/pdf
Kpolovie, P.J. (2010). Advanced research methods. New Owerri, Nigeria: Springfield Publishers Ltd.
Statistical techniques for advanced research. New Owerri, Nigeria: Springfield Publishers
Kpolovie, P.J. (2012). Educational reforms without evaluation designs: Nigeria at risk. New
Nigeria: Springfield Publishers Ltd.
Programme implementation process. Retrieved May 20, 2012 from
www.cbccromne.org/.../programme-implementation- process
Patricia, V. (2012). Programme implementation. www.techterms@whatis.com Retrieved 24
August 9, 2011 fromhttp://ubeconline.com/index3.html.
Curriculum implementation change and innovation. Harare: Centre fo
Distance Education, University of Zimbabwe.

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More emphasis and workshops on the role and importance of literacy and numeracy for
students growth and development in communication and computation skills should be held
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Amaeze, F.E. (2012) Evaluation of the implementation Universal Basic Education in Imo State.
delivered to commonwealth education
Hall.
). Efficiency indicators for quality control in nigeria secondary school system paper
guidelines for the universal basic education
Lagos: NERDC Press.
(series 2006-2007).
Essentials of curriculum and instructional theory & practice: Nigeria: Paragraphics
presented in National Workshop on developing education: Issues of standards and sustainability
http://www.accs.org.uk/pdf. Retrieved
Owerri, Nigeria: Springfield Publishers Ltd.
New Owerri, Nigeria: Springfield Publishers
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Retrieved May 20, 2012 from
Retrieved 24
th
July 2012
. Harare: Centre for


INDIGENOUS AGENTS AND THE SCHOOL APOSTOLATE IN UKWUANILAND,
JONES UGOCHUKWU ODILI,
Department of Religious and Cultural Studies,
Faculty of Humaniti
Abstract
In the 19
th
Century, colonial educational policy reflected the hesitant approach of Britain to a field
recognized in those days as the reserve of religious bodies, and for many years the missionary societies
had the field of education to themselves. Education in C.M.
aids in grants from the colonial government. This paper is a historical reconstruction, which brings to
limelight the well-articulated contributions of local people in their attempt to establish and fund
schools using indigenous initiatives, personnel and resources. Resting on the self
supporting and self-governing policy of Henry Venn, the study reveals that although the
establishment of schools in Ukwuaniland, 1841
local needs, efforts and ideas, the Anglican Churches there saw in them as agency for promoting
evangelism. This paper, an important contribution in the area of the history of religion and education,
recommends that local initiatives,
formulation of education policy in the Nigeria.


1841-1941
By
JONES UGOCHUKWU ODILI, Ph.D
Department of Religious and Cultural Studies,
Faculty of Humanities, University of Port Harcourt
Port Harcourt, Rivers State Nigeria
jonesuodili@yahoo.com
+2348055313264; +2347038133706

had the field of education to themselves. Education in C.M.S. Mission schools in Nigeria received no
articulated contributions of local people in their attempt to establish and fund
ing indigenous initiatives, personnel and resources. Resting on the self
governing policy of Henry Venn, the study reveals that although the
establishment of schools in Ukwuaniland, 1841-194, was originally the outcome
recommends that local initiatives, needs and aspiration should be taken into consideration in the
formulation of education policy in the Nigeria.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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128
S. Mission schools in Nigeria received no
articulated contributions of local people in their attempt to establish and fund
ing indigenous initiatives, personnel and resources. Resting on the self-propagating, self-
governing policy of Henry Venn, the study reveals that although the
194, was originally the outcome of the expression of
needs and aspiration should be taken into consideration in the


Introduction
In the 19
th
had the field of education to themselves. In 1865, it was r
from government (C.O. 879 Parliamentary papers, 1865). The condition placed by the British
Government for giving grants in aids was that only English language be used in mission schools as means
of communication. Anglican missionaries saw this measure as a design to stifling the spread of the
Christian faith, and therefore, rejected the grants in aids, which would have helped them solve a lot of
financial problem. The C.M.S., faced with acute financial constrain
schools, employed local initiatives, personnel, and resources to establish and fund schools which they
conceive a crucial agency in the evangelization of African societies such as Ukwuaniland.
Much of the documentati
missionaries or their protgs. Such accounts no doubt were hagiographic. There is, therefore. The need
to bring to limelight the well-articulated roles of indigenous noble patrons, men of local
indigenous catechists, school heads, pupils and communities in the establishment and funding of schools
in Ukwuaniland, 1841-1941. The study further attempts to highlight the initial class of people to embrace
Western education, the rationale behind their action, and the peoples reinterpretation cum indigenization
of an aspect of their worldview as they came in came in contact with western education. Depending
largely on primary sources this paper, Indigenous Agents and the School Apostolate
1841-1941, explores the curriculum content of and the recruitment of staffs into Anglican Mission
schools in Ukwuaniland, 1841-1941. While authenticating the self
governing policy of Henry Venn, the st
be taken into consideration in the formulation of education policy in the country,
Historical Background to the Development of Education in Ukwuaniland
The first attempt to plant Christiani
and 1857. The first treaty between the Obi and the British commissioners was formally signed on 28
August 1841. After the signing of the treaty, Captain Trotter took the opportunity to preac
concerning the true God. Reverend Schon requested Simon Jonas to read and translate into Igbo the
Beatitudes from St. Matthews Gospel. This reading was followed with a question to the Obi if the
contents were not good enough for his people.
(Okolugbo 1984). The Obi was particularly impressed by the intelligence of Simon Jonas and requested
that he should be left behind at Aboh to teach the people. Simon Jonas thus had the honor of becoming
the first teacher to be stationed in Ukw
Niger mission expedition forced the members of the expedition who survived to take Simon Jonas along
with them on their return journey, to the disappointment of the Aboh people (Dike, 1956). D
1854 Niger Expedition, the party, like that of 1841, again arranged to station Simon Jonas at Aboh to
teach the people until the return of the expedition. Jonas did good introductory work and secured the
friendship of the people who were anxious
station and it was definitely marked off, but Crowther realized that Aboh would be unsuitable for
European missionaries because he discovered that the rising of the river flooded the whole town,
large market canoes were padding along the streets. He, however, promised the chiefs that he would soon
send one or two teachers to live among them. The reception accorded Crowther might have moved him
to promise the Aboh people the services of a teac
school (Ifemesia, 1962). While Aboh people were anxious to receive the gospel and Western education,
the geographical position of the town placed it at a disadvantage in Crowthers scheme.
The first Anglican Church in Ukwuaniland after the Aboh saga was opened in Obiaruku in 1910
through the agency of one Otene and his wife, Beatrice in conjunction with Bishop James Johnsons men
(Okolugbo 1984). In 1911 they sent representatives to St. Lukes Church Sa
school agent. In response to their demand Rose, a Sierra Leonean was posted to Obiaruku as church
agent cum school teacher about the end of 1911. When Otene complained about the inefficiency of Ross,
had the field of education to themselves. In 1865, it was reported that education received no assistance
n. Anglican missionaries saw this measure as a design to stifling the spread of the
financial problem. The C.M.S., faced with acute financial constraints in the establishment and funding of
Much of the documentations of the C.M.S. activities in Africa were done by Western
articulated roles of indigenous noble patrons, men of local
1941. The study further attempts to highlight the initial class of people to embrace
behind their action, and the peoples reinterpretation cum indigenization
largely on primary sources this paper, Indigenous Agents and the School Apostolate
1941, explores the curriculum content of and the recruitment of staffs into Anglican Mission
1941. While authenticating the self-propagating, self
governing policy of Henry Venn, the study recommends that local initiatives, needs and aspiration should
be taken into consideration in the formulation of education policy in the country,
Historical Background to the Development of Education in Ukwuaniland
The first attempt to plant Christianity in Ukwuaniland was during the Niger Expeditions of 1841, 1845,
August 1841. After the signing of the treaty, Captain Trotter took the opportunity to preac
contents were not good enough for his people. To which the Obi replied, O ma ka
the first teacher to be stationed in Ukwuaniland and on the Niger. The disaster and failure of the 1841
with them on their return journey, to the disappointment of the Aboh people (Dike, 1956). D
friendship of the people who were anxious to retain him. The chiefs offered a site for a mission
European missionaries because he discovered that the rising of the river flooded the whole town,
to promise the Aboh people the services of a teacher or two and the opening of a mission station and a
glican Church in Ukwuaniland after the Aboh saga was opened in Obiaruku in 1910
(Okolugbo 1984). In 1911 they sent representatives to St. Lukes Church Sapele to ask for a catechist cum
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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129
eported that education received no assistance
n. Anglican missionaries saw this measure as a design to stifling the spread of the
ts in the establishment and funding of
ons of the C.M.S. activities in Africa were done by Western
articulated roles of indigenous noble patrons, men of local prominence,
1941. The study further attempts to highlight the initial class of people to embrace
behind their action, and the peoples reinterpretation cum indigenization
largely on primary sources this paper, Indigenous Agents and the School Apostolate in Ukwuaniland,
1941, explores the curriculum content of and the recruitment of staffs into Anglican Mission
propagating, self-supporting and self-
udy recommends that local initiatives, needs and aspiration should
ty in Ukwuaniland was during the Niger Expeditions of 1841, 1845,
August 1841. After the signing of the treaty, Captain Trotter took the opportunity to preach to the Obi
O ma ka (Very good)
uaniland and on the Niger. The disaster and failure of the 1841
with them on their return journey, to the disappointment of the Aboh people (Dike, 1956). During the
to retain him. The chiefs offered a site for a mission-school
European missionaries because he discovered that the rising of the river flooded the whole town, and
her or two and the opening of a mission station and a
glican Church in Ukwuaniland after the Aboh saga was opened in Obiaruku in 1910
pele to ask for a catechist cum


one Emedo of Orogun in Western Urhobo was sent to replace him in 1913. Emedo opened a primary
school where he taught English alphabet. He was transferred in 1915, but before his transfer, the church
and school had started to make steady progress. Otene was in charge of recruiting
time and foodstuff catering for head teachers. He went from house to house compelling parents to send
their children and wards to school.
At Emu-Unor Godwin Okeriaka and Abraham Osaele trekked down to Abraka to worship for
some days at the end of which they demanded for a church teacher to be sent to them. In response, one
Monday Amudo, a C.M.S. Church agent and school teacher was sent to them in 1913 (Agwuaturu, 2002).
This was, however, an unofficial arrangement. Hence, the onus o
Church. This was done in kind and not in cash. The personal belongings of the agents that headed the
church at Emu-Unor were carried on foot from Abraka to Emu
evening school. They went from house to house requesting parents to send their children and wards to
school. Some children, attracted by the school songs came on their own. There were equally those who
went because they thought it was a good thing to do what others were doing.
got some of the early pupils that included Benson Maledo, Aaron Ochonogo and Humphrey Enumejo
(Okuegbue, 2002). Some adults were interested to read the alphabet and to know how to write their
names. These were equally attracted to t
Godwin Okeriaka grasped the importance of the school approach to evangelism. He often woke up
earlier than the head-teachers to ring the Church/school bell. He would not mind trekking to Abraka
report and ask for the dismissal of any teacher or head
such as coming to school late. The pupils dreaded him more than they did the teachers.
Between 1914 and 1917 in Ogume clan, Ambrose Ossai Onekpe w
Anglican agents that his lounge was turned into a guesthouse for the visiting agents. At first there was
neither a church nor a school building. A section of Ambroses house served both purposes. The average
attendance of the pupils ranged from fourteen to twenty. With the cooperation of Ambrose and a few
converts, a small mud house for the Anglican agents was set up, and schoolwork began in earnest. With
the help of Ambrose, a night school for those who spend all their day
school, however, was closed down after a short while due to poor attendance (Maduagu, 2004).
Indigenous Agents and the School Apostolate
At the heart of the complex package embedded in conversion was the indoctrination of new m
Through this process converts were inducted into the ethos, the doctrinal heritage, the way of life and
core values of the new faith they were embracing. The indigenous agents were in this sense first and
foremost preachers. They used several avenu
Christian faith (Ajayi, 1965; Atandele, 1966; Babalola, 1988; Coleman, 1986). Initially, direct preaching
was employed. The areas of convergence in beliefs, namely, the places were Christian doctrin
the traditional values and beliefs merely reinforced the conviction of the elders about what they already
knew and firmly believed in.
The areas of doctrinal differences, which should have influenced their persuasive effort, often
seemed to produce jarring notes in the ears and religious sensibilities of the custodians of the traditional
religious heritage. Some Anglican doctrines were, in the eyes of the adult representatives of the traditional
religion, simply illogical and even non
realized that conversion by direct appeal to doctrinal logic and the threats of heaven and hell just did not
produce the kind of result they hoped for. On the account of the less productive effects of
attempts at critical dialogue with the local people, they turned to other tools and techniques for enhancing
conversion (Anderson 1977; Erivwo, 1979).
The early schools were staffed and managed by agents, whose primary objective was to conve
Ukwuani people to Christianity through education. The result of this association of evangelism with
education was that the conversion of some Ukwuani to Christianity was largely through the local mission
school rather than through a group of local Chris
contacts between most Ukwuani and Christianity had been through the association of children and local
Christian school teachers and Catechists, because they were local while the outsiders were look
estern Urhobo was sent to replace him in 1913. Emedo opened a primary
and school had started to make steady progress. Otene was in charge of recruiting teachers. He spent his
their children and wards to school.
Unor Godwin Okeriaka and Abraham Osaele trekked down to Abraka to worship for
s at the end of which they demanded for a church teacher to be sent to them. In response, one
This was, however, an unofficial arrangement. Hence, the onus of catering for him fell on the infant
Unor were carried on foot from Abraka to Emu-Unor. These came and established an
ent from house to house requesting parents to send their children and wards to
went because they thought it was a good thing to do what others were doing. With these methods they
names. These were equally attracted to the evening school, which became a morning school a year later.
teachers to ring the Church/school bell. He would not mind trekking to Abraka
report and ask for the dismissal of any teacher or head-teacher guilty of the slightest act of misconduct
Between 1914 and 1917 in Ogume clan, Ambrose Ossai Onekpe was so closely associated with the
the pupils ranged from fourteen to twenty. With the cooperation of Ambrose and a few
the help of Ambrose, a night school for those who spend all their day in the farm was opened. The
Indigenous Agents and the School Apostolate
At the heart of the complex package embedded in conversion was the indoctrination of new m
foremost preachers. They used several avenues to make the people they met turn around to embrace the
was employed. The areas of convergence in beliefs, namely, the places were Christian doctrin
duce jarring notes in the ears and religious sensibilities of the custodians of the traditional
religion, simply illogical and even non-sensical. From painful and frosting experience, indigenous agents
produce the kind of result they hoped for. On the account of the less productive effects of
conversion (Anderson 1977; Erivwo, 1979).
The early schools were staffed and managed by agents, whose primary objective was to conve
school rather than through a group of local Christians or through a church building. Thus, one of the first
Christian school teachers and Catechists, because they were local while the outsiders were look
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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130
estern Urhobo was sent to replace him in 1913. Emedo opened a primary
teachers. He spent his
Unor Godwin Okeriaka and Abraham Osaele trekked down to Abraka to worship for
s at the end of which they demanded for a church teacher to be sent to them. In response, one
f catering for him fell on the infant
Unor. These came and established an
ent from house to house requesting parents to send their children and wards to
With these methods they
he evening school, which became a morning school a year later.
teachers to ring the Church/school bell. He would not mind trekking to Abraka to
teacher guilty of the slightest act of misconduct
as so closely associated with the
the pupils ranged from fourteen to twenty. With the cooperation of Ambrose and a few
in the farm was opened. The
At the heart of the complex package embedded in conversion was the indoctrination of new members.
es to make the people they met turn around to embrace the
was employed. The areas of convergence in beliefs, namely, the places were Christian doctrines echoed
duce jarring notes in the ears and religious sensibilities of the custodians of the traditional
From painful and frosting experience, indigenous agents
produce the kind of result they hoped for. On the account of the less productive effects of these earlier
The early schools were staffed and managed by agents, whose primary objective was to convert
tians or through a church building. Thus, one of the first
Christian school teachers and Catechists, because they were local while the outsiders were looked up with


suspicion. The children as agents of conversion were always around and had enough time to devote to
this assignment, which they usually did through persuasion in their simple way. In fact, majority of the
Ukwuani converts within this period were
first Abbi District Superintendent, believed that without grounding the converts in religious education the
Gospel would not leave a visible and lasting impact on them. He insisted that unless a p
Christian education followed closely upon the evangelistic appeal, the result of evangelism would not be
enduring. He maintained that the future lives of Ukwuani children as men and women depended upon
the formation of their minds (D.C.C., 1936)
primarily evangelistic.
As noted earlier, a significant number of boy and girls, unlike the adult converts, became Christian
adherents because they have passed through the mission schools. The adult
and when they embraced the gospel, they went directly to the church to profess the new faith. However,
for a great number of the children, it is the other way round
elementary schools gave a continuous stream of baptismal candidates. Undoubtedly, the schools were a
great evangelistic agency, the result, one feels bound to say is of the regular religious instruction in the
Bible and fundamental doctrine, and the employment of none b
roles would be examined. According to S.U. Ewefah (2002):
The instructions that were given in the schools were purely elementary, great importance
was attached to religious instruction for, which time was set apart on th
reading, writing, arithmetic, scripture and religious knowledge was taught in all schools,
and a pupil must pass in these five subjects to pass his standard. Daily attendance in class
for religious instruction as a rule was compulsory on the p
of this instruction was one of the most urgent responsibilities of the church agents cum
catechists in-charge.

The District Superintendents were said to have paid regular visits to the various schools within the
district at least quarterly. Okuegbue (2002) stated that vernacular was the language of instruction. The
indigenous agents were convinced that once the pupils were able to read and understand the scripture in
their own language, the cardinal aim of evangelism woul
important than preparing the pupils for further secular education. Vernacular education was insisted upon
as a basis, and the rule was strictly enforced that no English may be taught before the pupil can read th
Bible in Igbo language. No pupil could be promoted to a higher standard that had not successfully passed
an examination in Religious Knowledge, which, as was pointed out earlier, was taught in vernacular.
It is pertinent to state that a combination of
idea of acquiring the White mans civilization, the ability to read and write like him, the craving for
English Language, and the urge to acquire skills so as to improve ones social situation, were bu
Some of the young converts were attracted to the mission schools by socio
the desire to change their former religion. Most of them were not yet rooted in the traditional religion of
their ancestors. Besides, most comm
on rivalry between one another. For the slaves, the main attraction to the school was liberation from the
social stigma in, which they found themselves. Surprisingly, these slaves improved t
economic standing earlier than the freeborn. From the forgoing survey, we can conclude that while, the
church agents regarded education as the handmaid of the gospel the pupils were attracted to the mission
schools for various reasons.
The schools were set up in the midst of financial constraints. The first primary schools in the
mission fields were made of raised mud walls with thatched roof on top. In most cases, such buildings
served as both school and church, hence they were sometimes ca
set up through the voluntary effort of the people, especially the indigenous converts. Some communities
requesting for the appointment of teachers to teach their children were asked to back up their demands
with a sum of money for the maintenance of the schoolteachers (Okuegbue, 2002). Teachers who
benefited under this system were called local fund teachers. Some of the bright pupils who passed
through mission schools in Ukwuani were absorbed as pupil
Ukwuani converts within this period were converted while schooling. For instance, B.C.E. Nwosu, the
Gospel would not leave a visible and lasting impact on them. He insisted that unless a p
the formation of their minds (D.C.C., 1936). All schools conducted by the agents were intended to be
adherents because they have passed through the mission schools. The adults had outgrown the school age
for a great number of the children, it is the other way round from the schools to the church. In fact, the
ools gave a continuous stream of baptismal candidates. Undoubtedly, the schools were a
Bible and fundamental doctrine, and the employment of none but Ukwuani Christian teachers whose
roles would be examined. According to S.U. Ewefah (2002):
was attached to religious instruction for, which time was set apart on the timetable;
for religious instruction as a rule was compulsory on the part of all scholars and the giving
Okuegbue (2002) stated that vernacular was the language of instruction. The
their own language, the cardinal aim of evangelism would have been achieved. To them, this was more
as a basis, and the rule was strictly enforced that no English may be taught before the pupil can read th
It is pertinent to state that a combination of factors attracted the pupils to Western education; the
English Language, and the urge to acquire skills so as to improve ones social situation, were bu
Some of the young converts were attracted to the mission schools by socio-economic factors, rather than
their ancestors. Besides, most communities demand for the establishment of schools was merely based
social stigma in, which they found themselves. Surprisingly, these slaves improved t
schools were set up in the midst of financial constraints. The first primary schools in the
served as both school and church, hence they were sometimes called school chapel. These schools were
um of money for the maintenance of the schoolteachers (Okuegbue, 2002). Teachers who
through mission schools in Ukwuani were absorbed as pupil-teachers. The building of schools and the
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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131
converted while schooling. For instance, B.C.E. Nwosu, the
Gospel would not leave a visible and lasting impact on them. He insisted that unless a progressive
. All schools conducted by the agents were intended to be
s had outgrown the school age
from the schools to the church. In fact, the
ools gave a continuous stream of baptismal candidates. Undoubtedly, the schools were a
ut Ukwuani Christian teachers whose
e timetable;
art of all scholars and the giving
Okuegbue (2002) stated that vernacular was the language of instruction. The
d have been achieved. To them, this was more
as a basis, and the rule was strictly enforced that no English may be taught before the pupil can read the
factors attracted the pupils to Western education; the
English Language, and the urge to acquire skills so as to improve ones social situation, were but a few.
economic factors, rather than
unities demand for the establishment of schools was merely based
social stigma in, which they found themselves. Surprisingly, these slaves improved their social and
schools were set up in the midst of financial constraints. The first primary schools in the
lled school chapel. These schools were
um of money for the maintenance of the schoolteachers (Okuegbue, 2002). Teachers who
building of schools and the


provision of teachers accommodations helped to attract and retain the teachers in the mission stations
(Ewefah, 2002).
Recruitment of Teachers
In the mission field of the Niger Territory one of the most difficult problems with
to contend with throughout the period understudy was the acute shortage of staff. To their credit the few
missionary volunteers recruited from Sierra Leone to the Niger Mission contributed immensely to the
foundation of the mission. However, as time went on they were phased out because of retirement,
invalidation, death and the expansion of the mission field and with the constant requests for teachers to
open new stations. Faced with acute shortage in staff, the C.M.S. adopted two missi
had already been successfully tried in Sierra Leone (Odili 2010:198). The first strategy was to recruit the
pioneer indigenous lay agents from among the converts in the various congregations. The second method
was to establish training institutions for the education of the agents in order to enable them fit properly
into their newfound vocation of missionary work. While the first method served the immediate needs of
the mission, the second approach had the future prospects in view.
The first generation of the indigenous lay agents were women and men of little or no education,
without formal training for the work ahead of them. In fact, they learnt missionary service by serving as
missionaries in their own humble way. On their level of e
of the Gospel, C.O. Asueka (2004), a retired catechist in Emu
Some years ago the supply of mission workers was very limited, and women and men were
accepted as evangelists with little or n
language with difficulty, while others who had been to school were far ahead of others.

Among the first and second-generation teachers and evangelists, very few completed their primary school
education before they were employed. Some only passed through the Sunday school, while others were
artisans in their previous occupations. A good number of them began by rendering voluntary unpaid
services to the mission as local helpers. Some of these were absorbe
C.M.S. It is reported that Ossai Ndenu of Umutu who engaged as an interpreter was only a communicant.
Paul Agbadobi of Amai, a carpenter was employed as an evangelist without further training. On the
qualification of Isaac Osanekwu of Abbi, David Adenu (2005), a third
He was one of the most earnest of the Abbi Christians, and was well qualified for the
work of an evangelist. He could read the scriptures in the Igbo language fluently and had
learnt to write; he must have been of age when he first heard the Gospel Message. He was
an able and fearless preacher of the Gospel.
He further states that:
A great want of those who were then working in the mission was suitable training. A lot
of those employed in the Ndokwa District were transferring from being carpenters or
printers or servants to becoming spiritual agents without any systematic training.
A situation at hand was the case of Akubueze, the schoolmaster at Utagba
by C.Y. Otanku, a nice fellow who had been a cook. Later on, he was enrolled as teacher at a salary of
20 per annum.
Although, the response of the people to the Gospel in Ukwuaniland was passive, it was not so with
the number of missionary volunteers. The
and learner evangelists depended on the local congregations in, which they laboured for occasional help
for food without receiving any payment. A retired head teacher, C.O. Asueka (2004) reca
Several appeals were made to young Christian converts to offer themselves as probationer
evangelists to go and labour amongst other villages and communities in Ukwuaniland.
The communities who were anxious to get teachers were asked to raise som
money for the support of the probationers.
In the mission field of the Niger Territory one of the most difficult problems with
wever, as time went on they were phased out because of retirement,
open new stations. Faced with acute shortage in staff, the C.M.S. adopted two missi
g institutions for the education of the agents in order to enable them fit properly
the mission, the second approach had the future prospects in view.
first generation of the indigenous lay agents were women and men of little or no education,
missionaries in their own humble way. On their level of education prior to their employment as preachers
of the Gospel, C.O. Asueka (2004), a retired catechist in Emu-Unor recalled that:
accepted as evangelists with little or no education. Some could only read and write in Igbo
generation teachers and evangelists, very few completed their primary school
efore they were employed. Some only passed through the Sunday school, while others were
services to the mission as local helpers. Some of these were absorbed officially into the service of the
aac Osanekwu of Abbi, David Adenu (2005), a third-generation convert asserts:
arnt to write; he must have been of age when he first heard the Gospel Message. He was
an able and fearless preacher of the Gospel.
loyed in the Ndokwa District were transferring from being carpenters or
printers or servants to becoming spiritual agents without any systematic training.
A situation at hand was the case of Akubueze, the schoolmaster at Utagba-Ugbe who was assisted
C.Y. Otanku, a nice fellow who had been a cook. Later on, he was enrolled as teacher at a salary of
the number of missionary volunteers. The lay agents who initially volunteered as probational teachers
for food without receiving any payment. A retired head teacher, C.O. Asueka (2004) reca
The communities who were anxious to get teachers were asked to raise some amount of
money for the support of the probationers.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
132
which the C.M.S had
wever, as time went on they were phased out because of retirement,
open new stations. Faced with acute shortage in staff, the C.M.S. adopted two missionary strategies that
g institutions for the education of the agents in order to enable them fit properly
first generation of the indigenous lay agents were women and men of little or no education,
ducation prior to their employment as preachers
o education. Some could only read and write in Igbo
generation teachers and evangelists, very few completed their primary school
efore they were employed. Some only passed through the Sunday school, while others were
d officially into the service of the
generation convert asserts:
arnt to write; he must have been of age when he first heard the Gospel Message. He was
loyed in the Ndokwa District were transferring from being carpenters or
Ugbe who was assisted
C.Y. Otanku, a nice fellow who had been a cook. Later on, he was enrolled as teacher at a salary of
lay agents who initially volunteered as probational teachers
for food without receiving any payment. A retired head teacher, C.O. Asueka (2004) recalled that:
e amount of


We have mentioned earlier that the recruitment and training of African agents began in the colony
of Sierra Leone. However, only a few of the first generation of missionary agents who joined the Niger
Mission from Sierra Leone had the advantage of formal education. On the other hand, a great majority
were artisans, cooks and stewards in Sierra Leone before they volunteered to go back to their roots in
order to serve in whatever capacity they were empl
justified the employment of this category of agents:
Our experience is that in the initial stages of missionary work the best agents are those not
far removed from the people by superior education, who have a s
to read the vernacular scriptures intelligently and can apply them as the rule of life (cf.
Onyeidu, 2004:32).

In the Ukwuani mission field, acute lack of missionary agents of all grades was evident from the
beginning. Initially, the Ndokwa District depended heavily on volunteers from an Isoko, Urhobo and
Igbo areas, as it had no training infrastructure of its own in its home base. Recruitment from these areas
was, however, scanty and irregular. Besides, the vastness of the Ndokwa
of missionary agents would be insufficient to occupy the mission field at any given time. C.O. Asueka
(2004) aptly captures the staffing problem during this period under review,
mission, there was difficulty in getting a supply of labourers from the Igabo (Isoko), Urhobo and Igbo
areas.
When it became obvious that very few spiritual minded men could be got from the
aforementioned areas while the mission field was constantly expanding, the nati
look inwards in order to remedy the nagging staff problem. Two main steps were taken in this direction.
For one, some of the promising Ukwuani converts were engaged in their various stations as mission
agents. Like the earlier communicants who were seconded form Isoko, Urhobo and Igbo mission fields;
these Ukwuani pioneers were mainly tradesmen and women, and farmers who had not received any
formal education. Indeed, they learnt on the job. Examples of such indigenous agents had been
mentioned earlier on.
This was how a great number of Ukwuani converts began a life work of pastoral agency. A good
example of pastoral agents who fell under this category were D. Otuata, G.O. Ishiekwene and H.C.
Onyam (Usama 2009). With simple faith, they
teachers or evangelists. As would be expected, the major challenge of those who were then working in the
mission fields was suitable training. However, the D.C.C. in 1939 at Abbi decided that two kind
training were needed, one for girls and boys to be school mistress and masters, and one for those who
had worked as school mistresses and masters and were suitable for further training, with a view to
becoming catechists, and in some cases at least pr
first Anglican clergy of Ukwuani origin, the Reverend Emmanuel O. Okolugbo, was ordained in 1966.
Typologies and Functions of Teachers in Ukwuaniland, 1841
Meanwhile, it is pertinent to look
kind of services expected of a particular agent influenced the nature of the training to be given to him.
The agents of the Church Missionary Society in Ukwuani mission field were e
capacities, which overlapped sometimes in the course of missionary labour. The categories of agents
located in various primary schools included caretakers, monitors, pupil
(Onyeidu, 2004). For the purposes o
different cadres as scripture readers, interpreters, Christian visitors, local helpers, evangelists, and
catechists.Admittedly, some categories of these agents phased out as a result of
changing circumstances of the mission. But in their time, they performed useful and sometimes dual
functions. For instance, a capable agent could perform the roles of a schoolmaster, catechist and
interpreter in the same station. T
agent play many parts according to the circumstances in, which he found himself. Examples of agents
who fell under this category were P.R. Anyabene, K.C. Agbadaobi, P.O. Isume and I.M. J
Onyenike, 2006).
order to serve in whatever capacity they were employed in the mission. The Anglican mission had
justified the employment of this category of agents:
far removed from the people by superior education, who have a simple faith, and are able
the Ndokwa District depended heavily on volunteers from an Isoko, Urhobo and
was, however, scanty and irregular. Besides, the vastness of the Ndokwa District meant that even an army
(2004) aptly captures the staffing problem during this period under review, From the very outset of the
was difficulty in getting a supply of labourers from the Igabo (Isoko), Urhobo and Igbo
aforementioned areas while the mission field was constantly expanding, the native converts decided to
icants who were seconded form Isoko, Urhobo and Igbo mission fields;
Onyam (Usama 2009). With simple faith, they began in a humble way without professional training as
mission fields was suitable training. However, the D.C.C. in 1939 at Abbi decided that two kind
becoming catechists, and in some cases at least proceeding to holy orders. It is pertinent to state that the
Typologies and Functions of Teachers in Ukwuaniland, 1841-1941
Meanwhile, it is pertinent to look at the categories of serving agents in Ukwuani mission field. In fact, the
The agents of the Church Missionary Society in Ukwuani mission field were e
located in various primary schools included caretakers, monitors, pupil-teachers and school masters
(Onyeidu, 2004). For the purposes of religious instruction and evangelization, the agents were engaged in
catechists.Admittedly, some categories of these agents phased out as a result of increased education and
interpreter in the same station. Thus, there was no clear-cut division of labour in the mission as each
who fell under this category were P.R. Anyabene, K.C. Agbadaobi, P.O. Isume and I.M. J
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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133
oyed in the mission. The Anglican mission had
imple faith, and are able
the Ndokwa District depended heavily on volunteers from an Isoko, Urhobo and
District meant that even an army
From the very outset of the
was difficulty in getting a supply of labourers from the Igabo (Isoko), Urhobo and Igbo
ve converts decided to
icants who were seconded form Isoko, Urhobo and Igbo mission fields;
began in a humble way without professional training as
mission fields was suitable training. However, the D.C.C. in 1939 at Abbi decided that two kinds of
oceeding to holy orders. It is pertinent to state that the
at the categories of serving agents in Ukwuani mission field. In fact, the
The agents of the Church Missionary Society in Ukwuani mission field were employed in different
teachers and school masters
f religious instruction and evangelization, the agents were engaged in
increased education and
cut division of labour in the mission as each
who fell under this category were P.R. Anyabene, K.C. Agbadaobi, P.O. Isume and I.M. Johnson


Equally, Christian visitor functioned as an evangelist. She or he was required to visit house after
house, family after family with the intent of making Christ known and leading the people to him. One of
the earliest Ukwuani agent engaged in the service of the C.M.S. was M.O. Osaewe of Abbi. He was
accepted as a scripture reader (in Igbo Language).. Otene of Obiaruku engaged as Christian visitors.
D.A. Otuata was employed as an interpreter. Paul Oyeneke worked for three years as
where he showed much zeal for evangelization (Onyenike, 2006)
The group of agents called local helpers has been mentioned previously. These were mainly
volunteers from the local Christian congregations who taught in the mission schoo
time itinerating as evangelists. They were men of little formal education but zealous for the Christian
faith. Though not officially appointed by the society, the Local helpers depended on the charity of local
congregations to enable them keep body and soul together. Very few of them were subsequently
absorbed as full-time pupil-teachers or evangelists. Among these were Jecto Ossai of Obiaruku
(Osabikwu, 2006), J.M. Ibemene of Ashaka (Nduka, 2006) and J.C. Ofuna of Abbi (Eseagwu, 2006
without any prospect of advancement in social status, this class of local helpers was phased out and
replaced with more qualified agents. Asueka (2004) proposes some reasons why this class of agents was
phased out.
The local helpers do not seem t
therefore, no future of them at all. By taking charge of different school, they lost all chances
of acquiring knowledge themselves and so must remain in a rut or forget much of what
they themselves first learnt.
If the local helpers were not accorded any status in the grading of the agents, the same cannot be
said of the monitors and pupil-teachers who were officially recognized from the first as agents in the
service of the missions. It was not t
their classes taught each other. However, in some Ukwuani communities where the dearth of teachers
was acute, the monitors performed the same functions as pupil
There was no difference whatever between the duties of the monitors and those of pupil
teachers except that the more important classes in the school were entrusted to the pupil
teachers. Monitors were girls and boys who had passed the third standar
had learnt all that we were taught in our schools. However, they required some experience
and testing before being classified as pupil
Above the rank of monitors were the pupil
for further education. Form this humble beginning, some of them advanced in status to become senior
schoolmasters, mistresses and catechists. For instance, A Ochai of Abbi, B. Maluagbene of Utagba
and S. Oseji of Umutu were employed as pupil
categories of indigenous agents were appointed, their functions were complementary one to another.
Most of the catechists, evangelists, interpreters, head teachers and teachers in Ukwuaniland spent
most of their time in the following activities: teaching religion or giving instruction, visiting Christians or
the sick, preparing adults for catechism, presiding over Sunday services, collecting church monies,
preparing lessons, keeping registers and rep
their time was reserved for work on their farm or vocation. These agents worked throughout the year.
However, the best season was the dry season. This is so because most people were availabl
there was less work on the farms.
The aforementioned duties of these agents could be classified into easy, fairly easy and difficult
tasks. The easy tasks were instructions to children and adults, preparing the liturgy for the Sunday
service, leading in singing and prayers, preparing catechism lessons, preaching a sermon, helping the dying
or very sick people and presiding at funerals. Fairly easy tasks included marking people learn catechism
by heart, collecting church levies and dues, t
religious lessons in primary schools. The difficult tasks included trying out new methods, teaching other
lay agents what to do and running youth movements. Generally, trained agents found it e
untrained agents to do most of the tasks probably because of the training they had received. Nevertheless,
engaged in the service of the C.M.S. was M.O. Osaewe of Abbi. He was
D.A. Otuata was employed as an interpreter. Paul Oyeneke worked for three years as
where he showed much zeal for evangelization (Onyenike, 2006)
volunteers from the local Christian congregations who taught in the mission schoo
them keep body and soul together. Very few of them were subsequently
teachers or evangelists. Among these were Jecto Ossai of Obiaruku
(Osabikwu, 2006), J.M. Ibemene of Ashaka (Nduka, 2006) and J.C. Ofuna of Abbi (Eseagwu, 2006
The local helpers do not seem to realize that they are not agents of the C.M.S. and that,
first learnt.
teachers who were officially recognized from the first as agents in the
service of the missions. It was not the monitors business to teach, but to see that the girls and boys in
was acute, the monitors performed the same functions as pupil-teachers.. Asueka (2004) r
There was no difference whatever between the duties of the monitors and those of pupil
teachers except that the more important classes in the school were entrusted to the pupil
teachers. Monitors were girls and boys who had passed the third standard and, therefore,
and testing before being classified as pupil-teachers.
Above the rank of monitors were the pupil-teachers from, which most of the agents were recru
schoolmasters, mistresses and catechists. For instance, A Ochai of Abbi, B. Maluagbene of Utagba
and S. Oseji of Umutu were employed as pupil-teachers. Irrespective of the capacity in, which the various
preparing lessons, keeping registers and reporting regularly to the District Superintendent, and a little of
However, the best season was the dry season. This is so because most people were availabl

ce, leading in singing and prayers, preparing catechism lessons, preaching a sermon, helping the dying
by heart, collecting church levies and dues, teaching new songs, keeping the baptismal register and giving
lay agents what to do and running youth movements. Generally, trained agents found it e
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134
engaged in the service of the C.M.S. was M.O. Osaewe of Abbi. He was
D.A. Otuata was employed as an interpreter. Paul Oyeneke worked for three years as caretaker in Abbi
volunteers from the local Christian congregations who taught in the mission schools while at the same
them keep body and soul together. Very few of them were subsequently
teachers or evangelists. Among these were Jecto Ossai of Obiaruku
(Osabikwu, 2006), J.M. Ibemene of Ashaka (Nduka, 2006) and J.C. Ofuna of Abbi (Eseagwu, 2006). Seen
o realize that they are not agents of the C.M.S. and that,
teachers who were officially recognized from the first as agents in the
he monitors business to teach, but to see that the girls and boys in
teachers.. Asueka (2004) recalls:
There was no difference whatever between the duties of the monitors and those of pupil-
teachers except that the more important classes in the school were entrusted to the pupil-
d and, therefore,
teachers from, which most of the agents were recruited
schoolmasters, mistresses and catechists. For instance, A Ochai of Abbi, B. Maluagbene of Utagba-Ogbe
hers. Irrespective of the capacity in, which the various
orting regularly to the District Superintendent, and a little of
However, the best season was the dry season. This is so because most people were available at home and
ce, leading in singing and prayers, preparing catechism lessons, preaching a sermon, helping the dying
eaching new songs, keeping the baptismal register and giving
lay agents what to do and running youth movements. Generally, trained agents found it easier than


untrained agents found it easier to collect church levies and dues, to make people learn catechism by
heart, to instruct children, to help
probable that trained agents had less to do with such tasks because of their modern catechical formation.
Education or lack of it did not seem to have affected the more spiritual and p
laity about the agents in any way. The agents enjoyed the respect of the different sections of the
population. Among the general populace, Christians and non
more to do with attitude than educati
Ukwuani society. Reason for the respect given to the agents included the following in order of magnitude:
personal character, the sacred character of the agents, and their qualities of
characteristics included age, respectability, modernity, intelligence, sociability, gentleness, justice, good
humour, calmness, decency, politeness, sincerity, zeal, talents for reading, singing and public speaking
(oratory).
Their sacred character took three main forms. The most popular and most varied expression
was the idea that these leaders had a vocation or sacred character distinct both from that of the
missionaries and the laymen. The second view was that these pastora
character of a missionary in as much as he was the representative of, or collaborator with, missionaries.
Finally, there was the more reared view that they were a positive link between the missionaries and the
people, Christians and non-Christians.
Among the criteria for selecting catechists, teachers, evangelists and interpreters were the
following: the candidate must have led a normal Christian life, shown active faith and good moral
conduct; and preferably a properly married
integrity; and intelligent enough to have practical ability and efficiency to do work. Such a candidate must
have been a man dedicated to God and the community; that is, a man of influence. Whereas
the candidates were selected on matrimonial, religious and self
professional grounds. Most of the agents were people who, more or less, had not had enough education.
It should be noted that most of the age
Christian lives and their families were looked upon as models, excelling any other good Christian family.
Their married status gave them a sound guarantee for maturity and a better moral behaviour. Moreover
they were settled, there was hope for continuity in their work. In some communities the families seemed
not to be very dynamic, they tended to be what the husbands were. If they were pious, exemplary and
zealous, the rest of the family followed suits,
husbands in their evangelical campaigns and in the discharge of their duties.
Conclusion
With the coming of Christianity, A
Ukwuani people. The new skill was important because it seem to give special power to an individual that
other members of society did not possess. In fact, some Ukwuani were drawn to the Angl
the quest for literacy, which was widely perceived as the white mans magic. In describing literacy as the
white mans magic, Ukwuani were placing the new skill within the scope of their cultural experience.
They believed that there was an inherent power or energy pervading the universe that could be tapped in
various ways to the advantage or disadvantage of the individual or community. Literacy was seen as a
manifestation of that mystical power. Just as medicine men had to undergo a form
were fully admitted into the profession, so pupils had to go through a period of instruction in mission
schools before they could secure the new power. Literacy resulted not only in relatively well
employment in government and private sectors; it also affected a new social status that is both respected
and feared. Since mission churches controlled education, those who wished to acquire it enrolled in
mission schools, first as pupils, and next as Christian adherents.
This new interest in Western education manifested itself in the establishment of schools. Since the
C.M.S. lacked sufficient funds to build and maintain schools over wide areas, it had to depend on the
cooperation of the local people in the provision of land, construc
personnel. The initial volunteer and later recruitment of local personnel of various categories was
heart, to instruct children, to help the dying and to preside at funerals than the trained ones. It is most
Education or lack of it did not seem to have affected the more spiritual and p
population. Among the general populace, Christians and non-Christians, age, sex and personality had
more to do with attitude than education. This may be due to the gerontocratic and patriarchal structure of
personal character, the sacred character of the agents, and their qualities of leadership. The personal
ir sacred character took three main forms. The most popular and most varied expression
missionaries and the laymen. The second view was that these pastoral agents reflected the sacred
Christians.
conduct; and preferably a properly married man. He must have possessed faith, leadership skills and
have been a man dedicated to God and the community; that is, a man of influence. Whereas
the candidates were selected on matrimonial, religious and self-commitment grounds, few were chosen on
It should be noted that most of the agents were married. As married people they led good
Their married status gave them a sound guarantee for maturity and a better moral behaviour. Moreover
zealous, the rest of the family followed suits, especially their wives, a few of which accompanied their
With the coming of Christianity, Anglican agents introduced literacy, which greatly fascinated some
other members of society did not possess. In fact, some Ukwuani were drawn to the Angl
an inherent power or energy pervading the universe that could be tapped in
manifestation of that mystical power. Just as medicine men had to undergo a formal training before they
schools before they could secure the new power. Literacy resulted not only in relatively well
private sectors; it also affected a new social status that is both respected
mission schools, first as pupils, and next as Christian adherents.
erest in Western education manifested itself in the establishment of schools. Since the
cooperation of the local people in the provision of land, construction and maintenance of buildings and
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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135
the dying and to preside at funerals than the trained ones. It is most
Education or lack of it did not seem to have affected the more spiritual and pastoral view of the
Christians, age, sex and personality had
on. This may be due to the gerontocratic and patriarchal structure of
leadership. The personal
ir sacred character took three main forms. The most popular and most varied expression
l agents reflected the sacred
man. He must have possessed faith, leadership skills and
have been a man dedicated to God and the community; that is, a man of influence. Whereas majority of
commitment grounds, few were chosen on
nts were married. As married people they led good
Their married status gave them a sound guarantee for maturity and a better moral behaviour. Moreover as
especially their wives, a few of which accompanied their
nglican agents introduced literacy, which greatly fascinated some
other members of society did not possess. In fact, some Ukwuani were drawn to the Anglican Church by
an inherent power or energy pervading the universe that could be tapped in
al training before they
schools before they could secure the new power. Literacy resulted not only in relatively well-paid
private sectors; it also affected a new social status that is both respected
erest in Western education manifested itself in the establishment of schools. Since the
tion and maintenance of buildings and


necessitated by dearth need of trained teachers. Sometimes, the communities paid the teachers salaries
and provided them with accommodation.
taken into consideration in the formulation of education policy in the country.
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ia, C.C. (1962). The Civilizing Mission of 1841. Journal of Historical Society of
Nduka, Vincent. (2006). Personal Interview at Ashaka. Retired Teacher. Aged 73.
Odili, Jones U. (2010). The Roles of Pastoral Agents at Indigenising Anglican Churches in
1941. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. Department of Religious and Cultural Studies,
Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria
The History of the Ukwuani Speaking People of the Niger Delta: An
A History of Christianity in Nigeria: The Ndosumili and the Ukwuani. Ibadan:
Okuegbue, Akpogbue Peter. (2002). Personal Interview at Emu-Unor. Retired Teacher. Aged 63.
Anglican Mission and the Development of Education in Igboland, 1857
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Osabiku, Andrew. (2006). Personal Interview at Obiaruku. Retired Teacher. Aged 63.
. (2009). Personal Interview at Ukwue. Retired Teacher. Aged 71.
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Consequently, local initiatives, needs and aspiration should be
Unor. Retired Civil Servant. Aged 86.
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view at Obiaruku. Retired Teacher. Aged 63.


AWARENESS OF CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN PORT HARCOURT, NIGERIA

ADEDAMOLA

Abstract
Awareness of any health issue forms the basis for the
aimed at assessing the awareness of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation among secondary school students
in our community. The population for the study was the students in Senior Secondary School I and II
in Obio/Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State, Nigeria. Four hundred (400) students were
purposively drawn from four secondary schools in the area and served copies of a validated
questionnaire while 372 properly filled ones were returned, giving a response ra
was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences tool (SPSS17.0). The findings revealed that
only 13.4%.had had about CPR either on television, internet or read about it in books. Generally, the
males claimed to be more aware
create more awareness of CPR in our community.

AWARENESS OF CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION (CPR)
By

ADEDAMOLA OLUTOYIN ONYEASO
E-mail: aonyeaso@yahoo.comm
Awareness of any health issue forms the basis for the understanding of it. This cross
por Local Government Area of Rivers State, Nigeria. Four hundred (400) students were
questionnaire while 372 properly filled ones were returned, giving a response ra
males claimed to be more aware than the females. It is recommended that efforts should be made to
create more awareness of CPR in our community.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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137
(CPR) AMONG
understanding of it. This cross-sectional study
por Local Government Area of Rivers State, Nigeria. Four hundred (400) students were
questionnaire while 372 properly filled ones were returned, giving a response rate of 93%. The data
than the females. It is recommended that efforts should be made to


Introduction
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a combination of rescue breaths and chest compressions which
are intended to re-establish cardiac function and blood circulation in an individual who has suffered
cardiac or respiratory arrest (Field, 2010). It is an attempt to restore spontaneous circulation through any
of a broad range of manoeuvres and techniques so as to manu
further measures are taken to restore spontaneous blood circulat
cardiac arrest. It is indicated in those who are unresponsive with no breathing or abnormal breathing,
such as agonal respirations. It may be performed both in and outside of a hospital.

Skill-based health education, including life skills, fit
do to improve education and health. Ensuring that children are healthy and able
part of an effective education system. Many studies have shown that education and health are inseparable.
Cardiac/respiratory arrest is a very common emergency not just
neonatal period (WHO, Doc 9).

In view of the above, medical science
crucial period in which resuscitation intervention is most needed (
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) can be administered by a trained person before the arrival of
Emergency Medical Services (EMS). When trained in CPR, children and adolescents can recognize the
need for care and administer CPR and it has been established to b
effectively performed (Hazinski, 2010).
Elementary school, the community safety is strengthened and students are given skills they can carry into
the future. A bystander who administers CPR to a sudden cardiac arrest victim can as much as triple the
victim's chances of survival. And since four out of five cardiac arrests happen at home, there's a good
chance a rescuer will be helping his or her loved one
incidence at schools accounts for only 2.6% of all public location SCAs, a trained student could witness a
medical emergency that requires CPR in any location.

Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation is i
throughout the world. It is perhaps the only known effective method of keeping a victim of cardiac arrest
alive long enough for definitive treatment to be delivered (Hazinski, 2010). It was first demonstrated
Dr Peter Safar in the twentieth century (Wikipedia, 2012). Over the decades, educating people about
health has been an important strategy for preventing illness and injury. This approach has drawn heavily
from the fields of public health, social scien
experiments with education relied heavily on the delivery of information and facts. Gradually, educational
approaches have turned more to skill development and to addressing all aspects of health, inc
physical, social, emotional, and mental well
can instil positive health behaviours in the early years and prevent risk and premature death. It can also
produce informed citizens who are able
affect their health. While utilising both school and non
people will be essential, however emphasising school
health is an important and essential component of an effective school health programme, and it is likely
to be most effective when complemented by health
environments.
The International Liaison Commit
instruction in CPR be incorporated as a standard part of the school curriculum as this will act as a part of
their preparation for response to medical emergencies both in the school and at home (Cave e
Although many developed countries of the world have since started implementing this recommendation,
the situation is different in developing countries like Nigeria. For the development of an organised
programme in Nigerian schools, it becomes
knowledge of CPR in Nigerian secondary schools.
Objectives
The objective of this study was to get the baseline information on awareness of CPR among a group of
selected secondary school students

establish cardiac function and blood circulation in an individual who has suffered
of a broad range of manoeuvres and techniques so as to manually preserve intact brain function until
further measures are taken to restore spontaneous blood circulation and breathing in a person with
al respirations. It may be performed both in and outside of a hospital.
on, including life skills, fit into the broader context of what schools can
do to improve education and health. Ensuring that children are healthy and able to learn is an essential
respiratory arrest is a very common emergency not just in the adult group

medical science holdsthat the first 4-8 minutes in sudden collapse is the most
crucial period in which resuscitation intervention is most needed (UK -Resuscitation Council, 2010).
opulmonary resuscitation (CPR) can be administered by a trained person before the arrival of
need for care and administer CPR and it has been established to be successful in saving victims
effectively performed (Hazinski, 2010). When children are taught CPR in High school, Middle school, or
uture. A bystander who administers CPR to a sudden cardiac arrest victim can as much as triple the
chance a rescuer will be helping his or her loved one (AHA-Channing Bete, 2013).
medical emergency that requires CPR in any location.
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation is indeed an important life-saving First Aid skill
alive long enough for definitive treatment to be delivered (Hazinski, 2010). It was first demonstrated
from the fields of public health, social science, communications, and education (WHO Series 9). Early
approaches have turned more to skill development and to addressing all aspects of health, inc
physical, social, emotional, and mental well-being (WHO Series 9). Educating children and adolescents
produce informed citizens who are able to seek services and advocate for policies and environments that
affect their health. While utilising both school and non-school settings to reach children and young
people will be essential, however emphasising school-based activities is more essential. E
to be most effective when complemented by health-related policies and services and healthy
The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation in 2001 strongly recommended that
their preparation for response to medical emergencies both in the school and at home (Cave e
programme in Nigerian schools, it becomes necessary to start by assessing the level of awareness and
knowledge of CPR in Nigerian secondary schools.
he objective of this study was to get the baseline information on awareness of CPR among a group of
nts in Rivers State of Nigeria.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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138
establish cardiac function and blood circulation in an individual who has suffered
ally preserve intact brain function until
ion and breathing in a person with

into the broader context of what schools can
to learn is an essential
the adult group, but also in the
8 minutes in sudden collapse is the most
Resuscitation Council, 2010).
opulmonary resuscitation (CPR) can be administered by a trained person before the arrival of
e successful in saving victims life when
When children are taught CPR in High school, Middle school, or
uture. A bystander who administers CPR to a sudden cardiac arrest victim can as much as triple the
Bete, 2013). Although the SCA
saving First Aid skill practiced
alive long enough for definitive treatment to be delivered (Hazinski, 2010). It was first demonstrated by
ce, communications, and education (WHO Series 9). Early
approaches have turned more to skill development and to addressing all aspects of health, including
being (WHO Series 9). Educating children and adolescents
to seek services and advocate for policies and environments that
school settings to reach children and young
based activities is more essential. Education for
related policies and services and healthy
tee on Resuscitation in 2001 strongly recommended that
their preparation for response to medical emergencies both in the school and at home (Cave et al., 2011).
necessary to start by assessing the level of awareness and
he objective of this study was to get the baseline information on awareness of CPR among a group of


Research Questions
The researcher went into the study with the following research questions
1. What would be the level of awareness of CPR among the students?
2. Would any gender have better awareness than the other?
Methodology
A cross-sectional study was conducted among four purposively selected secondary schools in
Obio/Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State
Instrument
A self-structured ten- item questionnaire on awareness of CPR
oral consent from the participants, copies of the questionnaire were administered to four hundred (400)
students. Three hundred and seventy two correctly f
filled ones, giving a response rate of 93%. One hundred and eighty one (181) of the students were in SS1
and One hundred and ninety one (
males and 184 (49.46%) were females with mean age of 14.5
Data Analysis
The data was organised and statistically analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences tool (SPSS
17.0). Descriptive statistics of mean age, frequency distri
bar chart were used in the data analysis.
Results
The table below shows the level of awareness among the selected students in percentage
Table 1: Level of CPR Awareness among the secondary school students

Only 26.3% had heard about CPR before this study, 15% had heard about it on the television, 10.4% read
about it in books, 8.6% had come across it on internet, while 93.6% agreed that it could be taught in
hospital setting. The cluster percentage of those w
shows the gender of the participants and the level of awareness of CPR.
Figure 1: Gender and Level of Awareness of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation among the Secondary School Students

Note: Blue = Male, Red = Female

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Q1
Items
1. I heard about CPR before now
2. I heard about CPR through Television
3. I read about CPR from books
4. I read about CPR from the Internet
5. CPR can only be learnt in the Hospital
Cluster %
The researcher went into the study with the following research questions to guide the srudy
hat would be the level of awareness of CPR among the students?
2. Would any gender have better awareness than the other?
sectional study was conducted among four purposively selected secondary schools in
Obio/Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State Nigeria.
item questionnaire on awareness of CPR was used, having explained and obtained
students. Three hundred and seventy two correctly filled copies were returned after excluding the wrongly
One hundred and ninety one (191) in SS2, respectively. Out of the 372 students, 188
males and 184 (49.46%) were females with mean age of 14.5 + .66(SD).
17.0). Descriptive statistics of mean age, frequency distribution of the participants responses, as well as
bar chart were used in the data analysis.
Level of CPR Awareness among the secondary school students
hospital setting. The cluster percentage of those who had some awareness of CPR was 13.4%. Figure 1
shows the gender of the participants and the level of awareness of CPR.
Gender and Level of Awareness of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation among the Secondary School Students
Red = Female
Q2 Q3 Q4
A % NA
I heard about CPR before now 98 26.3 274
I heard about CPR through Television 56 15.0 316
I read about CPR from books 39 10.4 333
I read about CPR from the Internet 32 8.6 340
CPR can only be learnt in the Hospital 23 6.4 348
13.4%
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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139
to guide the srudy:
sectional study was conducted among four purposively selected secondary schools in
aving explained and obtained
illed copies were returned after excluding the wrongly
in SS2, respectively. Out of the 372 students, 188 (50.54%) were
bution of the participants responses, as well as
ho had some awareness of CPR was 13.4%. Figure 1
Gender and Level of Awareness of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation among the Secondary School Students
Q5
%
73.6
84.9
89.5
91.4
93.6
86.6%


This table shows generally that the responses of the boys on the question items regarding their awareness
of CPR were higher than those of the girls except on item 5 only.

Discussion
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation is a major and life
usefulness can never be over emphasised. This paper examined the level of Cardiopulmonary
Resuscitation awareness among Nigerian Secondary School stude
That 74% of the selected students had never heard about CPR before this study could be explained
by the fact CPR had never been taught in the Nigerian schools since it is not reflected in the curricula of
Nigerian schools. The Nigerian media have not
in the equally relatively poor percentage (15.5%) of students that claimed to have heard of it on the
television and 8.6% on the internet. Only 11.4% claimed to have read it in books. These figur
the level of awareness of CPR in Nigeria is still very low.
conducted by Abdullah et al (2013)
secondary schools students in Riyadh.58% did n
of all students would like to know more about CPR.
The usefulness of CPR training in schools had earlier been questioned on the ground that young
students might not have the physical and cognitive skills
correctly (Fleischhackl et al., 2009). In their prospective investigation (Fleischhackl et al., 2
volunteer schools, both urban and rural, scattered across Austria with eleven randomly selected schools in
four states were students ranging in age from 9 to 18 years. Outcomes were found to be unrelated to
gender, age, or body mass index (BMI) an
successfully and effectively learn basic life support skills.

Jones et al (2007) assessed the physical ability of school
adequate chest compression depth for an adult victim. The children in the study ranged in age
through 14 years; only the 13 to 14
informed the choice of age in this study group and in accordance with the recomme
Heart Association, 2010.

The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation
instruction in CPR be incorporated as a standard part of the school curriculum (Cave et al., 2011). The
emergency training curriculum is standardized and is taught by professional educators in other parts of
the world. This approach enhances standard
introduced to, then later taught, these basic emergency life
emergency life-saving skills education into a school health curriculum is ideal, many schools do
this content within their academic offerings. Teachers may teach the content themselves or enlist the
expertise of others. Typical resource persons that teachers might enlist include emergency and health care
professionals from local EMS agencie
organizations. The length of time devoted to teaching CPR and first aid varies.
Education reform ensures a place for skills
extra-curricular efforts. Special programme for students and parents, peer education and counselling
programme, and school/community programme offer ways for students to apply and practise what they
learn. Student participation in active learning can strengthen student
classroom climate, accommodate a variety of learning styles, and provide alte
Skill-based health education is used to address the health issues that children and young people can
encounter in the school setting, including medical emergencies. Awareness and teaching of CPR has been
on as far back as the early 60s.
In 1961, Norway became the first country to teach CPR to school
by Czechoslovakia (Reder & Quan, 2003).
students in Scandinavia, Great Britain, Canada, the United States and other countries (Uray, Lunzer,
Ochsenhofer, Thanikkel, Zingerle & Lillie;
be debatable. Students in their mid
performance has been noted in older teenagers. Lester, Donnelly
of CPR were higher than those of the girls except on item 5 only.
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation is a major and life-saving skill in First Aid throughout the world and its
Resuscitation awareness among Nigerian Secondary School students.
Nigerian schools. The Nigerian media have not given adequate attention to this subject which is reflected
television and 8.6% on the internet. Only 11.4% claimed to have read it in books. These figur
the level of awareness of CPR in Nigeria is still very low. Just like their Saudi counterparts in a study
conducted by Abdullah et al (2013) which examined the community awareness about CPR among
secondary schools students in Riyadh.58% did not have any previous information about CPR about 67%
of all students would like to know more about CPR.
students might not have the physical and cognitive skills needed to correctly perform such complex tasks
et al., 2009). In their prospective investigation (Fleischhackl et al., 2
gender, age, or body mass index (BMI) and it was concluded that students as young as 9 years are able to
successfully and effectively learn basic life support skills.
(2007) assessed the physical ability of school-children in Cardiff and
depth for an adult victim. The children in the study ranged in age
to 14-year-olds performed chest compressions as well as adults. This
informed the choice of age in this study group and in accordance with the recomme
The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (2001) strongly recommend
the world. This approach enhances standardization and diminishes confusion when students are first
introduced to, then later taught, these basic emergency life-saving skills. While integration of basic
saving skills education into a school health curriculum is ideal, many schools do
professionals from local EMS agencies or hospitals and adults or professionals from national
organizations. The length of time devoted to teaching CPR and first aid varies.
Education reform ensures a place for skills-based health education in the curriculum and in various
efforts. Special programme for students and parents, peer education and counselling
learn. Student participation in active learning can strengthen student-teacher relationships, improve the
classroom climate, accommodate a variety of learning styles, and provide alternative ways of learning.
based health education is used to address the health issues that children and young people can
ool setting, including medical emergencies. Awareness and teaching of CPR has been
In 1961, Norway became the first country to teach CPR to school-children, followed six years later
by Czechoslovakia (Reder & Quan, 2003). Since then, CPR training has been offered sporadically to
r, Thanikkel, Zingerle & Lillie; 2003). The suitability of teaching CPR to young chi
be debatable. Students in their mid-teens are matured enough to learn life-saving skills, although better
performance has been noted in older teenagers. Lester, Donnelly, Weston, & Morgan (1996) show
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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140
saving skill in First Aid throughout the world and its
given adequate attention to this subject which is reflected
television and 8.6% on the internet. Only 11.4% claimed to have read it in books. These figures show that
Just like their Saudi counterparts in a study
which examined the community awareness about CPR among
ot have any previous information about CPR about 67%
needed to correctly perform such complex tasks
et al., 2009). In their prospective investigation (Fleischhackl et al., 2009) in
d it was concluded that students as young as 9 years are able to
children in Cardiff and Wales, to achieve
depth for an adult victim. The children in the study ranged in ages from 9
olds performed chest compressions as well as adults. This
informed the choice of age in this study group and in accordance with the recommendation of American
strongly recommends that
ization and diminishes confusion when students are first
saving skills. While integration of basic
saving skills education into a school health curriculum is ideal, many schools do not offer
s or hospitals and adults or professionals from national
based health education in the curriculum and in various
efforts. Special programme for students and parents, peer education and counselling
cher relationships, improve the
rnative ways of learning.
based health education is used to address the health issues that children and young people can
ool setting, including medical emergencies. Awareness and teaching of CPR has been
children, followed six years later
Since then, CPR training has been offered sporadically to
2003). The suitability of teaching CPR to young children may
saving skills, although better
, Weston, & Morgan (1996) show that


children as young as eleven were capable
to be lost rapidly after training (Lafferty, Larsen & Galletly, 2003) The Austrian Red Cross started life
saving first aid training for children as young as eight (Uray, Lunzer, Ochsenhof
Lillie; 2003). Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) skills are taught as an optional component of the New
Zealand school curriculum, in both primary and secondary schools. Indeed, the awareness of CPR has
grown in developed parts of the globe.
Conclusion
In conclusion, although there is adequate awareness on CPR among students in other parts of the globe
evident from several literatures focusing on cardiopulmonary resuscitation based on both educational and
health care systems, the situation is not the same in Africa generally and Nigeria in particular.
Educational effort in CPR is highly and urgently needed so as to be better equipped towards emergencies
such as sudden collapse. By incorporating resuscitation skills into the curriculum
awareness and acceptance of CPR, as well as specific resuscitation skills might be instilled routinely in the
upcoming generation.
Recommendation
Considering the growing importance of CPR globally, more awareness of it should be
community through every possible means.
References

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EVALUATION OF PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
DEPOSIT BANKS IN NIGERIA

Email:
KUJE, ALU JOHN EMMANUEL
Department of Business Administration a

Abstract
Product development could play an important role to the growth of money deposit banks in Nigeria.
Since banks came into being mainly to serve the customers, they must strive to
products/service packages capable of satisfying ever dynamic customers needs. Doing this will help
the bank to earn reasonable profits and leads to growth and survival. The study employs the use of
percentages, frequency tables, and chi
evaluate product development and growth in money deposit banks in Nigeria, specifically, Fist Bank
Nigeria Plc. It was found that there is significant relationship between product development and
growth in First Bank Nigeria Plc. The study concluded that the bank should roll out products based
on the need of the customers and not because other banks are doing so. We recommended that for the
bank to maintain its tempo of growth within the banking industry,
Marshall out new products/service packages based on research results and customer needs. This will
help the bank to continue to survive in the modern business world characterized with hyper
competition and changing customers ta
Keywords: Brand, Positioning, Innovation, Products and Growth.

EVALUATION OF PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH IN MONEY
DEPOSIT BANKS IN NIGERIA.
By

ABDULLAHI, DAUDA
Email: daudaabdullahi53@yahoo.com
08065395981

TSAKU, ISAAC DAVID

&

KUJE, ALU JOHN EMMANUEL
Department of Business Administration and Management,
Nasarawa State Polytechnic, Lafia,
Nasarawa State.
Since banks came into being mainly to serve the customers, they must strive to
percentages, frequency tables, and chi-square as study methodology. The objective of the study is to
n First Bank Nigeria Plc. The study concluded that the bank should roll out products based
bank to maintain its tempo of growth within the banking industry, First bank must continue to
competition and changing customers tastes and needs in the market.
Brand, Positioning, Innovation, Products and Growth.
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143
AND GROWTH IN MONEY

Since banks came into being mainly to serve the customers, they must strive to develop
study methodology. The objective of the study is to
n First Bank Nigeria Plc. The study concluded that the bank should roll out products based
First bank must continue to


Introduction
Product development, which is concerned with improving the features and performance of companys
existing product or introducing an entirely new product to the market has become an on avoidable task
for banks. Once a company has carefully segmented the mar
their needs and determines its market positioning, it is better to develop new products. Banks should
develop new products. This is because new products shape the organizations future. Customers want
new products and the competitors must do their best to supply them.
Globalization which fosters free flow of information, knowledge has homogenized the consumer
needs across nations. Also, the rapid advancement in manufacturing, transportation, and communication
technologies has strengthened competition among banks. In Nigeria, consumers awareness about banks
products/services or augmented services are on the increase on daily basis. With the significant rise in the
customers expectations and needs, banks have t
changing needs if they are to remain relevant and survive in the hyper competitive business world. Being
reactive means improving the banks product features and performance to meet the current needs of th
customers, while proactiveness is to anticipating the latent needs of the customers and developing a need
product to satisfy the needs.
Since product development is very costly, and the gestation period for the investment takes a long
number of years. Most banks do not often carry out product development and few banks do it
occasionally. As such, a bank that fails to embank o
customers patronage, low sales and poor returns. In corroborating
the academics, the slogan is publish or perish. In banks,
growth and any business that does not grow just like any other organism that fails to grow, will die.
Every product has its life cycle. The best way to keep a product going almost on permanent basis is
to keep re-inventing it through innovation of new things or doing the same thing in a new way or putting
a familiar product in a new package or adding new value to an already kn
reposition the product and rekindle its appeal to the buying public. This is the secret
Coca Cola, Bournvita, Millo, Peak Milk
Objective of the Study
Recognizing the impact of innovation on or
additional research is needed to establish the specific impact of product, technology, or process
innovation on organizations performance. Consequently, the objective of this study is to evaluate t
impact of product development and growth in money deposit banks in Nigeria specifically, First Bank
Nigeria Plc.
Hypothesis
The study sought to test the following fundamental hypothesis
Ho: There is no relationship between pro
Significance of the Study
The study is undertaken at the right time as its finding
between committing more funds to product development and growth in
especially, First Bank Nigeria Plc. Thus, the findings of this study will assist managers of money deposit
banks in Nigeria in their strategic decision regarding product development. Similarly, the study is also
expected to add to the scanty existing studies on the relationship between product development and
growth in money deposit banks especially in Nigeria.
Literature Review
In a very narrow sense, a product is a set of tangible physical attributes assembled in an iden
Each product carries a commonly understood descriptive (generic) name, such as apples, steel etc.
for banks. Once a company has carefully segmented the market, chosen its target customers, identified
ts and the competitors must do their best to supply them.
Globalization which fosters free flow of information, knowledge has homogenized the consumer
customers expectations and needs, banks have to be reactive and proactive to the customers ever
reactive means improving the banks product features and performance to meet the current needs of th
ost banks do not often carry out product development and few banks do it
h, a bank that fails to embank on product development face
patronage, low sales and poor returns. In corroborating this, Olarewaju (200
he slogan is publish or perish. In banks, it is innovate or die. Innovation is a proof of
life cycle. The best way to keep a product going almost on permanent basis is
inventing it through innovation of new things or doing the same thing in a new way or putting
a familiar product in a new package or adding new value to an already known product. Any of these will
reposition the product and rekindle its appeal to the buying public. This is the secret
ita, Millo, Peak Milk, Close-Up etc.
Recognizing the impact of innovation on organizations performance, Ogundele (2005) p
innovation on organizations performance. Consequently, the objective of this study is to evaluate t
The study sought to test the following fundamental hypothesis, stated in the null form:
There is no relationship between product development and growth in First Bank Nigeria Plc.
The study is undertaken at the right time as its findings will bring to the fore the perceived relationship
between committing more funds to product development and growth in money deposit Banks in Nigeria
dd to the scanty existing studies on the relationship between product development and
growth in money deposit banks especially in Nigeria.
In a very narrow sense, a product is a set of tangible physical attributes assembled in an iden
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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144
ket, chosen its target customers, identified
Globalization which fosters free flow of information, knowledge has homogenized the consumers
o be reactive and proactive to the customers ever
reactive means improving the banks product features and performance to meet the current needs of the
ost banks do not often carry out product development and few banks do it
n product development faces the risk of low
, Olarewaju (2007) remarks that in
innovate or die. Innovation is a proof of
life cycle. The best way to keep a product going almost on permanent basis is
inventing it through innovation of new things or doing the same thing in a new way or putting
own product. Any of these will
reposition the product and rekindle its appeal to the buying public. This is the secret of products like
performance, Ogundele (2005) postulates that
innovation on organizations performance. Consequently, the objective of this study is to evaluate the
stated in the null form:
duct development and growth in First Bank Nigeria Plc.
will bring to the fore the perceived relationship
money deposit Banks in Nigeria
dd to the scanty existing studies on the relationship between product development and
In a very narrow sense, a product is a set of tangible physical attributes assembled in an identifiable form.


According to Stanton (1981),a product is a set of tangible and intangible attributes including packaging,
colour, price, manufacturers prestig
the buyer may accept as offering want satisfaction. Oyedijo (1996) postulated that a product is anything
that is offered and accepted in exchange for satisfaction. A product can also
can be offered to a market for attention and acquisition, use or consumption that might satisfy a want or
need (Kotler and Armstrong, 2004). Broadly defined, products include physical objects, services, events,
person, places, organizations, ideas or mixes of these entities.
From the above definitions, a product generally connotes output of organizations and persons.
This can be inform of physical objects
football match, e.t.c)
Farrar (1998) argued that product development i
an activity leading to a product having new or different characteristics or consumer
benefits. Such development ranges from an entirely new concept to meet a newly defined
consumer wants to the modification of an existing product or indeed its presentati
and packaging. It forms part of a process which has to be continuous to arrest the decline
era within the intrinsic life cycle of existing product.
Oyedijo (2004) observes that product development also regarded as all activities that are connected
with product research, engineering, design and feature specifications which ultimately make a product to
have different characteristics or consumer benefits. Product development could either be original
product, product improvements, product modifications or n
own research efforts (Kotler and Armstrong, 2004). Product development describes the various processes
which occur from time a bank generates a new business ideas to the launch of that particular service in
the market. This means the over all process of strategy, idea generation, product and marketing plan
creation and evaluation, and commercialization of a new service.
Product development could be grouped into the following:
i. New to the World Product:
ii. New Product lines: New products that allow a company to enter an established market;
iii. Additions to existing Product lines:
product lines;
iv. Improvements and revisions of existing Products:
v. Repositioning: Existing products that are targeted to new markets or market segments and;
vi. Cost reduction: New products that provide similar performance at Lower cost (Booz
Hamilton, 1982).
The role of Product Development in Organizations Growth
The role that product development plays in improving the organizations growth is very paramount.
Although research on the effects of product development on organization
study by Goyit (2007) Organizations that desire survival, growth and relevance in the global arena need to
embrace continuous improvement of their products or services so as to remain competitive in todays
business arena. He further observed that:
Organizations that adopt continuous improvement in their business processes or procedures
are capable of achieving the increased/improved quality which leads to efficiency and
effectiveness in production process, high level of resp
reliability, increased productivity, low costs, higher profits, higher prices, higher sales
volume, and thus possessing a competitive edge.
Rotimi (2001) stresses that only products designed to meet specific needs of the customers would
be able to survive the on-going competition in the banking industry. It was not enough to introduce new
products, but it should evolve out of the desire to satisfy perceived needs o
learn to give customers what they needs and not what the banks wanted to give. Ewurum (2003) posit
that managers in Nigerian organizations pay
colour, price, manufacturers prestige, retailers prestige and manufacturers and retailers services which
that is offered and accepted in exchange for satisfaction. A product can also be defined as anything that
organizations, ideas or mixes of these entities.
This can be inform of physical objects (goods), non-physical objects (services) and events (trade fair,
that product development is:
consumer wants to the modification of an existing product or indeed its presentati
era within the intrinsic life cycle of existing product.
that product development also regarded as all activities that are connected
product research, engineering, design and feature specifications which ultimately make a product to
product, product improvements, product modifications or new brands that the firm develops thro
otler and Armstrong, 2004). Product development describes the various processes
market. This means the over all process of strategy, idea generation, product and marketing plan
creation and evaluation, and commercialization of a new service.
Product development could be grouped into the following:
New to the World Product: New products that create an entirely new product markets;
New products that allow a company to enter an established market;
Additions to existing Product lines: New products that supplement a companys established
ements and revisions of existing Products: New products that improve performance;
Existing products that are targeted to new markets or market segments and;
New products that provide similar performance at Lower cost (Booz
The role of Product Development in Organizations Growth
Although research on the effects of product development on organizations growth is very scanty. In a
further observed that:
effectiveness in production process, high level of responsiveness to customers needs,
volume, and thus possessing a competitive edge.
that only products designed to meet specific needs of the customers would
going competition in the banking industry. It was not enough to introduce new
products, but it should evolve out of the desire to satisfy perceived needs of the customers. Banks should
learn to give customers what they needs and not what the banks wanted to give. Ewurum (2003) posit
that managers in Nigerian organizations pay lip-service to innovation as the level of innovations
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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145
e, retailers prestige and manufacturers and retailers services which
be defined as anything that
ervices) and events (trade fair,
consumer wants to the modification of an existing product or indeed its presentation
that product development also regarded as all activities that are connected
product research, engineering, design and feature specifications which ultimately make a product to
ew brands that the firm develops through its
otler and Armstrong, 2004). Product development describes the various processes
market. This means the over all process of strategy, idea generation, product and marketing plan
New products that create an entirely new product markets;
New products that allow a company to enter an established market;
New products that supplement a companys established
New products that improve performance;
Existing products that are targeted to new markets or market segments and;
New products that provide similar performance at Lower cost (Booz , Allen and
s growth is very scanty. In a
onsiveness to customers needs,
that only products designed to meet specific needs of the customers would
going competition in the banking industry. It was not enough to introduce new
f the customers. Banks should
learn to give customers what they needs and not what the banks wanted to give. Ewurum (2003) posits
service to innovation as the level of innovations


behaviour among the generality of the employees, managers, and non
abysmally low. Evidence has shown that only organizations that are able to reinvent continuously will
survive the vagaries of the business environment with increasing number of hard to s
Upgrading the quality of a companys goods or services can enhance the companys reputation and
customer loyalty and may allow the organization to charge higher prices for its products or services,
leading to greater profit (Jones and Ge
capable of increasing their growth rate in terms of employment, sales, and profitability. A study
conducted on effects of innovation on organizational development established that innovation h
positive effect on organizational performance (Ogundele, 2005).
The Various opinions expressed by the scholars are adopted by the First Bank Nigeria Plc in its
operations. It has done that by positioning its products or services through customers sati
their needs and wants, innovations, efficient and effective services and a lot others. These made the bank
to have many customers leading to customer brand loyalty, growth rate, profitability and competitive edge
over other banks in the industry.
Sources of New Product Development
Hudson (1998) opines that internal research and development (R&D) may provide necessary ideas for
new products. Copying from competitors and adapting foreign products are among the most widely used
sources. The danger here is that consumers will call the quality of new entrant to question. Product
development and modification according to
i. Market research;
ii. Companys knowledge of consumer and buyer
iii. Product positioning requirements of market segmentation and customer targeting
Why New Products Fail in the Market
It is altruism that the mortality rate for new products is extremely high
1998). Products fail because they have nothing to distinguish them from brands already in the markets.
Some products failure or misfortune is as a result of high price, their promotional failings or small size of
segment to which they appeal. Yet product failures can service one purpose, investors, entrepreneurs and
new product team leaders can learn valuable lessons about what not to do.
Onu (2000) posits that what accounts for product failures
are:
i. over estimation of the market;
ii. the actual product is not designed well as it should be;
iii. the product is incorrectly positioned or over priced;
iv. development cost is higher than expected returns;
v. competitors fight harder than expected;
vi. weakness in distribution;
vii. poor timing;
viii. competition and;
ix. insufficient marketing efforts.

Research Methodology
The study employed a field survey research finding strategy. The reason for this approach is because to
effectively attain the objective of this study, the opinions of the various categories of staff needed to be
obtained. Also in view of the population si
a representative sample rather than the whole population of the bank. Thus, samples of 120 respondents
were selected for this study at Zaria and Kaduna Metropolis.
ty of the employees, managers, and non-managers alike was found to be
survive the vagaries of the business environment with increasing number of hard to s
leading to greater profit (Jones and George, 2003). Smith (1990) postulated that innovation firms were
conducted on effects of innovation on organizational development established that innovation h
positive effect on organizational performance (Ogundele, 2005).
operations. It has done that by positioning its products or services through customers sati

ew Product Development
that internal research and development (R&D) may provide necessary ideas for
r here is that consumers will call the quality of new entrant to question. Product
according to Modern (1991), must be related to:
knowledge of consumer and buyers behaviour and;
g requirements of market segmentation and customer targeting
ail in the Market
It is altruism that the mortality rate for new products is extremely high, sometimes put at 90% (Hudson,
which they appeal. Yet product failures can service one purpose, investors, entrepreneurs and
new product team leaders can learn valuable lessons about what not to do.
(2000) posits that what accounts for product failures and in the views of some othe
over estimation of the market;
the actual product is not designed well as it should be;
the product is incorrectly positioned or over priced;
development cost is higher than expected returns;
competitors fight harder than expected;
kness in distribution; inadequate market analysis;
insufficient marketing efforts.
obtained. Also in view of the population size and time frame, it is economical and time effective to study
were selected for this study at Zaria and Kaduna Metropolis.
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146
managers alike was found to be
survive the vagaries of the business environment with increasing number of hard to satisfy customers.
orge, 2003). Smith (1990) postulated that innovation firms were
conducted on effects of innovation on organizational development established that innovation had
operations. It has done that by positioning its products or services through customers satisfaction of
that internal research and development (R&D) may provide necessary ideas for
r here is that consumers will call the quality of new entrant to question. Product
g requirements of market segmentation and customer targeting
sometimes put at 90% (Hudson,
which they appeal. Yet product failures can service one purpose, investors, entrepreneurs and
and in the views of some other scholaes
ze and time frame, it is economical and time effective to study


Data were collected through
completed which were made up of eighth questions. Percentages, frequency tables, chi
questionnaires were employed as statistical tools in the analysis of the data collected.
choice of these statistical tools used in the study was because of simple presentation and adequate
comprehension of the results and findings from the study. The study is Limited to the product
development and growth in money deposit
study covered a period of six years ranging from 2005
the fact that because it was the period the bank paid good attention to introduction of new
the market.
Results and Discussions
The data for this study were collected through the application of questionnaire. The respondents
responses obtained and the questions forwarded to them were presented, analyzed and interpreted as
shown below:
Table 1.1: Status of Respondents.
Status
Management staff
Senior Staff
Supervisors
Others
Total
Source: Field Survey, 2012.
The above table showed the distribution of the questionnaires to the various respondents of the First
Bank Plc. The number of the retrieved questionnaire exhibited that a higher proportion of 36% came
from the non-managerial staff.
Table 1.2: Do you have research Department in your Bank?
Respondents
Yes
No
On decided
Total
The analysis in the above table shown that all of the respondents agreed that the bank has a research
department and this constituted 100% of the respondents.
Table 1.3: How do you get service ideas in your bank?
Respondents
Through research
Through Customers
Through Employees
Total
Talking about how the bank gets service ideas, 65 of the respondents which represented 58% agreed that
the bank got its service ideas through research. 20% of the staff stated that the bank got its service ideas
through customers. While 22% agreed that the
bank.

Data were collected through the distribution of 120 questionnaires of which 112 were returned and
completed which were made up of eighth questions. Percentages, frequency tables, chi
questionnaires were employed as statistical tools in the analysis of the data collected.
development and growth in money deposit Banks in Nigeria specifically, First Bank Nigeria Plc. The
study covered a period of six years ranging from 2005-2011. The choice of this period is necessitated by
the fact that because it was the period the bank paid good attention to introduction of new
Status of Respondents.
Number Percentages (%)
20 18
35 31
17 15
40 36
112 100
research Department in your Bank?
112 100
- -
- -
112 100
department and this constituted 100% of the respondents.
How do you get service ideas in your bank?
65
22
25
112 100
through customers. While 22% agreed that the bank got its service ideas through the employees of the
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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147
the distribution of 120 questionnaires of which 112 were returned and
completed which were made up of eighth questions. Percentages, frequency tables, chi-square and
questionnaires were employed as statistical tools in the analysis of the data collected. The rationale for the
Banks in Nigeria specifically, First Bank Nigeria Plc. The
2011. The choice of this period is necessitated by
the fact that because it was the period the bank paid good attention to introduction of new products to


Percentages (%)
58
20
22
100
bank got its service ideas through the employees of the


Table 1.4: Is there anything like new service package in your bank?
Respondents
Yes
No
On decided
Total
The analysis above indicated that majority of the respondents ie 82% believed that the bank introduced
some new service packages. Also, only 18% of the respondents said no.
Table 1.5: How does the bank differentiates its service package from other c
Respondents
Through Symbol
Through Experience
On decided
Total
It was inferred from the table above that 81% of the respondents subscribed to the view that the banks
service package was differentiated in the market through symbol. While 12% of the staff of the bank
stated that through experience. 8(7%) were undecide
Test of Hypotheses
The computation of chi-square value was done using SPSS
Table 1.6: How will you assess the growth of your bank in recent years?
frequency
Very Significant
Significant
Indifferent
Insignificant
VeryInsigificant
Total
21
45
13
10
23
112
Source: SPSS result output, 2012
Table 1.6 above answered on how you assess the growth of your bank of recent. The result above
depicted that very significant has 21(18.8%), significant 45 (58.9%), indifferent 13 (70.5%), insignificant
10 (79.5%), and very insignificant 23 (100%). The ana
shown that the growth of the bank in the recent years was significant.
Table 1.7: How will you assess the product development process taking place in your bank?
Frequency
VerySignificant
Significant
Indifferent
Insignificant
Veryingnificant
Total
14
38
17
26
17
112
Table 1.8: Chi-square output from SPSS
Value
Pearson Chi-square
Likelihood Ratio
Linear-by-Linear
Association
No. of Valid Class
118.546a
124.514
25.715

112
Table 1.4: Is there anything like new service package in your bank?
92 82
20 18
- -
112 100
some new service packages. Also, only 18% of the respondents said no.
How does the bank differentiates its service package from other competitors in the market?
91 81
13 12
8 7
112 100
stated that through experience. 8(7%) were undecided.
square value was done using SPSS version 17:
How will you assess the growth of your bank in recent years?
percentage valid percentage cumulative percent
18.8
40.2
11.6
8.9
20.5
100.0
18.8
40.2
11.6
8.9
20.5
100.0
18.8
58.9
70.5
79.5
100
10 (79.5%), and very insignificant 23 (100%). The analysis above indicated that the staff of the bank
shown that the growth of the bank in the recent years was significant.
How will you assess the product development process taking place in your bank?
Percentage Valid Percent Cumulativ
12.5
33.9
15.2
23.2
15.2
100.0
12.5
33.9
15.2
23.2
15.2
100.0
12.5
46.4
61.6
84.8
100
from SPSS
Df Asymp.Sig.(2sided)
118.546a
124.514

16
16
1
.000
.000
.000

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148

ompetitors in the market?

cumulative percentage
lysis above indicated that the staff of the bank
How will you assess the product development process taking place in your bank?
Cumulative Percent
12.5
46.4
61.6
84.8
100
Asymp.Sig.(2sided)


17 cells (68.0%) have expected count
Table 1.8 above depicted the chi
calculated value of chi-square in table 1.8 is given as 118.55.The table value under 16 at 5% significance
level is greater than the table value (i.e. 118.55.>29.30). The null hypothesis is rejected and the alternate
accepted. This has shown that there is relationship between product development and growth in First
Bank Nigeria Plc.
Conclusion
From the findings of this study, it was inferred
product development embarked upon by it. To buttress the point, thus, the calculated value of chi
for the study is 118.55 against the tabulated value o
product development and growth in the bank understudy. Banks must not introduce products because
they wanted it, but for the interest of the customers. In order to sustain and strengthen the tempo of
growth of First Bank Nigeria Plc within the industry in Nigeria, the following recommendations were
made.
Recommendations
i. The bank should continue to introduce new service packages based on research results.
ii. Introduction of new service/product packages will
based on the needs and wants of the customers and not necessarily because other banks are doing
so.
References
Booz, Allen and Hamilton (1982).
Ewurum, U. J. F. (2003).Managing innovation in
1(3) pp 110 120,
Farrar, J. (1998).DictionaryofMarketingandAdvertising
Goyit, M.G.(2007).Continous Improvement: A Panacea for
Journal of Management Research,
Hudson, O. (1998). Strategic marketing
Fred Co. Ltd. .
Jones, G.R. and George, J. M. (2003)
Graw Hill.
Kotler, P. and Armstrong,G.(2004).
Incorporation.
Morden, A. R. (1991). Element of m
Ogundele, O. J. K. (2005). Effects of innovation on organizational
1(2). pp 40-50.
Olarewaju, A. (2007). Publish or perish.
Onu, J.A.C. (2001). Marketing today
Oyedijo, A. (1996). Fundamentals of
Smith, H.R. (1990). Innovative firm and l
Stanton, W.J. (1981). Fundamental of m

lls (68.0%) have expected countless than 5. The minimum expected count is 1.25.
Table 1.8 above depicted the chi-square results from the computer using SPSS computer package. The
square in table 1.8 is given as 118.55.The table value under 16 at 5% significance
findings of this study, it was inferred that the growth in the bank is positively affected by the
product development embarked upon by it. To buttress the point, thus, the calculated value of chi
for the study is 118.55 against the tabulated value of 29.30, showing a significant relationship between
th of First Bank Nigeria Plc within the industry in Nigeria, the following recommendations were
The bank should continue to introduce new service packages based on research results.
Introduction of new service/product packages will enhance the growth of the bank. It should be
(1982). New products management for the 1980s: New York.
(2003).Managing innovation in the Nigerian public sector. The Abuja Management review
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Goyit, M.G.(2007).Continous Improvement: A Panacea for Emerging Global Competition.
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th
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Olarewaju, A. (2007). Publish or perish. Nigerian Tribune, 15
th
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oday. Abuja: Precious Treasures
Fundamentals of marketing, Ibadan: Paramount Books Ltd.
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Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
149
less than 5. The minimum expected count is 1.25.
square results from the computer using SPSS computer package. The
square in table 1.8 is given as 118.55.The table value under 16 at 5% significance
ank is positively affected by the
product development embarked upon by it. To buttress the point, thus, the calculated value of chi-square
showing a significant relationship between
th of First Bank Nigeria Plc within the industry in Nigeria, the following recommendations were
The bank should continue to introduce new service packages based on research results.
enhance the growth of the bank. It should be
The Abuja Management review,
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Mc Graw Hill Books Company.


DEMOCRACY, POLITICAL EDUCATION AND THE CHALLENGE OF POST
ELECTION VIOLENCE IN NIGERIA
Department o
Emmanuel Alayande College o

Abstract
Politics in Nigeria has been practised in a do or die manner as elections have been
characterised with rigging, vandalism, thuggerry and wanton destruction of
properties. These have been attributed to illiteracy or low level of political education among
electorates. This paper examines the nature, scope and content of political education being
provided for electorates in Nigeria. The paper highlights
education to conduct of hitch
being provided by parties and agencies set up for the purpose is inadequate and this was
partly responsible for violence recorded in
that civic/citizenship education should
curriculum of voters education should be injected with notions, ideas and
helps to focus the individual on the essence of nation building and national reconstruction for
the social and economic well-

ELECTION VIOLENCE IN NIGERIA

By
ASIRU T.A., Ph.D
Department of Educational Foundations,
Emmanuel Alayande College of Education,
Oyo
characterised with rigging, vandalism, thuggerry and wanton destruction of
provided for electorates in Nigeria. The paper highlights the importance of political
education to conduct of hitch-free elections. The paper concludes that political education
partly responsible for violence recorded in the past elections. It was therefore recommended
ivic/citizenship education should be made compulsory in schools/colleges and that the
curriculum of voters education should be injected with notions, ideas and
al on the essence of nation building and national reconstruction for
-being of the individual as well as his society.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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characterised with rigging, vandalism, thuggerry and wanton destruction of lives and
the importance of political
free elections. The paper concludes that political education
was therefore recommended
olleges and that the
curriculum of voters education should be injected with notions, ideas and value system that
al on the essence of nation building and national reconstruction for
being of the individual as well as his society.


Introduction
Democracy as a form of government remains one of the enduring legacies bequeathed
continent by her erstwhile colonial masters. Enemuo (1999) reports that the word democracy derives
from the Greek word demos which means the people and kratein which means rule of or by. The
term democracy literally means rule by the
external elements, the rule by the majority or by its representative and the protection of the individual
human rights. The Macmillan Advanced Learners Dictionary 2007 defines democracy as a system
government of the people by the people and for the people. Obakhedo (2011) also defines democracy as
a social system of administering a nation state where political parties and independent candidates compete
for elective positions in a free and fair ele
In pre-colonial period, major ethnic groups in Nigeria had practiced different forms of government
in the process of administering their people. Ojo (2003) reports that the country, ever before colonial
rule had been governed in the diff
who had their own modules operandi and whose governance was strongly affected by the indigenous
customs, traditions, culture, ethnics belief and system. The emirate system was popula
Hausa/Fulani group in northern Nigerian, the kingship / Obaship institution was prominent in the
southwest geo-political zone and the fragmented political system was a dominant practice among the
Igbos of South Eastern Nigeria.
The colonial masters succeeded in merging people of different cultural groups together to form a
single nation known as Nigeria on January 1, 1914. However in the process of decolonization of Nigeria,
democracy as a form of government was introduced to harmonize the proc
According to Ademola (2011), a nation is recognized as
The legitimacy of the government rests on a claim to represent the desire of its citizens;
There is competitive political education;
Adults can participate in the electoral process both as voters and as candidates for important
political offices;
Citizens enjoy basic freedom of speech, assembly and organization;
Citizens vote in secret and the votes are counted to
national assembly.
Since existence of flourishing political parties is one of the ingredients of democracy, formation of
political parties began in Nigeria in the early 1920s. Political parties developed in Nigeria in
the introduction of elective principles by the Cliffords constitution of 1922. Thus, the Nigerian National
Democratic Party was founded by Herbert Macaulay on June 24, 1923; the Nigeria Youth Movement was
founded in 1935; the National Council
Action Group was formed in 1951 and the Northern People Congress (NPC) was formed in 1951
(Crowder, 1978). Each of the parties had its stronghold in the ethnic zones of its leaders. There were
coalitions / alliances formed between the parties. The parties dominated the politics of the first republic
until the military coup of January 15, 1966.
The military dominated the political scene between 1966 and 1979. After 13 years of military rule,
Nigeria returned to a democratic
dominated the politics of the second republic. They were the National Party of Nigeria (NPN) the Unity
Party of Nigeria (UPN) the Great Nigeria People Party (GNPP) and
and later the Nigeria Advance Party (NAP).
The level of political awareness, participation and tolerance improved considerably during the
second republic when compared to that of the first republic but the results of the
corroborated the position of political analysts that the parties were still largely ethnic based. The second
republic came to an end on December 31
Democracy as a form of government remains one of the enduring legacies bequeathed
term democracy literally means rule by the people. Ojo (2009) claims that democracy comprises of two
human rights. The Macmillan Advanced Learners Dictionary 2007 defines democracy as a system
for elective positions in a free and fair election atmosphere.
colonial period, major ethnic groups in Nigeria had practiced different forms of government
rule had been governed in the different human settings, villages, cities and kingdoms by traditional rulers
customs, traditions, culture, ethnics belief and system. The emirate system was popula
political zone and the fragmented political system was a dominant practice among the

sters succeeded in merging people of different cultural groups together to form a
democracy as a form of government was introduced to harmonize the process of electing political leaders.
a nation is recognized as be ingdemocratic if it meets the following criteria:
e political education;
Citizens enjoy basic freedom of speech, assembly and organization;
Citizens vote in secret and the votes are counted to determine who represents then at the
political parties began in Nigeria in the early 1920s. Political parties developed in Nigeria in
founded in 1935; the National Council of Nigeria and the Camerouns (NCNC) was founded in 1944;
itions / alliances formed between the parties. The parties dominated the politics of the first republic
until the military coup of January 15, 1966.
returned to a democratically elected government on October 1, 1979. Five major parties
Party of Nigeria (UPN) the Great Nigeria People Party (GNPP) and the Peoples Redemption Party (PRP)
and later the Nigeria Advance Party (NAP).
second republic when compared to that of the first republic but the results of the 1979 general elections
republic came to an end on December 31st, 1983 through another military coup.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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151
Democracy as a form of government remains one of the enduring legacies bequeathed to the African
people. Ojo (2009) claims that democracy comprises of two
human rights. The Macmillan Advanced Learners Dictionary 2007 defines democracy as a system of
colonial period, major ethnic groups in Nigeria had practiced different forms of government
erent human settings, villages, cities and kingdoms by traditional rulers
customs, traditions, culture, ethnics belief and system. The emirate system was popular among the
political zone and the fragmented political system was a dominant practice among the
sters succeeded in merging people of different cultural groups together to form a
ess of electing political leaders.
democratic if it meets the following criteria:
determine who represents then at the
political parties began in Nigeria in the early 1920s. Political parties developed in Nigeria in response to
of Nigeria and the Camerouns (NCNC) was founded in 1944;
itions / alliances formed between the parties. The parties dominated the politics of the first republic
elected government on October 1, 1979. Five major parties
the Peoples Redemption Party (PRP)
1979 general elections



Formation of political parties in the th
in the first and second republics as the military midwife
parties to contend with, the National Republican Convention (NRC) and the Social Democratic P
(SDP) which were created by the Federal Military Government in 1989.
The fourth republic discarded the idea of
reintroduced. Between 1999-2007
the Alliance for Democracy (AD) later
Nigerian Peoples Party (ANPP) among several others. In fact, between 2007 and 2011, over 50 political
parties were registered by the Independent Nation
From the early 1920s till date, nearly a century after the formation of the first political party in
Nigeria, history and conduct of elections into various elective posts show that violence had accompanied
every general election in Nigeria.
practice of democratic governance in Nigeria, the relevance or adequacy of political education
politicians provide for party supporters and electorate
Concept of Political Education
Education is defined as the natural, harmonious and progressive development of mans innate powers
(Aggarwal 1990). It is also defined as the transmission of preferable cul
to another. Political education can be described as an aspect of general education that focuses on ensuring
that people and groups in a given polity live together in peace by safeguarding and regulating the
generation and implementation of general political duties( Nwankwo 2012). Political education is also
defined as the process of educating citizens on their rights, duties and responsibilities to empower and
motivate them to identify what areas of the political and govern
(1981) defines political education as a process of mental liberation which breaks apathy and the culture of
silence of the vast majority of Nigerians and empowers them to participate effectively and meaningfully i
the process of nation building.
Olaniyi (2013) citing Prewitt (1971) argues that political education includes specific programme of
directed political socialization dominating the school curriculum aimed at mobilizing the youth to the task
of creating a new nation. Prewitt argues that programme of political education are expected to be
explicitly aimed at instilling in the youth of the new nation those values app
In a way, schools in Nigeria provide political education with
and Government in the school curriculum. The establishment of the Directorate of Mass Mobilization
for Social and Economic Recovery (MAMSER) in 1987 (now known as the National Orientation Agency)
was a bold attempt to sensitize the people about the need to nurture the culture of democracy.
Some educationists see political education from the perspective of nationalization of schools,
politicization of the curricula and mobilization of the teachers. Political
political education as a mobilization instrument which parties employ to improve their membership drive
and mobilize toward winning elections and invariably form government. In summary, political education
can be described as the totality of approaches/methods being employed by political parties to disseminate
information concerning the ideology of their parties and programme they wish to execute if voted into
power and the duties and responsibilities of electorates before, durin
Need for Political Education:
In the opinion of Gana 1981, Government and political parties provide education for would be
electorates because of the following;
Need to guarantee peace before, during and after election;
To gain more members and build parties whose membership shall cut across ethnic or religious
boundaries;
Educating Nigerians to realize that democracy is an indispensable pre
national development;
Formation of political parties in the third republic was diametrically different from what operated
in the first and second republics as the military midwifed the birth of the parties. Nigerians had two
parties to contend with, the National Republican Convention (NRC) and the Social Democratic P
(SDP) which were created by the Federal Military Government in 1989.
The fourth republic discarded the idea of a two party system and a
2007, the major political parties were the People Democratic Party (
the Alliance for Democracy (AD) later metamorphosed into Action Congress of Nigeria (ACN); the All
parties were registered by the Independent National Electoral Commission (NOA, 2011).
This paper therefore examines the issues and challenges relating to the
practice of democratic governance in Nigeria, the relevance or adequacy of political education
politicians provide for party supporters and electorates at large and the challenges of electoral violence.
Concept of Political Education
(Aggarwal 1990). It is also defined as the transmission of preferable cultural values from one generation
mplementation of general political duties( Nwankwo 2012). Political education is also
motivate them to identify what areas of the political and governance process they can participate in. Gana
silence of the vast majority of Nigerians and empowers them to participate effectively and meaningfully i
new nation. Prewitt argues that programme of political education are expected to be
explicitly aimed at instilling in the youth of the new nation those values appropriate for national citizens.
In a way, schools in Nigeria provide political education with the inclusion of subjects like Civic education
tempt to sensitize the people about the need to nurture the culture of democracy.
politicization of the curricula and mobilization of the teachers. Political scientists however perceive
e totality of approaches/methods being employed by political parties to disseminate
power and the duties and responsibilities of electorates before, during and possibly after election.

electorates because of the following;
Need to guarantee peace before, during and after election;
gain more members and build parties whose membership shall cut across ethnic or religious
Educating Nigerians to realize that democracy is an indispensable pre
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152
ird republic was diametrically different from what operated
the birth of the parties. Nigerians had two
parties to contend with, the National Republican Convention (NRC) and the Social Democratic Party
a multi-party system
the major political parties were the People Democratic Party (PDP)
Action Congress of Nigeria (ACN); the All
2011).
This paper therefore examines the issues and challenges relating to the
practice of democratic governance in Nigeria, the relevance or adequacy of political education that
s at large and the challenges of electoral violence.
tural values from one generation
mplementation of general political duties( Nwankwo 2012). Political education is also
ance process they can participate in. Gana
silence of the vast majority of Nigerians and empowers them to participate effectively and meaningfully in
new nation. Prewitt argues that programme of political education are expected to be
ropriate for national citizens.
the inclusion of subjects like Civic education
tempt to sensitize the people about the need to nurture the culture of democracy.
scientists however perceive
e totality of approaches/methods being employed by political parties to disseminate
g and possibly after election.
gain more members and build parties whose membership shall cut across ethnic or religious
Educating Nigerians to realize that democracy is an indispensable pre-condition for rapid


Educating Nigerians about their rights and
Educating Nigerians about the dangers of apathy and political silence.
Channels of Providing Political E
Political parties reach the electorates through some of the following channels:
Party Manifestoes: it contains major/cardinal programmes a party intends to implement if voted into
power. It explains the position of the party on major issues and the approaches the party intends to take
in tackling major national challenges.
Lectures and Symposia: These serve
have in stock for the electorates. Lectures and symposia are usually organized at the instance of political
parties, media houses or student associations in tertiary institutions of learning.
drawn from different political parties to elucidate on their party programmes.
Posters/Handbills: Posters and Handbills are often used to advertise parties and inform the electorates
about programmes of particular parties.
Advertisement on Electronic Media:
Technology (ICT) has tremendously lessen the burden of political leaders from moving from urban to
rural areas to disseminate information about their parties. Parties buy airt
enlighten people more about the programmes of the parties.
Direct Campaign: Politicians and political office seekers often embark on tour of their constituencies,
states or the nation to meet the electorates and shed lig
addition, campaign tours provide opportunity for political leaders to harvest voters opinions on
challenges or problems confronting people in their wards or constituencies. This method was employed
during the first and second republic by nationalists such as Dr. Nnamid Azikwe, Tafawa Balewa and
Chief Awolowo as they toured the entire length and breadth of Nigeria meeting different interest group
to arouse their feelings on the need to be politically activ
Use of Music / Songs: At times, services of popular artists are employed to motivate people to partake
in the electoral process generally or highlight the manifesto of the party that engages their services e.g. in
the first republic, the late Hurbert
the Yoruba nation to the dangers of bitter politics or political vindictiveness.
Content of Political Education
Political education can take different forms and it can be disseminated thr
take place in form of formal education through classroom based learning, informal training, experimental
learning and mass media campaigns. The formal school based political education has a well outlined
curriculum. This is usually in form of civic education or citizenship education. Students in senior
secondary schools are also exposed to some form of political education through subjects like government
and history. Through the study of government as a subject, students are
and forms of government as well as duties and responsibilities of voters in sustaining democratic culture.
Political parties as associations interested in forming government do provide political education on a
limited scale unlike the school system where students are exposed to study of civics, government or
history over a specified period of time, political parties in most cases adopt the fire brigade approach in
teaching the electorates their rights and responsibilities duri
elections. Political education which parties provide for the electorates centre mainly on:
Cardinal programmes of the parties;
Identification of party symbols;
The voting process
Educating Nigerians about their rights and duties as citizens of Nigeria and
Educating Nigerians about the dangers of apathy and political silence.
Channels of Providing Political Education
Political parties reach the electorates through some of the following channels:
ains major/cardinal programmes a party intends to implement if voted into
in tackling major national challenges.
: These serve as avenue for making elaborate explanation on what the parties
parties, media houses or student associations in tertiary institutions of learning. Participants are usually
drawn from different political parties to elucidate on their party programmes.
: Posters and Handbills are often used to advertise parties and inform the electorates
about programmes of particular parties.
sement on Electronic Media: This is one area in which Information Communication
rural areas to disseminate information about their parties. Parties buy airtime and jingles are provided to
enlighten people more about the programmes of the parties.
Politicians and political office seekers often embark on tour of their constituencies,
states or the nation to meet the electorates and shed lights on different aspects of their manifestoes. In
the first and second republic by nationalists such as Dr. Nnamid Azikwe, Tafawa Balewa and
to arouse their feelings on the need to be politically active.
At times, services of popular artists are employed to motivate people to partake
the first republic, the late Hurbert Ogunde waxed a record titled Yoruba Ronu to draw the attention of
the Yoruba nation to the dangers of bitter politics or political vindictiveness.

olitical education can take different forms and it can be disseminated through different channels. It can
usually in form of civic education or citizenship education. Students in senior
and history. Through the study of government as a subject, students are exposed to topics like meaning
nlike the school system where students are exposed to study of civics, government or
teaching the electorates their rights and responsibilities during electioneering campaigns and conduct of
Cardinal programmes of the parties;
Identification of party symbols;
The voting process
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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153

ains major/cardinal programmes a party intends to implement if voted into
as avenue for making elaborate explanation on what the parties
Participants are usually
: Posters and Handbills are often used to advertise parties and inform the electorates
This is one area in which Information Communication
ime and jingles are provided to
Politicians and political office seekers often embark on tour of their constituencies,
hts on different aspects of their manifestoes. In
the first and second republic by nationalists such as Dr. Nnamid Azikwe, Tafawa Balewa and
At times, services of popular artists are employed to motivate people to partake
Ogunde waxed a record titled Yoruba Ronu to draw the attention of
ough different channels. It can
usually in form of civic education or citizenship education. Students in senior
exposed to topics like meaning
nlike the school system where students are exposed to study of civics, government or
ng electioneering campaigns and conduct of


In most cases, political parties do not educate their members on the provisions made in the
electoral acts or the constitution for rectifying injustice or irregularities that may arise in the process of
election Instead; they brainwash or misinform them to
takes.
Causes of Election Crisis in Nigeria
Issues that trigger election crisis in Nigeria are partly rooted in the nature, form and shape of party
structure in Nigeria. The amalgamation effected on January
consent of the leaders of the various groups as such it was bound from the beginning to be fraught with a
number of problems. A school of thought among historians and political scientists believe that the
amalgamation exercise was our greatest undoing and the myriads of challenges the country is experiencing
today have their roots in the mistake of 1914 quoting the late Sardauna of Sokoto.
Aside from causes traceable to ethnic plurality, Igbuzor (2009) opines
electoral abuses, rigging of election, annihilation, marginalization and exclusion and the political economy
of oil. The desire to control the centre at all costs: politician in most cases want to use their zone as the
launch pad to form government or control the centre. The multi
pretty difficult for a party to win convincingly across the country. There is therefore a need for parties to
form alliances in order to meet the constitutional r
level.
Lack of Confidence in the Judicial System
every election to try cases arising from the conduct of elections. The courts of Appeal ha
the final arbiter of electoral disputes in Nigeria. Sometimes election /petitions drag on for too long a
period that the patience of those who believe that courts can right the wrongs wanes out e.g. the
ACN/PDP gubernatorial election petition
some other times, courts base their judgment on technicalities which ordinary voters find difficult to
comprehend and invariably dash the hopes of those who put their trusts in them.
Ethnicity: The rivalry among major ethnic groups on which group will dominate the others from the
pre-independence period persists till date. The illiterate supporters/followers of the perceived champions
of tribal interest are too prone to violence once they feel
Religious dimension: Nigeria is a multi
to the extent that some states have embraced sharia law. Christianity is also well entrenched in the South
particularly in the South East and South
the religious affiliation of leaders and for purpose of religious balancing, often advocate that major
religions of Islam and Christianity be adequately r
electorates vote on the basis of religion affiliation rather than the competency of candidates to deliver
electoral promises.
Non independence of the Electoral bodies
the tune. Electoral bodies are often not allowed to operate independent of being remotely controlled by
the powers that be. This was the case during the June 12, 1993 presidential elections when announcement
of election results were stopped midway based on purported order from above.
Major Post-Election Violence in Nigeria
General elections were held in Nigeria in (1959, 1964/65, 1979, 1983, 1993, 1999, 2003, 2007 and 2011).
Records show that there is no election in Nigeria since 1959
election held on December 30, 1964 shook the nation to its foundation. The election campaign was
fraught with acts of hooliganism, killings, arson etc. The election crisis gave rise to the popular operation
wetie. Disorder was general and widespread particularly in the western region and the violence that
followed the election lasted until the military coup of Jan 15, 1966. (Crowder, 1978).
The 1979 general election results were not accompanied with violence mainly
were supervised by the military but the presidential election results were disputed to high heavens. The
election Instead; they brainwash or misinform them to prepare to defend their votes with whatever it
Causes of Election Crisis in Nigeria
structure in Nigeria. The amalgamation effected on January 1, 1914 was carried out without seeking the
mation exercise was our greatest undoing and the myriads of challenges the country is experiencing
Aside from causes traceable to ethnic plurality, Igbuzor (2009) opines that major causes are greed,
pad to form government or control the centre. The multi-ethnic nature of the country makes it
form alliances in order to meet the constitutional requirements for controlling government at the federal
Lack of Confidence in the Judicial System: Election tribunals were usually set up at the conclusion of
every election to try cases arising from the conduct of elections. The courts of Appeal ha
ACN/PDP gubernatorial election petition in Osun state took over 3 years before it was resolved. At
comprehend and invariably dash the hopes of those who put their trusts in them.
The rivalry among major ethnic groups on which group will dominate the others from the
independence period persists till date. The illiterate supporters/followers of the perceived champions
of tribal interest are too prone to violence once they feel their tribal interest is at stake.
: Nigeria is a multi-religious nation. Islamic religion is well established in the North
cularly in the South East and South-South geo political zones. Party supporters take keen interest in
religions of Islam and Christianity be adequately represented in state functions. Some less informed
Non independence of the Electoral bodies: the fear has always been that he who
topped midway based on purported order from above.
Election Violence in Nigeria
Records show that there is no election in Nigeria since 1959 that has gone undisputed. The general
isorder was general and widespread particularly in the western region and the violence that
The 1979 general election results were not accompanied with violence mainly
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154
prepare to defend their votes with whatever it
1, 1914 was carried out without seeking the
mation exercise was our greatest undoing and the myriads of challenges the country is experiencing
that major causes are greed,
ethnic nature of the country makes it
equirements for controlling government at the federal
: Election tribunals were usually set up at the conclusion of
every election to try cases arising from the conduct of elections. The courts of Appeal have often been
in Osun state took over 3 years before it was resolved. At
The rivalry among major ethnic groups on which group will dominate the others from the
independence period persists till date. The illiterate supporters/followers of the perceived champions
their tribal interest is at stake.
religious nation. Islamic religion is well established in the North
South geo political zones. Party supporters take keen interest in
epresented in state functions. Some less informed
: the fear has always been that he who pays the piper calls
that has gone undisputed. The general
isorder was general and widespread particularly in the western region and the violence that
The 1979 general election results were not accompanied with violence mainly because the elections


bone of contention was whether two third of 19 was 12
parties won convincingly, the National Party of Nigeria presidential candidate was declared winner of the
presidential election having won in 12
The 1983 general election was supposed to be civilian to civilian transfer of power. The Natio
Party of Nigeria (NPN) controlled Federal Government supervised the conduct of the elections. The
party talked about its landslide victory in states where the party had failed woefully in 1979. Thus the
party claimed victory in the then Oyo and Ondo
announcement of the result sparked widespread violence in the then Oyo and Ondo States among several
others. In the demonstrations that followed, the entire family of politicians were wiped out and houses
razed including the headquarters of FEDECO in Ondo state (Bamgbose, 2012). The widespread rigging
and electoral robbery witnessed during the period set the stage for the military to strike again on Dec 31,
1983.
The high point of the post-
annulment of the June 12, 1993 presidential election. June 12, 1993 presidential election was perhaps the
freest or fairest election ever conducted in Nigeria as the presumed winner recorded favourabl
states outside his geo-political zone. The election violence witnessed in 1993/94 was different from those
before it; in that it was not interethnic in dimension rather it was targeted at the military cabal that wanted
to perpetuate themselves in power. The fierceness of the protests that greeted the annulment forced the
Babangida administration to step aside and install an interim government in place.
The conduct of the 1999 general election was supervised by the military but it was
allegations of rigging but less violence accompanied declaration of the results.
The results of the 2011 presidential election induced protests mostly in the northern parts of the
country particularly in states like Bauchi, Katsin
hoc staff of the Independence National Electoral Commission lost their lives. The protests were
suspected to have ethnic and religious dimension added to alleged manipulation of results by the INEC.
Political violence has become more or less part of our democratic practices partly because of high level of
illiteracy, low level of political education, use of indoctrination as a tool by politicians, poverty,
unemployment and religious bigotry.
The Way Forward
In order for the culture of democracy to take firm roots in Nigeria and to make election results acceptable
to both local and international observers, government would need to block all the loopholes which
election riggers take to perpetrate themse
Civic/citizenship education should be made compulsory in schools/Colleges: this will make
prospective voters to be conversant with their rights and duties in a democratic setting.
The curriculum of voters education should be injected with notions, ideas and values system that
help to focus the individual on the essence of nation building and national reconstruction for the
social and economic well-
Political parties should not limit provision of political education to the period of general elections
only. Party should as a matter of duty provide continuous voter education to the teaming
supporters irrespective of whether elections are v
political tolerance would have been inculcated into voters and party supporters alike.
The content of voter/political education being provided should not be restricted to information
how to cast votes or general
widened to include information on options/procedures available to contestants/parties to
challenge/contest election results that are unsatisfactory.
Cases of people perpetrating/orchestrating political violence should not be politically resolved,
active participants and their godfathers should face the wrath of the law.
bone of contention was whether two third of 19 was 12
or 13. Since none of the five registered political

ngly, the National Party of Nigeria presidential candidate was declared winner of the
presidential election having won in 12
of the states of the federation.

The 1983 general election was supposed to be civilian to civilian transfer of power. The Natio
party claimed victory in the then Oyo and Ondo States in the South West geo
zed including the headquarters of FEDECO in Ondo state (Bamgbose, 2012). The widespread rigging
-election violence recorded in the aborted third Republic centred on the
freest or fairest election ever conducted in Nigeria as the presumed winner recorded favourabl
political zone. The election violence witnessed in 1993/94 was different from those
es in power. The fierceness of the protests that greeted the annulment forced the
Babangida administration to step aside and install an interim government in place.
The conduct of the 1999 general election was supervised by the military but it was
allegations of rigging but less violence accompanied declaration of the results.
country particularly in states like Bauchi, Katsina and Niger where some corps members who served as ad
itical violence has become more or less part of our democratic practices partly because of high level of
unemployment and religious bigotry.
election riggers take to perpetrate themselves in power.
-being of the individual as well as his society.
supporters irrespective of whether elections are very near or not. By so doing, the culture of
how to cast votes or general conduct on election days only. Rather the content should be
active participants and their godfathers should face the wrath of the law.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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155
or 13. Since none of the five registered political
ngly, the National Party of Nigeria presidential candidate was declared winner of the
The 1983 general election was supposed to be civilian to civilian transfer of power. The National
States in the South West geo-political zone. The
zed including the headquarters of FEDECO in Ondo state (Bamgbose, 2012). The widespread rigging
recorded in the aborted third Republic centred on the
freest or fairest election ever conducted in Nigeria as the presumed winner recorded favourable results in
political zone. The election violence witnessed in 1993/94 was different from those
es in power. The fierceness of the protests that greeted the annulment forced the
The conduct of the 1999 general election was supervised by the military but it was not devoid of
a and Niger where some corps members who served as ad
itical violence has become more or less part of our democratic practices partly because of high level of
ery near or not. By so doing, the culture of
conduct on election days only. Rather the content should be


Electoral bodies should assert their independence both in the conduct, announc
cancelation of elections results if the need arises.
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Gana, J, (1987) Mamser and labour in directorate for s
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www.nigeriabestforum.com. Retrieved


AN ASSESSMENT OF THE PATTERN OF
IMPLICATIONS FOR EQUALITY OF ACCESS TO SECONDARY EDUCATION IN

Department of Education Management

Abstract
The study investigated the patterns of resources distribution with assessment of their adequacy and
implications for equality of access to secondary education in Rivers State. One research question was
raised and one corresponding hypothesis postulated wh
descriptive survey design was adopted. The study has a population of 3,554, having 245 principals
and 3,309 teachers from 245 secondary schools in Rivers State. A sample of 711 principals and
teachers were randomly selected through a stratified random sampling technique. A self structured
questionnaire was design and administered. Data was analyzed with the use of mean and standard
deviation while z- test was used to test the hypothesis. The result obtained sh
facilities distribution does not promote equality of access in secondary education. Based on the
findings, the study recommended among others
of corporate bodies and organizations
planners on how to achieve equitable patterns of resources distribution in order to promote equality of
access to secondary education.

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE PATTERN OF RESOURCE DISTRIBUTIONS:
RIVERS STATE

By

CHUKWUMA CAROLINE C.
Department of Education Management
raised and one corresponding hypothesis postulated which was statistically tested for the study. The
ndomly selected through a stratified random sampling technique. A self structured
test was used to test the hypothesis. The result obtained showed that the pattern of
findings, the study recommended among others - improve funding of education through involvement
of corporate bodies and organizations in the funding, as well work out modalities with educational
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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157
DISTRIBUTIONS:
ich was statistically tested for the study. The
ndomly selected through a stratified random sampling technique. A self structured
owed that the pattern of
improve funding of education through involvement
in the funding, as well work out modalities with educational


Introduction
Educational resources, as used in this study are captured as facilities and equipment that facilitate teaching
and learning in schools. Educational facilities, also known as school plant are the things of education
(Peretomode, 2004). These include school buildings, such as class
workshops, libraries etc. Teaching aids and devices such as modern educational hardware in the form of
magnetic tapes, films and transparencies constitute educational equipment, they are therefore the material
things that are designed to aid and enhance teaching and learning process in school. All the materials
needed for the take-off and sustenance of a school referred also as educational resources or educational
materials. Obasi and Asodike (2007) also in their subm
referred to as building and entire ground or premises of an educational institution as well as other fixed or
immovable items of furniture which facilitates teaching and learning. The overall achievemen
educational objectives is tied to the distribution of a well patterned and organized quality and quantity
school facilities and equipment needed for teaching and learning to take place.

Oyebade (2009) mentioned that school facilities consist of build
offices, workshops, market complex, recreational facilities, laboratories, libraries, sickbay, sport complex;
land on which buildings are erected; equipments installed in these buildings to enhance functions
machines vehicles, furnitures, consumable and recycled materials. Whatever name it is called, school plant
as Agabi (2004) put it, forms the hardware through which the educational curriculum (i.e the software) is
transmitted to the group being educated. Also Abraham (2003:154
that make up the school plant is almost exhaustible and that the school plant covers everything used by
school in one way or the other to bring about teaching and learning.

Agabi (2004) classified educational facil
each facilities perform hence the following:
Instructional Facilities: They are educational facilities that facilitate teaching and learning. They have
direct impact in learning.
Recreational facilities: they are facilities created for leisure to ease tension and for students to learn
more. They include all types of sports and relaxation places.
Residential facilities: They are residence for staff and students, where students and
accommodated; examples are hostels, and staff quarters, refectory etc.
General purpose facilities also known as space facilities: They are facilities that can easily be
converted to other usages (both develop and undeveloped) like lawns open

However, Kpee in Asodike, Ebong, Oluwuo and Abraham (2013), classified educational facilities as:
Health educational facilities use for the treatment of sick staffs and students. Example the sick bays,
health centers.
Worship educational facilities. This is where students and staff worship their God of which the
schools Chapel Hall can serve as a worship center.

These educational facilities in schools contribute so much to the convenience of learning. The
more convenience the process is,
exercise when they learn, which can be known from their disposition that learning has taken place. That is
to say that academic performance of students in school correlates positively
facilities. Hence a pivot on which the wheel of education revolve. School facilities therefore must not only
be adequately provided uniformly but must also be of right quality to have positive effect on students
performance. This is because the availability, relevance and adequacy of resources contribute to the
academic achievement of the students.

Majasip (1997) in Maduagwu and Nwosu (2008) is of the view that functional education cannot be
achieved when adequate resources are
Agboola (2006) asserts that the quality of any educational system could be interpreted as a function of the
inputs into the system. Therefore achieving equality is possible only if the faciliti
provided are identified and corrective action is applied through appropriate planning and implementation.
used in this study are captured as facilities and equipment that facilitate teaching
(Peretomode, 2004). These include school buildings, such as classrooms, assembly halls, laboratories and
that are designed to aid and enhance teaching and learning process in school. All the materials
off and sustenance of a school referred also as educational resources or educational
materials. Obasi and Asodike (2007) also in their submission said that educational facilities are generally
immovable items of furniture which facilitates teaching and learning. The overall achievemen
school facilities and equipment needed for teaching and learning to take place.
Oyebade (2009) mentioned that school facilities consist of buildings comprising classrooms,
urnitures, consumable and recycled materials. Whatever name it is called, school plant
transmitted to the group being educated. Also Abraham (2003:154) had already concluded that the list
school in one way or the other to bring about teaching and learning.
Agabi (2004) classified educational facilities based on functional approach, that is, the function
each facilities perform hence the following:
more. They include all types of sports and relaxation places.
Residential facilities: They are residence for staff and students, where students and
accommodated; examples are hostels, and staff quarters, refectory etc.
converted to other usages (both develop and undeveloped) like lawns open spaces etc..
acilities. This is where students and staff worship their God of which the
schools Chapel Hall can serve as a worship center.
more convenience the process is, the more likely it is for students to be interested and serious in the
to say that academic performance of students in school correlates positively with availability of school
is is because the availability, relevance and adequacy of resources contribute to the
ic achievement of the students.
achieved when adequate resources are not provided in education. Supporting this, Thomas (1995), in
inputs into the system. Therefore achieving equality is possible only if the facilities that are under or over
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158
used in this study are captured as facilities and equipment that facilitate teaching
rooms, assembly halls, laboratories and
that are designed to aid and enhance teaching and learning process in school. All the materials
off and sustenance of a school referred also as educational resources or educational
ission said that educational facilities are generally
immovable items of furniture which facilitates teaching and learning. The overall achievement of
ings comprising classrooms,
urnitures, consumable and recycled materials. Whatever name it is called, school plant
) had already concluded that the list
ities based on functional approach, that is, the function
Residential facilities: They are residence for staff and students, where students and teachers are
spaces etc..
acilities. This is where students and staff worship their God of which the
the more likely it is for students to be interested and serious in the
with availability of school
is is because the availability, relevance and adequacy of resources contribute to the
not provided in education. Supporting this, Thomas (1995), in
es that are under or over-


Patterns of Facilities Distribution Among Secondary School
According to the Rivers State Ministry of Education, Post
written law on the pattern of facilities distribution in Rivers State secondary education; though the
responsibility of secondary education in Nigeria falls under the jurisdiction of the state governments. That
is to say that the functions of taking care of the needs of secondary and all post primary schools is
performed by the State Ministry of Education through the Post Primary School Board. They also make
their facilities requirement known to the government throu
state ministry of education.

The main aim of distributing educational facilities is to ensure attainment of educational goals.
Based on that, the patterns of distributing these facilities become of immense imperati
implementation of sound and quality education in the state. Teachers in secondary school need these
facilities of different type to help make their effort yield result. Also according to the Department of
Science and Technical Education of the Po
public school rests solely on the Ministry of Education. Science facilities for practical examination for
Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (SSCE) and National Examination Council (NECO)
exclusively distributed by the post
education. At times, the state government uses its veto power to distribute the facilities to schools they
want depending on the situation on ground. But b
education and, post-primary schools board considers the followings: School population, location of
schools (urban or rural), type of schools, total number of schools, availability of facilities, government
veto power.

Access to Secondary School Education
Access to education implies making education possible for everyone who wants or who is entitled to
education to receive it in any level irrespective of the gender, belief and practice. This means that enough
schools at all levels with good laboratories, instructional facilities, sports facilities, library, etc should be
provided for everyone. It means also that any obstacles that prevent anyone from taking advantage of the
opportunity should be removed. It is
opportunity to do so despite the federal government effort on free, compulsory and universal education,
tagged basic education in Nigeria. The secondary education is divided into three years
and three years of senior secondary school with two purposes. The first one which is a part of the basic
education is to prepare students to exit from school with necessary skills to find employment. The other
which is the senior secondary is to prepare them to continue with academic careers in higher education.

Disparities between urban and rural secondary schools are also evident in terms of teaching and
learning resources, enrollment and performance patterns. There are higher attenda
overcrowding of classes due to movement of people from rural to urban, space shortages in the urban
areas than in the rural areas. Studies carried out by Earthman (2002) in Nwosu (2008) on the usefulness
of school facilities on students
condition, it impacts positively on the performance of students and the effectiveness of the teacher.

The pattern to which these resources are distributed to the various secondary schools d
how successful educational objectives would be achieved. The little Hoover Commission (2000)
suggested creating an inventory through the Office of Public School Construction (OPSC). This
inventory should include descriptions of school site, build
of each room with updating of the inventory every five (5) years and when new facilities are built. Beside
the need for adequate information on this is essential to form a formidable pedestal for a critical an
objective assessment of available facilities in secondary schools.

School facilities must not only be adequately provided uniformly but must also be of right quality
to have positive effect on students performance. This is because according to Adeogun
availability, relevance and adequacy of resources contribute to the academic achievement of the students.
This is because functional educational cannot be achieved when adequate facilities are not provided for
Patterns of Facilities Distribution Among Secondary Schools
According to the Rivers State Ministry of Education, Post Primary School Board, (PPSB). There is no
to say that the functions of taking care of the needs of secondary and all post primary schools is
their facilities requirement known to the government through the Post Primary School Board and the
Based on that, the patterns of distributing these facilities become of immense imperati
Science and Technical Education of the Post-Primary Schools Board, the distribution of resources in the
Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (SSCE) and National Examination Council (NECO)
exclusively distributed by the post primary schools board under the command of the ministry of
want depending on the situation on ground. But before distribution can take off, the ministry of
primary schools board considers the followings: School population, location of
Access to Secondary School Education
opportunity should be removed. It is not everyone who desires to go to school that has access or the
tagged basic education in Nigeria. The secondary education is divided into three years
ary is to prepare them to continue with academic careers in higher education.
learning resources, enrollment and performance patterns. There are higher attenda
of school facilities on students academic achievement show that when school facilities are in good
The pattern to which these resources are distributed to the various secondary schools d
inventory should include descriptions of school site, building architecture and major systems and details
the need for adequate information on this is essential to form a formidable pedestal for a critical an
objective assessment of available facilities in secondary schools.
to have positive effect on students performance. This is because according to Adeogun
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159
Primary School Board, (PPSB). There is no
to say that the functions of taking care of the needs of secondary and all post primary schools is
gh the Post Primary School Board and the
Based on that, the patterns of distributing these facilities become of immense imperative to the
Primary Schools Board, the distribution of resources in the
Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (SSCE) and National Examination Council (NECO) are
primary schools board under the command of the ministry of
efore distribution can take off, the ministry of
primary schools board considers the followings: School population, location of
to go to school that has access or the
tagged basic education in Nigeria. The secondary education is divided into three years of junior secondary
ary is to prepare them to continue with academic careers in higher education.
learning resources, enrollment and performance patterns. There are higher attendance rates and more
academic achievement show that when school facilities are in good
The pattern to which these resources are distributed to the various secondary schools determines
ing architecture and major systems and details
the need for adequate information on this is essential to form a formidable pedestal for a critical and
to have positive effect on students performance. This is because according to Adeogun (2001), the


teaching and learning to take plac
of any educational system could be interpreted as a function of the inputs into the system.

There are public outcries that the standard of education is fallin
performance of the products of this present
education through proper patterns of facility distribution to secondary schools becomes important. This
is because availability of facilities in schools is the bedrock to qualitative education in Nigeria of which
Rivers State is not left out. Based on that, the researcher is concern about the adequacy and patterns of
distributing the available resources evenly to guaran
and objectives.

Purpose of Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the patterns of resources distribution and its implications for
equality of access to secondary education in Rives State

Research Question
What is the pattern of resources distribution to secondary schools in Rivers State?

Hypothesis
There is no significant difference between the opinion of teachers and principal on educational resources
distribution between rural and urban schools in Rivers State.

Significant of the Study
The result of the study will supply information on the patterns of distributing available resources in rural
and urban, large or small schools in Rivers State.

Method
The design adopted for this study was descriptive survey method. The population of the study consists of
all the 145 principals and 3,309 teachers in public secondary schools in Rives state. The sample surveyed
is 711 which is 20% of the total population of 3,554 principals and t
schools in Rivers State. The statistical tools for the data analysis were weighted mean for the research
question, Z- test for testing the null hypothesis and Pearson Moment Correlation Statistics for testing the
relationship between the two variables.

Result
Result obtained in this study was presented and analyzed in tables.

Research question:
What is the pattern of resources distribution to secondary schools in Rive

Table 1: Resources Distribution to
S/N Assessed Items

1. Classroom blocks
2. School library
3. Library books
4. School laboratory
5. Laboratory equipment
6. Computer and instructional aids
7. Games equipment
8. Football field
9. Classroom chairs

teaching and learning to take place. Supporting this, Thomas in Agboola (2006) asserted that the quality
There are public outcries that the standard of education is falling in Nigeria; judging from the low
performance of the products of this present day educational system. The need to improve the quality of
vailability of facilities in schools is the bedrock to qualitative education in Nigeria of which
distributing the available resources evenly to guarantee equal access and also achieve educational goals
equality of access to secondary education in Rives State.

and urban schools in Rivers State.
and urban, large or small schools in Rivers State.
his study was descriptive survey method. The population of the study consists of
is 711 which is 20% of the total population of 3,554 principals and teachers in the public secondary
test for testing the null hypothesis and Pearson Moment Correlation Statistics for testing the
p between the two variables.
istribution to Secondary Schools in Rivers State?
Urban
Availability Quantity Availability

SD

SD

2.23 .43 2.10 .98 1.92
1.60 .49 1.33 .48 1.07
1.24 .66 1.10 .45 1.10 0.48
1.38 .58 2.10 .44 1.15
1.45 .54 1.08 .34 1.07
Computer and instructional aids 1.00 .00 1.00 .00 1.00
2.54 .66 2.30 .34 1.00
3.00 .00 2.76 .58 3.00
3.04 .62 2.84 .47 2.44
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160
e. Supporting this, Thomas in Agboola (2006) asserted that the quality
g in Nigeria; judging from the low
day educational system. The need to improve the quality of
vailability of facilities in schools is the bedrock to qualitative education in Nigeria of which
tee equal access and also achieve educational goals
his study was descriptive survey method. The population of the study consists of
eachers in the public secondary
test for testing the null hypothesis and Pearson Moment Correlation Statistics for testing the

Rural
Availability Quantity
SD

SD
.31 1.55 .43
.50 1.02 .48
0.48 1.02 .35
.43 1.05 .38
.44 1.02 .36
.00 1.00 .00
.00 1.00 .00
.00 2.50 .38
.48 2.15 .40


In table above, nine items were examined to assess the patterns of resources
and rural schools in Rivers State. The result shows that average means scores for availability of assessed
items range between 1.00 and 3.04 and between 1.00 and 2.84 for quantity with regards to urban schools.
For rural schools, the average mean scores for availability of assessed resources range between 1.00 and
3.00 and quantity the score range between 1.00 and 2.50 respectively. Judging by the individual scores for
the various items, resources considered most available in urba
chairs while in the rural schools the most available resources was the football field. The result indicates
that even though all the assessed resources were available, they were grossly inadequate in both catego
of school given mean scores which were less than 2.00. However, the result further shows that urban
schools were favourably disposed than rural schools in terms of the availability and adequacy of resources
distributed.

Table 2: Result on the Patterns of R
S/N Categories of school
1 Teachers and principals
in rural schools
2 Teachers and principals
in urban schools

Table 2, determined whether the patterns of resources distribution significantly differ from urban and
rural schools in rivers state.

The above table shows that the calculated t
degree of freedom of 237 and at 0.05 level of significance. We uphold that: there is no significant
difference between rural and urban schools in Rivers Sta
distribution.

Discussion
The study examined the pattern of resources distribution and its implication to quality of access to
secondary education in Rivers State. It was, found that the pattern of resources distribution were very
inadequate. These findings contravene the equity of
opportunities as well as ensure fairness in facilities distribution (Strayer in Agabi, 1999). Since resources
were not evenly distribution between schools in urban and rural areas, the implication is that
will not have equal opportunity to educational resources. It is also of note that though resources were
available in all the schools, but not in an appropriate quantity and quality.

Conclusion
Based on the finding of this study, it was concluded that resources were not equitably distributed to
promote equality of access to secondary education in Rivers State, there were shortage of all forms of
resources both in urban and rural schools examined

Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made:
Education provider in Rivers State should improve the funding of education for adequate resources
distribution.
Work out modalities with educational
proper pattern of resources distribution in order to promote equality of access to educational
resources.

References
Abraham, N. M. (2003). Educational a
Ltd.
Adeogun A. A. (2001). Planning Techniques for Effective Classroom Managemen
(Nig.) Pp 1 118.
In table above, nine items were examined to assess the patterns of resources distribution between urban
the average mean scores for availability of assessed resources range between 1.00 and
the various items, resources considered most available in urban schools were football field, classroom and
that even though all the assessed resources were available, they were grossly inadequate in both catego
Patterns of Resources Distribution
N
X

SD DF z-test Cal t-
value
Significant
117 1.97 0.36
237 1.96 0.27
122 1.196 0.18
The above table shows that the calculated t-value of 0.27 is less than the table value of 1.96 at a
difference between rural and urban schools in Rivers State in the pattern of educational resources
inadequate. These findings contravene the equity of access, theory which aims at promoting educational
were not evenly distribution between schools in urban and rural areas, the implication is that
available in all the schools, but not in an appropriate quantity and quality.
resources both in urban and rural schools examined by study.
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made:
Work out modalities with educational planners on how to achieve educational objectives through
tional administration in Nigeria. Port Harcourt: Pam Unique Publishing Coy.
Planning Techniques for Effective Classroom Management. Ibafo Ogun State: Frank
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
161
distribution between urban
the average mean scores for availability of assessed resources range between 1.00 and
n schools were football field, classroom and
that even though all the assessed resources were available, they were grossly inadequate in both categories
Significant
level
Remarks
0.05 NS
value of 0.27 is less than the table value of 1.96 at a
te in the pattern of educational resources
access, theory which aims at promoting educational
were not evenly distribution between schools in urban and rural areas, the implication is that every child
planners on how to achieve educational objectives through
m Unique Publishing Coy.
Ibafo Ogun State: Frank-Unity


Agabi, O. G. ( 2004). Managing educational f
Fundamental of Educational Management.
Agboola, M. B. (2006) Relationship between resource allocation and students academic performance in
public secondary school, Edo State
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Nwosu, B. (2008) Material Resources Utilization and Maintenance for Quality Delivery of Secondary
Education in Rivers State. An Unpublished work Presented.
Nwosu, B. (2008) Material resources utilization
education in Rivers State. An Unpublished
Port Harcourt.
Obasi, F. N., Asodike, J. D. (2007).
Oyebade, S. A (2009). Higher education and youth preparation for the labour market: the case of universities in Nigeria.
Department of Educational Administration, Faculty of Education, University of Lagos.
Peretomode, V. F. (2004). Introducti
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( 2004). Managing educational facilities, In Nnabuo, Okorie Agabi and Igwe (Eds
Fundamental of Educational Management. Owerri: Versatale Publishers.
B. (2006) Relationship between resource allocation and students academic performance in
Edo State. Journal of the Nigeria Academy of Education 2(2), 47
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC Press.
Education in Rivers State. An Unpublished work Presented.
Material resources utilization and maintenance for quality delivery of secondary
ducation in Rivers State. An Unpublished Work Presented to Faculty of Education, University of
Obasi, F. N., Asodike, J. D. (2007). Resource management in Nigerian schools. Owerri: Alphabe
Higher education and youth preparation for the labour market: the case of universities in Nigeria.
Introduction to Educational Administration and Planning. Onitsha:
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orie Agabi and Igwe (Eds)
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Owerri: Alphabet Publishers.
Higher education and youth preparation for the labour market: the case of universities in Nigeria.
Onitsha: Effective Key


AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE OF SCIENCE
STUDENTS IN SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS I
UTIBE CLARENCE ATAHA,
OGUMOGU EXCELLENT AUGUSTINE
Department of Educational Psychology and Curriculum Stud
ogumogu001@yahoo.com

This Abstract
study investigated the scientific attitude among science students in senior secondary schools. The
survey research design was used to carry out the study. A sample of 250 science students from S.S.3
were randomly drawn from 10 sampled public schools. These 10 sa
randomly drawn from the public schools in two Local Government Areas from Edo south senatorial
district, Edo State. The research instrument used for data collection was the Inventory of Scientific
Attitudes (ISA) which was a sligh
questions and one hypothesis were raised to guide the study. The data collected were analyzed using
the mean statistics and t-test of independent samples. It was revealed from the study that
scientific attitudes among science students in senior secondary school was average and this level of
scientific attitude was not significantly influenced by sex. Based on these findings, it was
recommended among others that continuous experim
needed; hence the dichotomy between theory and experimentation should be stopped in the teaching of
science in secondary schools.

Keywords: Science, Scientific Attitudes, Science Students, Sex

STUDENTS IN SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN EDO SOUTH SENATORIAL
DISTRICT - EDO STATE.

By

UTIBE CLARENCE ATAHA, Ph.D
Benin City, Nigeria
08023368170
&
OGUMOGU EXCELLENT AUGUSTINE
Benin City, Nigeria
ogumogu001@yahoo.com or excellent.ogumogu@uniben.edu
08026428655
investigated the scientific attitude among science students in senior secondary schools. The
were randomly drawn from 10 sampled public schools. These 10 sampled public schools were
Attitudes (ISA) which was a slight modification of the one developed by Emina (1986). Two research
test of independent samples. It was revealed from the study that
recommended among others that continuous experimentation and laboratory activities are urgently
Science, Scientific Attitudes, Science Students, Sex
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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163
N EDO SOUTH SENATORIAL
ies,
excellent.ogumogu@uniben.edu
investigated the scientific attitude among science students in senior secondary schools. The
mpled public schools were
t modification of the one developed by Emina (1986). Two research
test of independent samples. It was revealed from the study that the level of
entation and laboratory activities are urgently


Introduction
Science is not a new thing in this world. It is the intellectual heritage of man which has come down to us.
Since man became aware of his surroundings and started pondering over the natural phenomena in which
he found himself engulfed. This knowledge of
his outlook and approach to the problems face
started taking quick strides, while it was mostly the product of intellectual, interest of gifted individuals
who worked almost independently in their fields. Scientific knowledge in those days exerted
influence on the common man, but since the turn of this century; even the man in the street becomes
aware of the impart of science on the society and new age of science (Pitafi & Farooq, 2012). Nigeria is
one of the developing countries in the world
challenges of the time. For any scientific and technological revolution to take place, Nigeria needs a
considerable number of scientists in agriculture, industries, research and other related scient
institutions.

The development of science knowledge, science process skills and scientific attitudes in individuals
exposed to science courses are the major goals of Science Education, however the assessment of scientific
attitude (Affective domain) is not as simple as compared to that of the scientific knowledge (cognitive
domain) and science process skills (Psychomotor domain) and this scientific attitude is one of the
important aspects of todays science throughout the globe(Khan, Shah, Mahmood & Z

Often times, science teachers in Nigeria find the assessment of scientific attitudes as a no go area.
Flegg and Hukins (2010) argue that the assessment of scientific attitudes has been generally omitted in the
evaluation of student progress in science classrooms. The lack of assessing students scientific attitudes
may be a factor responsible for the poor scientific orientations among science students which are thus
made manifest in various facets and aspects of their daily activities; some o
productivity, haphazardness of development, disorderliness in the society, non
inadequate maintenance, distorted values and so on (Oloruntegbe & Omoifo, 2005). Thinking in same
line with Ivowi (1984 ), Akpan (1999) submitted that in most part of African today, we are turning out
school learners without those attributes we claim Science Education can provide; such as patience,
honesty, humility, respect for logic, consideration for consequence and under
all these attributes can be seen as scientific attitudes.

Having said all these, there is the need to explain the meaning of scientific attitude for a clear
understanding. Different writers see scientific attitude from diffe
Sutman (1970) defined it as an opinion or position taken with respect to a psychological aspect in the field
of science. Singh (1979) in Oyakhiromen (1996) sees scientific attitude as a condition of mind, showing
how one is disposed towards certain things, ideas or persons and the environment around. He further
stated that developing scientific attitude is a potential means of eliminating intolerance, superstitions,
gullibility and other patterns of thought like ob
and several authors have attempted to classify these various components (Emina, 1986; Pitafi and Farooq,
2012; Hukin and Gauld, 1980; Richard, 1976). Huskin and Gauld (1980) classified these into
firstly is the general attitude towards ideas and information (such as curiosity, open
humility, anti-authoritarianism and creativity). Secondly is the attitude relating to evaluation of ideas and
information (such as critical mindedness, objectivity, intellectual honesty and exercising caution when
drawing conclusions). Thirdly, is the comment to particular scientific beliefs (such as loyalty to truth,
belief in the existence of natural cause and effect relationships a

Emina (1986) classified the various components of scientific attitude into five:
Rationality: These includes commitment to rationality in problem solving, seeking for natural
causes of events and identification of
influencing environment, awareness of fallibility of human effort, challenge of authority.
Curiosity: These include desire for new knowledge or ideas, desire for additional information,
seeking for evidence to support conclusions made from scientific materials, expression of interest
in scientific discoveries and the desire for explanations.
he found himself engulfed. This knowledge of physical world not only changes his environment but also
his outlook and approach to the problems faced in his everyday life. Up to the middle ages, science
who worked almost independently in their fields. Scientific knowledge in those days exerted
one of the developing countries in the world, Science education is very important for her to face the
considerable number of scientists in agriculture, industries, research and other related scient
s not as simple as compared to that of the scientific knowledge (cognitive
important aspects of todays science throughout the globe(Khan, Shah, Mahmood & Z
in science classrooms. The lack of assessing students scientific attitudes
made manifest in various facets and aspects of their daily activities; some of which include declining
productivity, haphazardness of development, disorderliness in the society, non-functioning utilities due to
, Akpan (1999) submitted that in most part of African today, we are turning out
honesty, humility, respect for logic, consideration for consequence and understanding causal relationship,
all these attributes can be seen as scientific attitudes.
understanding. Different writers see scientific attitude from different perspective, for instance Moore and
ow one is disposed towards certain things, ideas or persons and the environment around. He further
gullibility and other patterns of thought like obscurantism. Scientific attitude do have various components
2012; Hukin and Gauld, 1980; Richard, 1976). Huskin and Gauld (1980) classified these into
firstly is the general attitude towards ideas and information (such as curiosity, open-
authoritarianism and creativity). Secondly is the attitude relating to evaluation of ideas and
ritical mindedness, objectivity, intellectual honesty and exercising caution when
belief in the existence of natural cause and effect relationships and aversion of superstition).
Emina (1986) classified the various components of scientific attitude into five:
: These includes commitment to rationality in problem solving, seeking for natural
causes of events and identification of cause-effect relationship, belief in science as a means of
These include desire for new knowledge or ideas, desire for additional information,
r evidence to support conclusions made from scientific materials, expression of interest
in scientific discoveries and the desire for explanations.
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physical world not only changes his environment but also
in his everyday life. Up to the middle ages, science
who worked almost independently in their fields. Scientific knowledge in those days exerted little
, Science education is very important for her to face the
considerable number of scientists in agriculture, industries, research and other related scientific
s not as simple as compared to that of the scientific knowledge (cognitive
important aspects of todays science throughout the globe(Khan, Shah, Mahmood & Zareen, 2012).
in science classrooms. The lack of assessing students scientific attitudes
f which include declining
functioning utilities due to
, Akpan (1999) submitted that in most part of African today, we are turning out
standing causal relationship,
rent perspective, for instance Moore and
ow one is disposed towards certain things, ideas or persons and the environment around. He further
scurantism. Scientific attitude do have various components
2012; Hukin and Gauld, 1980; Richard, 1976). Huskin and Gauld (1980) classified these into 3 groupings;
-mindness, skepticism,
authoritarianism and creativity). Secondly is the attitude relating to evaluation of ideas and
ritical mindedness, objectivity, intellectual honesty and exercising caution when
nd aversion of superstition).
: These includes commitment to rationality in problem solving, seeking for natural
effect relationship, belief in science as a means of
These include desire for new knowledge or ideas, desire for additional information,
r evidence to support conclusions made from scientific materials, expression of interest


Open-Mindedness: These include willingness to subject data and opinion to criticism and
evaluation to others, willingness to consider new evidence, rejection of singular and rigid
approach to people, things and ideas.
Objectivity: These include preference for statements supported by evidence over unsupported
ones, sensitivity to accuracy of data, preference fo
the test of critical review.
Aversion to superstition
scientific explanations.

These researchers see scientific attitudes as the charact
scientist. Helping to develop scientific attitudes in student should be an important task on the part of the
science teachers, as learning should not lie solely on cognitive and psychomotor domains but also on the
affective domains (scientific attitudes) of the students. Since the scientific attitudes of the students
havent be directly assessed in the classroom by science teachers and not much study have been done to
show the level of scientific attitudes among sci
investigate the scientific attitudes of science students in secondary schools.
In view of the issues raised in the background, this study is aimed at:
Investigating the level of scient
South Senatorial District.
Finding out if the level of scientific attitude of science students differ by sex.
Research Questions
The following questions were raised for this study:
1) What is the level of scientific attitudes of science students in secondary schools of Edo South
Senatorial District?
2) Does sex significantly influence the scientific attitudes among science students in secondary
schools of Edo South Senatorial District?

Research Hypothesis
Only research question 2 was hypothesized for this study:
1. There is no significant difference between the scientific attitude of male and female science
students in secondary schools of Edo South Senatorial District.

Methodology
The survey research design was adopted for this study, this design involves collecting information from
respondents (students) used to answer the research questions and also to test the hypothesis raised for
this study.

The population of this study comprised of all
students in all the public senior secondary schools in Ovia
State. Ten schools were randomly selected from the public schools in the Local Government Area used
for the study, twenty-five (25) science students in S.S.3 were also randomly selected from the 10 sampled
schools. Thus a total of 250 science students were sampled for this study. From these 250 sampled
students, the researcher ensured that 150 were male and

The Instrument used for data collection was an Inventory of Scientific Attitudes (ISA) which was a
slight modification of the one developed by Emina (1986). This instrument have two sections: A and B.
Section A was used to obtain personal information of respondents, while Section B contains 45 items
(Statements) concerning scientific attitudes. These 45 items (statements) were drawn from five categories.
These five categories and the number of items are as follows:

: These include willingness to subject data and opinion to criticism and
s, willingness to consider new evidence, rejection of singular and rigid
approach to people, things and ideas.
: These include preference for statements supported by evidence over unsupported
ones, sensitivity to accuracy of data, preference for scientific generalization that have withstood

Aversion to superstition: These include rejection of superstitious beliefs, and preference for
These researchers see scientific attitudes as the characteristics, traits or attributes of a good
ffective domains (scientific attitudes) of the students. Since the scientific attitudes of the students
show the level of scientific attitudes among science students. Hence, this study is an attempt to
investigate the scientific attitudes of science students in secondary schools.
In view of the issues raised in the background, this study is aimed at:
Investigating the level of scientific attitudes of science students in secondary schools of Edo

The following questions were raised for this study:
he level of scientific attitudes of science students in secondary schools of Edo South
Does sex significantly influence the scientific attitudes among science students in secondary
Only research question 2 was hypothesized for this study:
There is no significant difference between the scientific attitude of male and female science
students in secondary schools of Edo South Senatorial District.
research design was adopted for this study, this design involves collecting information from
The population of this study comprised of all the senior secondary school three (SS 3) science
students in all the public senior secondary schools in Ovia-North East Local Government Area of Edo
five (25) science students in S.S.3 were also randomly selected from the 10 sampled
students, the researcher ensured that 150 were male and 100 were female students.
in personal information of respondents, while Section B contains 45 items
These five categories and the number of items are as follows:
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: These include willingness to subject data and opinion to criticism and
s, willingness to consider new evidence, rejection of singular and rigid
: These include preference for statements supported by evidence over unsupported
r scientific generalization that have withstood
: These include rejection of superstitious beliefs, and preference for
eristics, traits or attributes of a good
ffective domains (scientific attitudes) of the students. Since the scientific attitudes of the students
ence students. Hence, this study is an attempt to
ific attitudes of science students in secondary schools of Edo
he level of scientific attitudes of science students in secondary schools of Edo South
Does sex significantly influence the scientific attitudes among science students in secondary
There is no significant difference between the scientific attitude of male and female science
research design was adopted for this study, this design involves collecting information from
the senior secondary school three (SS 3) science
North East Local Government Area of Edo
five (25) science students in S.S.3 were also randomly selected from the 10 sampled
in personal information of respondents, while Section B contains 45 items


Rationality
Curiosity
Open-Mindedness
Objectivity
Aversion to Superstition

This instrument was a Likert scale with four levels as Strongly Agree (4), Agree (3), disagree (2) and
Strongly Disagree (1). The instrument was validated by two experts, one from Science Education and the
other from Measurement and Evaluation both in the Department of Educational psychology and
Curriculum Studies, University of Benin. The reliability was done using 20 science stude
were not part of the main study. A reliability coefficient of 0.62 was obtain using the Crobach Alpha
technique, by this value the instrument was considered to be reliable and was subsequently used for the
collection of data. The statistics used for analysis of the data obtained were the mean statistics and the t
test of independent samples.

Results
The data collected were carefully analyzed and the following findings were deduced:

Research Question One: What is the level of scientific

Table 1: Mean Score of Science Students Scientific Attitudes
Variable N Minimum
Scientific Attitude 250 113.00

The level of scientific attitudes of science students was determined using the following range of mean
scores:
(i) 150 - 200 for high level
(ii) 100 - 149 for average level
(iii) 50 - 99 for low level

Table 1 above shows that the mean score obtained was 141.23 which fall into the average level category.
Therefore it will be concluded that the level of scientific attitude of science students in Edo South
Senatorial District is average.
Research Question 2 was hypothesized
significance.

Hypothesis One: There is no significant difference between the scientific attitude of male and female
science students in secondary schools of Edo South Senatorial Dist

Table 2 : t-test analysis on the Scientific Attitudes of Students based on Sex
Sex N Mean SD
Male 150 141.65 11.84
Female 100 140.66 9.82

Table 2 above shows that the mean score and standard deviation of the scientific attitudes of male and
female students were 141.65, 11.84 and 140.66, 9.82 respectively. The t
is a significant difference between the two means. A t
obtained. Since the significant value of 0.08 is greater than the
null hypothesis will be retained which implies that the d
Therefore, it will be concluded that there is no significant difference between the scientific attitudes
acquired by male and female science students in secondary schools.
- 15 items
- 12 items
- 8 items
- 6 items
- 4 items
instrument was validated by two experts, one from Science Education and the
Curriculum Studies, University of Benin. The reliability was done using 20 science stude
cs used for analysis of the data obtained were the mean statistics and the t
The data collected were carefully analyzed and the following findings were deduced:
What is the level of scientific attitudes of science students in secondary
Mean Score of Science Students Scientific Attitudes
Minimum Maximum Mean S.D
113.00 180.00 141.25 10.90 Average
200 for high level
149 for average level

above shows that the mean score obtained was 141.23 which fall into the average level category.
hypothesized for hypothesis 1 which was further tested at 0.05 level of
There is no significant difference between the scientific attitude of male and female
science students in secondary schools of Edo South Senatorial District.
test analysis on the Scientific Attitudes of Students based on Sex
SD Mean Diff. df t Sig.(p)
11.84 0.99 24
8
0.72 0.08
9.82
= 0.05
female students were 141.65, 11.84 and 140.66, 9.82 respectively. The t-test was used to find out if there
t difference between the two means. A t-value of 0.72 which is significant at 0.08 was
obtained. Since the significant value of 0.08 is greater than the -value of 0.05, it simply means that the
null hypothesis will be retained which implies that the difference between the means is not significant.
acquired by male and female science students in secondary schools.
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instrument was validated by two experts, one from Science Education and the
Curriculum Studies, University of Benin. The reliability was done using 20 science students in S.S.3 who
cs used for analysis of the data obtained were the mean statistics and the t-

attitudes of science students in secondary
Decision
Average Scientific
Attitude
above shows that the mean score obtained was 141.23 which fall into the average level category.
which was further tested at 0.05 level of
There is no significant difference between the scientific attitude of male and female
Sig.(p) Decision
0.08 Not
Significant
test was used to find out if there
value of 0.72 which is significant at 0.08 was
value of 0.05, it simply means that the
ifference between the means is not significant.


This study revealed that there is average level of scientific attitudes of science students in secondary
schools of Edo South Senatorial District. This finding is in agreement with the finding of Pitafi and
Farooq(2012) which reported that the scientific
schools was moderate but however this finding is in disagreement with that of Oyakhiromen (1996) who
in her study discovered that science students in secondary schools in Edo State, Nigeria have low level
scientific attitudes. The improvement from low level to average (moderate) level of scientific attitudes
may be as a result of improvement in science and technology over time and also government
contributions towards the advancement of science educati
the stipulation of the policy ratio of 60%:40% Science
Education Trust Fund (which thus assist in the provision of facilities, equipments and instructional
materials towards the teaching and learning of science in schools), the provision of scholarship to
students to carry on with sciences and so on.

These aforementioned developments may be responsible for the movement from the low level of
scientific attitudes to average level of scientific attitudes of science students in secondary schools.
However, the average level of scientific attitudes of science students is not enough to provide the needed
scientists that will be capable of making the Nigeria society to be sc
developed(strong) in other to compete with other developed nations, hence there will still be the need to
develop programmes that will increase the scientific attitude of science students in secondary schools.

This study also reveals that the scientific attitude of science students in secondary schools is not
significantly influenced by sex. In order words sex does not play a significant role in the acquisition of
scientific attitudes among secondary school students. This
Oyakhiromen (1996) who reported that both male and female science students in secondary schools have
the same level of scientific attitude.

Conclusion
This study have revealed that the level of scientific attitudes among science students in secondary school
is average and the level of scientific attitudes among science students in secondary schools is not
significantly influenced by sex.

Recommendations
Based on these findings, the following recommendations were made:

There is the need for science teachers to make science students aware of the role that personal
characteristics play in the acquisition of scientific knowledge. Science students should be
understand that scientists are normal human beings, fallible, emotional and rational; by doing this we are
humanizing science and thereby developing in the student proper appreciation of science. To do this
science students should be given the opp
fallible human beings, students should have access to literature that reveals the extent to which the
subjective side of the scientist influence his or her work.

The present practice of experimentation and laboratory activities at the end of the year in most
secondary school is having a negative effect on the acquisition of scientific attitudes among science
students. Thus the continuous experimentation and laboratory activities are urgent
dichotomy of theory and experimentation should be stopped. Doing this will help to increase the level of
scientific attitude among science students as they will be able to see how theory meets with practice; how
scientists work and also the qualities and attributes that a scientist must have in order to carry out his
work.

Scientific attitudes can be developed among science students by a purposeful preparation of
scientific activities; like involving them in scientific discussion and
a novel manner. Emphasis should be laid on the teaching of science along with homemade cheap
materials for different experiments. Students should be encouraged to construct new equipment for these
experiments.
Farooq(2012) which reported that the scientific attitudes of science students in Pakistan secondary
in her study discovered that science students in secondary schools in Edo State, Nigeria have low level
contributions towards the advancement of science education in the country; such contribution includes
the stipulation of the policy ratio of 60%:40% Science-Arts admission ratio, the establishment of
owards the teaching and learning of science in schools), the provision of scholarship to
students to carry on with sciences and so on.
erage level of scientific attitudes of science students in secondary schools.
scientists that will be capable of making the Nigeria society to be scientifically and technologically
also reveals that the scientific attitude of science students in secondary schools is not
scientific attitudes among secondary school students. This finding is in agreement with the finding of
the same level of scientific attitude.
Based on these findings, the following recommendations were made:
characteristics play in the acquisition of scientific knowledge. Science students should be
science students should be given the opportunity to perceive scientist as normal, actively and occasionally
subjective side of the scientist influence his or her work.
xperimentation and laboratory activities at the end of the year in most
students. Thus the continuous experimentation and laboratory activities are urgent
so the qualities and attributes that a scientist must have in order to carry out his
scientific activities; like involving them in scientific discussion and designing an interesting experiment in
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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167
attitudes of science students in Pakistan secondary
in her study discovered that science students in secondary schools in Edo State, Nigeria have low level of
on in the country; such contribution includes
Arts admission ratio, the establishment of
owards the teaching and learning of science in schools), the provision of scholarship to
erage level of scientific attitudes of science students in secondary schools.
ientifically and technologically
also reveals that the scientific attitude of science students in secondary schools is not
finding is in agreement with the finding of
characteristics play in the acquisition of scientific knowledge. Science students should be made to
ortunity to perceive scientist as normal, actively and occasionally
xperimentation and laboratory activities at the end of the year in most
students. Thus the continuous experimentation and laboratory activities are urgently needed; hence the
so the qualities and attributes that a scientist must have in order to carry out his
designing an interesting experiment in


Scientific attitudes can be improved among science students by the organizing of science
exhibitions, science fairs, science quizzes, science debates and the likes.Science or JET clubs should be re
activated in schools or introduced in schools were these c
magazines, journals and films should be provided in school for science students to use. The use of
innovative scientific teaching methods should be used to teach sciences as against the lecture method, so
as to make the science subject interesting to the students.

Science students overall attitudes towards science need to be improved upon, especially in
developing students self-concept in science and increasing their awareness of their participation in
scientific activities in the future .Thus the learning of science should focus more on activities that
support students culture and experiences in order to relate it to their day to day lives; by doing this,
students will feel that their ideas are important and v
other for this to happen teachers need to consider that learning science needs to have more emphasis on
making connection between science and students life.

References
Akpan, B. (1999). Perspectives on education and science teaching from the eyes of Uduogie Ivowi
Press.
Emina, F. I. (1986). The development of an inventory of scientific attitudes.
Association of Nigeria. 24(2), 14
Flegg, A. N. and Hukins, E. (2010). Using the Rasch Model to measure students scientific attitudes in low
performing schools. International Education Studies
Khan, A. S; Shah, A. M; Mahmood Zareen, R. (2012). Scientific attitude development at secondary schoo
level: A comparison between methods of teaching language.
Moore, L. A. and Sutman, O. (1970). The development and application of a scale for measuring scientific
attitude. Journal of Science Education
Oloruntegbe, K.O. and Omoifo, C.
attitude that is curriculum based.
Pitafi, A. I. and Farooq, M. (2012). Measurement of scientific attitud
pakistan.academic. Research International
Oyakhiromen, H. A. (1996). A study of the scientific attitudes of students in Edo State. Unpublished
M.Ed Project, Department of Educational Psychology and Curric
Benin.

exhibitions, science fairs, science quizzes, science debates and the likes.Science or JET clubs should be re
activated in schools or introduced in schools were these clubs do not exist before. Modern scientific
ake the science subject interesting to the students.
concept in science and increasing their awareness of their participation in
ic activities in the future .Thus the learning of science should focus more on activities that
students will feel that their ideas are important and valued, this will uplift their self-concept in science. In
making connection between science and students life.
es on education and science teaching from the eyes of Uduogie Ivowi
(1986). The development of an inventory of scientific attitudes. Journal of Science Teachers
24(2), 14-21.
(2010). Using the Rasch Model to measure students scientific attitudes in low
International Education Studies. 3(2), 56-63.
M; Mahmood Zareen, R. (2012). Scientific attitude development at secondary schoo
level: A comparison between methods of teaching language. Review in India. 12(9), 439
(1970). The development and application of a scale for measuring scientific
Journal of Science Education. 52(2), 38-45.
nd Omoifo, C. N. (2005). Development and validation of an instrument of scientific
attitude that is curriculum based. African Journal Of Curriculum Studies 2(2), 147-
(2012). Measurement of scientific attitude of secondary school students in
Research International. 2(2), 379-392.
(1996). A study of the scientific attitudes of students in Edo State. Unpublished
M.Ed Project, Department of Educational Psychology and Curriculum Studies, University of
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exhibitions, science fairs, science quizzes, science debates and the likes.Science or JET clubs should be re-
lubs do not exist before. Modern scientific
concept in science and increasing their awareness of their participation in
ic activities in the future .Thus the learning of science should focus more on activities that
concept in science. In
es on education and science teaching from the eyes of Uduogie Ivowi. Abuja: NERDC
Journal of Science Teachers
(2010). Using the Rasch Model to measure students scientific attitudes in low
M; Mahmood Zareen, R. (2012). Scientific attitude development at secondary school
12(9), 439-454.
(1970). The development and application of a scale for measuring scientific
(2005). Development and validation of an instrument of scientific
-153.
e of secondary school students in
(1996). A study of the scientific attitudes of students in Edo State. Unpublished
ulum Studies, University of


ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS RESPONSES TO PATTERNS OF ACADEMIC
LEADERSHIP IN RIVERS STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS, NIGERIA

PROF. ELIZABETH C
Abstract
The study carried out an analysis of students responses to patterns of academic leadership in Rivers
State Secondary Schools. Descriptive survey research design was adopted for the study. 48 Vice
Principals and 360 teachers in 24 out of 245 secondary scho
study. The instruments used for the study were the 2011/2012 Senior Secondary Certificate
Examination (SSCE) results of the West African Examination Council (WAEC), and a multifactor
leadership questionnaire titled Principal Academic
influence of academic leadership pattern questionnaire (IALPQ). A four
used to rate the academic achievement from the school result and the leadership pattern
by respondents A standard reference mean of 2.5 was used for the students. Data were analyzed,
using percentage, mean, standard deviation. Analysis of data showed that majority of Secondary
Schools in Rivers State are autocratic in their ac
achieved good academic performance in schools where democratic leadership pattern prevailed. The
analysis also showed significant influence of existing academic leadership pattern on students
obedience to school authority, Student
State Secondary Schools. Based on these findings, the study recommended among other things, that
democratic academic leadership, even when it is distributed, should be
pattern to be adopted by principals in Rivers State Secondary Schools.


By
PROF. ELIZABETH C. OKEKE

&

CECILIA IHUAKU UKEGBU
University Port Harcourt
ihuakucecilia@yahoo.com

Principals and 360 teachers in 24 out of 245 secondary school in Rivers State constituted the sample
Principal Academic Leadership Pattern Questionnaire
influence of academic leadership pattern questionnaire (IALPQ). A four- point. Likert type scale was
used to rate the academic achievement from the school result and the leadership pattern
Schools in Rivers State are autocratic in their academic leadership pattern. Furthermore, students
hool authority, Student-teacher relationship and student-student relationship in Rivers
democratic academic leadership, even when it is distributed, should be the best form of leadership
pattern to be adopted by principals in Rivers State Secondary Schools.
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ol in Rivers State constituted the sample
Leadership Pattern Questionnaire (PALPQ) and
point. Likert type scale was
used to rate the academic achievement from the school result and the leadership pattern as perceived
ademic leadership pattern. Furthermore, students
student relationship in Rivers
the best form of leadership


Introduction
Education, often referred to as the development of the mind and character, is an age
in providing people with vital information about important issues of their world. Education in all its
forms and activities` remains the main known tool for reawakening and empowerment of the conscious
mind. Ndukwe (2010) states that the worlds view of every human being is a product of
education such a person receives. The importance of education worldwide is to teach and guide the
individual to the upliftment of humanity and the broadening of horizons and frontiers of human
knowledge.

Durkheim (1937) opines that education
It is one of the essential factors that contributed and still contributes immensely to the changing
economic role of every citizen. Oranusi (2000) sees it as one of the most powerful of human insti
that shapes and influences many societies and environment. Okeke (2002) opines that education has
enormous potentialities for preparing an individual to become an active member in the society.

These observations point to the fact that any child wh
more than the knowledge he would have gained in the classroom. He is also deprived of the opportunity
to develop his full potential in every area of life. The benefits of education influence the special attention
given to it in the countrys National Policy on Education (2004) and the Universal Basic Education Act
which makes it compulsory and free from primary to junior secondary school for all males and females.
As laid down in articles 28 and 29 of the conventio
to education and the centre of such education should be directed to the development of the childs
personality, talents, mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential.

To achieve the required educational aims and objectives, the academic leadership in any school
should influence students so that they strive willingly towards the achievement of goals. It has to create a
vision for students to follow; establish co
order to improve their effectiveness in all things. Organizations like schools have been defined by Ezewu
(1983) as social units that pursue specific goals which they are structured to serve. The great diversity of
academic leadership and organizational patterns in secondary schools make it imperative that educators
have a detailed knowledge of the way in which schools are run.

The school as a social institution is characterized by an ideological framework, a syste
and values. The major orientation of schools has been seen as one of maintenance, that is to say,
supporting the social system by socializing the young to take up positions within the society.

School leaders in the country are facing challenges and pressure with the rising expectations for
schools and schooling in a century characterized by rapid and constant technological innovation, massive
migration and mobility as well as increasing economic
Leadership at all levels must take cognizance of the fact that the 21
knowledge-driven era/economy. The path to acquisition of knowledge is education:
sound and relevant education. ICT complaint ed
and functional education (a system that leads to attitudinal transformation) that is
the kind of education we need for global competitiveness. Our academic leadership
must address this need.
As Nigeria struggles to trans
knowledge and skills needed to function in a rapidly changing world, the roles and expectations for
academic leaders are changing radically. Educational leaders are no longer expected to be
managers but leaders of schools as learning organizations. Effective academic leadership is increasingly
viewed as central to large scale education reform and to improved educational outcomes and responses.
Education, often referred to as the development of the mind and character, is an age
information about important issues of their world. Education in all its
mind. Ndukwe (2010) states that the worlds view of every human being is a product of
7) opines that education is an instrument through which society perpetuates itself.
economic role of every citizen. Oranusi (2000) sees it as one of the most powerful of human insti
These observations point to the fact that any child who is denied good education is denied much
As laid down in articles 28 and 29 of the convention on the rights of the child, all children have the right
personality, talents, mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential.
quired educational aims and objectives, the academic leadership in any school
vision for students to follow; establish co-operate values, ethics and transform the way they do things in
cademic leadership and organizational patterns in secondary schools make it imperative that educators
have a detailed knowledge of the way in which schools are run.
The school as a social institution is characterized by an ideological framework, a syste
migration and mobility as well as increasing economic globalization. Nebo (2010:37) observes,
Leadership at all levels must take cognizance of the fact that the 21
st
century is a
driven era/economy. The path to acquisition of knowledge is education:
sound and relevant education. ICT complaint education, entrepreneurial education
must address this need.
As Nigeria struggles to transform her educational system, to prepare all young people with the
academic leaders are changing radically. Educational leaders are no longer expected to be
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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Education, often referred to as the development of the mind and character, is an age-long tool deployed
information about important issues of their world. Education in all its
mind. Ndukwe (2010) states that the worlds view of every human being is a product of the kind of
is an instrument through which society perpetuates itself.
economic role of every citizen. Oranusi (2000) sees it as one of the most powerful of human institutions
o is denied good education is denied much
n on the rights of the child, all children have the right
quired educational aims and objectives, the academic leadership in any school
d transform the way they do things in
cademic leadership and organizational patterns in secondary schools make it imperative that educators
The school as a social institution is characterized by an ideological framework, a system of norms
globalization. Nebo (2010:37) observes,
century is a
driven era/economy. The path to acquisition of knowledge is education:
ucation, entrepreneurial education
form her educational system, to prepare all young people with the
academic leaders are changing radically. Educational leaders are no longer expected to be merely good


This is especially the case in any ed
different societal culture, hence requires a lot of discipline, control and level headedness for the set
objectives to be achieved accordingly

Concept of Leadership
Leadership is defined by Druker (2010) as the process of influencing people better to strive willingly
towards the achievement of goals. To him, a leader is someone who has followers. Leadership has also
been described by Hackman and Walter (1986) as the p
enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task. Leadership is organizing a
group of people to achieve common goal.
human potential in the pursuit of common cause
wherever one finds leadership in academic settings, in business, in volunteer organizations, in family,
church, community, and in the world of public affair

Research on leadership styles has identified clear traits and theorists have assembled these traits
into typologies of leadership styles and models. Some of the models, naturally, have similarities, an
synthesis of the models can help in reaching a clear understanding of the key characteristics of leaders.
One simple model of leadership places all leaders somewhere on a continuum from
faire, with most leaders showing traits t

AUTHORITARIAN __________ DEMOCRATIC __________ LAISSEZ

In Rivers State today, education is regarded as the main tool for national development. There is no week
the press does not publish articles on examination malpractice, falling standard in education, poor results
in internal and external examinations in
Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (WASSCE) and the National Examination Council Certificate
(NECO), as well as the National Business and Technical Examination (NABTEB), adolescent problems,
school dropouts, youth robbery, students unrest, young militants and student/student fights in schools.
One is prompted to wonder whether the negative consequences generated could be as a result of the type
of academic leadership in the schools they atte

There is a national system of education stipulated from the
2004), National Policy on Education
Research Development Council (NERDC) from 2008 for both Junior and Senior Secondary schools in
Nigeria. The broad aim of NPE (2004) for secondary schools is elaborated to include as follows:
i. To prepare students for useful living within the society and
ii. To prepare them for higher education.

The new curriculum emphasizes functional numeracy, literacy, technological and productive life
skill, ICT and entrepreneurial skills.

Education planners strive to increase the knowledge base and heighten awareness of academic
leadership in terms of principal leadership, teacher leadership and student leadership in secondary schools
and its importance to improved educational outcome by implementing the nation
the new generation of teachers is presently entering the profession, it is important to study the patterns of
academic leadership in schools and adopt the best for Rivers State and the nation.

Effective or successful academic leade
essential for one to know what it looks like and to understand a great deal more about how it works. It is
the intension of this study to investigate different existing academic leadership patterns w
establishing patterns of students responses at secondary school level in Rivers State and discussing their
implications.

Purpose/Objective of the study

This is especially the case in any educational establishment that is considered to be the melting pot of
objectives to be achieved accordingly
been described by Hackman and Walter (1986) as the process of social influence in which one person can
group of people to achieve common goal. At its core, leadership is the capacity to release and engage
human potential in the pursuit of common cause, there is no mystery about it. It is believed that,
church, community, and in the world of public affairs, what is happening will fit this simple definition.
into typologies of leadership styles and models. Some of the models, naturally, have similarities, an
One simple model of leadership places all leaders somewhere on a continuum from
, with most leaders showing traits that place them in one of the following groups:
AUTHORITARIAN __________ DEMOCRATIC __________ LAISSEZ-FAIRE
in internal and external examinations in Rivers State Secondary Schools, especially the West African
of academic leadership in the schools they attended.
There is a national system of education stipulated from the Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN,
Policy on Education and the national curriculum revised by the Nigerian Education
o prepare students for useful living within the society and
To prepare them for higher education.
The new curriculum emphasizes functional numeracy, literacy, technological and productive life
skill, ICT and entrepreneurial skills.
rive to increase the knowledge base and heighten awareness of academic
and its importance to improved educational outcome by implementing the national education policy. As
academic leadership in schools and adopt the best for Rivers State and the nation.
Effective or successful academic leadership is critical to school reform. It therefore becomes
the intension of this study to investigate different existing academic leadership patterns w
Purpose/Objective of the study
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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171
ucational establishment that is considered to be the melting pot of
rocess of social influence in which one person can
leadership is the capacity to release and engage
, there is no mystery about it. It is believed that,
s, what is happening will fit this simple definition.
into typologies of leadership styles and models. Some of the models, naturally, have similarities, and a
One simple model of leadership places all leaders somewhere on a continuum from authoritarian to laissez-
hat place them in one of the following groups:
FAIRE.
Rivers State Secondary Schools, especially the West African
Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN,
and the national curriculum revised by the Nigerian Education
The new curriculum emphasizes functional numeracy, literacy, technological and productive life-
rive to increase the knowledge base and heighten awareness of academic
al education policy. As
rship is critical to school reform. It therefore becomes
the intension of this study to investigate different existing academic leadership patterns with a view to


The purpose of this study is to analyze students responses to existing patterns of aca
Rivers State secondary schools. Specifically the objectives are:
1. To determine the existing patterns of academic leadership in Rivers State secondary schools.
2. To examine students responses to the identified patterns of existing
regard to the following specific areas:
i. Educational achievements
ii. Obedience to school authority
iii. Student-student relationship
iv. Student-teacher relationship.

Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study.
1. What are the present patterns of academic leadership in Rivers State Secondary Schools?
2. To what extent do the present academic leadership patterns influence Secondary School students
academic achievement in Rivers State?
3. How do the present academic l
(school rules and regulation) in secondary schools in Rivers State?
4. To what extent do existing patterns of academic leadership influence student
in Rivers State Secondary Schools?
5. How do existing patterns of academic leadership influence students
State Secondary School?

Scope of the Study
The study covers 245 public secondary schools in the 3 (three) Senatorial Districts that constitute
Local Government Areas in Rivers State. The Senatorial Districts are Rivers East, Rivers West, and
Rivers South. These Senatorial Districts comprise the upland and riverine Local Government Areas. The
study is focus on analysis of students respons
Secondary Schools.
Methodology
Research Design
This study is a descriptive research; hence survey research design which is suitable for descriptive studies
was adopted. This design enabled the
responses to academic leadership pattern in secondary schools in Rivers State Nigeria.

Population
All Vice Principals and teachers in Public secondary schools in Rivers State constituted th
this study.

Sample and Sampling Techniques
Yarrows Yemens formula and stratified random sampling technique
secondary schools constituted the study size. 8 schools were chosen from each geopolitical zon
addition, 48 vice principal academics and administration from: 4 boys schools, 3girls schools and 17 co
educational schools were selected. The strata for sample selection included school location (urbanization
and rural).

Instrument
The instruments for data collection for the study were multifactor leadership questionnaire titled
Principal Academic Leadership Pattern Questionnaire (PALPQ), Influence of Academic Leadership
Questionnaire (IALQ) and SSCE (WAEC) Result in Rivers State Secondary S
questionnaires were self constructed by the researcher
on their perception of their Principals Academic Leadership Pattern
The purpose of this study is to analyze students responses to existing patterns of aca
Rivers State secondary schools. Specifically the objectives are:
To determine the existing patterns of academic leadership in Rivers State secondary schools.
To examine students responses to the identified patterns of existing academic leadership with
regard to the following specific areas:
Educational achievements
Obedience to school authority
student relationship
teacher relationship.
The following research questions guided the study.
t are the present patterns of academic leadership in Rivers State Secondary Schools?
To what extent do the present academic leadership patterns influence Secondary School students
academic achievement in Rivers State?
How do the present academic leadership patterns influence students obedience to authority
(school rules and regulation) in secondary schools in Rivers State?
To what extent do existing patterns of academic leadership influence student
y Schools?
How do existing patterns of academic leadership influence students-teacher relationship in Rivers
The study covers 245 public secondary schools in the 3 (three) Senatorial Districts that constitute
study is focus on analysis of students responses to existing patterns of academic leadership in Rivers State
was adopted. This design enabled the researcher to carry out a survey of vice principals and teachers
All Vice Principals and teachers in Public secondary schools in Rivers State constituted th
Sample and Sampling Techniques
Yarrows Yemens formula and stratified random sampling technique were used to
secondary schools constituted the study size. 8 schools were chosen from each geopolitical zon
addition, 48 vice principal academics and administration from: 4 boys schools, 3girls schools and 17 co
ments for data collection for the study were multifactor leadership questionnaire titled
Questionnaire (IALQ) and SSCE (WAEC) Result in Rivers State Secondary Schools, 2011/2012. The
onstructed by the researcher with a fifteen-item questionnaire that collected data
on their perception of their Principals Academic Leadership Pattern and another five
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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172
The purpose of this study is to analyze students responses to existing patterns of academic leadership in
To determine the existing patterns of academic leadership in Rivers State secondary schools.
academic leadership with
t are the present patterns of academic leadership in Rivers State Secondary Schools?
To what extent do the present academic leadership patterns influence Secondary School students
eadership patterns influence students obedience to authority
To what extent do existing patterns of academic leadership influence student-student relationship
teacher relationship in Rivers
The study covers 245 public secondary schools in the 3 (three) Senatorial Districts that constitute the 23
es to existing patterns of academic leadership in Rivers State
researcher to carry out a survey of vice principals and teachers
All Vice Principals and teachers in Public secondary schools in Rivers State constituted the population of
360 teachers from 24
secondary schools constituted the study size. 8 schools were chosen from each geopolitical zone. in
addition, 48 vice principal academics and administration from: 4 boys schools, 3girls schools and 17 co-
ments for data collection for the study were multifactor leadership questionnaire titled
chools, 2011/2012. The
item questionnaire that collected data
five- item questionnaire


for the influence of academic leadership pattern on academic achievement, teacher
student-student relationship and students obedience to school authority. The response scale was
structured on a four point Likert
respondents.

Validity
Experts and two senior lecturers in the Department
content validities of the instrument, after
final draft.

Reliability
The reliability of the instrument was established, using
Correlation Statistics was used to obtain correlation coefficients of 0.74 and +0.78 for Vice Principals and
teachers respectively. Finally the split
+0.88 respectively for Vice Principals and teachers, which confirmed that the instrument is reliable.

Data generated from the administration of the instruments were analyzed using mean, standard deviation,
percentages for the research questions proposed for the study. A standard reference mean of 2.5 was
adopted for the 4-point rating scale, for the purpos
Principals and teachers responses to academic leadership pattern, in secondary schools in Rivers State.

Results and Discussion

Research Question One: What are the present patterns of academic leadership
secondary Schools?

Table shows principals exhibition patterns of academic leadership in Secondary Schools in Rivers State.
A grand mean rating of 3.13 which is greater than the standard reference of 2.5 indicates that the Vice
Principals (Academic and Administration) and teachers were of the view that most principals in Rivers
State secondary schools are autocratic in their academic leadership pattern. However, the grand mean
ratings of 2.23 and 2.30 respectively, which are less than the
Secondary School Principals manifest less of democratic and laissez
The mean ratings of 2.76 indicates that school principals discuss openly with teachers to establish scho
rules and regulations.

Table 1: Patterns of Academic Leadership among Principals In Rivers State Secondary Schools.
Variables of Academic Leadership among
principals
Democratic
Discuss openly with teachers to establish school
rules and regulations.
Discuss freely with teachers and students to
evolve solutions to academic challenges
Organizes open days to foster free flow of
information between teachers and
parents/guardians and students
Makes effort to encourage cordial relationship
between teachers and students
Liaises with teachers to negotiate the
development of school tasks.
Autocratic
Uses personal perception to issue directives to
teachers and students
Disciplines teachers and students without
through investigation
Gives no room for dialogue with teachers and
students on issues concerning the school.
Stifles debate during staff meetings
Neglects constructive suggestions during
students riot.
influence of academic leadership pattern on academic achievement, teacher-
student relationship and students obedience to school authority. The response scale was
a four point Likert-type Scale to describe the leadership pattern as perceived by the
and two senior lecturers in the Department of Educational Foundations approved the face and
content validities of the instrument, after which their opinions and suggestions were incorpo
The reliability of the instrument was established, using split-half technique. Pearson
was used to obtain correlation coefficients of 0.74 and +0.78 for Vice Principals and
hers respectively. Finally the split-half technique was applied to correlation coefficients of +0.85 and
point rating scale, for the purpose of determining the academic achievement, Vice
What are the present patterns of academic leadership
s (Academic and Administration) and teachers were of the view that most principals in Rivers
ratings of 2.23 and 2.30 respectively, which are less than the standard reference mean of 2.5 indicates that
Secondary School Principals manifest less of democratic and laissez-faire academic leadership patterns.
The mean ratings of 2.76 indicates that school principals discuss openly with teachers to establish scho
of Academic Leadership among Principals In Rivers State Secondary Schools.
Variables of Academic Leadership among Vice Principal/Teachers
Response
Mean
X
Std
Dev.
Grand
X
mean
4 3 2 1
Discuss openly with teachers to establish school 408
(102)
582
(194)
48
(24)
88
(88)
2.76 0.90

2.23
R
Discuss freely with teachers and students to 40
(10)
147
(49)
552
(276)
73
(73)
1.99 0.63
Organizes open days to foster free flow of
information between teachers and
272
(68)
144
(48)
544
(272)
20
(20)
2.40 0.62
effort to encourage cordial relationship 124
(31)
144
(48)
436
(218)
111
(111)
1.99 0.54
Liaises with teachers to negotiate the 56
(14)
(162)
(54)
544
(272)
68
(68)
2.0 0.66
Uses personal perception to issue directives to 328
(82)
858
(286)
60
(30)
10
(10)
3.08 0.61

3.13
A
Disciplines teachers and students without 244
(61)
948
(316)
34
(17)
14
(14)
3.04 0.62
Gives no room for dialogue with teachers and 652
(163)
675
(225)
28
(14)
6
(6)
3.34 0.62
136
(34)
855
(285)
136
(68)
21
(21)
2.8 0.70
constructive suggestions during 868
(217)
408
(136)
96
(48)
7
(7)
3.38 0.69
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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173
-students relationship,
student relationship and students obedience to school authority. The response scale was
leadership pattern as perceived by the
approved the face and
which their opinions and suggestions were incorporated in the
. Pearson-Product Moment
was used to obtain correlation coefficients of 0.74 and +0.78 for Vice Principals and
half technique was applied to correlation coefficients of +0.85 and
e of determining the academic achievement, Vice
What are the present patterns of academic leadership in Rivers State
s (Academic and Administration) and teachers were of the view that most principals in Rivers
standard reference mean of 2.5 indicates that
faire academic leadership patterns.
The mean ratings of 2.76 indicates that school principals discuss openly with teachers to establish school
of Academic Leadership among Principals In Rivers State Secondary Schools.
Grand

mean
Total No.
of VP/
Teachers
Remark

2.23

408 A
408 R
408 R
408 R
408 R
3.13

408 A
408 A
408 A
408 A
408 A


Laissez-faire
Makes very little effort in directing teachers and
students on school issues.
Exhibits low ability in enforcing school rules and
regulations
Allows much debate and clear decisions are
rarely made during staff meeting
Does Not boarder about strict monitoring of
teaching and learning in the school
Very liberal and does not punish student
offenders.
Standard Reference Mean x = 2.5 No.

The mean ratings of 1.99, 2.40, 1.99 and 2.0 respectively which are less than 2.5 indicate that
school principals do not exhibit the following democratic leadership, organizing open days to foster free
flow of information between teachers, parents/guardia
students to evolve solutions to academic challenges, making efforts to encourage cordial relationship
between teachers and students and do not liaise with teachers to negotiate the development of school
tasks. Values of standard deviation i.e. 0.90, 0.63, 0.62, 0.54, and 0.66m respectively indicate that the vice
principals and teachers were homogeneous in their responses on school principals exhibition of
democratic leadership.

Mean ratings of 3.08, 3.04, 3.34, 2.8 and 3.38 respectively indicate that generally school principals
in secondary schools in Rivers state use personal perceptions to issue directives to teachers and students
without thorough investigation, gives no room for dialogue with teachers
concerning the school, stifles debate during staff meetings and neglects constructive suggestions during
students riot. Values of standard deviation i.e. 0.61, 0.62, 0.70 and 0.69 respectively indicate that the vice
principals and teachers were homogeneous in their responses on school principals exhibition of autocratic
leadership pattern.

Mean ratings of 2.6 indicates that the principals allow much debate and clear decisions are rarely
made during staff meetings. However mean ratin
than the standard reference mean of 2.5 indicate that the principals make some effort in directing teachers
and students on school issues, exhibit a little ability in enforcing school rules and re
minimally punish student offenders. The standard deviation i.e. 0.77, 0.65, 0.70, 0.59 and 0.62 respectively
indicates that the vice principals and teachers were homogeneous in their responses on school principals
exhibition of laissez faire leadership pattern. The findings above are supported by Lewen et al (1939) that
people working in teams rarely have any difficulty in identifying their style of leadership as the
characteristics displayed are easy to identify.

Table 2: Classification of Rivers State Secondary Schools According to Prevailing Leadership Pattern
Academic Leadership Pattern

Democratic
Autocratic
Laissez faire

Table shows that Principals of seven schools representing 29.2% of schools studied with a total of 1750
SSCE students in 2011/2012 SSCE WAEC operate a democratic pattern of academic leadership. It also
shows that Principals of thirteen Schools whic
3120 students in the 2011/2012 session operate an autocratic academic leadership pattern. Furthermore,
Principals of four (4) Schools representing 16.7% of Schools studied with 768 SSCE 2011/2012 stud
operate on a laissez-faire pattern of academic leadership.

To what extent do the present academic leadership patterns influence secondary school students
educational achievement in Rivers state?

Makes very little effort in directing teachers and 136
(34)
795
(265)
82
(41)
68
(68)
2.6 0.770

2.30
R
Exhibits low ability in enforcing school rules and 80
(20)
183
(61)
572
(286)
41
(41)
2.1 0.65
Allows much debate and clear decisions are 108
(27)
264
(88)
544
(272)
21
(21)
2.30 0.70
Not boarder about strict monitoring of 24
(6)
288
(96)
572
(286)
20
(20)
2.22 0.59
Very liberal and does not punish student 96
(24)
246
(82)
592
(296)
6
(6)
2.30 0.62
x = 2.5 No. of Respondents in parenthesis KEY: A- Accepted, R
flow of information between teachers, parents/guardian and students, discussing freely with teachers and
asks. Values of standard deviation i.e. 0.90, 0.63, 0.62, 0.54, and 0.66m respectively indicate that the vice
4, 3.34, 2.8 and 3.38 respectively indicate that generally school principals
without thorough investigation, gives no room for dialogue with teachers and students on issues
eachers were homogeneous in their responses on school principals exhibition of autocratic
made during staff meetings. However mean ratings of 2.10, 2.30, 2.22 and 2.30 respectively which are less
and students on school issues, exhibit a little ability in enforcing school rules and re
leadership pattern. The findings above are supported by Lewen et al (1939) that
characteristics displayed are easy to identify.
Rivers State Secondary Schools According to Prevailing Leadership Pattern
No of Schools (% in
parenthesis)
Total No of SSCE Students in
2011/2012
7 (29.2) 1750
13 (54.1) 3120
4 (16.7) 768
shows that Principals of thirteen Schools which represent 54.1% of the school studied with a total of
Principals of four (4) Schools representing 16.7% of Schools studied with 768 SSCE 2011/2012 stud
faire pattern of academic leadership.
educational achievement in Rivers state?
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174
2.30

408 A
408 R
408 R
408 R
408 R
Accepted, R Rejected
n and students, discussing freely with teachers and
asks. Values of standard deviation i.e. 0.90, 0.63, 0.62, 0.54, and 0.66m respectively indicate that the vice
4, 3.34, 2.8 and 3.38 respectively indicate that generally school principals
and students on issues
eachers were homogeneous in their responses on school principals exhibition of autocratic
gs of 2.10, 2.30, 2.22 and 2.30 respectively which are less
and students on school issues, exhibit a little ability in enforcing school rules and regulations and
leadership pattern. The findings above are supported by Lewen et al (1939) that
Rivers State Secondary Schools According to Prevailing Leadership Pattern
Total No of SSCE Students in
h represent 54.1% of the school studied with a total of
Principals of four (4) Schools representing 16.7% of Schools studied with 768 SSCE 2011/2012 students


Table 3: Summary of Students Academic Performance In 2011/2012 SSCE (WAEC) in Rivers State
Secondary Schools
Classification of schools according to
dominant Academic Leadership
Pattern
Democratic
Autocratic
Laissez faire
Standard Reference Mean = 2.50 No. of S

Table 3 shows that a mean rating of 3.17 indicates that schools where democratic academic leadership
prevails, students performed better in SSCE than schools where autocratic and laissez
leadership (with mean rating of 2.25 and 2.41 respectively) prevai
pattern enhances students academic performance in SSCE. Furthermore, the results shows that students
in laissez faire schools even performed better than students in schools where autocratic leadership
prevail.
Table 4: Influence of Academic Leadership Pattern on Students Academic Achievement in Rivers State
Secondary Schools
Academic Leadership
Pattern
Vice Principal/Teachers Responses
Yes
Democratic 303 (74.3)
Autocratic 162 (39.7)
Laissez - faire 89 (21.8)
Percentage in parentheses
Table 4 shows that 74.3% of the vice principals and teachers were of the view that democratic leadership
pattern enhance students academic achievement
respondents (vice principals/teachers) indicated that autocratic leadership pattern does not enhance
students academic achievement. Furthermore 78.2% of the vice principals/ teachers also indicated that
laissez faire leadership pattern does not enhance academic achievement.

How do the present academic leadership patterns influence students obedience to school rules and
regulation in secondary schools in Rivers State?
Table 5: Influence of Academic Leadership Pattern on Students Obedience to School Rules and
Regulation in Rivers State Secondary Schools.

Democratic
Autocratic
Laissez faire

pattern enhances students obedience to school rules and regulations but
autocratic leadership pattern does not enhance obedience to school rules and regulation. Furthermore
87.0% of the respondents are of the view that laissez
obedience to school rules and regulation.

Research Question Four
Students Academic Performance In 2011/2012 SSCE (WAEC) in Rivers State
Classification of schools according to
Academic Leadership
Result Grades Mean performance
4 3 2 1
(848)
3392
(500)
1500
(250)
500
(152)
152
3.17
(500)
2000
(650)
1950
(1096)
2192
(874)
874
2.25
(120)
480
(194)
582
(334)
668
(120)
120
2.41
= 2.50 No. of Students in parenthesis
that a mean rating of 3.17 indicates that schools where democratic academic leadership
prevails, students performed better in SSCE than schools where autocratic and laissez
leadership (with mean rating of 2.25 and 2.41 respectively) prevail. Hence democratic academic leadership
faire schools even performed better than students in schools where autocratic leadership
Influence of Academic Leadership Pattern on Students Academic Achievement in Rivers State
Vice Principal/Teachers Responses
Yes No
303 (74.3) 105 (25.7)
162 (39.7) 246 (60.3)
89 (21.8) 319 (78.2)
ercentage in parentheses
pattern enhance students academic achievement in secondary schools. However, 60.3% of the
faire leadership pattern does not enhance academic achievement.
regulation in secondary schools in Rivers State?
Influence of Academic Leadership Pattern on Students Obedience to School Rules and
Regulation in Rivers State Secondary Schools.
Vice Principals/Teachers Responses
Yes No
298 (73.0) 110 (27.0)
192 (47.0) 216 (53.0)
54 (13.0) 354 (87.0)
Percentage in parenthesis
pattern enhances students obedience to school rules and regulations but 53.0% of them agree that
87.0% of the respondents are of the view that laissez faire leadership pattern does not enhance students
ules and regulation.
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175
Students Academic Performance In 2011/2012 SSCE (WAEC) in Rivers State
Mean performance Total No of
Students
1750
3120
768
that a mean rating of 3.17 indicates that schools where democratic academic leadership
prevails, students performed better in SSCE than schools where autocratic and laissez faire academic
l. Hence democratic academic leadership
faire schools even performed better than students in schools where autocratic leadership
Influence of Academic Leadership Pattern on Students Academic Achievement in Rivers State
Total No of
Respondents
408
408
408
in secondary schools. However, 60.3% of the
Influence of Academic Leadership Pattern on Students Obedience to School Rules and
Total
408
408
408

53.0% of them agree that
faire leadership pattern does not enhance students


To what extent do existing patterns of academic leadership influence students
Rivers State Secondary Schools?

Table 6: Influence of Academic Leadership Pattern on Student
Secondary Schools.
Academic leadership pattern
Democratic
Autocratic
Laissez faire
Table 6 shows that 76.0% of the vice principals and teachers were of the view that democratic
leadership pattern enhance student
opinion that autocratic and laissez
student relationship.

Research Question Five
How do existing patterns of academic leadership influence student
Secondary Schools?

Table 7: Influence of Academic Leadership Pattern on Student
Secondary Schools.
Academic leadership pattern
Democratic
Autocratic
Laissez faire
Table 7 shows that 79% of the vice principals and teachers agree that democratic leadership pattern
influence good student teacher relationship, while 77% and 62% of them are of the view that autocratic
and laissez faire leadership patterns respectivel
relationship.

Conclusions
From the findings, it is established that there exists a linear relationship between academic lead
pattern in Rivers State secondary schools and s
school rules and regulation, student
demonstrates the importance of democratic/distributed pattern of academic leadership by principals
secondary schools. The contribution of democratic/distributed leadership is very significant in
academic achievement which is the ultimate goal of the nations aims and objectives in the National Policy
of Education (NPC 2004). The principal i
the character of the school reflects his/her character. Being a leader, organiser, coordinated teacher,
friend and superintendent, he/she must be competent and must have the skill to administer/
institution by exhibiting a character that would motivate the staff to discharge their duties and
responsibilities according to their natural or acquired skills.

It is established that students may experience a consensus in their perception of
relationship that exists among themselves and this can have positive impact on their school work and that
student-student relationship enhances academic performance. The study also demonstrates the
importance of classroom interaction among ass
teachers appears to have been more official (impersonal than personal), such relationship has the
consequences of making students evasive which could equally affect their performance in the West Afr
Examination result. The need to discourage this is imperative and urgent.

Education is the capital and resource b
with its stiff competitions requires professionals with commensurate skills and ex
To what extent do existing patterns of academic leadership influence students student relationship in

Influence of Academic Leadership Pattern on Student Student Relationship in Rivers State
Vice Principals/Teachers Responses Total No of
Respondents Yes No
312 (76.0) 96 (24.0) 408
126 (31.0) 282 (69.0) 408
145 (36.0) 263 (64.0) 408
Percentage in parentheses
leadership pattern enhance student student relationship. However 69.0% and 64.0% were of the
laissez faire leadership patterns respectively do not enhance student
How do existing patterns of academic leadership influence student teacher relationship in Rivers State
Influence of Academic Leadership Pattern on Student Teacher Relationship in Rivers State
Vice Principals/Teachers Responses Total No of Respondents
Yes No
324 (79.0) 84 (21.0) 408
94 (23.0) 314 (77.0) 408
156 (38.0) 252 (62.0) 408
Percentages in parentheses
teacher relationship, while 77% and 62% of them are of the view that autocratic
faire leadership patterns respectively do not positively influence student
findings, it is established that there exists a linear relationship between academic lead
ary schools and students educational achievement, students obedience to
school rules and regulation, student student relationship and student-teacher relationship. The study
demonstrates the importance of democratic/distributed pattern of academic leadership by principals
secondary schools. The contribution of democratic/distributed leadership is very significant in
of Education (NPC 2004). The principal is the keystone in the arch of school administration and hence
friend and superintendent, he/she must be competent and must have the skill to administer/
responsibilities according to their natural or acquired skills.
It is established that students may experience a consensus in their perception of
student relationship enhances academic performance. The study also demonstrates the
importance of classroom interaction among associated learning gains. Relationship between students and
consequences of making students evasive which could equally affect their performance in the West Afr
Examination result. The need to discourage this is imperative and urgent.
Education is the capital and resource base for any nation. The contemporary world market order
with its stiff competitions requires professionals with commensurate skills and expertise (good education).
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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176
student relationship in
Relationship in Rivers State
Total No of
Respondents
408
408
408
student relationship. However 69.0% and 64.0% were of the
faire leadership patterns respectively do not enhance student
teacher relationship in Rivers State
Teacher Relationship in Rivers State
Total No of Respondents

teacher relationship, while 77% and 62% of them are of the view that autocratic
y do not positively influence student teacher
findings, it is established that there exists a linear relationship between academic leadership
tudents educational achievement, students obedience to
teacher relationship. The study
demonstrates the importance of democratic/distributed pattern of academic leadership by principals of
secondary schools. The contribution of democratic/distributed leadership is very significant in students
s the keystone in the arch of school administration and hence
friend and superintendent, he/she must be competent and must have the skill to administer/manage the
It is established that students may experience a consensus in their perception of the level of
student relationship enhances academic performance. The study also demonstrates the
ociated learning gains. Relationship between students and
consequences of making students evasive which could equally affect their performance in the West Africa
ase for any nation. The contemporary world market order
pertise (good education).


To qualify for better education our secondary education, the basic foundation must be sound and strong.
We need good and knowledgeable democratic and omega academic leaders in our schools. We need to
respond to the changing needs of new methods of academic leadership with technical skills and coaching
style. We need to direct our academic leadership to targeted learning of Leithwood et al (1996) and
inclusive education proposed by the Federal Ministry of Education (2013).

Recommendations
Based on the above findings the following recommendations are made:

The Principals of Secondary Schools in Rivers State should be trained to update their professional status
in centers like the Nigerian Institute for Educational Planning and A
Administrative Staff College of Nigeria (ASCON) Public Service Institute of Nigeria, Kubwa Abuja
where there are skilled seasonal resource persons in school management. Academic leaders should be well
trained in Information Communication Technology (ICT) which is the new world order. Teachers should
also be trained in other to appreciate individual differences and treat each student as a learner that
deserves help. The literature provides ways of teachers

The Principals should endeavour to provide necessary instructional materials to teachers when the
need arises, especially for targeted teaching, Leithwood (1996). They can do this if the Ministry of
Education funds the schools as required. The s
prepare their lessons. The state government is urged to provide adequate infrastructure for teaching and
learning so that Secondary Schools teachers can endeavour to make their classrooms a home whe
learner is made to feel acceptable in the classroom learning process.

Since student-student relationship enhances academic performance academic leaders involved in
the teaching process should relate cordially with students and encourage student
teacher should seek to accomplish group goals and also meet individual and group needs of his students
by being as democratic as possible.

The Rivers State Government should encourage compulsory boarding system that promotes real
academic creativity and communal lifestyle among our young people. Boarding life encourages self
development, independence and helps students to obey the school rules and regulations. There should be
greater pressure of constant change, greater accountabil
faire academic leaders to survive.

There should be activities/acts to motivate and reinforce obedience in schools. For instance,
awarding prizes on speech and prize giving days for the best behaved student
student/teacher. The Principal should allow a free flow of information from management to students,
while communication gap should be prevented. Principals should endeavour to make use of dialogue
strategy in managing conflicts in schools

References

Akiri, A. A. & Ugborugbo, N.N (2009). Teachers Effectiveness and Students Academic Performance in
Public Secondary Schools in Delta State, Nigeria:
Academic Performance in Ogun State Secondary Schools Nigeria. Implications for Counseling for
National Development: European Journal of Social Sciences
Dike, H.I (2002). Alternative Teaching Approaches for Social Studies: With Impli
Science. Porthacourt: CAPIC Publishers.
Durkheim, E. (1938) The evolution of educational thought Lectures on the formation and development of secondary
education in France, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Ezewu, E. (1983). Sociology of Education
Fafunwa, A. (1974). History of Education in Nigeria
Federal Ministry of Education (1985). National Curriculum for secondary School, vol 5.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004)
Research and Development Council (NERDEC).
King, R (1983), The Sociology of Schools Organization
of new methods of academic leadership with technical skills and coaching
inclusive education proposed by the Federal Ministry of Education (2013).
Based on the above findings the following recommendations are made:
in centers like the Nigerian Institute for Educational Planning and Administration Ondo, (NIEPA),
munication Technology (ICT) which is the new world order. Teachers should
deserves help. The literature provides ways of teachers-capacity building (Gimba, 2012
Education funds the schools as required. The staff rooms should be conducive for teachers to adequately
learning so that Secondary Schools teachers can endeavour to make their classrooms a home whe
learner is made to feel acceptable in the classroom learning process.
student relationship enhances academic performance academic leaders involved in
the teaching process should relate cordially with students and encourage student-student relationship. The
by being as democratic as possible.
greater pressure of constant change, greater accountability and regular inspection that will make laissez

awarding prizes on speech and prize giving days for the best behaved student
strategy in managing conflicts in schools
Public Secondary Schools in Delta State, Nigeria: Study Home Communication Science
European Journal of Social Sciences 13, (2) 229-241.
Teaching Approaches for Social Studies: With Implications
. Porthacourt: CAPIC Publishers.
The evolution of educational thought Lectures on the formation and development of secondary
, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
ogy of Education. Lagos: Longman
History of Education in Nigeria. London: Allen and Unwin.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) National Policy on Education 4
th
edition, Lagos National Education
Research and Development Council (NERDEC).
The Sociology of Schools Organization; London: Methuen.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
177
of new methods of academic leadership with technical skills and coaching
dministration Ondo, (NIEPA),
munication Technology (ICT) which is the new world order. Teachers should
2012).
taff rooms should be conducive for teachers to adequately
learning so that Secondary Schools teachers can endeavour to make their classrooms a home where every
student relationship enhances academic performance academic leaders involved in
tudent relationship. The
ity and regular inspection that will make laissez-
awarding prizes on speech and prize giving days for the best behaved student or most punctual
Study Home Communication Science 3 (2): 107-113.
cations for Social Sciences and
The evolution of educational thought Lectures on the formation and development of secondary
edition, Lagos National Education


Moore, M. and Diamond M. (2000) Academic Leadership: Turning Vision into Reality.
Young Foundation. Retrieved 15
Nebo, C.O (2010), Nigerian Sectorial Underdevelopment and Leadership
at Ahiajoku Festival.
Nigerias Performance in index of Africa Governance in
Newspaper p. 40.
Okeke, E.C (2002), Sociology of Education Concepts and Application, Springfield Publishers Ltd
Owerri, Imo State.

Moore, M. and Diamond M. (2000) Academic Leadership: Turning Vision into Reality.
. Retrieved 15
th
August 2013 www.google.academicleadership .
Nebo, C.O (2010), Nigerian Sectorial Underdevelopment and Leadership Challenges Lecture presentation
Nigerias Performance in index of Africa Governance in Education (2010, April
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uniport.com
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Moore, M. and Diamond M. (2000) Academic Leadership: Turning Vision into Reality. The Ernst and
August 2013 www.google.academicleadership .
Challenges Lecture presentation
Education (2010, April 29) The Nation


PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT, SELF ESTEEM AND GENDER AS THE
CORRELATES OF ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF HEARING IMPAIRED
STUDENTS IN LAGOS STATE, NIGERIA

Abstract
The study investigated parental involvement, self esteem and gender as correlates of academic
performance of hearing impaired students in Junior Secondary Schools in Lagos State, Nigeria.
Descriptive survey research design of expo
participants. Three research questions were answered while the instruments used for data collection
were parents involvement questionnaire by Oregon Social Learning Centre, Self esteem scale by
Rosenberg and result of the participants National Examination (NECO) J.S.S III. Pearson Product
Moment Correlation and Multiple regression were used in data analysis. The findings show that
there is a Composite relationship between the independent variables
Esteem and Gender) and the dependent Variable
schools with hearing impairment (R = 0.303).The independent variables combined together accounted
for 9% of the total variance in the aca
(Adjusted R
2
= 0.092). This composite relationship is shown to be statistically significant (Fc= 3.232,
p<0.05). The result also revealed that Parental Involvement has a significant relative effect on
academic performance of students with hearing impairment ( = 0.295; t = 3.030; P<0.05). But Self
Esteem has no significant relative effect on academic performan
impairment ( = -0.018; t = -
academic performance of students with hearing impairment ( = 0.071; t = 0.731; P>0.05). On the
basis of the findings parent teacher
so as to identify and discuss the challenges of their children with hearing loss for better academic
performance.

STUDENTS IN LAGOS STATE, NIGERIA
By
OYEWUMI, ADEBOMI, Ph.D
Department of Special Education
University of Ibadan
Email: oyedebomi@yahoo.com
Phone: 08073150572, 08023416308

Descriptive survey research design of expo-facto type involving 100 parents and 100 J.S.S III as the
berg and result of the participants National Examination (NECO) J.S.S III. Pearson Product
there is a Composite relationship between the independent variables (Parental Involvement, Self
Esteem and Gender) and the dependent Variable - Academic Performance among junior secondary
for 9% of the total variance in the academic performance of Students with Hearing Impairment
0.05). The result also revealed that Parental Involvement has a significant relative effect on
Esteem has no significant relative effect on academic performance of students with hearing
-0.184; P>0.05). Gender also has no significant relative effect on
basis of the findings parent teacher association and parent forum should be strengthened by the school
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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179
cto type involving 100 parents and 100 J.S.S III as the
berg and result of the participants National Examination (NECO) J.S.S III. Pearson Product
Parental Involvement, Self
Academic Performance among junior secondary
demic performance of Students with Hearing Impairment
0.05). The result also revealed that Parental Involvement has a significant relative effect on
ce of students with hearing
0.184; P>0.05). Gender also has no significant relative effect on
association and parent forum should be strengthened by the school


Introduction
The poor academic performance of Nigerian students in bot
triggered so many accusations and counter accusations by various groups and individuals. Some had
accused parents of their improper caring of their children at home and at school and others pointed
fingers at students for their lackadaisical attitude towards their future progress and development while
some had launched verbal assault on their teachers and school administration, and other some had
blamed the entire education system. Considering governments huge inves
in terms of quality of students have been observed to be unequal with government expenditure (Akiri and
Ugborugbo 2009). Students with special needs are not exempted from falling standard of education in
Nigeria despite the provision for their academic/educational needs and establishment of
mainstream/inclusive schools. Thus students with disabilities attending secondary schools are now
increasing in number. Infact with inclusive education, as many as 1 in 10 students have som
apparent disability such as mobility impairment, visual impairment or non
disability and hearing impairment. The target cluster group in this research work is limited to individuals
with hearing impairment.
Hearing impairment is a hidden disability, it cannot be observed as direct as other disabilities and
since the society to a great extent relies on language, hence the language development which assists
abstract thinking and cognitive development is hindered. Students w
entire student population are faced greatly with difficulty in their academic pursuit, thereby affecting their
performances. The low academic performance among the hearing impaired students may be as a result of
the communication barrier, hearing defects, speech and language developmental problem and or abstract
thinking difficulty. Variables that enhance or depress academic performance have been examined by
several researchers (Lukner and Muir 2001, Mitchel and Karchimer 20
Variables examined include demographic variables such as degree of hearing loss, ethnicity, and
socioeconomic status, family variables such as parental support and resources and classroom variables
such as degree and kind of special education support. This study will focus on parental involvement, self
esteem and gender as correlates of academic performance of students with hearing impairment.
Parental involvement has been defined and measured in multiple ways, including activitie
parents engage in at home and at school and positive attitudes parents have towards their child's
education, school, and teacher (Epstein 1996
2000). The definition of parental involvement, according to the Department of Education in the United
States (2004) is the participation of parents in regular, two
involving student academic learning and other school activities, including ensuring that parents play an
integral role in assisting their childs learning; th
their childs education at school; that parents are full partners in their childs education and are
included, as appropriate, in decision
their child. It is a well established fact that parental involvement is linked to childrens success at school.
When parents are involved in their childs education at home, they do better in school. Researchers have
indicated that there are positive academic outcome stemming from parental involvement with benefits
beginning in early childhood throughout adolescence and beyond. (Henderson & Mapp 2002; Patrikakou,
Weisberg, Redding, & Walberg, 2005).
As regards students with hearing loss, thei
hinder parent-child relationship which may result in poor social
central role that language plays in these areas. Most students with hearing impairment are born to
families with little or no experience of deafness. Their acceptance of the child is not always
straightforward. For them hearing impairment is a disappointment and distressing experience. Parents of
children with hearing loss are usually confused
child in the family. Inability of hearing parents to verbalize, use speech directly and communicate with
their children with hearing loss creates anxiety. They have reported communication problem and
appropriate schools for their children with hearing loss are the most stressful of their challenges
Oyewumi and Sotade (2010). Consequent upon these students with hearing loss are at a high risk of poor
academic achievement.
The poor academic performance of Nigerian students in both external and internal examinations had
ts for their lackadaisical attitude towards their future progress and development while
blamed the entire education system. Considering governments huge investment in education, its output
rovision for their academic/educational needs and establishment of
increasing in number. Infact with inclusive education, as many as 1 in 10 students have som
apparent disability such as mobility impairment, visual impairment or non-apparent such as learning
rment is a hidden disability, it cannot be observed as direct as other disabilities and
abstract thinking and cognitive development is hindered. Students with hearing impairment among the
cation barrier, hearing defects, speech and language developmental problem and or abstract
several researchers (Lukner and Muir 2001, Mitchel and Karchimer 2006, Powers and Hyde 2003).
ial education support. This study will focus on parental involvement, self
Parental involvement has been defined and measured in multiple ways, including activitie
Epstein 1996, Grolnick & Slowiaczek, 1994 Kohl, Lengua & McMahon,
). The definition of parental involvement, according to the Department of Education in the United
the participation of parents in regular, two-way and meaningful communication
integral role in assisting their childs learning; that parents are encouraged to be actively involved in
included, as appropriate, in decision-making and on advisory committees to assist in the
positive academic outcome stemming from parental involvement with benefits
, 2005).
As regards students with hearing loss, their inability to understand parents spoken communication
child relationship which may result in poor social-emotional development because of the
central role that language plays in these areas. Most students with hearing impairment are born to
children with hearing loss are usually confused and in a sort of cross road on how to cope with such a
their children with hearing loss creates anxiety. They have reported communication problem and
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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180
h external and internal examinations had
ts for their lackadaisical attitude towards their future progress and development while
tment in education, its output
rovision for their academic/educational needs and establishment of
increasing in number. Infact with inclusive education, as many as 1 in 10 students have some type of
apparent such as learning
rment is a hidden disability, it cannot be observed as direct as other disabilities and
ith hearing impairment among the
cation barrier, hearing defects, speech and language developmental problem and or abstract
06, Powers and Hyde 2003).
ial education support. This study will focus on parental involvement, self
Parental involvement has been defined and measured in multiple ways, including activities that
Kohl, Lengua & McMahon,
). The definition of parental involvement, according to the Department of Education in the United
way and meaningful communication
at parents are encouraged to be actively involved in
making and on advisory committees to assist in the education of
positive academic outcome stemming from parental involvement with benefits
r inability to understand parents spoken communication
emotional development because of the
central role that language plays in these areas. Most students with hearing impairment are born to hearing,
and in a sort of cross road on how to cope with such a
their children with hearing loss creates anxiety. They have reported communication problem and getting


Communication at home is essential in the development of social understanding, skills and
developing an image of self. The ease of communication in school as well as within the family has been
identified as a major factor influencing self. Children and you
asked for their opinion about the importance of communication for them, they all reported that satisfying
communication experiences at home and school and within peer groups is a key element for their self
esteem, identity and well being (Sheridan 2001, Gregory, Bishop & Sheldon 1995). Self esteem plays an
important role in student academic performance. It is an important concept in human psychology and
individual behaviour self esteem has a powerful impact on human c
behaviour. It is how one perceives ones value to the world and how valuable one think he/she is to
others.
Self-esteem affects ones trust in others, relationships, academic performance, work and nearly
every aspect of life of individuals. Self esteem is an appreciation of oneself and ones potentials both
positive and negative potential in its fullest.
general self esteem does not necessarily signal a poor academic
problem which because even a small change in hearing can result in huge decrease in school performance
leading to self esteem, social and emotional problems. Also, children with hearing impairment,
achievement in school is known to enhance self esteem (Schimer 2001).
The gender of a student may also be a factor in determining students performance.
(1998), in his study claims that there is no sex difference in general intelligence. Biddulph, (1997) and
Weaver-Hightower, (2003) opined that males and females enter the educational system with different sets
of behaviours, attitudes and values. These gendered behaviours, attitudes and values are the result of
childhood socialization in line with the cultural no
school achievement of children with hearing loss has been inconclusive. The task of understanding the
relationship between gender and academic performance is an ongoing one. (Ademokoya & Shittu 2007).
More researches will be needed to shed more light on this issue.
study tends to investigate parental involvement self esteem and gender as correlates of academic
performance among junior secondary school students wi
Research Questions
1. What is the relationship between the independent variables (parental involvement, self esteem and
gender) and dependent variable (Academic performance of junior secondary school students with
hearing impairment)?
2. What is the relative effect of parental involvement, self esteem and gender on academic
performance of junior secondary school students with hearing impairment?
3. What is the composite relationship of parental involvement and self
Academic performance of junior secondary school students with hearing impairment?

Methodology
Survey research design of the ex-post facto type was adopted for the study. The research was designed to
examine parental involvement, self
with hearing impairment in Lagos State

Purposive sampling procedure was employed to select secondary schools having special needs students.
Otherwise known as Integrated Schools for Junior Secondary School students (J.S.S.3) in the selected
schools were the participants.

Instrumentation
The research instruments that were adopted in this study are;
1. Parental Involvement Questionnaire by The
2. Self Esteem Scale by Rosenberg
identified as a major factor influencing self. Children and young adults with hearing impairment, when
entity and well being (Sheridan 2001, Gregory, Bishop & Sheldon 1995). Self esteem plays an
individual behaviour self esteem has a powerful impact on human cognition, motivation, emotion, and
esteem affects ones trust in others, relationships, academic performance, work and nearly
life of individuals. Self esteem is an appreciation of oneself and ones potentials both
positive and negative potential in its fullest. According to the studies of Pullmann & Allik (2008) low
general self esteem does not necessarily signal a poor academic achievement. Hearing loss is a serious
ool is known to enhance self esteem (Schimer 2001).
The gender of a student may also be a factor in determining students performance.
Hightower, (2003) opined that males and females enter the educational system with different sets
childhood socialization in line with the cultural norms of masculinity and feminity. Influence of gender on
More researches will be needed to shed more light on this issue. It is against this background that this
performance among junior secondary school students with hearing impairment in Lagos State.
What is the relationship between the independent variables (parental involvement, self esteem and
What is the relative effect of parental involvement, self esteem and gender on academic
performance of junior secondary school students with hearing impairment?
What is the composite relationship of parental involvement and self esteem and gender on
post facto type was adopted for the study. The research was designed to
examine parental involvement, self esteem and gender as correlates of academic performance of students
with hearing impairment in Lagos State
as Integrated Schools for Junior Secondary School students (J.S.S.3) in the selected

The research instruments that were adopted in this study are;
Parental Involvement Questionnaire by The Oregon Social Learning Center
Self Esteem Scale by Rosenberg
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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181
ng adults with hearing impairment, when
entity and well being (Sheridan 2001, Gregory, Bishop & Sheldon 1995). Self esteem plays an
ognition, motivation, emotion, and
esteem affects ones trust in others, relationships, academic performance, work and nearly
life of individuals. Self esteem is an appreciation of oneself and ones potentials both
According to the studies of Pullmann & Allik (2008) low
achievement. Hearing loss is a serious
The gender of a student may also be a factor in determining students performance. Mackintosh
Hightower, (2003) opined that males and females enter the educational system with different sets
rms of masculinity and feminity. Influence of gender on
It is against this background that this
th hearing impairment in Lagos State.
What is the relationship between the independent variables (parental involvement, self esteem and
What is the relative effect of parental involvement, self esteem and gender on academic
esteem and gender on
post facto type was adopted for the study. The research was designed to
esteem and gender as correlates of academic performance of students
as Integrated Schools for Junior Secondary School students (J.S.S.3) in the selected
Learning Center (OSLC)


3. J.S.S 3 NECO Result
4. Achievement test in English language, Mathematics and Basic Science

Description of Instrument
The questionnaire on parental involvement was adapted from the
(OSLC), the questions were revised to forty
parents' involvement in their children's education at home and at school. The Rosenberg's Self
Scale consists of 10 questions. The scor
range; scores below 15 suggest low self
the participants was used as part of the instrument to compare results of the achievement t
questions on English language, Mathematic and Basic science which was set by NECO were used for the
achievement test. NECO is a recognized examination council conducting Junior Secondary School
Certificate examinations for Nigeria students. There
for testing academic achievement.

Data collected were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics such as Pearson Product Moment
Correlation and Multiple Regression.
Presentation of Results
Research Question 1: What is the relationship between the independent variables (Parental involvement,
Self esteem and Gender) and dependent variable (Academic Performance among secondary school
Students with hearing impairment)?
Table 1: Correlation analysis result showing relationship between the independent variables (parental
involvement, self-esteem and gender) and academic performance
Independent variables
Parental involvement
Self esteem
Gender
**
Significant at 0.05 level, NS-Not Significant.
Table 1 reveals that there is a significant positive relationship between parental involvement and
academic performance of students with hearing impairment (r = 0.294 and p<0.05). This implies that
increase in parental involvement will lead to a positive change i
with hearing impairment. However there is no significant relationship between self
with academic performance (r= 0.034 and 0.061, p>0.05).
Researh Question 2: What is the relative effect of parental
academic performance of Junior Secondary School student with hearing impairment?
Table 2: Multiple regression analysis of relative effect of parental involvement, self
academic performance of student with hearing impairment
Std. error
Constant 114.608 14.392
Gender 1.404 1.920
Self esteem -0.065 0.351
Parent
involvement
0.219 0.072
**
Significant at 0.05 level, NS-Not significant
Table 2, explained individual contributions of independent variables on dependent variable. Only
parental involvement has a significant effect on academic performance of
impairment (t-value=3.030, =0.295 and p<0.05). While, self
Achievement test in English language, Mathematics and Basic Science
The questionnaire on parental involvement was adapted from the Oregon Social Learning
(OSLC), the questions were revised to forty-eight. This questionnaire evaluates the extent and quality of
parents' involvement in their children's education at home and at school. The Rosenberg's Self
Scale consists of 10 questions. The scores range from 0-30. Scores between 15 and 25 are within normal
range; scores below 15 suggest low self-esteem. National Examination Council (NECO) JSS III result of
the participants was used as part of the instrument to compare results of the achievement t
Certificate examinations for Nigeria students. Therefore, the questions are known to be valid instrument
for testing academic achievement.
Correlation and Multiple Regression.
What is the relationship between the independent variables (Parental involvement,
Students with hearing impairment)?
Correlation analysis result showing relationship between the independent variables (parental
esteem and gender) and academic performance
Academic performance
R p-value Remark
0.294
**
0.003 Sig.
0.034 0.740 NS
0.061 0.548 NS
Not Significant.
reveals that there is a significant positive relationship between parental involvement and
increase in parental involvement will lead to a positive change in academic performance of the students
with hearing impairment. However there is no significant relationship between self
with academic performance (r= 0.034 and 0.061, p>0.05).
What is the relative effect of parental involvement, self-esteem and gender on
: Multiple regression analysis of relative effect of parental involvement, self-esteem and gender on
ent with hearing impairment
Std. error Beta weight Rank t-value P
14.392 7.963 0.001
0.071 2
nd
0.731 0.466
-0.018 3
rd
-0.184 0.854
0.295 1
st
3.030
**
0.003
Not significant
explained individual contributions of independent variables on dependent variable. Only
parental involvement has a significant effect on academic performance of students with hearing
value=3.030, =0.295 and p<0.05). While, self-esteem and gender have no significant
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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Oregon Social Learning Center
eight. This questionnaire evaluates the extent and quality of
parents' involvement in their children's education at home and at school. The Rosenberg's Self-Esteem
30. Scores between 15 and 25 are within normal
esteem. National Examination Council (NECO) JSS III result of
the participants was used as part of the instrument to compare results of the achievement test. Past
fore, the questions are known to be valid instrument
What is the relationship between the independent variables (Parental involvement,
Correlation analysis result showing relationship between the independent variables (parental
Remark
Sig.
NS
NS
reveals that there is a significant positive relationship between parental involvement and
n academic performance of the students
with hearing impairment. However there is no significant relationship between self-esteem and gender
P-value Remark
0.001
0.466 NS
0.854 NS
0.003 Sig.
explained individual contributions of independent variables on dependent variable. Only
students with hearing
esteem and gender have no significant


effect on academic performance (t
contribution of independent variab
(0.295), self-esteem ranked second (0.071) and gender ranked third (0.018).
Research Question 3: What is the composite effect of parental involvement, self
academic performance of Junior Secondary School students with hearing impairment?
Table 3: Multiple regression analysis of composite effect of parental involvement, self
on academic performance of students with hearing impairment
Model Sum of squares
Regression 892.358
Residual 8835.282
Total 9727.640
**Significant at 0.05 level
In table 3, there is a significant composite relationship between the independent variables (Parental
involvement, Self esteem and Gender) and dependent variable (Academic Performance among Junior
Secondary School Students with Hearing Impairmen
that independent variables (parental involvement, self
in dependent variable (academic performance).
Discussion of Results
The results of the study revealed that there is a significant relationship between Parental Involvement and
academic performance of students with hearing impairment (r = 0.025; P<0.05) But Self Esteem and
Gender has no significant relationship on academic performance of students w
= 0.245; P>0.05). This study agrees with previous researches that parental involvement has pertinent
connection with academic performance of students
1977, Fan, 2001; Seyfried & Chung 2
relationship between self esteem and academic performance of students with hearing impairment. This
study also agree with Mackintosh (1998) Baker & Jones (1993) that there is no significant re
between gender and academic performance of students with hearing impairment
According to the present result, only parental involvement has a significant effect on academic
performance of students with hearing impairment (t
gender have no significant effect on academic performance (t
involvement has the highest contribution and ranked first (0.295), self
gender ranked third (0.018). This finding is in line with other researchers such as Epstein (2009)
Henderson and Mapp, (2002), Patrikakou, Weisberg, Redding, and Walberg, (2005), identified parental
involvement as the most powerful variable that affects childs education. Parental i
powerful influence in a childs education. It can have various effects on students, both academically and
behaviourally. However, self esteem and gender have no significant effect on academic performance of
students with hearing impairment. According to the studies of Pullmann & Allik, (2008) low general self
esteem does not necessarily signal a poor academic achievement. Marsh & OMara (2008) suggested that
prior self-esteem has small positive effect on subsequent educational attainm
This study has revealed that there is a significant composite relationship between the independent
variables (Parental involvement, Self esteem and Gender) and the dependent variable (Academic
Performance) of Junior Secondary School Students with Hear
p<0.05). R
2
is 0.09; this implies that independent variables (parental involvement, self
accounted for 9% of variation in the dependent variable (academic performance). Academic success may
be influenced by multiple variables concurrently. This study has shown that Parental Involvement, Self
esteem and gender have a joint effect on academic performance (when combined together) of junior
secondary school students with hearing impairment.
effect on academic performance (t-value=0.731, = -0.184, p>0.05). Beta weight gives the magnitude of
contribution of independent variables. Parental involvement has the highest contribution and ranked first
esteem ranked second (0.071) and gender ranked third (0.018).
What is the composite effect of parental involvement, self-esteem and gender on
: Multiple regression analysis of composite effect of parental involvement, self
on academic performance of students with hearing impairment
Df Mean square F p-value
3 297.453 3.232
**
0.026
96 92.034
99
, there is a significant composite relationship between the independent variables (Parental
Secondary School Students with Hearing Impairment) (F-value=3.232 and p<0.05). R
that independent variables (parental involvement, self-esteem and gender) accounted for 9% of variation
in dependent variable (academic performance).
revealed that there is a significant relationship between Parental Involvement and
Gender has no significant relationship on academic performance of students with hearing impairment (r
connection with academic performance of students- with hearing impairment (Bachman & O'Malley
1977, Fan, 2001; Seyfried & Chung 2002). This study has also revealed that there is no significant
study also agree with Mackintosh (1998) Baker & Jones (1993) that there is no significant re
between gender and academic performance of students with hearing impairment
performance of students with hearing impairment (t-value=3.030 and p<0.05). While, self
gender have no significant effect on academic performance (t-value=0.731 and =
involvement has the highest contribution and ranked first (0.295), self-esteem ranked second (0.071) and
. This finding is in line with other researchers such as Epstein (2009)
involvement as the most powerful variable that affects childs education. Parental involvement is the most
irment. According to the studies of Pullmann & Allik, (2008) low general self
esteem has small positive effect on subsequent educational attainment.
Performance) of Junior Secondary School Students with Hearing Impairment) (F
is 0.09; this implies that independent variables (parental involvement, self
d by multiple variables concurrently. This study has shown that Parental Involvement, Self
secondary school students with hearing impairment.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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183
0.184, p>0.05). Beta weight gives the magnitude of
les. Parental involvement has the highest contribution and ranked first
: Multiple regression analysis of composite effect of parental involvement, self-esteem and gender
R R
2
0.303 0.092
, there is a significant composite relationship between the independent variables (Parental
value=3.232 and p<0.05). R
2
is 0.09; this implies
esteem and gender) accounted for 9% of variation
revealed that there is a significant relationship between Parental Involvement and
ith hearing impairment (r
with hearing impairment (Bachman & O'Malley
002). This study has also revealed that there is no significant
study also agree with Mackintosh (1998) Baker & Jones (1993) that there is no significant relationship
). While, self-esteem and
value=0.731 and = -0.184). Parental
esteem ranked second (0.071) and
. This finding is in line with other researchers such as Epstein (2009)
nvolvement is the most
irment. According to the studies of Pullmann & Allik, (2008) low general self
ing Impairment) (F-value=3.232 and
is 0.09; this implies that independent variables (parental involvement, self-esteem and gender)
d by multiple variables concurrently. This study has shown that Parental Involvement, Self


Conclusion
The results obtained in this study have demonstrated the importance of parental involvement in the over
all educational process of the children/wards with hearing impairment. The
parents/guardians should be actively involved in the ed
parents of students with hearing impairment. Teachers should encourage parents to participate in the
academic process. The parents should be adequately informed and oriented on the need for parental
involvement and its importance in the education of students with hearing impairment.
therefore exposed the need for
decision making and expose them to ways of communicating with their ch
Recommendations
Based on the findings, the following recommendations were made;
1. The School, family and community should work together to support the teaching and learning of
students with hearing impairment.
2. Parent Teacher association and Pare
discuss the challenges of their children with hearing loss for better academic performance.
3. Parents and family members should be encouraged to be involved in learning activities with their
hearing impaired children at home.
4. Teachers should adopt on combination of teaching methodologies that will expose the students
with hearing impairment to their environment so as to help in their socialization and language
development to facilitate communication which
5. Parents should be advised on how to motivate their children to learn and provide for their
educational and psychological needs adequately.
Conclusion
The study examined parental involvement, gender and self esteem as
of junior secondary school students with hearing impairment in Lagos state, Nigeria. Parental
involvement for all round academic process has been found to be an important influencing factor in the
academic performance of students with hearing impairment. This research equally showed that parental
involvement, self esteem and gender have a joint effect on the academic performance of students with
hearing impairment. Therefore, Parents are encouraged to take active participa
activities of their wards with hearing loss. Teachers are equally enjoined to adopt methods that suit the
unique needs of hearing impaired students to facilitate high academic achievement and positive self
esteem.
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SINGLE PARENTHOOD AS AN IMPEDIMENT TO ADOLESCENTS HEALTH
MFREKEMFON P. INYANG,
Department of Human Kinetics a
Abstract
This paper discusses the concept of single parenthood, its types and causes. It also
impediments and influence of single parenthood on the various dimensions of adolescents health i.e.
physical, mental and social health. Recommendations were also made
Government to enact laws that will curtail so
turn affect their health and of their

Keywords: Single Parenthood, impediments, adolescents, health.

By
MFREKEMFON P. INYANG, Ph.D
&
THANKYOU ASIMIEA
Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education
University of Port-Harcourt
Choba.

This paper discusses the concept of single parenthood, its types and causes. It also
physical, mental and social health. Recommendations were also made which among others calls on
Government to enact laws that will curtail some detrimental cultural practices on widows which in
of their adolescent children.
Single Parenthood, impediments, adolescents, health.
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186
This paper discusses the concept of single parenthood, its types and causes. It also highlights the
which among others calls on
me detrimental cultural practices on widows which in


Introduction
Single parenthood is a societal phenomenon that
and mother. Single parenthood is therefore a condition in which only one parent either the father or
mother is solely involved in caring for the children in the family. Chandler (1991) in Igba (2006) defined
single parent family as nuclear family household being headed by either a father or mother in the absence
of the other spouse whose role in the family is lacking. The Oxford Advance Learners dictionary defined
single parent as a person who looks after their
World Health Organization (WHO) (1948) defined health as a state of complete physical, mental
and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Health is a major determinant of
the socio-economic development of a people (Olise, 2007). Health as opined by Achalu (2009) is a state
of having a sound or active body and mind, a sense of wellbeing and the absence of disease.
The Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary defined impediments as something
stops the progress of something, or obstacles to something. In the confines of this paper, impediments
refer to single parenting which fosters hindrance or obstacle to adolescents physical, mental and social
health.
Ukpokodu (2011) posited
considered as a time of transition from childhood to adulthood during which there are physical changes
associated with puberty (UNDP/UNFPA/WHO/WORLDBANK, 2002). According to Okon (2002), an
adolescent is that boy or girl whose age falls between 10 and 18 years, a young man or woman who is not
fully grown up. He/she is no longer a child but not fully an adult (Akinbola, 2004).
Okpako (2004) asserted that parenting is the act of parenthood which
of a child by the parent. However, from the writers personal observation, most children and adolescents
in the society are born into their various families without collective nurturing and training by both
parents. Such anomaly imposes tremendous devastating effect on diverse aspects of the adolescent
growth and development with respect to their health. This paper therefore seeks to discuss the
impediments caused by single parenthood on the different dimensions of adolescents
Types and Causes of Single Parenthood
The types of single parenthood are viewed in two major categories for the purpose of this paper, which
are unintentional or naturally induced single parenthood and intentional or man
parenthood.
Unintentional single parenthood is caused by death of one of the parents due to sickness, accidents
of various kinds or through wars. In line with this, Umegbo (1992) remarked that during the Nigerian
civil war (1967-1970), many men who
the family and their widows swelled the population of single parents families headed by women.
On the other hand, intentionally induced or man
parents living apart because of their occupation, rejection by a parent, disputed paternity, poverty and
economic hardship, having children outside wedlock with concubines, rape etc. Some adolescent girls
from single parent families also fall victims of sin
coated mouthy older men into casual and pre
According to Igba (2006), industrialization, urbanization and state creation has also increased the
number of single parents as many
as father or mother into the hands of one person which sometime affect the childs upbringing socially,
morally, financially, academically, and otherwise.

Effects of Single Parenthood on Adolescents Physical Health
is a societal phenomenon that Okpako (2004) simply defines parents as ones father
ngle parent family as nuclear family household being headed by either a father or mother in the absence
single parent as a person who looks after their child without a husband, wife or partner.
nomic development of a people (Olise, 2007). Health as opined by Achalu (2009) is a state
The Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary defined impediments as something
Ukpokodu (2011) posited that adolescence is the middle stage of human development. It is
dolescent is that boy or girl whose age falls between 10 and 18 years, a young man or woman who is not
fully grown up. He/she is no longer a child but not fully an adult (Akinbola, 2004).
Okpako (2004) asserted that parenting is the act of parenthood which is the upbringing or training
aly imposes tremendous devastating effect on diverse aspects of the adolescent
impediments caused by single parenthood on the different dimensions of adolescents
Types and Causes of Single Parenthood
are unintentional or naturally induced single parenthood and intentional or man
1970), many men who went to war front were killed, leaving their wives alone to manage
On the other hand, intentionally induced or man-made single parenthood is caused by divorce,
arents living apart because of their occupation, rejection by a parent, disputed paternity, poverty and
from single parent families also fall victims of single parenthood as they are being deceived by sugar
coated mouthy older men into casual and pre-marital sexual intercourse.
number of single parents as many parent go out to look for white collar jobs, leaving theft responsibilities
morally, financially, academically, and otherwise.
thood on Adolescents Physical Health
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parents as ones father
ngle parent family as nuclear family household being headed by either a father or mother in the absence
child without a husband, wife or partner.
nomic development of a people (Olise, 2007). Health as opined by Achalu (2009) is a state
The Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary defined impediments as something that delays or
that adolescence is the middle stage of human development. It is
dolescent is that boy or girl whose age falls between 10 and 18 years, a young man or woman who is not
is the upbringing or training
aly imposes tremendous devastating effect on diverse aspects of the adolescent
impediments caused by single parenthood on the different dimensions of adolescents health.
are unintentional or naturally induced single parenthood and intentional or man-induced single-
went to war front were killed, leaving their wives alone to manage
made single parenthood is caused by divorce,
arents living apart because of their occupation, rejection by a parent, disputed paternity, poverty and
gle parenthood as they are being deceived by sugar-
parent go out to look for white collar jobs, leaving theft responsibilities


According to Achalu (2009), physical health is the care of ones body and its ability to meet the demands
of daily living. Ajala (2006) opines
eat. Rudkin (1999) in Onwuama (2004) remarks
of their continued physical growth and development with great participation in strenuous activities.
Many adolescents from divorced parents, separated famili
breadwinner of the family, do not most times attain their daily nutritional needs requirement,
consequently, this affects their physical health because their immunity is lowered due to nutrient
deficiencies. Lucas and Gilles (2003) state
mental activity and causes wasting and that, among school
physical growth resulting in stunting.
For the proper development of
This implies that there should be food security in the household of which the adolescent is part. The
reverse is most times the case in single parent families which predisposes adolescents
nutritional disorders.
More so, Kadurumba and Ekot (2009) assert
the quality of nutrition provided to the body has a direct impact on health.
He further maintained that food affects
individuals. Better nutrition means stronger immune system, less illness and better health (Ihensekhien,
Obasigie and Egbeahie, 2009).
Other basic necessities of life are as well needed for adolescents
clothing, good shelter, and so on. In this regard, Uzoezie (2006) asserts that greater care is required once a
child is born. The child/adolescent needs adequate clothing, rest, food, shelter, attention, love etc. A chil
that is well cared for is also well brought up. Single parenthood has turned many adolescents homeless,
and some others to house-helps in the hands of relatives or total strangers, and as such, they are ill
treated, underclothed and underfed. This ill
they are sick, no medical care is sought for in some instances and infact, adolescent are often battered
over little mistakes that can lead to severe injuries on th
remarks that adolescents of single parents have higher rate of being fostered or farmed out to the relatives
than the adolescents of intact families as househelps.
which also predispose them to rape, casual and indiscriminate sex that result in unintended teenage
pregnancy or they might even contract communicable diseases like HIV/AIDS and other sexually
transmitted infections.
Influence of Single Parenthood on Adolescents Mental Health
In examining mental health, Achalu (2009) defines
to be able to express emotions in an acceptable, healthy way and to be able to face the problems and
stresses of daily living. Komolafe (2004) opined th
as a peaceful and loving home is likely to grow up happily, showing love to others where as an unwanted
child who starts qperiencefrusfraogn4jeectiopgL an early age is more likely to grow up as an unha
man.
Some adolescents who are born out of rape, or disputed paternity are as it was unwanted hence
they experience frustration and rejection. Some other adolescents encounter mental health problems due
to sudden death of a loved and loving parents, or,
happens, the adolescents tend to lack the ability to manage their daily live events, some hate themselves,
hate their existence, dwell m isolation and depression. Some are so emotionally and mentally dist
and traumatized that they opt for suicide mission to end their further existence.
According to Udoh and Ajala (2005), a person who is considered as having good mental health is
one who assumes the responsibilities that a person of his or her age int
should assume as well as carry them out. Some adolescents who are sometimes described as never
aily living. Ajala (2006) opines that the body is the product of its nutrition and that you are what you
Onwuama (2004) remarks that adolescents have complex nutritional needs because
Many adolescents from divorced parents, separated families or from single parents who lost the
Gilles (2003) state that under-nutrition impairs immunity, reduces physical and
mental activity and causes wasting and that, among school-age children, it retards school achievement and
physical growth resulting in stunting.
For the proper development of the body, proper nutrition through balance diets is very important.
reverse is most times the case in single parent families which predisposes adolescents
durumba and Ekot (2009) assert that good nutrition is the foundation of good health,
the quality of nutrition provided to the body has a direct impact on health.
He further maintained that food affects the level of physical, mental and social well being of
Other basic necessities of life are as well needed for adolescents to be physically healthy like good
child is born. The child/adolescent needs adequate clothing, rest, food, shelter, attention, love etc. A chil
helps in the hands of relatives or total strangers, and as such, they are ill
treated, underclothed and underfed. This ill-treatment exposes adolescents to diverse diseases. Even when
over little mistakes that can lead to severe injuries on their bodies. In view of this
that adolescents of single parents have higher rate of being fostered or farmed out to the relatives
than the adolescents of intact families as househelps. Such househelps are often used as street hawkers,
to rape, casual and indiscriminate sex that result in unintended teenage
Influence of Single Parenthood on Adolescents Mental Health
examining mental health, Achalu (2009) defines mental health as the ability to like and accept oneself,
stresses of daily living. Komolafe (2004) opined that a child who is born into a warm environment as well
child who starts qperiencefrusfraogn4jeectiopgL an early age is more likely to grow up as an unha
to sudden death of a loved and loving parents, or, separation of a loved and loving parent. When such
hate their existence, dwell m isolation and depression. Some are so emotionally and mentally dist
and traumatized that they opt for suicide mission to end their further existence.
one who assumes the responsibilities that a person of his or her age intellectual and physical capacity
should assume as well as carry them out. Some adolescents who are sometimes described as never
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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188
that the body is the product of its nutrition and that you are what you
that adolescents have complex nutritional needs because
es or from single parents who lost the
nutrition impairs immunity, reduces physical and
age children, it retards school achievement and
the body, proper nutrition through balance diets is very important.
reverse is most times the case in single parent families which predisposes adolescents from such homes to
that good nutrition is the foundation of good health,
the level of physical, mental and social well being of
to be physically healthy like good
child is born. The child/adolescent needs adequate clothing, rest, food, shelter, attention, love etc. A child
helps in the hands of relatives or total strangers, and as such, they are ill-
eatment exposes adolescents to diverse diseases. Even when
eir bodies. In view of this, Igba (2006) rightly
that adolescents of single parents have higher rate of being fostered or farmed out to the relatives
Such househelps are often used as street hawkers,
to rape, casual and indiscriminate sex that result in unintended teenage
mental health as the ability to like and accept oneself,
at a child who is born into a warm environment as well
child who starts qperiencefrusfraogn4jeectiopgL an early age is more likely to grow up as an unhappy
separation of a loved and loving parent. When such
hate their existence, dwell m isolation and depression. Some are so emotionally and mentally distressed
ellectual and physical capacity
should assume as well as carry them out. Some adolescents who are sometimes described as never- do-


well by their classroom teachers, who do not cope at school, are in some cases, adolescents from single
parent homes who become mentally retarded as they exhibit a generally below average intellectual
performance in class. This could be due to shock encountered by the adolescent at the parents death.
Igba (2006) opines that such adolescents are worse off educationally, financia
the time their parents are dead or divorced all the way into adulthood.
Cohen opined in Igba that the trauma of a sudden death of a parent is more stressful and often
carried immediate reactions of erratic behaviours by the ado
them. (Cohen, 1984 and Igba 2006). Adolescents may show symptoms of anxiety such as bedwetting and
insomnia and may require psychiatric treatment (Chandler 1991 and Igba 2006).
Effects of Single Parenthood on
Ejifugha (2000) in Ejifugha and Eze Ufodiama (2010) defined social health as an individuals ability to
interact well with people around him and maintain a stable interpersonal relationship with them. Single
parenthood jeopardizes adolescents social health in diverse perspective, some of which are discussed
thus:
Mood/Aggression/Social Vices:
An adage says A hungry man is an angry man. Many adolescents from single parent families live with
anger, depression, aggression, hence c
upbringing. In line with this, Akinbola (2004) opined that being deprived of basic life necessities by
poverty many adolescents exhibit aggression and poor social dispositions. He said furth
adolescents are thus predisposed to violence, due to lack of basic provisions of good nutrition, shelter and
health care, and that the aggression is manifested in the high rate of armed robbery cases, cultism, rape,
sexual abuses,_ drug abuses and
Nigerian adolescents.
Adolescents from single parent families exhibit mood problems, especially if the breadwinner dies
or separates from the family. Such adolescent becomes financially handicap
or other social gatherings and parties like Christmas parties, birthday parties and so on.
Marital Effect:
Marriage is one way of socialization that impacts on the social health of an individual. The family is the
first agent of socialization as the father and mother carry out all the social teachings at this period
(Nwanna-Nzewunwa, 2001).
In some of the Nigerian cultures however, it is believed that an adolescent girl brought up by a
single parent (broken marriage) cannot m
take to her mothers footsteps. To ensure this, parents of an intending husband go extra miles for secret
enquiries, and if such happens to be true about the wife to be, the mans parents fiercel
marriage. This of course, had been happening to some adolescent girls and it chatters their love lives,
demoralizes their emotion and eventually they miss out their chosen life partners just because of their
single parental upbringing.
Furthermore, some adolescents of single parents due to divorce, rationalize that all relationships
are unreliable, doomed to unravel, somebody in betrayal and infidelity. Hence, they are afraid of getting
married or too close to a companion because of uncons
parents had been by the mate.
Educational Effects:
Education makes people to socialize, make good friends, interact with all class of people in the society
and have contact with different calibers of people
Adolescents whose parents are of high and average social class will no doubt attend schools with
good reputation and standard. The demise of such rich parent (most times the father with a full
well by their classroom teachers, who do not cope at school, are in some cases, adolescents from single
me mentally retarded as they exhibit a generally below average intellectual
Igba (2006) opines that such adolescents are worse off educationally, financially and psychologically from
the time their parents are dead or divorced all the way into adulthood.
carried immediate reactions of erratic behaviours by the adolescents because of emotional conflict in
insomnia and may require psychiatric treatment (Chandler 1991 and Igba 2006).
od on Adolescents Social Health
adolescents social health in diverse perspective, some of which are discussed
Mood/Aggression/Social Vices:
anger, depression, aggression, hence could not interact well with others due to hunger, lack and poor
poverty many adolescents exhibit aggression and poor social dispositions. He said furth
sexual abuses,_ drug abuses and a host of other anti-social behaviours which are common among
or separates from the family. Such adolescent becomes financially handicapped to attend public functions
t of socialization as the father and mother carry out all the social teachings at this period
single parent (broken marriage) cannot make a good home, she should not be married because she might
enquiries, and if such happens to be true about the wife to be, the mans parents fiercel
rthermore, some adolescents of single parents due to divorce, rationalize that all relationships
married or too close to a companion because of unconscious fear of being hurt or abandoned as his/her
and have contact with different calibers of people etc.
good reputation and standard. The demise of such rich parent (most times the father with a full
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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well by their classroom teachers, who do not cope at school, are in some cases, adolescents from single-
me mentally retarded as they exhibit a generally below average intellectual
lly and psychologically from
lescents because of emotional conflict in
adolescents social health in diverse perspective, some of which are discussed
ould not interact well with others due to hunger, lack and poor
poverty many adolescents exhibit aggression and poor social dispositions. He said further that
social behaviours which are common among
ped to attend public functions
t of socialization as the father and mother carry out all the social teachings at this period
ake a good home, she should not be married because she might
enquiries, and if such happens to be true about the wife to be, the mans parents fiercely antagonize such
rthermore, some adolescents of single parents due to divorce, rationalize that all relationships
cious fear of being hurt or abandoned as his/her
good reputation and standard. The demise of such rich parent (most times the father with a full-time


house wife) has led to great social heath trauma in
chase the wife and children out of the fathers wealth and properties. At the blink of the eyes, they
become demoted from high social living to very low and pitiable lifestyle, no more good schooling, some
are totally out of school. Adolescents in such dilemma, see themselves as outcast in the society, they
become frustrated, confused, their social lives and health bulldozed and bastardized as they would not in
any way measure up with their peers and acquai
Conclusion
From the foregoing, adolescents are said to have metamorphosed from childhood who will later assume
the adult position of the society that build every nation. Health, they say, is wealth. The health of these
adolescents is the wealth of their immediate families, their immediate communities and then the society
and nation at large. It should therefore not be underrated, undermined nor traded for undue marital
problems, divorce and separation by their parents except such separation is natu
Recommendations
1. Parents should place priority on their childrens health in their marriages as this may help to
checkmate their decisions to divorce or separate from the other partner irrespective of their
grievances.
2. Rich and high class social men in the society should permit their wives to engage in white collar
secular jobs, or involve in business enterprises. This is because, in case of any eventuality of death
of the husband, the woman will not be incapacitated to cater
how she is deprived of her husbands wealth by the kinsmen.
3. Government and non-governmental organization should set up foundations for adolescents of
single parent families caused by natural death of a parent to help
Communities can also use their resources to assist such families.
4. Free education policy advocated by some state Governors should be encouraged, and continued
even in subsequent leadership, it should encompass all school
not just for some selected few as this scheme will cater for adolescents educational needs.
5. Government should enact policies that will curtail some detrimental cultural practices on widows
which in turn affect the health

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CHRISTIANITY AND PROMOTION OF IGBO CULTURE
IREMEKA, FELICIA UKAMAKA

Abstract
In 1857 the Christian missionary society planted C
thereafter to other parts of the igboland. S
first mission in 1885 at Onitsha
Christian churches followed. T
including schools, medicare crafts;
of igbo culture by insisting that th
culture in obedience to their christian teachers. T
culture to spread the Christian message in or
appeared the more christian he was deemed to be. T
easily gloss over the positive aspects of C
upon by wholesome interaction with christian values whic
Igbo mentality, spirit and genius be allowed to devise its own christian
models rather than be saddled with exotic administrative, theological and ethical paradigms
formulated by for other cultures and time.

By
IREMEKA, FELICIA UKAMAKA.
School of General Studies,
University of Nigeria
Enugu Campus.
08035004735
ian missionary society planted Christianity in igboland, first in
o other parts of the igboland. Secondly, the Roman Catholic mission also established its
Onitsha and its surrounding, and spread to other areas in igboland.
Christian churches followed. They embarked on vigorous evangelization through various means
uding schools, medicare crafts; but in the process the missionaries tended to destroy vital aspects
of igbo culture by insisting that they be despised. The igbo started the systematic destruction of their
e to their christian teachers. The missionaries failed to use good aspects of Igbo
hristian message in order to domesticate the gospel. The less igbo a convert
christian he was deemed to be. This has been a very fatal mistake, but we cannot
positive aspects of Christianity. Some aspects of igbo culture have been improved
upon by wholesome interaction with christian values which have had purifictory effect. However, the
gbo mentality, spirit and genius be allowed to devise its own christian institutions, traditions and
formulated by for other cultures and time. Christianity has a right to find itself a place in igboland.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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192
hristianity in igboland, first in Onitsha and
mission also established its
and its surrounding, and spread to other areas in igboland. Other
hey embarked on vigorous evangelization through various means
but in the process the missionaries tended to destroy vital aspects
he igbo started the systematic destruction of their
failed to use good aspects of Igbo
he less igbo a convert
his has been a very fatal mistake, but we cannot
aspects of igbo culture have been improved
h have had purifictory effect. However, the
institutions, traditions and
hristianity has a right to find itself a place in igboland.


Introduction
The traditional Igbo society has rich cultural values and moral, socio
reigned among them prior to the advent of white
Igboland, the early missionaries never cared to appr
religious, psychological, ethical conceptions and values. Their problem was that of cultural arrogance and
superiority complex. They, therefore, descended heavily on some aspects of Igbo cultural and te
destroy so many.
The Western ideas and their thinking were sold to Igbo people through schools and catechism.
With that, the old ways (traditions) began to crack and other values weakened. Igbo people now moved
from communal life to individualism.
the criss-crossing of values.
The paper attempted to highlight some of these Igbo traditional values that have been bastardized
by western civilization which should not have been so if th
had taken a little time to study the Igbo culture. Opinions of some authority on how Christianity can
become domesticated in Africa were mentioned. The paper has been wrapped up with recommendations
and conclusion.
Definition of Terms
It may be more appropriate to start the examination of the topic by defining the operative terms, namely,
Christianity and Culture.
Christianity: it is one of the major world religions. It is a religion adopted by those who believ
Jesus Christ is the son of God, in his earthly mission, his death, resurrection and his teachings on how
man could attain salvation (Chuta, 1988:383). It can also be defined as a religion originated in the life and
teachings of Jesus Christ. The bib
and of Jewish mytho-history, forms the basis of Christian faith (Ijeoma, 2010:58). Perhaps we should
mention that other world religions include Buddhism, Hinduism, Judaism and Islam.
Culture: there are many definitions of culture, but one of the most celebrated definitions is that of Taylor
(1891:1) which defined culture as that complex whole which include knowledge, belief, art, moral, law,
customs and any other capabilities and habits a
on the other hand, sees culture as a pattern of behaviour which the group shares in common. The sharing
is very important for it is that quality which maps out one group of people from all the others
share it must be able to foretell or predict with a given type of social stimulus. He went on to say that
culture is dynamic for it can influence, ignite and generate action. Chuta (1988:383) also saw culture as
comprising those artificial objects, institutions and modes of life or thought, which also have been
accumulated from the past, modified in the present and transmitted to posterity. Culture therefore is a
product of human mind. It is modified in its historical process as the human mind b
and better equipped to offer more satisfactory solutions to the needs of the present. Cultural change,
therefore, becomes a perfecting or humanizing process designed to promote human life and integrity. As
the situation in the society changes, the world view and its cultural manifestations also will change. What
is essential is that people belonging to a tradition draw out of that tradition the basis for their responses
to the changing situation.
Christianity and Igbo Traditional Culture
Christianity is not a new phenomenon in Igboland. The Igbo have been in contact with Christianity for
more than a century and half and they have been responding to it various ways (Achunike, 1995:1).
Today, there has been a multiplicity of Christian sects
and fellowships, usually called Pentecostal churches. In most urban cities today, many cities today, many
personal car garages and warehouses are being converted to churches or prayer houses. With the number
of churches in the society, one may ask whether the faith of the Igbo is sufficiently deep or are they
genuinely converted? in line with this Achunike (1995:1) opined:
ditional Igbo society has rich cultural values and moral, socio-political and religious sanity that
reigned among them prior to the advent of white-men and his religion. On the arrival of Christianity in
Igboland, the early missionaries never cared to appreciate the Igbo world view and pattern, namely, their
superiority complex. They, therefore, descended heavily on some aspects of Igbo cultural and te
from communal life to individualism. Yet within this individualism, social life remain unfulfilled, hence
by western civilization which should not have been so if those early planters of Christianity in Igboland
: it is one of the major world religions. It is a religion adopted by those who believ
teachings of Jesus Christ. The bible containing New Testament stories of Christ and the early apostles
history, forms the basis of Christian faith (Ijeoma, 2010:58). Perhaps we should
: there are many definitions of culture, but one of the most celebrated definitions is that of Taylor
customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. Anigbo (1988:23)
is very important for it is that quality which maps out one group of people from all the others
cts, institutions and modes of life or thought, which also have been
product of human mind. It is modified in its historical process as the human mind b
hanges, the world view and its cultural manifestations also will change. What
Christianity and Igbo Traditional Culture
Today, there has been a multiplicity of Christian sects and groups in the form of independent churches
genuinely converted? in line with this Achunike (1995:1) opined:
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political and religious sanity that
men and his religion. On the arrival of Christianity in
eciate the Igbo world view and pattern, namely, their
superiority complex. They, therefore, descended heavily on some aspects of Igbo cultural and tended to
Yet within this individualism, social life remain unfulfilled, hence
ose early planters of Christianity in Igboland
: it is one of the major world religions. It is a religion adopted by those who believe that
le containing New Testament stories of Christ and the early apostles
history, forms the basis of Christian faith (Ijeoma, 2010:58). Perhaps we should
: there are many definitions of culture, but one of the most celebrated definitions is that of Taylor
cquired by man as a member of society. Anigbo (1988:23)
is very important for it is that quality which maps out one group of people from all the others. Those who
cts, institutions and modes of life or thought, which also have been
product of human mind. It is modified in its historical process as the human mind becomes increasingly
hanges, the world view and its cultural manifestations also will change. What
and groups in the form of independent churches


It is discovered that since the inception of Christianity in Igboland not
too deep-rooted faith has been found in the lives of many Christians due
to confusion and uncertainties about the doctrine of the church,
lukwarmness and the seemingly prevailing gu
spread to every nook and cranny in Igboland and new churches are
springing up every day and yet the moral worth of the people rings
hallow.
Christianity from its founding has consistently and vehemently been indicted for its ant
stance towards every culture it has encountered. The pioneer missionaries were poorly and inadequately
trained for the work. They laid stress on conversion and nothing more. Because they were uniformed and
sometimes misinformed, they completely d
They also compelled people into abandoning their old ways for the new. Shorter (1977:32) also
commented:
The missionaries who proclaimed the Christian Good News for the first
time in African cou
their message was being understood. They assumed that the African
Peoples they were addressing employed the same thought categories as
themselves. They also assumed that cultural translation was an easy
task and that one could, for example, simply identify the Creator
of the African religion with God the father of Christianity. The result
was what Tanner has called a working misunderstanding the
juxtaposition of elements from different system.
Some of the initial false steps in the early contacts generated avoidable conflict, misunderstandings
and disorganization of traditional social and cultural set
integration. Modes of reception were varied from one com
abounds that the world view of most Igbo professing Christians remains that which is inherited from the
traditional religion. The faith of the people still remained very shallow despite the huge numbers in our
churches. The fact is that the vaunted flowering and vitality of Igbo Christianity is largely on the surface.
For instance, in case of serious life crises in the lives of most Igbo Christians, they waste no time looking
for solution to the problems through traditio
still at our door step. To drive this point home, Ekezuike (1980:32) asserted that:
He (the Igbo Christian) plays a dual role, Christianity is outwardly
practiced and paganism in secret and more
on the mask of Christianity on top of paganism. The new Christian
inwardly believes in Agwu, ogbanje, withchcraft, charms and so on.
They do not prevent him at the same time from believing in the
Blessed Trinity, the Bible and D
sincerity he puts on as many finger rosary, scapular and pays his
church dues But his actual faith comes to light when real
temptation comes. Imagine he does not get a male child or is completely
childless. What does h
Certain strategies were adopted by the early Christian missionary in Igboland to dislodge the grip
of traditional religious on the Igbo. That notwithstanding, much have not changed in the life of a typical
Igbo man with regard to his world view. Igbo
Adibe (2009:3) made similar observation when he said
The means provided by different religious responsiveness, create
divided society and provide different options for life sustenance,
hence Igbo people are exposed to all kinds of negative values that
they reject one religion on Sunday but get affiliated to it secretly
during the mid week for the convenience of life.
Sense of solidarity, honesty and justice has been bastardized by urbanizat
materialism and corruption.
It is discovered that since the inception of Christianity in Igboland not
rooted faith has been found in the lives of many Christians due
to confusion and uncertainties about the doctrine of the church,
lukwarmness and the seemingly prevailing gullibility. Christianity has
spread to every nook and cranny in Igboland and new churches are
springing up every day and yet the moral worth of the people rings
Christianity from its founding has consistently and vehemently been indicted for its ant
sometimes misinformed, they completely denied the element of religiosity among non
The missionaries who proclaimed the Christian Good News for the first
time in African countries did not for the most part, ask themselves how
their message was being understood. They assumed that the African
Peoples they were addressing employed the same thought categories as
themselves. They also assumed that cultural translation was an easy
task and that one could, for example, simply identify the Creator-God
of the African religion with God the father of Christianity. The result
was what Tanner has called a working misunderstanding the
juxtaposition of elements from different system.
of the initial false steps in the early contacts generated avoidable conflict, misunderstandings
and disorganization of traditional social and cultural set-ups, value contacts and norms of the social
integration. Modes of reception were varied from one community to another. However, evidence
The fact is that the vaunted flowering and vitality of Igbo Christianity is largely on the surface.
for solution to the problems through traditional means. There is no doubt that our traditional beliefs are
still at our door step. To drive this point home, Ekezuike (1980:32) asserted that:
He (the Igbo Christian) plays a dual role, Christianity is outwardly
practiced and paganism in secret and more precautions too. He puts
on the mask of Christianity on top of paganism. The new Christian
inwardly believes in Agwu, ogbanje, withchcraft, charms and so on.
They do not prevent him at the same time from believing in the
Blessed Trinity, the Bible and Dogmas of the church. To manifest his
sincerity he puts on as many finger rosary, scapular and pays his
church dues But his actual faith comes to light when real
temptation comes. Imagine he does not get a male child or is completely
childless. What does he do?
Igbo man with regard to his world view. Igbo traditional religion is still very much alive in his daily living.
Adibe (2009:3) made similar observation when he said
The means provided by different religious responsiveness, create
divided society and provide different options for life sustenance,
ce Igbo people are exposed to all kinds of negative values that
they reject one religion on Sunday but get affiliated to it secretly
during the mid week for the convenience of life.
Sense of solidarity, honesty and justice has been bastardized by urbanization and soiled by present
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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194
Christianity from its founding has consistently and vehemently been indicted for its antithetical
enied the element of religiosity among non-Christian peoples.
of the initial false steps in the early contacts generated avoidable conflict, misunderstandings
ups, value contacts and norms of the social
munity to another. However, evidence
The fact is that the vaunted flowering and vitality of Igbo Christianity is largely on the surface.
nal means. There is no doubt that our traditional beliefs are
traditional religion is still very much alive in his daily living.
ion and soiled by present


There are places where the influence of Christianity on Igbo culture resembles a situation similar to
an injection which was intended to save life, but instead brings death to a patient. That is, instea
Christian values playing complimentary and revitalizing role on some of the Igbo social lives it
condemned them. Christianity crushed some Igbo socio
omaba, odo, okonko, the muo association (masquera
initiation rites. All these were encouraged. European forms of praying and singing, European names,
mores and mannerisms were extolled and inculcated. The less Igbo a convert appears, the more Christian
he deemed to be. Ancestors had a very important place in Igbo traditional society which was organized
on the segmentary lineage system. Ancestors are the dead humans or the forebears who once carried on
their activities here on the material world as mortal being
the earth. They are believed to be custodians of traditional laws and customs on which the survival of the
clan depends. The white-mans religion seriously attacked this ancestor veneration. For instance, Taylo
who was the first C M S missionary and pastor at Onitsha between the year 1857 and 1869 reporting how
glad he was to see the Igbo converts throw away the traditions of their homeland in their enthusiasm to
embrace the new faith, said the dibeas were ash
being exposed before the light of Christianity in the eyes of their long down
statement is testimony to the fallible nature of the early Christians who failed to look into
control and cultural values of the dibeas uncritically imposing western religious patterns.
From the earliest contact of Christianity with the Igbo society, polygamy seemed to be one of the
most difficult institutions of Igbo life to be
as a healthy institution for many reasons. One of them was the great desire for children in general and
males in particular. Children meant wealth, prestige and blessings of God and the ancestors.
believed that the more the number of wives a man had the more respect and influence he wielded in
society or that more food was produced for consumption and for sale by the polygamist. Christianity
condemned polygamy and the early converts were ask
a very difficult decision for those early converts.
Another Igbo traditional institution that underwent pressure from Christianity was
taking. This ethically and socially elevated traditional title was condemned as
Christians were not allowed to take the title in spite of the enormous social control principles associated
with this institution. The red cap in
Igbo believed that the continuity of the lineage, clan or village depends on the existence of God fearing
men who share in the spirit of the land through their relationship with the eart
how to placate the spirit of dead ancestors and uphold the ordinances of the land. The ozo title is said to
be the religious means of achieving these ends. The individual who has taken the ozo title must take an
oath to live a holy life, uphold publicly and privately the morality of the land.
Ozo title contributes a very important part in the administrative functions of the community
because of the high religious and social position members of the society occupy in the ministering o
spiritual needs of the people. Matters affecting the traditional
consultation with the Obi/Igwe, they decide measures to be taken or imposed on any person who
contravenes religious rites. They play a role in the just
always held in high esteemed. An
highly rated and trusted by other members of their community. For example, in those early days, t
man used to be the banker for his community, because he was so trusted that people kept their valuable
things with him. The ozo tile taking has been problematic in some towns in Igboland especially where it
concerns the Christians. The Catholics a
ozo title- taking has not been fully given its proper place in the traditional society. Christians should be
encouraged take the title and when properly developed, it can replace the knight
makes more sense and will serve Igbo Christians and the society as a whole better than the knighthood
which is foreign to Igbo culture.
Before the advent of Christianity, masquerade played a very important role in Igbo traditional
society. It was taken to be the representation of the spirit of the ancestors. It contributed immensely to
the maintenance of discipline in Igbo communities. Ifemesia (1980:78) mentioned different types of
an injection which was intended to save life, but instead brings death to a patient. That is, instea
condemned them. Christianity crushed some Igbo socio-religious societies such as ancestral beliefs, ozo,
omaba, odo, okonko, the muo association (masquerade) traditional dances musical instruments and
med to be. Ancestors had a very important place in Igbo traditional society which was organized
their activities here on the material world as mortal beings but have now taken up abode in the bosom of
mans religion seriously attacked this ancestor veneration. For instance, Taylo
embrace the new faith, said the dibeas were ashamed in his district as their craft is now in danger of
being exposed before the light of Christianity in the eyes of their long down- trodden vassals. Taylors
statement is testimony to the fallible nature of the early Christians who failed to look into
most difficult institutions of Igbo life to be easily thrown away by converts. The Igbo regarded polygamy
males in particular. Children meant wealth, prestige and blessings of God and the ancestors.
condemned polygamy and the early converts were asked to keep only one wife and dismiss others. It was
a very difficult decision for those early converts.
Another Igbo traditional institution that underwent pressure from Christianity was
taking. This ethically and socially elevated traditional title was condemned as pagan
with this institution. The red cap in Igbo culture represents purity, uprightness, respect and dignity. The
men who share in the spirit of the land through their relationship with the earth goddess and also know
life, uphold publicly and privately the morality of the land.
because of the high religious and social position members of the society occupy in the ministering o
spiritual needs of the people. Matters affecting the traditional religions are handled by them.
contravenes religious rites. They play a role in the justice of peace in the localities and their decisions are
always held in high esteemed. An Ozo titled man never puts himself in a compromised situation. They are
highly rated and trusted by other members of their community. For example, in those early days, t
for his community, because he was so trusted that people kept their valuable
concerns the Christians. The Catholics are allowed to take it with some conditions. The point is that, the
taking has not been fully given its proper place in the traditional society. Christians should be
encouraged take the title and when properly developed, it can replace the knighthood in the church. It
ciety. It was taken to be the representation of the spirit of the ancestors. It contributed immensely to
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195
an injection which was intended to save life, but instead brings death to a patient. That is, instead of
religious societies such as ancestral beliefs, ozo,
de) traditional dances musical instruments and
med to be. Ancestors had a very important place in Igbo traditional society which was organized
s but have now taken up abode in the bosom of
mans religion seriously attacked this ancestor veneration. For instance, Taylor
amed in his district as their craft is now in danger of
trodden vassals. Taylors
statement is testimony to the fallible nature of the early Christians who failed to look into the social
easily thrown away by converts. The Igbo regarded polygamy
males in particular. Children meant wealth, prestige and blessings of God and the ancestors. It was
ed to keep only one wife and dismiss others. It was
Another Igbo traditional institution that underwent pressure from Christianity was Ozo title-
pagan and the true
Igbo culture represents purity, uprightness, respect and dignity. The
h goddess and also know
because of the high religious and social position members of the society occupy in the ministering of the
religions are handled by them. In
ice of peace in the localities and their decisions are
titled man never puts himself in a compromised situation. They are
highly rated and trusted by other members of their community. For example, in those early days, the ozo
for his community, because he was so trusted that people kept their valuable
re allowed to take it with some conditions. The point is that, the
taking has not been fully given its proper place in the traditional society. Christians should be
hood in the church. It
ciety. It was taken to be the representation of the spirit of the ancestors. It contributed immensely to


masquerade and their social control and disciplinary
would expel an adulterous from her husbands kindred, order a person charged with witchcraft to
undergo trial by ordeal and those convicted of crime to be banished or killed.
entertaining the community, would punish those who committed a nuisance in a public square. Mmo
Onyekulum (who summoned?) appeared at night and serve the social purpose of pointing out, and
holding up to ridicule, the defects and lapses in the character and condu
Mmo of various and serious types were produced for enforcing the decisions of the peoples council and
inspiring awe and respect for authority in the people generally. For Igbo society, this is how the institution
of masquerade was in those early days. But with the coming of Christianity, many of these Igbo cultural
institutions were shattered. The Christians lost the due respect accorded to the masquerades.
The destruction of these healthy means of social control did muc
(2011:33) observed:
Once the bearers of Christianity cut off the taproot of ancestor veneration
in Igbo culture, all other spheres of the cultural life started falling apart.
This, however, did not prevent the people from
as they become Christians, rather it loosened the strength of their bond
both with the traditional religious value and Christianity to a wishy
washy mediocrity. They became like the proverbial bat that is neither a
bird nor mammal because of the serious attacks from, and clash with the
white-mans poor orientation. They had taken the white
and his values always swallowed line, hook and sinker.
However, Christianitys negative influence on Igbo culture notwithstan
cannot overlook the positive changes Christianity brought into Igbo culture. Some aspects of Igbo culture
have been improved upon or modified by wholesome interaction with Christian values which have had
purificatory effect. For instance, it was an Igbo old custom to kill twin babies and their mothers
ostracized in some cases. Many innocent souls were wasted and women were left in agony. But with the
advent of Christianity, twin babies were no longer destroyed. To have twins today
with great celebration.
Human Sacrifice: Three types of human sacrifice existed in Igboland before the arrival of Christianity.
The first was the sacrifice of atonement when extreme abomination of the land led to breach of harmony
between the spirit world and the community. The second was when chiefs and some noble men holding
ozo title were buried with their slaves partly to ensure a smooth passage to the land of the spirits. The
third was the use of priests and manipulators of sec
another aspect of Igbo culture that has been abolished by wholesome interaction with Christian values.
There are other positive things like schools, hospitals, roads, agriculture and technology. The
also taught the Igbo how to read and write in English and Igbo. There are many other good things that
came with education which Christianity has to take credit for.
Christianity and the Promotion of Igbo Culture
It is important to recognize that each cultural traditional has important value systems which have formed
so to speak, the soul of each human community. These cultural forms and value systems have given
each human community the originality that is typically its own, enabling each to e
itself as a distinct cultural entity, different from all others. Recently, efforts were made by both,
Government, groups, institutions and individuals to recognize, identify with and promote the Igbo
culture.
This has resulted in the establishment of such societies, agencies and institutions like:
Society for promoting Igbo Language and Cultural.
Eastern Nigerian festival of Arts Communities.
Anambra State Council of Arts
Cultural Division, Ministry of Information, Cultural, Youth and S
masquerade and their social control and disciplinary roles in the community when he said mmo Afia
undergo trial by ordeal and those convicted of crime to be banished or killed. Mmo Ulaga
ning the community, would punish those who committed a nuisance in a public square. Mmo
holding up to ridicule, the defects and lapses in the character and conduct of members of community.
was in those early days. But with the coming of Christianity, many of these Igbo cultural
The destruction of these healthy means of social control did much harm to Igbo society. As Ezeanya
Once the bearers of Christianity cut off the taproot of ancestor veneration
in Igbo culture, all other spheres of the cultural life started falling apart.
This, however, did not prevent the people from believing in ancestors even
as they become Christians, rather it loosened the strength of their bond
both with the traditional religious value and Christianity to a wishy-
washy mediocrity. They became like the proverbial bat that is neither a
mal because of the serious attacks from, and clash with the
mans poor orientation. They had taken the white-man as superior
and his values always swallowed line, hook and sinker.
However, Christianitys negative influence on Igbo culture notwithstanding, any objective person
instance, it was an Igbo old custom to kill twin babies and their mothers
advent of Christianity, twin babies were no longer destroyed. To have twins today
: Three types of human sacrifice existed in Igboland before the arrival of Christianity.
third was the use of priests and manipulators of secret cults, oracle and shrines made of human sacrifice is
There are other positive things like schools, hospitals, roads, agriculture and technology. The
came with education which Christianity has to take credit for.
Christianity and the Promotion of Igbo Culture
at each cultural traditional has important value systems which have formed
each human community the originality that is typically its own, enabling each to e
stablishment of such societies, agencies and institutions like:
Society for promoting Igbo Language and Cultural.
Eastern Nigerian festival of Arts Communities.
Anambra State Council of Arts
Cultural Division, Ministry of Information, Cultural, Youth and Sports.
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196
roles in the community when he said mmo Afia
Mmo Ulaga, in addition to
ning the community, would punish those who committed a nuisance in a public square. Mmo
ct of members of community.
was in those early days. But with the coming of Christianity, many of these Igbo cultural
h harm to Igbo society. As Ezeanya
ding, any objective person
instance, it was an Igbo old custom to kill twin babies and their mothers
is a thing of great joy
: Three types of human sacrifice existed in Igboland before the arrival of Christianity.
ret cults, oracle and shrines made of human sacrifice is
There are other positive things like schools, hospitals, roads, agriculture and technology. The missionaries
at each cultural traditional has important value systems which have formed
each human community the originality that is typically its own, enabling each to exist and to maintain
stablishment of such societies, agencies and institutions like:


Imo State Council of Arts and Culture.
Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Culture for Igbo Studies, Imo State University, Okigwe.
Association for promoting Nigerian Language and Culture and many others (Aguwa, 1990:27).
There have also been seminars, workshops, conferences, lectures, newspapers and individual write
creating awareness for the need and importance of cultural identity. More people are becoming interested
in things of cultural matters. Today, most schools e
cultural week. Students Union Government in University of Nigeria Nsukka for example, usually has
what they call cultural week every session. The laws and regulations of the land are kept by the tradit
Igbo not only to receive blessings from the ancestors and God here on earth, but also to be accepted by
the ancestors at their death. This makes everybody to know the law and keep it religiously. The resultant
effect of this is that it tends to make
western Christian Missionaries and their colonial allies to Igbo land actually made attacks on the religio
cultural life of the Igbo. Egonu (2000:67) also commented that:
Early agents of Christian
often showed evidence of lack of understanding and appreciation of native
cultures and natural ways, thoughts, value concepts and cultural
expressions. As a result, those early missionaries were unable to
adequately relate the Christian message of the Good News to the
peoples way of life in order to reduce the s
Order has this to say: the Missionary personnel consisted of those who were born and buried in
Europe/America and for whom everything African was strange and unacceptable. The mission to preach
the Gospel would not therefore be accomplished within the mis
culture in which Christianity grew. He went on to say that the Missionaries, on their part, never made
any pretence about their lack of understanding, lack of patience/willingness to understand and complete
disregard for whatever was African. With this kind of unguarded approach, the missionaries descended
heavily on every aspect of Igbo culture, destroying so many things. The sale of western culture to the
Igbo started from the introduction of school and catechism
the curriculum that was completely choked and deeply enmeshed in western ideas, values and thinking. It
is at this point that the disorientation started for the young African (Igbo), who, having imbibed this
teaching abandoned his culture and whatever it stood for. From there the old ways began to crack and
others values weakened. It was a serious mistake that missionaries in Igboland took little account of the
belief and customs of the Igbo people. They take
American do them. The fact is that the vaunted flowering and vitality of Igbo Christianity is largely on
the surface. It needs to be given deep tap roots and be made to breathe the native air of Igbo life
reposition Christianity in its relationship to ethnic cultures from prejudiced and rejective approach to that
dialogic. Pope John Paul 11 echoed this point while addressing Bishops from Burma:
The church which is the light of all nations, especial the s
salvation and offers the same means of holiness and justice to all peoples.
Yet, in each local churches she seeks a serious and sincere dialogue with
the culture and traditions of the people. (Agwu, 1990:30)
Christianitys role in the development of Igbo culture, he said, would come from its fundamental
mission which is to develop man and mans world. The church should enter into some sort of mutual
co-existence with the cultures. That is using cultural symbols, practices and values as in
Christianity worship. Agwu also suggested that in order to ensure the survival of some of the Igbo
customs and institutions, Christianity should in some contexts make some festivities and institutions
secular and anti-religious. This is neces
the religious orientation origination and permeation of social practices and institutions. For a typical
Igbo man, it is difficult to separate his social life from religious one. That is
people are deeply religious. It is also why an Igbo convert has always faced the questions of what to do
with his customs after conversion. Speaking further on Igbo cultural elements that should be used to
Imo State Council of Arts and Culture.
Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Culture for Igbo Studies, Imo State University, Okigwe.
ere have also been seminars, workshops, conferences, lectures, newspapers and individual write
in things of cultural matters. Today, most schools especially secondary and tertiary institutions do hold
what they call cultural week every session. The laws and regulations of the land are kept by the tradit
effect of this is that it tends to make the Community remain pure and simple. But the coming of the
western Christian Missionaries and their colonial allies to Igbo land actually made attacks on the religio
cultural life of the Igbo. Egonu (2000:67) also commented that:
Early agents of Christianity in Igboland whatever their denomination
often showed evidence of lack of understanding and appreciation of native
cultures and natural ways, thoughts, value concepts and cultural
expressions. As a result, those early missionaries were unable to
ely relate the Christian message of the Good News to the
peoples way of life in order to reduce the strangeness of the new religion.
the Gospel would not therefore be accomplished within the mission to educate African about western
rd for whatever was African. With this kind of unguarded approach, the missionaries descended
Igbo started from the introduction of school and catechism centers. There, the people were taught with
ching abandoned his culture and whatever it stood for. From there the old ways began to crack and
belief and customs of the Igbo people. They take development to mean doing things as Europeans and
. The fact is that the vaunted flowering and vitality of Igbo Christianity is largely on
the surface. It needs to be given deep tap roots and be made to breathe the native air of Igbo life
The church which is the light of all nations, especial the same message of
salvation and offers the same means of holiness and justice to all peoples.
Yet, in each local churches she seeks a serious and sincere dialogue with
the culture and traditions of the people. (Agwu, 1990:30)
velopment of Igbo culture, he said, would come from its fundamental
existence with the cultures. That is using cultural symbols, practices and values as in
religious. This is necessary since Christianitys early rejections of the native culture were
Igbo man, it is difficult to separate his social life from religious one. That is why Mbiti said that African
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ere have also been seminars, workshops, conferences, lectures, newspapers and individual write-ups
specially secondary and tertiary institutions do hold
what they call cultural week every session. The laws and regulations of the land are kept by the traditional
the Community remain pure and simple. But the coming of the
western Christian Missionaries and their colonial allies to Igbo land actually made attacks on the religio-
African about western
rd for whatever was African. With this kind of unguarded approach, the missionaries descended
centers. There, the people were taught with
ching abandoned his culture and whatever it stood for. From there the old ways began to crack and
doing things as Europeans and
. The fact is that the vaunted flowering and vitality of Igbo Christianity is largely on
the surface. It needs to be given deep tap roots and be made to breathe the native air of Igbo life to
velopment of Igbo culture, he said, would come from its fundamental
existence with the cultures. That is using cultural symbols, practices and values as instruments for
sary since Christianitys early rejections of the native culture were
why Mbiti said that African


express the gospel message so that it would become more meaningful to the people, Chidili (1993:132)
opines that:
we are discovering that Christianity actually is preaching African
tradition but in their own fashion. If the early missionaries had taken a
little time to study the African (Igbo) custom, the mistake would have
been avoided and by now Christianity would have
the ground of African soil.
For instance, the virtue of hospitality and extended family system reveal Igbo community life more
Christ-life than ever. The Igbo people were known to sacrifice their convenience in most trying situ
in order to assist strangers. They have those generally accepted principles that a quest must not harm his
host and that when he departs, he should not develop a hunch back on his way home. Then looking at
community spirit, the apostle Mathew (Mtt 2
emphasizing the importance of community life, loving and caring for one another. This is also reflected in
Igbo community life where the community reaches out to all the members in love, brotherliness and
sincerity. They take care of and protect themselves wherever they are. This tendency is most evident in
the extended families. Every member of the community knows the whereabouts of their people anytime
and in all places, thereby unknowingly fulfilling the b
4:9-10). No one would like to hear that a member of his family died as a result of lack of care. In this
regard, Okwueze (1999:277) mentioned that the socio
and the communal system of life in Igbo traditional society was made in such a way that they provided
support for the less fortunate or less prosperous in the family, community or society.
In typical Igbo society, the more fortunate, the more prosperou
energetic helped the less fortunate, those who were impoverished by ill
disasters or war. In the care of each type of misfortune, friends, relations and community at large were on
hand to give help that would soothe the frayed nerves of the victims. It is this system that kept the Igbo
socio-economic life at a balance, shutting out of the unbridled tendencies to acquire wealth, by all means.
The socio-economic arrangement of the extended famil
the life of Igbo tradition family died. But we know that giving to the poor and the sick in Igbo traditional
society are social elements of the gospel teaching on the care of the poor in our midst.
Umezinwa (2003:149) writing on Bishop Ezeanyas interest on culture and inculcation, mentioned
that Ezeanya emphasized certain cultural values or attitudes that could be adopted and used to express
the gospel message. One of these attitudes is steadfastness. Religions
traditional life. Mbiti (1977:1) said it all when he stated that African communities (Igbo) are notoriously
religious. Wherever the Igbo man is, there is his religion. He sees religion as a God
something that does not just stop here on earth but leads to
Every Igbo man knows the loyalty, respect and obedience, which he owed to the divinities and ancestors.
We know that defaulter can avert the impending cala
made the necessary propitiation. Aware of this, he wastes no time and leaves no stone unturned to make
amends and reconcile himself again with the offended deities because failure to do so before the o
dies attracts him more serious punishments which culminate in his being barred from reaching the land of
the ancestors.
For this, the Igbo traditional man is always a practicing member. He goes along inculcating this
religious behavior into the young through the process of socialization and acculturation. This Igbo
religious arrangement is very similar to the communion of the saints in Christianity and could have been a
wonderful opportunity for enculturation if the early missionaries had cared to m
have roots in Igboland. For Ezeanya, this attitude of remaining a practicing traditional religionist all
through life is a cultural phenomenon that could find its place in Christianity. Thus, he stated that:
Traditional religion of t
keep, the fact that religion is seen as a way
in awareness of our dependence on God our creat
ssage so that it would become more meaningful to the people, Chidili (1993:132)
are discovering that Christianity actually is preaching African
tradition but in their own fashion. If the early missionaries had taken a
little time to study the African (Igbo) custom, the mistake would have
been avoided and by now Christianity would have been probably rooted to
the ground of African soil.
life than ever. The Igbo people were known to sacrifice their convenience in most trying situ
community spirit, the apostle Mathew (Mtt 25:31) talked about the judgment day where he was
ncerity. They take care of and protect themselves wherever they are. This tendency is most evident in
and in all places, thereby unknowingly fulfilling the biblical injunction to be your brothers keeper (Gen
10). No one would like to hear that a member of his family died as a result of lack of care. In this
regard, Okwueze (1999:277) mentioned that the socio-economic structure of the extended family sys
In typical Igbo society, the more fortunate, the more prosperous, the more gifted and the more
energetic helped the less fortunate, those who were impoverished by ill-health, unlucky harvest, natural
e help that would soothe the frayed nerves of the victims. It is this system that kept the Igbo
economic life at a balance, shutting out of the unbridled tendencies to acquire wealth, by all means.
economic arrangement of the extended family system and the community system of life and
03:149) writing on Bishop Ezeanyas interest on culture and inculcation, mentioned
the gospel message. One of these attitudes is steadfastness. Religions, he said, touches all facets of the
religious. Wherever the Igbo man is, there is his religion. He sees religion as a God
that does not just stop here on earth but leads to eternity; therefore, he devotes his time for it.
We know that defaulter can avert the impending calamity if he can quickly offer appropriate sacrifice and
amends and reconcile himself again with the offended deities because failure to do so before the o
ng through the process of socialization and acculturation. This Igbo
wonderful opportunity for enculturation if the early missionaries had cared to make the gospel message
Traditional religion of the Igbo people presents to us something we must treasure and
keep, the fact that religion is seen as a way of life to which we must stick firmly always
in awareness of our dependence on God our creator and rewarder. Secondly, that
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198
ssage so that it would become more meaningful to the people, Chidili (1993:132)
life than ever. The Igbo people were known to sacrifice their convenience in most trying situations
5:31) talked about the judgment day where he was
ncerity. They take care of and protect themselves wherever they are. This tendency is most evident in
iblical injunction to be your brothers keeper (Gen
10). No one would like to hear that a member of his family died as a result of lack of care. In this
economic structure of the extended family system
s, the more gifted and the more
health, unlucky harvest, natural
e help that would soothe the frayed nerves of the victims. It is this system that kept the Igbo
economic life at a balance, shutting out of the unbridled tendencies to acquire wealth, by all means.
y system and the community system of life and
03:149) writing on Bishop Ezeanyas interest on culture and inculcation, mentioned
, he said, touches all facets of the
religious. Wherever the Igbo man is, there is his religion. He sees religion as a God-given gift and
therefore, he devotes his time for it.
mity if he can quickly offer appropriate sacrifice and
amends and reconcile himself again with the offended deities because failure to do so before the offender
ng through the process of socialization and acculturation. This Igbo
ake the gospel message
he Igbo people presents to us something we must treasure and
of life to which we must stick firmly always
or and rewarder. Secondly, that


everyone must persevere i
Should serve us in our Christian life (
All these and more he said are left in the hands of the agents of evangelization to use them to make
the gospel more comprehensive and comprehensible to our people.
In the sacrament of baptism and confirmation, Ezeanya advocates the use of Igbo names which is
more meaningful than foreign names. The Igbo adopted names depending on the circumstances
surrounding the birth of a child. Igb
their equivalence in other languages which they do not understand. In January 1972, a new law was
promulgated in Zaire where Christian names were henceforth not to be used. A well known priest
and theologian Vincent Milago became from that moment Mulago gwa Cikala Musharhamina, and with
him all the millions of Christians in Zaire abandoned their baptismal names. Hastings (1976: 37) reporting
Mobutu thus; our ancestors never had such n
reappear from beneath that cultural imperialism of the west with which Christianity has undoubtedly, been most closely
linked.
Today, many Igbo families, during baptism give their ch
meaning unlike what they were during the days of early missionaries.
need for the use of Igbo Local Oil, like palm oil and coconut in place of olive oil in the sacrament of
baptism, confirmation, anointing of the sick and sacrament of Holy orders. He argued that the oil has
symbolic meaning the Igbo people. It is something they are very familiar and very much at home unlike
the olive oil which has some meaning for the people of the Medi
people, there is an element of magic in the use of olive oil in the administration of the sacrament. In the
writes option, the suggestion is valid and promotes enculturation. We are also told that God is able to
relate or meet in their different life situations. His place of worship and method of service have to vary
according to people and nation. God does not command people to serve Him or pray to Him in
borrowed teachings or language. Ozigboh (1985:37) writing on
The evidence of scripture, theology and history, is so
cannot but affirm that the local
of the churchin Igboland. Any affirmation to the contrary is fal
anddeceptive. Theologically speaking, there is no prerogativeof one language
over another. All languages are actuallyor potentially language of the
church.
Some of agents of evangelization who are very narrow minded and lack experiences believe that
they are doing well by abrogating some cultural practices that have nothing against Christianity. Some
parishes and communities have been torn apart because of poor handling of some cultural festivals and
institutions like burial ceremonies, masquerades, ozo
Christ. The erosion of Igbo traditional values does not make people better Christians. Genuine Igbo
Christians will emerge when the gospel is preached through their genuine culture and tradition and this
what African Christianity should fight for. And until then, we cannot talk of true African Christianity.
Conclusion
The Igbo deep sense of religion reveals their deep awareness of the past, presents and future of their
being. They know that they are
missionaries who came to Igboland either because they were uniformed completely denied the element of
religiosity among the Igbo. They condemned many authentic Igbo values that were in no way op
Christian values. The initial false steps in the early contact generated conflicts, misunderstandings, and
disorganization of traditional social and cultural set
have been said and written on Afri
in the shackles of a white church. Any attempt to build a strong and healthy African (Igbo) church that
plays down the local cultural heritage, cannot be germane. The church in I
to make it self-governing, self-supporting and self
and tradition that the church should adopt and encourage to make Igbo Christians feel more at home
everyone must persevere in his religion until the end. This is a valuable idea which
serve us in our Christian life (Umuezinwa, 2003:150).
and comprehensible to our people.
surrounding the birth of a child. Igbo names, which the Igbo understand, should take precedence over
promulgated in Zaire where Christian names were henceforth not to be used. A well known priest
ur ancestors never had such names authentic African culture and authentic, African names must now
Today, many Igbo families, during baptism give their children only Igbo names with beautiful
meaning unlike what they were during the days of early missionaries. Echemazu (1992:191) suggested the
nfirmation, anointing of the sick and sacrament of Holy orders. He argued that the oil has
the olive oil which has some meaning for the people of the Mediterranean area. In the eyes of the Igbo
ate or meet in their different life situations. His place of worship and method of service have to vary
borrowed teachings or language. Ozigboh (1985:37) writing on liturgical innovation stated that:
The evidence of scripture, theology and history, is so overwhelming that one
but affirm that the local church is its language. Igbo is the language
of the churchin Igboland. Any affirmation to the contrary is false
anddeceptive. Theologically speaking, there is no prerogativeof one language
over another. All languages are actuallyor potentially language of the
y are doing well by abrogating some cultural practices that have nothing against Christianity. Some
institutions like burial ceremonies, masquerades, ozo titles and the rest of them by these ambassadors of
Christians will emerge when the gospel is preached through their genuine culture and tradition and this
being. They know that they are created by God and going back to God in future. But the early
religiosity among the Igbo. They condemned many authentic Igbo values that were in no way op
disorganization of traditional social and cultural set-ups. Since the Second Vatican Council,fine things
have been said and written on Africanization of Christianity, yet in spite of all, African Christians remains
plays down the local cultural heritage, cannot be germane. The church in Igboland has all that it required
supporting and self-propagating. There are several aspects of Igbo cultural
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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199
n his religion until the end. This is a valuable idea which
o names, which the Igbo understand, should take precedence over
promulgated in Zaire where Christian names were henceforth not to be used. A well known priest, author
African names must now
ildren only Igbo names with beautiful
Echemazu (1992:191) suggested the
nfirmation, anointing of the sick and sacrament of Holy orders. He argued that the oil has
terranean area. In the eyes of the Igbo
ate or meet in their different life situations. His place of worship and method of service have to vary
liturgical innovation stated that:
y are doing well by abrogating some cultural practices that have nothing against Christianity. Some
titles and the rest of them by these ambassadors of
Christians will emerge when the gospel is preached through their genuine culture and tradition and this is
created by God and going back to God in future. But the early
religiosity among the Igbo. They condemned many authentic Igbo values that were in no way opposed to
ups. Since the Second Vatican Council,fine things
canization of Christianity, yet in spite of all, African Christians remains
gboland has all that it required
propagating. There are several aspects of Igbo cultural


with Christianity. Igbo values like deep religious disposition, honesty, hard work, just, and sanctity of
marriage, truthfulness and the rest of them should be made use of Igbo values have much to teach the
world and until we recognize that and practicalize it, Igbo value
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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND PSYCHOPATHIC BEHAVIO
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN PORT HARCOURT
MRS. BETTY
MRS.
UCHENNA CHARLES ACHONWA
Department o
Abstract
The study investigated the relationship between emotional intelligence and psychopathic behaviors
(bullying and stealing) among secondary school students. Two research questions were raised an
two hypotheses tested at 0.05 level of significance. A sample size of 714 Senior Secondary 3 students
was randomly selected through simple random sampling technique.
Correlation (r) was used in analyzing the data, while the null hy
The result showed that there was no significant relationship between emotional intelligence and
psychopathic behaviors of secondary school students (bullying and stealing); although the result
showed they have a negative relationship.
Psychologists that among other variables, emotional intelligence is one of the predictive variables of
psychopathic behaviors (bullying and stealing). Recommendations were made among whic
emotional intelligence should be integrated into the school curriculum.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND PSYCHOPATHIC BEHAVIO
By
BETTY-RUTH NGOZI IRULOH, Ph.D
. IJEOMA ERNEST-EHIBUDU, Ph.D
&
UCHENNA CHARLES ACHONWA

(bullying and stealing) among secondary school students. Two research questions were raised an
was randomly selected through simple random sampling technique. Pearson Product Moment
Correlation (r) was used in analyzing the data, while the null hypotheses were tested using Z
relationship. The result also suggests more especially to Counseling
psychopathic behaviors (bullying and stealing). Recommendations were made among whic
emotional intelligence should be integrated into the school curriculum.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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202
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND PSYCHOPATHIC BEHAVIOURS AMONG
(bullying and stealing) among secondary school students. Two research questions were raised and
Pearson Product Moment
potheses were tested using Z-test.
The result also suggests more especially to Counseling
psychopathic behaviors (bullying and stealing). Recommendations were made among which is that


Introduction
The country over time has been besieged by armed robbery, militancy and currently terrorism. These have
challenged the economy, unity, development and
bloodshed, fear and suspicion to its credit. These bloody acts probably started from acts such as bullying
which were ineffectively handled and thus culminated to the acts of violence that have plag
today. If this research is not executed, it is very possible that bullying and stealing among secondary
school students will further increase, both in frequency and in form climaxing into sophisticated acts of
cultism, terrorism, armed robbery and other anti
our already embattled society into deeper depths of moral decay across the length and breadth of every
institution in the nation. It will further erode of our cultural heritage/values
sophisticated acts of terrorism.
Emotional intelligence is the ability to acquire and apply knowledge from ones emotions and the
emotions of others (Mayer, Caruso & Salovey, 1999). One can use the information about what one is
feeling to help him/her make effective decisions about what to say or do (or what not to say or do). Thus
the researchers deduce emotional intelligence as the effective awareness, control and management of
one's own emotions and those of other people. Emotional Intel
different way of being smart i.e. having the skill to use your emotions to help one make choices in
moment and have more effective control over oneself and ones impact on others. It is very possible that
the Socratic philosophy, Man Know Thyself
intelligence, since it involves the acquisition of knowledge of ones emotion, which in turn forms the basis
for his decisions and actions. It then means that there is
be controlled or influenced, if one is able to understand his emotions and apply this knowledge
effectively. Emotional intelligence
emotions to enhance thinking. Some people accomplish certain tasks with great ease and sophistication;
while others simply cannot do those tasks.
According to Skeem, Polaschek, Patrick and
as personality disorder characterized by enduring antisocial behavior, diminished empathy and remorse
and disinhibited or bold behavior. It may also be defined as a continuous aspect of personality
representing scores on different personality dimensions found throughout the population in varying
combinations. The study of the psychopath reveals an individual who is incapable of feeling guilt,
remorse or empathy for their actions. They are generally cu
between right and wrong but dismiss it as applying to them. They are incapable of normal emotions such
as love; they generally react without considering the consequences of their actions and show extreme
egocentric and narcissistic behavior.
There are different degrees of psychopathic behavior and different types including the sexual
psychopath and the work psychopath. Most studies indicate that there are no conventional methods
available which cure psychopathic b
used, the psychopath becomes empowered and reacts by improving their cunning, manipulative methods
and their ability to conceal their true personality, even from trained eyes.
Since the psychopath has no real emotions, they develop their own personality throughout their
life by mimicking those around them. Their inability to control inappropriate outburst of anger and
hostility often results in loss of jobs, disassociation with friends and famil
filtered by the psychopath into a justification process for more aggressive behavior. Their inability to
gauge when their actions are being perceived as dishonest, deceitful or dangerous, make them also fail to
accept that there are consequences for their actions. They always maintain a belief that they can outwit
those who pursue them and that they will never be caught. Once caught, they believe they will find a way
back out. This work studied two psychopathic behaviors: bu
A broad definition of bullying as opined by (Olweus 1993), is when a student is repeatedly exposed
to negative actions on the part of one or more other students. These physical actions can take the forms
challenged the economy, unity, development and security status of our nation, with unfortunate trails of
which were ineffectively handled and thus culminated to the acts of violence that have plag
ery and other anti-social and immoral conducts. This will further plunge
institution in the nation. It will further erode of our cultural heritage/values
help him/her make effective decisions about what to say or do (or what not to say or do). Thus
one's own emotions and those of other people. Emotional Intelligence is not about being soft; it is a
different way of being smart i.e. having the skill to use your emotions to help one make choices in
Man Know Thyself is evidently expressed in the concept of emotional
for his decisions and actions. It then means that there is a possibility that human actions good or bad can
Emotional intelligence represents an ability to validly reason with emotions and to use
while others simply cannot do those tasks.
According to Skeem, Polaschek, Patrick and Lilienfeld (2011), psychopathy is traditionally defined
presenting scores on different personality dimensions found throughout the population in varying
remorse or empathy for their actions. They are generally cunning, manipulative and know the difference
ic and narcissistic behavior.
available which cure psychopathic behavior. On the contrary, when conventional methods have been
and their ability to conceal their true personality, even from trained eyes.
ath has no real emotions, they develop their own personality throughout their
hostility often results in loss of jobs, disassociation with friends and family and divorce. This in itself is
there are consequences for their actions. They always maintain a belief that they can outwit
back out. This work studied two psychopathic behaviors: bullying and stealing.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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203
security status of our nation, with unfortunate trails of
which were ineffectively handled and thus culminated to the acts of violence that have plagued the nation
social and immoral conducts. This will further plunge
institution in the nation. It will further erode of our cultural heritage/values and evolution of
help him/her make effective decisions about what to say or do (or what not to say or do). Thus
ligence is not about being soft; it is a
different way of being smart i.e. having the skill to use your emotions to help one make choices in-the-
is evidently expressed in the concept of emotional
a possibility that human actions good or bad can
represents an ability to validly reason with emotions and to use
Lilienfeld (2011), psychopathy is traditionally defined
presenting scores on different personality dimensions found throughout the population in varying
nning, manipulative and know the difference
ehavior. On the contrary, when conventional methods have been
ath has no real emotions, they develop their own personality throughout their
y and divorce. This in itself is
there are consequences for their actions. They always maintain a belief that they can outwit


of physical contact, verbal abuse or making faces and rude gestures; spreading rumours and excluding the
victim from a group are also common forms of bullying. These negative actions are not necessarily
provoked by the victim for such action to be regarded as bullying; an imbalance in r
power must exist between the victim and the person who victimizes him or her. These and many more
characterize bullying.
School is perceived to be a place where students should feel safe and secure but the opposite is the
case. The reality is that a significant number of students are the target of the bullying. Bullying though old
is a widespread and worldwide problem.
Most adults can remember incidents of bullying in which they were either bullies or bullied. In fact, until
recently, the common perception had been that bullying was a relatively harmless experience that many
children experience during their school years.
Grant (2011) observes that stealing among high school students is fairly common and is associated
with a broad range of behavioral problems. Students who steal exhibit a range of addictive and socially
unacceptable behaviors. Although the stealing may reflect a larger pattern of antisocial behavior, there has
been relatively little research exploring stealing correlates with
this, causes of stealing have been traced to many variables excluding emotional intelligence. In his
findings, Grant (2011) provides clues as to possible etiologies of stealing behavior in adolescents. In
students who stole, stealing was associated with alcohol and drug use, heavy caffeine use, and regular
smoking. Those who stole reported symptoms consistent with addictive behaviors: having the urge to
steal, spending a significant amount of time engaged in the beh
adolescents who stole did so more than seven times per week), attempting to cut back on the amount of
stealing, missing opportunities due to stealing behavior, and experiencing a calming effect from stealing.
These findings suggest that perhaps stealing in some adolescents is part of a larger constellation of
addictive behaviors that include smoking, using alcohol and drugs, and the strengthening of these
associations as stealing becomes more pathological.
As this trend goes unchecked, especially in our secondary schools, it soon blossoms into armed
robbery and subsequently terrorism. People do not wake up and become thieves there are processes that
groom every potential thief into one. Some of these processes are both
in our schools, family and society at large.
seldom considered may have relationship with students bullying and stealing behaviors. The problem of
the study therefore is: Does emotional intelligence of secondary school students have any relationship
with their psychopathic behaviors (bullying and stealing)?
The purpose, therefore for
intelligence and psychopathic behavio
Harcourt. In specific terms, the study intends to:
1. find out the extent of emotional intelligence relationship
2. investigate the relationship between em

The following research questions guided the study:
1. What is the extent of relationship between emotional intelligence and bullying?
2. How does emotional intelligence relate with stealing?
The following hypotheses were tes
Ho1 There is no significant relationship between emotional intelligence and bullying.
Ho2 There is no significant relationship between emotional intelligence and stealing.

Methodology
The study examined the relationship b
(bullying and stealing) among secondary school students in Port Harcourt. It is a correlational study. The
se or making faces and rude gestures; spreading rumours and excluding the
provoked by the victim for such action to be regarded as bullying; an imbalance in r
is that a significant number of students are the target of the bullying. Bullying though old
is a widespread and worldwide problem.
common perception had been that bullying was a relatively harmless experience that many
children experience during their school years.
ehavioral problems. Students who steal exhibit a range of addictive and socially
been relatively little research exploring stealing correlates with broad indices of psychopathology. Beyond
who stole, stealing was associated with alcohol and drug use, heavy caffeine use, and regular
steal, spending a significant amount of time engaged in the behavior (approximately one
indings suggest that perhaps stealing in some adolescents is part of a larger constellation of
associations as stealing becomes more pathological.
nd goes unchecked, especially in our secondary schools, it soon blossoms into armed
groom every potential thief into one. Some of these processes are both passively and actively in practice
in our schools, family and society at large. However, it is possible that emotional intelligence which is
herefore is: Does emotional intelligence of secondary school students have any relationship
with their psychopathic behaviors (bullying and stealing)?
, therefore for this study is to investigate the relationship between emotional
and psychopathic behaviours (bullying and stealing) among secondary school students in Port
Harcourt. In specific terms, the study intends to:
of emotional intelligence relationship with bullying.
investigate the relationship between emotional intelligence and stealing.
The following research questions guided the study:
What is the extent of relationship between emotional intelligence and bullying?
How does emotional intelligence relate with stealing?
The following hypotheses were tested at .05 level of significance:
There is no significant relationship between emotional intelligence and bullying.
There is no significant relationship between emotional intelligence and stealing.
The study examined the relationship between the emotional intelligence and psychopathic behaviors
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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204
se or making faces and rude gestures; spreading rumours and excluding the
provoked by the victim for such action to be regarded as bullying; an imbalance in real or perceived
is that a significant number of students are the target of the bullying. Bullying though old
common perception had been that bullying was a relatively harmless experience that many
ehavioral problems. Students who steal exhibit a range of addictive and socially
broad indices of psychopathology. Beyond
who stole, stealing was associated with alcohol and drug use, heavy caffeine use, and regular
avior (approximately one-quarter of the
indings suggest that perhaps stealing in some adolescents is part of a larger constellation of
nd goes unchecked, especially in our secondary schools, it soon blossoms into armed
passively and actively in practice
However, it is possible that emotional intelligence which is
herefore is: Does emotional intelligence of secondary school students have any relationship
to investigate the relationship between emotional
rs (bullying and stealing) among secondary school students in Port
What is the extent of relationship between emotional intelligence and bullying?
There is no significant relationship between emotional intelligence and bullying.
There is no significant relationship between emotional intelligence and stealing.
etween the emotional intelligence and psychopathic behaviors


independent variables of the study are bullying and stealing, while emotional intelligen
variable. A sample of 714 students was randomly selected using the simple random sampling technique.
Two instruments were used for the study. The first one is tagged Schutte Self Report Emotional
Intelligence Test (SSET) and it contains
Student Psychopatic Behaviors Questionnaire (SPBQ). It was used to assess the students extent of
inclination to psychopathic behaviors. It contains 20 items. The two questionnaires whose rel
efficients are 0.65 and 0.62 respectively, were used to obtain information about the students emotional
intelligence, stealing and bully behaviors. The data collected was analyzed using
Correlation (r). The hypotheses we
research questions and hypotheses:
Table 1: Relationship between emotional intelligence and bullying among secondary school students in
Port Harcourt L.G.A
Variables N
Emotional Intelligence and
Bullying
714

Table 1 above shows the relationship between emotional intelligence and bullying among secondary
school students in Port Harcourt L.G.A. The
low negative relationship between the variables. Hypothesis testing by converting the correlation
coefficient, r to z ratio showed the calculated z of
degree of freedom and at the alpha level of 0.05. Hence, the decision to accept the null hypothesis of no
significant relationship between emotional intelligence and bullying among secondary school students in
Port Harcourt L.G.A.
Table 2: Relationship between emotional intelligence and stealing among secondary school students in
Port Harcourt L.G.A.
Variables
Emotional Intelligence and
Stealing
Table 2 above shows the relationship between emotional intelligence and stealing among secondary
school students in Port Harcourt L.G.A. The correlation coefficient r was
low negative relationship between the variables. Hypothesis testing b
coefficient, r to z ratio showed the calculated z of
degree of freedom and at the alpha level of 0.05. Hence, the decision to reject the null hypothesis of no
significant relationship between emotional intelligence and stealing among secondary school students in
Port Harcourt L.G.A and accept the alternate hypothesis of a significant relationship between emotional
intelligence and stealing among secondary school students
Discussion
The result indicates that there is no significant relationship between emotional intelligence and bullying
among secondary school students in Port Harcourt L.G.A. However, there is a negative relationship
between emotional intelligence and bullying implying that emotional intelligence exerts a degree of
influence on bullying. This means that as a student understands his emotions and those of others; his
propensity to bully another student reduces and vice versa. Th
agreement with findings of Vogel (2006) and Lomas, Stough, Hansen, & Downey (2012), who studied the
relationship between bullies, their victims and emotional intelligence among 235 fourth and fifth grade
students and their emotional intelligence, bullying behaviours and peer adolescents of 68 adolescents
respectively.
The result also indicates that there is a significant relationship between emotional intelligence and
stealing among secondary school students in Port Har
low negative relationship between emotional intelligence and stealing, implying that emotional intelligence
has a significant degree of relationship with stealing. This
independent variables of the study are bullying and stealing, while emotional intelligen
Intelligence Test (SSET) and it contains 33 items. The second instrument used for the study was tagged
inclination to psychopathic behaviors. It contains 20 items. The two questionnaires whose rel
intelligence, stealing and bully behaviors. The data collected was analyzed using Pearson Product Moment
Correlation (r). The hypotheses were tested using Ztest. The results were presented in line with the
research questions and hypotheses:
Relationship between emotional intelligence and bullying among secondary school students in
N R z cal z crit Df Alpha level
714 -0.009 -0.243 -1.960 712 0.05
school students in Port Harcourt L.G.A. The correlation coefficient r was -0.009 which indicated a very
coefficient, r to z ratio showed the calculated z of -0.243 to be less than the critical z of
onship between emotional intelligence and stealing among secondary school students in
N r z cal z crit Df Alpha level
714 -0.100 -2.703 -1.960 712 0.05
shows the relationship between emotional intelligence and stealing among secondary
school students in Port Harcourt L.G.A. The correlation coefficient r was -0.100 which indicated a very
coefficient, r to z ratio showed the calculated z of -2.703 to be greater than the critical z of
t relationship between emotional intelligence and stealing among secondary school students in
intelligence and stealing among secondary school students in Port Harcourt L.G.A.
emotional intelligence and bullying implying that emotional intelligence exerts a degree of
propensity to bully another student reduces and vice versa. The finding of this present study is in
heir emotional intelligence, bullying behaviours and peer adolescents of 68 adolescents
stealing among secondary school students in Port Harcourt L.G.A. From the findings, there exists a very
has a significant degree of relationship with stealing. This means that students with very high
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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205
independent variables of the study are bullying and stealing, while emotional intelligence is the dependent
33 items. The second instrument used for the study was tagged
inclination to psychopathic behaviors. It contains 20 items. The two questionnaires whose reliability co-
Pearson Product Moment
test. The results were presented in line with the
Relationship between emotional intelligence and bullying among secondary school students in
Result
Not Significant
0.009 which indicated a very
0.243 to be less than the critical z of -1.960 at 712
onship between emotional intelligence and stealing among secondary school students in
Result
Significant
shows the relationship between emotional intelligence and stealing among secondary
0.100 which indicated a very
y converting the correlation
2.703 to be greater than the critical z of -1.960 at 712
t relationship between emotional intelligence and stealing among secondary school students in
emotional intelligence and bullying implying that emotional intelligence exerts a degree of
e finding of this present study is in
heir emotional intelligence, bullying behaviours and peer adolescents of 68 adolescents
court L.G.A. From the findings, there exists a very
means that students with very high emotional


intelligence quotient will most likely abstain from stealing or have minimal desire for it, whereas students
who possess low emotional intelligence quotient are most likely to exploit stealing opportunities or even
create one to satisfy their crave.
The Z statistic was applied, and the
calculated z of -2.703 to be greater than the critical z of
statistically significant (Table 4.4). r
1% variance in stealing among students. Hence the remaining 99% variation in stealing among students
can be explained by other factors which may include parenting style, peer group influ
limited availability of researches in the area of stealing among students as it relates to emotional
intelligence, there is no known study to the researchers that either agrees or disagrees with the finding of
this study.
Conclusion
The study examined the relationship between the emotional intelligence and psychopathic behaviors
(bullying and stealing) of secondary school students in Port Harcourt. The senior secondary three (3)
students were used for the study. It was observed that a st
of others will most likely have a low propensity to bully others and steal. Thus emotional intelligence is a
predictive factor in managing psychopathic behaviors (bullying and stealing) among students.
Recommendations
The following recommendations were made from the study:
1. Emotional intelligence should be integrated into the school curriculum to create the necessary
awareness required to contain the challenge of bullying and stealing among secondary school
students.
2. Counseling Psychologists should among others assess the extent of a students emotional
intelligence, while counseling any bully or any caught stealing.
3. Seminars should be organized periodically for parents by schools or teachers, to equip them with
information on emotional intelligence and how to develop it and assess its quotient in the
children.

References
Grant, J. E. (2011) Stealing Among High School Students: Prevalence and Clinical Correlates.
American Academy Psychiatry and Law
Lomas, J., Stough, C., Hansen, K. & Downey, L. A. (2012). Brief Report: Emotional intelligence,
victimisation and bullying in adolescents.
Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D., & Salovey, P. (1999).
intelligence. Intelligence, 27, 267
Montaldo, C. (2014) Characteristics of the Psychopathic Personality.
crime.about.com/od/serial/a/psychopaths
Olanrewaju, T. & Akano, R. (2011). Nigerian Tribune:
Olweus, D. (1993). Bully/victim problems among school children: Long
effective intervention program. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Schutte, N.S., Malouff, J. M., Hall, L. E.
Development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence.
Differences, 25, 167-177.
Skeem, J.L., Polaschek, D. L., Patrick, C.J. & Lilienfeld, S.O. (2011). Psycho
the gap between scientific evidence and public policy.
95-162.
The Z statistic was applied, and the r value (-0.100) which was converted to Z ratio showed the
2.703 to be greater than the critical z of -1.960 at the alpha level of 0.05 was found to be
statistically significant (Table 4.4). r
2
which equals 0.01 means that emotional intelligence can only explain
can be explained by other factors which may include parenting style, peer group influ
study examined the relationship between the emotional intelligence and psychopathic behaviors
students were used for the study. It was observed that a student who understands his emotions and those
The following recommendations were made from the study:
Emotional intelligence should be integrated into the school curriculum to create the necessary
Counseling Psychologists should among others assess the extent of a students emotional
intelligence, while counseling any bully or any caught stealing.
Seminars should be organized periodically for parents by schools or teachers, to equip them with
Grant, J. E. (2011) Stealing Among High School Students: Prevalence and Clinical Correlates.
American Academy Psychiatry and Law 39:1:44-52
victimisation and bullying in adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 35, (2012) 207
Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D., & Salovey, P. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an
, 27, 267- 298.
Montaldo, C. (2014) Characteristics of the Psychopathic Personality.
psychopaths.htm
Akano, R. (2011). Nigerian Tribune: Monday, 03 October, 2011.
Olweus, D. (1993). Bully/victim problems among school children: Long-term consequences and an
effective intervention program. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Schutte, N.S., Malouff, J. M., Hall, L. E., Haggerty, D. J., Cooper, J. T. & Golden, C. J. (1998).
Development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual
Skeem, J.L., Polaschek, D. L., Patrick, C.J. & Lilienfeld, S.O. (2011). Psychopathic Personality
the gap between scientific evidence and public policy. Psychological Science in the Public Interest
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
206
0.100) which was converted to Z ratio showed the
1.960 at the alpha level of 0.05 was found to be
which equals 0.01 means that emotional intelligence can only explain
can be explained by other factors which may include parenting style, peer group influence etc. Given the
study examined the relationship between the emotional intelligence and psychopathic behaviors
udent who understands his emotions and those
Emotional intelligence should be integrated into the school curriculum to create the necessary
Counseling Psychologists should among others assess the extent of a students emotional
Seminars should be organized periodically for parents by schools or teachers, to equip them with
Grant, J. E. (2011) Stealing Among High School Students: Prevalence and Clinical Correlates. Journal of
211.
traditional standards for an

term consequences and an
T. & Golden, C. J. (1998).
Personality and Individual
pathic Personality - Bridging
Psychological Science in the Public Interest 12 (3)


Singh, Y. G. (2012) Emotional intelligence and school satisfaction of truant and
International Indexed and Referred Research Journal
Vogel, S. W. (2006). The Relationship between Bullying and Emotional Intelligence. A doctoral
dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Department of Psychology at North central
University, Prescott, Arizona.

Singh, Y. G. (2012) Emotional intelligence and school satisfaction of truant and
onal Indexed and Referred Research Journal, 1011.
scott, Arizona.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
207
non truant students.


EVALUATION OF ADMINISTRATIVE BOTTLE
IMPLEMENTATION OF FAMILY PLANNING PROGRAMME IN AGUATA
LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF ANAMBRA STATE, NIGERIA
University of Port Harocurt, Port Harcourt.
NKECHINYELU, MARTINA IHEKWOBA
University of Port Harocurt, Port Harcourt

Abstract
The study critically evaluated the administrative bottle
implementation of family planning programmes in Aguata Local government Area of Anambra State,
Nigeria. The study was informed by series of impediments against the smooth act
goals of family planning programmes. The descriptive research survey was employed. The population
consisted of all women of child bearing age and health service providers in the researched domain with
a sample size of 200 participants and
were formulated to guide the study. Self
percentages were used to analyse the demographic data while x
the variables under study. It was revealed that level of awareness and inadequate supply of materials
were significant constraints while poor work attitude of personnel was retained. It was therefore
recommended among others that massive campaig
women appreciation and utilization while enough funding and materials should be provided at
affordable costs.

EVALUATION OF ADMINISTRATIVE BOTTLE-NECK IN THE EFFECTIVE

By

DR. J.E.F. OKPAKO

&

NKECHINYELU, MARTINA IHEKWOBA

evaluated the administrative bottle-necks and other constraints in the effective
Nigeria. The study was informed by series of impediments against the smooth act
a sample size of 200 participants and the judgmental sampling technique. Three research hypotheses
were formulated to guide the study. Self-structured questionnaire was used for data collection. Simple
percentages were used to analyse the demographic data while x
2
set at .05 alpha level used
recommended among others that massive campaign on literacy and awareness should be created for
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208
NECK IN THE EFFECTIVE
necks and other constraints in the effective
Nigeria. The study was informed by series of impediments against the smooth actualization of the
the judgmental sampling technique. Three research hypotheses
structured questionnaire was used for data collection. Simple
set at .05 alpha level used to analyse
n on literacy and awareness should be created for


Introduction
Population growth rate is a global phenomenon which determines the
living standards of every nation and
depends on the will (especially political) and the ability of the affected country to articulate and handle
such situation. Hence in a very populous nations such as India and China and significantly too, the United
States of America, approach their population grow
the intended outcome of better living standard
is however different in most developing countries in Africa and the Asia nations in the

Population growth is scientifically manipulable thro
such as fertility, mortality and migration (emigration and immigration). Hence nations with disturbing
population explosion may employ the fertility control and further encourage emigration while
discouraging immigration. This may be reasonably done at th
population data-base is reliable. This is not yet fully established in many African nations which
Nigeria.

It has been observed that for effective national population growth control, the best approach
should be focused and implemented at the individual level (the grassroots). Hence individual is
encouraged to limit the total number of their children at the family level, if not for any purpose but for
the sake of their life long and healthy economic convenience. F
children per man is encouraged and tax free, any number above this becomes taxable. This is the tax law
regulation. This is however partially practicable only among civil servants who form insignificant
percentage in the midst of other numerous stakeholders who may be rich our poor and polygamous
practice with chains of wives and wagon of children without adequate preparations for future sustainable
careers.

It is now a general observation that
beyond the economy which is however due to poor management. This is worrisome especially when
majority are poor, illiterate, unemployed and sometimes negatively influenced by ones cultural dictates.
The obvious consequence of this is the high incidence of maternal morbidity and mortality rates, child
abandonment and abuse, adolescent pregnancy, under nutrition and general low standard o
services. United Nations Report (2007) rightly reported that Nigerias pop
explosive growth and would be one of the countries in the world to account for most of the worlds total
population increase. Yet according to USAID (2009)
8.9% with an explosive fertility rate of 3.2% capable of doubling the population by 2050.

Based on the above indices, the reconsideration of birth per individuals and per family became an
issue given the deserved attention and consequent planned documentation and propaganda to s
the populace by professionals in health and other related disciplines. This formed the genesis of
contemporary birth control or the use of contraceptives to safeguard the growth of population at all
levels and as at when required.

WHO (1971) defines family planning as a way of thinking and living, that is adopted voluntarily
upon the basis of knowledge, attitudes and responsible decisions by individuals and couples in order to
promote the health and welfare of the family group and thus contribut
developments of the country.

In the same vein, the Planned Parenthood Federal of Nigeria explained family planning as a way by
which individual couples or parties exercise their basic rights in family formation process to impro
living standard, health and life expectancy by deciding freely and responsibly on; seeking information on
child bearing choices whether to have children or not, when to begin and when to end and using
contraceptive methods to achieve child bearing

One of the major components of Primary Health
reproductive health care through a well
care in the family planning programmes. Infact fami
Population growth rate is a global phenomenon which determines the economic development and the
of every nation and her citizenry. The positive or the negative impacts of such growth
Hence in a very populous nations such as India and China and significantly too, the United
States of America, approach their population growth to push the economy forward;
the intended outcome of better living standards comparable with other nations in the world. The situation
is however different in most developing countries in Africa and the Asia nations in the
Population growth is scientifically manipulable through the major influencing indic
discouraging immigration. This may be reasonably done at the national level by countries whose
reliable. This is not yet fully established in many African nations which
focused and implemented at the individual level (the grassroots). Hence individual is
the sake of their life long and healthy economic convenience. For example in Nigeria maximum of four
he midst of other numerous stakeholders who may be rich our poor and polygamous
It is now a general observation that the overall population of the nation is gradually growing
e of this is the high incidence of maternal morbidity and mortality rates, child
abandonment and abuse, adolescent pregnancy, under nutrition and general low standard o
ations Report (2007) rightly reported that Nigerias population was undergoing
population increase. Yet according to USAID (2009), Nigeria has a low contraceptive prevalence of just
rtility rate of 3.2% capable of doubling the population by 2050.
issue given the deserved attention and consequent planned documentation and propaganda to s
family planning as a way of thinking and living, that is adopted voluntarily
promote the health and welfare of the family group and thus contribute effectively to the social
which individual couples or parties exercise their basic rights in family formation process to impro
contraceptive methods to achieve child bearing choices etc.
or components of Primary Health Care, centres on the improvement of
reproductive health care through a well-articulated system which ensures integration of maternal and child
care in the family planning programmes. Infact family planning has become indispensible in Nigeria,
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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209
economic development and the
citizenry. The positive or the negative impacts of such growth
Hence in a very populous nations such as India and China and significantly too, the United
th to push the economy forward; especially USA, with
comparable with other nations in the world. The situation
is however different in most developing countries in Africa and the Asia nations in the Middle East.
ugh the major influencing indices of growth
e national level by countries whose
reliable. This is not yet fully established in many African nations which include
focused and implemented at the individual level (the grassroots). Hence individual is
or example in Nigeria maximum of four
he midst of other numerous stakeholders who may be rich our poor and polygamous
ation is gradually growing
e of this is the high incidence of maternal morbidity and mortality rates, child
abandonment and abuse, adolescent pregnancy, under nutrition and general low standard of health care
ulation was undergoing
Nigeria has a low contraceptive prevalence of just
rtility rate of 3.2% capable of doubling the population by 2050.
issue given the deserved attention and consequent planned documentation and propaganda to sell it to
family planning as a way of thinking and living, that is adopted voluntarily
e effectively to the social
which individual couples or parties exercise their basic rights in family formation process to improve their
Care, centres on the improvement of
articulated system which ensures integration of maternal and child
ly planning has become indispensible in Nigeria,


hence an important tool for preventive health measure.
family planning project, certain constraints still exist as clogs in the full actualization of programmes
objectives. This has been observed to
the programmes by the executors and other human social facets.

Therefore this study was carried out to evaluate the impediments to family planning
implementation in Aguata Local government Area of Anambra state, Nigeria Aguata L.G.A is one of the
local government areas in Anambra State in the South

The threat of population explosion over
enormous. All health and social problems associated with over population are borne out of unplanned
population measures. In the face of these challenges an adequate coverage in family planning se
yet to be achieved. Peoples response to available services has been poor while service providers have not
successfully brought awareness to the grass
perception of the programme as becoming a

It is therefore a concern and attempt by these researchers to explore the fundamental problems in
the family planning service implementation and challenges on coverage and management.

The major aim of this study was to
implementation of family planning programme in Aguta Local g
the intention of making professional suggestions that may tremendously improve the pr
implementation to achieve its set goals.

Research Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were formulated and tested in the course of the study.
1. Inadequate supply of PHC materials are not significantly related to the effective implementation
of family planning programme in Aguata Local Government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria.
2. There is no significant relationship between staff attitude and effective implementation of family
planning programme in Aguata Local government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria.
3. There is no significant relationship between the level of awareness and effective implementation
of family planning programme in Aguata Local government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria.

Delimitation of the Study
The study was delimited to the following are
a. Family planning programme
b. Administrative constraints of the programme
c. Aguata Local government Area of Anambra State
d. Women of child bearing age (18
e. Use of self structured questionnaire for data collection
f. Use of simple % and x
2
for the analysis of data
g. Use of research assistants.

Significance of the Study
The study may prompt all health stakeholders and policy makers to adequately equip health service
centres with needed family planning materials for easy access.
type of personnel to be employed for family planning programmes which should be the professionally
trained type.

Furthermore, the result of this finding could assist to re
patients with good sense of understanding.
hence an important tool for preventive health measure. Inspite of the immeasurable advantages of the
ives. This has been observed to be in the area of administrative protocols at the various levels of
the programmes by the executors and other human social facets.
Therefore this study was carried out to evaluate the impediments to family planning
local government areas in Anambra State in the South-Eastern part of Nigeria.
The threat of population explosion over-stretching limited resources and social services have become
population measures. In the face of these challenges an adequate coverage in family planning se
successfully brought awareness to the grass-root all the indices combined together to create the
perception of the programme as becoming a failure.
The major aim of this study was to scientifically identify administrative problems hindering the successful
implementation of family planning programme in Aguta Local government Area of Anambra State,
the intention of making professional suggestions that may tremendously improve the pr
implementation to achieve its set goals.
The following hypotheses were formulated and tested in the course of the study.
Inadequate supply of PHC materials are not significantly related to the effective implementation
planning programme in Aguata Local Government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria.
There is no significant relationship between staff attitude and effective implementation of family
There is no significant relationship between the level of awareness and effective implementation
The study was delimited to the following areas:
Family planning programme
Administrative constraints of the programme
Aguata Local government Area of Anambra State
Women of child bearing age (18-45yrs) and service providers
Use of self structured questionnaire for data collection
for the analysis of data
Use of research assistants.
centres with needed family planning materials for easy access. It may also bring about streamlining the
Furthermore, the result of this finding could assist to re-orientate staff attitude towards their
good sense of understanding. It may assist both governments at all levels, NGOs, religious
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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210
Inspite of the immeasurable advantages of the
be in the area of administrative protocols at the various levels of
Therefore this study was carried out to evaluate the impediments to family planning and proper
stretching limited resources and social services have become
population measures. In the face of these challenges an adequate coverage in family planning services are
root all the indices combined together to create the
administrative problems hindering the successful
overnment Area of Anambra State, with
the intention of making professional suggestions that may tremendously improve the programme
Inadequate supply of PHC materials are not significantly related to the effective implementation
planning programme in Aguata Local Government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria.
There is no significant relationship between staff attitude and effective implementation of family
There is no significant relationship between the level of awareness and effective implementation
bring about streamlining the
orientate staff attitude towards their
t may assist both governments at all levels, NGOs, religious


bodies etc., to mount aggressive awareness campaign on the programme for better and positive
improvement.

Lastly, it enriches the body of literature

Methodology

Research design
The descriptive survey research design was adopted.

Population
The population comprised of all women of child bearing age and health workers in Aguata Local
government Area of Anambra State.

The sample size was 200 while the sampling technique adopted was the judgmental sampling technique.
All the six communities in the Aguata L.G.A: viz Uga, Ekwulobia, Unubi, Mkpologu, Achina and Umudi
were represented in the selection. Out of the 200, 100 were health providers while the other 100 were the,
clients.

Data Collection
Equipped with letter of introduction and permission, the self
groups were distributed with the help of trained assistants who were conversant with the respondents.
The retrieval were done on the spot.

Data Analysis
Simple percentages were used to analyse the demographic data while the inferential statistics of x
0.05 apha level was used to analyse the variables under study.

Results and Discussion of Findings
Section A: Demographic variables
Table 1: Age of Respondents
Age Range
18-25 yrs
26-30rs
31-35yrs
36-40yrs
41-45yrs
Total

The above table shows the responses according to age.
Ages 18-25 were 24 representing 12%, 26
35were 100 representing 50% of the total, while ages
total respondents.

Table 2: Educational background of respondents:
Educational status
No school attended
Primary school
Secondary school
University and other tertiary
institutions
Total

Table 2 above reveals that 80 respondents accounting for 40% did not attend any school, 30% made up
of 60 respondents possessed primary school training, 41 respondents forming 21% had secondary school
training while 9% (19 respondents) had University or other tertiary institutions training.
the body of literature for subsequent related works to be sourced from
The descriptive survey research design was adopted.
Anambra State.
and Sampling Technique
ented in the selection. Out of the 200, 100 were health providers while the other 100 were the,
Equipped with letter of introduction and permission, the self-structure questionnaire for the various
e help of trained assistants who were conversant with the respondents.
The retrieval were done on the spot.
0.05 apha level was used to analyse the variables under study.
f Findings
Demographic variables
No of Respondents
24 12
30 15
100 50
30 15
16 8
200 100
The above table shows the responses according to age.
25 were 24 representing 12%, 26-30 years and 36-40years were 30 representing 15% each, 31
35were 100 representing 50% of the total, while ages 41-45 accounted for 8% which was just 16 of the
Educational background of respondents:
No of Respondents
80 40
60 30
41 21
tertiary 19 9
200 100
while 9% (19 respondents) had University or other tertiary institutions training.
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211
subsequent related works to be sourced from.
ented in the selection. Out of the 200, 100 were health providers while the other 100 were the,
structure questionnaire for the various
e help of trained assistants who were conversant with the respondents.
2
set at
%
40years were 30 representing 15% each, 31-
45 accounted for 8% which was just 16 of the
%
while 9% (19 respondents) had University or other tertiary institutions training.


This response indicated that Aguata inhabitants on the average posses low level of literacy. This
could be one of the factors constituting serious set back in the effective i
planning programmes.

Table 3: Occupation of Respondents:
Occupation of Respondent
Farming
Petty trading
Business
Civil service
House wifery
Total

Table 3 shows that farmers top the list of respondents with 67 accounting for 34% followed by traders
with 65 respondents representing 33%, those in businesses (not specified) were 24 (12%) while civil
servants were just 14 respondents (i.e., 7%) and complete house wives wer
for 14%.

The interpretation of the above is that their major sources of livelihood of farming and trading
may influence their response to the utilization of family planning services.

Section B: Testing the hypotheses

Hypothesis 1:

Inadequate supply of PHC materials is not significantly related to effective implementation of family
planning programme in Aguata Local government Area of Anambra State.

Table 4: x
2
analysis of inadequate supply of materials and effective implementation of family planning
programmes.
Response items
A Irregular supply of family planning materials
B Full supply of materials on demand
C Outdated materials sometimes supplied
D Sometimes referred to buy recommended materials outside health
centres.
Total
Cal x
2
= 15.125; df = 3; P< 0.5; Cr. Value = 7.815 Decision = Rejected

From table 4 above, the null hypothesis (H
because the calculated of 15.125 is greater than the critical value of mere 7.815. This finding therefore is
an indication that there is relationship between making adequate supply
activities vis-a-vis the effectiveness of its implementation. Without missing words, if needed materials are
irregularly or partly supplied or clients who are obviously poor are made to purchase such items outside,
then such vital programme may not have its goals fully realized as planned. It may even be a health
suicide if outdated materials are given to clients as indicated in the response above.

Hypothesis 2:
There is no significant relationship between staff attitude
programme in Aguata local government area of Anambra state.

Table 5: x
2
analysis of staff: attitudes and effective implementation of family planning programme.
Response items
A Pleasant/cordial
B Eratic/repulsive
C Normal
D Indifference
Total
Cal x
2
= 2.00; df = 3; P> 0.5 Cr. Value = 7.815 Decision = retained
could be one of the factors constituting serious set back in the effective implementation of family
Occupation of Respondents:
No of Respondents
67 34
65 33
24 12
14 7
30 14
200 100
farmers top the list of respondents with 67 accounting for 34% followed by traders
servants were just 14 respondents (i.e., 7%) and complete house wives were 30 respondents accounting
may influence their response to the utilization of family planning services.
Testing the hypotheses
planning programme in Aguata Local government Area of Anambra State.
Yes No
Irregular supply of family planning materials 135 65
Full supply of materials on demand 50 150
materials sometimes supplied 60 140
Sometimes referred to buy recommended materials outside health 100 100
345 455
= 15.125; df = 3; P< 0.5; Cr. Value = 7.815 Decision = Rejected
hypothesis (H0) was rejected while the alternative hypothesis (H
an indication that there is relationship between making adequate supply of materials for family planning
vis the effectiveness of its implementation. Without missing words, if needed materials are
ch vital programme may not have its goals fully realized as planned. It may even be a health
suicide if outdated materials are given to clients as indicated in the response above.
There is no significant relationship between staff attitude and effective implementation of family planning
programme in Aguata local government area of Anambra state.
Yes No
110 90
120 80
90 110
60 140
380 420
= 2.00; df = 3; P> 0.5 Cr. Value = 7.815 Decision = retained
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212
mplementation of family
%
34
33
12

14
100
farmers top the list of respondents with 67 accounting for 34% followed by traders
e 30 respondents accounting
No Total
200
150 200
140 200
100 200
455 800
) was rejected while the alternative hypothesis (H1) retained
of materials for family planning
vis the effectiveness of its implementation. Without missing words, if needed materials are
ch vital programme may not have its goals fully realized as planned. It may even be a health
and effective implementation of family planning
No Total
200
200
110 200
140 200
420 800


From the above table, the calculated or obtained value of 2.00 at
the table value of 7.815, therefore in line with the rule, the alternative hypothesis was upheld against the
null hypothesis. In interpretation, though attitudes of some family planning personnel and providers may
be poor but that would not totally discourage the intending patients from patronage. This may be
ascribed to the realization of the unquantifiable benefits of the programme.

Hypothesis 3:
There is no significant relationship between the level of awareness
planning programme in Aguata Local government Area of Anambrea State.

Table 6: x
2
analysis of level of awareness and effective implementation of family planning programme.
Response items
A There is grass-root enlightenment in my area
B I am not aware of family planning programme
C I can not really understand the message of the programme
Total
Cal. X
2
= 6.826; p< .0.5; df; = 2; cr. Value = 5.991 Decision = Rejected

Table 6 revealed the rejection of the formulated H
which out weighed the table value of 5.991. therefore the level of awareness of the individual has
significant influence on the provision and implementation of any health programmes among the
inhabitants of the affected community. This is unarguable fact, that when one is aware and knowledgeable
(better to be fully or to a large extent) of any health a
advantages and therefore positively respond to the utilization. This aligns with Quashigah (2004) assertion
that the existing gaps and deficiencies for non
rumours, myths and misconceptions creating fear of side effects on intending users. However if people
are fully aware of the pros and cons of family planning programme, the fear would become non
existence.

Summary
This study made empirical investigation of the administrative constraints of the effective implementation
in Aguata Local Government Area of Anambra State of Nigeria with the view of putting forward ways
that can positively improve the implementation of the programme. Major variables co
staff attitude, adequacy of family planning materials and the level of awareness of the people on the family
planning activities. It was revealed that inadequate supply of materials and low level of the knowledge of
the people could impede the success of actualizing the progrmme while the attitude of the providers of
the family planning services, though could sometimes be ridiculous does not significantly prevent
patronage of the programme.

Conclusion
Based on the research findings, it
rate is a welcome idea and that the importance and benefits to all stakeholders cannot be over
emphasized. Nevertheless, this laudable programme has not been adequately articulated fo
community acceptance, participation and appreciation due to certain constraints. These barriers are
multidimensional in nature ranging from administrative protocol, individual perception and favourable
disposition of the providers of family plannin
Such factors as knowledge and awareness, and negative attitudes displayed by family planning service
providers amongst others are serious impediments to the effective implementation of family planning
activities in the researched area and by extension, Nigeria and the entire globe.

Recommendations
In line with the research findings, the following recommendations were made:
a) All women (and to a larger extent men, since they are also major stakeholders) of child bearing
age should see the family planning programme activities as part of their menu for having healthy
From the above table, the calculated or obtained value of 2.00 at degree of freedom of 3, is far less that
e poor but that would not totally discourage the intending patients from patronage. This may be
ascribed to the realization of the unquantifiable benefits of the programme.
There is no significant relationship between the level of awareness and effective implementation of family
planning programme in Aguata Local government Area of Anambrea State.
Yes No
root enlightenment in my area 50 150
I am not aware of family planning programme 64 136
I can not really understand the message of the programme 154 46
268 332
.0.5; df; = 2; cr. Value = 5.991 Decision = Rejected
Table 6 revealed the rejection of the formulated H0 in favour of the Ha due to the calculated of 6.826
(better to be fully or to a large extent) of any health activity, he may be favourably be acquainted with the
that the existing gaps and deficiencies for non-use of modern methods of family planning sterme
are fully aware of the pros and cons of family planning programme, the fear would become non
igation of the administrative constraints of the effective implementation
that can positively improve the implementation of the programme. Major variables co
e the success of actualizing the progrmme while the attitude of the providers of
Based on the research findings, it was concluded that: the introduction of family planning to control birth
emphasized. Nevertheless, this laudable programme has not been adequately articulated fo
disposition of the providers of family planning programme services.
and by extension, Nigeria and the entire globe.
In line with the research findings, the following recommendations were made:
All women (and to a larger extent men, since they are also major stakeholders) of child bearing
e family planning programme activities as part of their menu for having healthy
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
213
degree of freedom of 3, is far less that
e poor but that would not totally discourage the intending patients from patronage. This may be
and effective implementation of family
Total
200
200
200
600
due to the calculated of 6.826
ctivity, he may be favourably be acquainted with the
use of modern methods of family planning stermed out of
are fully aware of the pros and cons of family planning programme, the fear would become non-
igation of the administrative constraints of the effective implementation
that can positively improve the implementation of the programme. Major variables considered included
e the success of actualizing the progrmme while the attitude of the providers of
was concluded that: the introduction of family planning to control birth
emphasized. Nevertheless, this laudable programme has not been adequately articulated for total
All women (and to a larger extent men, since they are also major stakeholders) of child bearing
e family planning programme activities as part of their menu for having healthy


and desired numbers of children in compromise with theirs economic capabilities now and in
future.
b) There should be massive literacy campaign especially in the rural areas and c
in order to have the knowledge of the programme, appreciate the programme and fully
participate in the progrramme. Such awareness campaign could be done within any available
opportunity beyond the formal set up alone
c) All grades of family planning providers should be the trained professionals with the positive
qualities that have respect for other human differentiations
d) All polices formulated to promote family planning goals should be backed up with physical
provision of adequate funds
indigent rural dwellers to utilize.
e) Further study may be carried out in a larger environment with similar or dissimilar characteristics.

References
Anikpo, M. (1989). (Ed). Report of t
Harcourt: Rivers State Ministry of Health.
Delano, E.G. (1990). Guides to family planning
Omideyi, A.K. (1990). Women Position, conjugal relationship and fertilit
African population Studies. No.4.
Quashigah, C. (2004). Repositioning family planning in Westafrica.
Thuo, M. (1994). Family planning mana
health.
United Nations Report (2007). State of World Population
United States Agency for International Development (2009).
www.govt.
WHO (1991). Population Report: Author.

There should be massive literacy campaign especially in the rural areas and c
opportunity beyond the formal set up alone
mily planning providers should be the trained professionals with the positive
qualities that have respect for other human differentiations
All polices formulated to promote family planning goals should be backed up with physical
provision of adequate funds and quality materials freely supplied or at least affordable for the
indigent rural dwellers to utilize.
Further study may be carried out in a larger environment with similar or dissimilar characteristics.
Report of the Focus Group discussion: Rivers State Family Planning Project. Port
Ministry of Health.
Guides to family planning. Lagos: Academy Press.
Omideyi, A.K. (1990). Women Position, conjugal relationship and fertility among the Yorubas.
No.4.
Repositioning family planning in Westafrica. www.ghanaweb.com/.../art.kilptp
Family planning management development Massachusetts 02158: Management Sciences for
State of World Population www.unfpaorg/.introduciton.html
United States Agency for International Development (2009). Report on contraceptive prevalence rate.
Author.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
214
There should be massive literacy campaign especially in the rural areas and city clustered counties
mily planning providers should be the trained professionals with the positive
All polices formulated to promote family planning goals should be backed up with physical
and quality materials freely supplied or at least affordable for the
Further study may be carried out in a larger environment with similar or dissimilar characteristics.
Rivers State Family Planning Project. Port
y among the Yorubas. Journal of
www.ghanaweb.com/.../art.kilptp.
Massachusetts 02158: Management Sciences for
www.unfpaorg/.introduciton.html
Report on contraceptive prevalence rate.


SECRET CULT AND ADMINISTRATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN RIVERS
MUSTAPHA MALIK BABATUNDE
University of Port Harocurt, Port
Abstract
The study examined secret cults and violence in higher institutions of Rivers State. A sample of 200
academic and non academic staff of 6 higher institutions were drawn from a target population of
1000. Two (2) research questions and 2
questionnaire titled Secret Cults and Administration of Higher E
(SCAOHERS) was validated and tested for reliability at 0.78 correlation coefficient. Mean and rank
orders were used to answer the research questions while z
0.05 level of significance. The study adopted co
Bertalanffy was used for the study. The findings of the study include th
academic staff are not comfortable with the activities of secret cults in higher institutions. It was
found that students join cults for reasons such as boosting ego, to get money, for protection etc. It was
recommended that eradication should be an effort of all stakeholders, government, school authorities,
parents, religious leaders and students.

STATE
By
MALIK ACHAMA COMFORT
Department of Educational Management and Planning
IBE-AMADI GERTY
&
MUSTAPHA MALIK BABATUNDE
Department of Educational Management and Planning

research questions and 2 hypotheses were raised to guide the study. An 11
et Cults and Administration of Higher Education in
RS) was validated and tested for reliability at 0.78 correlation coefficient. Mean and rank
sed to answer the research questions while z-test was used to analyse the hypotheses at
. The study adopted co-relational survey method and systems theory by
Bertalanffy was used for the study. The findings of the study include that both academic and non
ation should be an effort of all stakeholders, government, school authorities,
parents, religious leaders and students.

Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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215
aised to guide the study. An 11-item
ducation in Rivers State
RS) was validated and tested for reliability at 0.78 correlation coefficient. Mean and rank
test was used to analyse the hypotheses at
relational survey method and systems theory by
at both academic and non
ation should be an effort of all stakeholders, government, school authorities,


Introduction
Higher education is the type of education received after secondary school. The role of higher education as
globally accepted encompasses more than just the acquisition of knowledge. Higher education remains
the pivot of national development. This is because the stock of highly educated individuals produced by
higher education institutions play important role in the inno
any society.
In Nigeria higher education according to Federal Government of Nigeria (2004) in her national
policy on education aims at the acquisition of development and inculcation of the proper value
orientation for the survival of individuals and society, the develo
individuals to understand and appreciate their environment; the acquisition of both physical and
intellectual skills, which will enable individuals develop into useful member of the community, and the
acquisition of an objective view of local and external environment.
Higher institutions in Nigeria were expected to pursue the above stated goals through teaching,
research, dissemination of existing and new information; and community development (FGN, 2004).
was expected that higher institutions will enable students
competencies, learning to manage emotions; developing and establishing autonomy, establishing identity,
developing interpersonal relations, developing a sense of
Omoregie and Osa-Edoh, 2006).
Today, the aim of higher education has been defeated, higher institutions have experienced
increase in enrolment, yet the number of candidates seeking admission out
Inadequate fiscal resources have also eroded the desired qualitative higher education and the needed
national development. Similarly, cultism and violence have become the order of the day in higher
institutions thereby obstructing academic cale
secret cults and violence which has been a reoccurring feature in tertiary institutions.
Concept of Cultism
According to Agabi and Egbezor in Agabi, Orubite, Ezekiel
secret organizations or secret societies whose activities are not often plain to non
procedures and demands were often kept secret except to initiates an intending member.
Opaluwah (2000) posits that a cult can be said
or belief in a person or idea. This could be manifested in rituals, praise songs, chants and worship. Agih in
Bassey and Bassey (2011) states that cultism could be defined as a set of practices, belief sys
whose essence is known only to the inner members and excessively admired and defended even to the
point of laying down ones life.
Secret cult is a group of people whose activities are carried out in exclusive locations and unusual
time without being exposed or uninitiated (Oguntuase, 1999).
societies as those organizations which completely conceal their rules, the names of their members, their
signs, passwords and usages from outsiders and the member
secrecy concerning all the business of the association by oath or promise or word or honour, and often
under the threat of severe punishment in the case of its violation.
Based on the above definition one ca
members.
Theoretical Framework
This work is anchored on the systems theory proposed by Bertalanffy in 1950 as cited in Okorie (2009).
System theory states that there should be harmonious assem
and between the parts, within a system or an organization for the purpose of realizing the organizational
goals.
accepted encompasses more than just the acquisition of knowledge. Higher education remains
higher education institutions play important role in the innovation and the sustainable development of
policy on education aims at the acquisition of development and inculcation of the proper value
orientation for the survival of individuals and society, the development of the intellectual capacities of
an objective view of local and external environment.
research, dissemination of existing and new information; and community development (FGN, 2004).
itutions will enable students mature and grow along several intellectual
developing interpersonal relations, developing a sense of purpose and developing integrity (Aluede,

increase in enrolment, yet the number of candidates seeking admission out-spaces the availa
have also eroded the desired qualitative higher education and the needed
institutions thereby obstructing academic calendars. This paper seeks to examine some of the activities of
ezor in Agabi, Orubite, Ezekiel-Hart and Egbezor (2005), cul
secret organizations or secret societies whose activities are not often plain to non-members, recruitment
posits that a cult can be said to emanate from great and excessive administration
that cultism could be defined as a set of practices, belief sys
ut being exposed or uninitiated (Oguntuase, 1999). Ogbonnaya (2009) described secret cults or
signs, passwords and usages from outsiders and the members of these societies are bound to the strictest
under the threat of severe punishment in the case of its violation.
Based on the above definition one can say that cultism is an embodiment of secrecy to all but for
System theory states that there should be harmonious assemblage and co-ordination of activities among
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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216
accepted encompasses more than just the acquisition of knowledge. Higher education remains
vation and the sustainable development of
policy on education aims at the acquisition of development and inculcation of the proper value-
pment of the intellectual capacities of
research, dissemination of existing and new information; and community development (FGN, 2004). It
mature and grow along several intellectual
purpose and developing integrity (Aluede,
spaces the available spaces.
have also eroded the desired qualitative higher education and the needed
ndars. This paper seeks to examine some of the activities of
Hart and Egbezor (2005), cultism refers to
members, recruitment
to emanate from great and excessive administration
that cultism could be defined as a set of practices, belief system or ideas
Ogbonnaya (2009) described secret cults or
s of these societies are bound to the strictest
n say that cultism is an embodiment of secrecy to all but for
ordination of activities among


The school is seen as a social system, it consists of individuals interacting with each other to
achieve common goals while individually working towards achieving their personal objectives. In higher
education, members of the council, deans of faculty, lecturers, non academic and students make up the
individual who are working together in the school to
needs of the society.
System theory clearly states that the various components or subsystems of a social system must
work in unison to attain the expected goal. In essence the lecturers need to work with t
order to get the desired result but cult activities sometimes obstruct the school academic calendar and a
lot is lost at the time by both the students and the school.
Evolution of Cultism in Nigeria Higher Institutions
Nigerian educational institutions were not associated with secret cults until 1952 when the first secret cult
the seadogs confraternity (a.k.a pirates) was formed at the University College, Ibadan by a group of
seven students namely, Prof. Wole Soyinka, Pius Olegbe, Olumiyiw
Okpara and Nat Oyiola (Ogidefa, 2008). The formation of this cult was to fight colonialism/oppression
tribalism at the same time defend humanistic ideals while promoting comradeship and chivalry amongst
its members. They equally rendered social services like blood donations to hospital and presentation of
gifts to orphanage homes and the needy. (Agih in Bassey and Bassey, 2009). He further stated that as the
years passed due to certain disagreement within the pirate confraternit
1970 broke out and formed the Bucceaneers Association of Nigeria at University of Benin. Others like
Mafia was founded at the University of Ife in 1979, the National Association of Airlords (Eiye fraternity)
was founded 1965 by Adegoke Adeniji in University of Ibadan. The Vikings fraternity was founded in
University of Port Harcourt 1982, etc.
At present there is no university without the presence of different cult groups in Nigeria. The
female also formed some cults in
groups include, Daughters of Jezebel, Black B
Reasons for Membership of Secret Cults
A number of reasons have been identified to explain why
as outlined by Agabi et al (2005) are:
1. The Vacuum Theory: This theory sees the adolescent stage of the youth as a development people
where the social need of a young adult is in the increase as such the
affection, association and friendship with other people. In course of search for these needs some
of the students easily accept joining cults to feel the vacuum in their lives.
2. Ego Enhancement Syndrome:
more power and authority than others, for example politicians and armed robbers. The cult
group through their intimidating attitude and violence belong to this group, so some of these
adolescent will fund the fulfillment of their social yearnings by belonging to a cult group.
3. Effect of Change of Values: There is a rapid change of values in our society, in favour of materialistic
western value system. In absence of a caring government and family the at
confusion, opts for the immediate available cult group around him for succor.

Ogbonnaya (2009) also highlighted some reasons why students join cult. Ogbonnaya however cited the
words of Prof. Soyinka in Adeyemo (1997) which stated that students found cult for inglorious objectives
like self improvement, protection, hijacking student
skewed mutual benefits, to have a powerful body behind an individual member when such a member is in
trouble, inordinate ambition, unbridled philandering, easy access to power and drugs.

chieve common goals while individually working towards achieving their personal objectives. In higher
individual who are working together in the school to achieve the common goal which is the educational
work in unison to attain the expected goal. In essence the lecturers need to work with t
lot is lost at the time by both the students and the school.
Evolution of Cultism in Nigeria Higher Institutions
institutions were not associated with secret cults until 1952 when the first secret cult
seven students namely, Prof. Wole Soyinka, Pius Olegbe, Olumiyiwa Awe, Aig
y rendered social services like blood donations to hospital and presentation of
years passed due to certain disagreement within the pirate confraternity, a faction led by Molaji Carew in
1965 by Adegoke Adeniji in University of Ibadan. The Vikings fraternity was founded in
University of Port Harcourt 1982, etc.
female also formed some cults in other to match with their male counterparts, some of the female cult
e, Daughters of Jezebel, Black Brassiere, Black Queens, Rivers Angels etc.
Secret Cults
A number of reasons have been identified to explain why students join secret cults. Some of these reasons
as outlined by Agabi et al (2005) are:
This theory sees the adolescent stage of the youth as a development people
where the social need of a young adult is in the increase as such the students at this point needs
of the students easily accept joining cults to feel the vacuum in their lives.
Ego Enhancement Syndrome: Most adolescents are aware that some individuals in the society possess
d the fulfillment of their social yearnings by belonging to a cult group.
There is a rapid change of values in our society, in favour of materialistic
western value system. In absence of a caring government and family the at
like self improvement, protection, hijacking students leadership positions, settling scores with others,
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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217
chieve common goals while individually working towards achieving their personal objectives. In higher
achieve the common goal which is the educational
work in unison to attain the expected goal. In essence the lecturers need to work with the students in
institutions were not associated with secret cults until 1952 when the first secret cult
a Awe, Aig-Imoukhuede, Ralph
y rendered social services like blood donations to hospital and presentation of
y, a faction led by Molaji Carew in
1965 by Adegoke Adeniji in University of Ibadan. The Vikings fraternity was founded in
other to match with their male counterparts, some of the female cult
Angels etc.
students join secret cults. Some of these reasons
This theory sees the adolescent stage of the youth as a development people
students at this point needs
e aware that some individuals in the society possess
d the fulfillment of their social yearnings by belonging to a cult group.
There is a rapid change of values in our society, in favour of materialistic
western value system. In absence of a caring government and family the at risk students in his
s leadership positions, settling scores with others,


Eneji (1996) noted that some students join cult for financial assistance, to secure girl friends, get
connected, get comfort and love. Secret cults seems to have special attraction for at risk youths that is,
youths who are from broken homes, emotionally disturbed and d
depressed, dejected, disoriented and frightened sometimes drift into the waiting arms of secret cultists.
Some others joint cults out of sheer curiosity. Some groups who join secret cults are the academic misfits
those who found themselves in the university through examination malpractices or other dubious means
since they cannot cope academically they resort to campus cultism. (Ogbonnaya, 2009).
Effects of Secret Cults on Students Academic Career
Secret cult is a social vice which has debased the educational system and the society in general. Education
is the bedrock with which every society is built but cultism has been a hindrance to the realization of
qualitative education.
Ogbonnaya (2009) pointed out that secre
qualification as their validity, reliability and credibility are put to question, whereby half baked graduates
are produced. Cultism is perceived by its members as avenue or a means to settle scores
or personal scores with fellow students or lecturers. Cult members do not see the need to work hard or
be studious knowing that they can get good marks by threatening lecturers. Most female students who
have cultist as boy friends often
friends, this often result to sexual promiscuity making the girls become sexual slaves to their cultist
boyfriends who make then feel they are a source protection for them. On the other hand
who refuse to comply with the advances of these cultists suffer so much humiliation from them within
and outside the campus. There are cases where female students are stripped naked publicly for not
accepting their advances.
Cultism has led to the killing of students, lecturers and destruction of properties. The
consequences of these acts lead to the closure of the institution which in turn affect the academic
calendar making the students lose what they ought to learn. Cultism also makes
goals of higher education impossible. The environment is usually hostile due to the activities of the secret
cults thereby hindering research, teaching, learning and peaceful coexistence for which the institutions
were oriented to foster (Ogbonnaya, 2009).
Cultism has reduced the quality of the graduates of our higher institutions due to incessant managing of
cult crises instead of planning for research and effective teaching and learning. Due to destruction of
property by cult activities, higher institutions begin to lack facilities which are meant for study and the
achievement of academic goals. Finances are used to replace destroyed items instead of getting more for
qualitative education.
How secret cults can be curbed or eliminat
Secret cults and their activities are not restricted to campuses. It cuts across all classes in Nigeria.
Sometimes students join campus cult as an extension to the ones their parents belong to, the school is a
microcosm of the larger society and so wha
(Oroka, 1998).
All hands must be on deck to fight this menace. Lots of measures have formerly been in place but
none seem to have yielded good result. Some of these measures included banning s
expelling identified cultists. These measures were not viable as expelled students easily regain admission
into another university while some who cannot be enrolled take to armed robbery
Olukoya 1997 and Oroka 1998 -
To successfully eliminate or curb secret cults in our higher institutions some changes need to be done.
Parents should devote more time for their children.
Schools should not create enabling environment for cult activities, schools should provide
accommodation for students and orientation programmes should be organized for new
students.
oted that some students join cult for financial assistance, to secure girl friends, get
youths who are from broken homes, emotionally disturbed and distressed. Youngsters who are lonely,
who found themselves in the university through examination malpractices or other dubious means
Effects of Secret Cults on Students Academic Career
cial vice which has debased the educational system and the society in general. Education
Ogbonnaya (2009) pointed out that secret cult activities on campus makes nonsense of educational
are produced. Cultism is perceived by its members as avenue or a means to settle scores
have cultist as boy friends often times abandon their classes to spend the whole day with their boy
boyfriends who make then feel they are a source protection for them. On the other hand
led to the killing of students, lecturers and destruction of properties. The
calendar making the students lose what they ought to learn. Cultism also makes
ster (Ogbonnaya, 2009).
ities, higher institutions begin to lack facilities which are meant for study and the
How secret cults can be curbed or eliminated
microcosm of the larger society and so what is obtainable in the society is also obtainable in campuses.
none seem to have yielded good result. Some of these measures included banning s
into another university while some who cannot be enrolled take to armed robbery
www.freepatentonline.com/article/v)
Parents should devote more time for their children.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
218
oted that some students join cult for financial assistance, to secure girl friends, get
istressed. Youngsters who are lonely,
who found themselves in the university through examination malpractices or other dubious means
cial vice which has debased the educational system and the society in general. Education
t cult activities on campus makes nonsense of educational
are produced. Cultism is perceived by its members as avenue or a means to settle scores with rival groups
times abandon their classes to spend the whole day with their boy
boyfriends who make then feel they are a source protection for them. On the other hands female students
led to the killing of students, lecturers and destruction of properties. The
calendar making the students lose what they ought to learn. Cultism also makes the realization of the
ities, higher institutions begin to lack facilities which are meant for study and the
t is obtainable in the society is also obtainable in campuses.
none seem to have yielded good result. Some of these measures included banning secret cults and
into another university while some who cannot be enrolled take to armed robbery (Olukoye 1994,


Student unions should be reactivated, strengthened and reinvigorated to
interest of all students (Ogbonnaya, 2009).
More emphasis have to be placed on character building, responsible leadership and
citizenship.
Law enforcement agencies should be more enlightened and strengthened on how to fight
this scourge with more sincerity.
Public office holders and tertiary institution administrators whose wards or children are
found to be members of campus cult should be relieved of the post similarly university staff
academic and non academic found to be members should
School should have functional counseling units to help students in need. Mentorship should
also be encouraged by schools especially for the at risk students.
Government should organize enlightenment programmes and symposia to
know the dangers of belonging to secret cults. Government should use the press to
popularize the noble activities of other organizations like Man O War on campuses.
The politicians and other office holders in the society should stop the us
as political tugs and agents of destruction on their opponents. A penalty should be placed on
people who use them for destruction purposes.
Problem
The activities of cultism on campuses of higher institutions are worrisome, cultist h
campuses so much so that university academic programmes are halted in order to secure lives and
properties within the campus. Academic calendar of universities in Nigeria have been disrupted as a result
of mayhem by secret cults.
Apart from the above, in various universities inter
members and other innocent ones.
secret cults in higher schools have been a thing of worry to
This has led to many Nigerians sending their children abroad for better quality of education since the
menace has been a set back in the attainment of educational goals. Though many measures have been put
in place to eliminate or at least reduce cultism on campuses, but these appear not to produce reasonable
results.
Therefore, this study tends to find the causes of campus cultism and to proffer possible measures to
curbing or eliminating cultism from tertiary in
The purpose of this study was to find out why students join campus secret cults and to prof
on how secret cult activities can be curbed or eliminated in higher instit
Research Questions
1. Why do students join secret cults?
2. What are the ways of curbing/eliminating cultism in higher institution in Rivers State?
Hypotheses
1. There is no significant different between the mean rating of academic and n
of higher institutions in Rivers State on the reason why students join secret cults.
2. There is no significant different between the mean rating of academic and non academic staff
of higher institutions in Rivers State on the ways campus
eliminated.

Student unions should be reactivated, strengthened and reinvigorated to
interest of all students (Ogbonnaya, 2009).
ith more sincerity.
academic and non academic found to be members should be relieved of their jobs.
also be encouraged by schools especially for the at risk students.
Government should organize enlightenment programmes and symposia to
The politicians and other office holders in the society should stop the us
people who use them for destruction purposes.
The activities of cultism on campuses of higher institutions are worrisome, cultist have wrecked havoc on
Apart from the above, in various universities inter-cult clashes have resulted to the death of
members and other innocent ones. These incessant killing of students and destruction of property by
secret cults in higher schools have been a thing of worry to school authorities, government and parents.
e to eliminate or at least reduce cultism on campuses, but these appear not to produce reasonable
to find the causes of campus cultism and to proffer possible measures to
curbing or eliminating cultism from tertiary institutions in Nigeria and Rivers State in particular.
The purpose of this study was to find out why students join campus secret cults and to prof
activities can be curbed or eliminated in higher institutions in Rivers State.
Why do students join secret cults?
What are the ways of curbing/eliminating cultism in higher institution in Rivers State?
There is no significant different between the mean rating of academic and n
There is no significant different between the mean rating of academic and non academic staff
of higher institutions in Rivers State on the ways campus cultism can be curbed or
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
219
Student unions should be reactivated, strengthened and reinvigorated to accommodate the
be relieved of their jobs.
Government should organize enlightenment programmes and symposia to enable students
The politicians and other office holders in the society should stop the use of campus cultists
ave wrecked havoc on
cult clashes have resulted to the death of
These incessant killing of students and destruction of property by
school authorities, government and parents.
e to eliminate or at least reduce cultism on campuses, but these appear not to produce reasonable
to find the causes of campus cultism and to proffer possible measures to
stitutions in Nigeria and Rivers State in particular.
The purpose of this study was to find out why students join campus secret cults and to proffer solution
utions in Rivers State.
What are the ways of curbing/eliminating cultism in higher institution in Rivers State?
cultism can be curbed or


Significance of the study
The study would serve as an eye opener to parents and the Nigerian populace on the trivial reasons why
students join secret cult. It would also serve as a measure to deter other students
It would equip school authorities and government on the available measures and solutions to curb and
eliminate cultism in higher institutions in Rivers State.
Method
The design adopted for this study was the correlational surve
relationship between two variables. The population of the study include the 6 tertiary institutions in
Rivers State namely; University of Port Harcourt, University of Science and Technology, University of
Education, Rivers State Polytechnic, Federal College of Education (technical) Omoku, Rivers State
College of Arts and Science. The population comprised of 1000 academic and non academic staff of the 6
higher institutions in Rivers State. A sample of 200 study par
purposive random sample since the study was carried during the holidays.
A self structured instrument called Secret cults and Administration of Higher Institutions
Questionnaire (SCAAOHEIRS) was used for data coll
patterned after a modified likert four point scale was administered. The test
establish reliability co-efficient. Data was analyzed with the use of mean, standard deviation and
order while z test was used to give answers to the hypotheses.
Result
Research Question 1
Table 1: The reasons why students join secret cults
S/N Statement
1. Students join cult to boost
their ego
2. Students join cult in order to
make money
3. Student join cult to pass
exams
4. Some students join cult
because they are underage
5. Students join cult for
protection
Key: A Accepted; R Rejected; Rm

students join secret cult. It would also serve as a measure to deter other students from joining secret cults.
eliminate cultism in higher institutions in Rivers State.
The design adopted for this study was the correlational survey because the study seeks to establish the
n, Rivers State Polytechnic, Federal College of Education (technical) Omoku, Rivers State
higher institutions in Rivers State. A sample of 200 study participants were randomly selected through
purposive random sample since the study was carried during the holidays.
Questionnaire (SCAAOHEIRS) was used for data collection. The instrument had 11 items questionnaire
patterned after a modified likert four point scale was administered. The test-retest method was adopted to
efficient. Data was analyzed with the use of mean, standard deviation and
order while z test was used to give answers to the hypotheses.
The reasons why students join secret cults
No. of Academic staff = 105 No Non academic = 95
x SD Rank RM x
Students join cult to boost 2.75 1.65 3
rd
A 2.56
Students join cult in order to 2.78 1.66 2
nd
A 2.68
Student join cult to pass 2.68 1.63 5
th
A 2.65
Some students join cult
because they are underage
2.69 1.64 4
th
A 2.65
2.98 1.72 1
st
A 2.87
Rejected; Rm Remark
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from joining secret cults.
y because the study seeks to establish the
n, Rivers State Polytechnic, Federal College of Education (technical) Omoku, Rivers State
ticipants were randomly selected through
ection. The instrument had 11 items questionnaire
retest method was adopted to
efficient. Data was analyzed with the use of mean, standard deviation and rank
No Non academic = 95
SD Rank R
M
1.60 4
th
A
1.63 2
nd
A
1.62 3
rd
A
1.62 3
rd
A
1.69 1
st
A


The result of table 1 showed that the item mean (
academic staff on why students join secret cults were greater than 2.50 (the criterion). Hence all items
were accepted indicating that students join secret cults for all the reasons above.
Research Question 2
What are the ways of curbing or eliminating cultism in higher instructions in Rivers State?
Table 2: Ways of curbing or eliminating cultism in higher institutions
S/N Statement
6. parents should devote more time
for their children
7. Students should be made to sign
undertaken during admission
process
8. No student should stay off campus
9. Symposia, seminar and other
enlightenment procedures should
be enhanced
10. Counseling and mentoring units
should be established
11. Sponsors should be arrested and
prosecuted

Table 2 also reveals that the item mean (
on the ways to curb or eliminate cultism were greater than the criterion mean of 2.50. Hence all items
were accepted.
Hypothesis 1
There is no significant different between the mean scores of a
join secret cults in higher institutions in Rivers State.
Table 3: z-result on why students join secret cults
Group
1 Students join cult to
boost their ego
Academic
Non
2 Students join cult in
order to make money
Academic
Non
3 Student join cult to
pass exams
Academic
Non
4 Some students join Academic
The result of table 1 showed that the item mean ( x ) representing the opinions of academic and non
were accepted indicating that students join secret cults for all the reasons above.
Ways of curbing or eliminating cultism in higher institutions
No. of Academic staff = 105 No Non academic = 95
x SD Rank RM
x SD
parents should devote more time 2.73 1.65 3
rd
A 2.72 1.66
Students should be made to sign
2.57 1.60 6
th
A 2.84 1.68
should stay off campus 2.59 1.60 5
th
A 2.69 1.64
Symposia, seminar and other
2.95 1.71 1
st
A 2.57 1.60
Counseling and mentoring units 2.76 1.66 2
nd
A 2.78 1.66
Sponsors should be arrested and 2.68 1.63 4
th
A 2.81 1.67
Table 2 also reveals that the item mean ( x ) representing the opinion of academic and non
There is no significant different between the mean scores of academic and non-academic on why students
join secret cults in higher institutions in Rivers State.
result on why students join secret cults
Group No x SD z-cal z-crit
Academic 105 2.75 1.65
0.82 1.96
Non- academic 95 2.56 1.60
Academic 105 2.78 1.66 0.42 1.96
Academic 105 2.68 1.63 0.13 1.96
Academic 105 2.69 1.64 0.17 1.96
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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221
) representing the opinions of academic and non
No Non academic = 95
SD Rank RM
1.66 4
th
A
1.68 1
st
A
1.64 5
th
A
1.60 6
th
A
1.66 3
rd
A
1.67 2
nd
A
) representing the opinion of academic and non-academic staff
academic on why students
crit Remark
1.96 A
1.96 A
1.96 A
1.96 A


cult because they are
underage
Non
5 Students join cult for
protection
Academic
Non
The z result of table 3 showed that the calculated z
of z (1.96) at 0.05 level of significance and with 198 degrees of freedom. The null hypothesis in respect of
the items above was therefore accep
Hypothesis 2:
There is no significant difference between the mean scores of academic and non academic on the ways of
curbing or eliminating cultism in higher institutions in Rivers State.
Table 4: z-result on ways of curbing or eliminating cultism

6 Parents should devout more time
for their children
7 Students should be make to sign an
process
8. No students should staff off
campus
9 Symposia, seminars and other
be enhanced
10. Counseling and mentoring units
should be established
11. Sponsors should be arrested and
prosecuted
Table 4 also showed that the calculated z
level of significance and with 198 degree of freedom. The null hypothesis in respect of the above table
was therefore accepted.
Discussions
From the analysis, it is evident that both academic and non
State are not comfortable with cult activities and violence associated with it. They therefore agreed that
parents should devote more time for their
processes, students should stay in campuses as such more accommodation should be provided. They also
agreed that symposia, seminars and other forms of enlightenment procedures should be encour
curb the menace of campus cultism. Both academic and non academic staff agreed that counseling and
mentoring units should be established for students and finally that those sponsoring and mobilizing cult
members should be arrested and prosecuted.

Academic 105 2.98 1.72 0.45 1.96
The z result of table 3 showed that the calculated z-values for all the items were less than the critical value
the items above was therefore accepted.
curbing or eliminating cultism in higher institutions in Rivers State.
result on ways of curbing or eliminating cultism
Group No x SD
Parents should devout more time Academic 105 2.73 1.65
Students should be make to sign an
Academic 105 2.57 1.60
No students should staff off Academic 105 2.59 1.60
Symposia, seminars and other
Academic 105 2.95 1.71
Counseling and mentoring units Academic 105 2.76 1.66
Sponsors should be arrested and Academic 105 2.68 1.63
Non-academic 95 2.81 1.67
Table 4 also showed that the calculated z-values for all items were less than the z
From the analysis, it is evident that both academic and non-academic staff of higher institutions in Rivers
parents should devote more time for their children, students should sign undertaken during the admission
agreed that symposia, seminars and other forms of enlightenment procedures should be encour
members should be arrested and prosecuted.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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222
1.96 A
values for all the items were less than the critical value
z-cal z-crit Remark
-0.17 1.96 A
-1.16 1.96 A
-0.43 1.96 A
1.62 1.96 A
-0.08 1.96 A
-0.55 1.96 A
values for all items were less than the z-critical (1.96) at 0.05
academic staff of higher institutions in Rivers
children, students should sign undertaken during the admission
agreed that symposia, seminars and other forms of enlightenment procedures should be encouraged to


The questionnaire also revealed that students join secret cults for various personal reasons, some of which
are, they join for protection, some join in order to pass their examination by intimidating lecturers. Others
join to boost their ego, some who are
the findings of Agabi et al (2008) who said that students see secret cults as Ego Enhancement Syndrome.
He explained that some individuals in the society wield more power and authority than
politician and armed robbers as examples. In seeking to fulfill these social yearning adolescent most times
in campuses finds them in secret cults.
Conclusions
Activities of secret cults have wrecked havoc on campuses. Academic programmes
universities have been disrupted as a result of mayhem by secret cults, students, lecturers and other
citizens have lost their lives through cult activities and violence, properties have also been destroyed by
cultist. Measures of eradicating this menace have to be put in place by the stakeholders.
Recommendation
The major recommendations include the e
of all stakeholders (government, school authorities, religious leaders, p
come together and find a common front on how cases of cultism should be dealt with.
Schools should provide accommodation for students and orientation programmes should be
organized for new student. Counseling and mentorin
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The emergence of secret cults in tertiary institution in Nigeria and their effects of learning and discipline


INTERSCHOLASTIC SPORTS PARTICIPATION AMONG SELECTED PRIVATE
SECONDARY SCHOOLS STUDENTS IN OSOGBO, NIGERIA
Department of Physical and Health Education,
OYEDELE, AKINSANMI OPEOLUWA

Abstract
This study investigated interscholastic sports participation of selected private secondary school
students in Osogbo, Osun State, Nigeria.
20 private secondary schools and 500 respondents while a self developed, structured and validated
questionnaire with reliability index of 0.95 was used for data collection. The data were analyzed wi
both descriptive statistics of percentages and inferential statistics of Chi
The result showed that inadequate personnel, improper programming and lack of motivation are some
of the factors militating against private secondar
sports in Oshogbo. The results were discussed, conclusions drawn and recommendations that will
assist in the proper implementation of interscholastic sports objectives among private secondary
school students were also offered.

By
ADISA OLAWUMI, Ph.D
Osun State College of Education,
Ila-Orangun, Nigeria
E-Mail: wumiadisa@gmail.com
+2348055544668, +2348066189498

&
OYEDELE, AKINSANMI OPEOLUWA
Osun State College of Education,
Ila-Orangun, Nigeria
E-Mail: opeoyedele@yahoo.com
+2348036719421
students in Osogbo, Osun State, Nigeria. The study used simple random sampling technique to select
questionnaire with reliability index of 0.95 was used for data collection. The data were analyzed wi
both descriptive statistics of percentages and inferential statistics of Chi-square at 0.05 alpha level.
of the factors militating against private secondary school students participation in interscholastic
nts were also offered.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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224
The study used simple random sampling technique to select
questionnaire with reliability index of 0.95 was used for data collection. The data were analyzed with
square at 0.05 alpha level.
y school students participation in interscholastic


Introduction
Sport in Nigeria has grown from a humble beginning as an entertainment and recreational past
time to a prominent phenomenon whose influence is felt in all facets of lives of the citizenry.
Nigerians are sports loving people with very high appetite for winning. Success at competitions
create an euphoric atmosphere with an injection of vibrancy and pride in the citizens. Conversely, poor
performance by Nigerian athletes at international competitions results in a l
contagious sadness that envelope everybody with negative effect on their health, psyche and activities.
Sport is therefore as important to Nigerians as the basic necessities of life, like food, clothing and shelter.
Consequently, sport has become an important aspect of the Nigerian culture due to its popularity
amongst the citizenry. The Nigeria State recognizes the power of sports and had used it to pursue its
foreign policy and diplomatic agenda as well as foster national unity and
(UNOSDP, 2010).
According to Igbanugo (2003) sport is an institutionalized competitive activity that involves
vigorous physical exertion or the use of relatively complex physical skills by individuals whose
participation is motivated by a combination of intrinsic satisfaction associated with the activity itself and
the external rewards earned through participation, often sports is thought to be a set of specific
competitive physical activities based on elements of play, games an
can be formally defined as structured, goal oriented, competitive, contest based, and lucid physical
activities.
School sports, on the other hand, refer to athletic programmes in the context of the school
setting. They refer most often to interschool competitions at the junior middle school and higher school
levels. Interschool programmes at the elementary level vary among communities. School Sport also
includes intramural competition, but such programmes are very ra
enrichment of the high school experiences of students within the context of the educational mission of
schools (Education Encyclopedia, 2009).
National Association for Sports and Physical Education (NASPE, 2009) o
in sports and physical activity programmes outside of the regular curricular physical education programme
provides many positive benefits for students when sound educational policies and qualified leadership are
in place. It is the position of the National Association for Sports and Physical Education that all school
students should have the opportunity to participate in a wide variety of organized sports and physical
activities through intramurals, clubs and school sponsored co
Numerous authors and organizations have cited the potential benefits of participation in sport
and physical activity programmes (Darst and Pangrazi, 2002; American Academy of Pediatrics 2001;
Siedentop, 2001; Seefeldt & Vogel, 1986). T
as benefit of participation in sports and physical activity: Improvement of motor skills and physical
fitness; enhancement of normal physical and social growth and maturation; improvement of social
self-esteem; self-perception and psychological well
lifestyle and lifelong commitment to physical activity.
In addition, the Centers for Disease Control (2002) list the following benefits of physic
specifically for middle school students: Helps build and maintain healthy bones; muscles and joints; helps
control weight; build lean muscles and reduce fat; prevents or delays the development of high blood
pressure and helps reduce blood pres
depression and anxiety; improve mood and enhance the ability to perform daily tasks throughout the
lifespan; may contribute to a physically active lifestyle and may continue into adulthood.
Despite such an impressive array of potential benefits, many secondary school students
particularly those in private secondary schools participate less in interscholastic sports. This could be as a
result of some parents, schools or authorities warning of the
participation in organized sports. Among the more common concerns are: distortion of students
educational priorities (Steinberg, 1996); overspecialization in one sport that leads to overuse; injuries and
loving people with very high appetite for winning. Success at competitions
performance by Nigerian athletes at international competitions results in a lingering sourness and a
ort has become an important aspect of the Nigerian culture due to its popularity
foreign policy and diplomatic agenda as well as foster national unity and socio
ivated by a combination of intrinsic satisfaction associated with the activity itself and
competitive physical activities based on elements of play, games and contest. From this perspective sports
hey refer most often to interschool competitions at the junior middle school and higher school
includes intramural competition, but such programmes are very rare. The objective of school sports is the
schools (Education Encyclopedia, 2009).
National Association for Sports and Physical Education (NASPE, 2009) opined that participation
position of the National Association for Sports and Physical Education that all school
activities through intramurals, clubs and school sponsored co-curricular programmes.
Siedentop, 2001; Seefeldt & Vogel, 1986). The World Health Organization (1998) includes the following
fitness; enhancement of normal physical and social growth and maturation; improvement of social
perception and psychological well-being and establishment of a basis for a healthy
lifestyle and lifelong commitment to physical activity.
In addition, the Centers for Disease Control (2002) list the following benefits of physic
pressure and helps reduce blood pressure on some adolescents with hypertension; appears to reduce
pite such an impressive array of potential benefits, many secondary school students
result of some parents, schools or authorities warning of the detrimental effects associated with
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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225
loving people with very high appetite for winning. Success at competitions
ingering sourness and a
ort has become an important aspect of the Nigerian culture due to its popularity
socio-cultural integration
ivated by a combination of intrinsic satisfaction associated with the activity itself and
d contest. From this perspective sports
hey refer most often to interschool competitions at the junior middle school and higher school
re. The objective of school sports is the
pined that participation
position of the National Association for Sports and Physical Education that all school
ricular programmes.
he World Health Organization (1998) includes the following
fitness; enhancement of normal physical and social growth and maturation; improvement of socialization;
being and establishment of a basis for a healthy
In addition, the Centers for Disease Control (2002) list the following benefits of physical activity,
sure on some adolescents with hypertension; appears to reduce
pite such an impressive array of potential benefits, many secondary school students
detrimental effects associated with


burnout; loss of identity (Wuest & Lombard, 1994), increased injury rates and psychological stress
(National Middle School Association, 1997) and distorted concepts of fairness (Covrig, 1996).
What appears to create such diverse views about the values of sports partici
individuals responsible for conducting such programmes often lose sight of the programmes educational
purposes and the fact that such programmes may not be designed and implemented with the best interest
of the participants in mind (Ame
Siedentop, Mand, & Taggart, 1985). Sports are an effective tool for developing the youths through
competitions and imbibing in them the spirit of nationalism. In realizing the importance of educati
institutions in sports development in Nigeria, the National Sport Commission (NSC) established a
division for school sports called the Nigeria Schools Sports Federation (NSSF), this body organizes
interscholastic sports competition in Nigeria tagged
This implies that, secondary schools are looked upon as one of the fertile breeding grounds for the
nations sports men and women. The interscholastic competitions are organized in three stages, the local,
state and national levels. Some of the aims of inter
are to harness the abundant sporting talents and to produce young men and women of high sporting
skills to represent the country to mention a few.
In the opinion of Nwankwo (1996) interscholastic sports programme is designed for the skilled
individuals in one school who compete with skilled individuals from other schools in selected physical
education activities. Daughtery and Woods (1996) also stated that
between selected individuals or teams representing two or more schools organized and controlled by the
school authorities. Interscholastic sports programme need to be conducted in such a way that it values
and expected result would continue to be appreciated by the participants. This would be made possible
through the good leadership, capable and well informed physical education administrators who have good
knowledge of sports administration.
Participation in sports can
a means of correcting physical illness, a medium for cultural change and a source of revenue generation
for the nation. Mohammed (1998) believes that sporting activities provide situ
wholesome, mentally stimulating and socially sound. Sport participation at interscholastic level equips the
individual with sports skills, many evils are avoided, friends and acquaintances are made through sports
socialization. It was therefore, the concern of the researchers to investigate factors militating against
interscholastic sports participation among selected private secondary schools in Ibadan, Nigeria.
Despite the justification about desirable and appropriate inter
evidence that private secondary schools are offering less structured, intramural
frequently than in the past. Many private schools o
school and among their students only) which is usually tailored to a particular sport. This act has deprived
private school students of many benefits of interscholastic sports. The researchers there
know the factors that are militating against interscholastic sports participation in private secondary
schools in Osogbo, Osun State, Nigeria.
Research Hypotheses
The following three hypotheses were tested in this study:
Ho1: Inadequate sport personnel in private secondary schools in Osogbo will not significantly be a factor
militating against interscholastic sports participation.
Ho2: Sports programming in private secondary schools in Osogbo will not significantly be a militating
factor against interscholastic sport participation.
Ho3: Lack of motivation in private secondary schools in Osogbo will not significantly be a militating
factor against interscholastic sports participation.
of identity (Wuest & Lombard, 1994), increased injury rates and psychological stress
What appears to create such diverse views about the values of sports partici
of the participants in mind (American Academy of Pediatrics, 1997; Wuest & Lombardo, 1994;
competitions and imbibing in them the spirit of nationalism. In realizing the importance of educati
interscholastic sports competition in Nigeria tagged All Nigerian Secondary Schools Games (ANSSG).
te and national levels. Some of the aims of inter-scholastic sports competitions among Nigerian youths
skills to represent the country to mention a few.
opinion of Nwankwo (1996) interscholastic sports programme is designed for the skilled
education activities. Daughtery and Woods (1996) also stated that inter-scholastic sports are contests
result would continue to be appreciated by the participants. This would be made possible
knowledge of sports administration.
Participation in sports can be active or passive. Odejide (1992) affirms that sport participation is
for the nation. Mohammed (1998) believes that sporting activities provide situations that are physically
t was therefore, the concern of the researchers to investigate factors militating against
Despite the justification about desirable and appropriate inter-scholastic sports in schools, there is
evidence that private secondary schools are offering less structured, intramural
frequently than in the past. Many private schools only participate in intramural sports (i.e. within their
private school students of many benefits of interscholastic sports. The researchers there
schools in Osogbo, Osun State, Nigeria.
The following three hypotheses were tested in this study:-
sport personnel in private secondary schools in Osogbo will not significantly be a factor
Sports programming in private secondary schools in Osogbo will not significantly be a militating
against interscholastic sport participation.
Lack of motivation in private secondary schools in Osogbo will not significantly be a militating
factor against interscholastic sports participation.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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226
of identity (Wuest & Lombard, 1994), increased injury rates and psychological stress
What appears to create such diverse views about the values of sports participation is that the
rican Academy of Pediatrics, 1997; Wuest & Lombardo, 1994;
competitions and imbibing in them the spirit of nationalism. In realizing the importance of educational
All Nigerian Secondary Schools Games (ANSSG).
scholastic sports competitions among Nigerian youths
opinion of Nwankwo (1996) interscholastic sports programme is designed for the skilled
scholastic sports are contests
result would continue to be appreciated by the participants. This would be made possible
be active or passive. Odejide (1992) affirms that sport participation is
ations that are physically
t was therefore, the concern of the researchers to investigate factors militating against
scholastic sports in schools, there is
evidence that private secondary schools are offering less structured, intramural-type activities less
nly participate in intramural sports (i.e. within their
private school students of many benefits of interscholastic sports. The researchers therefore, wanted to
sport personnel in private secondary schools in Osogbo will not significantly be a factor
Sports programming in private secondary schools in Osogbo will not significantly be a militating
Lack of motivation in private secondary schools in Osogbo will not significantly be a militating


Methodology
The descriptive survey research design was u
private secondary school students in Osogbo. Simple random sampling technique was used to select
twenty (20) private secondary schools. One (1) principal, one (1) games master and 3 sports committ
members were selected from each of the twenty (20) schools for the study. Simple random sampling
technique was also used to select 20 (athletes) from each of the selected schools.
Instrumentation
The instrument used for data collection was a
questionnaire. The four point rating scale of strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree was
used. The instrument has a reliability index of r = 0.95. The instruments were self administered.
Descriptive statistics of frequency counts, percentages and inferential statistics of Chi
employed in the analysis of data at 0.05 alpha level.
Analysis of Result
Ho1: Inadequate sport personnel in private secondary schools in Osogbo will not si
Table 1: Chi-square Analysis on Inadequate Personnel and Interscholastic Sports Participation
Responses Frequency
Strongly agree 318
Agree 160
Strongly Disagree 22
Disagree 0
Total 500

Table 1 above revealed that the calculated Chi
3.841 at df 1. Since the Chi-square (x
hypothesis was therefore rejected. This shows that inadequacy in the number of sport personnel in most
private secondary schools in Osogbo is significantly militating a
To forestall problem of this nature, Amuchie (1997) suggested that more physical education teachers
should be employed by institutions of learning in each level to boost the number of qualified personnel
handling sports programmes. In support of the above Ikulayo (1996) noted that competent and dedicated
personnel are required to execute sports programmes. She further suggested that, such people employed
for sports must have been exposed to adequate knowledge abou
of their callings and be conversant with the associated problems in sports.
Ho2: Sport programming in private secondary schools in Osogbo will not significantly be a determinant
of interscholastic sports participatio
Table II: Chi-square Analysis on Sport Programming and Interscholastic Sport Participation
Responses Frequency
Stongly Agree 222
Agree 252
Disagree 24
Strongly
Disagree
2
Total 500

Table II above revealed that the calculated Chi
3.841 at df 1. Since the calculated Chi
hypothesis was therefore rejected. This implies that sport programming among private secondary schools
in Osogbo metropolis is significantly militating against interscholastic sports participation.
The descriptive survey research design was used for the study. The population for the study consist all
twenty (20) private secondary schools. One (1) principal, one (1) games master and 3 sports committ
technique was also used to select 20 (athletes) from each of the selected schools.
The instrument used for data collection was a self-developed, structured and validated Likert
escriptive statistics of frequency counts, percentages and inferential statistics of Chi
employed in the analysis of data at 0.05 alpha level.
Inadequate sport personnel in private secondary schools in Osogbo will not si
square Analysis on Inadequate Personnel and Interscholastic Sports Participation
Frequency Percentage df Critical Value
63.6
32.0 1 3.841
4.4
0.0
100
Table 1 above revealed that the calculated Chi-square (x
2
) of 306.91 is greater than the critical value of
square (x
2
) calculated value is greater than the critical value, the null
private secondary schools in Osogbo is significantly militating against interscholastic sport participation.
sports programmes. In support of the above Ikulayo (1996) noted that competent and dedicated
for sports must have been exposed to adequate knowledge about the mechanical and technical demands
of their callings and be conversant with the associated problems in sports.
Sport programming in private secondary schools in Osogbo will not significantly be a determinant
of interscholastic sports participation among private secondary.
square Analysis on Sport Programming and Interscholastic Sport Participation
Percentage Df Critical Value Calculated Value
44.4
50.4 1 3.841 23.02
4.8
0.4
100
Table II above revealed that the calculated Chi-square of 23.02 is greater than the critical value of
3.841 at df 1. Since the calculated Chi-square (x
2
) value is greater than the critical
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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227
sed for the study. The population for the study consist all
twenty (20) private secondary schools. One (1) principal, one (1) games master and 3 sports committee
developed, structured and validated Likert-type
escriptive statistics of frequency counts, percentages and inferential statistics of Chi-square were
Inadequate sport personnel in private secondary schools in Osogbo will not significantly be a factor
square Analysis on Inadequate Personnel and Interscholastic Sports Participation
Calculated X
2

Value

306.96

) of 306.91 is greater than the critical value of
) calculated value is greater than the critical value, the null
gainst interscholastic sport participation.
sports programmes. In support of the above Ikulayo (1996) noted that competent and dedicated
t the mechanical and technical demands
Sport programming in private secondary schools in Osogbo will not significantly be a determinant
square Analysis on Sport Programming and Interscholastic Sport Participation
Calculated Value
23.02
square of 23.02 is greater than the critical value of
) value is greater than the critical value, the null


Programming in physical education, sports
meet the objectives of the profession or sports organization (Voltmer and Esslinger, 1999). They further
stated that selection, guidance and evaluation of experiences and activities are required to a
long-term and immediate goals. According to Daughterly and Lewis (1996) programming is the process
of developing and implementing sports programmes by involving both human and material resources.
They warned that, for the process of sports prog
administrative procedure is needed to run them. Parks (1980) stated that good programming entails:
budgeting; staffing; selection of activities; scheduling; supervision; equipment and facilities; competi
awards of motivational incentives to the athletes as well as their health and safety.
Ho3: Lack of Motivation will not significantly be a determinant of interscholastic sports participation
among private secondary schools in Oshogbo.
Table III: Chi-square Analysis on Motivation and Interscholastic Sport Participation
Responses Frequency
Strongly Agree 229
Agree 225
Disagree 40
Strongly Disagree 06
Total 500
The result as shown in table III revealed the calculated chi
value of 3.841 at df 1. Since the calculated Chi
hypothesis was therefore rejected. This shows that lack of motivation among private secondary school
students in Osogbo significantly militate against interscholastic sports participation.
Participation in competitive sports have different reasons for doing so, some
the incentives associated with participation. Some participate in order to be gainfully employed, while
some go into sport for ego boosting. Incentives as well, keep young athletes to continually make efforts
to improve their performance, incentives comes in different forms and types, and are virtually important.
They consist of materials or symbolic objects given to an individual before or after a good performance
(Eboh, 1994). According to Orlick (1991) motivation energizes and spur
time, it is capable of sustaining high performance levels, because it is contained in the process of striving
to attain ones optimum level.
Conclusions
Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions were
personnel in private secondary schools in Osogbo significantly militated against interscholastic sports
participation. That this inadequacy of sports personnel subsequently affects sports programming which in
effect militates against interscholastic sports participation. That lack of motivation is also a significant
factor militating against interscholastic sports participation among private secondary schools in Osogbo.
Recommendations
Based on the findings, the following rec
interscholastic sport participation among private secondary schools in Osogbo:
1. The most appropriate practice for interscholastic sports programme is to provide a
comprehensive array of after
ability levels of students. These programmes must always be based on the needs of students and
should include intramurals, activity clubs (e,g sport, dance, exercise), special events, and open
gymnastic days/nights.
2. All students should be encouraged to participate in interscholastic programmes regardless of their
ability and prior experience with organized sport. The primary purposes of these programmes are
to provide opportunities for students
Programming in physical education, sports and athletics represents experiences and activities that
stated that selection, guidance and evaluation of experiences and activities are required to a
term and immediate goals. According to Daughterly and Lewis (1996) programming is the process
They warned that, for the process of sports programming to be of good quality and effective, a sound
budgeting; staffing; selection of activities; scheduling; supervision; equipment and facilities; competi
awards of motivational incentives to the athletes as well as their health and safety.
Lack of Motivation will not significantly be a determinant of interscholastic sports participation
among private secondary schools in Oshogbo.
square Analysis on Motivation and Interscholastic Sport Participation
Frequency Percentage Df Critical Value
45.9
45.0 1 3.841
0.9
1.2
100
The result as shown in table III revealed the calculated chi-square of 306.36 is greater than the critical
value of 3.841 at df 1. Since the calculated Chi-square (x
2
) value is greater than the critical value the null
was therefore rejected. This shows that lack of motivation among private secondary school
students in Osogbo significantly militate against interscholastic sports participation.
Participation in competitive sports have different reasons for doing so, some
ance, incentives comes in different forms and types, and are virtually important.
(Eboh, 1994). According to Orlick (1991) motivation energizes and spurs one to action and at the same
Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions were drawn. That inadequacy of sport
s against interscholastic sports participation. That lack of motivation is also a significant
Based on the findings, the following recommendations are suggested by the researchers so as to improve
interscholastic sport participation among private secondary schools in Osogbo:
The most appropriate practice for interscholastic sports programme is to provide a
comprehensive array of after-school programmes to meet the diverse experiences, interests and
All students should be encouraged to participate in interscholastic programmes regardless of their
to provide opportunities for students to improve self esteem and feelings of competence
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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228
and athletics represents experiences and activities that
stated that selection, guidance and evaluation of experiences and activities are required to achieve both
term and immediate goals. According to Daughterly and Lewis (1996) programming is the process
ramming to be of good quality and effective, a sound
budgeting; staffing; selection of activities; scheduling; supervision; equipment and facilities; competitions;
Lack of Motivation will not significantly be a determinant of interscholastic sports participation
square Analysis on Motivation and Interscholastic Sport Participation
Critical Value Calculated
Value

306.36

square of 306.36 is greater than the critical
) value is greater than the critical value the null
was therefore rejected. This shows that lack of motivation among private secondary school

Participation in competitive sports have different reasons for doing so, some participate because of
ance, incentives comes in different forms and types, and are virtually important.
s one to action and at the same
drawn. That inadequacy of sport
s against interscholastic sports participation. That lack of motivation is also a significant
ommendations are suggested by the researchers so as to improve
The most appropriate practice for interscholastic sports programme is to provide a
hool programmes to meet the diverse experiences, interests and
All students should be encouraged to participate in interscholastic programmes regardless of their
esteem and feelings of competence


through positive interactions with their peers and adults. Acquire new skills and refine those
previously learned; learn to function effectively as members of a team or group; improve
personal health and fitness levels and to have fun and enjoy physical activities.
3. The types of interscholastic sports offered to students should be carefully considered. Sports that
encourage students to concentrate on personal improvement (e.g track and field, swimming etc)
accommodate large numbers of participants and are inherently safe should take precedence over
contact sports that require extensive amounts of equipment or space.
4. Interscholastic sports must address unique characteristics of students. Therefore playing rule
equipment, and field dimensions etc must be modified to accommodate the ability levels and
capacities of the participants.
5. All students who want to participate and are willing to make the commitment necessary for team
membership should be allowed to par
their parents so that the schools are not found liable in case of injuries.
6. Private secondary schools proprietors should employ competent and qualified physical education
personnel who will be abl
sport programmes for the students. Motivation of students to participate in interscholastic sports
may be best done by qualified sport personnel and specialists.

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FLOOD PROTECTION AND THE
BETWEEN EDUCATION AND THEATRE ARTS

AZUNWO, MAMNENZENU UKEWANYI
Adult E
Faculty
Rivers State University of Science a
Abstract
This paper provides a template for the discourse of ecological protection of our environment: an
academic romance between Education and Theatre Arts. It is motivated and juxtaposed by the
ecological catastrophe occasioned by the national flood of 2012 in Omoku
Government Areas of Rivers State, Nigeria
have remained on the basis of no alternatives or cultural cum ethnic affinity.
flood management transcends passionate narra
art which equally requires training.
flooding in the study include: lack of good drainage network, dumping of waste in drainages,
topographic characteristics, overflowing of riverbanks and climate change. The study observed that
the regular exposure and sensitization of the people about the dangers of ecological disorder and the
risk to humanity could be achieved through the theatre
reduce the calamity. It equally advocated community enlightenment via community theatre.
the study posited an intensified research effort that would sharpen the line between flood management
and lip service.
Key words: Effect, Flood, Causes of Flood, Rainfall, Education and Community Theatre

FLOOD PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT: AN ACADEMIC ROMANCE
BETWEEN EDUCATION AND THEATRE ARTS
By
AZUNWO, EZIWHO EMENIKE
Department of Theatre Arts
Faculty of Humanities

AZUNWO, MAMNENZENU UKEWANYI
Adult Education and Community Development
Faculty of Technical and Science Education,
Rivers State University of Science and Technology
Nkpolu, Port Harcourt

&

NWAOGU FRANCIS
template for the discourse of ecological protection of our environment: an
ecological catastrophe occasioned by the national flood of 2012 in Omoku, Ogba/Egbema/Nodn
Government Areas of Rivers State, Nigeria. Despite the flood hazards, occupants in flood prone areas
have remained on the basis of no alternatives or cultural cum ethnic affinity. The paper observed that
flood management transcends passionate narration of experiences but rather entails a distinct creative
art which equally requires training. Factors other than rainfall indentified to significantly influence
he regular exposure and sensitization of the people about the dangers of ecological disorder and the
risk to humanity could be achieved through the theatre and education as these would drastically
It equally advocated community enlightenment via community theatre.
Effect, Flood, Causes of Flood, Rainfall, Education and Community Theatre
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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231
ENVIRONMENT: AN ACADEMIC ROMANCE

template for the discourse of ecological protection of our environment: an
, Ogba/Egbema/Nodni Local
Despite the flood hazards, occupants in flood prone areas
The paper observed that
tion of experiences but rather entails a distinct creative
Factors other than rainfall indentified to significantly influence
he regular exposure and sensitization of the people about the dangers of ecological disorder and the
and education as these would drastically
It equally advocated community enlightenment via community theatre. In effect,
Effect, Flood, Causes of Flood, Rainfall, Education and Community Theatre.


Introduction
In the last three decades, the impacts of flooding have increasingly assumed a significant dimension
threatening proportions and resulting in loss
available regarding the losses sustained by the urban dwellers and flood victims
irreparable havocs have been sustained by the citizen of Nigeria due to what has become perenn
disaster in our cities. Apart from houses that collapsed in the process, market places and farmlands were
submerged for weeks and sometimes are washed away. The devastating effect of floods are not limited to
houses and people but also many fa
and market places were submerged for weeks with many bridges collapsing and electric poles completely
destroyed. (FIG Working Week, 2011). Generally, causes of flood in Nigeria could be
natural or human arrangements. Natural causes could be in form of heavy rains/storm, oceans storms
and tidal waves usually along the coast while human causes may be in form of burst of water main pipes,
dam burst level failures and dam sp
Flood
The account of the deluge in the Bible and analogous traditional reports are confirmations that there
always have been floods large enough to impinge on mans struggle to win a living from the earth. The
early civilization that grew along the
paradigm of the development of civilizations in a milieu where a river enforced community action for
flood protection. Such an environment nurtured man and his crop but the river was also a
disaster. Floods are the most common and widespread of all the natural hazards; the consequences of
floods are vast on the physical environment, economic and social well
affected area.
In China, the Hwang Llo has
settlement. The land subject to flooding has an area of about 55,000 square miles (140,000 sq km), and
densely populated. Meanwhile, because of its devastating effect, the Hwang Llo is kno
Sorrow (2297 B.C). Despite the repeated setbacks caused by the floods, however, the Chinese did not
abandon their land. This generally was true of the other great early civilizations that experienced river
floods. In many parts of the worl
exacerbated its effects on the environment and the inhabitant. Human often causes disaster when they
make environmentally unsound decision such as building in areas prone to flooding (urbanizat
cutting down forests (deforestation) Bryant (2001).
Consequently, floods occur when there is an inundation of an area which is not normally river, lake
or sea, and when excess precipitation exceeds natural infiltration, evaporation, and possi
Floods are generally regarded as extreme hydrological events where there is excess of water which may
have devastating effects. According to Ayoade (2008), floods in tropics are partly or wholly climatological
in nature, that is, they result from torrential rainfall. Also, human interference in the hydrological
relationship within the watershed can cause flooding.
Meanwhile, in Nigeria, the incident of flood is becoming a reoccurring decimal in most rural and
urban areas leading to colossal loss of properties and lives. For example, cases of flood were recorded in
llorin 2000 and 2011 Ogunpa in Ibadan. Also in 2012, unprecedented tragedy unfolded in the Niger
Delta as her communities were submerged by raging floods that brought untold
sorrow to great population of delta inhabitants. As the surging floods spread into tributaries of the River
Niger into many communities, many helpless poor people lost their lives and properties worth billions of
naira. The situation was such that many urged the Federal Government to declare a state of emergency in
the devastated areas.
Similarly, floods often cause damage to homes, schools and business if situated along the natural
flood plains of rivers. While riverine flood damage
other bodies of water, people have traditionally lived and worked by rivers because the land is usually flat
and fertile and the rivers provide easy travel and access to commerce and industry. Some flood d
threatening proportions and resulting in loss of lives and properties. Though detailed statistics are not
available regarding the losses sustained by the urban dwellers and flood victims
irreparable havocs have been sustained by the citizen of Nigeria due to what has become perenn
houses and people but also many farm lands both arable and agro-forestry were swept away while schools
destroyed. (FIG Working Week, 2011). Generally, causes of flood in Nigeria could be
dam burst level failures and dam spills.
early civilization that grew along the Nile, Tigris, Euphrates, Indus, and Hwang Llo (Yellow) rivers are
flood protection. Such an environment nurtured man and his crop but the river was also a
floods are vast on the physical environment, economic and social well-being of the inhabitants of any
In China, the Hwang Llo has been the cause of repeated floods during 4,000 years of continuous
densely populated. Meanwhile, because of its devastating effect, the Hwang Llo is kno
floods. In many parts of the world, floods seem to be recurring activities, however, sometimes
make environmentally unsound decision such as building in areas prone to flooding (urbanizat
cutting down forests (deforestation) Bryant (2001).
or sea, and when excess precipitation exceeds natural infiltration, evaporation, and possi
esult from torrential rainfall. Also, human interference in the hydrological
relationship within the watershed can cause flooding.
ssal loss of properties and lives. For example, cases of flood were recorded in
Delta as her communities were submerged by raging floods that brought untold hardship, anguish and
was such that many urged the Federal Government to declare a state of emergency in
flood plains of rivers. While riverine flood damage can be eliminated by moving away from rivers and
and fertile and the rivers provide easy travel and access to commerce and industry. Some flood d
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
232
of lives and properties. Though detailed statistics are not
available regarding the losses sustained by the urban dwellers and flood victims. It is obvious that
irreparable havocs have been sustained by the citizen of Nigeria due to what has become perennial natural
forestry were swept away while schools
destroyed. (FIG Working Week, 2011). Generally, causes of flood in Nigeria could be as a result of
Nile, Tigris, Euphrates, Indus, and Hwang Llo (Yellow) rivers are
flood protection. Such an environment nurtured man and his crop but the river was also a source of
being of the inhabitants of any
been the cause of repeated floods during 4,000 years of continuous
densely populated. Meanwhile, because of its devastating effect, the Hwang Llo is known as Chinas
d, floods seem to be recurring activities, however, sometimes
make environmentally unsound decision such as building in areas prone to flooding (urbanization) and by
or sea, and when excess precipitation exceeds natural infiltration, evaporation, and possible transmission.
esult from torrential rainfall. Also, human interference in the hydrological
ssal loss of properties and lives. For example, cases of flood were recorded in
hardship, anguish and
was such that many urged the Federal Government to declare a state of emergency in
can be eliminated by moving away from rivers and
and fertile and the rivers provide easy travel and access to commerce and industry. Some flood develops


slowly, while others such as flash floods can develop just in minutes and without visible signs of rain.
Additionally, floods can be local, impacting a neighborhood or community, or very large, affecting entire
river basins. The indescribable hard
particularly cannot be overemphasized.
Types of flood

River Floods
River floods may occur in any season, but they are more likely in rainy season. In the spring, the two
chief causes of flooding are heavy rains and a marked rise in temperature; floods during winter and spring
occur on major rivers and affect large torrential rainstorms and therefore occur on the smaller streams.
River flooding occurs in the flood plains of the larger rivers En
The magnitude of a rainstorm flood depends largely on the amount and rate of rainfall and the ability of
the soil to absorb and retain the rainfall. If the soil is wet from previous rainfall or if it is frozen, the
amount of water that runs off into the streams is increased. An extraordinarily high flood usually occurs
as a result of a combination of substantial rainfall and a cool sodden from previous rains. When
lubricated by rains, soils in mountains may slide into the vall
river washes out the soil that dams it, the rapid release of the impounded water may cause floods. A
flood also can occur when earth slides into a reservoir of a man

When a dam breaks, the sudden release of impounded water may be devastating. Perhaps, the
worst debacle of this type was the Johnstown, Pa flood of 1889, which was caused by the breaking of a
neglected earth dam on the South Forth, a tributary of the little Conemaug
persons lost their lives as the floodwater swept into Johnstown. There is a little danger of such a disaster
occurring to dams built in modern engineering standards (Levitan,2009).

River flows may rise to floods levels at di
depending on the types of river and the source of the increased flow. Slow rising floods most commonly
occur in large rivers with large catchment areas. The increase in flow may be the result of sustained
rainfall, rapid snow melt, monsoons, or tropical cyclones. Localized flooding may be caused or
exacerbated by drainage obstructions such as landslides,while rapid flooding events including flash floods
more often occur on smaller rivers, rivers with stee
over impermeable terrain. The cause may be localized convective precipitation (intense thunderstorms) or
sudden release from an upstream impoundment created behind landslide or glacier. Dam
beavers can flood low-lying urban and rural areas, occasionally causing some damage.

Coastal Floods
According to Ramsay and Bell (2008), floods along coasts are of two kinds, some are caused by
meteorological disturbances, such as hurricanes and other
disturbances, such as submarine, earthquakes, landslides and other disturbances of the sea bed. Both
kinds of disturbances have preferred locations. Coastal flooding occurs in the low
mangrove and fresh water swamps along the coast. Hurricanes and typhoons commonly occur in the
West Indies and the East Indies, respectively, and extra tropical cyclones occur in the Atlantic. Sea waves
of seismic origin, called tsunamis, are most destructive tsuna
Koukoulas,2009). Flooding in estuaries is commonly caused by a combination of sea tidal surges caused
by the wind and low barometric pressure, and they may be exacerbated by high upstream river flow.
Coastal areas may be flooded by storm events at sea, resulting in waves over
severe cases by tsunami or tropical cyclones. A storm surge, from either a tropical cyclone; falls within
this category.

In Nigeria, the flood seriously and negativ
especially Omoku council areas which resulted in the complete close down of schools. (The Guardian,
October 9, 2012). The primary effects of flooding include loss of life, damage to building and other
structures, including schools, bridges, sewerage system, pipe borne water, electricity, roadways and canals.
Lack of clean water combined with human sewage in the flood waters raises the risk of water borne
diseases, which can include typhoid, cryptosporidi
the location of the flood.
river basins. The indescribable hardship occasioned by flooding in the Rivers State and Omoku in
particularly cannot be overemphasized.
ng are heavy rains and a marked rise in temperature; floods during winter and spring
River flooding occurs in the flood plains of the larger rivers Encyclopedia Americana (2000).
ater that runs off into the streams is increased. An extraordinarily high flood usually occurs
lubricated by rains, soils in mountains may slide into the valley bottom and dam of a river. When the
flood also can occur when earth slides into a reservoir of a man-made dam, causing an over flow.
breaks, the sudden release of impounded water may be devastating. Perhaps, the
neglected earth dam on the South Forth, a tributary of the little Conemaugh River. Approximately 2,100
occurring to dams built in modern engineering standards (Levitan,2009).
River flows may rise to floods levels at different rates from a few minutes to several weeks,
more often occur on smaller rivers, rivers with steep valleys or rivers that flow for much of their length
sudden release from an upstream impoundment created behind landslide or glacier. Dam
lying urban and rural areas, occasionally causing some damage.
meteorological disturbances, such as hurricanes and other storms at sea while others are by seismic
kinds of disturbances have preferred locations. Coastal flooding occurs in the low
fresh water swamps along the coast. Hurricanes and typhoons commonly occur in the
of seismic origin, called tsunamis, are most destructive tsunamis that struck Lisbon after an earthquake (
eas may be flooded by storm events at sea, resulting in waves over-topping defenses or in
In Nigeria, the flood seriously and negatively affected education in most parts of Rivers State
tructures, including schools, bridges, sewerage system, pipe borne water, electricity, roadways and canals.
diseases, which can include typhoid, cryptosporidium, cholera and many other diseases depending upon
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
233
ship occasioned by flooding in the Rivers State and Omoku in
ng are heavy rains and a marked rise in temperature; floods during winter and spring
cyclopedia Americana (2000).
ater that runs off into the streams is increased. An extraordinarily high flood usually occurs
ey bottom and dam of a river. When the
made dam, causing an over flow.
breaks, the sudden release of impounded water may be devastating. Perhaps, the
h River. Approximately 2,100
fferent rates from a few minutes to several weeks,
p valleys or rivers that flow for much of their length
sudden release from an upstream impoundment created behind landslide or glacier. Dam-building
lying urban and rural areas, occasionally causing some damage.
storms at sea while others are by seismic
kinds of disturbances have preferred locations. Coastal flooding occurs in the low lying belt of
fresh water swamps along the coast. Hurricanes and typhoons commonly occur in the
mis that struck Lisbon after an earthquake (
topping defenses or in
ely affected education in most parts of Rivers State
tructures, including schools, bridges, sewerage system, pipe borne water, electricity, roadways and canals.
um, cholera and many other diseases depending upon


Damage to roads and transport infrastructure may make it difficult to mobilize aid to those
affected or to provide emergency health treatment. Flood water typically inundate far
land unworkable and preventing crops from being planted or harvested, which can lead to shortage of
food both for humans and farm animals. Entire harvests for a community can be lost in extreme flood
circumstances while some trees speci
secondary and long term effects of flooding leads to economic hardship due to a temporary decline in
tourism, rebuilding cost, or food shortage. The impact on those affected may cause psychol
damage, in particular it could lead to deaths, serious injuries and loss of property.

Using Community Theatre and education to control floods
Original to the theatre familiarity is the fact that it is a place of seeing and being seen. The word
derives from the Greek word theatron
of locations for theatre, including amphitheaters, churches, marketplaces, garages, street corners,
warehouses, and formal buildings .However, i
space for actors to imitate human experience before audiences.
the audience in a space, other elements of theatre include a written or improvised text
lights, sound, and properties (props). Most theatrical performances require the collaborative efforts of
many creative people working toward a common goal

Furthermore, theatrical texts
framework of a performance. Greek philosopher Aristotle, writing in the 4th century
drama as the most direct response to humanity's need to imitate experience. The word
source in the Greek verb dran, meaning to do, to act, or to perform. Aristotle further defined
drama in his Poetics as 'an imitation of an action.' His concept of imitation (
the playwright's deliberate selection and arrangement of eve
that makes up a meaningful course of human events. In Aristotle's famous definition, drama is an
imitation of an action that is whole, complete, and of a certain magnitude or scope.
Therefore, in the light of the above,
between education and theatre arts can be purely discussed within the jurisdiction of community theatre.
Community theatre has been christened with varieties of nomenclatures by differen
of developing our rural communities such as popular theatre, theatre for development, peoples theatre,
community theatre, propaganda theatre, etc. Nwanmuo (1989) as cited in Nwafor (2005), volunteers that:
Community theatre has thrived among landless labourers and poor peasants in Bangladesh, Kenya,
Nicaragua and the Philippines; urban slum dwellers in Latin America, freedom fighters in South Africa,
village squatters in Sierra Leone, the poor in Cameroon and the rural communities in
2005:257-264). Thus, we have always had community theatres, because theatre is so often the expression
of a particular community. Community theatre over the years has been seen as a method of community
development through theatrical per
the communities the opportunity of studying, analyzing and proffering solutions to a chosen problem
(257). Drawing from its etymology, Nwanmuo submits that: Historically speaking, communit
for development started in Africa in Botswana in 1974 with the Laedza Batanani group. Batanani means
wake up lets come together and work together (1989:91).
Consequent upon the above, community theatre over the years has been seen as the ultim
conduit pipe for mustering people fraught for survival. It has been used and is still used for the social
engineering, transformation and renovation of our environment; hence, it can be used as the immediate
and ultimate saving grace to our communities
Nigeria, community theatre groups such as Wason Manoma project and the instances project in Zaria, the
Abuji project in Benue, the Nigerian popular Theatre Alliance (NPTA) project in Ogbeson Oko,
Evbobemwen in Edo State (1995), and the Tide Workshop in Lagos State have all played pivotal roles in
saving our rural communities from one natural disaster or another and other critical enlightenment or
illumination programmes.
In the case of coaster flood, there is no practical way to provide full protection on most exposed
shorelines. The buildup beaches and sand dunes by means of artificial barriers beauty and recreational
affected or to provide emergency health treatment. Flood water typically inundate far
circumstances while some trees species may not survive prolonged flooding of their root system. The
tourism, rebuilding cost, or food shortage. The impact on those affected may cause psychol
damage, in particular it could lead to deaths, serious injuries and loss of property.
Using Community Theatre and education to control floods
theatre familiarity is the fact that it is a place of seeing and being seen. The word
theatron which means 'seeing place. In time past, actors have used a diversity
warehouses, and formal buildings .However, it is not the building that makes theatre but rather the use of
space for actors to imitate human experience before audiences. Consequently, in addition
the audience in a space, other elements of theatre include a written or improvised text
le working toward a common goal - the production.
texts often referred to as drama; more often than not provide the vital
framework of a performance. Greek philosopher Aristotle, writing in the 4th century
drama as the most direct response to humanity's need to imitate experience. The word
, meaning to do, to act, or to perform. Aristotle further defined
as 'an imitation of an action.' His concept of imitation (mimesis, in Greek) begins with
the playwright's deliberate selection and arrangement of events, words, and images into a dramatic pattern
imitation of an action that is whole, complete, and of a certain magnitude or scope.
the above, flood protection and our environment: an academic romance
Community theatre has been christened with varieties of nomenclatures by different scholars as a method
ved among landless labourers and poor peasants in Bangladesh, Kenya,
village squatters in Sierra Leone, the poor in Cameroon and the rural communities in
Thus, we have always had community theatres, because theatre is so often the expression
development through theatrical performances. Nwafor (2005), observes that community theatre provides
(257). Drawing from its etymology, Nwanmuo submits that: Historically speaking, communit
wake up lets come together and work together (1989:91).
Consequent upon the above, community theatre over the years has been seen as the ultim
and ultimate saving grace to our communities destroyed by flood and those prone to flood visitation. In
Abuji project in Benue, the Nigerian popular Theatre Alliance (NPTA) project in Ogbeson Oko,
flood, there is no practical way to provide full protection on most exposed
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
234
affected or to provide emergency health treatment. Flood water typically inundate farm land, making the
es may not survive prolonged flooding of their root system. The
tourism, rebuilding cost, or food shortage. The impact on those affected may cause psychological
theatre familiarity is the fact that it is a place of seeing and being seen. The word theatre
which means 'seeing place. In time past, actors have used a diversity
t is not the building that makes theatre but rather the use of
addition to the actor and
the audience in a space, other elements of theatre include a written or improvised text, costumes, scenery,
more often than not provide the vital
framework of a performance. Greek philosopher Aristotle, writing in the 4th century B .C. , thought of
drama as the most direct response to humanity's need to imitate experience. The word drama has its
, meaning to do, to act, or to perform. Aristotle further defined
in Greek) begins with
nts, words, and images into a dramatic pattern

flood protection and our environment: an academic romance
t scholars as a method
ved among landless labourers and poor peasants in Bangladesh, Kenya,
village squatters in Sierra Leone, the poor in Cameroon and the rural communities in Nigeria (Nwafor,
Thus, we have always had community theatres, because theatre is so often the expression
formances. Nwafor (2005), observes that community theatre provides
(257). Drawing from its etymology, Nwanmuo submits that: Historically speaking, community theatre
Consequent upon the above, community theatre over the years has been seen as the ultimate
destroyed by flood and those prone to flood visitation. In
Abuji project in Benue, the Nigerian popular Theatre Alliance (NPTA) project in Ogbeson Oko, the
flood, there is no practical way to provide full protection on most exposed


valve of beach areas. For these reasons the principal way to reduce damage
hurricanes and other sea storms are adequate warning services evacuation plans, proper building design,
and zoning of the hazardous area.

In the case of river floods, various measures can be taken to reduce flood damages, including
confining the river water, or increasing channel capacity.
means of reducing flood damages. Earth levels, concrete flood walls or emergency walls made of
sandbags frequently are built to confine river water
30,000 square miles (75,000 sq) of the flood plain of the Orashi. River has been protected from overflow
by levees and others, structures. Levees are used also to protect cities, sometimes flood
reinforced concrete are used instead of earthen levees because of high value of can in urban areas. Shang
(2009).

The principal way to reduce flood stages is to store floodwater in reservoirs formed by dams and
releases it at rites within the capac
released continuously at a low rate through unrated outlets. They may be held for longer time;
depending on the down streams flood situation, or sometimes held for release during the dry
reservoirs that help to reduce flood flow are also used to provide water for homes and industry, generate
power, reduce stream pollution, and provide opportunities for recreation.

According to Burges (2002) another way to reduce flood stages is to enlarge the channels of rivers;
this usually is accomplished by dredging or excavation to increase the channel depth or width channel
capacity also can be increased by reducing the flow re
removing snags and other obstructions, providing a more uniform cross section, and eliminating
meander. The resistance to flow can be reduced further by providing a smooth concrete lining for a
channel, as is done to carry flood flows and its suburbs. Another means of increasing channel capacity is
to provide alternative channels, called floodways that come into play only during great floods.

The belief that deforestation and land cultivation greatly incr
floods led to the conclusion that floods could be prevented or reduced reforestation or soil conservation.
It was thought that such measures would increase the rate at which rain would infiltrate into the soil and
increase the capacity of soil to retain water. Shang (2009). Research showed that such land treated
measures increases the infiltration capacity of the soil. However, research also revealed that efforts of
these measures are small compared with the intensity
Hence land treatment alone is not a feasible measure for reducing large floods. Adeloye and Rustum
(2011). Excessive damage when great flood occur can be avoided by regulations that prevent misuse of
floodplain lands. Measures for such control are becoming more important as floodplains are more
intensively developed. These measures include zoning ordinances which specify the elevations and types
of construction permitted in vulnerable areas. For exampl
such as riverfront parts. Powell (2009). The theatre can be used in sensitizing the general public as Obuh
(1993) submits in Nwafor (2005) drama is the most economical mode of expression which can convey
an idea that can be accepted as true; its impacts as all direct and more immediate than other forms of
expression (263) since most of the rural dwellers hardly know how to read and write, basic graphics
images displayed in dramatic form will go a long way i
people on prevention techniques and possible evacuation from the flood prone areas.

Conclusion
The overflow of the Orashi river is known to have destroyed crops, houses, school buildings as well as
lives and properties. In addition to the submission made by
should set up a committee that will come to the
in Omoku town. (Thursday 4
th
October, 2012, The Guardian Newspaper),the study concludes that there
is the urgent need to use the community theatre and education to enlighten the general public thereb
discouraging them from inhabiting flood prone areas and blocking the water channels with waste.

valve of beach areas. For these reasons the principal way to reduce damage from flood due to the
and zoning of the hazardous area.
onfining the river water, or increasing channel capacity. Confinement of floods is one of the oldest effect
sandbags frequently are built to confine river water; water and reduces flood damage. For instance, about
by levees and others, structures. Levees are used also to protect cities, sometimes flood
releases it at rites within the capacity of downstream channels. Floodwater may be detained and then
depending on the down streams flood situation, or sometimes held for release during the dry
power, reduce stream pollution, and provide opportunities for recreation.
capacity also can be increased by reducing the flow resistance of the channel; this is accomplished by
is done to carry flood flows and its suburbs. Another means of increasing channel capacity is
The belief that deforestation and land cultivation greatly increase the frequency and magnitude of
ase the capacity of soil to retain water. Shang (2009). Research showed that such land treated
these measures are small compared with the intensity of rains that produce large floods of major rivers.
odplain lands. Measures for such control are becoming more important as floodplains are more
of construction permitted in vulnerable areas. For example, high hazard areas frequency is zoned for uses
idea that can be accepted as true; its impacts as all direct and more immediate than other forms of
images displayed in dramatic form will go a long way in creating lasting impression in the minds of the
lives and properties. In addition to the submission made by The Guardian News paper
should set up a committee that will come to the aid of the people who were grossly affected by the flood
is the urgent need to use the community theatre and education to enlighten the general public thereb
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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235
from flood due to the
Confinement of floods is one of the oldest effect
; water and reduces flood damage. For instance, about
by levees and others, structures. Levees are used also to protect cities, sometimes flood walls of
ity of downstream channels. Floodwater may be detained and then
depending on the down streams flood situation, or sometimes held for release during the dry season. The
sistance of the channel; this is accomplished by
is done to carry flood flows and its suburbs. Another means of increasing channel capacity is
ease the frequency and magnitude of
ase the capacity of soil to retain water. Shang (2009). Research showed that such land treated
of rains that produce large floods of major rivers.
odplain lands. Measures for such control are becoming more important as floodplains are more
e, high hazard areas frequency is zoned for uses
idea that can be accepted as true; its impacts as all direct and more immediate than other forms of
n creating lasting impression in the minds of the
The Guardian News paper that the government
aid of the people who were grossly affected by the flood
is the urgent need to use the community theatre and education to enlighten the general public thereby


Recommendations
In order to avoid or minimize the disastrous consequences of the effect of flood, the following
recommendations are hereby made:
1. The theatre (drama) should always be used to sensitize the people living along the flood prone
areas because it provides a natural forum for popular attraction.
2. Education in form of periodic training should be used to enlighten the citizens on the need to
always keep a safe environment.
3. Constructed drains should be cleaned and freed from wastes all the time.
4. Building on drains should be discouraged and defaulters fined.
5. Shoreline protection projects should be undertaken as quickly as possible.
6. Buildings below the sea level should be relocated to a higher sea level.
7. State government should come to the aid the affected citizens by the flood especially in Omoku
axis.
8. State government should set up a committee with human face to look into the affairs of the
people affected by flood in Omuku axis.
9. State government should create a canal that will enable water flow easily.
10. Residence in flood prone areas should avoid dumping of refuse into the drainages and waterways.
11. Federal Government should dredge the Orashi River urgently.

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recommendations are hereby made:
(drama) should always be used to sensitize the people living along the flood prone
areas because it provides a natural forum for popular attraction.
Education in form of periodic training should be used to enlighten the citizens on the need to
a safe environment.
Constructed drains should be cleaned and freed from wastes all the time.
Building on drains should be discouraged and defaulters fined.
Shoreline protection projects should be undertaken as quickly as possible.
level should be relocated to a higher sea level.
State government should come to the aid the affected citizens by the flood especially in Omoku
State government should set up a committee with human face to look into the affairs of the
by flood in Omuku axis.
State government should create a canal that will enable water flow easily.
Residence in flood prone areas should avoid dumping of refuse into the drainages and waterways.
Federal Government should dredge the Orashi River urgently.
Submerged Schools at Ebocha Omoku Ogba / Egbema/Ndoni Local Government Area of Rivers
. The Punch, October 23, 2012.
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Some affected schools by the flood in October, 2012 at Omoku Town in
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PHYSICAL RESOURCES
UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION
AMAECHINA, OBUMNEME UCHE
Department o

Abstract
The study focuses on physical
Education (UBE) in Rivers State
maintenance of the facilities and equipment
(UBE) programme in primary schools in Rivers State. The population of the study was targeted at all
the 7570 teachers in the 905 public primary schools in Rivers State. A stratified ran
was use in the selection of 40 primary schools and 850 classroom teachers (330 male and 520 female)
in the State. The research questions and hypotheses for the study were analyzed and tested using
mean and Z-test statistics at 0.05 level of si
Assessment Rating Scale (RARS) was used for the study. It was validated and its reliability co
efficient established at 0.75. The findings revealed that there is no significant difference between male
and female classroom teachers on the types of physical
the Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme in primary schools in Rivers State. Again, no
significant difference was established between male and female c
maintenance of physical resources
programme in primary schools in Rivers State. It was recommended that government should ensure
that equitable facilities and equipment are provided for primary schools in Rivers State and they
should be responsive to regular physical
State.

Keywords: Physical resources
Education.


RESOURCES AVAILABILITY FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF
UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION (UBE) PROGRAMME IN RIVERS STATE.

By

AMAECHINA, OBUMNEME UCHE
obum_amaechina@yahoo.com
08035537958

&

EWELIKE, CHIBUZOR ROSE
University f Port Harcourt
08037421087
physical resources availability for the implementation of Universal Basic
in Rivers State, investigated the types of physical resources available and the rate of
and equipment for the implementation of the Universal Basic Education
the 7570 teachers in the 905 public primary schools in Rivers State. A stratified ran
test statistics at 0.05 level of significance. A validated instrument titled
ARS) was used for the study. It was validated and its reliability co
nd female classroom teachers on the types of physical resources available for the implementation of
significant difference was established between male and female classroom teachers on the rate of
resources for the implementation of the Universal Basic Education (UBE)
uipment are provided for primary schools in Rivers State and they
should be responsive to regular physical resources maintenance culture in primary schools in Rivers
resources availability, implementation of Universal, Basic
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
238
IMPLEMENTATION OF
PROGRAMME IN RIVERS STATE.
lity for the implementation of Universal Basic
available and the rate of
for the implementation of the Universal Basic Education
the 7570 teachers in the 905 public primary schools in Rivers State. A stratified random sampling
gnificance. A validated instrument titled Resources
ARS) was used for the study. It was validated and its reliability co-
available for the implementation of
lassroom teachers on the rate of
for the implementation of the Universal Basic Education (UBE)
uipment are provided for primary schools in Rivers State and they
maintenance culture in primary schools in Rivers
vailability, implementation of Universal, Basic


Introduction

Education is a powerful and dynamic instrument for social, economic, political, scientific and
technological development of nations. The belief in the efficacy of education has resulted to the
increasing commitment of government towards the establishment of educational institutions and
astronomical expansion of educational resources and increase in school enrolment at the various level of
Nigeria education system. Many co
development because it is expected to produce the required quantity and quality of human resources for
the economic growth using the right mix of inputs. The objective of any educational
achieved when facilities and infrastructure are in short supply. However, no matter how good the
teaching staff might be, they may not be able to function effectively and efficiently with out appropriate
teaching facilities and adequate infrastructure like chalk boards, classrooms, libraries, school halls, pitches
and courts, furniture and staff quarters for accommodation.

School facilities are the physical and spatial enablers of teaching and learning which will increase
the production of results (Emetarom, 2004). Good quality and standard of school depend largely on the
provision, adequacy, utilization and management of educational facilities. Akinsolu (2004) asserts that
educational curriculum cannot be sound and well operated
From all indication, physical resources are the
teaching and learning. They include blocks of classrooms, workshops, libraries, equipment, consumables,
electricity, water, visual and audio
Presently, public primary school enrolment has continued to increase without a corresponding increase in
facilities for effective teaching and
learning takes place better and faster in schools with better environment, good and qualified teachers,
good libraries and laboratories, classrooms and adequate instructional facilities and equi
facilities are lacking or inadequate. Okeke (2001) is of the opinion that for efficiency to be achieved in
schools, relevant educational resources are absolutely necessary because they act as teaching and learning
enhancer. When resources are inadequate, they frustrate any educational policy or programme.

Consequently, the requirements for the implementation of the Universal Basic Education (UBE)
are highly reflected on the theory of efficiency and effectiveness because without various par
coming into play, the realization of the goals upon which the programme is based will be unattainable.
matter how polished and well intentioned an educational policy may be, the realization of its goals
depends largely on the availability of fac
programmes of instruction and pupils services require some physical
that provide adequate storage materials equipment and furniture (Babafemi, 2008). The establishment
any organization first proceeded by some initial funds to provide the necessary
equipment. Thus Ekoro (2011:402) contends that, the success of any educational programme in any
country depends greatly on the level of provisio
Nigeria, there is the need to provide the required facilities for the realization of set goals.
Basic Education (UBE) is a laudable educational programme that can only be successfu
with the availability of adequate and quality school

It has been observed that many school heads forget to realize that they have a duty to play towards
the maintenance and upkeep of school plants. Nwagwu (2004)
administrator towards the maintenance of schools as: renovation of dilapidated school plant, repair and
redecoration of school plant, appointment of teachers to custodial duties and instruction to students on
the careful use of the school plants. The administrator should ensure that school plants are adequate and
vacant buildings are allocated where applicable to teachers as residential quarters since buildings
deteriorate faster when they are not in use. The U.B.E. progra
measures are taken into consideration and implemented in the maintenance of school plants. Maintenance
fund should be given to the school heads since the school heads cannot run to the ministry every time for
minor repairs. The head teachers should also not divert these funds into their private pockets while
treating these properties as Government Property. The pupils, teachers and heads of schools should
treat these plants as they treat their own personal propertie
commitment of government towards the establishment of educational institutions and
Nigeria education system. Many countries in the world view education as a good investment for national
the economic growth using the right mix of inputs. The objective of any educational
te infrastructure like chalk boards, classrooms, libraries, school halls, pitches
and courts, furniture and staff quarters for accommodation.
duction of results (Emetarom, 2004). Good quality and standard of school depend largely on the
educational curriculum cannot be sound and well operated with poor and badly managed school facilities.
physical resources are the school facilities and equipment that facilitate effective
electricity, water, visual and audio-visual aids, tables, desks, chairs, play ground, storage space and toilets.
facilities for effective teaching and learning. However, Ndu, Ocho and Okeke (1997), supports that
good libraries and laboratories, classrooms and adequate instructional facilities and equi
re inadequate, they frustrate any educational policy or programme.
are highly reflected on the theory of efficiency and effectiveness because without various par
coming into play, the realization of the goals upon which the programme is based will be unattainable.
depends largely on the availability of facilities for the implementation of its programme. Most
programmes of instruction and pupils services require some physical resources such as school buildings
that provide adequate storage materials equipment and furniture (Babafemi, 2008). The establishment
any organization first proceeded by some initial funds to provide the necessary (resources)
country depends greatly on the level of provision of facilities. If education is to attain its objectives in
Nigeria, there is the need to provide the required facilities for the realization of set goals.
Basic Education (UBE) is a laudable educational programme that can only be successfu
with the availability of adequate and quality schools resources.
the maintenance and upkeep of school plants. Nwagwu (2004) identifies the roles of the school
use of the school plants. The administrator should ensure that school plants are adequate and
deteriorate faster when they are not in use. The U.B.E. programme however, must ensure that all these
epairs. The head teachers should also not divert these funds into their private pockets while
treat these plants as they treat their own personal properties.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
239
commitment of government towards the establishment of educational institutions and
untries in the world view education as a good investment for national
the economic growth using the right mix of inputs. The objective of any educational system can hardly be
te infrastructure like chalk boards, classrooms, libraries, school halls, pitches
duction of results (Emetarom, 2004). Good quality and standard of school depend largely on the
with poor and badly managed school facilities.
that facilitate effective
visual aids, tables, desks, chairs, play ground, storage space and toilets.
However, Ndu, Ocho and Okeke (1997), supports that
good libraries and laboratories, classrooms and adequate instructional facilities and equipment than when
re inadequate, they frustrate any educational policy or programme.
are highly reflected on the theory of efficiency and effectiveness because without various parameters
coming into play, the realization of the goals upon which the programme is based will be unattainable. No
ilities for the implementation of its programme. Most
such as school buildings
that provide adequate storage materials equipment and furniture (Babafemi, 2008). The establishment of
(resources) facilities and
n of facilities. If education is to attain its objectives in
Nigeria, there is the need to provide the required facilities for the realization of set goals. The Universal
Basic Education (UBE) is a laudable educational programme that can only be successfully implemented
identifies the roles of the school
use of the school plants. The administrator should ensure that school plants are adequate and
mme however, must ensure that all these
epairs. The head teachers should also not divert these funds into their private pockets while


It is therefore imperative that managers of U.B.E should endeavour to put the existing structures
into proper functioning by either renovating or do repairs to meet with the present expected standards.
Manila (2003) maintains that attractive school plan
comfortable seating and useful service facilities such as libraries and multi
learning. The students in the attractively decorated school will perform better with all the advantages
derived from the school plants. A student sitting on a comfortable seat is prone to produce a better
handwriting than a student writing while sitting on a broken chair and table (Ukeje, 2006).
Education is one of the agents for the
relevant in meeting its objectives and the needs of the society, it must be well planned to provide
adequate physical resources for effective implementation of the educational programmes. P
facilities are those materials used to bring about meaningful learning in schools. It is significant to note
that the critical shortage of physical
implementation of the Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme. Lack of adequate infrastructure
such as classroom blocks, head teachers office, teachers quarters, toilets, school farm and other te
resources which include black board, maps, furniture will lead to non
inability to carry out minimal academic programmes and inability to realize the main goals of the UBE
programme. Thus, primary school system in Nig
quality. Some government owned primary schools across the country paints a picture of the school that
lack chairs and desks for pupils, lack of housing accommodation for teachers, inadequate basic scho
amenities, poor maintenance culture, inadequate qualified teachers and facilities, thus, exposing school
children to harsh learning environment and culminating to poor output.
researcher intends to assess the physica
Education (UBE) programme in Primary schools in Rivers State.
The purpose of the study is to:
1. Find out the types of physical
primary schools in Rivers State.
2. Find out the rate of maintenance of physical
programme in primary schools in Rivers State.

Research Questions
1. What are the types of physical
primary schools in Rivers State?
2. What is the rate of maintenance of physical
programme in primary schools in Rivers State?
Hypotheses
1. There is no significant difference between male and female classroom teachers on the types of
physical resources available for the implementation of the UBE programme in Primary schools in
Rivers State.
2. There is no significant difference between male and female classroom
maintenance of physical resources
schools in Rivers State.
Methodology
The study adopted a descriptive research design. The population of this study was targeted at all the 757
teachers in the 905 public primary schools in Rivers State. A stratified random sampling was use in the
selection of 40 primary schools and 850 classroom teachers (330 male and 520 female) in the State. The
data for the study was gathered with a question
It was validated and its reliability co
Manila (2003) maintains that attractive school plants with superior lighting, attractive decoration,
comfortable seating and useful service facilities such as libraries and multi-purpose room stimulate
erived from the school plants. A student sitting on a comfortable seat is prone to produce a better
Education is one of the agents for the development of the individual and the society. For education to be
adequate physical resources for effective implementation of the educational programmes. P
that the critical shortage of physical resources in the primary schools constitutes serious problem to the
such as classroom blocks, head teachers office, teachers quarters, toilets, school farm and other te
which include black board, maps, furniture will lead to non-utilization of the brain power,
Thus, primary school system in Nigeria has in recent times witnessed a steady decline in
lack chairs and desks for pupils, lack of housing accommodation for teachers, inadequate basic scho
children to harsh learning environment and culminating to poor output. It is in the light of these that the
researcher intends to assess the physical resources available for the implementation of the Universal Basic
Education (UBE) programme in Primary schools in Rivers State.
the types of physical resources available for the implementation of UBE programme in
the rate of maintenance of physical resources for the implementation of the UBE
programme in primary schools in Rivers State.
What are the types of physical resources available for the implementation of UBE programme in
primary schools in Rivers State?
What is the rate of maintenance of physical resources for the implementation of the UBE
programme in primary schools in Rivers State?
ificant difference between male and female classroom teachers on the types of
available for the implementation of the UBE programme in Primary schools in
There is no significant difference between male and female classroom teachers on the rate of
resources for the implementation of the UBE programme in Primary
data for the study was gathered with a questionnaire titled Resources Assessment Rating Scale (R
It was validated and its reliability co-efficient established at 0.75. It consists of 26 items used to elicit
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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240
ts with superior lighting, attractive decoration,
purpose room stimulate
erived from the school plants. A student sitting on a comfortable seat is prone to produce a better
development of the individual and the society. For education to be
adequate physical resources for effective implementation of the educational programmes. Physical
in the primary schools constitutes serious problem to the
such as classroom blocks, head teachers office, teachers quarters, toilets, school farm and other teaching
utilization of the brain power,
eria has in recent times witnessed a steady decline in
lack chairs and desks for pupils, lack of housing accommodation for teachers, inadequate basic school
It is in the light of these that the
available for the implementation of the Universal Basic
implementation of UBE programme in
for the implementation of the UBE
available for the implementation of UBE programme in
for the implementation of the UBE
ificant difference between male and female classroom teachers on the types of
available for the implementation of the UBE programme in Primary schools in
teachers on the rate of
for the implementation of the UBE programme in Primary
Resources Assessment Rating Scale (RARS).
efficient established at 0.75. It consists of 26 items used to elicit


information relevant to the problems investigated. Data was analyzed using means and standard
deviation. The response option of Very availa
(NA) and Very well maintained (VWM), Well maintained (WM), Fairly maintained (FM), Not maintained
(NM) was weighted as 4, 3, 2 and 1 respectively. A criterion mean of 2.50 was established by div
sum of the weights with 4. Responses with a mean of 2.50 and above were accepted (A) while responses
below 2.50 were not accepted (NA). The hypotheses posed for the study was tested using the Z
statistics.
Results Presentation and Data
Research Question 1: What are
in primary schools in Rivers State?

Table 1: Mean (X) and rank order statistics on types of physical
implementation of UBE.
S/No Items

1 Classroom blocks
2 Head teachers office
3 Toilet
4 Teachers quarters
5 Library
6 School hall
7 School football field
8 Chalkboard
9 computers
10 Games equipment
11 Chairs / desk
12 Electric fan
13 Store house

The mean scores in table 1 ranges from 3.73 to 1.29. This indicates that some of the items listed on the
table were higher than the criterion mean of 2.50. Item 4, 5, 9 and 12 are below the criterion mean and
are the types of physical resources
Rivers State while item 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11 and 13 have their mean above 2.50 and
physical resources available for the implementation of UBE in primary schools in Rivers State.

Research Question 2: What is the rate of maintenance of physical resources for the implementation of
the Universal Basic Education in primary schools in Rivers State?

Table 2: Mean (X) and rank order statistics on
S/No Items

14 Classroom blocks
15 Head teachers office
16 Toilet
17 Teachers quarters
18 Library
19 School hall
20 School football field
21 Chalkboard
22 computers
23 Games equipment
24 Chairs / desk
25 Electric fan
26 Store house

deviation. The response option of Very available (VA), Available (A), fairly available (FA), Not Available
(NM) was weighted as 4, 3, 2 and 1 respectively. A criterion mean of 2.50 was established by div
below 2.50 were not accepted (NA). The hypotheses posed for the study was tested using the Z
Analysis
the types of physical resources available for the implementation of UBE
in primary schools in Rivers State?
Mean (X) and rank order statistics on types of physical resources
Male Female
N X N X

Rank order
330 3.29 520 3.37 3.33 3
rd

330 3.90 520 3.55 3.73 1
st

330 2.90 520 2.95 2.93 6
th

330 1.20 520 1.38 1.29 13
th

330 1.20 520 2.13 1.67 10
th

330 2.94 520 3.00 2.97 5
th

330 3.28 520 3.37 3.33 3
rd

330 3.42 520 3.63 3.53 2
nd

330 1.62 520 1.19 1.41 12
th

330 2.89 520 2.67 2.78 8
th

330 2.32 520 3.12 2.72 9
th

330 1.77 520 1.23 1.50 11
th

330 2.70 520 2.89 2.79 7
th

resources not available for the implementation of UBE in primary schools in
while item 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11 and 13 have their mean above 2.50 and
available for the implementation of UBE in primary schools in Rivers State.
What is the rate of maintenance of physical resources for the implementation of
the Universal Basic Education in primary schools in Rivers State?
Mean (X) and rank order statistics on the rate of maintenance of physical
Male Female
N X N X

Rank order
330 3.13 520 2.44 2.79 2
rd

330 2.52 520 2.53 2.53 5
st

330 1.44 520 1.48 1.46 12
th

330 1.67 520 1.34 1.51 11
th

330 1.49 520 1.42 1.46 12
th

330 1.55 520 2.55 2.05 8
th

330 3.28 520 3.26 3.27 1
rd

330 2.99 520 2.26 2.63 3
nd

330 1.57 520 1.49 1.53 10
th

330 2.52 520 2.57 2.55 4
th

330 2.12 520 2.46 2.25 7
th

330 1.82 520 1.75 1.79 9
th

330 2.45 520 2.55 2.50 6
th

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241
ble (VA), Available (A), fairly available (FA), Not Available
(NM) was weighted as 4, 3, 2 and 1 respectively. A criterion mean of 2.50 was established by dividing the
below 2.50 were not accepted (NA). The hypotheses posed for the study was tested using the Z-test
available for the implementation of UBE
resources available for the
Remark
Available
Available
Available
Not available
Not available
Available
Available
Available
Not available
Available
Available
Not available
Available
le for the implementation of UBE in primary schools in
while item 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11 and 13 have their mean above 2.50 and are the types of
available for the implementation of UBE in primary schools in Rivers State.
What is the rate of maintenance of physical resources for the implementation of
the rate of maintenance of physical facilities for the
Remark
Maintained
Maintained
Not maintained
Not maintained
Not maintained
Not maintained
Maintained
Maintained
Not maintained
Maintained
Not maintained
Not maintained
Maintained


table were higher than the criterion mean of 2.50. Item 16, 17, 18, 19, 22, 24 and 25 were below the
criterion mean of 2.50 which are
Basic Education in primary schools in Rivers State
above 2.50 and are the resources

Hypotheses 1. There is no significant difference between male and female classroom teachers on the
types of physical resources available for the implementation of the Universal Basic Education in Primary
Table 3: Mean ( ), standard deviation
for the implementation of the UBE.
N X
Male teachers 330 2.58
Female teachers 520 2.65

The data on Table 3 shows that the z
significance with df=848. The null hypothesis is accepted. This means there is no significant difference
between male and female classroom teachers on the types of physical
implementation of the Universal Basic Ed
Hypotheses 2: There is no significant difference between male teachers and female classroom teachers
on the rate of maintenance of physical
in Primary schools in Rivers State.
Table 4: Mean ( ), standard deviation (SD) and z
maintenance for the implementation of the UBE.
N X
Male
teachers
330 2.19
Female
teachers
520 2.16

The data on Table 4 shows that the z
between male and female classroom teachers on the rate of maintenance of physical
implementation of the Universal Basi
The study reveals that there is no significant difference between male and female classroom teachers on
the types of physical resources available for the implementation of the Univers
Primary schools in Rivers State. It further reveals that classroom blocks, head teachers office, toilet,
school hall, school football field, chalkboard, games equipment, chairs / desk and store house are types of
facilities available while teachers quarters, library, computers and electric fan are types of
available for the implementation of the Universal Basic Education in Primary schools in Rivers State.

However, no matter how good the teaching staff might be, they may not be able to function
effectively and efficiently with out appropriate teaching facilities and adequate infrastructure like chalk
boards, classrooms, libraries, school halls, pitches and c
accommodation. However, Ndu, Ocho and Okeke (1997) reiterates that learning takes place better and
faster in schools with better environment, good and qualified teachers, good libraries and laboratories,
classrooms and adequate instructional facilities and equipment than when
inadequate. Okeke (2001) also opines that, for efficiency to be achieved in schools, relevant educational
resources are absolutely necessary because they act as teaching
inadequate, they frustrate any educational policy or programme.
the criterion mean of 2.50. Item 16, 17, 18, 19, 22, 24 and 25 were below the
criterion mean of 2.50 which are the facilities not maintained for the implementation of the Universal
Basic Education in primary schools in Rivers State while item 14, 15, 20, 21, 23 and 26 all have their mean
maintained for the implementation of the Universal Basic Education in
There is no significant difference between male and female classroom teachers on the
available for the implementation of the Universal Basic Education in Primary
), standard deviation (SD) and z-test statistic on the types of physical
for the implementation of the UBE.
SD Z-Cal Z-Cri Df Level of sig
2.58 0.61
1.53

1.96

848

0.05
2.65 0.71
The data on Table 3 shows that the z-calculated value of 1.53 < z-critical of 1.96; p<
between male and female classroom teachers on the types of physical resources
implementation of the Universal Basic Education in Primary schools in Rivers State.
There is no significant difference between male teachers and female classroom teachers
on the rate of maintenance of physical resources for the implementation of the Universal Basic Education
imary schools in Rivers State.
), standard deviation (SD) and z-test statistic on the rate of physical facilities
maintenance for the implementation of the UBE.
SD Z-Cal Z-Cri Df Level of sig
0.76
0.55

1.96

848

0.05
0.81
The data on Table 4 shows that the z-calculated value of 0.55 < z-critical of 1.96; p<
between male and female classroom teachers on the rate of maintenance of physical
implementation of the Universal Basic Education in Primary schools in Rivers State.
available for the implementation of the Universal Basic Education in
while teachers quarters, library, computers and electric fan are types of
boards, classrooms, libraries, school halls, pitches and courts, furniture and staff quarters for
nd adequate instructional facilities and equipment than when resources
resources are absolutely necessary because they act as teaching and learning enhancer. When resources are
inadequate, they frustrate any educational policy or programme. No matter how polished and well
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
242
the criterion mean of 2.50. Item 16, 17, 18, 19, 22, 24 and 25 were below the
the facilities not maintained for the implementation of the Universal
1, 23 and 26 all have their mean
maintained for the implementation of the Universal Basic Education in
There is no significant difference between male and female classroom teachers on the
available for the implementation of the Universal Basic Education in Primary
test statistic on the types of physical resources available
Level of sig Decision

Ho accepted
critical of 1.96; p< 0.05 level of
resources available for the
ucation in Primary schools in Rivers State.
There is no significant difference between male teachers and female classroom teachers
for the implementation of the Universal Basic Education
test statistic on the rate of physical facilities
Level of sig Decision

Ho accepted
critical of 1.96; p< 0.05 level of
between male and female classroom teachers on the rate of maintenance of physical resources for the
c Education in Primary schools in Rivers State.
al Basic Education in
while teachers quarters, library, computers and electric fan are types of resources not
ourts, furniture and staff quarters for
resources are lacking or
and learning enhancer. When resources are
No matter how polished and well


intentioned an educational policy may be, the realization of its goals depends largely on the availability of
resources for the implementation of its programme.

The study also reveals that, there is no significant difference between male and female classroom
teachers on the rate of maintenance of physical facilities for the implementation of the Universal Basic
Education in Primary schools in Rivers State. The study further revealed that, classroom blocks, head
teachers office, school football field, chalkboard, games equipment and store house are maintained while
teachers quarters, library, toilet, computers, e
Akinsolu (2004) asserts that educational curriculum cannot be sound and well operated with poor
and badly managed school facilities.
they have a duty to play towards the maintenance and upkeep of school plants. Nwagwu (2004) identifies
the roles of the school administrator towards the maintenance of schools as: renovation of dilapidated
school plant, repair and redecoration of s
instruction to students on the careful use of the school plants. The students in the attractively decorated
school will perform better with all the advantages derived from the school plants. Ukej
that, a student sitting on a comfortable seat is prone to produce a better handwriting than a student
writing while sitting on a broken chair and table.
Conclusion
Though education around the world is viewed as a good investment for national development and it is
expected to produce the required quantity and quality of human resources for the economic growth using
the right mix of inputs. It is a mirage to achieve the obje
and infrastructure are in short supply and the available ones not maintained. However, no matter how
good the teaching staff might be, they may not be able to function effectively and efficiently with out
appropriate teaching facilities and adequate infrastructure like chalk boards, classrooms, libraries, school
halls, pitches and courts, furniture and staff quarters for accommodation.
Recommendations
1. Government should ensure that equitable facilities and
2. Government should be responsive to regular physical facilities maintenance culture in primary
schools.
3. Government should ensure that the facilities provided are commensurate to the number of
students admitted in primary schools in Rivers State.
4. Government should increase and channel more funds to the development of primary education
in Rivers State.

References

Adetoro, J.A. & Bello, S.A. (2009). Resource Provision and Utilization in Nigerian Sec
International Journal of Higher Education Research (JJHERI, 1(2), pp.65
Akinsolu, R.A. (2004). Provision and Management
Primary and Secondary Education in
Babafemi, T. O. A. (2008). An assessment of the implem
Nigeria. African Journal of Education.
Ebong, J.M. (2006). Understanding Economics of Education
Ekoro, L. (2011). Quality Assurance in Primary Education in Rivers State.
Research and Development. 4(2b),400
Emetarom, U. G. (2004). Provision and
Implications for policy formulation.
University of Ibadan, October 28th
Enaohwo, J. O. and Eferakeya, O.A. (1989).
for the implementation of its programme.
ducation in Primary schools in Rivers State. The study further revealed that, classroom blocks, head
teachers quarters, library, toilet, computers, electric fan, school hall and chairs / desk are not maintained.
and badly managed school facilities. It has been observed that many school heads forget to reali
school plant, repair and redecoration of school plant, appointment of teachers to custodial duties and
school will perform better with all the advantages derived from the school plants. Ukej
writing while sitting on a broken chair and table.
education around the world is viewed as a good investment for national development and it is
the right mix of inputs. It is a mirage to achieve the objective of any educational system when facilities
ropriate teaching facilities and adequate infrastructure like chalk boards, classrooms, libraries, school
halls, pitches and courts, furniture and staff quarters for accommodation.
Government should ensure that equitable facilities and equipment are provided in primary
Government should be responsive to regular physical facilities maintenance culture in primary
Government should ensure that the facilities provided are commensurate to the number of
ts admitted in primary schools in Rivers State.
Government should increase and channel more funds to the development of primary education
Adetoro, J.A. & Bello, S.A. (2009). Resource Provision and Utilization in Nigerian Sec
International Journal of Higher Education Research (JJHERI, 1(2), pp.65-70.
Provision and Management of Facilities in Nigerian Primary Schools.
d Secondary Education in Nigeria. Ibadan: LEAP publications.
Babafemi, T. O. A. (2008). An assessment of the implementation of the 6-3-3-4 system of education in
African Journal of Education. 1(2), 18-25
Understanding Economics of Education. Port Harcourt: Eagle Lithography
Ekoro, L. (2011). Quality Assurance in Primary Education in Rivers State. African Journal of Educational
and Development. 4(2b),400-409.
Emetarom, U. G. (2004). Provision and management of facilities in primary schools in Nigeria:
Implications for policy formulation. Paper presented at the annual National Conference of NAEAP,
Ibadan, October 28th31
st
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Enaohwo, J. O. and Eferakeya, O.A. (1989). Educational Administration. Ibadan: Paperback
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
243
ducation in Primary schools in Rivers State. The study further revealed that, classroom blocks, head
lectric fan, school hall and chairs / desk are not maintained.
It has been observed that many school heads forget to realize that
chool plant, appointment of teachers to custodial duties and
school will perform better with all the advantages derived from the school plants. Ukeje (2006) also noted
education around the world is viewed as a good investment for national development and it is
ctive of any educational system when facilities
ropriate teaching facilities and adequate infrastructure like chalk boards, classrooms, libraries, school
equipment are provided in primary
Government should be responsive to regular physical facilities maintenance culture in primary
Government should ensure that the facilities provided are commensurate to the number of
Government should increase and channel more funds to the development of primary education
Adetoro, J.A. & Bello, S.A. (2009). Resource Provision and Utilization in Nigerian Secondary Schools.
Primary Schools. Management of
system of education in
. Port Harcourt: Eagle Lithography Press.
African Journal of Educational
primary schools in Nigeria:
Conference of NAEAP,
. Ibadan: Paperback Publishers Ltd.


Ndu, O. (2000). The UBE and its implementation.
Ndu, A.N., Ocho, L.O., Okeke, B.S. (1997).
Awka: Meks Press.
Okeke, B. S. (2001). Quality management and nat
Harcourt.
Ukeje, B. O. (2006). Universal Basic Education in N
Universal Basic Education Journal.

The UBE and its implementation. King publisher:Enugu.
Ndu, A.N., Ocho, L.O., Okeke, B.S. (1997). Dynamics of Educational Management. The Nigerian Perspective.
Quality management and national goal attainment. University of Port Harcourt Press. Port
Ukeje, B. O. (2006). Universal Basic Education in Nigeria: Logistics and implementation strategies.
Journal. 1(1), 10-16.
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244
The Nigerian Perspective.
University of Port Harcourt Press. Port
implementation strategies.


VOCATIONAL EDUCATION: AN UNDER
Abstract
This study looks at vocational education as an under
Rivers State, Nigeria. Three research questions and three hypotheses were posed for the study. The
study adopted a descriptive survey design with a population of 10,320 student
and technical colleges in Rivers State. A sample size of 1,200 male and female students was drawn
using stratified random sampling. The instrument used was questionnaire tagged
Education and Development Questionnaire
method used to get the reliability index of 0.91. Mean and rank order statistics were used to answer
the research questions and z-test used to test the hypotheses. The findings of the study revealed among
others that the employment prospects of the graduates of technical and vocational institutions in
Rivers State for economic development are to secure employment in Agricultural establishment,
secure employment in automobile companies, set up their own busi
Based on the findings, it was recommended that teaching vocational and technical subjects should be
taken more seriously to raise the interest of students for these vocational programmes in other to boost
the economic development of the society. Government should provide vocational and technical
education institutions with the necessary vocational tools and equipment. Students should work
towards acquiring the knowledge and skills of vocational and technical education f
reduction. This would help them to be creative and innovative.

EDUCATION: AN UNDER-HARNESSED TOOL FOR ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA

By

IGBINEDION, DOYE A.
University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria

at vocational education as an under-harnessed tool for economic development in
study adopted a descriptive survey design with a population of 10,320 students in the six vocational
using stratified random sampling. The instrument used was questionnaire tagged
Education and Development Questionnaire (VEEDQ). The instrument was valid
used to get the reliability index of 0.91. Mean and rank order statistics were used to answer
test used to test the hypotheses. The findings of the study revealed among
secure employment in automobile companies, set up their own business and become self
development of the society. Government should provide vocational and technical
towards acquiring the knowledge and skills of vocational and technical education f
reduction. This would help them to be creative and innovative.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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245
HARNESSED TOOL FOR ECONOMIC
harnessed tool for economic development in
s in the six vocational
using stratified random sampling. The instrument used was questionnaire tagged Vocational
was validated and test re-test
used to get the reliability index of 0.91. Mean and rank order statistics were used to answer
test used to test the hypotheses. The findings of the study revealed among
ness and become self-employed etc.,
development of the society. Government should provide vocational and technical
towards acquiring the knowledge and skills of vocational and technical education for poverty


Introduction
Education is very important in any developing country. It plays a vital role in bringing about national
development. Nwabueze (2011) sees education as the in
economic, political and cultural development of any nation. Modern technology employed in
manufacturing processes and service deliveries require very sophisticated equipment to achieve
production goals and standard. In many instance, very specialized skills are undoubtedly required for their
successful manipulation in production. This makes human resources a production input and, therefore, of
great importance to industrial analyst and management experts. This was ref
of most government industrial establishments to vocational skills acquisition.
According to the National Policy on Education (2004), vocational education is an instrument for
promoting environmentally sound sustainable devel
vocational education, individuals acquire the skills and practical ability to work and contribute to national
development. Websters Collegiate Dictionary (1990) used words such as expertness, practice ab
dexterity and tact to define skill as an organized sequence and set of actions employed to perform an
activity. Supporting the above definition, Okorie, (2000) considered skill as a well
doing something. Job skill required to pe
training, which is an essential instrument to reveal intrinsic potentials in the individual.
The acquisitions of skills are important in harnessing an individual as resources for competitive
employment into industries, self-
social and economic development. The skills of an individual normally demonstrate the habit of acting,
thinking and behaving towards national development. An
acquisition should posses qualities such as interest, patience, ability, aptitude and personality
characteristics and other human physical qualities that would enable him succeed in the chosen skill area.
No doubt, Okoro (1999) and Okorie, (2000) emphasized these qualities for the career counselor in
advising prospective career choosers.
Vocational skills according to Uche, Nwabueze and Ememe (2009) include sales and marketing
skills, financial know-how, self
leadership skill, problem solving skill, time management skill and information skill. Communication and
problem solving skills equip individuals with the ability to speak the language of bus
their personal effectiveness. Vocational education promotes the skills of initiating and develops creativity
among people.
Types of vocational education available in vocational institutions
Vocational education aims at providing people
contribute maximally to the growth of society at the same time help them become self reliant. Vocational
education refers to a scheduled programme of courses designed to prepare students for jobs
commercial and industries sectors at the completion of the courses, while technical education refers to
any type of education in technology (offered at any level of the education system) that aims at producing
various types of technological manpower
taught in different forms through the schools (School
the institutions of skill acquisition centres and through on
working (Adiele, 2008).
International Labour Organization (2002) opined that vocational education apart from being an
aspect of life long learning is also an instrument for promoting environmentally sound sustainable
development and a method of facilitating poverty alleviation. Vocational education is that aspect of
learning process that enables the learner acquires practical skills in various fields which will make an
individual become a functional and productive member of the society (Oragwu,
vocational and technical education, according to Osuala, (1987), and Okoro, (1999) is to equip people
(trainees) with marketable skills needed for entry into the world of work as paid employees or as self
employed persons. The central purpose of vocational education according to Okoro (1999), is to give
development. Nwabueze (2011) sees education as the industry that produces manpower for socio
In many instance, very specialized skills are undoubtedly required for their
great importance to industrial analyst and management experts. This was reflected in the huge investment
of most government industrial establishments to vocational skills acquisition.
promoting environmentally sound sustainable development and a method of alleviating poverty. Through
development. Websters Collegiate Dictionary (1990) used words such as expertness, practice ab
activity. Supporting the above definition, Okorie, (2000) considered skill as a well
doing something. Job skill required to perform occupational tasks which are normally developed through
-employment or other types of labour utilizations as an instrument of
thinking and behaving towards national development. Any individual seeking for skill training and
t, Okoro (1999) and Okorie, (2000) emphasized these qualities for the career counselor in
advising prospective career choosers.
how, self-motivation, communication skill, thinking skill, enterprising skill,
problem solving skills equip individuals with the ability to speak the language of bus
available in vocational institutions
Vocational education aims at providing people with various skills that will enable them function well and
education refers to a scheduled programme of courses designed to prepare students for jobs
various types of technological manpower required by the economy (FME, 2003). Vocational skills can be
taught in different forms through the schools (School-based), through apprenticeship schemes through
the institutions of skill acquisition centres and through on-and off-the job training for t
f facilitating poverty alleviation. Vocational education is that aspect of
individual become a functional and productive member of the society (Oragwu, 2012).
(trainees) with marketable skills needed for entry into the world of work as paid employees or as self
al purpose of vocational education according to Okoro (1999), is to give
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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246
dustry that produces manpower for socio-
In many instance, very specialized skills are undoubtedly required for their
lected in the huge investment

opment and a method of alleviating poverty. Through
development. Websters Collegiate Dictionary (1990) used words such as expertness, practice ability,
activity. Supporting the above definition, Okorie, (2000) considered skill as a well-established habit of
rform occupational tasks which are normally developed through
employment or other types of labour utilizations as an instrument of
y individual seeking for skill training and
t, Okoro (1999) and Okorie, (2000) emphasized these qualities for the career counselor in
ivation, communication skill, thinking skill, enterprising skill,
problem solving skills equip individuals with the ability to speak the language of business and improve
with various skills that will enable them function well and
education refers to a scheduled programme of courses designed to prepare students for jobs in the
required by the economy (FME, 2003). Vocational skills can be
based), through apprenticeship schemes through
the job training for those already
f facilitating poverty alleviation. Vocational education is that aspect of
2012). The function of
(trainees) with marketable skills needed for entry into the world of work as paid employees or as self-
al purpose of vocational education according to Okoro (1999), is to give


people specialized skill training to cope with both manipulative and cognitive requirements of modern
technologies. All the industries today are looking for men and women in this cate
Vocational training must be dynamic in method and strategy as to keep workers abreast of
industrial needs. Specialized skills always emerge as technology changes in line with innovations. Training
and retraining in these newer skills remain the funct
properly done, or procedure inadequately followed, the job performance will likely suffer. On this issue,
Evans and Herr, (1978), Ivanceirch and Glueck, (1986) identified the types of vocational training as
apprenticeship, vestibular, on-the-
Basically, there are five types of vocational programmes offered in schools these include: the pre
vocational and vocational programmes offered at the junior and senior seconda
technical programmes offered in technical colleges, the polytechnics and colleges of education (technical)
(National Policy on Education 2004). The pre
school level it prepares the students for the acquisition of skill to gain employment or become self
employed after junior secondary. Vocational and technical education seeks to provide students with the
knowledge, skills and motivation to encourage vocational success in a variet
vocational education are offered at all levels of schooling from primary or secondary schools through
graduate university programs (Ismail, Rak and Omar, 2011)
human capital and therefore, the characteristics of the new generation of human capital must be a
common determinant for success not only to students but the staff of the university.
The employment prospects of the graduates of technical and vocational institutions for peace
and economic development
Vocational and technical education (VTE) plays a significant role in the socio
development of a country. Research findings (FME, 2003; UNESCO
that have breakthrough in the technological world today are those that have placed more emphasis and
invested substantially on vocational and technological education. These countries have also re
their technological and vocational education through strategic planning, effective policy and appropriate
decision making strategies. Enebe (2000) highlights the significant roles which VTE can play in curbing
unemployment and in providing the needed skilled labour for indu
acknowledges the outstanding contributions of VTE in the development of advanced countries like the
United States of America and Japan.

However, the rapid advancement in science and technology being experienced tod
to the proper organization, effective, strategic planning and policy statements supported by political will.
Oranu (2010) reported the several factors that have contributed to the rising demand for skills in the
labor market to include: technological and organizational change, trade, deregulation of key industries,
and the decline of unions. Bennell (1996) observed that all countries, especially developing countries,
need balanced development through
terms of national development.
The reform options to enhance effective skills acquisition in vocational schools for peace and
economic development
A vocational school is a school in which students are taught the skills needed to perform a particular job
(Gordon, 1999). Traditionally, vocational schools have not existed to further
liberal arts, but rather to teach only job
institutions devoted to training, not education (Oragwu, 20
changing in the 1990s toward a broader preparation that develops the academic and technical skills of
students, as well as the vocational. Typically, most career colleges specifically design their curriculum for
fields that have the best current and future growth potential (Gordon, 1999).
In response to criticism about the general employability of the workforce, the Secretary's
Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills published in 1991 a range of skills that all wor
participants should have. These include the following: basic skills, reading, writing, mathematics, listening,
technologies. All the industries today are looking for men and women in this category.
and retraining in these newer skills remain the function of vocational education. When training is not
Evans and Herr, (1978), Ivanceirch and Glueck, (1986) identified the types of vocational training as
-job, off-the-job, coaching and counselling
Basically, there are five types of vocational programmes offered in schools these include: the pre
vocational and vocational programmes offered at the junior and senior seconda
(National Policy on Education 2004). The pre-vocational programmes are offered at the junior secondary
the students for the acquisition of skill to gain employment or become self
knowledge, skills and motivation to encourage vocational success in a variety of settings. Variations of
Ismail, Rak and Omar, 2011). Vocational education is about the creation of
s of the graduates of technical and vocational institutions for peace
Vocational and technical education (VTE) plays a significant role in the socio-economic growth and
development of a country. Research findings (FME, 2003; UNESCO, 2005) have shown that countries
invested substantially on vocational and technological education. These countries have also re
l and vocational education through strategic planning, effective policy and appropriate
unemployment and in providing the needed skilled labour for industrialization. For instance, (FME, 2003)
ed States of America and Japan.
However, the rapid advancement in science and technology being experienced tod
chnological and organizational change, trade, deregulation of key industries,
need balanced development through all of the educational sectors in order to make significant progress in
in which students are taught the skills needed to perform a particular job
(Gordon, 1999). Traditionally, vocational schools have not existed to further education
but rather to teach only job-specific skills, and as such have been better considered to be
institutions devoted to training, not education (Oragwu, 2012). Hence, purely vocational focus began
elds that have the best current and future growth potential (Gordon, 1999).
Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills published in 1991 a range of skills that all wor
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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247
gory.
ion of vocational education. When training is not
Evans and Herr, (1978), Ivanceirch and Glueck, (1986) identified the types of vocational training as:
Basically, there are five types of vocational programmes offered in schools these include: the pre-
vocational and vocational programmes offered at the junior and senior secondary school levels; the
vocational programmes are offered at the junior secondary
the students for the acquisition of skill to gain employment or become self
y of settings. Variations of
. Vocational education is about the creation of
s of the graduates of technical and vocational institutions for peace
economic growth and
, 2005) have shown that countries
invested substantially on vocational and technological education. These countries have also re-defined
l and vocational education through strategic planning, effective policy and appropriate
strialization. For instance, (FME, 2003)
However, the rapid advancement in science and technology being experienced today can be linked
chnological and organizational change, trade, deregulation of key industries,
to make significant progress in
in which students are taught the skills needed to perform a particular job
education in the sense of
specific skills, and as such have been better considered to be
12). Hence, purely vocational focus began
Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills published in 1991 a range of skills that all workforce


speaking, thinking skills, creative thinking, decision making, problem solving, knowing how to learn,
reasoning, personal qualities, respo
integrity/honesty (Hyslop, 2000). Research has shown that schools bring academic and vocational
education together in a number of different ways, which comprise eight different models of integration
the secondary level (Levesque, 2000). These models are summarized as follows:
1. More academic content is incorporated in vocational courses.
2. Academic courses are made more vocationally relevant.
3. Academic and vocational teachers cooperate to incorporate
programs.
4. Curricular alignment is accomplished by modifying or coordinating both academic and vocational
curricula across courses.
5. Seminar projects are done in
that integrates knowledge and skills learned in both academic and vocational courses.
6. The academy model is a school
occupational focus.
7. Vocational high schools and magnet schools align courses with each other and to an occupational
focus for all students.
8. Occupational clusters, career paths, and occupational majors feature a
courses and alignment among courses within clusters (Levesque, et al. 2000).
Statement of Problem
The needed facilitation of economic development and peace in Nigeria through graduate quality is
farfetched. Lack of technological know
Government to establish vocational colleges of education and centres of excellence in some states for
creative thinking and transformation of knowledge. This study seems to fid out whether the vocational
skills taught in schools are suited to equip the graduates with knowledge/skills for employment thus,
reducing unemployment and poverty. Are the skills taught adequate enough to assist the graduates
become self reliant and gain meaningful employment? Are there appr
developed and put in place for the reduction of youths poverty through the acquisition of desirable skills
in vocational institutions in Rivers State.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the vo
economic development in Rivers State, Nigeria. Specifically, the study seeks to achieve the following:
1. Ascertain the types of vocational and technical programmes offered in vocational institutions in
Rivers State for economic development;
2. Assess the employment prospects of the graduates of vocational institutions in Rivers State for
economic development.
3. Determine the reforms options to achieve effective skill acquisition for economic development in
vocational schools.

Research Questions
The following research questions have been posed to guide this study.
1. What are the types of technical/vocational programmes available in vocational institutions in
Rivers State for economic development?
2. What are the employment prospects of the graduates of vocational institutions in Rivers State for
economic development?
3. What are the reforms options to enhance effective skills acquisition in vocational schools for
economic development?

Hypotheses
1. There is no significant difference between the mean scores of male and female students on the
types of vocational programmes offered for economic development in Rivers State.
reasoning, personal qualities, responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, self
education together in a number of different ways, which comprise eight different models of integration
the secondary level (Levesque, 2000). These models are summarized as follows:
More academic content is incorporated in vocational courses.
Academic courses are made more vocationally relevant.
Academic and vocational teachers cooperate to incorporate academic content into vocational
Curricular alignment is accomplished by modifying or coordinating both academic and vocational

Seminar projects are done in lieu of elective courses and require students to complete a project
The academy model is a school-within-a-school that aligns courses with each other and to an
ional high schools and magnet schools align courses with each other and to an occupational
Occupational clusters, career paths, and occupational majors feature a coherent
farfetched. Lack of technological know-how and increasing level of unemployment prompted the Federal
ught in schools are suited to equip the graduates with knowledge/skills for employment thus,
become self reliant and gain meaningful employment? Are there appropriate strategies identified,
in vocational institutions in Rivers State.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the vocational education as an under
Ascertain the types of vocational and technical programmes offered in vocational institutions in
State for economic development;
Assess the employment prospects of the graduates of vocational institutions in Rivers State for
Determine the reforms options to achieve effective skill acquisition for economic development in
The following research questions have been posed to guide this study.
What are the types of technical/vocational programmes available in vocational institutions in
employment prospects of the graduates of vocational institutions in Rivers State for

What are the reforms options to enhance effective skills acquisition in vocational schools for

significant difference between the mean scores of male and female students on the
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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248
esteem, sociability, self-management and
education together in a number of different ways, which comprise eight different models of integration at
academic content into vocational
Curricular alignment is accomplished by modifying or coordinating both academic and vocational
e courses and require students to complete a project
school that aligns courses with each other and to an
ional high schools and magnet schools align courses with each other and to an occupational
coherent sequence of
level of unemployment prompted the Federal
ught in schools are suited to equip the graduates with knowledge/skills for employment thus,
opriate strategies identified,
cational education as an under-harnessed tool for
Ascertain the types of vocational and technical programmes offered in vocational institutions in
Assess the employment prospects of the graduates of vocational institutions in Rivers State for
Determine the reforms options to achieve effective skill acquisition for economic development in
What are the types of technical/vocational programmes available in vocational institutions in
employment prospects of the graduates of vocational institutions in Rivers State for
What are the reforms options to enhance effective skills acquisition in vocational schools for
significant difference between the mean scores of male and female students on the


employment prospects of the graduates of technical and vocational institutions in Rivers State for
reforms options to enhance effective ski
development.
Methodology
The research design for this study is descriptive survey. The descriptive survey design is the most
appropriate way of determining opinions that are held and issues that exist.
comprised all technical and vocational students in the six (6)
Rivers State. There are 10,327 Vocational and technical education students in the six vocational
institutions in Rivers State (Rivers State Education Board Report, 2012). A sample size of 1,200 students
was drawn from a population of 10,327 vocational and technical students using the stratified random
sampling technique. Hence, 200 vocational students were selected from each
forms 17.4% of the population of the study. This included 700 male students and 500 female students in
all the schools. The instrument for data collection was questionnaire tagged
economic development Questionnaire (VEEDQ) developed by the researcher.
validated and the reliability was ascertained using test re
were correlated with Pearson Product Moment Correlation to determine the coeffici
the reliability index of 0.81. The research questions were answered using mean and rank order statistics.
The null hypotheses were tested using z
the critical value for acceptance or rejection of any null hypothesis. Hence, the acceptance or rejection of
the null hypothesis depends on the z
Data Analysis
Research Question 1: What are the types of technical/vocational programmes
institutions in Rivers State?

Table 1: Mean and Rank Order of male and female students on the types of vocational programmes
studied in vocational institutions in Rivers State for economic development
S/N Types of vocational programmes
1 Automobile engineering
2 Computer craft practice
3 Electrical installation and maintenance
4 Building engineering
5 wood trades
6 Catering
7 Clothing textile
8 Agriculture
9 Business studies
10 Fine arts
Aggregate Mean Score

Table 1 shows the types of vocational programmes available in vocational institutions in Rivers State for
economic development. The respondents agreed to items 1
mean score of 2.5. The aggregate mean scores of
the items in the table are the types of vocational programmes available in vocational institutions in Rivers
State for economic development. The programmes include: automobile engineering, catering, b
engineering, electrical installation, computer craft practice, fine arts, clothing and textile and agricultural
science.

Research Question 2: What are the employment prospects of the graduates of vocational institutions in
Table 2: Mean and rank order of male and female students on the employment prospects of graduates of
vocational institutions in Rivers State for economic development.
There is no significant difference between the mean scores of male and female students on the
reforms options to enhance effective skills acquisition in vocational schools for economic
appropriate way of determining opinions that are held and issues that exist. The population of the study
and vocational students in the six (6) technical and vocational institut
te (Rivers State Education Board Report, 2012). A sample size of 1,200 students
sampling technique. Hence, 200 vocational students were selected from each school. The sample size
all the schools. The instrument for data collection was questionnaire tagged vocational education for
ionnaire (VEEDQ) developed by the researcher.
ascertained using test re-test method. Thereafter the results of the tests
were correlated with Pearson Product Moment Correlation to determine the coeffici
The null hypotheses were tested using z-test at alpha significant level of 0.05. A table value of 1.96 was
r acceptance or rejection of any null hypothesis. Hence, the acceptance or rejection of
the null hypothesis depends on the z-calculated value and z-tabulated value.
What are the types of technical/vocational programmes available in vocational
Mean and Rank Order of male and female students on the types of vocational programmes
in vocational institutions in Rivers State for economic development
programmes Male
x
Female
x
x x
2.70 2.65 2.68
2.75 2.63 2.56
Electrical installation and maintenance 2.68 2.53 2.61
2.68 2.55 2.62
2.80 2.73 2.77
2.67 2.63 2.65
2.61 2.52 2.57
2.60 2.61 2.61
2.95 2.85 2.90
2.54 2.51 2.53
Aggregate Mean Score 2.70 2.62 2.66
economic development. The respondents agreed to items 1-10 with mean scores greater than the criterion
mean score of 2.5. The aggregate mean scores of 2.70 for male and 2.62 for female students showed that
State for economic development. The programmes include: automobile engineering, catering, b
What are the employment prospects of the graduates of vocational institutions in
ic development?
Mean and rank order of male and female students on the employment prospects of graduates of
vocational institutions in Rivers State for economic development.
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249
lls acquisition in vocational schools for economic
The population of the study
and vocational institutions in
te (Rivers State Education Board Report, 2012). A sample size of 1,200 students
school. The sample size
vocational education for
ionnaire (VEEDQ) developed by the researcher. The instrument was
test method. Thereafter the results of the tests
were correlated with Pearson Product Moment Correlation to determine the coefficient and this yielded
test at alpha significant level of 0.05. A table value of 1.96 was
r acceptance or rejection of any null hypothesis. Hence, the acceptance or rejection of
available in vocational
Mean and Rank Order of male and female students on the types of vocational programmes
Rank Order
3
rd

8
th

6
th

5
th

2
nd

4
th

7
th

6
th

1
st

9
th

10 with mean scores greater than the criterion
2.70 for male and 2.62 for female students showed that
State for economic development. The programmes include: automobile engineering, catering, building
What are the employment prospects of the graduates of vocational institutions in
Mean and rank order of male and female students on the employment prospects of graduates of


S/N Employment prospects of graduates of vocational
institutions include:
11 To secure employment in Agricultural establishment
12 secure employment in automobile companies
13 set up their own business and become self
14 secure employment in electrical establishments
15 secure employment in automobile repair and spray
painting establishment
16 get employment in welding and fabrication companies
Aggregate Mean

Table 2 shows the employment prospects of graduates of vocational/technical institutions in Rivers State
for economic development. The male respondents agreed to all the items with mean scores greater than
the criterion mean score of 2.5 following the rank order 1
all the items with mean scores greater than the criterion mean score of 2.5 following the rank order 1
6th.
The aggregate mean score of 3.90 showed that the respondents agr
prospects of the graduates of technical and vocational institutions in Rivers State for economic
development. Thus, the employment prospects of the graduates of vocational institutions in Rivers State
for economic development are: to
in automobile companies, set up their own business and become self
electrical establishments, secure employment in automobile repair and spray painting establ
get employment in welding and fabrication companies.

Research question 3: What are the reforms options to enhance effective skills acquisition in vocational
schools for economic development?

Table 3: Mean and Rank order of male and female st
skills acquisitions in vocational/ technical schools for economic development.
S/N Reform options to enhance effective skills acquisitions
for economic development include:
17 Making vocational education compulsory at the basic
education level
18 Inclusion of technical education into teacher education
programme
19 Involvement of corporate organizations in the funding
of vocational/technical education
20 Out of school skills acquisition and apprenticeship
programmes
21 Funding vocational/technical graduates through soft
loans
22 Providing land for those willing to go into Agricultural
practice as a vocation
Aggregate mean score

Table 3 presented the reform options to enhance effective skills acquisition for
The respondents agreed to all the items with mean scores greater than the criterion mean score of 2.5
following the rank order 1
st
6th. The aggregate mean scores of 2.93 for male and 2.96 for female
students showed that they agreed
skill acquisition for economic development. The result indicates that reform options to enhance effective
skills acquisition in vocational/technical schools for economic development i
schemes and land for agricultural practice, involvement of corporate organizations in funding vocational
programmes, making vocational education compulsory at basic education level; out of school skills
acquisition and apprenticeship, Funding vocational/technical graduates through soft loans, and inclusion
of vocational/technical education into teacher education programme. The observed mean scores which
were all above 2.50 indicates that all the assessed options were reform strategies
enhance effective skills acquisition for poverty reduction.
Employment prospects of graduates of vocational
Male
X1
Female
X2
x x
To secure employment in Agricultural establishment 3.30 3.15 3.23
secure employment in automobile companies 3.10 2.85 2.97
set up their own business and become self-employed 3.12 3.10 3.11
secure employment in electrical establishments 3.25 3.11 3.18
secure employment in automobile repair and spray 3.12 2.94 2.58
get employment in welding and fabrication companies 3.26 2.81 2.74
3.19 2.99 3.09
2.5 following the rank order 1
st
6th. The female respondents also agreed to
The aggregate mean score of 3.90 showed that the respondents agreed to the employment
for economic development are: to secure employment in Agricultural establishment, secure employment
in automobile companies, set up their own business and become self-employed, secure employment in
electrical establishments, secure employment in automobile repair and spray painting establ
get employment in welding and fabrication companies.
What are the reforms options to enhance effective skills acquisition in vocational
schools for economic development?
Mean and Rank order of male and female students on the reform options to enhance effective
skills acquisitions in vocational/ technical schools for economic development.
Reform options to enhance effective skills acquisitions
for economic development include:

Male
X
Female
X
Making vocational education compulsory at the basic 2.75 2.86
Inclusion of technical education into teacher education 2.56 2.63
Involvement of corporate organizations in the funding
of vocational/technical education
3.10 3.21
Out of school skills acquisition and apprenticeship 2.78 2.65
Funding vocational/technical graduates through soft 3.23 3.15
Providing land for those willing to go into Agricultural 3.15 3.23
Aggregate mean score 2.93 2.96
Table 3 presented the reform options to enhance effective skills acquisition for economic development.
students showed that they agreed to all the items in the table as the reform options to enhance effective
skills acquisition in vocational/technical schools for economic development include: providing loan
, Funding vocational/technical graduates through soft loans, and inclusion
were all above 2.50 indicates that all the assessed options were reform strategies
enhance effective skills acquisition for poverty reduction.
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Rank order
3.23 1st
2.97 4th
3.11 3rd
3.18 2nd
2.58 6th
2.74 5th
3.09
6th. The female respondents also agreed to
st

eed to the employment
secure employment in Agricultural establishment, secure employment
employed, secure employment in
electrical establishments, secure employment in automobile repair and spray painting establishment, and
What are the reforms options to enhance effective skills acquisition in vocational
udents on the reform options to enhance effective

x x
Rank
order
2.81 3rd
2.60 5
th

3.16 2
nd

2.72 4
th

3.19 1
st

3.19 1
st

2.95
to all the items in the table as the reform options to enhance effective
nclude: providing loan
, Funding vocational/technical graduates through soft loans, and inclusion
were all above 2.50 indicates that all the assessed options were reform strategies that can be used to


Test of Hypotheses
Ho1: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of male and female students on the
types of vocational programmes offered for economic

Table 4: Analysis of z-test difference between the mean scores of male and female students on the types
of vocational programmes offered for economic development
Gender N
Male Students 700
Female Students 500

Table 4 shows the analysis of z-test difference between the mean scores of male and female students on
the types of vocational programmes offered for economic
z-test shows that the calculated z
freedom, 1,198 of 0.05 significant levels. The null hypothesis is accepted. Therefore, there is no
significant difference between the mean scores of male and female students on the types of vocational
programmes offered for economic development in Rivers State. Both male and female students are of the
opinion that the vocational subjects are offered to impro
development.
Ho2: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of male and female students on the

Table 5: Analysis of z-test difference between the mean scores of male and female students on
the employment prospects of the graduates of technical and vocational institutions in Rivers
State for economic development
Gender N
Male students 700
Female students 500

the employment prospects of the graduates of technical and vocational institutions in Rivers State for
economic development. The result of the z
the critical value of 1.96 at a degree of freedom
is accepted. Therefore, there is no significant difference between the mean scores of male and female
students on the employment prospects of the graduates of technical and vocational institutions
State for economic development. Both male and female students are of the opinion that
vocational/technical education programme is relevant for economic development.

Ho3: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of male and
reforms options to enhance effective skills acquisition in vocational schools for peace and economic
development.

Table 6: Analysis of z-test difference between the mean scores of male and female students on
the reforms options to enhance effective skills acquisition in vocational schools for peace and
Gender N
Male students 700
Female students 500

the reforms options to enhance effective skills acquisition in vocational schools for peace and economic
development. The result of the z
value of 1.96 at a degree of freedom, 1,198 of 0.05 significant levels. Hence, the null hypothesis is
test difference between the mean scores of male and female students on the types
of vocational programmes offered for economic development
x SD df Cal. z
value
Critical
value
2.70 1.21
1,198

1.62

1.96 2.62 1.20
test difference between the mean scores of male and female students on
the types of vocational programmes offered for economic development in Rivers State. The result of the
test shows that the calculated z-value of 1.62 is less than the critical value of 1.96 at a degree of
ficant difference between the mean scores of male and female students on the types of vocational
opinion that the vocational subjects are offered to improve the skills of the students for economic
State for economic development
x SD df Cal. z
value
Critical
value
3.19 1.46
1,198

1.45

1.96 2.99 1.32
economic development. The result of the z-test shows that the calculated z-test value of 1.45 is less than
the critical value of 1.96 at a degree of freedom, 1,198 of 0.05 significant levels. Hence, null hypothesis
students on the employment prospects of the graduates of technical and vocational institutions
vocational/technical education programme is relevant for economic development.
enhance effective skills acquisition in vocational schools for peace and
x SD df z-Calculated
value
Critical
value
2.93 1.31
1,198

1.68

1.96 2.96 1.35
development. The result of the z-test shows that the z-calculated value of 1.68 is less than the critical
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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test difference between the mean scores of male and female students on the types
Critical
value
Remarks
1.96

Accepted
development in Rivers State. The result of the
value of 1.62 is less than the critical value of 1.96 at a degree of
ficant difference between the mean scores of male and female students on the types of vocational
ve the skills of the students for economic
Critical
value
Remarks
1.96

Accepted
test value of 1.45 is less than
, 1,198 of 0.05 significant levels. Hence, null hypothesis
students on the employment prospects of the graduates of technical and vocational institutions in Rivers
female students on the
enhance effective skills acquisition in vocational schools for peace and
Critical
value
Decision
1.96

Accepted
calculated value of 1.68 is less than the critical


accepted. Therefore, there is no significant difference between the mean scores of male and fem
students on the reforms options to enhance effective skills acquisition in vocational schools for peace and
economic development. Both male and female students are of the opinion that there is need for
vocational and technical education reform to enhan
schools for economic development.

The findings of this study revealed that automobile engineering, catering, building engineering, electrical
installation, computer craft practice, fine arts, clothing and textile and agricultural science are the types of
vocational/technical programmes stu
observed scores are an indication that all the examined subjects were taught in vocational/technical
institution in Rivers State. The need to have vocational and technical education taken in ou
incontrovertible. This is because it is a sure way to endow children with specific sellable skills that can get
them self employment. It is also a way of functionalizing the school curriculum as well as being a strategy
for poverty alleviation. Moreover, it offers children and adults the opportunity to learn the local craft and
to turn some wastes to wealth. Vocational and Technical Education give room for more interactive
teaching and participation learning in schools. This is in line with the
(2008) that, vocational and technical skills can be taught in different forms through the schools (School
based), through apprenticeship schemes in the institutions of skill acquisition centres and through on
off-the job training for those already working. The effective establishment of process habits in any
learner will be secured in proportion as the training is given on actual jobs and not on exercise or pseudo
jobs. Vocational and technical education seeks to prov
motivation to encourage vocational success in a variety of settings. The test of hypothesis one showed
that is no significant difference between the mean scores of male and female students on the types of
vocational programmes offered for economic development in Rivers State. Both male and female
students are of the opinion that the vocational subjects are offered to improve the skills of the students
for economic development.
The findings further revealed that t
vocational institutions in Rivers State for economic development are to secure employment in
Agricultural establishment, secure employment in automobile companies, set up their own business and
become self-employed, secure employment in electrical establishments, secure employment in automobile
repair and spray painting establishment, and get employment in welding and fabrication companies.
Vocational education truly plays a significant role in the s
country through the promotion of technologies and related sciences and the acquisition of practical skills,
attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to occupations in the sectors of economic and social life
as well as promote essential education which is intended to provide the skills and the manpower for
industry and other engineering services required by society. Therefore, vocational education programme is
designed to prepare skilled workers for industry,
level. That is why the programme includes general studies, practical training for the development of skills
required by the chosen occupation and related theory. This agrees with the findings of Karahocaa
(2010) which describes the curtailing menace of unemployment, reduction of poverty and the break
through in industrial development that requires full deployment of Information and Communication
Technologies (ICTs), especially in the present era whe
for workers from skill based to an ICT capable. This is because recent developments in technology,
globalization and changing demand for new skill sets in the job market have necessitated a need for a ne
teaching and learning paradigm. The test of hypothesis two showed that there is no significant difference
between the mean scores of male and female students on the employment prospects of the graduates of
technical and vocational institutions in Rivers
students are of the opinion that vocational/technical education programme is relevant for economic
development.

The findings of the study finally revealed that the reforms options to enhance effective s
acquisition in vocational/technical schools for economic development include: providing loan schemes
and land for agricultural practice, involvement of corporate organizations in funding vocational
programmes, making vocational education compulsory a
accepted. Therefore, there is no significant difference between the mean scores of male and fem
vocational and technical education reform to enhance effective skills acquisition in vocational/technical
schools for economic development.
vocational/technical programmes studied in vocational/technical institutions in Rivers State. The
institution in Rivers State. The need to have vocational and technical education taken in ou
. Moreover, it offers children and adults the opportunity to learn the local craft and
teaching and participation learning in schools. This is in line with the findings of Oragwu (2012); Adiele
(2008) that, vocational and technical skills can be taught in different forms through the schools (School
based), through apprenticeship schemes in the institutions of skill acquisition centres and through on
job training for those already working. The effective establishment of process habits in any
jobs. Vocational and technical education seeks to provide students with the knowledge, skills and
nal programmes offered for economic development in Rivers State. Both male and female
The findings further revealed that the employment prospects of the graduates of technical and
employed, secure employment in electrical establishments, secure employment in automobile
Vocational education truly plays a significant role in the socio-economic growth and development of a
designed to prepare skilled workers for industry, agriculture, commerce, etc from the upper secondary
required by the chosen occupation and related theory. This agrees with the findings of Karahocaa
Technologies (ICTs), especially in the present era where world of work is rapidly changing its requirement
globalization and changing demand for new skill sets in the job market have necessitated a need for a ne
technical and vocational institutions in Rivers State for economic development. Both male and female
The findings of the study finally revealed that the reforms options to enhance effective s
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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252
accepted. Therefore, there is no significant difference between the mean scores of male and female
ce effective skills acquisition in vocational/technical
died in vocational/technical institutions in Rivers State. The
institution in Rivers State. The need to have vocational and technical education taken in our schools is
. Moreover, it offers children and adults the opportunity to learn the local craft and
findings of Oragwu (2012); Adiele
(2008) that, vocational and technical skills can be taught in different forms through the schools (School-
based), through apprenticeship schemes in the institutions of skill acquisition centres and through on-and
job training for those already working. The effective establishment of process habits in any
ide students with the knowledge, skills and
nal programmes offered for economic development in Rivers State. Both male and female
he employment prospects of the graduates of technical and
employed, secure employment in electrical establishments, secure employment in automobile
economic growth and development of a
agriculture, commerce, etc from the upper secondary
required by the chosen occupation and related theory. This agrees with the findings of Karahocaa, et-al
re world of work is rapidly changing its requirement
globalization and changing demand for new skill sets in the job market have necessitated a need for a new
State for economic development. Both male and female
The findings of the study finally revealed that the reforms options to enhance effective skills
t basic education level; out of school skills


acquisition and apprenticeship, funding vocational/technical graduates through soft loans, and inclusion
of vocational/technical education into teacher education programme. This is in line with the findings of
Hyslop (2000) that skills of all workforce participants should have: basic skills, reading, writing,
mathematics, listening, speaking, thinking skills, creative thinking, decision making, problem solving,
knowing how to learn, reasoning, personal qualities
management and integrity/honesty. However, vocational schools have not existed to further
the sense of liberal arts, but rather to teach only job
considered to be institutions devoted to training, not education. The test of hypothesis three
there is no significant difference between the mean scores of male and female students on the reforms
options to enhance effective skills acquisition in vocational schools for peace and economic development.
Both male and female students are of
education reform to enhance effective skills acquisition in vocational/technical schools for economic
development. They believe that personal qualities, responsibility, self
management have promoted job-specific skills.

Educational implications of the study
The educational implications are very challenging. If the students are to start a job without the necessary
skills and the abilities, is very sure that they will
development. Vocational education facilitates the acquisition of practical and applied skills as well as basic
scientific knowledge. It is therefore a planned program of courses and learning experienc
with exploration of career options, which supports basic academic and life skills as well as enables the
achievement of high academic standards, leadership, preparation for industry
continuing education.

Conclusion

Vocational education is needed to prevent waste of human resources, poverty reduction and economic
development. In this regard, Nigeria has given very little attention to conservation of vocational and
technical education programmes which has kept many graduates
development of the nation. It is obvious that the waste of labour by improper employment can be largely
avoided through vocational and technical training. Such training is the most potent remedy for
unemployment and economic development.

Recommendations

Based on the findings, it was recommended that:
1. Teaching vocational and technical subjects should be taken more seriously to raise the interest of
students for these vocational programmes in other to boost the economic
society.
2. Government should provide vocational and technical education institutions with the necessary
vocational tools and equipment.
3. Students should work towards acquiring the knowledge and skills of vocational and technical
education for poverty reduction. This would help them to be creative and innovative.
4. There is need for vocational education reform to enhance effective skills acquisition in
vocational/technical schools for economic development of the country.
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(Unpublished Ph.D Desertation).
Bennell, J.G. (1996). Vocational education 1976 and beyond America vocational.
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management and integrity/honesty. However, vocational schools have not existed to further
, but rather to teach only job-specific skills, and as such have been better
considered to be institutions devoted to training, not education. The test of hypothesis three
Both male and female students are of the opinion that there is need for vocational and technical
development. They believe that personal qualities, responsibility, self-esteem, sociability,
specific skills.
Educational implications of the study
skills and the abilities, is very sure that they will fail in the pursuance of poverty reduction and economic
scientific knowledge. It is therefore a planned program of courses and learning experienc
achievement of high academic standards, leadership, preparation for industry
onal education is needed to prevent waste of human resources, poverty reduction and economic
technical education programmes which has kept many graduates unemployed and reduces the economic
nomic development.
Based on the findings, it was recommended that:
Teaching vocational and technical subjects should be taken more seriously to raise the interest of
students for these vocational programmes in other to boost the economic
Government should provide vocational and technical education institutions with the necessary
vocational tools and equipment.
Students should work towards acquiring the knowledge and skills of vocational and technical
for poverty reduction. This would help them to be creative and innovative.
There is need for vocational education reform to enhance effective skills acquisition in
vocational/technical schools for economic development of the country.
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(Unpublished Ph.D Desertation).
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esteem, sociability, self-
management and integrity/honesty. However, vocational schools have not existed to further education in
specific skills, and as such have been better
considered to be institutions devoted to training, not education. The test of hypothesis three showed that
the opinion that there is need for vocational and technical
esteem, sociability, and self-
fail in the pursuance of poverty reduction and economic
scientific knowledge. It is therefore a planned program of courses and learning experiences that begins
achievement of high academic standards, leadership, preparation for industry-defined work and
onal education is needed to prevent waste of human resources, poverty reduction and economic
unemployed and reduces the economic
Teaching vocational and technical subjects should be taken more seriously to raise the interest of
students for these vocational programmes in other to boost the economic development of the
Government should provide vocational and technical education institutions with the necessary
Students should work towards acquiring the knowledge and skills of vocational and technical
for poverty reduction. This would help them to be creative and innovative.
There is need for vocational education reform to enhance effective skills acquisition in
Based Vocational Education in Rivers State. Uniport
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Columbia, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill


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students: A tool for achieving millennium development goals in South
African Journal of Educational Research and Development, 3(2); 54
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`higher education), Paris, UNESCO, 23

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. Lagos NERDC Press.
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Hyslop, K. (2000). Public Expenditure on Education in Nigeria. Issues, Estimates and some implications.
African Region, the World Bank.
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hieving MDGs through ICTs Usage in Secondary Schools in Nigeria:
Developing Global Partnership with Secondary Schools. Germany: Lambert Academic Publishing.
Developing Nigerias work force. Calabar: Macinky Environs Publisher.
Principles and methods in vocational and technical education.
Organization: Trust Publishers.
Vocational Skills Acquisition and Poverty Reduction Strategies in Techno
Ph.D Dissertation: University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State.
Vocational education and manpower development. In Anyakoha & Oranu (Eds).
Vocational /technical education and manpower development in Nigeria. Enugu: Vocational
A handbook of vocational/technical education for Nigeria. Obosi: Pacific Publishers, Nig.
hieving millennium development goals in South-South States of Nigeria.
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nal Policy on Education. Lagos NERDC Press.
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nd some implications.
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Vocational Skills Acquisition and Poverty Reduction Strategies in Techno-Vocational
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South States of Nigeria.


UNIVERSALISING EDUCATION AND THE PERCEPTIBLE ANALYSIS OF UBE AS
A CONCEPT AND PHENOMENON: OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK
ABDULRAHMAN YUSUF MAIGIDA,

Abstract
This paper traces the antecedent to
very beginning of universalising education down to the Universal Primary Education efforts of the
various Nigerian Governments from colonial to post
about UBE which call for concern. From the provisions of the UBE Act (
education component of the National policy, attract a discernible
concepts and operations as a phenomenon and problem of
forms part of the thrust of the paper Thereafter, various highlights associated with UBE are appraised,
considering the extent of mystification in the provisions of the Act. The various misconceptions by the
public and the private UBE providers, branding it what it is not; to attract numbers in selling their
products are identified. Higher institutions academic researchers and educational consultants have
also displayed indolence in sourcing for facts about UBE, resu
research results and misleading discussions published. Critically, this paper justifies and corroborates
its arguments with some of Frequently Asked Questions by the Universal Basic Education
Commission, in her 40-Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs). The paper concludes calling on the
government to play her statutory roles with seriousness. The UBE service providers are also
admonished to play by the rules and not being cosmetics. Importantly, academic researchers in o
higher institutions are equally enjoined to be factual, evaluate sources of their data before drawing
conclusions.

Keywords: Universalising education, Perceptible Analysis, UBE, Concepts and
Phenomenon, Operational Framework


A CONCEPT AND PHENOMENON: OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK
NIGERIAN CONTEXT
By
ABDULRAHMAN YUSUF MAIGIDA, Ph.D

yusuf.abdulrahman@uniport.edu.ng
www.yusufmaigida.com.ng

This paper traces the antecedent to the current Universal Basic Education in Nigeria, reviewing the
various Nigerian Governments from colonial to post-colonial. The paper focuses on the developm
about UBE which call for concern. From the provisions of the UBE Act (legal backing) and the basic
education component of the National policy, attract a discernible analysis. Examination of UBEs
concepts and operations as a phenomenon and problem of study in higher educational researches
d the private UBE providers, branding it what it is not; to attract numbers in selling their
also displayed indolence in sourcing for facts about UBE, resulting in the popularisation of incorrect
requently Asked Questions (FAQs). The paper concludes calling on the
admonished to play by the rules and not being cosmetics. Importantly, academic researchers in o
Universalising education, Perceptible Analysis, UBE, Concepts and
Phenomenon, Operational Framework
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
255
A CONCEPT AND PHENOMENON: OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORKS IN THE
the current Universal Basic Education in Nigeria, reviewing the
colonial. The paper focuses on the developments
legal backing) and the basic
analysis. Examination of UBEs
study in higher educational researches
d the private UBE providers, branding it what it is not; to attract numbers in selling their
lting in the popularisation of incorrect
requently Asked Questions (FAQs). The paper concludes calling on the
admonished to play by the rules and not being cosmetics. Importantly, academic researchers in our
Universalising education, Perceptible Analysis, UBE, Concepts and


Introduction
By examining the purpose for which higher institutions are established in Nigeria, they have among
others; the mandate to conduct researches that will benefit and inform the people, consequently
improving the society. It has, however, been discovered and s
branded with so many indefensible features ascribed
that is based on facts and figures, this by clarifying and invalidating the misconceptions that are
persistently committed by the general public about UBE on one hand and on the other, by those in
academic (of higher institutions) who with their monumental knowledge concerning educational issues
are expected to be well informed and adequately updated about everyth
disturbing to read on the pages of publications (journals and books), even in international agencies
working document and above all; hear in public presentations what ought not to be interpreted the way
they were. In the course of this write up, attention shall be fully devoted to the discussion on all of this.
First and foremost, being retrospective about this issue is considered necessary to give clearer picture to
the discussion, because the trend is an historical situation tha
state.

Universalising Education in Nigeria
The idea of making education universal in the world was first conceived by the United Nation in 1948,
following the proclamation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Abdulrahman
Ogbondah (2007) portray that article 26 recognizes educatio
Article in its items (i), (ii) and (iii); stresses that:
i. Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and
fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. T
education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on
the basis of merit.
ii. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the
strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote
understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall
further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
iii. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.

In Nigeria, universalising education can be traced to a period in the colonial era, precisely when
John MacPherson becoming the Nigerias Governor General in 1951. In
misconceptions in the Universal Basic Education programme, an examination of the trend from the very
root is desirable. As Aluede (2006) once remarked that the current UBE scheme in Nigeria can be said to
be the product of earlier educational scheme, programmes and educational decisions. It is the offshoot of
previous schemes, which could be said to have been bedevilled by problems, which the current scheme is
expected to offset. It should be noted that educational activities
for later educational developments in the 1960s and beyond. Educational activities of the 1950s were
themselves determined by the history of educational growth from the fourth decade of the 19th century.
By implication therefore, educational explosion in the Western region had influences on other regions.

However, regional rivalry heightened with the evolution of the 1951 Macpherson constitution
which provided opportunities for regions to utilise rights bestowed on
development, that is, giving legislative powers to the regions legislate on education, health and agricuture.
First to utilise the legislative powers on education and translate the rivalry among regions into positive
use, as noted above was the Western region which under the political leadership of Late Chief Obafemi
Awolowo proposed to the regional House of Assembly the partys priority in the budget, focusing on
education and health. From historical accounts by Fafunwa (1974), Osok
(2010) and Abdulrahman-Yusuf (2012), it was recalled that in July 1952, Chief S. O. Awokoya, who was
then the Western Region Education Minister announced the decision of the Action Group to start UPE
by 1955. The plan eventually materialised with the launching of UPE Scheme in the West on the 17th day
of January 1955.
improving the society. It has, however, been discovered and so worrisome that UBE is plagued and
indefensible features ascribed to it, there is therefore the need to engage in analysis
ly committed by the general public about UBE on one hand and on the other, by those in
are expected to be well informed and adequately updated about everything concerning UBE. It is
f this write up, attention shall be fully devoted to the discussion on all of this.
the discussion, because the trend is an historical situation that should be assessed in its contemporary
Universalising Education in Nigeria
following the proclamation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Abdulrahman
Ogbondah (2007) portray that article 26 recognizes education as a right of every human being. The
Article in its items (i), (ii) and (iii); stresses that:
fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional
Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the
f respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote
further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
ave a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.
John MacPherson becoming the Nigerias Governor General in 1951. In the assessment of the issue of
arlier educational scheme, programmes and educational decisions. It is the offshoot of
expected to offset. It should be noted that educational activities of the 1950s laid the foundation stones
ion therefore, educational explosion in the Western region had influences on other regions.
which provided opportunities for regions to utilise rights bestowed on them for their regional
bove was the Western region which under the political leadership of Late Chief Obafemi
education and health. From historical accounts by Fafunwa (1974), Osokoya (1995), Abiri and Jekayinfa
Yusuf (2012), it was recalled that in July 1952, Chief S. O. Awokoya, who was
ally materialised with the launching of UPE Scheme in the West on the 17th day
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
256
o worrisome that UBE is plagued and
to it, there is therefore the need to engage in analysis
ly committed by the general public about UBE on one hand and on the other, by those in
ing concerning UBE. It is
f this write up, attention shall be fully devoted to the discussion on all of this.
t should be assessed in its contemporary
following the proclamation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Abdulrahman-Yusuf and
n as a right of every human being. The
echnical and professional
Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the
f respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote
ave a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.
the assessment of the issue of
arlier educational scheme, programmes and educational decisions. It is the offshoot of
of the 1950s laid the foundation stones
ion therefore, educational explosion in the Western region had influences on other regions.
them for their regional
bove was the Western region which under the political leadership of Late Chief Obafemi
oya (1995), Abiri and Jekayinfa
Yusuf (2012), it was recalled that in July 1952, Chief S. O. Awokoya, who was
ally materialised with the launching of UPE Scheme in the West on the 17th day


Subsequently in the year 1953, the Education Minister for the Eastern Region, Mr. R.T. Uzoma,
like his Counterpart in the Western Region, presented a proposal
education to come into effect in 1957. Unfortunately, the NCNC crisis in 1953 led to a cabinet re
shufflement and some party members renounced their membership. The old arrangement in respect of
the UPE scheme by the former administration was rejected by Late Dr. Nnamdi Azikwe led new
government. Eventually, 1957 marked the launching date of UPE in the Eastern region.

Also, in 1951, Lagos was merged with the Western Region under the Macpherson constitution
for being a Yoruba speaking area (Osokoya, 1989). However, in 1954, Lagos became a Federal Capital
Territory, as a result of which it was separated from the Western Region. By implication, Lagos was not
part of the 1955 Western region UPE, but had to design its own UPE
have the benefit of the programme. Therefore, in January, 1957 the UPE scheme was launched.
In the Northern Region having launched the UPE scheme earlier in the Western and Eastern
regions, it was practically impossibl
constraints. Instead of launching the UPE scheme, the Northern Regional government paid a serious
attention to the development of education in the rural areas and the promotion of adult liter
(1989) and Akinbote et al (2001) state that the regional government in the North eventually decided to
have primary education on a provincial basis in 1958, just as emanated in the other two regions, the
introduction of UPE scheme in the North
necessitated the setting up the Oldmans Commission 1960 to specifically look into the financial, as well
as the administrative problems which greeted the introduction of the scheme in that region.

UPE as a Nationwide Scheme
The realisation by the Federal Military Government of the inadequacies that greeted the operation of
UPE scheme in the regions and the need to be centrally responsible for education of Nigerians at the
elementary level became an impet
Education in the country and making it a nationwide scheme. The then Head of State, General Olusegun
Obasanjo launched the scheme at Oke
September, 1976. The intention was to make it compulsory by 1979 as a response to the African
Education Ministers agreement at the Addis Ababa conference in 1961; to achieve universal primary
education by 1980 in the continent.
UPEs Fate as a Nationwide Scheme
The Military handover of power to the civilian administration in 1979 caused the retrogression in the
entire situation about the Free Universal Primary Education. The Sheu Shagaris National Party of
Nigeria-led civilian administration
manifesto of the NPN on education emphasised qualitative education and not free education. Although,
the Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) controlled States of Oyo, Ogun, Ondo, Lagos and former Bend
had the partys manifestos of free education pursued, until such a time it was cash
education was not the NPNs programme, consideration was not given for this in the allocation to
concerned States. Up till 1983, the affected
did not receive any attention from the reappearance of military administration that came in through the
December 1983 coup dtat. The Buhari
agenda. Since that period, Free Universal Primary Education suffered a natural death as successive
military administrations, from Ibrahim Babangida, Sanni Abacha to Abubakar Abdulsalam never had
resuscitation of the UPE in their education
The Concept of Universal Basic Education (UBE)
The second coming of Chief Olusegun Obasanjo, as a civilian President of Nigeria provided a good
fortune for countrys education at primary and post
significant relationship with the World Education Conference which Nigeria participated at Jomtien,
Thailand from March 5th 9th, 1990. The 1990 Jomtiens Conference in Thailand had Nigeria as one of
the signatories to the declaration of Education for All (EFA) attended by 155 countries and 150
organisations. With this declaration, every child is expected to be educated. Government of various
countries were expected to demonstrate this commitment at least at the elementary/p
like his Counterpart in the Western Region, presented a proposal for the introduction of free primary
education to come into effect in 1957. Unfortunately, the NCNC crisis in 1953 led to a cabinet re
rmer administration was rejected by Late Dr. Nnamdi Azikwe led new
oruba speaking area (Osokoya, 1989). However, in 1954, Lagos became a Federal Capital
part of the 1955 Western region UPE, but had to design its own UPE scheme if it wanted its subjects to
regions, it was practically impossible to do same in the Northern region, for the reason of financial
attention to the development of education in the rural areas and the promotion of adult liter
introduction of UPE scheme in the Northern Region witnessed a numerous problems, of which

elementary level became an impetus for the Federal Government to provide Free and Universal Primary
Obasanjo launched the scheme at Oke-Suna Municipal Primary School in Lagos; precisely o
education by 1980 in the continent.
a Nationwide Scheme
led civilian administration had a programme different from that of the Military junta. The
the Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) controlled States of Oyo, Ogun, Ondo, Lagos and former Bend
had the partys manifestos of free education pursued, until such a time it was cash
concerned States. Up till 1983, the affected States were still trying to cope with the situation; the scheme
. The Buhari-Idiagbon military regime had nothing like free ed
resuscitation of the UPE in their education programmes for the countrys education.
The Concept of Universal Basic Education (UBE)
fortune for countrys education at primary and post-primary levels. The establishment of UBE has a very
9th, 1990. The 1990 Jomtiens Conference in Thailand had Nigeria as one of
declaration of Education for All (EFA) attended by 155 countries and 150
countries were expected to demonstrate this commitment at least at the elementary/p
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for the introduction of free primary
education to come into effect in 1957. Unfortunately, the NCNC crisis in 1953 led to a cabinet re-
rmer administration was rejected by Late Dr. Nnamdi Azikwe led new
oruba speaking area (Osokoya, 1989). However, in 1954, Lagos became a Federal Capital
scheme if it wanted its subjects to
e to do same in the Northern region, for the reason of financial
attention to the development of education in the rural areas and the promotion of adult literacy. Osokoya
ern Region witnessed a numerous problems, of which
us for the Federal Government to provide Free and Universal Primary
Suna Municipal Primary School in Lagos; precisely on the 6th of
had a programme different from that of the Military junta. The
the Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) controlled States of Oyo, Ogun, Ondo, Lagos and former Bendel States
had the partys manifestos of free education pursued, until such a time it was cash-trapped. Since free
States were still trying to cope with the situation; the scheme
Idiagbon military regime had nothing like free education in their
.
establishment of UBE has a very
9th, 1990. The 1990 Jomtiens Conference in Thailand had Nigeria as one of
declaration of Education for All (EFA) attended by 155 countries and 150
countries were expected to demonstrate this commitment at least at the elementary/primary level.


Other international frameworks that provided the Nigerian Government with the idea of being
proactive about universalising education which metamorphosed into UBE included the New Delhi
Declaration -1991 requiring stringent efforts by the E
largest concentration of illiterate adults) to drastically reduce illiteracy within the shortest possible time
frame (Okiy, 2004). In the same vein, UBE in Nigeria is also a demonstration of interest in the
Statement of Commitment of 1998 and the Organization of Africa Unity (OAU) (now, AU)
Education for Africa, 19972006 which requires African states to generalize access to quality basic
education as a foundation stone for sustainable soc
Education, 2000).
A raison dtre for Universal Basic Education can be internally seen according to UBEC (2004) a
pivotal to the attainment of and is interlinked with National Economic Empowerment Development
Strategy (NEEDS) and State Economic Empowerment Development Strategy (SEEDS). However, t
most significant and practical impetus to the launching of UBE in Nigeria was the second opportunity of
Chief Olusegun Obasanjo to consolidate on what he formerly in
States in 1976, bringing to the fore again as a civilian president; the issue of primary education and
expanding its scope to include the first three (3) years of secondary schooling, that is the Junior Secondary
School (JSS). In short, UBE was ceremoniously launched on 30
State.
UBE is free, compulsory and universal. This is one scheme that integrates the non
vocational training as its component. The scheme after its
2004 by the Nigerias National Assembly, hence the UBE 2004 Act of Parliament. The Act provided for a
number of things, among which:
the mid-day meal should be given to the pupils
the imposition of fines on
the imposition of fines or and imprisonment of parents refusing their children education on
second and third convictions
disarticulation principles etc. were therein enshrined.
Its good to mention here that the curriculum for the UBE eventually came out in 2008, having
subjects like introductory technology, primary science etc. restructured as Basic Technology, Basic
Science, Computer Studies also became an integral part of the primary educat
of Civic education etc.
After the launching of the UBE and before it was given a legal backing in 2004, there was another global
effort still geared towards ensuring that people of the world are educated. An agency of the Unite
Nations, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) came up with 8 solid goals to address
the developmental challenges of the world, by establishing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
in 2000. Out of these goals, the goal number 2 of the MDGs a
primary education.
Appraisal of UBE as a Phenomenon
As can be seen from the objectives of the UBE, one needs no further explanation to believe in the
capability of the programme to solve some, if not all our national
addressing contemporary challenges, thus; the specific objectives of the UBE programme, as outlined in
the implementation guidelines of the Nigerian Federal Ministry of Education (2000) are as follows:
Developing in the entire citizenry a strong consciousness for education and a strong commitment
to its vigorous promotion;
Provision of free universal basic education for every Nigerian child of school age
Reducing drastically the incidence of drop out from the formal sc
improved relevance, equality and efficiency;
1991 requiring stringent efforts by the E-9 countries (nine countries of the world with the
frame (Okiy, 2004). In the same vein, UBE in Nigeria is also a demonstration of interest in the
Statement of Commitment of 1998 and the Organization of Africa Unity (OAU) (now, AU)
2006 which requires African states to generalize access to quality basic
education as a foundation stone for sustainable socio-economic development (Federal Ministry of
A raison dtre for Universal Basic Education can be internally seen according to UBEC (2004) a
Strategy (NEEDS) and State Economic Empowerment Development Strategy (SEEDS). However, t
impetus to the launching of UBE in Nigeria was the second opportunity of
Chief Olusegun Obasanjo to consolidate on what he formerly initiated nationally as a Military Head of
hool (JSS). In short, UBE was ceremoniously launched on 30
th
September, 1999 in Sokoto, Sokoto
UBE is free, compulsory and universal. This is one scheme that integrates the non
vocational training as its component. The scheme after its launching in 1999 had its bill passed into law in

day meal should be given to the pupils
the imposition of fines on parents refusing their children education in the first instance
second and third convictions
disarticulation principles etc. were therein enshrined.
ention here that the curriculum for the UBE eventually came out in 2008, having
Science, Computer Studies also became an integral part of the primary education curriculum, introduction
effort still geared towards ensuring that people of the world are educated. An agency of the Unite
in 2000. Out of these goals, the goal number 2 of the MDGs also emphasizes the universalization of
Appraisal of UBE as a Phenomenon
capability of the programme to solve some, if not all our national educational and societal problems, but
he entire citizenry a strong consciousness for education and a strong commitment
to its vigorous promotion;
Reducing drastically the incidence of drop out from the formal school system through
improved relevance, equality and efficiency;
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9 countries (nine countries of the world with the
frame (Okiy, 2004). In the same vein, UBE in Nigeria is also a demonstration of interest in the Durban
Statement of Commitment of 1998 and the Organization of Africa Unity (OAU) (now, AU) - Decade of
2006 which requires African states to generalize access to quality basic
economic development (Federal Ministry of
A raison dtre for Universal Basic Education can be internally seen according to UBEC (2004) as
Strategy (NEEDS) and State Economic Empowerment Development Strategy (SEEDS). However, the
impetus to the launching of UBE in Nigeria was the second opportunity of
itiated nationally as a Military Head of
September, 1999 in Sokoto, Sokoto
UBE is free, compulsory and universal. This is one scheme that integrates the non-formal and
launching in 1999 had its bill passed into law in
parents refusing their children education in the first instance
ention here that the curriculum for the UBE eventually came out in 2008, having
ion curriculum, introduction
effort still geared towards ensuring that people of the world are educated. An agency of the United
lso emphasizes the universalization of
educational and societal problems, but
he entire citizenry a strong consciousness for education and a strong commitment
hool system through


Catering for the learning needs of young persons who for one reason or another have had to
interrupt their schooling through appropriate forms of complementary approaches to the
provision and promotion of basic education and,
Ensuring the acquisition of the appropriate levels of literacy, education, and ethical, moral and
civic values needed for laying a solid foundation for life
From the foregoing, the intent of UBE was to cor
UPE and address the current educational needs of the Nigerian society, alas, the situation is characterised
with a whole lot of messy manifestations. From Government, the public and the informed academic and
researchers; the manifestations are:
i. The launching of UBE was in 1999
ii. The law backing its operation was passed in 2004
iii. The Curriculum meant for the programme came out in 2007 and issued for use in 2008
The provisions of the Act include:
Fine and imprisonment for the defaulting parents who deny children right to education (UBE)
Provision of free mid-day meal to pupils/students at school
Disarticulation principle requiring that no junior and senior secondary be situated in same
environment and should have separate administration and infrastructures.
In the evaluation of the instrumentality of the above UBEs features and provisions, a number of
questions shall be rhetorically asked, thus:
Anyway, item No. 5 of 40 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) whi
statement as replicated below can probe further, thus:

FAQ No. 5: When did UBE take
UBE programme took-off effectively with the signing of the UBE Act in April 2004.
However, the implementation started in earnest in July 2005 with the appropriation of the UBE fund to
the Commission and subsequent disbursement to States.
Assessment Analysis:
If UBE was launched in 1999,
the enabling law passed in 2004,
implementation assumed to commence in 2005,
UBE was launched in 1999 and the law enabling it came in 2004, should it be concluded that all that took
place from 1999 to 2004 and 2005 were nothing to be regarded programme of UBE or the Government
irresponsiveness?

FAQ No. 24: When is the new curriculum going to be implemented?
The new curriculum will begin to be implemented in September 2007, with only primary 1 and JSS1.
The old Primary curriculum will be phased out by July 2013 and that of Junior Second
July 2010.

the curriculum came out in 2007
it was ready and circulated for use in 2008.
Assessment Analysis:
The question is - when was a child who entered school in 1999 expected to graduate and at graduation,
which curriculum was he or she exposed to? Certainly, not UBE Curriculum.
promotion of basic education and,
civic values needed for laying a solid foundation for life-long learning.
From the foregoing, the intent of UBE was to correct the various mistakes associated with the
searchers; the manifestations are:
The launching of UBE was in 1999
The law backing its operation was passed in 2004
The Curriculum meant for the programme came out in 2007 and issued for use in 2008
The provisions of the Act include:
imprisonment for the defaulting parents who deny children right to education (UBE)
day meal to pupils/students at school
d have separate administration and infrastructures.
questions shall be rhetorically asked, thus:
Anyway, item No. 5 of 40 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) which in itself is the Governments own
statement as replicated below can probe further, thus:
FAQ No. 5: When did UBE take-off effectively?
off effectively with the signing of the UBE Act in April 2004.
started in earnest in July 2005 with the appropriation of the UBE fund to
the Commission and subsequent disbursement to States.
If UBE was launched in 1999,
the enabling law passed in 2004,
implementation assumed to commence in 2005,
FAQ No. 24: When is the new curriculum going to be implemented?
The old Primary curriculum will be phased out by July 2013 and that of Junior Second
the curriculum came out in 2007
it was ready and circulated for use in 2008.
when was a child who entered school in 1999 expected to graduate and at graduation,
he exposed to? Certainly, not UBE Curriculum.
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rect the various mistakes associated with the
The Curriculum meant for the programme came out in 2007 and issued for use in 2008
imprisonment for the defaulting parents who deny children right to education (UBE)
ch in itself is the Governments own
off effectively with the signing of the UBE Act in April 2004.
started in earnest in July 2005 with the appropriation of the UBE fund to
The old Primary curriculum will be phased out by July 2013 and that of Junior Secondary School in
when was a child who entered school in 1999 expected to graduate and at graduation,


Also, it was even said that the old curriculum would be phased out completely in 2013. As stated in
FAQs, Item No. 24 above.
Another question is - what do we call education being received by the pupils and stu
programme from 1999 to 2008 and with the old curriculum in use till 2013? It clearly indicates that for
more than a decade, supposedly products of UBE were being churned out without the designed
curriculum for UBE scheme.
UBE Act
Fine and imprisonment prescribed by the Act for the defaulting parent, has any parent been fined
or jailed or that all children of school going age in Nigeria are in school?
The provision of free mid
Assessment Analysis
For the fines and imprisonments
sending their children to school, then what becomes of the child whose parents are jailed? The
question is asked because the Act is silent about the fate of the child, while the parents are in jail.
The provision of mid-day meal as provided for in the Act is another big question. Where or in
which school is the meal being provided today in Nigeria? It is true that some states briefly tried,
but never last.
FAQ 31: How will UBE be implemented under th
arrangement?
Under the new UBE system, JSS should be separated from the SSS, and this is referred to as
disarticulation. In other words, the two leaves should be run by two separated administrations
and eventually have separate locations, infrastructures etc. the existing 6
education is in contradiction to the existing policy of 6
henceforth.

FAQ 32: When did the policy on disarticulation come into effect?
In 2004 the National Council on Education agreed on a five year disarticulation plan. The
disarticulation commenced in 2004 and is expected to be completed by 2009 by both public and
private sector providers.

Assessment Analysis
Disarticulation principle stipulates th
premises with the senior secondary school.
Is there any school in Nigeria where this is complied with? Sounding very serious about this in
the 40 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) item No. 31; that
locations and separate infrastructures would characterize operations of junior secondary.
Unfortunately too, disarticulation was considered not to be immediately possible; therefore a
dateline of 2004 to 2009 was set for
Asked Questions (FAQs) item No. 3
This is now about 6 years after, the disarticulation is not visible anywhere,
distinguishing modifications in the uniform type worn by students of
the style or partitioning of a premises accommodating both junior and senior secondary, as well
as structural differentiation of building section/block
Worthy of mention is the statement of Government that says
become Senior Secondary Schools only. However, the existing JSS component will be gradually phased
Has this ever happened, even when Unity Schools up till now still admit students into junior secondary?

what do we call education being received by the pupils and stu
imprisonment prescribed by the Act for the defaulting parent, has any parent been fined
or jailed or that all children of school going age in Nigeria are in school?
The provision of free mid-day meal.
For the fines and imprisonments prescription by the Act as the punishment for parents not
day meal as provided for in the Act is another big question. Where or in
FAQ 31: How will UBE be implemented under the existing 6- year Secondary School
separate locations, infrastructures etc. the existing 6
education is in contradiction to the existing policy of 6-3-3-4 and is to be discontinued
FAQ 32: When did the policy on disarticulation come into effect?
ational Council on Education agreed on a five year disarticulation plan. The
private sector providers.
principle stipulates that no junior secondary school should be found in the same
premises with the senior secondary school.
the 40 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) item No. 31; that separate administration, different
dateline of 2004 to 2009 was set for this to have been concluded, as stated in the
Asked Questions (FAQs) item No. 32.
This is now about 6 years after, the disarticulation is not visible anywhere,
distinguishing modifications in the uniform type worn by students of junior and senior classes,
as structural differentiation of building section/blocks.
Worthy of mention is the statement of Government that says The Federal Government Colleges will
become Senior Secondary Schools only. However, the existing JSS component will be gradually phased
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what do we call education being received by the pupils and students under UBE
imprisonment prescribed by the Act for the defaulting parent, has any parent been fined
prescription by the Act as the punishment for parents not
day meal as provided for in the Act is another big question. Where or in
year Secondary School
separate locations, infrastructures etc. the existing 6-years secondary
4 and is to be discontinued
ational Council on Education agreed on a five year disarticulation plan. The
at no junior secondary school should be found in the same
separate administration, different
this to have been concluded, as stated in the Frequently
This is now about 6 years after, the disarticulation is not visible anywhere, except for the
junior and senior classes,
Government Colleges will
become Senior Secondary Schools only. However, the existing JSS component will be gradually phased -out by July 2008.


2004 UBE Act and the Emergent Issues
UBE has become a contemporary phenomenon that academic researchers in our higher institutions see as
a research problem to study. Alas, these researchers (students
as researching academics) have consistently, widely and wrongly interpreted UBE and its features to mean
what it is not. This misinterpretation as said is so widely peddled even to the extent of indigenous
educational consultant to international organisations/agenci
consumption. It will be unethical for researcher to present the authors to such erroneous conclusions
about UBE. However, any official request to provide the works and their authors will be honoured for
the purpose of research and critiquing.

Importantly, there is need to highlight few areas where the errors are committed in connection to
the UBE. These include:

The Nomenclature:
Nomenclature is one area that UBE has been bastardized, particularly by the propri
primary and post-primary (Junior Secondary segments) schools. In other to be talk of the town, best
among the equals and second to none; they have always labelled UBE as what it is not. Ridiculously,
some government established primary an
classes and calling levels in their schools as Basic 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 & 9. The general public even parents
and guardians have also recognised and taken this, hook, line and sinker. This
unconnected to the wrong notion about UBE in relation to the 9 year period; wrongly conceived and
interpreted.
At this juncture, it must be noted that the 9
which government will take responsibility of providing free, universal and compulsory education to
children of school going age in Nigeria. The 40 Frequently Asked Questions, item No. 34 provides a clear
explanation of this. An appropriate and official classification even if there is
UBE in levels, should be:
Lower Basic (Primaries 1, 2 & 3).
Middle Basic (Primaries 4, 5 & 6).
Upper Basic (JSS 1, 2 & 3).
System and Policy Recognition:
Similarly, there is a disturbing and un
system of education from the 6-3
policy has structurally changed. A lot of people have been misled with this 9
Nigerias system of education. On the internet, in journals, from experts presentations, textbook and
atimes in the media discussions and documentaries; UBE has been wrongly interpreted, giving rise to the
rampant 9-3-4 in several research reports and articles.
Note: Seeing this on the pages of books, on the internet or elsewhere does not mean that this
information is correct. When any researcher or writer of 9
and verifiable source for the 9
him/her. It is good to emphasise that primary school remains primary school and for six years
which has not changed. Also, secondary school is still for six (6) years of three (3) years junior
and three (3) years senior secondary. U
Clearly, the 40 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs), items No. 6 gives a convincing and direct
answer which makes 6-3-3
Confusion in Referencing State UBE Law for UBE Act
As an academic, so many works, particularly students researches (thesis and dissertations) showed that
provisions of the UBE Act are being misrepresented by referring to them as State laws. Researchers have
manifested high level of confusion between the UBE Act
as State UBE Laws, the provisions of the UBE Act, 2004, carrying the 2004 date as well? Studies carried
2004 UBE Act and the Emergent Issues
a research problem to study. Alas, these researchers (students - undergraduates and postgraduates, as well
hing academics) have consistently, widely and wrongly interpreted UBE and its features to mean
educational consultant to international organisations/agencies are reporting the same error for global
It will be unethical for researcher to present the authors to such erroneous conclusions
e of research and critiquing.
Nomenclature is one area that UBE has been bastardized, particularly by the propri
primary (Junior Secondary segments) schools. In other to be talk of the town, best
some government established primary and secondary schools have joined in this distortion; naming the
and guardians have also recognised and taken this, hook, line and sinker. This
At this juncture, it must be noted that the 9-year duration only means 9 years continuous period for
esponsibility of providing free, universal and compulsory education to
explanation of this. An appropriate and official classification even if there is any need at all to classify
Lower Basic (Primaries 1, 2 & 3).
Middle Basic (Primaries 4, 5 & 6).
Upper Basic (JSS 1, 2 & 3).
System and Policy Recognition:
Similarly, there is a disturbing and un-official alteration of the numeric representation of the Nigerian
3-3-4 to an unwarranted and baseless 9-3-4; as if the Nigerian education
policy has structurally changed. A lot of people have been misled with this 9-3-
f education. On the internet, in journals, from experts presentations, textbook and
4 in several research reports and articles.
Seeing this on the pages of books, on the internet or elsewhere does not mean that this
information is correct. When any researcher or writer of 9-3-4 is asked to provide an authentic
and verifiable source for the 9-3-4 use in his/her study, then it becomes an endless search for
and three (3) years senior secondary. Ultimately, the last four (4) years is for higher education.
3-4 incontrovertible.
Confusion in Referencing State UBE Law for UBE Act
academic, so many works, particularly students researches (thesis and dissertations) showed that
manifested high level of confusion between the UBE Act and the various State UBE Laws. Referencing
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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261
undergraduates and postgraduates, as well
hing academics) have consistently, widely and wrongly interpreted UBE and its features to mean
es are reporting the same error for global
It will be unethical for researcher to present the authors to such erroneous conclusions
Nomenclature is one area that UBE has been bastardized, particularly by the proprietors of private
primary (Junior Secondary segments) schools. In other to be talk of the town, best
d secondary schools have joined in this distortion; naming the
and guardians have also recognised and taken this, hook, line and sinker. This mistake is not
year duration only means 9 years continuous period for
esponsibility of providing free, universal and compulsory education to
any need at all to classify
ic representation of the Nigerian
4; as if the Nigerian education
-4 numeric coding of
f education. On the internet, in journals, from experts presentations, textbook and
Seeing this on the pages of books, on the internet or elsewhere does not mean that this
4 is asked to provide an authentic
s an endless search for
ltimately, the last four (4) years is for higher education.
academic, so many works, particularly students researches (thesis and dissertations) showed that
and the various State UBE Laws. Referencing


out by researchers, particularly the post
Anambra, Niger, Abia States etc. have been confused with the provisions of the Act.
To be fully equipped with facts about UBE, further information can be accessed from the
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of the Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC)
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) document answers as much as possible the various agitating
questions about UBE within its legal frameworks, thus;

FAQs, UBE Act and the National Policy on Education
incorrect statements, arguments, positions and misconceptions that characterised studies on UBE as a
concept, phenomenon, and particularly studies and researches in higher institutions of learning.

Ultimately, to achieving the objectives of the UBE programme will depend largely, as noted by
Federal Ministry of Education (2000) on the degree to which the following conditions are met and
appropriate approaches developed to improve them, thus:
ensuring proper data colle
prudent management of education funds
effective planning, monitoring and evaluation
ensuring adequate funding
providing enriched curricula
providing adequate infrastructural facilities
procurement of textbooks and other
taking proper care of teachers; their recruitment, education, training, retraining, motivation and
other needs
encouraging public enlightenment and social mobilization for full community involvement
(Nigerian.

Recommendation
Demonstrating sincere commitment in the implementation of the policy document (National Policy on
Education) and enforcement of the Act of UBE will go a long way to solving the enormous problems
identified and discussed in this paper.
Higher Educational Research
but also evaluate the data before them to ensure authenticity, accuracy, consistency and genuineness; as it
is believed that the public and other academics will source from exiting body
reviewing literature or analysing data.
The UBE service providers are also expected to play by the rules, rather than considering and
placing maximisation of profit above the
private should throw overboard, the introduction of cosmetic characteristics to education being provided
in the name of UBE and for their markets to sell. There is nothing
like 9 3 - 4
Conclusion
How far have we gone with the UBE implementation in Nigeria, when children are still learning sitting on
the bare floor, leaking roof tops of classrooms, teachers not being motivated to do their job and
appropriated funds diverted to other uses? Unfortunately, the U
dilemmas, coming from the stakeholders, despite existing laws meant to curtail and regulate the
programme and the publics derogatory attribution to UBE. Also, the providers have dealt with UBE in
nomenclature and operation, to enable them maximise profit and gain numbers in their enrolment by
ascribing it cosmetic characteristics. Equally so, the academic researchers have also plagued it with
misnomer and unofficial coding and much misrepresentations of actual facts. Ultimately
has not helped the situation, having on paper beautifully documented policy, laws and strategies that are
yet to be practically and committedly implemented.
out by researchers, particularly the post-graduate theses and dissertations studying Rivers, Bayelsa, Imo,
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of the Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC)
questions about UBE within its legal frameworks, thus; Appendix I provides full details of these FAQs.
FAQs, UBE Act and the National Policy on Education serve as refutations to the series
hieving the objectives of the UBE programme will depend largely, as noted by
appropriate approaches developed to improve them, thus:
ensuring proper data collection/accurate statistical analysis
prudent management of education funds
effective planning, monitoring and evaluation
ensuring adequate funding
providing enriched curricula
providing adequate infrastructural facilities
procurement of textbooks and other instructional materials
trating sincere commitment in the implementation of the policy document (National Policy on
identified and discussed in this paper.
Higher Educational Researchers should as much as possible not only to explore and present facts,
is believed that the public and other academics will source from exiting body
reviewing literature or analysing data.
placing maximisation of profit above the operational laid down rules. The UBE providers, particularly t
in the name of UBE and for their markets to sell. There is nothing like Basic 1 9 and there is nothing
we gone with the UBE implementation in Nigeria, when children are still learning sitting on
appropriated funds diverted to other uses? Unfortunately, the UBE has been a victim of several
from the stakeholders, despite existing laws meant to curtail and regulate the
enable them maximise profit and gain numbers in their enrolment by
misnomer and unofficial coding and much misrepresentations of actual facts. Ultimately
yet to be practically and committedly implemented.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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262
graduate theses and dissertations studying Rivers, Bayelsa, Imo,
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of the Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC). A 40-
provides full details of these FAQs.
serve as refutations to the series of
hieving the objectives of the UBE programme will depend largely, as noted by
trating sincere commitment in the implementation of the policy document (National Policy on
ers should as much as possible not only to explore and present facts,
is believed that the public and other academics will source from exiting body of knowledge while
laid down rules. The UBE providers, particularly the
9 and there is nothing
we gone with the UBE implementation in Nigeria, when children are still learning sitting on
has been a victim of several
from the stakeholders, despite existing laws meant to curtail and regulate the
enable them maximise profit and gain numbers in their enrolment by
misnomer and unofficial coding and much misrepresentations of actual facts. Ultimately, the Government


The concern of this author as a specialist in Educational History and Policy is,
to contribute to existing knowledge by ending the unfortunate development and provide correct
information that will enrich the body of available facts on the issue of UBE and other related educational
and policy matters in Nigeria.
References
Abdulrahman-Yusuf M. (2012). History of education
NigeriaUPE. Online Lecture Series
Abdulrahman-Yusuf M. and Ogbondah L. (2007). Policies puncturing and nurturing in Nigerian
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(CONTEMPOR). CODAT Publication, University of Cape
Abiri, J. O. O. and Jekayinfa, A. A. (2010).
Printing & Publishing Ent.
Akinbote, O. et al (2001) Pre-primary and primary education in Nigeria. A basic text. Ibadan: Stirling
Horden Publishers Nig. Ltd.
Aluede, A. O. (2006). Universal Basic Education in Nigeria: Matters arising
Kamla-Raj.
Encarta (2006). Universal declaration of human rights
Fafunwa, A. B. (1974). History of education in Nigeria
Federal Ministry of Education. (2000).
programme. Abuja: Federal Ministry of Education. 1
Okiy, B. R. (2004). The Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme and the development of school
libraries in Nigeria: A catalyst for greater female participation in nat
Development. Sage Publications. Vol. 20, No. 1
Osokoya, I. O. (1989). History and policy of Nigerian education in world perspective
UNDP (2004). Millennium Development Goals
http://www.un.org/millennium/declaration/ares 552e.htm
UNESCO (1990). World declaration on Education
documents, World Conference
Universal Basic Education Commission (2012). 40
http://ubeconline.com/faqs.html
The concern of this author as a specialist in Educational History and Policy is,
Yusuf M. (2012). History of education - regionalism and educational development in
Online Lecture Series. http://wwwyusufmaigida.com.ng
Yusuf M. and Ogbondah L. (2007). Policies puncturing and nurturing in Nigerian
educational reforms and implementation: African Journal for Contemporary Issues in Education
(CONTEMPOR). CODAT Publication, University of Cape-Coast, Ghana. Vol.
Abiri, J. O. O. and Jekayinfa, A. A. (2010). Perspective on the history of education in Nigeria

primary and primary education in Nigeria. A basic text. Ibadan: Stirling
Horden Publishers Nig. Ltd.
Aluede, A. O. (2006). Universal Basic Education in Nigeria: Matters arising. J. Hum. Ecol.
Universal declaration of human rights. Microsoft Encarta Premium. Microsoft Inc.
History of education in Nigeria. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.
Federal Ministry of Education. (2000). Implementation guidelines for the Universal Basic Education (UBE)
. Abuja: Federal Ministry of Education. 117.
libraries in Nigeria: A catalyst for greater female participation in national development.
Sage Publications. Vol. 20, No. 1
History and policy of Nigerian education in world perspective. Ibadan: AMD Publishers.
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). http://www.undp.org/mdg/basic_outrack.shiml
http://www.un.org/millennium/declaration/ares 552e.htm
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e.com/faqs.html

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The concern of this author as a specialist in Educational History and Policy is, as much as possible
regionalism and educational development in
Yusuf M. and Ogbondah L. (2007). Policies puncturing and nurturing in Nigerian
Journal for Contemporary Issues in Education
Coast, Ghana. Vol. 1 (1&2).
Perspective on the history of education in Nigeria. Ilorin: Bamitex
primary and primary education in Nigeria. A basic text. Ibadan: Stirling
. J. Hum. Ecol., 20(2): 97-101.
Premium. Microsoft Inc.
. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.
Universal Basic Education (UBE)
ional development. Information
. Ibadan: AMD Publishers.
http://www.undp.org/mdg/basic_outrack.shiml
. Meeting basic learning needs. . Background
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs). Abuja: UBEC.


40 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ON UBE
1. What is Universal Basic Education?
UBE is educational reform programme of the Nigeria government that provides free, compulsory, and continuously 9
two levels: 6 year of primary and 3 year of junior secondary education for all school
2. What Constitutes the UBE Programme?
There are 3 components of the UBE programme, and these are:
Early Childhood Care Development and Education (ECCDE)
year Primary Education
3 year JSS Education
3. When was UBE launched?
UBE Was Launched on 29th September, 1999 by President Olusegun Obasanjo in Sokoto, Sokoto State.
4. What is the legal framework for the implementation of the UBE programme?
The legal framework for the UBE programme is the UBE Act 2004 signed into law
5. When did UBE take-off effectively?
UBE programme took-off effectively with the signing of the UBE Act in April 2004. However, the implementation started in earnest in
July 2005 with the appropriation of the UBE
6. Is it a new education policy?
No. it is not a new education policy. UBE is provided within the context of the 6
introduction is a reinforcement of the 6-3
7. Why didn't the UBE programme take -
UBE could not take-off immediately after launch as it did not have legal backing. Nonetheless many UBE related activities were
carried-out in the areas of social mobilization, infrastructural development, provision of instructional materials, etc.
8. Who are the beneficiaries of the UBE Programme?
Children aged 3-5 year for ECCDE
Children aged 6-11 + years for Primary School Education
Children aged 12-14 + years for Junior Secondary School Education
9. Why the 9-Year Continuous Basic Education?
At the moment, completion of primary school doesn't equip a child with the necessary life skills to become self reliant. Thus
Nigeria child to be considered functionally literate and numerate, he or she m

10. Is ECCDE also compulsory?
No, it is not compulsory. What is compulsory is 6 years of primary and 3years of JSS education. However, parents are strongly
encouraged to register their children in ECCDE
11. Who implements the UBE programme?
The implementation of UBE programme resides with State Government in conformity with provision of the 1999 Constitution, and
relevant section of UBE Act 2004.
12. What is the role of the Federal Government in implementing UBE?
The role of FGN in the implementation of UBE is to ensure quality control and maintenance of uniform standard as well as gene
ordination of programme implementation.
13. How is the UBE Programme funded?
UBE programme is funded by the State and Local Governments with the support from the Federal Government through its
intervention fund.
14. What is the nature of the Federal Government's Support to the State?
The federal government, as provided by the UBE Act 2004 has set aside 2% of its Consolidated Revenue Fund (CRF) to Support
States in the implementation of the UBE programme.
15. What does the 2% of the CFR amount to in the 2005 and 2006 financial year
In 2005 it was N24.300billion
In 2006 it is N30.480 billion, and
In the 2007 budget it will be N35 billion.
16. In what manner is the 2% CRF distributed to State?
The 2% CRF distribute to the State in this proportion:
70% Matching Grant
14% Fund to address Education Imbalance
5% Fund for the implementation of the
Programme (HGSF & HP)
5% Incentive to State for Good Performance
2% Funds for the Education of the Physically and mentally Challenged Children
2% Funds for Monitoring of UBE programmes
2% Implementation Fund.

APPENDIX I
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ON UBE
UBE is educational reform programme of the Nigeria government that provides free, compulsory, and continuously 9
two levels: 6 year of primary and 3 year of junior secondary education for all school -aged children.
e UBE Programme?
There are 3 components of the UBE programme, and these are:
Early Childhood Care Development and Education (ECCDE)
UBE Was Launched on 29th September, 1999 by President Olusegun Obasanjo in Sokoto, Sokoto State.
What is the legal framework for the implementation of the UBE programme?
The legal framework for the UBE programme is the UBE Act 2004 signed into law in May 2004 by President Obasanjo.
off effectively with the signing of the UBE Act in April 2004. However, the implementation started in earnest in
fund to the Commission and subsequent disbursement to States.
No. it is not a new education policy. UBE is provided within the context of the 6-3-3-4 National Policy on Education (NPE). Indeed its
3- 3-4 policy on education.
-off immediately after the launch in 1999?
off immediately after launch as it did not have legal backing. Nonetheless many UBE related activities were
out in the areas of social mobilization, infrastructural development, provision of instructional materials, etc.
o are the beneficiaries of the UBE Programme? The beneficiaries of the UBE program are follows:
5 year for ECCDE
11 + years for Primary School Education
14 + years for Junior Secondary School Education
Year Continuous Basic Education?
At the moment, completion of primary school doesn't equip a child with the necessary life skills to become self reliant. Thus
Nigeria child to be considered functionally literate and numerate, he or she must successfully complete 9 years of schooling.
encouraged to register their children in ECCDE Centres while government is expected to provide ECCDE Centres of good quality.
11. Who implements the UBE programme?
The implementation of UBE programme resides with State Government in conformity with provision of the 1999 Constitution, and
12. What is the role of the Federal Government in implementing UBE?
The role of FGN in the implementation of UBE is to ensure quality control and maintenance of uniform standard as well as gene
entation.
14. What is the nature of the Federal Government's Support to the State?
States in the implementation of the UBE programme.
15. What does the 2% of the CFR amount to in the 2005 and 2006 financial years?
In the 2007 budget it will be N35 billion.
16. In what manner is the 2% CRF distributed to State?
The 2% CRF distribute to the State in this proportion:
Education Imbalance among and within States
5% Fund for the implementation of the Home Grown School Feeding and Health
5% Incentive to State for Good Performance
the Physically and mentally Challenged Children
2% Funds for Monitoring of UBE programmes
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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264
UBE is educational reform programme of the Nigeria government that provides free, compulsory, and continuously 9-year education in
in May 2004 by President Obasanjo.
off effectively with the signing of the UBE Act in April 2004. However, the implementation started in earnest in
4 National Policy on Education (NPE). Indeed its
off immediately after launch as it did not have legal backing. Nonetheless many UBE related activities were
out in the areas of social mobilization, infrastructural development, provision of instructional materials, etc.
At the moment, completion of primary school doesn't equip a child with the necessary life skills to become self reliant. Thus for any
ust successfully complete 9 years of schooling.
Centres while government is expected to provide ECCDE Centres of good quality.
The implementation of UBE programme resides with State Government in conformity with provision of the 1999 Constitution, and the
The role of FGN in the implementation of UBE is to ensure quality control and maintenance of uniform standard as well as general co-


17. What are the States expected to do to qualify to access Federal Government's UBE
Intervention Fund?
Among other things States are expected to:
Replicate the UBE Act at the State Level and set up a State Universal Basic Education Board
Provide Matching Grant to Federal Government intervention funds
Draw up State UBE Action Plans
Establish adequate Mechanisms for pro
18. What is Matching Grant?
Matching Grant is fund that is contributed by both Federal and State Government, on equal
basis. It is 70% of 2% CRF
19. In which areas and in what proportion is the Matching Grant utilized?
The Matching Grant is utilized in the implementation of programmes as follows:
ECCDE 5%
Primary 60%
JSS 35%
20. How is the Matching Grant applied?
The Matching Grant applied as follows:
construction of classroom/furniture etc. 7%
procurement of textbooks, instructional materials etc. 15%
teacher professional development etc.15%
21. How free is the UBE programme?
The UBE Act provides that the following should be
Tuition
Textbook in the 4 and 5 of the core subject areas of Primary and JSS, respectively
Class room and other infrastructural facilities.
22. Which core subjects will textbook be provided free of charge?
Four of the core subjects in primary school are: English Studies, Mathematics, Basic Science/Technology and Social Studies
Five of the core subjects in Junior Secondary schools are: English Studies, Mathematics, Basic Science, Basic Technology and
Social Studies.
23. Is the existing curriculum going to change as a result of the introduction of the UBE programme?
Yes, the curriculum has been changed. A new 9
24. When is the new curriculum going to be implemented?
The new curriculum will begin to be implemented in September 2007, with only primary 1 and JSS1. The old Primary curriculum
will be phased out by July 2013 and that of Junior Secondary School in July 2010.
25. What are the new areas of emphasis in the new 9
The new areas of emphasis are:
Value Reorientation
Basic Science
Basic Technology
Computer Science
Teacher of Thinking
Home Economics
Agriculture
Basic Studies and
Civic Education
Moral Instruction
French
26. What is the mode of assessment in the UBE Programme?
School-based Assessment or Continuous Assessment (CA) is the dominant mode of assessment of learning under Universal Basic
Education Programme. It determines the progress of the
will mean that a child will have to repeat a level.
27. Who conducts the examination leading to the award of the Basic Education Certificate at
the end of JSS 3?
The school based Continuous Assessment constitutes 60% of the overall student assessment while an external examination to be
conducted by the State Ministries of Education and Moderated by an approved national examination body, account for the remain
40%.
28. What is the position of Common Entrance Examination and the School Leaving Certificate under the UBE Programme?
Under the Universal Basic Education Programme there is no School Leaving Certificate. Furthermore Common Entrance
Examination for admission into JSS has been discontinued with effect from 2006. Certificate is only issued at the end of JSS III. This
is known as Basic Education Certificates (BEC).
29. What is the quality assurance framework under the Universal Basic Education Programme?
To ensure quality, a Continuous Assessment, Instrument has been standardized which is to be applied nationally, with effect from
September 2007.

17. What are the States expected to do to qualify to access Federal Government's UBE
tates are expected to:
Replicate the UBE Act at the State Level and set up a State Universal Basic Education Board
Provide Matching Grant to Federal Government intervention funds
Establish adequate Mechanisms for programme implementation, monitoring and evaluation.
Matching Grant is fund that is contributed by both Federal and State Government, on equal
19. In which areas and in what proportion is the Matching Grant utilized?
The Matching Grant is utilized in the implementation of programmes as follows:
lied as follows:
construction of classroom/furniture etc. 7%
procurement of textbooks, instructional materials etc. 15%
teacher professional development etc.15%
The UBE Act provides that the following should be provided free of charge:
Textbook in the 4 and 5 of the core subject areas of Primary and JSS, respectively
Class room and other infrastructural facilities.
22. Which core subjects will textbook be provided free of charge?
core subjects in primary school are: English Studies, Mathematics, Basic Science/Technology and Social Studies
23. Is the existing curriculum going to change as a result of the introduction of the UBE programme?
Yes, the curriculum has been changed. A new 9-year Basic Education Curriculum is now in place.
24. When is the new curriculum going to be implemented?
e new curriculum will begin to be implemented in September 2007, with only primary 1 and JSS1. The old Primary curriculum
will be phased out by July 2013 and that of Junior Secondary School in July 2010.
25. What are the new areas of emphasis in the new 9-Year Basic Education Curriculum?
26. What is the mode of assessment in the UBE Programme?
based Assessment or Continuous Assessment (CA) is the dominant mode of assessment of learning under Universal Basic
Education Programme. It determines the progress of the child from one level to another such that failure to meet certain conditions
will mean that a child will have to repeat a level.
27. Who conducts the examination leading to the award of the Basic Education Certificate at
ed Continuous Assessment constitutes 60% of the overall student assessment while an external examination to be
conducted by the State Ministries of Education and Moderated by an approved national examination body, account for the remain
s the position of Common Entrance Examination and the School Leaving Certificate under the UBE Programme?
has been discontinued with effect from 2006. Certificate is only issued at the end of JSS III. This
is known as Basic Education Certificates (BEC).
29. What is the quality assurance framework under the Universal Basic Education Programme?
y, a Continuous Assessment, Instrument has been standardized which is to be applied nationally, with effect from
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
uniport.com
265
core subjects in primary school are: English Studies, Mathematics, Basic Science/Technology and Social Studies
e new curriculum will begin to be implemented in September 2007, with only primary 1 and JSS1. The old Primary curriculum
based Assessment or Continuous Assessment (CA) is the dominant mode of assessment of learning under Universal Basic
child from one level to another such that failure to meet certain conditions
ed Continuous Assessment constitutes 60% of the overall student assessment while an external examination to be
conducted by the State Ministries of Education and Moderated by an approved national examination body, account for the remaining
s the position of Common Entrance Examination and the School Leaving Certificate under the UBE Programme?
has been discontinued with effect from 2006. Certificate is only issued at the end of JSS III. This
y, a Continuous Assessment, Instrument has been standardized which is to be applied nationally, with effect from


30. How will primary 6 pupils be placed in JSS?
Each State Ministry of Education and FCT is required to provide a space for
into any of the three junior Secondary School of his or her choice. Where there is no vacancy in any of the three school of t
choice, the state authorities shall offer a space for the child
31. How will UBE be implemented under the existing 6
Under the new UBE system, JSS should be separated from the SSS, and this is referred to as disarticulation. In other words, t
leaves should be run by two separated administrations and eventually have separate locations, infrastructures etc. the exist
secondary education is in contradiction to the existing policy of 6
32. When did the policy on disarticulation come into effect?
In 2004 the National Council on Education agreed on a five year disar
expected to be completed by 2009 by both public and private sector providers.
33. What is the position of Federal Government Colleges in the Universal Basic Education Programme?
The Federal Government colleges will become Senior Secondary School only. However, the existing JSS component will be
gradually phased-out by July 2008.
34. What will classes in primary & JSS be called?
There is no change of names for classes in primary and junior secon
I-III
35. What steps is the Federal Government taking to ensure the successful implementation of UBE Programme?
Federal Government has provided matching grants totalling N38.98b
as FG UBE intervention fund.
Federal Government is further investing N10b of MDG funds (from the debt relief granted by Paris Club of Creditors) in the
following areas:
Provision of science kits to primary schools
Improvement of teacher quality through in service training for 145,000 teachers conducted by NTI on annual basis.
Recruitment of additional 40,000 holders of Nigeria Certificate in Education under the FTSC program for a two
Government guaranteed remuneration.
Programme implementation is guided by well
priority needs.
UBE has an all embracing procedure for monitoring the uti
36. What is the assurance of the success of the UBE programme?
UBE is pivotal to the attainment of and is interlinked with National Economic Empowerment Development Strategy (NEEDS),
State Economic Empowerment Development Strategy (SEEDS), Education for All (EFA) and Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs).
UBE is widely embraced as a critical success factor in attaining national and international commitments,
The program implementation is inclusive of all segments of society; Federal and State government, international Development
partners, private Sector Organizations, NGOs, CSOs and other stakeholders.
Basic Education stakeholders have accepted the programme and are working tirelessly
programme as a sustainable mechanism for combating illiteracy and poverty reduction.
Necessary funds are being injected into the programme for capacity building, monitoring and evaluation as well as constant re
of project performance.
Government has opened up the sub-
quality into the programme implementation.
Other efforts are being put in place to ensure that the progra
of the entire nation.
37. How do the Operators of the Basic Education fit into the UBE Programme?
There are certain basic expectations on the private Operators of Basic Education Inst
There are:
Disarticulating JSS from SSS so as to ensure the existence of two separate administrations in existing secondary schools.
Implementation of the 9-Year Basic Education Curriculum.
Ensure the employment of qualified teachers and
Providing standard infrastructure.
Subject their institution to periodic inspection by State/Federal inspectorate services.
38. Will private sector providers access the UBE intervention fund?
No, the private sector providers will not access the FGN UBE intervention funds because they charge tuition and other variety of fees,
which is contrary to the provisions of the UBE Act.
39. What happens to primary 6 completers in private primary school that have no a
The SUBEBs have the responsibility of placing such students in the existing JSS schools.
40. Are private Basic Education service providers allowed to conduct entrance examination into their institutions?
Yes, they are free to conduct entrance examination for the purpose of selecting candidates for either ECCDE, primary or JSS schools.
However, admission into JSS by basic education service providers must take cognizance of the candidate'.
30. How will primary 6 pupils be placed in JSS?
Each State Ministry of Education and FCT is required to provide a space for every child who has successfully completed primary six
into any of the three junior Secondary School of his or her choice. Where there is no vacancy in any of the three school of t
choice, the state authorities shall offer a space for the child in the nearest available school where there is vacancy.
31. How will UBE be implemented under the existing 6- year Secondary School arrangement?
Under the new UBE system, JSS should be separated from the SSS, and this is referred to as disarticulation. In other words, t
leaves should be run by two separated administrations and eventually have separate locations, infrastructures etc. the exist
secondary education is in contradiction to the existing policy of 6-3-3-4 and is to be discontinued henceforth.
32. When did the policy on disarticulation come into effect?
In 2004 the National Council on Education agreed on a five year disarticulation plan. The disarticulation commenced in 2004 and is
expected to be completed by 2009 by both public and private sector providers.
rnment colleges will become Senior Secondary School only. However, the existing JSS component will be
34. What will classes in primary & JSS be called?
There is no change of names for classes in primary and junior secondary schools. The classes will still be called primary 1
Federal Government has provided matching grants totalling N38.98b between July 2005 and July 2006 for disbursement to the state
e kits to primary schools
Recruitment of additional 40,000 holders of Nigeria Certificate in Education under the FTSC program for a two
Government guaranteed remuneration.
Programme implementation is guided by well-articulated quarterly Action Plans that ensures that funds are applied to areas of
UBE has an all embracing procedure for monitoring the utilization of disbursed funds and programme implementation.
What is the assurance of the success of the UBE programme?
nomic Empowerment Development Strategy (SEEDS), Education for All (EFA) and Millennium Development Goals
clusive of all segments of society; Federal and State government, international Development
partners, private Sector Organizations, NGOs, CSOs and other stakeholders.
Basic Education stakeholders have accepted the programme and are working tirelessly to assume ownership of the reform
programme as a sustainable mechanism for combating illiteracy and poverty reduction.
Necessary funds are being injected into the programme for capacity building, monitoring and evaluation as well as constant re
-sector to a wide range of opinions, resources and skills capable of injecting expertise and
quality into the programme implementation.
Other efforts are being put in place to ensure that the programme succeeds and the success recorded sustained for the overall benefit
37. How do the Operators of the Basic Education fit into the UBE Programme?
There are certain basic expectations on the private Operators of Basic Education Institutions.
Year Basic Education Curriculum.
Ensure the employment of qualified teachers and their continuous professional development.
Subject their institution to periodic inspection by State/Federal inspectorate services.
38. Will private sector providers access the UBE intervention fund?
te sector providers will not access the FGN UBE intervention funds because they charge tuition and other variety of fees,
which is contrary to the provisions of the UBE Act.
39. What happens to primary 6 completers in private primary school that have no access to JSS owned by the States.
The SUBEBs have the responsibility of placing such students in the existing JSS schools.
to conduct entrance examination for the purpose of selecting candidates for either ECCDE, primary or JSS schools.

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every child who has successfully completed primary six
into any of the three junior Secondary School of his or her choice. Where there is no vacancy in any of the three school of the pupil's
in the nearest available school where there is vacancy.
Under the new UBE system, JSS should be separated from the SSS, and this is referred to as disarticulation. In other words, the two
leaves should be run by two separated administrations and eventually have separate locations, infrastructures etc. the existing 6-years
4 and is to be discontinued henceforth.
ticulation plan. The disarticulation commenced in 2004 and is
rnment colleges will become Senior Secondary School only. However, the existing JSS component will be
dary schools. The classes will still be called primary 1- 6 and JSS
between July 2005 and July 2006 for disbursement to the state
Recruitment of additional 40,000 holders of Nigeria Certificate in Education under the FTSC program for a two -year Federal
articulated quarterly Action Plans that ensures that funds are applied to areas of
lization of disbursed funds and programme implementation.
nomic Empowerment Development Strategy (SEEDS), Education for All (EFA) and Millennium Development Goals
clusive of all segments of society; Federal and State government, international Development
to assume ownership of the reform
Necessary funds are being injected into the programme for capacity building, monitoring and evaluation as well as constant review
sector to a wide range of opinions, resources and skills capable of injecting expertise and
mme succeeds and the success recorded sustained for the overall benefit
te sector providers will not access the FGN UBE intervention funds because they charge tuition and other variety of fees,
ccess to JSS owned by the States.
to conduct entrance examination for the purpose of selecting candidates for either ECCDE, primary or JSS schools.


ADAPTING TEACHING TO SUIT
PREFERENCES IN THE PRESENT DAY CLASSROOM
Abstract
As educators and researchers try to understand the tremendous range of individual differences among
children; they to look for the sources of individual differences. One such source is learning style. The
need to provide more effective teaching for the le
concept of learning style both closely and critically. This paper takes an in
style preferences could be accommodated in the classroom and serves as effective instructional tool fo
teachers. Implications for teachers are described.
Keywords: Teaching Style, Learning and Learning Styles


ADAPTING TEACHING TO SUIT LEARNERS LEARNING STYLE

By

ADEDAPO ADEYEMI, Ph.D
Centre for Educational Technology,
Oyo, Oyo State
dapyem09@gmail.com

need to provide more effective teaching for the learners encourages the researcher to examine the
concept of learning style both closely and critically. This paper takes an in-depth look at how learning
style preferences could be accommodated in the classroom and serves as effective instructional tool fo
teachers. Implications for teachers are described.
Teaching Style, Learning and Learning Styles
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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267
LEARNERS LEARNING STYLE
arners encourages the researcher to examine the
depth look at how learning
style preferences could be accommodated in the classroom and serves as effective instructional tool for


Introduction
The recent trend of students poor performance in examinations and its attendant low standard of
education have been blamed on a lot of things such as non
methods, poor attitude to learning on the part of pupi
Okwara-Kalu & Anusiem, 2003). It is true that the aim of teaching is to change the behaviour of an
individual and aid the acquisition of skills, abilities, habits and physical competencies necessary for
functional living in a dynamic environment. In order to promote learning that could lead to academic
achievement requires that the conditions that will promote learning should be created by the teacher.

Many studies seem to have been carried out on ways of
incidence of students poor performance but to a limited success in some subjects. Okwara
Anusiem (2011) observe that teachers on their own seem to be tired of trying to impact knowledge to
learners out of frustration. They may be frustrated not for any other reason than the fact that they do not
know how else to impact knowledge to students having exhausted the teaching methods, skills and
techniques they know. As such they are no longer motivated to teach. A
is poor performance in mathematics due to poor methods of teaching, attitude of the facilitators that
teach the subject in a way which creates students lack of interest in the subject. Oczkus (2003) however,
traces students poor performance to teachers lack of utilization of teaching devices and believes that
students do not perform well in sciences because teachers do not present their lessons to provoke
thinking, arouse interest, catch-attention, sustain interest of the

Learning, according to Effiong and Odey (2003) involves not just acquisition but the utilization of
such knowledge, skills and its appreciation. Okwara
classroom becomes a playground for learners due to t
teach. Since they must learn, and no meaningful learning is taking place, they resort to practicing and
learning all forms of vices right there in the classroom. Even when the teacher attempts to teach
are not interested due to the fact that teachers methods do not appeal to them. The present day
classroom due to the reasons above suggests that one concept which could attest to the differences in
students motivation and academic achievement
Learning style or cognitive style refers to the usual manner in which a learner learns a particular
task in his or her own way. Agulanna and Nwachukwu (2009) define learning styles as the preferred
ways that different individuals
environmental stimuli. A learning style is a student's consistent way of responding to and using stimuli
in the context of learning. Keefe (2004) defines learning styles as the "composite
cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how a learner
perceives, interacts with, and responds to the learning environment. Stewart and Felicetti (2001) define
learning styles as those educational conditions under which a student is most likely to learn. However,
the term learning style has been used as a broad classification within the literature to describe various
constructs often with similar properties with foundations in psych
cognition research. Thus, learning styles are not really concerned with "what" learners learn, but rather
"how" they prefer to learn.

The idea that people learn differently is venerable and probably had its origin with
Greeks (Wratcher, Morrison, Riley & Scheirton, 1997). Educators have noticed that some students prefer
certain methods of learning more than others. These dispositions, referred to as learning styles, form a
student's unique learning preference
instruction (Kemp, Morrison & Ross, 1998). Dunn (2000) cites that learning style is a biologically and
developmentally determined set of personal characteristics that make the identical in
some students and ineffective for others.

Educators have noticed that students employ senses in their learning differently which is
commonly regarded as learning styles. For instance, some students rely more on their eyes than th
ears. Agulanna and Nwachukwu quickly noted that learning styles do not reflect intelligence or patterns of
abilities but may influence students learning in school. In other words, adapting instruction to learners
learning styles brings into play lear
education have been blamed on a lot of things such as non-utilization of teaching devices, poor teaching
methods, poor attitude to learning on the part of pupils and students, etc (Eze, 2001; Ekanem, 2003;
Kalu & Anusiem, 2003). It is true that the aim of teaching is to change the behaviour of an
ional living in a dynamic environment. In order to promote learning that could lead to academic
Many studies seem to have been carried out on ways of reducing to the barest minimum the
incidence of students poor performance but to a limited success in some subjects. Okwara
ration. They may be frustrated not for any other reason than the fact that they do not
techniques they know. As such they are no longer motivated to teach. According to Betiku (2002), there
s poor performance to teachers lack of utilization of teaching devices and believes that
attention, sustain interest of the students with utilizing teaching devices.
such knowledge, skills and its appreciation. Okwara-Kalu and Anusiem (2013) posit that the present day
classroom becomes a playground for learners due to the fact that the teachers are no longer motivated to
learning all forms of vices right there in the classroom. Even when the teacher attempts to teach
students motivation and academic achievement is learning styles.
ways that different individuals have for processing and organizing information for responding to
in the context of learning. Keefe (2004) defines learning styles as the "composite
se educational conditions under which a student is most likely to learn. However,
constructs often with similar properties with foundations in psychology, personality, motivation and
The idea that people learn differently is venerable and probably had its origin with
student's unique learning preference and aid teachers in the planning of small-group and individualized
developmentally determined set of personal characteristics that make the identical in
some students and ineffective for others.
commonly regarded as learning styles. For instance, some students rely more on their eyes than th
learning styles brings into play learners intelligence.
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268
utilization of teaching devices, poor teaching
ls and students, etc (Eze, 2001; Ekanem, 2003;
Kalu & Anusiem, 2003). It is true that the aim of teaching is to change the behaviour of an
ional living in a dynamic environment. In order to promote learning that could lead to academic
reducing to the barest minimum the
incidence of students poor performance but to a limited success in some subjects. Okwara-Kalu and
ration. They may be frustrated not for any other reason than the fact that they do not
ccording to Betiku (2002), there
s poor performance to teachers lack of utilization of teaching devices and believes that
students with utilizing teaching devices.
Kalu and Anusiem (2013) posit that the present day
he fact that the teachers are no longer motivated to
learning all forms of vices right there in the classroom. Even when the teacher attempts to teach, learners
have for processing and organizing information for responding to
in the context of learning. Keefe (2004) defines learning styles as the "composite of characteristics:
se educational conditions under which a student is most likely to learn. However,
ology, personality, motivation and
The idea that people learn differently is venerable and probably had its origin with the ancient
group and individualized
developmentally determined set of personal characteristics that make the identical instruction effective for
commonly regarded as learning styles. For instance, some students rely more on their eyes than their


Each person is born with certain preferences toward particular styles, but culture, experience, and
development influence these preferences (Giles, Pitre, & Womack, 2003). The four most common
learning styles are visual, aural, readin
modalities, but have certain strengths and weaknesses in a specific modality. Some people have an equal
propensity for more than one style, which is titled as the multimodal style. This pre
determined through various testing instruments. Once a person's learning style is ascertained,
accommodations can be made to increase academic achievement and creativity, as well as improve
attitudes toward learning.

Why it is pertinent that students learning styles be accommodated in the classroom, those
differences do not end in the classroom but extend to the society. According to Agulanna and
Nwachukwu (2009), they add spice and vitality to the entire world. Bassett (2004) observes tha
these varieties, our world would be such that every citizen will do the same thing like robots without any
unique contribution to the society. It would be like all humans wearing the same face; so maintaining the
varieties in the classroom will ensure a world of varieties. Variety they said is the spice of life. It is based
on the above maxim that this paper advocates for adapting classroom instruction to the learning styles. It
is hope that this would accommodate the different learning styles
embarks on an examination of the concept of learning styles and how learning style preferences could be
accommodated in the classroom and serves as effective instructional tool for teachers. Towards this end,
this study concentrates on theoretical bases of classroom implications of learning style preferences and
possible constraints and way out.

Barbe and Milone (1981) report that teachers are more inclined to instruct in a manner that
corresponds with their own learning style. Many teachers are unaware of their own style and thus, simply
teach the way they were taught. For teaching
must involve all the senses. It is evident that despite the interest in le
limited amount of research has been carried out. For instance, Gee (1990), Dille and Mezack (1991),
Gibson and Graff (1992), Richardson (1994), Riding and Grimley (1999), Cassidy and Eachus (2000),
Zhang (2002) demonstrated that the style of learning and thinking do affect the academic performance of
the learners. Grigorenko and Sternberg (1997), Garcia and Hughes (2000) found significant correlations
between academic achievement and thinking styles. In particular, very li
on relationship between learning style and teaching style (

Theoretical Justification
Although the consideration of learning styles and student outcomes has a long history in educ
psychology (Dunn, Beaudry, & Klavas, 1989), the publication of Gardners (1983) theory of multiple
intelligences (MI) inspired a renewed interest and concern about how individual differences in cognitive
processing affect the learning process. Thus
work, which divides learning into seven different styles (Loo, 2004), as well as the writing of Lazear
(1991) who directly applies MI theory to the learning process. Students, for example, can be cate
as preferring material that is presented either in visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or spatial modalities.
Research on the relationship between learning styles and learning outcomes has found a correlation
between learning styles and the success of s
prefer learning in a way that is compatible with their self
2005).
Low satisfaction or poor performance in a course or particular activity may be m
lack of knowledge or ability, when it is actually difficulty with a particular style of learning. Oxford and
Anderson (1995) report that conflict may arise when the instructional styles of teachers is different from
the learning styles of their students. Educators with an understanding of their students learning styles are
better able to appropriately adapt their teaching methods. Jensen (1996) proposes that in order to
accommodate this variety of learning styles, effective instruction
require teachers to immerse students in a variety of activities. However, this construct is not without
controversy, and concerns have been voiced (Vasquez & Smith, 2006) regarding the potential problems
that ensue when a particular learning style is misused to label or over generalize its effects on student
classroom performance.
learning styles are visual, aural, reading/writing, and kinesthetic/tactile. Most people learn through all
propensity for more than one style, which is titled as the multimodal style. This pre
t students learning styles be accommodated in the classroom, those
Nwachukwu (2009), they add spice and vitality to the entire world. Bassett (2004) observes tha
ensure a world of varieties. Variety they said is the spice of life. It is based
is hope that this would accommodate the different learning styles of students in the classroom. The study
study concentrates on theoretical bases of classroom implications of learning style preferences and

learning style. Many teachers are unaware of their own style and thus, simply
teach the way they were taught. For teaching-learning process to be more robust, effective instruction
must involve all the senses. It is evident that despite the interest in learning style by educators, only a
ed that the style of learning and thinking do affect the academic performance of
between academic achievement and thinking styles. In particular, very little research has been carried out
on relationship between learning style and teaching style (Ifegbo, 2008; John, 2002; Adedapo, 2013).
Although the consideration of learning styles and student outcomes has a long history in educ
processing affect the learning process. Thus, pedagogical implications have been observed in Kolbs
(1991) who directly applies MI theory to the learning process. Students, for example, can be cate
between learning styles and the success of students (Farkas, 2003; Dunn et al, 1989) and that students
prefer learning in a way that is compatible with their self-identified style of learning (Rinaldi & Gurung,
Low satisfaction or poor performance in a course or particular activity may be m
their students. Educators with an understanding of their students learning styles are
accommodate this variety of learning styles, effective instruction must involve all the senses and must
n a particular learning style is misused to label or over generalize its effects on student
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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269
g/writing, and kinesthetic/tactile. Most people learn through all
propensity for more than one style, which is titled as the multimodal style. This preference can be
t students learning styles be accommodated in the classroom, those
Nwachukwu (2009), they add spice and vitality to the entire world. Bassett (2004) observes that without
ensure a world of varieties. Variety they said is the spice of life. It is based
of students in the classroom. The study
study concentrates on theoretical bases of classroom implications of learning style preferences and
learning style. Many teachers are unaware of their own style and thus, simply
learning process to be more robust, effective instruction
arning style by educators, only a
ed that the style of learning and thinking do affect the academic performance of
ttle research has been carried out
; John, 2002; Adedapo, 2013).
Although the consideration of learning styles and student outcomes has a long history in educational
, pedagogical implications have been observed in Kolbs
(1991) who directly applies MI theory to the learning process. Students, for example, can be categorized
tudents (Farkas, 2003; Dunn et al, 1989) and that students
identified style of learning (Rinaldi & Gurung,
Low satisfaction or poor performance in a course or particular activity may be misinterpreted as
their students. Educators with an understanding of their students learning styles are
must involve all the senses and must
n a particular learning style is misused to label or over generalize its effects on student


Classroom Steps in Implementing Learning Style
The first step in implementing learning style
each student. A variety of methods exist for testing learning styles in a relatively quick manner. Many are
available online, like the adapted VAR/W Questionn
- Auditory learners often talk to themselves. They also may move their lips and read out loud. They
may have difficulty with reading and writing tasks. They often do better talking to a colleague or a
tape recorder and hearing what was sa
pre-service teachers to be conceptual learners or ones who preferred to learn with language
oriented methods through reading. Elementary majors appeared to be predominantly intuitive
and holistic thinkers who process and perceive information best in a whole
opposed to seeing information as a collection of isolated facts.

To integrate this style into the learning environment:
The teacher begins new material with a brief
summary of what has been covered. This is the old adage of "tell them what they are going to
learn, teach them, and tell them what they have learned."
The teacher uses the Socratic method of lecturing by q
information from them as possible and then fill in the gaps with their own expertise.
The teacher includes auditory activities, such as brainstorming, buzz groups, or jeopardy and
leaves plenty of time to debrief activit
learned and how it applies to their situation.
The teacher asks the learners to verbalize the questions.
The teacher develops an internal dialogue between him/herself and the learners.
- Visual learners: like to write down directions and pay better attention to lectures if they watch
them. They usually do better with charts, demonstrations, videos, and other visual materials.
One study (Constantinidou & Baker, 2002), found that visual presentation throug
pictures was advantageous for all children and adults, irrespective of a high or low learning
preference for visual images. Indeed, it was also advantageous for those with a strong preference
for verbal processing. They easily visualize
seldom get lost in new surroundings.

The teacher invites questions to help learners stay alert in auditory environments.
The teacher posts flip charts
The teacher emphasizes key points to cue when to takes notes.
The teacher eliminates potential distractions.
The teacher supplements textual information with illustrations whenever possible.
The teacher asks them to draw pictures in the margins.
The teacher asks the learners envision the topic or have them act out the subject matter.

- The Reading/Writing Learners
tasks. They remember what has been written down, even if they do not read it more than once.
They like to write down directions and pay better attention to lectures if they watch them
information most effectively when presented in a written language format. This type of learner
benefits from instructors that used the blackboard to accent important points or provide outlines
of the lecture material. When trying to recall information
information from their "mind's eye". Many academics have a strong preference for the
reading/writing style.

To integrate this style into the learning environment, the teacher is expected to:
Use graphs, charts, illustrations, or other visual aids.
Classroom Steps in Implementing Learning Style-Based Instruction
in implementing learning style-based instruction is diagnosing the individual learning styles of
available online, like the adapted VAR/W Questionnaire listed below.
often talk to themselves. They also may move their lips and read out loud. They
tape recorder and hearing what was said. Matthews (as cited in Renou, 2011) found elementary
service teachers to be conceptual learners or ones who preferred to learn with language
inkers who process and perceive information best in a whole
opposed to seeing information as a collection of isolated facts.
The teacher begins new material with a brief explanation of what is coming and concludes with a
learn, teach them, and tell them what they have learned."
The teacher uses the Socratic method of lecturing by questioning learners to draw as much
leaves plenty of time to debrief activities. This allows them to make connections of what they
learned and how it applies to their situation.
The teacher asks the learners to verbalize the questions.
like to write down directions and pay better attention to lectures if they watch
One study (Constantinidou & Baker, 2002), found that visual presentation throug
pictures was advantageous for all children and adults, irrespective of a high or low learning
for verbal processing. They easily visualize faces and places by using their imagination and
seldom get lost in new surroundings.
The teacher posts flip charts to show what will come and what has been presented.
The teacher emphasizes key points to cue when to takes notes.
The teacher eliminates potential distractions.
sks them to draw pictures in the margins.
The Reading/Writing Learners: like to learn through written language, such as reading and writing
They like to write down directions and pay better attention to lectures if they watch them
of the lecture material. When trying to recall information, reading/writing learners remember the
To integrate this style into the learning environment, the teacher is expected to:
lustrations, or other visual aids.
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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270
based instruction is diagnosing the individual learning styles of
often talk to themselves. They also may move their lips and read out loud. They
id. Matthews (as cited in Renou, 2011) found elementary
service teachers to be conceptual learners or ones who preferred to learn with language-
inkers who process and perceive information best in a whole-to-part manner as
explanation of what is coming and concludes with a
uestioning learners to draw as much
ies. This allows them to make connections of what they
like to write down directions and pay better attention to lectures if they watch
One study (Constantinidou & Baker, 2002), found that visual presentation through the use of
pictures was advantageous for all children and adults, irrespective of a high or low learning-style
faces and places by using their imagination and
to show what will come and what has been presented.
like to learn through written language, such as reading and writing
They like to write down directions and pay better attention to lectures if they watch them process
, reading/writing learners remember the



Include outlines, concept maps, agendas, handouts, etc. for reading and taking notes.
Include plenty of content in handouts to reread after the learning session.
Leave white space in handouts for note
Ask the learners organize any diagrams into statements.
Rewrite the ideas and principles in other words.
Ask the learners make flashcards of words and concepts that need to be memorized.

The second step is profiling group preferences and weaknesses. Are most of the students visual
learners? Does your class have very few kinesthetic/tactile learners?
The third step is assessing current instructional methods to determine whether they are adequate or
require more flexibility. If modifications need to be made, various activities can be developed and/or
adapted to conform to learning styles. Three techniques have been proposed.
1. Teachers can add alternative activities that could replace or supplement ones. T
increased opportunities for students to use different styles. For example, hands on activities can
be conducted after a lecture to confirm abstract concepts.
2. Teachers can also challenge students to develop skills in other areas by complet
that utilize all learning styles. For example, the students can complete multidimensional packets,
which contain activities from each learning style.
3. Another approach to include learning styles in an education curriculum is to organize act
around complex projects. These projects would require that students use all learning styles. An
example of a complex activity would be a project

When teaching an individual, teachers should present the most difficult conce
style. Easier concepts should be introduced in a different style. When teaching an entire class, teachers
should use all learning styles in their presentations if they are to reach every student. This can be fairly
simple. For example, Mrs. Adeyemi, a primary school teacher is going to teach a unit on
In order to accommodate all learning styles, she will have the students read sections of the book silently
and out loud to others, act out various scenes, and complete
Mrs. Adeyemi understands that students must be exposed to the concepts in a variety of ways to ensure
full comprehension.

Learning Style Preferences and Their Educational Implications
Understanding students learning styles can be useful in planning strategies or methods that will be most
effective in helping educators facilitate student learning, growth and achievement. Information about
students learning styles is important to both the educator and the stu
Information about learning styles can help educators become more sensitive to the diversity of
students. According to Brownfield (1993), knowledge of learning styles could help teachers
understand and appreciate individual
Students who learn about their own style become better learners, achieve higher grades, become
more motivated and have more positive attitudes about their studies, have greater self
and have more skill in applying th
will learn faster and with greater ease when teachers gear instruction to students learning styles
(Dunn & Dunn, 1978; Hodges, 1983; McCarthy, 1987). It could lead to improved learning and
better academic achievement for students (Stevenson & Dunn, 2001).
Educators who introduce a variety of appropriate teaching methods into their classes are more
likely to motivate and engage students in learning. It is important to strengthen weaker learni
styles so that students will have a range of styles to draw on. For example, the word recognition
and sight-word vocabulary approaches to teaching reading use the global learning style
appropriate for young students. Teaching styles should accommodate
Individual learning preferences, although clearly not related to aptitude, are significantly related to
personal motivation and performance. Adedapo (2013) examined the effect of three micro
teaching modes on trainee
employed a control group that did not have access to recorded audio or video or a written
package other than lectures in an auditorium. One hundred and thirty
Include plenty of content in handouts to reread after the learning session.
Leave white space in handouts for note-taking.
ners organize any diagrams into statements.
Rewrite the ideas and principles in other words.
the learners make flashcards of words and concepts that need to be memorized.
is profiling group preferences and weaknesses. Are most of the students visual
learners? Does your class have very few kinesthetic/tactile learners?
is assessing current instructional methods to determine whether they are adequate or
ire more flexibility. If modifications need to be made, various activities can be developed and/or
adapted to conform to learning styles. Three techniques have been proposed.
Teachers can add alternative activities that could replace or supplement ones. T
be conducted after a lecture to confirm abstract concepts.
Teachers can also challenge students to develop skills in other areas by complet
which contain activities from each learning style.
Another approach to include learning styles in an education curriculum is to organize act
example of a complex activity would be a project-based learning project.
When teaching an individual, teachers should present the most difficult conce
, Mrs. Adeyemi, a primary school teacher is going to teach a unit on
and out loud to others, act out various scenes, and complete a timeline of events on the bulletin board.
Learning Style Preferences and Their Educational Implications
learning styles can be useful in planning strategies or methods that will be most
students learning styles is important to both the educator and the students for the following reasons:
understand and appreciate individual differences among students.
more motivated and have more positive attitudes about their studies, have greater self
and have more skill in applying their knowledge in courses. It has been suggested that students
tter academic achievement for students (Stevenson & Dunn, 2001).
likely to motivate and engage students in learning. It is important to strengthen weaker learni
word vocabulary approaches to teaching reading use the global learning style
appropriate for young students. Teaching styles should accommodate this pattern.
personal motivation and performance. Adedapo (2013) examined the effect of three micro
teaching modes on trainee-teachers learning outcomes in selected teaching skills. This study
package other than lectures in an auditorium. One hundred and thirty-five (135) pre
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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271
the learners make flashcards of words and concepts that need to be memorized.
is profiling group preferences and weaknesses. Are most of the students visual
is assessing current instructional methods to determine whether they are adequate or
ire more flexibility. If modifications need to be made, various activities can be developed and/or
Teachers can add alternative activities that could replace or supplement ones. This could create
Teachers can also challenge students to develop skills in other areas by completing assignments
Another approach to include learning styles in an education curriculum is to organize activities
When teaching an individual, teachers should present the most difficult concepts in the preferred
, Mrs. Adeyemi, a primary school teacher is going to teach a unit on Things Fall Apart.
a timeline of events on the bulletin board.
learning styles can be useful in planning strategies or methods that will be most
dents for the following reasons:
more motivated and have more positive attitudes about their studies, have greater self-confidence
eir knowledge in courses. It has been suggested that students
likely to motivate and engage students in learning. It is important to strengthen weaker learning
word vocabulary approaches to teaching reading use the global learning style
this pattern.
personal motivation and performance. Adedapo (2013) examined the effect of three micro-
omes in selected teaching skills. This study
five (135) pre-service


teachers from three college
teaching practicum course during 2011/2012 academic session participated and were classified
into learning style preferences. The finding showed that there was significant main effect of
learning styles on trainee
teaching. With this finding, it shows that essential to quality learning is awareness in learners of
their own preferred mode, becoming comfortable with their own ways of l
helped to develop a learning repertoire, which is developed through experience with alternative
modes.
Information about learning styles can assist in working with at risk students, since they have a
greater chance of dropping out of sch
Learners may benefit by being aware of the differences in the ways they approach learning and
may need to develop a repertoire of approaches to comb at any gaps they may have. For
instance, Loo (1999) reported
evaluation form undergraduate students because it helped to find ways of improving their own
learning in different learning situations. Because of its usefulness and empirical reliability and
validity in operation (Katz, 1986, 1988; Ferrell, 1983), researchers apply the LSI for learning style
studies.
Possible Constraints and the Way Out
Identification of learning styles of individual students is difficult because there are no accurate and easily
administered measures available. The most popular inventories usually ask students to state their
preferred learning styles. They measure a lar
of external conditions, by means of small numbers of items. The results are often highly unreliable and
consequently of questionable validity (Davidman, 1981). Most inventories appear to be v
and encourage teachers to believe they know more about their students than is in fact the case. There are
some individually administered measures which are useful for research papers, but they are too time
consuming and require too much tr
supported by the results of studies by
to infer that learning styles are poor predictors of success.

Systematic observation of student learning in the classroom setting is the most effective method of
identifying individual learning style. Most teachers already have some understanding of learning style
identification through their own experience and unde
achievement problems, specific testing by a school psychologist could be very useful. When dealing with
difficult learning tasks it is essential to match teaching style to learning style. This process is also o
which most teachers have some experience. As with learning style identification, a carefully developed in
service programme can provide the specific skills and understanding.

Conclusion
The fact that students may have preferred and most comforta
function effectively in others. In fact, students who have the flexibility to move easily from one mode to
another to accommodate the requirements of a situation are at a definite advantage over those who limit
themselves to only one style of thinking and learning. It seems at this point in time that learning styles are
not really "styles," but rather "preferences" in that we do NOT learn best by using one style of learning.
That is, we prefer one or more styles over

Recommendation
Knowing that students prefer to learn differently, teachers must be inclusive of the diverse learning styles
found in their classrooms. It is therefore recommended that instruction be adapted to suit learners
learning style preferences occasionally as the situation demands, because teachers that rely on learning
styles have opened their classrooms to more than one approach to intellectual work. The activities
planned by these teachers are more student
learning.

teachers from three colleges of education in South-West, Nigeria who enrolled in a micro
g styles on trainee-teachers cognitive and practical teaching performance in micro
their own preferred mode, becoming comfortable with their own ways of l
greater chance of dropping out of school or engaging in self-destructive behavior.
instance, Loo (1999) reported that the Learning Style Inventory (LSI) received very positive
Way Out
preferred learning styles. They measure a large range of learning style but are usually limited to measures
consequently of questionable validity (Davidman, 1981). Most inventories appear to be v
some individually administered measures which are useful for research papers, but they are too time
consuming and require too much training to be useful in the regular classroom setting. This view is
supported by the results of studies by Kaur (1999), Ruksasuk (2000), Dentino (2001), DeTure (2004) led
to infer that learning styles are poor predictors of success.
identification through their own experience and understanding. In exceptional cases of serious
difficult learning tasks it is essential to match teaching style to learning style. This process is also o
which most teachers have some experience. As with learning style identification, a carefully developed in
service programme can provide the specific skills and understanding.
The fact that students may have preferred and most comfortable modes do not mean
elves to only one style of thinking and learning. It seems at this point in time that learning styles are
That is, we prefer one or more styles over others.
It is therefore recommended that instruction be adapted to suit learners
rences occasionally as the situation demands, because teachers that rely on learning
planned by these teachers are more student-centered than traditional activities and have engaged in
Vol. 22, No. 1, 2014.
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272
West, Nigeria who enrolled in a micro-
teachers cognitive and practical teaching performance in micro-
their own preferred mode, becoming comfortable with their own ways of learning, and being
destructive behavior.
that the Learning Style Inventory (LSI) received very positive
ge range of learning style but are usually limited to measures
consequently of questionable validity (Davidman, 1981). Most inventories appear to be very superficial
some individually administered measures which are useful for research papers, but they are too time-
aining to be useful in the regular classroom setting. This view is
Kaur (1999), Ruksasuk (2000), Dentino (2001), DeTure (2004) led
rstanding. In exceptional cases of serious
difficult learning tasks it is essential to match teaching style to learning style. This process is also one in
which most teachers have some experience. As with learning style identification, a carefully developed in-
ble modes do not mean that they cannot
elves to only one style of thinking and learning. It seems at this point in time that learning styles are
It is therefore recommended that instruction be adapted to suit learners
rences occasionally as the situation demands, because teachers that rely on learning
ivities and have engaged in


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