MICROWAVE ANTENNA

THEORY AND DESIGN

Ediied by
SAMUEL SI LVER
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
UNNEB.SITY OF CALIFORNIA, i3EP.KELEY
OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
NATIONAL DEFENSE RESEARCH COMMITTEE
FIRST EDITION
NEW YORK, TORONTO LONDON
McGRAW-HILL BOOK CO,MPANY, INC.
1949
.,
,.,
MICROWAVE .$xTEN\ -.$ THEC!R Y .ISD DESIGN
(hPYRIGH,T, 1949, B>- THE
hlC~RA W-HILL BOOK ~(IIIP.I.NY, lKC.
P31XTEI) lx THE U>-lTEI) STATES OF AMERICA
.111 rights Testwed. This book, or
parts thereof, HI(IY not be reproduced
i n any f or m ( r i l ho?( l pr r ) r l i s s i on of
/he , L) ( //) /i s her s ,
THE MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, YORK, PA,
*ienCe
m
,,
)
/ y,, /
,,
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lf[CRO JV.4 VE A NTE.VNA TfZEOR Y
EDITORIAL STAFF
SAMUEL SI LVER
HUBERT M. JAMES
AND DESIGN
CO.VTRIB LTI.VG A PTHORS
J. E. l l ATON R. hf. R I ZDHEFFER
L. J. I ;YGES J. R. RISSER
T. J. KEARY S. SI LVER
H. KRUTTER O. A. TYSON
(2. G. hl AcFARL.4NE
L. C. \AN ATTA
Foreword
T
HE tremendous research and development effort that ~vent into the
development of radar and related techniques during }Vorld IJ ar II
resulted not only in hundreds of radar sets for military (and some for
possible peacetime) use but also in a great body of information and ncm
techniques in the electronics and high-frequency fields. 13ecause this
basic material may be of great value to science and engineering, it seemed
most important to publish it as soon as security permitted.
The Radiation Laboratory of 311T, ~vhich operated under the super-
vision of the National Defense Research (ommittec, undertook the great
task of preparing these volumes. The ~vorl{ described berein, ho\\-eyer,is
the collective result of ~vork done at many laboratories, Army, Xavy,
university, and industrial, both in this country and in JZngland, (<anada,
and other Dominions.
The Radiation Laboratory, once its proposals ]vere approved and
finances provided by the Office of Scientific Research and l)evelopment,
chose Louis N. Ridenour as Fklitor-in-(bief to led and direct tbe entire
-,
project. An editorial staff ]vas then selected of those best quulificd for
this type of task. Finally the authors for the various volumes or chapters
or sections were chosen from among those experts ~vho ~t-ere intimately
familiar with the various fields, and ]vbo \vere able and willing to ]vrite
the summaries of them. This entire staff agreed to remain at ~vork at
MIT for six months or more after the \\-orkof the Radiation I.aboratory
was complete. These volumes stand as a monument to this group.
These volumes serve as a memorial to tbe unnamed hundreds and
thousands of other scientists, engineers, and others ]vho actually carried
on the research, development, and engineering work tbe results of which
are herein described. There ~vereso many involved in this ~vorkand they
worked so closely together even though often in \\-idelyseparated labora-
tories that it is impossible to name or even to know those ]vho contributed
to a particular idea or development, (My certain ones ~vho~u-ote reports
w- or articles have even been mentioned, But to all those ~vho contributed
~ in any way to this great cooperative development enterprise, both in this
~ country and in England, these volumes are dedicated,
a
L. A. DLTBRIDGE.
z 1,!
Preface
T
HE need that arose during the ]var for utilizing the microwave region
of the radio frequency spectrum for communications and radar stimu-
lated the development of nelv types of antennas. lhe problems and
design techniques, lying as they do in the domain of both applied electro-
magnetic theory and optics, are quite distinct from those of long-wave
antennas. It is the aim of the present volume to make available to the
antenna engineer a systematic treatment of the basic principles and the
fundamental microwave antenna types and techniques. The elements
of electromagnetic theory and physical optics that are needed as a basis
for design techniques are developed quite fully. Critical attention is
paid to the assumptions and approximations that are commonly made
in the theoretical developments to emphasize the domain of applicability
of the results. The subject of geometrical optics has been treated only
to the extent necessary to formulate its basic principles and to sho~v its
relation as a short wavelength approximation to the more exact methods
of field theory. The brevity of treatment should not be taken as an
index of the relative importance of geometrical optics to that of electro-
magnetic theory and physical optics. It is in fact true that the former
is generally the starting point in the design of the optical elements
(reflectors and lenses) of an antenna. However, the use of ray theory
for microwave systems presents no new problems over those encountered
in opticson which there are a number of excellent treatisesexcept
that perhaps the law of the optical path appears more prominently in
micro~vave applications.
In the original planning of the book it was the intention of the editors
to integrate all of the major wQrk done in this country and in Great
Britoin and Canada. This proved, however, to be too ambitious an
undertaking. Nfany subjects have regrettably been omitted completely,
and others have had to be treated in a purely cursory manner. It \vas
unfortunately necessary to omit two chapters on rapid scanning antennas
prepared by Dr. C. V. Robinson. The time required to revise the
material to conform ~vith the requirements of military security and yet
to represent an adequate exposition of the subject would have unduly
delayed the publication of the hook. Certain sections of Dr. Robinsons
material have been incorporated into Chaps. 6 and 12.
ix
x
PREFACE
I take pleasure in expressing here my appreciation to Prof. Hubei-t
M. James who, as Technical Editor, shared with me much of the
editorial work and the attendant responsibilities. The scope of the book,
the order of presentation of the material, and the sectional division within
chapters were arrived at by us jointly in consultation with the authors.
I am personally indebted to Professor .James for his editorial Ivork on
my own chapters.
The responsibility for the final form of the book, the errors of omission
and commission, is mine. A word of explanation to the authors of the
various chapters is in order. After the close of the Office of Iublications
and the dispersal of the group, I have on occasions made use of my
editorial prerogative to revise their presentations. I hope that the results
meet ~vith their approval. The policy of assignment of credit also needs
explanation. The interpretation of both Professor James and myself of
the policy on credit assignment formulated by the Editorial Board for
the Technical Series has been to the effect that no piece of work discussed
in the text would be associated with an individual or individuals. Radi-
ation Laboratory reports are referred to in the sense that they represent
source material for the chapter rather than individual acknowledgements.
References to unpublished material of the Radiation Laboratory note-
books have been assiduously a~oided, although such material has been
dramm upon extensively by all of us. In defense of this policy it may be
stated that the ]vorlc at the Radiation Laboratory was truly a cooperative
effort, and in only a few instances would it have been possible to assign
individual credit unequivocally.
The completion of the book was made possible through the efforis of
a number of people; in behalf of the editorial staff and the authors I wish
to acknowledge their assistance and contributions. Mrs. Barbara Vogel
and Mrs. Ellen Fine of the Radiation Laboratory served as technical
assistants; the production of figures and photographs \vas expedited by
hlrs. Frances Bourget and Mrs. nary Sheats. It proved impossible to
finish the ]t-orl<by the closing date of the Office of lublications; the haval
Research Laboratory accepted the ~vork as one of the projects of the
newly formed Antenna Research Section and contributed generously in
personnel and facilities. Special thanks are due to A. S. Dunbar,
1, Katz, and Dr. I. Maddaus for their editorial assistance; to Queenie
Parigian and Louise Beltramini for preparation of the manuscript;
and to Betty Hodgkins who prepared almost all of the figures.
The editors are indebted to Dr. G. G. Macfarlane of the Tele-
communications Research Establishment, Great Britainj for his
critical review of several of the theoretical chapters and his contribution
on the theory of slot radiators in Chap. 9. John Powell of the
Radiation Laboratory prepared material on lenses that was used in
Ch:lp. 11. The S:1( iomd Rcsc:wch (ouncil of Can:&~ :md the llrit isll
(entnd Radio 13urw~u h~~vc ~rwiously granted us permission to ti~li(.
m:ltcrial from ( unudi:m :md I;ritish reports in accord:mcc ~~ith mlrrrnt
security U3glllotioms. l>hc I?wII Telephone I.abora,twy supplied the
photographs of mct:d lens antennas.
S.4 MUEL khLVl i l {.
K:\v\T, l l l )sl .\1i 1l I T. WI MWI I Y,
!f lslllxlm)x, l). (.,
:lprd, 1947.
.
Contents
FORE WORD BY L. A. DUBRmGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
PRE1744CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
CHAP.1. SURVEY OF MICROWAVE ANT~~NNADESIGN PROBLEMS 1
1.1. The Wavel cngthRegi on. . . . . . 1
1.2. .Lntenna Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..2
1.3. Types of }I i crowave Beams. 6
1.4. l I i crowave Transmi ssi on I ,i nes . 7
1.5. Radi ati ng l l ernents . . . . . . . . . ..8
16. .4 Survey of kl l crowavc }.ntenna Types 9
1.7. I mpedance Speci fi cati ons. 13
1.8. Program of the Present Vol ume 14
CH.4P. 2. CI RCUI T RJ31JATI OI W, Rf3CI PR0Ci TY THW3RF~!>fS. 16
21.
22.
23.
2.4.
2.5.
2.6.
2.7.
2.8.
2.9.
I ntroducti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...16
The Four-termi nal ~etwork. 17
The Rayl ei gh Reci proci ty Theorcnl 19
Th6veni ns Theorem and the Nfzxi mum-power Theorem 20
The Two-wi re Transmi ssi on I ,i ne 21
The Homogeneous Transmi ssi on I ,i ne 23
The Lossl essLi n e..... ..26
Transformati on Charts. 29
The Four-termi nal Network l :qui val ent of a Secti o]l of Trans-
mi ssi On Li ne.... . . . . . 36
TRANSMI ~EVG ANn RECEI VI NG ANTENNAS. . 37
2.10.
2.11.
2.12.
2.13.
2.14.
2.15.
2.16.
2.17.
2.18.
The Antema as a Termi nati ng I mpedance 37
The Recei vi ng Antenna System 40
The Transmi tter and Recei ver as a Coupl ed System 45
Reci proci ty between the Transmi tti ng and I tecei \,i ng Patterns of
an Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...48
The .kverage Cross Secti on for a Matched System 50
Dependence of the Cross Secti on on Antenna Mi smatch 51
The Four-termi nal Network Representati on. 53
l )evel opment of the Network Equati ons 56
The Reci proci ty Rel ati on between the Transfer I mpedance
Coetl i ci ent s, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...59
X111
xiv CO.YYfil.VTS
CHAP. 3. R.\ I I I .i TI OS FR031 CUI UWXT I ) I STRI I )I T1OSS. (i I
31. Tl l c Fi el d I l quati ons. 6]
32. The (;onsti t,l ti ve Paramctrrs; I .i nc:wi ty mi d SI l perpo si ti on . 6,5
33. I l ou])dary Contl i ti ons. 66
3 ~. The Fi el d ~q~l ati o]l s for H:mnoni c TI I nc ])(, p[,l l d(>I 1[W 68
3.5. I aynti ngs Thmrel n . . . . M)
36. The l l -a\,c k;ql l :l ti ons. 71
3.7. Si mpl e l ~avc Sol l l ti ons. 73
38. General Sol l tti on of the Fi el d I }q,,~ti ol ,s i n Tcr],,s of tl )r fk),,rtcs,
for a Ti ]l l c-pcri odi r l ri (l d. 8(I
3.9, Fi el d ]),,e to Sol l rtt,s i n an U]I hoI uI (l tYi I i (,gi on 84
3.10. Fi el d i n a l i cgi on Rotmdcd hy S(l rfa((,s of I ]l fi l l l tcl }- (OI )(l \l (tI vr
l l c,cl i a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..8fi
311. Tl ](, Far-zone Fi el ds 87
312. I ol ari zati on. !)1
3~13. The I ;l cctr i c l )i pol c !)2
314. Tl l c I I ti gneti r l h]ml c 95
3.15. The F:l r-zonr Fi rl (l s of I ,i ]l (,-rurr(,nt l )i stri l l l l ti f!)l s !)(i
316. The H:df-~1 I V(, l )i l ml t, !)8
317. Sl l pcrpm]ti on of l ~i cl {l s !)!1
31S The 1)0111>1(,-(111)01( System 101
319. I {cgl dur Space .I rr:i ys 104
C][.I P. 4. l l -.l ;l ; FI {O>-TS :~~1) RAYS 107
41. TI I C I I \l ygr ns-Cr ccn Forn~l l l :L for thr I l l ((,tr(l ]]]:Lg]l (ti [, l i tl (l 107
42, Gcol ]l ctri cal ()~]ti rs: l ~avefronts and l {:l ys 110
43. C1l r~:i tl l rr of the I l mys i n an I nl l o]]I ogc,l ](,[~!l s I l cdi unl 111
4+. Energy Fl OI v i n (l cometri cal Opti cs 112
45. (;comctri cal opti cs :i s :L Zero-~ra~cl cngth I ,i n]i t 114
46. The H~l ygens-Frrsnrl Pri nci pl e and Gconl ctri ral Opti cs: The Far-
zonc .kpproxi mati on 116
47. The Pri nci pl e of Stati onm-y I hasc
11{)
48. Ft=rnl ats I ri nci p]e. 122
4.9, The I ,a,v of the opti ral Path
125
(]~ \l ,, 5, S(.LTTERI SC, .kN-T) DI FFR.ACTI OX. 12!)
51. (;cncral (onsi dcrnti ons
129
52. Bol ]ndary (o]l di ti ons 130
53. I i efl ecti on hy an I nfi l l i te Pl ane S(l rtarc; the l ri nri l )l v of I tI I :i grs 132
APPROXI MATE JI ETHODS FOR REFLECTOI +S OF ;l I LBI TMARYS] J.\PE
54,
55,
56,
57,
58.
59.
510.
511.
512.
The Geometri cal -opti cs I I cthor l
Cal cul ati on of the Scattrrrd Fi rl [l
Superposi ti on of the So~l rcc l ~i cl (l :I I I d tl )(, Sc:\tter cd l ~i cl d.
The Current-di stri l , ~l ti on 31cthod
Cal c(l l ati on of the Scattrrrd Fi el d
Appl i cati on to Poi nt-source md I Ji rl {J-sol l rre l ;ecds.
Reacti on of a Refl ector on a Poi nt-source Feed
The .Aperture-fi el ci I fethod
The Fraunhofer Regi on.
,.. 137
138
139
143
144
146
149
155
. . 158
,.. 160
.
coYTAl 7s xv
l ) I F1.l l .\(r 10N . . .. . . . ...,,162
S.I S, (i ,r,crtLI (~)])si,l,,r:,iit)])s mI tht, .i pproxi m:l tc I l t,tl l ods 162
514. l {ttl l l ~,tl tJJl to :1 S[al i l r l )i l l r:~(tl f)n I I o I )l cI N 164
515. l )~~l l i ]l cts l rl ]l {i pl ~i for tl l ( l <;l c,~tro]l l :tg])f,ti (, I r ](,l d 167
(ti ~l ,. 6. .l I KI {TURF; l l .LLl l l l -ATI OX AX]) .l >-TI ,;X-XA I ATTERNS 169
61. l ri l ]l :~ry and S[,co]l tl xry l tl ttrms 169
62. Tl l (, l )i ffr:trti on Fi el tl 169
(i 3. I our i (r I ntegral l i (,l )rc,s(,]l tati {jl ~ of the Fraunhofcr l i e~i on 174
64, (+CJI (M1 I :caturts of tht, Sccol l d:wy l ~ttvm 175
6,5. TI I C l {rctml g~l l :~r .fporture ]80
6.ti . Tl !o-(l i l l l t,nsi o]l al Prol )l cms 182
67. I l ]:i .w-error kYfects. . 186
08. TI I C (i rc(l l m .i pcr tur c 192
&9. Th(, Fi el d o]] the Axi s i n thr Frcsnrl ]tcgi on
] 96
(l [,\],, 7. l [I (:ROI V,.fV}; TRAA-S~f I SSI OA I ,I N-ES 200
71 l l i cro~j :i vc nnd I ,ong-~vave Tri msmi ssi on I ,i l l m 200
72. l rop:l ~ati o]l i n ~f:~vcgl l i dcs of l ni form (;ross Swti on 201
73. orthogo]l al l ty Rcl :l ti ons and Power Fl ow. 207
74. Transnl i ssi un I ,i nr (onsi dcrati ons i n l ~:l vrgui drs 209
75. XctJt ork Kql l i val ents of Junrti ons and ohstacl cs 214
76. 7/l .l /-modc Tral l smi ssi on I ,i rl cs 216
77. (ozxi s,l I ,i ncs: ?~.!f-r nodc 217
7.8. (oaxi al I .i nes: T.I f - and T]i -nl odcs 219
7.!), (:Is,.acIc Tmnsformcrs: TJ~.l f-mode 221
71o. I aral l el St~l hs and Seri es I Leactancm. 223
711. l i cctang~l l ar }Vavcgui dcs: I A- and ?,l f-modes 226
712. I mpcdanr c Transformers for I i ectangul ar (;ui dcs 229
713. Ci rcul ar l l -avegui de: T~- and TJf-modcw. 233
7.14. I vi ndows for LTSCi n Ci rcul ar Gui des 235
715. I aral l el -pl ate i ~avegui de. . 235
716.11esi gnN Totes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 238
CHAF. 8. l fI CROWAVE DI POLI l A3JTE~~AS ANI ) F13f?DS 239
81. Characteri sti cs of Antenna Feeds 239
8.2, Coaxi al I ,i ne Termi nati ons: The Ski rt Di pol e 240
83. Asymmetri c Di pol e Termi nati on. 242
84. Symmetri cal l y 13nergi zcri Di pol es: Sl ot-fed Systems 245
85. Shape and Si ze of the Di pol e . 248
86. l Vavegui dc-l i ne-fcd Di pol es. . 250
87. Di recti ve Di pol e Feeds, . . . 250
88. Di pol e-di sk Fords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...251
89, Doubl e-di pol e Feces, .,.... . . . . . . . . . . . . .253
8.10. Lful ti -di pol e Systems, . . . 256
CHAP. 9. LI NI ?AR ARRAY AXTEi YNAS AND FF23DS 257
9.1. (kmcral Consi derati ons. . 257
XVI
CON TEJ VTS
PA~EEN THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...256
92. General Array Formul a. . . 258
93. The Associ ated Pol ynomi al 261
9.4. U1l i formArrays . . . . . ...264
9.5, Broadsi de 13e:~nl s . . . . ...267
9.6. Erl (l -ti re I ~ean]s . . . . . . . . . ...274
9.7. 13ca1u Synthesi s . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 279
RADI ATI NG EI .EMMNTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 284
9.8. l l i pol e Radi ators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
9.9. Sl ots i n Jvavegui de }Tal k. . 286
9.10. Theory of Sl ot Radi ators. . 287
9.11. Sl ots i n Rectangul ar J$avegui de; 1~,,-mode 291
912. Experi mental Data on Sl ot l {adi ~tors 295
913. Probe-fedS l ots . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
9.14. fVavegui de Radi ators 301
9.15. Axi al l y Symmetri cal Radi ators . 303
9.16. Streaml i ned Radi ators . . . 310
ARRAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 312
9.17. Loaded-l i ne Anal ysi s. . 313
9.18. End-fi r e .4rray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
BROADSI DE AREAYS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 318
9.19, Suppressi on of Extraneous Major I ,ohcs . 318
920. ResonantArrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 321
921. Beacon Antenna Systems. 327
922. T$onresonant Arrays . . . . . 328
923, Broadband Systems wi th >Tormal Beams 331
CHAP. 10. WAVEGUIDE AND HORN FE~;~S. . 334
10.1. Radi ati on fr om Wavegui de of Arhi trmy Cross Scrti on 334
10.2. Radi ati on fr om Ci rcul ar ~~av(gui de 336
103. Radi ati on fr om Rectwwl ar Gui de. 341
10.4. Wavegui de Antenna Feeds 347
105. The Doubl e-sl ot Feed .
348
10.6. El ectromagneti c Horns. . . . . . 349
10.7. hrodes i n l pl ane Sectoral Hor ns 35o
108. Jfodes i n I f-pl ane Sectoral Hor ns 355
109. Vector Di ffracti on Theory Appl i ed to Srctoral Horns. 357
10.10. Characteri sti cs of Observed I tadi ati on l ti ttmns fr om Hor ns of
Rectangul ar Cross Secti on 358
10.11. Admi ttance of Wavegui dc and Hor ns . 366
10.12. Transformati on of the L-pl aI ~c Hor I I .i dul i ttan cc f mm the Throat
tothe Uni form Gui de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...369
10.13, Admi ttance Characteri sti cs of H-pl ane Sectoral Horms
374
1014. CompoundHorns. .,.. , . . . . . . . . . . . . ...376
10.15 .The Box Horn... . . . . . . . . ...377
1016. Beam Sl l api ng hy ~l cans of Obstacl rs i n HOHI :md \VaveK{l i dv
.4pertmcs. . . . . . . . . . . 380
10.17, Prcssl l ri zi ng and hfatch]ng 383
CHAP. 11. DI I :I ,I cCTI LI C i ~X1) l I J:T:l I ,-l I .. fTI <: I . I <:XSES 388
11.1. Uses of l ,[>l l s(>si n 31i cro~v~vc ,~ntcmms. 388
I)ll:l,l:C,rRICI JEXSF;S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
112. l ri l l {i l Jl rso fI >rsi gn, .
113, Si nl pl c I ,cl l ses I Vl tl l o(i t Zoni ng
114. Zoned l )l cl r ctr i c I ,cnscs . .
11,5. Usc of l I atcri :tl s ~v]th Hi ~l l l {cfmcti vc I ndcxr s
11.6. I )l cl cctr i c I ,osscs mnd Tol cranccs on I r ons I aramctcrs.
11.7. I tcfl ecti ons fr om L)i cl cctri c Surfaccw
389
389
390
395
398
399
401
hfETAL-I ,L~TELEXSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...402
11.8. Paral l el -pl ate I ,ensm, . . . . 402
11.!). Other 31eta-l cr,s Structures. 406
11.10. l [cta-pl ate I .cns Tol rrancrs 407
11.11. Band,vi (l th of l [etal -pl ztc I ,cnscs; Achromati c Doubl ets 408
11.12. I tefl ecti ons fr om Surfaces of Paral l el -pl ate I ,enses 410
CHAP. 12. PENCI LBFAhf AND SI hfPLE FANAl;D-BEAN1 ANTEKAAS 413
PENCIL-BEAMANTENNAS . . . . . . . . .,.........,...413
12.1. Pencil-beam Requirements and Tcchniqlles 413
12.2. Gcomctriral Parameters 415
123. The Surface-current and Aperture-firldI)istrih(ltions. 417
12.4. The I Ladi ati on Fi el d of the Refl ector 420
12.5. The Antenna Gai n., . . . . . . . . . . . 423
126. Pri mary Pattern Desi gns for hI :mi mi zi ng (l ai n 433
127. Experi mental I tcsl dts on %condm-y l attmns 433
128. I mpedance Characteri sti cs 439
12.9. The Vertex-pl ate l f:~tchi ng Trchni quc 443
12.10. I totati on of I ohu-i zati on Techni que 447
12.11. Structural Desi gn Probl ems. 448
SI MFLE FANNED-BEAM ANTENNAS. 45o
12.12. Appl i cati ons of Fanned Beams and Nfcthods of Pmdl l rti on 45o
1213. Symmetri cal l y Cut Parahol ol ds 451
12.14. Feed Offset and Contour Cutti ng of Refl ectors 453
1215. The Parabol i c Cyl i nder and Li ne Source 457
12.16. Paral l el -pl ate Systems 459
12.17. Pdl box Desi gn Probl ems 460
CHAP. 13. SHAPED-BEAM ANTENNAS. .
131.
132.
133.
134.
135.
136.
137.
138.
13.9.
Shaped-beam Appl i cati ons and Requi rements
Effect of a Di recti onal Target Response
Survey of Beam-shapi ng Techni ques.
Desi gn of Extended Feeds. . . .
Cyl i ndri cal Refl ector Antennas .
Refl ector Desi gn on the Basi s of Ray Theory .
Radi ati on Pattern Anal ysi s.
Doubl e Curvature Refl ector Antennas
Vari abl e Beam Shape.
465
465
468
471
487
494
497
500
502
508
,..
XV1ll COA71{.V 7s
CHAP. 14. ANTk;XNA I XSTALLAT1ON I ROBI ,E31S 510
GE~~I t.4L SI KVl ~Y OF I ~Scr.4LLArI O~ I ~OBLEMS. 510
14.1. (:rol m(l .l l l t(,l l nas 510
14.2.Sl l i l J.i l l terl I ]as,,, . . . . . . . . ... ..511
143, ~lir(,r:ift<intellnzs 512
14,4. Scanni ng Antennas on Ai rcraft 513
14.5. Beacon Antennas on Ai rcraft 521
522
523
528
537
540
543
543
544
544
545
547
550
552
556
557
557
,.561
564
570
572
573
574
,574
578
580
580
581
,582
,58!5
58A
587
593
593
5{)4
601
604
60!)
I Sl )l I ;X . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 I .5
.
C11.I PTI ;R 1
SURVEY OF MI CROWAVE ANTENNA DESI GN PROBLEMS
]]Y s. SI I ,V1;l l
1.1. The Wavel ength Regi on.I he desi gnati on of the boundari es of
the mi cro!mve regi on of tI w rl cct romagmct i c spectrum i s pl l rcl y arbi trary,
Ti l e I ong-]vavel cngth l i mi t I I as I xxm set v:~ri ousl y at 25 (Jr 40 cm, even
at 100 cm. From the poi nt, of vi e\v of antenna theor y and desi gn techn-
i ques, the 25-cm val ~l e i s the most appropri ate choi ce, The short-
wa~el ength l i mi t to )i hi ch i t i s possi bl e to extend the present terhni q(l es
l l :~snot ~etl )ec>r~r cacl l e(i ; i t i si nthcnci gl l l )or}l oo(l of l mm. Accordi ngl y
\veshal l cunsi (l cr the mi crol vave regi on to extend i n wavel ength from 0.1
to 25 cm, i n frcql l cncy from 3 X 105to 1200 31c/see,
Thi s i s the transi ti on regi on bet\\-een the or(l i nary radi o regi on, i n
}vhi ch the \\-avel engtl l i s ver y k~r ge comparwl wi th the di mensi ons of al l
the components of the system (cxccpt perhops for theh~rge and cumber-
some antennas), and the opti cal regi on, i n ]t-hi ch the \vavcl engths arc
excessi l -el y smal l . I .ong-\vavc concepts rm(l techni ques conti nue to be
useful i n the mi cro \vave regi on, and at the same ti me certai n devi ces
used i n the opti cal regi onsl l r hasl ense sandn~i rror sarcempl oyeci . From
the poi nt of vi e}v of the antenna desi gner the most i mportant character-
i sti c of thi s fre(~ucncy regi on i s that the wa~~el engths are of the or der of
magni tude of the di mcmsi l msof conventi onal and easi l y handl ed mechan-
i cal devi ces. Thi s l eads to radi cal modi fi cati on of earl i er antenna
techni ques and to the appearance of nefv and stri ki ng possi bi l i ti es,
especi al l y i n the constructi on and use of compl ex antenna structures.
I t fol l ows from el ementary di ffracti on theor y that i f D is the maxi mum
di mensi on of an antenna i n a gi ven pl ane and k the i vavrl ength of the
radi ati on, then the mi ni mum angl e }vi thi n whi ch the radi ati on can be
concentrated i n that pl ane i s
(1)
Wi th mi crowaves one can thus pr oduce hi ghl y di recti ve antennas such
as have no paral l el i n l ong-wave practi ce; i f agi vendi recti vi ty i s desi red,
i t can be obtai ned \vi th a mi crowave antenna ]vhi ch i s smal l er than the
equi val ent l ong-!vave antenna.
The ease wi th whi ch these smal l antennas
can be i nstal l ed and mani pul ated i narestri cted space contri butes greatl y
to the potenti al uses of mi crowaves. I n addi ti on, the conveni ent si ze of
1
2 SURVEY OF MI CROI V. t J E ANTEXAVA DESI G.V PROBLEMS [SEC, 1.2
mi crowave antenna el ements and of the compl ete antenna structure makes
i t feasi bl e to construct and use antennas of el aborate structure for speci al
purposes; i n parti cul ar, i t i s possi bl e to i ntroduce mechani cal moti ons of
parts of the antenna wi th r espect to other parts, wi th consequent rapi d
moti on of the antenna beam.
The mi crowave regi on i s a transi ti on regi on al so as regards theoreti cal
methods. The techni ques requi red range from l umped-constant ci rcui t
theor y, on the l ow-frequency si de, through transmi ssi on-l i ne theor y, fi el d
theor y, and di ffracti on theor y to geometri cal opti cs, on the hi gh-fre-
quency si de. Ther e i s frequent need for usi ng several of these theori es
i n paral l el combi ni ng fi el d theor y and transmi ssi on-l i ne theor y, sup-
pl ementi ng geometri cal opti cs by di ffracti on theor y, and so on. Opti cal
probl ems i n the mi crowave antenna fi el d are rel ati vel y compl ex, and
some are of qui te novel character: For i nstance, the opti cs of a cur ved
two-di mensi onal domai n fi nds practi cal appl i cati on i n the desi gn of
rapi d-scanni ng antennas.
1.2. Antenna Patterns.-Before undertaki ng a survey of the mor e
i mportant types of mi crowave antenna, i t wi l l be necessary to state
preci sel y the terms i n whi ch the performance of an antenna wi l l be
descri bed.
The Antenna as a Radiating Device: The Gain Function.The fi el d
set up by any radi ati ng system can be di ri ded i nto two components:
the i nducti on fi el d and the radi ati on fi el d. The i nducti on fi el d i s i mpor-
tant onl y i n the i mmedi ate vi ci ni ty of the radi ati ng system; the ener gy
associ ated wi th i t pul sates back and forth between the radi ator and
near-by space. At l arge di stances the radi ati on fi el d i s domi nant; i t
represents a conti nual fl ow of ener gy di rectl y outward from the radi ator,
wi th a densi ty that vari es i nversel y wi th the sq~i arc of the di stance and,
i n general , depends on the di recti on from the source.
I n eval uati ng the performance of an antenna as a radi ati ng system
one consi ders onl y the fi el d at a l arge di stance, wher e the i nducti on fi el d
can be negl ected. The antenna i s then tr eated as an effecti ve poi nt
source, radi ati ng power that, per uni t sol i d angl e, i s a functi on of di rec-
ti on onl y. The di recti ve properti es of an antenna are most con~eni entl y
expressed i n terms of the gai n functi on G(6,O). I /et 6and @ be r espec-
ti vel y the col ati tude and azi muth angl es i n a set of pol ar coordi nates
center ed at the antenna. Let F(O,@) be the power radi ated per uni t
sol i d angl e i n di recti on 0, @ and P~ the total power radi ated. The gai n
functi on i s defi ned as the rati o of the power radi ated i n a gi ven di recti on
per uni t sol i d angl e to the average power radi a~ed per uni t sol i d angl e:
47r
(2)
SEC. 1.2] ANTENNA PATTERNS 3
Thus G(L9, ~) expresses the i ncrease i n power radi ated i n a gi ven di recti on
by the antenna over that from an i sotropi c radi ator emi tti ng the same
total power ; i t i s i ndependent of the actual power l evel . The gai n
functi on i s conveni entl y vi sual i zed as the surface
r = G(f3,@) (3)
di stant from ori gi n i n each di recti on by an amount equal to the gai n
functi on for that di recti on. Typi cal gai n-functi on surfaces for mi cro-
wave antennas are i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 1.1.
The maxi mum val ue of the gai n functi on i s cal l ed the gai n; i t
wi l l be denoted by GM. The gai n of an antenna i s the greatest factor
by whi ch the power transmi tted i n a gi ven di recti on can be i ncreased
by usi ng that antenna i nstead of an i sotropi c radi ator.
The transmi tti ng pattern of an antenna i s the surface
(4)
i t i s thus the gai n-functi on surface normal i zed to uni t maxi mum radi us.
A cross secti on of thi s surface i n any pl ane that i ncl udes the ori gi n i s
cal l ed the pol ar di agram of the antenna i n thi s pl ane. The pol ar
di agram i s someti mes renormal i zed to uni t maxi mum radi us.
W-hen the pattern of an antenna has a si ngl e pri nci pal l obe, thi s i s
usual l y r efer r ed to as the antenna beam. Thi s beam may have a
wi de vari ety of forms, as i s shown i n Fi g. 1.1.
The Antenna as a Receiving Dwice: The Receiving Cross Section .The
performance of an antenna as a recei vi ng devi ce can be descri bed i n
terms of a recei vi ng cross secti on or recei ri ng pattern.
A recei vi ng antenna wi l l pi ck up ener gy from an i nci dent pl ane wave
and wi l l feed i t i nto a transmi ssi on l i ne whi ch termi nates i n an absorbi ng
l oad, the detector . The amount of ener gy absorbed i n the l oad wi l l
depend on the ori entati on of the antenna, the pol ari zati on of the wave,
and the i mpedance match i n the recei vi ng system. I n speci fyi ng the
performance of the antenna, we shal l suppose that the pol ari zati on of
the wave and the i mpedance characteri sti cs of the detector are such that
maxi mum power i s absorbed. The absorbed power can then be expressed
as the power i nci dent on an effecti ~-c absorbi ng area, cal l ed the recei vi ng
cross secti on, or absorpti on cross secti on A, of the antenna. I f S i s
the power fl ux densi ty i n the i nci dent wave, the absorbed power i s
P, = ASA, (5)
The recei vi ng cross secti on wi l l depend on the di recti on i n whi ch the
pl ane wave i s i nci dent on the antenna. We shal l wri te i t as A, = A,(d,I$),
wher e o and @ are the spheri cal angl es, al ready defi ned, of the di recti on
4 SLRJ E1 OF J I I ClK)I V.4 J E .4.V7E.\ .VA DI <,SI G.I 11{01$1.1<.11.V [SW. 12
of i nci dence of the l vave, Thi s functi on, l i ke the gai n functi on, i s r epr e-
sented conveni entl y as the surface
? = .4, (0,0). (6 J
The recei vi ng pattern
of an antenna i s drfi ncd, :mal ogol l s]y t(
the transmi tti ng pattern, as the above surface normal i zed to uni t maxi -
mum radi us:
(7)
I t i s a consequence of the reci proci ty theor em to be di scl l ssed i n
Chap. 2 that the recei vi ng and transmi tti ng patterns of an antenna are
i denti cal :
~(~,o) = ~r(g:y),
G.,, A,.,,
(8)
I t wi l l al so be shown that the rati o .4, u0 v i s a constant for al l matched
antennas:
.-l r,f ~ ~,
G 41r
Thus for any matched recei vi ng system
,
A,((l , @l ) = :; G(e,l +).
(9)
(l o)
Coverage Pattern, One Way.-The characteri sti cs of an antenna may
al so be descri bed i n terms of the performance of a radi o or radar system
of whi ch i t i s a part. I t i s necessary to di sti ngui sh between the case of
one-way transmi ssi on, i n whi ch a gi ven antenna serves for transmi ssi on
or for r ecepti on onl y, and the case of radar or two-way transmi ssi on, i n
whi ch a si ngl e antenna performs both functi ons.
We consi der fi rst a transmi tti ng antenna and a recei vi ng antenna
separated by a l arge di stance R.
Let G, and G, be the r especti ve gai n
functi ons of the two antennas for the di recti on of transmi ssi on. I f the
total power transmi tted i s P, the power radi ated i n the di recti on of the
r ecei ver , per uni t sol i d angl e, wi l l be (1/4m)PG~. The recei vi ng antenna
wi l l present a recei vi ng cross secti on (1/47r)G,x2 to the i nci dent wave; i t
wi l l , i n effect, subtend a sol i d angl e G,A2/47rRzat the transmi tter.
The
power absorbed at the r ecei ver wi l l thus be
(11)
The maxi mum operati ng range i s determi ned by the si gnal -to-noi se
rati o of the detector system. I f P,m is the mi ni mum detectabl e si gnal
for the r ecei ver , the maxi mum operati ng range i s
R
(-)
P$i A
.,., =
P
~; (G,G,) ~
,m
(12:
SEC. 12] ANTENNA PATTERNS 5
Thus, i f i t i s possi bl e to i gnore the effect of the earth on the propagati on
of the wave and i f G, i s constant, i t wi l l be possi bl e to oper ate the recei vi ng
system sati sfactori l y ever ywher e wi thi n the surface
(13)
wher e the transmi tter i s taken to be at the ori gi n. Thi s surface wi l l be
cal l ed the free-space cover age pattern for one-way transmi ssi on.
Coverage Pattern, Two Ways. - -I n most radar appl i cati ons the same
antenna i s used for transmi ssi on and recepti on. One i s her e i nterested
i n detecti ng a target, whi ch may be characteri zed by i ts ( scatteri ng
cross secti on u. Thi s i s the actual cross secti on of a sphere that i n the
same posi ti on as the target woul d scatter back to the r ecei ver the same
amount of ener gy as i s r etur ned by the target. For thi s fi cti ti ous i so-
tropi c scatterer, the effecti ve angl e subtended at the transmi tter i s U/R2
and the total power i ntercepted i s
(14)
Scatter ed i sotropi cal l y, thi s power woul d appear back at the transmi tter
as a power fl ux, per uni t area,
(15)
Actual l y, the scatteri ng of most targets i s not uni form. The scatteri ng
cross secti on of the target wi l l i n any case-be defi ned by Eq. (15), but i t
wi l l usual l y be a functi on of the ori entati on of the target.
The power absorbed b:- the r ecei ver from the scattered wave wi l l be
P,= A+S=R (16)
si nce her e G, = G,. I f the effect of the earth cm transmi ssi on of the
waves can be negl ected, i t wi l l be possi bl e to detect the target onl y when
i t l i es wi thi n the surface
(17)
about the transmi tter as an ori gi n. Thi s surface wi l l be cal l ed the fr ee-
space cover age pattern for twe-way transmi ssi ,m.
The extent of the cover age patterns i s determi ned by characteri sti cs
of the system and targetoutput power , r ecei ver sensi ti vi ty, target si ze
that are not under the control of the antenna desi gner. The form of
the cover age patterns i s determi ned by but i s not the same as the form
of the antenna transmi tti ng a,nd recei vi ng patterns; i n the cover age
patterns, r i s proporti onal to [G,(o, r#J)]Jfi rather than to G,(o, +). The
6 SURVEY OF MI CROWA FE AI V7EiVA44 DESI G.V PROBLEWS [SEC. 13
desi red form of the cover age pattern i s l argel y determi ned by the use to
be made of the system. From i t, one can der i ve the requi red form of the
transmi tti ng or recei vi ng pattern of the antenna; i t i s usual l y i n terms of
thi s type of pattern that antenna performance i s measured and speci fi ed.
I t i s to be emphasi zed that the di scussi on of cover age patterns gi ~en
(b)
(c)
(d)
FI G.I .I .Typi cal gai n-functi onsurfacesfor mi crowaveantennas. (a)Toroi dal(omni -
di recti onal )pattern;(b)penci l -beampattern;(c) fl at-topfl aredbeam; (d) asymmetri cal l y
fl aredbeam.
her e assumes free-space condi ti ons. I n many i mportant appl i cati ons,
cover age i s affected by i nter fer ence and di ffracti on phenomena due to
the earth, by meteorol ogi cal condi ti ons, and by other factors. A detai l ed
account of these factors, whi ch may be of consi derabl e i mportance i n
determi ni ng the antenna transmi tti ng pattern requi red tor a gi ven appl i -
cati on, wi l l be found i n Vol . 13 of the Radi ati on I ,aboratory Seri es.
103. Types of Mi crowave Beams.The most i mportant types of
mi crowave beams are i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 1.1.
The l east di recti ve beam i s the toroi dal beam, 1 whi ch i s uni form i n
1Such a beam i s al so r efer r edto as omni di recti onal . (I RE Standards and
Defi ni ti ons,1946.)
SEC. 1.4] MI CRO WAVE TRANSMI SSI ON LI NES
7
azi muth but di recti ve i n el evati on. Such a beam i s desi rabl e as a marker
for an ai rfi el d because i t can be detected from al l di recti ons.
The most di recti ve type of antenna gi ves a penci l beam, in which
the major porti on of the ener gy i s confi ned to a smal l cone of nearl y
ci rcul ar cross secti on. Wi th the hi gh di recti vi ty of thi s beam goes a
ver y hi gh gai n, often as great as 1000. I n radar appl i cati ons such a
beam may be used l i ke a searchl i ght beam i n determi ni ng the angul ar
posi ti on of a target.
Al though the penci l beam i s useful for preci se determi nati on of radar
target posi ti ons, i t i s di ffi cul t to use i n l ocati ng random targets. For
the l atter purpose i t i s better to use a fanned beam, whi ch extends
through a gr eater angl e i n one pl ane than i t does i n a pl ane perpendi cul ar
to that pl ane. The gr eater part of the ener gy i s then di r ected i nto a cone
of roughl y el l i pti cal cross secti on, wi th the l ong axi s, for exampl e, ver -
ti cal . By sweepi ng thi s beam i n azi muth, one can scan the sky mor e
rapi dl y than wi th a penci l beam, decreasi ng the ti me duri ng whi ch a
target may go undetected. Such a fanned beam sti l l permi ts preci se
l ocati on of targets i n azi muth, at the expense of l oss of i nformati on
concerni ng target el evati on.
Other appl i cati ons of mi crowave beams requi re the use of beams wi th
careful l y shaped pol ar di agrams. These i ncl ude one-si ded fl ares, such
as i s i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 1I d, i n whi ch the pol ar di agram i n the fl are
pl ane i s roughl y an obtuse tri angl e, whereas i n transverse pl anes the beam
remai ns narrow. I n radar use, such a beam at the same ti me permi ts
preci se l ocati on of targets i n azi muth and assures most effecti ve di stri bu-
ti on of radi ati on wi thi n the verti cal pl ane of the beam. Toroi dal beams
wi th a one-si ded fl are i n el evati on have al so been devel oped.
No theoreti cal factors l i mi t any of the above beam types to the mi cro-
wave regi on, but many practi cal l i mi tati ons are i mposed on l ong-wave
antennas by the necessary rel ati onshi p between the di mensi ons of the
antenna el ements and the wavel engths.
104. Mi crowave Transmi ssi on Li nes.-The form of mi crowave
antennas depends upon the nature of the avai l abl e radi ati ng el ements,
and thi s i n turn depends upon the nature of the transmi ssi on l i nes that
feed ener gy to these el ements. We ther efor e pr eface a survey of the
mai n types of mi crowave antennas wi th a bri ef descri pti on of mi crowave
transmi ssi on l i nes; a detai l ed di scussi on of these l i nes wi l l be found i n
Chap. 7.
Unshi el ded paral l el -wi re transmi ssi on l i nes are not sui tabl e for mi cro-
wave use; i f they are not to radi ate excessi ve y, the spaci ng of the wi res
must be so smal l that the power-carryi ng capaci ty of the l i ne i s sever el y
l i mi ted.
Use of the sel f-shi el di ng coaxi al l i ne i s possi bl e i n the mi crowa~ t~
8 S( I <il{~- 01 .ifl(:l{() WA }1< .1i< 7liA.YA DKSI G.V PI I OI {LE.I I S [SE<. 1,5
regi on but i s general l y restri cted to l fa~-el engths of approxi matel y 10 cm
or more. I Jor pr oper acti on as a transmi ssi on l i ne, a coaxi al l i ne sl Loul cf
7
(b)
(c)
transmi t el ectromagneti c I r:l ves i n onl y
a si ngl e mode; other\\i se the gener ator
100!{s i nto an i ndetermi rmte i mpedance
and tends to be errati c i n operati on.
on thi s account i t i s necessary to keep
the at-erage ci rcumference of i nner and
outer condl l ctors l ess than the fr ce-
space wavel ength of the transmi tted
~ravcs, .\t ~vavel engths shor ter than
10 cm thi s l i mi tati on on the di mensi ons
of c~mxi al l i nes begi ns to l i mi t thei r
pol vcr-carryi ng capaci ty to a (I r =gr ee
that m~kes them l msati sfactory for
most purposes.
The most ~l seful transmi ssi on l i ne
i n the mi cl otvave regi on i s the hol l o\\-
pi pe. Sl l rl l pi pes \vi l l sl l pport the
propagati orr of :l rl ei ect,rom:~g~l rti (,!j-:~~e
onl y i t-hen they are suffi ci entl y l arge
comp:we(l \\i th i ts free-space \vave-
l ength. As g~l i des for l ong-l rave
radi :Ltl (Jn, ]nt,ol eral )l y l arge pi pes are
reql [i r(,(l , I )l l t i n the mi crol rave regi on
i t l xw)mes pf)ssi t)l e to mse pi pesof rmn-
vcnl cnt, SI ZC. I ,i ke the coaxi :d gl l i de,
ther e i s :Ll sfjan l l pper l i mi t i mp(w(l on
the crow-secti onal di mensi on of the pi pe
i f i t, i s to tr:msmi t the \v:i ve i n onl y N
si ngl e mo(l e. I I ()\\-e\-er, i n theal )scnce
of :l n i nner con(l l l ctor, thi s si ze l i mi t:L-
ti on (l (wnot :I fl ect the I x)l i -cr r:l l xwi l y
so seri l }l l sl y :Wi t does i n tl l c c(mi :~l l i ne.
1.5. Radi ati ng El ements.T h e
natl l re of t hc ra(l i :~ti ng el ements
trrmi n:~ti ng :L transmi ssi on l i ne i s to
:L (l ) USi (l (>I :Ll )l ( (Xt Cl l t (1(t(l l l l i l l ((1 })~
ti l e n:~tl l re of the l i ]l e i twl t. 1y])i eal
l ~,ng-l v:~l e r:l (l i :~ti l l g cl enwnt + :I rr the
{l i l )ol e
:l rl ((~]l ]l :l s, sl l ~,l l :1s tl l c (,t~l l tcr-
(I ri l .en i ]:l l f-\\:l \-e (I i l )tl l e,
nl l (l l oop
coaxi al l i nes l end themsel ves to sl l ch termi nati ons. Many l ong-wave
antenna i deas have l wen rarr-i ed uver i nto the mi cro\rave regi on, par-
ti c~~hwl ythose connected wi th thehal f-]rave di pde; the tramsi ti orr, ho\v-
ever , i s ri ot r ner ei y a mattrr of wovel cmgth scal i ng. I n a mi crol }ave
antenna tl ~e cross-serti onal di mensi ons of the transmi ssi on l i ne are com-
parti hl c to the di mensi ons of the hal f-~vavc di pol e, and consequentl y, the
coupl i ng l mtween the radi ator and ti l e l i ne becomes a mor e si gni fi cant
prol )l em tl i an i n a corresp(jncl i n~ I ong-i vave system. The cross-secti onal
di mensi ons of the di pol e el ement are dso comparabl e to i ts l ength. A
typi ~al mi crowave di pol e i s shown i n Fi g. 12c; the anal ysi s and undt=r-
stancl i ng of S1l C}Imi cro}vave di pol es i s at best sti l l i n a qual i tati ve stage.
The ose of hol l ow ~vaveyui de l i nes l eads to the empl oyment of enti rel y
(Lffc,rent radi ati ng systems. The si mpl est radi ati ng termi nati on for such
a l i ne i s j~l st the open end of the g~l i rl e, through whi ch the ener gy passes
i nto space. The di mensi ons of the mouth aperture are then comparabl e
to the wavel ength; as a resul t of di ffracti on, the ener gy does not conti nue
i n a l wam correspondi ng to the cross secti on of the pi pe but spreads out
consi derabl y about, the di recti on of propagati on defi ned by the gui de.
The degr ee of spreadi ng depends on the rati o of aperture di mensi ons to
wa~ekmgth. On fl ari ng or constri cti ng the termi nal regi on of the gui de
i n or der to control the di recti vi ty of the radi ated ener gy, one arri ves at
el ectromagneti c horns based on the same fundamental pri nci pl es as
acousti c horns (Fi g. 1.20!).
Another type of el ement that appears i n mi crowave antennas i s the
radi ati ng sl ot (Fi g. 1.2r). Ther e i s a di stri buti on of cur r ent over the
i nsi de wal l of a wavegui de associ ated wi th the wave that i s propagated
i n the i nteri or. I f a sl ot i s mi l l ed i n the wal l of the gui de so as to cut
across the l i nes of cur r ent fl ow, the i nteri or of the gui de i s coupl ed to
space and ener gy i s radi ated through the sl ot. (I f the sl ot i s mi l l ed al ong
the l i ne of cur r ent fl ow, the space coupl i ng and radi ati on are negl i gi bl e. )
I sl ot wi l l radi ate most effecti vel y i f i t i s resonant at the frequency i n
questi on. The l ong di mensi on of a resonant sl ot i s nearl y a hal f \\-ave-
i ength, and the transverse di mensi on a smal l fracti on of thi s; the peri m-
eter rJt the sl ot i s thus cl osel y a wavel ength.
1.6. A Sur vey of Mi crowave Antenna Types.We are now i n a posi -
ti on to menti on bri efl y the pri nci pal types of antennas to be consi dered
i n thi s book.
Antennas jo~ Toroidal Beams.A toroi dal beam may be pr oduced
by an i sol ated hal f-wave antenna. Thi s i s a useful antenna over a l arge
frequency range, the i i mi t bei ng set by the mechani cal probl ems of sup-
porti ng the antenna and achi evi ng the requi red i sol ati on. The beam
thus produced, however , i s too broad i n el evati on for many purposes.
A si mpl e system that mai ntai ns azi muthal symmetry but permi ts
control of di recti vi ty i n el evati on i s the bi coni cal horn, i l l ustrated i n
10 ASURVEY OF MI CROW.41E .4,17fl ,V.VAI )EL7[G.N- PRO13LJ Y.tf,9 [Sm. 16
Fi g, 13. The pri mary dri vi ng el ement between the apexes of the coues
i s a stub fed from a coaxi al l i ne. The spread of the ener gy i s determi ned
by the fl are angl e and the rati o of mouth di mensi on to wavel ength.
Al though thi s antenna i s useful ov~r a
l arge freq~l ency range, maxi mum di -
recti vi ty for gi ven antenna ~vei ght and
si ze i s obtai rmbl e i n the mi crowave
regi on, wher e the l argest rati o of
aperture to wavel ength can be
real i zed.
I ncreased di recti vi ty i n a toroi dal
beam can al so be obtai ned wi th an
array of radi ati ng el ements such as
di pol es, dots, or bi mni cal horns bui l t
up al ong the symmetry axi s of the
beam. The di recti vi ty of the array i s
determi ned by i ts l ength measured i n
~vavel engtbs; hi gh di recti vi ti es arc
conveni entl y obtai ned by thi s method onl y i n the mi crol vave regi on. .1
typi cal mi crowave array of thi s type i s shoum i n Fi g. 1.4.
Pt,ncil-brum A nfrnnas.-Bearr~s thathare di rer ti vi t y both i n el eva-
ti on and azi muth may be pr(xl l l ccd by a pai r of di pol e el ements or by a
di pol e wi th a refl ecti ng pl ate. The major porti on of the ener gy i s con-
tai ned i n a cone ~ri th apex angl e somewhat l ess than 180.
FI G. 14 -.4. mi rmwa~c l maron array.
Si mi l ar beams arc prodl l ced by horn antennas that permi t control
of the di recti vi ty throl l gh choi ce of the fl are ti ngl e and the n~{)l l tl ] di men-
si ons. Horns are useful at l o\ver frequenci es as JVC1l as i n the rni crol rave
regi on; i ndeed, the earl y wor k on horns I vas done for \~ti \-el engthsrangi ng
from 50 to 100 cm.
Mor e di recti ve heal ns-trl i c penci l bemns-can be prtd~l ced b,v
bui l di ng up space aryays of the al mw systems. T\\-,)-ti i mensi orl al arrays
(mattress arrays) an{i ml dt,i ,mi t horn systems arc I I SC(Iat l ,,,-er frequen-
ci es. Thei r di rccti vi ty i s sever el y l i mi ted, ho\\-ever,hy tl ~e ]nrtl l :mi cal
probl ems occasi oned by the rcc(l l i red rati o of (I i mrnsi ons to }f :L, t,-
I engths. Such arrays have not been empl oye(l i n tl i e mi cro~~-averegi f )n.
$.Ec. 1.6] A SURVEY OF MI CROWAVE ANTENNA TYPES
11
At these wavel engths i t becomes feasi bl e, and i ndeed ver y conveni ent,
to repl ace the two-di mensi onal array techni que by the use of r efl ector s
and l enses.
(a)
(b)
FI G. 1.5.Penci l -beam antennas. (a) Parabol oi daI mi rror; (b) metal -pl ate l ens. (Metcd-
plate lens photo~aph courtes~of the Bell Telephone Labordorie8.)
Hi ghl y di recti ve penci l beams are pr oduced by pl aci ng a parti al l y
di recti ve system such as the doubl e-di pol e uni t, di pol e-refl ector uni t, or
horn at the focus of a parabol oi dal r efl ector or x ccntrosymrnetri c l ens,.
The use t)f these devi ces i s based (JI I the r{)ncrI >ts of ray opti cs, a(cor(l i nx
to l vhi ch thr r efl ector or I ms takes the di l crgrt]l ra~s fr<)m tl m pt~i nt
sour ce at the ftwl [s and conver ts tl wrn i nto :L beam of par:dl cl rays.
Despi te the di ffracti on r[fects whi ch l i mi t thr nppl i cati {)rr of ray opti cs
and are ver y i mportant i n the mi cro \~ave regi (m, i t i s pr:w(i {,nl l l e to
make the apert[~rm so l arge that extr emel y sh:l rp l xmms can l x pr(xl l l crd.
Conversel y, i t i s possi hl c to ol ~tai n gwd (l i recti ~-i t.v I i -i th :m antcnn:l s()
snml l that :~ir cr oft i nstal l ati ons are prLwti ral . Paral j(jl (Ji l l :Gl :m(l I mra -
bol i c r efl ector s arc I mrd at l ower frri l l l enci es i n s,,rne spcri :l l r:Lsrs, }),l f
i n the rcql l i rcd I argc si zes they tend to be l ess S:LtlSfU; t[)I ~tl l :Ln nl :Lttrrss
arrays,
Pl asti c l enses arc used i n the mi rro\va~c rrgi on i n prrci sel y the same
\vay as g]:Lss l rnses i n the opti cal regi on. I n ad(l i ti on, a nei r devi ce,
the metal l ens, has been de~-el opxl for mi cro!vaves. Lhe fwl ~-el cngtl ~
of an cl ertromagncti c ~va~-ei n an ai r-ti l l ed )~avcg~l i de i s gr r atr r than that,
i n fr ee space; from the opti cal poi nt of vi c)v the ]raveg~l i de i s a regi on
of i ndex of rcfracti orr l ess t}l an uni ty. A stack of ]!-aregtl i dcs thi ns c~,n-
sti tutes a refracti ve medi um anal ogous to di el ectri c materi al , from l vhi ch
a metal l ens can be fashi oned, Fi gl u-e 1.5 shoi vs mi cro~wi ~~e prmci l -
}]eam an{cnnas empl oyi ng, respecti vel y, a paral ml oi dal mi rror and a
metal l ens as di recti ve devi cm.
.4ntennas ,for Flared i 3cams.Si mpl e fl ared beams and one-si ded
fl ares arc I i kc\vi se prod~l ced by means of r efl ector s and l enses and by
arrays of di pol e-refl ector uni ts or radi ati ng sl ots. S\l ch arrays by t}l em-
sel ves gi ve beams that are hi ghl y di recti ve i n pl anes contai ni ng the array
axi s but are fai rl y broad i n the transverse pl ane. I n or der to gai n gr eater
di recti vi ty i n the transverse pl ane the array may be used as a l i ne so~u-ce
al ong the focal l i ne of a parabol i c cyl i ndri cal r efl ector ; thi s focuses radi a-
ti on from a l i ne sour ce i n the same \vay that a r efl ector i n the form of a
parabol oi d of revol ~l ti on focuses radi ati on from a poi nt source. By
sui tabl e shapi ng of the cross secti on of the cyl i nder, one can pr oduce
beams wi th careful l y control l ed one-si ded fl ares and other useful speci al
characteri sti cs. Typi cal rni crotrave antennas of thi s type are shol vn i n
Fi g. 1+.
Except for a few types of l i near array, al l mi cro]vave antennas use
pri mary sources of radi ati on together \vi th r efl ector s and l enses. The
radi ati ng el ement, wi i ch extracts po\ver di rectl y from the transmi ssi on
l i ne, i s spoken of as the pri mary feed, the antenna feed, or si mpl y
the feed; i ts radi ati on pattern as an i sol ~ted uni t i s kno]vn as the
pri mary pat ter n of the antenna. I n combi nati on wi th the opti cal
el ements of the ~ntenna, the feccf produces the o~-er-al l pattern , { thn
antenna, often r efer r ed to as the secondary pattern of the antenna.
SEC, 1.7] I MPEDANCE 8PECI FI CA TI ONS
13
One of our major probl ems wi l l be to establ i sh the rel ati onshi ps among the
pri mary pattern of the antenna feed, the properti es of the opti cal el e-
ments, and the secondary pattern,
(a)
(b)
Fm. 1.6.Antennas for pmaucmg i far ed beams.
(a) Si mpl e fl ared-beam antenna; (b)
one-si ded fl ar ed-ham system.
1.7. I mpedance Speci fi cati ons.-The achi evement of a sati sfactory
antenna pattern i s by no means the onl y probl em to be consi dered by the
antenna desi gner.
I t i s i mportant that the antenna pi ck up maxi mum
power from an i nci dent wave and that i t radi ate the power del i vered to
i t by a transmi ssi on l i ne wi thout refl ecti ng an appreci abl e porti on of i t
back i nto the transmi tter. I n other words, i t i s i mportant that the
antenna have sati sfactory i mpedance characteri sti cs.
The i mpedance probl em i n mi cro~vave antenna desi gn takes on a
some~vhat speci al character because of the characteri sti cs of other el e-
ments of the system, parti cul arl y the transmi tti ng tubes. Conventi onal
tri ode-tube osci l l ators are not general l y useful i n the mi crowave regi on.
Thi s i s due to i nherent l i mi tati ons i n the tube i tsel f and to the fact that,
el ements i n the tank ci rcui t no l onger behave l i ke l umped i mpedances.
The sel f-resonant freq~l ency of the ordi nary tube i s consi derabl y bel ow
the mi crowave range, and i t i s ther efor e i mpossi bl e to desi gn a practi cal
ci rcui t, that wi l l osci l l ate at the requi red hi gh fre<l ucmcy. A modi fi ed
tr i ode has been desi gned for use down to 10 cm. I t has l i mi ted pol ver
capaci ty and i s used ~vher e 101v po\ver i s acceptahl c.
Mor e ~eneral l y,
magnetrons and kl ystrons are used, the for mer for ver y hi ~h pol l er l evel s.
The operati ng characteri sti cs of these tubes are ~er y sensi ti ve to the
i mpedance i nto whi ch they are requi red to operate, thr freql teucy ~aryi ng
rapi dl y wi th changes i n thi s i mpedance.
JI tJre seri o[w than thi s fr e-
quency pul l i ng i s the fact that the mmgnetron \vi l l cease to osci l l al e
wi thml t too much provocati on. (l oser tol erances are, ther efor r , i mposed
on the i mpedance of a mi crowave antenna than those l vhi ch w~l d{l be
di ctated by pol ver consi derati ons.
Ntany tl l bfw ran be tuned over a fr e-
ql ]ency band, but at any frequency setti ng they must oper ate i nto the
pr oper i mpedance. Th(l s i t i s cl l stornary to speci fy that a mi mo,ravc
antenna be sati sfactori l y matched to the transmi ssi on l i ne wi thi n cl ose
tol erances, not si mpl y at an i ntended operati ng freql l ency, b~l t over a
band of frequenci es.
I n rapi d-scanni ng antennas the i mpedance prt)l )l em i s even mor e
compl ex. The arrangement of the mechani cal parts vari es d~l ri ng :L
scan; i t i s necessary to make sl l re th:~t the i mpedanrc properti es of tl l r
antenna remai n sati sfactory i n al l p,arts of thr scan, as I vel l as for a gi ~.en
range of wavel engths. Thi s el ement of the probl em has an i mportant
beari ng on the choi ce of scheme+ for rapi (l -sr:umi ng antennas.
Throughout thi s vol ume the i mped:mm ch:umrteri sti cs of antennas
wi l l be consi dered i n paral l el wi th thei r radi ati on pat terns.
1.8. Program of the Present Vol ume .Thi s I )(mk fal l s i nto f(mu mai n
di vi si ons: basi c theor y, theor y i~nd dcsi ~n of fewl s, tl ~rory and drsi gn of
compl ete antenna systems, and :~l l tenn:L-m(,:~sLl l i ng tc(,l l ni (l l l es and
equi pment.
The fol ]o!vi ng chapter summari zes certai n parts of ct)nventi <}nd ci r-
cui t theor y that are perti nent to antenna prol )l crns. I n parti ml l ar, i t i s
shown that the antenna drsi gncr need make nu di sti ncti on bet\\ccn trans-
mi tti ng :Lnd recei vi ng antennas. Chfi pter 3 states the basi c pri nci pl es
of fi el d theor .v and appl i es them to the di sc~l wi on of ml rrcnt di stri l l l l ti ons
as sources of radi ati on fi el ds. Cl mpters 4 to 6 then di sc~l ss cl rrtronmg-
neti c waves }ri thout r egar d to t}l ci r sol l rces. Cl uLptcr 4 gi ves a bri ef
treatment of wavefronts and rays.
Chapter 5 deal s wi th the i nteracti on
between el ectromagneti c ~vaves and obstacl es; the general theor y of
r efl ector s i s her e devel oped as a boundary-condi ti on probl em, and a
di scussi on i s gi ven of the rel ati on bet~veen thi s theor y and conventi onal
di ffracti on theor y, whi ch al so fi nds appl i cati on to mi crowave antenna
probl ems. Fi nal l y, Chap. 6 appl i es thi s theor y i n treati ng one of the
fundamental probl ems of antenna desi gnthe rel ati on between the fi el d
di stri buti on over the aperture of an antenna (such as a l ens or r efl ector )
and i ts secondary pattern.
Chapter 7, on mi crowave transmi ssi on l i nes, serves as i ntroducti on
to the chapters on antenna feeds: di pol e feeds, l i near arrays, and horns.
Of these types al l but the fi rst have found appl i cati ons al so as compl ete
antennas; these appl i cati ons wi l l be i ndi cated i n these chapters.
A chapter on l enses pr ecedes the treatment of mor e compl ex antenna
systems whi ch i s organi zed accordi ng to the type of beam to be produced:
penci l beams, si mpl e fanned beams, and mor e compl exl y shaped beams.
When an antenna i s i nstal l ed on ground or a shi p or ai rpl anegeneral l y,
encl osed i n a housi ngi ts performance i s modi fi ed from that i n fr ee
space by i ts encl osure and nei ghbori ng objects. The subject of antenna-
i ustal l ati on probl ems i s di scussed bri efl y to acquai nt the engi neer wi th
the phenomena that may be expected to occur and some of the currentl y
known sol uti ons of the probl ems.
The concl udi ng chapters provi de a statement of the basi c techni ques
of antenna measurements and a descri pti on of certai n types of measur-
i ng equi pment that have gi ven sati sfactory servi ce i n the Radi ati on
Laboratory.
2.1.
CHAPTER 2
CI RCUI T RELATI ONS, RECI PROCI TY THEOREMS
BY s. SI I .VER
I ntroducti on. hchc ci rcui t theor y consi derati ons and techni ques
characteri sti c of l ow-f req~l ency radi o vwr k do not car r y over i n a si mpl e
manner to the mi crol rave regi on. Thus, for exampl e, i n treati ng a ci r-
cui t el ement as a l umped i mpedance, i t i s assumed that the cur r ent
(and vol tage) at any gi ven i nstant has the same val ue at ever y poi nt i n
the cl ement. Thi s assumpti on i s val i d i f the di mensi ons of the ci rcui t
el ement are smal l compared wi th the wavel ength, wi th the resul t that
the phase di fferences between separated poi nts i n the el ement are negl i gi -
bl e. I f, ho~vever , the wavel ength becomes comparabl e to the di mensi ons
of the el ement, these phase di fferences become si gni fi cant; at a gi ven
i nstant the cur r ent at one poi nt i n the el ement may be passi ng through
i ts maxi mum val ue, ]vhi l e at another poi nt i t i s zer o. I n such cases the
ci rcui t el ement must be r egar ded as a system of di stri buted i mpedances.
The extensi on of conventi onal ci rcui t theor y to mi crol $-ave systems
i s further compl i cated by the use of ci rcui t el ements such as wavegui des,
i n whi ch vol tages and currents are not uni quel y defi ned. The anal ysi s
of these el ements must be approached from the poi nt of vi ew that they
ser ve to g~l i de el ectromagneti c \vaves; attenti on i s center ed on el ectri c
and magneti c fi el ds rather than on vol tage and current. The fi nal resul t
of the fi el d theor y anal ysi s i s that under s~l i tabl e condi ti ons~~hi ch are
general l y encounter ed i n practi cea l vavegui de can be set i nto equi va-
l ence wi th a two-wi r e transmi ssi on l i ne i n ~vhi ch the fundamental quan-
ti ti es are vol tage and current. The l atter are di rectl y rel ated to the
wavegui des el ectri c and magneti c fi el ds, respecti ~-el y. 1 By means of
thi s equi val ence the concepts of i mpedance, i mpedance matchi ng, and
l oaded l i nes are carki ed over to ~vavegl l i des.
A wavegui de can i tsel f be tr eated as a system of di stri buted i mped-
ances. i )i stri but,ed i mpedances are tr eated i n the same ~vay as l umped
i mpedances, by use of Ki rchhoffs cur r ent and vol tage l al m for networks.
A system of di stri buted i mpedance can, i n fact, be repl aced by a netl v(jrk
of l umped-i mpedance el ements. The l atter di ffer from the conventi onal
radi o-ci rcui t el ements i n that thei r i mpedance i s a transcendental func-
I The subject i s trmted i n (hap. 7. A fl [l l trratmmt of the ext[~l wi [,]] of ri wI I I t
thwry to w:l v(gui (l c+\ri 11LL!foun{i i ,] }-:)1 8 of thi s .wui {s,
16
I
ti on of freql l eucy rather than an al gel jrai e funrti {)n. By means of tl l esc
equi val ent l l l rrl pr{i -el errl el l t net \\orks, the net\\(Jrfi theorems that are
appl i cabl e tu l ol r-frefl ~l enry l ~l l l l ])ecl -el el l l [tl t netl vorfi s are carl i ed over
to systems \\i th di stri l )uted i mpedance 1he frost pti rt of thi s chapter
\vi l l r evi ew several nct}i -ork theorems LLnd t}l e t]vo-}ri r.e tr:Lr]sr]l i ssi (jI 1-l i I l e
theor y that are I l sed i n mi crtjj! :~vc ci rcui t theor y. 1he s(l l jjects \\i l l be
tr eated bri efl y, the r eader I )ei ng r efer r ed tt) stand:l rd texts for mor e
compl ete di scussi ons :~n(l proofs of ti l e resul ts ql l oted hem.
The rel ati on I x% fveeu a transmi tti ng and u mcei ri ng antenna al so
can be expresse(l i n terms of an efl l l i vti l cnt netl l or k. I n thi s \ray one
can arri ve at a reci proci ty theor em JI hi ch rel :~tes the transmi ssi on char-
acteri sti cs of an antenna to i ts recei l i ng cl l :tr~l cttl i sti (s. of parti cul ar
i mportance to antenna([esi grl i s ti l e fact, pr oved I )y I I scef the reci proci ty
theorem, that the transmi tti ng pattern of an antenna i s the same as i ts
recei vi ng pattern. The reci proci ty theor em \vi l l be di scussed i n the
I atter part of thi s chapter.
2.2. The Four-termi nal Networ k. I .et usconsi der an arl )i trary net-
nwrk, fr ee from generators, made 11Pof l i near bi l ateral el ements. A
l i near bi l ateral el ement i s one for
~1
\~hi ch the rel ati on bet~veen ~ol tage ~.
i 2
Oc
and cur r ent i s l i near:
V = IZ,
(1) ~ j
1
a2
OD
wher e the val ue of the i mpedance Z
FI O.21.-I Jour-tcr]rl i rd networ k.
i s i ndependent of the di recti on of the
vol tage dr op across the el ement.3 For conveni ence the net~~or k \vi l l be
pi ctured as encl osed i n a box and presenti ng to the outsi de onl y a pai r
of i nput and a pai r of output termi nal s. Thi s i s i l l ustrated schemati cal l y
i n Fi g. 2.1. A boxed net]~or k of thi s type i s r efer r ed to as a four-termi nal
or two-termi nal -pai r networ k.
The networ k as a uni t i nvol ves four quanti ti es: the cur r ent i ,, the
vol tage dr op VI from :4 to n, the ml rrent L, and the vol tage dr op Vz
from C to D. I n conse(l uence of the l i near pr oper ty [F;q. (l )] of each
component el ement of the net\vor k, the rel ati ons between the, vol tages
Vl , Vz and the currents i l , i , are l i near:
VI = Z1lil Z12i2j
V2 = Z21i1 Z22i2.
}
(2)
1W. L. Everi tt, Communi cdfon Engi nperi rq,l l fcCr:Lw-Hi l l ,New York, 1937;
E. A. Gui l l cmi n,CowLmuni caI i on .Ve~mrks, Vol s. 1, 11,l ~i l ry, Xm- York, 1931;T. E.
Shea, Transmission Vdw;orks md I T-W. Filler!, Y:in Nostrand,New l ork, 1!129,
zSee Chap. 1 for the defi ni ti on.sof thesepatterns
3I t i s assumedthat we are deal i ngwi th a si ngl efrequency,that both the vol tage
and cur r entdependon ti me throughthe samefactor e~u~.
18 CI RCUI T RELA 7I ONJ S RECI PROCI TY 7HhOEEMS [SE(. 22
The i mpedance coeffi ci ent Z,, i s the i nput i mpedance at Al l when CD
i s open-ci rcui ted (zZ = O); si mi l arl y ZZZ i s the i nput i mpedance at CD
when Al ? i s open-ci rcui ted. The quanti ti es Z,, and Z21 arc known as
the transfer i mpedance coeffi ci ents of the networ k. As a resul t of the
bi l ateral pr oper ty of the component el ements of the netwwr k, the transfer
i mpedance coeffi ci ents sati sfy the reci proci ty rel ati onl
Z,2 = Z21, (3)
As an al ~ernati ve to the rel ati ons expressed by 13q. (2), the currents
may be expressed as l i near functi ons of the vol tage:
i I = Y1l V1 F12V2,
i z = Y21V1 Y2212.
}
(4)
The admi ttance coeffi ci ent Y,, i s the i nput admi ttance at Al l when the
termi nal s CD are short-ci rcui ted; Yz2 i s the admi ttance at CD \vhen A B
i s short-ci rcui ted; and Yl j, YZ1 are the transfer admi ttance coeffi ci ents.
The l atter coeffi ci ents sati sfy a reci proci ty rel ati on
Y,2 = Y2, (5)
i n the case of bi l ateral el ements. The i mpedance and admi ttance coeffi -
ci ents of the netwmi -k are rel ated:
Y,, = y;
y,2 = :;1; yz, = ylz = ~,
(6)
wher e
A = Z,I Z22 Z,ZZZ,. (7)
By vi rtue of the reci proci tyy rel ati ons, [Eqs. (3) and (5)], the networ k
has onl y thr ee i ndependent parameters, Consequentl y i t can be repl aced
by a networ k of thr ee l umped-i m-
TYA:DZ
pedance el ements arranged i n the
form of ei ther a T- or ~-secti on as
shown i n Fi g. 22. The i mped-
ance el ements of the T-secti on are
B
T-sect,on
DB
r- sect,..
D
desi gnated by Z,, Z2, Z~. I n the
I ]o. 2.2.h-and m-secti onequi val entsof :L
case nf the H-secti on i t i s mor e con-
four-termi nal networ k.
veni ent to (I se admi ttances; the
el ements are desi gnated by YA = l/ZA, YE = l /Z3, Yc = l /ZC. The
rel ati ons between the el ements of the r educed networ ks and the coeffi ci ents
of Eqs. (2) and (4) are
a. T-secti on:
ZI ==Zl l Z,2,
Z2 = Zn z,,,
1
(8)
Z3 = Z12,
1~. ,1. Gui l l erl l i l l ,op. cd., Vol s. I , I I , Wi l ey, New York, 1331,parti cul arl y
Vol . 1, ~haD. I V.
SEC.2.3] THE RA YLEI CH I {ECI I I KWI TI THJ ?OREibl 19
b. I I -secti on:
Y,4 = YI 1 Y12,
Yc = Y22 Yl z,
/
(9)
Y, = Y12.
The rel ati ons between the T- and I I -secti on el ements for one and the
same four-termi nal networ k are gi ~en by
(10)
wher e the quanti ty A i s that defi ned i n Eq. (7).
The networ k can al so be characteri zed by any thr ee of the fol l owi ng
measurabl e quanti ti es: the i nput i mpedance at A B \vhen CD i s short-
ci rcui ted, the i nput i mpedance at A B \vhen CD i s open-ci rcui ted, the
i nput i mpedances at C~ when AB
i s open-ci rcui ted or short-ci rcui ted,
The rel ati ons between these quan-
ti ti es and the i mpedance coeffi -
ci ents or the I - and I I -secti on
el ements can easi l y be deri ved from
Eqs. (2) and (8) or (9); they are
gi ven expl i ci tl y by Everi tt. 1
2.3. The Rayl ei gh Reci proci ty
Theorem.The reci proci ty rel ati on
between the transfer i mpedance co-
effi ci ents gi ven i n Eq. (3) i s funda-
mental to the vari ous reci proci ty
theorems pertai ni ng to net]vorks.
Ml of these theorems are vari ants
of the general theor em deri ved by
Rayl ei gh. The parti cul ar form of
(a)
a32
(b)
l :l <;.2:{.- l {wi pt ovi ty ttl eow!vt for thefour-
terrmnal netwul ,k.
the theor em as i t appl i es to a four-termi nal net\vor k wi l l be di scussed her e.
I n Fi g. 2.3, i , and i t are the currents i n the networ k termi nal s when a
gener ator of emf V. i s appl i ed to the termi nal s AB through an i mpedance
Z, to feed a l oad Z. across the termi nal s CD; i{ and i ; are the cor r espond-
i ng currents at the termi nal s \vhen a gener ator of emf VAi s appl i ed to the
termi nal s CD through an i mpedance Z. to feed a l oad Z. across A B.
The gener ator i n each case i s assumed to have zer o i nternal i mpedance.
The reciprocity theorem states that
~Gi; = ~,j~. (11)
1 }V. 1,. F;vcri tt, op. ci t., (h~p. 11,
2l tayl ei gh,Thwryof ,Sou72d, Vol. 1, ,Sws, 10.5111,}I acmi l l an, Yew York, repri nted
by I )ovcr Publ i cati ons,.K{,I vYork, 1945.
20 CIR~l 17 RELA T1OV,S, RI ?(lPR()([71 TI I l<ORk;\ l,T [k. 2.4
Usi ng Eqs. (2), we fi nd for Case a of Fi g. 23
Z,, T7,,
22 = (z,, + Z,)(z,, + z,,) Z,2Z,,
For Case b, rememberi ng that the r ol e of i nput and outpl l t termi nal s
must be i nterchanged i n Eqs. (2), we have
Z,2V;

( = (z,, + Z.)(z,, + z,,) Zl ,z,,

Jful ti pl yi ng the fi rst of these by 17:,and the second by ~o, one fi nds tl mt
the reci proci ty theor em i n I ;q, (1 1) }I ol ds pr~)vi de(l that Z,* = Z,,.
Conversel y, i f a four-termi nal netwmrk i s l i near i n the sense of l ?q. (2 ~
_2
z,, - ZL2 Z22-Z,2
mzL-t!E3zL
B D D
FI G.2.4.Th&eni ns theor em and the maxi mum-power transfer condi ti on.
and i f the reci proci ty theor em [Eq. (1 1)] hol ds for the networ k, then the
transfer i mpedance coeffi ci ents sati sfy the reci proci ty rel ati on of Eq. (3).
2.4. Th6veni ns Theorem and the Maxi mum-power Theorem.Con-
si der a networ k made up of l i near bi l ateral el ements and contai ni ng a
system of generators. Th6veni ns theor em states that the cur r ent
through any i mpedance Z. across a pai r of termi nal s C, D of the networ k
i s the same as the cur r ent i n an i mpedance Z~ connected across a gener ator
whose emf i s the open-ci rcui t vol tage across CD (the vol tage I vi th Z1.
r emoved) and whose i nternal i mpedance i s tbe i nput i mpedance meas-
ured at CD l ooki ng i nto the passi ve net\vor k (the networ k wi th generators
repl aced by thei r r especti ve i nternal i mpedances). The theor em i s i l l us-
trated di agrammati cal l y i n Fi g. 2.4.
Tht%eni ns theor em i s useful i n di scussi ng the condi ti ons for maxi -
mum-power transfer from a gener ator through a networ k to a l oad
i mpedance Z.. As i s wel l kno]vn, ~vhen a l oad i mpedance i s connected
di rectl y to a gener ator of i nternal i mpedance Z., maxi mum-power trans-
fer i s effected wi th a l oad i mpedance that i s the compl ex conj~l g:~tc of the
gener ator i mpedance:
z. = z;.
1W. L. Evcri tt, 0p. ant., p. 47.
SEC.25] THE TWO-WI RE TRANSMI SS1O.V LI NE
21
Consi der then the case i n whi ch the l oad Z. i s fed by the gener ator through
a four-termi nal net}vor k, the gener ator emf bei ng l ~ and ts i nternal
i mpedance Z. (Fi g. 2.4). The four-termi nal networ k may be repl aced
by i ts T-secti on equi val ent as shown. By Th6veni ns theor em the SYS-
tem i s equi val ent to a gener ator of emf VCZIJ(ZI, + Z.) and i nternal
i mpedance 212 Z~J(Zl i + ZG)
feedi ng the l oad i mpedance Z. di -
V(z
v(z+r12)
rectl y. I t fol l ows then that maxi -
~
mum-power transfer wi l l be achi eved
wi th a l oad that i s the compl ex con-
; ; ,(z)~
+Z
jugate of the i nternal i mpedance of
,_7(z +(/2)
the effecti ve gener ator :
1
(2:2)
z. = 2;2 ~+ z: (12)
2.5. The Two-wi r e Transmi ssi on
Li ne.-0ne of the most i mportant
di stri buted-i mpedance systems from
the poi nt of vi ew of antenna theor y
i s the two-wi r e transmi ssi on l i ne. 1
-7
For the present the l i ne ~vi l l be con- - ~,
si dered i n i ts conventi onal form, as a
I I
I :l G.25.-rwwi rere l i ne,
pai r of l i near conductors i n a pl ane,
whi ch support the propagati on of a wave of wavel ength smal l compared
wi th the l ength of the l i nes The probl em of i nterest i s the di stri buti on
of vol tage and cur r ent al ong the l i ne for a wa~~eof si ngl e frequency, i n
whi ch the vol tage and cur r ent vary wi th ei ui .
The l i ne i s shown schemati cal l y i n Fi g. 2.5 as a pai r of paral l el \vi res.
I n general , however , the spaci ng betl veen tbe }vi res may vary al ong the
l i ne; the onl y restri cti on i mposed i s that the l i ne have an axi s of sym-
metry. Posi ti on al ong the l i ne i s speci fi ed by the coordi nate z al ong
the symmetry axi s. I t i s further assumed that the ]i l l e i s i sol ated from
perturbi ng objects, so that at any posi ti on al ong the l i ne the currents
at ever y i nstant may be eql ml and opposi te i n the t]vo component, l i nes.
The properti es of the l i ne are speci fi ed by i ts di stri buted parameters:
(1) the seri es i mpedance per uni t l ength,
3(2) = I i (z) + jd(z), (13a)
wher e R(z) i s the seri es resi stance and L(z) the seri es i nductance per
uni t l ength, taki ng both component l i nes together , and (2) the shunt
W. L. Evcri tt, op. ci t. For a ver y compl ete treatmentthe madcr i s rcfmrx,d
to I t. WT. Ki ng, H. I t. Nfi mno,.\. H. \Vi n,q, Transmission Li7Les, .Irttenrzas, ad 11we
C(,ifk.s, MrGrav-Hi l l , \TcwYork, 1945, (hap. 1.
22 CI RCU17 I fl<I >/ 1TI O.YS, 1{1{611l{UC1 I Y lHEOli8.%l,?
[s);,, 2.5
admi ttance per uni t l ength,
71(z) = G(z) + juC(.z), (13b)
wher e G(z) i s the transverse conductance and C(z) the capaci tance per
uni t l ength between the component members of the l i ne. These param-
eter s may be functi ons of posi ti on because of vari ati ons i n the cond~l ctors,
i n the spaci ng betl veen the l atter, or i n the structl u-e of the surroundi ng
di el ectri c medi um.
Taki ng ei ther conductor for r efer ence, l et i (z) be the cur r ent at the
poi nt 2 and V(z) the vol tage dr op from the r efer ence conductor to the
other member at the same poi nt. To obtai n the space dependence of
i (z) and V(z), consi der a secti on of l i ne of l cngt h dz about the poi nt z.
Appl yi ng Ohms l aw, \ve have
V(2 + dz) J(z) = i (2)m3(z) dz
and
i (Z + dZ) i (Z) = ~(Z)y?(Z) dz
for, respecti vel y, the seri es and shunt rel ati ons across the el ement of
l i ne. The terms on the l eft-hand si de, by use of Tayl ors theorem,
become (dV/dz) dz and (di/dz) ck respecti vel y. Thus the di fferenti al
equati ons of the l i ne are found to be
dV =
z
(~(z)i(z),
di
dz =
m(z) v(z).
(14G)
(14b)
Second-or der di fferenti al
obtai ned by el i mi nati ng
these equati ons:
a:y _ [
equati ons for vol tage and cur r ent al one are
vol tage or cur r ent from one or the other of
(15a)
(15b)
From a general i zed p~~i ntof vi ew, Eqs. (14) ran be r egar ded as the
defi ni ti on of a two-wi r e transmi ssi on l i ne. That i s, gi ven a physi cal
system supporti ng a wave wi th ti me dependence ew~,the propagati on
of whi ch i s expressi bl e i n terms of a si ngl e coordi nate z and two quan-
ti ti es (i, V) rel ated by equati ons of the form of Eqs. (14), i t i s possi bl e to
set up a t~vo-wi re l i ne representati on for the system. The vol tage and
cur r ent of the equi val ent l i ne are di rect!y proporti onal to the wa~e quan-
ti ti es enteri ng the di fferenti al equati ons, and the seri es i mpedance and
shunt admi ttance per uni t l ength of the equi val ent l i ne are proporti onal
to the coeffi ci ents of the wave quanti ti es i n the di fferenti al equati ons.
Sm. 26] 1HE HO MOGI lNE(31i,V 71{.4 .V,V,!ll,~,~I O.V I ,l:vl< 23
The general i zed concept of a transmi ssi on l i ne \vi l l be made use of i n the
di scl l ssi on of wavegl l i dcs i n Chap. i , \r her e i t \vi l l be seen th~t the el ec-
tri c and magneti c fi el d vector s sati sfy transmi ssi on-l i ne rxl uati ons.
2.6. The Homogeneous Transmi ssi on Li ne .-l hl uat i ons (15) are the
general equati ons for a l i ne ~vhose parameters ~ and 9/ are functi ons of
posi ti on. \tTeshal l be concer ned mai nl y \vi th l i nes for Jvbi ch the param-
eter s are i ndependent of posi ti on, and the subseql l cnt di sc~msi on \vi l l be
confi ned to the so-cal l ed homogeneo~l s l i ne. For such a l i ne the coeffi -
ci ents of dV/dz and dz/dz i n Eqs. (15) vani sh; consequentl y, vol tage and
cur r ent sati sfy the same di fferenti al equati on.
The vol tage eql l at,i on
becomes
Defi ni ng the compl ex number ~ by
y = ~ + j~ = (~fi );5
wi th the square r oot taken to be such that both
quanti ti es, ~vefi nd the sol uti on of Eq. (16) to be
v(z) = A l ez + .42CZ
nr
(16]
(17)
a and p are posi ti ve
(18)
-.
V(z) = A Ie-e-ip + A ,eei @. (18a)
The cur r ent i (z) has the same form but i s not i ndependent of the vol tage.
The rel ati on between them i s establ i shed by Eq. (14a). On i nserti ng
Eq. (18) i nto thi s equati on, i t i s found that
1
i (z) = ~0 (A I e
f, ~ *~7.).
(19)
The constant ZOi s known as the characteristic impedance of the l i ne; i t
i s gi ven by
()
}5
z,= ; . (20)
I f Eq. (18a) i s mul ti pl i ed through by the ti me factor e@, i t wi l l be seen
that the ri ght-hand si de i s the sum of two waves: The term ei drepresents
a wave travel i ng i n the posi ti ve z-di recti on, whereas ei ~z represents a
wave travel i ng i n the negati ve z-di recti on.
The wavel ength of propaga-
ti on i s rel ated to the phase constant L3by
(21)
The ampl i tude of each component wave undergoes attenuati on al ong the
di recti on of propagati on as r epr esented by the factors e-z and e r espec-
ti vel y; a i s known as the voltage attenuation constant. I t i s seen from
24 CI RC lJ I T RELATI ONS, RL?CI PROCI T Y THEORI I M,S [SW. 2.6
Eq. (17) that a may be di fferent from zer o, that i s, the l i ne may be 10SSY
i f one or both of the di stri buted parameters ~ and !Jl are compl ex, and
that the l i ne i s nonl ossy, a = O, i f the di stri buted parameters are both
pure i magi nary quanti ti es of the same si gn.
I n the case of the t\vo-\vi re
l i ne for whi ch the di stri buted parameters are gi ven by Eqs. (13) thi s
means that the l i ne i s nonl ossy i f the seri es resi stance and shunt conduc-
tance are zer o, that i s, i f the di stri buted i mpedance al ong the l i ne i s
purel y reacti ve.
The ampl i tudes .4, and .4 z of the component waves are determi ned by
the exci tati on condi ti ons at the i nput end of the l i ne and the nature of
the termi nati on of the l i ne. Consi der a l i ne of total l ength L, fed by a
gener ator of emf V. and i nternal i mpedance Zc, and termi nated i n a l oad
i mpedance Z~ as shown i n Fi g. 2.5.
I n thi s case the component \vaves
are i nterpreted si mpl y as a wave of ampl i tude A 1 i nci dent on the l oad
Z. and a wave of ampl i tude .i 2 r efl ected by i t. Let the ori gi n z = O be
taken at the termi nati on; the gener ator i s thus l ocated at z = L.
The i mpedance at any poi nt z al ong the I i ne l ooki ng tov-m-d the termi na-
ti on i s the rati o Z(z) = V(Z)/~(Z), whi ch i s, by Eqs. (18) and (19),
(
.4 ~eyz + .4 ze~z
)
Z(2) = Zo ;,1,C-,z _ .427.
(22)
At the termi nal poi nt, z = O, thi s must be
i mpedance ZL; I re have then
A1+Az = ~.,
A, .42 ZO
Thus the rati o of the ampl i tudes AJA, i s
equal to the termi nati ng
(23)
determi ned sol el y by the
termi nati on. Thi s shows al so the si gni fi cance of the charactc~ri sti c
i mpedance: I f i?L = ZO, then A 2 = O; ther e i s no r efl ected \vave. .4 l i ne
termi nated i n an i mpedance equal to i ts characteri sti c i mpedance thus
behaves as though i t extended to i nfi ni ty.
A second rel ati on Letl l een the ampl i tudes i s obtai ned from the con-
di ti ons at the i nput end of the l i ne. The i nput i mpedance Z,,, to the
l i ne i s obtai ned from Eq. (22) l )y setti ng z = L, and the cur r ent at
the poi nt i s obtai ned from Eq. (19) by the same substi tuti on. We ha~e
then
VC = i z=-~.) (ZG + Zi7),
whence we obtai n
(1+%)(7+(1 -%)2 = o
From Eqs. (23) and (24) I I -efi nal l y get
(24)
A1=
VCZO(Z,, + z,,)
-- (25a)
(Za + Z(,)(Z,, + ZJe~J (Z<, ---Z,]) (Z,, ZO)e-~
m, 2.6] ?HE HO.WOGE.VI ?O 1S Tliil iVSill I ,%Y1O.V LI ,V.V 25
and
V.zo(z,. z)
2 = (Z. +z)(z. +zo)o (z. zo)(zf. zo)i -~ 25b)
I t shoul d benotecf that these expressi ons gi ve the ampl i tudesof thei nci -
dent and r efl ected ~vaves at the termi nati on, or mor e speci fi cal l y at
z = O. Therespecti ve ampl i tudes .A~(z) ancl . ~j(z)at an arbi trary poi nt
z are gi ven i n terms of the above by
A;(2) = Al e; A;(z) = A2P. (26)
The rati o of the ampl i tudesof the wavesat any gi ven poi nt i sknovm as
the vol tage refl ecti on coeffi ci ent r(z) at that poi nt. Wehave
(27)
or
~(z) = l (0)ez~, (27a)
wher e r(0) i s the refl ecti on r~effi ci ent at the poi nt z = 0, On maki ng
use of l ?qs. (26) and (27) together I ri th (22), \ve fi nd that the rel ati on
between r(z) and the i mpedance Z(z) i s
(28)
I t i s conveni ent for many purposes to i ntroduce the normalized impedancr
((z) :
(29)
The rel ati ons between the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent and the normal i zed
i mnedance are then
(30)
Equati on (27a) expresses the transformati on pr oper ty of a transmi s-
si on l i ne. I t i s readi l y seen that l ?q. (27a) can be general i zed to the
form
r(z t 1) = r(z)e~~~ = r(.2)e*j=+*~fl .
(31)
The phase of the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent has a space peri odi ci ty of A/2.
The ampl i tude of the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent i s i ndependent of posi ti on
i n a nonl ossy l i ne. I n a l ossy l i ne i t decreases as we move al ong the l i ne
toward the gener ator from the l oad, correspondi ng to the i ncrease i n the
ampl i tude of the i nci dent wave and the attenuati on of the r efl ected
wave. The transformati on pr oper ty of the l i ne appl i es to the i mpedance
l i kewi se. From Eqs. (28) and (31) i t fol l ows that the i mpedance at a
poi nt z 1i s rel ated to the i mpedance at the poi nt z by
26 CI RCUI T RI I LA TI ONS, RECI PROCI TY THEOREMS
[SEC,27
2(2 t) = 20
[ 1
Z(z) + Z tanh (-yl ) .
Z, + Z(z) tanh (-yl )
or , i n terms 01 the normal i zed i mpedance,
((z) + tanh(-A.
W 1, = I + { tad (W
(32)
(32a)
A secti on of l i ne of l ength 1 thus serves as an i mpedance-transformati on
devi ce, converti ng an i mpedance Z(z) at the output end i nto an i mped-
ance Z(z 1) at the i nput end. The i mpedance transformati on i s asso-
ci ated wi th the r efl ected wave; i f the termi nal i mpedance i s equal to the
characteri sti c i mpedance, the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent vani shes and the i nput
i mpedance at any poi nt on the l i ne (l ooki ng toward the termi nati on)
i s eaual to 2,. I f the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent i s zer o, the termi nati on i s sai d
.
to be matched to the l i ne; otherwi se, i t i s sai d to be mi smatched.
The properti es of the l i ne can be di scussed i n terms of admi ttance as
wel l as i mpedance. The correspondi ng rel ati ons are obtai ned by repl ac-
i ng Z by 1/Y. The admi ttance transformati on effected by a secti on of
l i ne i s
. ~~(z) + Y,, tanh (71)
1
( z ~) =1LY, + Y@) tanh (Tl )
(33)
wher e the characteri sti c admi ttance i s defi ned to be
l, = ;;,. (34)
A normal i zed admi ttance q(z) i s defi ned i n a si mi l ar manner as the
normal i zed i mpedance
Y(z)
7(2) = y; .
and the rel ati ons bet~veen i t and the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent are
17 l r
r . i ~q;
q = l -+-r
(35)
(36)
2.7. The Lossl ess Li ne.The further di scussi on of the transmi ssi on
l i ne wi l l be parti ml l ari zed to the case of a l ossl ess l i ne. The mi crowave
l i nes to be tr eated i n Chap. 7 can be consi dered to be l ossl ess over the
l ength of l i ne that enters i nto the probl em of the desi gn af an antenna.
I f the l i ne i s l ossl ess, a = O and the propagati on constant ~ i s a pure
i magi nary,
y = jp,
The vol tage and current, rel ati ons i n thi s case are
l (z) = .4 ,fl ~ + A 2(,8, (37a)
(37b)
SEC.2.7!
7HE L(),?,5I ,I <SX LI NE 27
and the i mpedance and admi ttance transformati on formul as become
~(z) +~tanf?l
r(z1) ==+jrtanpl , (38)
q(z) +j tan @
(39) 7(2 1) = ~tan~i
The transformati ons have a space peri odi ci ty of a hal f ~vavel ength:
the i mpedance and admi ttance take on the same val ues at i nterval s of a
hal f wavel ength. The refl ecti on coeffi ci ent i s l i kewi se peri odi c; i f i n
Eq. (31) a i s set equal to zer o, we get
Si nce r passes through a compl ete cycl e of phase over a hal f-wavel el ,gth
secti on of l i ne, ther e are two poi nts ~vi thi n ever y such i nterval at whi ch
r i s a real number. I t fol l ol vs from Eq. (30) that at these poi nts the
i mpedance and admi ttance are real numbers. The magni tude of r does
not vary al ong the l i ne. Consequentl y, at ever y poi nt the refl ecti on
coeffi ci ent i s a measure of the po\ver l oss ari si ng from the i mpedance
mi smatch at the termi nati on. The power carri ed by the i nci dent wave
i s proporti onal to 1A,[2, and that carri ed by the r efl ected \vave i s pr opor -
ti onal to 1AZI2. The magni tude of r, i s gi ven by
(41)
hence Ir I~i s the fracti on of the i nci dent po~ver r efl ected by the termi na-
ti on, and 1 Ir ~ i s the fracti on of the i nci dent po\ver extr acted by the
termi nati on.
I n measurements on a transmi ssi on l i ne the si gni fi cant quanti ty i s
the square of the magni tude of the vol tage averaged over a ti me cycl e,
gi ven di rectl y by ~1I (z) 12. I n computi ng thi s from Eq. (37a) i t must be
remembered that the ampl i t{l des A I and A j are i n general compl ex.
tVri ti ng
Al = j.411eJ4, AZ = 1.4,1e~~, (42)
i n F.q. (37a), \\-eobtai n
~11(z)] = ~VV* = ; [~.4,~ + \.4,1 + 21Au42) cOS (262 0,+ 0,)]. (43)
Thl l s the ti me average I ~rl2 takes the form of a st:i n(i i rl g-\\-:L\,e pattern
28 (: I li?clI T I {I <I ,A71(1.VS, I {ECI PI <(X17I lhi$ol<l!.liis
[Sm. 27
al ong the l i ne. I he maxi ma and mi ni ma occur at those poi nts for \vhi ch
2,R2 f#I,+I#12 = i2n~
and
262 01 + 02 = *(2n + l )rr, ?l = 0,1 ,2,....
respecti vel y, the di stance bet\veen a maxi mum and adjacent mi ni ml l m
bei ng a quarter wavel ength. The maxi mum and mi ni mum val l l es are
Ivl:lax =
(1.4,1 + 1.4,1),
I vI :,,n = (1.4,1 1.4,1).
The rati o of the maxi mum to mi ni mum val l l e m kno}yn as the power
standing-wave ratio, desi gnated her e by rz:
The square r oot of power standi ng-l va~e rati o r is knol rn as the voltag~
standing-wave ratio. I t fol l o\vs from l k~. (41) that
1 + I rl
=l l rl
~vi th the i nverse rel ati on
r1
[rl . .
T+l
(44a)
(44b)
The magni tude of r may be determi ned from the measured standi ng-
wave rati o by means of Eq. (44 b). The phase of r can be deduced from
the posi ti ons of the maxi ma and mi ni ma. On i nserti ng Eq. (42) i nto
Eq. (27a) and repl aci ng Y by jp, we have
r(z) = l r~e~<z@-$+@. (45)
Thus r takes on real val ues at the poi nts wher e the standi ng-wave pat-
ter n takes on maxi mum and mi ni mum val ues. The phase of
taken to be zer o at a maxi mum poi nt, ~vi th
r=l rl =~;
then at a mi ni mum poi nt the phase of r wi l l correspondi ngl y
l r
r = I rl d =
l +r
r may be
(46a)
be rr, and
(46b)
The phase of J7at any other poi nt, taki ng a maxi mum or mi ni mum posi -
ti on as a r efer ence poi nt, i s then readi l y deduced by means of Eq. (40).
The i mpedance at any poi nt can l i kewi se be deduced from measured
val ues of the standi ng-wave rati o and the posi ti ons of maxi ma or mi ni ma.
I t was noted previ ousl y that the i mpedance and admi ttance i s real et the
poi nts ~vher e r i s a real number; hence the i mpwl ancc i s real at t,he
maxi mum and mi ni mum poi nts of the standi ng-l vave pattern. 31aki ng
use of Eq, (30) together wi th Eqs. (46), ]ve fi nd i n fact that the i mpedance
takes on the fol l owi ng val ues at those poi nts:
1 + I rl
=l l rl =r
(max);
~ = ~..l r ~
l +l rl =~
(rei n).
(47a)
Gi ven the val ue of ~ at any one such poi nt, the val ue at any other poi nt
i s obtai ned by means of the transformati on formul a [I l q. (38)]. Si mi l ar
consi derati ons appl y to the admi ttance ~~al ues, ~l t the poi nts of maxi ma
and mi ni ma the admi ttance i s a pure conductance i vi tb the val ues
~=:
(max),
r
(48a)
q=r.
(rei n). (48/,)
2.8. Transformati on Charts.The i mpedance and reel ecti on cocfh-
ci ent transformati ons al ong a l i ne can be presented graphi cal l y i n forms
that are ver y useful i n experi -
mental wor k. Ther e are many
1
~~.
types of charts, of whi ch two, the
so-cal l ed ci rcl e di agrams, wi l l be
di scussed her e. They are especi -
al l y sui ted to l ossl ess l i nes.
@)
I rl =l
The Reelection Coejicient
(&rzitk) Charts.Consi der fi rst ----- _ ! _ _ -
~he refl ecti on coeffi ci ent transfor-
r
Re
mati on al ong a l ossl ess l i ne as ex-
= cons:
pressed by Eq. (45):
~(z) = rr]e(~z-~,+%). (245)
\
Let us set up a compl ex pl ane, as
shown i n Fi g. 2.6, wi th the real
I
1:1~,2.6.011the wfl ccti ol l<wfi .l ent i -l l att.
and i magi nary axes associ ated
!l i th correspondi ng components of r, desi gnated by r,t, and r,,,,.
r i s
then r epr esented by a vector from the ori gi n. The magni tude of r can
never exceed ~mi ty beca~l se the ampl i tude of the r efl ected I vave must be
l ess than that of the i nci dent ~vave; ct)nseq~l entl y we are confi ned
to the porti on of the compl ex pl ane ci rml mscri l wd by the uni t ci rcl e.
I t i s evi dent that pol ar coordi nates i n the compl ex pl cne are mor e
appropri ate than the cartesi an cot)r{l i nates rl t,,, r,,,, for ~l i sc(l ssi rl g
1P. H. Snl i th, Elect ronj{s, ,JI nU:Lry, 1!)41,
30 (I I K1lT RI I LA TI O.Y-S, I I YK11RQCI T 1- YHI <ORI <MI S [%c. 28
the l i ne transformati on of Eq. (45). The fami l y of ci rcl es center ed about
the ori gi n cor r espond to c~u-ves 1~I = constant or , by vi rtue of Eq. (44a),
to curves of constant vol tage standi ng-wave rati o. The curves of con-
stant phase of r m-e the fami l y of radi al l i nes from the ori gi n. The l i ne
transformati on gi ven by Eq. (45) corresponds to a rotati on of r about the
ori gi n wi thout change i n l ength: di spl acement al ong the I i ne i n the di rec-
ti on of i ncreasi ng z, that i s, away from the gener ator , produces an i ncrease
i n the phase of r, thus rotati ng r i n the posi ti ve sense (countercl ock~vi se),
whereas a di spl acement al ong the l i ne toward the gener ator rotates r
i n the negati ve sense.
The pol ar coordi nate curves are of such si mpl e form that usuarl y they
are not drawn i n expl i ci tl y on the chart.
I nstead, another pai r of fami l i es
of curves are i ntroduced, the ci rcl es of constant resi sti ve and reacti ve
components of the i mpedance, R and X respecti vel y. Wri ti ng
=(3+(:)
and r = rR. + j~I mJi n Eq. (30),
and separati ng r ear and i magi nary parts, one fi nds
(230)
(49)
These can be ~vri tten as
[ -)
R
20
r.. ~ + r;,,, = ---- y
()
~4~2
(50a)
l+ZO Zo
r+) +(r=a (w
(50b)
respecti vel y. I t i s seen from Eq. (50a) that the cur ve R/Z~ = constant
i s a ci rcl e wi th i ts center on the posi ti ve real axi s at (R/zo)/ (1 + R/ZO)
and radi us 1/(1 + R/ZO).
Ever y such ci rcl e i s tangent to the [i ne
I ~. = 1 at i ts poi nt of i ntersecti on wi th the real axi s. The ci rcl e cor -
respondi ng to R/ZO = 1 passes through the ori gi n and enc[oses a[l the
ci rcl es for whi ch R/ZO > 1.
Si mi l ar[y Eq. (50b) sho~vs that the curves X/ZO = constant are a
fami l y of ci rcl es. For a gi ven val ue of X/Z,, the center of the ci rcl e i s
SEC. 28]
TRANSFORMATI ON CHARTS 31
at the poi nt (1, ZO/X) and i ts radi us i s l ZO/Xl . Ever y such ci rc~ i s
tangent to the real axi s at the poi nt FW = 1. The curves l yi ng i n the
upper hal f of the pl ane cor r espond to posi ti ve (i nducti ve) reactance, and
those i n the l ower hal f pl ane to negati ve (capaci ti ve) reactance. I t
can be shown that the ci rcl es X/ZO = constant are orthogonal to the
ci rcl es R/ZO = constant.
FI G.2.7.The Snl i th chart.
The Smi th chart consi sts of the ci rcl es just descri bed. A typi cal
chart i s shown i n Fi g. 2.7, the ci rcl es bei ng l abel ed wi th the correspondi ng
val ues of the parameters R/ZO, X/ZO.
These curves ser ve as a system
of coordi nate l i nes. The termi nal pui nt of the vector r associ ated wi th
the compl ex number { = (R/ZO) + j(X/Z,) i s l ocated at the i ntersecti on
of the ci rcl es R/ZO and X/ZO. The di stance from the ori gi n to the i nter-
secti on of the ci rcl e R/ZO ~vi th the real axi s i s equal to the magni tude of
the vector T that corresponds to a standi ng-!vave rati o
R
=20
i f ;0 > 1,
/
~=~o i f
R
1 <1.
2,
32 CI RCUI T RELA TI OiVS, RJ 7CI PROCI TY THEOREMS [SEC. 2.8
Thi s fol l ows from the fact that r i s real when ~ i s real and from the rel a-
ti ons of Eq. (47) between the val ue of ~when i t i s a real number and the
standi ng-wave rati o.
To i l l ustrate these rel ati onshi ps l et us suppose that the standi ng-wave
rati o r has been measured on a gi ven l i ne, together wi th the posi ti on of
a vol tage mi ni mum; the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent and i mpedance are desi red
at a poi nt a di stance 1 from the mi ni mum posi ti on away from the gen-
erator. I t ~ri l l be recal l ed [Eq. (46 b)] that at a maxi mum posi ti on the
phase of r i s equal to m; r i s then di r ected al ong the negati ve real axis
The i mpedance at thi s poi nt i s real , bei ng R/Z~ = l /r. The vector ~
thus extencl s from the ori gi n to the ci rcl e correspondi ng to R/ZO = l /T-.
Countercl ockwi se rotati on of thi s vector through an angl e 2@ carri es us
to the desi red poi nt on the chart; the components of f at that poi nt are
read off from the pai r of i ntersecti ng ci rcl es. I t wi l l be noted on Fi g.
27 that the peri phery of the chart carri es a phase angl e scal e wi th the
phase desi gnated by the rati o of l i ne l ength to wavel ength.
The Smi th chart can al so be used to study the admi ttance transforma-
ti on. Fi rst i t shoul d be noted that ther e are two conventi ons for the
defi ni ti on of admi ttance. The conventi on adopted i n thi s book defi nes
the normal i zed admi ttance q = (G/ Yo) + j(B/ I 0) to be the reci procal
of the normal i zed i mpedance { = (R/ZO) + j(X/Zo); posi ti ve susceptance
B thus corresponds to negati ve (capaci ti ve) reactance. The other
conventi on defi nes the admi ttance to be the conjugate of th~ reci procal
i mpedance, i n or der that posi ti ve susceptance (l i ke posi ti ve reactance)
shoul d be i nducti ve.
The use of the l atter conventi on changes the use
of the chart i n ways whi ch the r eader can easi l y devel op.
Eql l ati on (36) gi ves the rel ati on betl reen the admi ttance and the
vol tage refl ecti on coei i i ci ent:
l r
=l +r
I ,et us defi ne a ne]r coeffi ci ent
T=r (51)
and associ ate I ri th i t a compl ex pl ane ~vi th axes ~Reand 11~.
(Actual l y
the same compl ex pl ane serves for both I _and T, the two vector s maki ng
an angl e of 180 ~~-i theach other . ) The vector T i s, i n fact, the cur r ent
rejection coefficient, expressi ng the rati o of the ampl i tude of the r efl ected
cur r ent ~va~-eto the ampl i tude of the i nri cl ent cur r ent wave.
The l aw
of transformati on of 1 al on~ the l i ne i s !)wci wl y the same as that gi ven
for r by Eq. (49). On substi tuti ng 11~. (51) i nto the i -el ati on between q
and r, we obtai n
1+r
=l T
(52)
Thi s i s the same as the rel ati on })etnmn f and J7;i t fol l ows that the curves
G/Y, = constant are a fami l y of ci rcl es that coi nci de wi th the constant
R/ZO fami l y i n the ~-~ trti usfornmti on and that tl l c cl u~mB/}-O = con-
stant coi nci de ~ri th the .YjZO ci rcl es.
I i -i th r wpcct ([) tl ]e l :~tter i t
shoul d be noted (i n usi ng the cl l :wt for admi ttance) that the curves l yi ng
i n the upper hal f pl ane r epr esent capaci ti ve sl wceptam,e.
he di s-
ti ncti on that need be made l )et~wxm the use of ti l e chart for i mpml :mce
and admi ttance can he m:de cl ear by consi deri ng ti l e pr(]l )l em of fi n[l i ng
the admi ttance at a poi nt di st:mt 1from a vol ta~c nl i ni n~~l ]ni n ti l e (l i rm-
ti on al vay from the gener:l tor, the standi n~-i ~:hvc mti o :L*ai n I wi ng r.
At av()l tage nl i ni nl l l r~l l l l i esal c~rl g t}l encg:~ti l el e:l l :~\i ~;l l e1l (e ~extends
al ong the posi ti ~-e r ed axi s to the ci rrl e
G
l ,
= r.
The starti ng poi nt thus l i es on the posi ti re rral axi s, i nstrad of on tl w
negati ve axi s, l I ovi ng al ong the l i ne :L\Yayfrom tl l c gcnr);l tol :L~:l i n
rotates T i n the posi ti ve sense (col l rl tc,r(,l ti (k}ti sr) tl l rol l gl ~ an :L]l gl r 21j~.
The admi ttance at the ne~r poi nt i s (l cternl i uml from ti l e l l :~i r t)i i nt(,r-
secti ng coordi nate curves, jl l st as i n ti l e c:wc of tl w i nl l mi :l ncr. I t
shoul d be cl ear that the admi t-
A
tance and i mpedance poi nts on the
~~, (%)
Smi th chart for one and the same
pni nt on the l i ne are di ametri -
cal l y opposi te to one another,
The Smi th chart i s p:l l t i c[l l arl y
sui ted to the stl l dy of :m i ml wd-
ance mi smatch that ari ses frt)rn
the superposi ti on of rcfl rcti ons.
&
For exampl e, therel n:~yl )(,fi ~(,l i rs
I rl
.,
of dl scontmu i ti es on a tr:~nsnl i s-
si m l i ne; the overal l refl er(i (}n cc)-
effi ci ent at a gi ven poi nt) i s, to a
good approxi mati f)n, tl ~e l ert(jr
sum of the refl w,ti on c(mffi (i rnts
11<,.?~ l l \<. r(,l:lti(jl, I)ct,j,,rll j]l,,j~<[:,,),.,,
that wmdd })e pro(l l l ce(l fi t the
:11,(1 :,(1,, ,)([:1,, (.(..
poi nt bythei ndi ri (l l l al (l i s(onti [l(l i (i (s:l ~,i i l l gscl ):l l :l t(l ~-i l l t{,(,:l l ~s[.l l (,r,,f
al l the others. The vector :~(l (l i ti on of (l l c ([,l l l l )[)l l (,l l t (,twffi (i (nl s yi (,l fl ,
good resl dts i f the components arr snml l . 1l ]r ~l l l jjrtl i i i ]] l x ctjmi (l cl (,tl
further i n l ater chapters i n connecti on ~t-i (l l fi l )c(,i l i ( l )r)hl rnw.
The Bipolar C))arf.s-A cornl )l cx pl :tnc c:l n I w wt 11])of whi ch tl l r
real and i magi nary axes are ass(x,i :l trd l l i (l l col ,l (~sl ]{~l l fl i l ]g(I [)l l ~l N~]l (~tl i s
of the norm:di zwl i n~pml :~n(,e~ (or n(l l ,n~:l l i zc(l :I (l l l l i t[:l l l ((l ~) jl l si
:\::i l l
the r~se of the rcfl e(,ti on r(wffi ci vuts.
ji i l l (,(~11)(J1,(:111):111<1~ Z,l ot 111(,
34 CI RCCI T RELA TI O.VS, RECI PROCI TY THEOREMS [SEC2 t3
hal f pl ane contai ni ng the posi ti ve real axi s comes under consi derati on.
The i mpedance (admi ttance) i s r epr esented i n thi s pl ane by a vector
from the ori gi n. Wi th r efer ence to the admi ttance we note agai n that i t
i s taken her e to be the reci procal of the i mpedance. One and the same
pl ane serves for both i mpedance and admi ttance; Fi g. 2.8 shows the
rel ati on between the i mpedance and admi ttance poi nts i n the pl ane
for a gi ven poi nt on a transmi ssi on l i ne.
The i mpedance transformati on
(2.30)
does not take so si mpl e a form i n the ~-pl ane as di d the refl ecti on coeffi -
ci ent transformati on i n the T-pl ane. Di spl acement al ong the l i ne pr o-
duces a change i n both the magni tude and phase of the i mpedance.
The geometri cal transformati on i s si mpl i fi ed by i ntroduci ng two
fami l i es of ci rcl es: the curves ]rl = constant and the curves r-phase =
constant. These curves are obtai ned from the 17-~ transformati on
r = (~ 1)/({ + 1) of Eq. (30). Wri ti ng r = {r]e@, we fi nd that
and
,r,2=(:- )2+EY
(E+)2+(9
()
an(a:h
These can be r ewr i tten as
respecti vel y. I t wi l l be seen that the curves I I = constant and@ = con-
stant are ci rcl es. The ci rcl e for a gi ven II 1 has i ts center on the real
axi s at a di stance (1 + I rl 2)/(1 I r] 2, from the ori gi n; i ts radi us i s
21rl /(1 Irl z). Curves of constant I r I are al so curves of constant
standi ng-wave rati o. By Eq. (43 b), we fi nd that the center of the ci rcl e
i s at (T2+ 1)/2r and that i ts radi us i s (rz 1)/2r. The ci rcl e i ntersects
the real axi s at the poi nts l /r and r, correspondi ng to the val ues that we
obtai ned previ ousl y [Eq. (47)] for the i mpedance at these poi nts on the
l i ne wher e i t i s real . These two poi nts on the chart thus cor r espond to
poi nts on the l i ne at whi ch the vol tage mi ni ma and vol tage maxi ma,
%c. 2.8]
71{.1 .Y,SI ,OR.\ f A 11O.1- (HA 1<7S 35
respecti vel y, ounl r.
The fami l y of ci rcl es Irl = constant i s showm i n
Fi g. 2.9, .Myherethey are l abel ed accordi ng to the power standing-wave ratio
r-z.
A ci rcl e of constant phase, Q = constant, has i ts center on the i magi -
nary axi s at the poi nt (0, cot o), and has a radi us I csc *I .
Thi s second
fami l y of ci rcl es i s orthogonal to the fi rst, just as i n the 17-pl ane the curves
of constant, Irl and constant phase are orthogonal .
I n the {-pl ane al l
\ I I /\
,---T
I
{
J
2,6
Realcomponent
I JI G. 2.9.Thebi pol ari ,],pcdar,ccchart,
the constant-phase ci rcl es i ntersect i n a poi nt (1, O), correspondi ng to
the i ntersecti on of al l the constant phase l i nes at the ori gi n i n the r-pl ane.
The two fami l i es of curves i n the ~-pl ane, taken together wi th thei r
i mage fami l i es i n the l eft-hand porti on of the pl ane, consti tute a system
of curvi l i near coordi nates known as the bi pol ar coordi nates; hence the
name of the chart.
The constant-phase curves are l abel ed i n Fi g. 2.9 so as to gi ve di rectl y
the change i n the phase of r correspondi ng to a di spl acement al ong the
l i ne from a vol tage-nl i ni ml l rn poi nt. Al l vol tage-mi ni mum poi nts must
be on the segment of the real axi s between zer o and uni ty; thi s i s ther e-
for e taken as the zero-phase l i ne. The separati on bet~veen a vol tage
mi ni mum and the adjacent maxi mum on a l i ne i s 1 = k/4, whi ch cor -
responds to a phase shi ft 2D1 = 180. Al l vol tage-maxi mum poi nts must
36 CI RCCI T REI ].4 TI O.J -,S, RI <CI I RCWI T1 THEORE.%fS [SEC. 29
l i e on the real axi s bet\veen 1 to cc ; hence thi s segment of the real axi ti
i s taken as the phase l i ne @ = 180.
By means of the I ]i pol ar curves the l i ne transformati on can be fol -
l oJ~ecl easi l y. I t i s cl ear that di spl acement al ong a gi t-en transmi ssi on
l i ne causes the i mpedance poi nt i n the {-pl ane to move around a ci rcl e
of constant standi ng-i rave rati o.
Di spl acement i n the countercl ockwi se
sense corresponds to the same sense of rotati on i n the r-pl ane. A hal f
l vavel ength of l i ne produces a phase shi ft of 2131= 360 and hence a
compl ete revol uti on around the r = constant ci rcl e. Thi s peri odi c
pr oper ty of the i mpedance transformati on ]vas noted pre~-i ousl y (Sec.
2.7). To i l l ustrate the use of the chart, consi der agai n a l i ne i n whi ch a
standi ng-~vave rati o r has been measured and a vol tage mi ni mum poi nt
has been l ocated. I t i s desi red to fi nd the i mpedance at a di stance
1 from the mi ni mum poi nt a!vay from the gener ator . The starti ng poi nt
i s the i nterscrti on bet!veen the r-z-ci rcl e and the real axi s on the segment
(O, 1). l Ve then move countercl ockwi se on the P-ci rcl e unti l i t i nter-
sects the constant phase ci rcl e @ = 2~1; thi s i s the desi red i mpedance
poi nt.
The same fami l i es of bi pol ar curves ser ve for the admi ttance di agram
l i keJvi se. I n usi ng the chart for admi ttance i t m~l st be noted that vol t-
age mi ni mum poi nts are on the segment of the real axi s (1, cc) whi l e
vol tage maxi mum poi nts l i e on the segment (O, 1). I f the vol tage mi ni -
mum i s retai ned as a zero-phase r efer ence poi nt, the real axi s segment
(1, cc) must be taken as the zero-phase l i ne and the segment (O, 1) as
the 180 l i ne. The sense of rotati on about a ci rcl e r = constant remai ns
the same.
I t shoul d be kept i n mi nd that the normal i zed i mpedance i s di s-
conti nuous across a juncti on between l i nes of di fferent characteri sti c
i mpedances; the i mpedance i tsel f i s conti nuous. On movi ng across such
a juncti on the poi nt i n both the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent and the bi pol ar
charts i n general wi l l moi re from one ci rcl e r = constant to another. I f
we ~ass from a l i ne of characteri sti c i mpedance ZO, to a l i ne of charac-
teri sti c i mpedance ZO,, the
gi ven by
2.9. The Four-termi nal
normal i zed i mpedance undergoes a change
Networ k Equi val ent of a Secti on of Trans-
mi ssi on Li ne.-For many purposes, i n the anal ysi s of systems i nvol vi ng
transmi ssi on l i nes i t i s conveni ent to repl ace a secti on of l i ne by i ts
equi val ent four-termi nal networ k.
The el ements of the networ k wi l l
be deri ved her e for the case of the 10SSYhomogeneous l i ne. Consi der
a secti on of l i ne of l ength 1, and take the ori gi n z = O at the i nput end;
l et V,, i l be the vol tage and cur r ent at thi s end, and l et Vz, i z be the vol t-
age and cur r ent at the output end z = 1.
From thel i ne equati cmsl I ;qs.
(18) anci (19)] l ~e have then
2=():
v, = A+. 42,
Zl = ,1- (.41 AZ);
Ao
2=1:
T2 = .4,(7~+A2c7~,
1
i 2 = r-- (41@ ~2(j7/),
k
Usi ng the two cur r ent equati ons to sol ve for (I , and Aj i n terms of i ,
and iz and substi tuti ng i nto the vol tage eql mti ons, ~veobtai n
VI = Z,lil Z,2i 2,
V2 = Z21i ~ Z22i 2,
1
(55)
wi th
Z,, = Z,, = Z,coth(~l ), (56a)
Z12 = 22, = Z, csch (71).
(56b)
We thus fi nd di rectl y that the networ k i s l i near and that the transfer
i mpedance coeffi ci ents sati sfy the reci proci ty rel ati ons. Si nce the l i ne
i s homogeneous, the networ k i s symmetri cal ~vi th r espect to i ts t I ro ends;
hence Z,, = Z,z. For a nonl ossy l i ne ~ = j~; on substi tuti on i nto the
above, the networ k parameters are found to be
Z,, = ZZ2 = jZO cot fi l , (57a)
Z12 = Z,, = jZO csc fi t. (57b)
TRANSMI TTI NG AND RECEI VI NG ANTENNAS
2.10. The Antenna as a Termi nati ng I mpedance.The i mpedance
rel ati ons between a transmi tti ng or recei vi ng antenna and i ts transmi s-
si on l i ne are of parti cul ar i nterest. I n the fol l o~yi ng secti ons several
general i deas that are associ ated wi th the anal ysi s of these rel ati ons wi l l
be di scussed. I ,et us consi der fi rst the case of a l i ne feedi ng a transmi t-
ti ng antenna. I t wi l l be assl l med for the pr esenk that the antenna i s
i sol atedi n parti cul ar, that i t i s r emoved from al l other antennasso
that i nteracti ons wi th other systems need not be consi dered. The
antenna fl l ncti ons l i ke a di ssi pati ve l oad on the l i ne i n that i t extracts
power from i t; part of thi s ener gy i s radi ated i nto space, and part i s
di ssi pated i nto heat i n the antenna str{l ct~n-e. I n general , the antenna
does not absorb al l of the pofver i nci dent on i t from the l i ne b~l t gi ves ri se
to a r efl ected I rave i n the l i ne; i n effect tl w l i ne i s tm-mi natml bv an
i mped:mce di ffrrent from i ts cl i :~l :~(tcl .i sti ti mpedanre. I l oi vever, the
defi ni ti on of the trrmi nal i mped:mre reprrwnti ng the antenna i s not fr ee
from ambi gl l i ty and reql l i res some Consi (l rmti on.
I t i s to be notrd fi rst th:l t the defi ni ti on of a termi nfi l i mpwl anrr
,
38 CI RCC71T REI ,A TI O.VS, RI ?CI PROCI T1 THEOREMS [SEC. 2.10
i mpl i es the i denti fi cati on of a dri vi ng poi nt, or set of i nput termi nal s, for
the antenna. I n some cases, such as the hal f-wave di pol e or rhombi c
l oop antennas fed from a two-wi r e l i ne as i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 1.2, the
structural di sconti nui ty bet}f-een the l i ne and the radi ator sl l ggests a
dri vi ng poi nt. l hi s, however , i s not enough; i t i s necessary that the
cur r ent di stri buti on i n the l i ne be that characteri sti c of a transmi ssi on
l i ne up to the assi gned dri vi ng poi nt. At l ong wavel engths thi s condi -
ti on i s real i zed wi th the antennas ci ted above: the i nteracti on between
the antenna and l i ne can be r epr esented by a l umped reacti ve i mpedance
across the dri vi ng termi nal s i n paral l el wi th the i mpedance charac-
teri sti c of the antenna i tsel f. At short wavel engths, however , the i nter-
acti on between the radi ati ng system and the l i ne causes a perturbati on
of the cur r ent di stri buti on on the l atter that may extend back over an
appreci abl e di stance; el ectri cal l y ther e i s no poi nt of transi ti on from trans-
mi ssi on-l i ne currents to antenna currents. Thi s i s a parti cul arl y cogent
poi nt i n the case of mi crowave syste,ms that make use of wavegui de
l i nes, i n whi ch the el ectromagneti c fi el ds exi st i n the form of a number of
modes.1 A wavegui de i s equi val ent to a two-wi r e l i ne onl y when i t i s
supporti ng propagati on of a wave i n a si ngl e mode. Mi crowave l i nes
are, i n fact, general l y so desi gned that they can support fr ee propagati on
of onl y one mode. Neverthel ess, though a si ngl e mode i s i nci dent on the
antenna, the antenna i tsel f exci tes other modes, i n addi ti on to gi vi ng ri se
to a r efl ected wave i n the i nci dent mode.
I t i s onl y at poi nts so far
from the antenna that the other modes have been attenuated to negl i gi bl e
ampl i tudes that a wavegui de i s equi val ent to a two-wi r e l i ne. Attenti on
shoul d al so be cal l ed to the absence of a uni que dri vi ng poi nt i n cases
wher e the transi ti on from the l i ne to the radi ator i s effected by a con-
ti nuous structural transi ti on.
An exampl e of thi s i s a wavegui de fl ari ng
gradual l y i nto a horn wi thout structural di sconti nui ti es i n the wal l s.
I n these cases, agai n, the transi ti on from transmi ssi on-l i ne currents to
antenna currents cannot be l ocal i zed to a poi nt.
The acti on of an arbi trary antenna as a termi nal l oad on the l i ne can
be speci fi ed i n terms of the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent r measured i n the trans-
mi ssi on l i ne, at a poi nt so far from the antenna that i ts onl y effect i s the
producti on of the r efl ected transmi ssi on-l i ne wave. At any poi nt i n the
transmi ssi on-l i ne regi on an i mpedance (or admi ttance) can be determi ned
from the measured r, by means of Eq. (30); thi s can be taken as the l oad
i mpedance termi nati ng the l i ne at that poi nt.
Furthermore, any such
poi nt may be r egar ded as the juncti on between the l i ne and the i nput
termi nal s to the antenna i n so far as the practi cal anal ysi s of the system
i s concer ned.
Thi s rai ses the questi on of the representati on of an antenna by an
equi val ent net~vor k. Ther e i s no uni que networ k associ ated wi th a
1See Chap. 7.
SE<.2.10] THE ANTENNA AS A TERMI . VA TI N(2 I MPEDANCE
~g
gi ven val ue of r. The l oad to be associ ated wi th r at a poi nt taken
arbi trari l y as the i nput to the antenna may be r epr esented by an i mped-
ance i n the form of a seri es combi nati on of a resi stance and reactance or
equal l y wel l by an admi ttance made up of a resi stance and reactance i n
paral l el . I n ei ther case the resi stance measures the power di ssi pated i n
the regi on beyond the i nput termi nal s to the antenna; thi s, i f the l i ne i s
l ossl ess, i s the power di ssi pated by the antenna i n radi ati on and ohmi c
l osses. I f ~ i s the total power (averaged over a cycl e) di ssi pated by
the antenna and t and ~ are respecti vel y the effecti ve cur r ent and vol tage
at the i nput termi nal s, the resi stance of the i mpedance representati on i s
gi ven by
~ = i 2R
(58a)
and that of the admi ttance representati on i s gi ~-en by
(581))
I t i s tempti ng to car r y over the concept of radi ati on resi stance, ~l sed
so extensi vel y i n the l ong-wavel ength regi on. The total power di ssi pated
by the antenna i s the sum of the radi ated power ~, and the power PO
di ssi pated i n ohmi c l osses i n the antenna structure. Correspondi ngl y,
the resi sti ve component of the i mpedance representi ng the antenna woul d
be taken as the sum of two el ements: an ohmi c resi stance Ro and a radi a-
ti on resi stance R,. I ~ach el ement ~voul d be gi ven i n terms of the power
component by :L defi ni ng rel ati on sl l ch as 13q. (58), for exampl e, the radi a-
ti on resi stance by
~r = i l ?,.
(59)
I n the l ong-] wavel engthregi on thi s resol uti on i s possi bl e because one can
defi ne l mi quel y a dri vi ng poi nt at I vhi ch the antenna networ k can be
di ssoci ated from the l i ne and because i t i s possi bl e, on the basi s of fi el d
theor y, to set up an unambi guous netl vor k that i s characteri sti c of the
antenna i tsel f. I n the case of the di pol e and l oop antennas r efer r ed to
earl i er the net]vor k i s a seri es combi nati on of a resi stance and reactance.
However , i n the general case, wher e the dri vi ng poi nt i s merel y an arbi -
trary r efer ence poi nt on the l i ne, the antenna netl \-ork cannot be di ssoci ated
from the l i ne, and ei ther an i mpedance or an admi ttance representati on
can be used. I n the admi ttance representati on the resol uti on of R i nto
an ohmi c component Ro and a radi ati on component R, (i f i t i s to be
made at al l ) must pl ace the t]J-ocomponents i n paral l el . I n vi etv of the
transformati on properti es of the l i ne, i t i s evi dent that these resi stances
I Vi l l I w f~mcti ons of the posi ti on of toe r efer ence poi nt.
Ti l e practi cti l si ~ni fi cax~rc of tl ~e r cfer encc poi nt and of the antenna
i mpedance Z~ (I etermi nc(l from tl m nwabl l rcx1 ral uc of ~ at that poi nt
l n:~y I )e i l l (l stral c(l I )y refcrel l tc to tl l c matchi ng probl em. I ,ct 1 be the
l ength of l i ne from the r efer ence poi nt (regar(l cd nojv as the termi nal
40 CI RCUI T 12ELA TI ONS, RECI PROCI TY THEOREMS [SEC. 211
poi nt of the l i ne) to the gener ator . I t fol l ows from Sees. 24 and 2.9,
the l i ne wi l l transfer maxi mum power from the gener ator to a termi nal
l oad of i mpedance
z; Csc @
ZL = jZO cot @ + z: + jzo cot@
(60)
wher e Zc i s the i nternal i mpedance of the gener ator and 20 i s the char-
acteri sti c i mpedance of the l i ne. I f the antenna i mpedance Z. i s
di fferent from Z., i t i s possi bl e to i ntroduce a reacti ve networ k between
the i nput termi nal s of Z. and the l i ne, whi ch (at one frequency at l east)
transforms Z. i nto Z.; thi s networ k wi l l effect maxi mum-power transfer
to the antenna.
I t i s to be noted that i n mi crowave systems another matchi ng prob-
l em exi sts: The characteri sti cs of the gener ator are such that the r efl ected
wave i n the l i ne must be el i mi nated. Thi s requi res that the antenna
i mpedance Z~ be transformed i nto ZOi n general a di fferent transforma-
ti on from that requi red by the maxi mum-power-transfer condi ti on. I n
these systems the gener ator must be i ndependentl y matched to the l i ne;
the gener ator i nternal i mpedance Z. i s transformed i nto ZO wi th the
resul t I cf. Eq. (60)] that the maxi mum-power condi ti on then coi nci des
wi th the condi ti on for el i mi nati ng the r efl ected wave i n the l i ne.
2.11. The Recei vi ng Antenna System.The equi val ent ci rcui t r epr e-
sentati ons used i n di scussi ng recei vi ng antennas al so need exami nati on.
Consi der an arbi trary antennai t maybe a cer~ter;dri ven di pol e, a horn,
or a combi nati on of such el ements wi th r efl ector s and l ensesfeedi ng
i nto one end of a transmi ssi on l i ne that at the other end i s termi nated
i n a passi ve l oad i mpedance. (That i s, the recei vi ng ci rcui t i s fr ee from
generators.) When an external el ectromagneti c fi el d fal l s on the r ecei v-
i ng-antenna system, the i nteracti on between the antenna and the fi el d
gi ves ri se to a wave i n the l i ne. The antenna may be r egar ded as a
devi ce that transforms ener gy carri ed by a fr ee wave i n space i nto ener gy
carri ed by a gui ded wave on the transmi ssi on l i ne. From the poi nt of
vi ew of the termi nal l oad, however , the antenna functi ons as a gener ator ,
and i t i s customary. to repl ace i t by a gener ator i n di scussi ng the effi ci ency
of the recei vi ng system as i t depends on the antenna, l i ne, and l oad
i mpedances. I t i s our purpose to di scuss the nature of the equi val ent
gener ator . I n thi s connecti on the probl em of modes i n mi crowave sys-
tems agai n ari ses. The fi el d exci ted i n the l i ne by the antenna al ways
consi sts of a number of the modes that are possi bl e i n the gi ven l i ne.
I t wi l l be assumed that the l i ne i s desi gned to support fr ee propagati on
of a si ngl e mode and that the l ength of l i ne between the antenna and
l oad i s mor e than suffi ci ent to attenuate the other modes to negl i gi bl e
ampl i tudes; ther e wi l l then be an appreci abl e regi on over whi ch the gui de
i s equi val ent to a two-wi r e l i ne.
sm. 2.11] THE REC117 VI NG A .V7l?.V.TA .9J S71Eilf 41
Befor e di scussi ng the equi val ent gener ator representati on, i t wi l l be
wel l tc consi der bri efl y the physi cal processes of the i nteracti on between
the recei vi ng system and the external fi el d. For thi s purpose i t wi l l be
assumed that an essenti al l y pl ane wave from a ver y di stant sour ce i s
fal l i ng on the recei vi ng antenna. I n the nei ghborhood of the recei vi ng
antenna the i nci dent wavefront may be r egar ded as a pl ane surface,
over whi ch the el ectri c and magneti c fi el d i ntensi ti es are sensi bl y con-
stant i n magni tude; furthermore, the el ectri c and magneti c fi el d vector s
l i e i n the pl ane, normal to the di recti on of propagati on of the wavefront. 1
We shal l assume for the moment that the l oad i mpedance termi nati ng the
l i ne i s equal to the characteri sti c i mpedance of the l i ne. Under the acti on
of the i nci dent wave a di stri buti on of currents and charges i s exci ted i n
the antenna structure; the currents are comml mi cated to the transmi ssi on
l i ne and gi ve ri se to a wave i n thi s ~vhi ch pr oceeds toward the l oad.
Si nce the l oad i s matched to the l i ne, thi s wave i s compl etel y absorbed by
the l oad. The cur r ent and charge di stri buti on exi sti ng on the antenna
under thi s matched-l oad condi ti on wi l l be desi gnated as the pri mary
i nduced di stri buti on.
Consi der now an arbi trary l oad i mpedance. Thi s wi l l absorb onl y
part of the wave exci ted by the pri mary i ndl l ced di stri buti on and wi l l
gi ve ri se to a r efl ected wave, whi ch ~vi l l pr oceed to the antenna and exci te
ther e a charge and cur r ent di stri buti on, as i f the system w-er e a trans-
mi tti ng system. Thi s new di stri buti on of charges and currents wi l l be
ter med a secondary i nduced di stri buti on. The reacti on of the antenna
to the r efl ected wave depends on the i mpedance of the antenna rel ati ve
to the l i ne, as di scussed i n the precedi ng secti on. I f the antenna i mped-
ance i s equal to the l i ne characteri sti c i mpedance, ther e wi l l exi st i n the
l i ne onl y the two component \vaves al ready menti oned. On the other
hand, i f the antenna i s mi smatched, ther e wi l l occur a process of mul ti pl e
refl ecti on between the antenna and the l oad. The resul tant secondary
i nduced di stri buti on on the antenna i s the s~l mof the component di stri bu-
ti ons ari si ng from the mul ti pl e refl ecti ons bet]reen the antenna and l oad;
i ts magni tude and phase rel ati ~-e to the pri mary di stri buti on are deter -
mi ned by the antenna and l oad i mpedances and the l ength of l i ne between
them. I t wi l l be r ecogni zed that si nce the component waves are al l of
the same frequency, the net resul t i nsi de the l i ne i s ti vo waves, onethe
resul tant i nci dent ~va~-etra~cl i ng to\~ard the l oad, and the second
the resul tant r efl ected wa},e- travel i ng away from i t. Thei r rel ati ve
~.mpl i tudes are gi ven by the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent correspondi ng to the
I mpedance mi smatch between the l oad and the l i ne.
Si nce the pri mary and secondary i nduced di stri buti ons on the antenna
both vary wi th ti me (wi th a frequency equal to that of the i nci dent
wave), they radi ate and set up an el ectromagneti c wave i n space.
Thi s
1A generaltreatmentof [,l [,[,trt)fnagnf:ti f, fi l ,l l l s i s gi vvn i n ( hap. 3.
42 CI RCUI T RELATI ONS, RECI PROCI TY THEOREMS [SEC. 2.11
wave i s known as the scattered wave.
The i nteracti on between the
recei vi ng system and the i nci dent wave i s compl etel y expressed i n the
rel ati on between the scattered wave and the i nci dent wave fi el ds. Ther e
are two i nteracti on effects: (1) ener gy i s taken from the i nci dent wave and
di ssi pated i n heat i n the antenna, the l i ne and the l oad, bei ng thus com-
pl etel y l ost to the fi el d i n space, and (2) ener gy i s taken from the i nci dent
wave and reradi ated i nto al l di recti ons about the antenna. The fi rst
effect i s known as absorption; the second as scattering. I f the di mensi ons
of the antenna are l arge compared wi th the wavel ength, the i nteracti on
between the scattered wave fi el d and the i nci dent wave i s such as to
gi ve ri se to a rather sharpl y defi ned shadow regi on behi nd the antenna,
that i s, on the si de of the antenna away from the sour ce of the i nci dent
wave. I n thi s di recti on the scattered wave set up by the i nduced di s-
tri buti on on the antenna i s out of phase wi th the i nci dent wave; the
destructi ve i nter fer ence between the tJro fi el ds resul ts i n the removal of
ener gy from the i nci dent wati e. Thi s ener gy i ncl udes both the absorbed
and scattered ener gy. 1 I f the di mensi ons of the antenna are of the or der
of magni tude of the wavel ength or are smal l compared wi th i t, ther e i s
no sharpl y defi ned shadow regi on. The fundamental process i s the same,
however , i n that destructi ve i nter fer ence between the scattered wave and
the i nci dent wave i n vari o(l s di recti ons r emoves ener gy from the l atter
wave; thi s ener gy i s i n part absorbed and i n part scattered by the antenna.
The i nteracti on bet~veen the antenna and the i nci dent wave may be
vi sual i zed by ti ~i nki ng of the antenna as presenti ng a certai n i ntercepti on
area or cross secti on to the i nci dent wave and removi ng from i t al l the
ener gy i nci dent on the cross secti on. The total i ntercepti on area i s
resol ved i nto two parts: the absorption cross section and the scattering
cross section. Refer ence ~vas made to cross secti ons i n Sec. 12. To
repeat: Let S be the power i ntensi ty, that i s, power fl ow per uni t area
of the i nci dent wave, Pab, and P,,a~ the absorbed and scattered powers,
and .4, and A, the correspondi ng cross secti ons; then
Pab, = .4,8, (61a)
P .,., = ASS. (61b)
The cross secti ons are functi ons of the aspect presented by the antenna
to the i nci dent wave. The r eader i s r efer r ed to Sm. 12 for the defi ni ti on
of the recei vi ng pattern.
The defi ni ti on and measurement of the absorbed power i s unambi guous
i n pri nci pl e. I n mi crowave systems the poJver di ssi pati on i n the antenna
anti l i ne i s general l y smal l compared Tvi th that i u the l oad; hence the
1The si gni fi canceof the shado~vhas l mcn di sc~l sscdi n greatdctal l f,~ri 11~cxw of :1
pl ane wave i nci dmt on a sphereby 1.. I I rl l l oui n,On I .i ght Sc:~tteri l l g hy Sp -es,
A pplted I lfalh. la,,e~ Reporls, >-111{(, Col umbi aUni versi ty,87.1, December 1943, and
87.2, .kpri l 1944.
absorpti on cross secti onor recei vi ng cross secti oncan be eval uated
wi th smal l er r or from the power absorbed by the l oad. The scattered
power ,however , i snotdi rectl ym easurab]e, andi ts theoreti cal eval uati on
i s subject to ambi gui ti es. Al though el ectromagneti c fi el ds are addi ti ve,
thei r energi es are not addi ti ve, the resul tant ener gy bei ng modi fi ed by
the i nteracti on between the fi el ds. Consequentl y the ener gy fl ow com-
putedfor thescattered wave fi el d, r egar ded asi sol ated from the i nci dent
wave fi el d, does not necessari l y
r epr esent the ener gy r emoved
from the l atter and reradi ated i n
al l other di recti ons. Thi s i s par- ~
ti tul arl y tr ue when the antenna
$m
di mensi ons arecomparabl e to the -
wavel ength and the i nteracti on G
between the scattered and i nci -
1 . L . I
dent waves, ~vhi ch resul ts i n r e-
11~. 2.10. Ci rrui t reK>resentatl On of ttl e
recei ~,i ng antennasystem.
moval of ener gy from the l atter,
-
cannot be l ocal i zed to a ~vel l -defi ned shadow regi on.
The equi val ent ci rcui t representati on of the recei vi ng system i s based
on the fact that the antenna functi ons l i ke a gener ator i n so far as the
...
l oad i s concer ned. I n repl aci ng the antenna byan equi val ent gener ator
i t i s general l y assumed (1) that for a gi ven aspect of the antenna to~vard
the i nci dent wave, the emf of the gener ator i sproporti cmal to the fi el d
i ntensi ty of the wave and (2) that the gener ator has an i nternal i mpedance
equal to the i nput i mpedance whi ch the antenna presents to the l i ne ~vhen
used as a transmi tter. l he compl ete ci rcui t i s sho~vn i n Fi g. 2.10, wher e
the l i ne, assumed to be nonl ossy, i s repl aced by i ts equi val ent T-secti on;
Z. and Z, are the antenna and the l oad i mpedance respecti vel y. I t i s
evi dent that thi s ci rcui t representati on i nvol ves the same di ffi cul ti es as
the representati on of the antenna by a l oad i mpedancethe defi ni ti on of
Z. and of the i nput termi nal s to the antenna. When a dri vi ng poi nt can
be l ocal i zed i n the transmi ssi on probl em, the same poi nt al so serves for
the output termi nal s of the gener ator feedi ng the l i ne i n the r ecei ver
probl em. 310re general l y, ~vhen the i nput termi nal s to the antenna
can be defi ned onl y as an arbi trary r efer ence poi nt on the l i ne, the gen-
er ator vol tage must be a functi on of the posi ti on of that poi nt; i t i s not
a pri or-i evi dent that the po~ver rel ati ons bet]veen the antenna and l oad
cal cul ated on the basi s of the equi val ent ci rcui t are i ndependent of the
choi ce of antenna termi nal s. I t wi l l bc sho~vn i n a l ater secti on that the
resul ts for the absorpti on cross secti on are i ndependent of that choi ce.
I t ~vi l l be noted that i n I ;i g. 2.10 power i s di ssi pated both i n the l oad
i mpedance ZI , and i n the i nternal i mpedance of the gener ator .
The
power di ssi patr(1 i n ~J, i s i nt crprctml :LS the pol vrr absorbed from the
i nci dent ]j-a~c I )y tl l c antenna and del i vered to the l oad, The po\ver
.
44
CI RCl!I T RELATI ONS, RECI PROCI TY THEOREMS [SEC. 2.11
di ssi pated i n Z. i s frequentl y i nterpreted as the scattered power -the
power absorbed by the antenna (di ssi pated i n i ts ohmi c resi stance) pl us
the powerreradi ated. Negl ecti ng theohmi c l osses, the powerdi ssi pated
i n 24 woul d thus measure the scatteri ng cross secti on. I t wi l l , however ,
be seen i n Sec. 212 that the power di ssi pated i n the i nternal i mpedance
of the equi val ent gener ator has no di rect rel ati on to the ener gy reradi ated
by the antenna and i n general cannot be used i n di scussi ng the scatteri ng
cross secti on. Two i mportant cases i n whi ch the above i nterpretati on
i s val i d are that of the di pol e antenna and the smal l (compared wi th
wavel ength) l oop antenna. I n these antennas, the cur r ent di stri buti ons
i nduced by the i nci dent wave under condi ti ons of matched l oad termi na-
ti ons are the same as the currents exci ted on the antennas when they
are dri ven by the l i ne i n transmi ssi on.
The equi val ent ci rcui t representati on can thus i n general be used onl y
for the treatment of absorpti on. I t i s readi l y found that the power
del i vered to the l oad by the gener ator i s gi ven by
wher e
2
~ (6%)
The condi ti on for maxi mu~(,-po-i ver transfer from the gener ator to the
l oad i n the equi val ent ci rcui t gi ves the i mpedance rel ati ons requi red for
maxi mum absorpti on cross secti on: the l oad i mpedance Z~ must be
such that i ts i mpedance, transformed through the T-networ k of Fi g. 210,
i s equal to the compl ex conjugate of 2A. I t was noted befor e that i f a con-
jugate i mpedance rel ati onshi p exi sts across any poi nt i n the l i ne, i t
exi sts at al l poi nts on the l i ne; consequentl y the l oad i mpedance deter -
mi ned by the conjugate condi ti on i s i ndependent of the arbi trary poi nt
taken to be the i nput termi nal s of the antenna.
I t fol l ows from Eq. (62) that the absorpti on cross secti on i s zer o when
the l i ne i s termi nated i n ei ther a short ci rcui t l,.TL = O) or an open ci r-
cui t (ZL = ~). I n each case the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent of the termi nati on
has the magni tude uni ty, and al l po~ver i nci dent on the termi nati on i s
refl ected. I t i s of i nterest for these cases to compute the power di ssi pated
i n 2A on the basi s of the ci rcui t representati on.
We fi nd
I VGI
Re 2.,
pop = 212A jzo cot fv
(ZL = m), (63aj
SEC.212] 7HE YRA.VSMI 1YJ Y1< AI VD RELfiI VER
45
I VGI
,. Rc ZA,
1 = 21Z. + jZO tan DI I A
(ZL = o). (63b)
I n both cases ther e are certai n l engths of l i ne
[
nk
~for Z.= co,
t;) G)
for Z. = O, n bei ng an i nteger
1
for whi ch the power gi ven by these eql l ati ons i s equal to zer o. For
cases i n whi ch the di ssi pati on i n Z~ may be i nterpreted as scattered
power , thi s means that the scatteri ng cross secti on vani shes for the
stated termi nati ons and associ ated l i ne l engths. Thi s can be under-
stood readi l y from physi cal consi derati ons. Si nce the reHccti un coeffi -
ci ent of the l oad i s uni ty, the vol tage i mpressed across the dri vi ng poi nt
of the antenna by the r efl ected wave i n the l i ne i s equal i n magni tude
to that i mpressed by the external i nci dent ~vave. The cur r ent di stri bu-
ti ons exci ted on the antenna by the t~r o waves are the same except for
phase; hence, by sui tabl e adjustment of the l i ne l ength, the pri mary
and secondary i nduced di stri buti ons on the antenna can be put 180 out
of phase, wi th the resul t that they gi ve ri se to no resul tant scattered
wave. The absorpti on and scatteri ng cross secti ons are then both equal
to zer o. Si mi l ar phenomena can be obser ved ~vi th mor e genre-al types
of antennas. The phase betJ~een the pri mary and secondary i nduced
antenna di stri buti ons i s determi ned by the l oad i mpedance and the l i ne
l ength. I f the l oad refl ecti on coeffi ci ent i s uni ty, the component di s-
tri buti ons on the antenna w-i l l be comparabl e i n magni tude, and by sui t-
abl e adjustment of the l i ne l ength thei r rel ati ve phase can be adjusted
to gi ve a mi ni mum scatteri ng muss secti on.
2.12. The Transmi tter and Recei ver as a Coupl ed System.The
precedi ng secti ons treat the transmi tti ng and recei vi ng antennas as i so-
l ated systems and negl ect the si gni fi cant featl u-e of the i nterxti on het~veen
them. Any di scussi on of a transmi tti ng pattern i mpl i es the pr esence
of a recei vi ng antenna to expl or e the fi el d; conversel y, a di scussi on of a
recei vi ng antenna assumes the exi stence of a radi ati ng systcm. The
i nteracti on between the transmi tter and r ecei ver i s a res~dt of scatteri ng.
Consi der a transmi tti ng antenna that, when compl etel y i sol ated, i s
matched to i ts l i ne. When a recei vi ng antenna i s i ntrodl wcd i nto the
fi el d of thi s transmi tti ng antenna, i t gi ~es ri se to a scattered ware.
Thi s, when i ntercepted by the transmi tti ng antenna, i n turn gi ves ri se
to a wave transmi tted do~vn the feed l i ne of that antenna. The net effect
i s that the transmi tti ng antenna no l onger presents a matched i mpcdancc
to i ts l i ne. The transmi tti ng antenna al so i n turn gi ves ri se to a scnt-
ter ed wave that i s partl y absorbed I )y the recei ~-i ng systcm and part]y
rescattered. The i nteracti on betwmm the two antennas i s thus dl ~e to
mul ti pl e scatteri ng and absorpti on.
46 CI RCUI T RELATI ONS, RECI PROCI TY THEOR&lMS [SEC, 212
From the poi nt of vi ew of the transmi ssi on l i nes, the antennas and
the external space form a networ k that coupl es the l i nes together . I n
Fi g. 2.11, .4 and B r epr esent the transmi tter and r ecei ver respecti vel y,
and O and O are arbi trary but fi xed r efer ence poi nts on the r especti ve
l i nes. I t wi l l be assumed that ther e i s no acti vated gener ator other
than the cme feedi ng the transmi tter A; the networ k between O and O
Z,= Z*l-Z,2 Z2=Z22-Z,2
()
~1
v, I
$+ fox
I J
1:1~.2 1I .l r)ur-tertnl ndnet~vor krepresentati onof the coupl edtransmi tter-recei ver
i s passi re. I t wi l l al so be assumed that the networ k i s a four-termi nal
networ k i n the sense of Sec. 2.2. Thus the vol tages and currents VI ,
ZI at O and VZ, i ~ at O, are l i nearl y rel ated:
v, = Zllil 2A;
V2 = Z21i1 Zzzic;
and the transfer i mpedance coeffi ci ents obey the reci proci ty condi ti on
Z,n = 2,,. The transfer i mpedance expresses the coupl i ng between the
antennas. The basi s for these assumpti ons concerni ng the properti es
of the net~vor k i s di scussed i n Sees. 2.16 to 2.18.
The networ k may be repl aced by an equi val ent T-secti on i n the
manner di scussed i n Sec. 2.2. Thi s has been i ndi cated i n Fi g. 2.11.
The i mpedance coeffi ci ents are functi ons of the antennas, thei r rel ati ve
confi gurati ons, the properti es of the external medi um and of the trans-
mi ssi on l i nes, and the di stance bet~veen the antennas. I n the case of
wavegui de l i nes, the r efer ence poi nts O and O defi ni ng the networ k
termi nal s must be at such di stances from the antennas that al l modes
other than that for whi ch the l i ne i s desi gned have negl i gi bl e ampl i tudes.
As the di stance R., between the antennas i ncreases, the i m~ortance of
mul ti pl e scatteri ng di mi ni shes. The ampl i tude of the wave returni ng
to a gi ven antenna as a resul t of a si ngl e scatteri ng process i s attenuated
by a di stance factor (R~.)-2; that due to stage mul ti pl e scatteri ng process
i s attenuated by a factor (RAB)4. I n the l i mi t R., = cc the coupl i ng
between the two antennas vani shes-the termi nal s O and O are i sol ated
from each other . I n thi s l i mi t the i mpedance arm Zl z of the T-secti on
becomes a short ci rcui t:
l i m 2,, = 0. (64)
RAB+ cc
SEC. 212] THE TRA.VSMI TTER AND RECEI VER 47
Al so, i n thi s l i mi ti ng case, Z, and Z, r educe to the i nput i mpedances
Z! and Z; (r efer r ed to O and O respecti vel y) of antennas A and B i n
thei r i sol ated states. When R.. is l arge but not i nfi ni te and A i s trans-
mi tti ng, the scattered wave from B has a smal l ampl i tude when i t reaches
A; the i nput i mpedance of A is but sl i ghtl y di fferent from Z!. I f the
i mpedance at O i s sensi bl y i ndependent of the posi ti on and ori entati on
of antenna B, we have one of the requi si te condi ti ons under whi ch B,
acti ng as a r ecei ver , may be consi dered to be measuri ng the transmi ssi on
pattern of A. I n thi s si tuati on the antennas are weakl y coupl ed; the
transfer i mpedance i s negl i gi bl e i n i ts effect on the transmi tti ng antenna.
As concerns the r ecei ver , however , the transfer i mpedance i s not negl i gi bl e,
for i t represents the transfer of ener gy from the transmi tti ng antenna to
the recei vi ng system. The same consi derati ons appl y when B is trans-
fl f)
z; z;
I
1
I I
Zc
I
I
I I
ZL ~
I
I
I
I
/
I
(ZG)equi v
m
(Vc ) equi v
ZL
l ~l G.212,-On the r ecei vi ng sy~tem ci rcui t.
mi tti ng and A i s the r ecei ver . For the I veakl y coupl ed case we may then
set Zl and Z, equal to the r especti ve val ues at RAB = cc and to a fi rst
approxi mati on wri te
7
J1l = zy + 212, (65a)
222
= z; + 212. (65b)
Thi s coupl ed networ k representati on provi des the cor r ect approach
to the equi val ent ci rcui t of the recei vi ng system di scussed i n Sec. 2.11.
That case was actual l y one of a weakl y ~oupl ed transmi tter-recei ver
system. Wi thout l oss of general i ty we may consi der a gener ator of emf
Va and i nternal i mpedance Z. to be appl i ed di rectl y to the termi nal s at
O and a l oad i mpedance Z. tobe appl i ed di rectl y at O (Fi g. 212). By
Th&eni ns theor em (Sec. 24) the system i s equi val ent to one i n ~vhi ch
the l oad i s connected to a gener ator produci ng an emf
and havi ng an i nternal i mpedance
Z,,(Z: + z.)
(Z.) .xuiv = ! + ~~,+-~~~
(66)
(67)
I n obtai ni ng these resl l l ts the l veak-coupl i ng approx~mati cms for Z,, and
48 CIRCUIT RELATIONS, RECIPROCITY THEOREMS [SEC. 2.13
2,, gi ven by Eqs. (65) have been used. The recei vi ng antenna i s thus
r epr esented by an equi val ent gener ator ; the emf of the gener ator i s
proporti onal to the ampl i tude of the i nci dent wave (whi ch i s pr opor -
ti onal to l.). The effect of the ori entati on of the antenna wi th r espect
to the wave i s contai ned i n the functi onal dependence of the transfer
coeffi ci ent 212 on ori entati on. The i nternal i mpedance di ffers from Z;
by the smal l quanti ty Zl z; negl ecti ng the l atter, we have the resul t
(assumed previ ousl y) that the equi val ent gener ator i mpedance i s equal
to the i nput i mpedance of the antenna when i t i s transmi tti ng. The
present anal ysi s shows expl i ci tl y that the equi val ent ci rcui t appl i es onl y
to absorpti on, for Th6veni ns theor em i s appl i cabl e onl y to the treatment
of the power transferred to ZL. I n general the power di ssi pati on com-
puted for the equi val ent gener ator i mpedance i s not equal to the power
di ssi pated i n the networ k bet~veen V. and the l oad; hence i t cannot be
i nterpreted as scattered po~r er .
2.13. Reci proci ty between the Transmi tti ng and Recei vi ng Patterns
of an Antenna.The four-termi nal net~vor k anal ysi s l ea i s to the ver y
i mportant theor em that the transmi tti ng and recei vi ng patterns of an
antenna are the same. I n thi s connecti on the meani ng of a pattern must
be understood from the practi cal standpoi nt of the coupl ed system.
One condi ti on has al ready been stated: I n the case of the transmi ssi on
pattern, the di stance from the transmi tter to the r ecei ver must be so
l arge that the for mer i s not affected (~vi thi n the l i mi ts of measurements)
by the wave scattered from the l atter. I n addi ti on, however , one must
consi der the i nteracti ons between the recei vi ng antenna and objects i n
i ts i mmedi ate nei ghborhood. Mul ti pl e refl ecti on and scatteri ng wi l l take
pl ace bet~veen the r ecei ver and such objects; the recei vi ng antenna con-
si sts, i n fact, of the antenna pr oper together wi th al l nei ghbori ng objects
wi th }vhi ch i ts i nteracti ons are si gni fi cant. I f the recei vi ng antenna i s to
measure the fi el d at a poi nt, i ts di recti ve properti es must be such that al l
such i nteracti ons are negl i gi bl e. These i nteracti ons at the recei vi ng
antenna are si mi l ar to but are to be di sti ngui shed from the i nteracti ons
between the transmi tter and surroundi ng objects such as ground. The
r ecei ver measures the resul tant of the fi el d pr oduced by the transmi tter
and any nei ghbori ng objects that i nteract wi th i t; these together form,
i n fact, an extended radi ati ng system.
I n Fi g, 213, .4 represents the antenna under consi derati on. I n taki ng
a transmi tti ng pattern a r ecei ver B i s, i n pri nci pl e, moved over a l arge
sphere about .-1, and the rel ati ve amounts of po~ver absorbed by the l oad
termi nati ng the l i ne B i n successi ve posi ti ons gi ve the transmi tti ng
pattern of .4. Con~ersel y, the recei vi ng pattern of A i s obtai ned as the
rel ati ve amol mts of po~yer absorbed I )y a l oad termi nati ng A l Jhen i t i s
recei vi ng from the antenna B at sl l rcessi ~e posi ti ons on the sphere. I n
%c. 2.13] I t ECI PI K)L17Y B1<TWE13AI PA TTBR.VS 49
accordance wi th the usual experi mental condi ti ons, no restri cti ons are
made as to the gener ator i mpedance or l oad i mpedance; the onl y requi re-
ment i s that they remai n constant i n the cour se of taki ng a gi ven pattern.
The l oad i n the recei vi ng system wi l l agai n be taken to be appl i ed di rectl y
to the r efer ence poi nt O or O.
Ther e i s an equi val ent four-termi nal networ k between O and O
ever y posi ti on of B. Consi der the
transmi tti ng pattern. I f Z. i s the
<
l oad i mpedance at O, the networ k
\
\
@
\
equati ons gi ve (wi thout approxi -
2B
mati ons)
\
\
&zL = ~72 = ZIZil Ztziz
\
or
\
o \
z,, .
2 = 222 + z.
((8) :@
The currents have the usual si g-
1
ni fi cance, i ndi cated i n Fi g. 2.11.
I
The power absorbed i n the l oad i s
1~1~.~.1~.on the pattern reci proci ty
theor em
p.,, = ~ ]i ,12 Z2,Z; z. 2 Re Z.. (69)
Si nce the coupl i ng i s weak, the dependence of the i nput cur r ent i, on the
posi ti on of antenna B i s negl i gi bl e. I n the denomi nator of Eq. (69),
the coeffi ci ent 222 may be repl aced by Z!, for i t fol l ows from the weak-
coupl i ng approxi mati on of Eq. (65) that thi s i ntroduces an er r or of the
magni tude (Re ZI Z)3. For two successi ve posi ti ons of B the rati o of the
absorbed power s i s gi ven by
(P.,,), _ Iz,,!;
(P.hs) 2 l z121j
(70)
The transmi tti ng pattern i s thus determi ned by the transfer i mpedance
coeffi ci ent al one.
I f now B is transmi tti ng and the potver absorbed by a fi xed l oad
termi nati ng A at the poi nt O i s measured, the resul t shoul d be the same
as i n Eq. (69) except that i l i s repl aced by the i nput cur r ent i at O
and 2,, i s repl aced by 2,1. The vari ati on i n power wi th the posi ti on of
B (assumi ng agai n weak-coupl i ng condi ti ons) i s then l i kewi se gi ven by
the transfer i mpedance al onei n fact, by Eq. (70). Hence, subject to
the condition that the transfer impedance corficients ob~y the reciprocit~]
relation, it is jound that the transmitting and rcc~iving patterns of an antenna
are the same. I f then G(6, O) i s the gai n functi on of the antenna as a
transmi tter i n the di recti on 8, 0, the absorpti on cross secti on A,(L9, O)
50
presented
4 i s
wher e
CI RCUI T RELA TI ONSJ RECI PROCI TY THEOREMS [i %C.2.14
by the antenna to a pl ane wave i nci dent from the di recti on O,
A,(o,o) = G(tI,@)&
(71)
(72)
i s the average cross secti on over al l aspects. The practi cal resul t of the
reci proci ty theor em i s that no di sti ncti on need be made between the
transmi tti ng and recei vi ng functi ons of an antenna i n the anal ysi s of
desi gn probl ems.
2.14. The Aver age Cross Secti on for a Matched System.I n conse-
quence of the reci procal rel ati on between the transfer i mpedance coeffi -
ci ents 212 = 221, the four-termi nal networ k representati on of the
transmi tter-recei ver system obeys the Rayl ei gh theorem. of Eq. (11).
Thi s, taken together wi th the pattern reci proci ty theor em establ i shed i n the
precedi ng secti on, l eads to a further i mportant resul t: The average absorp-
tion cross section o.f receiving system in which the load is matched to the
antenna impedance is a universal constant. The demonstrati on gi ven her e
appl i es stri ctl y to the case i n whi ch the ohmi c l osses i n the antenna and
l i ne are negl i gi bl e.
Consi der agai n a weakl y coupl ed transmi tter-recei ver system made
up of antennas A and B, ~vi th i nput termi nal s at assi gned r efer ence
poi nts O and O as i n Fi g. 2.11.
Let the i nput i mpedances of the r espec-
ti ve antennas be
z? = I <. + jx.,
Z! = R, + jXm
For a weakl y coupl ed system these are but negl i gi bl y di fferent from the
i nput i mpedances at O and O when the r especti ve antennas are trans-
mi tti ng. Let us appl y a gener ator of emf V. and i nternal i mpedance
Z?, equal to the conjugate of the i mpedance of antenna A, across the
termi nal s at (1. The recei vi ng system i s assumed to be so matched that
the l oad i mpedance across O i s Z!.
I f i j i s the cur r ent at O, the po~ver
absorbed by the r ecei ver i s
Thi s power can be computed i n another ~~ay. Let PA be the total
pol ver radi ated by the antenna A; the power radi ated per uni t sol i d angl e
i n the di recti on of B is (PA/4iT)G~,j GAB bei ng the gai n functi on of A
i n the di recti on AB. The absorpti on cross secti on presented by B to
the wa}re from A i s by I ?q. (71) equal to GM.~,R, G~Abei ng the gai n func-
ti on of B i n the di recti on of A. The sol i d angl e subtended by the cross
secti on at A i s G~.l.~,B/Rj~, ~vhence the power absorbed by B i s
sEc. 2.15] DEPE.VDE.VCE OF, THE (ROSS S1<CTI ON 51
(74)
However , P* is equal to the po~ver suppl i ed to antenna A by the gener ator :
p _ IPC12.
8RA
Col l ecti ng these resul ts, ~ve obtai n
(75)
(76)
I f the si tuati on i s r ever sed so that B transmi ts and .4 recei ves, wi th a
gener ator of emf ~G and i nternal i mpedance Z! appl i ed across () and
o* across 0, ~Veobt:~i n by the sar,l e ca)cul ati On as
a l oad i mpedance ZI
before:
16~l i ~12R~~RARB
GABG..i i ,. =
,~;,, -
(77)
I n thi s case i ; i s the cur r ent at the termi nal s at 0. By the Rayl ei gh
theor em we have
i ; = i 2; (78)
hence, on compari ng Eqs. (76) and (77), we fi nd
~v.4 = ~TB; (79)
The average cross secti ons of the two antennas are equal . Si nce the
antennas are purel y arbi trary, thi s means that the average cross secti (m
of a matched system i s a uni versal constant.
The eval uati on of the constant requi res at l east one detai l ed anal ysi s
of the i nteracti on between an antenna and a pl ane \vave on the basi s of
el ectromagneti c fi el d theor y.
The r eader i s r efer r ed to Sl ater for such
a treatment of the el ectri c di pol e antenna.
I t i s shown ther e that, the
val ue of the constant i s
x, = :. (80)
The cross secti on A,(6, O) presented by an antenna to a pl ane wave i nci -
dent from the di recti on O, 0 i s ther efor e
(81)
2.16. Dependence of the Cross Secti on on Antenna Mi smatch.The
matched-i mpedance condi ti on between the antenna and the l oadthat
the l oad i mpedance be the conjugate of that of the antennai s the same
I J. C: Sl ater,Mi crowaoeTransmission, McGraw-Hi l l , A-cwYork, 1942.Chap. tI .
52 CI RClJ I T RI I I ,A TI OATS, RECI PROCI TY lHEORE,ifS [SF.(=, 2.15
as the condi ti on for maxi mum-po~ver transfer from a gener ator to a l oad.
Thi s condi ti on can be real i zed by separatel y matrbi ng the antenna and
l oad to the characteri sti c i mpedance of the transmi ssi on l i ne i f the char-
acteri sti c i mpedance i s real , as i t i s for a nonl ossy l i ne. The l i ne-matched
system i s of parti ml l ar i nterest i n the study of mi crowave antennas and
i s general l y taken as a r efer ence system, si nce transmi tti ng antennas are
requi red to be matched to the l i ne. Consequentl y, i t i s of i nterest to
determi ne the effect of a mi smatch
,
I
bet~veen the antenna and the l i ne
Al Z.
on the absorpti on cross secti on.
1
A
The functi onal dependence of
z$=~-[~~
the cross secti on on l i ne mi smatch
~1
i s of consi derabl e i mportance i n
,:% I
Z.
LO
gg
I Z.
the measurement of the gai n of
Z*
EC / mi cro~vave antennas. I t may be
desi red, for exampl e, to study the
h
1,
A dependence of the gai n on confi gu-
(a) (b) 0
rati onal parameters, such as the
l :l (+. 2.14.(3I 1 the dependence of the
rel ati ve posi ti ons of a radi ator and
a]l si l !ptl onrrohsscl tl on 011I l l i sl l l atrl l : (a] the
T]l l snl atched Sy$tel ,, ; (l ,) tl ,e l i ],c-,,l :l tvhed a r efl ector i n a scanni ng antenna.
systemi n whi ch a networ k transfor,nsZ,4
I t i s i mpracti cal i n such i nvesti ga-
i ]l to Z,
ti ons to match the antenna to the
l i ne i n each confi gurati on; rather, a l i ne-matched detector i s used through-
out, and the resul ts are cor r ected for the antenna mi smatch of the gi ven
confi gurati ons.
Consi der the recei vi ng system i n Fi g. 2.14, composed of an antenna
A feedi ng a l i ne termi nated i n a l oad equal to the characteri sti c i mpedance
Z, of l i ne. I .et r be the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent of the antenna (i n trans-
mi ssi on) at a gi ~,en r efer ence poi nt O and Z~ = RA + jX~ the associ ated
i mpedance. l Ve may repl ace the antenna by an equi val ent gener ator
of i nternal i mpcdancc Z.; the emf of the gener ator wi l l be desi gnated by
V.. Consi der no]v t!vo cases: (1) Fi g. 2.14a, i n whi ch the antenna i s
mi smatched and feeds di rectl y to the l i ne at O, and (2) Fi g. 2. 14bthe
l i ne-matched systemi n whi ch a I ossl ess net~vor k has been i ntroduced
bctwmm the antenna termi nal s at O and the l i ne to transform the antenna
i mpedance i nto Z,) at the output trrmi nal s O. I t i s readi l y veri fi ed that
such a netl vor k }Jhi ch transforms the i mpedance ZA at O i nto ZOat O trans-
forms the i mpcdancc Z, at O i nto the compl ex conjugate Z; at O. Case b
ther efor e meets the condi ti ons of Sec. 2.14. The power absorbed i n the
l oad i n the t}~o cases i s
Case a:
(~dc = YJ -z _,
2 l Zo + ZAi
(82)
SEC.2.16] THE FOLR-7l~li.J I I .~-AL .~-LTl i O1i l i R1<PRI LSE.Y TA TI ON 53
Case b:
The rati o of the power absorbed i n the t]vo cases i s the rati o of the r espec-
ti ve absorpti on cross secti ons:
(84)
Her e (A,) 0 desi gnates the cross secti on of the matched s~stcnl .
The antenn~ i mpedance can be eval uated i n terms of the refl ecti on
coeffi ci ent r. Thus
()
l +r
2.=20 ~r !
and
Substi tuti ng i nto Eq. (83), we obtai n the cfcsi red resul t:
(A,)mi , = (.1,)0(1 1~1).
(85)
The decr ease i n cross secti onor r ecepti on effi ci ency-i s prcci scl y tl w
same as the refl ecti on l oss i ntr~ducd by the mi smatch on transmi ssi on.
Al so i t wi l l be noted that the mi smatch depends onl y on I~I ; hence the
resul t i s i ndependent of the choi ce of the r efer ence poi nt O taken as the
i nput termi nal s to the antenna.
2.16. The Four-termi nal Networ k Representati on.Thi s and the
fol l owi ng secti ons summari ze the consi derati ons underl yi ng the postul ate
(Sec. 2 12) that the transmi tter-recei ver systcm i s equi val ent to a four-
termi nal networ k between the r especti ve transmi ssi on l i nes. Use wi l l
be made of resul ts pr oved l ater i n Chaps. 3 and 7. The treatment i s
formul ated pri mari l y for mi crowave systems i n whi ch the transmi ssi on
l i nes are wavegui des. The systems are assumed to be i deal , i n the sense
that ohmi c l osses i n the l i nes and the antennas are negl i gi bl e.
Consi der a pai r of antennas A and B, each of \vhi ch i s fed from a
wavegui de, as shown i n Fi g. 2.15. I t i s assumed that the gui des arc
desi gned to support fr ee propagati on of a si ngl e mode onl y. The r efer -
ence pl anes O and O whi ch ser ve as the i nput termi nal s to the antennas
are perpendi cul ar to the r especti ve gui de axes and are taken i n the trans-
mi ssi on-l i ne regi on of the gui des, wher e onl y the fr eel y propagated mode
has an ampl i tude si gni fi cantl y di fferent from zer o, WC shal l consi der
the cl osed surface S made up of the surface O i nsi de the gui de .4, the
.
54 cI H(1 1T 111iI ..l 710.YS, I {E(111{()(171 7H1<01!l<,I I . S [s1,(. 21(i
i nteri or surface of the gui de, the surfaces of the condl l ctors compri si ng
the antenna, and fi nal l y the extel i or s~l rface of g~l i de .1 ; thi s encl oses the
A-system compl etel y .i si mi l ar s~l rface S encl oses the I ]-s}-stem. l ye
shal l be concer ned \vi th the el ectromagneti c fi el d i n the regi on J bound-d
by a sphere of i nfi ni te racfiI i s and by ti l e surfaces S :Lnd S.
i )
(@) (i&JO)
o
(a) (b)
FI G.215.-oI 1 thefour-termi nal net>vor kanal ysi s of the tra,l b!,]i tter-rcrei ver system.
I t wi l l be assumed that ther e are no generators i n the regi on V. As
regards antennas A and B, ei ther \vemay have the one transmi tti ng and
the other recei vi ng or generators may be appl i ed to both antennas si mul -
taneousl y. However , the parti cul ar case i nvol ved i s of no concern, si nce
we are i nterested i n the general nature of the rel ati on beti veen the
tangenti al components E,, HI of the fi el d over the pl ane O i n gui de A
and the tangenti al components Ez, Hz over the pl ane 0 i n B.
The magni tudes of the tangenti al el ectri c and magneti c fi el ds are
determi ned by vol tage and cl wrent parameters V and i , respecti vel y,
whi ch are anal ogous to the vol tage and cur r ent i n a bal anced ti vo-~vi rc
l i ne. I norder toset~l p afo~l r-termi nal neti v()rk re~~reserl tati (Jn,]vernust
show that the rel ati on betfvcen the vol tage and cur r ent parameters Vl,
il at the pl ane O and the parameters Vz, i z at O i s l i near:
11 = Z,,il z,2i 2;
)
T, = z2,i, Zzziz. )
(86)
To val i date the vari ous reci proci ty theorems devel oped i n Sees. 2.13 to
2.15 we must then sho}v that the transfer i mpedance coeffi ci ents sati sfy
the reci proci ty rel ati on
Z12 ==Zzl . (87)
The remai nder of thi s secti on wi l l concer n i tsel f \\i t,hthe defi ni ti on
of the. vol tage and cur r ent parameters and an exposi ti on of certai n of
SEC. 2. 16] THE FOUR-TERMI NAL NET WORK RfiPRESEiVTA T?ON 55
thei r properti es that are needed i n devel opi ng the pr oof of the four.
termi nal networ k representati on.
The l atter subject pr oper wi l l be
tr eated i n the fol l owi ngs ecti on, andi n Sec. 218tk~e reci proci ty rel ati on
between the transfer i mpedance coeffi ci ents wi l l be establ i shed.
The fi el ds i n a wavegui de are functi ons of posi ti on both over the
cross secti on of the gui de andal ong i ts axi s. I t wi l l be shown i n Chap. 7
that the tangenti al components of the fi el d over any cross secti on of a
gui de, for a gi ven mode, have the form
E ,... = Vg(z,y),
H
I
. (88)
tmg = dl (zjy),
wher e the coordi nates x, y r efer to posi ti on on the cross-secti on pl ane.
The functi ons g(z,y) andh(z,y) arecharacteri sti c of thegi ven mode and
sati sfy the rel ati on
/
i=. [g(z,y) xh(z,y)]dS = 1.
crosssecti on
(88a)
The quanti ti es V and i the vol tage and cur r ent parameters, respecti vel y
are functi ons of posi ti on al ong the gui de axi s. I f posi ti on al ong the
l atter i s desi gnated by z, the vol tage and cur r ent parameters for a general
fi el d of a gi ven mode take the form
V = V+e@ + Ve+@, (89a)
i = TO( V+eI& V_e+jlJz);
(89b)
that i s, the general fi el d i s made up of two waves travel i ng i n opposi te
di recti ons al ong the gui de axi s, the subscri pt + i n Eqs. (89) r efer r i ng to
the di recti on of propagati on of the component wave wi th r espect to the
posi ti ve z-di recti on. The quanti ty TOi s a constant, characteri sti c of the
gi ven mode. Thus the vol tage and cur r ent parameters obey the same
equati ons as do the vol tage and cur r ent i n a two-wi r e l i ne, of charac-
teri sti c admi ttance TO. As i n the case of the two-wi r e l i ne the ampl i tudes
V+ and V_ are determi ned by the boundary condi ti ons at the i nput and
termi nal poi nts i n the gui de.
I f V. and VP are the vol tag~ p~,vameters of two fi el ds of the same
mode, for di fferent boundary condi ti ons on the l i ne, and i a and i d are
the r especti ve cur r ent parameters, i t fol l ows from Eqs. (89) that the
fi el d wi th a vol tage parameter
V, = m=V. + m~V~ (90a)
has a cur r ent parameter
i ~ = m=im + mfli~. (90b)
Thi s l eads at once, by vi rtue of Eqs. (88), to the correspondi ng pr oper ty
of the el ectri c and magneti c fi el ds: I .et E-, Ha and Ed, HL be two I i nearl :y
56 CI RCUI T RELATI ONS, RECI PROCI TY
i ndependent fi el ds, of the same mode; then, i f
E, = maEa + mBE@,
wher e ma and m~ are both di fferent from zer o,
associ ated wi th EY i s correspondi ngl y
H, = mti Ha +vzdHB.
THEOREMS [SEC, 2.1;
we construct the fi el d
(91a)
tl.emagneti c fi el d H,
(91b)
Thi s rel ati on between the fi el ds i s of fundamental i mportance to the
di scussi on i n the fol l owi ng secti on.
217. Devel opment of the Networ k Equati ons.We may now pass to
th~ detai l s of the four-termi nal networ k probl em. The pr ocedur e i s to
consi der the rel ati on between the fi el ds wi thi n the r especti ve gui des
and the fi el ds i n the external space, thereby arri vi ng at a rel ati cm between
the fi el ds i n the two gui des A and B. For thi s purpose the i nteri or regi ons
of the gui des are thought of as connected wi th external space to form a
composi te regi on V bounded by the surfaces S and S, as was outl i ned
i n the previ ous secti on and i l l ustrated schemati cal l y i n Fi g. 2.15.
Ever y set of val ues of el ectri c and magneti c fi el ds El , H, over O and
Ez, H, over O (and hence vol tage and cur r ent parameters 1,, i l , V,, i ,)
i s associ ated wi th a fi el d E, H i n the regi on V. Consi der thr ee such fi el ds
that are not si mpl e mul ti pl es of one another:
(E,., H,.; E,., H,.; % H.),
(E,~, H,P ; E,d, H,fl ; EB, H@),
(E,y, H,,; E,,, H,,; E,, H,).
I t fol l ows from Eq. (88) that over the pl anes O and O the successi ve
fi el ds di ffer from each other onl y i n thei r vol tage parameters. (Onl y
a si ngl e mode exi sts i n each gui de i n the regi ons of the r efer ence pl anes. )
Any one of the thr ee fi el ds can be obtai ned as a l i near combi nati on of the
other two, wi th coeffi ci ents m. and m~whi ch sati sfy the rel ati ons
VI Y = mal l m + m~Vl ~,
VZ7 = m.Vz= + m6V26.
1
(92a)
By vi rtue of Eq. (88) the vol tage parameters can be repl aced by the el ec-
tri c fi el ds El ~ . . E2T. By Eqs. (91), the associ ated magneti c fi el ds
fol l ow the same l aw of resol uti on:
HI , = m.H,a + m.jH,8,
HZT = maHzm+ mpHz8.
}
(92b)
T!l i s resol uti on can be effected regardl ess of the behavi or of the fi el ds
througl l ol l t the regi on 1. Ho!vever , i t i s meani ngful onl y i f the fi el d
E,, H, i s the same l i near combi nati on of the fi el ds E., H. and E~, HB
throughout V as i t i s over the r efer ence pl anes, that i s, i f
E, = m.Em + mpEfl .
(92C)
s~c. 217] DEVELOPMENT OF ?HE NET WORK EQ UA TI O,VS 57
Pr oof of Eq. (92c) fol l ows from the uni queness theor em of the el ec-
tromagneti c fi el d. 1 The appl i cati on of the theorem, however , i nvol ves
restri cti ons on the fi el ds. The medi um i n the regi on V i s characteri zed
by thr ee consti tuti ve parameters: the conducti vi ty u, the el ectri c i nduc-
ti ve capaci ty c, and the magneti c permeabi l i ty p. These i n general vary
from poi nt to poi nt and are functi ons of frequenci es. I n speci al cases
(such as ferromagneti c medi a) they are functi ons of the fi el d i ntensi ti es;
such nonl i near regi ons are excl uded i n the formul ati on of the uni queness
theorem. Si nce the regi on V i ncl udes vi rtual l y al l space, ferromagneti c
medi a cannot be si mpl y excl uded; we must i nstead i mpose the restri c-
ti on that the fi el ds set up by the antennas be such that thei r ampl i tudes
are negl i gi bl e i n the nei ghborhood of such medi a. Subject to thi s
condi ti on, the uni queness theor em states that i n a regi on V whi ch i s fr ee
from generators the fi el d i s determi ned compl etel y by the val ues of
n x E over the boundary surfaces S and S. The r eader i s r efer r ed to
Stratton for the pr oof. The same techni que that i s empl oyed i n the
devel opment of the uni queness theor em l eads to the fol l owi ng superposi -
ti on pri nci pl e: I f E. i s the fi el d i n V correspondi ng to the boundary condi -
ti on n x E = F= over I S and S and Eb the fi el d ~vi th the boundary
condi ti on n x E = F6, then the fi el d E. associ ated wi th the boundary
condi ti ons
n x E = maFa + ?nbFh,
ma and mb bei ng constants, i s
E, = m.E. + m~Eb,
I t wi l l be noted that si nce the wavegl l i des and antennas are al l i deal
conductors, al l fi el ds E, H, wi th ~vhi ch }ve are concer ned i n the regi on V,
sati sfy the same boundary condi ti ons
nxE=O
over the surfaces S and S excl usi ~-c of the truss secti ons O and O. over
the regi ons O and O the tangenti al component of E assl mnes prescri bed
val ues El and EZ respecti vel y. Hence the rcsol l l ti on of E,., and Ez, i n
Eq. (92) becomes, i n fact, a resol uti on of the tangenti al components of
the fi el d E, over S and S i n terms of a pai r of l i nearl y i ndependent fi el ds:
n x Ey = m.(n x EJ + md(n x Ed).
From the superposi ti on theor em \ve hal -e then that ever ywher e i n 1
whi ch ~vas the desi red resul t stated i n I 1{. (92c). Thl w gi ven any pai r
I SWfor exampl e,,J..1. Stratton,E[d)o///~#Jtc(i cThco~y, 31cC,r:l l v-Hdl ,.\-c\ll -ork,
1941,sec. 9.2.
1Cf. Chap. 3, Sec. 3.2.
,
58 LI R67J I I T RELA TI O.VS, RI XI PROCI 1 Y TI I .YOREMS [SEC, 2.17
of l i nearl y i ndependent fi el ds over the r efer ence pl anes O and O, al l other
fi el ds may be expressed as a l i near combi nati on of the two, the l aw of
combi nati on hol di ng for al l poi nts i r. the regi on V.
I t i s conveni ent to take as the basi c set of l i nearl y i ndependent fi el ds
the two fi el ds correspondi ng to short-ci rcui t termi nati ons over the pl ane
O and the pl ane O respecti vel y. Consi der fi rst the short-ci rcui t termi na-
ti on over O, and l et the fi el ds over O be desi gnated by E,., H,a, the fi el ds
over O by EZ~, Hz=; l et Vla . . . iza be the correspondi ng vol tage and
cur r ent parameters. Si nce the short-ci rcui t means that O i s the surface
of the per fect conductor, we must have E2a = O, and hence VzO = O.
Of the thr ee remai ni ng quanti ti es, one maybe r egar ded as an i ndependent
vari abl e, bei ng adjustabl e, for exampl e, by a gener ator appl i ed over the
surface O. Let V,. be the i ndependent vari abl e. From Eqs. (89) i t
fol l ows that for fi xed condi ti ons i n V, that i s, a prescri bed termi nati on i n
antenna B and hence a fi xed termi nal condi ti on i n gui de .4, the cur r ent
parameter i l a vari es di rectl y wi th the vol tage parameter VI.:
VI= = al l i l ., (93)
wher e al l i s a constant i ndependent of the fi el d ampl i tude. Furthermore
si nce O i s short-ci rcui ted, the fi el d i n V must sati sfy the condi ti on
n x E = O over al l of S, for al l val ues of El .. From the superposi ti on
pri nci pl e i t fol l ows then that the fi el d at al l poi nts i n V i s proporti onal
to the magni tude of E1ti ; i n parti cul ar, then, the cur r ent i z=i s proporti onal
to VI.:
iza = b.Vl. = b.a,llilmj (94)
wi th ba al so a constant i ndependent of the fi el d ampl i tude.
Si mi l ar rel ati ons are obtai ned for the case of a short-ci rcui t termi na-
ti on over O. Letti ng V,p, i,d, VW, iz~ be the vol tages and currents over
O and O respecti vel y, we have i n thi s case
The general fi el d can be ~~ri tten as a l i near combi nati on of thi s basi c set:
~Ol uti on of ~qs, (97) for ?nmi ,aan[l ~nji2d and substi tuti on i nto I ~q. (~~)
gi ve the l i near rel ati on between the vol tages and currents i n the tl l -o
sm. 2.18]
gui des:
TI I li I tl(1l[iOCI l l liEI >.t 710,1 59
(98)
z,, = !+
Z22 = ~,
al l azzbl l
z,, = r>
a11a22ba
Z2, =7,
I
(98a)
.1 = I b=b@,,a,,.
I t i s necessary to ol )servc si gn conventi ons i n ~i si ng I l qs. (98) to rel ate
the fi el ds over O to the fi el ds over O. The conventi on wi l l be adopted
her e to cor r espond to that used i n Sec. 22: regardi ng O as the i nput
termi nal s to the four-termi nal nctwor kj the posi ti ve z-di recti on i n gui de A
i s toward the antenna, and i l i s the posi ti ve cur r ent enteri ng the networ k;
at the i nput termi nal s O, the posi ti ve cur r ent l eaves the networ k, the
posi ti ve z-di recti on i n the second gui de bei ng away from the antenna.
2.18. The Reci proci ty Rel ati on between the Transfer I mpedance
Coeffi ci ents. -Equati ons (!18) establ i sh a four-termi nal networ k r epr e-
sentati on for the Col l pl ed transmi tter-recei ver system. The fi nal prob-
l em to be consi dered i s the justi fi cati on of the assumpti on that the
transfer i mpedance coeffi ci ents sati sfy the reci proci ty rel ati on
Z12 = Z2,
}Ve sh:dl make use of the I ,orentz reci proci ty theorem: I ,et E., Ha and
Ed, H@ be tl ~o l i nearl y i ndependent fi el ds i n the regi on 1; then
(99)
The cojdi t,i ons for the val i di ty of the I .orentz theor em are the same as
those sti pl l l ated for ti l e l l ni ql l cness theor em an(l sl l pcrposi ti on pri nci pl e
i n the precedi ng secti on.
I ,et us appl y the theor cr n to the tJ1-obasi c fi el ds empl oyed i n the
precedi ng secti on, The rel ati on (99) i n thi s case reduces to
J
(nx Ea). H8dS=
/
(n x Ee) . H. cM. (l oo)
o 0
l l al :i ng use of Jtq, (M) and tfi ki ng i nto accol mt the si gn conventi ons on
the c~l rrcnt parameters, JJ-eobtai n
1See the zrti cl c hy .$. %mmerfekl i n Frank and V. 31i sm, Di e Di fl erenti d- und
[ ateyralq(ct (I L(JrLgfIL der J lccha nic urld Ph ysik, Vol. 11, p 933, repri !~tcdby Al ary S.
l tmr,)berg,N-W I -ork, 1943.
60 CI R(:{J I T REL.4 TI ONS, RECI I ROC1 TY 1HEOREMS
~SEC.218
V1.ilp
\
o g(zy) x (zy)] s
= V2~i2a
/
~, L. [dw) x hJx,y)] d~. (101)
By vi rtl w of the pr oper ty of the functi ons g, h of Eq. (88a) itfol l ol vs that
V1ail~ = V2S&=. (lOlaj
l f m)!v the cl l rrents are expressed i n terms of the vol tages by means of
l LI S. (94) and (95c), i t i s seen that the coeffi ci ents ba and b~ of the pr e-
vi f)l l s secti on are rel ated:
ba = b6.
I t then fol l ows from I ?qs. (98a) that the transfer i mpedance coeffi ci ents
obey the reci proci ty rel ati on
Zl z = Z21.
CHAPTER 3
RADI ATI ON FROM CURRENT
BY S. SI LVER
DI STRI BUTI ONS
The fundamental approach to an understandi ng of mi crowave
antennas i s necessari l y based on el ectromagneti c theor y. Thi s chapter
ther efor e begi ns wi th a di scussi on of the fi el d equati ons and the general
properti es of an el ectromagneti c fi el d; the treatment i s necessari l y cursory,
bei ng i ntended as a summary of materi al that i s fami l i ar to the reader. 1
Thi s theor y i s then appl i ed to the si mpl est probl em of antenna theor y,
the cal cul ati on of the radi ati on fi el ds due to known cur r ent di stri buti ons.
A di scussi on of certai n i deal i zed cur r ent di stri buti ons i l l ustrates the
pri nci pl es of superposi ti on and i nter fer ence and furni shes a theoreti cal
gui de to the desi gn of vari ous antenna feeds.
3.1. The Fi el d Equati ons.The fi el d equati ons rel ate the el ectri c
fi el d vector s E and D and the magneti c fi el d vector s B and H to each
other and to the sources of the fi el d, the el ectri c charges and currents.
Sour ces of the Fi el d.The sources wi l l be speci fi ed i n terms of densi ty
functi ons.
The excess of posi ti ve over negati ve charge i n a vol ume V i s
(1)
wher e p i s the charge densi ty per uni t vol ume.
The rate of transport of charge across a surface S, that i s, the net
cur r ent passi ng through S, i s
I=
/
J.ndS,
s
(2)
wher e J i s the cur r ent densi ty and n i s the uni t normal to the surface S
i n the di recti on defi ned as posi ti ve. The cur r ent J has the di recti on of
fl ow of posi ti ve charge, a negati ve charge movi ng i n one di recti on bei ng
equi val ent to a posi ti ve charge movi ng i n the opposi te di recti on.
I n the rati onal i zed meter-ki l ogram-second (i nks) system of uni ts, 2
1The r eader i s r efer r edto .J. .4. Stratton, Elecfro~r~agw/ w Theory, l fcGraw-Hi l l ,
NewYork, 1941,for a i noredetai l edtreatmentof many of the subjects cover edi n thi s
chapter.
2Stratton, op. cit., pp. 16, 602.
61
whi ch M used i n thi s book, the char~e densi ty 1s measure d i n ct)l l l f)mi y.
per cubi c meter and the cur r ent densi ty i n ampei -cs per sql mre mete?.
As a conseql l enre of the conservati on of charge, the charge densi ty
and cur r ent dcnsi t y are subject to an i mportant rcl at i on. Tl l r total
cur r ent passi ng wl t of a cl osed s~l rface I Smust rqual the rate of decr ease
of posi ti ve charge i n the encl osed vol ume. That i s,
(3)
wher e n i s the uni t vector normal to the sl l rfacc and di r ected o~l t tj-orn
the regi on V. By the di ~er gence theorcnl
Substi tuti on of thi s i nto Eq. (3) gi ves
HvJ+$)(L=O
(4)
(5)
Thi s must hol d for any arbi trary vol ~l mej no matter how smal l ; c(~nse-
quentl y the i ntegrand i tsel f must be zer o:
vcJ+~=O, (O)
Thi s i s the so-cal l ed equati on of conti nl l i ty.
Fi ni te charges and rurrents are someti mes l i mi ted to s~~rfacesof di s-
conti nui ty. I n surh cases the excess of posi ti ve over ncgati ~e char~e
on a surface S i s
wher e v i s the charge densi ty per uni t area. Si mi l arl y i f we l et C be a
cur ve on the surface of di sconti nui ty and nl a uni t vector normal tu C
i n the tangent pl ane, then the total cur r ent crossi ng C, that i s, the rate
of transport of charge ~cross C, i s
I=
/
K . n, ds,
c
(8)
wher e K i s the surface-current densi ty. The surface-current densi ty K
and the charge di stri buti on q on the boundary of an i nfi ni tel y conducti ng
medi um must sati sfy an equati on of conti nui ty anal ogo~l s to the vol ume
I A treatmentof the CI i vcrgrncr throrcmWI (I,Stokcssand C,rct,t)s thcoren]s,l vhl {1)
areusedsubsequentl y,m<tybc fol l rl d i l l any text on vt,[,tur an:l l }-..i s.
Ser for cx:ul l pl {,,
H. B Phi l l i ps, Jcr kw.l nnl ysi s, l ~i l c.v, Xcw }or k, 1!)33.
SW. 3.1] YHli FI EI >D liQ7J A ?I O,V.S
di stri buti ons, Thi s eq~mti on of conti n~l i ty, i n i utcgral form, i s
wher e C i s any ci osed cur ve encl osi ng an area S.
Another form of thi s rel ati on i s
VSOK+~t=O,
wher e the surface di ver gence of K, V.! cK, i s defi ned by
63
(9)
(l o)
(11)
A bei ng the area ci rcumscri bed by the cl l r\-e C.
Dcjni tzons of the Field Quantrti e,s-The fi el d vector s E and B measure
the for ces exer ted on charges and c~l rrcnts respecti vel y. The for ce on a
stati onary charge q at any poi nt i n the fi el d i s
F = Eq, (12)
1he total for ce on a c~l rrcnt di stri l )l l ti f)n t,hrough a vol ume T of space i s
F=
I
J X B dv, (13)
T
the i ntegrand bei ng the vector prod~l ct of J and B. The vmtor E i s meas-
ured i n vol ts per meter and B i n ~vehers per square meter.
The fi el d vector s D and H are determi ned by the fi el d sour{:cs and
are i ndependent of the medi um. The net o~l r]vard fl (m of D thro~l g}~a
cl osed surface S i s a di rect measure of the encl osed charge Q:
+
D.ndS=Q,
s
(14)
i vhere n i s the uni t vector normal (J~l tl vardfrom the encl osed regi on. The
magneti c fi el d H i s rel ated to the c~l rreut. I f Z i s the net cur r ent passi ng
through a surface S bounded by a cur ve C, then
$
H.ds=l .
c
(15)
The i ntegral on the l eft i s the l i ne i ntegral of the tangenti al component
of H al ong the cur ve C; the di recti on of i ntegrati on i s s~l ch that an obscr~,cr
traversi ng the cur ve i n that di rerti on Jri l l hare on hi s l eft the posi ti ~,c
normal n used i n dcfi rl i ug the cl wrent 1,
The l i cl d Equa(20ns.-rl l l e fi el d cql l ati ous expressi ng the rcl al i ous
betJveen the ti cl cf vcr tor s and the sources m:~y be set ~l p ei ther i n (l i fi e)-
enti al or i ntegral form.
,
64 1(A 1)1,1 I lo,v iJ I M),\ l ((1< 1{1<.17 l)l.sl 1{1131YI oh.s lsrx. 31
The di fferenti al rel ati onshi ps, 31ax\vc11seql l ati cmsj are
VXE+dj=O, (16a)
VxH=J+~d+, (16b)
v. B=O, (16C)
V. D=P. (1(i d)
Equati on (l fk) may he drri vcd from l k~. (1(kz) I )y taki ng the cl i vcrgen[e
of the l atter, Si mi l arl y, ]tq. (1(;d) may he deri vml I )y taki ng the {i i \.er -
gence of Eq, (16b) and compari ng the resl l l t ~ri th the eq(l ati on of conti nl l i ty
(l (jr)
Equati ons (16a) to (l Ge) must be obeyed si mul taneo~dy hy t}w fi cl (l
components and sources of any el ect romfi gl l eti c fi rl ti .
The correspondi ng i ntegral rcl ati orw am i }l e fol l ol i -i ng, l et C l x a
cl osed cur ve spanned by an arbi trary s~l rface S; then
$
E.ds= -~
/
B .11 ds,
c al ,y
(17fl)
$ c
ds=NJ+ands
(17[,)
the posi ti ve di recti on of i ntegrati on arml nd the c~l rvr C l wi n~ that
defi ned previ ol l sl y. The fi rst of these rel ati ons i s I ?aradays l a\J of el ec-
tromagneti c i nducti on, and the second i s the general i zati on of .i mphs
l aw i n \vhi ch the cl l rrent densi ty J dl l e to charge i s s~l ppl cmented hy the
di spl acement-current (l cnsi ty dD/dt. These e(l l l :~ti {)ns r:m I Wdrri vcd
from I ;qs. (1(i s) and (1(i b) l )y the I l se of Stok(ws tl l et)renl . By :~l )pl i ca-
ti on of the di ver gence theor em to Eqs. (1(k) and (16d) one obtai ns tl fo
mor e i ntegral rel ati ons:
4
B.nd,S =(),
8
(17C)
(17(/)
\vher e the i ntegral s extend over tl ~c cl f)srd sl l rf:we ,$ of a w)l ~l me V,
Equivalent .Ifaqnetic C)tnrfjc atui C~~rrc/~t.ll(~~l:~liorls ( I(k) and (I i c)
express the fact that ther e exi st no f r ce magne( i c charges an(l c(Jmespond-
i ng magneti c cl l rrents, I I t)\Ic~cr, i t i s at ti mes (Jc)n!-el l i el l t t{) i l l l rodl l cc
equi val ent di stri l )l ~ti ons of sl l ch cl l :~r~cs :u](I cl l nwl t<,
.~ si nl l )l c exan]pl c
i s provi ded by the i n fi ni twi mal cl l rrrl l t l (mp. 171i s i < e(l l l i v:l l cnt to N
magneti c di pol e normal to the pl ane of the l oop, l f (I l e c(l rmnt i n ti l e
SEC. 3.2] THE CCLVSTI TUTI VE PARAMETERS
65
l oop vari es wi th ti me, the di pol e strength vari es l i kewi se; the effect i s
that of a magneti c-current el ement.
I n di ffracti on theor y, equi val ent magneti c-charge and magneti c-cur-
r ent di stri buti ons are i ntroduced i n a mor e general way. I n the pr esence
of a magneti c-charge di stri buti on of densi ty P,. and a magneti c-current
di stri buti on of densi ty J-, Nfaxwel l s equati ons assume the mor e sym-
metri cal form
vxE= J.~,
vxH=J+~,
(18a)
(18b)
v. B=p~, (18C)
v. D=P, (18d)
wi th two equati ons of conti nui ty
VOJ+~=O,
V. Jm+~=O.
(18e)
(18f)
I t i s to be emphasi zed that the magneti c-source densi ti es are mer e
formal i sms. We i ntroduce them her e to avoi d l ater repeti ti on of certai n
mathemati cal devel opments. They wi l l be di fferent from zer o onl y under
ver y speci al ci rcumstances.
3.2. The Consti tuti ve Parameters; Li neari ty and Superposi ti on.
Ther e exi st between the vari ous fi el d vector s further rel ati ons that depend
on the medi um.
I n i sotropi c medi a the vector s D and E have the same di recti on
at any gi ven poi nt, as do the vector s B and H. The rati os of thei r
magni tudes are consti tuti ve parameters of the medi um:
D
~=,
E
the el ectri c i nducti ve capaci ty, and
B
~=,
H
(19a)
(19b)
the magneti c i nducti ve capaci ty. These quanti ti es may be functi ons of
the fi el d i ntensi ti es and the frequenci es. They depend on the fi el d
i ntensi ti es onl y for a smal l gr oup of substances ~vhi ch we shal l excl ude
from our di scussi on. The frequency dependence i s a ver y general pr op-
er ty. I n vacuo these parameters are constants and have the val ues
co = 8.85 X 1012farad/meter,
#0 = 47r X 107 henry/meter
(;(i I i.tI )lA 771(I X FI iO.J V C( I {I {I <,Y i I ) I S TI <l BI TTI ON,?
The consti tuti ye parameters are mol e commonl y speci fi ed
of the speci fi c i nducti ve capaci ti es
k= = :,
~o
km = ~.
Po
The quanti ty k, i s known as the di el ectri c constant; k,mas the
[s,:(, 33
i n terms
(20a)
(20b)
magneti c
permeabi l i ty. These rati os are di mensi onl ess and i ndependent of the
l mi ts. For practi cal l y al l materi al s o i nterest i n antenna ]vor k km i s
but negl i gi bl y di fferent from uni ty and wi l l be tal i cn equal to uni ty unl ess
othertJ i se i ndi cated.
I t i s i mportant to note that, al though D and E are i n the same di rec-
ti on, they are not necessari l y i n phase. Such phase di fferences depend
on the mol ec~dar st,rl l et[l rc of the medi (l m and arc connected ]vi th di s-
si pati on of cl cctrornagneti c ener gy i n i hc medi ~l m. They w-e c(~nvcni ent]y
taken i nto account I )y expressi ng t as a compl ex number,
t ==c, ]6,. (21)
l }~e ener gy l osses associ ated wi th the i magi nary part of c are to I )e di s-
ti ngui shed from the ronrf[l cti on l oss associ fi tecf }Vi th ctmdl l cti on currents.
T}\o types of cl u-rents may contri bl l te to the sol wce f~mrti on J : mm-
vecti on currents and conducti on currents. I n the present vol unl e \r e
shal l be concer ned onl y !I -i th conducti on currents, for ~vhi ch the cur r ent
densi ty i s proporti onal to the el ectri c fi el d vector E :
J = aE. (22)
The constant u i s the conducti vi ty of the medi um. I Ji ke the other con-
sti tuti vc parameters i t rna,v bc fre(l l l ency dependent. .i conducti ng
medi um cannot support a fr ee vul unw-charge derl si ty p; i f the conduc-
ti vi ty i s at al l appreci abl e, p may be tdmu to be zer o at ti l l ti mes.
I f the consti tuti ve parameters are i ndepcndcut of the fi el d ~twugth,
al l rel ati ons bet]reen the fi el d ~c(:tors-31:~xl !cl l s e~l l l fi ti ons an{l the
consti tul i ve rel ati ons [J]qs. (l !l a), ( l !)b), and (22)] are l i l l car, (-ndrr
such ci rcumstances the superpmsi ti un pri nci l )l c appl i es. l l l i s st:~tes th:l t
i f a set of fi el d vector s E,, . , H, and sol l rcc fl l ncti (ul s p, and J,
mti sfi es the fi el d equati ons and a second set, of fi el d vector s E*, . , H2
and sour ce functi ons p~ti nd JZ d[ws so al so, then tl l r sl l m of these t\\o
sol uti ons EL + E*, . . . , PI + P2. J1 + J? :LI s() sati s(i cs ti l e fi el d :u~d
consti tuti ve equati ons and dcsrri l x>s a pt)ssi l )l c el ect rt)nl agneti (, fi el d.
343. Boundary Condi ti ons. I n ad(l i t i tm to the fi cl ,l c(l l l :~ti tms, ]vhi ch
gi ve the rel ati ons l mtl vmu the (Jl (,l l l cnts f)t I I ]c fi (,l (l i n a nl c(l i (l nl \fi tl \
conti nuo(l s]y varyi ng l )r(}perti (,s, \\(,nl l l st l i I l o\\-ti l e rrl al i t)us t]l :l t exi st
at a boundary wher e the properti es of the medi um change di sconti nu-
ousl y. The deri vati on of i hew boundary condi ti ons starts from the
i ntegral forms of the fi el d col l ati ons; the pr ocedur e i s standard and \ri l l
he found i n any text on el ectromagneti c theor y; we shal l si mpl y state
the resul ts.
I ,et us consi der the boundary surface between two medi a wi th
const,i tuti ve parameters cl , p,, uI , and (z, Pzj uZ, respecti vel y. Let the
posi ti ve uni t vector n normal to the boundal y sl l rface be di r ected from
medi um 1 i nto medi um 2. I f E,, En, . . , H,, Hz are the fi el d vector s
at conti guous poi nts on ei ther si de of ti -.e bour,dary, the boundary cti n-
di ti ons are the fol l ol ri ng:
1. The tangenti al component of the el ectri c fi el d i ntensi ty i s con-
ti nuous across the boundary:
nx(Ez El )=O. (23)
I t can he shol rn that a fi el d penetrates i nto a conducti ng medi um
a di stance i nvmscl y proporti onal to the sql mre r oot of the con-
ducti vi ty. Thus i f al = m, E, must be zer o; thi s boundary con-
di ti on then reduces to
nxEz=O (m, = m). (24)
2. Ther e i s a di sconti nui ty i n the norma,l component of D at the
boundary i f ther e exi sts a surface l ayer of charge:
n . (D2 D1) = n. (E2E2 cl E1) = q, (25)
the charge densi ty per uni t area bei ng q. Such l ayers of charge
occur , i n general , onl y when one of the medi a has i nfi ni te
conducti vi ty.
3. The normal component of B vari es conti nuol l sl y across a boundary:
n. (Bz B,) = n. (P2H2 ~, H,) ==o.
(26)
4, i i di sconti n(l i ty i n the tangenti al component, of H occurs onl y
~vhen ther e i s a surface-c l l rrent sheet on the boundary
nx(Hz H, )=K, (27a)
K bei ng the surface-current densi ty. Such cur r ent sheets exi st
onl y i f one of the medi a, say the ti rst, i s i nfi ni tel y conducti ng.
I n thi s WSC, !~oi vc~er, tI l c fi rl cf cannot penetrate the rnedi urn; HI
must be zer o. l ye have then
nxHz=K (0, = m) (27b)
and l i kewi se
n. BZ=O (0, = m). (28)
I
I
Under al l other condi ti ons K i s zcu), and the tan~cnti al component
of H as wel l as the normal component of B i s conti nuous.
These boundary condi ti ons appl y to fi el ds th:i t sati sfy A1ax\rel l s
equati ons [12cI s.(11)] e~wryl l hcre.
I l e sh:~l l }l a~-e occa,si on i n di ffracti on
probl ems to consi der a }xnmdary s~l rf:~cr l wt t}cm t!\o regi ons of the
same medi um. From sol uti ons of l l axnel l s cq~i ati {ms i n these tl vo
regi ons we shal l form functi ons that are sol (l ti ons of 31ax\vc11sequati ons
ever y tvher e except on thi :s s~l rfare, !vher e they are di sconti nuous.
These
di sconti nui ti es can hc fornml l y associ ated ~~i th di stri hl l ti ons of magneti c
charges and currents on tl ~c hol ~n(l ary sl l rf:wc l JYequati ons that can be
obtai ned from the 31ax~c!l cql mti ~)ns [1;(1s, (13)] i n ~vhi ch magneti c
sources have been i ntr(xl l l er (l :
n x (EZ -- El ) = K.,
(29)
and
n . (BZ BJ = ~m, (30)
respecti vel y, wher e Km i s the densi ty of the fi cti ti {nl s magneti c-current
sheet over the boundary and q~
i s the dml si ty of the fi cti ti ous s~l rface
l ayer of magneti c charge,
As i n the (I :LSC of cl r(.t ri (. cl l rrcnt and charge, the
magneti c-source functi ons ml l st sati sfy a sl wface equati on of conti n~l i ty,
aq,n
VS . K,,, + ~1 = O, (31)
]Vher e as befor e V.S i s the s(l rf:~r[~-(l i vcl ,gc~l (eoper ator .
3.4. The Fi el d Equati ons for Harmoni c Ti me Dependence. I t ~~i l l
be sufh(i ent for most of our pur[msw to c(~nsi dcr fl cl ds havi rl g a harnl oni c
ti me dependence. I n such cases we shal l take W fi c~d and sour ce di s-
tri b~l ti ons to depend on ti me throl l gh thr samr factor CM. The real
and i magi mwy parts of these compl ex sol l l ti ons of the fi el d equxti orrs
l ~i l l themsel ves be sol uti ons of the fi el d wl l mti t)ns and }Yi l l descri be real
fi el ds, ~he assumpti on of harmoni (, ti me dependence \\-i l lnot grratl y
affect tl l c Xenrral i ty of OU~resl dts bccal l sc an :Lrl )i trary fi el d and sol ute
di stri buti on c:tn I w rfwjl ved i nto h:Lrmr(,ni cc(,ul ponents.
I Yi th tl l c restri cti on of tl l c ti me cfrpendcrl cc to the ti rrl e factor c~f,
the fi el d equati fms may be trri tten as
v x E + juPH = J,,,, (32a)
v x H = (u + jox)E, (32b)
v . (pH) = P.,,
(32c)
V o (cE) = P,
(32d)
v. J+jup=O,
(32( )
V . J,,, + jmp,,i = O. (32,f)
SEC. 35] PO YI VT1,Y(J,5 7HI <Ol{E,\ f 69
These equati ons appl y equal l y to the fi el d quanti ti es and thei r space-
dependent factors. Equati ons (19a), (19b), and (22) have been appl i ed
i n thi s formul ati on. Equati ons (32c) and (32d) have been \vri tten i n
the general form, for i nhomogeneous medi a i n whi ch c and p are func-
ti ons of posi ti on. I t shoul d be noted that the equati on of conti nui ty
determi nes the charge densi ty di rectl y from the current.
3-6. Poynti ngs Theorem. Di scussi ons of the ener gy rel ati ons i n an
el ectromagneti c fi el d are usual l y based on Poynti ngs theorem. From
the fi rst two of hl axfvel l s equati ons, (16a) and (l W), we obtai n
H.vx EE. vxH=H. ~E .: E.J. (33)
The quanti ty on the l eft i s equal to V . ~E x H). On use of the con-
sti tl l ti ve rel ati ons [I kl uati ons. (19a) and I W)], Eq. (33) becomes
(EXH+EJ=-W+W
(34)
Thi s i s Poynti ngs theorem. Formal l y, Poynti ngs theor em resembl es the
equati ons of conti nui ty previ ousl y consi dered; i t expresses the conserva-
ti on of ener gy, rather than that of charge. The Poynting vector
S=EXH (35)
i s i nterpreted as the i ntensi ty of fl ow of ener gy, that i s, the rate of fl ow
of ener gy per uni t area normal to the di recti on of S. The quanti ti es
CE2/2 and ~Hz/2 r epr esent the densi ti es of el ectri c and magneti c ener gy,
respecti vel y. The term E . J measures the rate of di ssi pati on or produc-
ti on of el ectromagneti c ener gy per uni t vol ume. I f E oJ i s posi ti ve, i t
i s a di ssi pati on term; i f i t i s negati ve, i t represents producti on of el ectr o-
[:]agneti c ener gy.
The anal ogy of Poynti ngs theor em to the equati on of conti nui ty
i s brought out mor e cl earl y i n the correspondi ng i ntegral form. I ,et us
i ntegrate Fkl . (34) over a vol ume V encl osed I )y a surface S:
\ \
v.(Ex H) do+
v
Jd=-:/v(~+$)dv 36)
l I aki ng use of the di vergcmce theorem, we can transform the fi rst i ntegral
i nto a surface i ntegwd over the boundary, obt:~i ni ng
$s
S.ndS+
/
v
J= -:, L(:+$)V 37)
JVi th the i nterpretati ons of the i ntcgrancl s gi ven above, Eq. (37) states
that the net rate of ffoi v of ener gy o~l t through the boundary surface
pl (i s the rate of di ssi pfi ti on of el ectromagneti c ener gy wi thi n the vol ume
(or mi nus the rate of producti on) i s equal to the rate of decr ease of el ec-
tromagnet i c ener gy stor ed i n the vol ume V.
Equati on (34) i s qui te general i n i ts appl i cati ons. l Ve have now to
express Poynti ngs theor em i n a form appl i cabl e to fi el ds varyi ng peri -
odi cal l y wi th ti me. I n thi s connecti on i t must be noted that the compl ex
exponenti al representati on of peri odi c fi el ds can be carri ed through al l
l i near operati ons but that i n nonl i near operati ons (such as formati on of
the products occurri ng i n the Poynti ng theorem) the real expressi ons
for the fi el d quanti ti es must be used.
The compl ex fi el d vector s may be
expressed as
E = (E@) = (E, +jE,)@t, (38a)
H = (H@) = (H, +jH,)@. (381,)
The correspondi ng real fi el ds are
ReE = (E, coscd E,si nut), (39a)
Re H = (H, cus cd H, si n ut). (39b)
The Poynti ng vector i s thus
S= ReEx ReH (40)
= [E, x H, COSd + E, x I -L si n of (E, x H, + E, x H,) si n d cm d]
I n general we are not i nterested i n the i nstant: meol l sffotv but i n the
ener gy fl ol v averaged over a cycl e.
That i s, \ve i ~i sh to know
=WSJ(7=3
(41)
the over-l i ne denoti ng the ti me-average val ~l e. A-ow the ti me average
of si n w~cm d vani shes, and the ti me average of both cos~ cd and si n! d
i s ~. Hence
~ = ~(E, xH, + E,x H,). (42)
I t wi l l be obser ved that except for the fartor ~, the ri ght-h:md si de of
Eq. (42) i s the real part of E x H*, ]r her e H
* ueprcsents the ct)nl pl ex
conjugate of H. We hfi ve then
~ = ~Re (E x ~). (43)
JYe shal l sel dom be concer ned v-i th the i nstantaneous I l )ynti ng \ector .
Unl ess expl i ci tl y stated obherwi se, al l future r efer ence to the l )oynti ng
vector ~vi l l be to the ti me-average val ue gi ven by l ;q. (43); the overl i ne
\vi l l be omi tted her eafter except wher e a di sti ncti on must be made.
I t i s of i nterest to formul ate Poynti ngs theor em i n terms of ti me-
averaged quanti ti es. Si nce the di ver gence i s a l i near oper ator , i n\wl vi ng
space deri vati ves onl y,
v. S=v. ~= V. Re~(Ex H*) =~Rev. (Ex H*). (44)
Sw. 3.6] THE WA VI i EQUATI ONS
I n the absence of magneti c charges or currents one
harmoni c ti me dependence,
1
5
v.(Ex H*)=: (H*ovx EE oVx
.
71
has, for a fi el d wi th
H*)

;(
u j(Jc*)E. E* +H. H*.
(45)
Taki ng the real Dart of Eq. (45), ]vi th due r egar d for the compl ex form
of 6* [13q. (21)], we obtai n the
V.s=
or , i n i ntegral form,

$
S.ndS
s
..
modi fi ed Poynti ngs theor em
~(u + UC,)E. E,* (46)
(47)
Si nce the uni t normal n i s di r ected outward from the regi on encl osed by
the surface S, the term on the l eft of Eq. (47) i s the net average pol ver
fl ow across S i nto the regi on V.
I n vi ew of the harmoni c ti me depend-
ence of the fi el d] ther e can be no average i ncrease i n the ener gy stored;
the terms on the ri ght must be i nterpreted as el ectromagneti c ener gy
di ssi pated }Vi thi n the regi on V.
Thus, the i magi nary component of the
el ectri c i ndl l cti ve capaci ty,
l i ke conducti vi ty y of the materi al , resul ts
i n ener gy di ssi pati on. A materi al ~vi th a compl ex di el ectri c constant i s
cal l ed a l ossy di el ectri c. By l q. (47), i f a medi um i s rmi ther a con-
ductor nor a 10SSYdi el ectri c, the net po}ver fl ow across a cl osed surface
S i nto the regi on encl osed by i t i s zer o.
3.6. The Wave Equati ons.We turn no~v to a consi derati on of the
wave eql wti ons sati sfi ed by el ectromagneti c fi el ds. \Ve begi n ]ri th
Mamvel l s eql l ati ons i n the form [Eqs. (18)] that i ncl u(l es magneti c
sources but confi rm our di scussi on to l i neau homogeneous medi a; c and
Y are constants i ndependent of posi ti on.
Taki ng the cud of I ;q. (18a), el i mi nati ng the magmcti c vector B I )y
means of Eqs. (18b) and (196), JVeobtai n
VXVXE+pC;;E=g$V xJ ..
Si mi l arl y, i ntmchangi ng the rol es of l ~qs. (18a) and (186), ~veget
I V(>noi v make I l se of the vector i denti ty
vxvx P=v(v. P)v~P.
(48)
(49)
(50)
72 RADIATION FROM CURRENT DISTRIBUTIONS
[SEC. 36
On appl i cati on of thi s to both the previ ous equati ons and repl acement
of V oE and V . H by p/ c and pJ p respecti vel y, Eqs. (48) and (49) become
a2E
V2E /.Lt~
dJ
=PZ+VXJ. +1 VP,
e
d2H r3Jm
v2HpE~ f=
VXJ+; Vpm.
(51a)
(51b)
On the l eft si des of these equati ons are the fami l i ar di fferenti al terms of
the wave equati on; the terms on the ri ght r epr esent the effects of di s-
tri buti ons of sources. I n a sour ce-fr ee medi um these equati ons r educe
to the homogeneous wave equati ons
(52a)
(522))
wi th the speed of propagati on of the wave gi ven by
1
~=
Vz
(53)
The speed of propagati on i n fr ee space i s a constant, i ndependent of
frequency:
c= = 3 X 108 meters/see.
dk
(54)
The i ndex of refracti on of a medi um i s defi ned as
n=:=~k=. (55a)
For most medi a the magneti c permeabi l i ty km is uni ty, and
The wave equati ons si mpl i fy for fi el ds wi th ti me dependence e]ui , i n
that the ti me can be total l y el i mi nated from the equati ons. Ther e resul t
the so-cal l ed vector Hel mhol tz equati ons for the space dependence
of the fi el ds:
VXVXEkzE=jupJ VX J.,,
(56a)
VXVXH PH=-jucJm+V xJ, (56b)
wher e
~z = ~zpe.
(57)
The constant k is known as the propagati on constant. I n nonl ossy
medi a i t i s real and i s rel ated to the ~yavel ength by
(58)
.
SEC. 37] SIMPLE WAVE ,SOLUTIOKS
73
I f c i s compl ex, both the speed of propagati on defi ned byEq. (53) and
the propagati on constant are compl ex. The attenuati on of a wave as
i t propagatesi n a l ossy medi l l m i ndi rectl y connected ]vi th the i magi nary
part of the propagati on constant.
Appl y i ng Eq. (50) to Eqs. (56) yi el ds
(59b)
Tn a sour ce-fr ee medi um these redl l ce to the homogeneous equati ons
v~E + k2E = O, (60a)
vH + kH = O.
(60b)
I t shoul d be emphasi zed that i l l s. (60) i mpl y that each rectangul ar
F comp(ment of the hel d vector s F.., ,U, , H, sati sfi es the scalar Hel m-
Itoltz equation
V2+ + kz+ = (),
(61)
Though al l fi el ds that sati sfy I I axwel l ]s equati ons necessari l y sati sfy
the wave equati ons, the conver se i s not true. A set of fi el d \ector s E
and H that sati sfy the l m~-e equati ons consti tute an admi ssi bl e el ectr o-
magneti c fi el d onl y i f at the same ti me they sati sfy l l ax\rel l s equati ons.
F~[rthermore, the fi el ds must behave pr oper l y at the boundari es of the
regi on concer ned i n accordance 11-i ththe boundary condi ti ons formul ated
i n Sec. 3.3. I f the regi on i s i nfi ni te i n extent, separate attenti on must be
pai d to the behavi or at i nfi ni ty,
3.7. Si mpl e Wave Sol uti ons.Gen~ral consi derati ons rel ati ve to
Jrave propagati on \vi l l be devel oped i n the next chapter. We shal l con-
si der her e several si mpl e ~J-aveforms, sol uti ons of Eqs. (60), that r ecur
frequentl y i n general antenna theor y. These are (1) the homogeneous
pl ane wave, (2) the ci rcul arl y symmetri cal cyl i ndri cal \vaves, and (3)
the i sotropi c spheri cal ~vave. I n each case the medi um i s assumed to be
homogeneous, nonconducti ng, and fr ee from sources.
Plane Waws.-hehe pl ane wa~e i s mathemati cal l y the si mpl est type
of el ectromagneti c ~va~-e;i ts propagati on i s essenti al l y one-di mensi onal .
Let us attempt to fi nd a fi el d such that the di recti ons and magni tudes of
the fi el d vector s are constant o~er any pl ane normal to the di recti on of a
vector s (Fig. 31) bl l t vary peri odi cal l y al ong l i nes paral l el to S.
I n the
case of tbe el ectri c fi el d vector E, the condi ti ons stated above ;~i l l be
sati sfi ed i f the fi el d has the form
E(x,v,2,L) = EOc@~-~r.s),
(62)
tvhcn r i s the posi ti un vector from the ori gi n to tbe fi el d poi nt (z,u,z)
74 RADI ATI ON FROM CUR RJ 7,VT L)I S TRI BUTI O,VS [SEC.3.7
and k i s the propagati on constant defi ned by Eq. (57); the ampl i tude EO
i s i ndependent of posi ti on and ti me. Si nce the pl anes normal to the
uni t vector s are defi ned by r . s = constant, thi s fi el d must be uni form
over ever y such pl ane. These
z
pl anes are equi phase surfaces for
the wave, and i ts propagati on can be
vi sual i zed as a conti nuous pr ogr es-
si on of one equi phase surface i nto
the conti guous one. I t i s seen
further that at any i nstant the fi el d
.
has the same magni tude over each
of the fami l y of paral l el pl anes
-Y
~s=c+25=c+nA
z
.
k
FI G. 3.1.The pl ane wave.
n=o, l ,2j . . . . (63)
I t i s readi l y veri fi ed that the el ectri c fi el d vector defi ned by Eq. (62)
sati sfi es the wave equati on [Eq. (52a)]. Obvi ousl y a si mi l ar expressi on
for the magneti c fi el d vector H(z,y,z,t) i s a sol uti on of Eq. (52b). How-
ever , i f these fi el d vector s are to descri be an el ectromagneti c fi el d, they
must be so rel ated as to sati sfy Maxwel l s
rel ati on i s Eq. (32a):
H.~vx EO
UP
On i ntroducti on of Eq. (62) thi s becomes
,-
equati ons. The requi re~
(64)
H= $ (S x E) = + (S X E,)@u-k@.
(65)
The space-ti me dependence of H i s the same as that of E, but the di rec-
ti on of H i s normal to that of both s and E,. Equati on (32d) requi res
V . E to be zer o i n a sour ce-fr ee medi um. Thus
v. E=jks. E=O;
(66)
that i s, E i s normal to s. To sati sfy 31ax\ve11sequati ons, the el ectri c
and magneti c fi el d vector s must thus l i e i n the pl ane normal to s. I t
fol l ows at once that the ener gy fl ow, that i s, the Poynti ng vector ,
()
S = ~Re (E xH*) = ~ ~ ?51E,I %, (67)
i s i n the di recti on of propagati on of the wave, normal to the eql l i phase
surf aces.
I t i s of i nterest to determi ne I vhether or not ther e ran exi st a Jane
wave of the form of that i n Eq. (62) i f the magni tl ui e of Eo i s an arbi trary
SEC. 37]
SI MPLE WA Vh SOLUTI ONS 75
functi on of posi ti on over an equi phase pl ane. Wi thout 10SSof general i ty
we can take the di recti on of propagati on al ong the z-axi s and the di rec-
ti on of EOal ong the z-axi s. We are thus consi deri ng the fi el d
E= = EO(z,g)ei~z, EV=EZ=O (68)
(omi tti ng the ti me factor e~).
I f thi s i s to be a possi bl e fi el d, E= must
sati sfy the scal ar Hel mhol t z equati on [Eq. (61)]. Thi s wi l l be tr ue onl y
i f EO(z,y) i s a sol uti on of the two-dl rnensi onal Lapl ace equati on:
d2E0 + d2E0
ad
=0.
@2
(69)
Si nce ther e are no sources, EO(Z,y) must be fi ni te and conti nuous over the
i nfi ni te z,y-domai n. However , bei ng a sol uti on to Lapl aces qquati on,
EOcan have no maxi ma or mi ni ma i n thi s i nfi ni te regi on. Consequentl y,
EO(Z,y) must be a constant; arbi trary ampl i tude di stri buti ons and i nfi nde
pl ane equi phase surfaces are i ncompati bl e.
I t shoul d be noted that the i nfi ni te pl ane wave i s i mpossi bl e physi cal l y
because the total ener gy transported across an equi phase surface i s
i nfi ni te. The practi cal i mportance of the pl ane wave l i es i n i ts use i n the
anal ysi s cf other waves. Ther e are two parameters characteri zi ng the
pl ane \vave: i ts angul ar frequency o and the di recti on of propagati on s.
By superposi ng ti me-peri odi c pl ane waves, al l travel i ng i n the same
di recti on but wi th vari ous val ues of u and ampl i tudes E,(w), i t i s pos-
si bl e to bui l d up a pl ane wave of mor e general ti me dependencea pul se-
modul ated or ot her\\i se modul ated wave. By superposi ng pl ane waves
wi th the same frequency u but wi th vari ous di recti ons of propagati on
and ampl i tudes EO(s), i t i s possi bl e to synthesi ze a ti me-peri odi c wave
wi th a mor e general type of equi phase surface. Because each component
\vave sati sfi es 31ax~ve11sequati ons, the resul tant obtai ned by superposi -
ti on l i ke~vi se sati sfi es the fi el d equati ons.
Cylindrical Waoes.-Ci rcul arl y symmetri cal cyl i ndri cal waves are the
l ~mentary forms of two-di mensi onal propagati on. The equi phase sur-
faces ~f these waves are coaxi al ci rcul ar cyl i nders; the wave i s propagated
al ong the radi i of the phase surfaces.
Cyl i ndri cal coordi nates, as defi ned i n Fi g. 32, are appropri ate for the
anal ysi s. The z-axi s i s taken as the axi s of symmetry, and r and 0 are
pol ar coordi nates i n a pl ane normal to the z-axi s. At each poi nt we
defi ne uni t vector s i ,, i ~, i , i n the di recti on of i ncreasi ng r, 8, and z,
respecti \-el y; the fi el d vector s may, cm occasi on, be resol ved i nto com-
ponents i n these di recti ons.
}Ve shal l no}v seek sol ~l ti ons of the fi el d equati ons i n I vhi ch the fi el d
i .ectors are ever ywher e tangenti al to the cyl i ndri cal cqui phase surfaces
and have constant ampl i t~l (l c o~cr c:wh sl i ch surface (that i s, t}l e ampl i -
76 RA I ) I ATI ON FROM C(J RhWNT I I I STRI BCTI O.VS
[SEC. 3,7
tudes are functi ons of r onl y). We shal l seek sol uti ons of two di fferent,
z
1
\
\
/
I
p, I i z
1
~Y
x
l ~l t;. :12-Cyl i ndri cal coordi nates.
types, di sti ngui shed ~vi th r efer ence to the
di recti ons of the fi el d vector s:
Case a:
Hz = O, E,(r) # o.
Case b:
E, = O, Hz(r) # o.
I n each sol uti on, -of course, H, = E, = O.
we begi n by determi ni ng the form of
the z-component of the fi el d as a sol uti on
of the ~vave equati on; l ater we shal l deter -
mi ne the remai ni ng fi el d components by
means of the fi el d equati ons.
Si nce E,(r) and H.(r) are components
of the r es~ecti ve fi el d vector s i n a rectan-
gul ar coordi nate system, they must sati sfy the scal ar Hel mhol tz equati on
[I i q. (61 )], I n cyl i ndri cal coordi nates thi s becomes
(70)
\vher e~ may r~~presentei ther h, or H,.
si nce ~ i s i ndependent of band
z, thi s red~~resto
(71 )
On i ntroducti on of
f = kr,
(72)
thi s becumes
(73)
Thi s i s the di fferenti al e(~uati on sati sfi ed by the Bessel functi ons or , mor e
general l y speaki ng, by the cyl i nder functi ons or or der zero.1 of the
many sol uti ons of thi s equati on I rhi ch \ve mi ght i denti fy \vi th the func-
ti ons E, or H,, those of i mmedi ate i nterest her e are the Hankel functi ons
Hi) (g) and H~2)(~). The nature of these functi ons i s most evi dent i n
thei r asymptoti c behavi or for l arge val ues of ~ = I i r:
I
.
AEC. 3.7]
SI MPLE WAVE SOLUTI ONS 77
The second of these functi ons, mul ti pl i ed by the ti me factor w, r epr e-
sents a wave travel i ng i n the posi ti ~e r-di recti on; the phase quanti ty
ti t kr i s the anal ogue of the quanti ty ti t k.r for a pl ane wave travel i ng
i n the posi ti ve x-di recti on. Thus H~z)(kr ) represents a cyl i ndri cal tvavc
di vergi ng from a l i ne sour ce on the z-axi s.
Si mi l arl y, 11~)(h) represents
a wave travel i ng i n the negati ve r--di recti on, that i s, a ~vave from i nfi ni ty
convergi ng to a l i ne focus al ong the z-axi s.
Restri cti ng attenti on to the di vergi ng ~vavc functi on H~2) (kr), ~~e
consi der fi rst Case a. We assume
E = H~2)(kr)@wi . (75)
and use the fi el d equati ons to determi ne the associ ated magneti c ti el d.
The curl of a vector P, expressed i n cyl i ndri cal coordi nates, i s
p=(+%-%)i+(+-% )i +:[l (rp@)-%l i ()
Taki ng the cud of the vector E and maki ng use of Eq. (32a), ~veobtai n
H=-i[:H)kr)l[i,
(77)
I t i s l eft to the r eader to veri fy that the fi el d vector s E and H defi ned
by Eqs. (75) and (77) sati sfy the other fi el d equati ons. over the cyl i n-
dri cal surfaces of constant r, E and H are perpendi cul ar to each othe[-
at ever y poi nt and l i e i n the tangent pl ane to the surface; as i n the case
of a pl ane ~vave, E and H are normal to the di recti on of propagati on, and
the Poynti ng vector i s normal to the equi phase surface. As the radi us
of the equi phase surface becomes l arge, i t becomes sensi bl y pl ane i n
the nei ghborhood of any poi nt. We must, ther efor e, expect that as
r + cc, the rel ati onshi p betl veen E and H approaches that exi sti ng i n a
pl ane ~vave. The asymptoti c form for H may })e obtai ned l )v i nt rt)duc-
i ng l ?q. (74b) i nto F,q. (77). Aegl ecti ng terms of hi gher or der i n 1/r,
}r e fi nd
whence
Thus, i n the l i mi t as r ~ m,
(78)
(79)
as was to be expected.
(80\
78 l<A1)lA I 10A FROM CURRENT I )I STRI BU1710NS
[SEC, 37
The deri vati on of the fi el d for Case b pr oceeds i n a si mi l ar manner.
We assume
H = H$) (kr)e,u~i Z;
(81)
the associ ated el ectri c fi el (i fol l ows by appl i cati on of Eq. (32b), whi ch, i n
the case at hand, becomes
E=3~6vx H. (82)
I t fol l ows that
Ei % Hd~-
(83)
The general remarks concerni ng Case a appl y to the present case al so.
I t i s easi l y veri fi ed that her e too the rel ati onshi ps approach those i n a
pl ane ~vave as the radi us of the cyl i ndri cal phase surface becomes ~er y
l arge; that i s,
l i m H =
J
~ (i , xE). (84)
,+ .
We have thus obtai ned t~vo i ndependent fi el d di stri buti ons ]~i th
cyl i ndri cal equi phase surfaces. I re shal l r efer to these as cyl i ndri cal
modes of free-space propagati on. The fi rst fi el d, Case a, can ari se from
a l i near di stri buti on of el ectri c cur r ent al ong the z-axi s and \vi l l be spoken
of as a fi el d of the el ectri c type; Case b can be associ ated ~vi th a l i near
di stri buti on of magneti c cur r ent al ong the z-axi s and i s correspondi ngl y
r efer r ed to as a fi el d of the magneti c type. These are the si mpl est cyl i n-
dri cal modes of free-space propagati on. A treatment of the general
theor y of cyl i ndri cal waves wi l l be found i n Stratton. 1
Isotropic Spherical Waws.-Next ~ve shal l consi der the i sotropi c
spheri cal wave wi th equi phase ~urfaces that are concentri c spheres and
fi el d ampl i tudes that are constant i n magni tude over each equi phasc
surface.
The spheri cal coordi nates r, 0, and O, i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 33, arc
appropri ate for thi s di scussi on.
Wi th the spheri cal coordi nates are
associ ated a set of orthogonal uni t vector s i ,, i ~, i d at each poi nt i n space,
i n the di recti ons of i ncreasi ng r, 9, and @ respecti vel y.
Let the center of the fami l y of equi phase spheres be at the ori gi n (f
the coordi nate system. An attempt to conetr uct a ti el cl that i s a func-
ti on of r al one, as i n the case of cyl i nd i cal \vaves, I vi l l fai l . For exampl e,
suppose that I re tr y to construct a fi el d i n ~~hi ch the fi el d vector s have
onl y the components
E = E(r)i e,
H ==H(r)i O.
}
(85)
1J. .4. Stratton, A/rcf~ov[fl gnetfc I hrorjy, l~c(jraw-lllll, Xcw l ork, 1941,C}\:I p\],
.
SEC. 37]
SIMPLE WAVE SOL UTIOAIS
79
I t wi l l be seen that ther e i s an essenti al ambi gui ty i n the di recti ons of these
vector s at al l poi nts for whi ch 19= O or ~.
The ambi gui ty can be ren-
der ed tri vi al onl y by maki ng the magni tudes of the fi el ds vani sh for
@ = O and m; the fi el d can then be i ndependent of d onl y i f i t vani shes
i denti cal l y.
The i sotropi c spheri cal wave i s, i n general , a possi bl e waveform onl y
for scal ar fi el ds such as are encounter ed i n acousti cs. However , i t i s
often useful for r efer ence and compari son wi th el ectromagneti c waves.
z
/
\
/
\
/
z
FI G.3.3,Spheri cal rmrdi nates.
Accordi ngl y we shal l note bri efl y the spheri cal l y symmetri cal sol uti ons
of the scal ar Hel mhol tz equati on [Eq. (61)]. I n spheri cal coordi nates,
the Lapl aci an V2 i s
()
la
72=;2: ~z; +
--( )
dz
si n 0 & + ~~
r z si n 0 do r- smz e W
When ~ i s a functi on of r onl y, the Hel mhol tz equati on becomes
I t i s readi l y veri fi ed that
(86)
(87)
(88)
are sol uti ons of thi s equati on.
The sol uti on $_, mul ti pl i ed by the ti me
factor @, represents a wave di vergi ng from a sour ce at the ori gi n, whi l e
++e~~ represents a spheri cal wave convergi ng to a poi nt foc{l s at the
ori gi n.
80 RADI ATI ON FROM CURRENT DI STR1BUTI ONS [SEC, 343
3.8. General Sol uti on of the Fi el d Equati ons i n Terms of the Sources,
for a Ti me-peri odi c Fi ei d.The pl ane and cyl i ndri cal waves di scussed i n
the precedi ng secti on are sol uti ons of the homogeneous fi el d equati ons
whi ch appl y i n regi ons of space fr ee from charge and cur r ent di stri buti ons.
I n deri vi ng the form of these fi el ds, no attenti on was pai d to thei r ul ti -
mate sources, whi ch l ay outsi de the domai n of val i di ty of the sol uti on.
Our present task i s the mor e exacti ng one of determi ni ng what fi el ds
FI G. 3.4.Notati on for Gr eens theor em.
wi l l ari se from a prescri bed set of
sources i n a homogeneous medi um.
For r efer ence the compl ete set of
fi el d equati ons i s r epeated her e.
Magneti c charge and cur r ent di stri -
buti ons are i ncl uded for l ater use.
V X E + jawH = J., (332a)
VXHjucE=J,
(332b)
v. H=&
(332c)
v. E=~, (332d)
E
V. J+@P=O, (332e)
V. Jm+jup. =O,
(332f)
al so the pai r of vector Hel mhol tz equati ons,
VxVx Ek2E=jupJ V xJm,
(89)
VxVx Hk2H=ja,Jm+V xJ. (90)
The i ntegrati on of these equati ons i s based on a vector Gr eens
theor em : Consi der the regi on V, i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 3.4, bounded by the
surfaces S1, . . , h~. Let F and G be two vector functi ons of posi ti on
i n thi s regi on, each conti nuous and havi ng conti nuous fi rst and second
deri vati ves ever ywher e wi thi n V and on the boundary surfaces. Then,
i f n i s the uni t vector normal to a boundi ng surface, di r ected i nto the
regi on 1,
/
(F. vxvx GG. vxvx F)rh
v
.
/
(Gx VxF FxVx G). ncl S. (91)
S,+s, +... i -s.
As i ndi cated, the surface i ntegral extends over al l boundary surfaces.
Let us suppose that ther e exi sts i n a vol ume V, such as that consi d-
er ed above, an el ectromagneti c fi el d such that E and H meet the condi -
I The pr ocedur eadopted her e i s due to J. A. Stratton and L. J. Chu, Phys. Rev.,
66, 99 (1939). A pr oof of the Gr eens theor em i s gi vwr i n thi s paper .
sm. WI
G17NfilML SOLUTI ON (M !lHJ ? 1I J 2LD MJ UA!S1ONS 81
ti ons of conti nui ty requi red of the vector functi on F of the Gr eens
theorem. l Ve shal l no}~ see, ~vi th the ai d of thi s theorem, ho~v one can
express the fi el d at an arbi trary poi nt P i n the vol ume V i n terms of the
fi el d sources \vi thi n thi s vol ume and the val ues of the fi el d i tsel f over the
boundari es of the regi on.
Wedefi ne the vector f uncti on of posi ti on
G=e~a=+a, (92)
\vher e r i s the cl i stancc from Z to any other poi nt h the regi on and a i s
an arbi trary but otherl vi se constant vector . Thi s \ri l l sati sfy the con-
ti nui ty condi ti ons requi red of the functi on G i n the C,rcens theor em
ever ywher e, except at P, wher e i t has a si ng~dari ty. Accordi ngl y, I re
surround P by a sphere > of radi us rOand consi der that porti on V of V
whi ch i s I munded by the surfaces S,, . . . , S. and Z; i n thi s restri cted
regi on, G as defi ned by l ;q. (92) and F = E of the el ectromagneti c fi el d
sati sfy the condi ti ons requi red for appl i cati on of the Gr eens theorem.
\Ve have then
/
(#a. VxVx EE. VxVx#a)d.
v
.4s the fi rst step i n the mani pl l l at,i on of thi s r(l ~ahti on, I I -e shal l trans-
form the vol l l me i ntegral i nvol vi ng the el ectri c fi cl (l i nto an equi val ent
i ntegral i nvol vi ng onl y the fi el d sources. I ntrwl (l cti on of the vector +a
i nto the vector i denti ty [Erl . (W)] and l wc of i hc facts that ~ sati sfi es
the scal ar Hel mhol tz equati on and a i s a constant vector \vi l l suffi ce to
sho\v that
Taki ug thi s i n conjl l ucti tjn i ti th I ;([. (8!)), jl c t)l )t:l i n
A fe\v addi ti onal transformati ons me nccrssary:
E. V(a. V+)= V.[E(a. V~)] (a. v~)v.E (96)
=V. [E(a. V~)]~a. V+,
and
82 RAI )I A7I ON PROM CURXi?N17 DI STRI BUTI O.VA
[SEC. 38
By use of these, l ;q. (93) can be gi ven the desi red form:
a.
/(
v
$ +~xv+-:v$)dv+a~vv$ .
\
+ ~,
V . [E(a . V+)] dv
.
/
[(Ex Vx+a). n(+ax VxE). n]dS. (98)
S,+. .+x
We can now bri ng each term i n Eq. (98) i nto the form of a scal ar
product wi th the vector a and then compl etel y el i mi nate thi s vector
from the probl em. The second and thi rd vol ume i ntegral s can be trans-
formed i nto surface i ntegral s:
a.
/
Vx#J. dv=a.
1
@ x J~ dS,
v
(99)
St+. ..+z
I
V . [E(a . V*)] dv =
1
(n. E) (a . V+) dS
v S,+... +x
r

a .
1
(n. E) Vi dS. (100)
S,+. ..+z
To the surface i ntegral s cm the ri ght-hand si de of Eq. (W) \veappl y the
fol l owi ng transformati ons:
[Ex(Vx+a)l .n=[Ex(V+ xa)]. n= [(n xE)x V4]. a, (101)
+(ax VxE). n=.@jqb(ax H). n ~(ax JJ. n
= jwp+a o (n xH) + ~a. (n xJJ. (102)
Col l ecti ng these resul ts, we obtai n fi nal l y
a.
N )
ju~+ + m X V+ : v+ dv
v
=a.
/
s,+, +,, [~~~~(n XW -1- (n xE) x V# + (n. E) v+]ds. (103)
Si nce Eq. (103) must hol d for ever y vector a, the i ntegral s themsel ves
must be equal . That i s,
/
,[jw#(nxH) + (n xE) xvi + (n. E) VY]dS

H
)/
jG.wtJ + J~ x v+ ~ W dv s,+,, +s,, [j~~$(n x H)
v
+ (n x E) x V+ + (n. E) V+] dS, (104)
wher e for conveni ence ~r e have spl i t off the i ntegral over the sphere 2.
I n the l i mi t as z shri nks down on P, thi s i ntegral wi l l depend onl y on the
.
S~r. 3 8] (7E.VERAI . ,$OI ,[J TI O,V OF TI I E FI 171.D EQI J.4TI OAS
83
fi el d at P. Thus we have a rel ati on bet\veen the fi el d at P and a vol ume
i ntegral over the sources of the fi el d, pl us surface i ntegral s i nvol vi ng the
fi ql d i tsel f,
Next l et us consi der the i ntegral over 2. On the surface of thi s
sphere we have
The normal n i s di r ected al ong the radi us ml t from P, Jet dfl be the
sol i d angl e sl l l )ten(l ed at P I )y an el ement of sl l rface dS on 2; the surface
i ntegral can then be wri tten
\
[ ] dti = j-Oe-~~
/
{mP(n x H) + I i [(n x E) x n + (n oE)n]} dfl
>
x
e-i k,
1
[(nx E)xn+(n. E)n]dQ
x

j4irTof?-ik0 (wn x H + k%) 4me-i kroE, (106)

wher e the overl i ne denotes the mean val ue of the functi on over the sur-
face of the sphere. I f now w-e l et the sphere shri nk to zer o, the term
contai ni ng r-nvani shes because by hypothesi s the fi ei d vector s are fi ni te
i n the nei ghborhood of P. At the same ti me ~ approaches E,, the val ue
of the fi el d vector at P. Thus
I i m
\
[ ] d,q = 47TEP.
To-o ~
(107)
I n thi s l i mi t the regi on T comes to i ncl l l de the whol e of the regi on T7,
and Eq. (104) becomes
The anal ysi s fol l ows the same cour se for the magneti c vector H, wi th
the correspondi ng resul t:
The fi el ds at the observati on poi nt, P have thl l s been expressed as the
s~im of contri b~l ti ons from the s(mrces di stri bl l ted through the regi on T
.
84 RADI ATI ON FROM CI J RRENT DI STRI BUTI ONS [SEC. 39
and from fi el ds exi sti ng on the boundi ng surfaces. These l atter surface
i ntegral s r epr esent contri buti ons to the fi el d from sources l yi ng outsi de V;
speci fi cal l y, the sl u-face i ntegral over a surface S, encl osi ng an exter i or
vol ume V, represents the effect of sources wi thi n Vi .
Each of the thr ee terms i n the surface i ntegral can be cor r el ated wi th
a correspondi ng term i n the vol ume i ntegral accordi ng to the way i n
whi ch the functi on
~jk,
+=
r
(110)
i s i nvol ved. I n Eq. (108), for exampl e, (n x H), (n x E), and (n oE)
enter the surface i ntegral exactl y as the el ectri c-current densi ty J, mag-
neti c-current densi ty J,., and the charge densi ty p, respecti vel y, enter the
vol ume i ntegral ; a si mi l ar cor r espondence wi l l be obser ved i n Eq. (109).
Thus the effects of sources l yi ng i n an exter i or regi on Vi, bounded by
the surface St, are r epr esented formal l y as ari si ng from a surface di stri bu-
ti on of charges and currents on the boundary St, wi th surface densi ti es
K=(nx H),
Km = (n xE),
1
(111)
~ = ~(n . E),
q~ = p(n H),
E and H bei ng the fi el ds exi sti ng over that surface.
3.9. Fi el d Due to Sour ces i n an Unbounded Regi on.We have now to
consi der the case i n ]vhi ch the regi on V is unbounded and the sources
of the fi el d are confi ned to a regi on of fi ni te extent.
Ther e i s then onl y
one boundary surface S,,, whi ch we shal l at fi rst take to be a sphere of
l arge radi us R about the poi nt P, encl osi ng al l sources of the fi el d. 13qua-
ti ons (108) and (109) then r educe to a si ngl e surface i ntegral over thi s
l arge sphere S(R).
Let R, be a uni t vector di r ected out al ong the radi us of thi s sphere;
that i s, l et R, = n. On i ntroducti on of thi s vector and the expl i ci t
form of +, the sl l rfare i ntegral of Eq. (108) beromes
1
& ,(,) [~w+(n x H) + (n x E) xv+ + (n. E) v+] CM
1

-/ {
47r ,~(~)
()
jcop(R, x H) jk + ~ [R, x (R, x E)
1
(R1 . E) R,] :;:ds =
Him{4RXH)+(YEI ~
I
+E @kR
~ ~ &S. (112)
I
SEC.3.9] FI ELD DUE 70 SOURCES I N AN UNBOUNDED REGI ON 85
I f we now l et the radi us R become i nfi ni te, the surface of the sphere
i ncreases as R. The surface i ntegral wi l l vani sh as R ~ cc i f the fi el ds
sati sfy the condi ti ons
l i m RE i s fi ni te, (l 13a)
R+ m
[ 01
)!
l i m R (R, xH)+ ~ E =0.
R+ .
(113 Z))
I n the case of Eq. (109), the surface i ntegral \vi l l vani sh i f
l i m RH i s fi ni te, (113C)
I i + m
[()
}+
l i m R c
1
(R, xE) H =0.
R+ . ;
(113d)
Condi ti ons (113a) and (113c) requi re that at l arge di stances from the
sources, the magni tudes of the fi el d vector s decr ease at l east as rapi dl y
as R-. Condi ti ons (113b) and (113d), the so-cal l ed radi ati on condi -
ti ons, ensure that al l radi ati on across the boundi ng sphere consi st of
waves di vergi ng to i nfi ni ty. Thi s may be seen as fol l ows: Taki ng the
scal ar product of Eq. (113b) wi th Rl , we obtai n
l i m (RE) . R, = O. (114)
E- cc
The component of E i n the di recti on R, thus di mi ni shes mor e rapi dl y
than R; we may say that E i s perpendi cul ar to R,, to terms of the or der
of R-I. On the other hand, Eq. (113d) states that
(115)
I t fol l ows that to terms of the or der of R-, H i s perpendi cul ar to both
E and RI and E and H are rel ated i n the same manner as i n a pl ane wave
progressi ng away from the center of the sphere S(R).
I f (as wi l l be shown i n Sec. 3.11 to be the case) the fi el ds ari si ng from
sources confi ned to a fi ni te regi on of space sati sfy ~qs. (113) at i nfi ni ty,
then the surface i ntegral s over the i nfi ni te spheres vani sh and the fi el d
vector s i n the unbounded regi on are gi ven by
The fi el ds are expressed her e enti rel y i n terms of the sources.
These fi el ds can be expressed i n terms of the cur r ent di stri buti ons
al one by l l se of the eql [ati ons of conti nui ty [Eqs. (32c) and (32j)], whi ch
.
86
RADI ATI ON FROM CURRENT DI S1RI BUTI ONS [SEC.310
rel ate the charge densi ti es to the cur r ent di stri buti ons,
Thus Eq. (l 16a)
becomes
Ep=~
/[ ( )1
pk,
k2J ~ + (V .J)ve; +j.cJ. X V ~ dv,
47r6x v r
Let i ., a = 1, 2, 3 be uni t vector s i n the z-, y-, and z-di recti ons,
ti vel y. Then
(117)
r espec-
(l 18a)
(1186)
fVR)v(J ~%)dv=-/.)nJ ~)ds=O=O 1)
as soon as R is taken so l arge that S(R) l i es outsi de the regi on to whi ch the
cur r ent di stri buti on i s confi ned. I t fol l ows that the fi rst terms on the
ri ght of Eq. (118b) contri bute nothi ng to the i ntegral i n Eq. (1 17). Thus
we obtai n
/
E,= r:: v
[(J )V + kJ @cJm X V] ~ dv. (120)
Si mi l arl y, for the magneti c fi el d \veobtai n
H,=
/
&p ~ [(J. o)V + k2Jm+ j.wJ X V] ; dV.
(121)
3S10. Fi el d i n a Regi on Bounded by Surfaces of I nfi ni tel y Conducti ve
Medi a.A second case of i mportance i s that i n whi ch the regi on V i s
bounded by surfaces Si whi ch are the surfaces of bodi es of i nfi ni te con-
ducti vi ty and by the surface S~ at i nfi ni ty. We agai n assume that the
fi el ds at i nfi ni ty sati sfy the condi ti on of Eq. (1 13). The i ntegral s over
S-i n Eqs. (108) and (109) then vani sh, and we have to consi der onl y the
i ntegral s over the surfates of the conductors. At the surface of an
i nfi ni tel y conducti ng body the boundary condi ti ons of Sec. 3.3 are
nxE=O, n. H=O,
n.E=q
nxH=K,
1
(122)
,
~ and K bei ng the surface di stri buti ons of el ectri c charge and currrnt
Thus Eqs, (108) and (109) become
SEC. 3.11] THE FAR-ZONE FI ELDS
87
H
E,= &v
)
jcqJJ-:V+J.x V ~dv
+:/s. vmds24)
I t wi l l be obser ved that the expressi ons for the fi el ds due to surface
currents and charges coul d have been obtai ned from the vol ume i ntegral s
as l i mi ti ng forms, on consi deri ng that the vol ume di stri buti on passes
i nto a surface-l ayer di stri buti on.
The resul ts of thi s secti on wi l l form the basi s for the general theor y
of r efl ector s to be devel oped i n Chap. 5.
3.11. The Far-zone Fi el ds.Let us now return to the case of the
unbounded regi on and exami ne i n mor e detai l the rel ati ons between the
fi el d sol uti ons
Ep=
/
&e ~ [(J - V)v + k2J j.MJm XV] ~ dv, (3.120)
H,=
/
+ ~ [(J. - V)v + kJ. +ALJ X v]~dv (3121)
and the radi ati on condi ti ons devel oped i n Sec. 39.
These sol uti ons are based on the assumpti on that the sources are
confi ned to a fi ni te regi on of space. Let us choose an ori gi n i n the nei gh-
bor hood of these sources, and l et p be the vector from the ori gi n to the
sour ce el ement at the poi nt z, y, z (Fi g. 3.5). The vector from the ori gi n
to the fi el d poi nt P we shal l wri te as RRI , RI bei ng a uni t vector ; si mi l arl y,
rrl wi l l be the vector from the sour ce el ement to the poi nt P.
I n the i ntegrands of Eqs. (120) and (121), the oper ator V acts on the
coordi nates of the sour ce el ement, whereas the poi nt P i s tr eated as a
fi xed ori gi n. For exampl e,
(3 (+:)=1
(125)
and
(Jvvta=[- (-l)(JrJr
k(J. r,)r, + ~ jh + ;
-J
( )1
1 :. (126) ;jk+F
Thus the i ntegranrl s i n these eql l ati ons are power seri es i n r-; for the
88 RADI ATI ON FROM CURRENT DI STRI BUTI ONS [SEC. 311
fi rst-degree terms i n Eq. (120) we have
I n eval uati ng these i ntegra!s we must take i nto account the vari ati on of
T and of the uni t vector rl wi th the posi ti on of the sour ce el ement.
/
(a)
x
x
FI G. 3.5.On the far -zone fi el d: (a) arb,-
trary fi el d pojnt P; (b) si mpl i fyi ng x-al ati on-
shl ps for a poi nt i n the far zone,
I n general thi s offers seri ous di ffi -
cul ti es, but si mpl i fi cati ons can be
effected i f the fi el d poi nt i s at a
ver y great di stance from the cur-
r ent di stri buti on and the ori gi n.
Fi rst, the angl e between the vet- .
tors rl and RI , whi ch decreases
wi th Rl, can be negl ected; rl can
be repl aced by R, i n the i ntegral s.
Next, the factor r - i n the i nte-
grand can be repl aced by the con-
stant Rl, from whi ch i t di ffers by
the terms of the second or der i n
R1. The vari ati on of r cannot
be negl ected whol l y i n the phase
factor. Here, maki ng use of the
fact that r, and R, are effecti vel y
paral l el , we wri te
r= Re. Rl . (127)
Wi th these approxi mati ons, Eqs. (120) and (121) take on forms val i d
for the far-zone fi el ds:
~, = .-v@R
4.R
1[
~ J(J. RJRI +
(YJ-Rle+ikeR
()
+O;2, (128)
and
H, = ~~ e-j~
/[
~ Jm (Jm. R,)R,
(YJxRl ei kRdv
()
+ O & (129)
The cal cul ati on of the terms of or der R-2 i s tedi ous but strai ghtforward
and wi l l be l eft to the reader.
The i ntegral s i n Eqs. (128) and (129) are i ndependent of r. Thus i t
i s evi dent that REP and RHP remai n fi ni te as R + m, as requi red by
SEC. 311]
THE PA R-ZONE FIELDS
89
the boundary condi ti ons [Eqs. (113a) and (113c) ]. I t i s further evi dent
that the fi el d vector s are transverse to the uni t vector R,; the J term i n
the i ntegrand has a component i n the di recti on of Rl , but thi s i s al ways
cancel ed by subtracti on of the second term (J oRJR1. A si mpl e cal -
cul ati on shows that the radi ati on condi ti ons [Eqs. (113b) and (113d)]
are sati sfi ed; for exampl e,
rhus, E and Hare rel ated as i n a pl ane wave, bei ng mutual l y perpendi cul ar
and i n a pl ane normal to R1.
We must now exami ne the i ntegral s of Eqs, (128) and (129) i n a l i ttl e
mor e detai l . We i ntroduce the system of spheri cal coordi nates R, d,
+, defi ned i n Fi g. 3.5, wi th pol ar axi s al ong the z-axi s. Let i Oand i +
be uni t vector s havi ng the di recti ons of i ncreasi ng 0 and @ at the poi nt
P; RI i s, of course, the uni t vector i n the radi al di recti on. I n terms of
Cartesi an components
p = xi . + Vi , + zi Z, (131)
RI = si n o cos @i , + si n o si n @i V+ cos Oi z; (132)
thus
@. Rl =(zcos @+ysi n@)si n O+ZCOSO. (133)
The components of the el ectri c fi el d vector al ong i ~ and i t are easi l y
found to be
= - *e-i k/v[J+t) J~i +l +keRk~~
~~ e-i k~F,(O,1$) (13k)

47rR
and
As i ndi cated, the i ntegral s are functi ons of onl y the angul ar coordi nates
0 and & The components of the el ectri c fi el d and the resul tant far-
fi el d vector have the form to be expected for a sour ce l ocated at the
ori gi n. However , the far fi el d i s onl y a quasi -poi nt-source fi el d; the
equi phase surfaces are not the fami l y of spheres of constant R because
the space factors F, and FZ are i n general compl ex. Thi s i s to be expected
because the choi ce of ori gi n was purel y arbi trary.
90 RADIATION FROM CURRENT DISTRIBUTIONS [SEC. 311
The poi nt-source character of the far fi el d becomes mor e evi dent on
consi deri ng the power fl ow i n the far zone.
The Poynti ng vector i s
()
S=~Re(Ex H*)=~ ~ +Re[Ex(R, xE*)]
()
l CYJ
2L
(IE,[ + I EJ)R, (135)
or
(136)
wher e
l (e,@) = I F1(8,4)12 + ]F2(e,@)].
(137)
The power fl ow i s radi al l y outward from the ori gi n, wi th an i ntensi ty of
fl ow that fal l s off wi th the square of R and depends al so upon 8 and ~;
wi th r espect to power fl ow the cur r ent di stri buti on i s, i n effect, a di recti ve
poi nt sour ce at the ori gi n.
I n di scussi ng the power fl ow i t i s conveni ent to use, i nstead of the
Poynti ng vector , the power P(L9,c$) radi ated per uni t sol i d angl e i n the
di recti on O, 0. Thi s i s gi ven by
(138)
whi ph i s i ndependent of the radi al di stance R. The angul ar di stri buti on
of the power fl ow may be r epr esented graphi cal l y by a three-di mensi onal
pl ot i n spheri cal coordi nates, i n whi ch the angul ar coordi nates o and @
are those of the di recti on of observati on and the radi al coordi nate i s
proporti onal to P(19,~). I t i s customary to normal i ze the maxi mum of
the power pattern to uni ty. The resul ti ng fi gure i s spoken of as the
pol ar di agram or radi ati on pattern of the cur r ent di stri buti on.
The power di stri buti on i s al so speci fi ed i n terms of a gai n functi on
G(8, +) wi th r espect to an i sotropi c radi ator, as defi ned i n Chap. 1,; i n
terms of P(o, o) we have
G(e,l#l) = ,2. . (04)
1
//
Goo
F(L9,1#J) si n OdOdo
%k(e,f$)
.
H
2= x
(139)
Y(f?,@) si n @de d+
00
The maxi mum val ue of the gai n functi on i s ter med the absol ute gai n.
I n desi gn speci fi cati ons thi s i s general l y quoted i n deci bel s above the gai n
of an i sotropi c radi ator (whi ch i s uni ty):
Gai n i n db = 10 l og,, [G(6,@)]_.
(140)
.
SEC. 3.12] POLARI ZATI ON
91
3.12. Pol ari zati on.I n the precedi ng secti on we have consi dered the
separate components Eo and E4 of the el ectri c fi el d vector i n the far zone;
we have now to note some properti es of the resul tant fi el d vector .
The factors Fl (o, I #J)and Ft(dj O) i n the expressi ons for Eo and E+ are
i n general compl ex quanti ti es, whi ch we may wri te thus:
Her e the As and ~s are real , and YI and -yl are i n general not equal .
The vector E, i s thus the resu!tant of a pai r of ti me-peri odi c vector s
E,i 8 and E@i @at ri ght angl es to each other , wi th rel ati ve ampl i tude and
L- 2., A
(b) (c)
(a)
FI G. 3.6.El l i pti cal pol ari zati on: (a) ori entati on of the el l i pse; (b) r i ght-handed pol ari za-
ti on; (c) l eft-handed pol ari zati on, wi th di recti on of propagati on toward the r eader .
phase whi ch vary wi th .9 and @ Thi s resul tant vector E, si mul tane-
ousl y rotates i n space and vari es i n magni tude i n such a way that i ts
termi nal poi nt descri bes an el l i pse; the radi ati on fi el d i s el l i pti cal l y
pol ari zed. To show thi s we note that the real parts of E8e+~Wand
E$e~o, as gi ven by Eq. (134), are the real Ed- and Et-components of the
el ectri c fi el d. These become, on use of Eqs. (141),
EO =
W4 1(8,0)
4.R
si n (ti t kR -yl) = cw si n (d kR TJ, (142a)
~ = @w42(d, @)
*
4.R
si n (cd kR ~.J = a+ si n (cd kR T1 6), (142b)
wher e 6 = 72 -y, i s the phase of E+ wi th r espect to EO. Expandi ng
the si ne term i n E+ and el i mi nati ng the terms i nvol vi ng d kR -yI,
we obtai n a rel ati on bet]veen E@and E~ that hol ds at al l ti mes:
(143)
Thi s i s the equati on of an el l i pse traced out by the termi nus of the
vector E~. The rel ati on of the el l i pse to the component vector s i s shown
i n Fi g. 3.6. The sense of pol ari zati on i s defi ned for an obser ver watchi ng
the oncomi ng wave: The pol ari zati on i s ter med ri ght-handed or l eft-
92 RADIATION FROM CURRENT DISTRIBUTIONS [SEC. 3.13
handed accordi ng as the termi nus of the vector E, traces out the el l i pse
i n the cl ockwi se or countercl ockwi se sense, respecti vel y.
I f the phase di fference 6 i s an odd mul ti pl e of 7r/2 and the ampl i tudes
are equal , the el l i pse becomes a ci rcl e; ri ght-handed and l eft-handed
ci rcul ar pol ari zati on are defi ned i n the same manner as for el l i pti cal
pol ari zati on. I f the phase 6 i s an i ntegral mul ti pl e of m, the el l i pse degen-
erates i nto a strai ght l i ne traced out by a l i nearl y pol ari zed resul tant.
As o and @ are vari ed, both 6(0, O) and EJE$ wi l l vary; the pol ari za-
ti on of the radi ati on from an extended sour ce may change from l i near
to el l i pti cal to ci rcul ar and back agai n as one changes the di recti on of the
observati on.
3.13. The El ectri c Di pol e. -I n the precedi ng secti ons we have seen
z
how a radi ati on fi el d ari ses from a
k
di stri buti on of ti me-varyi ng currents.
We now turn to a di scussi on of some
~ q
yt
speci al i deal i zed cur r ent di stri bu-
k L-q
M
1 ti ons and thei r associ ated el ectromag-
ni
neti c fi el ds, l eavi ng asi de the questi on
of thei r physi cal real i zabi l i ty.
x
(a)
The most el ementary form of
(b)
FI G. 3.7.The el ectri c di pol e: (a)
i deal i zed radi ator i s the osci l l ati ng
mathemati caldi pol e; (b) antennar ePr e-
el ectri c di pol e (Fi g. 3.7). A di pol e
sentati on of a di pol e, 1 < < h.
consi sts mathemati cal l y of a pai r of
equal and opposi te charges, each of magni tude q, separated by an i nfi -
ni tesi mal di stance ~.
I f the vector 5 i s di r ected from q to +q, the
di pol e moment of the di pol e i s defi ned to be the vector
p = qb.
(144)
An antenna equi val ent to a di pol e i s shown i n Fi g. 3.7. I t consi sts
of thi n wi res termi nated i n smal l spheres, the over-al l di mensi ons of the
structure bei ng ver y smal l compared wi th a wavel ength. The spheres
form the capaci ti ve el ement of the structure, and the charge at any
i nstant can be consi dered to be l ocal i zed on them. I f the antenna i s
ener gi zed by a harmoni c emf appl i ed across the gap at the center , the
charges on the spheres are gi ven by
q = q&jul;
(145)
the magni tude of the di pol e moment of the antenna i s
p = qoleid
= poe~uf) (146)
wi th ampl i tude
po = qol.
Si nce 1 <<h, the cur r ent at any i nstant, may be taken to be the same at
SEC. 3.13] THE ELECTRI C DI POLE
93
al l poi nts al ong the wi ngs of the antenna. The cur r ent 1 i s rel ated to
the charge q by I = dq/dt = juq and to the magni tude of the di pol e
moment by
(147)
The el ectromagneti c fi el d set up by a di pol e i s best descri bed i n
spheri cal coordi nates wi th the ori gi n at the center and the pol ar axi s
al ong the axi s of the di pol e (Fi g. 3.8). The deri vati on of the fi el d wi l l
be found i n any text on el ectromagneti c theor y; we shal l si mpl y state
the resul ts:
Asa consequence of theaxi al symmetry of the radi ator, the fi el d i si nde-
pendent of O. I t can be resol ved i nto thr ee parti al fi el ds accordi ng to
the dependence on r: (1) the
stati c fi el d varyi ng i nversel y
wi th r3, (2) the i nducti on fi el d
varyi ng i nversel y wi thrz, and (3)
the radi ati on fi el d varyi ng i n-
versel y wi th r. The stati c fi el d
i s, i n fact, that whi ch woul d be
computed for a stati c di pol e wi th
fi xed moment p~e~f-~rj. The i n-
ducti on fi el d i s the quasi -stati on-
ary-state fi el d commonl y obser ved
i n the nei ghborhood of ci rcui t el e-
ments at l ow frequenci es; the
magneti c component of the i nduc-
ti on fi el d i s that whi ch woul d be
1I c;.:3-8. 1i el d of an el ectri c di pol e or i ented
al ong the z-axi s.
cal cul ated on the basi s of the Bi ot-Savart l a~v for stati onary currents.
At smal l di stances from the di pol e the stati c and i nducti on fi el ds predom-
i nate. At a di stance,
1A
r>=,
k 27r
the radi ati on fi el d becomes the l eadi ng term, and at suffi ci entl y l arge
di stances the stati c and i nducti on fi el ds become negl i gi bl e rel ati ve to
For exarnpl c,,1..1. Stratton, El ectromagneti c Theory, McGraw-Hi l l , New York,
1941, Chap. VI I I ,
94 RADIATION FROM CURRENT DISTRIBUTIONS [SEC. 3.13
the radi ati on fi el d. However , I t i s onl y at di stances much gr eater than
r = A/27r that one can enti rel y negl ect the stati c and i nducti on fi el ds.
The radi ati on fi el d represents a fl ow of ener gy away from the di pol e.
Ther e i s no correspondi ng ener gy l oss i n the stati c and i nducti on fi el ds;
the ener gy associ ated wi th these fi el ds pul sates peri odi cal l y back and forth
between space and the antenna and i ts associ ated ci rcui t just as do the
energi es i n capaci tances and i nductances at l ow frequenci es. The far-
fi el d Poynti ng vector computed by Eq. (43) ari ses enti rel y from the r-l
.
70 30@ w K@ l l l Y
120
130
l ~o
l W
1s0
FI G. 3.9.Meri di onal pol ar di agram of the
powerpattern of an el ectri c di pol e.
speci fi cati ons i t i s customary to
terms i n the fi el ds. - I t i s
s=
~~ l pol ~ i ,, (149)
wher e i , i s the uni t vector i n the
outward radi al di recti on.
The di pol e i s a tr ue poi nt
sour ce because the equi phase sur-
faces are spheres wi th center s at
the ori gi n; i t i s di recti ve because
the i ntensi ty of the fi el d vari es
wi th the di recti on of observati on.
The power pattern of the di pol e i s
i ndependent of azi muth o and i s
suffi ci entl y r epr esented by a cut
i n any one meri di an pl ane, l i ke
that shown i n Fi g. 3.9. I n desi gn
characteri ze such cuts i n the
t~ee-di mensi onal pol ar di agram by two wi dths i f they exi st: (1) the
hal f-power wi dth Q, whi ch i s the ful l angl e i n that cut between
the two di recti ons i n whi ch the power radi ated i s one-hal f the maxi mum
val ue, and (2) the tenth-power wi dth @ (i %), the angl e between the
di recti ons i n whi ch the power radi ated i s one-tenth of the maxi mum.
These wi dths for the meri di onal pol ar di agram of an el ectri c di pol e are
@ = 90,
@(~) = 146.
Si nce the pattern i s uni form i n azi muth, the pol ar di agram i n a cut taken
normal l y to the di pol e axi s i s a ci rcl e. The gai n functi on of the di pol e
[Eq. (139)] i s
G(o, o) = ~ si nz 0, (150)
and the absol ute gai n i s
G~ = (:) = 1.76 db. (1,51)
SEC. 314]
THE MAGNETI C DI POLE 95
The i mpedance presented by the di pol e to i ts feed l i ne consi sts of a
resi sti ve component and a reacti ve component.
We shal l her e consi der
onl y the resi sti ve component, whi ch corresponds to the power di ssi -
pated by the di pol e. Ther e are two el ements i n the power di ssi pati on: (1)
ohmi c l osses i n the conductors of the di pol e structure and (2) power
radi ated to space. I n the i deal i zed case, to whi ch we restri ct oursei ves,
the di pol e consi sts of per fectl y conducti ng el ements. Ther e i s then onl y
radi ati on l oss to consi der; the resi sti ve component of the i mpedance i s i ts
radi ati on resi stance. Let P be the average power radi ated per uni t ti me.
The radi ati on resi stance Rr i s defi ned by
~ = ~11,12R,, (152)
wher e 10 i s the maxi mum val ue of the current.
The radi ated power ~
i s computed by i ntegrati ng the Poynti ng vector [Eq. (149)] over a com-
pl ete sphere. By use of Eqs. (147) and (152) the radi ati on resi stance i s
then found to be
(153)
3.14. The Magneti c Di pol e.The magneti c counterpart of the el ectri c
di pol e antenna i s a cur r ent l oop wi th radi us
smal l compared wi th the wavel ength (Fi g.
3.10). Such a cur r ent l oop i s equi val ent to a
magneti c di pol e al ong the axi s normal to the
pl ane of the l oop; thi s axi s has been taken to
be the z-axi s i n the fi gure. I f 1 i s the cur r ent
i n the l oop and A i s a vector normal to the
l ocp, wi th magni tude equai to i ts area, the
magneti c moment at any i nstant i s
m = I A. (154)
I f 10 i s the ampl i tude of the ti me-peri odi c cur-
Z
t
FI G. 3.10.Magneti c di -
pol e antenna: cu:rent l oop and
equi val ent magneti c di pol e,
r ent and m~ the correspondi ng ampl i tude of the magneti c moment, the
magni tude of the magneti c moment i s gi ven by
m = IOAe@ = mOejut. (155)
The di recti on of the di pol e i n rel ati on to the di recti on of the cur r ent i s
shown i n Fi g. 3.10.
The fi el d of the magneti c i ool e, l i ke that of the el ectri c di pol e, i s
most conveni entl y descri bed i n spheri cal coordi nates. The fi el d com-
ponents are
+ H9Y:-iwmoe(-k)
(156a)
96 RADI ATI ON FROM C1RRE.VT D1,YTI UI I 1I 1O.VS
[sEC. 315
As wi th the el ectri c di pol e, the fi el d i s i ndependent of the azi muth
angl e O. Compari son of Eqs. (15(;) \ri th the el ectri c di pol e fi el d [I ;qs.
(148)] wi l l show that the rol es of E and H are i nterchanged. l Vi th mi nor
revi si ons requi red by thi s i nterchange, the di scussi on of the el ectri c
di pol e as a di recti ve poi nt sour ce can be carri ed o~-er to the magneti c
di pol e. The power patterns are i denti cal , and the absol ~l tc gai n of the
magneti c di pol e, l i ke that of the el ectri c di pol e, i s 1.76 db. The radi ati on
resi stance of the l oop i s found to be
(157)
The r eader shoul cl note that the far-zone fi el ds of the el ectri r and
magneti c di pol es sho!v the general properti es menti oned i n Sec. 3 ] ].
I n parti cul ar, he shoul d note that i n the far zone (and ther e onl y)
()
1,
H= ~ (i , xE); (158)
E and H are mutual l y perpendi cul ar and l i e i n a pl ane transverse to the
z
A
(
o
\
\
x
I
di recti on of propagati on.
3.15. The Far-zone Fi el ds of Li ne-
cur r ent Di stri buti ons. ~Ye shal l next,
comp{l tc the far-zone fi el ds due to a l i nl r-
pcri odi c c~l rrent i n a thi n strai ght \\i re
estendi ng al ong the z-axi s from z = 1,2
to z = +1/2, that i s, al ong the pol ar axi s
of the r, 6, @ coordi nate s~stem, .l Vc
shal l al l o~v the l ength of the I \-i reto be
comp:l rabl e to a wavel ength or even rq(ui l
to a number of ~.wavel engths, The pl l asc
di tferenccs l JetJ1-eenthe ml rrents :~t sepa-
I LLtN~poi nts on the \\i r e !I -i l l then l je si g-
ni fi cant, and \\-eshal l need to consi der ti l e
cur r ent to be a functi on of posi ti on :al c~ngthe \~i re:
I = I (z)rji ., (159)
Si nce the properti es of the fi cl cl i n the far zone arc those c)f 3 pl :i u]e
wave, i t wi l l be sl l ffi ci c,nt to cal c~l l ate the el r(,tri c fi c,l (l i ntcl bi (l -. I n
Eqs. (134) ,ve can fi rst of al l di scard the ,~l :~grl eti l -,l l l l (l l t cl ensi ty J,,,.
SEC.3.15] LI NE-C [J RRENT DI STRI BUTI ONS 97
We note further that J . i + i s zer o; consequentl y,
E+ = O. (160)
By Eq. (133), wi th z = v = O, p . RI i s si mpl y 2 cos 0, and the vol ume
i ntegral for Ee degenerates i nto a l i ne i ntegral :
/
1/ 2
Eo = ~ e-i l (z)i Z . i ~e~~a m8dz,
-1/ 2
or
(161a)
(161b)
(As usual , the ti me factor e~i s understood i mpl i ci tl y.)
Agai n, because of the axi al symmetry of the radi ator, the fi el d i s
i ndependent of the azi muth angl e O.
As wi th an el ectri c di pol e, the
el ectri c-fi el d vector l i es i n the meri di an pl ane; the magneti c-fi el d vector
i s at ri ght angl es to thi s, paral l el to i o. The functi on F(tI), known as the
form factor of the fi el d pattern, wi l l i n general be compl ex; the equi -
phase surfaces are not spheres of constant R.
The i ntegral expressi on i n Eq. (161 b) admi ts of an i nteresti ng i nter-
pretati on. On compari ng the i ntegrand wi th the far fi el d of an el ectri c
di pol e [Eq. (148)] i t wi l l be noted that the i ntegral can be i nterpreted
as a sum of the fi el ds of a di stri buti on of di pol es al ong the wi re, the di pol e
moment dp associ ated wi th the el ement of conductor dz at the poi nt z
(Fi g. 3.11) bei ng gi ven by
(162)
I n superposi ng the component fi el ds at the fi el d poi nt one must, of course,
take account of the phase di fferences bet\veen the contri buti ons from
di fferent di pol e el ements, due to the di fferences i n path l ength to the
fi el d poi nt. I f A i s the path di fference between two el ements, the phase
di fference i s 2rA/A = kA. Taki ng the ori gi n as a r efer ence poi nt for
path l ength, the path di fference correspondi ng to a poi nt z on the wi r e
i s A(Z) = z cos 8; hence the phase factor e~~ O6i n the i ntegrand. I t wi l l
be noted that Eq. (162) i s essenti al l y the rel ati on between the cur r ent
and di pol e moment set down i n Eq. (147).
The preci se form of the cur r ent functi on 1(z) can be control l ed by
changi ng the poi nt at v-hi ch the dri vi ng vol tage i s appl i ed to the wi r e
and the way i n whi ch the wi r e i s termi nated. We shal l now consi der
the case i n whi ch the wi r e i s dri ven at the center , for exampl e, by a
98 RADI ATI ON FROM CURRENT DI STRI BUTI ONS [SEC.3.16
paral l el -wi re l i ne feedi ng across a smal l gap at the ori gi n, and ther e i s
no l oad at the ends of the \vi re. I n thi s case the cur r ent i s necessari l y
zer o at the ends of the wi re; i ts di stri buti on al ong the ~vi re can al ways
be expressed as a sum of standi ng \vaves, each of whi ch vani shes at the
ends. Such standi ng waves have the form
I *(2) = I,(m) Cos Uyj m=l ,3,5, ...,
I
(163)
1.,(2) = 10(nr) si n fl ~~, m = 2,4, 6,...,
wher e 10(m) i s the val ue of the cur r ent at a cur-rent anti node. I n general
the cur r ent wi l l consi st of a sl l pcrposi ti on of standi ng waves. I t \ri l l ,
however , consi st of a si ngl e standi ng tvave i f 1 = m~2; thi s i s the case
whi ch we shal l treat. Substi tuti ng the correspondi ng I (z) i nto Eq. (161 b),
one fi nds wi th l i ttl e di ffi cul ty
()
35Io(m) si n ~
E, = j ~ -
27rR
,_i k[cos@&],
m = 1, 3, 5, - . . , (164a)
w~=2,4,.... (164b)
The term form factor i s her e appl i ed to the terms i n brackets. The
surfaces of constant R are equi phase surfaces; the far-zone fi el d of a
standi ng-~va~e cur r ent i s that of a tr ue poi nt sour er at the center of the
cur r ent di stri buti on.
The fi el d i ntensi ty i n the eql mtt)ri al pl ane 0 = 7r/ 2
i s zero when m i s an even i nteger bcca{l se the c~urent di stri buti on i s
anti symmetri cal wi th r espect to the ori gi n; the contri buti ons to the fi el cl
from cur r ent el ements at +Z and z are 180 out of phase at poi nts i n the
equatori al pl ane and ther e annul each other .
3.16. The Hal f-wave Di pol e.- the most i mportant l i ne-current
di stri buti on i n mi crowa~-e ti ntenrm theor y i s that ~~i th 1 = ~/2. Thi s i s
usual l y cal l ed the hal f-1~-~vc di pol e a mi snomer due, perhaps, to i ts
di mi nuti ve structure at mi crol mve frequenci es and her e retai ned l wrause
of i ts conveni ence, On setti ng m = 1 i n l c~. (1(W) ~~eobtai n thc fi el d I
pattern of thi s radi ator:
[()]
T
()
10
Cos Cos 0
Eo=j ~
2
2T.[; ~,k1(
si l l d
I
I
(I (i ,5)
SEC.3.17] SUPERPOSI TI ON OF FI ELDS 99
The correspondi ng power pattern i s
f) 3 [Cos!::e)]o
P(e,o) = ; ~,
(166)
The pattern di ffers onl y sl i ghtl y from that of the el ectri c di pol e; i t i s
uni form i n azi muth and has i ts si ngl e maxi mum i n the equatori al pl ane.
700
J
\
80
\
\
\
I ~(z)=10COS(~)
1
900
/
/
/ /
100J
(a)
1100
180 160 140 1300 120
00 20 40 50
~
(b)
F1&3.12.-The hal f-wave di pol e:(a) current di stri buti on al ong the wi r e;(b) meri di onal
A.
pol ar di agram compar ed wi th that of the el ectri c di pol e: -~ &pol e, --- i nfi ni tesi mal
di pol e.
Fi gure 3.12 shows the meri di onal pol ar di agram i n compari son wi th that
of the di pol e. The gai n of the hal f-wave di pol e i s
Gm= (1.65) =2.17db. (167)
The sl i ght i ncrease i n di recti vi ty over that of the el ectri c di pol e ari ses
from the fact that at poi nts off the equatori al pl ane ther e i s parti al
destructi ve i nter fer ence between contri buti ons from di fferent porti ons
of the wi re, whi ch l i e at di fferent di stances from the poi nt of observati on;
thi s l eaves the radi ati on i n the equatori al pl ane rel ati vel y stronger.
3.17. Superposi ti on of Fi el ds.We shal l often have occasi on to deal
wi th sources that consi st of a number of separate cur r ent di stri buti ons.
As l ong as the total system i s confi ned to a fi ni te regi on of spac~the
onl y practi cal casethi s probl em i s i n pri nci pl e cover ed adequatel y by
the general theor y of Sees. 3.9 to 3.11. I t wi l l , however , be useful to
reconsi der i t from the poi nt of vi ew of the superposi ti on pri nci pl e stated
i n Sec. 3.2. The total fi el d i s the sum of the component fi el ds due to
100 RADI A TI OiV FFW.}1 CURRE.VT DI STliI I ~ LT7710.VS [Six 317
each component cur r ent system.
We shal l confi ne our attenti on to the
far-zone fi el ds, exi sti ng at fi el d poi nts far r emoved from e~-er y sour ce i n
the total system.
The notati on to be empl oyed i s i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 3.13. We choose
an ori gi n O wi thi n the nei ghborhood of the sources; a pri mary system
of rectangul ar coordi nates z, U, and z; and an associ ated spheri cal system
r, O,and @ The di stance from the ori gi n to the fi el d poi nt \vi l l ,as before,
he R; ROi s a uni t vector i n that di recti on. I n connecti on ]ri th any of the
component radi ati ng systems, say the i th, v-e use a secondary coordi nate
/
x
FJQ.3.l t3.-S1l r1erJ>oai ti nrl of fi el ds.
system, wi th axes paral l el to those of the pri mary system and ori gi n Oi
wi thi n that sour ce di stri buti on at the vector posi ti on R, 1}i th r espect to
0. The pol ar coordi nates of the fi el d poi nt P i n thi s secondary coor di -
nate system wi l l be denoted by Ti , t?,,&
As i n the general di scussi on of far-zone fi el ds, we may consi der al l
the OY to be paral l el to OP and al l the 6,, +i to be equal to 0 and @ r espec-
ti vel y. Furthermore, the fi el d due to the i th radi ati ng system can be
expressed i n terms of an equi val ent quasi -poi nt sour ce at 0,. That i s,
the component fi el ds are, by Eqs. (134),
= -*e-kl t[JLi +( i )i $l el keROdodo
(168a)
SEC. 318]
THE DOUBLE-DI POLE SYSTEM
and
E,,= -~e-i ki /v[Ji .i 4 -(~)%Jmi .i ,
~+ &+ri ~2i (@,@) .
.
47rr,
101
The total fi el d i s obtai ned by summi ng the component fi el ds. We
note, however , as i n the di scussi on i n Sec. 3.11, that we can repl ace r;l by
R, wi th an er r or of the or der of Rq; i n the phase factors we can si mi -
l arl y wri te
ri =R RO. Ri .
The total fi el d i s, ther efor e, gi ven by
wher e
and
wher e
%(e,f$) =
z
F2i(0, @)ei kR0R.
The space factors $, and $2 are compl ex, and the di scussi on
ti on i n Sec. 3 12 apul i es wi thout change.
(169)
(170a)
(170b)
(171a)
(171b)
of pol ari za-
The probl em ~sthus r educed to the superposi ti on of quasi -poi nt-
sour ce fi el ds ari si ng from sources 0~and descri bed by the space factors Fl{
and F2i. The composi ti on of the over-al l space factors $, and & i n
terms of these and the phase di fferences ari si ng from the rel ati ve posi ti ons
of the sources i s a pr ocedur e useful i n many other fi el ds-for exampl e,
the theor y of X-ray di ffracti on.
3.18. The Doubl e-di pol e System.The radi ati on patterns of com-
pound systems are usual l y mor e di recti ve than the patterns of the
component systems; destructi ve i nter fer ence between the fi el ds of the com-
ponent systems takes pl ace i n certai n di recti ons, constructi ve i nter fer ence
!n others, wi th the consequence that the total power densi ty changes
mor e rapi dl y wi th angl e and reaches mor e extr eme val ues than does the
power densi ty for any component system.
An i mportant compound system wi th wi de appl i cati on to mi crowave
102 RADIATION FROM CURRENT DISTRIBUTIONS
[SEC. 3.18
antennas i s obtai ned by superposi ng two hal f-wave di pol es.
We shal l
her e restri ct oursel ves to the case i n whi ch the di pol e axes are paral l el
and the currents are of equal strength, though of arbi trary rel ati ve phase.
We consi der, then, two hal f-wave di pol es wi th center s at (O, a/2, O)
and (O, a/2, O) and axes paral l el to the z-axi s, carryi ng currents of ampl i -
tudes 10 and 10e* (Fi g- 3 ~14). Si nce nei ther sour ce gi ves ri se to an
J
x
~l G. 3.14.The doubl e-di pol e system.
E+-component i n the far fi el d, the total fi el d can have no such component.
The space factors of the di pol es are al i ke, except for the cur r ent phase
term e-i $. Combi ni ng Eqs. (165) and (170b), we fi nd the resul tant fi el d:
~,=~(:)=[%%e)l 172)
On maki ng the substi tuti ons
R,. R,=~si nt9si n$,
(173)
R, . R, = ~ si n 0 si n O,
we obtai n ti nal l y
Thi s i s a di pol e fi el d modi fi ed by the pr esence of the l ast factor. The
spheres of constant R are the equi phase surfaces; at l arge R the fi el d i s
that of a di recti ve poi nt sour ce at the ori gi n mi dway between the di pol es.
The pattern i s symmetri cal i n 1#1 about o = 7r/2 and i n d about e = z/2;
SEC. 3.18] THE DOUBLE-DIPOLE SYSTEM 103
that i s, i t i s symmetri cal wi th r espect to the yz-pl ane, whi ch contai ns the
di pol es, and the zy-pl ane, to whi ch they are perpendi cul ar. These
pl anes of symmetry are known, respecti vel y, as the pri nci pal -E-pl ane
and the pri nci pal H-pl ane of the radi ati on pattern. Si nce the pattern
i s a functi on of both o and ~, a three-di mensi onal pol ar di agram i s requi red
+900 +800 +7P +600 +70 +W +9W
,8m~+w0+~~o.8
/, --
FI G
ID%vv
-900 -703 -50 40 -30
H=pl ane
titA+lO
0.4
-409 -5(P -70 -*
E=pl ane
3 15.E- and H-pl ane pol ar di agrams i n the power pattern of the doubl e-di pol e
system,
for a compl ete presentati on of i ts properti es. However , i n practi ce i t i s
usual l y suffi ci ent to consi der the pri nci pal E- and H-pl ane cuts.
The detai l s of the pattern depend on the preci se val ues of a and ~.
We shal l her e consi der one speci al case, i n whi ch a = A/4, and $ = u/2.
The form factor i s then (except for constant terms)
()
T
Cos
5
Cos e
3(0,0) =
[
Cos : (
1
l si n Osi n@) ~
si n @
(175)
The pri nci pal E- and H-pl ane cuts of the power pattern (proporti onal to
the square of the form factor) are shown i n Fi g. 3.15. onl y a smal l
fracti on of the power i s radi ated i n the hemi sphere to the l eft of the
104 12A.!)I A TI ON FRoM CUI iRENT DI STRI BUTI ONS [SEC. 3.19
u-pl ane; no power i s radi ated i n the negati ve y-di recti on; maxi mum
power i n the posi ti ve y-di recti on. I n the negati ve y-di recti on the radi a-
ti on from the di pol e at y = +a/2 must travel a di stance gr eater by a
quarter wavel ength than the radi ati on from y = a/2 wi th resul ti ng
phase retardati on of 90. Si nce the cur r ent i n the fi rst di pol e i s 90
behi nd that i n the other di pol e, the fi el ds from the two di pol es are 180
out of phase and annul each other . I n the posi ti ve y-di recti on, the phase
retardati on i n the fi el d from the di pol e at y = a/2, due to the addi ti onal
path l ength traversed, i s just compensated by the 90 phase l ead of the
radi ati ng current; the fi el ds from the t\r o di pol es are i n phase and rei n-
for ce each other . Si nce each di pol e has maxi mum fi el d i ntensi ty i n the
xy-pl ane, thi s has the consequence that the maxi mum i n the total fi el d
i ntensi ty l i es i n the + y-di recti on.
As a measure of the di recti vi ty of the power pattern, we may take the
hal f- and tenth-power ~vi dths of the pol ar di agram i n each of the pri nci pal
pl anes. These are desi gnated by@ Eand @L(~u) for the E-pl ane hal f- and
tenth-power wi dths respecti vel y; correspondi ng notati on appl i es i n the
H-pl ane. For the system under consi derati on
H. = 76, @~ = 180,
E).(;V) = 130, @.(fi ) = 252.
1
(176)
3.19. Regul ar Space Arrays.The doubl e-di pol e system i s the si m-
pl est possi bl e exampl e of an i mportant cl ass of di recti ve systems: regul ar
space arrays of si mi l ar radi ators. I ,et us consi der a system of cur r ent
di stri buti ons, i denti cal i n structure but perhaps di fferi ng from one another
i n over-ai l ampl i tude and phase. The radi ati ng uni ts need not be si mpl e
di pol es; they may be doubl e-di pol e systems or mor e compl ex cur r ent
systems, but al l must have the same ori entati on i n space and be descri bed
by si mi l ar space factors F,(d, ~) and F,(6, ~), wi th r espect to si mi l arl y
si tuated ori gi ns Oi . Now l et these radi ati ng uni ts and thei r ori gi ns 0,
be arranged i nto a space array at the i ntersecti on poi nts of a thr ec-
di mensi onal rectangul ar l atti ce (see Fi g. 316). Let a,, a,, and a, be
the basi s vector s c)f the l atti ce i n the r-, y-, and z-di recti ons, respecti vel y,
and l et the extents of the l atti ce i n these di recti ons be Nl al , N2% and
.V,a,. Choosi ng one of the cor ner el ements of thi s l atti ce as a r efer ence
poi nt, fr e can speci fy the posi ti on of an arbi trary l atti ce poi nt Oi by the
rel ati ve-posi ti on vector
R~ = n,al + ?l gaz + ?zsas, (177)
wher e nl , n.z, and ns are i ntegers I rss than or e(l ual to .Vl , .172,and .Vs,
respecti vel y, !Vr shal l l et the ampl i tl l (l e of the i th system he An,~,n,
and shal l admi t the possi bi l i ty of a progressi ve phase del ay i n each of
the thr ee basi s di recti ons of the l atti ce: the phase of the i th radi ati ng
SEC. 3.19] REGULAR SPACE ARRAYS 105
system, rel ati ve to the r efer ence system, shal l be
* TL,7L,TL, = %+1 + n2#2 + ?L3*3.
(178)
We need consi der onl y the space factors $, and % defi ned i n Eqs. (170b)
and (171b). The space factors Fli and F2i are i ndependent of i except for
FI Q. 3.16.The apace array.
the constant mul ti pl i ers An,~,~,e~~l x Accordi ngl y, the space factors
for the system as a whol e are gi ven by
5,(8,+) = I I (19,c$)A(0,+),
34 L9,1$) = F,(O,+)A(O,+),
1
(179)
wher e
N, N,
m
3
A(e)+) = A
[Z
~,n,naexp j
1
n;(kRO . ai ~i ) . (180)
na=On*=Ona=O
i =l
Her e
RO. al = al si n Ocos @ = al ul , (181a)
RO. az = az si n 0 si n @ = azuz, (181b)
RO. aS=a3cos0 = a3u3. (181c)
The total space factor i s thus a product of the space factor for a radi ati ng
uni t by a l atti ce factor. The l atti ce factor, i t wi l l be noted, i s i tsel f the
space factor of a ~atti ce array of i sotropi c radi ators wi th rel ati ve ampl i -
tudes An,m~, and rel atl ve phases t~,~,~,.
I f the radi ati ng uni ts al l have the same ampl i tude, say equal to uni ty,
the sums i n Eq. (180) can be eval uated. The term on the ri ght becomes
a product of thr ee factors:
106 RADIATION FROM CURRENT DISTRIBUTIONS
wher e
N.
A, =
z
@! (kal ul t, )
71,=0
Thi s geometr i c seri es i s easi l y summed. One fi nds
[
si n ~ (ka(ui vi)
Ai =
~i(hr;+l/ 2)(k.,u,$, )
~,?,i(La,u,-+J
1
si n +(k.;?Ji *i)
The power pattern of the space array i s proporti onal to
)$,1 + j~,l
and i s consequentl y gi ven by
~(o,o) = Po(@,@)l A(L9, d)12
[SEC.319
(183)
(184)
(185)
except for the mul ti pl i cati ve constants. The second factor i s the product
of thr ee factors,
each of the form si n Nx/si n z. Such a functi on has pri nci pal maxi ma
at z = km, h bei ng an i nteger; i f N i s l arge, the maxi ma are ver y sharp,
the functi on bei ng onl y sl i ghtl y di fferent from zer o between successi ve
peaks. The composi te l atti ce factor wi l l then have i ts pri nci pal maxi ma
onl y for those val ues of u, for whi ch the thr ee factors si mul taneousl y
achi eve thei r maxi mum val ues, that i s, when
(187.)
()
u~=si n Osi n$= h,+~ A
2i r ;2
(187b)
U3 = Cos e
()
= &+& A,
2X .3
(187c)
hl , hz, hs bei ng posi ti ve or negati ve i ntegers. These condi ti ons cannot
be sati sfi ed si mul taneousl y by any choi ce of 0 and @ for arbi trari l y chosen
hl , h~, hs; the possi bi l i ty of si mul taneousl y sati sfyi ng the thr ee condi ti ons
i s determi ned by the val ues of the phases +i and the l atti ce di mensi ons
ai /i . Except when F,(o, O) has a zer o i n di recti on 0, 0 determi ned by
the above condi ti ons, the l atti ce space factor of a ver y l arge l atti ce deter -
mi nes, essenti al l y compl etel y, the di recti on of the pri nci pal maxi ma i n Li e
total radi ati on pattern.
CHAPTER 4
WAVEFRONTS AND RAYS
BY S. SI LVER
The precedi ng chapter deal t wi th radi ati on fi el ds i n thei r di rect rel a-
ti on to the sources. I t was found that the fi el d represents a fl ow of
ener gy outward from the regi on of the sources; al so i t was demonstrated
separatel y that the ener gy fl ow i n a ti me-varyi ng fi el d i s a wave phe-
nomenon. We now turn our attenti on to the study of wave propagati on
and the associ ated ener gy fl ow, wi thout di rect r efer ence to the sources.
Several si mpl e waveforms have al ready been dkcussed: pl ane, cyl i n-
dri cal , and spheri cal waves. I n each case the wave was descri bed by a
fami l y of equi phase surfaces or wavefronts, and the propagati on of the
wave was vi sual i zed as a progressi on of each wavefront i nto a conti guous
one; furthermore, the ener gy fl ow at ever y poi nt was i n a di recti on normal
to the wavefront. The mai n subject of thi s chapter i s the extensi on of
these i deas to general waveforms,
4.1. The Huygens-Green Formul a for the El ectromagneti c Fi el d.
We have now to consi der the fol l owi ng probl em: Gi ven the val ues of the
el ectri c and magneti c fi el d vector s
over an equi phase surface, how can
we determi ne the fi el d vector s at a
speci fi ed fi el d poi nt ?
The sol uti on to thi s probl em i s,
i n fact, contai ned i n the general
i ntegral of the fi el d equati ons ob-
tai ned i n Sec. 38. Let the fi el ds be
speci fi ed Over an ewphase surface ~ FI G.4.1.on the Huygens-Gr een rel ati on.
(Fi g. 4.1) whi ch encl oses al l sources
of the fi el d, and l et P be the fi el d poi nt at whi ch the vector s E and H are
to be determi ned. We now appl y the general rel ati ons of Eqs. (3.108)
and (3. 109) to the regi on bounded by S and the sphere at i nfi ni ty, Si nce
the sources of the fi el d l i e outsi de thi s regi on, the vol ume i ntegral s vani sh
xH)#+(n xE)x V#+(n, E) Wl dl (l a)
107
108 W.1lliPlioiVT,~ A A]) 1(A }S [SEC.4.1
and
/
H, = & ~[j~,(n x E)# + (n x H) x VI J + (no H) v+] dAS, (l b)
)vher e + = e~ir/r and n i s the uni t vector normal to S i ndi cated i n Fi g.
41. These equati ons provi de the sol uti on of the stated probl em.
Equati ons (1) may be r egar ded as an anal yti cal formul ati on of the
lluygens-Frrsnel pri nci pl e, \vhi ch serves general l y as a basi s for the study
of wave propagati on. The Huygens-Fresnel pri nci pl e states that each
poi nt on a gi ven wavefront can be r egar ded as a secondary sour ce ~rhi ch
gi ves ri se to a spheri cal wavel et; the wave at a fi el d poi nt i s to be obtai ned
by superposi ti on of these el ementary ~vavel ets, wi th due r egar d to thei r
phase di fferences when they reach the poi nt i n questi on. Equati ons (1)
speci fy the nature of the wavel ets ari si ng at the vari ous poi nts on the
equi phase surface;1 as was poi nted out i n connecti on wi th Eq. (3.1 11),
the sources of the wavel ets can be r egar ded as surface l ayers of el ectri c
and magneti c currents and charges.
For the further purposes of thi s chapter i t i s desi rabl e to wri te the
surface i ntegral s i n somewhat di fferent form. By means of a rather
Labori ous cal cul ati on they can be transformed i nto
respecti vel y. z Rel ati ons of the same form must, of course, hol d for the
I A comprehensi vetreatmentof Huygenspri nci pl e and i ts appl i cati on to scal ar
and vector waves has been gi ven by Baker and Copson, The Mathematical Theory of
Huygens Pri nci pl e, Oxfor d, h-ew York, 1939. I t shoul d be noted that the i ntegral
expressi on for the fi el ds, and hence the i nterpretati on of the sources, i s not uni que;
i t i s possi bl e to adcl to ~qs. (1) any surface i ntegral that i s equal to zer o. Thi s i s
actual l y done i n maki ng the transformati on fr om ~qs. (1) to Eqs. (2) i n thi s chapter.
2 Thi s transformati on can be effected onl y i f the surfaceS i s compl etel y cl osed;
otherwi seaddi ti onal terms appear. The resul tscan be obtai nedby a si mpl erandfor
our purposesmor euseful pr ocedur ethan by di recttransformati onof Eqs. (l ). I t was
shown i n Sec. 36that i n a sour ce-fr eeregi on each rectangul arcomponentof a fi el d
vector sati sfi esthe scal ar Hel mhol tzequati on
V2U + k2u = O.
The i ntegrati onof thi s equati on can be per for medby meansof Gr eenstheor emi n a
manner anal ogous to that by whi ch we i ntegratedthe fi el d equati ons. The scal ar
Gr eens theor em states that gi ven two conti nuous scal ar functi ons F and G .vi ng
conti nuousfi rstand secondderi vati vesi n a regi on V suchas wasi l l ustratedi n Fi g. 34,
then
SEC. 4.1] THE HU YGENS-GREEN FORM ULA 109
components of E and H i n any rectangul ar coordi nate system. We can
ther efor e devel op most of our consi derati ons i n terms of the scal ar
rel ati on
(3)
wher e u wi l l stand for any one of the rectangul ar components of E or H.
Equati on (3) can be r egar ded as the mathemati cal expressi on of
Huygens pri nci pl e for a scal ar wave; the resul tant wave ampl i tude at P
i s agai n expressed as a sum of contri buti ons for the el ements of surface
dtl . The fi rst part of the i ntegral i s a summati on of terms of the form
(e-J/r) (&L/dn) dSa summati on of the ampl i tudes of i sotropi c sp~eri cal
wavel ets ari si ng from sources of strength proporti onal to (du/dn) dS on
the surface el ements dS, The second part of the i ntegral can be i nter..
pr eted si mi l arl y. We note that
d+
-( )
_d e,k,
()
1 ~,k.
dn dr
~ cos(n,r)= jk+- cos (n,r),
rr
(4)
because the fi el d poi nt P is the ori gi n i n the i ntegral formul ati on. The
second part of the i ntegral i s thus a summati on of ani sotropi c wavel ets
from sources of strength proporti onal to u dS on the surface el ements dS.
The di recti vi ty of the sources i s expressed by the factor cos (n)r); each
wavel et i ncl udes a term for whi ch the ampl i tude fal l s off wi th T2, l i ke
the i nducti on fi el d of a di pol e source. Substi tuti ng thi s resul t i nto Eq.
(3), we obtai n
p= -:/s% [(k+:)cos(nr) +Hds 5)
Despi te the arbi trary feature of the i ntegral formul ati ons poi nted out
i n the footnote on page 108, we shal l consi der the Huygens-Green rel a-
ti ons [Eqs. (1) and (5)] as the anal yti cal formul ati ons of the Huygens.
Fresnel pri nci pl e for el ectromagneti c and scal ar waves respecti vel y. I t
/
v
FV-GV2FV= -L...SW+%
The co venti on as to the di recti onof n i s the sameas shown i n the fi gure. Let F be
the spheri calwa- functi on 4 = e- I k /r andGthe functi on u sati sfyi ngthe Hel mhol tz
equati onfor the sameval ueof k. The fi el dpoi ntP i s agai nsurroundedby a sphereZ,
the radi us of whi ch l ater i s al l owed to approach zer o. I n the regi on bounded bY
5
~1...
S. and x the vol ume i ntegral vani shes, The detai l s of the l i mi ti ngprocess
that i s then appl i edto z fol l ow ver y cl osel y thosefor the vector case; the resul tgi ves
the val ue of u at the fi el dpoi nt P, namel y,
=-LL.S(%-%)S
110 tt7AVEI RONTI S A.VD RAYS [SEC,42
shoul d be emphasi zed that accordi ng to the Huygens-Fresnel pri nci pl e,
ther e i s no one-to-one cor r espondence between the fi el d at the poi nt P
and the fi el d at any poi nt on the wave surface; the fi el d at P is an i nte-
grated effect of contri buti ons from ever y poi nt on the wave surface.
4.2. Geometri cal Opti cs: Wavefronts and Rays.The Huygens-
Fresnel pri nci pl e, as expressed by the Gr eens theor em i ntegral s, gi ves a
ri gorous sol uti on of the wave equati on. I t i s frequentl y conveni ent,
however , to approach the subject of wave propagati on from the l ess
ri gorous poi nt of vi ew of geometri cal opti cs, i n whi ch attenti on i s focused
on the successi ve posi ti ons of equi phase surfaces, or wavefronts, and an
FI G. 4.2.On the propagati on of a wavefr ont
i n geometri cal opti cs.
associ ated system of rays.
Let the wavefront at ti me t,
be the surface L(z,g,z) = l ., of Fi g.
4.2 and the new wavefront after
passage of a ver y short ti me & be
the surface L(z,y,z) = L, + 6L.
Geometri cal opti cs i s then con-
cer ned not onl y wi th the form of
these surfaces but al so wi th a
poi nt-to-poi nt t ran sf ormati on
from one wavefront i nto the suc-
ceedi ng one. Thi s i s, of course, i n
fundamental contrast to the poi nt
of vi ew of the Huygens-Fresnel
pri nci pl e. 1 The poi nt-to-poi nt
correl ati on of the wavefronts i s
establ i shed by the rays, a fami l y of curves havi ng at each poi nt the
di recti on of the ener gy fl ow i n the fi el d.
I n the case of el ectromagneti c
waves, a ray can be traced out by pr oceedi ng at each poi nt i n the di rec-
ti on of the Poynti ng \ector at that poi nt. The rays are nearl y normal to
the wavefront-exactl y normal i n the wave systems to be di scussed i n thi s
vol umeand pass through correspondi ng poi nts i n successi ve wavefronts.
I n an arbi trary medi um the wave fi el d i s characteri zed by a ray
vel oci ty and a wave vel oci ty at ever y poi nt.
The ray vel oci ty i s the
vel oci ty of ener gy propagati on; i t i s r epr esented at each poi nt by a vector
that i s tangent to the ray passi ng through that poi nt. The wave vel oci ty,
on the other hand, i s al ways normal to the wavefront; i t i s the rate of
di spl acement of the wavefront i n the di recti on normal to that surface.
Thus i f V(z,yjz) i s the wave vel oci ty at a poi nt (z,v,z) of the fi rst wave-
1Treatmentsof geometri calopti cs as a sel f-contai nedtheor y are gi ven by .J. L.
Synge,Geor netr i ccd Opti cs,Cambri dge,London, 1937,and by ph. Frank and v. ~i ses,
Di fferenti al -gl ei chungen der Physik, Vol . I I , Chap. 1, repri ntedby Mary S. Rosenberg,
New York. 1943.
SEC. 4.3]
RAYS I N AN I KHOMOOENEOUS MEDI UM 111
front i n Fi g. 4.2, tne vector vdt wi l l extend from that poi nt to the cor -
respondi ng poi nt on the second wavefront.
The case i l l ustrated i s that
of an i nhomogeneous medi um i n whi ch v(z,y,z) i s a functi on of posi ti on.
I n an ani sotropi c medi um the ray vel oci ty and ~vave vel oci ty di ffer,
i n general , both i n magni tude and di recti on; i n i sotropi c medi a the
ray vel oci ty and wave vel oci ty are i denti cal . We shal l her e restri ct our
attenti on to i sotropi c but possi bl y i nhomogeneous medi a; mor e gen-
eral di scussi ons wi l l be found i n the r efer ences of the footnote on page 110.
As a resul t of the i denti ty of the ray vel oci ty and wave vel oci ty, the rays
i n an i sotropi c medi um make up a fami l y of curves orthogonal to the
fami l y of wavefronts; the ener gy fl ow at any poi nt i s normal to the wavc-
front passi ng through that poi nt.
The form of the wavefrcmts and rays can be determi ned as soon as the
functi on L(z,y,z) i s gi ven. Thi s functi on i s not uni quel y determi ned by
the for egoi ng remarks. We shal l , i n addi ti on, requi re that i t be chosen so
that the wavefront L(zjyjz) = LOshal l be one of constant phase (a/c)LO
rel ati ve to the phase at some chosen poi nt, The functi on L(z,y,z) thus
defi ned i s of basi c i mportance i n the anal yti c theor y of geometri cal opti cs.
I t sati sfi es a di fferenti al equati on whi ch we shal l now deri ve.
The phase i ncrement between the two successi ve surfaces of Fi g. 4.2
i s (u/c) 8L. Mor eover , si nce the wave pr oceeds from one surface to the
next i n ti me at whi l e the phase at any fi xed posi ti on changes at the rate
u, thi s phase di fference must be U6L. Fi nal l y i f 6s. i s the di stance betl ~,een
the surfaces at (z,y,d) and v i s the wave vel oci ty at that poi nt, we have
(6)
However , we must al so have
~L = I vL] &Sn.
(7)
I t fol l ows that
I vLI = ~ = n,
(8)
wher e n i s the i ndex of refracti oni n general a functi on of posi ti on i n the
medi um. The functi on L must ther efor e sati sfy the di fferenti al equati on
(9)
4.3. Curvature of the Rays i n an I nhomogeneous Medi um.I n a
homogeneous medi um the rays are strai ght l i nes; i n an i nhomogeneous
medi um they have a curvature that ~ve shal l now compute.
I ,et s be a
uni t vector i n the di recti on of the ray at a chosen poi nt. Thi s i s normal
to the wavefront and must have the di recti on of VI ,; so by Eq. (8) we
112
WA VI I FRON T,~ A NI ) RA S,$ [SEC. 44
have then
VL
~=.
n
(l o)
Let N be a uni t vector i n the di recti on of the radi us of curvature of the
ray at the same poi nt and Pthe radi us of curvature; the vector curvature
of the ray i s then N/p. Thi s curvature, ho~vever , i s al so gi ven by ds/ds,
wher e s i s di stance measured al ong the ray. By the vector i denti ty
g=(s. v)s=sx(vxs) (11)
we have then
N

s X(v X5). (12)

;
On taki ng the scal ar product wi th N, Eq. (12) becomes
1

N. (sxvxs)=(Nxs). (vx S). (13)

P
o
Usi ng Eq. (10) to compute V x s, and repl aci ng V ~ by (1/n)V(l n n)
n
we obtai n fi nal l y
1
N. V(l n n). (14)
i
Si nce the radi us of curvature i s an essenti al l y posi ti ve quanti ty, i t
fol l ows from Eq. (14] that the rate of change of the refracti ve i ndex i n
the di recti on of the radi us of curvature i s posi ti ~-e; that i s, the ray bends
toward the regi on of hi gher i ndex of refracti on. I n a homogeneous
medi um wher e n i s i ndependent of posi ti on, the ri ght-hand si de of Eq.
(14) i s zer o, the radi us of cor vatur e i s i nfi ni te, and the rays are strai ght
l i nes, From Eq. (12) i t fol l ows al so that i n a homogeneous medi um the
vector fi el d of the rays sati sfi es the condi ti on
Vxs=o, (15)
Thi s i s a suffi ci ent condi ti on for the exi stence of a fami l y of surfaces
orthogonal to the fi el d of vector s s.
4.4. Ener gy Fl ow i n Geometri cal Opti cs.Consi derati on of the rays
l eads to a si mpl e hydrodynami c pi cture of the ener gy fl ow. I t was
poi nted out previ ousl y that the rays are l i nes of fl ol v of ener gy. Let us
consi der the two wave surfaces LI and L2 of Fi g. 4.3 and a tube of rays
that cuts out el ements d.4 1and dA j on the r especti ve surfaces. No power
wi l l fl ow across the si des of the tube; the fl ow acrms any secti on normal to
the tubes wi l l be constant. I f S i s the rate of fl ow per uni t area, the con-
di ti on of constant power fl ow through the tube i s
S,dA, = S, dA2. (16)
SEC. 4.4]
hNI I RGY FLOW IN GhOMETIiICAL OPTICS 113
I n the case of el ectromagneti c waves the quanti ty S i s the magni tude of
the Poynti ng vector ; we shal l assume that as i n the case of pl ane and
cyl i ndri cal waves (Sec. 3.7)
()
s = ; ; 2pq. (17)
I f the permeabi l i ty p i s i ndependent of posi ti on, the rel ati on between the
el ectri c ampl i tudes at dA I and d.42 is
I n terms of the refracti ve i ndex n = (c/~0)~~we have
nIlE112 cZAl = njlllzlz dAz.
(19)
Unl i ke the Huygens-Fresnel pri nci pl e, geometri cal opti cs sets up a one-
to-one cor r espondence between the ampl i tude at one fi el d poi nt and the
ampl i tude at another.
~, L2
@j j $ ~
~
x
. .
/ .
L,
B
,:/ ;, dA2
L2
Oz
B
dA ,
zr7 :
r A
Oy --

CA
-
L,
c
(a)
?4
(b)
Y
FI Q. 4,3.Energy rel ati ons i n geometr i c opti rs: (a) tube of rays i n an i nhomogeneous
medi ul n; (b) rel ati ons between wavefronts i n a homogeneous medi um.
I t wi l l be of i nterest to appl y Eq. (19) to the case of a homogeneous
medi um i n whi ch the rays consi st of strai ght l i nes. The segments of
rays bet~veen the \vavefronts L1 and Lz, as sho\vn i n Fi g. 4.3b, wi l l have
equal l engths p. Let the ray through the poi nt A on surface L, be the
z-axi s, and l et the u- and yz-pl anes coi nci de \vi th the pri nci pal pl anes
of Ll atA. .4 ray through an adjacent poi nt B l yi ng i n L1 and the u-pl ane
\vi l l i ntersect the ray through A at the poi nt 0., at a di stance RI whi ch i s
one of the pri nci pal radi i of curvature of LI at poi nt A; a ray through an
adjacent poi nt C i n the yz-pl ane ~vi l l si mi l arl y i ntersect the ray through
.4 at the poi nt 0,, at a di stance Rz whi ch i s the second pri nci pal radi us
of curvature of Ll at A, The radi i of rurvature ~vi l l be consi dered to be
posi ti ve i f the center s of curvature l i e on the negati ve z-axi s, as shown.
114 WA VEFRONTS AND RAYS [SEC.4.5
The poi nt A on the surface Lz l i es on the ray through A. I t can be
shown that the pri nci pal pl anes of L2 at A are coi nci dent wi th those of
L,; through A we ran pass coordi nate axes z, y whi ch cor r espond to the
axes of. r, y, respecti vel y. I t i s obvi ous that the pri nci pal radi i of
cur\ature of the surface Lz at the poi nt A are R L + p and R2 + p.
Let us now consi der an el ement of area d.?l , ~vhi cb i ncl udes A and i s
bounded by the cur ve r. The rays through the cur ve i ntersect L2 i n
the cur ve I , whi ch bounds an el ement of area dA z around the poi nt A.
These areas are gi ven by
(20)
I t i s evi dent from the fi gure that the mordi natcs of correspondi ng poi nts
(xjy) and (x,y), near A and A respecti vel y, are thus rel ated:
R, + p
x =
R, x
~f = &R~ y-
(21a)
(21b)
Substi tuti on of these rel ati ons i nto Eq. (20) gi ves the rel ati on between
the cross secti ons of the tube of rays at L1 and Lz:
(22)
I nserti ng thi s resul t i nto Eq. (19) and recal l i ng that i n the present case
nl = n2.,we obtai n the rel ati on
(1 1)
I !
]E2] = !El ; R:R2-
(RI +P)(~2 +P)
(23)
When R, and Rz are both fi ni te and the surface L, i s so far from L, that
p >> R1 and Rz, thi s reduces to
(24)
Thi s l ast rel ati on wi l l be of use to us i n the di scussi on of scatteri ng of
radi ati on by cur ved surfaces.
4.5. Geometri cal Opti cs as a Zero-wavel ength Li mi t .We shal l no~~
i nvesti gate the rel ati on betfveen geometri cal opti cs and the fi el d equa-
ti ons, taki ng up i n the succeedi ng secti on i ts connecti on wi th the
I The subject i s trmted from the poi nt of vi mr of the scal ar \ravrequ~ti on by 1.
Debye, Pol ar .Mol e.ul es,(hap. 8, repri nt by I )ovcr I ul )l i (ati o,,s, Xew York, 1945;
al soi n the arti cl eby .k.Sommerfcl di n 1%. I :rankan(i l :. l l i sm, I )tfl rre?~ti al gfei chungeT~
der Physik, Chap. 20, repri ntby Mary Rosmherg, Now York, 1943.
Huygens-Fresnel pri nci pl e; the anal ysi sw.11 reconfi ned to homogeneous
medi a.
A careful r evi ew of the i deas of the precedi ng secti ons wi l l make i t
evi dent that geometri cal opti cs i s based on the i dea that a ~ravefront
behaves l ocal l y l i ke a pl ane wave. The correspondi ng sol uti on to the
scal ar wave equati on i s
u = A(z,y,z)~J[~~~oL(r,v,z)l
(25)
wher e kO= 27r/kO,i l (x,y,z) i s the ampl i tude of the wave (usual l y a func-
ti on of posi ti on) and L(z, y,z) i s the characteri sti c functi on defi ni ng sur-
faces of equal phase. We are her e concer ned ~ri th al i uearl y pol ari zed
el ectromagneti c fi el d and must consi der the vector counterparts of thi s
sol uti on. Let us then i nvesti gate the possi bi l i ty of sati sfyi ng the fi el d
equati ons by el ectri c- and mageti c-fi el d vector s havi ng the form
Thearnpl i tud evectcr s aand~maybecompl ex, butthei r phases i n that
case must be i ndependent of posi ti on.
On substi tuti ng these expressi ons i nto the homogeneous forms of the
fi el d equati ons [Eqs. (332)], i t ~vi l l I )e found that the ampl i tude and
phase functi ons must sati sfy the rel ati ons
(27a)
(27b)
On el i mi nati ng ~ from Eq. (27b) by means of Eq. (27a) and repl aci ng
k~by U(WOCO) ~ i t wi l l be found that a must sati sfy the equati on
a = + [vL(rI . VL) m[vqq + ~+ [VL x (v x (Y)
+ v x (VL x rr)] + ~l r$ [v x (v x a)]; (28)
n i s agai n the i ndex of refracti on. Si mi l arl y, on el i mi nati ng a from F,q.
(27a) we fi nd that Qmust al so sati sfy Eq. (28).
I f VL and the deri vati ves of a and Dare fi ni te, the l ast two terms on
the ri ght are of the or der s 1/ ~0 and l /k~, respecti vel y, as compared wi th
the fi rst. As x goes to zer o, kn approaches i nfi ni ty and the l ast two terms
approach zer o. For Eq. (28) and the anal ogous equati on i n Q to be
sati sfi ed under these condi ti ons we must have
a.vL=O, (29a)
Q. VI, =O, (29b)
lv~.~ = n. (29c)
The l ast of these condi ti ons i s the di fferenti al equati on for the charac-
teri sti c functi on that ~vasdevel oped i n Sec. 4.2. The fi rst two condi ti ons
state that a and @ must be transverse to VL; i t fol l ows that a and ~ l i e
i n a pl ane transverse to the di recti on of propagati on. Furthermore,
Eq. (27a) can be wri tten as
g = (;)(: x .) - ,+ (;)(v x a), (30)
the second term bei ng of or der l /ko compared wi th the fi rst. I n the
l i mi t k ~ O the second term vani shes. Si nce VL/n i s a uni t vector i n
the di recti on of propagati on, we see that i n the l i mi t x ~ O, ~ must be
perpendi cul ar to a as wel l as to the di recti on of propagati on. I t fol l ows
that the Poynti ng vector i s normal to the wavefront and that i ts magni -
tude i s
(31)
to terms of the or der of I /k,.
V/e have thus seen that the fi el d vector s of geometri cal opti cs [Eqs,
(26)] possess the properti es whi ch wer e shown i n Sec. 311 to be possessed
by the far-zone fi el ds. I n thi s regi on, at l east, we may expect geometri cal
opti cs to ser ve as a reasonabl e approxi mati on to the exact theor y.
I t shoul d be emphasi zed that the terms of or der l /ko and l /k{ i n
Eqs. (28) and (30) may be consi dered negl i gi bl e for short ~vavel engths
onl y i f the deri vati ves enteri ng i nto these terms are ti ni te. I n the
nei ghborhood of a geometri cal focal poi nt the functi on L vari es rapi dl y
and i ts deri vati ves assume l arge val ues; at the boundary of a geometri cal
shadow the ampl i tude vari es rapi dl y. I n these regi ons the geometri cal -
opti cs approxi mati on fai l s, and phenomena are obser ved that are not,
cover ed by the si mpl e theor y of wavefronts and rays.
4.6. The Huygens-Fresnel Pri nci pl e and Geometri cal Opti cs: The
Far-zone Approxi mati on.I t wi l l be i nstructi ve to i nvesti gate the rel a-
ti on between the Huygens-Fresnel pri nci pl e and geometri cal opti cs to
see under what condi ti ons the poi nt-to-poi nt ampl i tude rel ati on [Eq. (23)]
that was obtai ned i n Sec. 4.4 on the basi s of the geometri cal -opti cs con-
cept of the fl ow of ener gy i n tubes of rays can be deri ved from the
Huygens-Fresnel pri nci pl e i n the l i mi t of zer o wavel ength. The di scus-
si on wi l l be restri cted agai n to homogeneous medi a.
For our present purposes i t i s suffi ci ent to consi der any one scal ar
component of a fi el d vector ; we ther efor e take as our starti ng poi nt the
scal ar i ntegral formul a [Eq. (5)]:
p= -+~z:[u(k+:)cosnr)+ :ld~
(45)
SEC. 46] FAR-ZONE APPROXI MATI ON 117
wher e the surface S encl oses al l the sources of the fi el d. I n vi ew of the
resul ts obtai ned i n the previ ous secti on we confi ne our attenti on to
the fi el d far from the sources; the present secti on i sdi rected toward the
devel opment of an approxi mati on to Eq. (5) sui tabl e forequi phasesur-
faces i n thi s regi on.
I nthefar zone the fi el d i saquasi -poi nt-source fi el d (Sec,3.11); that
i s, the ampl i tude functi on takes the form
(32)
wher e p, 0, @ are the spheri cal coordi nates of a poi nt i n the far zone wi th
r espect to an arbi trary ori gi n i n the nei ghborhood of the sources.
I f n
i s the uni t normal to b di r ected out from the regi on contai ni ng the sources
(Fi g. 4.1) and pl , 01, +1 are uni t vector s i n the di recti ons of i ncreasi ng p,
o and O, respecti vel y, at a poi nt on S, the normal deri vati ve of u on thi s
surface i s
By use of Eq. (32) we obtai n
Vu = jkuel + ~
(
1 aF
Pl +~#l +
~+%)+($) 34)
I n the far zone p >> k; consequentl y
vu = jkue,,
(35)
and
13u
=
an
jku cos (n,p, ),
(36)
provi di ng al so that the vari ati on of the ampl i tude i n the 0 and @ di rec-
ti ons i s smal l compared to that i n the radi al di recti on. The i ntegral
rel ati on thus becomes
1
uP=
/{ }
~~ jku[cos (n,@,) cos (n,r)] ~ cos (n,r) dS. (37)
4us T
Fi nal l y, i f we consi der onl y fi el d poi nts P such that r >> A for al l poi nts
on S, the l ast term i n the i ntegrand i s negl i gi bl e wi th r espect to the fi rst.
We then have, as an approxi mati on val i d i n the far zone,
uP=~
1
2A s
UICOS(n,pl ) cos (n,r)] ~ dS, T>> L (38)
I n the l i mi t x ~ O thi s equati on can be appl i ed wi th vi rtual l y no restri c-
ti on as to the l ocati on of the fi el d poi nt P.
118 WA VEFRONTS AND RAYS [SEC.4.6
Equati on (38) appl i es to any surface i n the far-zone regi on that
encl oses the sources of the fi el d. Let us now consi der the surface S to
be an equi phase surface and assume on the basi s of the precedi ng secti on
that the fi el d can be expressed i n the form of Eq. (25),
~ = /j (z,y,z)eI ~oL(z, ~,z).
(425)
I t was seen that i n the l i mi t x -0 thi s l eads to a sol uti on of the fi el d
equati ons such that the Poynti ng vector i s normal to the equi phase sur-
face. On the other hand, i n the i nvesti gati on of the far-zone fi el ds i n
Sec. 3.11 i t was found that negl ecti ng terms of or der l /p3 the Poynti ng
vector i s i n the di recti on of CI Ii ndependent of the choi ce of the ori gi n i n
the nei ghborhood of the sources. Consequentl y, i f I S i s an equi phase sur-
face, we have as an approxi mati on val i d for short wavel engths
cos (n,pl ) = 1. (39)
The i ntegral rel ati on [Eq. (38)] i n thi s case reduces to
(40)
I t wi l l be r ecogni zed that Eq. (39) i s tantamount to assumi ng that the
equi phase surfaces do not di ffer wi del y from spheres about the sour ce
di stri buti on. Al so i n vi ew of the condi ti on associ ated wi th Eq. (35)
that p>> k, the assumpti on i s i mpl i ed that the radi i of curvature of the
equi phase surfaces are l arge compared wi th the wavel ength.
A consi derati on of the normal deri vati ve &A/dn i n terms of fi el d
expressi on of Eq. (25) shows an addi ti onal assumpti on, concerni ng the
ampl i tude A (z,y,z), whi ch underl i es the use of the far-zone i ntegral [Eq.
(40)]. Taki ng Eq. (25), we have for the normal deri vati ve of u on an
equi phase surface
au
(
1 8A
an
=U
)
jk+xz (41)
I n obtai ni ng thi s resul t use i s made of Eq. (29c). Substi tuti ng Eq. (41)
i nto Eq. (5) shows that we pass from the l atter to Eq. (40) under the
condi ti on that
(42)
Thi s i s sati sfi ed, of course, i n the l i mi t x -+ Oprovi ded that (l /A) (13A/&t)
i s fi ni te ever ywher e. I n the practi cal case, wher e the wavel ength i s
smal l but not equal to zer o, the contri buti on of (1/A) (dA/dn) can be
negl ected to a good approxi mati on i f the fracti onal change i n ampl i tude
over a di stance equal to the wavel ength i s smal l compared wi th uni ty.
SEC.4.7]
THE PRI NCI PLE OF STATI ONARY PHALSE 119
4.7. The Pfi ci pl e of Stati ona~Phase.-Equati on (40) sti l l expresses
the fi el d at poi nt l asa superposi ti on of spheri cal wavel ets ari si ng from
ever y poi nt on the equi phase surface. The transi ti on to the geometri cal
opti cs resul t of Sec. 4.4 i s carri ed through on the basi s of the pri nci pl e of
stati onary phase whi ch we shal l di scuss i n thi s secti on.
Let the surfaceS of Fi g. 44betheequi phase surface and Pbe the
fi el d poi nt. Ther e are at l east two poi nts on Sat whi chthe normal to
the surface l i es al ong the l i ne passi ng through P. Let N be the nearest
of such poi nts to the l atter, and l et NP be the z-axi s of our coordi nate
system; the x- and y-axes are taken i n the pri nci pal pl anes of curvature
P(O,0,P)
FI G. 4.4.On the pri nci pl e of stati onary phase.
of the surface at the poi nt N. The surface i s di vi ded i nto segments Sl
and f% by the cur ve r al ong whi ch the tangent pl anes to the surface are
paral l el tothe z-axi s. Weshal l assume that i neachsegment ther e i s onl y
one poi nt at whi ch the l i ne of the normal passes through P. Thi s condi -
ti on i mpl i es that P is not a focal poi nt of the rays associ ated wi th the
surface S.
Denoti ng the di stance NP by p, the i ntegral of Eq. (40) can be
r ewr i tten as
Thei ntegral i sasurnof vector el ements and can be tr eated graphi cal l y
bythecustomary pr ocedur es of vector addi ti on. The magni tude of the
vector el ement contri buted by an arbi trary el ement of surface cLSi s
(u/r)[l -cos(n,r)] dS, andtheangl e bet~,eeni tandthev ector fr omthe
el ement of area at the poi nt Ni s (27r/x)(r p). Consi der now the con-
tri buti on from an arbi trary porti on of the surface as a functi on of the
wavel ength. I f the wavel ength i s l arge, the angl e between vector s
from adjacent surface el ements i ssmal l ; thevector di agram i n thi s case
takes the form of a gradual curve, as i s i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 4.5aj and we
may i n general expect a resul tant vector u~ si gni fi cantl y di fferent from
120 WA VEFRONTS AND RA ls [SEC. 47
zer o. On the other hand, i f the wavel ength i s smal l , the angl e between
adjacent el ements i s l arge and the vector di agram takes the form of a
ti ghtl y wound cur ve as i s shown i n Fi g. 4.5b. I n the l atter case the resul t-
ant vector UEmay i n general be expected to be vi rtual l y zer o, the mor e
so as k + O. Thus, as a resul t of
(a)
(b)
FI G. 4.5.The vector representati on
of the Huygens-l Jresneli ntegral : (n) the
l ong-wavel ength case; (b) the short-
wavel ength case.
the rapi d vari ati on i n the phase of the
i ntegrand of Eq. (43), we have de-
structi ve i nter fer ence and vi rtual l y
compl ete cancel l ati on between the
spheri cal wavel ets from an arbi trary
porti on of the phase surface.
The si tuati on i s di fferent, how-
ever , for those porti ons of the surface
i n the nei ghborhood of the poi nt N
on the segment S, and the cor r espond-
i ng poi nt on SZ. I t i s obser ved that the phase functi on
+(z,v)= rp=[z+ y+(pz)]~ p
(44)
i s stati onary i n the nei ghborhood of these poi nts; at these poi nts
(45)
Consequentl y, i n the nei ghborhood of these poi nts the phase vari es
SI OW1 y, despi te the short wavel ength, and the vector di agrams r epr esent-
i ng the contri buti ons of the areas around these poi nts take the form of
Fi g. 4.5a rather than that of Fi g. 4.5b. The stati onary phase areas yi el d
contri buti ons to the i ntegral [Eq. (43)] compared wi th whi ch the con-
tri buti ons of other porti ons of the surface are negl i gi bl e. We are thus
l ed to the pri nci pl e of stati onary phase: For short wavel engths, the
i ntegral of Eq. (43) representi ng the effect of the whol e surface s i s
negl i gi bl y di fferent from the sum of the contri buti ons of the areas about
those poi nts on S at whi ch the phase has a stati onary val ue.
I t wi l l be obser ved further that at the stati onary poi nt on the seg-
ment S2, cos (n,r) = 1 and that the cos (n,r) wi l l not be ver y di fferent
from uni ty over the area i n the nei ghborhood of the stati onary poi nt i n
vi ew of our earl i er assumpti ons (Sec. 4.6) as to the nature of the surface.
The contri buti on from thi s area i s agai n zer o, si nce 1 cos (n,r) vani shes,
and we are l eft then sol el y wi th the contri buti on of the area around the
poi nt N. The ampl i tude of the i ntegrand of Eq. (43) may be consi dered
constantequal to i ts val ue at the poi nt N over thi s area, and Eq. (43)
then reduces to
wher e ~Mi s a smal l
j
~jk p
uP=uv
Ap
//
~i~+dz dy,
bN
area around the poi nt N.
(46)
SEC. 4.7]
THE PRI NCI PLE OF STATI ONARY PHASE
The equati on of the sl wface i n the nei ghborhood of N i s
=-(&+k)+
121
(47)
RI and R2 bei ng the pri nci pal radi i of curvature. I nserti ng thi s i nto Eq.
(44), we fi nd that to second-or der terms the phase functi on over the
area 6Ni s
= XR+)X+X%92
(48)
thi s i s to be i nserted i nto Eq. (46). We may now, however , r ever se the
appl i cati on of the stati onary phase pri nci pl e and argue that the i ntegral
of Eq. (46) may be extended over the i nfi ni te (z,y)-domai n wi th negl i gi bl e
er r or . We thus obtai n
/!
. k
~ jkp
up = ~uN - z[=+@ dz dy,
A p -me
wi th
a=(%+)(%+)
(49)
(50)
The i ntegral of Eq. (49) can be transformed to Fresnel i ntegral s,
\
m. .
e~( d~ = 42 ez,
.
wi th the fi nal resul tl
1The argumentmay be appl i edi n generalto i ntegral s
over a regi on R i n whi ch F(u,u)has bounded vari ati on i n each vari abl e. I f (uo,oo)i s
a stati onary poi nt of the functi on o i n the regi on R, and i f the coeffi ci entsa and i 3
of the canoni cal form of dz+ at that poi nt,
are both di fferentfrom zer o, the asymptoti cval ue of the i ntegral for l arge k is
. .
~ z F(uO,uO)eiWC%.%)
/ i
e3$(RE+8)d( dq;
-. .
or,
I f @has mor ethan one stati onarypoi nt i n the regi on,the total val ueof the i ntegrali s
~Mai nedby summi ngthe l atter expressi onover the stati onarypoi nts.
The pri n.;pl e was formul atedby Lor d Kel vi n, Math, Phys. Papers I V, 303-306
(1910), for one-di mensi onali ntegral s; the l atter has been di scussed r ecentl y i n a
122 WA VEFRON1S AND RAYS
[SEC. 4.8
R,RZ
$5
up
~jkp
= N (R, +P)(F?2 +P)
(51)
The ampl i tude rel ati on i s seen to be i denti cal wi th that obtai ned on
the ener gy fl ow basi s. The factor ejp si mpl y represents the phase
change correspondi ng to the di spl acement of the wavefront S al ong the
opti cal rays to the wavefront contai ni ng the poi nt P.
4.8. Fermats Pri nci pl e.-We shal l now return to the di scussi on of the
methods of geometri cal opti cs and shal l consi der several pri nci pl es that
underl i e the desi gn of r efl ector s and l enses. The fi rst of these i s Fermats
pri nci pl e, whi ch i s often taken as the basi c postul ate i n the devel opment
of the general theor y. 1
Befor e stati ng Fermats pri nci pl e we must i ntroduce the i dea of
opti cal path l ength. The opti cal path l ength AL al ong a cur ve r
between poi nts P, and P2 i s defi ned by a l i ne i ntegral al ong thi s curve:
AL =
/
nldsl, (52)
r
wher e n i s the refracti ve i ndex at the l i ne el ement ds.
Thi s concept i s i nti matel y connected wi th the i deas di scussed i n
Sec. 4.2. Between t\vo adjacent phase surfaces L(z,y,z) = LO and
L(z,y,z) = L, + ~L, ther e i s an i ncrement i n the val ue of the char~cter-
i sti c functi on L whi ch i s, by Eq. (6),
(53)
The di stance 6s. between the two surfaces i s a functi on of posi ti on, but
the quanti ty 6L = n 8s. i s a constant; thi s, i t wi l l be noted, i s the opti cal
path l ength al ong any ray between the two surfaces. I t fol l ows i mme-
di atel y that the opti cal path l ength, as gi ven by Eq. (51), i s the same for
ever y ray bet\veen any two wavefronts L(x,y,~) = LO and L(z,~,z) = LI;
i t i s, i n fact,
AL = ILI Lol. (54)
Thus the characteri sti c functi on L(zjy,z) can be i nterpreted as the opti cal
path l ength al ong a ray from the wavefront L(z,y,z) = O to the wave-
front i n whi ch the poi nt (z,y,z) l i es.
ri gorous manner by A. Wi ntner, J. Math. Phys,, 24, 127 (1945). As yet, ri gorous
extensi on to the two-di mensi onalcase has not been made. The conver genceof the
i ntegral s that i s requi redfor the process outl i nedher e to be val i d i s assuredi n the
case that a and B are both posi ti ve and k has a smal l negati ve i magi nary com-
ponent k,; the fi nal resul ti s then tp be i nterpretedas the l i mi t (after i ntegrati on)as
k; -O.
1Cf. J. L. Synge,Geometr {r at O~!ics, Cambri dge,London, 1937.
i
I
SEC. 4.8] F17RMA T,~ PRI NCI PLE 123
The i dea of opti cal path l ength i s not restri cted i n i ts appl i cati on to
rays. One can determi ne the opti cal path l ength between two poi nts
P, and Pz al ong any cur ve r whatever; i ts val ue wi l l i n general vary wi th
the choi ce of r. Fermats pri nci pl e provi des a method for usi ng these
val ues i n sel ecti ng possi bl e ray paths from PI to P2 from al l other paths.
I t may be stated thus:
Fermats principle: The optical ray or rays from a sour ce at a point
PI to a point of observation Pe is the curve along which the optical path fength.
is stationary with respect to infinitesimal variations in path.
Usual l y the opti cal path al ong a ray has a maxi mum or mi ni mum
val ue wi th r espect to nei ghbori ng paths. The i ncl usi on of the pl ural
possi bi l i tyy rays i n the above formul ati on of Fermats pri nci pl e i s
,W
2? K
M
p + J :,)(S1+& ,
P, _ ~
nl
n2-a,
--<
0
P,
-----0
P,s,
T131
/
761
/
P, m,
~m - o
\
@ /
o -\m
K
*
\\*>
\
~Q%, ~s
P232 \
~, 22
<v%,
/
P2
P2
(a) (b)
FI G, 4.6.Notati on for the deri vati on of Snel l s l aws: (a) refl ecti on; (b) refracti on.
requi red to cover si tuati ons i n whi ch the poi nt Pz may be reached by
rays from PI by a di rect path or by refl ecti on from surfaces at whi ch
ther e are di sconti nui ti es i n the i ndex of refracti on.
I t fol l ows di rectl y from Fermats pri nci pl e that i n a homogeneous
medi um (n = constant) the rays are strai ght l i nes. The opti cal path
l ength i s i n thi s case proporti onal to the geometri cal path l ength, and a
strai ght l i ne gi ves a mi ni mum val ue for both.
Fermats pri nci pl e can al so be used i n deri vi ng Snel l s l aws of refl ec-
ti on and refracti on at the i nterface between two homogeneous medi a.
Let us consi der fi rst the l aws of refl ecti on. Let the poi nt O of Fi g. 4.6a
be the poi nt on the refl ecti ng surface M for whi ch the opti cal path l ength
from PI to O to PI has a stati onary val ue. The opti cal path must con-
si st of strai ght l i ne segments from PI to O and O to P2, si nce these paths
are i n a homogeneous medi um. The opti cal path l ength i s then certai nl y
stati onary wi th r espect to nei ghbori ng cur ved paths from PI to P2 by
way of M whi ch l eave the poi nt O unchanged; but by our postul ate i t i s
stati onary al so wi th r espect to strai ght-l i ne paths wi th near-by refl ecti on
poi nts 0. Let us then consi der a nei ghbori ng poi nt O, di spl aced wi th
124 WA VEFRONTS ANI ) RA Y.! [Sm. 48
r espect to O by ~ 61, ~ bei ng a uni t vector i n the tangent pl ane. We shal i
now compute the vari ati on i n opti cal path l ength as O i s changed.
Let s, and St (Fi g. 4.6) be uni t vector s i n the di recti on P,O and 0P2,
respecti vel y, andmthe uni t vector normal tothe surface at O. Then we
may wri te the vector PIO as plsl and the vector OPZ as pZS.Z. Si mi l arl y
l et sI + 8s1 and s,+ &beu ni t vector s al ong thel i nes PI O and OPa,
respecti vel y, and pl + 3P1 and P2+ 3P2the l engths of these l i nes. The
vari ati on i n opti cal path by way of O wi th r espect to the path by \vay
of the poi nt O i s
6L = rz(bp, + 3PJ; (55)
by our postul ate thi s must vani sh to terms of the fi rst or der i n al . From
Fi g. 4.6 i t i s cl ear that
(Pl + JP1)(S1+ as,) = p,s, + t N,
(56a)
(P2 + aP2)(s2 + 6s2) = P2S2 ? 61.
(56b)
To terms of the fi rst or der we have then
13p,sl + p, 8s1 = r 81,
(57a)
tipzsz + pt & = r 61, (57b)
whence
apl = SI . c N, (58a)
dpz = s2. f61, (58b)
si nce sl
. 6s1 = O. By Fermats pri nci pl e, then,
iSL=n(s, -s.J. ~61=0 (59)
for al l vari ati ons 62; hence
(S, s.z). r=o
(60)
for ever y uni t vector ? i n the tangent pl ane. Thi s gi ves i mmedi atel y
the two l aws of refl ecti on:
1. The i nci dent ray, the r efl ected ray, and the normal to the refl ecti ng
surface al l l i e i n the same pl ane.
(The pl ane defi ned by s, and
SZi s normal to the tangent pl ane.)
2. The i nci dent and r efl ected rays make equal angl es wi th the normal .
[COS(sl ,~) = cos (s2,7); that i s, the angl es (sl ,~) and (sa,r) are
equal . ]
The l aw of refracti on i s deri ved i n a si mi l ar manner i n Fi g. 4.6b. The
vari ati ons i n actual l ength of the paths P1O and OP2 are gi ven agai n by
Eqs. (58); the opti cal path vari ati on i s, however ,
6L = nl 6P1 + nz 6P2 = (n,sl n2s2). T 61.
(61)
SEC. 49]
THE LAW OF THE OPTI CAL PATH 125
By I ?ermats pri nci pl e thi s agai n vani shes for ever y 61,whence
(?2,s, n,s,) 7 = o (62)
for ever y vector z i n the tangent pl ane. Thi s i mpl i es the two l aws of
refracti on:
1. The i nci dent ray, r efl ected ray, and the normal l i e i n a pl ane.
2. nl cos (s1,7) = n2 cos (s2,z), (63a)
or i n terms of the angl es between the rays and the normal
nl si n (m,s,) = nz si n (m,sz). (63b)
Snel l s l aws of refl ecti on and refracti on are agai n an expressi on of the
fundamental assumpti on of geometri cal opti cs that the wavefront
behaves l ocal l y l i ke a pl ane wave; i n addi ti on, they assume that the
boundary surface can be tr eated l ocal l y l i ke i ts tangent pl ane. I n fi el d
theor y Snel l s l aws der i ve ri gorousl y from appl i cati on of the boundary
condi ti ons of Sec. 3.3 onl y for the case of an i nfi ni te pl ane wave i nci dent
upon an i nfi ni te pl ane boundary. 1 They fol l ow i n a good approxi mati on
from these boundary rel ati ons i f the radi i of curvature of the two wave-
fronts (i nci dent and r efl ected or r efr acted) and of the boundary are l arge
compared wi th the wavel ength.
4.9. The Law of the Opti cal Path.Fermats pri nci pl e provi des an
i ndependent formul ati on of opti cal rays from the method of the charac-
teri sti c functi on L(z,y,n) and equi phase surfaces devel oped i n Sec. 42.
I t was shown i n the l atter secti on that the rays are orthogonal to the
equi phase surfaces, and i t was obser ved further i n the precedi ng secti on
that the opti cal path al ong the rays between a pai r of equi phase surfaces
i s a constant. The treatment of Sec. 4.2 appl i es, however , onl y to
medi a i n whi ch the i ndex of refracti on i s a conti nuous functi on of
posi ti on. We shal l now show that the system of rays ari si ng by refrac-
ti on or refl ecti on (i n accordance wi th Snel l s l aws) at a boundary of
di sconti nui ty i n the refracti ve i ndex have associ ated wi th them a fami l y
of equi phase surfaces, so that the l aw of constant opti cal path hol ds for
any pai r of wavefronts, one a member of the i nci dent system and one
of the r efr acted (refl ected) system.
I t was seen that i n a homogeneous medi um the rays are strai ght l i nes.
A fami l y of strai ght l i nes for whi ch ther e exi sts a fami l y of orthogonal
surfaces i s sai d to consti tute a normal congr uence. Thus, the rays
defi ned i n Sec. 4.2the normal s to the surfaces L(z,y,z) = constant
consti tute a normal congr uence. I .et us now consi der the probl em of
refracti on or refl ecti on, i t bei ng gi ven that the i nci dent system of rays
form a normal congr uence associ ated wi th a fami l y of equi phase surfaces
1See M. Born, OPtzk, p. 15, repri ntby F;dwardsBros., Ann Arbor, Mi ch., 1943.
126 WA VEFRONTS A,VL> RA 1,9 [SEC. 4.9
L(z,y,z) = constant. The fi rst questi on i s whether the r efr acted (or
r efl ected) system of rays i s l i kewi se a normal congr uence. Thi s i s
answered i n the affi rmati ve by the theor em of Mal us whi ch we state wi th-
out proof:l
Theoremof .Vlalus:A normal congruence aftmany number ojre$ections
and refracti ons i s again a normal congruence. The system of r efr acted
rays thus has associ ated therewi th a fami l y of orthogonal surfaces.
We shal l now i nvesti gate the opti cal path al ong the rays between a
member of the i nci dent ~ravefronts and a member of the surfaces or tho-
gonal to the r efr acted system of rays. I .et L,of Fi g. 4.7 beawa,vefront
L,
FI G. 47.-On the l aw of the opti ral path.
i n the i nci dent system and La one of the orthogonal surfaces of the
r efr acted system of rays and consi der an i nci dent tube of rays passi ng
through the cl osed cur ve I 1 onLl ; l et r~ be the cur ve of i ntersecti on
of the tube wi th the refracti ng surface M and r z the cur ve of i ntersecti on
of the r efr acted tube of rays wi th the surface L2.
We shal l eval uate the opti cal path from L, to Lz al ong any pai r of
rays, say the paths ABC and A BC shown i n Fi g. 4.7. Let us consi der
fi rst the i ntegral s
\
A
+
n,s, odl, (64)
A
(r,)
I See for exampl e R. K. Luneberg, Mafhernakcal Theory of Optics, Lectures i n
Appl i ed Mathemati cs,Br own Uni versi ty,1944.
SEC. 4.9] THE LAW OF THE OPTICAL PATH
and
127
+
/
c
/
c
/
B
~11) n& . d = nzsa . dl + m& . d + nzsz . df
B c
[rj~
\
B
+
nzsz ~dl , (65)
(rm?
wher e SI and sz are uni t vector s al ong the i nc~dent and r efr acted rays,
respecti vel y. Si nce s, and S2 are both normal congruences, they each
sati sfy the equati on [see Eq. (15)]
Vxs=o;
ther efor e, the l i ne i ntegral s around the cl osed paths
$(1) and $(I I ) are
zer o. Furthermore the i ntegral s over r I and I z are zer o, si nce s, and
S2 are normal to these r especti ve curves. Addi ng the above i ntegral s
(I ) and (I I ) and transposi ng sui tabl e terms, we th& obtai n
/
B
/
c
\
B
\
c
nl sl odl + n& . dl = ?zI sl . dl +
A
922s2. d
B A . B
/
B
+ (nlsl n2s2)
(r:)
dl . (66)
The l ast i ntegral of Eq. (66) vani shes as a resul t of Snel l s l aw of
refracti on. The l eft-hand si de i s the opti cal path ABC, whi l e the fi rst
two i ntegral s on the ri ght-hand si de consti tute the opti cal path ABC.
We have, ther efor e,
~~Bcnd = ~ABcnd
(67)
The opti cal path and hence the phase i ncrement are constant al ong al l
rays from the equi phase surface L 1i n the i nci dent system to the surface
L2 i n the r efr acted regi on. The fami l y of surfaces orthogonal to the
r efr acted rays thus consti tutes the r efr acted system of equi phase surfaces.
The l aw of the opti cal path often provi des a si mpl er approach to
the determi nati on of refl ecti ng or refracti ng surfaces than do Snel l s
l aws. As an exampl e, l et us desi gn a r efl ector that transforms a spheri cal
wave i nto a pl ane wave. I t i s evi dent that the surface i s a surface of
revol uti on and that i t i s suffi ci ent to consi der a pl ane secti on contai ni ng
the axi s of revol uti on. I n Fi g. 4.8 l et F be a poi nt source, the center of
curvature of the spheri cal wave; M the refl ecti ng surface; and LOany one
ot the fami l y of pl ane wavefronts i nto whi ch the spheri cal waves are to
be transformed. The opti cal path from F to the wavefront LO is
FP+ AP = const. = j +d. (O&V
128 WA VEFRONTS AND RAYS [SEC. 4.9
The constant may be eval uated by consi deri ng the path al ong the axi s;
i f the di stance OF = j, the opti cal path i s equal to f + d. ~Then FP
and AP are eval uated i n terms of p and ~, Eq. (68) becomes the equati on
P
0. .,
+
d
Lo
FI G. 4X.-Appl i rati on of the l aw of the opti cal path.
of the surface i n pol ar form
2f
P=l +COS*
(69)
Thi s i s the equati on of a parabol a of focal l ength ~.
I n contrast to the above cal cul ati on, appl i cati on of Snel l s l aws woul d
l ead to the setti ng up of the di fferenti al equati on of the surface; i t ~voul d
then be necessary to i ntegrate thi s eql l ati on. Further exampl es of the
~ppl i cati on of the l aw of the opti cal path wi l l be di scussed i n l ater chap-
ters i n the desi gn of mi rrors and l enses.
CHAPTER 5
SCATTERI NG AND DI FFRACTI ON
BY S. SI LVER
The i ntroducti on of an obstacl e i nto the path of a wave gi ves ri se to
phenomena that are not cover ed by the geometri cal theor y of wave-
fronts and rays devel oped i n the precedi ng chapter. These phenomena
scatteri ng and di ffracti on-are of fundamental i mportance i n mi cro-
wave antennas, for they underl i e the formati on of antenna patterns by
r efl ector s and l enses. I n the present chapter the theor y of scatteri ng
and di ffracti on i s devel oped wi th r efer ence to general techni ques; the
speci fi c probl ems associ ated wi th antenna patterns wi l l be taken up i n
Chap. 6.
5.1. General Consi derati ons.-The di scussi on of the scatteri ng
probl em wi l l be restri cted to the case of an obstacl e of i nfi ni te conduc-
ti vi ty. The probl em wi th whi ch we are concer ned i s the fol l owi ng:
Gi ven a pri mary system of sources that produces an el ectromagneti c
fi el d E,, HO; an i nfi ni tel y conducti ng body i s i ntroduced i nto the fi el d,
and i t i s requi red to fi nd the new fi el d E, H.
I n practi ce the pri mary sources are di stri buti ons of currents and
charges over a system of conductors acti vated by generators. We shal l
r efer to the l atter system of conductors and generators as the sour ce
system, i n di sti ncti on to the currents and charges over the obstacl es.
The sol ut~on to our probl em i s based on the superposi ti on pri nci pl e
of Sec. 3.2. On i ntroduci ng the body i nto the fi el d of the sources a di s-
tri buti on of cur r ent and charge i s i nduced over i ts surface. We then
have two component fi el ds: one ari si ng from the i nduced di stri buti on
over the body and the second ari si ng from the currents and charges i n
the sour ce system. The total fi el d E, H resul ts from the superposi ti on
of the component fi el ds. I t shoul d be noted, however , that the fi el d of
the body reacts on the sour ce system wi th a resul ti ng perturbati on of i ts
cur r ent di stri buti on, so that the component fi el d of the l atter di ffers
from the ori gi nal fi el d EO, Ho.
The i nteracti on between the body and the sour ce systemand the
total fi el d E, Hcan be anal yzed as a superposi ti on of mul ti pl e scatteri ng
processes. Fi rst we consi der the i nteracti on of the body wi th the ori gi nal
fi el d Eo, HO, assumi ng no change i n the sour ce currents. The body sets
up a scattered wave E:, Hl , ari si ng from an i nduced di stri buti on over i ts
surface. The scattered wave fal l i ng on the source-system conductors
129
130 SCA TTERINQ AND DIFFRACTION [SEC,52
i nduces a cur r ent di stri buti on i n the l atter that gi ves ri se to a secondary
scattered wave E;, H:. The i nteracti on of the secondary wave wi th the
body i s agai n a scatteri ng process l eadi ng to an i ncl uced di stri buti on over
the body and a scattered wave E,, H;, and so on. The total i nduced
di stri buti on over the body i s the sum of the di stri buti ons associ ated wi th
the component scattered waves l ?:, E:, . .
, and the resul tant di stri bu-
ti on i n the sour ce system i s the sum of t!l e di stri buti ons associ ated wi th
EO, E& , respecti vel y,
I f the di stance R between the sour ce system and the body i s l arge
compared wi th the di mensi ons of ei ther, the scatteri ng processes of or der
hi gher t!l an the fi rst car, general l y be negl ected; for
exampl e, i n general the rati o E(/EU eval uated at the
body i s of or der l /R2 and the rati o E~/Eo i s of the
or der l /R. Al so, i n speci al cases, wher e, al though
the di stance R i s not l arge, the geometr y of the body
i s such that the ampl i tude of the scattereci wave E,,
n
FI Q. 5.1
H, at the sour ce system i s smal l , mul ti pl e scatteri ng
may be negl ected i n the anal ysi s of the total fi el d E, H.
These condi ti ons are usual l y met i n mi crol vave antennas, and the mul ti pl e
scatteri ng wi l l be negl ected i n the study of the antenna pattern.
6.2. Boundary Condi ti ons. Wi th attenti on restri cted to a si ngl e
scatteri ng process, our probl em i s that of fi ndi ng the scattered fi el d E,,
HI set up by an i nfi ni tel y conducti ng body I vhen i t i s i ntroduced i nto an
i ni ti al fi el d EO, HO; the total fi el d i s then
E= EO+ E,, (l a)
H= H,+ H,. (lb)
I t i s assumed that the i ni ti al fi el d i s prescri bed for al l space.
Let V i n Fi g. 5.1 be the regi on occupi ed by the body; n i s a uni t vector
normal to the boundary surface S of V, di r ected outward i nto the sur-
roundi ng space. Si nce the conducti vi ty of the body i s i nfi ni te, the total
fi el d E, H i s zer o ever ywher e i nsi de the regi un 1; accordi ng tu the bound-
ary condi ti ons of Sec. 3.3 ther e i s a di stri buti on of charge and cur r ent
over the surface S:
q = c(n . E), (2a)
K=nx H, (2b)
respecti vel y. E and H are the total fi el ds j~l st o~l tsi de T, and c and p
are the consti tuti ve parameters of the s~l rrol l ntl i ng medi l l m at the })t)~l ncf-
ary surface, These chargp and cur r ent di stri b(l ti ons are the s{]~l rres
of the scattered I vave El , H,.
From Eqs. (]) i t i s seen i mmedi atel y that at al l poi nts i n the i nteri or
of the body the scattere(l \v:~vei s o~l t of pl l as~ \Ji th the ori gi nal ti el d:
El = E,, H, == H,, (3)
SEC. 5.2]
BOUNDARY CONDI 1I ONS 131
since the total fi el d i s zer o. Accordi ngl y we need concer n oursel ves onl y
wi th the regi on exter i or to V. Her e the scattered fi el d must be deter -
mi ned as a sol uti on of Maxwel l s equati ons that sati sfi es appropri ate
boundary condi ti onsat i nfi ni ty and over the surfaces. The boundary
condi ti ons to be i mposed at i nfi ni ty are the radi ati on condi ti ons [Eqs.
(3.113)], si nce the fi el d ari ses froma cur r ent di stri buti on confi ned toa
fi ni te regi on of s~ace. Over the surface S, the scattered fi el d must be
such th~t the to~al fi el d sati sfi es the boundary condi ti ons [Eqs. (3.24)
and (3.28)]:
nxE=O,
n. H=O.
From Eqs. (1) we have that the correspondi ng
El and HI are
nxEl =nx EO,
n.Hl = n. HO.
(4a)
(4b)
boundary condi ti ons on
(5a)
(5b)
Si nce the fi el d E,, H, i s known, Eqs. (5) prescri be the tangenti al compo-
nent of El and the normal component of HI as known functi ons over AS.
The boundary condi ti ons [Eqs. (4a) and (4b) or (5)] are not i ndepend-
ent. I f the fi el d sati sfi es Maxwel l s equati ons and one of the boundary
condi ti ons, i t necessari l y sati sfi es the other . Let us assume, for exampl e,
that condi ti on (4a) i s sati sfi ed by the total fi el d. Appl yi ng the i ntegral
rel ati on between the fi el d vector s [Eq. (3.17a)] to any area on S bounded
by an arbi trary cur ve I , we have
$
d
/
E.ds=~ ~B.ndS=O,
(6)
r
si nce E ods = O by vi rtue of the boundary condi ti on (4a). The resul t
hol ds for an arbi trary area, no matter how smal l ; consequentl y n oB = O
over the surface. Ther efor e onl y one of the boundary condi ti ons need be
consi dered i n sel ecti ng the appropri ate sol uti ons of Maxwel l s equati ons.
The probl em can be approached from another poi nt of vi ew. We
shal l restri ct oursel ves at thi s poi nt to an ewtti me dependence and to
homogeneous medi a. I t i s evi dent that i f the surface di stri buti ons
[Eqs. (2)] are known, the scattered fi el d i s obtai ned di rectl y by the meth-
ods of Sees. 3.9 and 3.10. I t can be veri fi ed readi l y that the surface
di stri buti ons [Eqs. (2)], sati sfy the equati on of conti nui ty [Eq. (3.9)],
ove~ the surface (E, H bei ng requi red to sati sfy Maxwel l s equati ons);
as a resul t the fi el d vector s E,, HI can be expressed i n terms of the cur r ent
di stri buti on al one, as was done i n Sec. 3.9. I n fact, the appropri ate
expressi ons are obtai ned from Eqs. (3.120) and (3.121) by passi ng from
vol hme to surface i ntegral s. The scattered wave i s then
132 SCATTERI NG AN~ DIFFRACYION [SEC.541
/
E,= &e ~
[(K . v)v + l cK] ~dS, (7)
/
H,=: ~(Kx V)e~d& (8)
wher e r i s the di stance from the fi el d poi nt to the el ement of surface dS.
The fi el ds gi ven by Eqs. (7) and (8) necessari l y sati sfy Maxwel l s
equati ons and the radi ati on condi ti ons at i nfi ni ty. To determi ne the
cur r ent densi ty K on the boundary surface S we must use condi ti on (5a)
or (56). Letti ng n denote the uni t vector normal to S at the poi nt of
observati on, we have
nx EO=
/
& ~n x [(K . V)V + k2K] ~ dS. (9)
The l eft-hand si de i s a known functi on, and Eq. (9) i s an i ntegral equa-
ti on for the determi nati on of the unknown cur r ent di stri buti on K. The
scatteri ng probl em i s thus transformed to the probl em of sol vi ng the
i ntegral equati on rather than Maxwel l s equati ons.
I t wi l l be obser ved that the cur r ent di stri buti on whi ch sati sfi es the
i ntegral equati on l eads through Eq. (7) to an el ectri c fi el d that sati sfi es
the requi si te boundary condi ti ons over S and at i nfi ni ty. I t was poi nted
out earl i er that the el ectri c and magneti c fi el ds [Eqs. (7) and (8)] sati sfy
Maxwel l s equati ons. Sol uti on of the i ntegral equati on (9) thus yi el ds
the uni que sol uti on of the probl em. 1
6.3. Refl ecti on by an I nfi ni te Pl ane Surface: the Pri nci pl e of I mages.
The si mpl est obstacl e probl em i s that of an i nfi ni te pl ane conductor.
Her e the sol uti on can be obtai ned on the basi s of geometri cal consi dera-
ti ons. Two cases wi l l be di scussed: (1) the i ni ti al fi el d i s a pl ane wave,
and (2) the i ni ti al fi el d ari ses from a di pol e source.
Re$ection oj a Plane Wave.Al though the refl ecti on of a pl ane wave
by a pl ane surface has been tr eated frequentl y el sewhere, i t wi l l be of
i nterest to treat the probl em her e i n terms of the general i deas set forth
i n the precedi ng secti on.
Let us consi der a pl ane wave, of the type di scussed i n Sec. 3.7, travel -
i ng i n the di recti on defi ned by the uni t vector Sm The i ni ti al fi el d i s
then [Eq. (3.62)]
(10)
An i nfi ni te pl ane conducti ng sheet i s now i ntroduced i nto the fi el d. For
conveni ence the conductor wi l l be taken to l i e i n the xy-pl ane (Fi g. 5.2).
The uni t vector n, normal to the sheet, i s taken to be i n the posi ti ve
I For z di scussi on of the uni queness theor em see J Stratton, Eledromu.gnetic
TiMory, McGraw-Hi l l , New York, 1941,Chap. 9, Sec. 2.
SEC. 5.3] REFLECTI ON BY AN I NFI NI TE PLANE SURFACE
133
z-di recti on, and the angl e of i nci dence, whi ch i s the acute angl e between
the l i nes of di recti on of sOand n, i s desi gnated as 8.
The fi el d set up by the cur r ent and charge di stri buti on over the sur.
face of the conductor must be such as to pr oduce zer o resul tant fi el d i n
the negati ve z-regi on. The scattered fi el d i n thi s regi on i s ther efor e a
)%
/I /
$/
Ety /
e
Eti
4
/
/ ~
I
E
r z
Y
/
/
;/
/
v
.._
FI G. 52
I
)=
4-/ ,0
/ 1,
Eiz
.
- %
-2
-.
Refl ecti on of a pl ane wave.
pl ane wave travel i ng i n the same di recti on as E, but 180 out of phase
wi th i t; denoti ng the for mer by EL, we have then
E, = E,e~@-i J. (11)
I t i s evi dent, however , that the i nfi ni te pl ane cur r ent sheet sets up i n
the posi ti ve z-regi on a fi el d that i s the mi rror i mage of that i n the nega-
ti ve z-regi on.
Hence the scattered fi el d i n the regi on of i nterest i s a
pl ane wave
E, = El e~<u@@, (12)
travel i ng i n the di recti on s, whi ch i s the mi rror i mage of SO,wi th an ampl i -
tude E, beari ng the fol l owi ng rel ati ons to the ampl i tude of E, and thereby
to the i nci dent wave ampl i tude EO: (1) Thei r magni tudes are equal ,
IE,I= I EOI ; (13)
134 SCATTERI NG
(2) thei r r especti ve components
magni tude and di recti on
nxE, =nx
AND DI FFRACTI ON [SEC. 53
paral l el to the zy-pl ane are equal i n
( E,) = n xE,; (14)
(3) thei r components normal to the zy-pl ane are equal i n magni tude but
opposi te i n di recti on,
n. El = n. (EO) = n.EO. (15)
I t i s seen that as a resl dt of Eq. (14) the boundary condi ti ons [Eqs. (5)]
are sati sfi ed.
I t fol l ows from the i mage rel ati on betl veen sOand s, that the vector s
sO,n, and sl al l l i e i n the same pl ane and that
sO. n= sl . n. (16)
The rel ati ons between these vector s can al so be expressed as
sl = so 2(n . so)n, (17a)
so = .51 2(n osl )n. (17Z))
From the poi nt of vi ew of geometri cal opti cs the uni t vector s so and s,
defi ne the di recti ons of the rays i n the \vaves E, and E,, respecti vel y.
I t wi l l be r ecogni zed that the rel ati ons among s,, n, and s, are just the
l al vs of refl ecti on deri ved i n Chap. 4. I t i s thus seen that i n thi s case
the scatteri ng reduces to geometri cal refl ecti on of the i ni ti al \vave.
The magneti c-fi el d vector s are obtai ned from the r especti ve el ertri c-
fi el d vector s by the pl ane wave rel ati on of I <;q. (3.65). I .etti ng H, and
H, be the magneti c vector s of the i nci dent and r efl ected waves, r espec-
ti vel y, we have
(18a)
(18b)
The total magneti c fi el d i s H = H, + H,, whence by Eq. (2b) the surface
cur r ent densi ty on the r efl ector i s
K=nx(H, +H,). (19)
Ei ther by symmetry consi derati ons or by di rect cal cul ati on, i t can be
shown that
nxH, =nx H,; (20)
-onsequentl y, F.q. (I 9) l )ecornes
()
72
K=2(nx H,)=2 ~ [nx(sox E,)], (21)
SEC. 53] REFLECTI ON BY AN I NFI NI TE PLANE SURFACE 135
or , al ternati vel y,
()
K=2(nx H,)=2 ; [nx(s,x E,)]. (22)
I n the case of a l i nearl y pol ari zed wave i t i s conveni ent for some pur-
poses to express the fi el d ampl i tudes i n another way. Let &be the ampl i -
tude of E, i n magni tude and phase at any gi ven poi nt on the surface.
The vector ampl i tude i s
E, = &eO, (23)
wher e eO i s a uni t vector that i s constant over the refl ecti ng surface.
Si mi l arl y the vector ampl i tude of E, at the same gi ven poi nt on the sur-
face i s
E, = &el , (24)
wi th el l i kewi se a uni t vector . The uni t vector s e~ and e, are rel ated
by Eqs. (14) and (15):
nx(eO+el )=O, (25a)
n.eo=n. el . (25b)
I n terms of these the cur r ent densi ty expressi ons [Eqs. (21) and (22)]
become
and
()
),
K = 2 ~ [s,(n oe,) e,(n s s,)]&,
(26)
(27)
r especti ve y.
Dipole Sources.Let us now consi der the case wher e the i ni ti al fi el d
i s due to an i nfi ni tesi mal el ectri c di pol e. The i nfi ni te pl ane r efl ector wi l l
agai n be taken to be the zy-pl ane, and the di pol e i s l ocated on the z-axi s
at a di stance a from the r efl ector as shown i n Fi g. 5.3. The ori entati on
of the di pol e axi s wi th r espect to the r efl ector i s arbi trary.
The cur r ent on the di pol e i s, of course, changed by the pr esence of
the r efl ector . I n thi s case, however , the reacti on of the r efl ector merel y
produces a new di pol e moment M i n the source. Thi s i s due to the fact
that the cur r ent i nduced i n the sour ce by the r efl ector i s necessari l y that
of an i nfi ni tesi mal di pol e of, say, moment M,.
The l atter i s al ong the
same l i ne as the ori gi nal di pol e moment .WO,and the superposi ti on of these
two i s, ther efor e, agai n a si mpl e di pol e. The resul tant moment of the
sour ce wi l l be desi gnated by M; the fi el d of the di pol e i s gi ven i n Sec.
3.13.
As i n the case of the pl ane wave, the cur r ent di stri buti on over the
surface of the conductor must be such that the total fi el d i s zer o i n the
136 SCATTERI NG AND DI FFRACTI ON [SEC!. 53
hemi sphere of space of the negati ve z-axi s. I n so far as thi s regi on i s
concer ned, the r efl ector i s, ther efor e, equi val ent to a di pol e M coi nci -
dent wi th the source. By symmetry, however , the r efl ector produces
a fi el d i n the regi on of the posi ti ve z-axi s that i s the mi rror i mage of i ts
fi el d i n the negati ve z-regi on; wi th r espect to the posi ti ve z-regi on the
r efl ector i s equi val ent to a di pol e l ocated at a di stance a on the negati ve
J-
a a
M
_ .l +~ /
z
<M
-M
?4
(a)
(b)
M
4-
M
-.
(c)
5.3.Di pol c i l r,agc>: (u) arbi trar.y ori entati on; (h)d,pol e paral l el to the
d]pol c nor ]])al to the mfl ec-tor.
r efl ector ; (c)
z-axi s. The sense of thedi pol e \vi th r espect tothesour ce i s easi l y deter -
mi ned from the requi rement that the fi el ds of the i mage and the sour ce
must combi ne to gi ve a zer o resul tant tangenti al el ectri c fi el d over the
r efl ector . Thi s l eads at once to the resul t that the i mage di pol e i s
obtai ned by refl ecti on of M i n the pl ane. The total fi el d i n the posi ti ve
z-regi on i s that of a doubl e-di pol e system made up of the sour ce and the
i mage di pol e; the fi el d i s obtai ned by the methods di scussed i n Sees.
3.18 and 3.19,
The arbi trari l y ori ented di pol e can a!~~ays be resol ved i nto a com-
ponent paral l el to the pl ane (Fi g. 5.3/1) and a component normal to the
pl ane (Fi g. 5.3c). The i mages for these t\~o cases wi th r espect to the
sour ce M are an anti phase di pol e and a synphase di pol e, respecti vel y.
SEC. 5.3] REFLECTI ON BY AN I NFI NI TE PLANE SURFACE
137
By consi deri ng the fi el ds for these two cases, the r eader can veri fy that
the i mage sources cor r espond to geometri cal refl ecti on of the spheri cal
wave from the sour ce by the conducti ng pl ane; at each poi nt on the
l atter the refl ecti on takes pl ace as though the i nci dent wave wer e an
i nfi ni te pl ane wave.
The i mage sources for magneti c di pol es are easi l y arri ved at ei ther
by di rect consi derati on of magneti c di pol e fi el ds (Sec. 314) or by con-
si deri ng the i mage of a smal l rectangul ar cur r ent l oop, whi ch i s equi val ent
to a magneti c di pol e normal to i ts pl ane. The i mage of a cur r ent l oop
can be obtai ned by regardi ng i t as an array of el ectri c di pol es. I t i s
then found that the i mage of a magneti c di pol e i s obtai ned by di rect
refl ecti on of the sour ce i n the pl ane: i mages for di pol es paral l el and normal
to the pl ane are synphase and anti phase, respecti vel y.
The method of i mages can be appl i ed to any sour ce di stri buti on. I f
onl y the radi ati on fi el d i s desi red, the sour ce di stri buti on can be consi d-
er ed as a system of el ectri c di pol es, the di pol e moment di stri buti on bei ng
gi ven i n terms of the cur r ent densi ty J by
(28)
dv bei ng an el ement of vol ume i n the sour ce di stri buti on [cj. Eq. (3162)].
Ever y di pol e moment i s resol ved i nto a paral l el and a normal component
wi th r espect to the r efl ector , and the total fi el d i s the sum of the com-
ponent fi el ds of the di pol e el ements and thei r i mages. Wi th arbi trary
cur r ent di stri buti ons, however , i t must be kept i n mi nd that the r efl ector
pl ays an i mportant part i n determi ni ng the di stri buti on. Onl y i n speci al
cases, such as a hal f-wave di pol e radi ator of negl i gi bl e thi ckness, does
the reacti on of the r efl ector pr oduce a change i n the magni tude and phase
of the ampl i tude of the di stri buti on as a whol e wi thout affecti ng the
rel ati ve magni tude and phase throughout the enti re di stri buti on. The
hal f-wave di pol e can be tr eated on the same basi s as the i nfi ni tesi mal
di pol e, substi tuti ng for the fi el d of the l atter the fi el d of the hal f-wave
radi ator gi ven i n Sec. 3.16.
APPROXI MATE METHODS FOR REFLECTORS OF ARBI TRARY SHAPE
Exact sol uti ons of the scatteri ng probl em have been obtai ned for onl y
a l i mi ted number of cases i nvol vi ng si mpl e pri mary fi el ds and r efl ector s
of si mpl e geometr y, such as spheres and cyl i nders.
These probl ems are
tr eated i n standard wor ks on el ectromagneti c theor y, to whi ch the r eader
i s r efer r ed for the resul ts. 1 I n treati ng r efl ector s of arbi trary shape i t i s
necessary to r esor t to approxi mati on techni ques. Several such methods,
I See, for exampl e, J. A. Stratton, E~ectromagneti c Theory, McGraw-Hi l l , New
York, 1941, Chap. 9.
138 SCATTERI NG AND DI FFRACTI ON
[SEC. 54
whi ch yi el d ver y good resul ts at hi gh frequenci es, are di scussed i n the
fol l owi ng secti ons.
6.4. The Geometri cal -opti cs Method.The fi rst method to be con-
si dered bel ongs mor e pr oper l y to the fi el d of geometri cal opti cs than to
that of el ectromagneti c theor y.
I t i s appl i cabl e to the case of a poi nt
source, whi ch has a broad radi ati on pattern i n the absence of a r efl ector ,
together wi th a defocusi ng r efl ector . A r efl ector of thi s type renders
ever y di vergent penci l of rays i nci dent on i t mor e di vergent on refl ecti on,
as i s i l l ustrated bel ow i n Fi g. 5.4. The scatteri ng pattern of the r efl ector
i s, ther efor e, ver y broad, ener gy bei ng scattered i n al most ever y di recti on
i n space. I n such a system the sal i ent features of the total fi el d, such
(a)
FI G. 54.-On
Y
(b)
the geometri cal -opti cs method.
as the di recti ons of zer o and maxi mum ampl i tude, ari se from the i nter-
acti on between the scattered fi el d and the pri mary sour ce fi el d. The
fi ner detai l s of the structure of the scattered fi el d are of secondary i nterest,
and ther efor e an anal ysi s of the scatteri ng on the basi s of geometri cal
opti cs suffi ces.
I l l ustrati ve of the type of probl em to whi ch the method can be appl i ed
successful l y i s the anal ysi s of the effects of the fusel age or wi ng structure
of an ai rpl ane on the radi ati on pattern of a mi crowave beacon antenna
mounted on i t. The pri mary i nterest i s i n the l obe structure i ntroduced
i nto the beacon pattern by i nteracti on wi th the scattered fi el d from the
ai rcraft structure, whereas the fi ne structure of the scattered fi el d ari si ng
from devi ati ons from geometri cal opti cs i s of negl i gi bl e si gni fi cance.
Let the pri mary sour ce be l ocated at the poi nt O i n Fi g. 54a. The
assumpti on that the sour ce i s a poi nt radi ator i s justi fi ed i n the practi cal
case of a mor e general sour ce system i f the r efl er tor i s i n the far-zone
fi el d of the former. I t was shown i n Sec. 3.11 that i n so far as the far-
zone fi el d i s concer ned any cur r ent di stri buti on reduces to a di recti ve
poi nt source, and i n Chap. 4 i t ~vas found that the far-zone fi el d can Le
descri bed adequatel y i n terms of wavefronts and rays. We shal l assume
SEC.5.5] CALCULATI ON OF THE SCATTERED FI ELD 139
further that the wavefronts from the sour ce di ffer negl i gi bl y from spheres
about the poi nt O.
The geometri cal -opti cs anal ysi s of the scatteri ng assumes that at each
poi nt on the r efl ector th,: i nci dent ray from the sour ce i s r efl ected by the
tangent pl ane accordi ng to the l aws of refl ecti on devel oped i n Sec. 4.7.
The i ntensi ty of the scattered radi ati on i n a gi ven di recti on i s obtai ned
by appl yi ng the pri nci pl e of conservati on of ener gy to the total power
contai ned i n an i nci dent cone of rays and the total power contai ned i n
the associ ated r efl ected penci l of rays. The use of the l aws of refl ecti on
assumes that the r efl ector can be r egar ded l ocal l y asa pl ane surface and
the i nci dent wavefront can be r egar ded l ocal l y as a pl ane wave. I t i s,
ther efor e, necessary to requi re that the radi i of curvature of the r efl ector
and of the i nci dent wavefront be l arge compared wi th the wavel ength.
The l atter condi ti on, however , has al ready been assured by the fact that
the r efl ector i s i n the far-zone fi el d of the sources.
5.5. Cal cul ati on of the Scatter ed Fi el d.The pr ocedur e fol l owed
her e to determi ne the scattered power i n a gi ven di recti on i s to consi der
the l ocal transformati on from the i nci dent to the r efl ected wavefront at
ever y poi nt on the surfaceof the r efl ector . Thi s determi nes the pri nci pal
radi i of curvature l ? l and Raof the r efl ected wavefront, together wi th the
val ue of the fi el d ampl i tude &,at the poi nt of refl ecti on. The magni tude
of the fi el d ampl i tude 8P at a di stance p al ong the r efl ected ray from a
gi ven poi nt onther efl ector i sthenobtai ned bymeansof Eq. (4.23):
(423)
We shal l fi rst i nvesti gate the wmpl i tude transformati on from the i nci -
dent to the r efl ected wavefront.
Let us consi der an i nfi ni tesi mal cone
of rays from O i nci dent on the r efl ector as shown i n Fi g. 54a; the cone
i ntersects the r efl ector i n an el ement of surface dAS. The cone wi l l be
taken to have a ci rcul ar cross secti on; the ray al ong the axi s of symmetry
i s r efer r ed to as the central or pri nci pal ray. The vector n i s a uni t
vector normal to dSat the poi nt of i nci dence of the central ray; l et i be
the angl e of i nci dence between the central ray and the normal . I f &~
and &, are the magni tudes at the surface of the r efl ector of the fi el d ampl i -
tudes i n the i nci dent and r efl ected tubes of rays, respecti vel y, and dS,
and dSa are the cross-secti onal areas of the r especti ve tubes at the same
poi nt, the rel ati on
expresses the conservati on of power i n passi ng from the i nci dent to the
1.Al ternati vetechni queshave been devel opedby R. C. Spencer ,Refl ecti ons from
Smooth Cur ved Surfaces, RL Repor t No. 661, January 1945; C. B. Bar ker and
H. J. Ri bl et, Refl ecti ons from Cur vedSurfaces, RL Repor t No. 976, February 1946.
140 SCATTERING AND DIFFRACTION [SEC. 5.5
r efl ected tubes of rays. From the l aw of refl ecti on we have that the
angl e between the r efl ected pri nci pal ray and the normal i s l i kewi se i , so
that
d~l = d~z = dS GCISi, (30)
whence
l &,l = l &7]. (31)
The transformati on of the pol ari zati on on refl ecti on i s obtai ned
di rectl y from the resul ts of the pl ane wave probl em of Sec. 53. Let
E, be the i nci dent el ectri c-fi el d vector at the surface and E, the r efl ected-
fi el d vector ; we have then from Eqs. (14) and (15)
nx(E, +E,)=O, (32a)
n. E,=n. E~, (32b)
or ,
E,=(n. EJn-(nx EJxn. (32c)
The determi nati on of the radi i of curvature of the r efl ected wavefront
i s a somewhat mor e di ffi cul t task. I t wi l l be necessary to make sl i ght
changes i n notati on: The poi nt of i nci dence of the central ray on the
r efl ector , at whi ch the transformati on of the wavefront i s desi red, wi l l
be desi gnated by P, and the uni t vector normal to the surface at that poi nt
by n,; the uni t vector normal to the surface at any other poi nt i s n
The poi nt P is taken as the ori gi n of the coordi nate system (Fi g. 5.4b)
wi th the z-axi s al ong np and the xy-pl ane tangent to the surface; the
yz-pl ane i s the pl ane of i nci dence (contai ni ng the central ray and n,).
The axes ~, q are the l i nes of i ntersecti on of the pri nci pal pl anes of curva-
tur e of the surface wi th zy-pl ane; the pri nci pal radi i of curvature of the
r efl ector at P wi l l be desi gnated by R~ and R,, respecti vel y. The pl ane
of i nci dence makes an angl e u wi th one of the pri nci pal pl anes, say the
pl ane contai ni ng the q-axi s. Let TObe the di stance OP; the di stance from
O to an arbi trary poi nt z, y, z on the r efl ector i s
r = [zz + yz + 22 + r j 2ro(y si n i + 2 cos i )]~i . (33)
Consi der now the member of the fami l y of r efl ected wavefronts that
i ntersects the r efl ected central ray at a di stance p from the r efl ector .
Let u, v, w be the coordi nates of a poi nt on the wave front, and l et x, y, z
be the coordi nates of the poi nt on the r efl ector for whi ch the r efl ected
ray passes through a gi ven poi nt (u,o,w) on the wavefront. By the
l aw of the opti cal path (Sec. 4.8) the equati on of the r efl ected wavefront
i s then
T+[(u Z)z + (v Y)* + (w z)q~~ = r O+ p.
(34)
Now l et s, be a uni t vector i n the di recti on of an arbi trary i ncl ti i nt
ray and s a uni t vector al ong the associ ated r efl ected ray. From the
SEC.5,5] CALCULATI ON OF THE SCATTERED FI ELD
141
l aw of refl ecti on [Eq. (517a)] we have
sl = so 2(s0 . n)n.
(35)
I f U,V,W are the coordi nates of any poi nt on the r efl ected ray, the uni t
vector SI i s gi ven i n component form by
ux
= = [(u $)2 + (u 7J)2+ (Z/J z)]%
(36)
wth correspondi ng expressi ons for SI u, sI S. Si mi l arl y, the components
of so are
x
so, = ;;
sOU=y r o si ni .z-r Ocosi
9
Soz=
r r
(37)
Let
z = F(z,y)
(38)
denote the equati on of the r efl ector surface. The components of the
normal n at an arbi trary poi nt on the surface are then
1 dF 1 dF
n.= ;
A ax
ny= ;
A au z = 2;
= [1 +(9+(%)7 39)
Substi tuti on of Eqs. (36), (37), and (39) i nto Eq. (35) gi ves
u = x + Gl (x,y) U(U,V,W; Z,Y,Z),
V = y + G2(x, Y) U@,V,W; W, Z),
w = z + Gj(x,y) U(U,V,W; X,Y,Z),
1
(40)
u = [(u x) + (v y) + (w z) ]~,
wher e
(41)
and
So.n=r.!
A
[
1
za~(y rOsi ni )aX+ (z rocosi ) .
au
(42)
Equati ons (4o) gi ve the coordi nates of arbi trary poi nts on the system
of r efl ected rays. I f, i n parti cul ar, we consi der the fami l y of poi nts
l yi ng on the r efl ected wavefront that i s defi ned by Eq. (34), the coordi nates
u, v, w of the system of Eqs. (40) must sati sfy Eq. (34); i n parti cul ar
lJ(u.v,w; x,y,z) must sati sfy the l atter equati on. Substi tuti on for U
142 SCA TTERI AG AND DI FFRACTI ON [Snc. 55
i nto Eq. (40) then l eads to
u = z + G1(z,y)(ro T + p),
V = y + G2(z,y)(r0 r + P),
1
(43)
W = z + Gs(~,~)(rO r + p).
The coordi nate z i s el i mi nated from these equati ons by means of the
equati on z = F(x, y) for the surface of the r efl ector .
Equhti ons (43)
then become a set of parametri c equati ons (zJy bei ng the parameters)
for the r efl ected wavefront that i ntersects the central r efl ected ray at a
di stance p from the r efl ector . On setti ng p = O, we obtai n
~ = x + G1(z, Y)(~o),
v = y + G2(x,Y) (7-o ),
)
(44)
W = Z + G3(.zjy)(r 0 r),
the parametri c equati ons i oi - a surface that i ntersects the r efl ector at the
poi nt P and ther e represents the r efl ected wavefront ari si ng from the
segment of the i nci dent wavefront defi ned by a smal l cone of rays about
the central ray.
The pr ocedur e for fi ndi ng the pri nci pal radi i of curvature of a surface
from i ts parametri c equati ons i s strai ghtforward and can be found i n any
book on di fferenti al geometr y; 1 the detai l s of the cal cul ati on wi l l not
be r epr oduced her e.
We are i nterested i n the radi i of curvature of the
wave surface at the poi nt u = v = w = O; i .e., z = y = 0. I n el i mi -
nati ng z from Eqs. (44) i t i s, ther efor e, necessary to use onl y the equati on
for the r efl ector surface i n the nei ghborhood of the poi nt P. Refer r ed
to the pri nci pal axes ~, q, the equati on of the surface of the r efl ector i s
=-(&+&)
(45)
By a si mpl e transformati on, the equati on of the surface wi th r espect to
the z, y-axes i s then found to be
1
[(
COS2u si nz co
)(
si n z ~ COS2u
~=__
2 Rf ) R, 2+ RC+R, ,Y2
-2si noc0s4bw+ )
radi i of curvature Rt, Rn are consi dered to be posi ti ve i f the surface i s
convex wi th r espect to the posi ti ve z-axi s.
We are chi efl y concer ned wi th the over-al l pattern pr oduced by the
r efl ector and the sour ce system; hence we are i nterested i n the scattered
fi el d at l arge di stances from the r efl ector . Provi ded that nei ther one
1For exampl e, L. P, Ei senhart, A Treatise on the Dzflerential Geometry of Curves and
Surfaces,Gi nn, Boston, 1909.
SEC.56] SUPERPOSI TI ON OF THE SOURCE FI ELD 143
of the radi i of curvature RI, R2 of the r efl ected wavefront i s i nfi ni te, i t i s
physi cal l y possi bl e to consi der di stancesp so l arge that p>> R,, p>>Rz.
I n that case the cal cul ati on of the scattered fi el d i ntensi ty i s somewhat
si mpl i fi ed ;i nstead of Eq. (4.23) we can use Eq. (4.24),
The product of the radi i of curvature of the
the poi nt P i s
r efl ected wave surface at
R,R, = ~ Cos ~
cos i
-+
[ (
Cy + : SJ;2: + C* + C*+ *
)1
Coszi
RtR,
v v
(47)
The resul t can be put i nto a mor e symmetri cal form by i ntroduci ng the
angl es 01 and f?zbetween the i nci dent ray and the pri nci pal axes of the
r efl ector f and q, respecti vel y. The scattered fi el d at a di stance p from
the r efl ector i n the di recti on defi ned by the r efl ected ray i s then gi ven by
R(R7 cos i
18P] = ~ IGI [(4,; + RFR,) cos i + 2r,,(R: si n 0, + R, Sinz %)
1
i . (48)
The bracketed term i s known as the di ver gence factor of the surface,
RERq cos i
D = (47-: + RtRn) cos i + 2r,(Rf si n 0, + R, si n 9,);
(49)
i t i s the rati o of scattered power per uni t sol i d angl e i n the di recti on of
the r efl ected ray to the i nci dent power per uni t sol i d angl e. By use of
Eqs. (31) and (32c), together wi th Eq. (48), the scattered fi el d can be
obtai ned i n magni tude, phase, and di recti on:
EF = ~ {(n . E,)n (n x E,) x n ]D~~e-~~P. (50)
5.6. Superposi ti on of the Sour ce Fi el d and the Scatter ed Fi el d.
The method of superposi ng the scattered fi el d on the ori gi nal fi el d of the
sources i s fundamental l y the same as that used i n Chap. 3 i n treati ng the
far-zone fi el ds of cur r ent di stri buti ons. I t wi l l be assumed that the
sour ce fi el d i s l i nearl y pol ari zed. The fundamental el ements are i l l us-
trated i n Fi g, 5.5. I .et P, be the total power radi ntwf by the source,
and l et G(s) he the gai n f~l ncti on i n the di recti on defi ned by the uni t
vector s. The fi el d of the so[l rce al one over a sphere of radi us R i s
(51)
144 SCATTERING AND DIFFRACTION [SEC.5.7
The uni t vector eo descri bes the pol ari zati on of the fi el d over a sphere
wi th radi us such that lcR = 2nr, n = O, 1,2, . . . . The total fi el d
i n a gi ven di recti on s i s the sum of the scattered fi el d pr oduced i n that
di recti on byther efl ector andthe sour ce fi el d. I nthefar-zone treatment
the ray from the sour ce to the gi ven fi el d poi nt i s taken to be paral l el
to the ray from the r efl ector .
o
FI G. 5.5.Superposi ti on of the scattered fi el d on tl ,e sour ce fi el d.
The fi el d i ntensi ty i nci dent on the r efl ector i s
i=[2(9%GsOreos%
(52)
The scattered fi el d i s then, by Eq. (50~,
[()
Ep=~2;
~DP,
1
)i
~G(so) [(n oeo)n - (n x eO) x n]e-~o+p; (53)
the di stance p has been set equal to R i n the expressi on for the ampl i tude.
I n so far as the phase i s concer ned, i t i s seen from the fi gure that
Rsl = ?_oSo+ PSI ,
(54)
whence
To+ ~ = R + ro(l + COS 2i). (55)
The total fi el d i n the di recti on s, i s, ther efor e,
wher e
e, = [n oeO(sO)]n [n x eO(sO)]x n.
(56a)
5.7. The Current-di stri buti on Method.The geometri cal -opti cs
method di scussed i n the precedi ng secti ons can furni sh no i nformati on
on the structure of the scattered fi el d that resul ts from devi ati ons from
geometri cal propagati on of the r efl ected wavefront. By geometri cal
opti cs thi s wave i s di sconti nuous (geometri cal shadow behi nd the refl ec-
SEC, 5.7] THE CURRENT-DISTRIBUTION METHOD 145
tor), and i t was poi nted out i n Sec. 45 that i n the pr esence of a di scon-
ti nui ty geometri cal opti cs does not gi ve accurate resul ts. The devi ati ons
decr ease i n si gni fi cance as the wavel ength goes to zer o; the geometri cal -
opti cs method i s to be r egar ded as a zero-wavel ength approxi mati on to
the scattered fi el d.
The current-di stri buti on method whi ch wi [1 be formul ated i n thi s
secti on l eads to a better approxi mati on for the scattered fi el d and al so
makes possi bl e the anal ysi s of secondary effects such as the reacti on of
the r efl ector on the sources. The cardi nal feature of the method i s that
i t attempts to approxi mate the cur r ent di stri buti on over the surface of
the r efl ector ; the scattered fi el d i s obtai ned from the cur r ent di stri buti on
by Eqs. (7) and (8) and i s thus an el ectromagneti c fi el d that sati sfi es
Maxtvel l s equati ons. We shal l be i nterested pri mari l y i n the far-zone
fi el d of the cur r ent di stri buti on i n ubtai n-
i ng the composi te pattern of the r efl ector
and the sources.
The cur r ent di stri buti on over the r e-
fl ector i s obtai ned on the basi s of geomet~
ri cal opti cs, whi ch can be expected to
yi el d good resul ts onl y i f the r efl ector i s
far enough from the sources for the fi el d
of these to be descri bed adequatel y i n
terms of wavefronts and rays. On the
basi s of ray opti cs ther e i s a sharpl y de-
fi ned shadow regi on behi nd the r efl ector
l :I G. 56-011 the rurrent-di stri hu-
ti on method.
i n whi ch the total fi el d i s equal to zer o. I n Fi g. 5.6, S i s the refl ecti ng
surface and r i s the boundary cur ve between the geometri cal l y i l l umi -
nated area and the shadow area. Accordi ng to the boundary condi ti on
[Eq. (2b)], si nce the total jicldis zer o, the cur r ent di stri buti on over the
shadow area i s zer o. I t i sa matter of exper i ence that the shadow regi on
i s mor e sharpl y defi ned the smal l er the wavel ength and the l arger the
rati o of ther efl ector di mensi ons tothewavel cngth. The fi rst assumpti on
of our approxi mati on techni que, then, i s that ther e i s no cur r ent over the
shadow area of the r efl ector . The cur r ent di stri buti on over the i l l umi -
nated regi on of S i s obtai ned on the assumpti on that at ever y poi nt the
i nci dent fi el d i s r efl ected w thou2h an i nfi ni te pl ane \vave wer e i nci dent
on the i nfi ni te tangent pl :me. 1A E,, H, agai n be the i ni ti al fi el d; l et
s~~be a uni t vector i n the di recti on of the Poynti ng vector , tl mt i s, al ong
the i nci dent ray. I f n i s the uni t vector normal to the surface at the
poi nt of i nci dence and S, a uni t vector i n the di reeti fm of the r efl ected
ray, the surface cur r ent densi ty, accordi ng to I l l s. (21) and (22), i s
()
K = 2(n x H,) = 2 ~ ~[n x (s,, x E,)], (57a)
146 SCATTERI NG AND DI FFRACTI ON
[SEC. 58
or , i n terms of the r efl ected fi el d E,, H, afi the surface,
()
K=2(nx H,)=2 .; [nx(s, xE)]. (57b)
The surface charge densi ty i s obtai ned from the total fi el d E,+ E,by
means of Eq. (2a); maki ng use of the pl ane ]vave rel ati ons [Eq. (]5)],
we then fi nd that the charge densi ty i s
(5s) q = 2c(n. E,) = 2~(n. E,).
From the di scussi on of Sec. 54 i t i s seen that the pr ocedur e for obtai n-
i ng the cur r ent and charge di stri buti ons i s based on the assumpti on that
the radi i of curvature of the i nci dent ~vavefront are l arge compared ~~i tl ~
thewavel ength asareal so the radi i of curvatureof the r efl ector . Ontl l c
other hand, i n the present case ther e are no condi ti ons i mposed on t
focusi ng or defocusi ng characteri sti cs of the r efl ector . I t i s cl ear tha,
Eqs. (57) and (58) r epr esent hi gh-frequency approxi mati ons to the actual
currents and charges and may be expected to approach the l atter i n the
l i mi t of zer o wavel ength. The cur r ent method di ffers from the previ ous
wavefront pr ocedur e i n that a frequency dependence of the scattered fi el d
i s i ntroduced i nto the subsequent cal cul ati on of the fi el d ari si ng from the
cur r ent and charge di stri buti ons. Al so, the fi el d at a gi ven poi nt i n
space i s the resul tant of contri buti ons from al l poi nts on the i l l umi nated
area S0 rather than from the poi nt of geometri cal refl ecti on al one.
5.8. Cal cul ati on of the Scatter ed Fi el d.The expressi ons for the
el ectri c and magneti c fi el ds i n terms of the currents and charges \ver e
deri ved i n Sees. 3.9 and 3.10. I t wi l l be recal l ed that the fi el ds thus
obtai ned sati sfy Lfaxwel l s equati ons onl y i f the source-densi ty functi ons
sati sfy the equati on of conti nui ty [Eqs. (3.6) and (3.9)]. The r eader can
readi l y veri fy that i f the i ni ti al fi el d E,, Hi sati sfi es Maxwel l ]s equati ons,
the cur r ent and charge di stri buti ons gi ven by Eqs. (57a) and (58) do,
i n fact, sati sfy the surface equati on of conti nui ty gi ven i n i ntegral form
by Eq. (3.9). The si tuati on i s di fferent, however , at the boundary l i ne
r between the i l l umi nated and shadow regi ons. The cur r ent di stri bl l -
ti on i s di sconti nuous across the boundary, bei ng zer o over the shado\v
area; compati bi l i ty y wi th the equati on of conti nui ty can be achi eved on] y
by i ntroduci ng a l i ne di stri buti on of charge al ong the cur ve r.1
I n Fi g. 57 ~ i s a uni t vector al ong the boundary cur ve r; nl i s a uni t
vector i n the tangent pl ane normal to ~. The l i near charge densi ty al ong
r wi l l be denoted by u. Consi deri ng a smal l area of si des ds and al
(the l atter normal to I ) and expressi ng the condi ti on that the net c~l rrent
1The di scussi onthat fol l ows paral l el sth:~t~i vcn hy Str:Ltt{),,:,,1,1(<1,,,i ,, thei r
trratment of di ffracti on; sec J. A. Stratton, El ectromagneti c Theory, Nfc[;raw-Hi l l ,
Sew York, 1941,Sec. 8.15.
SEC. 58] CALCLJ LA TI ON OF Tffll SCA TTI ?RED F] ELI I
147
flow from the area i s equal to the rate of decr ease of the charge encl osed,
we obtai n
the contri buti ons from
fi xed. We have then
Substi tuti ng from Kqs.
fi nd
au
ix
and
au
at
n, .Kds= ~ds; (59)
the si des N vani sh as 61~ O whi l e ds remai ns
au
nl . K=.
at
(59a)
(57a) and (57b) for the cur r ent di stri buti on, we
=2n, .(nx H,)= 2r. Hi (60a)
.
.
27. H,. (60b)
For ti me peri odi c fi el ds these gi ve tbe charge di stri buti on di rertl y; for
we have du/dt = jwu, \vhence
o
Shadowregi on
2 2
~=Tt.Hi =~ ~.H,.
Ju ]W
(61)
The scattered fi el d i s thus the
$
:{e
I l l umi nated region
sum of the contri buti ons of thr ee
2 /;:kkK n
sour ce di stri buti ons: (1) the surface
r
currents over the i l l umi nated area,
(2) the surface charges over the
1
same area, and (3) the l i ne di st ri bu -
l :[c. 5.7.Cal cul ati onof theel ectri ccharge
ti on of charge al ong the boundary
on theshadowI mund.ary cur ve1.
c,urve r. JVe shal l now restri ct our anal ysi s to ti me-peri odi c fi el ds. Ap-
pl yi ng the resul ts of Sees. 39 and 310, we fi nd the scattered fi el d to be
E.s =-~
\
Zm s, [~w(n x H,)y (no E,) v+] dS
- &$, V*(T . H,) ds, (62a)
/
H.=: , (n x H,) x V+ dS,
(62b)
,,,
j,,
wher e ~ = e-~ , wi th r the di stance from the fi el d poi nt to the el ement
of area dS on the r efl ector ; S,, desi gnates the geometri (:dl y i l l umi nated
area; the sense of the l i ne i ntegral around r i s s~l rh that the tmtwti rd
normal to S,, i s on the l eft. The fi el ds can al so l )e expressed i n the same
\va.yi n terms of the r efl ected fi el ds E,, H, at i }~e s~l rface S().
148 SCA TTERI,VG AND DIFFRACTION [SEC, 58
I t was shown i n Sec. 39 that i f the cur r ent and charge di stri buti ons
sati sfy the equati on of conti nui ty, the fi el ds can be expressed i n terms of
i ntegral s i nvol vi ng the currents al one. I n vi ew of the i ntroducti on of
the boundary l i ne di stri buti on i t wi l l be wel l to car r y through the detai l s
of the transformati on for thi s speci al case. I t wi l l be recal l ed (cj. Sec.
3.8) that the gradi ent operati ons i n the i ntegrands of Eqs. (62a) and
(62b) are r efer r ed to the fi el d poi nt as an ori gi n. Taki ng a rectangul ar
system of coordi nates wi th the ori gi n at the fi el d poi nt, l et the coordi nates
of a poi nt on ASObe x. (zI = z, X2 = y, X3 = z), and l et i . be uni t vector s
al ong the x=-axes. The l i ne i ntegral of Eq. (62a) i s then
$
r
v+fTFLjds = ~i .$r. (M#)ds. 163
By Stokes theor em each i ntegral on the ri ght-hand si de transforms i nto
a surface i ntegral :
()
vx H,:
=V~xHi +~VxHi j
(65)
. a a
and
(v#xH)
n=(nx Hi ). v~,
(% VXH) .
n = jut ~ (n . Ei ).
(66)
(67)
I n the l ast of these use has been made of the fi el d equati on [Eq. (3.23b)].
Col l ecti ng these together , ~ve have
a
or

1
~~ (n x H,) . VV~ dS. (68)
Substi tuti ng i nto FkI . (62a), ~ve then obtai n
E., = ~
/[
21r3&le ~
1
(n x H,) . V(V~) + k(n x H.)+ ds
(69)
SEC, 5.9] APPLI CATI ON TO POI NT-SOURCE FEEDS 149
I t wi l l be r ecogni zed that thi s i s obtai nabl e di rectl y from Eq. (5.7)by
i nserti ng the val ue for the surface cur r ent densi ty gi ven by Eq. (57a).
I t wasshowni n Sec. 3.11 that the fi el d i ntegral , taki ng the for r nof Eq.
(69), l eads to a far-zone fi el d i n whi ch the fi el d vector s are transverse
to the di recti on of propagati on. The effect of the boundary l i ne di stri -
buti on i s ther efor e to cancel the l ongi tudi nal fi el d component i ntroduced
by the surface charge and cur r ent -
di stri buti ons. Subsequent cal cul a-
ti ons can be made on the basi s of
Eq. (69); the contri buti ons of the
charge di stri buti ons need not be
eval uated expl i ci tl y.
Let p be the vector from a gi ven
ori gi n (see Fi g. 5.8) to the el ement
of surface LLS; l et RI be a uni t vec-
tor from the ori gi n to the fi el d
poi nt, the di stance bet~veen them
bei ng R. The scattered fi el d i nten-
/
Y
FI G. 5.S,Cal cul ati on of the total fi el d.
si t y i n the far-zone i s then, accordi ng to Eq. (3.128),
jw ~~
Es=~eJ
/
{n x H, [(n x H,) . R,]R, }e~@RdS. (70)
so
The magneti c fi el d need not be cal cul ated separatel y but i s gi ven by the
far-zone rel ati on
()
H., = ; (Rl X Es). (71)
6.9. Appl i cati on to Poi nt-source and Li ne-source Feeds.Two cases
of major i nterest are those i n whi ch the i ni ti al fi el d E~, Hi ari ses from a
poi nt-source system and a l i ne-source system, respecti vel y. Where the
r efl ector enters i nto the probl em by i ntenti on as a component of the
antenna, the sour ce system wi l l be r efer r ed to as the jeed; thi s term i s
used extensi vel y i n l ater chapters.
The Point-source Feed.It was noted previ ousl y that at suffi ci entl y
l arge di stances from any radi ati ng system, the l atter i s equi val ent to a
di recti ve poi nt source. Mi crowave poi nt-source feeds are speci al l y
desi gned so that the requi red di stances are wi thi n practi cal ranges for
use wi th a r efl ector .
Let the poi nt O i n Fi g. 5.8 be the poi nt-source equi val ent of the feed;
i t wi l l be assumed agai n that wi thi n the cone of i l l umi nati on fal l i ng on
the r efl ector the i nci dent wavefronts di ffer negl i gi bl y from spheres about
the poi nt O. The r efer ence system of coordi nates wi l l be taken wi th the
ori gi n at the sour ce system. Spheri cal coordi nates wi l l be desi gnated
150 SCATTERING AND DIFFRACTION [SEC. 5.9
general l y by p, d, d; the coordi nates of a fi el d poi nt i n the far-zone regi on
of the system as a whol er efl ector and feedwi l l be R, 8, *. I f GJ(o, o)
i s the gai n functi on of the feed and P is the total radi ated power , the
pri mary radi ati on fi el d-of the feed al onei s
()
H, = : 6 (@, xE,),
(72b)
wher e pl i s a uni t vector al ong p and et(e, O) i s a uni t vector defi ni ng the
pol ari zati on of the el ectri c fi el d i ntensi ty. The cur r ent densi ty K at a
poi nt p, O, I #Jon the r efl ector i s then
Substi tuti on of the expressi on for n x H, from Eq. (73) i nto Eq. (70)
gi ves the scattered fi el d i n the far-zone.
Equati on (70) shows expl i ci tl y
that ther e i s no fi el d component i n the R1-di recti on. Let i e and i o
be uni t vector s i n the di recti on of i ncreasi ng (3 and 0, respecti vel y. The
transverse components of the scattered fi el d are then
(74a)
(74b)
I =
/
G(~@)]>4 [n x (p, x e,)]e-i (@R) dAS; (74C)
so
the vector p = ppl i s the radi us vector from O to the el ement of surface
dS. The total fi el d at the poi nt R, 6, @is
E@ = E~@+ Ese =
%l :kyl ~@@) (,5)
{ I
F,(@,@) = [GJ(@,@)]~~i @. et(@,@) ~ i e . I ;
I
-k [yYTi ~ (@@ (7,,
Et = Ei @ + E.+ = R z=
{ }
F.J@@) = [G~(@3)]~+i ~ oe; ~ i * I
1
The magneti c fi el d i s obtai ned by means of Eq. (71). The Poynti ng
vector of the total fi el d i s S = ~ Re (E x H*), and the power per uni t
sol i d angl e P(@@), radi ated by the system as a whol e i n the di recti on
SEC. 5.9] APPLI CATI ON TO POI NT-SOURCE FEEDS 151
(@,@), i s R21SI ; hence, the gai n functi on of the composi te system i s
or
G(@)@) = I F,I + I F,12. (77b)
The Line-source Feed.Li ne-source feeds are general l y used wi th
a cyl i ndri cal r efl ector , the generati ng el ement of whi ch i s paral l el to the
l i ne source. The fol l owi ng anal ysi s wi l l be confi ned to such systems.
FI G.59.-The cyl i ndri cal r efl ector wi th a l i ne-sour ce feed.
The l i ne sour ce may be a system of poi nt-scurce radi ators di stri buted
al ong a l i ne, such as the l i near-array antennas di scussed i n Chap. 9,
or i t may take the form of a l ong, narrow, rectangul ar aperture through
whi ch ener gy i s bei ng radi ated i nto space. I t \vi l l be assumed that the
l ength 1 of the sour ce i s l arge compared \vi th the ~vavel ength.
The r efl ector and sour ce system are i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 5.9, wi th the
sour ce al ong the x-axi s. We shal l assume that the maxi mum di stance
from the l atter to the r efl ector does not exceed 12/k and that the mi ni mum
di stance i s l arge compared wi th the wavel ength. Wi thi n such di stances
from the sour ce i ts fi el d i s essenti al l y i n the form of a cyl i ndri cal wave
(cj. Sec. 37). The wave i nci dent on the r efl ector i s, ther efor e, best di s-
cussed i n terms of cyl i ndri cal coordi nates. The z-axi s i n Fi g. 5.9 serves
as the axi s for the cyl i ndri cal coordi nate system, the pol ar coordi nates
of whi ch, i n the pl anes normal to the z-axi s, are denoted by p and ~.
The cyl i ndri cal -wave zone can he di vi ded i nto two general regi ons:
(1) a near-zone l wgi on i n the i mmedi ate vi ci ni ty of the sour ce and (2)
a q{i asi -radi ati on zone at di stances l arge compared \vi th the wavel ength
but l ess than l /k. I n the l atter regi on the predomi nant components of
Lhe fi el d l i e i n the tangent pl ane of the cyl i ndri cal \vavefront and are
152 SCATlERiNG AND DIFFRACTION [SEC.59
mutual l y perpendi cul ar as i n the case of the i sotropi c cyl i ndri cal wave
di scussed i n Sec. 3.7. Wi th a general l i ne source, the fi el d i ntensi ty i s not
uni form over the wavefront but vari es both al ong the x-di recti on and
about the cyl i nder axi s. The radi ati on-zone fi el d can be wri tten
and
(78a)
(78b)
wher e PI i s a uni t vector i n the di recti on of i ncreasi ng p. The radi ati on
zone of the cyl i ndri cal wave fi el d i s to be di sti ngui shed from the general
far-zone fi el d wi th r espect to whi ch the l i ne sour ce behaves l i ke a poi nt
source.
We shal l confi ne our attenti on to fi el ds i n whi ch the pol ari zati on i s
uni form over the wavefront. Two fundamental cases are to be consi d-
er ed: (1) l ongi tudi nal pol ari zati on i n whi ch the E-vector i s paral l el to
the x-axi s, so that
A(~,z) = A (~,z)i =, (79a)
and (2) transverse pol ari zati on i n whi ch the el ectri c vector l i es i n the
pl anes transverse to the x-axi s, that i s,
A(~,z) = A(~,z)i $; (792))
the vector s i . and i r are the basi s vector s of the cy~i ndri cal coordi nate
system. I n most cases of i nterest the ampl i tude functi on A (~,z) i s sepa-
rabl e i n i ts dependence on the two coordi nates. Referri ng to the power
fl ow rather than the ampl i tude, we shal l i ntroduce a twodl mensi onal
gai n functi on G(V). Let P be the total power radi ated by the source;
l et (P/l)F(x) dx be the total power i n the cyl i ndri cal wave fi el d between
the pl anes x = consta.l t and z + dx = constant. The power radi ated
per radi an between thtse pl anes i n the di recti on ~ k then
[80)
The gai n functi on G(t) must obvi ousl y sati sfy the cond;ti on
The functi on F(x) expresses the di stri buti on of i ntensi ty al ong the y-di rec-
ti on; i t must sati sfy th~ condi ti on
,/
1/ 2
F(Z) dx = 2,
1/
(82)
SEC.5.9] APPLICATION TO POINT-SOURCE FEEDS
153
i t bei ng assumed that the ori gi n of the coordi nate system i s at the center
of the l i ne source. The ampl i tude A (z,*) may be eval uated i n terms of
the power-di stri buti on functi ons as i n the case of the poi nt-source feed.
The magni tude of the Poynti ng vector i s
We ha.ve then
or
(83a)
(83b)
The cur r ent densi ti es, or rather n x H,,, for the two types of pol ari za-
ti on are the fol l owi ng:
1. Longi tudi nal pol ari zati on:
or
(84b)
2. Transverse pol ari zati on:
The angl e i i s the angl e of i nci dence, and ~ i s a uni t vector tangent to
the cyl i nder i n the cross-secti on pl ane. The posi ti ve di recti ons of the
angl es and vector s arc shown i n Fi g. 5.9.
The far-zone fi el d i s expressed i n terms of spheri cal coordi nates.
Because of the geometr y of the system i t i s conveni ent to use a set of
spheri cal coordi nates somewhat di fferent from that used i n the treatment
of the poi nt-source fi el d, the z-axi s bei ng taken as the pol ar axi s; the
defi ni ti on of the coordi nates i s gi ven i n Fi g. 5.9. Let i @ and i z agai n be
uni t vector s i n the i ncreasi ng 8- and @di recti ons.
For the case of the
longitudinally polarized source, the scattered fi el d i s
154 SCATTERI NG AND DI FFRACTI ON
[SEC. 59
dsi s the el ement of arcl ength al ong the cross secti on, or
s= [+(%)T-
(87)
The scattered fi el d has no @-component, the el ectri c vector l yi ng enti rel y
i n the meri di onal pl ane passi ng through the z-axi s. The scattered fi el d
for the transversely polarized source is
I n thi s case ther e i s al so a @-component proporti onal to si n o i n
magni tude. However , i f 1>> X, the beam i s confi ned to the nei ghborhood
of @ = O and the cross-pol ari zati on component i s smal l .
On expressi ng the vector s p and RI i n rectangul ar components, one
fi nds the phase factor of the i ntegrands of Eqs. (86) and (88) to be
P (e + ~i.) RI = P[l + cos @ COS(II + @)] x si n @. (89)
I t i s apparent that the i ntegrands are factorabl e i nto a functi on of z
and a functi on of ~. Consi deri ng the central pl ane @ = O, we see that
the ~-dependence of the fi el d ari ses enti rel y from the i ntegral over ~
the fi el d di stri buti on i s determi ned by the angul ar characteri sti c G(y)
of the sour ce and the cross-secti on contour of the r efl ector . As regards
the pl anes 6) = constant, both aspects of the r efl ector contri bute to
some degr ee. However , i t wi l l be shovm i n Chap. 6 that i f the l ength
1 i s l arge compared wi th the wavel ength, the major porti on of the fi el d
i s confi ned wi thi n a smal l angul ar regi on @ about the central pl ane. Over
thi s regi on the vari ati on of cos @ i n Eq. (89) i s of second or der compared
wi th si n @; on setti ng cos @ = 1, separabi l i ty i s obtai ned, the fi el d di s-
tri buti on i n the pl anes @ = constant bei ng determi ned enti rel y by the
l i near characteri sti c of the sour ce F(x). The transverse di stri buti on of
the fi el d i s thus vi rtual l y the same for al l transverse pl anes.
The pri mary fi el d of the sour ce al one must be added, of course, to
the scattered fi el d to obtai n the total fi el d. Her e the far-zone fi el d
of the sour ce (for whi ch i t i s effecti vel y a poi nt source) must be used
i nstead of the cyl i ndri cal wave fi el d of the radi ati on zone.
I t wi l l be
assumed that thi s i s known and expressed i n a form si mi l ar to Eq. (72a),
i n terms, of course, of the spheri cal coordi nates showm i n Fi g. 5.9. I t i s
al so assumed that the equi val ent poi nt so~u-ce i s l ocated at the ori gi n
of the coordi nate system, si nce the phase terms enteri ng i nto the r efl ector
fi el d have been r efer r ed to that ori gi n. The pr ocedur e for superposi ng
the fi el ds i s exactl y the same as that del i neated i n the previ ous case and
need not be di scussed further her e.
SEC.5.10] REACTI ON OF A REFLECTOR
155
Attenti on shoul d be cal l ed to one poi nt i n the pr ocedur es di scussed i n
thi s secti on that has been the cause of some concer n i n the past. I t wi l i
be found i n general that the radi ati on fi el d of a cur r ent di stri buti on
such as i s gi ven by Eqs. (72) and (78)does not sati sfy Maxwel l s
equati ons exactl y. Consequentl y, except i n speci al cases, the cur r ent
and charge di stri buti ons on the surface of the r efl ector , as found by the
methods al ready outl i ned, do not sati sfy the equati on of conti nui ty
exactl y. However , the terms that are negl ected, whi ch woul d resul t i n
sati sfyi ng the requi red condi ti ons exactl y, are smal l er i n or der of magni -
tude than the radi ati on fi el d components and are i n general i n ti me
quadrature wi th the l atter; they ther efor e i ntroduce a nonessenti al con-
tri buti on to thescattered fi el d and the scattered power pattern.
5.10. Reacti on of a Refl ector on a Poi nt-source Feed.One of the
fundamental probl ems i n the desi gn of an antenna empl oyi ng a r efl ector
i s the effect of the l atter on the i mpedance characteri sti cs of the antenna.
The probl em can be tr eated on the basi s of re-radi ati on from the cur r ent
di stri buti on on the refl ector;1 the anal ysi s wi l l be carri ed out her e for
the case of a poi nt-source feed.
The radi ati ng system that consti tutes the feed must be consi dered
i n i ts rel ati on to a transmi ssi on l i ne. The basi c i dea of the fol l owi ng
anal ysi s i s that the i nteracti on bet\veen the feed and the fi el d of the cur-
r ent di stri buti on on the r efl ector gi ves ri se to a r efl ected wave i n the
transmi ssi on l i ne and thus an i mpedance mi smatch from the poi nt of
vi ew of the l i ne. Our object i s to cal cul ate the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent
rati o of the r efl ected to i nci dent wave ampl i tudesi n the transmi ssi on
l i ne due to the r efl ector . The fi el d of the r efl ector , whi ch i s gi ven i n
general by 13q. (69), i s r egar ded as a superposi ti on of spheri cal wavel ets
ari si ng from ever y el ement of surface dil. The total r efl ected wave i n
the transmi ssi on l i ne i s then consi dered to be the sum of component
waves ari si ng from the i nteracti on between the feed and the separate
wavel ets. The cur r ent el ement K dS i s r egar ded as a di pol e source, and
onl y the radi ati on terms are retai ned for the i ndi vi dual wavel ets. The
i nteracti on between one of these and the feed i s eval uated on the assump-
ti on that the di stance from the r efl ector to the feed i s so l arge that the
wavel et can be r egar ded M a pl ane wave over the effecti ve area of the
feed. Thi s assumpti on i s consi stent ~vi th our previ ous condi ti on that
the r efl ector be i n the far-zone of the feed system. Mul ti pl e scatteri ng
between the feed and the r efl ector i s negl ected; thi s i s l i kewi se consi s-
tent wi th the previ ous assumpti ons.
I t wi l l be assumed that i n the absence of the r efl ector the feed i s
matched to the transmi ssi on l i ne; ther e i s then onl y an i nci dent wave
wi thi n the l i ne. Let V, be the vol tage at some r efer ence cross secti on
1S. Si l ver, .<nal \-si sand (or r wti on of the I mpedance kfi smatch Due to a
Refl ector , RI . Repor t No. 810, Scptemhcr 1945.
156 SCATTERI NG AND DI FFRACTI ON [SEC. 5.10
of the l i ne. The total power transported across ther efer ence cross see-
ti on i s
P = alv,l, (90)
wher e a i s a constant characteri sti c of the l i ne and the fi el d di stri buti on
over the cross secti on of the l i ne. I f the di el ectri c and ohmi c l osses i n
the l i ne and the radi ati ng system are negl i gi bl e, P is the total power
radi ated by the feed. By Eq. (73), the cur r ent densi ty at a poi nt p,
O, @on the r efl ector , wi th i ts phase r efer r ed tot hat of the vol tage at the
r efer ence cross secti on i n the l i ne, i s
K2(nxHi ) ?[:(;)GJ(e@)lnx (@,x e,e-kp g)
Expandi ng the vector term, we have
n x (PI x e,) = (no e%)p~+ et cos ~, (92)
wher e i i s the angl e of i nci dence. The cur r ent i s her e resol ved i nto one
component al ong the i nci dent ray and one component paral l el to the
pol ari zati on of the pri mary fi el d.
The fi el d of the wavel et ari si ng from the cur r ent el ement K CMi s the
i ntegrand of Eq. (69):
& [(n x HJ s V(V~) + I c(n x H,)+] dS.
Appl yi ng the resul ts of Eqs. (3.125) and (3.126), one sees that the radi a-
ti on fi el d components ari se onl y from the component of the cur r ent that
i s transverse to the di recti on of propagati on of the wavel et. Conse-
quentl y, to the or der of approxi mati on that al l the other terms are
negl ected, the component of the cur r ent i n the di recti on pl contri butes
nothi ng to the reacti on on the feed. As regards the component i n the
di recti on e, i t i s obser ved that thi s coi nci des wi th the pol ari zati on of the
feed and ther efor e no pol ari zati on obl i qui ty factor enters i nto the i nter-
acti on wi th the feed. The fi el d i ntensi ty of the spheri cal wavel et wi th
whi ch we are concer ned i s then
dE, = ~(nx H,). e~dS
or
Er = *v[~(;)Gf(@lcOsie 3)
The magni tude of the Poynti ng vector of the spheri cal wal rel et i s
I Srl = ; (;) ldE,12.
SEC. 5.10] REACTI ON OF A REFLECTOR 157
I f the wavel et may be consi dered pl ane over the recei vi ng cross secti on
of the feed [see Eq. (280)], the power that woul d be extr acted from the
wavel et acti ng al one i s
(94)
The vol tage cZV, of the r efl ected wave set up thereby i n the l i ne, at the
gi ven r efer ence poi nt, i s
Vr= (Ye-i(z =[L(;YGJ(@r~E 5)
The phase term 6 i s a constant determi ned by the feed and the choi ce
of the r efer ence poi nt; we need not be concer ned wi th i ts preci se val ue.
Substi tuti ng Eq. (93) i nto (95), we obtai n the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent con-
tri buted by the el ement of surface CMof the r efl ector :
~r_dv, _ 1
vi
Gj(d, @) cos i e-~(kp+b)cM,
47rp
(96)
The phase term 6 absorbs the j of Eq. (93). The refl ecti on coeffi ci ent
due to the enti re r efl ector i s, ther efor e,
(97)
Use wi l l be made of thi s resul t i n Chap. 12 to devi se a method for el i mi -
nati ng the mi smatch.
The pri nci pl e of stati onary phase (Sec. 4.7) may be appl i ed to the
i ntegral of Eq. (97) to obtai n an esti mate of the mi smatch for the case
of short wavel engths. I t wi l l be r ecogni zed that the phase i s stati onary
at those poi nts on the r efl ector at whi ch the rays from the feed stri ke at
normal i nci dence. The essenti al contri buti on to r ari ses from the area
i n the i mmedi ate nei ghborhood of the stati onary poi nt. The cal cul ati on
i s hardl y di fferent from that used for Eqs. (4.46) to (4.51) and wi l l not
be gi ven her e. I f G. i s the gai n of the feed i n the di recti on of normal
i nci dence, P. the feed-to-r efl ector di stance, R( and Rv the pri nci pal radi i
of curvature of the r efl ector at the stati onary poi nt, we have
G.A
[
R(R,
1
x
r.=
N2kpn+ 6)
87rp. (Ri + P.)(R, + P.)
(98)
I f ther e i s mor e than one poi nt of normal i nci dence, the total effect i s
obtai ned by summi ng the separate val ues of r..
The same resul t [Eq. (98)] can be obtai ned di rectl y on the basi s of
geometri cal opti cs. The r efl ected fi el d i ntensi ty at the feed i s deter -
] S. Si l ver, Contri buti on of the Di sh to the I mpedance of an Antenna, RL
Repor t No. 442, September 1943.
158 SCATTERI NG AND DI FFRACTI ON [SEC. 5.11
mi ned by consi deri ng the di spersi on of a smal l i nci dent cone of rays by
the r efl ector , maki ng use of the techni ques of Sec. 5.5.
5.11. The Aperture-fi el d Method.I t was shown i n Sec. 3.8 that the
fi el d at a poi nt i n space l yi ng outsi de a surface that encl oses al l the sources
of the fi el d can be expressed i n terms of i ntegral s of the fi el d vector s over
the surf ace. Thus, i f the scattered fi el d E,, H. i s known over any surface
z that surrounds the r efl ector compl etel y, the scattered fi el d at an
external poi nt P i n space i s gi ven by Eqs. (3.108) and (3109):
/
H,(P) = ~ , [jmc(n x E,)+
+ (n x H,) x Vi + (n. H,) v1] dtl . (99b)
I n appl i cati ons to antenna probl ems, the fi el d over Z may not be
known. The aperture-fi el d method formul ates a hi gh-frequency approxi -
mati on to the fi el d. The surface z i s taken i n the i mmedi ate vi ci ni ty
of the r efl ector , and i t i s assumed that ener gy passes to z from the
r efl ector by propagati on al ong the r efl ected rays. The fi el d over z i s
then cal cul ated by the methods of Sec. 55 i n conjuncti on wi th l ?q. (423);
the same condi ti ons must ther efor e be i mposed on the radi i of curvature
of the i nci dent wavefront and the refl ecti ng surface.
The present method has no speci al advantages over the current-di s-
tri buti on method for the treatment of an arbi trary r efl ector . Ho~vever ,
ther e i s one cl ass of r efl ector s for whi ch i t has deci ded advantages, both
i n ease of appl i cati on and i n establ i shi ng rel ati ons wi th other phe-
nomena. The r efl ector s to ~vhi ch the method i s parti cul arl y sui ted
and to whi ch the subsequent di scussi on i s restri ctedhave the pr oper ty
that the enti re fami l y of rays r efl ected from the i l l umi nated area SOl i e
i n one hemi sphere of space, as shown i n Fi g. 5.10; al so, i n the nei ghbor-
hood of the r efl ector i t i s possi bl e i n general to draw a fi ni te cur ve r,
ci rcumscri bi ng the enti re fami l y of r efl ected rays.
The shadow boundary
r on the r efl ector then defi nes an aperture and serves as an exi t pupi l for
the r efl ected rays, whi ch can be r egar ded as ari si ng from a di stri buti on of
i mage sources behi nd the r efl ector .
On the basi s of the ray di agram i t i s to be ~xpected that the scattered
fi el d wi l l be concentrated l argel y i n the hemi sphere of space contai ni ng
the r efl ected rays. Our di scussi on wi l l pertai n to poi nts i n thi s regi on,
and the surface 2 wi l l , ther efor e, be taken to be made up of an i nfi ni te
pl ane contai ni ng a cur ve such as r., pl us the hemi spheri cal cap of i nfi ni te
radi us. The aperture of the system may be defi ned as the area A on
the i nfi ni te pl ane ci rcumscri bed by the cur ve r. obtai ned by pr ojecti on
SEC.5.11] TI I E APE RTFRE-FI ELI ) .I I ETI {OD 159
of the shadow boundary r al ong the r efl ected rays. I t may be noted at
thi s poi nt that si nce the scattered fi el d must sati sfy the radi ati on condi -
ti ons [Eqs. (31 13) and (3114)] at i nfi ni ty, the hemi spheri cal cap wi l l
make no contri buti on to the fi el d i ntegral s i n Eqs. (99a) and (99b).
I t i s evi dent that the determi nati on of the scattered fi el d over the
pl ane 2 by r efer ence to the r efl ected rays l eads to a di sconti nuous di s-
tri buti on, wi th a nonzer o fi el d over the area ci rcumscri bed by I ~ and
zer o fi el d over the area of 2 outsi de r.i . Thi s i ntroduces i nto the probl em
a featl uv that i s equi val ent to the di sconti nui ty i n the cur r ent di stri bu-
ti on over the r efl ector at the shadow boundary i n the previ ous method.
x
P
r
-2
Y
the aper tur e-fi el d method.
I t was poi nted out at the cl ose of Sec. 38 that the terms enteri ng i nto the
i ntegrands of l ~qs. (99a) and (99/)) can be set i nto cor r espondence wi th
s~wface di stri buti ons of el ectri c currents and charges and magneti c cur-
rents and charges, The el ectri c and magneti c fi el ds over the surface
cannot be assi gned arbi trari l y; they must be assi gned i n such a way that
the equi ~al ent cur r ent and charge di stri buti ons sati sfy the surfac~ equa-
ti on of conti nui ty ~Eq. (3,9)] i f the i ntegral s are to gi ve fi el d components
that sati sfy hI ax\vel l s equati ons. I n or der to make the di stri buti ons
over 2 compati bl e ~vi th the equati on of conti nui ty i t i s necessary to
i ntroduce l i ne di stri buti ons of el ectri c and magneti c charges al ong the
boundary cur ve rA.
The computati on of the boundary charge di stri bl l ti ons pr oceeds al ong
exactl y the same l i nes as i n the case of the current-di stri buti on methods.1
Wi th E,, H, denoti ng components of the scattered fi el d over 2, the
densi ty u. of the boundary l i ne di stri buti on of el ectri c charge and the
1SPCal so J, A. Stratton, l?leclro)~tagrte[ic Theory, LfcGra\v-Hi l l ,New York, 1941,
Sec. 815.
160
SCA T1ERI .VG AND DI PFRACTI ON [SEC. 512
densi ty u~of the magneti c charge are
(100)
The uni t vector mandthe posi ti ve normal nto the surface 2 are defi ned
i n Fi g. 5.10. The amended expressi ons for the fi el ds are then
1
+: ~
[jti ~(n x E,)+ + (n x H,) x V+ + (n. H,) vi ] dS, (lOlb)
wher e A i s the area encl osed by rA.
The i ntegral s over the boundary r. can be transformed i nto surface
i ntegral s by the same process used i n transformi ng RI . (5.62a). I t i s
then found that the fi el d expressi ons are
E,(P) =
i
#& -, [k(n x H,)* + (n x H,) . V(V~)
+ jti c(n x E,) x Vi ] dS, (102a)
H,(P) =
/
~~p -4[k(n x E,)+ + (n x E,) . V(V~)
,i w(n x H,) x v4] dS. (102b)
The boundary l i ne charges have the same effect her e as i n the case of
the cur r ent di stri buti on: They cancel the l ongi tudi nal fi el d component
of the far-zone fi el d that ari ses from the surface cur r ent and charge
di stri buti ons.
The di scussi on has been devel oped wi th r efer ence to a pl ane area.
Thi s i s not necessary for the appl i cati on of Eqs. (99a) and (99b); the
surface 2 may be any cur ved surface of i nfi ni te extent that di vi des the
space i nto two regi onsone of the r efl ector and one of the scattered fi el d.
The aperture area i n that case wi l l be a cur ved s~l rface bounded by a
cur ve r~ that i s the pr ojecti on of the shadow boundary al ong the r efl ected
rays. Ther e i s no change i n the fi nal resul t; the i ntegral s (102a) and
(102b) appl y to the cur ved aperture surface A.
5.12. The Fraunhofer Regi on.We shal l now car r y through the
reducti on of the i ntegral s for the far-zone fi el d. The l atter ~ri l l be r efer r ed
to henceforth as the Fraunhofer regi on because of the rel ati on of the
SEC.5.12]
THE FRA UNI I OFER REGI O,V 161
probl em to opti cal di ffracti on probl ems.
The l atter wi l l be di scussed i n
a l ater secti on.
Let p agai n be the vector from the ori gi n of the coordi nate system to
the el ement dS of the aperture area and R, a uni t vector from the ori gi n
to the fi el d poi nt i n the di recti on 0, 0. Appl yi ng the resul ts of Sec.
3.11 and i nserti ng therei n the expressi ons for the el ectri c and magneti c
currents gi ven i n terms of the fi el ds by Eqs. (3.111), we fi nd that Eq.
(102a) reduces to
~k ,kRR1x
E,(P) = ~Re-
/[
nxE,
.4
()
;~
!
1
R, x(n xH,) e~kQRldS. (103)
6
Let sbe a uni t vwtoral ong araythrough the aperture I nthegeomet-
ri cal -opti cs approi .mati on, the el ectri c and magneti c fi el ds over the
aperture are rel ated by
H = a(S xE). (104)
[I n!rw spacea = (~/p) i . However , asweshal l seel aterj the r efl ector
i s onl y one speci al case of an aperture probl em; the theor y can be appl i ed
to probl ems such as the radi ati on from hornsi n whi ch aw-i l l have some
other wduc.] Substi tuti ng for H, i n Eq. (103), ~veobtai n
H
~k~,jk.? RI x ~
E(P) = ~
nxE, a
()
~ [R,. (s xE,)n
I
(s x E,)(n . R,)] e~@RdS. (l o5)
For some purposes i t may pr ow conveni ent to take as the aperture
area A the wavefront of the system of rays. I n that case the uni t
vector s s and n are i denti cal , si nce the rays are normal to the wavefront.
Mor e general l y, ho~vever , i t i s conveni ent to use a pl ane aperture; the
vector n i s then constant o~-er the surface and i n the di recti on of the pol ar
axi s of the spheri cal coordi nate system.
The fi el d E, over the aperture
i s gcnm-al l y speci fi ed i n terms of the pol ari zati on, magni t~l dcj and phase
di stri buti on T(.r,y). I f tl w \ravcfronts associ ated \vi th the rays through
the aperture are the surf:wes l ,(.r, y,z) = constant (cf. Sec. 4.2), the phase
di stri buti on i s
wher e k~ = 27r/AOi s the
(4.10) i t fol l ows that the
pl ane are
T(.I ,7J)= L@L(l ,y,o), (106)
free-space propagati on constant,. From Eq.
components of the r ector s over the aperture
162 SCA TTERI .VG AND DI FFRA CTI O.V
SEC. 5.13
1 al 1 a?,
z = ZaY; =l i dy
s: ==(1 s: S;)fl .
(107)
The total power passi ng through the aperture i s the i ntegral of the normal
component of the Poynti ng vector :
The gai n functi on for the aperture i s ther efor e
(109)
I t i s over l ooked i n many treatments of aperture probl ems that i f
ther e i s a phase di stri buti on over the aperture other than a constant
phase, the fi el d vector s E,, H, do not l i e i n the aperture pl ane and the
Poynti ng vector i s not normal to the pl ane. I n cases wher e the p}l ase
di stri buti on v(z,y) represents smal l de~i ati ons from constant phase,
these factors can be negl ected wi thout too seri ous an er r or . Subject
to thi s approxi mati on, Eq, (105) si mpl i fi es to
E,(P) =
=~R1 [( +WR)XN1)
_j,&,kR
(110)
wher e the vector N i s
N=
/
Er e,h i,,,, E. o, Q+!/,>.8.101(?,s,
(lloa)
A
The expressi on for p oRI for the pl ane apcrt~we has bwn i nserted. I n
usi ng these rel ati ons i t must bc kept i n mi nd that the fl r !d ~ertors are
assumed to l i e i n the aper tur e pl ane. Tl e & ancl ~-components of Eq.
(110) are
DI FFRACTI ON
6.13. General Consi derati ons on the Approxi mate Methods.-Both
the current-di stri buti on and apert~uwfi el d meth{ds l ed t<)a cal cul ati on
of the srattered fi el d as ari si ng from a di stri l ~l l ti ~)i l of s(nl rces over an
open surface, the boundary of J\hi ch i s ddi nml I )y I hr system of r efl ected
rays. I n contrast, to the ~et}mc,t]i (:~l -tl l >ti [s mtthtx~, the fi el d at anv
poi nt was found as the sl l perposi ti on ui (~]ntri l ]~[ti ons {l ore al l el ements of
SEC,5.13! G1l.YERAL CO.YLTI DERA710.YS 163
thesour ce cl i stri buti on. I ngeneral j ther efor e, the l ast two methods wi l l
l ead to nonzer o fi el d i ntensi ti es i n the regi on of space not cover ed by
the system of rays; al so, i n the regi on of the rays, the fi el ds wi l l di ffer from
those obtai ned on the basi s of geometri cal scatteri ng. These devi ati ons
from geometri cal propagati on of the scattered fi el d are known as di ffrac-
ti on phenomena.
The di ffracti on effects are due fundamental l y to the fact that the
sources are di stri buted over an open surface; that i s, the r efl ected wave-
front i s not a cl osed surface. The same effects wi l l ari se no matter by
what process a fi el d di stri buti on i s gener ated over a fi ni te open area i n
space. Thus a l ens i l l umi nated hy a poi nt-source or l i ne-source feed
l i kewi se defi nes an exi t pupi l for the system of rays i nci dent i n i t and
produces a segment of a warefront i n i ts aperture pl ane. Lenses and
r efl ector s that have aperture areas of the same si ze and shape and pr oduce
the same fi el d di stri buti ons over the apertures have fi el d patterns that
di ffer i n no essenti al detai l . The same phenomena are obser ved when a
wave passes through an aperture i n an i nfi ni te opaque scr een or through
the mouth of a horn i nto fr ee space.
Experi ment shows that whenever the di mensi ons of the aperture are
l arge compared wi th the I vavel cngth, the di ffracti on effects are smal l and
the major porti on of the fi el d pattern i s concentrated i n the regi on cover ed
by the rays from the aperture. On the basi s of thi s fact a common hi gh-
frequency approxi mati on techni que i s used for al l probl ems of the type
menti oned above. The mathemati cal detai l s have al ready been devel -
oped i n Sees. 5 11 to 5.12, and we need onl y summari ze her e the general
i deas i n the appl i cati on of the resul ts to the vari ous types of probl ems. I n
each case the aperture area i s associ ated wi th a surface 2 of i nfi ni te extent
\vhi ch di vi des al l space i nto two separate regi ons. The probl cm i s then
equi val ent to that of an aperture i n an i nfmi tc scr een on the surface Z, I t
i s assumed that the fi el d o~-cr 2 i s zer o ever y\~her e except over the aper-
tur e area; i n cffert, i t i s assumed that di ffracti on effects at wi de angl es
wi th r espect to the aperture-ray system are negl i gi bl e. I n the case of the
r efl ector and l ens i t i s assumed that the aperture fi el d i s pr oduced by geo-
metri cal refl ecti on or refracti on of the rays from the pri mary feed. I n the
case of a horn the aperture fi el d i s taken to be that whi ch woul d exi st over
the aperture area i n a horn of i nfi ni te extent-possi bl y after cor r ecti on i s
made for refl ecti on from the openi ng. I n the i nfi ni te scr een probl em,
the aperture fi el d i s taken to he that whi ch exi sts over the area i n the
unperturbed [rave i n the ahsrnce of the screen.
As was poi nted out i n Sec. .511, the cal cul ati on of the di ffracti on fi el d
i s based on the i ntegral s of the fi el d equati ons obtai ned i n Sec. 3.8 by
means of Gr eens theorem. Ho~~ever, the appl i cati on of C,reens theor em
was predi cated on certai n assumpti ons concerni ng the conti nui ty of the
164 SCATTERI NG AND DI FFRACTI ON [SEC.514
di stri buti on over the surfaceassumpti ons that arenotful fi l l ed by the
di stri buti on over Zi nthe approxi mati on techni que. The method shoul d
rather be consi dered to be based on the Huygens-Fresnel pri nci pl e whi ch
postul ates that each poi nt on a wave surface i s a sour ce of el ementary
fi el ds (cf. Sec. 4.1), and the resul ts of the Gr eens theor em i ntegrati on
are to be r egar ded as furni shi ng the appropri ate i denti fi cati on for the
sources as stated i n Eqs. (3.111). The requi rement that the sour ce
di stri buti on must sati sfy the equati on of conti nui ty then l eads to the
addi ti on of a l i ne di stri buti on of el ectri c and magneti c charge al ong the
boundary of the aperture surface. Thus Eqs. (l Ol a) and (1016) and
hence Eqs. (102a) and (102b) deri ved from them appl y to al l di ffracti on
probl ems i n the hi gh-frequency approxi mati on method; the fi el ds E,, H, are
to be i nterpreted qui te general l y as the fi el ds over the aperture surface.
6.14. Reducti on to a Scal ar Di ffracti on Probl em.I n many antennas
the fi el d over the aperture i s al most compl etel y l i nearl y pol ari zed, onl y
a smal l fracti on of the ener gy bei ng i n the cross-pol ari zati on component
of the fi el d. I f the l atter i s negl ected, the cal cul ati on of the di ffracti on
fi el d i s si mpl i fi ed; by a further approxi mati on, consi stent wi th the
hi gh-frequency approxi mati ons made al ready, the probl em can be r educed
to a scal ar di ffracti on probl em.
The anal ysi s wi l l be restri cted to a pl ane aperture; the aperture wi l l
be taken i n the zy-pl ane as i n Fi g. 510, and the el ectri c fi el d wi l l be taken
to be pol ari zed i n the z-di recti on.
I t was poi nted out i n Sec. 4.1 that the i ntegral s of Eqs. (99a) and
(99b) can be transformed i nto
provi ded that 2 i s a cl osed surface over the whol e of whi ch E and H
are conti nuous. Equati ons (1 12a) and (112b) are each a set of thr ee
equati ons for the thr ee cartesi an components of the fi el d vector s; the
normal deri vati ve d/dn is appl i ed component by component. I f z i s an
open surface, as i n the case of the di ffracti on probl em, a si mi l ar trans-
formati on can be effected; addi ti onal terms appear that vani sh i n the
for mer case of i ntegrati on over a cl osed surface. The r eader can veri fy
that for the aperture the i ntegral s transform as fol l ows:
/
& ~ [jw(n XW + (n xI V x V$ + (n. E) v+]cLS
SEC.5.14] REDUCTION TO A SCALAR DIFFRACTION PROBLEM
165
a si mi l ar expressi on hol ds for Eq, (99b). The l i ne i ntegral around the
boundary i s di fferent from that of the l i ne di stri buti on of charge but
ari ses from the transformati on of the surface i ntegral s i nto one another.
The di ffracti on fi el d i s the sum of the contri buti on of the surface i ntegral
and the l i ne di stri buti on of charges
expressi on i s then
on the boundary. The compl ete
+ :$,. 4(E x ~) ds
- ~+$rA V*(T . H) ds. (1I 4)
I f the fi el d over the aperture i s l i nearl y pol ari zed \vi th, say,
EV=E. =O,
the surface i ntegral contri butes onl y to E.(P). As is seen i n Fi g. 5.11,
thi s l eads to a component of the fi el d i n the di recti on of propagati on.
x
E%(P)
@
\
\
,.-
/ f t
$%
e
t
z
v
FI G, 5.11.I Lcducti on to a scal ar di ffracti on pr obl em.
For a gi ven angl e d, the or der of magni tude of thi s l ongi tudi nal component
i s at most EZ(P) si n 6. The vector E x ~ i s normal to &he aperture.
I t ther efor e gi ves ri se onl y to a component E.(P); the contri buti on of the
l atter to the transverse fi el d i s agai n proporti onal to si n 0. i Yow the
hi gh-frequency approxi mati on method i s based on the assumpti on that
the di ffracti on fi el d i s contai ned al most enti rel y i n the regi on of smal l
val ues of 6; ther efor e i n the si gni fi cant regi on of the fi el d the l ongi -
tudi nal and transverse components ari si ng from the surface i ntegral and
E x ~ respecti vel y are negl i gi bl e, and the surface i ntegral may be taken
al one to cal cul ate the transverse fi el d. As regards the l ongi tudi nal com-
ponent i ntroduced by E x ~, i t wi l l be recal l ed that the thi rd i ntegral
of Eq. (110) was such as just to cancel the l ongi tudi nal component of the
fi el d i ntroduced by the fi rst t\vo terms. Ther efor e, the l ast t\voi ntegral s
of Eqs. (110) vi rtual l y cancel each other for smal l angl es O.
The di ffracti on fi el d i s thus gi ven by the scal ar i ntegral formul a
(115)
166 SCATTERI NG AND DI FFRACTI ON [SEC.514
wher e u stands for the parti cul ar component of the fi el d i nvol ved. I t
wi l l be r ecogni zed that thi s i s the Ki rchhoff di ffracti on formul a used i n
physi cal opti cs.1
I n the geometri cal -opti cs approxi mati on the fi el d i n the regi on of
theaperture has the form (Sec. 4.5)
u = .4(Z,y,z)ei kd~(l ,u,a)
(116)
whereA(x,y,z) i stheampl i tude and L(z, g,z) = constant aretheequi phase
surfaces. Then
(117)
I f the wavel ength i s short, k, i s l arge and the second term may be neg-
l ected i n compari son wi th the fi rst:
au
m=
jk,un . vL.
(118)
The fi el d over the aperture i s usual l y gi ven i n terms of the ampl i tudr
A(z,y,z) andthephase di stri buti onW(z,y) = kaL(z,y,O). I fsi s theuni t
vector i n the di recti on of ray at a gi ven poi nt on the aperture, we have
byl l q. (4.10)
k,VL =ks;
(119)
then
au
=
an
jkun . s.
(120)
The components of s i n terms of the phase di stri buti on w(z,y) have been
gi ven previ ousl y i n Eq. (5.107),
Wi th r egar d to d~/dn i t i s obser ved that
(121)
wher e rl i s a uni t vector from the poi nt on the aperture to the fi el d poi nt.
Col l ecti ng the terms i n Eq. (1 15), we obtai n
I See, for exampl e, }1. Bor n, Optzk, repri nt by Edwards Bros., Ann Arbor, Mi ch.,
1943.
z Thi s covers the gener al case i n \vhi chthe wavel ength i n the r egi on of the aper tur e
di ffers fr om that i n fr ee space.
SEC.515] BABI AETS PRI NCI PLE FOR ELECTROMAGNETI C FI ELD 167
For the far-zone fi el d the customary approxi mati ons are made wi th
r egar d to e~~r/r. I n addi ti on, n . r, = n oR, = cos Oi s constant over
the aperture, and l /r i s negl i gi bl e compared wi th j%. The far-zone fi cl cl
i s, ther efor e,
jk _.kE
uP=el
4.R
!
@@.R, (n . s + Cos O) ds,
A
(123)
wher e p i s the vector from the ori gi n to the surface el ement dS. Atten-
ti on shoul d be di r ected t(~the n . s term.
Onl y i f the phase di stri buti on
over the aperture represents a smal l devi ati on from constant phase can
n . s be set equal to uni ty wi th l i ttl e er r or . I n that case, we have
/
~ e-jkR (1 + COS6) ~
up =
41rR
~ei W.R,ds,
(124)
5.15. Babi nets Pri nci pl e for the El ectromagneti c Fi el d.Consi der-
abl e progress has been made duri ng the past few years i n obtai ni ng ri gor-
ous sol uti ons of di ffracti on probl ems.
Di scussi on of these woul d car r y
us beyond the scope of thi s \vor k.
Attenti on must be cal l ed, however , to
the rel ati on of Babi nets pri nci pl e to the el ectromagneti c fi el d that resul ts
from the sol uti on of the probl em of the di ffracti on of a wave by a pl ane
metal scr een of i nfi ni te conducti vi ty y. 1
I t wi l l be wel l to recal l the form of Babi nets pri nci pl e as i t appl i es
to a scal ar wave fi el d. 2 Suppose that ~ve have a pl ane opaque scr een i n
the xv-pl ane; Am i s the area cover ed by the scr een and .40 i s the aperture
area. The compl ementary scr een i s defi ned to be that cover i ng the area
A Oand havi ng aperture area Am.
I n both cases l et ther e be an i ni ti al
fi el d u, ari si ng from sources i n the negati ve z-regi on of space, and l et
UI and U2be the di ffracti on fi el d pr oduced i n the posi ti ve z-regi on by the
r especti ve screens. The opti cal Babi nets pri nci pl e states that the sum
of the two compl ementary fi el ds at any poi nt i s equal to the i ni ti al \vave
ampl i tude at the poi nt i n the absence of any screen:
Ui = UI + U2. (125)
Thi s rel ates the probl em of di ffracti on around a metal sheet of fi ni te
area to the di ffracti on of a \vave through an aperture of the same si ze
a,nd shape i n an i nfi ni te pl ane sheet.
The pri nci pl e for the el ectromagneti c fi el d i s fundamental l y di fferent
i n that the i ni ti al fi el ds are compl ementary as ~vel l as the screens. I ,et
E; = F, H, = G be the i ni ti ai fi el d ari si ng from sources i n the negati ve
z-regi on i n the case of one of the screens, and l et E 1,H, t)c the di ffracti on
1H. C.. Booker , (13abi nctsPri nri pl cMi d +,hcTheor y of l ksonmt Sl ot~, TI W;
(Great Bri tai n) I kport No. 29, Decemhcr 1941; E, T. Copson, I %oc. Roy, ,Sor., A,
186, 100 (1946).
ZNf. Born, Op. nut.
168 SCA TTERI NQ AND DI FFRACTI ON ~SEC. 515
fi el d i n the posi ti ve z-regi on. Let EL = G, Hi = F be the i ni ti al fi el d
i n the case of the compl ementary scr een and Ez, Hz i ts di ffracti on fi el d.
Then
E,+ H2=F, (126)
H, H,=G. (127)
The i nci dent fi el d for the compl ementary scr een i s r otated 90 wi th
r espect to the fi rst fi el d, and the compl ementary rel ati on exi sts between

?vm~;
;~j<j n-cl
l /_
(a) (b)
FI C.5.12, l l el ati onbetweena sl ot anda di pol eradi ator.
the el ectri c and magneti c fi el d vector of the r especti ve di ffracti on fi el ds.
Thi s pri nci pl e l eads to a usefui rel ati on between the radi ati on fi el d
of a sl ot and that of a di pol e. Let S be a sl ot i n an i nfi ni te pl ane con-
ducti ng sheet, exci ted by a gener ator across i ts center as shown i n Fi g.
5.12a. The compl ementary di pol e i s a si mi l ar thi n metal stri p (Fi g. 512b)
ener gi zed by a gener ator across an i nfi ni tesi mal gap at i ts center . The
fi el d vector s over the sl ot are perpendi cul ar to the correspondi ng fi el d
vector s i n the case of the di pol e. I t then fol l ows from the Babi nets
pri nci pl e that the radi ati on fi el d of the sl ot i s the same as that for the
di pol e, but wi th the el ectri c and magneti c fi el d vector s i nterchanged; ful l
detai l s of the pr oof wi l l be found i n the paper by Booker .
CHAPTER 6
APERTURE I LLUMI NATI ON AND ANTENNA PATTERNS
By S. SI I .VER
6.1. Pri mary and Secondary Patterns.The di scussi on of aperture
systems wi l l be conti nued i n the present chapter wi th the object of
devel opi ng i n mor e detti i l the [el ati ons between the aperture fi el d and the
di ffracti on fi el d. The resul ts ~vi l l furni sh a basi s for the desi gn of the
r efl ector s and l enses used i n di recti ve mi crowa~e antennas. The desi gn
consi derati ons for such systems fal l i nto two major groups: (1) trans-
formati on of the speci fi cati ons that the radi ati on pattern of the antenna
as a whol e i s requi red to meet i nto requi rements on the aperture-fi el d
di stri buti on, and (2) the desi gn of the pri mary feed and r efl ector or l ens to
pr oduce the requi red aperture fi el d. The radi ati on pattern of the com-
posi te antenna wi l l be r efer r ed to as the secondary pattern L1 di sti ncti on
to the pri mary pattern of the feed system.
I t must be kept i n mi nd that stri ctl y speaki ng the secondary pattern
i s a superposi ti on of the di ffracti on fi el d from the aperture ani the fi el d
of the pri mary feed (cf. Sec. 5 1). Mi crowave feeds, however , are
desi gned to have such di recti vi ty that the major porti on of the;r ener gy
i s di r ected i nto i l l umi nati ng the opti cal devi ce.
The overl appi ng of the
fi el d of the pri mary feed and the di ffracti on fi el d gi ves ri se, ther efor e, onl y
to second-or der effects; these wi l l be tr eated i n l ater chapters i n the
di scussi on of speci fi c antennas. The secondary pattern can thus be
resol ved i nto two parts: (1) the di ffracti on fi el d of the aperture and (2)
the porti on of the pri mary feed fi el d that i s not i ntercepted by the opti cal
system. Speci fi cati ons i mposed on the secondary pattern (i ntensi ty l evel
rel ati ve to peak i ntensi ty) i n the second regi on are ther efor e requi re-
ments i mposed on the pri mary feed pattern i n addi ti on to the requi re-
ments pertai ni ng to the producti on of a desi red aperture fi el d.
6.2. The Di ffracti on Fi el d.The di scussi on \vi l l be restri cted to a
pl ane aperture and wi l l be based on the scal ar fi el d approxi mati on devel -
oped i n Sec. 5.14. I t i s ther efor e bei ng assumed that the fi el d over the
aperture i s uni forml y pol ari zed i n one di recti on, whi ch, to fi x our i deas, i s,
say, the z-di recti on, the aperture bei ng taken i n the zy-pl ane (Fi g. 6.1).
Let the coordi nates of a poi nt i n the aperture be f, q and those of a
fi el d poi nt P be r, y, z. I t wi l l pr ove conveni ent to change the notati on
somewhat from that used i n the precedi ng chapter. The fi el d over i he
169
170 APERTURE I LLUMI NATI ON AND ANTENNA PA TTER.VS [SEC. 62
aperture wi l l be desi gnated by F(.$,q); A (~,~) wi l l be the ampl i tude di stri bu-
ti on, and ~(~,~) the phase di stri buti on, so that
F((,~) = A (.f,q)e-jv(~~). (1)
The method of determi ni ng the system of opti cal rays through the aper-
tur e associ ated wi th the phase di stri buti on T (~,v) was di scussed i n Sec.
x
I
/
Y
FI G. 6.1.On the di ffracti on fi el d.
5.12; the expl i ci t rel ati ons between the components of a uni t vector s
al ong a ray and the phase functi on are gi ven i n Eq. (5.107). I f rl i s a
uni t vector i n the di recti on from the aperture poi nt (L,q) to the fi el d poi nt
P, then accordi ng to Eq. (5122) the di ffracti on fi el d U, i s gi ven by
The di ffracti on fi el d may be di vi ded i nto thr ee general zones whi ch
are determi ned mathemati cal l y by the nature of the approxi mati ons
that may be made i n the i ntegral [Eq. (2)]. The thr ee zones are al so
di fferenti ated by the structure of the fi el d, but i t shoul d be noted that the
boundari es of these regi ons are not sharpl y defi ned.
Fi rst ther e i s the new--zone regi on of poi nts i n the i mmedi ate nei ghbor-
hood of the aperture for whi ch no si mpl i fyi ng approxi mati ons can be
made i n Eq. (2). Al though the di mensi ons of the aperture are l arge
compared wi th the wavel ength-an assumpti on that underl i es the use of
Eq. (2)there i s i n general , for a gi ven fi el d poi nt i n thi s regi on, an
appreci abl e area of the aperture for the poi nts on whi ch the I /r term i n
the brackets of the i ntegral i s not negl i gi bl e compared wi th k = 27r/A.
The regi on extends several wavel engths outward from the aperture, tm.cl
i t wi l l be readi l y appreci ated that thi s i s not exactl y i nfi ni tesi mal for the
SEC.6.2] THE DI FFRACTI O,V FI ELD
171
wavel engths of the or der s of magni tude of the mi crowave regi on.
Al so,
for the near-zone regi on, the vari ati on of i ,. rl over the aperture for a
gi ven fi el d poi nt must be taken i nto account. The i ntegrati ons are i n
general di fi cul t to car r y out, andadetai l ed study of thei ntegral for thi s
regi on i s beyond the scope and purpose of our present di scussi on. I n
such cases wher e the fi el d has been wor ked out i n detai l i t has been found
that the near-zone fi el d i s determi ned essenti al l y by geometri cal propaga-
ti on al ong the aperture-ray system wi th fl uctuati ons i n i ntensi ty over the
phase surface due to i nter fer ence effects; the mean val ue of the i ntensi ty,
however , di ffers l i ttl e from that of the geometri cal l y propagated fi el d.
The shadow regi on boundary i s qui te sharpl y defi ned.
Attenti on shoul d be cal l ed to the fact that the scal ar di ffracti on
i ntegral [Eq. (2)] can at best yi el d onl y qual i tati ve resul ts for the near
fi el d zone. I n thi s regi on the contri bl ~ti ons of the l i ne i ntegral s al ong the
aperture boundary i n I ?q. (5, 114) wi l l make si gni fi cant contri buti ons to
the fi el d and must be taken i nto account i f the resul ts are to have a
quanti tati ve val ue.
From the near zone we pass i nto the regi on of the di ffracti on fi el d
whi ch we shal l cal l the opti cal -Fresnel fi el d by vi rtue of i ts cor r espond-
ence to the Fresnel regi on of opti cal di ffracti on probl ems. Several
si mpl i fyi ng approxi mati ons are i ntroduced; the or der s of magni tudes of
the er r or s i nvol ved must necessari l y be eval uated for each case separatel y,
To start \vi th, the term I/r i n the brackets of Eq. (2) i s consi dered to be
negl i gi bl e wi th r espect to k; at a di stance of several wavel engths from the
aperture thi s approxi mati on i s reasonabl e. Second, the vari ati on of
(i . . r,) over the aperture i s negl ected, and the term i s repl aced by the
constant i Z. R, = cos d, wher e RI i s a uni t vector di r ected from the ori gi n
to the fi el d poi nt. A thi rd approxi mati on i n the same categor y i s to
negl ect the vari ati on of the l /r term outsi de the brackets; i t i s set equal
to the reci procal di stance l /R from the ori gi n to the fi el d poi nt.
The vari ati on of r over the aperture must be tr eated mor e careful l y
i n the phase term el k. l Ve have i n general
~ = [(z {)2 + (y 7)2 + 22]J;.
(3)
I f the fi el d i s concentrated i n the regi on around the z-axi s, a di stance z
from the aperture tvi l l be reached at whi ch for the poi nts i n the si gni fi cant
regi on of the fi el d z >> I .r ~1, I y TI . Equati on (3) can then be
expanded as fol l ows:
~z+(zt) +(vd+. ..=z+ ,a +..
r
22 22
. . (4)
Terms hi gher than the second or der are negl ected i n the Fresnel fi el d
approxi mati on. An al ternati ve form of expansi on i s obtai ned by express-
ing the coordinates of the fi el d poi nt i n spheri cal coordi nates:
172 APERTURE I LLUMI NATI ON AND AiVTENVA PA T1ERNS [SEC. 62
x= Rsi n Ocos@=Ra,
y= Rsi n Osi n@=R~,
/
(5)
z= Rcos O.
I ntroduci ng these i nto Eq. (3), we obtai n
~R_(at+ Bn)+t+v(a:+D7)
r R+Tb,
2R
(6)
negl ecti ng terms of or der hi gher than the second. I t i s seen that thi s
assumes a~/R <<1, Pq/F-i <<1. The expansi on i n the form of Eq. (4)
i s sui ted for di scussi ng the fi el d over pl anes z = constant, \vhereas Eq. (6)
i s best for di scussi ng the fi el d over a sphere of radi us R about the ori gi n.
Si nce both expansi ons actual l y assume that the fi el d i s concentrated i n
the nei ghborhood of the z-axi s, ther e i s no si gni fi cant di fference between
the resul ts obtai ned wi th one or the other . The di ffracti on i ntegral for
the opti cal -Fresnel regi on thus becomes
or
(7a)
(7b)
Eqs. (7a) and (7b) di ffer from the expressi ons for the Fresnel fi el d
general l y found i n the l i terature i n the pr esence of the term i . . s i vhi ch
ari ses from a nonuni form phase di stri buti on over the aperture. I t i s to
be noted that a phase di stri buti on whi ch represents ~}-i dedevi ati ons from
constant phase has associ ated wi th i t a hi ghl y di spersed system of rays.
Under such condi ti ons the assumpti on that the ener gy i n the di ffracti on
fi el d i s concentrated around the z-axi s i s not val i d and the approxi mati ons
enteri ng i nto Eqs. (4) and (6) may not be justi fi ed. I f, however , the
phase di stri buti on represents onl y smal l devi ati ons from uni form phase,
the devi ati on of the rays from a system of paral l el rays that are normal
to the aperture i s smal l ; the term i , . s may then be tr eated as constant
and equal to uni ty over the aperture.
The Fresnel regi on i s characteri zed by the onset of di ffusi on of the
fi el d and the wavefront outsi de the boundari es defi ned by the extensi on
of the rays through the aperture. The l atter, however , sti l l defi ne the
propagati on of the major porti on of the fi el d; further detai l s of the Fresnel
regi on wi l l be devel oped i n l ater secti ons.
Wi th i ncreasi ng di stance from the aperture we fi nal l y pass i nto the
Fraunhofer or far-zone regi on of the fi el d. Thi s i s the regi on \vi th ~vhi ch
the secondary pattern i s concer ned. The far-zone approxi mati ons ha\-c
been di scussed a number of ti mes before. I n the present connecti on i t
SEC. 6.2]
THE I ) I FPI M CYI O,Y FI ELD 173
wi l l be noted that the Fraunhofer regi on i s di fferenti ated from the
Fresnel regi on by further approxi mati ons that are made i n the phase term
~~~r:the Fraunhofer fi el d approxi mati on negl ects al~ terms i n Eq. (6)
above the fi rst or der i n the aperture coordi nates ther ehy consi deri ng i n
Fi g. 6.1 that the uni t vector rl i s
paral l el to R,. ~Te have then
Li ke al l other far-zone fi el ds en-
counter ed previ ousl y, the Fraun-
hofer fi el d i s a quasi -poi nt sour ce
fi el d. The fi el d di stri buti on i s the
same over al l spheres about the
ori gi n; i n a gi ven di recti on e, +
the ampl i tude vari es monotoni cal l y
as I /l ? and the i ntensi ty as I /Rz.
Agai n i f the phase er r or or er the
aperturedevi ati ons from constant
phaseare smal l , the i ,. s term may
be repl aced by uni ty. Equati on
(8) then becomes
I t wi l l be found that wi th nearl y uni -
form phase over the aperture, al -
_I12- -
l(a)
-zhL
l(b)
J+l
](c)
+
(d)
-+4& -+
1
(9)
I :r~. 6.2,Trwl s]ti on fr om l resnel LO
Fraunhofer di ffrart,on for a sl i t; (a)
$.f) depi rt the fi el d di stri buti on across pl anes
]n the Frcsnel regi on at i nrmasi ng di . tances
fr om the At, showi ng progressi ve cfaffusi ol l
of the fi el d i nto the shadow regi on; (Q) I Sthe
I raunhofer pattern. (Reproduced from .1.
C. SMer and .+. H. Frank, I ?LlrodtLclio?Lto
Theoretical Ph@cs, J fcGraw-Hill, ,Yew
York, bg courtesy of the authors. )
most al l of the ener gy i n the fi el d i s contai ned i n a smal l angul ar re~i on
about the %axi s (correspondi ng to the geometri cal pr oper ty that the aper-
tur e rays are al l paral l el to the z-axi s). The vari ati on of cos o over the i m-
portant regi on of the secondary pattern may then be negl ected, and }ve have
as our fi nal approxi mati on
CP = & e-)
/
l (g,q)ei k.~.t~o. $+~~n$d~ dq. (9)
.4
Equati on (9) i s frequentl y used i ndi scri mi natel y for both smal l and l arge
phase er r or s over the aperture. Thi s \vi l l I )e done i n the present chapter
and i t shoul d be remembered that for the l atter cases the resul ts ha I :Conl y
qual i tati ve val ue.
174 AP.ERYuRE l LL~l ~I NAYI O.V A.VD AAVTE.V.I .4P.4TTER.%S [SEC. 63
I t was poi nted out earl i er that the boundari es of the thr ee regi ons
of the fi el d cannot be sharpl y defi ned.
I t i s cl ear that the passage from
the Fresnel approxi mati ons to the Fraunhofer approxi mati ons i s a gradual
one and i s determi ned to a l arge extent by the cri teri a of the acceptabl e
er r or i n the approxi mati ons that are made.
I n l ater secti ons n-e shal l
attempt to defi ne an i nner boundary for the Fraunhofer regi on on prac-
ti cal consi derati ons for speci al types of apertures. The gradual transi -
ti on of the physi cal characteri sti cs of the fi el d from one regi on to the next
i s i l l ustrated ver y ni cel y i n Fi g. 6.2 taken from Sl ater and Frank. The
fi gures pertai n to a sI i t over whi ch the fi el d i s uni form i n ampl i tude and
phase. The near-zone pattern (Fi g. 6.2b) i s seen to consi st essenti al l y
of the col umn of radi ati on propagated geometri cal l y from the aperture.
Wi th i ncreasi ng di stance from the aperture the fi el d di ffuses i nto the
shadow regi on, the system of paral l el aperture rays fi nal l y passi ng over
i nto a cone of rays i n the Fraunhofer regi on.
6.3. Fouri er I ntegral Representati on of the Fraunhofer Regi on.The
fi nal approxi mate expressi on that was obtai ned for the Fraunhofer regi on
[Eq. (9)] has an i nteresti ng i nterpretati on. Let us defi ne
k= = k si n 0 cos ~, (l Oa)
k. = k si n Osi n rj; (lOb)
Eq. (9) then becomes
Up = +Re-]kg(k=,kv) (1 l a)
wi th
/
g(k.,k,) = ~ F(/,q)ej@f+k~~) df dq.
(l l b)
Consi der the pl ane z = O. The aperture fi el d can be r egar ded as the
functi on u(z,y) over the enti re pl ane:
u(x,y) = F(x,y) i nsi de .4,
u[z,y) = o outsi de A.
)
(12)
The functi on U(Z,V) i s stepwi se conti nuous over the enti re pl ane and cam,
ther efor e, be expressed as a Fouri er expansi on i n the form of the Fouri er
i ntegral :
a(%Y) = *2
111 l u(~)ek(-z)ek(rv)d~d~d~d~. 13)
.. -m.
or
mm
U(x, y) = ;T
//
g(kz,kv)e)@~tk@) dkZ dkv,
(13a)
..
1zr2tr(ld?/rf iOn(0 TheOrft/r/1[ I/iJ/sic.., 31cGra\y-I 1i l l , Xrw York, 1!)33,Chap. 27.
SEC. 64] GENERAL ~EA T~fW5 OF THE SECO.VDAR 1- PATTERN
175
wi th
..
(13b)
I t wi l l be obser ved that except for the factor of l /27r Eq. (13b) i s i denti cal
wi th Eq. (1 l b).
Let us now exami ne l ?q. (13a). I f ~vedefi ne a vector k,
(14)
the functi on e~k sati sfi es the wave equati on and represents a pl ane wave
of uni t ampl i tude travel i ng i n the di recti on of the vector k. Over the
pl ane z = O, the wave produces a di stri buti on
The i ntegrand of Eq. (13a) i s thus the di stri buti on over the pl ane z = O
pr oduced by a pl ane wave i n the di recti on k \vi th an ampl i tude g(k.,ku),
and the arbi trary di stri buti on u (.~,y) i s gi ven by Eq. (13a) as a super-
posi ti on of pl ane waves travel i ng i n al l di recti ons. Referri ng to 13q. (] l a)
i t i s then seen that the ampl i tude of the fi el d i n the Fraunhofer regi on
i n the di recti on defi ned by k=and ky [Eqs. (10)] i s the ampl i tude of the
pl ane wave component i n that di recti on whi ch enters i nto the synthesi s
of the arbi trary di stri buti on over the aperture.
Equati ons (13a) and (13b) are r efer r ed to as the pai r of mates of a
Fouri er transform. I f the functi on g(k.,kv) i s gi ven, that i s, the Fraun-
hofer fi el d i s prescri bed compl etel y both as regards to ampl i t~l de and
phase, Rq. (13a) serves to determi ne the fi el d cl i stri bl l ti on over the pl ane
z = O that i s requi red to pr oduce the prescri bed secondary fi el d pattern.
I n practi ce the use of the transform i s l i mi ted by the fact that the second-
ary pattern i s prescri bed onl y i n power ; the phase of g(k,,l i u) can be assi gned
at ~vi l l ,and ther efor e the aperture di stri buti on i s not determi ned uni quel y.
Two di fferent choi ces of the phase of g(k,,k,,) l ead to t$vo di fferent
aperture fi el ds, one of ~vhi ch i t may be physi cal l y possi bl e to produce,
whereas the other may not be real i zabl e physi cal l y at al l .
6.4. General Features of the Secondarv Pattern.-The resul ts of
l ater secti ons wi l l be anti ci patcxl her e ~vi th-a general summary of the
rel ati on between the secondary pattern and the apert,ure fi el d, Consi d-
eri ng Eq, (8) or (9) agai n from the poi nt of \~i e\v(I f the sl l perposi t.i t)n of
contri buti ons from each el ement (I f s~l rfa,cc on the aperture, the fi el d
176 APERTURE I LL UlfI .VA TI O.V AND A.VTE.V.V.4 PA TTAR.YS [SEr, 6.4
at a gi ven poi nt i s vi sual i zed as the resul tant of a system of vector
el ements. The magni tude of the vector from the el ement of surface
at a poi nt ~, q i s 11(~,q)[ d~ d~; the angl e that i t makes wi th the el ement
from the ori gi n (whi ch i s taken as a r efer ence) i s determi ned by the
i ntri nsi c phase di fference between them over the aperture and the phase
di fference ari si ng from di fferent path l engths to the fi el d poi nt. The
absol ute maxi mum val ue that the resul tant of the system of vector s can
have i s equal to the sum of thei r magni tudes, obtai ned when the contri bu-
ti ons are al l i n phase. I f the phase over the aperture i s constant, the
absol ute maxi mum i s attai ned i n the di recti on normal to the aperture, for
i n that di recti on the path l ength i s the same from al l aperture poi nts
to the fi el d poi nt. Si nce the path-l ength phase factor
i s a l i near functi on of the coordi nates on the aperture, the absol ute
maxi mum cannot be obtai ned i n any di recti on i n the case of arbi trary
phase di stri buti ons over the aperture unl ess the di stri buti on i s a l i near
functi on of the aperture coordi nates, I n general , however , ther e wi l l
al ways exi st di recti ons i n space for whi ch the path phase factor makes the
opti mum compensati on for the aperture phase di fferences between the
el ements as compared wi th nei ghbori ng di recti ons. The secondary
pattern thus has seri es of maxi ma and mi ni ma. I f the phase di stri buti on
does not devi ate too wi del y from constant phase over the aperture, ther e
wi l l i n general be one maxi mum that i s consi derabl y gr eater i n val ue
than the others. The porti on of the secondary pattern possessi ng thi s
maxi mum and contai ned wi thi n the angul ar regi on bounded by the
di recti ons of the adjacent mi ni ma i s know-n as the mai n l obe or someti mes
as the mai n beam. The subsi di ary maxi ma arc r efer r ed to as si de l obes.
The l i ne through the ori gi n and the peak of the mai n beam i s r efer r ed to
as the beam axi s.
From the practi cal poi nt of vi ew the pattern i s speci fi ed by certai n
beam characteri sti cs: the di recti on of the peak i ntensi ty; the gai n, hal f-
power , and tenth-power wi dths of the mai n l obe; and the magni tudes and
posi ti ons of the si de l obes. To defi ne the beam wi dths consi der any
pl ane contai ni ng the axi s of the beam; the hal f-poi rer \vi dth (3 i n that
pl ane i s the angul ar di stance between the two di recti ons about the axi s
i n whi ch the power radi ated per uni t sol i d angl e i s one-hal f the peak
val ue; the tenth-power wi dth (3(I l m) i s defi ned correspondi ngl y.
I f the
aperture i s symmetri cal i n shape and the fi el d di stri buti on over the
aperture has certai n symmetry el ements i n common wi th the aperture,
the mai n l obe wi l l r efl ect the symmetry of the fi el d di stri buti on. The
symmetry el ements arc general l y pl anes of symmetry; these are r efer r ed
to as the pri nci pal pl anes of the pattern.
SMC.6,4] GhNllRAL F.EA T LRAX OF THE SBCONBA R Y PA TTE2L41 177
Gain.Let us consi der fi rst the rel ati on between the gai n and the
aperture fi el d. The power radi ated per uni t sol i d angl e i n a gi ven di rec-
ti on i s [cf. Eq. (5.77a)]
(16)
The total power Pa radi ated by the aperture i s equal to the power fl ow
across the aperture, whi ch i s the i ntegral of the normal component of the
Poynti ng vector . The total power i s then
(17)
and the gai n functi on i n the di recti on (o, O) i s
The mor e exact form [Eq. (8)] has been used i n Eq. (18) for the fi el d
i ntensi ty CP i n the Fraunhofer regi on.
I t was seen that i f the phase i s constant over the aperture, the second-
ary pattern attai ns the absol ute maxi mum i n the di recti on of the z-axi s,
6 = O. The aperture rays are paral l el to the z-axi s so that s, = 1; the
maxi mum val ue of the gai n functi on, or si mpl y the gai n, i s, ther efor e,
(19)
A case of especi al i nterest i s that of uni form i l l umi nati on over the aper-
ture. F(i ,q) i s a constant; from Eq. (19) the gai n GOfor that case i s
found to be
47rA
Go . ~.
(20)
( onsi der now any other i ntensi ty di stri buti on. Maki ng use of the
Sch\~artz i nequal i ty,
(21)
wher e ~ and g are any two functi ons; by taki ng j = F(~,q) and g = 1,
\vefi nd
178 APERTURE I LLUMI NATI ON AND A.VTE~VNA PAT1ERNS [S~c. 6.4
Hence,
4mA
G.,, < ~. (23)
Thus, the uni form fi el d di stri buti on over the aperture gi ves the hi ghest
gai n of al l constant-phase di stri buti ons over the aperture. The rati o
s = G.M/G,, known as the gai n factor, may be r egar ded as the effi ci ency
of the aperture i n concentrati ng the avai l abl e ener gy i nto the peak
i ntensi ty of the beam.
The pr oof gi ven above that uni form i l l umi nati on gi ves maxi mum gai n
i s val i d stri ctl y for constant-phase di stri buti ons onl y, si nce Eq. (19)
appl i es onl y to such di stri buti ons.
A pr oof for the mor e general case
must be based on Eq. (18); so far, to the authors knowl edge, no such
pr oof has been establ i shed. I f the phase di stri buti on represents a smal l
devi ati on from constant phase, however , and i s such that the peak
i ntensi ty l i es i n the di recti on 6 = O, i t i s certai n that the gai n i s l ess than
that of the uni form fi el d. The val ue of the peak i ntensi ty i s mor e
sensi ti ve to the i nter fer ence effects between the vector el ements from
the aperture than i s the val ue of the total Power to the sl i ght devi ati ons
of the aperture rays from the normal to the l atter. The effect of such
phase er r or s i s, ther efor e, a reducti on i n the aperture effi ci ency.
The aperture effi ci ency can be gi ven mor e pi ctori al si gni fi cance by
consi deri ng the performance of the antenna system on recepti on.
Let
us suppose for the moment that the pri mary feed i s desi gned to i l l umi nate
the r efl ector or the l ens but to have no radi ati on i n other di recti ons. I n
that case the secondary pattern ari ses enti rel y from the aperture, and the
gai n of the antenna i s equal to the aperture gai n G,,. I f now a pl ane
wave i s i nci dent on a matched antenna al ong the beam axi s, by Eq.
(2.80), the absorpti on cross secti on presented by the antenna to the pl ane
wave i s
(24)
From Eq. (20), i t i s then seen that i f the aperture i s uni forml y i l l umi nated,
the absorpti on cross secti on i s equal to the physi cal cross secti on presented
by the antenna to the i nci dent wave.
I n the case of any other type of
constant-phase i l l umi nati on we have
(25)
The effecti ve area i s r educed by the gai n factor. The aperture effi ci ency-
may thus be r egar ded as meas~l ri ug the efr ecti ~-e aperture area presented
by the antenna to the i nci dent I rave.
I n the practi cal case the pri mary feed radi ates i n di recti ons other
than that requi red to i l l umi nate the opti cal devi ce. The ener gy not
SEC. 6.4] GENERAL FEATURES OF THE S.5ONDAR Y PATTERN 179
i ntercepted by the l atter i s r efer r ed to as the spi l l -over ener gy. Except
for secondary effects the total power i n the secondary pattern can be
consi dered as consi sti ng addi ti vel y of the power i n the Fraunhofer regi on
of the aperture di ffracti on fi el d and the spi l l -over ener gy of the feed.
The over-al l gai n of the antenna must be r efer r ed to the total ener gy
radi ated i n al l di recti ons. I f Pm is the peak i ntensi ty i n the secondary
pattern and P is the total power radi ated by the feed, the over-al l gai n i s
~ _ 4.Pm
P
(26)
I f the aperture i ntercepts a fracti on a of the total pol ver from the feed,
the power radi ated by the aperture i s Pm = CYP, whence
G=a~= aG~. (27]
a
Taki ng agai n the uni forml y i l l umi nated aperture wi th an i deal i zed feed
as the r efer ence, the over-al l effi ci ency of the system i s
(28)
The effi ci ency of the antenna i s thus seen to be a product of two factors:
(1) the fracti on of the total power i ntercepted by the opti cal devi ce and
(2) the ei l i ci ency of the aperture i n concentrati ng the avai l abl e ener gy
i nto the peak of the mai n l obe.
Beamwidths and Side Lobes.The beamwi dth and si de-l obe character-
i sti cs are, of course, i nti matel y rel ated to the dependence of gai n on
the aperture fi el d di stri buti ons.
The fol l o~vi ng remarks are based on the
resul ts of the i nvesti gati on of a number of speci al cases.
Taki ng the
constant-phase di stri buti on fi rst, we have seen that maxi mum gai n i s
real i zed wi th uni form i l l umi nati on. I f the i l l umi nati on over the aperture
i s modi fi ed so that the i ntensi ty i s peaked i n the central area of the
aperture and tapered down i n magni tude toward the aperture boundary,
the di mi nuti on i n gai n i s accompani ed by an i ncrease i n beamwi dth and a
decr ease i n si de-l obe i ntensi ty rel ati ve to the peak i ntensi ty of the mai n
l obe. The promi nence of the si de l obes can be traced to the di sconti nui ty
at the edge of the aperture, consi deri ng the fi el d di stri buti on wi th r egar d
t,o the pl ane z = O as a whol e.
The effect of phase er r or s over the aperture, wi th the types of aperture
fi el ds that are commonl y encountered, i s i n general to r educe the gai n
and broaden the mai n l obe. Si de-l obe l evel s may be ei ther rai sed or
depressed dependi ng on both the type of phase di storti on and the i nten-
si ty di stri buti on over the aperture, Qui te general l y the sharpness of the
mi ni ma i s r educed and thei r l evel s are rai sed. Sever e phase er r or s ovel
180 APERTURE I LL UJ f I NA TI ON AND A.VTE.VNA PA lTER\ S [SEC. 6.5
the aperture may resul t i n spl i tti ng of the mai n l obe and enhancement
of the si de l obes to such an extent that i t i s no l onger possi bl e to i denti fy
a major l obe.
6.5. The Rectangul ar Aperture.-A number of speci al probl ems
associ ated wi th rectangul ar and ci rcul ar apertures wi l l be i nvesti gated
to i l l ustrate the general i deas formul ated i n the precedi ng secti on. The
rectangul ar aperture wi l l be tr eated fi rst. Let the di mensi ons of the
aperture be desi gnated by a and b, the ori entati on of the aperi ure i n
the xy-pl ane bei ng shown i n Fi g. 6.3.
The secondary pattern depends
onl y on the rel ati ve di stri buti on over the aperture, and i n the fol l owi ng
di scussi on i t wi l l be assumed that the di stri buti on I ( g,q) i s normal i zed
to have a maxi mum val ue of uni ty. For the present purposes the com-
pl etel y si mpl i fi ed expressi on for the Fraunhofer regi on [Eq. (9]] wi l l
be used; i n so far as the pattern i s concer ned we need consi der onl y the
factor
Uniform Amplitude and Phase.F( L,q) = 1 for a uni forml y i l hl mi -
nated aperture; the i ntegral of Eq. (29) i s easi l y eval uated, and one
fi nds that the secondary ampl i tude pattern i s
g(e)($) =
The patterns i n
ti tul ar i nterest.
the pri nci pal pl anes (the zz- and yz-pl anes) are of par-
For the zz-pl ane @ = O, Eq. (30) si mpl i fi es to
(31)
( ).
~a .
<,n sm 8
A
g(e,o) = A --
7ra
x
si n e
For the yz-pl ane + = 7r/2; the pattern i n thk pl ane i s l i kewi se gi ven
by Eq. (31) wi th a replaced by b. Both patterns are of the same form,
si n u/uj but are scal ed i n the angl e e accordi ng to the aperture di mensi ons
i n the r especti ve pl anes. The secondary power pattern, normal i zed to
a peak val ue of uni ty, i s pl otted i n Fi g. 6.3 on a l ogari thmi c scal e as a
()
functi on of the r educed vari abl e u = ~ (r/h) si n e. The mi ni ma i n
thi s case are eq~l al to zer o and occur at the poi nts u. = m, n = f 1,
+2, . . . The ful l \vi dths of the mai n l obe measured from nul l poi nt
SWJ.6.5] THE REC7ANGVLAR APE R7(I RE 181
Loo
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.08
I z
0.06
004
(*f
0.02
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0.001
o 2 4 6 8 10
u
FI G. 6,3.Secondary pattern of a ul l i forl nl y i l l umi nated rcx%:uwul araperture.
to nul l poi nt on ei ther si de of the axi s are
()
2A
zz-pl ane: 2 si nl ~ = ,
a
()
A
yz-pl ane: 2 si nl ~ = ~.
The hal f-power poi nt on the mai n l obe i s ver y cl osel y at u = 1.39; hence
the hal f wi dths i n the pri nci pal pl anes are
()
1.39A
zz-pl ane: @ = 2 si n = 0.88$ (32a)
~a
()
1.39A
yz-pl ane: @ = 2 si n] ~ = 0.88 ;. (32b)
182 APERTURE ILLUMINATION AND ANTENNA PATTERNS [SEC. 6.6
These i l l ustrate two fundamental poi nts: (1) I n a pl ane of symmetry the
wi dth of the beam i s determi ned by the aperture di mensi on i n that pl ane,
and (2) the di ffracti on pattern i s confi ned to a smal l er angul ar regi on the
l arger the di mensi ons of the aperture as measured i n wavel engths.
The si de l obas (peaks) are l ocated at the poi nts u- that sati sfy the
rel ati on u = tan u. The fi rst of these comes ai u, = 4.51; the second at
U* = 7.73. The si de-l obe i ntensi ti es rel ati ve to the peak i ntensi ti es are
readi l y found to be 1/(1 + u;), whi ch, from the val ues of UI and uZ, i s
seen to be ver y nearl y equal to 1/u~. Referri ng to the ampl i tude
expressi on [Eq. (31)], i t i s seen that g(0) i s posi ti ve over the enti re mai n
l obe, changi ng si gn i n passi ng through the fi rst zer o, returni ng to a
posi ti ve val ue on passi ng through the second zer o, and so on. The
odd-numbered si de l obes are, ther efor e, out of phase wi th the mai n l obe,
and the even-numbered ones are i n phase. Such phase reversal s are
characteri sti c of al l power patterns i n whi ch the mi ni ma are equal to zer o.
Separable Aperture-field Distributions.A common type of aperture-
fi el d di stri buti on i s that whi ch ari ses wi th a cyl i ndri cal r efl ector or l ens
and a l i ne sour ce (cf. Sec. 59) wher e the di stri buti on over the aperture i s
separabl e i nto a product of two functi ons:
F(t,v) = ~l(.wz(~). (33)
Substi tuti ng i nto Eq. (29), we fi nd that the i ntegral i s l i kewi se separabl e:
I f we consi der agai n the pri nci pal pl ane patterns, I ve see that the pattern
i n a gi ven pl ane i s determi ned enti rel y by the fi el d di stri buti on al ong the
correspondi ng aspect of the aperture. The pri nci pal pl ane patterns are
u
b/ 2
U
a/2
zz-pl ane: g(0) = F,(q) dq
~l(f)ei~t.in~ d~;
(35a)
b/ 2 ./2
[/
./2
U
b/ 2
yz-pl ane: g(~) = F,(t) d( F,(T)e~k~Slu@dq.
(35b)
./2 b/ 2
The effects of tapered i l l umi nati on and phase er r or s on the pri nci pal
pl ane patterns can thus be studi ed as two-di mensi onal probl ems, provi d-
i ng, of course, that the aperture fi el d i s separabl e i n the form of Eq. (33)
both i n ampl i tude and i n phase.
6.6. Two-di mensi onal Probl ems.The remai ni ng anal ysi s of the
secondary pattern of a rectangul ar aperture ~vi l l be restri cted to a separ-
abl e di stri buti on m whi ch the fi el d i s uni form al ong, say, the ydi recti on;
that i s, F2(7) = 1. The pattern i n the pl ane z = O i s just the si n u/u
pattern,
SEC. 6.6] 133 TWO-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS
()
d
si n
1-
si n e
g(e) = ~b ,
T
si n e
and we are l eft wi th onl y the pattern i n the pl ane y = O,
/
a/2
g(8) = _a,2 Fl (&)ti ~*~d& (36)
to consi der. Mul ti pl i cati ve constants are bei ng i gnored i n Eq. (36).
I t i s conveni ent to i ntroduce new vari abl es
2t
~=, ~=~asi nfi ;
a
(37)
the functi on F1 (f) goes over i nto a functi on j(z), and g(0) becomes a
functi on of u whi ch to avoi d di ffi cul ti es of notati on wi l l be desi gnated
as g(u). Equati on (36) then becomes
\
1
g(u) = ; _, j(2)eju= dz. (38)
I t i s seen at once that i f the same rel ati ve di stri buti on, for exampl e,
j(z) = [1 (4~/a)] = (1 ~z), i s pr oduced over two apertures of
di fferent si ze, the two apertures wi l l pr oduce the same secondary patterns
when r egar ded as functi ons of u. The si de-l obe i ntensi ti es rel ati ve to the
peak i ntensi ty wi l l be the same i n the two cases. However , si nce
si n o = ku/~a, the angul ar di stri buti ons wi l l di ffer; the di ffracti on fi el d
of the l arger aperture wi l l be contai ned i n a smal l er angul ar regi on than
that of the smal l er aperture, and i n parti cul ar the mai n l obe wi l l have a
smal l er beamwi dth. The l arger aperture wi l l yi el d hi gher gai n, cor -
respondi ng to the fact that the pattern i s confi ned to a smal l er angul ar
regi on i n space. Thi s can be seen di rectl y from the expressi on for the
gai n [Eq. (19)]. For the present we shal l consi der onl y constant-phase
di stri buti ons. Equati on (19) reduces to
(39a)
for the separabl e
thi s becomes
type of di stri buti on. On i ntroduci ng the vari abl e z,
(39b)
showi ng expl i ci tl y that the gai n i s proporti onal to the area of the aperture.
184 APERTURE ILLUMINATION AND ANTENNA PATTERNS [SEC. 6.6
The di stri buti on over the aperture can be characteri zed compl etel y
by i ts moments w~,
/
1
pm =
_~X.f(z) dz (rn=o, 1,2, ...). (40)
These are ver y useful i n rel ati ng the properti es of the secondary uattern
to those of the aperture di stri buti on. Expandi ng the exponenti al i n
Eq. (38) we obtai n
or
(41)
(42)
The power pattern p(u) = I g(u)I i s then
()= (~)[l -ti -i )u2+(a-% +a)u4-l
(43)
I t i s seen from Eq. (42) that an asymmetri cal di stri buti on over the aper-
tur e resul ts i n a g(u) that i s compl ex so that the equi phase surfaces i n
the Fraunhofer regi on are not spheres center ed at the ori gi n. I f, how-
ever , the aperture di stri buti on i s symmetri cal , that i s, j(z) i s an even
functi on, i ts odd moments vani sh and g(u) i s real :
(
)
#Gu ~_&u2+M~4 .,- .
g(u) = 2
2/l o 4 !#O
(44)
For the l atter case, conveni ent expressi ons for the beamwi dth can be
obtai ned by si mpl e approxi mati ons.
I n the nei ghborhood of the beam
axi s, we shal l approxi mate the pattern by negl ecti ng al l terms i n Eq. (44)
beyond the second:
(u)+( -:H2)
(45)
The hal f-power poi nt i n the po}ver pattern corresponds to poi nt Q at
whi ch the ampl i tude has al l en to 1/ti ~ of i ts peak val ue.
Hence
I R. C. Spencer ,Fouri er I ntegral Methods of Pattern Anal ysi s, I LLRepor t ~o.
762-1,Jan. 21, 1946.
SEC. 6.6]
TWO-DI MENSI ONAL PROBLEMS
and the hal f-power wi dth.i s
@) = 2 si n-l
[[(2 - @i) ;];)
or
185
(46)
The effect of taperi ng the i l l umi nati on down toward the edges of the
aperture can be seen di rectl y from thi s expressi on. Si nce the moment
M i s the average of the di stri buti on functi on wei ghted by the factor d,
peaki ng the functi on i n the nei ghborhood of x = O decreases the second
moment mor e rapi dl y than po whi ch i s the average of the functi on i tsel f.
The effect of such taperi ng i s to i ncrease the rati o pO/~* and hence to
i ncrease the beamwi dth.
A mor e accurate expressi on for the beamwi dth has been obtai ned, 1
whi ch can be used to construct the mai n l obe down to i ts tenth-power
wi dth. The resul ts are appl i cabl e onl y to the cases of symmetri cal
aperture di stri buti ons. For the l atter the expansi on of the power
pattern [Eq. (43)] reduces to
f() =l -(9u+w)+&l ~ 4-
(47)
The factor (~Oa/2)2 has been dr opped to normal i ze the pattern to a
peak val ue of uni ty. The power dr op i n the pattern rel ati ve to the peak
expressed i n napi ers i s N = i n p(u). Consi deri ng Eq. (47) to be of
the form 1 z, the expansi on ff~r i n (1 z) i s used to obtai n
(48)
Sol vi ng for u, \vethen get
u = AN~J(l BN),
(49)
wher e
~=(:
) ; =+(-%0
(49a)
Si nce hr p(u) = 2,303 i og ~(v), the correspondi ng expressi on i n terms of
the deci bel dr op D i s
u = A~D)!(I _ BJD),
(50)
wher e
A = 1.518A; B = 2.303B.
(50a)
1R. C. Spcncrr, op. cit.
186 APERTURE ILLUMINATION AND ANTENNA PATTERNS @C. 6.7
The ful l angul ar wi dth of the mai n l obe at a gi ven deci bel l evel i s, ther e-
for e,
8. = z si n-
[ 1
~+ (1 ED); . (51)
The apertur~fi el d-secondary-pattern rel ati onshi ps are further i l l us-
trated by the resul ts i n Tabl e 6 1, i n whi ch the major secondary-pattern
characteri sti cs are gi ven for several typi cal aperture di stri buti ons. The
i ntegrati on of E~. (38) i s easy to per for m for each of these di stri buti ons,
and the detai l s need not be gi ven her e. The effect of reduci ng the
di sc~mti nui ty at the edge of the aperture i s shown by the seri es of para-
bol i c di stri buti ons 1 (1 A)z2. I t i s seen that the gai n decreases
rapi dl y as A gets i n the nei ghborhood of zer o; and the beam wi dth i ncreases.
The seri es Cosm(mz/2) shows the effect of a hi gher-order taper of i l l umi na-
ti on. Al l members of the seri es (n = 1, 2, . . .) r educe to zer o at the
edge of the aperture, but i n addi ti on the nth member has n 1 deri va-
ti ves equal to zer o at the edge of the aperture. The gai n decreases and
the beamwi dth i ncreases wi th i ncreasi ng n; the si de l obes appear at
i ncreasi ngl y l arger angl es and wi th r educed i ntensi ty rel ati ve to the mai n
l obe.
6.7. Phase -emor Effects.-A phase-error di stri buti on may ari se over
the aperture of an opti cal system from vari ous causes such as a di spl ace-
ment of the pri mary feed from the focus or di storti on of the r efl ector or
l ens, or i t may be caused by phase er r or i n the fi el d of the pri mary feed;
that i s, the wavefront i s not spheri cal or cyl i ndri cal as i s presupposed i n
the desi gn of the opti cal system.
I t wi l l agai n be assumed i n the fol l owi ng that the aperture fi el d i s
separabl e, the fi el d bei ng uni form i n the y-di recti on and the phase er r or
exi sti ng i n the z-di recti on onl y. I f v (2 f/c4) = V(Z) denotes the phase-
er r or di stri buti on, the expressi on for the secondary pattern [Eq. (38)]
becomes
/
1
g(~) = ; _,
f(z)@=-W@l ~~,
(52)
wher e ~(z) now denotes the ampl i tude of the aperture fi el d. As i n the
precedi ng secti on, ~(z) i s assumed to be normal i zed to uni ty.
The di scussi on wi l l be l i mi ted to a consi derati on of speci al forms of
*(z), speci fi cal l y to the f ol l owi ng:1
Li near er r or : V(Z) = Px.
Quadrati c er r or : V(Z) = @z.
Cubi c er r or : V(Z) = QX.
1The resul ts presentedher e are taken l argel y fr om R. c. Spencer and P. M.
Austi n, Tabl es aud Methods of Cal cul ati on for Li ne Sources, RL Repor t No. 762-2,
Mar. 30, 1946.
TABLE6.1.--+ECONDAEY PATTERNCHAR.I CTERI STI CS PRODUCED BYVARI OUS TYPESOF
APERTUREDI STRI BUTI ONS.
1
m
j(z) = 1 I zl >1
=0 121>1
g(u) = y
-1 +1
Ful l wi dth
Angul arposi ti on
I ntensi ty of fi rst
Gai n factor S. at hal f power
0 of fi rst zer o
si de l obe; db bel ow
(F),radi ans peak i ntensi ty
1 o.88~
A
13.2
a
j(z) = 1 ,71 A)zz, I zI <1
p?
g(u) = a
[ %+1 -A A(S%)l
(2 + A)2
(A) = 911 :(1 A) + i (l A)*]
0.88~
A
A=l . o 1
a
13.2
i
0.8 0.994 0.92~ l ,06~ 15,8
a a
0.5 0.970 o.97~ 1.143 17.1
a a
0,0 0,833 1.15; 1,433 20.6
a
f(z) = Cos; 1%1<1
n!cosu
g(u) = :n_l
n, odd;
[
: (2k + 1) 4*]
k=O
n! si n u
+&
g(u) = a n, even
u
j
[
~~1 (2k)~ 4$2
1
4 2.4. 6.. (n-l )Z
S=>[l .3.5,.,
1
(
2.4. 6n. . . 2n
1.3. 5.. .2l l
)
n, odd
1.3. 5. (n-l )
= [2,4.6...
1
[
(n+2)(n +;)... 2n
1
(n+l )(n+3). ..2l l even
o.88~
A
rt=o 1
a
13,2
i
1 0.810 1,2: 1.5; 23
2 0.667 1,45; 2?
32
a
3 0.575
1.661 2.5:
a
40
0 515 1.93A 3; 48
j(z) :1 121,121,<1
4A
()
si n ~
g(u) = 4a +
2
0.75 1.28: 2? 26.4
a
188 APERTURE ILLUMINATION AND ANTENNA PATTERNS @~c. 6.7
Li near Er r or . -I nserti ng the appropri ate expressi on for V(x) i nto
Eq. (52) we obtai n
/
1
9(U) = ~ _, ~(~)ejt-~jz dz.
(53)
I t i s di rectl y evi dent that thk i s of the same form as Eq. (38) wi th u
repl aced by (u ~). The pattern i s, ther efor e, the same as that of the
constant-phase di stri buti on but di spl aced by an amount /3. I he peak
i ntensi ty comes at u = (3, that i s, i n the di recti on
~. = sin_, p.
ar
(54)
The pattern i s thus the secondary pattern of a constant-phase aperture
fi el d r otated through the angl e 00. The physi cal basi s for thi s i s ver y
si mpl e. On expressi ng the phase di stri buti on i n terms of the ori gi nal
aperture vari abl e ~ = az/2 and maki ng use of Eq. (5107), i t wi l l be
found that the aperture rays form a system of paral l el rays travel i ng i n
the di recti on 00 gi ven by Eq. (54). The aperture fi el d can be consi dered
to have ari sen from a pl ane wave i nci dent on the aperture i n the di recti on
60.
I f the aperture i s pr ojected onto a pl ane normal to the aperture rays,
a new aperture i s obtai ned over whi ch the fi el d di stri buti on has constant
phase. The pr ojected aperture di mensi on a i s
a = a cos O.,
and ther efor e the gai n G~ i n the case of l i near-phase er r or wi l l be rel ated
to the gai n GM of the constant-phase di stri buti on by
G; = GM cos 00. (55)
Thi s can be veri fi ed by a di rect cal cul ati on on the basi s of Eq. (18).
Quadratic Error.The secondary ampl i tude pattern for thi s case i s
/
1
9(U) =; _,
j(x)ei (w+) dx.
(56)
The eval uati on of such i ntegral s i s general l y l abori ous. For smal l
phase er r or s, however , a conveni ent approxi mate method can be used.
Expandi ng the exponenti al factor e@, we obtai n
(57)
The i ntegral s of Eq. (57) can be expressed as deri vati ves of the pattern,
go(u) obtai ned i n the absence of phase er r or (p = O), for
SEC. 67]
PHASE-ERROR EFFECTS
Hence
Retai ni ng onl y the fi rst two terms, we have
g(u) ==
; [go(u) + jP91(u)l .
189
(58)
(59)
(60)
I f the ampl i tude di stri buti on F(z) i s symmetri cal , g,(u) i s real ; the power
pattern p(u) i s then
~z
p(u) =
~ {[90(U)12+ PI I (u)]}.
(61)
The effect of quadrati c phase er r or s i s i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 64 for two
types of i l l umi nati on: uni form ampl i tude, f(z) = 1, and tapered i l l umi na-
ti on, f(z) = cosz (mE/2).
I n both cases Q = 7r/2, representi ng a path
l ength devi ati on of A/4 from constant phase at the edges of the aperture.
The val ue of D i s ratner l arge for the use of Eq. (61) to be val i d, but the
qual i tati ve features are not seri ousl y affected by the er r or s i nvol ved.
I t i s seen that the peak i ntensi ty sti l l appears i n the di recti on O = O.
Si nce the phase er r or i s symmetri cal wi th r espect to the center of the
aperture, the secondary pattern wi l l al ways be symmetri cal about the
0 = Oaxi s. However , i t wi l l be found that when B gets suffi ci entl y l arge
the mai n l obe becomes bi furcated, wi th maxi ma appeari ng on ei ther si de
of the o = O axi s. The general effect of the phase er r or i s to rai se both
the si de-l obe l evel and the l evel of the mi ni ma.
I n the case of the tapered
i l l umi nati on these effects are so l arge that the fi rst si de l obe i s al most
compl etel y absorbed i nto an extr emel y broadened mai n l obe. The effect
of phase er r or on gai n i s exempl i fi ed by Fi g. 6.5 whi ch shows the gai n
rel ati ve to the constant-phase di stri buti on for a uni forml y i l l umi nated
aperture. The phase er r or i s expressed i n terms of path l ength devi ati on
from constant phase. The l oss i n gai n that can be tol erated i n practi ce
depends, of course, on the operati onal requi rements on the antenna and
the associ ated system.
Cubic Phase Errors.The cubi c phase er r or s can be tr eated by the
same approxi mati on techni que as was empl oyed i n Eq. (60). The
correspondi ng expressi on for the ampl ; tude pattern i s
9(U) = ; [90(U) + d:(u)].
(62)
I f)o APERTURE I J .L1lM I NA TI ON AND ANTENNA PA TT17R.VS [SEC.6.7
I n the caw of a symmetri cal di stri buti on f(x) over ~he aperture go(u) i s
real and the power pattern i s
P(u) = : [90(u) + @g;(u)].
(63)
I f j(z) i s an even functi on, go(u) i s l i kewi se even and hence g;(u) i s odd.
I n the nei ghborhood of u = O g;(u) i s posi ti ve for u >0 a~d negati ve
for u <0. I t i s then di rectl y evi dent from the form of p(u) that the
peak wi l l occur at some val ue u >0. The effect of the phase er r or i s to
3 -
5-
\
\ \
10
\
\
\
15 -
\
I
\
20
I
i
\
I
25 -
1/ \
1/
\
300
I I \
u 31
(b) 2z
FI G. 6.4.Effect of quadrati c phase er r or ; maxi mum phase er ,or of 7r/2 at the edge of tl ]e
aperture: (a) constant ampl i tude; (b) taper ed i l l umi nati on, f(z) = COS2(7rz/2).
ti l t the beam as i n the case of a l i near er r or . I n addi ti on, however , the
mai n l obe becomes asymmetri cal and the si de l obes i ncrease on the si de
of the mai n l obe near er 0 = O and decr ease on the other si de of the mai n
l obe. The shi ft i n the mai n l obe i s al so accompani ed by a l oss i n gai n.
Aperture Blocking.The probl em of an obstacl e i n the aperture i s of
i nterest i n connecti on wi th the use of refl ectors, for the pri mary feed i s
l ocated i n the path of the r efl ected rays, thus bl ocki ng out a porti on of the
aperture. The obstacl e may be consi dered as a parti cul ar type of phase
er r or . Assumi ng that over the exposed area the pr esence of the obstacl e
does not al ter the di stri buti on f(z) whi ch woul d exi st i n i ts absence, the
obstacl e can be r egar ded as produci ng a fi el d 180 out of phase wi th f(z)
over the area that i t cover s.
SEC. 6.7] PHASE-ERROR EFFECTS 191
Let us consi der the parti cul ar case i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 66a of an
obstacl e l ocated i n the center of the aperture. The wi dth w of the
obstacl e wi l l be taken to be smal l compared wi th the total aperture wi dth
a. To express the pattern i n ~w
o
terms of thevari abl esof Eq. (37),
\
we defi ne the normal i zed wi dth
\
90
\
26 = wfa. Equati on (38) for the
\
\
pattern then becomes
\
80
\
[/
6
\
- 1
\
9(U) = ~ _l f(x)edz
,~ 70
\
g
/
1
+
1
,f(x)ejzdx , (64) ~
\
\
*;
+6
60
\
whi ch can be r ewr i tten as
[/
\ ~
1
50 \
\
9(U) = ~ _l j(z)e~dz
\
/
+6
1
40
J 4

j(z)euzdz (65)
-6 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
I t i s seen expl i ci tl y that the ob-
Fhaseerror i nwavel ewth Ym
F1~.6.5.Loss of gai n as a functi on cd
stacl e can be r egar ded as an out- quadrati c
phase er r or over a uni for ml y
of-phase fi el d super i mposed on the
i l l umi nated aperture.
ori gi nal di stri buti on. Over the r egi on of the obstacl e maybe con-
si der ed constant and equal to uni ty; hence
[/
1
g(u) =;
1
f(~)e~~zw$d)
(66)
Si nce the wi dth of the obstac~i s smal l compared wi th the aperture wi dth,
the pattern pr oduced by the for mer wi l l be ver y broad compared wi th
that of the aperture. For qual i tati ve resul ts the obstacl e pattern may be
r egar ded as constant over the regi on of the mai n l obe and near i n si de
l obes of the aperture pattern. The effect of the obstacl e i s then si mpl y
that i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 66b of subtracti ng a constant 26 from the ori gi nal
ampl i tude pattern. I f the peak ampl i tude of the ori gi nal pattern i s
/
1
a. = f(x) dx
1
and the ampl i tude of the fi rst si de l obe i s paO, the i ntensi ty of the fi rst
si de l obe rel ati ve to the peak i n the modi fi ed pattern i s
,_~
_ao 28
aO
Pfi o+w=
(67)
P+:.
1R. C, Spencer ,(Fouri erI ntegral }I ethods of Pattern Anal ysi s, RL Repor t No.
761-1, Jan. 21, 1946.
192 APERTURE I LL I J MI iVA TI ON AND ANTE,VNA PA lTERNS [S... 6.8
The effect of the obstacl e i s to i ncrease the magni tude of the fi rst si de
l obe.
6.8. The Ci rcul ar Aperture.-The fundamental consi derati ons and
resul ts devel oped for the rectangul ar aperture pertai ni ng to the rel ati on
between the aperture fi el d and the secondary pattern appl y i n general
to the ci rcul ar aperture, but the quanti tati ve detai l s di ffer because of the
di fference i n aperture geometr y. I n treati ng ci rcul ar aperture probl ems
f y)
/
-1 -26- 1
(a)
(b)
FI G. 66,-The effect of aper tur e bl ocki ng: (a) modi fi ed aper tur e di stri buti on; (b) second-
ary pattern.
i t i s usual l y conveni ent to use pol ar coordi nates P, O (1%. 6. i ), whi ch are
rel ated to ~, q by
.g = p Cos 4, q = p si n $. (68)
Denoti ng the aperture fi el d di stri buti on by F(pj +), the expressi on for
the secondary pattern [Eq. (9)] becomes
I I
2T a
g(e, r#l )= F(P,@)ejP~i no~<$-@Pdp d~,
(
o 0
(69)
wher e a i s the radi us of the aperture. I ntroduci ng the
Zl m
~=f;
U=~Sl n O= T~si n O,
a
the functi on F(P, o) goes over i nto a functi on ~(r, o),
vari abl es
(70)
and g(d, O) goes
over i nto a new functi on whi ch ~veshal l denote si mpl y as g(u, O). I t ~vi l l
be assumed, as before, that -f(r, @) i s normal i zed to uni ty. The pattern
i s then
27 1
g(u, ~) = a2
/!
f(r, +~)ei ur m (++Jr & d,$t.
(71)
o 0
SEC.68] THE CI RCULAR APERTURE 193
I t i s obser ved that as i n the case of the rectangul ar aperture, al l apertures
havi ng the same rel ati ve di stri buti ons pr oduce the same secondary
patterns r egar ded as functi ons of w
The angul ar di stri buti on i n @ i s
the same for al l , refl ecti ng the symmetry of the di stri buti on over the
aperture; as seen from Eq. (70), the di stri buti on i n 0 agai n scal es by the
100
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
0,08
I
0.06
0.04
[Al (w)]
0.02
0.01
0.008
0.006
0004
0.002
0.001
\
x
, -&
R
P o
z
4
Y
\
I \
\
(
/ \
2 4 6 8 10
u
FI G. &7.-& condary patternfr om & uni rorml y i l l umi nated ci rrul araperture.
factor k/D; the l arger the di ameter the smal l er i s the angul ar spl -ead
of the pattern about the (0 = O)-axi s.
Unijorm Phase and Amplitude. Setting f(r,+) = 1 i n Eq. (71) and
carryi ng out the i ntegrati on over ~, we obtai n
/
1
g(u) = 2ra2 r~~(ur) dr,
o
(72)
194 APERTURE I LLUMI NATI ON AND ANTEN.VA PATTERNS [SEC. 643
wher e .JO(UT)i s the Bessel functi on of or der zer o. 1 The i ntegrati on over
r l eads to
~(u) = ~=a, A().
u
(73)
The power pattern p(u) normal i zed to uni ty i s shown i n Fi g. 6.7, pl otted
on a l ogari thmi c scal e, as a functi on of u. The hal f wi dth of the mai n
l obe i s
()
@ = 2 si n- 0.51 ~ = 1.02 ),
(74)
and the fi rst si de l obe i s 17.5 db down from the peak. These are to be
compared wi th the hal f wi dth of 0.88A/a and the 14-db si de l obe of the
secondary pat ter n of a rectangul ar aperture.
Tapered Illumination .The effect of taperi ng the i l l umi nati on down
toward the edge i s the same as wi th a rectangul ar aperture: reducti on
i n gai n, i ncrease i n beamwi dth, and reducti on i n si de l obes. The effects
can be i l l ustrated by consi deri ng the seri es of aperture fi el d di stri buti ons
(1- T)~, p=l ,2, . ... The secondary patterns are gi ven by
/
1
gp(u) = 27ra2 (1 r)~o(ur)r dr
o
or
Z1p!Jp+,(u) _ ~a if +,(u)
g,(u) = rrag
~P+l
p+l p
(75)
(75a)
The functi ons Ap are avai l abl e i n tabul ar form. 3 The major character-
i sti cs of the patterns are summari zed i n Tabl e 6.2 and wi l l not be di s-
cussed further.
The ci rcul ar symmetry of the secondary pattern i s associ ated of
cour se wi th the correspondi ng symmetry of the fi el d di stri buti on. I t i s
of i nterest to consi der a di stri buti on of the form
,f(r, r$) = 1 r Cos @l (76)
whi ch i s tapered i n the pl ane O = Oand uni form i n the pl ane O = 7r/2.
Substi tuti ng 13q. (76) i nto Eq. (71), \r e obtai n
I G. N. Watson, Theory of Bessel Functions, 2d cd., Macmi l l an, New York, 1945.
ZR, C. Spencer , Parabol oi d Di ffracti on Patterns fr om the Standpoi nt of Physi cal
Opti cs, RL Repor t T-7, Oct. 21, 1942.
3E. Jahnke and F. Er ode, Tables OJ Functions, repri nt b.y Dover Publ i cati ons,
New York, 1943.
SEC.6.8] THE CI RCULAR APERTURE 195
TABLE62.-SEC0NDAR%PATTERNCHARACTERI STI CS PRODUCED BYA DI STRI BUTI ON
(1 P)POVER A CI RCULAR APERTURE
P
I
~, gai n factor
I
o 1.00
1 0.75
2 0,56
3 0,44
4 0,36
~, hal f-power
wi dth
0, posi ti on
of fi rstzer o
si n_l 1.22X
D
~i n_, 1.63A
D
Sin_l 2. 03A
D
Sin_, 2. 42x
D
sin_, 2. 79X
D
Thi s can reeval uated by means of theexpansi onl
Fi rst si de l obe,
db bel ow peak
i ntensi ty
17.6
24.6
30.6
. .
. . . .
(78)
of parti cul ar i nterest arethepatterns i nthepl anes ofsyrnmetry, @ = O
and d = rr/2. We fi nd that these are
d)=o,
_ 3rra

~ Az(u).
(u)=2maw -W[- +J(uldl
(79)
(80)
Thetwopatterns areshown i n Fi g. 68. I t i s seen that the beamwi dth
i s gr eater i n the pl ane @ = O than i n the pl ane @ = m/2, correspondi ng
to the fact that i n the fi rst pri nci pal pl ane the i l l umi nati on over the
aperture i s tapered whereas i n the seocmd the aperture i l l umi nati on i s
uni form.
l WatsOn, op. cit., Sec. 2.22.
196 APERTURE I LLUMI NATI ON A,VL) A,VI .V.VAVA PA TTER.vS [SEC. 6.9
6.9. The Fi el d on the Axi s i n the Fresnel Regi on.An i mportant
consi derati on i n maki ng measurements of secondary patterns i s the
mi ni mum di stance from the aperture at whi ch the fi el d may be r egar ded
as bei ng i n the Fraunhofer regi on. To ai d i n arri vi ng at a cri teri on i t
1.0
8
I
I
4
\
I
t
-4=$ 1
,
2
1
i 1
I ,
0!10
8
I \
,1
6 -
I
1
\
!
\ \
I
,. .,
~
\
1
\
: ~ ;
I i
0.010
! ~, J ,
8 ,,
/ ..
6
1, , I
~~
\
I
4
I I :
j ,,
I
J
,!
\
,,
\
!
:!
\
2
\
I I
1
J
;;
1
(
I
1
O.wl o
I
!
I
8
I i
\
1
6
!,
I ;1
4
1
1
\
;;
I
lr \
2
I I
1
2 4
6 8 10
U=&sino
FI CJ, 68.-Pri nci pal pl ane patterns for the aper tur e di stri buti on f(r , +) = 1 rz Cosz+.
wi l l be wel l to di scuss bri efl y the fi el d on the axi s i n the Fresnel r egi on
and the transi ti on to the Fr aunhofer r egi on. The aper tur e fi el d wi l l be
taken to be uni for m i n ampl i tude and phase.
The method of Fresnel zones used extensi vel y i n opti cs affords a
si mpl e physi cal basi s for understandi ng the effects that are obser ved
I
S~C. 6,9] 7HE FI ELD O.V THE AX1,T I ,V THE FRI ?SNEI , REGI O,V
197
i n the Fresnel regi on.
I n Fi g. 69 l et the poi nt P at di stance R on the
axi s be the fi el d poi nt under consi derati on.
Taki ng the poi nt P as a
center , weshal l descri be afami l y ofspheresofradi i R +A/2, R + 2(x/2)
. . . . Thei r i ntersecti ons wi th the aperture di vi de the l atter i nto annu-
l ar regi ons; these are known as the Fresnel zones. The zones wi l l be
numbered as shown i n the fi gure. Taki ng any two adjacent zones n and
n + 1, i t i s seen from the method of constructi on that for ever y contri bu-
ti on to the fi el d at P ari si ng from an el ement of surface i n the fi rst zone
v
FI G. 6.9.Di vi si on of the aperture i nto Fresnel zones.
ther e i s a contri buti on from an el ement i n the second zone 180 out of
phase therewi th, and the i ntegrated contri buti ons of the two zones are,
ther efor e, ver y nearl y 180 out of phase wi th one another. Denoti ng
the magni tude of the contri buti on of the nth zone by Sn, the effect of the
enti re aperture i s
S=sl s2+s3 s,+----- (81)
The contri buti ons l % decr ease sl owl y wi th i ncreasi ng n; the resul tant
effect of pai rs of adjacent zones i s ther efor e vi rtual l y equal to zer o. A
careful anal ysi sl shows that i f the aperture contai ns a ful l number of
zones N, the resul tant i s ver y cl osel y equal to
s = ;(s, f s.)
(82)
dependi ng upon whether N i s odd or even. As R i ncreases, N decreases
and S fl uctuates between the val ues
S = ~(~1 S,) = Ofor N even
(83a)
and
S = ~(Sl + A,-) = S, for N odd.
(83b)
The ampl i tude of the fi el d al ong the axi s, ther efor e, passes through
maxi ma and mi ni ma, the maxi ma comi ng at the poi nts that subtend an
odd number of Fresrml zones, the mi ni ma at the poi nts subtendi ng an
] See, for exampl e, M. Bor n, Opfi k, p. 145,repri ntby EdwardsBros., Ann Arbor,
Mi rh., 1943.
198 APERTI J RE J J ,J ,~rMI NA TJ ON AND ANTENNA PATTERNS @N. 6.9
even number. Ther e wi l l be no further fl uctuati ons beyond the poi nt
on the axi s for whi ch the enti re aperture consi sts of a si ngl e Fresnel zone;
thi s di stance i s
D2 _ ~2 D2
R,=x
= G
(84)
D bei ng the di ameter of the aperture. However , the di stance Rj cannot
be taken as the begi nni ng poi nt of the Fraunhofer regi on, for at that poi nt
the contri buti on from the edge of the aperture i s sti l l 180 out of phase
wi th that from the center ; whereas the cal cul ati on of the Fraunhofer
I I I 1
I
(a) (b)
(d)
FI G. 6.10.Thetrmsi ti on regi onbetweenthe Fresneland the Fraunhofer regi ons: (a)
R= R<= D2/ 4k; (a) R =
DZ12~;(c) R = D2/ i; (d) R = m
regi on, on axi s, assumes that the path di fferences between poi nts on the
aperture to the fi el d poi nt are negl i gi bl e. Consi deri ng the aperture to be
subdi vi ded i nto smal l annul ar zones and resol vi ng the resul tant effect
of the aperture i nto the superposi ti on of the vector el ements of these
zones, one fi nds that the vector di agrams take the forms shown i n Fi g. 6.10
for di stances gr eater than R,. The sl ope angl e of the vector di agram
at the termi nal poi nt i s equal to the phase di fference between the edge
of the aperture and the center , correspondi ng to the di fference i n path
l ength to the fi el d poi nt. At a di stance gr eater than D2/2A (Fi g. 6. 10b)
ther e i s no l onger any cancel l ati on between hori zontal components of the
vector el ements; at a di stance D2/k the resul tant i s a good approxi mati on
to the val ue for R = m.
To make a mor e quanti tati ve eval uati on we must consi der the actual
val ues of the fi el d i ntensi ty and the gai n. For thi s purpose we wi l l
start from the Fresnel approxi mati on [Eq. (7a)], whi ch i n the present case
takes the form
(85)
I t wi l l be r ecogni zed that thi s i s equi val ent to the expressi on for the
on-axi s fi el d i ntensi ty i n the Fraunhof er regi on of an aperture havi ng a
quadrati c phase er r or p2/2R. Equati on (78) i s easi l y i ntegrated for
uni form i l l umi nati on gi vi ng
()
~TP= 2j si n ~ .
~jkR
(86)
I The vector di agrams depi ct the vari ati on of onl y the form factors of the fi el d
that i s, the i ntegral sof Eqs. (7)wi th i ncreasi ngdi stance R.
S.C. 69] THE FI ELD ON THE AXI S I N THE FRESNEL REGI ON 199
Thi s corresponds to radi ated power per uni t sol i d angl e
m= xY4R2[sin(a12
or
~=i (i )+(%} =~
(87)
The total power radi ated by the aperture i s si mpl y ~(c/p) ~~A,whence the
gai n i s
(88)
The factor (si n Z/Z) Zexpresses the rati o of the gai n measured at a di stance
R to the gai n Go of the tr ue Fraunhofer fi el d at i nfi ni ty. The accepted
val ues of the mi ni mum di stance at whi ch pattern measurements may
pr oper l y be made vary between R = D/A and R = 2DZ/A. The
val ues of the gai n rati o of Eq. (89) for the two cases are
Ther e i s a l i ttl e di fference between them; for the cases most commonl y
encounter ed the 2D2/x cri teri on i s to be favored.
Other consi derati ons
whi ch are di scussed i n Chap. 15 al so poi nt i n that di recti on.
CHAPTER 7
MI CROWAVE TRANSMI SSI ON LI NES
BY S. SI LVER
We have dwel t at consi derabl e l ength on general theoreti cal consi der-
ati ons underl yi ng the desi gn and operati on of mi crowave antennas as a
whol e. We now enter upon a program of studyi ng the components of an
antenna, starti ng wi th an i nvesti gati on of mi crowave transmi ssi on l i nes.
Usual l y about a foot, or perhaps two, of the l i ne i mmedi atel y pr eced-
i ng the radi ati ng system i s at the di sposal of the engi neer for the i nserti on
of matchi ng devi ces to compensate for the i mpedance mi smatch of hi s
antenna; thi s secti on wi l l be r efer r ed to as the feed l i ne. The fol l owi ng
di scussi on of feed l i nes wi l l be confi ned to el ementary transmi ssi on-l i ne
theor y and probl ems; for mor e extensi ve treatments, i n parti cul ar for the
anal ysi s of matchi ng dev~{es, the r eader i s r efer r ed to the sources i ndi -
cated bel ow. ]
7.1. Mi crowave and Long-wave Transmi ssi on Li nes.-A bri ef com-
pari son of l ong-wave and mi crowave l i nes was made i n Sec. 1.4. I t was
poi nted out that the use of unshi el ded paral l el \vi rel i nes becomes i mprac-
ti cal at mi crowave frequenci es l argel y because the power-carryi ng
capaci ty i s so sharpl y l i mi ted by the smal l i nterl i ne spaci ng requi red
i f the l i ne i s not to radi ate. The rel ati on between the i nterl i ne spaci ng
and radi ati on fol l o~s from the i deas devel oped i n Chap. 3. We may
consi der the al ternati ng cur r ent i n a wi r e as a l i ne di stri buti on of osci l l at-
i ng di pol es; correspondi ng poi nts on a pai r of wi res carryi ng equal and
opposi te currents are occupi ed by si mi l ar di pol es i n opposi te phase. I f
the spaci ng between the di pol es i s smal l compared wi th a wavel ength,
thei r radi ati on fi el ds wi l l be out of phase at al l poi nts i n space and annul
each other . On the other hand, i f the spaci ng i s comparabl e to the wave-
l ength, the doubl e-di pol e system can radi ate, ther e bei ng di recti ons i n
space for whi ch path-l ength di fferences wi l l compensate for the i ntri nsi c
phase di fference of the members of the pai r. I n addi ti on, i t shoul d be
noted that l arge i nterl i ne spaci ngs can be used at l ong wavel engths, si nce
the radi ati on-fi el d i ntensi ty of a di pol e vari es i nversel y as the square
of the wavel ength [cf. Eqs. (3.148)].
1J. C. Sl ater, .Wi crowaueTransmission, McGraw-Hi l l , New York, 1941,Chaps.3, 4;
R. L. Lament, Waoe Guides, Methuen, London, 1942: I l ontgomcr y, Purcel l , and
Di cki e, The Principles of .I ficrowave Circuits, Vol . 8; and N. Marcuvi tz,The Waveguide
Handbook, Vol . 10, of thi s seri es.
200
SEC. 72]
PROPAGATI O>Y I V WAVE GLlDES 201
Another hi ndrance i n the-use of unshi el ded l i nes i s thei r suscepti bi l i ty
to i nterference, whi ch woul d cause seri ous i nstal l ati on di ffi cul ti es. I f
the l i ne i s not to radi ate, i ts el ements must be symmetri cal l y di sposed
wi th r espect to near-by conductors, i n or der that equal and opposi te
currents be mai ntai ned at al l pai red uoi nts on the l i ne. Perturbati on
of the l i ne bal ance woul d al so gi ve ri se to i mpedance di ffi cul ti es.
I t accordi ngl y becomes cl ear that shi el ded l i nes are requi red for
tra.l smi ssi on at mi crowave frequenci es. Two types are i n use: (1) two-
conductor l i nes consi sti ng of one conductor surrounded by a second,
separated by di el ectri c, and (2) hol l ow metal tubes. These l i nes are
to be consi dered as wavegui des for el ectromagneti c waves i n the encl osed
di el ectri c rather than as transmi ssi on l i nes carryi ng cur r ent and vol tage
waves. I n fact, i n the hol l ow wavegui dei t i s not possi bl e to establ i sh
defi ni ti ons of l i ne cur r ent and l i ne ~ol tage that ar~ comparabl e to the
quanti ti es defi ned i n a paral l el wi r e l i ne; under speci al condi ti ons cur r ent
and vol tage can be defi ned for the two-conductor l i ne. However , whi l e
a new approach must be taken i n the fundamental anal ysi s, i t i s found
that under sui tabl e condi ti ons transmi ssi on-l i ne anal ogues of vol tage and
cur r ent can be defi ned and use can be made of the l i ne theor y summari zed
i n Chap. 2.
7.2. Propagati on i n Wavegui des of Uni form Cross Secti on.We shal l
confi ne our di scussi on to l i nes of arbi trary but uni form cross secti on.
that i s, wavegui des wi th cyl i ndri cal
wal l s. The gui de wal l s wi l l be taken
x
to have i nfi ni te conducti vi ty; the di -
el ectri c i n the i nteri or \vi l l be assumed
to be homogeneous, ~ri th di el ectri c
d
~n
constant c, permeabi l i ty p, and zer o
z
conducti vi ty y; the di el ectri c wi l l al so
be assumed to be fr ee of charge.
We shal l consi der el ectromagneti c
fi el ds i n these wavegui des whi ch have
YH
~I G.7.1.On wavegui de propagati on.
a harmoni c ti me dependence; they
wi l l sati sfy the homogeneous fi el d equati ons obtai ned from Eqs. (332) by
setti ng the sour ce functi ons and the conducti vi ty equal to zer o.
We shal l take the z-axi s of the coordi nate system to be paral l el to the
gener ator of the cyl i ndri cal wal l s of the wavegui de. Si nce the gui de i s
homogeneous i n structure al ong the z-di recti on, a wave of a si ngl e fr e-
quency wi l l depend on z onl y through a phase factor and possi bl y a
dampi ng factor correspondi ng to progressi ve attenuati on of the wave.
That i s, the z-dependence of al l fi el d components i s of the form e~~z,wher e
~ i s possi bl y compl ex:
202
MI CRO WAVE TRANSMI SS1ON LI NES
[SEC. 7.2
Wi th the conventi on that a and @ are both to be posi ti ve quanti ti es, the
upper si gn i n the exponenti al corresponds to propagati on i n the posi ti ve
z-di recti on, the l ower si gn to propagati on i n the negati ve z-di recti on.
Wri ti ng out the fi el d equati ons i n component form and taki ng i nto
account the postul ated form of the z-dependence, we obtai n for a wave
travel i ng i n the posi ti ve z-di recti on
(2a)
(2b)
(2C)
and
jucE~ = ~ 1- YHV,
(3a)
(3b) jwtEW = ~ -YHZ,
jueE, = ~ ~- (3C)
For most purposes an al ternati ve set of equati ons i s mor e conveni ent
RI use. Taki ng Eqs.
:md rearrangement,
(2u), (2b), (3a), and (3b) we fi nd, on substi tuti on.
and
dH. dE,
K2E. = j v. I y J
ay az
(4a)
dH, dEv
U2EU= jiw Y )
ax ay
(4b)
;Ez dHz
K2H. = jco y ~
dy ax
(5a)
dE. dHe
K2HU =
]e z y x
(5b)
On substi tuti on of these i nto Eqs. (2c) and (3c), u-e obtai n
aEz
~+~+K2EZ =0,
(6a)
d2H.
+
&2
a% + K2H. = O, (6b)
wi th
KZ= &~c + # = kt + 72.
(7)
The structure of thi s second set of equati ons shows that ther e are
two i ndependent fi el d components E., H. from whi ch the others can be
SEC.7.2]
PROPAGATI ON I N WA VEGUI DES
deri ved by Eqs. (4) and (5). We can consequentl y
uni form gui des i nto thr ee fundamental types:
203
cl assi fy waves i n
1. TEM-waves (transverse el ectromagneti c waves) wi th E. = H, = O.
2. ZE-waves (transverse el ectri c waves) wi th E. = O, H. # O.
3. TM-waves (transverse magneti c waves) wi th H, = O, E= # O.
TELf-waves.-These are al so known as the pri nci pal waves. The
el ectri c and magneti c fi el d vector s l i e i n a pl ane transverse to the di rec-
ti on of propagati on as they do i n a pl ane wave. From Eqs. (4) and (5)
i t i s evi dent that the pri nci pal wave wi l l vani sh i denti cal l y unl ess ~z = O.
Wi th thi s condi ti on on K, we fi nd from Eq. (7)
? = (a + m) = jk = j+f)~.
(8)
I f such a wave can exi st, i t wi l l propagate wi thout attenuati on and
wi th a phase constant 13= u(w) ~ = 2r/A whi ch i s the same as that
for a pl ane wave i n an unbounded medi um.
To obtai n i nformati on about the fi el d vector s we must return to
Eqs. (2) and (3). I t i s di rectl y evi dent from Eqs. (2a) and (2b) that
()
H= ~~(i .xE). (9)
Thus E and H are rel ated as i n a pl ane wave; they are mutual l y perpen-
di cul ar and transverse to the di recti on of propagati on. Equati on (2c)
becomes
aE. dE. o
. .
ax ay
whereas substi tuti on of Eqs. (2a) and (2b) i nto Eq. (3c) yi el ds
$+$=O.
The fi rst of these states that i n the dependence on z and y the fi el d i s
deri vabl e from a potenti al functi on U(z,y); that i s, we can wri te
E = e- V71(z,y). (lo)
I t then fol l ows from the second of the above equati ons that U(x,g) must
be a sol uti on of the twe-di mensi onal Lapl ace equati on:
dzu
~+y=o.
(11)
The el ectri c vector of Eq. (10) i s ever ywher e normal to the equi poten-
ti al surfaces U = constant. Si nce the conducti vi ty of the gui de wal l s
i s i nfi ni te, E must be normal to the wai l s by the boundary condi ti ons
formul ated i n Sec. 3.3; consequentl y, the wal l s of the gui de must cor -
respond to equi potenti al l i nes of U. Thi s, however , rai ses an i mportant
204 MICROWAVE TRANSMI SSI ON LI ATES [SEC. 72
di sti ncti on between si ngl e-conductor and two-conductor l i nes. I n the
case of a si ngl e-conductor l i ne we are concer ned wi th a sol uti on of
Lapl aces equati on i n a si mpl y connected regi ona sol uti on that assumes
a constant val ue over the boundary. The onl y such sol uti on i s that
for whi ch U is a constant over the enti re regi on; hence the gradi ent and
the fi el d vector s are zer o.
There is no TI%iki-wave possible in a hollow
waveguide. I n the two-conductor l i ne we seek sol uti ons of Lapl aces
equati on i n a mul ti pl y connected regi on.
The requi red sol uti on assumes
one constant val ue over one boundary and another constant val ue over
the second boundary, as i n the el ectrostati c probl em of two conductors
at di fferent potenti al s. Such sol uti ons exi st; consequentl y a TEiW-wave
is possable in any twe-conductor line. Furthermore since y is a pure
i magi nary for all frequenci es, the lossless two-c ondudor line supports jree
propqation of this wave type at all frequerwies.
TE-waves.These are known al so as H-waves. The el ectri c fi el d i s
whol l y transverse to the di recti on of propagati on, whi l e the magneti c
fi el d has a l ongi tudi nal component H, i n the di recti on of propagati on.
I t i s cl ear from Eqs. (4) and (5) that al l the other components can be
deri ved from Hz. I f we wri te
H, = ~(x,y)e~z, (12)
~ must sati sfy Eq. (6b):
V+ + K+ = O. (7.6b)
We must fi nd sol uti ons of Eq. (6fI) that l ead to fi el d components sati sfy-
i ng appropri ate boundary condi ti ons at the gui de wal l s. By Eqs. (3,24)
and (3.28), these condi ti ons are
(n x E) = (n,EV - nul l ,)i , = 0, (I )
(n -H) = n.Hl + nUHy = O, (I I )
wher e n i s a uni t normal to the boundary, di r ected i nto the i nteri or of the
gui de, From Eqs. (5a) and (5b) itfol l ows that (I I ) i s equi val ent to
requi ri ng
(13)
over the boundary. On i nserti ng the val ues of E., E. from Eqs. (4a)
and (4b) i nto (I ), one fi nds that condi ti on (I ) l i kewi se reduces to Eq. (13).
Thus, the boundary condi ti on (13) i s the onl y one that need be i mposed
on the sol uti on.
Sol uti ons to Eq. (6b) whi ch sati sfy Eq. (13) are possi bl e onl y for
defi ni te val ues of K. These are known as the characteri sti c val ues; we
shal l desi gnate them by Kmn. To each characteri sti c val ue ther e cor r e-
sponds a set of wave types whi ch are spoken of as modes of propaga l ;(~n;
i n most cases of i nterest ther e i s onl y one mode for each val ue of K. Any
SEC. 7.2] PROPAGATI ON I N WA VEGUI DES
205
one mode i s compl etel y speci fi ed by gi vi ng the fi el d confi gurati on over a
cross secti on of the l i ne. The propagati on constant -y~. for a gi ven mode
i s
Tmn = (K;n k)).
(14)
I t i s i mmedi atel y evi dent that i f .:. < ~, then ~~n i s a pure i magi nary
and the wave i s propagated wi thout attenuati on. Conversel y, i f
K~n > ~2, then -ynmi s real and the wave i s attenuated. A wave of fr e-
quency v = 2rr/w wi l l , ther efor e, be fr eel y propagated onl y i n those
modes for whi ch O(W)~ = 27r/k > Kmn. The phase constant for a gi ven
mode i n whi ch fr ee propagati on takes pl ace i s
B ~ 2 : *7I =
= (k K:.))i. (15)
9..
I f we defi ne the cutoff wavel ength X$i by the equati on
then the wavel ength i n the gui de i s
m =[- ( 2) 21
(16)
(17)
When the wavel ength i n unbounded di el ectri c exceeds the cutoff wave-
l ength, the wave cannot propagate i n that parti cul ar mode. A hol l o\v
wavegui de thus behaves l i ke a hi gh-pass fi l ter, for ther e i s a defi ni te
upper l i mi t to the cutoff wavel ength, correspondi ng to the smal l est
characteri sti c val ue Kmm. I n terms of the free-space wavel ength h, and
the speci fi c i nducti ve capaci ty k, = c/tO, the gui de wavel ength i s gi ven by
=[1-KJT;
(17a)
the permeabi l i ty P of the medi um i s assumed to be negl i gi bl y di fferent
from that of fr ee space, KO.
The wave type, or mode, correspondi ng to a characteri sti c val ue
K~ni s desi gnated as TE_ I t fol l ovw from Eqs. (5) and (12) that the
transverse magneti c fi el d i s gi ven by
The compl ete magneti c fi el d i s, ther efor e,
MICRO WAVE TRANSMI SSI ON LI NES [SEX. 72
(
H=ew ~
)
~z V* + *i z .
(18)
The el ectri c fi el d i s gi ven by E = (1/.ju~) V x H or
E,=~(Hxi z).
(19)
!fM-waues.-The magneti c fi el d i s whol l y transverse to the di recti on
of propagati on, whereas the el ectri c fi el d has a component E. i n the
di recti on of propagati on. These waves are known al so as E-waves. I f
we wri te
E. = @(z,y)e-~z, (20)
@(w) must sati sfy Eq. (6a):
Vzl $ + K2+= o,
(7.6a)
whi ch i s the same equati on as that for +(z, y) i n the case of Tl l waves.
The essenti al di fference between the probl ems ari ses from the boundary
condi ti ons. The boundary condi ti on (I ) i s a statement that at the wal l s
the tangenti al el ectri c fi el d must be zer o. We thus requi re
n.EV nvE. = O, (21a)
i . = o; i .e., @(xJy) = o, (21b)
over the wal l s. Substi tuti ng from Eqs. (4a) and (4b), we fi nd that
condi ti on (21a) i s equi val ent to
(n x VI $) = O. (21C)
I f condi ti on (21b) i s sati sfi ed, the boundary corresponds to a cur ve of
constant @; hence V@ i s normal to the boundary, and condi ti on (21c) i s
automati cal l y sati sfi ed. Further, from Eqs. (5a) and (5b) itfol l ows that
for ZM-waves Eq. (21a) i s equi val ent to the boundary condi ti on (I I )
on the magneti c fi el d, stated previ ousl y. Agai n, ther efor e, we have a
si ngl e boundary condi ti on, namel y, Eq. (21b), to i mpose on the sol uti ons
of Eq. (6a).
As i n the case ,of ZE-waves, i t i s found that sol uti ons +(z,Y) of Eq. (6a)
whi ch sati sfy the boundary condi ti on exi st onl y for certai n character-
i sti c val ues Km.; these are, of course, di fferent from the TE-val ues. To
each characteri sti c val ue ther e corresponds at l east one wave type or
TT1-mode. The general remarks concerni ng the propagati on constant
?~. and the condi ti ons for fr ee propagati on are equal l y appl i cabl e to the
TM-mode; the gui de wavel ength i s gi ven agai n by Eqs. (17) and (17a).
I t fol l ows from Eqs. (4a) and (Q) that the compl ete el ectri c fi el d, for a
si ngl e mode, i s gi ven by
SEC.7.3] ORTHOGONALI TY RELATI ONS AND POWER FLOW 207
the magneti c fi el d obtai ned ther efr om by H = (1/.jo.w)(V x E) i s
H, = ~ (E x i ,),
(22)
(23)
7.3. Orthogonal i ty Rel ati ons and Power Fl ow. Exami nati on of Eqs.
(18), (19), (22), and (23) shows that i n a fr eel y propagated mode, for
whi ch ~ = jp i s a pure i magi nary, the transverse el ectri c and magneti c
fi el ds are i n phase wi th each other and are i n ti me quadrature wi th the
l ongi tudi nal fi el d component associ ated wi th the gi ven mode. The func-
ti ons ~ and @ are arbi trary to wi thi n a mul ti pl i cati ve constant; by a
si mpl e readjust ment of constants whi ch does not affect the rel ati ve
magni tudes and phases of the fi el d components, the l atter can be put i n
the fol l owi ng form:
TE-waves:
fIz = jHa,e-iP.~;
Ha, = :A ~a, (24a)
Et = E=~ei&.;
Ea, = V~a x i ,, (24b)
H, = Ha,e-~&~;
Ha, = ~~ V@a. (24c)
TM-waves:
E, = jE=.e@; E., = ~ ~a, (25a)
.
Et = EateN..;
E., = VI #Ja, (25b)
H, = Ha~e~~~Z; H., = ~ i , x V.#I =. (25.)
wher e the functi ons Haz, Ea., Es,, and Ha, are al l real . The subscri pt a
represents the pai r of mode i ndi ces m, n. Equati ons (24) and (25) are,
of course, sti l l to be mul ti pl i ed by arbi trary constants determi ni ng the
ampl i tudes of the waves. From these expressi ons i t i s seen that the
Poynti ng vector S = ~ Re (E x H*) ari ses enti rel y from the transverse
fi el d components; the power fl ow i s, ther efor e, enti rel y al ong the axi s
of the wavegui de, no power fl owi ng i nto the wal l s of the gui de.
The same expressi ons [Eqs. (24) and (25)] wi th B. repl aced by j~~, -r.
bei ng real , ser ve al so for the modes that are beyond cutoff for the gi ven
operati ng wavel ength. I t i s seen that i n these modes the transverse
el ectri c and magneti c fi el ds are i n ti me quadrature; consequentl y, ther e
i s no ener gy fl ow al ong the axi s of the gui de. I n fact, the Poynti ng
vector S = ~ Re (E x H*) vani shes compl etel y; the ener gy associ ated
wi th these modes i s stor ed i n the wavegui de i n the nei ghborhood of the
poi nt of thei r exci tati on.
208
MI CRO WAVE TRANSMI SSI ON LI AES [SEC. 73
The modes possess i mportant orthogonal i ty properti es. 1 The total
power transported through any cross secti on of a gui de that i s supporti ng
fr ee propagati on of several modes i s the sum of the power s transported
by the separate modes; ther e i s no ener gy coupl i ng between modes.
For exampl e, l et us consi der the power transport Pab of the mi xed Poyn-
ti ng vector % = ~(E~~x Hbo of a pai r of modes TEa and TEr,; we have
par, = ~
\
(E., x Hb,) . i , d~
.,0,8
.ecti on
/ /
= & [(V*. x i ,) x v&] . i, dS = ~P V~a . v#b dS. (26)
The l ast i ntegral transforms as fol l ows:
[
VI J. . V+b dS =
\
V . (~. Vir,) dS
/
$aV$b dfi. (27)
By means of Gr eens theorem, the fi rst i ntegral on the
transforms i nto a l i ne i ntegral over the boundary:
ri ght-hand si de
(28)
the posi ti ve normal to the boundary bei ng taken as shown i n Fi g. 7].
Si nce the functi on +, sati sfi es the boundary condi ti on [Eq. (13)] for the
TE-modes, the i ntegral (28) i s equal to zer o. Maki ng use of 13q. (6b]
we have then
/
V+a . V+b dS = K;
/
ti.tib ds.
(29)
I nterchangi ng the r ol e of ~a and l b i n Eq. (28), we arri ve i n a si mi l ar
manner to
/
V+. . V+b dS = K;
/
$.4, dS. (29a)
I t i s evi dent that i f a # b, Eqs. (29) and (29a) can both be sati sfi ed
onl y i f
We have thus found that
Pa, = o, a#b
.&
/
IV4.12 dS,
a=b. (31)
I H. A. Bethe, Formal Theor y of Wavegui desof Arbi trary Cross Secti on, RL
Repor t No. 43-26, March 1943.
SEC.7.4]
17RANLSMlSSI ON-Ll iVE CONSI DERATI ONS
209
I t i s readi l y seen that the pr oof appl i es wi thout change to the case
wher e one or both of the modes are beyond cutoff. Si mi l ar techni ques
I
l ead to the resul t that ther e i s no ener gy coupl i ng between pai rs of
TM-modes or between a TE- and TM-mode. The power rel ati on i s
onl y one of a number of orthogonal i ty properti es. The others are gi ven
wi thout pr oof: i f a # b,
7.4. Transmi ssi on-l i ne Consi derati ons i n Wavegui des. We have
concer ned oursel ves i n the for egoi ng wi th a wave propagated i n the
posi ti ve z-di recti on; thi s i s the physi cal si tuati on whi ch woul d exi st i n a
wavegui de extendi ng to z = + m wi th a gener ator at some r emote poi nt
al ong the negati ve z-axi s. I t was found for ever y wave type that i n a
si ngl e mode ther e i s a si mpl e l i near rel ati onshi p between the transverse
components of the el ectri c and magneti c fi el ds:
ZEM-mode: H = ~~ (i = x E),
()
>4
z(o) = f ,
(33a)
e
TE-mode: E = Zfi ~ (H x i ,),
z:; = ti p,
Ymn
(33b)
(33C)
These are anal ogous to the current-vol tage rel ati onshi ps i n a si ngl e wave
on an i nfi ni te two-wi r e transmi ssi on l i ne. The quanti ty Z~~ i s known
as the transverse wave impedance.
The general fi el d for a si ngl e mode i n a wavegui de that does not
extend to i nfi ni ty consi sts of two waves, one propagati ng i n the posi ti ve
z-di recti on, the other i n the negati ve z-di recti on. The fi el d expressi ons
for the l atter are fundamental l y the same as those gi ven by the sets of
Eqs. (24) and (25), but wi th e@azrepl aci ng e~~,and wi th the magneti c
fi el d components r ever sed i n si gn to gi ve the pr oper di recti on to the
Poynti ng vector of the wave. Consi derj for exampl e, the TE.-mode.
Let A. and Ba be the ampl i tudes of the el ectri c fi el d i n the waves propagat-
i ng i n the posi ti ve and negati ve z-di recti ons, respecti vel y; from Eqs.
(24b) and (24c) we have then that the transverse fi el ds are
(34b)
210
.![I cRow4 VE TI {,I .VST11*S,51 O! LI VES [SEC. 74
on consi deri ng the scal ar factors that express the dependence of the
fi el ds on posi ti on al ong the \va~-egui de axi s, i t i s seen that the mode
can be set i nto equi val ence wi th a two-wi r e transmi ssi on l i ne of character-
i sti c i mpedance Z:); the el ectri c and magneti c fi el ds are the anal ogues
of the vol tage and current, respecti vel y.
I t must be noted that the
characteri sti c i mpedance of the equi val ent l i ne di ffers from mode to
mode; and consequentl y, a wavegui de supporti ng fr ee propagati on
of a number of modes cannot be set i nto cor r espondence \vi th any one
two-wi r e l i ne.
The defi ni ti on of the equi val ent tl ~o-wi re l i ne for a. gi ven mode i s
arbi trary to a consi derabl e extrnt. Gi ven a functi on *.(z,y), ~ve may
defi ne a pai r of vector functi ons
g.(.rjv) = c1 V+a x i ,,
(35a)
ha(x, y) = C, vta, (35b)
wher e the constants c1 and cz arc requi red to be such that
The constants c, and CZare arbi trary. I n terms of the nc\v vector func-
ti ons, Eqs. (34a) and (34b) can then be wri tten
The quanti ti es l . and 1. wi l l be named the ~-ol tage and cur r ent param-
eter s of the mode, respecti vel y.
The vol tage parameter i s the sum
of tl \-o vol tage waves tra~-cl i ng i n opposi te di recti ons, of ampl i tudes
v:+] and 1:-), respecti vel y.
Equati ons (36a) and (361~)ser ve to emphasi ze the arbi trary feature
of the two-wi r e l i ne equi val ent of a l ~avegui de mode. The rati o c1 CJ
can be chosen at wi l l ; gi ven any rati o, the characteri sti c i mpedance of
the equi val ent l i ne i s
Zo = Z$ :; (37)
the vol tage and ci mrent parameters r epr esent di rectl y the vol tage and
cur r ent on the equi val ent l i ne. The vol tage and cl wrent parameters
possess one pr oper ty that i s uni que, i ndrpcndent of the arbi trary choi ce
of the constants c1and c2, prori ded El q. (35c) i s sati sfi ed. The net po~,ver
passi ng through the cross secti on of the gui de i n t!~e posi ti ve z-di recti on
i s
(38)
SEC. 74] TRAASI J I SSI O>J -l,l .VE CO.V.$I DERA TI ON,7 211
Thus, any choi ce of defi ni ti on of the vol ta~e and cur r ent parameters
l eads to a two-wi r e l i ne representati on i n whi ch the pol ver fl ow computed
on the basi s of the equi val ent vol tage and c~l rrent i s equal to the power
transport al ong the ~vavegui de of the gi ven mode.
One possi bl e choi ce of the defi ni ti on of the equi ~-al cnt transmi ssi on
l i ne i s to take c1 = c! = 1. The fl l nct,i on ~(.r,y) i s i tsel f arbi trary to
wi thi n a mul ti pl i cati ve constant; i t can, ther efor e, be chosen so that i t
sati sfi es the normal i zati on condi ti on
The characteri sti c i mpedance of the l i ne i n thi s case i s equal to the trans-
ver se \vave i mpedance. Thi s defi ni ti on has one shortcomi ng: I t i s
possi bl e to change the di mensi ons of the wavegui de, other than by a
scal e factor, ~vi thout changi ng the characteri sti c i mpedance of the
equi val ent l i ne. Consi der, for exampl e, a pai r of two-conductor l i nes,
havi ng di fferent cross-secti onal di mensi ons and confi gurati ons, joi ned
together to form an i nfi ni te l i ne.
The ~va~-ei mpedance of the !I El f-mode
i s i ndependent of the cross-secti onal di mensi ons, and on that basi s al one
the hybri d l i ne i s equi val ent to an i nfi ni te homogeneous two-wi r e l i ne.
The treatment of the juncti on effect can be si mpl i fi ed consi derabl y by a
di fferent choi ce of the defi ni ti on of the characteri sti c i mpedance of the
l i ne, obtai ned by mul ti pl yi ng the \vave i mpedance by a factor c2/c, that
i s a functi on of the cross-secti on geometr y.
I n Sec. 7.6 i t wi l l be shotrn
that ther e i s a natural physi cal defi ni ti on of the vol tage and cur r ent
parameters for a TE-U-mode whi ch l eads to a characteri sti c i mpedance
havi ng t!l e desi red properti es.
Si mi l ar consi derati ons appl y to the other
modes; i t i s possi bl e to choose the rati o cZ/cl i n 13q. (37) to be a functi on
of the cross-secti onal di mensi ons of the \vavc~ui de i n such a \vay as to
si mpl i fy the anal ysi s of probl ems i nvol ri ng jl mcti ons bet\veen wave-
gui des of di fferent cross secti on.
The transmi ssi on-l i ne anal ogy devel ops mor e ful l y i f \veconsi der the
\vavegui de to under go sudden changes i n structure. Such changes may
be pr oduced by obstacl es i nserted at some poi nt i n the gui de, a sharp
transi ti on i n the properti es of the di el ectri c medi um, or a sudden transi -
ti on TOa wavegui de of di fferent cross secti on-to menti on but a few.
I t-e shal l consi der i n detai l the si mpl est of these casesa sharp transi ti on
i n the di el ectri c i n a gui de of uni form cross secti on. For conveni ence
the boundary between the two medi a wi l l be taken to be i n the pl ane
z = (), as shown i n Fi g. 7,2. Let the constants of the medi um to the
l eft of z = O be c,, p, and those of the medi um to the ri ght of z = O be
I For fur ther cl et,ai l s sw J. C. Sl ater, .Uirrowave Transmission, McC, r:tw-Hi l l ,
New York, 1942, ~hap. 4.
212 MI CROWAVE TRANSMI SSI ON LI NES
[SEC, 7.4
e2, P2.
As a typi cal case consi der a TE-wave of a si ngl e mode to be
i nci dent on the boundary from the l eft. To the ri ght of z = O we wi l l
have a transmi tted wave and to the
m
l eft a r efl ected wave, i n addi ti on
to the i nci dent wave. No other
waves wi l l occur , si nce the con-
tours of the cross secti on are uni -
Z=o
FI G.7.2.Di sconti nui ty i n wavegui de str uc-
form and ther e i s no necessary
ture.
di storti on of the fi el d confi gurati on
at the boundary; these thr ee waves
wi l l suffi ce to sati sfy the boundary condi ti ons on the fi el ds at the di scon-
ti nui tyy.
The fi el d vector s of each of the thr ee waves are deri ved from a scal ar
functi on #(.z,y) accordi ng to Eqs. (24a) to (24c). Furthermore, the
scal ar functi ons for the thr ee waves al l sati sfy the same di fferenti al
equati on [Eq. (6b)], and the same boundary condi ti ons at the wal l s of the
wavegui de; hence, al l thr ee fi el ds der i ve from the same scal ar functi on.
The rati o c2/cl i n Eq. (37) i s of no i mmedi ate consequence i n thi s case,
because the cross secti on i s uni form and may be chosen equal to uni ty;
the functi on ~(z,y) may al so be requi red to sati sfy the normal i zati on
condi ti on [Eq. (39)]. The onl y si gni fi cant di fferences between the waves
are the ampl i tudes and the transverse wave i mpedance.
The fi el d i n
regi on 1 i s thenl
(40a)
(40b)
and i n regi on 2,
E,, = [V~+)e-@,]g(x, y), (41a)
H,, = ~Oj [V~+)e-@,Z]h(x, y). (41b)
2
Accordi ng to the boundary condi ti ons (Sec. 33) the transverse
el ectri c and magneti c fi el ds must be conti nuous across the pl ane z = O;
we have then
~~+) + v;-) = ~$+),
(42a)
* [w+) - TT] = & Vj+.
1 2
(42b)
As i n the case of a two-wi r e l i ne, these equati ons express the conti nui ty
of vol tage and cur r ent at the juncti on of tl vo l i nes of di fferent character-
i sti c i mpedance. We can al so defi ne an electric-jield reelection coqflcient
r(z),
I The mode subscri pta wi l l be dr opped to si mpl i fy the notati on
SEC.7.4] TRANSMI SSI ON-LI NE CONSI DERATI ONS
213
(43)
whi ch corresponds to the vol tage refl ecti on coeffi ci ent of Eq. (2.27).
From Eqs. (42a) and (42b) the val ue of the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent r(0) at
z = Oi s found to be
z~o) _ Z\O).
r@) = Zjo) + z~o]
(44)
I t i s evi dent that thi s i s equi val ent to the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent of a l i ne
of characteri sti c i mpedance ZjO1termi nated i n an i mpedance Z$O. Wi th
r espect to the termi nal i mpedance, i t wi l l be noted that the l i ne to the
ri ght, extendi ng to i nfi ni ty, i s equi val ent to a l i ne termi nated i n i ts own
characteri sti c i mpedance and hence presents an i nput i mpedance Z~O)at
the pl ane z = O.
The refl ecti on coeffi ci ent r(z) i s to be r egar ded as the fundamental
transmi ssi on-l i ne quanti ty for a wavegui de. Evi dentl y i t i s fr ee from
the arbi trary factors enteri ng i nto the defi ni ti on of the vol tage and cur r ent
parameters and the characteri sti c i mpedance of the equi val ent trans-
mi ssi on l i ne. I t i s apparent from Eq, (43) that i t transforms al ong the
l i ne just l i ke a vol tage refl ecti on coeffi ci ent. Al so, on computi ng the
Poynti ng vector s of the i nci dent and r efl ected waves, i t wi l l be seen that
the el ectri c-fi el d refl ecti on coeffi ci ent bears the same rel ati on to the i nci -
dent and r efl ected power as the vol tage refl ecti on coeffi ci ent (Sec. 27).
At any poi nt al ong the l i ne we can r egar d the secti on to the ri ght as
presenti ng an i nput i mpedance, normal i zed to the characteri sti c i mped-
ance of the mode,
((z) =
I + m).
1 r(z)
(45)
The normal i zed i mpedance i s al so i ndependent of the choi ce of the
defi ni ti on of the equi val ent transmi ssi on l i ne. Maki ng use of the
transformati on pr oper ty of I (z) expressed by Eq. (43) i t i s found that
the normal i zed i mpedance transforms al ong the wavegui de accordi ng to
(46)
just as i t does on a two-wi r e l i ne. The normal i zed admi ttance can al so
be defi ned i n the same manner as was done i n Sec. 26,
and i t i s evi dent that i t al so transforms al ong the wavegui de accordi ng
to Eq. (46). Thus, the enti re di scussi on i n Chap. 2 on i mpedance mi s-
214
MfCROWA VE lRA.\rS.llISSIO.~ 1>1.VES [SEC.7.5
match, standi ng-wave rati os, and l i ne transformati ons can be carri ed
over to the fi el ds on any one mode i n a wavegui de.
7.5. Networ k Equi val ents of Juncti ons and Obstacl es.The devel op-
ment of the probl em consi dered above pr oceeds i n a si mi l ar manner for
ZE.l f- and ZM-modes and l eads to equi val ent two-wi r e l i ne anal ogi es
for any si ngl e mode. The di sconti nui ty that we have consi dered i n that
probl em i s equi val ent to a juncti on between a pai r of two-wi r e l i nes of
di fferent characteri sti c i mpedances, such that the capaci tati ve and
i nducti ve effects due to the juncti on are negl i gi bl e. At such a juncti on
both the cur r ent and vol tage are conti nuous, correspondi ng to the
conti nui ty i n the transverse magneti c and el ectri c fi el ds, respecti vel y, i n
the wavegui de probl em. As a second step i n devel opi ng the transmi s-
si on-l i ne anal ysi s we shal l consi der juncti on effects and the probl em of
obstacl es i nserted i nto a wavegui de. The general theor y of these prob-
l ems i s tr eated extensi vel y i n other vol umes of thi s seri es. 1 We shal l
restri ct oursel ves her e to several qual i tati ve remarks.
As a speci fi c probl em l et us consi der a juncti on between two wave-
gui des of the same cross-secti onal shape but di fferent di mensi ons, joi ned
i n the pl ane z = O (see Fi g. 7.3).
The di mensi ons of both gui des are
assumed to be such that they can
support fr ee propagati on at the gi ven
Z=o
frequency i n one mode onl y; we shal l
Fro. 7,3.-Juncti on effects i n wave-
r efer to the l atter as the domi nant-
gui des.
mode wave. We shal l assume the
domi nant-mode wave, set up by a
gener ator at a r emote poi nt on the negati ve z-axi s, to be i nc!i dent on the
juncti on. Si nce ther e i s a change i n cross secti on at the juncti on, ~ve
shoul d certai nl y expect to fi nd a r efl ected ~vave of the domi nant mode on
the l eft and a transmi tted wave of that mode i n the wavegui de on the
ri ght. The fi el ds must joi n i n tne pl ane z = Oso as to sati sfy tne appro-
pri ate boundary condi ti ons. Over the openi ng i n the juncti on the trans-
ver se fi el ds must be conti nuous; over the metal surface of the juncti on
the transverse el ectri c fi el d and the normal component of the magneti c
fi el d must vani sh. The l atter condi ti ons cannot be sati sfi ed by the thr ee
domi nant-mode waves al one; hi gher modes must be exci ted i n both
wavegui des at the juncti on.
The generati on of the hi gher modes ari ses from the necessary di stor-
ti on of the el ectri c and magneti c fi el ds due to the edge of the juncti on
and i ts metal surface. The el ectri c-fi el d l i nes must be normal to the
l attera condi ti on that cannot be met by the domi nant mode al one i n
the wavegui de to the ri ght. However , accordi ng to our assumpti ons as
1Principles of ill icrouaue Circuits, Vol . 8, and The Haueguide lI andbook, VO1,10.
SEC. 7.5]
.YETWORI < EQCI i.4LE.YTS OF J 1 .YCTI O.YS 215
tothewavegui ded i rnensi ons, tbehi gherm odesc annot propagate; except
wi thi n a short di stance of the juncti on (of the or der of a wavel ength)
the fi el ds consi st essenti al l y of domi nant-mode waves. The hi gher modes
r epr esent el ectri c and magneti c ener gy stor ed at the juncti on. I t i s
possi bl e to r epr esent these energi es as energi es stor ed i n a reacti ve networ k
equi val ent for the juncti on. 1 I n the general case the networ k takes the
form of a T- or I I -secti on (see Sec. 2.2). The effect of the juncti on on
the domi nant-mode wave thus ari ses from two factors: (1) a di sconti nui ty
i n characteri sti c i mpedance and (2) a reacti ve four-termi nal networ k
i nserted between the l i nes. The preci se l al ues of the el ements of the
l atter networ k agai n depend on the defi ni ti on of the characteri sti c i mped-
ance of the equi val ent l i ne for the domi nant mode. A number of junc-
ti on networ ks are gi ven i n the Wavegui de Handbock, Yol. 10 of thi s
seri es; i n each case, the defi ni ti on of the characteri sti c i mpedance (or i ts
reci procal , the characteri sti c admi ttance) i s gi ven. The el ements of the
networ k can, of course, be expressed as normal i zed val ues wi th r espect
to the characteri sti c i mpedance of ei ther gui de.
I n the wavegui de to the l eft, at a short di stance from the juncti on,
we have cml y the i nci dent and r efl ected domi nant-mode waves. Her e
we can appl y transmi ssi on-l i ne concepts to the domi nant mode and
defi ne the correspondi ng el ectri c-fi el d refl ecti on coeffi ci ent. Thi s refl ec-
ti on coeffi ci ent can be rel ated to an effecti ve i mpedance termi nati ng the
l i ne at the juncti on. Thi s i mpedance, i n turn, may be expressed as due
to a juncti on networ k across the output termi nal s of whi ch ther e has been
connected the characteri sti c i mpedance of the gui de to the ri ght. These
pr ocedur es l ead to consi stent defi ni ti ons of the juncti on i mpedance.
The juncti on networ k necessary to r epr esent the stor ed energi es, when
i nserted between the transmi ssi on-l i ne representati ons of the two wave-
gui des, gi ves ri se to a refl ecti on coeffi ci ent i n the regi on on the l eft cor -
respondi ng to the el ectri c-fi el d refl ecti on coeffi ci ent obtai ned on the basi s
of fi el d-theory anal ysi s.
The theor y of obstacl es devel ops al ong si mi l ar l i nes. I t i s found, as
i n the case of juncti ons, that an obstacl e has the same effects on i mpedance
and ener gy stor ed as a four-termi nal net\vor k i nserted between a pai r of
transmi ssi on l i nes \vhose characteri sti c i mpedances are the wave i mped-
ances of the domi nant mode. I t must be emphasi zed that each mode
\vhi ch can propagate has i ts onm transmi ssi on-l i ne anal ogue and that
si mpl e transmi ssi on-l i ne theor y appl i es to a \vavegui de onl y when i t can
support hut one mode. Transmi ssi on theor y al one can gi ve no i nforma-
ti on as to the net \vor k equi val ents of juncti ons and obstacl es; these
must l )c obt ai nml I )y fi el d-theory anal ysi s. The equi val ent networ k al so
depends t,t] tl ~e parti cul ar domi nant mode bei ng consi dered. once the
equi l -al ent netl ~ork }ms been estal )l i shwl , i t can be expressed as a T-sec-
1Se(,~~,;~~c;,,l e,y of l ~,,mm[w Circ(/ i/ ,s,VO1. 8 of thi s seri es.
216 MI CROWAVE TRANSMI SSI ON LI NES [SEC, 76
ti on, and the i mpedance transformati on properti es of such networ ks can
be used i n the conventi onal manner.
7.6. TEM-mode Transmi ssi on Lmes.We have poi nted out earl i er
that i n general i t i s not possi bl e to set up uni que defi ni ti ons of vol tage
and cur r ent i n wavegui des, and we have ther efor e set up transmi ssi on-
I i ne anal ogues i n terms of wave i mpedances and fi el d-refl ecti on coeffi ci ents.
I n the case of !!EM-modes, however , i t i s possi bl e to set up transmi ssi on-
l i ne quanti ti es that are di rectl y rel ated to the two-wi r e l i ne quanti ti es
di scussed i n Chap. 2.
I t was found i n Sec. 7.2 that the el ectri c fi el d over any cross secti on
i s deri vabl e f rom a potenti al .
Hencej over a cross secti on, the l i ne i ntegral
of the el ectri c fi el d from the i nner conductor Cl to the outer conductor
C, i s i ndependent of the path and i ndeed i s equal to the di fference between
the val ues of the potenti al over the conductors. Thi s defi nes the vol tage:
Ther e
regi on
/
ve~z = c E . dr = e~z
/
c,
VU. dr = (Ui ?ll)e-~. (47)
c, c1
exi sts al so a rel ati on between surface i ntegral s over any cl osed
i n a cross secti on:
+ !$
(Vx H). i .dS=ju~ E.i . dS=O. (47(z)
Jt fol l ows that the l i ne i ntegral of H over a cl osed cur ve surroundi ng C,
i s i ndependent of the choi ce of the curve. I n parti cul ar, l et us take a
path al ong the boundary of Cl . Hi s tangenti al to Cl and by the bound-
ar y condi ti on (Sec. 3.3) i s equal i n magni tude to the surface cur r ent
densi ty K. Hence the l i ne i ntegral of H gi ves the total cur r ent carri ed
by C,:
$
~, H , ds = l e-~z. (48)
The l i ne i ntegral of H al ong the boundary of C2 gi ves the total cur r ent
carri ed by the l atter; by vi rtue of the equal i ty of the l i ne i ntegral s the
two currents are equal . On carryi ng through the detai l s of the vector
cal cul ati on, i t wi l l be found that the cur r ent on C2 i s opposi te i n di recti on
to that on Cl . Ther e i s thus a di rect two-wi r e l i ne anal ogue wi th vol tage
V and cur r ent 1. Correspondi ng to these we defi ne a characteri sti c
i mpedance,
()
Zo =;= :
6 U2 ul
#c, IVUI d.
(49)
Thi s i s, of course, di fferent from the wave i mpedance for the mode.
The rel ati onshi ps between the ZOdefi ned i n Eq. (49) and the t\vo-wi re-
l i ne i mpedance become mor e evi dent on cal cul ati ng the equi val ent seri es
SEC. 7.7] COAXI AL LI NES: TEM-MODE
217
i nductance and shunt capaci tance per uni t l ength of the two-conductor
system. The magneti c ener gy for uni t vol ume i s ~~I HI , and ther efor e
the magneti c ener gy per uni t l ength of l i ne i s
w.=;
//
lVL1dS. (50)
cresssecti on
I f L i s the equi val ent i nductance per uni t l ength, then
Wm = ;L12 ;
hence
L =f~~ lv~l~~
12
Si mi l arl y the el ectri c ener gy per uni t vol ume i s
ener gy per uni t l ength i s
(50a)
~el l l 2, and the el ectri c
(51) we=;
H
cromsecti on Ivulds
The equi val ent capaci ty C per uni t l ength i s then
w, = +Cv
or
~ = 6// I vcl zds
~,
(51a)
Accordi ng to Eq. (220) the characteri sti c i mpedance of a l ossl ess two-
wi r e l i ne i s
d
E
z, = ~.
Combi ni ng thi s wi th Eqs. (50a) and (51a), we obtai n the quanti ty defi ned
i n Eq. (49),
For most practi cal purposes a two-conductor gui de supporti ng the
7EM-mode as i ts domi nant \vave can be tr eated from the vol tage-current
poi nt of vi e\v. Appl i cati ons of thi s fact wi l l be made i n Sees. 7.9 and
7 10 i n di scussi ng i mpedance transformati ons and matchi ng devi ces for
coaxi al l i nes.
7.7. Coaxi al Li nes: TEM-mode.The onl y type of two-conductor
gui de of major i mportance i s the coaxi al l i ne formed by a pai r of concentri c
ci rcul ar cyl i nders. Let a be the radi us of the i nner conductor, b the radi us
of the outer conductor. Cyl i ndri cal coordi nates r, O,z are sui ted fGr the
di scussi on of thi s system, Tand 0 bei ng pol ar coordi nates i n a cross secti on
of the l i ne. We shal l fi rst consi der the ZEM-mode. The sol uti on to the
potenti al probl em i s wel l kno\vn from el ectrostati cs:
218
MI CROWAVE TRANSMI SSI ON LI NES
l
U(x,y) =
()
()
l n~,
i n ~
a
wher e V i s the vol tage across the l i ne.
The el ectri c-fi el d
[SEC. 7.7
(52)
i ntensi ty i s,
Line of zero field intensity
(a)
(b)
FI G. 7.4.Coaxi al -l i nemodes: (a) TEJ -f-mode (no cutoff wavel ength); (b) TEI I mode
[x,,~c)= (5 + b)7r], el ectri cfi el d; magneti cfi el d.
ther efor e,
and the magneti c-fi el d i ntensi ty
(53)
(53a)
wher e i , and i a are uni t vector s i n the di recti ons of i ncreasi ng r and 0.
Her e -y has been repl aced by j~, and the doubl e si gn i ndi cates a wave
travel i ng i n ei ther the posi ti ve or negati ve z-di recti on. The fi el d con-
fi gurati on and the cur r ent di stri buti ons on the conductors are compl etel y
symmetri cal about the z-axi s; the for mer i s shown i n Fi g. 74.
The cur r ent i s gi ven si mpl y by 27rrH(r):
()
e~~v
I=2T-
.
P
()
I n b
a
I t fol l ows then di rectl y that the characteri sti c i mpedance, i n the sense
of the previ ous secti on, i s
O=ww)
(54)
For most di el ectri cs of i nterest p di ffers negl i gi bl y from the free-space
val ue ,uO. On i ntroducti on of the speci fi c i nducti ve capaci ty k, = ~/co,
the characteri sti c i mpedance becomes
SE{,. 78] (70.4 XI .4L T.I .VES: T.I f - .4Vl) TE-MODES 219
L ()
0=%1:
(54a)
The seri es i nductance and shunt capaci tance per uni t l ength of the l i ne,
computed from Eqs. (50a) and (51a), are fo~md to be
()
L=~l n ~, (55a)
c=~.
()
(55b)
i n ~
a
7.8. Coaxi al Li nes: TM- and TE-modes.I n the study of the lE-
and ZM-modes we are concer ned wi th the sol uti ons of equati ons of the
form
JZF
~2+$+K2~ =0, (76a)
wher e F wi l l stand for ei ther of the functi ons 4(x,Y) or I $(x,Y) of ~qs. (1z)
and (20) respecti vel y. On i ntroducti on of the pol ar coordi nates r-, 0,
the di fferenti al equati on becomes
(56)
The equati on i s separabl e i n the vari abl es r and 0; i n parti cul ar we shal l
wri t e
{
F = R(r) ;~~;;
then R(r) sati sfi es the equati on
(57)
Thi s i s the di fferenti al equati on for the cyl i nder functi ons of or der m, i n
the vari abl e Kr. The pai r of l i nearl y i ndependent sol uti ons sui ted to
the fi ni te regi on wi th whi ch \veare concer ned her e consi sts of the Bessel
functi on ~fi (~r) and the Xeumann functi on J~~(K~). The l atter ~ec~mes
i nfi ni te at r = O; however , si nce the ori gi n i s excl uded by the i nner con-
ductor, the Xeumann functi on i s admi ssi bl e as a sol uti on. The general
sol uti ons of I l q. (56) are ther efor e
1
(zy) =[.1,1.,(.,) + ~.~~(.r)](c cos mfi + D sin w@.
@(xjy)
The fi el d must be si ngl e-val uml i n 0; as a consequence m can have onl y
I ntegral val ues. l ~(;r any gi ven val ue of m i t i s possi bl e to el i mi nate one
220
MI CROWAVE TRANSMI SSI ON LI NES [SEC.78
of the tri gonometri c functi ons by pr oper ori entati on of the z ,y-axes.
Wi thout l oss of general i ty we can set D = O, taki ng as the sol uti ons
(58)
a. TM-modes.We must consi der the TM- and TE-modes sepa-
ratel y. I n the case of the TM-modes we are concer ned wi th the functi on
t$(z,y) and the boundary condi ti on of Eq. (21b); we require @ = 0 for
aHval ues of Oat r = a and r = b. Thi s gi ves two homogeneous equati ons,
~~_(KU) + ~~~(KU) = 0,
fi~~(.b) + BIV*(Kb) = O,
}
(59)
for the determi nati on of the rati o B/A. Sol uti ons other than A = B = O
exi st onl y i f the determi nant of the coeffi ci ents vani shes:
~m(.a) ~m(KU)
~~(.b) ~~(.b)
= ~m(KU)~m(Kb) ~m(Kb)~na(KU) = 0. (60)
Thi s i n turn i s sati sfi ed onl y for a di screte set of val ues of K; the l atter are
the characteri sti c val ues whi ch, arranged i n or der of i ncreasi ng magni tude,
we shal l desi gnate by Kmn. I f we wri te u = Ka, a = b/a, the equati on
appears i n the standard form
Jm(u)Nm(au) Nm(u)Jm(au) = o. (60a)
Roots of thi s equati on are gi ven i n Jahnke and Er ode. For a gi ven val ue
of a the smal l est val ue of W- occurs for m = O; thi s gi ves the l ongest
cutoff wavel ength for these modes.
Exami nati on of the r oots shows that
forl ~a~7,
3a
~a > UOI = (LKol>
ba
Ther efor e the cutoff wavel ength X$] for the mode i s gi ven approxi matel y
by
~;~
=2( b a). (61)
We recal l that propagati on i n a gi ven mode can take pl ace onl y i f the
wavel ength i n unbounded di el ectri c i s shor ter than X(c). I n al l practi cal
cases the spaci ng between the conductors i s much smal l er than the
wavel ength, and ther e i s no need to be concer ned about the si mul taneous
exci tati on of TiW- and !!EM-modes.
b. TE-waoes.Here we are concer ned wi th the functi on +(z,v) and
the boundary condi ti on of Eq. (13); for the case at hand the l atte~
becomes dl /~r = O for r = a and r = b. Thi s l eads to the condi ti ons
1E. Jahnke and F. F;mde, Tables of Functi ons, Fi g. 204, Dover Pul >l i cati <; rs
Repri nt, New York, 1943.
SEC.7.9]
CASCADE TRANSFORMERS: TEM-MODE 221
~~~(KU) + ~~~(KLI) = 0,
~~:(Kb) + ~~:(Kb) = O,
}
(62)
on the constants A and B. Aont ri vi al sol uti ons for the l atter exi st
agai n onl y for the characteri sti c val ues .~n that sati sfy
&(KU)~~(.b) ~~(.b)~~(.~) = (). (63)
For m = o we have the rel ati on J:(z) = .Jt(z), and si mi l arl y for the
Neumann functi on; the characteri sti c val ues of the !i EO.-modes are ther e-
for e gi ven by the r oots of
J,(u) .vl (au) J,(aU)N,(u) = o, (63a)
wher e u, a have the same meani ngs as previ ousl y.
From what has been sai d about the r oots of Eq. (60a), i t i s evi dent
that the cutoff wavel ength of the ZEO-modes i s shor ter than that of
the ZMOl -mode and that the for mer are of no consequence as propa-
gati ng modes i n a practi cal case. The r oots of Eq. (63) for m >0 have
been di scussed by Truel l . For our i mmedi ate purposes we need con-
cer n oursel ves onl y wi t h the l owest mode of the seri es, the TE1 l -mode.
The fi el d confi gurati on for thi s mode i s i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 7.4. For thi s
case l t i s found that the characteri sti c val ue i s gi ven ver y cl osel y by
2
l=a+b;
(64)
thus the cutoff wavel ength i s
h~~= 7r(a + b). (64a)
Thi s i s the mean ci rcumference of the i nner and outer conductors. TO
p~event propagation of the TEl,-mode the mean ci rcumference must be smal l er
than the ope~ating wavelength. Thi s i mposes l i mi tati ons on the di men-
si ons of the l i ne and i n parti cul ar on the spaci ng between the conductors;
the l atter i n turn l i mi ts the power-carryi ng capaci ty of the l i ne.
7.9. Cascade Transformers: TEM-mode.The termi nati on of the
l i ne i n a radi ati ng system i n general gi ves ri se to a r efl ected TEM-wave
and to exci tati on of TAT- and TE-modes. We shal l assume that the
l i ne di mensi ons are such that the l atter modes cannot propagate and
confi ne our attenti on to the regi on of the l i ne wher e onl y the i nci dent
and r efl ected TE.W-waves exi st. The r efl ected ~vave represents an
i mpedance mi smatch, and i t i s necessary to consi der a cor r ecti on for i t.
Perhaps the most useful devi ce i s a cascade transformer, a secti on of
coaxi al l i ne of characteri sti c i mpedance di fferent from that of the mai n
l i ne. Two such transformers are i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 7.5: (a) the sl eeve
I R. Truel l , .Jour..4pplied Phys,, 14, 350 (1943).
222 MI CROWAVE TRA.VSMI SSI OA7 LI MES
[SEC. 7.9
type wi th characteri sti c i mpedance smal l er than the l i ne i mpedance and
(b) the undercut type wi th characteri sti c i mpedance l arger than that of
the l i ne. As has been poi nted out before, the juncti ons gi ve ri se to other
modes; however , i f the change i n radi us i s smal l , the juncti on effect i s
smal l . Data on the l atter wi l l be gi ven bel ow.
A B
.1-
%GeratOr Lo=
(a)
A B
r
1-
(6)
FI G. 7.5.Cascade i mpedance transformers: (a) sl eeve secti on; (b) under cut secti on,
The di mensi ons desi red i n a transformer can be determi ned as fol -
l ows: Except for juncti on effects, the vol tage and cur r ent and the i nput
i mpedance l ooki ng toward the ri ght ha~-e the same val ues at adjacent.
poi nts on ei ther si de of the juncti on. Let Z: be the characteri sti c i mped-
ance of the transformed, 20 that of the l i ne, and Zl the i nput i mpedance
at 1?. Then, from Eq. (2.32), Sec. 2.6, the i nput i mpedance at A i s
I mpedance matchi ng requi res Z(A) = Z,; that i s,
(65a)
(65b)
Separati on of real and i magi nary parts gi ves two equati ons from whi ch,
for a gi ven val ue of A, one can obtai n Z: and the l ength of the transformer
that matches Z i nto ZO; the di mensi ons of the transformers are obtai ned
from Z~ by means of Eq. (54a).
Ther e are poi nts al ong the l i ne at whi ch Z i s real . These poi nts are
h/4 apart, and the i mpedance i s al ternatel y rZ, and ZO/r, ~vher e r is the
vol tage standi ng-wave rati o. I f ei ther of tl wse i s taken as the juncti on
poi nt 1?, i t i s found from Eq. (6.5b) that 1 = A/4. The characteri sti c
i mpedance of the quarter-wave secti on i s found to be rel ated to ZO as
fol l ows :
SEC. 7.10] PARALLEL STUBS A.VD SERI ES REACTANCE 223
Z: >20 i f z = r-z,.
The fi rst of these corresponds to a sl eeve secti on; the second to an under-
cut secti on. I n so far as matchi ng i s concer ned, ei ther can be used.
The sl eeve secti on has the advantage of si mpl i ci ty of i nserti on, si nce
i t i s necessary onl y to sl i p a pi ece of tubi ng over the i nner conductor
and to sol der the seam to ensure good contact; i t al so has the advantage
of strengtheni ng the l i ne mechani cal l y. An undercut secti on requi res
machi ni ng and weakens the l i ne. On the other hand, the sl eeve secti on
reduces the cl earance between the conductors and consequentl y the power
capaci ty. I n both cases the edges of the juncti on i ncrease the break-
down tendency; thi s di ffi cul ty can be mi ni mi zed by roundi ng the edges
of the juncti on wi thout i mpai ri ng the matchi ng rel ati ons.
I t must be emphasi zed that a si ngl e transformer matches pr oper l y
at onl y one wavel ength. I n general the l oad i mpedance i s a functi on of
frequency. Matchi ng over a frequency band, such that the standi ng-
wave rati o remai ns l ess than a prescri bed val ue, can often be achi eved
by a seri es of transformer secti ons of di fferent l engths and characteri sti c
i mpedances. I t i s di ffi cul t to car r y the anal ysi s through anal yti cal l y for
an arbi trary l oad Z(k). A method of rather l i mi ted appl i cabi l i ty empl oy-
i ng a tandem of quarter-~vave secti ons has been devel oped by Fubi ni ,
Sutro, and Lewi s.
Whi l e the matchi ng condi ti on of Eq. (65b) al ways l eads to a sol uti on
of the mathemati cal probl em, i t i s not necessari l y tr ue that the trans-
for mer wi l l be sati sfactory. I f a l arge change i n radi us i s requi red at the
juncti on, the juncti on effect becomes si gni fi cant, and we must add to the
equi val ent transmi ssi on-l i ne reacti ve net\vor ks at A and B correspondi ng
to the juncti on effects. I t i s found that the networ k consi sts of a
capaci ty across the transmi ssi on l i ne at the juncti on poi nts. The junc-
ti on effect can be studi ed experi mental l y by means of a hal f-wave secti on.
From Eq. (65a) i t i s seen from transmi sson-l i ne consi derati ons al one
that i f 1 = A/2, then Z(A) = Z regardl ess of the val ue of Z:; thi s means
that the standi ng-wave rati o shoul d be the same on ei ther si de of the
transformer. Fi gure 7.6 shows experi mental resul ts obtai ned wi th a hal f-
wavel ength sl eeve secti on on a 50-ohm coaxi al l i ne wi th i nner di ameter
0.375 i n. I t i s seen that the de~-i ati on from si mpl e transmi ssi on-l i ne
behavi or i ncreases rapi dl y wi th i ncreasi ng di ameter of the sl eeve secti on.
7.10. Paral l el Stubs and Seri es Reactances.-Another useful devi ce i n
coaxi al -l i ne desi gn i s the paral l el stub consi sti ng of a secti on of coaxi al
I I I Freq,l ency characteri sti cs of Wi de-band I l atchi ng Secti ons, Radi o Research
Laboratory (Harvard Uni versi ty) Report So. 23, Apri l 1943.
2 Wauegui de Handbook, tol. 10 of thi s seri es.
224 MI CROWAVE TRANSMI SSI ON LI NES [SEC. 710
I
l i ne at ri ght angl es to the mai n l i ne. The arrangement i s shown sche-
mati cal l y i n Fi g. 7.7a. The stub i s termi nated by a metal cap to pr event
radi ati on. El ectri cal l y the stub i s a shorted secti on of transmi ssi on l i ne.
I f 2{ i s the characteri sti c i mpedance of the stub and 1 i ts l ength, then
i ts i nput i mpedance, obtai ned from Eq. (65a) by setti ng Z = O, i s
1.9 -
1.8
0
)
1.7
0
1.6
0
$ 1.5
g
/
~ 1.4
/
o
1.3
/
o
1,2
0
0
1.1
/
/
1.0--
0 0.10
0.20 0.30
Transformer dia. D_O.375,,
FI G. 7.6.J um%i on effects wi th cascade transformers; mi smatch of a A/2 transformer as a
functi on of di ameter i n a coaxi al l i ne of di mensi ons OD = 0.S11, I D = 0.375 i n.
Ze = jZ~ tan fll. I t i s thus a reacti ve el ement. Consi derati on of the
cur r ent di vi si on at A shows that, negl ecti ng juncti on networks, the stub
i s to be r egar ded as a reactance shunted across the mai n l i ne. I f 1 = i /4,
then Z = cc, and the stub i ntroduces no change i n i mpedance at A;
such a quarter-wave stub i s useful as a mechani cal support for the i nner
conductor. We shal l not consi der her e the refi nements requi red to
el i mi nate the frequency sensi ti vi ty.
The stub can al so ser ve as a matchi ng devi ce. I n thi s connecti on i t
i s mor e conveni ent to speak i n terms of admi ttances. Let Y, = I /Z, be
the characteri sti c admi ttance of the mai n l i ne, Y the admi ttance seen
to the ri ght of A, and Y, = jY~ cot P1the admi ttance of the stub. I t i s
possi bl e to l ocate the poi nt A so that the admi ttance Y i s Y = Y, + jB.
SEC. 7.10] PARALLEL STUBS AND SERI ES REACTANCE 225
I nserti on of the stub gi ves an admi ttance at the l eft of A equal to
Y+ Y,= Yo+j(13- Yjcot (51). For matchi ng we requi re si mpl y
that
Y~ cot @ = B. (66)
The structure i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 7.7b i s l ess wi del y used but i s wor th
consi derati on. The regi on bet ween A B and the outer conductor C2 acts
r
1
z;
zrJ
. ___ _
VA
(a)
Z. z;
.Z5
[
Z.
c,
A lB
(b)
FI G.7.7.(a) Paral l elstubreactance;(b) seri esreactanceel ement.
as a cascade transformer. I f Z i s the i mpedance at B, the i mpedance
just to the ri ght of A i n the transformer space i s
wher e 2$ i s the characteri sti c i mpedance of the transform space. The
regi on AB wi thi n the i nner conductor acts as a shorted secti on of l i ne
whi ch presents an i mpedance at A equal to Zc,A = jZ~ tan ~1, wher e Z;
i s the characteri sti c i mpedance of the i nner regi on. At A we have the
vol tage rel ati on VCZC,= 1.,. + VAC,; the i mpedance just to the l eft of A
i s gi ven by
Z(A) = ZC,A + .ZAC,
(67)
The structure thus i ntroduces a seri es i mpedance at A. I t i s of i nterest
to note that the l ength of the i nner regi on can be made shor ter than the
l ength of the outer regi on. I f the l atter i s made equal to an i ntegral
number of hal f wavel engths, the effect of the transformer regi on i s
el i mi nated and at A we have si mpl y an i mpedance ZC,~ i n seri es wi th Z.
226 MI CROWAVE 1RANSMI SWI ON LI NES [SEC.7.11
I t i s found i n practi ce that stubs and seri es reactance transformers
wi th di mensi ons cal cul ated on the basi s of the transmi ssi on-l i ne formul as
gi ven above do not qui te meet the si mpl e theoreti cal expectati ons. Thi s
i s due to the juncti on effects negl ected i n the transmi ssi on-l i ne arguments.
The er r or s, however , are general l y smal l and can be el i mi nated by smal l
adjustments of the l engths of the structures. I n the case of stubs, the
/
z
/
y?
I,//
k__-
)
/
//
/
/
/
I---- U----4
~Lz
FI G. 7.8.Rectangukm wave-
gui de.
l i ne i n mi crowave antennas.
shorti ng cap can be repl aced by a sl i di ng
pl unger i n the experi mental model to al l ow
easy adjustment of the l ength. The use of
seri es reactance transformers l i mi ts the
power capaci ty of the l i ne; the standi ng
waves i n the i nner regi on pr oduce i ntense
fi el ds at the open end and i ncrease the
tendency toward el ectri cal breakdown and
sparki ng. An al ternati ve form, whi ch
mounts the transformer on the outer con-
ductor wher e the el ectri c fi el d i s weaker , i s
mor e sati sfactory wi th r espect to breakdown
characteri sti c but i s l ess desi rabl e from
assembl y consi derati ons.
7s11. Rectangul ar Wavegui des: TE- and
TM-modes.The hol l ow gui de of rectangu-
l ar cross secti on i s the most wi del y used
We shal l take the z, v-axes to be ori ented
,-
as shown i n Fi g. 7.8; a i s the broad di mensi on of the gui de; b the narrow
di mensi on. The Hel mhol tz equati on
i s i n thi s case separabl e i n the form
F = x(z) Y(y).
Substi tuti on i nto Eq. (6a) l eads to the two equati ons
(76a)
(68)
wi th
K: + K; = K2.
(68a)
The sol uti ons have the same form for both members of Eq. (68); for
exampl e,
x (x) ==A cos (K#) + B si n (K&).
The general sol uti on of Eq. (6a) i s
SEC. 7.11] RECTA XGC7LA R WA 1EGVI DES: TE- A.VD TM-MODES 227
1
$(z~) = [A .o. (.=X) + B si n (K4)][C cos (by) + D si n (wY)]. (69)
l $(x,y)
a. ZE-waues.The sol uti on ~(x,y) must sati sfy the boundary con-
di ti on d~/&z = O over the wal l s. For the wal l s z = O and z = a,
al /an = d+/&r; we thus requi re that for al l val ues of y
a+
1
%.=O
= Kz~](?J) = O,
(70a)
a+
-1
ax ,=. =
.=[.4 si n (K@) B cos (Ksa)]Y(y) = O.
(70b)
Thi s requi res that ,?3= O and that K. have the characteri sti c val ues
mr
~z = ,
m =0,1,2,..
a
(71)
Over the wal l s y = O and y = b, d~jdn = d~idy. Thi s boundary con-
di ti on requi res that D = O and that KY ha~-e the characteri sti c val ues
nr
Ku = ,
b
n = 0,1, 2,....
The characteri sti c val ues .~ti for the !fE,m-\raveare ther efor e
=(92+(92
(72)
(73)
By use of Eqs. (18) and (19), the compl ete set of fi el d components for
the \\ravei n the posi ti ve z-di recti on i s found to be
H. = cos 7X cm ~ e~-z, E. = O,
Hz = &E. = ~~~
in(?;)cos(%e-z
u zEz= ?~coe)sint~)e-m
The si gni fi cance of the i ntegers m, n, i s di rectl y apparent: They r epr esent
the number of si nusoi ds i n the i ntensi ty of the fi el d components E and
E=, respecti l ,el y, over the cross secti on of the gl l i de.
The cutoff wa\el engthj the gl l i de ~vavel ength,
\va\~e i mpedance for a TE~fi -mode are respecti vel y
and the trans~erse
(75)
228 MZCROWA VE TRANSfi ISSION LINES [SEC. 7.11
o ={1- [(4+(311
z:: =
u-[(4+(2)1}
(76)
(77)
The ZEl ~-mode (m = 1, n = O) has the l ongest cutoff wavel ength. I t
i s by far the most i mportant mode for antenna wor k. The el ectri c fi el d
has but one component, E., whi ch i s uni form i n the y-di recti on and vari es
si nusoi dal l y al ong the x-di recti on wi th symmetry about the central sec-
ti on of the gui de. The fi el d confi gurati ons for thi s and several other
TE-modes are shown i n Fi g. 7.9. I t wi l l be seen from Eq. (75) that to
(b)
k---a -
m
4 +-$--
[
*b
l t-t-l
i
(d) -
Fm. 7,9.Tl l -modesi n rectangul ar wavegui des: (a) ZE,o-mode [AI O) = 2a]; (b) TEI I -
mode [XI I () = 2ab/ d-; (c) !ZEzo-mode [Az.a(=) = a]; (d) TEo,-mode (kOI [)= 2b).
el ectri c fi el d; magnetic fi el d.
ensure propagati on of the TE10-mode al one the di mensi ons of the gui de
must be such that
a<h <2a; 2b < A.
b. TM-waves.The sol uti on @(zjy) must sati sfy the boundary con-
di ti on @ = O over the wal l s. I t i s evi dent from Eq. (69) that we must
set A = ~ = O to sati sfy the condi ti on over the surface x = Oand y = O.
Over the wal l s z = a, y = b the condi ti ons are sati sfi ed onl y for the
characteri sti c val ues
m~
~z = ,
m = 0,1, 2,....
a
(7.71)
~=l !,
n=o, 1,2, . . . . (7.72)
SEC. 7,11] I MPEDANCE TRANSFORMERS
229
Thus the characteri sti c val ue .nn for the TM~m-mode l i ne, l i ke that of a
TE~m-wave, i s gi ven by
nH+(Y
(773)
The cutoff and gui de wavel engths are gi ven by Eqs. (75) and (76); the
characteri sti c wave i mpedance, however , di ffers from that of the ZE-wave.
I t i s
(a)
(9+(9211
(78)
(b)
FI Q.7.10.TM-modes i n rectangul ar wave gui des: (a) TM, ~-mode [AI ,() = 2ab/ <~;
(b) ZM,,-mode [AZ,(C)= 2ab/ Vai + b!]. el ectri c fi el d; magneti c fi el d.
The compl ete set of fi el d components obtai ned by means of Eqs. (22)
and (23) i s
zSin(%sin(we- z 01
Ez=~Hv=m~
m.
I
Cos(%)sint+)e-z, 7)
msin(?)cos(?)e-mz
&=~Hz=_nYmn
Ther e i s no mode for whi ch ei ther m or n i s zer o; the l owest i s the TMll-
mode.. I t fol l ows accordi ngl y that a gui de desi gned to cut off the TE-
modes other than the TEI o wi l l l i kewi se not support fr ee propagati on
of any of the TM-modes. The fi el d confi gurati ons for several of the
l atter are shown i n Fi g. 7.10.
7.12. I mpedance Transformers for Rectangul ar Gui des.Equi val ent
networ ks have been establ i shed for a number of types of obstacl es i n
wavegui des; these can ser ve to match out the r efl ected domi nant mode
wave set up by the l i ne termi nati on. We shal l present her e the perti nent
data on el ements desi gned for the TEI O-mode i n rectangul ar gui de and
shal l i ndi cate thei r appl i cabi l i ty. The si mpl est, from the poi nt of vi ew
of the equi val ent networks, are the mndows: metal di aphragms i nserted
i n the cross secti on of the gui de. Typi cal forms are i l l ustrated i n Fi g.
711. I n the i deal i zed case of i nfi ni te conducti vi ty these el ements behave
l i ke capaci ti es or i nductances shunted across the two-wi r e t,ransmi sai on-
230 MI CROWAVE TRANSMI SSI ON I .I .VES [SEC. 712
l i ne representati on of the TElo-mode. Accordi ngl y, i n usi ng these el e-
ments i t i s conveni ent to treat the l i ne i n terms of admi ttance rather than
i mpedance. Let Y j~) = l /Zj~ be the characteri sti c wave admi ttance of
the TEI O-mode l i ne. 1 l $-i th any arbi trary termi nati on, ther e exi st poi nts
al ong the l i ne, at quarter-wavel ength i nterval s, at whi ch the i nput admi t-
tance l ooki ng toward the l oad i s al ternatel y (1) Y = Y, jB and (2)
Y = YO-t- jB. At the poi nts 1 the l oad susceptance i s i nducti ve and a
paral l el capaci ty i s requi red for matchi ng. Poi nts (2), wher e the l oad
susceptance i s ca,paci tati ve, r equi r e a paral l el i nductance. For the
(a)
--16 i--
(b)
El
I-6 +!
1--. --1
(c) (d)
F.6. 7.13.Wi ndows for rectangul ar gui des; (a) symmetri cal capaci tati ve; (b) s.vrnrnetri cal
i nducti ve; (c) asymmetri cal i nducti ve; (d) resonant.
for mer case the capaci tati ve wi ndow (Fi g. 7.1 l a), i s sui ted, whi l e for
poi nts 2 the i nducti ve wi ndows (Fi g. 7.1 l b and c) are appropri ate. For -
mul as and graphs for the susceptance of these and other wi ndows,
r efer r ed to the characteri sti c wave admi ttance of the T~10-mode, are
avai l abl e i n the l i terature. z
I n practi ce the i nducti ve wi ndows are to be pr efer r ed, because the
capaci tati ve wi ndow-, i n presenti ng an edge across the el ectri c-fi el d l i nes,
i s mor e suscepti bl e to el ectri cal breakdown. Asymmetri cal wi ndows
have experi mental and desi gn advantages i n that onl y one si de of the
gui de need be mi l l ed for an i nserti on. 3 Thi s reduces the amount of
machi ni ng requi red i n maki ng test runs on i mpedance and el i mi nates the
1We shal l dr op the mode notati on her eafterand wri te si mpl y ZOand YOfor the
characteri sti ci mpedanceand admi ttancerespecti vel y,
2Mi crowave Tramwni ssi onDesi gn Data, Sper r y Gyr oscope Company, 1944;
(Wavegui de Handbook, RL Gr oup Repor t No. 4?, Feb. 7, 1944; }Yavegui de
Handbook Suppl ement, RL Gr oup Repor t SO. 41, ,Jan.23, 1!145;11avegui de Hand-
book, Vol. 10 of thi s seri es.
3 W. Si rhak, One-si ded I nducti ve I ri ses and Quarter-wi ve (apaci tati ve Trans-
formers i n Wavegui de, RI , Repor t No. 426, Nov. 17, 1943
SEC. 712] 1.lfPEDANC13 TRANSFORMERS 231
probl em of al i gnment of two hal ves of a symmetri cal wi ndow. On the
other hand, symmetri cal wi ndows l end themsel ves to use as pressuri za-
ti on devi ces; the two metal borders can ser ve as supports for a thi n
di el ectri c sheet. Such a sheet i ntroduces an addi ti onal capaci ty i n
paral l el wi th the wi ndo~vj the magni tude of whi ch depends on the thi ck-
ness and di el ectri c constant. No systemati c desi gn i nformati on seems
to be avai l abl e on thi s poi nt at present, and the desi gn of the pressuri zed
wi ndow must be devel oped experi mental l y.
The ci rcui t equi val ents of the wi ndows i mmedi atel y suggest the pos-
si bi l i ty of combi ni ng a capaci tati ve and i nducti ve wi ndow to make the
net susceptance zer o, that i s, to pr oduce a resonant de~-i ce that i ntroduces
no refl ecti on i n the gui de. Such a resonant wi ndow i s i l l ustrated i n Fi g.
1--1--1

(a)
Generator Load
(b)
FI G. 7.12.Step transformer i n rectangul ar wa~wgui de: (a) transverse cr oss secti on; (b)
l ongi tudi nal cr oss sect, on.
7.1 ld. To a fi rst approxi mati on, the di mensi ons cL, ~~can be so choeen
that the capaci tati ve and i nducti ve susceptances are equal i n magni tude.
The resonant wi ndow transmi ts al l the i nci dent power and, ther efor e,
cannot be used as a matchi ng devi ce. I t i s useful as a pressuri zi ng el e-
ment to seal the wavegui de; ei ther the wi ndow frame serves as a support
for a thi n di el ectri c sheet, or the open area of the wi ndow i s fi l l ed wi th a
di el ectri c bl ock. The di mensi ons of the wi ndow must be adjusted to
compensate for the di el ectri c; thi s agai n must be determi ned empi ri cal l y.
I t i s obvi ous that tr ue resonance behavi or can be achi eved at onl y one
wavel ength wi th a gi ven wi ndow.
The use of wi ndows at wavel engths shor ter than 3 cm i s rather l i mi ted.
Several di ffi cul ti es ari se due to the decr ease i n the di mensi ons of the
wavegui de wi th decreasi ng wavel ength. The most stri ki ng of these are
(1) the i ncreased l i abi l i ty to el ectri cal breakdown i n the nei ghborhood
of a wi ndow, (2) er r or s i n determi ni ng the posi ti on of the el ement, and
(3) the machi ni ng and i nserti on of smal l parts. For wavel engths shor ter
than 3 cm the step transformer, i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 7.12, i s recommended.
Yi Li s i s anal ogous to the cascade secti on di scussed for coaxi al l i nes. The
characteri sti cs of the step transformer can be expr essed i n terms of the
i nput admi ttance Presented at the gener ator si cl e when the gui de i s
termi nated beyond the secti on i n a matched l oad:1
I Si chak,op. cit., p. 2.
232 MI CROWAVE TRANSMI SSI ON L1.VBS [SEC. 7.12
The parameters 1, b, d are defi ned i n the fi gure; A, i s the wavel ength
i n the wavegui de; and F is a functi on of d/b al one, a few val ues of whi ch
are gi ven i n Tabl e 7.1. When 1 = Xg/4, Eq. (81) reduces to
TABLE 7. 1.F-FUNCTI ON FOE STEP TRANSFORMER
1$$% F-functi on
o
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0
0.020
0.063
0.130
0.235
0.395
0.598
0.820
To desi gn a transformer from ei ther Eq. (80) or (80a) i t i s necessary to
construct a graph, based on Tabl e 71, from whi ch the requi red val ues
of F may be obtai ned. Over the range of useful val ues of b/d the secti on
can be r egar ded as a quarter-wave transformer wi th a phase cor r ecti on
due to the capaci tati ve effects at the juncti on. The phase cor r ecti on
makes i tsel f fel t i n that the l oad end of the transformer i s not pl aced at
the poi nt of a vol tage mi ni mum (the poi nt of maxi mum l oad admi t-
tance) but i s di spl aced sl i ghtl y from that poi nt toward the gener ator .
To a fi rst approxi mati on the matchi ng condi ti on i s that the conductance
i n Eq. (80a) be equal to the maxi mum normal i zed l oad admi ttance,
b,
~
g, = .
4b2F2
l +T
9
(81)
The l atter di rectl y equal s the vol tage standi ng-wave rati o due to the
l oad. Accordi ngl y i t i s suggested that the desi gner pr epar e for hi msel f
a set of charts of r or g, agai nst d/b over the range of k, wi th whi ch he
wi l l be chi efl y concer ned. For a gi ven case the transformer wi th di men-
si ons determi ned i n the i ndi cated manner can be prepared to sl i de i n th~
SEC. 7.13] CI RCULAR WA VEGUI DE: TM- AND TE-MODES 233
gui de, the bottom of the transformer bei ng ti nned befor e i nserti on. The
transformer i s moved al ong the gui de unti l the best matchi ng posi ti on
i s l ocated and then sol dered i nto pl ace by heati ng the outsi de of the gui de.
7.13. Ci rcul ar Wavegui de: TM- and TE-Modes.Let us consi der
next a hol l ow gui de of ci rcul ar cross secti on of radi us a.
As i n the case
of the coaxi al l i ne we are her e concer ned wi th sol uti ons of the scal ar
Hel mhol tz equati on i n a ci rcul ar regi on. The general sol uti ons are the
same as for the coaxi al l i ne:
~(z~~) = [AJm(Kr) + ILVm(.r)] cos mO.
@(z,y)
(758)
Her e agai n r, o are pol ar coordi nates over the cross secti on, and m i s an
i nteger. I n the present case, si nce ther e i s no i nner conductor, ther e are
no sources i n the i nteri or and the fi el ds must be fi ni te at al l poi nts. The
Neumann functi on, however , becomes i nfi ni te at r = O; accordi ngl y i t
must be r emoved from the sol uti on: B must be equal to zer o. The funda-
mental sol uti ons are, ther efor e,
4(%Y) = ~Jm(.r) cos mf3.
41(x,y)
(82)
a. TM-modes.By the boundary condi ti on of Eq. (21b) we requi re
@ = O at r = a for al l val ues of d. Thi s l eads to characteri sti c val ues
K~~whi ch sati sfy the rel ati onl
Jm(~mna) = O.
The compl ete set of fi el d components for the TMn-mode, obtai ned from
Eqs. (22) and (23), are
E, = K;n COSmd~~(.nn~)e-y ; H, = O,
E, = 7= Ho = ~.,~.m. cos me~~(.~.r)~-y,
.1
(83)
~nt(Knw,~) e_7,,,nz
E,g= ~H,=mymnsi nmO
r
The fi el d confi gurati ons for several of these modes, together wi th the
cutoff wavel engths, are shown i n Fi g. 7 13.
b. TE-modes.The functi on t(x,y) i s subject to the boundary con-
di ti on of Eq. (13): d~/dr]~~ = Ofor al l 0. The characteri sti c val ues .nn
sati sfy the rel ati onz
Ym(Kmfl a)= o. (84)
1For l ower r oots z~. = .~.a of thi s equati onseeE. Jahnkeand F. Er ode, Tables of
Functions, Dover Publ i cati onsRepri nt, New York, 1943,p. 168.
2For the l ower r oots .A = K,,AIof thi s equati on see ibid.
234
MI CROWAVE TRANSMI SS1O.V LI KES [SEC. 7.13
The fi el d components for the general TE~.-mode are found to be
H. = K~. cos mdJ~(Kfi.r)e-~z; E. = O,
H, = ~~ Eo = Kn.ymN cos mO~~(K~sr)eYZ,
.1
(85)
Jm(Km.?)~_,mnz
HO = ~~ E, = mym. si n mo
r
These modes are i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 7.14. On exami nati on of the r oots
of the Bessel functi ons and thei r deri vati ves i t wi l l be seen that the l owest
mode, that i s, the mode wi th the l ongest cutoff wavel ength, i s the TEI ,.
(a)
(b)
(c)
FI O. 7.13.7M-mode i n ci rcul ar wavegui de: (a) ZWo,-mode [M,() = 1.31dl ; (~)
!l Mo,-r node [km{) = 1.07d]; (c) TM,~-mode [xI ,(I = 0.82d]. el ectri c fi el d;
magneti c fi el d.
mode. Thi s i s the mode general l y uti l i zed i n antenna systems. I t i s the
ci rcul ar gui de anal ogue of the TE10-mode i n rectangul ar wavegui de.
The use of ci rcul ar wavegui de i s l i mi ted by several factors, of whi ch
perhaps the most si gni fi cant i s i nstabi l i ty i n ori entati on of the fi el d con-
fi gurati ons. Si nce the gui de has rotati onal symmetry, the fi el d confi gura-
ti on can be r otated about the z-axi s wi thout vi ol ati ng boundary condi ti ons;
ther e i s no pr efer r ed di recti on 0 = O. Smal l i rregul ari ti es i n the wal l
of the gui de or matchi ng wi ndows can cause such rti tati rm of the fi el ds
gi vi ng ri se to subsequent di ffi cul ti es i n desi gni ng the radi ati ng system.
I n rectangul ar gui de, on the other hand, the ori entati on of the fi el d
confi gurati on i s uni quel y determi ned by the ori entati on of the cross sec-
ti on. Another di ffi cul ty i n round gui de i s mode control over an appre-
ci abl e frequency band. The radi us i s the onl y parameter avai l ahl c to
determi ne the cutoff i vavel ength; i n rectangul ar gui de, both the di mel ,-
si ons a and b enter i nto the characteri sti c val ues of the hi gher modes.
Sk:(, 7.15] l.i liiil.1.I iI ,-I I ,A YE }}:1 }EC[ I I I E 235
Other comparati ve factors wi l l be poi nted out i n the di scussi on of wave-
gui de and horn feeds.
7.14. Wi ndows for Use i n Ci rcul ar Gui des.As wi th rectangul ar
gui des, metal di aphragms can be i nserted i nto ci rcul ar gui des to ser ve as
matchi ng devi ces for the Z1111-mode. The ci rcui t equi val ents of these
wi ndows are agai n reacti ve el ements shunted across the two-wi r e l i ne
representati on of the domi nant mode. Capaci tati ve wi ndows cut across
the E-l i nes, \vhi l e i nducti ve wi ndows cut across the transverse magneti c
fi el d i nthe cross secti on. Theadmi ttance characteri sti cs ofsuchwi ndows
@@
(a) (b)
(c)
1:1,;. 7.14. 7E-,,I odr* i ,, r,rrul ar wavegui cl es: (a) Tfl ,,-mode [ho,(c) =0.!32d]; (b)
I l?,l-!llode [A,, ==1.71(1]; (c) TEI ,-111OCI C[k) = 1.OM]. el ectri c fi el d;
n~agucti c fi el d.
may be found i n the l i terature on the subject. Ther e i s al so avai l abl e
aresmmnt wi ndow whi ch can beusedasafrarne to support a thi n di el ec-
tri c sheet to seal the wavegui de.
7.16. Paral l el -pl ate Wavegui de..$mother type of wavegui de that i s
used i n mi cro~rave antennas i s that formed by a pai r of paral l el pl ates.
The modes can be deri ved, asi n thepre~-i ous secti ons, by a di rect sol u-
ti on of the fi el d equati ons, i n the present case for a regi on bounded by a
pai r of paral l el per fectl y conducti ng surfaces of i nfi ni te extent. I t wi l l
be i nstructi ve, ho~vever j to treat the paral l el -pl ate system as a l i mi ti ng
case of the coaxi al l i ne and the rectangul ar wavegui de.
The paral l el -pl ate \vavegui de can be deri ved from the coaxi al l i ne
I ,Vicro?L,ave Tru7Lst/ tission L)esfgn Dflta, Sper r yGyr oscopeCompany, 1944; Wave-
g~i i deHandbook,) 1{1.Gr oup Repor t 3-0.43, Feb. 7, 1945; JVavegui de Handbook
S,, ppl emer,t,] RI , Gr ol l p l l eport Xo. 41, Jan. 23, 1945; 11awgui deHandbook, Vol . 10
~t (hi s seri es.
236 MI CROWAVE TRANSMI SSI ON LI NES
[SEC. 7.15
by al l owi ng the radi i a and b of the i nner and outer conductors to become
i nfi ni te i n such a way that the spaci ng b a between the conductors
remai ns constant:
ba=s. (86)
I t wi l l be recal l ed that the ZEM-mode i s i ndependent of the radi i of the
conductors and i s supported by the l i ne for al l frequenci es wi th a wave-
l ength equal to that i n fr ee space. We thus arri ve di rectl y at the resul t
that the paral l el -pl ate gui de supports fr ee propagati on of a TEM-mode
at al l frequenci es. The el ectri c vector i s perpendi cul ar to the pl ates,
~ ,.=S,Z
o
Fm. 7.15.Theparal l el -pl atewavegui deas a l i mi ti ngcaseof a coaxi all i ne.
and the magneti c vector i s paral l el to the pl ates; nei ther fi el d vector has
a component i n the di recti on of propagati on. Taki ng Eq. (53) for the
el ectri c vector of the !fEi l f-mode and wri ti ng r = a + y, b = a + s (cj.
Fi g. 7.15), we fi nd that the magni tude of the el ectri c fi el d i s
Letti ng a become i nfi ni te we obtai n
I i m IEI
a+ cc
1
v
+!J ):_
(s7)
a
g,+
v

.
s
(88)
The magni tude of the el ectri c-fi el d vector i s i ndependent of posi ti on
between the pl ates; the same resul t i s obtai ned for the magneti c fi el d.
I t wi l l be r ecogni zed that Eq. (88) i s the same expressi on as for the stati c
el ectri c fi el d between a pai r of pl ates at a di fference of potenti al V.
Consi deri ng next the TE- and TM-modes of the coaxi al l i ne we note
~hat as the radi i become i nfi ni te, the peri odi ci ty condi ti on di sappears;
that i s, we need concer n oursel ves onl y wi th the modes of or der m = O
[Eq, (5S)].
TM-modes.-The l ongi tudi nal component of the el ectri c fi el d [the
functi on o(z,y) i n Eq. (58)] i s
E. = A.J,(Kr) + BNo(Kr).
(89)
Maki ng use of the asymptoti c forms of the Bessel functi onal for l arge
(.I -), we get
1G. N. Watson,Bessel Fundiom, 2d cd., Macmi l l an, New York, 1945,Chap. 7.
SEC. 715]
PARALLEL-PLATE WA VEGUI DE 237
+JIAcOs(K+Ka-:)+ Bsin(K+a- $1
We have her e i ntroduced agai n r = a + y. I n the l i mi t a = m, the
sol uti on takes the form
E, A COS(K~ +,).
(90)
Appl yi ng the boundary condi ti ons EZ = O at y = O and y = s, ~ve fi nd
that 7 = (7r/2) f 2rmr and that the characteri sti c val ues of the modes are
%= ?~.
n=l ,,2, . . . .
s
(91)
Equati on (9o) can thus be re\vri tten as
The cutoff wavel ength for the TMm-mode i s [Eq. (16)]
(92)
(93)
and the gui de wavel ength for the fr eel y propagated mode [Eq. (17)] i s
g= [1-/$1
(94)
The transverse components of the fi el d are obtai ned from E, by means
of the set of Eqs. (4) and (5):
(95a)
(95b)
the constant ~n i s defi ned by Eq. (14).
TE-modes.The deri vati on of the TE-modes pr oceeds i n a si mi l ar
manner. Equati on (90) i n thi s case represents the l ongi tudi nal com-
ponent of the magneti c fi el d; that i s,
H, = ~ 0S (KY + T).
(96)
The boundary condi ti ons c?H./ dy = O at y = O and y = s l ead to the
resul t that 7 = + 2mrr and
n = El,
n=l ,2, .,,
s
(97}
238 I f I clto J VA Vfl
The cutoff wavel ength for the
gui de wavel ength by Eq. (94).
TRAiVS.flf i SSI OiV LI .i-I iS [Sm. 716
TE.-mode i s gi ven by Eq. (93), and the
The compl ete set of fi el d components i s
()
H.= Acos ~,
()
E= = ~~!! Al sin Zy ,
E, = O,
K. s
()
Hu=~A sin ~ ; Hz = O.
Km
(97a)
(97tl)
(!17c)
I t wi l l be r ecogni zed that the fi el d di stri buti ons and gui de \~ave-
l engths cor r espond to TM- and TE-modes of the rectangul ar gui de.
The T.kfn-rnodes of the paral l el -pl ate system are the anal ogues of the
TM1, n-modes, and the T.En-modes are the anal ogues of the TEO,n-modes.
As the broadsi de di mensi on a of the rectangul ar gui de becomes i nfi ni te,
the modes of the l atter pass i nto paral l el pl ate modes.
7.16. Desi gn Notes.Several remarks on desi gn practi ce may pr ove
of i nterest to the reader. These are parti cul arl y concer ned wi th coaxi al
l i nes and ci rcul ar wavegui des. Unl ess an antenna i s bei ng devel oped as
a si ngl e experi mental model or for producti on i n ver y l i mi ted numbers,
some attenti on shoul d be gi ven to the producti on probl em or the avai l -
abi l i ty of parts. Wi th r espect to the coaxi al l i nes and ci rcul ar gui des,
di mensi ons shoul d be chosen as near as possi bl e to those of commerci al l y
standardi zed tubi ng. The pri mary consi derati ons i n the choi ce of
di mensi ons are, of course, the characteri sti c i mpedance of the l i ne and
the control of hi gher modes; these, however , al l ow some l ati tude i n
desi gn.
Speci al car e shoul d be taken i n the i nspecti on of tubi ng. Errati c
resul ts i n standi ng-wave measurements on l i nes have frequentl y been
traced to i rregul ari ti es i n the cross secti on of the l i ne. Ri dges and \vaves
are found i n the tube wal l i f the di e through whi ch the tubi ng was
extr uded i s wor n or i f the dri vi ng uni t i s faul ty. Such ri dges and waves
can be detected onl y by cutti ng the tube i n hal f. I t i s recommcmded that
a sampl e l ength of tubi ng from each ne\v l ot be cut down the mi ddl e
for i nspecti on befor e usi ng the materi al . I t i s often useful to for ce a steel
bal l of pr oper di ameter through the tubi ng under pressure, thus si zi ng
and pol i sbg the i nsi de surface.
MI CROWAVE
CHAPTER 8
DI POLE ANTENNAS AND FEEDS
BY S. SI LVER
The earl y trends i n mi crowave antenna desi gn gr ew out of the prac-
ti ce of usi ng di pol e systems at l onger \\-avel engths. Neverthel ess, l i ttl e
systemati c i nformati on has been obtai ned about mi crowave di pol e sys-
tems. Thi s i s partl y due to the gr eater di ffi cul ty i n appl yi ng theor y to
practi cal l y useful mi crowave di pol es and partl y to the urgent mi l i tary
needs whi ch pr evented systemati c research duri ng the earl y devel opment
i n thi s fi el d. Mor e recentl y, attenti on has been concentrated on wave-
gui de and horn radi ators, whi ch are mor e amenabl e to quanti tati ve
anal ysi s. Consequentl y, the desi gn of mi crowave di pol e antennas i s
s$i l l i n the empi ri cal stage; quanti tati ve data are avai l abl e onl y wi th
r efer ence to parti cul ar systems.
8.1. Characteri sti cs of Antenna Feeds.The di pol e systems that we
shal l consi der i n thi s chapter are, ~\-i tha few excepti ons, desi gned to
ser ve as pri mary feeds to i l l umi nate refl ectors; i t wi l l be assumed through-
out, unl ess the contrary i s noted, that thi s i s the end i n vi ew. The
general desi gn requi rements and speci fi cati ons i mposed on pri mary feeds
are the fol l owi ng:
Radiation Patter-n.-I t i s evi dent that a pri mary feed radi ati on pat-
ter n must be di recti ve, wi th the major fracti on of the ener gy radi ated
toward the r efl ector . We have studi ed i n Chap. 6 the rel ati on between
the radi ati on pattern of the antenna as a whol e and the i ntensi ty and
phase di stri buti on over the aperture. The rel ati on between the l atter
and the pri mary pattern ~ri l l be devel oped i n l ater chapters on the desi gn
probl ems of speci al types of antennas. I t may be noted her e, however ,
that the desi gn of a r efl ector -or ~.l ensi s general l y based on the assump-
ti on that the feed i s a poi nt source. De\-i ati ons of the feed from a poi nt-
sour ce radi ator resul t i n phase er r or s over the aperture of the antenna.
Parti cul ar attenti on must be pai d to the phase. I t was shown i n
Chap. 3 that many i deal i zed radi ati ng systems are effecti vel y poi nt
sources i n the sense that the equi phase surfaces consti tute a fami l y of
concentri c spheres. Thi s si tuati on i s real i zed onl y approxi matel y i n the
case of an actual feed. The pattern of the l atter i s usual l y speci fi ed i n
terms of the pri nci pal E- and H-pl ane patterns (Sec. 3 18). I n each of
these pl anes i t shoul d be possi bl e to fi nd an equi ~al ent center oj feed,
239
240 MI CRO WAVE DI POLE ANTENNAS AND FEEDS [SEC. 82
wi th r espect to whi ch the equi phase l i nes are ci rcul ar (to wi thi n a pr e-
scri bed l i mi t of er r or ) over the regi on to be cover ed by the r efl ector .
To mi ni mi ze the probl ems of r efl ector desi gn i t i s essenti al that the center s
of feed for the pri nci pal pl anes be coi nci dent. I n general , i t i s desi rabl e
that on a sphere about the center of feed the phase shal l be constant to
wi thi n t r/8, correspondi ng to path di fferences of f A/16; for some
purposes, path di fferences of + A/8 can be tol erated. The cone wi thi n
whi ch the feed i s a poi nt sour ce i n the sense of these cri teri a wi l l be r efer r ed
to as the poi nt-source cone.
I mpedance. I mpedance match i s requi red over as broad a frequency
band as possi bl e. An antenna i s general l y consi dered to be usabl e
throughout the frequency band i n whi ch the vol tage standi ng-wave rati o
i s l ess than 1.4. Si nce i nteracti ons wi th the r efl ector tend to i ncrease
the total mi smatch, i t i s desi rabl e to keep the feed mi smatch bel ow the
fi gure gi ven above.
Power-carrying Capaci ty .Thi s i s l i mi ted by el ectri cal breakdown
whi ch may occur wi thi n the feed l i ne and around the feed components
under the peak vol tage of a transmi tted si gnal . The effect of matchi ng
devi ces on breakdown characteri sti cs was noted i n Sec. 7.9. The break-
down probl em i s parti cul arl y si gni fi cant i n antennas i ntended for ai r-
craft, because the breakdown potenti al decreases wi th i ncreasi ng al ti tude,
due to the decr ease i n atmospheri c pressure and the i ncrease of fr ee i on
content. Feeds for hi gh-al ti tude ai rborne systems must ther efor e be so
desi gned that ai r can be hel d i n the r-f l i ne under pressure. The average
requi rement i s 10 to 15-l b gauge pressure rel ati ve to sea l evel atmospheri c
pressure.
Weather Protecti on. Antennas must be pr otected from the weather
to pr event corrosi on and consequent power di ssi pati on i n the antenna
structure. Weatheri zati on i s an i mportant consi derati on i n shi pborne
antennas, whi ch are exposed to sea-water sprays.
Mechani cal Strength, Light Wei ght .Antennas i nstal l ed i n ai rcraft
and shi ps are subject to hi gh stresses due to rapi d changes i n the moti on
of the ai rpl ane or osci l l ati ons of masts of the shi p i n a hi gh wi nd. I n
ai rcraft systems, mechani cal strength must be attai ned wi th economy of
wei ght.
Reasonable Tol erances. Tol erances shoul d not be so cl ose that pr o-
ducti on methods cannot be used effecti vel y.
8.2. Coaxi al Li ne Termi nati ons: The Ski rt Di pol e.-The theoreti cal
pr ototype of the di pol e radi ators i s the hal f-wave di pol e fed at the center
from a bal anced two-wi r e transmi ssi on l i ne. The si gni fi cant features of
thi s system are the fol l owi ng:
1. The two wi ngs of the di pol e car r y equal currents.
SEC. &2] COAXI AL LI NE I ERA{I NA TI ONS: THE I SKI RT DI POLE
241
2. The cur r ent di stri buti on i s determi ned by the di pol e structure,
i nteracti on between the di pol e and the transmi ssi on l i ne bei ng
negl i gi bl e,
3. The di pol e termi nati on does not upset the bal anced condi ti on of the
l i ne.
Whi l e i t i s tr ue that a coaxi al l i ne propagati ng the 7EM-mode i s equi va-
l ent to a bal anced two-wi r e l i ne, i t i s vi rtual l y i mpossi bl e to make a
T
1,
1
4
12
1
Die-
lectric
bead
support
(a) (b)
(c)
FI G. S. I . Ski rt di pol e: (a) si mpl e form; (b) tapered gap to i mprove the i mpedance
characteri sti cs; (c) decoupl i ng choke Ca to prevent cur r ent l eakage al ong the outer wal l .
mi crowave di pol e termi nati on that behaves l i ke the theoreti cal pr ototype.
The ski rt di pol e i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 8.1 i s an exampl e of a coaxi al -l i ne
termi nati on that i s used extensi ve] y at l onger wavel engths and to a l esser
extent i n the mi crowave regi on. The two wi ngs of the di pol e consi st of
the unshi el ded secti on of the i nner conductor and the fol ded-back secti on
of the outer conductor (A i n Fi g. 8.1); we shal l r efer to the l atter as the
ski rt. I f the l engths 11, 12, of the r especti ve el ements are each about
A/4, the system approxi mates a center-dri ven hal f-wave di pol e. Thi s
termi nati on mai ntai ns the radi al symmetry of the l i ne; the cur r ent di s-
tri buti on over the wi ngs i s radi al l y symmetri c, and the radi ati on pattern
has the axi al symmetry of the i deal i zed system.
I t i s to be expected, however , that the meri di onal pattern wi l l di ffer
from that of the l i ne radi ator. One reason for thi s i s the fact that the
cur r ent di stri buti on i s spread over a fi ni te area i nstead of bei ng confi ned
to a l i ne. The currents at di fferent poi nts on a ci rcumference of the
ski rt are consequentl y at di fferent di stances from a fi el d poi nt and gi ve
242 J I I ChOWAVE I ) I POI ,E A.VTE.Y,VAS A.VI ) I EEDS [SEC.83
contri buti ons to the fi el d that have correspondi ngl y di fferent phases.
These phase di fferences are mor e si gni fi cant \vi th mi crowavesthan \vi th
l ong waves, si nce they depend on the rati o of the ski rt di ameter to the
wavel ength. Thepatterni sal so affectedl y the fi ni te di mensi on of the
gap at the dri vi ng poi nt; thi s causes the cur r ent di stri buti on al ong
the l ength of the di pol e to devi ate from the si nusoi dal di stri buti on of the
l i ne di pol e wi th an i nfi ni tesi mal gap.
A further major factor i s the coupl i ng between the fi el d of the di pol e
and the outsi de wal l of the l i ne, whi ch produces a cur r ent di stri buti on
down the l i ne beyond the ski rt. Thi s cur r ent di stri buti on al so radi ates;
the total pattern ari ses from superposi ti on of thi s fi el d and the di pol e
fi el d. Thepattern rapi dl y becomes l ess sati sfactory asthec~l rrent on the
l i ne i ncreases; so the l i ne cur r ent must ther efor e be kept as smal l as
possi bl e. I t can be control l ed i n part by changi ng the cavi ty Cl formed
by the ski rt and the outsi de wal l of the l i ne. Thi s regi on consti tutes a
shorted secti on of l i ne and as such presents at the open end of the ski rt
a reacti ve i mpedance i n seri es \vi th the di pol e and the outer wal l of the
l i ne; by maki ng the depth k/4, the reacti ve i mpedance can be made
i nfi ni te. I n practi ce i t i s found that best resul ts are obtai ned wi th a ski rt
of l ength somewhat l ess than A/4. Pr oper operati on i s obtai ned onl y
at the desi gn frequency, si nce the i mpedance of the choke Cl vari es rapi dl y
wi th frequency. I mproved over-al l i mpedance characteri sti cs have been
obtai ned by shorteni ng the ski rt and compensati ng for the r educed
physi cal l ength of Cl by fi l l i ng i t wi th di el ectri c to bri ng the el ectri cal
l ength up to A/4. I t has al so been found that, mor e effi ci ent decoupl i ng
between the di pol e and the outer l i ne can be effected by means of a second
choke Cz mounted as shown i n Fi g. 8. l c. The el ectri cal depth of C2
shoul d agai n be a quarter wavel ength, so that the choke presents an
i nfi ni te i mpedance at the open end. Experi mental l y i t i s found that the
decoupl i ng i s most compl ete when the separati on of C, and C, i s 0. 15A.
The structure of the gap G pl ays a si gni fi cant part i n determi ni ng the
over-al l i mpedance characteri sti cs of the antenna. Because an abrupt
di sconti nui ty i n structure gi ves ri se to a r efl ected wave i n the l i ne, i t i s
natural to repl ace the regi on G i n Fi g. 8. l a by the tapered structure shown
i n Fi g, 8,1 b. The i ncreased di ameter of the di pol e stub al so contri butes
to mai ntai ni ng uni form i mpedance over a l arger frequency band (cj.
Sec. 8.5). Further methods of control l i ng the i mpedance characteri sti cs,
such as decreasi ng the l ength 11and l oadi ng the stub wi th a sphere (capaci -
tati ve l oadi ng), wi l l occur to the reader; w-e shal l not dwel l upon them
her e.
8.3. Asymmetri cal Di pol e Termi nati on.-The asymmetri c di pol e
termi nati ons sho\vn i n Fi g. 8.2 are desi gned to gi ve a radi ati on pattern
wi th peak i ntensi ty al ong the axi s of the feed l i ne. The di pol e i n Fi g.
82a i s center . fed from a two-wi r e l i ne. The asymmetry of the tcrmi na-
ti on unbal ances the cur r ent di stri buti ons on the i nner and outer conduc-
tors of the l i ne, wi th the resul t that the two ~vi ngs of the di pol e are not
equal l y exci ted. Al so, strong coupl i ng exi sts between the di pol e system
and the outer wal l of the l i ne, gi vi ng ri se to radi ati ng currents on the
l atter, just as i n the case of the ski rt di pol e. The choke C remedi es the
si tuati on to some extent; wi th a depth 1. of about A/4 the choke presents
at i ts open end an i nfi ni te i mpedance, i n seri es bet~reen the outer wal l of
~
c
.

-
. L
1,
(a)
t
I
1=;
I
+
c
L
+--s
- --
7 /
- - _ -
__ _
------
!
b!
ls +
D
(b)
FI G. S2.-Asymmetri c di pol e ter,ni nati nns: (a) opewend termi nati on; (b) stub-support
terl mnati on.
the l i ne to the l eft of the choke and the regi on of the l i ne to the ri ght.
Thi s serves to confi ne most of the outer-wal l currents to the regi on between
the di pol e and the choke.
The open-ended termi nati on has poor structural properti es. I n or der
to mai ntai n al i gnment, of the di pol e \ri ngs i t i s necessary to fi l l the termi -
nal regi on of the l i ne \vi th a di el ectri c pl ug. The l atter gi ves ri se to
further probl ems of i mpedance mi smatch and to poor contact between
the di el ectri c and the conductors, \\-hi chmay l ead to el ectri cal breakdovm;
the seal s general l y deter i or ate under exposur e to moi sture and thermal
and mechani cal stresses. I n addi ti on, radi ati on from the open-ended
coaxi al l i ne di storts the di pol e pattern. These defects are absent i n the
stub-support termi nati on she\\-ni n Fi g. 8.2b. The coaxi al l i ne i s con-
ti nued for a di stance 1.= X/4I myond t}~e di pol e system and termi nated
ther e i n a metal pl ate. The l atter rwgi on, known as the termi nati ng
244 MI CROWAVE DI POLE ANTENNAS AND 11EEDS
[SEC. 83
stub, i s agai n a shorted secti on of l i ne, presenti ng a reacti ve i mpedance
at the i nput end. Consi derati on of the cur r ent di vi si on at the dri vi ng
poi nt of the di pol e shows that the stub i s equi val ent to an i mpedance
shunted across the gap between the di pol e wi ngs. Wi th 1. = A/4, thi s
i mpedance i s practi cal l y i nfi ni te; el ectri cal l y the system i s equi val ent
to an open-ended termi nati on.
The di spari ty i n the currents on the two wi ngs of a stub termi nati on
i s even gr eater than that i n the open-ended termi nati on. The dead
wi ng (or stub) D is exci ted onl y by l eakage currents whi ch make thei r
t
4
0
0
-f(A)
3
s
%
I (A)
~
~_ _
I (B)
A =10.>0 cm
u
~~
5 10 15 20 25 30
Oistance from center of the dipole, cm
FI G. S.3.Leakage cur r ents al ong the l i ne; stub-supported di pol e-di sk feed wi thout choke.
way through the openi ng i n the outer wal l and by coupl i ng wi th the fi el d
of the l i ve stub L. As i n the case of the open-ended termi nati on, coupl i ng
exi sts between the di pol e system and the center wal l of the l i ne. A
measure of the rel ati ve exci tati on of the di pol e stubs i s afforded by the
i ntensi ty of the outer-wal l l i ne currents al ong l i nes i n a pl ane contai ni ng
the di pol e axi s. Fi gure 8.3 shows resul ts of l i ne-current studi es made on a
di pol e system carryi ng a refl ecti ng pl ate on the termi nal stub. The
standi ng-wave structure i n the cur r ent i s due to some obstructi on on the
outsi de surface at the i nput end of the coaxi al l i ne.
Control of the outer wal l currents i s achi eved by means of the choke
I
I
Sxc. 8.4] SYMMETRI CALLY ENERGI ZED DI POLES
245
C (Fi g. 8.2 b), as i n the systems di scussed previ ousl y. To present an
i nfi ni te i mpedance at i ts open end the choke shoul d, nomi nal l y, have a
depth of A/4. However , because of juncti on effects at the open end and
coupl i ng wi th the di pol e system,
the opti mum val ue i s somewhat
l ess than A/4. Fi gure 8.4 shows
the l i ne-current strength at a fi xed
poi nt on the outer wal l as a func-
ti on of choke depth for the system
studi ed i n Fi g. 8.3; the opti mum
depth i s 0.23A. Al though thi s
val ue i s stri ctl y si gni fi cant onl y
for the system i l l ustrated, i t has
been found to gi ve good resul ts i n
other di pol e systems empl oyi ng
chokes; i t i s a sui tabl e val ue for the
depth of the choke Cl of the ski rt
di pol e consi dered earl i er.
I t has been noted that the
effect of the choke i s to confi ne the
outerwal l cur r ent to the regi on be-
tween the choke and the end of the
l i ne. Thi s cur r ent di stri buti on
0.1 0.2 0.3
Choke depth .f wavelengths
l SI G. 8.4.Leakage cur r ent as a functi on of
choke depth.
serves as a l i near radi ator al ong the axi s of the feed l i ne. From the
general consi derati ons of Sec. 3.15 i t wi l l be evi dent that thi s radi ates no
ener gy i n the di recti on of the l i ne axi s; i t wi l l , i n general , gi ve ri se to a
pattern wi th peak i ntensi ty on a cone havi ng i ts axi s coi nci dent wi th the
l i ne axi s. The phase of the l i ne cur r ent wi th r espect to the di pol e cpr-
r ent i s determi ned by the posi ti on of the choke wi th r espect to the di pol e
system. I n combi nati on wi th a parabol oi dal mi rror, i n whi ch the feed
l i ne l i es on the axi s of the mi rror, the i nteracti on between the di pol e and
l i ne-current system produces a phenomenon known as squi nt, i n whi ch
the over-al l antenna beam i s poi nted, not al ong the axi s of symmetry of
the system, but i n a di recti on maki ng a smal l angl e wi th that axi s. Use
i s made of thi s phenomenon for scanni ng.
I n cl osi ng the di scussi on of the asymmetri c termi nati ons, i t shoul d be
noted that the i nput i mpedances of both the choke and the termi nati ng
stub vary rapi dl y \vi th frequency. As a resul t, these structures are
strong contri buti ng factors i n the frequency sensi ti vi ty of the i mpedance
of these antennas. I n addi ti on, the cut-a\vay regi on of the l i ne i ntroduces
di stri buted capaci ti es and i nductances. l hcse factors restri ct the
usabi l i ty of the antenna to a narrow frequency band.
8.4. Symmetri cal l y Energi zed Di pol es: Sl ot-fed Systems.The
shortcomi ng of unequal exci tati on of the di pol e stubs, whi ch charac-
246 MI CROWAVE DI POLE AAT7I i ,\,V.l S :l \I l F>;);l )S [SE(. 8.4
teri zes the termi nati ons di scussed above, i s el i mi nated i n the sl ot-fed
systems shown i n Fi g. 8.5. Both wi ngs of the di pol e are mounted on the
outer conductor, i n whi ch a pai r of sl ots S i s mi l l ed i n a pl ane normal to
the di pol e axi s. The i nner conductor i s short-ci rcui ted to the outer
conductor on one si de by the post P, whi ch usual l y i s i n the l i ne of the
di pol e axi s but may be i nserted at any poi nt al ong the l i ne i n the sl otted
regi on. Both open-ended and stub-termi nated systems are used, ana-
---
6!!?
P
s-s
Y
(a)
n
+
[
..
-i

(b)
FI G. 85.-Sl ot-fed di pol e termi nati ons on coaxi al l i ne: (a) opeme,,ded termi nati on; (b)
stub termi nati on.
l ogous to the systems di scussed i n the precedi ng secti on. The open-
ended type i s used as a radi ati ng el ement i n l i near arrays (cf. Sec. 9.8).
The operati on of the di pol e can be i nterpreted from vari ous poi nts of
vi ew. Perhaps the si mpl est pi cture i s that the radi ati ng system i s
ener gi zed by a vol tage i mpressed across the sl ot. The ori gi n of the
vol tage becomes evi dent on consi derati on of mode rel ati onshi ps i n the
sl otted regi on. I n the absence of the short-ci rcui ti ng post P we woul d
have the ZEM-mode and possi bl y hi gher modes gener ated i n the open-
ended termi nati on or , i n the case of a wi de sl ot, gener ated by the sl ot
i tsel f. Al l these modes, however , woul d be symmetri c wi th r espect to
the pl ane contai ni ng the axes of the sl ots and gi ve ri se to no i mpressed
fi el d across the sl ot; under these condi ti ons the di pol e i s not exci ted.
Wi th the i nserti on of the post, modes are gener ated that are symmetri c
SEC. 8.4] SYMMETRI CALLY ENERGI ZED DI POLES 247
wi th r espect to the pl ane determi ned by the axi s of the post and the axi s
of thei nner conductor. These modes, whensuperposedo nthep recedi ng
set, must gi ve ri se to a fi el d such that the tangenti al el ectri c fi el d i s
zer o over the surface of the post. I n the case of a narrow sl ot we can
i gnore (for the qual i tati ve pi cture) themodes gener ated bythe sl ot i tsel f;
the pri me effect of these modes i storel ax thecutoff condi ti ons and al l ow
propagati on wi thi n the sl otted regi on of some of the modes gener ated
by the post. The most si gni fi cant of the l atter i s the ZE,l -mode; Fi g.
86 shows how superposi ti on of the Z11,,-mode on the 7EM-mode l eads
TEM TE, ,
E =Ern,,
W,>. S6.-Superl ,c,si ti (>,, O{the TE.11- a,)d TE, I -mnci es i n the sl otted regi on of the sl ot-fed
dl pol c.,
to a fi el d conti g~l rati on that sati sfi es the requi si te boundary condi ti on
on the el ectri c fi el d i n the case of a thi n post. The resul tant confi gura-
ti on gi ves a fi el d th:~t i s zer o al ong the post and i ncreases wi th angl e to a
maxi mum val ue di rectl yf opposi te to the post. I t i s readi l y seen that
thi s i mpresses a vol tage across the sl ot, wi th resul ti ng exci tati on of the
di pol e structure.
The sl otted di pol e can al so be anal yzed from the transmi ssi on-l i ne
poi nt of vi ew. The sl otted regi on i s concei ved as a three-\vi re trans-
mi ssi on l i ne; thi s i s the appropri ate represcntat i on of a wavegui de sup-
porti ng si mul taneous propagati on of two modes, just as the t\vo-wi re
l i ne reprments si ngl e-mode propagati on. I t \vi l l car r y us too far afi el d
to di scuss tl ~e general theor y of three-\vi re l i nes. z The equi val ent ci r-
cui t rel Jr(:sel l t:Lti L)I l s for the open-ended and stub-termi nated systems are
shol vn i n l ~i g. 8.ia :LI K1 b rcspwti vci y, for t,hc case i n wh~ch the post
l i es al ong the di pol e axi s. Her e Z,, i s the i mpe(l ance across the pai r of
l i nes ronncci cd I )y the I )ON; Z,; the i mpedance at, the gap opposi te to the
Post; ~A i s ti l e i rl pl l t i nl pe(kn(() of ~~di pol e ha~i n~ the same \~i n~strut-
trl rc as i n (1w gi ven systcrn, I )I l t cent rl -fed from a bal anred two-\vi re l i ne;
(, i s the l ength of the sl ot ; :l n(l 1, tl ~c l ength of the terrni nati ng stub.
i t the end of the sl ot tl L(OI I ter l i nes are short-ci rcui ted, the thr ee-wi r e
l i ne passi ng i nto the tI V(j-i fi re l i ne
I 11. I{ll)kt, Sl ~l tt[,{l l )i l l {l l t I I I II I r (l :LI I r CThm)ry, 1{1.Repor t No. 772, Nov. 21,
I !)45.
z SW S. 0. Ri ce, St(,:l {l y St:l tt, ,S(jl (ti [[)l i s {~f Tr:msmi ssi ol l I ,i ne I ; qtl ati ons,
/i f// s!/sh-m 1ech Jo(()., 20, I :1I (I !1-111.
248 MI CROWAVE DI POLE ANTENNAS AND FEEDS [SEC. 8.5
I n the case of the open-ended termi nati on wi th a ri arrow sl ot i t i s
possi bl e to r educe the system to a two-wi r e l i ne wi th appropri ate l oadi ng,
as shown i n Fi g. 8.7c. The i mpedance ZP has been taken to be zer o;
Z, i s the characteri sti c i mpedance of the thr ee-wi r e l i ne under the con-
di ti on that no cur r ent i s fl owi ng i n the central l i ne. I t wi l l be seen that
1----- ls -----1
4BD
(a)
p- !s,
J
(b)
j+ tan%
ZE@
(c)
FI G, S7,-Three-wi re l i ne representa-
ti on of the sl ot-fed di pol e: (a) opeu-euded
termi nati on; (b) stub-termi nated l i ne; (c)
r educed equi val ent l oadi ng for Case a.
i n thi s parti cul ar case the sl ot con-
tri butes onl y a susceptance, l i ke a
short-ci rcui ted secti on of two-wi r e
l i ne. Thi s ci rcui t representati on
i ndi cates that the l ength of the sl ot
can be so chosen m to match out
the other reacti ve i mpedance el e-
ments i nvol ved i n the termi nati on.
The sl ot not onl y equal i zes the
exci tati on of the wi ngs but al so
serves as a choke el ement to de-
coupl e the di pol e system from the
outer wal l of the l i ne. The resul t-
i ng system i s compl etel y fr ee from
the squi nt phenomenon associ ated
wi th the asymmetri c termi nati on.
I n the case of open-ended termi na-
ti ons i t i s possi bl e to desi gn uni ts
wi th hi gh power capaci ty; these
have found appl i cati on i n l i near-
array antennas. The stub-termi n-
ated uni ts, on the other hand, are
mor e l i mi ted i n thei r power capaci ty
than the correspondi ng asymmetri -
cal termi nati ons and have been
used i n pl ace of the l atter onl y wher e
i t i s i mperati ve to have a squi nt-free
system and rel ati vel y l ower po\ver
l evel s are acceptabl e.
8.6. Shape and Si ze of the Di pol e.The i mpedance probl em has been
a troubl esome one wi th di pol e feeds, l argel y because of the frequency-
sensi ti ve el ementssuch as the choke, termi nati ng stub, and sl ot-
needed i n maki ng vari ous types of termi nati ons. A certai n measure of
adjustment i s avai l abl e i n the si ze and shape of the di pol e. The depend-
ence of the i mpedance of a center -fed di pol e on i ts si ze and shape has
been the subject of consi derabl e theoreti cal wor k. Al l of the wor k
1S. A. Schel kunoff, ,?i tectromagrLeti cWaves, tan Nostrand, .New York, 1943,
Chap. 11; L. J. Chu and J. A, Stratton, J our. Appli.d Phys., 12,241 (1941); R. W. P.
Ki ng and D. D. Ki ng, l ow. Applied Phys., 16,445 (1945).
SEC. 85] SHAPE AND SI ZE OF THE DI POLE 249
appl i es to an i deal i zed system i n whi ch the di pol e i s dri ven from a bal anced
system across an i nfi ni tesi mal gap;
i t i s assumed that the coupl i ng
between the di pol e and l i ne pl ays no part i n determi ni ng the cur r ent
di stri buti on of the wi ngs.
As we have noted above, thi s condi ti on i s
never real i zed i n mi crowave systems wher e the di mensi ons of the feed-
l i ne cross secti on are comparabl e to those of the di pol e structure.
The theoreti cal resul ts, however , are hel pful i n a qual i tati ve way.
The vari ous theori es di ffer i n quanti tati ve detai l s concerni ng the val ues
of the i mpedance, but al l show the same general qual i tati ve features.
g 600
5 500
~.
: 400
; 300
~ 200
,*Q
: 100
so
0.2 0.3 0,4 0.5 0,6 0.70.8
-VA
(a)
300
200
f
g l ofJ
g
o
~
: 100
$ 200
300
0.20.30.4 0,50.60,7 0.8
%
(b)
FI G. S41-I nrwt i mpedanceof spheroi daldi pol eswi thmajor axi sL and mi noraxi sD:
(a) real componentor radi ati onresi stmce:(h) i magi narycomponentor reactance. (From
L. J . Chu and J . A. Stratton, J . A PPL physi c-s, by courtesy of tb au.thuraand the Ameri can
I nstiiute of Phwti.)
The curves shown i n Fi g. 88 are taken from the wor k of Chu and
Stratton.
They appl y to spheroi dal di pol es, the major axi s of whi ch i s
desi gnated by L and the mi nor axi s by D.
The curves show the dependence of the real and i magi nary compo-
nents of the i mpedance on wavel ength for vari ous val ues of the rati o
I./D. I t i s obser ved that i n the nei ghborhood of the resonant poi nt,
whi ch corresponds cl osel y to a l ength equal to X/2, the resi sti ve compo-
nent i s vi rtual l y i ndependent of the val ue of L/D and i s equal to about
70 ohms.
The dependence of the resi stance on wavel ength does not
become marked unti l the l ength i s consi derabl y l arger than the resonant
val ue. The reacti ve component, however , i s seen to be a deci ded func-
ti on of the frequency. The l arger the rati o L/D, that i s, the thi nner the
di pol e, the mor e rapi dl y does the reactance vary and the sharper i s the
resonant poi nt. Thus, a thi n di pol e i s mor e frequency-sensi ti ve than a
fat di pol e. The di pol e di mensi ons can be chosen such that i ts reacti ve
component bal ances the reactance whi ch i s associ ated wi th the termi na-
ti on; thi s i n general ~vi l l l ead to better over-al l i mpedance characteri sti cs
for the antenna than the choi ce of a di pol e that al one has a fl at reactance
characteri sti c.
The i mpedance characteri sti cs of the di pol e can al so be
250 MI CRO WA VB DI POLE A.V7hiV.VA S .I .VD FEJ 91M
[SEC. 86
control l ed by such processes as top l oadi ng ~vi th a sphere or other struc-
tur e i n the same manner as i s done at l onger wavel engths. Her e agai n
the pr ocedur e i s enti rel y empi ri cal , and we shal l not dwel l upon i t any
further.
8.6. Wavegui de-l i ne-fed Di pol es.I t i s much si mpl er to feed a di pol e
i rom a wavegui de l i ne than from a coaxi al l i ne.
The techni que of termi -
nati on i s shown i n Fi g. 8.9. The di pol e i s mounted on a web that fi ts
i nto the mouth of the gui de, paral l el
to the broad face of the gui de and
transverse to the el ectri c vector i n
FI G. S9,-Di pol e termi nati onon wave-
the domi nant TE,,-mode. The E-
eui de.
vector i s thus paral l el to the di pol e,
whi ch i s dri ven by the radi ati on
i nci dent on i t from the mouth of the gui de. I t i s obvi ous that i f the
web i s i nserted ~ymmetri cal l y, the two ~vi ngs of the di pol e are exci ted
equal l y. The taper shown i n the di agram serves as an i mpedance-
matchi ng devi ce; i t al so i mproves the radi ati on pattern i n that i t decoupl es
the outer wal l of the l i ne from the di pol e. The i mpedance of the system
i s al so determi ned by the depth of i nserti on of the web and the posi ti on
of the di pol e wi th r espect to the mouth.
8.7. Di recti ve Di pol e Feeds.The desi gn of di recti ve feeds i s based
on the pri nci pl e of i nter fer ence bct~veen di pol es pr oper l y spaced and
phased (Sec. 3.17) and on the pri nci pl e of i mages (Sec. 5.3). Earl y
desi gns uti l i zed the ski rt di pol e wi th a refl ecti ng pl ate and the open-ended
asymmetri c termi nati on fol l owed by a second di pol e or a refl ecti ng pl ate.
These desi gns have ver y poor structural characteri sti cs; they wi l l not be
di scussed her e. Stub-termi nated coaxi al systems and wavegui de systems
l end themsel ves admi rabl y to the constructi on of di recti ve feeds, the
stub or web provi di ng mechani cal support for the system of di pol es
i nvol ved or for the refl ecti ng pl ate. These di recti ve systems are desi gned
to radi ate maxi mum power back al ong the feed ~i ne; the r efl ector that i s
to be i l l umi nated by the feed i s then al so mounted on the feed l i ne.
Thi s r ear -feed type of i nstal l ati on (exampl es of whi ch are to be seen i n
Sec. 12.1 1) mi ni mi zes the l ength of l i ne and the seri es of bends and joi nts
requi red (factors of consi derabl e i mportance for gener ator stabi l i ty) and
forms a compact and r ugged system.
The di recti ve system empl oyi ng a refl ecti ng pl ate, whi ch may be
ter med a di pol e-pl ate or di pol e-di sk feed, i s based on the pri nci pl e of
i mages. I n accordance wi th the general theor y, to pr oduce peak i ntensi ty
al ong the feed l i ne the refl ecti ng pl ate i s mounted a di stance A/4 behi nd
i he di pol e. The pri nci pl e of i mages assumes, of course, a refl ecti ng
pl ate of i nfi ni te extent. I n the case of the feed system the pl ate must be
kept as smal l as possi bl e. otherwi se the feed wi l l present too extended
an obstructi on i n the path of the ener gy r efl ected from the l arge mi rror;
SEC. 8.8]
l) I POLE-I )I SA- FEEl~S 251
the effects of such aperture bl ocki ng on the over-al l al j bmna patterri
are di scussed i n Sec. 6.7. I t i s thus necessary to sacri fi ce a certai n
measure of di recti vi ty, wi th the resul t that the pri mary feed has a back
l obe, that i s, radi ati on behi nd the r efl ector pl ate; thi s, too, has a si g-
ni fi cant effect on the over-al l antenna pattern (cf. Sec. 125).
The coaxi al -l i ne-fed rnul ti di pol e systems are usual l y desi gned so that
ori l y one di pol e i s exci ted di rectl y from the l i ne.
The other members
(dummy or parasi ti c di pol es), arranged i n a l i near array, are fed by
coupl i ng wi th the di rectl y exci ted el ement. Mi cro\vave feeds have
usual l y i ncl uded a si ngl e du rnmy el ement to compl ete a doubl e-di pol e
system such as that di scussed i n Sec. 3.18. I n that secti on the case of
h/4 spaci ng and rel ati ve phase i = 7r/2 was consi dered i n detai l . How-
ever , by r efer ence to 13q. (3 174) of Sec. 3 18, i t may be seen that an~
pai r of val ues of spaci ng a and phase }vhi ch sati sfy the rel ati on
ira
-!!
x 2= m
rr7=o,1,2, . . .
wi l l gi ve peak i ntensi ty al ong the di recti on normal to both di pol e axes,
that i s, al ong the feed l i ne i n the practi cal case. These other systems,
however , unl i ke the (k/4, m/2) system, i n general al so gi ve ri se to a back
l obe i n the di recti on 180 away from the peak. I n practi ce, the phase of
the dummy rel ati ve to the dri ven el ement i s control l ed I )y the rel ati ve
di mensi ons of the di pol es as wel l as by thei r spaci ng; from Sec. 85 \ve
see that i t i s possi bl e to make one di pol e capaci tati ve or i nducti ve rel ati ve
to the other , by pr oper choi ce of di mensi ons.
Di recti ve feeds wi l l be further di scussed wi th r efer ence to parti cul ar
systems. I n the fol l owi ng secti ons desi gn data are presented on a num-
ber of feeds that have been devel oped i n the Radi ati on I ,aboratory and
used extensi vel y. I t i s not to be assumed that the resul ts gi ven her e
r epr esetr t the ul ti mate that can be achi eved wi th these systems.
8.8. Di pol e-di sk Feeds.Two di pol e-di sk systems have been devel -
oped, empl oyi ng respecti vel y the stub-termi nated asymmetri c di pol e
and the stub-termi nated sl ot-fed di pol e.
a. Asymmetri c Dipole Termination .Three such feeds have been
desi gned to i l l umi nate parabol oi dal mi rrors, of focal l ength 10.6 i n. and
30-i n. aperture, at ~ravel engths of 9.1, 10.0, and 10.7 cm respecti vel y.
Detai l s of the feed assembl y are gi ven i n Fi g. 8.10. The l i ne has a
characteri sti c i mpedance of 46 ohms; i ts di mensi ons are outer conductor,
OD = 0.875 i n. \vi th ~val l thi ckness of 0.032 to 0.035 i n.; i nner conductor,
OD = 0.375 i n. Reasonabl e di recti vi ty was obtai ned wi th a r efl ector
pl ate wi th di ameter about 0.8X. Thr pri nci pal E- and H-pl ane feed
patterns are showm i n Fi g, 8.11. The peak i ntensi ty of the pattern i s
I S. Brwn and R, Hi att, I L 1, I b,l mrt So. .54-23, .Junc 21, 1943,
252 MI CRO WAVE DI POLE ANTE.V.VAS AND FEEDS
[SEC. 88
r
Effective center
Transparent sphere
of feed
\
\seam
FI G.8. 10.Di pol e-di sk feed assembl y.
.200
0 20
00
3400
400
320
6(Y
300
800
280
260
1000
120 140160180 120 140160180200220 240
(a) (b)
FI G. 811. -Pri n!ary pattern of di pol e-di sk feed: (a) H-pl ane: (b) -E-pl ane.
di pol e-di sk feed of Fi g. 8. 10; --- tbcoret,i cal pattern of a dj~ol e at a dl st,ance X/4 fr om
an i nfi ni te pl ane,
SEC, 8.9] DOUBLE-DI POLE FEEDS 253
di r ected al ong the feed l i ne, and the data i n thi s regi on are, ther efor e,
somewhat uncertai n. The dotted porti on of the curves have been
obtai ned by extrapol ati on. I t i s obser ved that the E-pl ane pattern i s
not symmetri cal . Thi s i s due to the fact that one wi ng of the di pol e i s
exci ted mor e strongl y than the other i n the asymmetri c di pol e termi na-
ti on, as was poi nted out i n Sec. 83. The peak appears on that si de of
the axi s whi ch corresponds to the di pol e wi ng carryi ng the major porti on
of the current. The H-pl ane pattern, on the other hand, was found to
be accuratel y symmetri cal correspondi ng to the symmetry of the di pol e
structure i n the pl ane. For compari son, ther e are pl otted the theoreti cal
patterns for the i deal system of a di pol e pl aced A/4 i n front of an i nfi ni te
refl ecti ng pl ane. I t i s seen that the feed pattern i s consi derabl y mor e
di recti ve; the gai n of the feed i s found to be equal to 7.
The E- and H-pl ane center s of feed are coi nci dent, l yi ng between the
di pol e and the di sk, somewhat near er to the l atter. The poi nt-source
cone i s mor e than adequate to cover a mi rror wi th di mensi ons gi ven
above. The unpressuri zed feed has a peak power capaci ty of 35o ~ 35
kw. Wi th sui tabl e matchi ng transformers i t has been possi bl e to real i ze
an i mpedance characteri sti c for the composi te system (feed and para-
bol oi d) such that the standi ng-wave rati o r di d not exceed 1.23 over a
band of i 3 per cent about the matchi ng frequency.
b. Slot-jed Terminataon.-A uni t desi gned to oper ate at a wavel ength
of 9.1 cm wi th a parabol oi dal mi rror of 3.6-i n, focal l ength and 12-i n.
aperture i s i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 812.1 The l i ne has a characteri sti c i mped-
ance of 45 ohms, wi th an i nner conductor of T5Ki n. di ameter.
The smal l er
l i ne was used her e to r educe wei ght, the power requi rements on the feed
havi ng been smal l er than i n the precedi ng case. I t wi l l be noted that
the di sk di ameter her e i s about 0.5k. The system has a si ngl e center of
feed for both pri nci pal pl anes and i s compl etel y fr ee from squi nt. The
composi te antenna made up of the feed and the mi rror i ndi cated above
has an i mpedance band of + 1.25 per cent about the desi gn frequency
over whi ch r < 1.23.
8.9. Doubl e-di pol e Feeds. a. Coaxial-line-jed Sysl em ,Such a feed 2
i s i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 8.13; i t i s a l i ght\vei ght uni t empl oyi ng a +-i n. l i ne
l i ke that di scussed i n Sec. 88b. The spaci ng between the di pol es i s ver y
nearl y h/8; correspondi ngl y, the parasi te el ement i s l onger than the dri ven
el ement i n or der to pr oduce the pr oper phase rel ati onshi ps. Thi s SYS-
tem, l i ke those di scussed above, has a uni que center of feed. An antenna
consi sti ng of thi s feed and a parabol oi dal r efl ector of 3.6-i n. focal l ength
and 12-i n. aperture ha ~a standi ng-~vave rati o r s 1.23 i n a band of + 1
per cent about the desi gn frequency.
1 \V.~. Xowak, RL Repor t No, 54-26, Jui y 5, 1943,
2 [bid.
-
~OD x 0.25 wall
FIG.8.12.Di pol e-di sk feed.
Center of feed
*
0
r
+o.l 153-
A
0.250 A

FT,:.X.13. l)nlll )le-,lil,nle fwd vn maxi al l i ne,
SEC. 8 !Jj
Do(BLE-DI POLE FEEDS
255
b. JVavegui (i e Systems.-.kdo:i Li e-di pol e feed bui l t upona~,avegui de
termi nati on for use at a wavel ength of 3.2 cm i s shown i n Fi g. 814.
The two di pol es are mounted on the web so that thei r axes l i e on the
pl ane of symmetry of the gui de. The spaci ng between the di pol es i s
Materml 1 x:x 0.05 wall
Cut out V to dimensions as
rectangular tubing
d
gwen, bend, and hard solder,
Bevel end to make it sauare, g
g
0 :UJ
2
Q ~
Mill after
T
0.125
1
soldering
.
____ _
@O
.
%
. ~
Hard solder
:; ~:;:.2
0.250
These angles
ust be equal
~~
-1-q
0.275
0.506
4}500
i o J 221
0.256-+ ~ ;
_________ +P+L7
~~ 0!652

+
u
U&
FIG.S14.Wavegui de doubl e-di pol e feed: k = 3.2 cm.
about h/2.,5; agai n the coupl i ng (and hence the rel ati ve phase) of the
el ements i s adjusted by the sui tabl e choi ce of thei r rel ati ve di mensi ons.
The radi ati on pattern has an appreci abl e back l obe whi ch i s }n some
measure due to the gui de i tsel f; thi s i s r educed by taperi ng the termi nal
regi on as shown i n the fi gure. The E- and 11- pl ane center s of feed are
not conci dent; however , thei r separati on i s negl i gi bl e for most purposes,
and the equi val ent center of feed can be taken to be l ocated just behi nd
the fi rst di pol e.
We have previ ousl y poi nted out the dependence of the i mpedance on
the taper, depth of i nserti on of the web, and the di pol e factors. To
obtai n reproduci bl e resul ts, speci al car e must be taken to r emove excess
1 }$. Si chak, DrI l ]hl e Di pol e Rectangul ar \\ave (l ui ci c Antennas, RL Report
No. 54-?5. ,June 26. 19+3
256 MI (7RO WA VE DI POLE ANTENNAS AND FEEDS [SEC 8.10
sol der at the base of the di pol e and at the seams between web and wave-
gui de. Antennas made up of thi s feed and parabol oi dal mi rrors of
18-i n. aperture and focal l ength ei ther 4.5 or 5.67 i n. have a bandwi dth
of + 1.5 per cent over whi ch r ~ 1.23 i f the antenna i s matched by an
i nducti ve wi ndow at k = 3.2 cm. The unpressuri zed antenna has a peak
power capaci ty of 375 kw, correspondi ng to 50 kw at 50,000-ft al ti tude.
8.10. Mul ti di pol e Systems.The web termi nati on on a wavegui de
provi des atconveni ent base on whi ch to bui l d mul ti di pol e systems i n the
form of two-di mensi onal arrays. Two such arrays have been desi gned
Fm. 8.15.Four-di pol e feed.
for the 3-cm band, one a tri angul ar array of thr ee di pol es, the other a
rectangul ar array of four di pol es. Onl y the l atter has been used i n fi nal
antenna desi gn. The four-di pol e array shown schemati cal l y i n Fi g.
8.15 can be r egar ded as a pai r of the doubl e di pol e uni ts di scussed i n Sec.
8.9b, separated by a di stance of approxi matel y A/2. Each doubl e-
di pol e uni t can be repl aced by i ts equi val ent poi nt source, reduci ng the
system to two di recti ve sources i n phase, spaced ~/2 apart. I t i s evi dent
that no appreci abl e change i s to be expected i n the E-pl ane pattern.
The H-pl ane pattern, however , must be mul ti pl i ed by the di recti vi ty
factor of two i sotropi c sources i n phase and wi th k/2 separati on. Thi s
factor i s readi l y found to be [COS(7r/2 cos ~)] wher e @ i s the angl e wi th
r espect to the axi s i n the H-pl ane. Hence i f P,(*) i s the H-pl ane pattern
of the doubl e-di pol e system, the pattern P1(I #I )of the four-di pol e system
i s gi ven cl osel y by
4(4) p,J@[cos@cos@
CHAPTER 9
LI NEAR-ARMY ANTENNAS AND FEEDS
BY J. E. EATON, L. J. EYGES, AND G. G. MACFARLANE
9.1. General Consi derati ons. -The techni que of produci ng di recti ve
beams by means of arrays of radi ators that are sui tabl y spaced and dri ven
wi th appropri ate rel ati ve ampl i tudes and phases has been used wi del y
at the l onger wavel engths. These arrays have general l y been i n the
form of two-di mensi onal l atti ces wi th the possi bl e addi ti on of a refl ecti ng
surface to confi ne the radi ati on to a si ngl e hemi sphere i n space. I n the
mi crowave regi on, attenti on has been confi ned al most excl usi vel y to the
one-di mensi onal , that i s, l i near, arrays. The wavel ength advantage
becomes evi dent at once, for wi th economy i n physi cal si ze i t i s sti l l pos-
si bl e to have an array that i s l ong measured i n wavel engths and hence
hi ghl y di recti ve.
The arrays that have been desi gned to date can be gr ouped i nto two
general cl fi sses: (1) end-fi re arrays produci ng a beam di r ected al ong the
axi s of the array and (2) broadsi de arrays produci ng beams the peak
i ntensi ty of whi ch i s i n a di recti on normal to or nearl y normal to the
axi s. End-fi re arrays have pr oved to be parti cul arl y useful wher e i t i s
necessary to mount an antenna cl ose to an object; for exampl e, such arrays
have been mounted al ong a gun barrel i n ai rpl anes to furni sh gunfi re
range i nformati on and to ser ve as gunfi re di rectors. Axi al l y symmetri cal
broadsi de arrays whi ch pr oduce beams symmetri cal about the axi s have
been desi gned for use as beacons; i nstal l ed both i n ground or shi p and
on ai rcraft they provi de a communi cati on system bet\veen ground (or
shi p) and ai rcraft. The patterns of these arrays are axi al l y symmetri cal
l i ke the di pol e patterns but have i ncreased di recti vi ty i n the meri di onal
pl ane to gi ve i ncreased range. Other types of broadsi de arrays have been
devel oped whose beams have a fai r measure of di recti vi ty al so i n the
pl ane perpendi cul ar to the array axi s. I n a few cases, arrays of thi s type
have been used as the termi nal antenna system; mor e frequentl y these
arrays have been used as l i ne sources for i l l umi nati ng cyl i ndri cal refl ectors,
i n whi ch case the r efl ector i s pl aced suffi ci entl y cl ose to the array so as
to be i n i ts cyl i ndri cal ~vave zone.
Whi l e ther e i s no fundamental di fference i n pri nci pl e between l ong-
wave and mi crowave arrays, the mi crowave arrays present probl ems of
257
258 LI .VEAR-ARRA Y ANTENNAS AND FEEDS [SEC. 92
thei r own whi ch are due to the wavel ength regi on i nvol ved. I n l ong-
wave arrays i t i s possi bl e to i sol ate to a l arge degr ee the feedi ng of one
el ement of the array from another. Mi crowave arrays must be bui l t
on coaxi al l i ne or wavegui des wi th the resul t that the feedi ng of the
el ement becomes a mutual i nteracti on probl em. Thi s type of feedi ng
al so requi res speci al desi gns i n the radi ati ng el ements of whi ch ther e i s
qui te a vari ety. at mi crowave frequenci es. The physi cal si ze of the
radi ati ng el ements i s general l y smal l , and tol erance probl ems are asso-
ci ated wi th mi crowave arrays that are general l y uncommon at l onger
wavel engths.
The probl ems and techni ques of l i near-array desi gn have been di vi ded
i n thi s chapter i nto thr ee general parts. The fi rst concerns i tsel f wi th
general pattern theor y, that i s, the rel ati on between the far-zone pattern
of an array and the ampl i tude and phase di st ri but i on among the el ements
and thei r spaci ng; i n thi s secti on no attenti on i s pai d to the probl em of
real i zi ng a gi ven ampl i tude and phase di stri buti on. The second part i s
a survey of the radi ati ng el ements that have been devel oped for mi cro-
wave arrays. The fi nal di vi si on treats the probl ems associ ated wi th
combi nati on of the el ements i nto l i near arrays and the techni ques avai l -
abl e to pr oduce the desi red ampl i tude and phase di stri buti ons.
PATTERN THEORY
9.2. General Array Formul a.A l i near array i s a speci al i zati on of the
general space array di scussed i n Sec. 3.19. The space factor of the system
/
/
(,
/ ..,
/# .
,/
\
.
/ ]
1,1<;.9.1 . Di fference i n di stal )ve fr cl nl the
tth el enl erl t and fro,l l the pol e to a dmtal l t
poi nt i l l the di recti on O, c$.
can be obtai ned i mmedi atel y from
Eqs. (3.179) and (3.180) by i mpos-
i ng on those equati ons the si mpl i -
fi cati ons gai ned i n worki ng wi th
a one-di mensi onal rather than a
three-di mensi onal compl ex. I t
may be i nstructi ve however , to
der i ve the space factor di rectl y
from the superposi ti on of fi el ds;
\ve shti l l he concer ned onl y wi th
the far-zone fi el d of the array.
Suppose that ther e are n el e-
ments i n the array under consi der-
ati on, and l et the rrfm-cnce l i ne of
the array be taken as the pol ar axi s. The orderi ng of the el ements P,, P,j
. . . . P.1 i s shown i n Fi g. 9.1 wi th the el ement PO taken at thc ori gi n;
the di stance between t\vo adj scent el ements i s s. I ,et, us consi der the fi el d
at a poi nt (R, 0, O) i n the far zone. :~ccordi ng to l l qs. (3.168a) and
(3. 168/)) the fi el d due to the i th el ement at a di stance r, from t}l e el ement i s
259
I f the customary far-zone fi el d approxi mati ons are made, r, can be set
equal to R i n the denomi nator, whi l e i n the phase term we have
ri=Riscos O (1)
as shown i n Fi g, 91. The component fi el ds are then
(2a)
(2b)
wher e +, i s the phase di fference bet}reen the i th el ement and the ori gi n
due to the di fference i n path l ength to the fi el d poi nt:
27ris cos O
+,= ~
(3)
The el ements of the array are i denti cal i n structure and car r y si mi l ar
cur r ent di stri buti ons. They di ffer onl y i n the ampl i tude and phase.
We can, ther efor e, wri te
F,,(6,0) = a,F, (O,@), (4a)
F2,(0,0) = alF2(0, f$).
(4b)
The compl ex coeffi ci ents at express the ampl i tude and phase of the i th
el ement wi th respect, say, to the zer oth el ement; they wi l l be cal l ed the
feedi ng coeffi ci ents.
By the superposi ti on pri nci pl e, the fi el d of the array i s
nl
The l ast two factors i n each i nstance r epr esent the correspondi ng space
factor of the array. The po\r er pattern i s proporti onal to the sum
of the squares of the absol ute val ue of the two space factors; that i s,
.1 ,,1
z
(Mut- + F,(@, o)
z
2
I(e,@) = F,(e,@)
~ici(:=i.ms8]/A
i=o
,=0
260 LINEAR-ARRAY ANTENNAfl AND FEEDS [SEC. 92
Si nce the absol ute val ue of a product i s the product of the absol ute val ues,
nl
12 1,
2
P(e, fj) = [lF1(e, @)l + l ~2(@,@)121
~i e!(2A . . . .9)/
~=o
or
The fi rst factor i s the power pattern of an i ndi vi dual el ement of the
array. The second factor depends on the number of el ements i n the
array, thei r ampl i tudes and phases, and thei r spaci ng. I t i s formal l y
i ndependent of the type of el ement used, al though i n practi ce the val ue
of the feedi ng coeffi ci ents at i s i nti matel y connected wi th the character-
i sti cs of the el ements of the array. We ,shal l cal l thi s functi on the
array fact or and denote i t by v (t?).
(7)
Thi s factor i s the power pattern of a si mi l ar array of i sotropi c radi ators,
for whi ch P~(O,@) = 1.
Mor eover , i t i s i ndependent of @ as was to be
expect ed.
I f the feedi ng coeffi ci ent a~i s wri tten as
the array factor i s seen to be the square of the magni tude of the resul tant
of n vector s; the magni tude of the i th el ement vector i s [ai l and the angl e
bet ween i t and the zer ot h-el ement vector i s X, + vi . The angl es between
the vector s vary wi th the angul ar posi ti on o of the fi el d poi nt, wi th cor -
respondi ng vari ati on i n the resul tant vector . I n general as 8 cover s the
enti re range from 0 = Oto 0 = T, the magni tude of the resul tant passes
through maxi mum and mi ni mum val ues. The absol ute maxi mum val ue
that coul d be attai ned by the resul tant i s the sum of the vector s when they
are col i near and i n the same di recti on. Wi th arbi trary xl , however ,
ther e may be no angl e 0 for whi ch thi s condi ti on i s real i zed and the
maxi ma are l ess than the absol ute maxi mum. Si mi l arl y, ther e may be
no val ue of 8 for whi ch the mi ni mum val ue of the resul tant takes on the
absol ute mi ni mum val ue of zer o. However , wi th speci al rel ati ons
between the x, i t i s possi bl e to have di recti ons 6 for whi ch the path-l ength
phases ~i compensate for the i ntri nsi c phase di fferences x; between the
el ements to bri ng al l the component fi el d vector s i n phase; i n thi s case,
the absol ute maxi mum resul tant i s attai ned.
i
I
SEC. 9.3]
THE ASSOCIATED POLYNOMIAL, 261
A parti cul arl y si mpl e and useful case i s that i n whi ch the coeffi ci ents
ai are al l real . Thk i mpl i es that the angl e between any two vector s
associ ated wi th adjacent el ements i s (27rscos t?)/A.
I f the coeffi ci ents u; are equal , i t i s readi l y apparent that the resul tant
vector i s O whenever the vector s consti tuti ng the sum permute among
themsel ves under a rotati on of l ess than 27r. For then the resul tant
vector both rotates and remai ns unchanged and hence i s O. Thi s occurs
whenever (2ms cos 0)/h i s any i ntegral mul ti pl e of 2r/n l ess than n.
When (27rs cos 0)/X = 2T, the vector s obvi ousl y r ei nfor ce one another
and an absol ute maxi mum resul ts.
Whenever *(o) = O, then E, = E+ = P(r9, @) = O [Eqs. (5a), (5b),
~d (6)] for al l val ues of O. The surface i n spheri cal coordi nates for
whi ch o i s constant i s a ri ght ci rcul ar cone.
The cones on whi ch v(6) = O
are commonl y cal l ed cones of si l ence.
9.3. The Associ ated PoI ynoxni aL-The vector representati on of the
array factor provi des a method of rapi dl y anal yzi ng the si mpl e arrays
frequentl y encounter ed i n practi ce. Vector l anguage i s not, however ,
wel l sui ted to a mor e general study of arrays.
An al ternate method has
been devel oped that associ ates a pol ynomi al wi th any l i near array.
The array factor may be compl etel y anal yzed i n terms of properti es of
thi s pol ynomi al .
Let z be the compl ex number z = z + jy. The pol ynomi al associ -
ated wi th the l i near array of el ements havi ng feedi ng coeffi ci ents a; i s
f(~) = aO+ w + . . + a._lzn-l.
The val ue of the pol ynomi al for the compl ex number
i s the sum enteri ng i nto Eqs. (6) and (7); the array factor i s thus the
normz of the associ ated pol ynomi al for z = ~,
v(e) = I j(f) I2. (8)
The compl ex number ~ i s a vector from the ori gi n i n the compl ex pl ane,
of magni tude uni ty, maki ng an angl e v = (27rscos 0)/k wi th the real
axi s. As 8 vari es z = ~ descri bes a ci rcl e of uni t radi us about the ori gi n.
I n the future we shal l not di sti ngui sh between z and ~; i t i s to be under-
stood that z l i es on the uni t ci rcl e whenever V(O) i s to be computed from
the associ ated pol ynomi al . When 0 = O, * = 27rs/A. As 0 moves
toward r, z moves al ong the uni t ci rcl e cl ockwi se toward the poi nt wher e
i ts angl e ~ = 27rs/k. I n that i nterval z may traverse but a porti on of
1 S. A, Schel kunoff, A I I I athemati cal Theory of Li near Arrays, BeZl System Tech.
Jour.,22, 80 (1943).
z The norm of a compl ex number as used her e i s the square of i ts abwl ute val ue.
I t may have a mor e gener al meani ng.
262 I >[~VEA R-ARRA 1- A ,V7E,V,VA,S A ,\ -l) FEEI ),9
[SEC<,93
the uni t ci rcl e or may compl ete several ci rcui ts of i t dependi ng on the
val ue of s, I ts path wi l l be r efer r ed to as the range of z. I n Fi g. 9.2
the range of z i s shown for thr ee val ues of .s. Si nce the angul ar di stance
traversed by z i s 47rs/x, the range of z i s exactl y one ci rcui t of the uni t
ci rcl e when s = A/2, i s l ess than one ci rcui t when s < A/2, and i s mor e
than one ci rcui t when s > A/2.
s +
FI G. 9.2.The porti on of the uni t ci r cl e i n the compl ex Pl ane that i s the range of z.
The real axi s i s hori zontal , The fi gures on the peri meter show ti l e rnrrespoudi ng val ues of
Ofor certai n val ues of z.
Any pol ynomi al can be expressed as a product of l i near factors. I n
parti cul ar the associ ated pol ynomi al may be wri tten i n the form
j(z) = an-l (z z,) (2 22) . . (z z.-J.
(~)
Si nce the feedi ng coeffi ci ents gi ve onl y the rel ati ve phases and ampl i tudes
of the el ements of the array, a~.-l can be taken to be any con~eni ent non-
zer o number. The compl ex numbers z, (known as the zer os of the
pol ynomi al ) are unaffected. Thei r val ues depend onl y w the set of
rati os a,/am_l . The factori zati on of j(z) i n Eq. (9) l ends i tsel f to a si mpl e
geometr i c i nterpretati on of the array factor. Si nce the norm of a product
i s the product of the norms, Eq. (9) may be wri tten
v(o) = ]2 2,{212 2,12 . . . I z z,_1[2
for z on the uni t ci rcl e. The zer os of ~(z) are \rel l -defi ned poi nts i n the
compl ex pl ane but do not necessari l y l i e on the uni t ci rcl e. For any val ue
of z, I z z,Iz i s the square of the di stance between the poi nt z and the
poi nt z,. The array factor i s then the square of the product of the di s-
tances of n 1 fi xed poi nts to a vari abl e poi nt movi ng on the uni t ci rcl e.
I t i s i mmedi atel y obvi ous that v(6) = Oi f and onl y i f some Z, l i es on the
uni t ci rcl e wi thi n the prescri bed range of z. Shown i n Fi g. 9.3 i s the range
of z when s = k/4. The zer os of j(z) are shonm for the case n = 9 and
aO= al =.. . = a.l = 1. The array factor then vani shes for four
val ues of o and attai ns a maxi mum vai ue at thr ee poi nts, each l yi ng
between an adjacent pai r of nul l s. The predomi nati ng i nfl uence on
the val ue of T(6) i s the di stance from the correspondi ng val ue of z to the
SEC. 9.3] THE ASSOCI A TED POLYNOMI AL 263
nearest zer o of j(z). I n thi s connecti on i t shoul d be noted that the
zer os of j(z) l yi ng outsi de the range of z have for the most part but smal l
effect on the rel ati ve val ue of ~(d). For the case i l l ustrated, the poi nt
z = 1 (correspondi ng to o = m/2)
i s farthest from a zer o off(z), and
one woul d expect, as i s the case,
that v(0) has an absol ute maxi -
mum at d = 7r/2. Thi s i s di rectl y
evi dent from the vector vi ew-
poi nt of the previ ous secti on. The
el ements themsel ves are al 1 i n
phase, and i n the di recti on e = r/2
the di stance i s the same from al l
the el ements to the fi el d poi nt.
The contri buti ons from the el e-
ments i n that di recti on are, ther e-
for e, i n phase, and the vector s are
al l i n the same di recti on.
I t i s frequentl y advantageous
to separate from the rel ati ve phase
xi of each el ement as expressed i n
o
u
FI G. 9.3.The l ocati on of the zer os of
~(z)=l tz+z+.. +Zn. The range
of z for s = A/4 i s al so shown together wi th a
few of the correspondi ng val ues of 0,
the coeffi ci ents a, a constant-phase
del ay ~, between each pai r of adjacent el ements. Thi s i s equi val ent to
wri ti ng
~i = ~i el(%)
wher e now the angl e of d, i s the devi ati on from i ~~ of the di fference i n
phase between the i th el ement and the el ement wi th i ndex O. Let
~ = ~>+o~.
J
(l o)
then j(z) transforms i nto the pol ynomi al
%1
j(z) = ~ ti tz. (11)
,=0
When z l i es on the uni t ci rcl e, i ?gi ven by Eq. (10) does l i kewi se, and we
have j(z) = ](2). Si nce Eq. (10) i s equi val ent to a rotati on of the com-
pl ex pl ane through an angl e +0 i n the cl ockwi se di recti on, the array factor
may be computed from the zer os of j(~) i n the same manner as befor e
save that the range of z i s the ori gi nal range of z r otated cl ockwi se through
the angl e ~o (Fi g. 9.4). Symbol i cal l y
v(e) = I J(Z)],
wher e
~ = ~al (z~$ cm~)/Aw.
264 LI NEAR-ARRAY ANTENNAS AND FEEDS [SEC. 9.4
The associ ati on of a pol ynomi al wi th any l i near array of prescri bed
spaci ng provi des a si mpl e and el egant method for compoundi ng array
factors. Suppose v,(o) and *Z(0) are the r especti ve array factors of two
arrays wi th the same spaci ng.
I f ~,(z) and $2(z) are the asso-
ci ated pol ynomi al s of the arrays,
then the array whose associ ated
pol ynomi al i s
f(z) = j,(z)j,(z)
z
wi l l have as i ts array factor
w(o) = V,(e) v,(e), (12)
for, as has al ready been observed,
0.67?r
the norm of a product i s the pr od-
uct of the norms. Expl i ci t
O.!xm
val ues of the feedi ng coeffi ci ents
FIG.9,4.The range of z due to the con-
of an array whose array factor i s
stant Phase del ay #o = m/2 for a = X/4.
The dotted cur ve i ndi cates the range of z
gi ven by Eq. (12) can thus be ob-
associ ated wi th that of 2. The fi gures on the
tai ned by si mpl y mul ti pl yi ng to-
peri meter i ndi cate the correspondi ng val ues
gether the pol ynomi al s j,(z) and
of .9for certai nval uesof z and i .
f,(z).
9.4. Uni form Arrays.-A l i near array that i s made up of el ements
havi ng equal ampl i tudes and a constant-phase di fference between adja-
cent ones i s of consi derabl e i mportance. Such an array i s cal l ed a uni -
form array. I ts feedi ng coeffi ci ents are
Al though the associ ated pol ynomi al of a uni form array wi l l i n general
have compl ex coeffi ci ents, the rel ated pol ynomi al .f(~) may, as was shown
i n the previ ous secti on, be used wi th equal effacti veness. Then
The array factor i s then
wi th
ti =ycoso-+o. (13)
SEc.9.4]
UNI FORM ARRAYS 265
However , I e*1= 1 and l ei ~ e-i $l = 4 si nz T$. Thus the array factor
of a uni form array i s gi ven by
(14)
together wi th Eq. (13). The number nz has been i nserted i n the denomi -
nator as a normal i zi ng factor.
When ~ = 2kr and k = O, +1, t 2, . . . , v(8) is i ndetermi nate.
I t can be readi l y shown, however , that i t approaches the val ue uni ty at
those poi nts. The correspondi ng val ues of e are gi ven by
Cos e = ;8 (2k7r + *O) (k=o, *l , *2,...). (15)
For ever y real val ue of 0 sati sfyi ng Eq. (15) V(O) has an absol ute maxi -
mum. I n these di recti ons the di fferences i n phase between the vector
contri buti ons of successi ve el ements that are due to di fferences i n path
to the fi el d poi nt just compensate for the i ntri nsi c phase di fference between
the el ements. The contri buti ons are then al l i n phase, and we have,
ther efor e, an absol ute maxi mum equal to the sum of the l engths of then
vector s. For val ues of s < ~/2, however , ther e wi l l be val ues of *Ofor
whi ch Eq. (15) has no real sol uti on.
Si nce V(O) i s never negati ve, i ts absol ute mi ni ma wi l l occur when
V(O) = O, that i s, for any val ue of 0 sati sfyi ng
cOse=M+++r) =0+1+2) 1)
other than those sati sfyi ng Eq. (15); for at those poi nts the numerator
i n Eq. (14) vani shes whi l e the denomi nator does not. The poi nts .9 = O
and o = mmay al so be mi ni mum poi nts. Certai nl y W(d) i s an extremum
at each of these val ues because i t has the peri od 27r and i s symmetri cal
wi th r espect to the l i ne o = O.
No other mi ni ma of V(O) exi st. 1 The maxi ma, other than those gi ven
by Eq. (15), wi l l occur cl ose to the poi nt wher e the numerator i n Eq. (14)
reaches i ts maxi mum val ue of uni ty; for the numerator i s changi ng much
1Di fferenti ate v (0) wi th respect to 0.
The poi nts at whi ch si n n~/2, and si n 8 vani sh have al ready been exami ned. The
onl y other cri ti cal val ues can ari se fr om the factor
*sin(n+)-n+in(+)
266 LI NEAR-ARRAY AN1ENNALS AND FEEDS [SEC.95
mor e rapi dl y than the denomi nator.
An excel l ent approxi mati on then
for the remai ni ng maxi mum poi nts of ~(0) i s
cose=~
[
(2k+l )=+*o
2TS n
1
(I C =+1, *2,-..)
i n whi ch val ues of k di vi si bl e by n are excl uded.
Fi gure 9.5 shows w as a functi on of + [Eq. (14)] for n = 12. For thk
functi onal dependence v has the peri od 21rand i s symmetri cal wi th r espect
o
0
r Zlr
J
(nZ:*)
FIG.5.The unction (n, Sin, ++)
for n = 12.
to the l i ne # =
O. An i dea of the shape of the array factor for vari ous
val ues of s/h and $0 may be obtai ned from the graph. Because
2TS Cos o
+ . h +0)
(9.13)
Thi s functi on, however , i s monotone i n any r egi on between adjacent sol uti ons of
Eq. (16) because i ts deri vati ve i s
rl T-l .n

2
sm ~ #si n ~~.
Thus i t can vani sh no mor e than once i n the r egi on whew end poi nts are successi ve
roots of Eq. (16).
SEC. 9.5]
BROADSI DE BEAMS 267
the porti on of V that represents the array factor l i es i n the regi on for
whi ch
Thus the val ues of ~ that determi ne the array factor extend over an i nter-
val of l ength 4rs/A; thi s may be l ess than the peri od of V or several of i ts
peri ods.. I n the l anguage of Sec. 9.3 the range of z (whose angl e i s +)
may be l ess than one ci rcui t of the uni t ci rcl e or several ci rcui ts.
9.6. Broadsi de Beams.A l i near array whose form factor has i ts
absol ute maxi ma onl y i n di recti ons normal to the axi s of the array i s
known as a broadsi de array. The array factor of such an array shoul d
then have a si ngl e absol ute maxi mum i n the di recti on 0 = 7/2. The
power pattern of the radi ati ng el ement empl oyed wi l l , of course, deter -
mi ne whether, among other possi bi l i ti es, the array wi l l have a si ngl e
di recti on of maxi mum i ntensi ty i n the pl ane 0 = 7r/2 or i ts i ntensi ty wi l l
be maxi mum i n ever y di recti on i n that pl ane. Both of these types of
arrays have wi despread appl i cati on; the l atter i s someti mes cal l ed an
omni di recti onal antenna. 1 I n the mi crowave regi on the pri nci pal use
of these antennas i s as beacons, and i n the fol l owi ng secti ons al l such
antennas wi l l be r efer r ed to as beacons.
We have seen that the array factor for a uni form array has absol ute
maxi ma for the val ues 0 sati sfyi ng the rel ati on [Eq. (15)]
Thi s wi l l have the sol uti on 0 = m/2 i f *O = O, and i t wi l l be the onl y such
sol uti on i f s < k. Arrays i n whi ch the el ements al l have the same ampl i -
tude and phase (4o = 0) are commonl y r efer r ed to as uniformly i l l umi -
nated arrays. For the moment l et attenti on be restri cted to the case
s = A/2. I t wi l l be shown l ater that thi s restri cti on i s desi rabl e. The
array factor i s then, from Eq. (14),
( ).
si n~ ~T cos .9
w(e) =
2
()
(17)
n2 si n2 ~ Cos e
2
Equati on (17) i s pl otted i n Fi g. 9.6 on a deci bel scal e for n = 6 and n = 12.
I t wi l l be obser ved that the si de l obes (secondary maxi ma) on ei ther
si de of the mai n beam decrease. Mor eover , on the deci bel scal e used i n
Fi g. 9.6, a strai ght l i ne joi ni ng any two peaks on the same si de of the mai n
beam l i es enti rel y above any i nterveni ng peak. That thi s i s al ways tr ue
I I t shoul d be r emember ed, however , shoul d thi s usage be encounter ed, that
omni di recti onal means al l di recti ons i n a pl ane.
268 LI NEAR-ARRAY ANTENNAS AND FEEDS
[SEC. 95
may be veri fi ed by noti ng that the peaks of the si de l obes l i e approxi -
matel y on the cur ve
*(l =
1
()
r
n2 si n2
2
cos e
The second deri vati ve of i n ~, wi th r espect to e i s
~[i csc26os)si n2+ co6c0so)c0sel
o
5
db
1
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
010 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 :76
FI Q.
e
[G )1
+raph f [nsh(i ces )1
for n = 6 (ful l cur ve) and n = 12 (dotted
cur ve).
Thi s i s posi ti ve i n the i nterval on ei ther si de of the mai n beam; hence the
peaks of the l obes on each si de of the mai n beam l i e on curves that are
concave upward.
Di r ect computati on shows that the hei ght of the fi rst si de l obe, that
i s, the one nearest the mai n beam, vari es from 0.056 for n = 6 to 0.047
for n = 12 and 0.045 for al l suffi ci entl y l arge n. The hei ght of the l ast
si de l obe i s 1/n2 for odd n and approxi mateel y that for even n.
I f the si ne appeari ng i n the denomi nator of Eq. (17) i s repl aced by i ts
SEC. 95] BROADSIDE BEAMS 269
argument, an approxi mati on for the hal f-power wi dth of the array factor
may be obtai ned namel y,
101.8.
@=
n
An i ndi cati on of the magni tude of the er r or i s contai ned i n Tabl e 91 i n
whi ch both the actual hal f-power wi dths and those computed by the
approxi mate formul a are gi ven.
TABLE9.1 .MAGNI TUDEOFERRORRESULTI NGFROMTHEUSE OFTHEAFPROXI ~ATI ON
FOR THE HALF-POWERWI DTH
n 2 3 4 5 6 12 50
101,8
50.9 33.9 25.4 20.4 16.97 8.48 2,036
; 60.0 36.3 26.3 20.8 17.19 8,.50 2.039
The rel ati vel y l arge hei ght of the fi rst si de l obe i s characteri sti c of a
uni form array and at ti mes may be annoyi ng. Broadsi de arrays may
readi l y be formul ated, at l east i n theor y, that have si de l obes as smal l as
desi red. For exampl e, consi der an array whose associ ated pol ynomi al i s
j(z) =(l +z+z + +z~-)
or
f(z) = 1 + 22 + . 0 . + r ed- + . . . + 2z~- + 2-2.
The el ements are al l i n phase, but thei r ampl i tudes decr ease uni forml y
from the central el ement. Thi s i s a speci al case of what i s commonl y
cal l ed a gabled illumination. I ts array factor i s the square of the array
factor of a uni form array; hence i ts fi rst si de l obe wi l l have a hei ght of
but ~ per cent of the hei ght of the mai n beam i nstead of the 5 per cent
hei ght of the uni form array. Al l of the other si de l obes wi l l be r educed
i n a si mi l ar fashi on, but the mai n beam wi l l be somewhat broader than
the mai n beam of a uni form array wi th the same number of el ements.
The hal f-power wi dths of the gabl ed and uni form arrays are approxi -
matel y 1460/n and 1020/n, respecti vel y, wher e n i s the number of el e-
ments. Successi vel y hi gher power s of the pol ynomi al may be computed;
the reducti on i nsi de l obes i s accompani ed by a rapi d gr owth i n beam wi dth.
A general di scussi on of the probl em of constructi ng hi gh-gai n broad-
si de arrays wi th si de l obes bel ow a prescri bed val ue wi l l be gi ven i n
Sec. 9.7. Attenti on may be cal l ed her e to an array that el i mi nates si de
l obes compl etel y. The feedi ng coeffi ci ents are equal to the bi nomi al
coeffi ci ents
c,,, =
~!
k~r k)!
(18)
270 LI NEAR-ARRAY ANTENNAS AND FEEDS
[SEC. 9.5
The array i s deri ved from the two-el ement hal f-wavel ength-spaced uni -
form array. The l atter has an array factor
()
v(e) = COS2 ; Cos e ;
o
dblo
1
20
30
40
10 30 50 70 90
110 130 150 170
e
l ;l [s.9~.--Array factor z for three 1l-.le,TIent A/2-spacecf arrays: (a) & uniform ~rray
thi s has no si de l obes and has nul l s at 0 = Oand O = r. I ts associ ated
pol ynomi al i s
f(z) = 1 + z.
From Eq. (12) i t fol l mvs then that the array JV1](JSC pol ynomi al is
j(z) = (1 + 2) = c.,, + Cr,,z + C,, *2 + + c,,#
has an array factor
()
z = COS2 ~ Cos .9
2
An i ri specti on of the thr ee space factors gi ven i n Fi g. 9.7 shows that, of
the thr ee, the uni form broadsi de array concentrates the greatest per -
centage of the radi ated ener gy i n the di recti on normal to the array. I t
can be readi l y shown that of al l arrays i n whi ch the el ements have the
h
same phase and the spaci ng i s ~ the uni forml y i l l umi nated array has
the maxi mum gai n. Let
I
I
I
I
I
SEC. 95] BEOADSJ DE BEA. I I S 271
j(z)

7L1
z
a,
,=0
be the pol ynomi al associ ated wi th an arbi trary array of n el ements,
normal i zed so that j(1) = 1.
Si nce the el ements are spaced a hal f \,-avel engt haPart,. = e~~oos.
The gai n G i n the di recti on .9 = 7r/2 (whi ch corresponds to z = 1) i s
gi ven by
=~2r~-lf(z~sin,d@d@ =ecme
or
G=;,
(19)
wher e
(20)
Tomaxi mi ze G, I must be mi ni mi zed, I n Sec. 9.7i ti s shown that ther e
i s no l oss i n general i ty by assumi ng that f(z) has real coeffi ci ents.
I f we
l et # = cos d, then Eq. (20) becomes, after expansi on,
wher e the numbers C, are combi nati ons of the pol ynomi al coeffi ci ents G,
Hence
,11
2~a~
1= ~:;o ,
(y )
2
a,
k
,=0
and
(21)
nl nl ,?1
131
a(~a,)-za,za:
=4
,=0 ,=0 ,=0
dak
,1I
(/%=0,1, . . ..? 2-1).
(u )
Ya,
,=0
\Ve then ha~-e for a mi ni mum the system of equati ons
272 LI NEAR-ARRAY ANTENNAS AND FEEDS [SEC. 9.5
nl nl
akxa-2a=0
(I Jc=o,l , . . ..1)l ). (22)
~=o ,=0
The di fference between any two of Eqs. (22) i s
*1
(a,
G)
z
a, = O.
,=0
Thus a~ = ai for al l i and k. That these condi ti ons actual l y yi el d a
mi ni mum may be shown by exami ni ng the second deri vati ves. Equa-
ti ons (19) and (21) show that the gai n of such a uni form array i s n,
the number of el ements.
The si tuati on becomes mor e compl i cated i f the restri cti on to hal f-
wavel ength spaci ng i s r emoved. We shal l attempt an answer onl y for
broadsi de arrays havi ng a total l ength (the di stance between the fi rst and
l ast el ements) of k/2. I n that event, the hal f-wavel ength-spaced uni f orm
array has the l argest gai n of al l uni form arrays of the prescri bed l ength.
However, the uniform array does nol yield maximum gain of all arrays oj a
given length.
The array factor of an n-el ement uni form broadsi de array ~/2 l ong i s,
from Eq. (14),
(
n
si nz ~ Cos 6
*=
n12
)
( )
1 TCOS6
n2 si nz
n1~
When n = 2, we have
()
V@=cos ;Cose.
The two-el ement array wi l l have maxi mum gai n i f
(
n
()
~Cos e
T ln n12
Cos -- Cos e s
)
2
( )
1 : Cos-o
n si n
n12
i n the i nterval O ~ 8 < T/2. Thi s i nequal i ty, however , i s equi val ent to
(
si n E ~
)(
n2~
Cose - cos e
n12
<
1 n12
)
.
n+i cose - :+%
SEC. 95]
BROADSI DE BEAMS 273
Because (si n z)/xi sa decreasi ng functi on i nthefi rst twoquadrants, the
i nequal i ty i s establ i shed and the two-el ement array has the l argest gai n
of al l uni jorm arrays whose total l ength i s A/2.
To show that the uni form broadsi de array has not, however , the
l argest gai n of al l broadsi de arrays of the same l ength, we shal l consi der
as a speci fi c exampl e the maxi mum gai n of three-el ement quarter-wave-
l ength-spaced arrays. Let
be the pol ynomi al associ ated wi th any such array. As before, a, b, and
c are assumed to be real . Then from Eq, (20)
I=!
/
i (a + b + c) + 2(ab + bc) cos ~ + 2ac cos 2+ ~i
To (a+ b+ c)
or
: (aj + b + c) + 2(ab + bc)
~=~2
7r (a+ b+ c)
The equati ons for mi ni mi zi ng 1 are
(a+ b+c)2(ra +2b)2(a+b+c)lV= O,
(a+ b+c)2(rb +2a+2c)2(a+b+c)N =0,
(a+ b+c)2(~c +2b)2(a+b+c)iV= O,
wher e
Thus
N = ~ (a + b + c) + 2(ab + be).
a=c,
T-l
b= a = 0.7519a.
T2
Hence G = 2.4 as contrasted to G = 2.0 for the two-el ement hal f-wave-
l ength-spaced uni form array. I n Fi g, 9.8 are drawn the array factors
of the uni form array and the array whose gai n was just computed. Al so
shown i s the array factor for the uni form conti nuous array, that i s, one
i n whi ch n has been al l owed to i ncrease wi thout l i mi t, subject onl y to the
restri cti on (n 1)s = k/2.
I n practi ce i t i s frequentl y desi rabl e to avoi d hal f-wavel ength spaci ng
because of the resonance that may occur at that spaci ng. As far as gai n
i s concer ned thi s i s qui te feasi bl e; for the gai n of a uni form array suffi -
ci entl y l ong i s nearl y i ndependent of the number of el ements, provi ded
onl y that the spaci ng does not greatl y exceed a hal f wavel ength. How-
ever , i t i s onl y at resonance that the requi rement that the radi ati ng el e-
274 LI AEAR-ARRA Y ANTENNAS A,VJ 9 FEEDS [SEC.96
ments be i n phase can be readi l y met.1 N-onethel ess, i f the spaci ng does
not di ffer by much from a hal f \\-avel ength, the progressi ve phase del ay
thereby i ntroduced [xOi n Eq. (13)] causes but a smal l defl ecti on of the mai n
beam from the normal to the array; the exact amount i s gi ven by
(23)
~ = sin-l k!?.
2TS
o
(c) 11
e
FI G. 9S.-Array fart,,rs of four broadsi de arra>-s whose l engths are i /2: (a) the two-
()
el ement A/2-spaced uni form array cosz ? cos O ; (b) the four-el ement k/6-spaced uni -
n(%) 2
si ns ~ cos O
for m array
()
; (c) the mnti nuous uni form array
()
~; and (d) the
16 si nz ; Cos e ; Cos e
+,hree-dement h/4-spaced array wi th maxi mum gai n.
9.6. End-fi re Beams.The feedi ng coeffi ci ents of a l i near array may
be chosen so that the array factor has an absol ute maxi mum al ong the
axi s of the array. I f an el ement of the array produces a pattern havi ng
an absol ute maxi mum i n the same di recti on and i f the product of tl -~e
array factor and the el cmcmt pattern has no other absol ute maxi mum,
the array i s cal l ed an end-fi re array.
I f the el ements of the array are not di recti ve, the radi ati on pattern
of the array i s determi ned enti rel y by the arr~y factor T(0). The pattern
i s the surface i n spheri cal coordi nates gi ven by
r ===v(f3)
and i s ther efor e a surface of revol uti on symmetri c wi th r espect to the
axi s of the array. I t i s onl y b~. consi deri ng the three-di mensi onal pi cture
that the great di fference bct\veen end-fi re and broadsi de arrays becomes
apparent. The major l obe of an end-fi re array i s a penci l beam; thus a
LSee Sec. 9,17.
SEC,96] EAD-FI RE BEAMS 275
on~di mensi onal confi gurati on of sources produces radi ati on di recti ve i n
two pl anes and does so wi thout rel yi ng on any di recti vi ty of the i ndi vi dual
sources. A broadsi de array on the other hand i s di recti ve i n onl y one
pl ane; i t i s omni di recti onal i n the pl ane perpendi cul ar to the axi s of the
array.
Penci l beams whose hal f-power wi dths are i n the regi on from about
15 to 35 can be pr oduced qui te readi l y by end-fi re arrays that have
l engths rangi ng from 3 to 18 wavel engths. The l ength of the array,
however , vari es i nversel y wi th the square of the beamwi dth; narrow
beams woul d requi re ver y l ong arrays.
By pr oper l y choosi ng the feedi ng
coeffi ci ents, end-fi re arrays can be desi gned whose gai ns are al most doubl e
those of broadsi de arrays wi th the same l ength. Thi s i ncrease i n gai n
has the greatest practi cal si gni fi cance for arrays about 5 wavel engths
l ong.
I n or der to el i mi nate from the array factor l arge l obes i n any di recti on
except 0 = 0, i t i s necessary to restri ct the spaci ng of the el ements. The
necessary rel ati ons can be obtai ned
from a study of the associ ated pol y-
nomi al and an exami nati on of the
range of z on the uni t ci rcl e i n the
compl ex pl ane. Si nce the angl e ~
of z i s gi ven by
~ assumes al l val ues from 27rs/h
to 2ms/A as 0 ranges from Oto m.
Because the array factor has a
peri od 27r as a functi on of ~, the
spaci ng s/x must be such that
over the range of 0 the total vari a-
ti on of ~ i s l ess than 27r; that i s,
the range of z i n the uni t ci rcl e
i s l ess than one revol uti on. I n
o.33fr
02-s,,,
\
\\
q I o.5olr 0.5(
~..
-..=
0.671r
FI G. 9.9.The range of $, the angl e of z,
as .9 vari es fr om O to n. The outer ri ng of
fi gures shows corres~ondi ne val ues of o at
various points on the uni t ci r r l e i n the Z-pl arl e
for s = ),/2. The i nner set of fi gures S11OWW
val ues of 9 for s = ),/4.
that case a pri nci pal maxi mum, whi ch i n the case of an end-fi re occurs
at ~ = 27rs/A, wi l l not be repeated. I n Fi g. 9.9 the mappi ng of o on
x i s shown schemati cal l y. On the exter i or of the uni t ci rcl e i n the
z-pl ane are shown val ues of O, correspondi ng to the i ndi cated poi nts on
the ci rcl e for the spaci ng s = A/2. The val ues shown on the i nteri or
are for the spaci ng s = A/4. The array factor of a hal f-wavel ength-
spaced end-fi re array wi l l dupl i cate i ts val ue for 0 = O agai n at 9 = m.
To suppress such an undesi rabl e back l obe i t i s necessary to separate the
end poi nts of the range of z. The quarter-wavel ength-spaced array wi l i
be exami ned as a typi cal array that sati sfi es thi s condi ti on. Fi gure 99
276 LI NEAR-ARRA S ANTENNAS AND FEEDS [SEC. 9.6
shows that the range of ~ for the quarter-wavel ength spaci ng of el ements
i s from 7r/2 to 7r/2. From the di scussi on i n the previ ous secti ons i t i s
seen that i f such an array has equal feedi ng coeffi ci ents, i t wi l l have i ts
pri nci pal maxi mum at o = 7r/2, that i s, at ~ = O.
We have seen, however (Sec. 93, Fi g. 9.4), that i f a gi ven array i s
al tered by havi r,g superi mposed on i t a constant-phase di fference from
el ement to el ement, the effect on the array factor i s to r otate the range
of z through an angl e equal to that phase di fference. I f, i n parti cul ar,
a quarter-wavel ength-spaced uni form array i s adjusted to i ntroduce
a phase di fference of ~ between each pai r of adjacent el ements, the
0.507
FI G. 910.-The effect of i ntro-
duci ng a constant-phase di ffer ence
T/2 on the el ements of a quarter-
wavel ength-spaced uni form array.
The i nner semi ci rcl e shows the
ori gi nal range of z and the cor r espond-
i ngval uesof 8. Theouter sen,i ci rcl e
i s the range of z due to the phase di f -
ference; the correspondi ng val ues of
o are i ndi cated.
pri nci pal maxi mum that occurs when
$ = O corresponds to 0 = O, and an end-
fi re antenna resul ts (Fi g. 9.10). The
array factor of such an array i s obtai ned
i mmedi atel y from Eq. (14) and i s
si n2 ~ (COS0 1)
v(o) =
nz si n2 ~ (cos 0 1)
The factor n has been i nserted i n the
denomi nator so that v(O) = 1.
The gai n i s mor e easi l y computed
from the pol ynomi al associ ated wi th the
array
Equati on (20) becomes, after substi tuti ng and maki ng the change of
vari abl e ~ = T(cos 0 - 1)/2,
nl
=:/:. [n+zI (n-k)cos+l +
k=l
Thus from Eq. (19) G = n, the same gai n as the l onger hal f-\vavel engtk-
spaced uni form broadsi de array.
A uni form array wi th constant-phase di fference between adjacent
el ements i s one readi l y real i zed i n practi ce.
I t i s then wel l to i nqui re
i f the choi ce 7r/2 for the phase di fference i s opti mum for an end-fi re
array. I f thi s di fference i s sl i ghtl y l ess than 7r/2, then the range of z
i s di spl aced sl i ghtl y mor e than 7r/2.
The di recti on 6 = Ono l onger r epr e-
sents the pri nci pal maxi mum of
SEC. 9.6]
END-FI RE BEAMS 277
~i*~ ?+
2
+
(24)
si n=
2
but i s di spl aced sl i ghtl y from i t (Fi g. 9.11). However , the pri nci pal
maxi mum of Expressi on (24) i s not contai ned i n the range of z. The
end poi nt of that range corresponds to 0 = O whi ch then i s a maxi mum
of Expressi on (24) consi dered as a functi on of 0. The net effect i s two-
2.
FI Q. 9.1 I .The porti on (cross-hatched) of the fi i ncti on i ncl uded i n the range of
25 si nz ~
z due to a di spl acement sl i ghtl y more than u/2.
fol d: Because the val ue of Expressi on (24) at 0 = O has been reduced,
the rel ati ve hei ghts of the si de l obes are i ncreased and the gai n tends to
be reduced. On the other hand, the wi dth of the mai n beam has been
di mi ni shed, whi ch has an opposi te i nfl uence on the gai n.
An esti mate of the di spl acement yi el di ng maxi mum gai n maybe made
by approxi mate methods val i d for l arge n. Suppose the phase di fference
between any two el ements i s (7r/2) ~,; that i s,
+=; (COSOl ) *0.
Then the array factor i s
[
~i n*~ si n, n7r
~(cosel )y
v(e) = J
1.
n#O
[
.$ si~2 _ sin2 T
2
4 (Cos e 1)
1
The fi rst factor has been i nserted so that *(O) = i . An approxi mati on
of i ;he gai n may be obtai ned. I f y = (n/2)#, Eq. (20) becomes
278 LI NEAR-ARRAY AATENNAS A,YD FEEDS [SEC.96
I f n i s l arge, the di stant si de l obes have l i ttl e effect on the gai n. We
may repl ace si nz y/r~ by i ts argument, thus reduci ng the hei ght of the
di stant si de l obes. The range of i ntegrati on may then be extended to
cc and si nz YO/2 may be repl aced by i ts argument wi th but a negl i gi bl e
effect on the val ue of 1. Then Eq. (25) becomes
By graphi cal methods~ i t has been shown that 1 i s a mi ni mum when
$0 = 2.9~/n. Then the di recti on 6 = O corresponds to the poi nt wher e
the functi on gi ven i n Expressi on (24) i s 46 per cent of i ts maxi mum val ue.
The mai n beam i s about hal f as broad as that of a uni form array wi th a
phase shi ft of 7r/2. On the other hand the hei ghts of the si de l obes
have been mor e than doubl ed. The gai n of such an array i s
G = 1.82n.
I ts hal f-power wi dth i s approxi mated by
~ _ 125
fi n
For a mor e general spaci ng s between adjacent el ements, maxi mum
gai n occurs when
*O = 242.
Her e ~, sti l l r efer s to the addi ti onal di spl acement of the range of z beyond
rr/2. The phase di fference bet\reen adjacent el ements i s 2ms/A *O.
The gai n for the general case i s
However , s i s not compl etel y arbi trary. We sti l l must conform to our
assumpti on that the di stant si de l obes have smal l effect on the gai n. I t
has been suggested that the approxi mati ons are val i d for s < A/3.
I W, W. Hansen and J. R. Woodyar d, A New Pri nci pl e i n Di recti onal .4ntenn~,
Desi gn, Proc. ZRI ?, 26, 333 (1938).
2 Hansen and Woodyar d, op, cit.
SEC. 97]
BEAM SYNTHESI S 279
An enti rel y di fferent techni que for i ncreasi ng the gai n of an end-fi re
array has been gi ven. 1 .4gai n we start wi th a quarter-wavel ength-spaced
uni form array wi th a phase del ay 7r,/2 between adjacent el ements.
The pol ynomi al associ ated wi th such an array i s
nl n1
j (z) =
z
(j z)k = ( _j ). - 1
rI
(z j ti ) (26)
k=o k=l
wher e u i s the nth r oot of uni ty wi th the smal l est posi ti ve angle. The
array factor i s then
n1
v(e) = ~ \z ju1.
k=l
The numbers .ju~ l i e on the uni t ci rcl e, and, i t wi l l be recal l ed, the array
factor i s formed by compubi ng the square of the product of the di stances
from these numbers to the vari abl e poi nt z.
I t i s apparent (Fi g. 9.12) that the zer os of
j(z) l yi ng outsi de the range of z add l i ttl e
to the di recti vi ty of the array. Thus, an
array whose pol ynomi al i s
nl
f(z) = ~ (z ju),
k.[~]
retai ni ng as i t does onl y those zer os whi ch
l i e on the range of z, wi l l have the same
FI C. 9.12.The l ocati on O,
nul l s as formerl y and at the same l ocati on.
the zer osof Eq. (26)wi threl atl on
I ts Wi n wi l l have been r educed but ~i tt]e, 0 he nge Ofz for n = S.
whi l e i ts number of el ements has been al most hal ved.
9.7. Beam Synthesi s.-The precedi ng secti ons have deal t pri nci pal l y
wi th the probl em of anal yzi ng the properti es of the array factors of gi ven
l i near arrays. The i nverse probl em, that of fi ndi ng an array whi ch wi l l
yi el d an array factor havi ng prescri bed characteri sti cs, i s far mor e di ffi -
cul t, The prt=sentsecti on \vi l l treat some aspects of the synthesi s probl em.
The nature of the synthesi s probl em depends on the manner i n whi ch
the desi red pattern i s speci fi ed. The l atter may be prescri bed as a
compl ete functi on of d over the physi cal range O s o s T.
I n general a
sol uti on i s sought that gi ves an acceptabl e approxi mati on to the desi red
pattern. Ther e can be no uni que sol uti on to such a probl em, si nce the
pattern i s prescri bed onl y as regards i ntensi ty di stri buti on of the radi a-
1S. A, Schel kunoff, A hl athemati cal Theor y of Li near Arrays, Bel l Systenl
Tech. Jour., 22, 80 (1943).
280 LI NEAR-ARRAY ANTENNAS AND FEEDS [SEC. 9.7
ti on fi el d; the phase di stri buti on i s arbi trary, and each choi ce of such a
di stri buti on wi l l l ead to a di fferent array. Onl y a parti al sol uti on to the
probl em wi l l be gi ven. I t wi l l be based on the general characteri zati on
of the array factor of an n-el ement array and the formul ati on of the pr op
erti es that a pattern must possess i n or der to be the array factor of a
l i near array. Al l n-el ement arrays wi l l be found that have a gi ven array
factor. The probl em of fi ndi ng the best approxi mati on to a gi ven pattern
by a real i zabl e array factor i s beyond the scope of the present di scussi on.
The desi red pattern may be speci fi ed wi th r egar d to general pr oper -
ti es rather than as a compl ete functi on of 9. Exampl es of such synthesi s
probl ems are the desi gn of a broadsi de array havi ng mi ni mum beamwi dth
for a gi ven si de-l obe l evel and the desi gn of one havi ng a mi ni mum si de-
l obe l evel for a gi ven beamwi dth. These probl ems have exact sol uti ons
when the spaci ng of the el ements of the array i s A/2 or gr eater ; they wi l l
be di scussed l ater i n thi s secti on.
We shal l consi der fi rst the characteri zati on of the arrav factor of an
n-el ement array. The array factor can be obtai ned from Eq. (8) by
repl aci ng ~ by ei (z- )X and expandi ng. I f the real numbers A k and Bk
are defi ned by
nl k
/ik +j& =
z
ara~+k, (27)
,=0
Eq. (8) becomes
nl
*@)= Ao+2z[Ac+:cOs) +Bksi n(k?c@)l 28)
k=l
Thus the array factor of any n-el ement l i near array wi th spaci ng s i s a
tri gonometri c sum of or der n 1 i n the angl e $ = (2%s cos 0)/k. The
tri gonometri c sum i s nonnegati ve for al l real val ues of *. Conversel y,
ever y nonnegati ve tri gonometri c sum can be real i zed as the array factor
of a l i near array. I t fol l ows then that the necessary and suffi ci ent con-
di ti on that ther e exi sts a l i near array havi ng the prescri bed pattern as i ts
array factor i s that the prescri bed pattern can be expressed as a nonnega-
ti ve tri gonometri c sum of a fi ni te number of terms. Expressi ng the
prescri bed pattern as such a sum determi nes the coeffi ci ents Ak and B~,
and i n pri nci pl e the feedi ng coeffi ci ents a, of the array can be determi ned
from Eq. (27).
To fi nd an n-el ement array that wi l l approxi mate the prescri bed
pattern, the l atter may be approxi mated Lby the terms of or der l ess than
I The method of approxi mati on sel ected wi l l depend on how the prescri bed pattern
i s speci fi ed and what devi ati on fr om i t i s acceptabl e. For a gener al di scussi on of thi s
pr obl em see C. de l a Val l ee Poussi n, Lecona 8UTt Apprommation da Fwwtiona d unz
Variable reLle, Pari s, 1919.
SEC. 9.7]
BEAM SYNTHESIS 281
n i n i ts Fouri er seri es expansi on i n the angl e $ = (%s cos 6)/x. When
s > x/2, the peri odi ci ty of-the Fouri er seri es may present di ffi cul ty. I f
these terms form a tri gonometri c sum that i s nonnegati ve for al l ~, the
coeffi ci ents A ~ and Bk may be used to determi ne the feedi ng coeffi ci ents
of the n-el ement array.
A di rect sol uti on of Eq, (27) i s, however , di ffi cul t, I nstead, defi ne
an auxi l i ary pol ynomi al F(z) by
nl nl
F(z) =
z
(A, jBk)z-+ + AOZ-l +
z
(Ak + jB~)Zn-l-. (29)
k=l k=l
Then Eq. (28) becomes
We) = l~(e(r-)h)l.
(30)
I f Zki s a zer o of F(z), so al so i s i ts conjugate reci procal l /z$. The assump-
ti on that the tri gonometri c sum i s nonnegati ve thus i mpl i es that the zer os
l yi ng on the uni t ci rcl e, whi ch are thei r own conjugate reci procal s, occur
wi th even mul ti pl i ci ti es. Hence the zer os of F(z) may be gr ouped i n
pai rs; and asi de from a constant mul ti pl i er,
n1
( )1
F(z) = ~ [(Z zk) : 2>.
k=l
One zer o i n each pai r may be sel ected as a zer o of a new
n1
f (z) = ~ (z z, ).
k-l
For val ues of z on the uni t ci rcl e
W)l = l~(z)l = v(e),
wher e agai n a constant mul ti pl i er has been dropped.
(31)
pol ynomi al
(32)
Eauati on (30)
.,
then i mpl i es that W(O) i s the a~ray factor of the a~~ay whose associ ated
pol ynomi al i s gi ven by Eq. (32). The separati on of the zer os of l (z)
i nto two sets can i n general be done i n many ways. Each such parti ti on
wi l l usuti l l y l ead to two di fferent arrays; al l arrays wi l l have the same
array factor. When al l the zer os l i e on the uni t ci rcl e (as, for exampl e,
i n the uni form array), onl y one method of di vi si on i s possi bl e and the
two sets obtai ned are the same. I t shoul d not be assumed that fi ndi ng
an array havi ng a gi ven array factor i s an easy computati onal probl em,
even when n i s as smal l as 5. I t i s necessary to fi nd the zer os of a pol y-
nomi al of degr ee 2n 2 and then per for m the mul ti pl i cati ons i ndi cated
282 LI NEAR-ARRAY ANTENNAS AND FEEDS
i n Eq. (32) to fi nd the feedi ng coeffi ci ents. Si mpl er but
methods have been devi sed. 1
[SEC. 97
l ess general
I t i s now possi bl e to veri fy the assumpti on made i n Sec. 9.5 that as
far as the gai n of broadsi de arrays i s concer ned, attenti on maybe restri cted
to arrays whose el ements are ei ther i n phase or out of phase by 180,
that i s, to arrays whose feedi ng coeffi ci ents are real . The array factor
of an arbi trary array i s gi ven by Eq. (28). I f the si ne terms are dropped,
the resul ti ng V(O) i s sti l l the array factor of some array. Mor eover the
gai n i n the di recti on 0 = rr/2 i s unchanged, si nce both the fi el d i ntensi ty
i n the di recti on 8 = 7r/2 and the i ntegral i n Eq. (20) are unchanged by ~
el i mi nati ng the si ne terms. The correspondi ng pol ynomi al F(z) i n Eq.
(29) wi l l have real coeffi ci ents, and i ts nonreal zer os occur i n conjugate ~
pai rs. Hence i n formi ng the associ ated pol ynomi al f(z), the pai ri ng of
conjugate zer os may be mai ntai ned and j(z) wi l l have real coeffi ci ents.
Let us consi der next the probl em of mi ni mi zi ng the si de-l obe l evel of
broadsi de arrays wi th a fi xed beamwi dth or maxi mi zi ng the beamwi dth
for a gi ven si de-l obe l evel . The probl em has r ecei ved an exact sol uti on?
when the spaci ng between el ements i s at l east A/2 and suffi ci entl y l ess
than A to el i mi nate any l arge end-fi re l obe. For the present purposes
a conveni ent defi ni ti on of beamwi dth i s the angul ar di fference between the .
posi ti on of the two nul l s encl osi ng the mai n beam. Onl y those arrays
wi l l be consi dered whose mai n-beam nul l s are symmetri cal l y l ocated wi th .
.
r espect to the di recti on 0 = 7r/2.
The array factor havi ng ei ther the mi ni mum beamwi dth or the l owest
si de-l obe l evel may be expressed i n terms of the Tchebyscheff pol ynomi al
Z,.(Z) = cos (2n cos- z). Thi s pol ynomi al fal l s between 1 and + 1
i n the i nterval 1 S z s 1, assumes the val ue + 1 at the end poi nts of
the i nterval , i ncreases steadi l y outsi de the i nterval , and i s symmetri c
wi th r espect to the l i ne z = O. The actual array factor i s gi ven by
v(e) = ; [1 + T,. (az)l ,
()
rs Cos o
z = Cos
A
(33)
Fi gure 9.13 i s a graph of ~[1 + T,n(ax)] for n = 4 and a = 1. I n Eq.
(33) the di recti on 8 = r/2 corresponds to z = 1. I f
~[1 + Zzm(a)] = r,
(34)
the rel ati ve hei ght of each si de l obe i s l /r. The array factor wi th thi s
1S. A. Schel kunoff, A Mathemati cal Theor y of Li near Array s, Bel l System Tech.
J our., 22, 80 (1943); and I r vi ng Wol ff, Determi nati on of the Radi ati ng System
Whi ch Wi l l Pr oduce a Speci fi ed Di recti onal Char~cteri sti c, Proc. I RE, 26, 630 (1937).
C. L. Dol ph, A fhr r ent Di stri buti on for l l roadsi de Arrays JYhi ch Opti mi zes the
Rel ati onshi p between Beam Wi dth and Si de I ,obe I ,evel , Proc. I RE, 34, 3.35 (1946).
The resul ts of Dol ph have been gener al i zed by Henr y J. Ri bl et, Proc. I RE, S6, 489
(1947).
SEC. 9.7] BEAM SYNTHESI S 283
si de-l obe l evel and havi ng the smal l est beamwi dth i s gi ven by Eq. (33)
wi th a a sol uti on of Eq. (34). The nul l nearest z = 1 occurs for
1
= i Cos &
(35)
Thi s, together wi th z = cos [(7s cos O)/A], gi ves the beamwi dth. I f the
si de-l obe l evel i s to be mi ni mi zed for a prescri bed beam wi dth, Eq. (35)
i s used to determi ne a and Eq. (34) to fi nd the hei ght of the si de l obe.
-1.1-1.0-0.9-0.8-0.7 -0.6-0.5-0.4-0.3-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
FI G. 9.13.The functi on ~[1 + ZS(Z)].
The substi tuti on x = +(zM + z-~$) transforms ~[1 + Tjn(az)] i nto
2W(Z), wher e F(z) i s a pol ynomi al of the form of Eq. (29) wi th Bk = O
for al l k. The symmetry of Z,.(az) ensures that the fracti onal power s
of z i n F(z) are mi ssi ng.
The same substi tuti on transforms
=cs[(=sTe)l
i nto z = e~fz- m Ja. Hence thi s substi tuti on transforms Eq. (33) i nto
Eq. (30), and thus Eq. (33) represents an array factor of some l i near
array. The feedi ng coeffi ci ents are obtai ned most easi l y from the zer os
of ~[1 + TZ~(az)], for these transform i nto the zer os off(z), the associ ated
pol ynomi al of the array.
The opti mum properti es of the Tchebyscheff array are readi l y estab-
l i shed. An argument si mi l ar to one used earl i er i n thi s secti on i s suffi ci ent
to show that attenti on may be restri cted to arrays whose associ ated
pol ynomi al s have real coeffi ci ents.
The array factor can be r epr esented
>
i n the form of Eq. (30). The pol ynomi al F(z) defi ned i n Eq. (29) has
onl y real coeffi ci ents. Hence the substi tuti on x = ~(z$fi + .z-~~)trans-
forms Znl (z) i nto a pol ynomi al G(x) symmetri c wi th r espect to the l i ne
z = O. Equati on (30) i s transformed i nto
284 LI NEAR-ARRAY ANTENNAS AND FEEDS [SEC. 98
w(e) =G(z),
()
7rsCos e
x = Cos
A
Suppose G(z) i snormal i zed sothat G(l ) =rwi thrasi n Eq. (34). I ti s
i mpossi bl e for G(z) to have a zer o for z > xl [Eq. (35)] and at the same
ti me l i e between O and 1 for O s z S zl . Any such pol ynomi al woul d
then have (n + 1) poi nts i n common wi th ~[1 + TZ.(z)], doubl e poi nts
bei ng counted as such. The symmetry then shows that the two pol y-
nomi al s, each of degr ee 2n, have 2n + 2 poi nts of i ntersecti on and so
must coi nci de. I f s a k/2, ther e are real val ues of o correspondi ng to
any x i n the i nterval O S x ~ 1. Hence i f the si de-l obe l evel of the
array i s I /r, the requi rement that O s G(z) s 1 for O S z S xl must be
met, and the onl y array possi bl e i s the Tchebyscheff array.
RADI ATI NG ELEMENTS
9.8. Di pol e Radi ators.-The vari ous forms of coaxi al l i ne-fed di pol es
di scussed i n Chap. 8 can be adapted for use as a l i near-array el ement to
be mounted on ei ther coaxi al l i ne or wavegui de. Desi gn and perform-
ance are di scussed her e i n terms of a rectangul ar gui de; however , the
fundamental i deas appl y to al l types of l i nes. The general properti es ,
desi red of a di pol e el ement are (1) a bal anced exci tati on of the wi ngs to
gi ve a symmetri cal pattern, (2) a resi sti ve l oad presented by the di pol e
because a reacti ve component means l arge refl ecti ons i n the l i ne, (3) an
easi l y adjustabl e resi stance wi th mi ni mum frequency dependence, and
(4) hi gh power capaci ty.
The requi rement for bal anced exci tati on of the wi ngs favors the use
of the sl ot-fed di pol e (cj. Sec. 8.4). The open-end termi nati on has been
used al most excl usi vel y; the stub-termi nated uni ts are mor e frequency
sensi ti ve and are al so l i mi ted i n power capaci ty by the standi ng waves
i n the stub secti on. The general arrangement of a sl ot.fed di pol e adapted
to a rectangul ar gui de i s i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 9.14. The i nner conductor 1
of the coaxi al l i ne serves as a coupl i ng pr obe to the wavegui de; i t i s evi -
dent that the pr obe shoul d be paral l el to the el ectri c fi el d i n the gui de for
effi ci ent coupl i ng.
The i mportant parameters of the di pol e are sl ot depth, wi ng l ength,
and outer -conductor di ameter. The properti es of the el ement are com-
1
pl i cated functi ons of these parameters, and l i ttl e i s avai l abl e i n the form
of systemati c data. Br eakdown tends to occur between the conductors
of the coaxi al secti on. The breakdown potenti al can be i ncreased by
i ncreasi ng the sl ot wi dth and the outer -conductor di ameter; the extent
I
to whi ch thi s can be pursued i s l i mi ted, however , by the unbal anci ng of
the wi ng exci tati on. The unbal anci ng i s due to hi gher modes becomi ng
promi nent and produci ng an asymmetri cal fi el d across the l i ne; the si mpl e
mcl de pi cture drawn i n Fi g. 8% i s appl i cabl e onl y for sl ot wi dths and
?
SEC. 9.81 DIPOLE RADIATORS 285
coaxi al -l i ne di mensi ons that suppress the hi gher modes. The el ement
i l l ustratedi n Fi g. 9.14 desi gned for use i n the 10.7-cm regi on has a hi gh
power capaci ty. Wi th the val ues of the parameters i ndi cated i n the
fi gure the bal anced condi ti on i s mai ntai ned, as evi denced by a symmetri cal
radi ati on pattern; furthermore, studi es of the phase fronts i ndi cat,e that
the uni t has a center of feed l ocated i n the i nner conductor. The wave-
gui de serves as a r efl ector so that the uni t mounted i n gui de forms ~!ssen-
ti al l y a di pol e-pl ate system.
I
I
P:--AA
13 ~
FI G. 9.14.CI OSSsecti on of a di pol e on rectangul ar wavegui de.
the ar r angement shown i n the fi gur e, the di pol e behaves l i ke a I n
l oad shunted across the l i ne. Thi s i s pr oved experi mental l y by measur-
i ng the i nput admi ttance of the di pol e when i t i s fol l owed by a vari abl e
reactance, whi ch i s provi ded by a movabl e pl unger i n the end of the gui de;
i t i s found that the conductance of the system i s i ndependent of the ter -
mi nati ng reactance. The admi ttance of the di pol e i s a functi on of pr obe
depth. Wi th no pr obe the el ement presents an i nducti ve susceptance
component; the probe, l i ke a tuni ng screw, i s a capaci tati ve susceptance
(except for extr eme depths of i nserti on); accordi ngl y i t i s possi bl e to
fi nd a pr obe depth at whi ch the susceptance of the el ement as a whol e
1J. Whel pton, Admi ttance characteri sti cs of Some S-band Wavegui de Fed
Di pol es, RL Repor t No. 1082, January, 1946.
286 LI NEAR-.4RRAY ANTENNAS AND FEEDS
[SEC,99
smal l sphere.
vani shes. These rel ati ons arei l l ustrated i n Fi g. 9.15, apl otof the di pol e
admi ttance asa functi on of pr obe depth. The depth towhi ch the pr obe
may be i nserted i s l i mi ted by breakdown, whi ch can occur between the
end of the pr obe and the bottom of the gui de, Thi s di ffi cul ty can be
ohvi ~ted i n some measure by termi nati ng the pr obe i n a
1.0
YY
..?
go
01 6[ 61 01 01 .+ ,-i
w
0.0
F
Conductance &n~onenJ($
. . .,
~.*-
F,G.915.~Di pol e admi ttance as a functi on of pr obe depth i n i nches (X = 10,7 cm),
For a gi ven depth of i nserti on, the sphere causes a sl i ght i ncrease i n the
capaci tati ve effect of the probe.
The i mpedances of these di pol es as si ngl e el ements are practi cal l y
i ndependent of the ori entati on wi th r espect to the axi s of the l i ne. I n
an assembl age of el ements ther e are mutual i nteracti ons whi ch are
deci ded functi ons of ori entati on.
For assembl ages of el ements the questi on of reproduci bi l i ty of an
el ement i n producti on i s of consi derabl e i mportance: i t has been found
that characteri sti cs can be r epr oduced qui te accuratel y by centri fugal
or di e-casti ng producti on methods.
9.9. Sl ots i n Wavegui de Wal l s.I t was noted i n Chap. 7 that the
el ectromagneti c fi el d i n the i nteri or of a wavegui de has associ ated wi th
!-
,
.
r
i t a di stri buti on of cur r ent over the boundary surfaces of the gui de.
:
Thi s cur r ent sheet may be r egar ded pr oper l y as that requi red to pr event
SEC. 910] TI I EORk OF .~I ,Ol RAD1A7OR,S 287
penetrati on of the fi el d i nto the regi on exter i or to the boundari es; i t i s
i ndeed tr ue that the metal l i c structure can be r emoved, provi di ng the
cur r ent sheet i s mai ntai ned, \vi thout l eakagcuf cmmgyac rossthebound-
ari es. I f a narrow sl ot i s cut i n the wal l of a ~vavcgui de such that the
l ong di mensi on of the sl ot runs al ong a cur r ent l i ne or al ong the regi on
of the wal l \vher c the cur r ent i s zer o, i t produces onl y a mi nor perturba-
ti on of the cur r ent di stri buti on and correspondi ngl y ver y l i ttl e coupl i ng
of the i nternal fi el d to space. Exampl es of such sl ots are el ements cut
i n a coaxi al l i ne wi th the l ong di mensi on paral l el to the axi s of the l i ne
or el ements of the type c and e cut i n a rectangul ar gui de as i l l ustrated i n
Fi g. 916; the sl ot c l yi ng al ong the central l i ne of the gui de i s i n a regi on
of ?er o cur r ent densi ty. ATonradi ati ng sl ots offer a means of entr y i nto
the gui de for studyi ng the i nternal fi el d and are used for thi s purpose i n
i mpedance measurements (qf. Chap. 15).
On the other hand, a sl ot cut i n a gui de wal l i n a di recti on transverse
to the cur r ent l i nes produces a si gni fi cant perturbati on of the cur r ent
.
*
sheet, wi th the resul t that the i n-
ternal fi el d i s coupl ed to space.
A sl ot of thi s type consti tutes a
radi ati ng el ement. I he degr ee of
coupl i ng depends on the cur r ent
densi ty i ntercepted by the sl ot and
the component of the l ength of the
sl ot transverse to tbe cur r ent l i nes.
Thus the coupl i ng at a gi ven posi -
ti on on the gui de can be adjusted
by the ori entati on of the sl ot as i s
i ndi cated for the el ements d and j
Fr~. 9. l fi .-Sl ots i n the wal l of rectangul ar
wavegui dc.
i n Fi g. 9.16, or the coupl i ng can be adjusted by posi ti on l i ke the radi ati ng
sl ot b and non-radi ati ng sl ot c i n the fi gure. The type of ci rcui t el ement
that the radi ati ng sl ot presents to the transmi ssi on-l i ne representati on of
the wave-gui de i s agai n a functi on of posi ti on and ori entati on. Under
certai n condi ti ons the sl ot i s i n effect a shunt el ement; i n others a seri es
cl ement; under ver y general condi ti ons the sl ot can be r epr esented ade-
quatel y onl y by a T- or I I -secti on i nserted i n the l i ne. The general ci rcui t
rel ati ons and the fundamental properti es of sl ots wi l l be devel oped i n the
fol l o\vi ng secti on.
9.10. Theor y of Sl ot Radi ators.Let us consi der a cyl i ndri cal wave-
gui de of arbi trary cross secti on wi th i ts axi s the z-axi s. I t was found i n
Chap. 7 that, the normal modes of such a gui de fal l i nto two cl asses:
7E-m,Jdw havi ng an 11,- hut no E,-component and TM-modes havi ng
an E.- bl l t no I f Z-componentj. Each mode i s characteri zed by i ts char-
acteri st i c admi t tance Yfi ~ and propa~ati on constant 13~~; the l atter i s
real for a fr eel y propagated mode but, i s to be taken equal to ~~~~for a
#
288 LI NEAR-ARRAY ANTENNAS AND FEEDS [SEC.910
mode beyond cutoff. From the general di scussi on i n Sec. 73 i t i s seen
that the fi el d components of a TE-mode of or der a = mn can be wri tten
H, = jH.. exp (: j~az),
E, = E., exp ( +jb~z),
1
(36)
H, = tHa, exp ( +jpaz),
wher e El and H~r epr esent the transverse el ectri c and magneti c fi el d vec-
tors and the upper or l ower si gns are taken accordi ng as the wave i s
goi ng i n the posi ti ve or the negati ve z-di recti on. The general form of the
ZM-mode fi el d components i s the same as i n Eq. (36) wi th H, repl aced
by
E. = jE. exp ( Tj~az). (37)
I f D. i s real , the functi ons E.,, H.., Es,, and Ho, are al l real and depend
onl y on a, x, and y. We have al so seen (cj. Sec. 7.3) that the component
vector functi ons E., and H~i have the orthogonal i ty pr oper ty
/
(Eat x H,,) . i , dS = O, a#b,
)
(38)
s.,

a=b,
wher e & i s twi ce the Poynti ng ener gy fl ux for a fr eel y propagated mode
and i , i s a uni t vector i n the di recti on Oz. The normal modes of the gui de
form a compl ete set i n terms of whi ch an arbi trary fi el d di stri buti on over
the wal l of the gui de can be expressed i n the form of a Fouri er expansi on.
Now consi der a sl ot from ZI to .2, i n the wal l of the i nfi ni te gui de.
We assume that the gui de i s to be exci ted by a known fi el d di stri buti on
al ong the sl ot. Then the fi el d i n the gui de, whi ch i s denoted by subscri pt
1, wi l l consi st of outgoi ng waves on ei ther si de of the sl ot; that i s, i t wi l l
contai n onl y waves goi ng to the ri ght for z > ZZand onl y waves goi ng to
the l eft for z < zI ,
E,, =
z
AOE=,exp (~paz), z > 22,
a
E,, =
z
BaEa, exp (jp.z), z < 21,
a
H,, =
z
AaHa, exp (jf?az), z > 22,
a
H,, =
z
B.H., exp (JLz),
z < 21.
a
(39)
The ampl i tudes of waves goi ng to the ri ght and l eft are not necessari l y
equal and are denoted by Aa and Ba respecti vel y; they must be such
SW!. 9.10] 7711EOR 1 OtI S1.01 RADI A 7ORS 289
that on superposi ng the two sets of waves a fi el d i s pr oduced whi ch
matches the fi el d over the sl ot accordi ng to the general boundary condi -
ti ons formul ated i n (l ap. 3.
I n or der to eval uate the ampl i tudes A. and Ba an auxi l i ary rel ati on
must fi rst be deri ved. Consi der two fi el ds E,, H, and EZ, H, of the same
frequency and both sati sfyi ng the homogeneous fi el d equati ons. By
vi rtue of these equati ons we fi nd
V . (E, X HJ = V . (EZ xH, ) = jti (cE, . Ez + ~H, .HJZ
1I ence
V . [(E, xH,) (E, xH, )] = f).
I f 1 i s any cl osed rcgi {m bol l udml I ),y a sl l rfare ,S, i t ful l mvs by the di ver-
gence theor cm that,
\
(E, xH, E, xH, ) .rrd,l = O,
s
(40)
wher e n i s the uni t vector normal to dfl and di r ected outward from V.
l i rst, we shal l eval uate B.. I .et the fi el d E,, HI be the fi el d set up i n
the gui de by the sl ot as formul ated i n 13(1s.(39). For the fi el d EZ, H, l et
us take a normal mode, fr ee propfi gati on of whi ch i s supported by the
gui de, travel i ng toward the ri ght, and l ot a be the i ndex of thi s mode.
Furthermore, take as the regi on V the secti on of the gui de contai ni ng the
sl ot, bounded on the l eft by the pl ane z = Z3 < z, and on the ri ght by the
pl ane z = z, > z,. The surface LSto \vhi ch I ;q. (40) i s to be appl i ed
consi sts then of thrsc t\vo r]hmcs and the \val l of the gui de. Over the
.,
pl ane z = 24 the fi el ds 1 and 2 consi st of s,vstjems of waves travel i ng i n
the same di recti on. When the i ndi catrd substi tuti ons are made and the
orthogonal i ty pr oper ty of Eq. 38 i s used, the i ntcgmd vani shes. fl n
the pl ane z = z~ the fi el ds 1 and 2 arc composed of waves travel i ng i n
opposi t c di recti ons. M~ki ng usc of the ortho~ona]i ty rrkt,i on agai n
and nuti ug that for thi s s~l rfacc n = i ., the i ntegral over thi s surface
i s 21;,.,S.. ( t)nsi (l eri ng the i ntegral over the wal l , the sccxmd term i n
the i ntcgrand i s zer o cvcr,v\vhcrc, for i t can bc \rri tten as H, c (n x E*),
and n x E~ i s zer o over the wal l , si nce EZ i s a normal mode. Si mi l arl y
the fi el d E, must sati sfy tl )e c{mdi ti on n x E, = O over the metal wal l
I ml l n(l ary. The onl y nonvani sl l i ug c(mt ri bl l t,i on from the ]val l area ari ses
from the fi rst term of the i ntcgrand over the regi on of the sl ot. One
thus fi nds
2B.S. =
1
(E, xHJ .ndS, (41)
,I!)t,
\r hcr c n i s a l l ni t vector normal 1t) the \val l and di rcctrd i nto the i nteri or
of t,l l c gl l i de. I f z i s a l l ni t vector pcrpendi cl l l ar to the axi s of the gui de
and tangent to the sl l rfacc of the gl l i dc, then
290 LI NEAR-A RRAI ANTENNAS AND FEEDS
[SEC. 910
Substi tuti ng thi s l ast rel ati on i nto Eq, (41), we obtai n fi nal l y
Second, we shal l eval uate A.. The fi el d El , H, i s agai n taken to be that
set up i n the gui de by the sl ot, and the fi el d Ej, HZ i s taken to be the
normal mode of i ndex a travel i ng to the l eft. I n thi s case the pl ane
z = 23 does not contri bute to the i ntegral i n Eq. (40), and the pl ane
z = 2A contri butes 2A,S~; over the wal l of the gui de the onl y non-
vani shi ng contri buti on ari ses agai n from the fi rst term of the i ntegrand
over the area of the sl ot. I t i s thus found that
2AaSa =
\
(E, x H,) . n CM
*l ot
.
/
(jE,,H.. + EI,HC,) exp (j3az) dS. (44)
sl ot
The i nterpretati on of Eqs. (43) and (44) for the ampl i tudes becomes
cl earer i f the magneti c fi el d components H., and Ha, are repl aced by
surface cur r ent densi ti es K.. and Kc, respecti vel y. These are the com-
ponents of the surface current, i n the di recti on of the axi s of the gui de
and i n the di recti on transverse to i t, that exi sts over the area of the sl ot
f
i n the nonsl otted gui de supporti ng the ath mode. I n terms of these
currents the ampl i tudes become
(46)
I t i s evi dent from these equati ons that i n general the sl ot does not radi ate
equal l y i n both di recti ons wi thi n the gui de. The formul as al so sho~v that
the sl ot wi l l coupl e the ath mode to space onl y i f i t cuts across cur r ent
l i nes correspondi ng to that mode, Ther e are vari ous speci al condi ti ons
under whi ch a smal l sl ot i s symmetri cal wi th r espect to the ath mode.
I f al l the di mensi ons of a sl ot are smal l compared \vi th the ~vavel ength,
the vari ati on of a phase factor exp ( +j~az) across the sl ot can be negl ected;
wi thout l oss of general i ty the sl ot can be l ocated at z = O, i n whi ch case
the phase factors are repl aced by uni ty. l Ve then obser ve that
1. A. = B. i f El, or Ke, is zer o, Refer ence to Eqs, (39) shows that
as far as the ath-mode contri buti on i s concer ned, El ~i s conti nuous
?
at the pl ane z = O whi l e the magneti c fi el d i s di sconti nuous; i n
fact, H~ i s i n opposi te phase to H;. Wi th r espect to the ath
mode the sl ot acts l i ke a shl (nt el ement i n a transmi ssi on l i ne.
SEC. 9.1 1] SLOTS I N RECTA .~GULAR WA VEGClDE; TE,o-MODE 291
2. A. = B. i f E,, or K., i s zer o. I n thi s case El , i s di sconti nuous
and H I t i s conti nuous at the pl ane z = O as far as the ath mode i s
concer ned; the sl ot beha\es l i ke a seri es el ement i n the ath-mode
transmi ssi on l i ne.
The sl ots of mor e general i nterest are narrow ones havi ng a l ength of
about x/2 and a ~~i dth smal l compared ~vi th the l ength. The el ectri c-
fi el d di stri buti on i n such a sl ot i s nearl y si nusoi dal al ong the l ength and
i ndependent of the feedi ng system; the di recti on of the fi el d i s transverse
to the l ong di mensi on. Ther e are al so speci al condi ti ons under whi ch
such sl ots r educe to seri es or shunt el ements:
1. Axi s of the sl ot perpendi cul ar to the gui de axi s. I n thi s case the
phase factor exp ( tj~~z) can agai n be repl aced by uni ty. Further-
mor e El , = O; hence i f Ka. # 0, Aa = ~a and the sl ot behaves
l i ke a series el ement i n the ath-mode transmi ssi on l i ne.
2. Axi s of the sl ot paral l el to the gui de axi s. I n thi s case El , = Oand
the second members of the i ntegrands of Eqs. (45) and (46)
vani sh. The vari ati on of the phase factors exp ( TjI I ?az) cannot
be negl ected; however , K.. is constant, and E,, i s an even functi on
al ong the sl ot; ther efor e onl y the real parts of the phase factors
contri bute to nonvani shi ng i ntegral s, and one has A. = Ba. The
sl ot ori ented i n thi s manner behaves l i ke a shunt el ement.
Except when speci al condi ti ons of symmetry are i mposed on the fi el d
and on the currents i n the sl ot, for ori entati ons mor e general than (1)
and (2) above, B. # t Aa, and the sl ot behaves l i ke a mor e compl i cated
combi nati on of shunt and seri es el ement. I n thi s case the sl ot i s r epr e-
sented by a 2- or I I -secti on equi val ent i n the ath-mode transmi ssi on l i ne.
9.11. Sl ots i n Rectangul ar Wavegui de; ZE,,-mode.-The theor y of
sl ots i n rectangul ar gui de that supports onl y the TE10-mode wi l l be devel -
oped i n detai l . The di scussi on wi l l be based on the fol l owi ng assumpti ons:
1. The sl ot i s narro~v; i .e., 2 l og,, (l ength/wi dth) >>1.
2. The sl ot i s cut so that i t i s to be near the fi rst resonance (l ength
of the sl ot = A/2).
3, The fi el d i n the sl ot i s transverse to the l ong di mensi on and vari es
si nusoi dal l y al ong the sl ot, i ndependent of the exci ti ng system.
4, The gui de wal l s are per fectl y conducti ng and i nfi ni tel y thi n.
5. The fi el d i n the regi on behi nd the face contai ni ng the sl ot i s
negl i gi bl e wi th r espect to the fi el d outsi de the gui de; thi s i s tanta-
mount to extendi ng the face contai ni ng the sl ot i nto an i nfi ni te
per fectl y conducti ng pl ane.
The thi rd assumpti on concerni ng the fi el d di stri buti on i s cl osel y i n
accor d wi th experi mental condi ti ons. The fi fth assumpti on i s probabl y
the most radi cal i n i ts departure from the actual condi ti ons.
292
LI NEAR-ARRAY ANTENNAS AND FEEDS [SEC.911
Fh_st the equi val ent ci rcui ts arc gi ven for the common types of sl ot,
and then the method i s gi ven for cal cul ati ng the val ues of the el ements
by means of Eqs. (45) and (46) and the el ectromagneti c formul a-
(b)
(c)
r+jz
0 0
r+jz
0 0
(d)
0 0
FI G. 9.17.Parameters and equi val ent
ci rcmts of sl ots i n rectangul ar wavegui de
(r efer ence poi nt for ci rcui t el ements i s the
center of the dot). (a) wavegui de di men-
si ons; (b) l ongi tudi nal sl ot i n broad face,
shunt el ement; (c) transverse sl ot i n broad
face, seri es el ement; (d) centered i ncl i ned sl ot
i n broad face, seri es el ement; (e) i ncl i ned sl ot
i n narrow face, shunt el ement.
(3) for a centered i ncl i ned sl ot i n the
9.17)
ti on of 13abi nets pri nci pl e (Sec.
5.15), provi ded the reacti ve fi el d
of the sl ot i s zer o. 1 The rectan-
gul ar gui de has the di mensi ons
shown i n Fi g. 9.17. The shunt
conductance of a sl ot normal i zed
to the characteri sti c admi ttance
of the TE10-mode l i ne i s g, and the
seri es resi stance normal i zed wi th
r espect to the l i ne characteri sti c
i mpedance i s r. We have then
(1) for a l ongi tudi nal sl ot i n the
broad face (shunt el ement b i n
Fi g. 9.17)
()
TXI
g=gl si n2 ~, (47a)
wher e
()
g, = 2.09 ~ : COS2 A
2X
; (47b)
i
(2) for a transverse sl ot i n the
broad face (seri es el ement c i n
Fi g, 9.17)
()
7rx,
T= TOCOS2 , (48a)
a
wher e
0=0523( 333c0s2(a
(48b)
broad face (seri es el ement d i n Fi g.
wher e
(49b)
t
I The resul tsto be quoted are due to A. F. Stevenson, Seri es of Sl ots i n Rectan-
gul ar l Vavegui des, Parts I and I I , Speci al ~ommi ttee on Appl i ed Mathcc]mti cs,
Nati onal Research counci l of Canada, Radi o Reports 12 and 13, 1944.
SEC. %11] SLOTS lN RECTANGULAR WA VEGUIDE; TE,o-MODE
293
)
$=
~ cos 0 F ~a si n 9; (49C)
T,
and (4) for an i ncl i ned sl ot i n the narrow face (shunt el ement e i n Fi g.
917)
inecos(%sino) . (~~)
()
1 } si n@
0 1
As an i l l ustrati on of the method of deri vi ng the above rel ati ons we
shal l concl ude thi s secti on wi th a summary of the pr ocedur e for the
l ongi tudi nal sl ot i n the broad face of the gui de, Case (1) above. Choose
di mensi ons as i ndi cated i n Fi g. 9.17b. Suppose a TE,,-wave of ampl i -
tude uni ty to be i nci dent on the sl ot from the l eft; thi s fi el d i nduces a
fi el d across the sl ot so that the sl ot radi ates waves i n both di recti ons i n
the gui de and i nto space outsi de the gui de. The ampl i tudes BI Oand A ~0
(the mode i ndex a i s her e repl aced by 10) of the waves radi ated i n the
i nteri or are gi ven by Eqs. (45) and (46) i n terms of the fi el d i n the sl ot;
the fi el d, accordi ng to the thi rd of our i ni ti al assumpti ons, i s
E,, = E, COS(kZ),
El. = O,
}
(51a)
wher e EOi s the fi el d at the center of the sl ot. We have al so for the other
quanti ti es enteri ng i nto Eqs. (45) and (46)
(511))
wher e Y$j) i s the characteri sti c ~vavc admi ttance of the TE, O-mode.1 On
i nserti ng these quanti ti es i nto the expressi ons for the ampl i tudes i t i s
seen at once that A 10= BI O; that i s, the sl ot i s a sh~l nt el ement, i n agr ee-
ment, wi th the previ ous concl usi ons rel ati ve to sl ots paral l rl to the gui de
axi s. The ampl i tudes are gi ven expl i ci tl y by
lO=BIO=-Eo:(:Ysint:)( osf+)J 52)
1 TI l r rol l st:l l l ts of (K,), and ,S, fl cor r espond to the nl mi c bei ng so norl l l al i md thtt
the el ectri c I i cl (l :wross t,llc guide is given by *sill ~q:.
294 LI NEAR-ARRAY A.kT7ENNAS AND FEED,q [SEC. 911
wher e w i s the wi dth of the sl ot. I t i s useful to express the sl ot exci ta-
ti on i n terms of a vol tage transformati on rati o. The ( vol tage
across the sl ot i s defi ned to be the l i ne i ntegral of the fi el d across the sl ot
at i ts center, i .e.,
VO = wE,,
whi l e the vol tage i n the gui de correspondi ng to any one of the domi nant-
mode waves i s defi ned as the l i ne i ntegral of the fi el d across the center of
the gui de, i .e.,
v, = /).4,0 = bl l l o.
The vol tage transformati on rati o i s then
(53)
I t i s r ecogni zed further that the ampl i tude A,, measures di rectl y the
refl ecti on coeffi ci ent f7 (at z = O) i n the transmi ssi on-l i ne equi val ent of
the domi nant-mode wave. I f the sl ot i s resonant, the val ue of r at z = O
must be real , because the i mpedance l ooki ng to the ri ght i s real at that
poi nt at resonance. Then i f the sl ot i s a shunt el ement of normal i zed
conductance g, the total admi ttance at z = O i s 1 + g; whi l e i f the sl ot
i s a seri es el ement of resi stance r, the i nput i mpedance at z = Oi s 1 + r.
From Eqs. (2.30) and (2.36) g and r may be expressed i n terms of r by
(54)
The val ue of r can be eval uated for a resonant dot by energy-bal ance
rel ati ons. The total ener gy i nci dent on the sl ot i s equal to the sum of
the refl ected, transmi tted, and radi ated ener gy. The i nci dent po~~er i s
S./2 for an i nci dent ~rave of uni t ampl i tude; the r efl ected po\ver i s
(A ,O)~~fl .
The total ampl i t~l de of the domi nant-mode ~vave to the ri ght
of the sl ot i s 1 + B1o; hence, the transmi tted power i s
I n computi ng the power radi ated by the sl ot use i s
obtai ned, by means of an el ectromagneti c Babi ncts
made of a resul t
pri nci pl e,l for the
radi ati on resi stance of a center-dri ven narro~v sl ot i n an i nfi ni te per fectl y
conducti ng pl ane sheet of zer o thi ckness. I n thi s (ase the i nput resi stance
i s
1H. Booker , Babi nets Pri nci pl e and the Theor y of I teeonant Sl ots, TR13 Repor t
No, T-1028
SEC. 912] hXPERI .WE.V7AL l)A7A O.Y SLOT RAL)I ATORS
(
295
i
I n the i nfi ni te sheet probl em the sl ot radi ates to both si des of the sheet;
i n our case the sl ot radi ates to one si de so that the radi ati on resi stance
i s assumed to be si mpl y twi ce the above val ue. The power radi ated
by the sl ot i s then gi ven by
1 Vg
22Rr
= 73 V~ g \vatts
PO
Wri ti ng the ener gy bal ance equati on and rememberi ng that A,0 = BI O,
\ve have
s. 9
_..
2
~ IAIoI 2 + ~[1 + IA I012+ z~e (.AIo)]+ 7Svi~.
Fi nal l y, si nce .4,0 = r i s real , \ve obtai n from the above
vi
l +; =73Q
POS.(A10)2
(55)
Maki ng use of Eqs. (51a) and (51b) and substi tuti ng thi s l ast resul t i nto
Eq. (54), the conductance of the resonant shunt sl ot i s
(56)
We al ready have the vol tage transformati on rati o i n Eq. (53); substi tuti ng
thi s i nto Eq. (56) gi ves the fi nal expressi on for the normal i zed shunt
conductance,
(57)
9.12. Experi mental Data on Sl ot Radi ators. Confi rmati on of the
theor y devel oped i n the l ast secti on has been obtai ned by experi ment
for the l ongi tudi nal sl ot i n the broad face of the gui de (Case b, Fi g. 9.17)
and for the i ncl i ned sl ot i n the narrow face (Case e, Fi g. 9.17).1 The
resi stance of a l ongi tudi nal sl ot as a functi on of i ts posi ti on wi th r espect
to the center of the gui de i s shown i n Fi g. 9.18; the poi nts are i n good
agreement wi th the formul a
I A. L. ~ul l en, The characteri sti cs of Some Sl ot Radi ators i n Rectangul ar
Wavegui des, Royal Ai rcraft %tabl i shmcnt, Great Bri tai nj Tech. Note No. Rad. 200;
Dodds and Watson, Fr equency characteri sti cs of Sl ots, McGi l l Uni versi ty, PRA-
108; Dodds, Gupti O, and Watson, Further Data on Resonant Sl ots, McGi l [ Uni ver -
si ty, PRA-109; E. JV, C,upti ]l and W. H. ~~atson, Longi tudi nal l y Pol ari zed Arrays
of Sl ots, hl cGi l l Uni versi ty, PRA-104.
.4
296 LINEAR-AURA Y AN TENNAS AND FEEDS [SEC. 9.12
()
g = gl Si nj ~ ,
a
(9.47a)
but the numeri cal constant g, i s 1.73 whereas the theoreti cal val ue gi ven
by Eq. (47b) i s 1.63. The di screpancy i s probabl y due to the assumpti ons
underl yi ng the theor y. The frequency characteri sti cs of l ongi tudi nal
100
80
?
60
40
\
20
10 -
~8
%6 \ ,
I
..-
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Slot displacement from center of guide to center of slot, in.
FI G. 9. 18.Resi stance offer ed by a l ongi tudi nal sl ot as a functi on of i ts di spl acement
fr om the center. The sl ot di mensi ons are & by 2 i n., the wavegui de i s 11 by 3 i n., X = 10.7
cm. The data fi t the rel ati on G = Zo/ R = 1,73 si nz [(mz/I z)1], (From J . W. Dodd-s, E W.
Guptdl, and W. H. W&son bv permi.wion of the Nalional Research Council of Canada.)
sl ots as a functi on of sl ot wi dth are presented i n Fi g. 9.19, whi ch shows
that the wi der the sl ot the fl atter the frequency response. The maxi -
mum of conductance does not coi nci de wi th the vani shi ng of susceptance.
For practi cal conveni ence dumbbel l -shaped sl ots such as the one i l l us-
trated i n Fi g. 9.20 have been used i n arrays i n pl ace of rectangul ar sl ots.
The peri meter of a resonant sl ot i s general l y equal to a wavel ength. The
l ength of a resonant dumbbel l sl ot i s ther efor e l ess than that of rectangul ar
ones; they can be used wi th l ess sacri fi ce of mechani cal strength, si nce
l ess gui de i s cut away. The dumbbel l sl ot i s al so si mpl er to machi ne
SEC. 912] EXPERI MENTAJ , DATA ON SLOT RADI ATORS
297
0.6 -
0.5
I I
.
0.4
~.-
<>
*
?
\
0.3 -
\
1~
!
0.2
\ \ i
Slot width, In.
\ :\
0 ------ $fS
G %
K -- y4
)1
\\
A 1/2
\o
+
L
+++13

I
1 %=4 I I
I I I
2.8 2.9 3.0
3.1 3.2 3.3
Frequency 109CPS
0.9 -

0.8
&
0.7
,
d
,
/
/
\
00.6
>i
$
u /
,
: 0.5
~ ,
% /
~ 0.4
,
\
5
/
\
\
/
\
0.3
\ b ~~
v
/
.
\
.
0.2
\ -a
d
U. %Y *
0.1
- .
Q
n
.
2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3
Frequency x 109 cps
I
F1~ 9.19.Admi ttance of l ongi tudi nal sl ot as a functi on of frequency (center of sl ot
i s l ,98cm fr om the center of the wavegui de). (From the work oj.T, W. Doddaarui W. H.
Wa180nbg permis.sion of the National Re.earth Count?J of Canada.)
298 LI NEAR-ARRAY ANTENNAS AND FEEDS [SEC.9.12
because the dumbbel l areas are dri l l ed rather than cut by a mi l l i ng
machi np. Another techni que for shorteni ng the resonant l ength i s to
pl ace a thi n sheet of di el ectri c over the sl ot; a sheet of pol ystyrene of
0.007-i n. thi ckness reduces the resonant l ength by 1.13 per cent at 10.7
cm. The di el ectri c sheet al so serves asa pressuri zi ng devi ce.
I f the conductance and frequency characteri sti cs of each el ement of a
sl otted l i near array are known, i t i s possi bl e to pl ace a gi ven number of
l ongi tudi nal sl ots k,/2 apart so that they are effecti vel y i n paral l el and
to short-ci rcui t the far end of the gui de A,/4 from
m
the l ast sl ot so that the admi ttance i n paral l el
wi th the l ast sl ot i s zer o. Then i f ther e aren
el ements, the rel ati ve conductance of each sl ot
FI w9.20.-Dumbbel l -shaped must (bysui tabl y choosi ngx J bemade to equal
sl ot.
to l /n i n or der to provi de a good match.
Because the sl ots are pl aced i n the same way as a set of di pol es, end to
end, the mutual i mpedance of the sl ots i s negl i gi bl e.
The conductance of a l ongi tudi nal sl ot cut i n the broad face of the
gui de can be readi l y determi ned by measuri ng the i nput i mpedance of
n sl ots i n paral l el because the mutual i mpedance between sl ots i s negl i gi -
bl e. Thi s i s not so when the sl ots are cut i n the narrow face. The effec-
ti ve conductance of thi s sl ot may be found by measuri ng the addi ti onal
conductance pr oduced when one sl ot i s added to an array. I n practi ce
a number of sl ots, for exampl e 10, are cut and the i nput admi ttance
determi ned. The i nput admi ttance i s then agai n determi ned when addi -
ti onal sl ots are cut i n sets of, say, 3. Eventual l y the total susceptance
becomes constant and the conductance l i nearl y proporti onal to n (i f the
susceptance i s al so proporti onal to n, the sl ot depth i s adjusted for
resonance). The i ncremental and ordi nary conductance are pl otted
i n Fi g. 9.21 as functi ons of the angl e 0. Both obey ver y wel l the l aw
g = go si nz 0
over the measured range. Thi s i s i n good agreement wi th Eq. (5o) for
smal l angl es e.
Sl ots cut i n the narrow face have the ver y useful feature that the
vari ati on of susceptance wi th frequency i s ver y smal l compared wi th
that for sl ots i n other posi ti ons i n the gui de. The vari ati on of admi ttance
wi th sl ot depth i s al so smal l as i s shown by Fi g. 9.22. Thus a change of
~ 1 mm i n depth from the resonant poi nt produces a change of onl y 4 per
cent i n conductance and onl y a smal l change i n susceptance. Because
bhe depth of cut can al ways be accuratel y control l ed i n a mi l l i ng
operati on, thi s represents a tol erance whi ch can easi l y be attai ned.
Si nce the angl e of the sl ot to the gui de axi s can al so be accuratel y !:el d,
the system represents a sati sfactory array from the constructi onal poi nt
SEC. !)13]
PROBE-FED SLOTS
299
of vi ew. A possi bl e objecti on i s that ther e i s an appreci abl e degr ee of
unwanted pol ari zati on i n these beams.
The fi el d over the sl ot has a
l ongi tudi nal component proporti onal to cos 0; the transverse component
of the fi el d does not r ever se di recti on wi th reversal of the di recti on of
i ncl i nati on of the sl ot and gi ves ri se to an unwanted si de l obe at about
40 to the mai n beam. For ti l t angl es up to 15, however , the unwanted
pol ari zati on i s l ess than 1 per cent of the radi ated po~ver .1
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
Cl
3
~ 0.02
%
~
8
0.01
0.008
0.006
0004
0.002 I
4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Inclination of slot ( O), deg
FIQ. 9.21.I ncremental and ordi nary conductance as a fu,,cti <~]l of sl ot i ncl i nati on.
(From the work oj E. W. Guptill and W. H, Watson b~permission of lhe National Research
Coun~l of Canada.)
I
9.13. Probe-fed Sl ots.I t was poi nted out i n Sec. 9.9 that ther e are
vari ous posi ti ons i n a gui de and vari ous ori entati ons of the sl ot axi s for
whi ch no radi ati on takes pl ace. I t i s possi bl e, however , to make any
sl ot of thi s type radi ate by i nserti ng a sui tabl e pr obe i nto the gui de adja-
cent to the sl ot. 2 The pr obe i ntroduces the necessary asymmetry i n the
fi el d and cur r ent di stri buti ons for exci tati on of a fi el d across the sl ot.
The probe-fed uni t has many advantages. I n parti cul ar the di recti on
of the fi el d across the sl ot depends on the si de i n whi ch the pr obe i s
1Dorl ds, Gupti l l , and Watson, op. cit.
2R. 1. Cl app, Probe-fed Sl ots as Radi ati ng El ements i n Li near Arrays, RI ,
Repor t No. 455, Jan. 25, 1944.
300 LI NEAR-ARRAY ANTENNAS AND
i nserted; the phase of a gi ven sl ot can be shi fted
T
&
FEEDS [SEC. 9.13
180 by swi tchi ng the
pr obe posi ti on. An exampl e of thi s phase reversal i s afforded by the
array of sl ots on rectangul ar gui de i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 9.23; her e the phase
0.05
0.04
v
al
:
~ 0.03
:
v
0.02
0.01
0.004
; 0.002
g
n
8
2
u-l
o
-0.CQ2
I I I I I I I
Depth of cut 11cm
I WI
FI G. 9.22.Admi ttance of a 15 i ncl i ned sl ot on narrow edge of rectangul ar wavegul de.
The wavegui dedi mensi onsare 1#by 2~i n., X = 10,7cm,, and the wi dth of the sl ot i s }
i n. (From the work of J . W. Dodda, E. W. GuPM1, and W. H. Watsonb~permission of
the Naiionol Rmearch Council of CLI -wxia.)
reversal of the pr obe i s used to compensate for the 180 phase cl i ffer ence
correspondi ng to the k~/2 spaci ng of the sl ots; the resul t i s an array of
equi phased sl ot radi ators.
Another advantage of the probe-fed uni t i s that the amount of ener gy
radi ated by the sl ot i s control l ed by the pr obe i nserti on.
For the case
i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 9.23 wher e the pr obe i s paral l el to the fi el d, the coupl i ng
SEC. 9.14]
WA VEGUI DE RADI ATORS 301
i s adjusted by the pr obe depth.
To exci te a sl ot i n the narrow si de of a
rectangul ar gui de a bent pr obe i s used, as shown i n Fi g. 9.24; her e the
coupl i ng can be vari ed by the angl e between the hook of the pr obe and
the el ectri c fi el d. I n some cases the scr ew head of the pr obe i ntroduces
undesi rabl e i mpedance characteri sti cs; the head of the scr ew can be
FI G. 9.23.Probe-fed sl ots on rectangul ar wavegui de. The arrcws show l i nes of cur r ent
fl ow.
ground off after the desi red coupl i ng has been obtai ned, or the uni t can
be bal anced external l y by a dummy scr ew head. Many vari ants of the
pr obe can be devel oped for vari ous types of gui des and modes; the r eader
i s r efer r ed to Cl apps r epor t for detai l s.
9.14. Wavegui de Radi ators.The i mpedance of a radi ati ng el ement
has been seen to consi st i n general of a resi sti ve and a reacti ve component.
The reacti ve component i s gener -
al l y undesi rabl e, si nce i t enhances
the frequency sensi ti vi ty. The
-
[Col
reactance vani shes under speci al
~Q
condi ti ons, but these are not
w %~g
al ways opti mum operati ng con-
di ti ons; for exampl e, i n the case
FIG,9,24.Prone-fed transverse sl ots 0]1 the
narrow face of rectangul ar wavegui de.
of the di pol e el ement di scussed i n
Sec. 98 resonance occur s at a probe depth that i s general l y too smal l
to meet power-extracti on requi rements. Sl ots and di pol es suffer another
severe di sadvantage at short wave~engths as i n the l -cm regi on where
they become so smal l that they have an i nsuffi ci ent power-handl i ng capac-
i ty and the tol erances on the di mensi ons become i mpracti cal l y restri cti ve.
The wavegui de radi ators i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 9.25 are l ess subject to
the above l i mi tati ons. 1
The el ement consi sts of a wavegui de coupl ed to
the mai n gui de bv a T-juncti on.
As shown i n the fi gure, two arrange-
] W, Si chak and E. M, Purcel l , (krsecz .4ntennas wi th a Li ne Sour ce and Shaped
Cyl i ndri cal Refl ector, RL Repart So. 624, Nov. 3, 1944, pp. 7-13.
302 LI NEAR-ARRAY ANTBNiY-AS AVD FEEDS
[SEC,9.1-I
ments are possi bl e correspondi ng to l ongi tudi nal and trans~erse pol ari za-
ti ons. The l ongi tudi nal l y pol ari zed el ement, just l i ke a sl ot wi th axi s
transverse to the gui de axi s, presents an i mpedance i n seri es wi th the
mai n l i ne; thetransversel y pol ari zed el ement, l i ke a sl ot wi th axi s paral ]el
tothe gui de axi s, i s equi val ent to a shunt el ement across tbe transmi ssi on
l i ne, i nserted i n the pl ane of symmetry of the radi ator that i s perpendi cu-
l arto the gui de axi s. I t has been found experi mental l y (cf. Sec. 10.11)
that the open end of a wavegui de can be r epr esented by a l oad admi ttance
consi sti ng of the radi ati on resi stance i n paral l el \vi th a capaci ti ve react-
(a) (b)
~,~. $~~.-l~avegu,de radi ators: (a) l ongi tudi nal l y pol ari zed; (b) transversel y pol ari zed.
ante. l he net~vor k equi val ent of the T-juncti on consi sts i n a si mi l ar
manner of a capaci tati ve reactance i n paral l el ~ri th the i nput i mpedance
of the branched gui de. Both the i nput and termi nati on capaci ti es are
juncti on effects and may be expected to be of the same or der of magni tude.
I f the l ength of the branch gui de i s k~/4 wher e k: i s the g~l i de~~a~el ength
i n the branch, the termi nal rapaci tati ve reactance i s transformed i nto an
i nducti ve component at the i nput end; and si nce the i nducti ve component
i s i n paral l el wi th the T-juncti on capaci tance, a near-resonant condi ti on
shoul d resul t. I n actual practi ce, ho~~e~-er,the l ength of the secti on i s
di fferent from A; 4. The cor r ect l ength has been found to be gi ven
cl osel y by the resul t of an anal ysi s of a branched wavegui de whi ch takes
the juncti on effects i nto account, namel y,
=wl+ln*)
(58)
The di mensi ons b and b are defi ned i n Fi g. 9.25. I Yi th the above l ength
the el ement has been found to be ver y cl osel y a pure resi stance.
The coupl i ng of the el ement to the l i ne, i .e., i ts resi stance or conduc-
tance, i s a functi on onl y of the rel ati ~-e di mensi ons of the branch gui de and
the mam gmde. I t i s the parti cul ar advantage of the wavegui de el ement
T
SEC. 915] AXI AI ,LI S1J l>!fE7RI CAL RADI ATOR,Y
that the coupl i ng factor can be adjusted i ndependentl y of
303
the resonance
condi ti on. On the assumpti on that the i mpedance presented to the
mai n gui de when the branched gui de radi ates i nto fr ee space i s not ver y
di fferent from that when the branched gui de coupl es to a second gui de
paral l el to the mai n gui de, the resi stance of the l ongi tudi nal l y pol ari zed
el ement has been cal cul ated to be
()
lb2
=27
The quadrati c dependence on b/b i s i n accor d wi th the experi mental
I
resul ts; these resul ts i ndi cate, however , that thenumeri cal factor i s not ~.
I
No systemati c study of a si ngl e el ement has been made as yet. The
coupl i ng factor for the transversel y pol ari zed el ement has meani ng onl y
i n terms of a compl ete array because wi th these el ements mutual i nter-
acti ons become ver y si gni fi cant. The resul ts wi l l be gi ven l ater i n the
di scussi on of nonresonant arrays whi ch make use of these el ements.
The l ength of the el ement gi ven i n 13q. (58) can be i ncreased by any
i ntegral mul ti pl e of A~/2 \vi thout affecti ng ei ther the resonance or the
coupl i ng factor. Thi s i s advantageous i n that i t provi des a method for
1
shi fti ng the phase of the radi ator 180. For the same power extracti on
the b di mensi on of the transversel y pol ari zed el ement must be l arger
than that of the l ongi tudi nal l y pol ari zed el ement because the for mer cuts
across transverse currents that are smal l er than the l ongi tudi nal currents
on the broad face of the gui de. Consequentl y, the tol erances arc l ess
restri cti ve for the transversel y pol ari zed el ement, and i t ther efor e i s
pr efer r ed i f al l other consi derati ons are equal . At short ~vavel engthsj
e.g., at 1 cm, the l ength of the radi ator i s so smal l that the wal l of the
mai n gui de can be constructed of that thi ckness, and the radi ati ng el e-
ment then takes the form of a sl ot i n thi s wal l . Thi s produces a sturdy
mechani cal system.
9.15. Axi al l y Symmetri cal Radi ators.For general communi cati on
~
purposes i t i s desi red to have a stati onary antenna wi th an axi al l y sym-
metri cal pattern cover i ng a l arge regi on of space. The si mpl est antenna
of thi s type i s a hal f-~va~e di pol e. The gai n of the di pol e, however , i s
too l ow to meet the usual requi rements on range, and i t i s ther efor e
necessary to desi gn an antenna havi ng the axi al symmetry of the di pol e
but wi th a mor e di recti ve meri di onal pattern. The I a,ttcr can be achi eved
by means of a l i near array of axi al l y symmetri cal r~di ati ng el ements,
an exampl e of whi ch i s i l l ustrated schemati cal l y i n Fi g. 9.26. The el e-
ments to be di scussed fal l i nto t~vo gro~l ps di sti ngui shed by the pol ari za-
!
ti on of the fi el d: (1) transversel y pol ari zed radi ators produci ng a fi el d i n
whi ch the el ectri c \ector l i es i n pl anes normal to the axi s of the array,
..
(2) l ongi tl l di nal l y pol ari zed radi ators prodl l ri ng a fi el d i n ~vhi rh the el ec-
r
f
1,
304 LI NEAR-ARRAY AX TENNAS AND FEEDS [sm. !315 ,
tri c vector s l i e i n meri di onal pl anes havi ng the axi s of the array as a
common l i ne of i ntersecti on; the transverse el ement i s anal ogous to a
magneti c di pol e, and the l ongi tudi nal el ement to an el ectri c di pol e.
The transverse el ement i n i ts i deal form shoul d consi st of a ci rcul ar ri ng
z
I
V
FI G. 926.-Array of axi al l y symmetri cal
radi ators.
of uni form current, whi l e the i deal i zed
l ongi tudi nal radi ator shoul d consi st
of a short ci rcul ar cyl i ndri cal cur r ent
sheet of uni form densi ty runni ng
paral l el to the axi s of the cyl i nder.
I n practi ce these el ements can best
be approxi mated by an array of el e-
ments l ocated at poi nts di sposed
symmetri cal l y about the array axi s i n
a pl ane normal to i t. Thus the an-
tenna as a whol e i s, i n fact, a thr ee-
di mensi onal array; however , desi gn
probl ems for the azi muthal and meri d-
i onal patterns are compl etel y separ-
abl e. The meri di onal pattern i s a
strai ghtforward l i near-array probl em.
The azi muth pattern refl ects the
symmetry of the arrangement of the radi ators about the array axi s and
consequentl y devi ates from a uni form pattern, showi ng maxi ma and
mi ni ma. The rati o of maxi mum power to mi ni mum i s r efer r ed to as the
azi muth ratio; i t i s general l y requi red that thi s rati o be l ess than 2.
~f$%zzfi
I~IG. 9.27,Di pol e fed I )y three-wi re l i ne,
The Tridipole lransverse ~l ement.l i rst the el ements desi gned for
transverse pol ari zati on ~vi l l be consi dered. A si mpl e approxi mati on to
the ci rcul ar cur r ent ri ng i s obtai ned by arrangi ng thr ee hal f-]vave di pol es
on the ci rcumference of a ci rcl e. The basi c uni t i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 927
i s a three-wi re-l i ne-fed di pol e anal ogous to the sl otted di pol e di scussed
earl i er. The central l i ne serves as a pr obe to coupl e the di pol e to the
i nteri or of a v-avegui de. The axi al l y symmet,ri czl tri di pol e array sho\\n
i n Fi g. 9.28 i s desi gned for use w-i th a coaxi al l i ne. The cl ement i s made
so as to sl i de over the outer conductor and i s sol dered to the l atter at the
appropri ate l ocati on. I n or der to mai ntai n the azi muth pattmn sym-
metry i t i s essenti al thi i t, the thr ee probes I )c i nserted t,o eql )al depths.
SEC. 915] AXI ALLY SYMMETRI CAL RADI ATORS 305
The l i ne coupl i ng can be achi eved ei ther by i nserti ng the probes so as to
make contact wi th the i nner conductor of the l i ne or bv capaci ti ve
. .
coupl i ng i n whi ch the probes do not make contact wi th the i nner conduc-
tor . I n the for mer case the probes are sol dered to the i nner l i ne; a mor e
rel i abl e pr ocedur e i s to have threaded hol es i n the i nner conductor i nto
whi ch the probes can be scr ewed and then sol dered to ensure good contact.
For capaci tati ve coupl i ng, pr obe setti ngs can
be made by sl i ppi ng a shi m of sui tabl e thi ck-
ness over the i nner conductor; the shi m i s
subsequentl y r emoved.
Sati sfactory resul ts have been obtai ned
wi th tri di pol e el ements over the 10-cm bandl
and at vari ous l onger wavel engths. The i m-
pedance characteri sti cs of a si ngl e uni t can be
adjusted i n the cour se of desi gn by the choi ce
of the di mensi ons of the di pol e wi ngs; the
i mpedance characteri sti cs of an array of uni ts
are adjustabl e by means of the pr obe depth.
Fi gure 9.29 shows the frequency sensi ti vi ty of
the pattern of a tri di pol e uni t desi gned for the
Diameter
10-cm band, the uni t bei ng fed from a 50-ohm
0.56h
Fm.9.2S.Tri di pol eradi ator.
l i ne wi th a ~ i n. OD. The pattern exhi bi ts a
hi gh degr ee of stabi l i ty. The same el ement wi th i ts probes 0.5 mm from
the i nner conductor handl es 10-kw ~eak Dower wi thout breakdown. I t
. .
was found that at 10 cm the di mensi ons of the uni t are not cri ti cal and
the el ements can be pr oduced i n quanti ty by di e-casti ng techni ques wi th
good reproducti on of performance. A 3-cm versi on, however , requi res
manufacturi ng tol erances too cl ose for practi cal use.
Axially Symmetrical Slot Array.Another type of uni t for transverse
pol ari zati on i s provi ded by an array of sl ots al ong the ci rcumference i n the
wal l of a ci rcul ar gui de or coaxi al l i ne, the l ong di mensi on of the sl ots
bei ng paral l el to the axi s of the gui de. A number of factors enter i nto the
desi gn of the uni t.
The most i mportant i s that the l i ne must car r y a radi al l y symmetri cal
mode so that the sl ots are exci ted equal l y. Thi s condi ti on i s ful fi l l ed by
a coaxi al l i ne supporti ng onl y the ZEl l l -mode and by a ci rcul ar wave-
gui de propagati ng the Zl l fol -mode as i ndi cated i n Fi g. 9.30. However ,
for both cases a sl ot cut paral l el to the gui de axi s does not radi ate. I t
i s ther efor e necessary to exci te the sl ots by means of probes as shown i n
the fi gure, and to ensure symmetri cal exci tati on the pr obe depths must
be uni form.
1 H. Ri bl et, Hori zontal l y Pol ari zed Nondi recti onal Antennas, RL Repor t No.
517, Feb. 14, 1944.
306
230
2400
250
260
270
2800
290
300
310
I ,I NEAR-ARRA Y AN 1BNNAS AN.!) FhhI )S [SEC. 915
220 210 200 190 Moo 1700 1600
150 140
130
1200
110
1000
900
800
700
60
500
320 330 340 350 00 100
200
30
400
FI G, 929.-Patterns of a tri di pol e uni t i n the pl ane of the uni t.
.
Current flow induced by probes,
I
i
I
i
i
i
Transverse electric-field config.
uration of unperturbed mode,
14IG. 9.30. .\xi al l y symmetri cal radi ati ng uni t formed by a ci rcul ar array of dots.
:
(
SEC. 9.15] AXI A I .LI .71.if,\ 1E7RI (:,lI , RADI ATOI LT 307
A second factor i s the mi ni mum number of sl ots requi red to pr oduce
a pattern havi ng a sati sfactory azi muth rati o. Thi s i s found to depend
on the si ze of the l i ne; the l arger the gui de di ameter the gr eater the num-
ber of el ements. Fora, l -i n. ODcoaxi al l i ne operati ng i nthe3-cm band
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
3103
320
2100 200 190 180 1700 160 150
140
1300
1200
1100
100Q
900
800
700
600
500
40
330 340 3509 00 100
zoo 300
F1~. 9.31. P~tterns of ci rcul ar arraj-s of four and si x sl ots on coaxi al l i ne of 1 i . OD.
the mi ni mum number i s si x; Fi g. 9.31 shows the patterns obtai ned from
four and si x el ements; the for mer refl ects strongl y the fourfol d symmetry
of the array. Fi gure 9.32 i l l ustrates the pattern resul ti ng from a seven-
el ement array on 1~-i n. ci rcul ar gui de, agai n for the 3-cm band.
The mi ni mum number of el ements i s al so rel ated to a probl em of
30s
mode control .
LI AEAR. ARRAY ANTENNAS AND FEEDS [SEC. 915
The conventi onal coaxi al l i ne i n the 3-cm band, for whi ch
al l modes other than the l EM-mode are beyond cutoff, i s too l i mi ted i n
i ts breakdown properti es and mechani cal strength, the l atter bei ng an
i mportant factor i n l ong arrays. I ,i ne of a l arger si ze i s ther efor e used
whi ch can support other modes. Consi derabl e car e must be taken at
the i nput end of the l i ne to ensure
radi al l y symmetri cal e x c i t a t i on.
The pr obe i nserts for exci ti ng the
sl ots l i kewi se exci te hi gher modes.
No mode wi l l be exci ted, however , i f
i ts pl anes of symmetry do not con-
tai n the symmetri es of the geomet-
ri cal confi gurati on. Ther e i s thus
a mi ni mum number of probes for
whi ch the hi gher modes exci ted ~vi l l
attenuate.
180
00
FI G, 9.32.Pattern of ci rcul ar array of
seven sl ots on ci rcul ar wavegui dc wi th 1$ i n.
OD.
-i-
T
J
1
+d
===1-
1
_
_ __
FI G. 9.33. TELo- to TMol -mode con.
verter.
>
A si mi l ar mode-control probl em exi sts i n the ci rcul ar gui de, for a ,
ci rcul ar gui de that can support propagati on of the l ,l ~ol -mode neces-
sari l y supports the ZE, l -mode. I t i s ther efor e necessary to feed the gui de
i n such a manner that the ZEl l -mode i s not exci ted, and agai n ther e i s a
mi ni mum number of sl ots requi red. The pr oper feedi ng of the ci rcul ar
gui de i s achi eved by transi ti on from the ZE,O-mocfe i n rectangul ar gui de
through a TE,O- to ZMOl -mode conver ter , whi ch i s i l l ustrated i n Fi g.
933. Bri efl y the pri nci pl e of i ts operati on i s as fol l ows: The di stance 1
i s equal to xl ,/4 or 3A11/4 wher e xI I i s the gui de wavel ength for the TEl l -
mode; thi s puts a l arge seri es reactance for thi s mode at P between the
1
rectangul ar and ci rcul ar gui de so that, the mode i s not fed i nto the l atter
gui de. The di ameter d is chosen to be AO1/2 wher e AOI i s the TMO,-
SEC. 9.15] AXI ALLY SYMMETRI CAL RADI ATORS 309
mode gui de wavel ength; for 1 = 3A11/4, thi s gi ves a good match for the
TMO,-mode.
Longi tudi nal l y Pol ari zed El ements,Sati sf actor y el ements of thi s type
i n the mi crowave regi on have thus far been devel oped onl y for the 10-cm
band. A l ongi tudi nal el ement anal ogous
to the tri di pol e uni t can be pr oduced by
a ci rcul ar array of di pol es wi th axes
paral l el to the gui de axi s. I t i s found,
however , that a l ongi tudi nal l y pol ari zed
tri di pol e array gi ves ri se to a pattern
havi ng a deci ded threefol d symmetry
whi l e a l arger number of di pol es resul ts
i n a uni t whose desi gn i s ver y cri ti cal . A
cyl i ndri cal el ement wi th three-poi nt ex-
ci tati on provi des a si mpl e sol uti on; the
el ement i s shown i n Fi g. 9.34. I t can
be thought of as bei ng deri ved from a
system of thr ee l ongi tudi nal di pol es of
the type i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 9.27 i n whi ch
the wi ngs have been extended l ateral l y
and joi ned i nto a cyl i nder. The currents
A
FI G. 9.34.Longi tudi nal l y pol ari zed
axi aUy symmetri cal radi ati ng uni t.
tend to spread out uni forml y over the sur-
face gi vi ng a uni form azi muth pattern. The uni t i s made i n t~vo parts,
one consi sti ng of a di e-cast spi der carryi ng the two outer l i nes of the
thr ee-wi r e l i ne-feedi ng system and the other the pai r of cyl i nders that
cor r espond to the di pol e wi ngs. As ~vi th the transverse uni t the svstem
ielectric
plug
FIG 9.35. Long1tudi -
nal l v pol arl zed sl ot radi ator
for coaxi al l i ne,
i s fed by probes whi ch coupl e the cyl i nders to
the l i ne; the general remarks made previ ousl y
concerni ng the i nserti on and al i gnment of the
probes l i kewi se appl y her e.
Attenti on shoul d be cal l ed to a l ongi tudi -
nal l y pol ari zed sl ot radi ator whi ch can be desi gn-
ed ~vi th a coaxi al l i ne. The el ement i l l ustrated
i n Fi g, 935 consi sts of a sl ot runni ng compl etel y
around the wal l , Mechani cal support i s pr o-
vi ded by fi l l i ng the l i ne wi th di el ectri c. The
el ement obvi ousl y gi ves a uni form pattern but
suffers from a number of di sadvantages. I t i s
ver y frequency-sensi ti ve; mechani cal properti es,
parti cul arl y of l ong arrays, are poor ; sati sfactory contact between the
)
di el ectri c and metal i s di ffi cul t to mai ntai n parti cul arl y under mechani cal
and thermal stresses wi th the resul t that the system becomes suscepti bl e to
el ectri cal breakdown. Devel opment of arrays wi th these uni ts was
fi nal l y gi ven up because of these l i mi tati ons and di ffi cul ti es,
310 LI NEAR-ARRAY ANTENNAS AND FEEDL~ [%c. 9.16
9.16. Streaml i ned Radi ators. Arrays of axi al l y symmetri cal radi a-
tors have been devel oped for ai rbornr, ground, and shi p i nstal l ati ons.
Wi th the devel opment of hi gh-speed pl anes, however , aerodynami c con-
150 180 210
l ;I G. 9:M-Pattern prwfui -ci il )> a pai r of
a]l t,phahed dot, s
si derati ons have become i n-
creasi ngl y si gni fi cant i n antenna
i nstal l ati ons. Arrays of el ements
of the types al ready di scussed
pr oduce suffi ci ent aerodynami c
drag to present a seri ous i nstal l a-
ti on probl em. I t has ther efor e
been necessary to make some com-
promi se between pattern and aer o-
dynami c requi rements and to
desi gn el ements whose geometr y
has a l ess del eteri ous effect on the
ai rcraft. For thi s purpose vari ous
types of streaml i ned el ements have
been devel oped whi ch, though
l acki ng the uni form cover age of
the axi al l y symmetri cal uni ts, sti l l
pr oduce patterns wi th not too
l arge an azi muth rati o.
Two types have been devel -
oped, one for transverse, the other
for l ongi tudi nal pol ari zati on. I ,et
us consi der the transverse radi ator fi rst. I t has bcrn found that two sl ots
cut opposi te each other on a coaxi al l i ne and exci ted 180 out of phase
pr oduce a pattern wi th an azi muth rati o not exceedi ng 5 or 6; thi s i s sho~vn
o
a
&
o X=+%lsk.h.
o
tim/[;yjLy/,,,,,, ,,,/),,,,, #))QJ u12>>, , , >, >, \
00
~l G. 937, -.lrray of thrw pai rs of slots 011 strcarl]litlwl elliptlral waveguide.
i n Fi g. 936. The ml rrcnts tcmd to run cornpl ctrl y around the cyl i nder,
gi vi ng a conti nuous, i f not compl etel y symmetri cal , cur r ent di stri buti on.
Starti ng from thi s obscrvat,i on, one can prm,cwl i n several di recti ons to the
desi gn of streaml i ned el ements. Fi rst, the {)~i ter cund~l ctor i nstead of
SMC. 916] STREAMLI NED RADI A TORA 311
Ftc. 9.38.T ransversel y pol ari zed streaml i ned radi ator.
bei ng cyl i ndri cal can be made el l i pti cal or streaml i ned, or the i nner con-
ductor can be omi tted enti rel y and a streaml i ned secti on of suffi ci ent
si ze used i nstead as a wavegui de.
array of thr ee sl ots on streaml i ned
el l i pti cal gui de for the 3-cm band.
Transi ti on to the el l i pti cal gui de
from rectangul ar gui de i s effected
by a tapered secti on. I t has been
found that i f the rati o of major to
the mi nor axi s of the el l i pse i s at
l east 4 and i f the mi nor axi s i s
approxi matel y A/4, the azi muth
rati o i s i n the nei ghborhood of 2;
thi s fi gure has been obtai ned wi th
the three-uni t array r efer r ed to
above.
A method of i ntroduci ng the r-f
that provi des a good i mpedance
match i s shown i n Fi g. 938 for a
10-cm band system. Hcrethe two
sl ots are cut at the poi nt of maxi -
mum wi dth of the gui de. .4 sl otted
Fi gure 937 for exampl e, shows an
300
0 330
500
310
700
290
900
270
11OQ
250
1300
230
150
180 2100
FI G. 939. -l <adi ati on pattern of a trans-
versel y pol ari zed streaml i ned radi ator,
1
di pol e on the end of smal l coaxi al l i ne i s used to exci te the sl ots. The
wi ngs of the di pol e are cut to fi t, and each wi ng acts as an exci ti ng antenna
for one sl ot. The ~SWR obtai ned \vi th a si ngl e el ement i s l ess than 1.2
312 LI NEAR-ARRAY ANTENNAS AND FEEDS
[SEC.916
over a 16 per cent band. The pattern shown i n Fi g. 9.39 i s l i kewi se sati sfac-
tor y. The onl y l ongi tudi nal l y pol ari zed uni t that has been bui l t i s for
the 10-cm regi on. I t consi sts essenti al l y of two verti cal di pol es about a
quarter wavel ength apart supported on opposi te si des of coaxi al l i ne.
Two such di pol es i n fr ee space woul d have an oval pattern whi ch, how-
ever , does not have too l arge an azi muth rati o.
Thi s, of course, i s modi -
fi ed by the coaxi al l i ne; but i f the l i ne i s smal l enougn (ordi nari l y ~ i n.
300
& 3300
500 310
703 290
90 270
1100
~~o
1300 23W
1500 1800 210
FI Q. 9.40. Longi tudi nal l y pol ari zed FI G. 9.41.Radi ati on pattern of a l on-
streaml i ned radi ator (H-el ement). gi tudmal l y pol ari zed streaml i ned radi ator
(H-el ement).
OD), the effect i s smal l and does not seri ousl y i mpai r the pattern. The
uni t, general l y r efer r ed to as an H-el ement, i s shown i n Fi g. 9.40. The
two di pol e ~~i ngs are supported by el l i pti cal straps, and the whol e uni t i s
pl aced over the coaxi al l i ne and exci ted by the probes projecti ng i nto i t,
The el l i pti cal straps ser ve al so as a \vave trap, to pr event currents runni ng
al ong the coaxi al l i ne. The pattern pr oduced by the uni t i s sho~~n i n
Fi g. 9.41. An array of such el ements i s ordi nari l y encl osed i n a cl ose
fi tti ng el l i pti cal housi ng.
ARRAYS
I t i s shown i n the secti ons on general pattern theor y that the pattern
of a l i near array i s determi ned essenti al l y by thr ee factors: (1) the rel a-
ti ve ampl i tude and phase of the cur r ent di stri buti ons on the el ements of
i he array, (2) the spaci ng of el ements al ong the axi s, and (3) the form
factor of the pattern of a si ngl e e!emrnt. 1n practi ce these factors are
G
(
SEC. 917]
LOADED-LI NE ANALYSI S 313
not i ndependent vari abl es; the ampl i tude and phase of the el ements are
1
determi ned i n part by i nteracti ons between the el ements, whi ch i n turn
are functi ons of thei r spaci ng.
At l onger wavel engths feedi ng techni ques
are avai l abl e wher eby the ampl i tude and phase, except for external fi el d
coupl i ng between the radi ators, are i ndependent of spaci ng. I n mi cro-
wave antennas the el ements must be fed i n cascade from a transmi ssi on
l i ne; the phase of the radi ator thus depends on the phase vel oci ty i n the
l i ne and the posi ti on of the el ement al ong the l i ne; phase and spaci ng are
thereby most i nti matel y rel ated.
The rel ati on becomes compl i cated
.
further because the feedi ng arrangement resul ts i n a l oaded transmi ssi on
l i ne wi th propagati on constant and characteri sti c i mpedance di fferent
from those of the unl oaded l i ne. Fi nal l y mutual i nteracti ons between
the el ements because of thei r external fi el ds must be consi dered. The
resul t of these i nterrel ati ons i s that the transi ti on from the properti es
of a si ngl e el ement to a composi te array i s not a cal cul abl e desi gn pr o-
cedur e but must be determi ned to a l arge extent on an empi ri cal basi s.
9.17. Loaded-l i ne Anal ysi s.-The rel ati on between the parameters of
l oaded and u] l oaded l i nes wi l l be i nvesti gated fi rst. Consi der a l i ne,
whose unl oaded parameters are the characteri sti c i mpedance ZOand the
compl ex propagati on constant ~ = a + j~, l oaded at regul ar i nterval s t
wi th i denti cal radi ati ng el ements. Taki ng a fi xed r efer ence poi nt i n a
radi ator, the radi ator i n general can be r egar ded as a bi l ateral passi ve
four-termi nal networ k i nserted at the r efer ence poi nt between two seg-
ments of l i ne. I t was shown i n Sec. 2.2 that such a networ k can be
repl aced by a T- or I I -secti on equi val ent; i n the no~ati on of Sec. 22 the
thr ee i mpedance el ements of the T-secti on wi l l be desi gnated by 21, 22,
and 23 and the el ements of the ~-secti on by 2A, ZB, and Zc. The rel a-
ti on between the T- and H-secti on el ements i s gi ven i n Eq. (2.10).
The radi ati ng el ements that have been di scussed i n the earl i er secti ons
al l have at l east one pl ane of symmetry; i f the r efer ence poi nt i s taken i n
thi s pl ane, the T- or I I -secti on equi val ent of the radi ator i s symmetri cal ;
i .e., 2, = Zt and Z~ = ZC. I t was shown further i n Sec. 2.9 that a sec-
ti on of homogeneous transmi ssi on l i ne of l ength 1 has a symmetri cal
T- and I I -secti on equi val ent; from Eqs. (28), (256a), and (2.56b) the
el ements of the T-equi val ent are found to be
(59)
By means of Eqs. (27), (28), and (2 10) the el ements of the equi val ent
I I -secti ons are obtai ned from these. The I I -el ements are
*
(60)
, 4
314 LI NEAR-ARRAY ANTENNAS AND FEEDS [SEC.917
On repl aci ng both the radi ators and the l i ne segments by thei r equi val ent
T-secti or.s, the l oaded l i ne i s r educed to a cascade of networ ks as shown
i n Fi g. 9.42a; the poi nts A and A are the r efer ence poi nts i n the radi ati ng
el ements. By spl i tti ng the shunt el ement 23 i nto a pai r of i mpedances
2Z~ i n paral l el , the l i ne i s further r educed to a chai n of symmetri cal net-
works, a si ngl e uni t of whi ch i s shown i n Fi g. 9.42b.
(c)
FI G. 942.-Network system equi val ent to a l oaded trammi ssi on l i ne: (a) T-secti on
repl acements of radi ators and hne segments; (b) reducti on to symmetri cal networks; (c)
I I -secti on equi val ent of the network i n (b).
The characteri sti c i mpedance Z: and propagati on constant -y of the
l oaded l i ne are obtai ned by reducti on of the networ k i n Fi g. 9.42b to i ts
equi val ent T- or I I -secti on and subsequentl y determi ni ng the parameters
of a homogeneous l i ne havi ng a l ength 1 for whi ch the above T-secti on
(or I I -secti on) consti tutes an equi val ent representati on. I n the present
case the si mpl est pr ocedur e i s to r educe the networ k to a I I -secti on by
repl aci ng the T-networ k of el ements 21 + ~ 1and ,~s by i ts H-equi val ent.
The compl etel y r educed networ k i s shown i n Fi g. 942c. I f .~~ and Rj
are the el ements of the r educed networ k, the l oaded-l i ne parameters are
gi ven by
SEC. 9.17]
LOAI )E1)-1,1.VE A .V.4L Y,YI ,T
315
()
Z: coth <L = ~~ ;
2
Z: si nh (~1) = ~~.
(61 )
l f the val ues of ~~ and ~~ gi ven i n Fi g. 942c together wi th the val ues
of al and as gi ven i n 13q. (59) are i nserted i n
i denti ti es for hyperbol i c functi ons may be
formul as:
Eq. (61), the hal f-argument
used to obtai n Campbel l s
()
cosh (-/1) = 1 + ~; cosh (+)
.
b
( )
+%3+~ .+~-~$, Si nh (IJ ); (62)
.
[ ()1
71 2
Z, + 2, tanh ~
Zj si nh (-yl ) =
20
si nh (71)
[ ()1
+2 Z,+ Zotanh ~ . (63)
For the present purposes the attenuati on i n unl oaded wavegui des due to
conducti on l osses i n the wal l s may be negl ected; under these condi ti ons
~ = jp and the propagati on constant of the l oaded l i ne i s gi ven by
Cosh() (+%) cOs1+(2+2+2%) in 64)
I t i s seen at once that the l oaded l i ne has a compl ex propagati on con-
stant ~ = a + j~ i n whi ch both the attenuati on and phase constants
are functi ons of the l oadi ng and the spaci ng of the el ements.
Equati on
(64) shows, however , that i f the spaci ng i s equal to hal f the wavel ength i n
the unl oaded l i ne, the rel ati on reduces to
()
cosh (~1) = 1 + -~a ; l=;.
J
(65)
I f the radi ati ng el ement i s a pure shunt el ement so that Z, = O, i t i s
found di rectl y from Eq. (65) that
+=j$=y.
9
Si mi l arl y i f the el ement i s a pure seri es el ement, i n whi ch case ZS = cc, i t
i s found that y = -y. lh USthere is no attenuation in a line loaded with
pure series or pure shunt elements at half-wavelength intervals. The same
i s tr ue of a l i ne l oaded at wavel ength i nterval s,
For arbi trary spaci ngs
0
the propagati on constant of the shunt-l oaded l i ne i s gi ven by
cosh (~1) = cosh (yl ) + ~ si nh (71) (66)
316 LI NEAR-ARRAY ANTENNAS AND FEEDS [SEC, 9.18
and for the seri es-l oaded l i ne
cosh (~1) = cosh (Y1) + ~ si nh (+), (67)
wher e 24 i s the i mpedance of a si ngl e el ement.
The pure seri es- and shunt-l oaded l i nes wi th hal f-wavel ength spaci ng
have the addi ti onal pr oper ty of produci ng a uni forml y i l l umi nated array
when the l i ne i s sui tabl y termi nated i n a short ci rcui t. For the seri es-
I oaded l i ne the short ci rcui t i s made an i ntegral number of hal f wave-
l engths beyond the fi nal el ement; by vi rtue of the hal f-wavel ength spaci ng
the array i s equi val ent to a si mpl e seri es ci rcui t of equal i mpedances; al l
the el ements ther efor e di ssi pate equal amounts of power . The shunt-
l oaded l i ne i s termi nated A./4 + nAo/2 beyond the fi nal el ement, n bei ng
an i nteger; thi s array i s equi val ent to a system of equal i mpedances al l
i n paral l el , and agai n al l the el ements di ssi pate equal amounts of power .
The l oaded-l i ne anal ysi s takes no account of coupl i ng between the
el ements by means of the external fi el ds. Campbel l s formul as do show,
however , the i nterrel ati on between the ampl i tude and phase of the el e-
ments and the spaci ng and al so the rel ati on between the ampl i tude of
the el ement and i ts phase, for the phase vel oci ty i s a functi on of the
coupl i ng between the radi ator and the gui de.
9.18. End-fi re Array .-The onl y i mportant exampl es of end-fi re
arrays for the mi crowave regi on wer e two ver y si mi l ar antennas for opera-
ti on at wavel engths of 10.7 and 11.7 cm. 1 They consi st of 18 i ndi vi dual
radi ators a quarter wavel ength apart and fed from a coaxi al l i ne. The
antenna shown i n Fi g. 943 i s a 14-el ement ex~eri mental model . An
antenna of thi s type must be termi nated i n a dummy l oad to absorb
the unradi ated power i n the l i ne thereby el i mi nati ng a r efl ected wave;
otherwi se the r efl ected wave woul d gi ve ri se to an end-fi re pattern i n i ts
di recti on of propagati on, that i s, i n a di recti on 180 away from the pri n-
ci pal beam.
The el ements are bui l t up from the fundamental di pol e shown i n
Fi g. 9.27. Each consi sts of two such di pol es havi ng thei r wi ngs bent i nto
arcs of ci rcl es and joi ned to form a uni t. Li ke the axi al l y symmetri cal
tndi pol e uni ts these el ements are si mpl y sl i pped over the outer conductor
of a coaxi al l i ne, and they al so can be r epr esented by a shunt i mpedance.
Two condi ti ons must be sati sfi ed i f an end-fi re array of thi s type i s to
1H. J. Ri bl et and B. L. Bi rchard, End-6reArray Antenna, RL Repor t No. 577,
Jul y 11, 1944. Di el ectri c-rodantennasmay be desi gnedto have end-fi repatterns
wi th gai n, beamwi dth, and si de-l obe properti es as good as those of l i near arrays.
C!. C. E, Muel l er,The Di el ectri cAntennaor Pol yrod, BTL Repor t No, 251, Jan.26,
1942; J. E. Eaton, Di el ectri c Rod End-fi r e Antennas Cl ose to Metal Surfaces, RL
Repor t No. 969, Jan. 23, 1946; R. E. Di l l on and L. J. Eyges, Compact Horns I nter -
medi ate between Pol yrods and Refl ectors, RL Repor t No. 961, Jan. 31, 1946.
G
SEC.9.18] END-FI RE ARRAY 317
have maxi mum gai n. (1) Ther e i s an opti mum val ue for the wavel ength
~, of the coaxi al l i ne. I t was shown i n Sec. 9.9 that maxi mum gai n for
quarter-wavel ength-spaced end-fi re arrays wi th a constant phase del ay
occur r ed when the phase del ay between adjacent el ements was
2.94.
;+
n
The total phase del ay between the fi rst and l ast el ements i s then appr oxi -
matel y
()
*= T;+l .
(68)
I f L = nk/4 i s taken as the l ength of the array, Eq. (68) becomes
()
or
L
b
:.
1
G
=:+;
9j ,>
(2) The attenuati on has a defi ni te opti mum val ue; i t must be nei the~ so
;
l arge that most of the power i s radi ated from the fi rst few el ements Qr
&
.;
so smal l that an excessi ve amount of power i s l ost i n the dummy 1 d. ~
Thi s opti mum attenuati on i s ordi nari l y assumed to be that whi ch al l ~wa .,
from 5 to 10 per cent of the total power to be absorbed i n the du~rny ~
l oad. \.
A
The desi red attenuati on and phase shi ft can be obtai ned i n pri nw --
i n a ver y si mpl e way. From Sec. 917 we have seen that peri odi c l oadi ng
of a transmi ssi on l i ne changes the propagati on constant of the l i ne.
Hence i t shoul d be possi bl e to choose the i mpedance of i ndi vi dual radi -
ators so that they cause just the ri ght change i n attenuati on and phase
vel oci ty. I n fact, i f the i mpedances of the el ements are known as a func-
t
ti on of several parameters, the propagati on constant can be cal cul ated
from Eq, (62) as a functi on of the parameters and the best val ue chosen.
I n the desi gn of the parti cul ar arrays descri bed above, the i mpedances
.{
of the i ndi vi dual el ements ~ver enot known i n enough detai l to al l ol i - thi s.
Hence a di ffer ent appr oach was used. The gai n Tvas measur ed as a func-
ti on of pr obe depth for vari ous l engths of the di pol e ~vi ngs. Thi s gave
the t~vo parameters necessary to adjust, for the cor r ect phase ve]oci i y and
attenuati on. The gai n of the 11 .7-rm array fi nal l y obtai ned i n thi s
manner \~asaround 15.4 dbj sl i ghtl y gr eater than thr theoreti cal val ue of
15,2 db for such an array; the theoreti cal val ue, ho~vcvm-, i s based on
i sotropi c radi ators. The gai n of the 10.7-cm array,
0 S@ 70 60
1
A
B
whi ch used
.
1 I
D 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Angle
lI U. 944.-E-plane p:,ttern of an 18-4ement end-fi re array, A = 11.7. A is the pat-
tern i n ti l e cl i rectl un of the r]!ai n l ube, :LI I dB i s the pattern i )] the di recti on of the back
l ube.
11.7-cm el ements, was 14,8 db. The E-pl ane pattern of the 11,7-cm
antenna i s shown i n Fi g. 9-N; the H-pl ane pattern di ffers from i t onl y i n
mi nor detai l s.
BROADSI DE ARRAYS
9.19. Suppressi on of Extraneous Major Lobes.The majori ty of the
appl i cati ons of mi crowave arrays have cal l ed for a beam havi ng the
pri nci pal maxi mum i n a di recti on normal to or nearl y normal to the axi s
of the array. &rays of thi s type wi l l be r efer r ed to as broadsi de arrays
\vi th the arbi trary l i mi t on the cl assi fi cati on that the pri nci pal maxi mum
l i es wi thi n 25 of the normal to the array. I n general ther e must be no
pri nci pal maxi mum other than that of the broadsi de l obe, that i s, al l
other maxi ma must be i n the form of si de l obes at consi derabl y l ower
l evel s. Thi s requi rement gi ves ri se to a spaci ng and phase probl em
SEC. 919] SUPPRESSI ON OF EXTRA,VEO US MAJ OR LOBES 319
common to al l arrays of thi s type. I t was seen i n Sec. 9.5 that the el e-
ments of a uni form array must al l be i n phase for an accuratel y normal
mai n l obe whi l e to pr oduce an off-normal l obe [cj. Eq. (23)] ther e must be
a smal l progressi ve phase del ay. I f ther e are to be no other major l obes,
the spaci ng between i sotropi c radi ators must be somewhat l ess than A,
the free-space wavel ength. The exact amount depends on n and the
acceptabl e si de-l obe l evel ; no porti on of an accuratel y normal mai n beam
wi l l be r epeated i n the di recti on t?= O i f s = (1 I /n)X. To pr oduce
uni form phase, the radi ators must be spaced at i nterval s of &j the gui de
wavel ength. However , for al l the ai r-fi l l ed mi crowave l i nes di scussed
i n Chap. 7, i t was found that & ~ A wi th the resul t that the spaci ng
exceeds the l i mi t stated above.
Ther e are vari ous techni ques for ci rcumventi ng the di ffi cul ty. The
l ess-than-wavel ength spaci ng l i mi t appl i es stri ctl v to an arra.v of i sotropi c
radi ators. However , i n Sec. 9.2 i t
was shown that the pattern of an array
i s a product of an array factor cor r e-
spondi ng to the pattern of an array
of i sotropi c radi ators and the pattern
of an i ndi vi dual radi ator. I f the
l atter pattern i s made suffi ci entl y di re-
.
ti ve wi th a maxi mum i n the di rec-
ti on normal to the array, a pri nci pal
maxi mum wi l l occur onl y i n the
I I
FI G. 9.45,Array of transverse sl ots
wi th horns to el i mi nate end-fi re l obes.
regi on wher e the array factor and the radi ator pattern si mul taneousl y
have appreci abl e val ues. I n thi s case the spaci ng can exceed A wi thout
the appearance of extraneous major l obes. I l l ustrati ve of such a di rec-
ti ve devi ce i s a horn fed by a sl ot; an array of thi s type i s shown sche-
mati cal l y i n Fi g. 9.45.
A pr ocedur e that suggests i tsel f i mmedi atel y i s to shorten the gui de
wavel ength to a val ue bel ow the al l owed spaci ng l i mi t. The methods that
have been used to do thi s are descri bed her e because they hare been gener -
al l y unsati sfactory. The si mpl est techni que i s to fi l l the gui de wi th
di el ectri c and thus r educe the gui de wavel ength. However , the use of
di el ectri cs gi ves ri se to a number of probl ems: the l oss, parti cul arl y i n l ong
arrays, resul ts i n di mi nuti on of the gai n; i t i s di ffi cul t to mai ntai n pr oper
contact between the gui de wal l s and the di el ectri c, wi th the resul t that
el ectri cal break do\vn tends to occur and wi th i t reducti on i n the power -
handl i ng capaci ty of the array; and al so of no smal l si gni fi cance i s the
i ncrease i n the vi ei ght of the antenna. Another method that has been
G
tri ed i s that of usi ng a cor r ugated l i ne, Wi th coaxi al l i ne the i nner
conductor i s cor r ugated as shoum i n Fi g. 94(;a, \\-bi l ewi th rectangul ar
gui de one of the broad faces i s repl aced bv a cor r ugated wal l as shown i n
Fi g. 946b. The systems can be thought of as a transmi ssi on l i ne l oaded

.
320
LI NEAR-ARRAY ANTENNAS AND FEEDS
[SBC. 919
peri odi cal l y wi th reactance. The wavel ength i n the l oaded l i nel has been
found to be gi ven approxi matel y for coaxi al l i ne by
f -
L
-+--=FP -
(a)
El
a
.-- --- _________
(b)
~IG. 946.-Corrugated l i nes for shorteni ng
a
x
+-1-J
y dy
L
Xti:(a) coaxi al l i ne; (b) wavegui de.
and for rectangul ar gui de by
wher e ~, i s a sol uti on of
These l i nes have pr oved i mpracti cal for the same general reasons as the
di el ectri c-fi l l ed l i ne: Ther e i s a si gni fi cant i ncrease i n wei ght and great
reducti on i n poww-handl i ng capaci ty, and i n addi ti on the cor r ugated
secti ons are di ffi cul t to manufacture.
Some of the di ffi cul ti es, however ,
are due to the hi gh per centage reducti on i n wavel ength that i s bei ng
,
I H. Gol dstei n, The Theor y of Cor r ugated Transmi ssi on Li nes and Wavegui des,
RL Repor t No. 494, Apr. 3, 1944.
J
.i
SEC. 920] RESONANT ARRAYS 321
etfected. The cor r ugated l i ne has been used wi th mor e success i n other
antenna desi gns wher e onl y a smal l wavel ength reducti on was attempted.
The most successful techni que that has been devel oped i s i n the desi gn
of radi ators whose phase can be shi fted l SOO by si mpl e structural
changes; the el ements can then be spaced at i nterval s of XO/2 and brought
i nto phase by the structural phase reversal . Si nce the gui de wavel ength
i s general l y i n the range A S Aa S 1.5A, thi s spaci ng i s acceptabl e. The
pr ocedur e i s al so sati sfactory from the poi nt of vi ew of the l oaded-l i ne
anal ysi s. I f the el ements are pure seri es or shunt el ements, the propaga-
ti on constant i s unaffected by the l oadi ng and a uni forml y i l l umi nated
array resul ts. The phase reversal does not al ter the i mpedance presented
by the radi ator to the l i ne. A bri ef summary of the phase-reversal tech-
ni ques for the vari ous types of el ements di scussed previ ousl y i s gi ven
bel ow:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Slotted dipole, Fi g. 9.47a, the di pol e i s r otated through 180 about
the coupl i ng probe.
Tridipole radiator, same as for the sl otted di pol e.
Shunt slots i n brood face of rectangul ar gui de, Fi g. 9.47b, the sl ots
are pl aced on al ternate si des of the axi s of the gui de.
Shunt inclined slots on the narrow face, Fi g. 9.47c, the i ncl i nati on of
al ternate sl ots i s r ever sed.
Probe-fed slots, coupl i ng pr obe i s pl aced on opposi te si des i n al ter-
nate sl ots, or the ori entati on of the pr obe i n the gui de i s r ever sed
(see Fi gs. 9.23 and 9.24).
Longitudinally polarized waveguide radiator, the l ength of al ternate
sl ots di ffers by x~/2.
Transversel y polarized waveguide radiator, el ements are staggered
wi th r espect to the gui de axi s just l i ke the shunt sl ots i n Fi g.-~.47b.
9.20. Resonant Array s.Broadsi de arrays can be di vi ded i nto two
general cl asses: resonant and nonresonant arrays. The resonant type
yi el ds an accuratel y normal beam and i s wel l matched at the desi gn fr e-
quency; the i mpedance match, however , deteri orates rapi dl y wi th depar-
tur e from the desi gn frequency, and the array can be used onl y over a
ver y narrow frequency band. An array of thi s type consi sts of a number
of si ngl e seri es or shunt el ements, spaced a gui de hal f-wavel ength apart
on wavegui de or coaxi al l i ne, wi th successi ve el ements mechani cal l y
r ever sed i n thei r feedi ng to gi ve the phase reversal di scussed i n the
precedi ng secti on. The resonant array i s uni forml y i l l umi nated, si nce,
4
as Eqs. (66) and (67) show, ther e i s no attenuati on i n a l i ne l oaded wi th
hal f-wavel ength-spaced si ngl e seri es or shunt el ements. The fact that
uni form i l l umi nati on i s pr oduced has been veri fi ed experi mental l y by
measurements of the radi ati on di rectl y i n front of the array wi th a smal l
!
I
;
.(
322 LI NEAI L-ARRA 1 ANTENNAS AND FEELAS [SEC. 920
expl ori ng horn. Furthermore, the secondary patterns of these arrays
are i n agreement wi th the patterns of an array of uni forml y exci ted el e-
ments. The uni form i l l umi nati on i s an advantageous feature wher e the
t+ ---1
d
Itt+++lhl+l
(a)
FI G. Q.47.Phase-reversal techni que: (a) phase reversal of di pol es; (b) phase reversal
of l ongi tudi nal sl ots i n the broad face of rectangul ar wavegui de; (c) phase reversal of i ncl i ned
sl ots i n the narrow face of rectangul ar wavegui de.
pri me requi rement i s hi gh gai n; on the other hand the array i s unsati s-
factory when si de l obes are the major consi derati on, si nce the fi rst si de
l obe i s over 4 per cent of the peak i ntensi ty.
The i mpedance match of the array i s obtai ned by choosi ng the i mped-
ances of the el ements pr oper l y and by adjusti ng a short-ci rcui ti ng pl unger
i
#
:il~c. 920]
RESONA.VI ARRAYS
323
i t the end of the array. The short-ci rcui t termi nati on i s a characteri sti c
feature of broadsi de arrays; the r efl ected wave causes no di ffi cul ti es such
as woul d ari se i n end-fi re arrays; for si nce the el ements are hal f wave-
l engths apart, the radi ati on pattern due to the r efl ected wave i s agai n a
normal beam. The wel l -matched condi ti on on the desi gn frequency and
!
the narrow bandwi dth pr oper ty of the array wi l l be di scussed for n seri es
el ements; the argument, phrased i n terms of admi ttances, i s si mi l ar for i
shunt el ements. We assume that the i mpedance of each el ement has
been adjusted to Zo/n, wher e Z, i s the characteri sti c i mpedance of the
l i ne. The l i ne i s termi nated i n a short ci rcui t at a di stance x,/2 from the
l ast el ement. Si nce the spaci ng i s ~g/2, the enti re array i s equi val ent
to n el ements i n seri es. The i nput i mpedance i s ther efor e n(ZO/n) = 2,;
that i s, the array i s matched.
When the exci ti ng frequency i s not the desi gn frequency, the el ements
are no l onger exactl y a hal f wavel ength apart. Then the i mpedances
do not add up to 2,, and the array i s not matched. The mi smatch for
frequenci es off resonance cannot be cal cul ated unl ess the frequency vari a-
ti on of the i mpedances of the el ements i s known. Thei r vari ati on can often
be negl ected over the bands i n \vhi ch one i s i nterested. A si mpl e
graphi cal anal ysi s can then be carri ed out on an i mpedance chart. Let
us take for exampl e a 10-el ement 10/2-spaced array of seri es el ements,
each of resi stance 0.12., and pl ot on an i mpedance chart, starti ng from
the termi nal short ci rcui t, the i nput i mpedance seen l ooki ng to the ri ght
from a poi nt just to the l eft of each successi ve el ement. At the desi gn
frequency these poi nts fal l al ong the R/Z,-axi s as i ndi cated on the l i ne S
i n Fi g. 948.
Suppose, for exampl e, that the wavel ength decreases by I per cent.
The spaci ng between el ements i s now gr eater than As/2. The short
ci rcui t now presents a smal l posi ti ~-e reactance i n seri es wi th the tenth
el ement. As one pr oceeds from el ement 10 to 9, the path traversed i s
gr eater than XQ/2 so that the reacti \e component i ncreases mor e than for
the resonant wavel ength.
Wi th each transformati on to the next el ement
ther e i s an i ncrease i n reacti ve component due to the excess of the path
over ~g/2, wi th the resul t that the i nput i mpedance to the array as a whol e
has an appreci abl e reacti ve el ement. The transformati on i s shown as
l i ne S i n Fi g. 9.48. The frequency sensi ti ~i ty i s evi dentl y gr eater the
l onger the l i ne. Common practi ce has been to l i mi t the l ength of the
array to 15 wavel engths, because l onger arrays have been found to be
too frequency-sensi ti ve.
Ther e are addi ti onal frequency-sensi ti ve characteri sti cs that shoul d
be noted. (1) Because the spaci ng i s no l onger equal to k~/2 for fr e-
quenci es off resonance, attenuati on sets i n [c~. Eq. (67)] and the array i s
not uni forml y i l l umi nated. (2) The beam i s no l onger accuratel y normal
to the array. These effects are gerwra!l y l ess i mportant than the i mped-
324 LI NEAR-ARRAY ANTENNAS AND FEEDS [SEC, 920
ante sensi ti vi ty because they are rel ati vel y i nsi gni fi cant for the narrow
band over whi ch the i mpedance match i s acceptabl e.
The i mpedance characteri sti cs of a resonant array can be i mproved
by a process of overl oadi ng the l i ne, i .e., usi ng el ements wi th i mped-
ances gr eater than ZO/n. Of course, the array i s then not matched, and
1.0
L
s 10
:
-0.5
t-
+0
-1.01
/
1X1
0 0.5 1. 0 1.5
2.0 2.5
FIG.9.48.I nput i mpedance of I O-el ement resonant array.
a matchi ng transformer must be used. However , the combi nati on of
over l oaded el ements and transformer wi l l general l y have a broader band
than the array matched by i tsel f. The theor y i s best shown by exampl e.
Let us take agai n a 10-el ement k,/2-spaced array wi th seri es el ements.
Suppose now that the resi stances of the el ements are 0.220 and, for
defi ni teness, that the array i s matched by a tuni ng screw. As before,
the l i ne 10, 9, 8, . . . i n Fi g. 9.49 represents the i nput i mpedances to
successi ve el ements for the frequency at whi ch the spaci ng i s As/2, and
1 r~presents the i nput i mpedance to the array as a whol e.
The array i s matched at the desi gn frequency by travel i ng cl ockwi se
on a constant VSWR ci rcl e to poi nt P on the uni ty R/ZO l i ne and by
i nserti ng a tuni ng scr ew ther e to transform to the poi nt Q wher e Z = 2..
I f the wavel ength i s agai n assumed to decr ease by 1 per cent, the i mped-
ance to the array i s gi ven by 1. Thi s i s qui te cl ose to poi nt 1. I f thi s
i mpedance i s transformed to the scre~v, i t fal l s on the poi nt P and
SEC. 9.20]
the i nput
Thus the
i
RESONANT ARRAYS 325
i mpedance to the array i s then Q, whi ch i s qui te cl ose to 2..
array i s sti l l fai rl y wel l matched. I n practi ce thi s method i s
qui te successful , someti mes to the extent of doubl i pg or tri pl i ng the
bandwi dth.
1.0
90
.-
,
60
lx
0.5 ~.
/ I
mti --
FI G. 9.49.I nput i mpedance of overl oaded resonant array.
As an exampl e of the performance of resonant arrays one antenna of
thi s type wi l l be di scussed i n detai l . 1 Fi gure 9.50 shows an axi al l y sym-
metri cal array for transverse pol ari zati on desi gned for the 3-cm band,
FI G. 9.50.An axi al l y symmetri cal array for transverse pol ari zati on.
The el ements consi st of the axi al l y symmetri cal uni ts of sl ot radi ators
shown i n Fi g. 9.30. The l i ne i s a ci rcul ar wavegui de havi ng an outer
di ameter of l + i n. and supporti ng the ZJf,l -mode. I t i s fed by the con-
ver ter shown i n Fi g. 933. The di stance fr om sl ot to sl ot al ong the axi s
4
of the gui de i s &/2. Phase reversal of the sl ots i s achi eved by putti ng
1H. .J. Ri hl et,
Hori zontal l y Pol ari zed Non-di recti onal Antennas, RL Repor t
>~o.489, Apr. 22, 1944.
:,
,,
i
326 LZATEA R-I I RRA Y AN TE.V.$A,9 A,VD FEEDS
[SEC. 920
20
. , -.
--
=15
.
,7
:
%2-- .
10
3180 3187 3197 3207 3214
Waelm@ cm,
~lG. 9.51.Frequency sensi ti vi ty of axi al l y symmetri cal transversel y pol ari zed array.
El evati on, dq
l ,1<; , 9,52. >l eri (l i <>]]:Ll pattenl s of an ~xi al l y sy!r],]l etri <al trar, sverw]y pu]:tri zed array
SEC. 921] BEA(!ON A,VTB,V.VA SYSTEM, S 327
the exci ti ng screws on one si de of a gi ven sl ot and on the opposi ~e si de
of the next sl ot. Between each bay of sl ots ther e i s shown another set
of screws. I t was found that an array wi thout these screws \vas exces-
si vel y frequency-sensi ti ve, The screws parti al l y cancel the r efl ected
waves from each bay of sl ots and hence i ncrease the band\vi dth of the
array. The i nput VSTVR to thi s
array i s shown i n Fi gs. 951 and
952 shows the meri di onal pattern.
The beamwi dth i s about 4.5; the
,
theoreti cal wi dth cal cul ated from
Eq. (14) wi th s = .870A i s 4,9.
The fi rst si de l obes are about 4* pcr
cent, a val ue expected for uni form
i l l umi nati on. The asymmetry i n the
pattern i s due to spuri ous refl ecti ons
from objects surroundi ng the pat-
tern-measuri ng equi pment.
9.21. Beacon Antenna Systems.
I n beacon systems the r esponder
(r ecei ver ) and transponder (trans-
mi tter) are ordi nari l y on t~\-odi ffer-
ent frequenci es. Thi s necessi tates
two di fferent antennas, one for trans-
mi tti ng and one for recei vi ng,
These t\vo antennas must bc so
arranged that ther e i s no cross-
tal k between them; i .e., ~-er y l i ttl e
ener gy from the transmi tter i s pi ck-
ed up di rectl y by the r ecei ver .
Actual l y a l i ttl e i s al ways pi cked
up, but i n sati sfactory antennas i t
i s at l east 40 db down.
l=!

-1l .
Recei
ante
Transmi
anten
~l G. 953. -&aeon antenna wi th an exter-
nal feed hne,
The ordi nary way of arrangi ng a transmi tter and r ecei ver i s to pl ace
one di rectl y above and on the same axi s as the other . The major prob-
l em i s then to feed the upper antenna. Thi s has been sol ved i n tl vo
di fferent ~vays. Fi rst, an external feed l i ne can be used. Such an arrange-
ment i s shown i n Fi g. 953. The transmi tter and r ecei ver of thi s beacon
antenna are resonant arrti ys of sl ot-type axi al l y symmetri cal radi ators.
The external feed natural l y has an effect on t}l c azi muth pattern of the
bottom antennti . Thi s effect i s rel ati vel y smal l and not i ntol erabl e.
4
I t usual l y takes the form of superi mposi ng a seri es of sharp maxi ma and
mi ni ma On the or(l i l l ar~ azi ]l l (l tl l Piltte]n.
For some I I srs, parti cul arl y for ai rborne beacons, an external feed i s
so }Jul ky an(l cl l l rnsy that an al ternati !c desi gn i s used. I t i s appl i cabl e
328
LINEAR-ARRAY ANTENNAS AND FEEDS [SEC. 922
onl y when the antennas are bui l t on coaxi al l i ne. I n thi s desi gn the
i nner conductor for the bottom antenna i s made hol l ow and another
conductor runs i nsi de i t, formi ng a coaxi al feed l i ne for the upper antenna.
Thi s i nner i nner conductor i s then tapered to normal si ze as i t enters
the upper antenna.
Such doubl e antenna systems have been bui l t at both 3 and 10 cm,
and al most al l the coaxi al l y-fed axi al l y symmetri cal radi ators previ ousl y
dk,cussed have been used. Fi gure 9.54 shows such an antenna for 3
4
FI C. 954.-Doubl e antenna system, X = 3 cm.
cm. The el ements are axi al l y symmetri cal radi ators consi sti ng of sl ots
on a coaxi al l i ne havi ng a 1 i n. OD. The rectangul ar wavegui des, A and
B feed the coaxi al l i nes for the top and bottom antennas respecti vel y.
C i s the hol l ow tube that serves as i nner conductor for the bottom antenna
and as the outer conductor for the coaxi al l i ne feedi ng the upper antenna.
D i s the i nner conductor of the l atter coaxi al l i ne. E i s a tapered secti on
of coaxi al l i ne.
9.22. Nonresonant Array s.The nonresonant broadsi de array may
consi st of a number of el ements spaced a l i ttl e mor e or a l i ttl e l ess than
AO/2 apart. Consequentl y the beam i s not normal to the arrhy but at an
angl e gi ven by Eq. (23). Thi s may be a di sadvantage i n some appl i ca-
ti ons. The advantage of thi s type of array i s that i ts i mpedance match
i s general l y good. Because the el ements are not k,/2 apart, refl ecti ons
from l ater el ements tend to cancel refl ecti ons from earl i er ones so that the
array remai ns matched over a much wi der band than the resonant array
of the same l ength.
Al though the nonresonant array el i mi nates the matchi ng probl em
i nherent i n the resonant array, i t presents an i l l umi nati on probl em that
the resonant array does not have. The el ements of the nonresonant
array are not equal l y exci ted as i n the resonant array; l ess po~ver reaches
the l ater el ements; and i f the el ements are al l al i ke, an exponenti al i l l u-
mi nati on resul ts. Such i l l umi nati on i s undesi rabl e because i t reduces
L. J. Eyges, Omni di recti onal Antennas for 13UPX, RL Repor t No. 996, Jan. 17,
1946.
SEC. $22]
NONRESONANT ARRAYS 329
the gai n. Ther e area number of ways tocontr ol thei l l umi nati on andi n
parti cul ar to make the l ast el ements radi ate as much as the fi rst. One
method i s to vary the el ements themsel ves so that the fi rst el ements take
out smal l fracti ons of the power i nci dent on them whi l e the l ater el e-
ments coupl e out l arger and l arger fracti ons. Thus i f the el ements are
di pol es, successi ve di pol es can have deeper probes; i f they are i ncl i ned
sl ots on the narrow si de of the gui de, the i ncl i nati on can be i ncreased
wi th di stance al ong the array. Another useful and advantageous
method permi ts the el ements to be al l i denti cal . Thi s consi sts i n taper-
,
h
b
Fm. 9.55.Transversel y pol ari zed array of wavegui de radi ators.
i ng the gui de i n i ts narrow di mensi on so that i t i s smal l er toward the end
of the array. I f ther e wer e no radi ati ng el ements, thi s woul d mean that
the ener gy densi ty woul d become l arger toward the end of the array
because a gi ven amount of ener gy woul d be fl owi ng through a smal l er and
smal l er area. When ther e are radi ati ng el ements, the taper can be made
to compensate for the l oss of ener gy, thus mai ntai ni ng a constant ener gy
densi ty i n the gui de.
I n such an array ther e must be no appreci abl e wave r efl ected from
the end. I f the ori gi nal wave radi ates a beam at an angl e 19to the normal ,
the r efl ected wave wi l l radi ate an undesi rabl e l obe at an angl e 0. To
avoi d thi s l obe the array i s usual l y termi nated i n a matched l oad. Thi s
may be a di ssi pati ve l oad, and ordi nari l y arrays are desi gned so that about
5 per cent of the total power gets beyond the l ast el ement and i s di ssi -
pated as heat. To avoi d thi s waste of power , a matched l oad can be
made of one of the radi ators backed by a short ci rcui t and matched wi th
an i ri s. Wi th thi s on the end of the array ther e i s no r efl ected wave and
al l the ener gy is radi ated.
r
Shown i n Fi g. 9.55 i s a secti on of a nonresonant array, bui l t for the
l -cm regi on. The el ements are the transversel y pol ari zed wavegui de
radi ators shown i n Fi g. 9.25b. The wal l of the gui de i n whi ch they are
;<
330 LI NEAR-A RRA 1 ANTENNAS AND FEEDS [SEC. 922
cut i s a quarter wavel ength thi ck. The el ements are spaced nearl y ~
apart; and for phase reversal , al ternate el ements are staggered wi th
r espect to the center l i ne. The whol e array feeds i nto paral l el pl ates that
fl are out to the pr oper si ze for beam shapi ng i n the other pl ane. The
gui de i s tapered for uni form i l l umi nati on. The coupl i ng formul a for the
fracti on of i nci dent power abstracted by each el ement i s
I-sl
I I
.. ___ __
~
___ ___ __
i l
I .1
T
a
J
l--a<
FI G, 956.-Geometri cal parameters i n Eq. (70)
wher e P/PO is the average fracti on of power abstracted per radi ator and
Xo, X;, and ~0 are respecti vel y the gui de wavel engths i n the mai n gui de,
the branchi ng gui de, and the paral l el pl ates. The geometri cal parameters
are defi ned i n Fi g. 9.56. The physi cal l ength 1 of the branchi ng gui des
must be chosen so that i ts effecti ve el ectri cal l ength i s A~/4. An approxi -
mate formul a for 1 i s
=$-:(+$)
Equati on (70) has not been checked di rectl y, but arrays based on i t
have been bui l t, and thei r performance \vas al most that expected.
Another type of nonresonant array has been desi gned that has a
normal or cl osel y normal beam, l i ke the resonant array, but i s much mor e
broadband i n i mpedance. Li ke the resonant array i t has i ts el ement
spaced at hal f-wavel ength i nterval s.
I n or der that the array be matched,
1 For a deri vati on of thi s for mul a see V. Si rhak and l ?. 11. Purcel l , 1(70scc?
Antennas wi th a Li ne Sour ce and Shaped ~yl i ndri cal Refl ector, RL Repor t No. 624,
Nov. 3, 1944, pp. 7-13.
SEC. 9.23] BI WADBA,VD SYSTEMS 1!I TI J .VOR.UAL 13EA.I I S 331
each el ement i s matched to the gui de; i .e., i t i s nonrefl ecti ng \vhen termi -
nated i n the characteri sti c i mpedance of the gui de.
Ther e are a number of di fferent ways to real i ze such a matched el e-
ment. One obvi ous method i s to match each el ement i ndi vi dual l y by a
tuni ng scr ew or i ri s i n front of i t.
Thi s i s al ways theoreti cal l y possi bl e,
but i n practi ce i t may be di ffi cul t; because the transmi ssi on-l i ne equati ons
are not val i d cl ose to the radi ati ng el ements, i t i s not al \vays easy to fi nd the
pr oper si ze and posi ti on of the i ri s or scr ew to match the el ements. Thi s
di ffi cul ty i s avoi ded by the use of i ncl i ned di spl aced sl ots. I t i s possi bl e
,
to choose the l ength, di spl acement, and i ncl i nati on of these sl ots so that
they present an i nput conductance of uni ty, shunted by a susceptance.
!3
4.37+
FI G, 957.-Secti on of nonresonant arraywi thspaci ng(X,/2)(k = 1.25CI T, ).
A tuni ng scr ew pl aced at the center of the sl ot wi l l match i t. Another
type of el ement that i s matched wi thout tuni ng screws or i ri ses has been
bui l t for the l -cm band. I t combi nes features of the wavegui de radi ators
and i ncl i ned di spl aced sl ots i n that i t consi sts of asymmetri cal i ncl i ned
sl ots cut through the quarter-wavel ength thi ckness of the broad wal l of
the wavegui de. Successi ve sl ots are set on opposi te si des of the center
of the gui de, and succeedi ng sl ots run together . The exact di mensi ons
of these sl ots had to be determi ned experi mental l y. Fi gure 9.57 shows
a sketch of these sl ots. 1
I t i s obvi ous that an el ement whi ch has an i nput i mpedance of 20
when termi nated i n 20 cannot be ei ther a si mpl e seri es or a si mpl e shunt
el ement; i t must be r epr esented by some T- or n-network. Thus the
wavegui de i s equi val ent to a l i ne l oaded wi th T- or I I -networks, and (see
Sec. 9. 17) ther e i s attenuati on i n such a l i ne, For uni form i l l umi nati on
some devi ce must be used to enabl e the l ater el ements to abstract as
much pou-er as the fi rst. Thi s can be done by i ncreasi ng the coupl i ng
of l ater el ements or by taperi ng the gui de,
9.23. Broadband Systems wi th Normal Beams.The vari ous arrays
we have di scussed thus far have one feature i n common: The di recti on of
the beam i s a functi on of frequency.
Whether the beam i s normal for
the desi gn frequency as i n the resonant and second type of nonresonant
arrays or i s not normal as i n the fi rst type of nonresonant array, the beam
1J. Stei nbcrgrr and F.. I l . ~hi sbol rn, Li near Array, RL RePort No, 77I , Ja,l 31
j
1946.
332 LI NEAR-A RRA Y ANTENNAS AND FEEDS [SEC.9.23
angl e shi fts when the frequency changes. Thi s feature i s di sadvantageous
for many appl i cati ons. Thi s secti on treats systems of arrays that have
the two properti es of constant beam angl e and broadband i mpedance
match.
The one feature common to al l the array systems di scussed i n thi s
secti on that causes the beam to remai n normal over a band i s that they
are exci ted i n the center . Such a system can be consi dered as two end-
fed component arrays. These two arrays are arranged so that at the
desi gn frequency thei r component patterns add up exactl y to gi ve a resul t-
ant normal pattern. Wheh the frequency changes, the beams from the
i ndi vi dual arrays move i n opposi te di recti ons; the resul tant beam i s
sti l l normal to the array. Of course, the resul tant beam broadens some-
what and, i f the frequency changes excessi vel y, begi ns to spl i t, but i t
remai ns normal to the array system. Thr ee di fferent arrays of thi s type
have been bui l t; the di fferences among them l i e i n the methods of obtai n-
i ng a broadband i mpedance match.
One consi sts of two nonresonant arrays each wi th a beam at an angl e
8 to the array. 1 The two arrays are arranged i n a V of angl e 180 2tl ,
and the power i s appl i ed at the ver tex of the V. General l y a paral l el -
pl ate wavegui de i s pl aced i n front of the array to gi ve a sati sfactory pat-
ter n i n the other pl ane. The i mpedance properti es of such an array are
ver y si mi l ar to those for a si ngl e nonresonant array, and i t remai ns
matched over a broad frequency band. The mai n di sadvantage of thi s
array i s that i t i s not l i near. The V-shape and the fl aps on the paral l el .
pl ate secti on make i t cl umsy and heavy.
The di sadvantages of si ze and wei ght are el i mi nated i n the second
exampl e of broadband array wi th a normal beam. Thi s array consi sts
al so of two component arrays exci ted i n the center , but these are of the
second type of nonresonant array. 2 Si nce the beam of each component
array i s normal to [t, the two arrays can be pl aced i n a strai ght l i ne.
Thus, the major di sadvantage of the cl umsi ness of the V-shape i s over -
come, but ther e i s a neti di sadvantage i n that the component arrays are
mor e compl i cated.
The thi rd exampl e of array, l i ke the other two, consi sts of two com-
ponents exci ted i n the center .
I n thi s arrav, each component i s a
resonant array. 3 The broadband i mpedance match i s obtai ned by di s-
pl aci ng one array wi th r espect to the other unti l the refl ecti ons from th~
components cancel each other . Such a system i s i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 9.58
and i s made of two arrays, I and I I , wi th i denti cal spaci ng and phasi ng;
1J, R. Ri sser et al ., Li near Array for Use i n the AN/APS-23 Antenna, RL Repor t
No. 973, Mar. 19, 1946, pp. 17.
2J. Stei nbergerand E. B. ~hi shol m, Li near Array, RL Repor t No. 771, Jan. 31,
1946.
3 Ri sser et al ., op. cit., pp. 713.
.
Sm. 9.23] BROADBAND SYSTEMS WI TH NORMAL BEAMA 333
but array I i s pl aced a di stance A ahead of the other , and the di stance z
to the fi rst el ement of array I i s di fferent from d, the correspondi ng
di stance for array I I . Ther e are two requi rements for a sati sfactory
pattern and a broadband i mpedance match. Fi rst, for compl ete can-
cel l ati on of the r efl ected waves at any poi nt P i n the mai n gui de, the l ength
from P to the fi rst el ement of array I must be A,/4 l onger than the cor -
respondi ng di stance for array I I ; then the r efl ected waves from the two
,t
I
<
A 1 B
. _
t
1
I I
P
[
FI G, 9.58. - Scl )el rl ati c of brozdl nmd normal -fi ri ng resonant array system.
arrays \vi l l be just a hal f ~vavcl ength out of phase and \vi l l cancel . The
condi ti on for thi s hO/4 path di fference i s
~d+A=&
4
(71)
For a sati sfactory radi ati on pattern ther e i s another condi ti on. The l i ne
Al ? must be a l i ne of constant phase. For general i ty suppose that array
I I feeds i nto some sort of paral l el -pl ate system i n whi ch the wavel ength
X i s not necessari l y the free-space wavel ength. l he condi ti on for equi -
.
phase al ong Al l i s then
A si mul taneous sol uti on of Eqs. (71) and (72) i s A = A/4 and
(72)
4
CHAPTER 10
WAVEGUI DE AND HORN FEEDS
BY J. R. RI SSER
10c1. Radi ati on from Wavegui de of Arbi trary Cross Secti on.The
probl em of radi ati on from the open end of a wavegui de coul d be di s-
cussed i n pri nci pl e from several poi nts of vi ew. Ri gorousl y, the radi ati on
can be consi dered to ari se from the cur r ent di stri buti on on the i nsi de
wal l s of the gui de, whi ch i s just the cur r ent di stri buti on associ ated wi th
the fi el ds propagated i n the i nteri or of the gui de, together wi th the cur-
rents fl owi ng from the open end out upon the exter i or gui de surface.
Wer e i t not for di ffi cul ti es i n the anal ysi s, thi s cur r ent di stri buti on and the
radi ati on fi el d at an external poi nt co~dd be cal cul ated. Thi s has, how-
ever , not yet been accompl i shed. On the other hand, the approxi mate
methods of di ffracti on theor y devel oped i n Sees. 5.11 and 5.12 have been
appl i ed to the probl em wi th some degr ee of success. I The gui de openi ng
i s presumed to act l i ke a hol e or aperture i n an i nfi ni te screen, the trans-
ver se fi el ds i n the aperture bei ng assumed to be i denti cal wi th those i n a
paral l el cross secti on i nsi de the gui de. The vector Huygens pri nci pl e i s
appl i ed to obtai n the radi ati on fi el d from the aperture fi el d di stri buti on
as di scussed i n Sees. 5.11 and 5.12.
I n al l i mportant practi cal cases the gui de al l ows propagati on of onl y
one mode, cal l ed the domi nant mode. Over a cross secti on i nsi de the
gui de suffi ci entl y far from the aperture, any component of the fi el d i s
the vector sum of the components associ ated wi th i nci dent and r efl ected
waves of the domi nant mode. I n the aperture, however , addi ti onal
hi gher-mode fi el ds exi st l ocal l y, exci ted by the di sconti nui ty i n the gui de.
I t i s not possi bl e to determi ne the detai l s of the hi gher-mode fi el d di stri -
buti on empi ri cal l y; they can be obtai ned onl y from a ri gorous sol uti on of
the boundary probl em. The contri buti on of the hi gher-mode fi el ds are
negl ected i n the approxi mate di ffracti on theor y used i n thi s chapter.
Thi s i s one sour ce of i naccuracy i n the method.
The effects of the r efl ected domi nant mode \vave can, ho~vever , be
taken i nto account. They are expressi bl e i n terms of a refl ecti on coeffi -
ci ent r whi ch can be determi ned empi ri cal l y by standi ng-wave measure-
ments i n the gui de. The refl ecti on coeffi ci ent r i s the rati o (Ei )./(Ei )i
of the transverse components of the r efl ected and i nci dent ~l ectri c fi el d
1L, J. ~hu, Cal cul at,l on of the Radi ati on Properti es of Hol l ow Pi pes and Horns,
J our. Applied Phys., 11, 603-610 (1940).
334
SEC. 101] JVA JI WI I DE OF A I (BI TRA RI CROSS ,5ECTI ON
335
vector s; i t vari es i n phase but not i n magni tude al ong the gui de.
When
extrapol ated to the pl ane of the aperture, r can be i nterpreted i n terms of
an equi val ent ci rcui t admi ttance q for the aperture by the rel ati on
~=lq
l+q;
(1)
the admi ttance q i s normal i zed to the characteri sti c wave admi ttance of
the gui de. The characteri sti cs of q and r \vi l l be di scussed l ater (Sec.
10.1 l ). I t i s assumed her e that r i s a knonm quanti ty. The total trans-
ver se el ectri c fi el d Et of the domi nant mode i n the aperture i s then gi ven
by
E, = (1 + r)(E,),,
(2)
wher e (Et), i s the transverse el ectri c fi el d of the i nci dmt domi nant-mode
wave. The
Eqs. (7.33b)
wher e
transverse magneti c fi el d H, can be
and (i 33c) :
(H,), = t[i , x (E,),],
(H,). = t[i , x (E,),],
)
obtai ned from Et usi ng
(3)
B
t=: for TE-modes
UP
(de

for T~l I -modes.

P
,.n
Ther efor e H, can be \vri tt,en
H, = t(l r)[i . x (E,),]
.
t
()
~ [i , x E,]. (4)
The rel ati on between the el ectri c and magneti c fi el ds over the aperture
i s thus of the form of Eq. (5,104) wi th the constant a = t(l I )/(] + r),
I t shoul d be kept i n mi nd that the val ue of r i s not al tered by the i nser-
ti on of a matchi ng transformer i n the gui de because the r efi ected wave
sti l l exi sts i n the regi on bet~vmm the transformer and the aperture.
To cal cul ate the radi ati on fi el d at a poi nt Z outsi de the pi pe, we sur-
round P by a cl osed surface contai ni ng the aper tor c. Thi s surface con-
si sts of the aperture, the exter i or surf am of the gui de and the sphere at,
i nfi ni ty. The vector Huygens pri nci pl e i s appl i ed to thi s surface, .+s
i n other di ffracti on probl ems the sphere at, i nfi ni ty contri b~l tes nothi ng.
Over the exter i or surface of the gui de the el ectri c fi el d i s necessari l y normal
to the surface] ri nd ther vfor e E, i s zer o. fl cre i s, hol vever, a tangrnti a]
component of the magneti c fi el d assori ate(l i vi th cl l rrents ori gi nati ng at
the aperture. As i n the case of the hi gher modes i n the aperture, i nabi l i ty
to sol ve the bol l nrl ary probl em at the end of the }~ti veg~l i de means that
336 WA VEGUI DE AND HORN FEEDS
[SEC. 102
these currents are unknown, and H, i s assumed to be zer o on the gui de
surface. Thi s i s a second sour ce of er r or i n the method.
The effect of negl ecti ng the hi gher-mode fi el ds i n the aperture and the
tangenti al component of the magneti c fi el d on the outsi de surface of the
gui de depends on the di mensi ons of the aperture as measured i n wave-
l engths. I t i s reasonabl e to assume that both factors contri bute a smal l er
fracti on of the total radi ati on fi el d as the aperture di mensi ons i ncrease.
I t i s, i n fact, the case that the cal cul ated radi ati on fi el d i s i n i ncreasi ngl y
better agreement wi th experi ment as the aperture di mensi ons i ncrease,
so that the l i mi tati ons of the theor y are apparent pri nci pal l y for smal l
apertures. Unfortunatel y the di mensi ons of wavegui de actual l y used are
fracti ons of a wavel ength. A mor e ri gorous treatment of the probl em
woul d be desi rabl e.
By negl ecti ng the hi gher modes and the cur r ent di stri buti on over the
exter i or surface of the wavegui de, the probl em i s r educed to a si mpl e
aperture probl em. The radi ati on fi el d i s cal cul ated by means of Eqs.
x
-2
/
Y
i
FI G. 10.1.Coordi nate system used i n di s-
cussi ng radi ati on I r om open wavegui de.
(5110) and (5110a). The trans-
ver se el ectri c fi el d E, appeari ng i n
the l atter i s repl aced i n the pres-
ent case by the resul tant el ectri c
fi el d Et of the domi nant mode over
the aperture. The l atter, i n turn,
i s expressed i n terms of the i nci -
dent el ectri c fi el d by means of Eq.
(2).
The coordi nate system i s
shown i n Fi g. 10.1. Rectangul ar
coordi nates (z,y) are used i n the aperture, taken to be the pl ane z = O,
and spheri cal coordi nates R, @and @ are used to l ocate the poi nt P.
From
Eqs. (5.l l l a) and (5.l l l b) the components of E, become
wher e N i s the vector
J A

(1 + r) / (E,),e~kfZ~ L- ~+~~i m o~~~jdS.

A
10.2. Radi ati on from Ci rcul ar Wavegui de.The radi ati on vector
N of Eq. (6) can be computed for wavegui de of ci rcul ar cross secti on usi ng
the exrwessi on for the transverse fi el d vector of the domi nant mode gi ven
(5)
(6)
SEC, 102] liAl)lA TI O.V PI M.lf CI liCLrLAR WA VEG(iIDh
i n Sec. 7.13. I n computi ng N i t i s conveni ent to express
~
i,
337
(E,),, the

i nci dent wave fi el d i n the aperture, i n rectangul ar components.

Case 1. !I E-uxwes.-I n thi s case the rectangul ar components of (E~)i
are 1
E = ~+ [,l m_,(.mnP) si n (m 1)* + Jm+,(.n.p) si n (m+ 1)*],
z
I
(7)
E, = J* [Jm_,(Km,@)cm (m 1)* Jm+,(Kmnp)cm (m + 1)4].
Wri ti ng z = p cos ~, y = p si n ~, the expressi ons to be eval uated become
These are eval uated ~vi th the hel p of the Bessel -Fouri er seri es
e- -$) = J O(~P) +
z
2jJ .(Ap) Cos n(r$ *)
(9)
n=,1
and the Lommel i ntegral formul a
(l o)
Usi ng these together \vi th the r ecur r ence rel ati ons and recal l i ng that
~~(.m.a) = O, the fi el d components are obtai ned as fol l ows:
[
kaw h,.
~+ . jn+l _
(
~+cOsor 6: Cos o
)1
1
(11)
2R
~.t(K,,,.a)~~(ka si n 0) ~os ,,l @e_,,n
()
~_ksi n02
%m
1The fol l owi ng r ecur r ence rel ati ons arc neecl r d for thi s secti on:
.lm(z) = ; J,,,(z) J,n+, (z) = ; [J ,?-,(z) .Tm+, (z)]

; Jm(z) + J.,-,(z),
;Jm(z) = ; [J+,(z) + J-,(z)].
338 WA VEGUIDE A.VD HOILV YEEJ9S [sm. 102
Case 2. T~l l -waues.Fol l o\\i ng the same pr ocedur e as above, the
i ntegral s to be eval uated are found to be the same. Speci fi cal l y the
i ntegral s i n the two cases are rel ated as fol l ows:
(N=)..,, = ~ (N,),.;
I
(12)
(Nu). .. = & (N,),..
I t w-i l l be recal l ed that the characteri sti c val ues of Km. for TM-waves are
obtai ned from the r oots of ~fi(KnJZ) = O. On eval uati ng the fi el d com-
ponents, i t i s found that due to thi s condi ti on, E+ i s zer o and ther e i s but
one component:
The TE,,-mode whi ch has the l owest cutoff frequency i s the one most
commonl y used i n ci rcul ar-gui de antenna feeds. The remai nder of the
di scussi on wi l l be confi ned to thi s mode. on setti ng m = 1 i nto Eq. (7)
i t can be seen that the el ectri c fi el d over the aperture i s symmetri cal wi th
r espect to the yz-pl ane, whi ch i s thus the E-pl ane of the system. Fi gure
10.2 taken from Chus paper shows the cal cul ated E- and H-pl ane pat-
terns as a functi on of aperture. The effect of the r efl ected wave i n the
pi pe on the aperture di stri buti on has been negl ected (i .e., r has been set
equal to zer o) i n computi ng these patterns. Fi gure 10.3 shows a com-
pari son between an obser ved pattern and the correspondi ng theoreti cal
pattern. The agreement i s qui te good consi deri ng the factors negl ected
i n the theor y.
Ther e are vari ous measures of the sharpness of the beam.
One cri -
teri on that has been used i n the l i terature i s the angl e from zer o to zer o
i ncki di ng the mai n beam. I n the E-pl ane (O = r/2), Ee i s zer o when
ka si n 0 = 3.83. The beam angl es i n the A- and H-pl anes are then
()
3.83A
8E = 2 si nl
27ra
( )1
5.33A
8. = z si nl
2~a
(14)
The beam i s thus sharper i n the E-pl ane than i n the H-pl ane. Equati on
(14) i s, of course, meani ngl ess for the E-pl ane when 2a/X <1.22 and for
1~bi ~i s a good apprcjxi nmti on for ci rcul ar gui de.
For standard Radi ati on Labora-
tory wavegui de (2a = 0.75k) r i s found to be smal l .
(

\
l

,
,
/

340
WA VEGUI DE AND HORN FEEDS
[SEC. 102
the H-pl ane when 2a/A < 1.7. From apracti cal standpoi nt, mor e useful
measures of the beam sharpness are the ful l angul ar wi dths between hal f-
power poi nts and tenth-power poi nts. For val ues of ~/a < 1, the hal f-
3cP 2LY 10 @lo
0.9
~oo
0.8
0.7
~oo 0.6
0.5
&JO
0.4
0.3
700
0.2
800
90
1w
1100
12OO 131Y14031601S00
300
2@ NY 01,0
[ Theoretical\ ~~
,Ok-mo
0.8
0.7
500
0.6
0.5
600 0.4
0.3
700
0.2
800
0.1
S@
l~o
110
1200 13tY140 160180
(d
(b)
FI G. 10.3.Theoreti cal and observed radi ati on patterns fr om wavegui de of ci rcul ar cr oss
secti on; h = 3.2 cm. (n) E-pl ane; (b) H-pl ane.
power and tenth-power wi dths i n the pri nci pal pl anes are gi ven i n degrees
by
@.= 14.7:; @H = 18.6:;
() ()
1
(15)
~, & = 25.0 );
@. ~ = 32,3:.
Another characteri sti c of i nterest i s the gai n rel ati ve to an i sotropi c
source. I t i s gi ven by
G = 47r +)
t
wher e PI is the total power radi ated and P(O,O) i s the maxi mum power
radi ated per uni t sol i d angl e, whi ch i s i n the di recti on o = @ = O. Thi s
power i s
()
P(o,o) = & :
( )1
5k2a2@2U21+{+r l~
2 J~(Kl ,a). (16)
I
I
SEC. 103] RADI ATI ON FROM RECTANGULAR GUI DE 341
To fi nd the total power radi ated, the Poynti ng vector ~ Re (E, x H~ ) i s
i ntegrated over the aperture. Thi s i s eval uated as fol l ows:
i nserti ng the val ues of E, and EV from Eq. (7), we have for the TE1l -mode,
The l ast i ntegral i s eval uated by means of a Lommel formul a resul ti ng i n
Maki ng use of the r ecur r ence rel ati ons and the boundary condi ti on
~~(Kl l a) = O, we obtai n fi nal l y
The gai n i s, ther efor e,
( )1
2
lc%l+:+r l ~
G=
4.775P(1 lr12)
(17)
(18)
~vher e the val ue of Kl l a = 1.841 has been i nserted. For the regi on far
enough away from cutoff, r = O, P/k = 1, the gai n i s approxi matel y
G = 10.5
(
area of aperture
)
A=
(19)
10.3. Radi ati on from Rectangul ar Gui de.The tangenti al fi el d com-
ponents of the domi nant mode i n the aperture of rectangul ar gui de are
obtai ned from Eq. (7.74) or (7.79) by pl aci ng z equal to zer o. Then,
i n the same manner as for ci rcul ar gui de, the radi ati on vector N i s cal cu-
l ated from Eq. (6).
1 G. N. Watson, Bessel Functi ons, 2d cd., l I acn~i l l an, Xew l -ork, 1945, p. 135,
Eq, (11).
z L, J, Chu, Jot{r. .4pp11ed Phys., 11, 603610 (1940).
7
I
342 WA VEGUIDE AND HORN FEEDS [sMC. 103
Case 1. TE-modes.The components N. and N. are
N==j
To::.: r)rcOs@)ekmdd
/
b
nz~zti ~(l + r )k si n 0 cos @
si n ~y ei k~i noi ~dy =
o
b
#~b2
[
1 ~i(ka,k, e.~ d+nm)
x
1[
1 eI(kb si r.8. i n~+nr)
1
~2r2 ]
~z si n2 Ocos @ ~ k~si n20si n2 ~ ~
NV = j
=:!: rilsine)ekzBi8m~
[coS(?)
mmz~~(l + r )k si n Osi n 4
~~ku.i n Oai n+ dy =
kkna
[
1 ei (ka. i . 9 m +-! -m. )
1[
1 e] (M . i nOKi m++nm)
m2T2
n27r2
k2 si nz OCOS2+ ~ k si nz 0 si n2 @ ~
1
The el ectri c-fi el d components of the radi ati on fi el d are then
()
Es= :
~i (rab)2 si n 8
2~,Rk~n
[ (
l +~cOsd+r I P~coso
)1
[Rsin)-(~cosYlq~.
()
.?+= :
5(rab)2 si n 0 si n o cos @
z~3R
[ I cos+%+r(cose-%)lvfi(e~) (20)
Vm.(o, dl)
[
si n
(
~si n Ocosf$+~
)(
1[
sin
)

+incos)-w esf:::i~(z) ( II
ej[k~-~si n b(acosd+bsi n+ )-(r n+n+l )~] /
I
Case 2. TM-modes.The components N= and N. are rel ated to those
of the TE-modes by
(N.),., =
% (N.) T,,
(N.) TM = mbpu
* (N,).,.
1
As i n the case of the TM-modes i n a ci rcul ar gui de, the radi ati on fi el d i s
SEC, 103] R.4DI.4 TI O.V FROM RECTA AGULAR GUI DE
found to have onl y one component:
343
(
+r l~coso
)1
~lnn(e,o), (21)
n.
whi l e Ed = O.
The I l l -mode, m = 1, n = O, i s of s~eci al i nterest, I n thi s case the
radi ati on fi el d reduces to
J
j kR~sin E(ac<,s @+ bsir, @)
1
(
7ra
Cos
A
Sl n 6 Cos @
)
(-
T(Z
A
) ()
sl nocoso ~-
~-[+=-
1
bwn+)
1
(22)
\vher e K,Ohas been repl acecf by r/ a. The phase factor
()
kII? f si n /3 (a cos @ + b si n @)
can be si mpl i fi mf, I t ~vi l l he rccal l cd that i n der i vi ng the fi el d expressi ons
the ori gi n \ras taken at ~ cor ner of the gui de. I t, i s easi l y found that i f
the ori gi n i s shi fted to the center of the aperture, the phase factor trans-
forms i nto l :R, 1/ nwv bei ng measured from the new ori gi n. I n the case
of l arge al wrturcs r = O, so that the space factor i s, ther efor e, real and
the gui de i s a di rccti vc poi nt-source frrd, the center of feed bei ng the
center of the a!wrturr. I n smal l aprrturm \\-herer i s compl ex, ther e i s no
exact center of feed; the yl l i de i s onl y approxi matel y a poi nt sour ce from
the poi nt of vi mv of th~: cql l i phasc surfaces of the radi ati on pattern.
The cl wtri c fi el d ov(r the al wrturc i s pol ari zed i n the Y-di recti on
so t}l at thr yz-l )l :l n(, i s thr E-}l l :l nr of the system I vhi l e the .rz-pl ane i s
the I f-pl an(. ] ]1(, [}attrl rl s i l l t]l (+(> t\\-() pl i n(i p:l ] pl anCs are
T
344
a.
E~ =
b.
Ed =
WA VEGUI DE AND HORN FEEDS
E-plane, @ = 7r/ 2
2(:YR[1 +?
[SEC. 102
H-pl ane, @ = O
( )
mh
( )1
si n 0
+r l ~~coso I n A
k
e-i kR. (23a)
xb
T
si n 0
+r(cs-?)~::~ e- 23b)

Y 4
I t i s obser ved that the predomi nant factors i n the patterns
si n~si nO)l ~si nO and
cOstfsi nO)/[t+si OY-:l
are determi ned by the di mensi ons of the apertures i n the r especti ve pl anes.
I t wi l l be further obser ved that the E-pl ane pattern i s essenti al l y the pat-
ter n due to uni forml y i l l umi nated sl i t of wi dth b. The pattern i n the
I Lpl ane i s essenti al l y that due to a sl i t of wi dth a over whi ch the i l l umi na-
ti on i s di stri buted si nusoi dal l y as i t i s across the gui de i n the z-di recti on.
Thi s i s i l l ustrati ve of a fai rl y general characteri sti c that the patterns i n
the two pri nci pal pl anes are i ndependent and are determi ned by the
aperture di mensi on and the di stri buti on of i l l umi nati on across the aper-
tur e i n the r especti ve pl anes. The angul ar di stances between the fi rst
zer os on ei ther si de of the peak are gi ven by
(24)
Fi gure 10.4 i s a pl ot of E-pl ane and H-pl ane patterns of 3.2-cm wave-
gui de cal cul ated from Eqs. (23a) and (23b), together wi th experi mental l y
obser ved val ues. Si nce the gui de di mensi ons are appreci abl y smal l er
than a wavel ength (a/h = 0.71; b/A = 0.32), agreement woul d not be
expected to be parti cul arl y good i n vi ew of the approxi mati ons i n the
theor y. Better agreement woul d be expected wi th l arger aperture
di mensi ons, al though from a practi cal standpoi nt l i mi tati ons on si ze of
aperture are i mposed by the necessi ty of suppressi ng hi gher modes.
The predi cti ons of Eqs. (23a) and (23b) for l arge apertures are, however ,
[SEC.
P(e)
P(e)
103 RADI ATI ON FROM RECTA NG[iLAR GUI DE
345
1.0
7
0.9
0.8
\
0.7
i
/
0.6
\
0.5
h
c \
\
0.4
0.3
0.2
0
\ .
0.1
\ )%7 LQ !:__
o
o
200
40
600 800
100 120 140 160 1800 20W
(:)
1.0
0.9
\ \
0.8
0.7
0.6
n
0.5
0.4
(>
0.3
,
\
0.2
\
o
With reflection =
0.1
()
coefficient
.
\: . -o
g-3- V
.
0 ~~- ~
Ja-
00 200
40 60
80 1000 1200 140 1600 180
o
(b)
Fxc. 10.4. Theoreti ca1 and observed radi ati on patterns fr om rectangul ar waxw-
gui de; X = 3.2 cm; ~= 0.71; ~ = 0.32; cal cul ated patterns; o observed val ues; (a)
E-pl ane; (b) H-pl ane.
346 WA VEGUI DE AND HORN FEEDL3
[SEC. 103
of i nterest as a conveni ent means of predi cti ng the radi ati on patterns of
sectoral horns, wi th smal l fl are angl es.
Fi gure 10.5 i s a graph of the
3- and 10-db-wi dths of the E- and H-pl ane patterns as a functi on of the
r especti ve aperture di mensi ons.
I n computi ng the l atter, 1?was taken
equal to zer o.
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Wavelength/aperture
FI G. 10.5.Rel ati on between the aper tur e di mensi on and the 3-db and 10-db wi dths of the
radi ati on pattern of rectangul ar wave gui de; E-pl ane; H-pl ane.
Fi nal l y the gai n rel ati ve to an i sotropi c poi nt sol i rce can be-cal cul ated.
The power radi ated per uni t sol i d angl e i n the peak di recti on, 0 = + = O,
i s
(070) (:)t+)l +%+r( -N
The total power radi ated i s obtai ned as i n the case of ci rcul ar gui de by
i ntegrati ng the Poynti ng vector ~ Re (EL x H:) over the aperture. Thi s
i ntegrati on i s easy to carry thr ough i n the present case. We obtai n
1!
G
r
F
Pt=(
1 lrl*)@p~w310.
w
(25)
t
#
SF,C.104] W.4VEG[ IDE A .VTE,Y .VA FEEDS 347
The gai n i s, ther efor e,
G=4.~+=a,: i ri ,)&l l +y+r 1-+1$. (26)
()
For l arge apertures, (3/k = 1, r = f), the gai n i s approxi matel y
G = 10.2
(
area of the aperture
x
)
(27)
10.4. Wavegui de Antenna Feeds. Wavegui de can be used sati s-
factori l y as an antenna feed, but onl y for ver y restri cted appl i cati ons.
I t wi l l be shovm i n a l ater chapter that the po\r er radi ated by the feed
shoul d be do\vn approxi matel y 10 db i n the di recti on of the r efl ector
edge (cf. Chap. 12). Thi s requi rement determi nes the r efi ector shape
that can be used effi ci entl y wi th ~~avcgui de feeds. ?i or rectangul ar \~ave-
gui de wi th b/A = 0.32 and a/k = 0.71, the r efl ector aperture shoul d
subtend an angl e at the feed of approxi matel y 180 i n the el ectri c pl ane
and 120 i n the magneti c pl ane (see Fi g. 10.4). For ci rcul ar \vavegui dc
wi th 2a/k = 0.75, these angl es shoul d be approxi matel y 150 for the
el ectri c pl ane and 140 for the magneti c pl ane, 11bi l e these fi gures are
necessari l y approxi mate because the 10-db speci fi cati on has some arbi -
trari ness, r efl ector s of markedl y di fferent shape cannot be used ~vi thout
sacri fi ce i n gai n or si de l obes. I n general , the r efl ector di mensi ons are
determi ned by the appl i cati on, and the feed aperture di mensi ons must be
sel ected accordi ngl y. Fl ari ng the termi nal regi on of the gui de to form
a si mpl e rectangul ar or coni cal horn and pl aci ng beam-shapi ng obstacl es
i n the aperture of the feed consti tute the usual sol uti ons to the prot)l em.
Ci rcul ar wavegui de has found a mor e restri cted appl i cati on than r ec-
tangul ar gui de as an antenna feed; i n fact i ts use has been confi ned to
coni cal l y scanni ng antennas. Si nce l ong l engths of ci rcul ar gui de are
found unsati sfactory, a ci rcul ar-gui de feed i s general l y exci ted from r ec-
tangul ar gui de through an i ntermedi ate tapered secti on. The feature
of ci rcul ar gui de that makes i t sui tabl e for coni cal l y scanni ng antennas i s
that the termi nal secti on can bc r otated wi thout di storti on of the mode
of propagati on or rotati on of the pol ari zati on of the radi ated beam. I f
a ci rcul ar-gui de feed i s pl aced a smal l di stance from the axi s of a para-
bol oi dal r efl ector and i s r otated about thi s axi s, the peak of the beam from
the parabol oi d wi l l descri be a cone \rhose axi s coi nci des wi th the para-
bol oi d axi s. The di recti on of pol ari zati on remai ns fi xed i n the cour se of
the rotati on. The greatest car e must be taken not to deform the gui de
i n bendi ng, because deformati ons act as transformers converti ng pl ane to
el l i pti cal pol ari zati on.
A number of structures have been devel oped to enabl e wavegui de to
be used i n r ear feed systems. A (r ear feed i s one that enters the para-
bol oi d at or near the ver tex from behi nd and provi des a means of defl ect-
,
348
WA VEGI J I DE A Nl) HORN FEEDS [SEC. 105
i ng the di recti on of propagati on of the radi ati on so as to i l l umi nate the
parabol oi d. l ~i th ci rcul ar gui de thi s i s done by a refl ecti ng di sk (Fi g.
1 Fn
Rmgsourceof rad(at,on
O
:-
,1 i-~

I
/
\
R /
\ /
FIG. 106.- Circular wavegui deand r e-
fl ecti ngdu+kstl owi ]l gposi ti onof ri n~sour ce
of radi ati on]).
10%), However , a study of the
equi phase surfaces shows that
such a feed does not have a poi nt
center of feed but behaves rather
l i ke a ri ng source. I t i s, ther e-
for e, not sui ted foruse wi th are-
fl ector havi ng a poi nt focus.
I n the case of rectangul ar
gui de, a r ear feed system can be
obtai ned by maki ng a U-shaped
bend i n the gui de; thi s i nfeasi bl e
at short wavel engths wher e bend-
i ng the gui de i s mechani cal l y feas-
i bl e and the added wei ght and feed
shadow are not i mportant factors.
When a mor e compact r ear feed on
rectangul ar gui de was needed,
modi fi cati ons such as the t\vo- and four-di pol e feeds (Sees. 8.10 and 8.11)
(n- the doubl e-sl ot feed wer e been used. The l atter feed wi l l be descri bed
i n the next secti on.
10.5. The Doubl e-sl ot Feed.
One form of thi s type of feed i s
shown i n Fi g, 10.7. Essenti al l y
the \vavegui de spl i ts i nto two
x-avegui de-l i ke branches whi ch
turn back and have thei r open
ends di r ected toward the parabo-
l oi d. One openi ng i s above and
the other i s bel oi r the i nput wave-
gui de, \~hi chi s tapered to l ess than
normal hei ght to decr ease the
separati on of the sl ots and con-
sequentl y the di recti vi ty of the
feed i n the el ectri c pl ane. As
shown i n the fi gure, the two
branch paths are contai ned i n a
compact cyl i ndri cal head desi gned
for ease of manufacture. Each
,4
f
+!!!
A
s,
=
=
c
A
FI G. 10
SectionAA
.7.A doubl e-sl ot
feed.
branch consi sts of hal f the cyl i ndri cal cavi ty C and the v-avegui de-l i ke sl ot *
S. The sl ots are pressuri zed by mi ca wi ndows. The di mensi ons of the
feed \ver e\vor ked out empi ri cal l y to obtai n good match and pattern over a
6 per cent band (AA/AO= + 3 per cent) center ed at 3.2 cm. over thi s
SEC. 106] ELECTROMAGNETI C HOR.VS 349
band the VSWR i s l ess than 1.3. The pattern i s somewhat narroweri n
the el ectri c pl ane than i n the magneti c pl ane, Thi s feed i s useful wher e
a compact strai ght r ear feed i s needed.
10.6. El ectromagneti c Horns.I t appears at fi rst si ght that a radi a-
ti on pattern of any desi red di recti vi ty can be obtai ned from a ~vavegui de
by a sui tabl e choi ce of i ts di mensi ons. However , i f the di mensi ons are
suffi ci entl y l arge to al l ow fr ee propagati on of mor e than one mode, the
seri ous probl em of control l i ng the modes ari ses. I t i s di ffi cul t to exci te
a l arge-si zed wavegui de so that onl y a si ngl e mode i s generated; i f several
, modes are present, thei r rel ati ve phases at the aperture and hence the
resul tant fi el d over the l atter are a functi on of the l ength of the gui de.
The requi red l arge aperture wi th a si ngl e-mode-fi el d exci tati on can be
achi eved by a gradual transi ti on pr oduced by fl ari ng the termi nal secti on
of the wavegui de to form an el ectromagnet c horn. Of course, a number
of modes are exci ted i n the throat of the horn at the juncti on between the
l atter and the wavegui de. However , the throat serves as a fi l ter devi ce,
al l owi ng onl y a si ngl e mode to be propagated fr eel y to the aperture.
Each mode i n the horn can be set i nto cor r espondence wi th a mode i n
the wavegui de i nto whi ch i t passes as the fl are angl e of the horn i s r educed
to zer o, The horn wi l l not support fr ee propagati on of a parti cul ar mode
unti l roughl y the transverse di mensi ons of the horn exceed those of a
wavegui de whi ch woul d support the gi ven mode. Thus, unl ess the fl are
angl e i s too l arge, al l but the domi nant mode ~vi l l be attenuated to a
negl i gi bl e ampl i tude i n the throat regi on befor e fr ee propagati on i n the
horn space i s possi bl e.
The di scussi on i n the fol l owi ng secti ons wi l l be restri cted to horns
that are deri ved from a rectangul ar wavepui de. Comparati vel y l i ttl e i s
known about coni cal horns deri ved from a ci rcul ar ~vavegui dej and they
l ,ave found comparati vel y few appl i cati ons i n mi crowave antennas.
Rectangul ar horns are tr eated i n consi derabl e detai l i n the l i terature. 2
The r eader i s r efer r ed to the ori gi nal papers for a compl ete treatment of
the modes i n a rectangul ar horn and the anal ysi s of the fi l ter properti es
of the throat. I f the horn i s to ser ve as the termi nal antenna el ement,
ther e exi st opti mum rel ati ons between the horn l ength and fl are angl e
for achi evi ng maxi mum di recti vi ty; these rel ati ons are gi ven i n the sources
r efer r ed to previ ousl y.
Horns are used i n mi crowave antennas pri mari l y
as a feed to i l l umi nate a r efl ector or l ens. I n thi s case the i mportant
desi gn consi derati ons are the i mpedance characteri sti cs and the effi ci ent
#
L C,. C;. Sollth~vorth znd .\. P. King, Proc. IRE, 27, 95 (1939); A, P. Ki ng, Bel l
[,dmratorfes RPcord, 18, 247 (1940).
z If-. 1, Ilarrolv a])d 1,. .J, (hll, Froe, Jlfll, 27, 51 (1939) ; W. 1,. Barrow and F. D,
I mwi s,Imc. IFtl~, 27, 41 (193!)) T,.J. (})(! and \V.1,. I I arrow,Trans. AI EE, 68, 333
f 1g~!),, Thf, dcsigt] data mrr slimrllarizc(l IJY F, 1. Tcrlnan, Radio Engi neersHand-
l,mk, \[r(; r:i ~v-Hi l l , SCJV}or k, I !).J3, pp 824-837.
,!
I
350 WA VEGUI DE AVD HOR,V FEED,? [SK,. 107
i l l umi nati on of the opti cal system rather than maxi mum gai n from the
horn. Onl y the materi al not readi l y avai l abl e i n the l i terature wi l l be
presented i n the fol l owi ng secti ons, wi th attenti on bei ng center ed on the
mi crowave desi gn probl ems.
Vari ous types of horns are i l l ~l strated i n Fi g. 108. l he horns shown
i n Fi g. 10.8a and b are known as sectoral horns; they are fl ared i n one
(a)
Electric rdane throat
(c)
~lG. 10.8.Horn feed t~-ws : (a)
ei ertri c pl ane horn: (h) r,,awl ?tl c,pl ane
horn; (c) compoundhorn.
pl ane onl y. Thi fi el ds i n the sec-
toral horns consi st of cyl i ndri cal
waves the axes of whi ch coi nci de wi th
the l i ne of i ntersecti on of the pl anes
contai ni ng the fl ared si des. The
compound horn (Fi g. 108c), al l o~~s
vari ati on of both aperture di men-
si ons. An al ternati ve pr ocedur e to
that shown i n the fi gure i s to fl are
both si des of the horn di rectl y from
the juncti on wi th the wavegui de to
form a quasi -pyrami dal . structure.
From the poi nt of vi ew of the i m-
pedance characteri sti cs the for mer
pr ocedur e i s preferabl e.
10.7. Modes i n E-pl ane Sectoral
Horns.The sectoral horns to be
consi dered fi rst are those i n ~vhi ch
the fl are i ncreases the aperture i n the
di recti on of the el ectri c ~ector (Fi g.
10.8a). l hey ~~i l l be r efer r ed to as
E-pl ane sertoral horns. The sec-
toral character of the space i nsi de the
fl are and the cyl i ndri cal coordi nate
system (z,r, O) appropri ate to thi s
space can be seen i n Fi g. 10%.
The z-axi s coi nci des wi th the l i ne of
i ntersecti on of the pl anes contai ni ng the fl ared si des; the pl anes of con-
stant z are thus paral l el to the unfl ared si des of the horn. The pol ar
coordi nates r and 0 l ocate poi nts i n these pl anes. The unfl ared si des of
the horns are i n the pl anes x = k a/2. Propagati on i n the fl are i s al ong
the radi us vector , the wavefronts bei ng coaxi al cyl i ndri cal surfaces of
constant r. The porti on of the fl are i ncl uded bet~veen any t\vo of these
surfaces can be thought of as a l ength of sectoral gui de. I n parti cul ar,
the horn ffare i s a secti on of sect oral gui de \vhose l ength i s (r~ rl ),
\vher e the surfaces r = r-l and r = r? locate the throat and (mouth
of the horn respecti vel y. Maxwel l )s equati ons for the sectoral gui de
space may be wri tten
.
.
I
SEC. 10.7] MODES I .V E-PLA ,%TEL$ECTORAL HORNS
351
(28a)
(28b)
(28c)
(28d)
(28e)
(28f)
(28g)
(28h)
Coordinate system
{
~,eld~ electric
magnetic- ----
(a)
(b)
FIG. 10 !J -Coorri, nate .>btell~ atId Iowest-mn<k field ronfigl]ration in wetoral gui de

d
352 WA VEGUI DE AND HORN FEEDS [SEC. 10,7
wher e c and ~ are the i nducti ve capaci ti es of the medi um fi l l i ng the sec-
toral gui de.
The Dominant-mode Fields.The wavetmi de feedi ng the horn i s
assumed to support fr ee propagati on of onl y the TE10-mode whi ch i s then
the exci ti ng fi el d i mpressed on the horn. The l owest sectoral gui de
mode, whi ch i s the anal ogue of the TE10-mode i n the uni form gui de; wi l l
predomi nate, al l the other modes bei ng attenuated i n the regi on of the
throat. Thi s mode i s characteri zed by vani shi ng of al l fi el d components
except E@, H,, and Ht. hI aps of the fi el d l i nes i n the cyl i ndri cal wave-
fronts are qual i tati vel y the same as those i n the pl ane wavefronts of the .!
uni form gui de. The el ectri c l i nes are arcs normal to the fl ared si des of
the gui de. The el ectri c fi el d l ?~ vari es si nusoi dal l y i n the z-di recti on,
(
vani shi ng at the paral l el ~val l s of the gui de.
To der i ve expressi ons for the domi nant-mode fi el d components, the
si mpl i fi cati ons E, = Ez = 119 = Oare i ntroduced i nto Maxwel l s equati ons
{28~) to (28h), \vhi ch then become
1~ (?-E,), jupH. = ; ~r (29d)
; $ (?-H,) + g = o. (29e)
Equati ons (29c) and (29d) ser ve to express H, and Hz i n terms of the
deri vati ves of I i e. Substi tuti ng the expressi ons so obtai ned i n ~q. (29b),
the fol l owi ng equati on i s obtai ned for Efl :
,
%+::+%+(-:) =0
(30)
.4s was poi nted out previ ousl .v the el pctri c fi el d l i t vari es si nusoi dal l y
al ong the x-di recti on as i n the case of the l h1~-mode of the uni form
gui de. We have then
E, = COS
()
y j (r), (31)
wher e f(r) i s a functi on of r onl y. The expressi on for E6 sati sfi es the
boundary condi ti on that Ed = O at x = t a, 2. Substi tuti ng Eq. (3 I )
i nto Eq. (3o), we obtai n the fol l o~vi ng di l l erent i al e(l uati on for f(r) :
I
(32)
sEC. 107]
MODES I .% E-PLA.VE SEC7ORAL HOR,VS
wher e
353
(33)
Equati on (32) i s the Bessel equati on of or der uni ty i n the argument
(L3r). The sol uti ons to the equati on take a number of cl i ffer ent forms;
any l i nearl y i ndependent pai r of sol uti ons may be taken to construct the
general sol uti on. Denoti ng by 21 (Pr) any sol uti on, we have
()
E8 = Cos ; 2, (/ 3?- ),
and the correspondi ng components of the magneti c fi el d are
I n obtai ni ng H, use i s made of the r ecur r ence rel ati onal
$ [pZ.(p)] =~Z._l(p).
(34a)
(34b)
(34C)
(35)
The l i nearl y i ndependent sol uti ons to Eq. (32) whi ch are parti cul arl y
sui ted to the present probl em are the Bessel functi ons of the second ki nd
the Hankel functi ons l l ~)(pr), H~2(DT). Z, (@r) i n Eqs. (34a) and (34b)
i s LObe taken as representi ng ei ther one of the two functi ons; si mi l arl y
Z,(PT) denotes ei ther of the Hankel functi ons H$) (&), H~2)(L3r-)of ordel ,
zer o. These sol uti ons r epr esent travel i ng \vaves as i s evi dent from the
asymptoti c forms of the functi ons of or der n for l arge ~r:
(36)
I t i s seen that the fi rst of these represents a wave travel i ng i n the negati ve
r di recti on, i .e., a wave convergi ng on the cyl i nder axi s r = O, and the
second a wave travel i ng i n the di recti on of i ncreasi ng r. The sol uti ons
cor r espond to e~~zand e@zi n the uni form gui de. For l arge Br the phase
fronts are spaced radi al l y i n the sectoral gui de exactl y as they are i n
the z-di recti on i n the uni form gui de. The ampl i tude i s proporti onal to
~>~because the ener gy densi ty associ ated wi th a travel i ng cyl i nder wave
1G. N. Watson, Bessel Ftmctzons, 2d cd., Macmi l l an, NPWYork, 1945.
354 WA VEGUIDE AND HORN FEEDS
[SEC. 107
i s proporti onal to Tl , that i s, to the reci procal of the area of the wave-
front. I t wi l l be noted that the wavel ength of propagati on k, = 2r/D
i s the same as i n the uni form gui de. The cutoff condi ti on for the mode
i s the same as that of the TE10-mode i n the uni form gui de. I n fact, the
cutoff condi ti ons for the TE~o-modes i n the horn are al l the same as for
correspondi ng modes i n the uni form gui de; thi s expl ai ns the attenuati on
of the hi gher modes gener ated at the throat. For smal l BTval ues, the
i nterpretati on of H~l )(13r)and H~2)(or ) i s not so si mpl e because ther e are
quadrature terms i n the functi on that r epr esent ener gy stor ed i n the
el ectromagneti c fi el ds. These terms become mor e i mportant as @ !
becomes smal l er. For numeri cal tabl es of H$)(pr) and H~2)(Dr) for smal l
(~r) the r eader i s r efer r ed to Watson.
Havi ng sel ected the Hankel functi ons as parti cul ar sol uti ons of Eq.
(32), the general sol uti on for the domi nant-mode fi el d components i n the
sectoral gui de can be wri tten down as fol l ows:
(37a)
(37b)
wher e the constants of i ntegrati on A and a are i n general compl ex.
The
general fi el d of the domi nant mode consi sts of the i nci dent wave gener -
ated at the throat and the wave r efl ected by the mouth of the horn. The
magni tude of a i s l ess than uni ty because i t represents the rati o of the
ampl i tude of the fi el d components i n the r efl ected and i nci dent waves.
Higher-mode Fi el ds.I n addi ti on to the domi nant-mode fi el ds whi ch
have been consi dered i n detai l , fi el ds of other modes exi st l ocal l y i n the
sectoral gui de. The mouth and throat di sconti nui ti es gi ve ri se to these
modes because the boundary condi ti ons at these poi nts cannot be set up
i n terms of domi nant-mode fi el ds al one. At the throat the ampl i tudes
of the hi gher-mode fi el ds are smal l compared ~vi th those of the domi nant
mode unl ess the fl are angl e doi s l arge, and they exi st onl y i n the i mmedi ate
nei ghborhood of r = TI because the sectoral gui de di mensi ons are bel ow
cutoff. I t wi l l be shown (Sec. 10.11) that E-pl ane sectoral gui de admi t-
tances can be cal cul ated from the domi nant-mode fi el ds al one wi thout
appreci abl e er r or . At the horn mouth the effect of hi gher modes i s prob-
abl y not negl i gi bl e, especi al l y for smal l apertures. The boundary probl em
i s a di ffi cul t one, and no ri gorous sol uti on has been obtai ned. Experi -
mental val ues of the mouth admi t tante contai n hi ~her-rnode cent ri bu-
ti ons but i n an unknown proporti on. I n cal cul ati ng the radi ati on fi el d
1Watson, op. cd., l kbl e I , .4ppendi x.
.,,
from sectoral horns negl ect of hi gher-mode fi el ds i n the aperture probabl y
i ntroduces an appreci abl e er r or .
1008. Modes i n H-pl ane Sectoral Horns..k horn wi l l be r efer r ed to
as an H-pl ane sectoral horn ~vhcn fl ari ng i ncreases the aperture i n a pl ane
perpendi cul ar to the el ectri c vector (Fi g. 1086). The sectoral character
of the space i n the fi are di ctates the choi ce of cyl i ndri cal coordi nates
as i n the E-pl ane case. I n thi s case, the coordi nates r, 0, and y wi l l be
used (Fi g. 10.9b) because the axi s of the cyl i ndri cal waves i n the horn i s
paral l el to the y-axi s i n the uni form gui de. The porti on of the fl are
r
between any two surfaces of constant r can be consi dered as a l ength of
H-pl ane sectoral gui de, the fl are as a ~vhol e bei ng of l ength (r, r,),
wher e r~ and rl are chosen as sho~vn i n Fi g. 10.8, Maxwel l s equati ons
for the H-pl ane sectoral gui de are the same as for the 13-pl ane gui de
[I l l s. (28a) to (28h)] except that z i s r epl aced by y.
The Dominant-mode Fields.k i n the el ectri c-pl ane case, ener gy i s
propagated i n onl y one mode because of the di mensi ons of the H-pl ane
sectoral gui de at the hor n throat andthe nature of the exci tati on by l l ?l O-
modc i n the uni for m gui de. Ti l e domi nant mode i s characteri zed by
vani shi ng of al l fi el d components except E,, 11,, and 116. The cyl i ndri cal
character of the space requi res that the wavefronts of thi s mode be sur-
faces of constant r-. To sati sfy the boundary condi ti ons E, must vani sh
at the \ral l s 0 = f 00.
+1
The expressi ons for the domi nant-mode fi el d components are deri ved
from kl axwel l s equati ons for the I f-pl ane sectoral gui de after i ntroduci ng
the si mpl i fi cati ons E, = Ej = 11. = O. Substi tuti ng y for z i n Eqs.
(28a) to (28h) and droppi ng terms i nvol ,i ng E,, E,, and Hv, Maxwel l s
equati ons for the domi nant mode become
(38a)
(381))
(38c)
(38d)
(38,)
Equati ons (38c) and (38d) ser ve to express 11, and I I H i n terms of the
deri vati ves of E.. Substi tuti ng the expressi ons so obtui ned i n Eq. (38b),
4
the fol l o~vi ng equati on for I ]Ui s obtai ned:
(39)
356 WA VEGITIDE AND HOR.%- I~EEIIS
[sEc. 108
Si nce the boundary condi ti ons requi re that E, vani sh on the wal l s
0 = ~ O., Ez is of the form
EV = cos pO F(r), (40)
wher e
?r
P=zo
(41)
and F(r) is a functi on of r onl y.
Substi tuti ng i n Eq. (39), the fol l o~vi ng
equati on for F(r) is obtai ned:
[
=+;%
a(kr)z
+[-MF=O,
(42)
wher e
()
Zl r
kz=uzpe= ~
Equati on (42) i s the form of Bessel s di fferenti al equati on whose sol u-
ti ons are cyl i nder functi ons of or der p. The Hankel functi ons H>)(kr )
and H~] (kr) are chosen as parti cul ar sol uti ons of thi s equati on agai n
because they r epr esent travel i ng waves (Sec. 10.7). The general sol u-
ti on for the el ectri c fi el d E. i s ther efor e
E, = A cos pe[ll$) (kr) + aH$ (kr)]. (43a)
From Eqs. (38c) and (38d)
~, = PA Si nrpe
yop
[H&(kr) + aH~(kr)],
He = &p cos pd [H~ (k.) + aH$ (k.)],
,
(43b)
(43C)
wher e the pri mes i ndi cate di fferenti ati on wi th r espect to kr.
The sol uti ons for the fi el d components i n the H-pl ane sectoral gui de
[Eqs. (43)] are of the same form as those for the E-pl ane sectoral gui de,
but they di ffer i n two notewor thy respects. I n the H-pl ane gui de the
or der p of the functi ons depends on fl are angl e O.. I t i s hi gh for smal l fl are
angl es and i s i n general not an i nteger. Thus, for a fl are angl e of 20,
whi ch i s often used i n practi ce, the or der i s J. I n the H-pl ane gui de the
argument of the Hankel functi ons i s kr( = 2m-/A). From the asymp-
toti c expressi ons [Eqs. (36)] i t i s seen that at l arge k. the equi phase sur-
faces are separated by a free-space wavel ength i n contrast to the gui de
wavel ength of the E-pl ane horn. Thi s i s reasonabl e because the H-pl ane
fl are i ncreases the separati on of the wal l s that determi ne the gui de wave-
l ength i n the uni form gui de. For smal l 0, and hi gh-order p, the asymp-
toti c expressi ons of the Hankel functi ons are good approxi mati ons onl y
at ver y l arge lcr, correspondi ng to the fact that thi s wal l separati on
becomes l arge onl y at ver y l arge kr .
Higher-mode Fi el ds.As i n E-pl ane sectoral gui de hi gher-mode fi el ds
are necessari l y present at throat and mouth cl i sconti nui ti es. The effect
on i mpedance and radi ati on patterns of the hi gher-mode fi el ds at the
mouth i s not negl i gi bl e, al though i t i s at present i mpossi bl e to take them
i nto account i n sectoral gui de theor y.
10.9. Vector Di ffracti on Theor y Appl i ed to Sectoral Horns.The
same consi derati ons di scussed i n connecti on wi th radi ati on from open
F
wavegui de (Sees. 10.1 to 10.3) appl y to radi ati on from horns. I f the
cur r ent di stri buti on on the i nsi de and outsi de wal l s of the horn wer e
known, i t woul d be possi bl e to cal cul ate the radi ati on fi el d at a poi nt
outsi de the gui de from thi s di stri buti on. I n the absence of thi s knowl edge,
the aperture di ffracti on method i s used as i n the case of the wavegui des.
I n the present case the aperture surface i s taken to coi nci de wi th the
cyl i ndri cal wavefront of the domi nant mode at the mouth of the horn.
The aperture fi el d i s assumed to be that of the i nci dent wave, the effect
of the r efl ected wave bei ng negl ected. The radi ati on fi el d i s computed by
means of Eq. (5.103). As usual the radi ati on fi el d i s expressed i n terms
of spheri cal coordi nates, the ori gi n of i vhi ch i s her e taken to coi nci de \vi th
that of the coordi nate systems shown i n Fi g. 10.9. The z-axi s of the
.!f
l atter forms the pol ar axi s of the spheri cal coordi nate system, azi muth
bei ng measured \vi th r espect to the zz-pl ane i n each case. The resul ts
are wri tten down i n the fol l owi ng paragraphs for the cases i n whi ch the
medi um i s the same i nsi de and outsi de the horn.
Radiation jrom E-plane Sectoral Horns.For the E-pl ane the radi at-
i on fi el d at an external poi nt P, as deri ved from Eq. (5.103), can be sho~vn
to be
( o
>~
(i , x R,)Ed + ~
1
[i , R,(i ,.R,)]I I = dO dx. (44)
The quanti ti es R, @, and @ are the spheri cal coordi nates of the poi nt P;
rz, ~, and ~ are the coordi nates on the surface of i ntegrati on, whi ch i s
taken to coi nci de \vi th a ~vavefront (r = r~) at the mouth of the horn;
i ,, i ~, and ROare uni t vector s i n the di recti ons x, d, and R i ncreasi ng.
For the pl ane @ = 90 (el ectri c pl ane):
358 11.4LEG[I I )E A .Vl) HOR.V FEED,7 [SEC. 101[.
For the pl ane @ = O (magneti c pl ane):
Expressi ons for EO and Hz over the aper tur e are .gi \-cnby Eq. (37), Sec.
108, when r is repl aced by r~.
Radiation jrom H-plane Sector-al IIorns.-For the H-pl ane sectoral ,
horn
For the pl ane @ = 90 (el ectri c pl ane):
//
jkr2eikR ~
e.
Ep = i e ~TR ~ dy _ e,e+(. si n(-)+,,...0.., ~)
[Ycose-(:),cos@l d, 47a)
For the pl ane @ = O (magneti c pl ane):
Expressi ons for E. and H, are gi ven by Eq. (43) when r i s repl aced by r,,
10.10. Characteri sti cs of Observed Radi ati on Patterns from Horns
of Rectangul ar Cross Secti on. J$Then radi ati on patterns from srctoral
horns are obser ved and compared l ~i th the patterns obtai ned from Eqs.
(45) and (47) by numeri cal i ntegrati on, i n general i t i s found that they
do not agr ee i n detai l . I n vi e\v of the fact, that the theor y negl ects the
cl l rrent on the outsi de wal l s of the scctoral gui de and the hi gher-mode
fi el ds i n the aperture, thi s i s not parti cul arl y surpri si ng. onl y a bri ef
summary of the experi mental data wi l l be attempted her e.
Fi gures 10.10 to 10.13 are compi l ati ons of patterns from a number of
E- and H-pl ane sectoral horns of l arge aperture; the apcrt m-es ~vcr e pl ane
surfaces perpendi cul ar to the axi s of the gui de. They are cl assi fi ed by
fl are angl e and radi al l ength meawrrd i n wavel engths (r, ~X of Fi g.
10.9). I t wi l l be obserwd that for a horn of constant fl are angl e the
mai n l obe undergoes wi de changes i n ~vi dth and structure as the horn
l ength i ncreases. Thi s can be cor r el ated qual i tati vel y I f-i tb the changes
i n the fi el d over the mouth of the horn. For a gi wn fl are angl e the aper-
tur e area i ncreases di rectl y \vi th the horn l ength; thi s al one n-ol l l d tend to
sm. 1010]
RA1)IA TIO.V 1.4 TTER.V,V FROJ 1 HOR.VS 359
narro!y the beam as the l ength i ncreases.
Ho\}-ever, the effect of i n-
creasi ng aperture i s m-ershacl owed by the phase-error effects. I .et 8
r epr esent the maxi mum dcpart~u-c of the ~ravefront r-2from the aperture
pl ane (Fi g. 1014). Then 27r~,Afl ,~r her e AOi s the ~vavel ength i n the
scctoral gui de at the month, i s the phase di fference between the center of
..
E- 10 + =8.97 E- 10 + =13,7
E.lOO %=23
00 100
20
(a)
I
E-20 ~=3.96 E-20 ~ =6.65
.E-20f =11.6
(b)
lI ,;. l L1.10.-I tadi at~onpatternsof E-pl anewrtoral horns of vari o,ml engths and tmre
an~l cb:(a) fl areangl eof 10; (h) fl are angl e of 20.
360 WA VEGUIDE AND HORN FEEDS [SEC. 10.10 ,
theaperture and the edge. I tcaneasi l y be seen that
6 (1 cost?,).
~
= r2
A,
(48)
Under certai n condi ti ons ~f l ength and fl are angl e a phase er r or i s pr o-
5 db
10 db
15 db
20 db
0
10 20
30
40
5(Y
60
70
80
90
E-30 :=1.77
5
10
15
?0
0 10 20
db
db
db
db
16O1OYMY 130120
~-40 ~=1.21
E-40 ~=1.53 E-40 Q:=2.4 E-40; =3
A
(b)
FI G. 10.11.Radi ati onpatternsof ,?-pl ane.ectoral horns:(a) fl areangl eof 30; (~) fl are
angl eof 40.
SEC 1010]
duced over the
RADI A TI O.V PA TTER.VS lRO]J l HOR.VS 361
aperture that l eads to a mi ni mum i n the mai n l obe i n the
forward di recti on such as may be seen i n Fi g. 10.l l a.
When the aperture or fl are angl e of a horn i s smal l , ah, i s smal l and
the wavefront at the aperture approxi mates a pl ane. Horns are charac-
00
10 20
5 db
30
10db
40
15db
5P
w
20 db
1P
8P
w
f
H-l @ + =10.0
H- 100 ~ =14.8
(a)
00
100 200
5 db
3F
10db
40
15db
504
Ho
20 db
70
Ml
90+
H-20 ; =4.57 H-20v ; =7.22
(b)
H-1OO +24.3
H-200 ~ =12,2
FIG. 10.12,Radi ati on patterns of H-plane sectoral t,orns: (a) fl are angl e of 10; (6) fl are
angl e of 20,
362 WA VEGIJIIJE A-VII HOR.V FEEDS [SEC, 1010
0 10 20
5 db
10 db
15 db
20 db
180 170 160 150
H-30: =4.17 H- 30; =2.54
H- 30 := 5.63
H-30 +=1.92
(a)
l :TG.1013--f{adi ati on patternsof H-plane sertoral
teri zed by uni form ampl i tude di stri buti on across the aperture i n the
E-pl ane and si nusoi dal di stri buti on i n the H-pl ane [Eqs. (37a) and (43a)
and Fi g. 10.9]. I n the case of approxi matel y uni form phase, ther efor e,
the gai n and mai n l obe wi dth shoul d be functi ons of aperture cor r espond-
i ng to uni form i l l umi nati on i n the E-pl ane and si nusoi dal i l l umi nati on
i n the H-pl ane. At present these functi ons can be determi ned onl y from
experi mental data. I n Fi g. 1015 the obser ved 10-db wi dths of a num-
ber of horn patterns are graphed agai nst the reci procal of the aperture
i n wavel engths. For al l the horns 5/kn \vas l ess than ~. Resul ts have
been obtai ned for both the sectoral horns and compound horns (I f the
type i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 10.8; i n the l atter case the fl are agai n ~vassuch that
the phase over the aperture \vas substanti al l y uni form. The E-pl ane
10-db wi dth (tenth-po\ver wi dth) for al l horns l i es on the same curve,
showi ng that the E-pl ane pattern i s a functi on onl y of the E-pl ane aper-
ture. The 11-pl ane patterns, on the other hand, depend on both aperture
(
di mensi ons. Thus, the val ues obtai ned from H-pl ane sectoral horns on
!:
standard gui de (E-pl ane aperture approxi matel y A/3) fal l on Cur ve 11;
\rt]ereas i n the casr of the rompol l nd horns \vi th an E-pl ane aperture of a
{.,.
,,
SEC. 10101 RAL)I .411O,V 1A TThR.VS FROJ 1 HOR.brS 363
00 100
I l orns;(a) fl areangl eof :30;(~)fl areangl eof 40
\vavel ength or gr eater , the H-pl ane 10-db ~vi dths fal l on (ur ve I .
Poi nts
for i ntermedi ate E-pl ane apertures whi ch fal l bet~veen (urves I and I I
are not shown. At fi rst gl ance thi s i s some-
what surpri si ng i f one assumes that the pat-
h
terns depend onl y on ampl i tude and phase
~t
A
di stri buti on of domi nant-mode fi el ds i n the
7
631
\ \
@o\\
aperture. I t means, however , that the other
<
1A
factors, namel y, hi gher-mode fi el ds i n the
\
//
aperture and currents on the outsi de \val l s
,1
of the horn, contri bute i n the case of smal l E-
pl ane apertures and are rel ati vel y uni m-portant
FI G, 1014.-Orl gi n of
phase vari ati on across the
for E-pl ane apertures gr eater than a ~vave- awrturc of ~ .C~tOralhorn
l ength. These factors are apparentl y not Ad = 2=6X)
dependent on n-pl ane aperture, at l east ~vhcn thi s aperture i s 0,7k or more,
as i n horns on standard rectangul ar gui de, because the obser ved E-pl ane
~vi dths do not depend on H-pl ane aperture.
The phase vari ati on across the aperture of a horn i s smal l , for a gi ven
aperture di mensi on A i n the pl ane of the fl are, onl y i f the fl are angl e i s
i
364 WA VEGUIDE AND HORN FEEDS
l ess than a maxi mum val ue (or the l ength r, gr eater
w
o
t
[SEC. 10.10 !
;
than a mi ni mum
val ue) whi ch depends on aperture and can be obtai ned from the condi -
I
I , , 1
,.
I ,
] 1/
/
A / I I I I I I
I
~1
/
00
0.5 1.0
1.5
2.0
Wavelength/apartura
FI G. 10.15.ExPerimental 10-db wi dths of horns havi ng smal l phase vari ati ons over the
aperture
()
~ < ~ E-pl ane; H-pl ane sectoral horns;
H-pl ane
of compoun~ horns wi th E-pl ane aperture equal to or greater than a wavel ength.
ti on that 6/x. shal l be smal l . Usi ng the rel ati on for the separati on of an
arc and i ts chord, i t i s easi l y shown that
or
Usi ng #as the al l owabl e upper l i mi t for 5/As,
(r,)d. = $
0
()
(th)max= si n- ~
(49)
(50)
(51)
r
sEC. 1010] RADI ATI ON PA7TERNS FROM HORNS 365
For many appl i cati ons the aperture i s smal l and Eq. (51) i s sati sfi ed by
t
conveni ent val ues of 190and rz. For l arge apertures a horn sati sfyi ng
condi ti on (51 ) i s l ong and possi bl y too bul ky or heavy for practi cal appl i -
cati ons. I n thi s case the horn desi gner i s for ced to compromi se on fl are
angl e and aperture. I f he i s to use a horn feed, he must i ncrease the fl are
angl e and al l ow for broadeni ng due to phase vari ati on i n the aperture
by choosi ng a l arger aperture than that predi cted by the curves of Fi g.
#
10.15.
I n horns of smal l fl are angl e (or l arge rz/x@) the domi nant-mode fi el ds
near the aperture are descri bed by the asymptoti c forms of the Hankel
functi ons [Eqs. (36)], whi ch are exponenti al functi ons wi th sl owl y varyi ng
8
ampl i tude. Mor eover the departure of the wavefronts from pl ane sur-
faces i s smal l . Consequentl y the domi nant-mode fi el ds i n the horn
cl osel y resembl e those i n uni form gui de. The probl em of radi ati on from
h~rns of s.m_al lfl are angl e i s ther efor e approxi matel y the same as that
from uni form wavegui de, and the predi cti ons [Eqs. (23)] of the vector
-- _._. .._
di ffracti on_J~y for wavegui de can be apphed wi thout seri ous er r or to
horns sati sfyi ng condi ti on (51). I t i s ther efor e i nteresti ng to compare the
curves of Fi g. 10.15 wi th the correspondi ng theoreti cal curves for wave-
gui de i n Fi g. 10.5. Agr eement i s good for apertures gr eater than about
,
2X/3 i n the el ectri c pl ane and 5A/4 i n the magneti c pl ane, i ndi cati ng
J
the probabl e l ower l i mi ts at whi ch the factors negl ected i n the theor y are
real l y negl i gi bl e. I t i s bel i eved that the predi cti ons of Eq. (23) for w-ave-
gui de patterns can be useful when pr oper l y appl i ed to horns because gai n,
mai n-l obe ~vi dths at vari ous po~ver l evel s, si de-l obe ampl i tudes, etc., can
be determi ned for di fferent apertures ~ri th rel ati ve ease.
Several empi ri cal formul as have been ~vor ked out for the 10-db \vi dth
as a functi on of aperture for the average horn feed.
1. For the el ectri c pl ane:
2. For the magneti c pl ane:
(52)
(53)
The symbol ~ represents the 10-db wi dth, and 1?and A are the apertures
i n the el ectri c and magneti c pl anes res~ecti vel y. These formul as \ver e
obtai ned from a l arge number of 10-db !v~ri thsmeasured at the Radi ati on
Laboratory over a peri od of several years The fi are angl e of the auerage
horn i s probabl y abol l t 20. Si nce phase vari ati on i s not taken i nto
account, the formul as ~annot be expected to predi ct the 10-db ~vi dths of
i ndi vi dual hc,ms zccurate]y, bl l t they i l a~e pr oved \er y useful as a fi rst
approxi mati on i n defi i gni ng horns,
366
WA VEGUI DE A .VD HORN FEEDS
[SEC. 1011
10.11. Admi ttance of Wavegui de and Horns. Admittance oj Open
Wavegui de.I t i s obser ved experi mental l y that rectangul ar wavegui de of
4
ordi nary di mensi ons when open to space i s termi nated at the pl ane of
the openi ng by a capaci ti ve admi ttance. Thi s type of admi ttance i s
to be expected i n vi ew of the cl ose spaci ng between the wavegui de wal l s
that are perpendi cul ar to the el ectri c vector (about k/3), I t i s of i nter-
est to note that a ri gorous treatment of the radi ati on from the open end
of a semi-infinite paral l el -pl ate l i ne carryi ng the ZEl f-mode l eads to the
;
resul t that the l i ne i s termi nated by a capaci ti ve admi ttance. I
Thi s
pr oper ty of the wavegui de wi l l be useful i n anal yzi ng the admi ttance I
characteri sti cs of horns.
Admittance of Sectoral Horns. From the transmi ssi on-l i ne poi nt of
vi ew a sectoral horn consi sts of a l ength of sectoral gui de termi nated by
1
a mouth admi ttance at one end and joi ned to uni form gui de at the other .
The di scussi on of i ts admi ttance characteri sti cs wi l l be based on sectoral
gui de transmi ssi on-l i ne arguments. The i nput horn admi ttance obser ved
i n the uni form gui de depends on the aperture admi ttance termi nati ng the
sectoral gui de, the gui de l ength, and the transformati on associ ated wi th
the juncti on to uni form gui de at the horn throat. 2 I n the fol l owi ng di s-
cussi on sectoral gui de characteri sti cs wi l l be summari zed. The sum-
mary wi l l be fol l owed by a di scussi on of mouth admi ttances, juncti on
#
effects at the throat, and the i nfl uence of both factors on horn admi ttances.
Parti cul ar attenti on wi l l be gi ven to E-pl ane sectoral horns, I n what .
fol l ows, when the term horn admi ttance i s used, i t wi l l be understood
to r efer to the admi ttance measured i n the uni form gui de and r efer r ed to
the pl ane of the juncti on between the gui de and the horn.
Charozteristics oj E-plane Sectoral Gui de.I n Sec. 10.7 expressi ons
wer e devel oped for the l owest-mode fi el d components i n E-pl ane sectoral
gui des [Eqs. (37)]. .4s i n uni form gui de, one can defi ne and use a wave
admi ttance, consi sti ng of the rati o of the transverse magneti c to trans-
ver se el ectri c fi el ds. I f the admi ttance i s expressed i n uni ts that make 4
the characteri sti c admi ttance of the ZE,O-mode i n the uni form gui de
equal to uni ty, the admi ttance for the E-pl ane gui de becomes
#
y= (%?%)
By i nspecti on of the expressi ons for the fi el d components [Eqs. (37)] i t
can be seen that thi s rati o i s a functi on of f?r onl y:
(54)
] The resul ts of the anal ysi s are gi ven i n Wavegui de Handbook Suppl ement,
I
RI . Gr oup Repor t No. 41, ,Jan 23, 1945, Sec. 60c.
2J. R. Ri sser, Characteri sti cs of Hor n Feeds on l {ectangul ar \Vavcgl l i dc, I i L
Repor t No. 656, December 1945.
I
SEC. 1011] ADJ I I TT.4NCE OF J V.I TEG1-I I I E .4.YD H(lR.h-.S
367
The compl ex constant a i s determi ned i n magni tude and phase from the
rati o of i nci dent and r efl ected waves i n the sectoral gui de.
I t can be
expressed i n terms of the output admi ttance Y2 eval uated at the aperture
end of the gui de wher e r = rz:
(55)
Substi tuti ng thi s val ue of a i n I ?q. (54) an expressi on i s obtai ned for
the admi ttance at a general poi nt r i n terms of Y~ and l i ne parameters.
(56)
wher e the symbol
ti ons as fol l ows:
K,, i s used to r epr esent combi nati ons of Hankel func-
W, = H:)(@r, )II:(@r) H:(@r,)H$~(&) (57)
A degr ee of si mpl i fi cati on of Eq. (56) i s obtai ned by expressi ng the Hankel
functi ons i n terms of ampl i tude and phase, usi ng the pr oper ty that for
real val ues of @r, H~21(~r) i s the compl ex conjugate of H$j)(&). Let
H$)(&) = Fe@,
Hf) (@r) = Gel@,
)
(58)
wher e F, G, $, and @ are real functi ons of Dr. Numeri cal val ues of these
functi ons are l i sted i n tabl es of Bessel functi ons for smal l val ues of pr;
for l arge /3r the asymptoti c val ues can be used. Substi tuti ng i n Eq.
(56) and usi ng subscri pts 2 for the functi ons eval uated at the aperture
wher e r = r~,
Y(f?r) =
The characteri sti c
be ~vri tten do]r r r from
~ si n (42 *) + j 1~~ si n (@? *)
G..
}.,<;,,
(59)
~ sl n (~, @) -fi ,: si n (@, ~)
admi ttanc,c l~(~r) of E-pl ant> sectural gui de can
Eq. (54) by mdi i ng a e(l l [:d to zer o,
(60)
368 WA VEGUIDE A.VII HOR.V FEEDS [SEC. 1011
For l arge @i -, Y. approaches uni ty, si nce F/G -1 and (O ~) ~ 7/2.
For smal l @r, Y.(fh-) i s compl ex. I t i s graphed i n Fi g. 10.16. The com-
pl ex character of Y, for smal l Pr i s due to the fact that the fi el ds i n the
regi on of the horn apex stor e as wel l as transmi t ener gy.
1.2
1.0
; 0.8
0.2 .;
\ I I

Imaginary pati
o
I
o 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6,0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
(J%)
FI G, 10.16. Characteri sti c wave admi ttance Y.(L3r) of a sectoral gui de.
I t i s often useful to speak i n terms of a refl ecti on coeffi ci ent r, i n
the sectoral gui de and to use i ts transformati on properti es al ong the
gui de; i t i s defi ned as the rati o of the el ectri c vector i n the r efl ected wave
to that i n the i nci dent wave. Then
Si nce r,e-~ i s equal to the compl ex constant a, r, transforms down the
sectoral gui de accordi ng to the rel ati on
\vher e r,, @ are eval uated at the poi nt r and r:, O at r. I t can then be
shown that
1;
r,=yc. (63)
Y,
_ e;z(*+)
Conversel y
Y
1 + r~e,l {i $j
x= l+r,
(64)
SEC.1012] 1RANSFORMA !lI ON OF THE E-PLANE HoR.V
~
I
For l arge ,&-, 2(4 ~) i s equal to r, so that Eq. (63) becomes
wi th the correspondi ng expressi on for r i n uni form gui de.
369
i denti cal
Mouth Admittance of E-plane Sectoral Horns,The admi ttance of an
open sectoral gui de has not been successful l y tr eated theoreti cal l y,
Qual i tati ve arguments can be appl i ed from the theor y of open paral l el -
pl ate transmi ssi on l i nes. Asl ongas theel ectri c pl ane aperture i s smal l ,
the mouth admi ttance shoul d be capaci ti ve as i n the case of the wave-
gui de. As the el ectri c pl ane aperture i s i ncreased, the capaci ti ve term
i n the admi ttance shoul d decrease. I n the l i mi t of l arge el ectri c-ti ane
aperture the admi ttances probabl y determi nedl y the separati on of the
gui de ~val l s i n the magneti c pl ane.
Experi mental l y, the determi nati on of the mouth admi ttance of an
.,
E-pl ane sectoral horn i s compar-
ati vel y easy. I t has been ob-
?
tai ned i n a number of cases by
0.15
L
\
. 00=150
usi ng Eq. (59) to extrapol ate down x00=300
the sectoral gui de from the throat
\
\=
BJi g=0.72B/k
wher e the admi ttance i s deter -
: 0.10
mi ned from measurements i n the k
\
. .
uni form gui de. 1 The capaci ti ve = .
0.05
susceptance term, whi ch decreases
wi th i ncreasi ng aperture, i s seen to
be present. For l arge apertures
the admi ttance i s i ndependent of
o
0.5 1.0 1,5 2.0
aperture to a fi rst approxi mati on.
B/h
The magni tude of r,,, the refl ec-
FI G. 10.17.Refl ecti 0n coeffi ci ent i n
ti on coeffi ci ent i n the sectoral
sectoral gui de r efer r ed to the aperture B,
where B is the aperture di mensi on i n the
gui de r efer r ed to the aperture,
E-pl ane.
decreases rapi dl y wi th i ncreasi ng aperture, bei ng smal l and approxi matel y
i ndependent of aperture for apertures above 3A/4 (Fi g. 10.17).
Except i n the regi on near cutoff the mouth admi ttance and refl ecti on
coeffi ci ent r,~ are not sensi ti ve to wavel ength changes of the or der of
10 per cent. Thi s i s due to the fact that at l arge apertures for whi ch
the aperture-to-wavel ength rati o changes rapi dl y wi th wavel ength, the
admi ttance i s practi cal l y i ndependent of 1?, wher e B i s the aperture
di mensi on i n the E-pl ane.
10.12. Transformati on of the E-pl ane Horn Admi ttance from the
Throat to the Uni form Gui de. The E-plane Throat Transition .The
effect on admi ttance of the transi ti on from sectoral to uni form gui de at
I
the horn throat depends pri mari l y on pr,, wher e r, i s the i nner radi us of
the sectoral gui de (Fi g. 108). I t i s i nformati ve to consi der fi rst the case
wher e ther e i s no r efl ected wave h the sectoral gui de, so that the char-
1Ri sser,op. cd., p. 19.
370 lVAth(; l[DE .4.V1) HOR.V FI ihDS [SEC. 1012
I
act,eri sti c admi ttance of sectoral gl l i de at r = rl i s YC(@l ). As can be
seen by i nspecti on of Fi g, 10.16 for val ues of @r > 5, Y.(&l) approaches
i
uni ty, that i s, i t becomes equal to the characteri sti c admi ttance of the
wa~egui de. The throat mi smatch becomes negl i gi bl e as@l i ncreases or
as the fl are angl e decreases; @-1 depends on wavegui cl e hei ght b, fl are
angl e 02, and gui de !vavel ength, as fol l o~vs:
~b
@r, =
A,, si n O.
(05)
I
To sho~v the effect of d on the throat admi ttance, a pl ot of cal cul ated -
admi ttances for a seri es of (l oval ues at 10.0 cm for horns bui l t on stmd-
!
G G
Conducbnce component To Conducbnce component Yj
1
(a) (b)
l:l~. 10,18.Throat adr]]i ttar~re asafl l nrti onof fl are an~l eal l d frequer]cy: (a) X = 10cnI ,
80 vari ed; (h) kvari ed for fl are :mgleb of 1.5 and 30.
ard gui de (b = 0.34A; i,~k = 1,39) i s sho~vn i n Fi g. 10.18. r hr throat
mi smatch i s smal l for fl are angl es l ess than 10 ond i ncrrascs ~vi th i ncreas-
i ng 0,, For the 15 and 30 cases the admi ttances are pl ot ted i n Fi g,
10.18b for wavel engths from 9 to 11 cm, From thi s the mi smatch can
be seen to i ncrease i n the di recti on of the l ong ~vavel ength end of the band,
becomi ng ver y l arge ~vhen the wavel ength approaches cutoff. I n choos-
i ng b val ues for appl i cati ons i nvol vi ng nonstandard gui de, i t i s necessary
to be careful because smal l val ues of b are equi val ent to l arge val ues of
00 or X.,
1
When the sectoral gui de i s not matched, the admi ttance Y(pr-l ) i n
the sectoral gui de at the throat i s gi ven by Eq. (59) \vi th r- = rl . I n
ei ther case, when computi ng the admi ttance i n the uni form gui de at the
throat, the admi ttance i n the sectoral gui de at r = r, must be mul ti pl i ed
by a factor that ensures conti nui ty of vol tage and cur r ent at the juncti on.
The conti nui ty of cur r ent i s ensured by conti nui ty i n 11,. However ,
vol tage i s proporti onal to the product of the l ength of the el ectri c-fi el d
l i nes and the fi el d strength. Thus, i n the uni form gui de the vol tage i s
bEu( = 2r, si n 00E,) and i n the sectoral gui de 2r160E~. Ther efor e, the
current-vol tage rati o i s proporti onal to H. i(2rld@6) i n the sectoral gui de
and to H,l (2rl si n 19@U)i n the uni form gui de, so that
I
SW=.10.12] TR.[.\.Sl Y)R.l f.4 7I OaVOF THE E-Pli.[.Vh HOR.V
371
Y. = s%Y(&-J, (66)
\~her e Y~ i s the horn admi ttance i n the uni form gui de r efer r ed to the
pl ane of the juncti on \ri th the throat of the horn. For val ues of 00up to
300 the rati o (si n 00)/80 di ffers onl y sl i ghtl y from uni ty, and the cor r ecti on
i s not i mportant. I n general , \vhen gui des of di fferent geometr y are
joi ned, account must be taken of the contri buti on of hi gher-mode fi el ds
to the admi ttance. However , i n sectoral horns ~vi th va]urs of 00 up to
3(Y thi s effect can be negl ected.
Admittances of E-plane Sectoral Horns.-A di scussi on of the rel ati on
bet~l een the parameters of an E-pl ane horn and i ts admi ttance can best
be carri ed out i n terms of refl ecti on coeffi ci ents. I f rH k the refl ecti on
coeffi ci ent i n the 7miform yuide r efer r ed to the juncti on \~i thhorn throat,
\r her e accordi ng to the usual defi ni ti on of refl ecti on coeffi ci ent
I YH
1,,, = . ..
1 YH
i t can be shown from Eqs. (54), (60), (61), and (66) that i f the refl ecti on
coeffi ci ents are smal l , i n parti cul ar I r, r,l l <<1,
r,, = r, + r2, (67)
\vher e
l s+Yc(&-,)
rl=
1+ s+ Y.(pr-,)
(68)
,1 i s the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent i n the sectoral gui de at the horn throat,
[1;q. ((}1)], and c i s a smal l angl e gi ven by
si n 00Fl (jrl )
Cos (*1 @l)
~ = ~ tan_l en ,G, (&,)
(70)
1+
sm (?OF,
~m sm (+1 @l )
Equati on (67) states that r~ i s the sum of two components , and
~; I I , i s the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent i n the uni form gui de at the throat when
the sectoral gui de i s matched, i .e., when r,, = O, and the admi ttance of
the sectoral gui de at r = i -, i s i ts characteri sti c admi ttance. For any
of the I O-cm horns ]vhose throat admi ttances (si n O()00)Y,(@r]) are pl otted
372 WA VEGI J I DE AND HORN FEEDS [SEC, 1012
i n Fi g. 10.18, r 1i s the vector drawn from Y/ Yo = 1 on the chart to the
admi ttance poi nt. From Eqs, (62) and (69)
wher e
A = c + 2[I #J(8n) o(~r,)l .
For reasonabl e fl are angl es (si n 0~)/00 = 1 and F, (Br,)/G, (drJ = 1 so
that r, di ffers essenti al l y onl y i n phase from r,?, the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent
at the horn mouth. The phase angl e A consi sts of the sum of a term
ponen
o
Conductance component (~) Conductance component ($.)
0.=20
O.= 30
FIG. 10.19.Admittances of 15, 20, and 30 el ectri c pl ane horns for di fferent fl are l engths
(T2 T,)/hp
dependi ng on the hor n l ength, 2[q$(@rz) o(dr,)], and C, a smal l Phase
shi ft at the throat. For the 10-cm horns of Fi gs. 101S, ~ vari es fr om 3
when 00 = 5 to 15 when (l o = 30.
The manner i n whi ch the admi ttance YH of a sectoral horn and i ts
refl ecti on coeffi ci ent ~ depend on the vector sum of 1 and z i s i l l us-
trated i n Fi g. 10.19, wher e the admi ttances at 10 cm of a seri es of horns
I
SEC. 10.12] TRANSFORMATI ON OF THE E-PLANE HORN 373
wi th di fferent l engths are pl otted on a refl ecti on coeffi ci ent chart for
thr ee di fferent val ues of 00. These admi ttances wer e determi ned experi -
mental l y. The admi ttance of al l horns wi th the same 00 l i e on a spi ral
whose center i s determi ned by r j and whose peri phery i s determi ned by
rl + rj. The decr ease i n the radi us of the spi ral wi th i ncreasi ng horn
l ength (and aperture) i s due to the decr ease i n the magni tude of I ., ~vi th
1.8
1.7
x
150
1.6
.--_ Zoo
o 250
~-3LP
>
1.3
1.2
\
1.1
!
1.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1,8 2.0
Flare length, (rz - rl) Ag
11,+. 10.20 .--Standinwaveve ratio vs. flare length for typical elertrir plane horns,
i ncreasi ng aperture (Fi g, 10 17). Nl or eover , si nce the aperture hei ght B
i ncreases mor e rapi dl y \vi th i ncreasi ng l ength for l arger fl are angl es, the
i nner porti on of the spi ral i s rcachcd for smal l er val ues, of /3(r2 r-l ) for
larger flare angles. The rel ati on bet}vecn B and (TZ rl ) i s
B = 2(T, r-l ) si n 00 + b. (72)
Si nce the i nner radi i of the spi ral s arc i ndependent of aperture for l ong
horns of l arge aperture, r,j must have a smal l constant val ue i ndependent
of B/X for l arge val ues of B.
For a gi ven ~, a seri es of horn I engt hs exi st for \rhi ch r, and r, are
180 out of phase and the match i s opti mum. An empi ri cal formul a for
these opti mum l engths i s
\
From Eqs. (72) and (73) horns can be desi gned to bc matched at any
374 TVAf-E(I[ll)ti .i .Vl) HOI {.V FEE]),? [SE(. 1013
aperture and ~ravel ength, si nce the val ue of doi s not cri ti cal . l he degr ee
of match attai nabl e i s i ndi catedi n Fi g. 10.20.
The mouth and throat admi ttances and conseql ~entl y r.z and I , are
not sensi ti ve to ~vavel ength changes of the or der of 10 per cent (Fi g.
10.18b). Thepri nci pal frequency sensi ti vi ty of an E-pl ane sectoral horn
ther efor e ari ses from vari ati on of the effecti ve scctoral gui de l ength
2[@(13i -,) o(pr-,)]. Thi s i s cl earl y sho\vn by the admi ttance-frequency
curves for several typi cal horns she\\-ni n Fi g, 10.21. For the l ong horns
Conductance component
(a) (b)
(c)
l:l,;. t021. --. &<{!rlitt:ltl<, psoftIlr?p l,~ cl et,tr i c pl aue 11 OTI I S of di fferent l engths as a fun,,.
ti ocl <](x%x,el p,l gtl l : (a) r z r, = 1().(i cr,), Avarl edfrom9. Oto 11.5cm wi th best nl atrhat
11.4 r,,,; (h) ,, r, = 22. S c,,>, h VO,WC1fro,,, 9.1 to 11.5 c,,, wi th best match at 10.1 en,;
(c) l , r, = 26.3 crr1,A vari ed Crotu S.1 to 11.5cn] wi th bebt nmtc hat10,9 cm.
the frequency vari ati on causes the admi ttance to traverse mor e than a
compl ete l oop, correspondi ng to a change i n A [Eq. (71)] of mor e than
360. As di scussed previ ousl yi n thi s secti on (see Fi g. 10.18) i ncreasi ng
\va\,el ength resul ts i n i ncr~asi ng mi smatch at the mouth and throat, so
that r,, and I I , both i ncrease i n magni tude as the l ong-wavel ength end
of the band i s approached. To obtai n a l ow SWR over a ver y wi de
band, i t i s advi sabl e to choose the horn l ength for opti mum match at
the l ong-wavel ength end of the band; a compari son of curves b and c
of Fi g. 1021 i ndi ratw that i mprovement i s obtai ned by so doi ng.
10013. Admi ttance Characteri sti cs of H-pl ane Sectoral Horns.The
wave admi ttance for I f-pl ane scctoral gui dci s (k)6)(P/() ~(HO/EU), usi ng
uni ts i n ~vhi ch the characteri sti c admi ttance of the T,EI O-mode i n uni form
gui de i s uni ty, Then
(74)
\\-herethe pri me i ndi ratcs the deri vati ve of the fl mcti on \vi th r espect to
(kr). Noti ng that Eq. (74) for the I f-pl an edi ffersfromEq. (54) for the
E-pl ane i n havi ng 1[~(kr) i n pl are of H~)(@r), l l ~)(kr) i n pl ace of
H~)(~r), and (jk ~) i n pl ace ofj, eql l ati ons for the 11-pl ane anal ogous
to each of E-pl ane equati ons [Eqs, (,54) to (64)] can be wri tten do~vn.
Ther e are practi cal l i mi tati ons to the l l seful ness ef ttl e H-pl ane sectoral
1
f
I
-1_
SEC. 1013] AD J I I TT.4. TCE CH.iR.l( TEHI ,~7I C,Y OF H-PJ ,A,VE
375
gui de equati ons, si nce the or der p
as i t i s i n the E-pl ane case. The I
appl i cati ons havi ng smal l fl are
angl es.
Whi l e mouth admi ttances of
H-pl ane sectoral horns are some-
what di ffi cul t to cal cul ate because
of the hi gh p, i t i s not di ffi cul t to
predi ct them approxi matel y from
E-pl ane horn measurements and
paral l el -pl ate theor y. Si nce the
aperture B i n the el ectri c pl ane
i s smal l compared wi th the mag-
neti c pl ane aperture and i s equal
to the hei ght b of the uni form
gui de on whi ch the horn i s bui l t,
()
90

00
i s not the same for al l horns,
.jr der i s i n general hi gh, horns for most
the mouth admi ttances of al l H-
(a)
pl ane sectoral horns woul d be ex-
pected to be approxi matel y equal
x /.\ A.
to the mouth admi t tanrc of open
uni form ~ravegui dc and to exhi bi t
the same degr ee of frequency sen-
si ti vi tyy.
The throat transi ti on i n mag-
neti c pl ane horns of smal l angl e
has a mi nor effect on the horn ad-
mi ttance, and the throat refl ecti on
i s ver y smal l compared \vi th the
refl ecti on at the mouth.
Thi s has
been shown experi mental l y by
maki ng standi ng-wave measure-
. .
ment on magneti c pl ane horns
(b)
over a band of frequcnci rs and
1IG. 10.22 .td, t,lttanres of 15 atld
agai n at a constant frequency 30 I tl amet)r[,I :L!l PI l orw for di fferer(tfl are
whi l e the horn l ength I vas cut
l el l l ql l s.(I L)O= .5;(1))0 = W.
down (decreasi ng the aperture si mul taneous y \\-i tht}l e l ength). I n both
cases the shi ft i n phase i n the standi ng-~vave pattern i ndi cated that the
l arge refl ecti on occur r ed at the mouth.
The admi ttances measurrd at 1().0 cm of a seri es of H-pl ane sectoral
horns are shown i n Fi g. 1022. The admi ttance ~ral ues cor r espond to
di fferent l engths (and apertures). The form of the ~l ot can be expl ai ned
by postul ati ng tl vo cornponrnts of the rrfl crti on r(wffi ci ent: a smal l fi xed
376 WA VEGIJIDE AND HORN FEEDS [SEC. 10.14
component representi ng the throat refl ecti on and a l arge component due
to the mouth whi ch has a magni tude i ndependent of aperture and a phase
dependent on sectoral gui de l ength. Experi ments i ndi cate that the
frequency sensi ti vi ty of the horn admi ttance ari ses pri mari l y because the
effecti ve sectoral gui de l ength vari es.
10014. Compound Horns.Doubl y fl ared horns must be used to
enl arge both the E- and H-pl ane di mensi ons. The admi ttance charac-
teri sti cs of the sectoral horns provi de the basi s for the desi gn of a broad-
band compound horn of the type i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 108c. The pri nci pl e
i s to use the frequency characteri sti cs of an E-pl ane fl are to compensate
those of an H-pl ane fl are. Consi der, for exampl e, the probl em of pr o-
duci ng an aperture havi ng an H-pl ane di mensi on l arger than the E-pl ane
di mensi on. The desi red aperture i s obtai ned by fi rst fl ari ng i n the
H-pl ane to the requi red di mensi on and subsequentl y fl ari ng i n the E-pl ane.
Si nce the H-pl ane fl are i ntroduces a negl i gi bl e mi smatch at the throat,
the mi smatch ari ses enti rel y i n the E-pl ane horn, one component at the
juncti on wi th the H-pl ane sectoral gui de and the second component at
the mouth. The E-pl ane fl are i n thi s case does not di ffer much from that
on uni form gui de, and the data obtai ned for E-pl ane sectoral horns can
be used to determi ne the E-pl ane fl are angl e and horn l ength so that the
mouth refl ecti on cancel s the juncti on refl ecti on (refl ecti on at the throat
of the E-pl ane fl are). The shortest possi bl e l ength i s chosen for the
E-pl ane fl are consi stent wi th the matchi ng condi ti ons. Thi s i s to
el i mi nate the l ong-l i ne effect whi ch woul d cause the phase of the
mouth refl ecti on transformed to the throat to vary rapi dl y wi th r espect
to the throat refl ecti on as the frequency changed. I n actual practi ce, the
mouth refl ecti on i s chosen to cancel onl y parti al l y the throat refl ecti on,
because i t i s necessary to cl ose the mouth of the horn by a pressuri z-
i ng devi ce whi ch l i kewi se gi ves ri se to a refl ecti on. The refl ecti on coeffi -
ci ent of the pressuri zi ng devi ce can be desi gned to be equal to the resi dual
mi smatch of the mouth and throat and phased pr oper l y rel ati ve ther eto
by posi ti oni ng the devi ce wi th r espect to the mouth to gi ve an over-al l
refl ecti on-free system (see Sec. 10, 17).
The techni que i s essenti al l y the same i n the case wher e the E-pl ane
aperture di mensi on i s l arger than the H-pl ane di mensi on. The E-pl ane
fl are i s i ntroduced fi rst fol l owed by the H-pl ane fl are. I n thi s case, the
major sources of the mi smatch are wi del y separatedone at the juncti on
between the uni form gui de and the E-pl ane sectoral gui de and the second
at the mouth. Al though the l atter refl ecti on can be chosen to counteract
the fi rst at some one frequency, the bandwi dth i s smal l because of the
l ong-l i ne effect. I t i s preferabl e to cancel the mouth refl ecti on by means
r
of the pressuri zi ng devi ce and to cancel the throat refl ecti on by matchi ng
wi ndow i n the uni form gui de. I n thi s way the sources between any pai r
of compensati ng refl ecti ons can be put cl ose together so that rapi d phase
vari ati ons due to l ong el ectri cal paths are el i mi nated.
SEC. 10.15]
THE BOX HORN 377
10015. The Box Horn.The box horn i s a speci al horn type devi sed
to have gr eater di recti vi ty i n the H-pl ane than a fl ared horn of the same
aperture, I t i s so constructed as to i ntroduce a thi rd harmoni c 180
out of phase wi th the fundamental mode i n the aperture pl ane.
Thi s
al ters the ampl i tude di stri buti on across the aperture from the cosi ne
type associ ated wi th the funda-
l --~+
mental mode to one mor e nearl y
uni form. 1
The box horn i s not a tr ue horn
a
;4
i n that ther e i s no throat that is used
to fi l ter out hi gher modes. I ts es-
1
A
A
senti al features are sketched i n Fi g.
10.23a. The horn consi sts pri ma-
.4
ri l y of a pi ece of wavegui de of l ength
L, frequentl y r efer r ed to as a box, ,1---
1
whose magneti c pl ane di mensi on A
i s l arge enough to support TE.,O-
(a)
modes wi th val ues of n up to 4. I t
i s open to space at one end and fed
at the other by a wavegui de or H-
pl ane sectoral horn of aperture A
l ocated central l y so as to exci te onl y
the modes havi ng nonzer o ampl i -
tude at the center , i .e., the TEIO-
and TE,,-modes. The rati o of the
ampl i tudes of the TESI J-and TEIO-
~--
Z
modes depends on the rati o A /A.
Si nce the vel oci ty of propagati on
of the two modes i s not the same,
the l ength L of the box determi nes
thei r rel ati ve phase at the aperture.
I ----LA
The horn may be made as di recti ve
(b)
as desi red i n the E-pl ane by i ntro-
F1~.1O.23.BOX horn:(a)di rectjuncti on
duci ng an E-pl ane fl are.
type; (b) sectoral gui de juncti on type,
I t i s easy to show approxi matel y how the rati o of the ampl i tudes of
the TESO-and TEl o-modes depends on the rati o A /A of the di mensi ons
of the two gui des. The fi el ds EV(Z,Z) i n the box can be r epr esented
as a superposi ti on of the modes exci ted at the juncti on. Negl ecti ng
the effect of the nonpropagati ng modes, we have
EU(Z,Z)
()
7rx
()
%x
= al cos
A
e~~,oz+ as cos
A
~lRa#.
(75)
The juncti on between the two gui des i s taken to be i n the pl ane z = O.
LS. J. Mason, Fl ared Box Horn, RL Repor t No. 653, Jul y 1945.
378 }V.1 V17G( I l~E A.V1) HORiV FEEDS [SEC. 1015
I t i s assumed that the fi el d over the common area between the gui des i s
that of the domi nant mode i n the smal l er gui de; that i s,
Ev($,o) = Cos;, /xl < +;
EU(z,o) = o, +<lxI <;.
I
(76)
Onsetti ngz = Oi n Eq. (75) andmaki ng use of Eq. (76) forthefi el d, we
1.0
can obtai n the coeffi ci ents al and a
bytheusual pr ocedur e fordetermi n-
i ng Fouri er coeffi ci ents. The rati o
of the harmoni c components i s found
(
.
to be
% 0,5
\
e
as =
_ /::2c05(:)cos(F)
a /:;2cos($)co5t2)
o
(77)
o 0.5 1.0
A~A
Fi gure 10.24 i s a pl ot of aS/al vs.
~x~. 10.24.l tati o of the anl ~l ,tuci rs
A/.4. The rati o aS/al decreases
of the TEm- and Tk?,o-modes ,U a box
wi t h i ncreasi ng A /A, reachi ng zer o
v
hornVS.A/ A.
when A /A i s uni ty. I f i t wer e pos-
si bl e to make A /.4 ver y smal l , val ues of CL3 l al approxi matel y equal to 1
coul d be obtai ned. The l ower l i mi t of A /.4 i s 0.20, correspondi ng to
I
10
0.9
0.8
0.7
~ 0.6
E 0.5
Q
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
7Y2
r/3
76
0
?76 ~/ 3 77/ 2
7r XL
FIG.1025.-Aperture i l l ul ,)l l l atl on (a]npl l tude) of a I mx honl for a seri es of tal um of tl ,e rati o
113n,.
SEC,1015]
7Htt B().Y HOtt.V 379
A = 0.5A the cutoff i n the i nput gui de, so that the maxi mum aJal i s 0.93.
Actual l y much smal l er val ues of a,~a, arc desi rabl e. Fi gure 10.25 i s a pl ot
of ampl i tude i l l umi nati on across the aperture for as/al val ues from Oto 0.5,
cal cul ated on the assumpti on that the horn l ength i s cor r ectl y chosen to
l o
~ ire:: 0.4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
/
a3 a,
/
a3 a,
1I c,.10.26.Rel ~ti vegai n 01 a box hor n FIG. 1027.-Magni tude of the fi rst si de
vs. asjal . l obe m the power pattern of a box hor n vs.
as/a,.
make the two propagati ng modes 180 out of phase at z = L Wi th respect
to thei r rel ati ve phase at z = O. The cur ve for a, al equal to 0.3 i s a
fai rl y good approxi mati on to uni form i l l umi nati on.
The H-pl ane radi ati on patterns i n the Fraunhofer regi on have been
,
cal cul ated from scal ar di ffracti on
theor y (Chap. 6) for the ampl i tude So
di stri buti ons of Fi g. 10.25. The
resul ts are summari zed i n Fi gs. ~
10.26 to 10.28, n-here Fi g. 10.26 ~ VA
sho\vs rel ati ve gai n, Fi g. 10.27 the ~ ~0 \ 1;
magni tude of the fi rst si de l obe i n g
the power pattern i n deci bel s ~
~ .1:
dotrn from peak, and Fi g. 10.28 >
~ .2
the ful l angul ar ~vi dth of the pat- ~o. \ > ~ \ Z$
ter n at tenth power . Gai n i s seen
~
~ .2+
to be maxi mum i n the nei ghbor-
hood of aS/a, equal to 0.35, wher e 0
0.1 0,2 0.3 0.4 0.5
the ampl i tude di stri buti on across
a/a,
the aperture approxi mates uni -
FI (+.102s,-~ul l mdth at tenth power of a
I mxhOrl lpatternvs. a3/ al.
formi ty. I n thi s regi on al so the
fi rst si de l obes are approxi matel y 13 db do\\-n,the theoreti cal val ue for
uni form i l l umi nati on. I l l umi nati ng the edges of the aperture mor e
strongl y i ncreases si de l obes and cuts down gai n, al though i t somewhat
i ncreases the di recti vi ty.
The l ength L of the box i s obtai ned from the rel ati on
r = (BI 133)L,
(78)
380
WA VEGUI DE AND HORN FEEDS [SEC. 10.16
wher e
1=:[1 -(4TJ
3=:[1 -w]
1
(79)
The rati o A/A can be vari ed over wi der l i mi ts than that set by the
uni form gui des by means of a sectoral gui de transi ti on as shown i n Fi g.
10.23b. I n thi s case, ho\vever , because of the cyl i ndri cal waves i n the
sectoral gui de, a phase er r or i s i ntroduced i nto the fi el d over the pl ane
of the juncti on wi th the box horn. Thi s er r or i s not taken i nto account
i n Eq. (77); i t i s usual l y negl ected i n desi gni ng the horn. From exi sti ng
measurements i t i s di ffi cul t to eval uate the i nfl uence of thi s factor on box
horn performance. I t i s found tr ue i n general that the effect of repl aci ng
a pl ane wave front by a cyl i ndri cal one i s barel y detectabl e experi mental l y
wher e Ar5/x. i s r/4 or l ess. The same cri teri on woul d be expected to be
val i d for box horns. I n terms of A and 0,, i t i s wri tten [Eq. (49)]
The use of a box horn i s, of course, l i mi ted to appl i cati ons requi ri ng
H-pl ane tenth-power wi dths from about 36 to 70. I ts pri nci pal advan-
?
tage i s compactness. The contrast i n si ze between a box horn and fl ared
horn of the same tenth-power wi dth i s greatest i n the regi on of smal l
apertures. Here, near cutoff for the T~,-mode, L i s smal l because
(01 BJ i s approxi matel y equal to dl . A box horn ~vi th A = 1.6A,
as/al = 0.5, and @(~) = 67 i s 1.3A l ong, whi l e the fl ared horn of the
same tenth-power wi dth i s twi ce as l ong. However , for A from 2.OA to
2.5X, a box horn i s onl y about 20 per cent shor ter than the correspondi ng
fl ared horn. The box horn i s especi al l y useful ther efor e for appl i cati ons
requi ri ng tenth-power wi dths from about 55 to 65, wi th apertures from
1.6A to 1.7A. A fl ared horn has an advantage over the box horn i n hav-
i ng si de l obes 5 to 10 db l ower, al though thi s i s of no concer n i n many
appl i cati ons.
10s16. Beam Shapi ng by Means of Obstacl es i n Horn and Wavegui de
Apertures. Ther e are antenna appl i cati ons requi ri ng ver y broad or
ver y narrow feed patterns for whi ch wavegui de and horn feeds are not
stri ctl y sui tabl e. Thus, to obtai n pri mary patterns i n the H-pl ane wi th
10-db wi dths n-eater than about 120, the 10-db wi dth obtai ned from
ordi nary wavegui de, speci al beam-shapi ng techni ques are requi red. At
r
the other extr eme of ver y narrow 10-db wi dths, horns become too bul ky
for many appl i cati ons. To sol ve these probl ems beam shapi ng by means
$
] Mason, op. cit., p 18, Fi g. 13.
SEC. 10.16] BEAM SHA PI NG BY MEANS OF OBSTACLES 381
of obstacl es i n horn and wavegui de apertures has been i nvesti gated and
techni ques devel oped. 1
a. Beam Broadening: H-plane.
To obtai n a broader pattern than
that of ordi nary wavegui de, the
devi ce shown i n Fi g. 10.29 i s used.
A metal l i c post i s i nserted across
the wavegui de just i nsi de the aper-
tur e at the center , and the wave-
gui de cor ner s are r emoved by
symmetri cal cuts AA. Fi gure
10.30 shows the 10-db wi dths ob-
ser ved wi th thi s arrangement on
3.2 cm gui de for a seri es of val ues
of C and O, wher e C i s the di s-
tance from the wavegui de edge at
whi ch the di agonal cut begi ns and
@ i s the angl e of cut. Fi gure
FI G. 10.29.Devi ce for broadeni ng the
pattern i n the H-pl ane.
10.31 shows a compari son of a wavegui de pattern wi th a broadened
pattern
300
-T
z
2od
100
~, deg.
Fl{;. 10.30 .l O-dl l wi dths of the pattern obtai ned wi th the devi ce of Fi g. 10.29 as a functi on
of C/k and @(k = 3.2 crl l , a =0.900 cm, b = 0.400 em, d = 0,063 cm).
The wavefronts, or surfaces of constant phase, fr om any devi ce yi el d-
i ng a very broad pattern must recei ve cri ti cal exami nati on by the antenna
C. S. Pao, Shapi ng the Pri mary Pattern of a Hor n Feed, RL Report No. 6L5,
.Tanuary 1945.
I
I
,
I
382 1~.1J EGUI lih .1.Vl) J I OH.\ - FEEDS [SK(. 10. 16
desi gner. l he gai n obtai nabl e frf;m a pr oper l y i l l umi nated secondary
r efl ector may not be real i zed i f phase i rregul ari ti es exi st over i ts aperture.
100
0---
0
/
~ 50
- 2
\
/
\
- 4
:
/
~ (1) (2)
- 6n
g
/1
\ A- :
~
%
35
/ I I I
\
I
I
- Zal
.
(
/
\
,- 45
g
\
I
\ i
\ I
\
/
6ti
G \
/
3
\
I
L --
\
/ 8~
g 1.0
/
A 20 ;
\l
.: 0.5
\
/
t
2-
~
Q
1,/
- 4$
1% 6
- 8
0,1 30
1600 -120 -800
400 00 400 800
1200 160
Angle
FI ~, 10.31 .Pri mary~$ys of (1) an open wa~.ecui de and (2) a cut cor ner wavegui de
.
- (+ =%3.4 and C = *)
The tendency to i rregul ari ti es on the phase fronts of wi de-angl e devi ces
ari ses from the fact that they usual l y consi st of several radi ati ng el ements
I 1(; 10.32, Phahe di storti on i l l the fi el ds of
uri l nary feed. of l ow dl rcwti vi ty.
~~i th noncoi nci dent di recti ve pat-
terns l ocated an appreci abl e frac-
ti on of a wavel ength apart. An
anal ysi s of a si mpl e case (Fi g.
10.32) }vi l l i l l ustrate thi s. Con-
si der two i denti cal radi ati ng el e-
ments, 1 and 2, separated by a
di stance 2d whi ch have pattern
maxi ma i n the Fraunhofer regi on
at angl es 01 and O*wi th the for -
ward z di recti on, respecti vel y.
Then l etti ng f, = (1/r)f(O .9,)
and ,fl = (1l r)./(o (1?)equal the ampl i tude functi ons of the two sources,
the ampl i tude and phase on a ci rcl e of radi us R about 0 i s gi ven by
E = ,fl el ~t-~]$+~cl ,,m 6) + f2e, (ulLl{kd,iD .9)
= [,f; + .f~ + zjIf2 COS (2kd si n e)])ei ti -l ei ,
(81)
}\her e
tan ~ = f-_: f~ tan ~kd si n ~),
f, + f,
(81a)
I f j, = j,, the phase i s constant on a ci rcl e of radi us R. Ho~ve~-er, i f
~ ,~h{~~et e pt]ae at angl e o departs from i ts val ue at o = o by an ang](.
.
.
G
f
[
f, j,
A = tan- ~, + ~
1
tan (kd si n @) . (82)
SEC,10.17] PRESSURI ZE.VG A .}.0 ,tf.41CHI ,VG
383
For l arge val ues of kd, A may exceed the al l owabl e devi ati on from con-
1
stant phase, parti cul arl y i f .fI i s appreci abl y gr eater or smal l er than jj.
Usual l y the beam shapi ng need not be carri ed to the poi nt wher e the
phase departure A has to be r eckoned wi th.
b. Narrowing the Primary Pattern: H-plane .The pattern i n the
H-pl ane i s nar r owed -when several metal l i c pi ns are pl aced i n the aperture
of an H-pl ane horn. For exampl e, the 10-db wi dth of a 3.2-cm horn wi th
a fl are angl e 30 and magneti c pl ane aperture 2X decreases from 78 to
56 when two +i n.-di ameter pi ns are pl aced just i nsi de the aperture
* at a di stance 0.44x on ei ther si de of the center . The i mpedance match
i s i mproved rather than i mpai red by the pr esence of the pi ns.
A number
of other arrangements al so have been found to be effecti ve. 1
l l G. 10.33 .Fl anR for E-pl ane beam FI G. 10.34.Stri p for narrowi ,,g of the
shapi ng. beam i n the E-pl ane.
Beam Shaping: E-plane .Since ordi nary wavegui de has an E-pl ane
aperture of about k/3, ther e i s rarel y a need for speci al techni ques for
beam broadeni ng. However , the form of the pattern can~j.np~oyed
by addi ng a fl ange a~
.....
roxi matel y ~~~~~;~n=he E-pl ane as shown i n
.-
Fi g. 1033. Wi th the fl ange~~~p=~= rnoi -e;api ~l y- at smal l
fi ngl es from the forward di recti on and l ess rapi dl y at l arge angl es, thereby
yi el di ng a mor e nearl y uni form i l l umi nati on across the secondary aperture.
Narrowi ng of the E-pl ane pattern has been accompl i shed by i nserti ng
a metal l i c stri p wi th a consi derabl e H-pl ane wi dth, as shown i n Fi g.
10.34. Thi s stri p, however , causes a troubl esome mi smatch, 1 and i t
seems questi onabl e from the data i f i t i s mor e effecti ve than strai ghteni ng
the phase fronts i n the horn by maki ng the horn l onger (Sec. 10.10).
9
10.17. Pressuri zi ng and Matchi ng.I n most appl i cati ons wavegui de
and horn feeds must be at l east weather pr oof and preferabl y capabl e of
hol di ng pressure. Several techni ques have been evo!ved to uti l i ze the
1 Pao, op. cit.
384 WA V.YG(lDE AND HORN FEEDS [SEC. 10.17
pressuri zi ng or weatheri zi ng encl osure as a matchi ng devi ce. One of the
most successful i s i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 10.35. The encl osure, roughl y .
cyl i ndri cal i n form, i s pl aced over the end of the wavegui de or horn wi th
the axi s of the cyl i nder approxi matel y i n the aperture pl ane. LI atchi ng
i s accompl i shed by adjusti ng the thi ckness t and posi ti on d so that the
refl ecti ons fror,~ encl osure and feed are equal i n magni tude and 180
out of phase i n the di recti on of the gener ator , Whi l e t and d can be
I ~I G. 10.35 .-Press~l ri zi l ]g and matchi ng encl osure,
cal cul ated to a rough approxi mati on for a feed wi th a gi ven mi smatch,
the matchi ng pr ocedur e i s actual l y empi ri cal . Cyl i nders are formed wi th
~hi cknesses and radi i rangi ng i n val ue about the cal cul ated t and d.
Each cyl i nder i s pl aced over the mouth of the feed, and i mpedance
measurements are made for a seri es of d val ues. From these measure-
ments the fi nal choi ce of encl osure parameters i s made. Fi gure 1036
i s a typi cal i mpedance pl ot obtai ned duri ng thi s pr ocedur e. I t wi l l be
obser ved that the best i mpedance match for thi s exampl e i s obtai ned ]~i th
an encl osure of thi ckness 0.030 i n. and mounted at a di stance d = 1.2 cm
b
(Curve I I I ), I t i s desi rabl e, al though not essenti al , that the encl osure
ra,i i ~E be approxi mate y equal to d, The mounti ng fl ange i s posi ti onal
1
SEC.10.17] I I {ESS(RI ZI . VG A.VI ) MA7(HI .t-G
385
behi nd the aperture pl ane and a posi ti on can be found that i mproves the
feed SWR; i t shoul d be i n pl ace duri ng the determi nati on of encl osure
parameters and the pattern of the horn.
1(1.36, I mpedance of a typi cal hor n as a functi on of the positioll of the pressurizing
enclosure for differellt wall thicknesses.
The materi al s used for pressuri zi ng encl osures have been l ow-l oss or
gl ass thermopl asti cs: pl exi gl as or l uci te
[ ndexof efraction =k)=601
for wavel engths above about 6 cm, pol ystyrene (n = 1,60) and styral oy
(n = 1.60) at 3 cm and above. Lami nates can be used, but because of
the hi gh di el ectri c constants of these materi al s the encl osure wal l s are
thi n. At 1.25 cm Corni ng 707 gl ass has been used for two-di mensi onal
pressuri zi ng encl osures, but i t presents obvi ous, al though possi bl y not
i nsuperabl e, di ffi cul ti es i n thr ee di mensi ons. I t al so necessi tates bui l di ng
the feed of metal s wi th l ow coeffi ci ents of thermal expansi on, such as
i nvar and covar. l l asti c encl osures are seal ed by means of gaskets;
gl ass by pl ati ni zi ng or bondi ng metal to the edges and soft sol deri ng.
For a gi ven materi al the wal l thi ckness f and posi ti on d of an encl osure
can be esti mated from the measured refl ecti on coeffi ci ent
rp(= l rFl e~$) (83)
386 WA VEGUI DE AND HORN FEEI ),7 [SEC. 1017
of the feed r efer r ed to the aperture. The assumpti on i s made that the
refl ecti on coeffi ci ent rE from the encl osure i s the same as that of an
i nfi ni te sheet of the same materi al for pl ane waves. The l atter i s gi ven
by
()
sin 2?rnt
~2_l
r,=~
A
[ ( )1
j{.+h.-, [7*I C0t(%)l }
$5e
~ + (n24j, 1) si n, 2~t
On thi s assumpti on
such that
(84)
the feed wi l l be matched when the thi ckness I i s
()
27rnt
si n
712 1
2n
[
~ + (n l ) k.
( )1
2i rnt
(85)
4?12
Sl nz
A
and the di stance d sati sfi es the rel ati on
-{ [
d 1 tan_, 2n
)1 }
cot (ti t - @l . - 27M
A=k
~2+1
\A
(86)
wher e m i s an i nteger. I f the encl osure wer e i n the Fraunhofer regi on and
wer e desi gned so that i ts surfaces coi nci de ~vi th equi phase surfaces fr om
the feed, the assumpti on i nvol ved i n usi ng Eqs. (84) to (86) woul d be
justi fi ed. Because the encl osur e i s actual l y cl ose to the feed aper tur e
and cuts across equi phase surfaces, a gi ven thi ckness t cor r esponds to
smal l er 117~1than i s i ndi cated by 13q. (85). For thi s reason al so, the
aver age path fr om the aper tur e to the i nner surface of the encl osur e i s
l ess than d, so that the exper i mental opti mum d i s l arger than the val ue
i ndi cated by Eq. (86). I n fact, for feeds wi th smal l E-pl ane apertures
(B < 3A/4), wher e ther e i s a capaci ti ve mi smatch l ocal i zed at the aperture
(or i s approxi matel y 2700), the val ue of d cal cul ated from Eq. (85) i s
1/4; experi mental l y d i s about 0.351 for a number of typi cal cases.
Where the feed mi smatch i s smal l or the wavel ength ver y short, i t may
not be practi cal to use the smal l est thi ckness t, cal cul ated from Eq. (85).
For these cases, as i nspecti on of Eq. (85) wi l l show, a refl ecti on of the
same magni tude can be obtai ned by usi ng thi cknesses [t] + (h/2n)];
the spaci ng i s unaffected.
The use of an external pressuri zi ng encl osure has a number of advan-
tages to recommend i t. The possi bi l i ty of breakdown at hi gh power i s
mi ni mi zed because the pressuri zed regi on extends beyond the feed aper-
tur e and the di el ectri c housi ng i s l ocated i n a regi on of l ow fi el d strengths.
The i mpedance match i s reprodl l ci bl e i n the sense that i t i s i ndependent
1(Waveguide Handbook Suppl emmt,)
RI , Gr oup Repor t No. 41, .Jan. 23, 1945
-v.
SE( 1017] I RE, VLS1 l T l ZI. VG . t . Vl ) . 11. 17(HI . V(7
3s7
of smal l fl uctuati ons i n encl osure di mensi ons and posi ti oni ng. Thi s iS
\
i n di sti nct contrast to the properti es of pressuri zi ng di aphragms \vi th
fl anges i n the pl ane of the aperture, ~~her ethe geometr y of the fl ange and
even the ti ghtness of the retai ni ng bol ts have an dfect on pattern and
match. As a matchi ng devi ce the pressuri zi ng encl osure i s especi al l y
effecti ve when the mi smatch of the feed ari ses at the aperture. l hi s i s
tr ue for open wavegui de and pr oper l y desi gned horns whose el rctri c pl ane
aperture i s l ess than about 3A/4. 1hen, si nce encl osure and apertl l rc
are cl osel y spaced (cl -- A/3), the i mpedarwe match i s i nsensi ti ve tu l rc-
1:1(,. 1o:17.-
----- 0.1
quency changes i n whi ch Ax/k i s of the or der of 10 per cent. ~he i mpeci -
ante-wavel ength cur ve of a pr oper l y desi gned pressuri zed horn i s she\\-n
i n Fi g. 10.37 to i l l ustrate the bandwi dth of the devi ce.
Another successful pressuri zati on techni que I rhi ch ~as r ecei ved onl y
prel i mi nary tri al l consi sts i n sol deri ng a di aphragm of (orni ng 70i gl ass
wi th a bonded metal ri m i nsi de the feed near the apcrtum.
The gl ass
wi ndow i s somewhat smal l er than the i nsi de di mensi ons of the feed.
,
The thi ckness of the gl ass and the di mensi (ms of the openi ng (an be
chosen to make the effect of the di aphragm resonant, i nducti ve, or capaci -
ti ve so that any feed can be matched by thi s techni {l ue.
I 3[, I ). Fi ske, Resonant l ~i ndows for Vfi cuun~ Seal s i n l tcctangul ar J\-ave-
gui des, Rev, Sci. {;strurnents, 17, 478 (1946).
CHAPTER 11
DI ELECTRI C AND METAL-PLATE LENSES
BY J. R. RI SSER
11.1. Use of Lenses i n Mi crowave Antennas.-The uti l i zati on of
opti cal met hods i s an outstandi ng feature of mi crowave antenna desi gn.
I t i s natural , ther efor e, to consi der a much-used opti cal devi ce, the l ens.
Di el ectri c l enses of conventi onal opti cal desi gn are, i n general , too cum-
bersome for use i n mi crowave antenna systems, but when they are zoned
so that the di el ectri c i s nowher e mor e than several wavel engths thi ck,
thei r use i s a di sti nct possi bi l i ty. At wavel engths i n the mi crowave
regi on, a practi cal l ens can al so be constructed usi ng paral l el metal pl ates
spaced a fracti on of a wavel ength apart, because for radi ati on wi th the
el ectri c vector paral l el to the pl ate surfaces, the space between the pl ates
i s characteri zed by a l onger wavel ength than the free-space wavel ength
and consequentl y has the properti es of a refracti ng medi um wi th an
i ndex of refracti on l ess than uni ty,
Lenses and r efl ector s are i nterchangeabl e i n mi crowave antennas,
because both per for m the same basi c functi onmodi fi cati on of phase.
Thus, for exampl e, l enses can be substi tuted for r efl ector s to pr oduce
penci l . beams; cyl i ndri cal l enses of sui tabl e contour can be used wi th l i ne
sources to obtai n asymmetri cal l y fl ared beams; and l i ne sources can be
formed by the use of two-di mensi onal l enses between paral l el pl ates.
Refl ectors have many advantageous features: mechani cal si mpl i ci ty,
l i ghtness, and fr eedom from chromati c aberrati on. Lenses, i n turn, have
characteri sti cs that r ender them i nval uabl e for many appl i cati ons. Thus,
i n a l ens system, the feed i s out of the path of the mai n beam, a consi dera-
ti on of parti cul ar i mportance i n paral l el -pl ate l i ne sources. Lenses are
al so parti cul arl y sui ted for i nserti on i nto opti cal systems to per for m speci al
cor r ecti ve functi ons; for exampl e, cor r ecti ng l enses of the Schmi dt type
can be used i n conjuncti on wi th a r efl ector to obtai n a wi de fi el d i n
antennas for rapi d scanni ng, and metal -pl ate l enses are used for phase-
front cor r ecti on i n sectoral horns.
Because of the di fference i n wavel engths, mi crowave l ens techni ques
are fr ee of certai n restri cti ons whi ch obtai n i n opti cs. Surface tol erances
are l arge. Di el ectri c l enses can be made of rel ati vel y soft thermopl asti cs,
such as l uci te or pol ystyrene, i nstead of gl ass, and the l ens surfaces can
be turned on a l athe or mol ded. ~onsequentl y, the surfaces need not,
be spheri cal but can be cut to contours appropri ate to the functi on of
388
v.
sEC. 11 .2] PRINCIPLES OF DESIGIV 389
the l ens. Metal -pl ate l enses, l i kewi se, can be pr oduced by ordi nary
machi ne-shop methods. Si nce the fundamental functi on of a l ens i s to
modi fy the phase fronts from a radi ati ng source, the l ens surfaces are
desi gned usi ng the l aws of geometri cal opti cs. However , the radi ati on
pattern of the antenna as a whol e-l ens and pri mary sourcemust be
consi dered from the standpoi nt of di ffracti on theor y. The far zone fi el d
pr oduced by the l ens i s obtai ned from the ampl i tude and phase di stri bu-
ti on over i ts aperture by the methods of Chaps. 5 and 6.
I t i s the ai m of thi s chapter to poi nt out the methods of desi gn, types
f of structure, and general probl ems i nvol ved i n the use of l enses. Cor -
recti ng l enses and other l enses desi gned for speci al purposes wi l l not be
consi dered. Di scussi on wi l l be confi ned to those l enses whose functi on i s
to conver t the spheri cal (or cyl i ndri cal ) phase front from a poi nt (or
l i ne) sour ce at the focus of the l ens i nto a pl ane phase front across the
aperture. Thi s i s the most frequentl y r ecur r ent probl em i n mi crowave
antenna desi gn, because, by di ffracti on theor y, a pl ane phase front resul ts
i n the most di recti ve pattern for an aperture of a gi ven si ze wi th a gi ven
ampl i tude di stri bute on across i t.
DI ELECTRI C LENSES
11.2. Pri nci pl es of Desi gn.The general pri nci pl es of geometri cal
opti cs wer e formul ated i n Chap. 4.
Lens desi gn i s based on two of these
-4.
pri nci pl es (Sees. 4.8 and 4.9): (1) the pri nci pl e of equal i ty of opti cal paths
al ong rays between pai rs of wavefronts and (2) Snel l s l aw of refracti on.
The pr ocedur e of l ens desi gn i s commonl y r efer r ed to as ray traci ng
because i t deal s excl usi vel y wi th the opti cal paths or rays, that i s, the
normal s to the equi phase surfaces or wavefronts. I n a homogeneous
medi um the rays are strai ght-l i ne segments. I n empty space the opti cal
path l ength i s just the l ength of the ray segment; i n a di el ectri c medi um,
i t i s the l ength ti mes the i ndex
~]f refracti on n (equal to v%).
The rays are r efr acted at the
l ens surfaces i n the way descri bed
by Snel l s l aw. The ray-traci ng
method consi sts i n determi ni ng
the l ens surfaces, so that the
11~. 1l .1.O@l cal paths and equi phase
combi ned opti cal l ength (1I +
surfaces.
nl ~ + 1S) (see Fi g. 11.1) al ong
I
any one ray between t\vo equi phase surfaces ASI and SZ on opposi te si des
of the l ens i s the same as the l ength (l ; + nl j + 1~)al ong any other ray
+
between SI and S2. The reci proci ty theor em can be i nvoked to show
that i t i s i mmateri al whether the di recti on of propagati on i s from S,
to\vard Sz or the r ever se; a l ens desi gned to conver t a spheri cal equi phase
d
surface from a poi nt sour ce F, l ocated to the l eft of the l ens, i nto a pl ane
~
4
390
DI E1,E(71(lC A ,Vl) .111<7.~1,-I J >,I 7E J,l l ,Y,?E,~ [SEC.113
equi phase surface to the ri ght, wi l l functi on equal l y \vel l i n bri ngi ng to a
focus at F the ener gy i n a pl ane \vave i nci dent from the ri ght.
11.3. Si mpl e Lenses wi thout Zoni ng. Si mpl e l enses wi l l be di vi ded
i nto two categori es accordi ng to the number of refracti ng surfaces, I f
one l ens surface i s an equi phase surface of the i nci dent or emer gent ~vave
wi th the resul t that the rays are normal to the surface and pass through
undevi ated, the term <one-surface l ens ~vi l l be appl i ed. A two-surface
l ens i s one i n whi ch refracti on occurs at both l ens surfaces. The desi gn
of a one-surface l ens i s a rel ati vel y si mpl e probl em and \vi l l accordi ngl y be
tr eated fi rst.
The fi rst to be consi dered i s shown i n Fi g. 11.2. The boundary TT
between ai r on the l eft and the di el ectri c of i ndex of refracti on n on the
ri ght i s to be determi ned so that the phase front SI from a sour ce at F
is conver ted i nto the pl ane phase front SZi n the di el ectri c. The di el ectri c
i s termi nated on the ri ght i n a pl ane paral l el to S2. The probl em i s
essenti al l y ti vo-di mensi onal , whether the l ens i s cyl i ndri cal and F i s a
l i ne sourcei n whi ch case the l i ne sour ce and cyl i nder axi s are perpen-
di cul ar to the pl ane of the di agramor the sour ce at F i s a poi nt sour ce
:md the l ens i s spheri cal , 1 that i s, has rotati onal symmetry about the
opti cal axi s FQZ, the l i ne through F perpendi cul ar to Sj, The equati on
of the l ens surface i s obtai ned from the condi ti on that the opti cal path
l ength [(PIP) + n(PPZ)] through an arbi trary poi nt P shal l be equal to
the opti cal path l ength [(Q,Q) + n(QQ,)] on the axi s or , mor e si mpl y,
v.
that
(FP) = (FQ) + n(QQ4). (1)
I n terms of FQ ( = j) and the pol ar coordi nates (r,d) of the poi nt P,
Eq. (1) can be wri tten
r=j+n(rcoso j).
(2)
Sol vi ng for r, the equati on for 7T, the generati ng cur ve of the l ens
sl l rface, i s gi ven by
Si nce n > 1, thi s i s the
the ori gi n at one focus.
ayi s gi ven by
(n [)~.
r=
?1 COS @ ]
(3) ,
equati on of a hyperbo]a of eccentri ci ty n wi th
The asymptotes make an angl e 9. wi th the l ens
e= = CoSl:. (4)
~hc angl e dai s 51 for pol ystyrene,and pl exi gl as for each of whi ch n = 1,6.
I t may be noted that the l a\r of refracti on i s not used i n deri ~i ng Eq.
t
1For convcni enre, a I (v]s \ri l l he dcsi ~n:~tctl :]s spl )cri cal i f i ts s{l rfaccs zr c
geuerated tjy a rotati on al mtl t the axis and cyl i ndri cal i f tl )c gencrzti ng moti on i s u
tratl sl ati on p:i ral l cl to the Ll rl e sour ce I I .
SEC.11+] SI MPLE l, ENSES J fI THOI J T ZO,VI I VG
S(J ]
(3); i t i s easy to show, however ] that the l aw of refracti on i s sati sfi ed
at thi s boundary for the ray constructi on of Fi g. 11.2, and i t i s, i n fact,
known from general consi dmati ons (Sec. 4.9) that i t must be sati sfi ed,
I t i s l i kc\vi sc easi l y seen that the ri ght-hand boundary of the di el ectri c
has no effect on the opti cal paths because i t coi nci des wi th an equi phase
surface and, consequentl y, i s normal
to the rays PPZ, QQZ, etc.
T
I n eval uati ng the useful ness of
the l ens, i ts effect on the ampl i tude
I
di st ri hut i on o~-er the aperture must
be ascertai ned, because thi s as ~vel l
as the phase determi nes the di ffrac-
ti on pattern. The effect di ffers i n
F
spheri cal and cyl i ndri cal l enses. For
a spheri cal l ens ~vi th a poi nt sour ce
at F that has an axi al l y symmetri c
pattern, i f P(d) is the po\\er radi ated
per uni t sol i d angl e by the poi nt
1-
s{)~l r(,e i n the O-di recti on and F(o)
l 1,;. 112. - ol ,p-hurfaw I I -,,. wi th I l l ,,,r-
the c{)rrcspondi ng po\ver per uni t
I ,ol i c rol )tour,
artw i n the aperture at, a di stancr from thr axi s P(
9.
geometri cal consi derati ons,
P(p)
si n /3df9
P(o) p (/p
Refi erti tnl a( i he l rns s~l rfare i ~ bei ng negl ected.
surface gener ated by the cl l rvc of l ;q. (3)
= r si n 6), then fr om
(5)
For the hyper bol i c
P(p) (n ros e 1)
P(o) = 7(n 1)(n Cos 0)
}vhereas the correspondi ng ampl i tude rati o i s
(6)
(7)
I ror a cyl i ndri cal l ens ~vi th a l i ne sour ce at F, F(o) do i s the power radi -
ated per ~l ni t l ength I )y I he l i ne s(nl rce bet~vem the angl es o and @ + de.
Then i f F(!/) d?yi s the po~vcr per uni t l rngth i n the correspondi ng aperture
i nterval I wt\vcen y and y + dy, wher e y i s agai n the di stance r si n d
fmrn the axi s,
P(y) _ g
P(e) fly
(8)
t
I Jor the hypcrbol i ( s~l rfare,
J(V) = __
()/ (os e 1)
r (e) (,, l),f()/ (0s 0)
(9)
4
i,
~
d
,.
I
392 DIELEC1RIC AND METAL-PLATE LENSES [SEC. 113
and
A(Y) _
J
(n cm e 1)
A(9) (n l )f(ncos e)
(l o)
The ampl i tude rati os for spheri cal and cyl i ndri cal l enses normal i zed
at tJ= O are pl otted i n Fi g. 11.3. They dr op off rapi dl y wi th i ncreasi ng
o 20 40 60
0, deg.
klG. 11.3. A(p) /A(O) for a
spheri cal l ens and A(y) /A(fl ) for a
cyl i ndri cal l ens wkh hyperbol i c
contours; n = 1.6.
8, an effect that i mpai rs the useful ness of
the l ens. For the spheri cal l ens of pol y-
styrene or pl exi gl as, the aperture ampl i -
tude has dr opped off 50 per cent rel ati ve
to the feed ampl i tude at an angl e of 30
wi th the axi s, wi th the resul t that i t i s
scarcel y feasi bl e to use a l ens aperture
extendi ng beyond thi s poi nt because of the
hi gh degr ee of taper i n the i l l umi nati on.
Thi s resul ts i n a seri ous reducti on i n the
gai n and an i ncreased wi dth of the mai n
l obe of the antenna pattern (cf. Sec. 6.6).
Another desi gn for a one-surface l ens
can be obtai ned by consi deri ng the sour ce
F (see Fi g. 11.4) to be i mmersed i n a di -
el ectri c medi um of i ndex of refracti on n
bounded on the ri ght by a di el ectri c-ai r
surface. I n thi s case the equati on for the
generati ng cur ve TI TZ i s found to be
,= f(nl)
n Cos e
(11)
wher e j i s the di stance al ong the axi s from the focus to Tl !l a. Thi s i s
the equati on of an el l i pse of eccen-
tri ci ty l /n wi th the ori gi n at the
focus farther from Q. An actual
T1
l ens woul d be constructed, as shown
i n Fi g. 11.4, wher e the sour ce F is
outsi de the di el ectri c and the i nci -
dent di el ectri c surface T; T; is F
. ,_
spheri cal or cyl i ndri cal , as the case
may be, and normal to the rays FP
and FQ, For a gi ven focal l ength,
the aperture of the l ens cannot be
l arger than 2b, wher e b is the semi -
mi nor axi s of the el l i pse:
T;
I
d
FI C. 11.4.One-surface l ens wi th el l i pti cal
b=
$ j.
(12)
contour.
i
The semi mi nor axi s b subtends an angl e 9~ at
()
1
em = COS1 .
n
The mi ni mum rati o of the focal l ength to the
the feed gi ven by
393
(13)
di ameter i s
(14)
\vhi ch i s 1.04 for pl exi gl as or pol ystyrene. For a spheri cal l ens ~vi tb an
I
el l i pti cal contour, .4 (P),.4 (o) i s gi ven by
A (P) _
J
(?3 Cos e)
A(L9) (n 1)~(?z (0s e 1)
(15)
(16)
e = O are gi ven i n
and for a cyl i ndri cal l ens by
A (Y) =
d
(n Cos 0)
@ej (n l )j(n cos 8 1)
Pl ots of these ampl i tude rati os normal i zed to uni ty at
Fi g. 11.5. The ampl i tude i n the aperture i ncreases rel ati ve to ~he feed
ampl i tude \vi th i ncreasi ng d.
Thi s pr oper ty of the el l i pti cal contours i s
desi rabl e for mi cro\vave wor k, because the l ens compensates for the
~
di recti vi ty of the feed pattern, produci ng ~..
a mor e effi ci ent i l l umi nati on over the
aperture from the standpoi nt of antenna
gai n. On the other hand, the mor e uni -
form i l l umi nati on enhances the si de-l obe
structure of the pattern, and the l ens i s not
/
sui ted for use wi th an antenna feed of too
l ow a di recti vi ty.
2.0 T
Practi cal consi derati ons of bul k and
A(8)
effi ci ency pl ace a l i mi t on the useful aper-
4
tur e of thi s l ens. For pol ystyrene or pl exi -
gl as, the maxi mum di ameter 5b i s 0,96f,
and the hal f angl e L subtended at the feed
F i s 51. For a 30 hal f angl e, on the 10o
20 40 60
other hand, the l ens di ameter i s 85 per
e,deg.
cent of maxi mum; and i n the case of the
I :l G. 11.5. ~(P)/A(d) for a
spheri call ens and A (v) / A (6) for a
spheri cal l ens, the vol ume of di el ectri c i s c~l i ndri call ens wi th el l i uti ca] co,, -
approxi matel y one-fourth of the vol ume
tours;n = 1.6.
1
wi th maxi mum di ameter. For a spheri cal l ens cut at 8 = 30, A (P)/A (d)
i s 1.7, wi th the resul t that the feed pattern must be donm 14.5 db from
0 = Oi n or der to make the power at the edge of the aperture 10 db down
:
from center .
394
DIELECTRIC A.VI ) MET.41]-PI ,A TE I . E.V,$E,V [SEC. 11.3
A two-surface l ens i s one i n whi ch nei ther of the l ens surfaces
coi nci des wi th a surface of equal phase and the rays under go refracti on
upon enteri ng and l eavi ng the l ens.
The use of a second refracti ng sur-
face i s one way of i ncreasi ng the versati l i ty of the l ens. The opti cs of a
two-surface l ens wi l l be outl i ned bri efl y, al though ther e wi l l be no detai l ed
di scussi on of an exampl e. Fi gure 116 i s a sketch of the geometr y. As
I q
before, F i s a poi nt or l i ne sour ce to
+
TI T2
the l eft of the fi rst surface whose con-
X,yl
tour i s denoted by 111~. Si nce r e-
I r
~
fracti on occurs at both surfaces, ther e
Oe
F
x
i s no uni que form for the equi phase
surfaces i n the di el ectri c. I t i s con-
n
veni ent i n thi s case to di scuss the
probl em i n terms of the angl e 6 (Fi g.
2; T; [
11.6) whi ch a ray enteri ng the di -
FI C.116.-Comdi nate systemfor a two-
el ectri c at the poi nt (r-,@ makes wi th
surfacel ens.
the axi s of the l ens. The angl e 0 i s
determi ned from the form of the contour TI 2{, or vi ce versa, i n accordance
wi th Snel l s l aw, I n terms of 0 the di fferenti al equati on for the contour
T,7~ can be shown to be
1 dr ~ si n (0 0)
;G= n Cos (0 0) 1
(17)
The coordi nates z, y of the poi nt wher e the ray from (r, 6) i ntersects
the second surface TZTj are determi ned by the geometri cal rel ati onshi p
yrsi n O=tan O,
xr cost?
(18)
and by the condi ti on for the equal i ty of opti cal paths. Si nce the equi -
phase surfaces to the ri ght of ZjTj are requi red to be pl anes, the condi ti on
on the opti cal paths i s gi ven by
r +n <(g rsi n 0)2 + (z r cos 0)2 z = constant. (19)
As i s easi l y seen, Eqs. (17) to (19) are not suffi ci ent to determi ne uni quel ,v
the coordi nates of both surfaces. Another condi ti on, essenti al l y equi va-
l ent to a condi ti on on W, may be i mposed. For exampl e, i t may be
requi red that the l ens be fr ee of coma (to r ender i t sui tabl e for use i n a
scanni ng antenna) or that the ampl i tude rati o A (y)/A (0) of Eq. (5) or
(8) be speci fi ed as a functi on of y or 6. For a general -purpose mi crowave
antenna i t woul d be desi rabl e that the ampl i tude rati o be constant or at
l east a sl o~vl y varyi ng functi on of y or O,~vi th the resul t that the taper i n
the angul ar pattern of the feed i s r epr od~l ced i n the aperture. As far as i s
known, a practi cal sol {l ti on of thi s probl em has not, yet been obtai ned.
-%-- - -= _ __
SE(J.11.4] ZO.VED DI ELECTRI C I ,E.J ~,TE,5 395
l Vhen the contour 1,1~i s determi ned by arbi trari l y setti ng 8 equal to
8/2, i t i s found that A(y)/.4(@) i s ver y nearl y constant for a cyl i n-
dri cal l ens of moderate aperture and onl y ~-er y sl owl y varyi ng for a
spheri cal l ens. Thi s l ens i s thi ck, ho\vever , for reasonabl e apertures.
I n general , \vi ththe l arge aperture suse di nmi cron-ave appl i cati ons, con-
si derati ons of wei ght and bul k make zoned constructi on a practi cal
necessi ty. Consequentl y, the desi gn of l enses wi thout zoni ng i s of some-
what academi c i nterest, and the condi ti ons on the l ens s~l rfaces are not
compl ete wi thout provi si on for the zone steps.
Thi s wi l l be tr eated i n
the next secti on.
Befor e l eavi ng the subject of unzoned l enses, however , we may take
note of an expressi on for the thi ckness of a si mpl e convergi ng l ens on
the axi s. Thi s expressi on i s useful i n esti mati ng l ens proporti ons,
I t can easi l y be seen from the pri nci pl e of equal i ty of opti cal paths that
i f R and 60are the coordi nates of the apex of the l ens ~vher ethe di el ectri c
reaches zer o thi ckness, the thi ckness t on the axi s i s gi ven by
R(I (0s O.) = (n l )f. (20)
For exampl e, a pol ystyrene l ens ~vi th R equal to 20 ~vave]engths and 00
equal to 30 i s 4.5 wavel engths (free-space) thi ck,
11.4. Zoned Di el ectri c Lenses.A si mpl e l uci te cr pol ystyrene l ens
of the type descri bed i n the precedi ng secti on i s man~, ~~p.vel engths thi ck
i f i ts focal l ength and aperture are l arge
compared wi th a wavel ength. For a
si mpl e l ens the opti cal path l ength al ong
the axi s i s the same as the l ength by way
of the edge. Thi s condi ti on i s unneces-
sari l y restri cti ve, however , at mi crowave
frequenci es w-her ethe wavel ength i s l arge
compared wi th ordi nary manufacturi ng
tol erances. The surfaces of mi crowave
l enses can be di ~-i ded i nto zones \ri th the
opti cal paths di fferi ng by i ntegral mul ti -
pl es of a wavel ength from one zone to
another. .L l ens may accordi ngl y be
desi gned ~vi th i ts cross secti on si mi l ar to
(u)
FIG. 11.7. -
(b)
Zoni ng of nonrefrarti ng
l ens sur f arcs
those shown i n Fi g. 11.7, Starti ng ~vi th zer o thi ckness at the ccfgc of the
l ens the thi ckness of di el ectri c may be progressi vel y i ncreased to!~arcf the
l ens axi s, as requi red by the phase condi ti on, unti l the path di fference i ntro-
duced by the pr esence of the di el ectri c i s equal to a ~!-avel ength. .%t thi s
poi nt the path i n the di el ectri c can be r educed to zer o wi thout al teri ng
the ~vavefronts from the l ens. Thi s i s then the outer boundary of another
zone, through ~vhi ch the opti cal path l engths are one ~vavel ength l ess
than those throl l gh the outermost zone. Thi s zone I i ke\vi sc i ncreases
396 DIELI!CTRIC AND METAL-PLATE LENSES [SEC.114
i n thi ckness i n the di recti on of the axi s unti l the poi nt i s reached wher e
reducti on of the di el ectri c thi ckness to zer o resul ts i n an opti cal path
l ength smal l er by another wavel ength, and so on. The resul ti ng l ens i s
si mi l ar to a conventi onal zone pl ate except that the path di fference
between zones i s equal to a si ngl e wavel ength. When the l ens has K
zones, the opti cal paths through the outermost zone are (K 1)A l onger
than those passi ng through the zone on the l ens axi s.
The maxi mum thi ckness of a zoned l ens i s approxi matel y equal to
h/(n 1), because the maxi mum path di fference (n l )t i ntroduced i n
a path of l ength t by the pr esence of the di el ectri c i s approxi matel y a
wavel ength. I n actual practi ce a smal l thi ckness t~ (Fi gs. 117 and 118)
must be l eft at the thi nnest poi nts for reasons of mechani cal strength,
so that the maxi mum thi ckness i s gr eater than h/(n 1) by thi s amount.
A good exampl e of a zoned two-surface l ens whi ch has been tested
and used i s shown i n Fi g. 11.8. Thi s i s a pl exi gl as l ens, 13.5 i n. i n di am-
eter , for use at 3.3 cm. The surface toward the feed i s chosen somewhat
arbi trari l y to be a pl ane. Thi s choi ce has much to recommend i t, how-
ever , because a. pl ane surface shoul d have somewhat l ess back refl ecti on
to the feed than a concave surface and better i l l umi nati on characteri sti cs
than a convex surface. Except for the i ncl usi on of zones, the l ens i s
desi gned i n the manner descri bed for two-surface l enses i n Sec. 113.
Once a pl ane for the fi rst surface and the di stance from thi s pl ane to the
focus (6 i n. i n thi s case) are chosen, the l ens structure i s compl etel y deter -
mi ned by the requi rement that the equi phase surfaces to the ri ght of the
l ens shal l be pl anes: Snel l s l aw determi nes the di recti ons of the rays i n
the di el ectri c of the l ens; then the second surface i s determi ned from the
pri nci pl e of equal i ty of opti cal paths wi th the provi si on that the paths
di ffer by a wavel ength from one zone to another. The fol l owi ng equa-
ti ons descri be the zoned surface:
[
~= (Kl )A+ (nl )D+j~j2+r1
d
l
r z
n
]- 21)
nz(r + j)
and
[-
R=rl +
d
1
~n(fl + r ) r
(22)
The notati on i s that of Fi g. 11.8. The zone number K is uni ty for the
central porti on of the l ens. Thi s zone i s carri ed out from the axi s to a
poi nt wher e the thi ckness of materi al L i s consi dered a mi ni mum for
mechani cal strength. Ther e the step i s made to the surface determi ned
by K = 2, and so on to the edge of the l ens.
d
1A. M. Sbwl l ptt,(Pl exi gl asLens Antenna for Mi cr o waves, BTI , Repor t MM-43-
170-15,September1943.
.
SEC. 11.4]
ZONED DI ELECTRI C LENSES
397
I n desi gni ng a zoned l ens car e must be taken to avoi d excessi ve shadow
area between zones i nthe l ens aperture.
Shadow i nvari abl y occurs when
zone steps are cut i n a refracti ng surface of the l ens because the ray
I
F1o. l l fl . Zonedtwo-surface l ens.
P
Q
. .

F
F1~. 114-Shadow i ntroduced by zoni ng.
adjacent to a step i nsi de the di el ectri c has a di fferent di recti on from that
of the adjacent ray outsi de. Thi s i s shown i n Fi g. 11.9 wher e the rays
FPP and FQQ, whi ch are together on enteri ng the l ens, have undergone
consi derabl e separati on at the step. I n transmi ssi on the aperture i l l u-
mi nati on i s zer o between P and Q; i n r ecepti on the ener gy i nci dent
between P and Q does not reach F and i s ther efor e l ost. Shado\v does
~g~
l) I EI ,I ?CTRI (: A.VI ) .llETil I ,-I I ,ATh LE.VSE.T
not occur wher e the step i s cut i n an cqui phase l ens surface because the
di recti ons of the rays are nut al tered at the surface and hence under go
(
no separati on. Theeffect of shado\r regi ons, of course, shows up i n the
secondary pattern of the l ens as a decr ease i n gai n and i ncrease i n si de
l obes. Data are l acki ngat present on the r-el ati on between these effects
and the si ze and posi ti on of the shadmv rrgi ons.
Frequenr~ .~en~i ti ?i l ~.si n~e di el ectri c constants are i ndependent of
frequency i n the mi cro~rave regi on, an unzoned di el ectri c l ens performs
i
i ts functi on regardl ess of frequency. }}i th zoni ng, ho\\-ever,frefl ~l cncy
sensi ti vi ty i s i ntroduced. Let P, be the l ength of opti cal path from the
focus F al ong the axi s to any pl ane perpmdi cul ar to the axi s on the far
si de of the l ens. I f Ki s the total number of zones, the opti cal pathP,
)
through the Kth zone i s PI + (K l )Ao wher e AOi s the desi gn wave-
l ength. At wavel ength ~, the radi ati on from the fi rst and ZI th zones
wi !] be i n phase i n any pl ane perpendi cul ar to the opti cal axi s, I I o\\ever ,
at a near-by wa~el ength XO+ Ax, the \va\-cfront from the Kth zone \vi l l
be di spl aced a di stance 8 al ong the axi s rel ati ve to the wal -efront from t}~e
fi rst zone, l ~hen the changes i n ~va~cl ength m-e smal l , 3 i n wavel engths
i s gi ven by
\\hence
8
A=
(K 1) :.
The usual cri teri on for mi rrul ~avc wor k i s that
not (W((!ed (). 125A.1 [sing thi s cri teri un and ddi ni ng ~he bundi vi (l th as
t!r i ce the maxi mum al l o!vabl e fracti onal change i n l va~-el engtl l exprcsswl
i n per cent,
d
the di spl acement 6 shal l
,Iand,v i dt,l _ __~
K 1
per ccut. (24)
.l lens of ! per cent bandl vi d(h can have se~-cn zOI I (,Sl l -i th AOsteps bel \\ccu
zones. The formul a i s a})proxi nmtr bec:tuse AA i s assumed smal l i n the
/
(h?ri vati on. I t shoul d bc noted that (K ] ) i s :Lct IIa]ly (IIC numlxv of
\\avcl cl l gt}l strps i ntrodl l ced })Y zoni ng; i f ther e ar( stops ot t!l -o or mor e
I vavel engths, thi s must he taken i nto a(vount, I t i s bel i crwl that 1;{[.
(24) gi ves a consrrvti ti ve esti mate of ban(i l l i dt 11,bccal l se \\i th tal x,rcd
aperture i l l urni nati cm, hi gh(,r val ues of 8, k mi ght be tol emted for (,c~rtai r~
appl i cati ons.
11.5. Use of Materi al s wi th Hi gh Refracti ve I ndexes. Recentl y
1 1!1(, rel at 1o11 hrt,i vren thc gai n of a penri l beam antc]l n:i :i l l rt the ]I h:I w (~r r or
I
II\-rr tl l r :I l wrt([rr, i s (I i .wl ].sd i n SeC. 12,5.
I
SEC. 116] I ) I EI ,E(TI <I (: LOSSES it .Vl) TOI >EI <.I .V(E.?
399
I rnscs,
Two di sti nct typrs exi st. I ol ygl asl mi xtures ~vi th ti tani um
di oxi de or ti tanate fi l l ers ha~e refracti ve i ndexrs fr om 1.7 to 4.9, depend-
i ng on composi ti on. I o~r er factors am 0.002 to 0.003 at 101 cps. These
materi al s have the ad~antage of possessi ng cocfKci cnts of thermal expan-
si on near those of copper and brass.
l ery hi gh refracti ve i ndexes (about
10) are obtai ned fr om ti tani um di oxi cl c and ti t anat e cerami cs. z The
ti tani um di oxi de cerami cs have pmrer factors brl om- 103 at 3 X 10g cps.
Ther e i s no fundamental obstacl e preventi ng the use of these materi al s
for mi cro~rave l enses. At present l ack of devel opment of manufacturi ng
techni (l ues for heat treati ng and mol di ng of l arge sampl es i s the pri nci pal
di ffi cul ty. The degr ee of control necessary for successful manufacture
i s i ndi cated i n the r epor ts on the rnatcri al s.
I I ecause tol erances agai nst
warpage and twi sti ng are l arge for l ens surfaces (Sec. 11.(;), ~ l ens coul d
be made as an assembl age of smal l secti ons, i n or der to decr ease the si ze
of furnaces and mol ds.
I n addi ti on to techni ques of manufact~~rej matm-i al s ~vi th hi ~h refrac-
ti ve i ndexes present several prtl bl ems to the l ens desi gner. The tol m-
ances on l ens thi ckness become i mportant (SrC. 11,0), :md refl ecti ons
from l ens surfaces resul t i n prohi bi t i ~el y hi gh transmi ssi on 10SSW(Sec.
11.7) unl ess sl wface-matchi ng secti ons are adti ed.
11.6. Di el ectri c Losses and Tol erances on Lens Parameters.I n
eval uati ng the useful ness of mi cro]va~-e l enses, i t i s ne(essarv to consi der
the practi cal probl ems ari si ng from properti es of l ens materi al s and pos-
si bl e l i mi tati ons i n methods of manufacture.
Attenuati on i n th(, di el ec-
tri c must be reasonabl y smal l .
I t must be possi bl e to fabri cate the l ens
to sati sfactory tol rrunces on the contours of both surfaces and on the
thi ckness. 31any materi al s ]1-i th sui tabl e refracti ve i ndexes arc l ossy at
mi crol val -e frequenci es. The attenuati on i n deci bel s per (fr ee-space)
wavel ength i n an unboundr d di el ectri c medi um i s gi ~en by
wher e n i s the i ndex of refracti on and c and G are the real an(i i magi nary
parts of ~he compl ex di el ectri c constant (c
j,) characteri sti c ot l (,ssy
materi al s, (r~hc i ndex ,)f refracti on i s the square r oot of c,, ,rhi ch i s
the i nducti ve capaci ty k, ordi nari l y q{l cted. )
l l c rati o 6,16 i s equal to
the power factor of the materi al l vhrn i t i s smal l u)rnparcd \ri th I l ni i y
Si nce the maxi mum thi ckness ti mes (n
1) i s al ml l t a Navel en~th for :
zoned mi crol vave l ens, the upper l i mi t to the attcrl ~l ati on i n L zoned l ens
1.1. von I {i ppt,l , S. 31. l <i ]l ~sl >l l ry, :I TI I I1,. C, JI I ,s.s(JI I ,
I ,{)!v l l {,rl )]:~l 1I \l m]l si ol l
[l ast i ts, Sl )I i c 14-5:39, O(tol )(,l 1!)4.5.
~.[. VOI 1 Hi ppcl , I l . (i . l l rr(,k(,nrl [l g~,, .1. 1. dr l {!(~tt(,\l l l (,, Jr , J I I . l l rI )\\t)l o\u,
F (;, (tl esl (.y, (i . ester, 1, 1i sz:i , :111(1\\. }{. \\lw])ll; ll, 4i l i ~l l 1)i t,l l ,t,(r][, Lol l st:i l l t
(crao]i cs, Kl )l {( !4-300, .\l l gl l l l 1!)41.
i
400 DI ELECTRI C A.>]) METAL-PLATE LENSES
[sEC. 11.6
i s approxi mated by
A. =
()
27.3 : ~
nl
(26)
whi ch i s about 70~/c for pol ystyrene or l uci te and about 35e/c for a
di el ectri c wi th nequal to 4.5. Thus, power factors up to 0.003 can be
used wi thout i ntroduci ng mor e than a few tenths of a deci bel attenuati on.
For pol ystyrene (c/c
= 0.0003) the ai ,tenuati on i s negl i gi bl e.
The tol erance to be pl aced on any l ens parameters proporti onal to
the maxi mum al l owabl e i rregul ari ty i n the wavefronts, or equi phase
surfaces, formed by the l ens. Thi s i sagai n taken to be A/8. Thetol er-
ances on thi ckness and i ndex of refracti on are i nterrel ated because the
compensati on i n opti cal path i ntroduced by the pr esence of di el ectri c
of thi ckness t i s (n I )t. Setti ng X/16 as the upper l i mi t on wave-
front i rregul ari ti es ari si ng from vari ati on i n ei ther t or n to al l ow for
vari ati ons i n both quanti ti es, we have, approxi matel y,
A
t S 16(n 1)
(27)
and
(28)
Si nce (n 1)Li s of the or der of a ~vavel ength for zoned mi cr~wave l enses,
Eq. (28) becomes
i%+
(29)
The tol erance on thi ckness becomes i mportant onl y for materi al s wi th
hi gh i ndex of refracti on. For pol ystyrene at a wavel ength of 3.2 cm,
Eq. (27) gi ves a thi ckness tol erance of ~ i n., whereas for a substance
wi th a refracti ve i ndex of 4.5, i t i s 0.020 i n. at the same wavel ength.
As regards the di el ectri c constant, a vari ati on gr eater than 3 per cent i s
not l i kel y to occur when reasonabl e car e i s taken i n manufacture, even
i n materi al s of hi gh di el ectri c constants.
Thi s vari ati on i s ~vel l wi thi n
the l i mi ts prescri bed by Eq. (29).
I f vari ati on i n thi ckness al one or
di el ectri c constant al one i s consi dered, the tol erances gi ven by Eqs. (27)
and (28) may be i ncreased by a factor of 2.
Some restri cti on on the surface contours of a l ens ari ses from the
tol erance on the thi ckness t. The two surfaces can be defor med si mul -
taneousl y by warpi ng, however , wi thout affecti ng the thi ckness appre-
ci abl y. From Fermats pri nci pl e, the l ength of opti cal path through
any porti on of a l ens has an extremum val ue and consequentl y, smal l
di spl acements of any secti on of the l ens resul t i n changes i n opti cal
path that are smal l compared wi th the di spl acements, The tol erance
,
SEC. 11.7] REFLECTIONIS FROM DIELECTRIC SURFACES 401
on a surface contour, except when i t affects thi ckness, i s ther efor e at
l east as l arge as the maxi mum al l owabl e i rregul ari ty i n the wavefronts.
11.7. Refl ecti ons from Di el ectri c Surfaces. Refl ecti ons from di el ec-
tri c surfaces can cause feed mi smatch and power l oss. Feed mi smatch
I
i s most l i kel y to occur when a l ens surface coi nci des wi th an equi phase
surface because the refl ecti on from the enti re surface i s then i n phase at
the feed. I n thi s case the surface
wel l -known expressi on for normal
i nci dence
R=~.
n+l
(30)
Equati on (30) yi el ds a val ue of 0.23
forpl exi gl as or pol ystyrene and, of
course, l arger val ues for hi gher di -
el ectri c constants. A refl ecti on of
thi s magni tude i s too l arge i f pi cked
up by the feed, and so the use of an
equi phase surface as a l ens surface
i s to be avoi ded whenever possi bl e.
For hi gh i ndexes of refracti on
and l arge angl es of i nci dence, power
l oss i tsel f becomes i mportant. For
a refracti ve i ndex of 4.5 the l oss i s
40 per cent at normal i nci dence, so
that surface-matchi ng secti ons are
necessary. The refl ecti on coeffi -
ci ent R depends not onl y on n but
al so on the angl e of i nci dence.
Thi s i s shown i n Fi g. 11.10, wher e
I RI i s pl otted for a pl ane wave i nci -
refl ecti on coeffi ci ent i s gi ven by the
I RI2
f
0.50
/
0.40
a
0.30
0.20
I
0.10
b
/
o
o 30 60 90
Angle of incidence
FI G. I l l O.-Fracti on of i nci dent power
refl ected fr om the surface of an i nfi ni te
di el ectri c sl ab vs. angl e of i nci dence: (a)
el ectri c vector per~ndi cul ar to the pl ane
of i nci dence; (b) el ectri c vector i n the pl ane
of i nci dence; n = 1,6.
dent on the pl ane surface of an i nfi ni te di el ectri c sl ab (n = 1.6) at angl es
up to 90, The cur ve for pol ari zati on wi th the el ectri c vector perpendi cu-
l ar to the pl ane of i nci dence i s a pl ot of the wel l -known rel ati on
wi th
si n (i r)
RI = si n (i + 7-)
()
I
r = si nl
;si ni .
(31)
I n thi s case I Rl i ncreases ]~i th angl e of i nci dence from i ts val ue at normal
i nci dence, sl o!rl y at smal l angl es and rapi dl y i n the nei ghborhood of 90.
The power l oss reaches a val ue of 10 per cent at about 40 for n = 1.6.
.4ccount must be taken of thi s effect i n the desi gn of l enses. For pol ari za-
402 DI ELECTRI C A.VD ME1AL-PLAYE LENSES
[SEC. 118
ti on wi th theel ectri c vector i n the pl ane of i nci dence,
~=tan(i r)
tan (2 + r)
(32)
I n thi s case I RI decreases wi th angl e of i nci dence unti l i t reaches zer o at
the Br ewster angl e, tan n; beyond thi s angl e i t agai n i ncreases. Match-
i ng devi ces can be used to cut down surface refl ecti ons, as, for exampl e,
a quarter-wavel ength-thi ck surface l ayer of materi al whose refracti ve
i ndex i s the geometr i c mean of the refracti ve i ndex of the l ens di el ectri c
and that of ai r. Such a matchi ng secti on i s, of course, an addi ti onal
compl i cati on i n the desi gn and manufacture of the l ens.
METAL-PLATE LENSES
1108. Paral l el -pl ate Lenses. A l ens structure usi ng spaced conduct-
i ngpl anes i nstead of a di el ectri c has been devel oped l for use at mi crowave
frequenci es. A common form consi sts of paral l el stri ps of sheet metal
hel d apart by accurate nonrefl ecti ng spacers. Where the el ectri c vector
i s paral l el to the pl ate
but gr eater than ~ (cf.
gi ven by
Si nce thi s wavel ength
paral l el -pl ate space has
surfaces and the pl ate spaci ng a i s l ess than k,
Sec. 7.15), the wavel ength betl veen the pl ates i s
(33)
i s gr eater than the free-space wavel ength, the
the properti es of a refracti ng medi um wi th i ndex
of refracti on l ess than uni ty. When a thi ckness of thi s medi um i s i ntro-
duced i nto the paths of the rays, opti cal path l engths are r educed from
thei r free-space val ues i nstead of i ncreased as i p the case of di el ectri cs.
Thus a convergi ng paral l el -pl ate l ens i s thi nner on the axi s than at the
edge of the l ens, and a di vergi ng l ens i s thi cker. Thi s i s i n contrast
to di el ectri c-l ens structure. A paral l el -pl ate l ens can be desi gned to
have vari abl e thi ckness, l i ke a di el ectri c l ens, or i t can ha\e a uni form
thi ckness and \ari abl e pl ate spaci ng. The former, a mor e common
desi gn, ~vi l l be consi dered her e.
The refracti ve i ndex of the paral l el -pl ate space i s gi ven by
(34)
I
I
!
1 W. E. Kock, I i xpcri mcnts \vi th 31ct:~l I l :i tc I ,enses for 31i cro\vavcs, BTJ,
l {,port \fX1-44-160-67,l I arch 1%4, \\i re I ,cns Antennas,] 11 XI -44 -I 6O-1OO, .{pri ]
1!)44; }fctal Pl ate I ,ens l )twgn consi derati ons, \f}f-44-160-1!},5, August 1!)44;
i JI etal Pl ate Lenses for l fi crowaves, >111-45-160-23, i I arch 1945; 31ctal -Lens
Antennas, P70c. IRE, 34, 828836, November 1946.
G
SW, 11.tq PA RAI .LhI .-I L.47h LI i.VSE,q 403
wi th~/2 < a < A. Val ues ofnl i ebetween Oandabout O.86. Natural l y
the smal l est practi cal val ue of nshoul dbe usedi n or der to mi ni mi ze the
thi ckness of the l ens. Owi ng to di ffi cul ti es ari si ng from the use of pl ate
separati ons near cutoff, namel y,
frequency sensi ti vi ty, mi smatch at
the l ens surface, and di ffi cul ty i n
mai ntai ni ng the tol erances on
pl ate spaci ng, 0.5 i s general l y con-
si dered the mi ni mum practi cal
val ue ofn. Onei mportant di ffer-
ence between di el ectri c and paral -
l el -pl ate l enses consi sts i n the
constrai nts pl aced on the rays i n
the l ens by the pr esence of the par- ~i -l(*)
al l el pl ates. The di recti on of
FI G. 11.11.C~l ;ndri .al paral l el -pl ate
propagati on i n the l ens must be
l ensi n whi chchangeof angl eat the surface
i s determi ned~YSnel l sl aw.
paral l el to the pl ate surfaces.
Thus Snel l sl aw does not, i n general , descri be thechange i ndi recti on of
arayat the l ens surface. I n the case of cyl i ndri cal l enses thi s fact does
not essenti al l y change the l ens desi gn. Her e two cases maybe di sti n-
Actual direti!on of
FI G. 11.12 .CJ-l i ndri cal paral l el -pl ate
l ens i n whi ch change of angl e at the l ens
surface i s determi ned by the corl di ti on that
the ray i s constrai ned to pass between the
pl ates.
gui shed. When the el ectri c
vector and l ens pl ates are perpen-
di cul ar to the cyl i nder axis, Snel l s
l aw i s val i d and the constrai nts do
not enter (Fi g. 11.1 1). When the
el ectri c vector and pl ate edges l i e i n
pl anes paral l el to the cyl i nder axi s,
Snel l s l aw i s repl aced by the con-
di ti on of the constrai nt (Fi g.
11.12). However , the desi gn of a
spheri cal l ens consi sti ng onl y of
pl ates paral l el to the E-pl ane of
the feed becomes a three-di men-
si onal probl em i nstead of the two-
di mensi onal one di scussed for
di el ectri cs. The constrai nt exi sts
i n the magneti c but not i n the el ectri c pl ane, and the l ens surface i s not
symmetri cal wi th r espect to a rotati on about the axi s. The desi gn can, of
course, be r educed to a two-di mensi onal probl em by use of a cel l ul ar con-
structi on to i ntroduce i denti cal constrai nt i n the el ectri c pl ane.
Ther e i s one useful exampl e i n whi ch the constrai nt does not enter
expl i ci tl y, and most spheri cal paral l el -pl ate l enses used hi therto have
been of thi s type. Thi s i s the one-surface l ens i n whi ch the refracti ng
surface i s on the si de of the feed wi th the second surface a pl ane per -
;
404
DIELECTRIC A.VD JIETA1.-P1,ATE I>E.V,$E,T [SEC. 118
pendi cul arto the l ens axi s. The rays are then paral l el to the axi s, and
the constrai nts are automati cal l y sati sfi ed. .4s di scussed i n Sec. 11.3,
the contour of thi s l ens may be desi gned sol el y from the condi ti on of
equal i ty of opti cal paths. Referri ng to Sec. 11.3, to the case wher e the
refracti ng medi um i s to the ri ght of the contour T1 (Fi g. 11.2), the
coordi nates of 22 are gi ven agai n byEq. (3):
(1 njf
=l ncose
(3)
I n the present case, however , wi th n <1, thi s i s the equati on of an el l i pse;
the hyperbol i c face of the di el ectri c l ens i s repl aced by an el l i pti cal face
i n the metal -pl ate l ens. Si nce l i ttl e use i s made of unzoned l enses, i t i s
desi rabl e to r ewr i te thi s equati on to appl y to a zoned l ens. I f the zone on
1,1~. 11.13. El l l pti ral vuu-
tour wi th fi ve mues; n = 0.5;
f ==40A.
the l ens axi s-i s taken as the fi rst, the equati on
for the surface of the Kth zone i s gi ven by
(1 n)fx
K=lncose
(35)
v.i th
I n thi s equati on the assumpti on i s made that
ther e are steps of one wavel ength between
adjacent zones; other~ri se (K 1)in Eq. (36)
2.0
A(P)
A(O)
EElll
Without
/
zoning
/
1.5
/
/
/
/
1.0
o 10 200
30 400
0
11,,. I 114. -Rat,o A(o) / A(@ [,)r zo,,ed
contour of Fig. 11.13.
must be repl aced by the total number of wavel engths i n the steps between
the axi s and the Kth zone. Fi gure 11.13 shows a fi ve-zone arrangement
of thi s contour usi ng 0.5 for n and 40k for fl. The rati o of jl to aperture
i s 0.86. The unzoned contour i s shown for compari son. The ampl i -
tude-i l l umi nati on rati o (Sec. 11.3) whi ch rel ates the ampl i tude across
the aperture to the ampl i tude pattern of the feed i s gi ven for a spheri cal
l ens by
%=~
(37)
1-
,4
I
I
L%C. ~] 8] PARALLEL-PLATE L.V.VShS
and fora cyl i ndri cal l ens by
%= K%E5G
(3s)
The rati o A(p)/A(0) of Eq. (37) for the spheri cal case i s pl otted i n Fi g,
11.14 for the fi ve-zoned el l i pti cal contour of Fi g. 11.13. The rati o
exhi bi ts a sl ow stepwi se i ncrease from the center to the edge of the l ens
FI G. 11.15.Rear vi ew of a 1.25-cm paral l el -pl ate l enS. (Courteav of the Bell Telephone
Laborat.rg.)
i n a fashi on favorabl e for mi crowave use. The i mprovement i ntroduced
by zoni ng i s seen by compari ng wi th the dotted cur ve for an unzoned
contour. Fi gure 11.15 i s a photograph of the r ear vi ew of a spheri cal
I ens;i t i s48i n. i ndi ameter anddesi gned foruse i n the l -cm range. I t
i s a zoned si ngl e-surface l ens wi th el l i pti cal contours. Thi s l ens i s
constructed of thi n, equal l y spaced metal pl ates paral l el to the -E-pl ane of
the feed. Theti rn ei nvol ve di ncutti n gthepl ate sforl enses of thi s type
i s a factor, because the pl ates di ffer i n contour except for correspondi ng
pai rs on opposi te si des of the opti cal axi s. Si nce surface tol erances are
l arge (Sec. 11.10), the contours can be cut by sawi ng or fi l i ng to ascri be
l i ne or by stacki ng the pl ates wi th temporary wooden spacers and cutti ng
on a l athe.
1W. F,. Km-k, lIct:il I l ate Lensm for Lfi crow:,vw,) RT1, Repor t 3131-44-160-
100, Apri l 1944.
7
#d
406 DIELECTR~C AND METAL-PLATE LENSES [sm. 119
11.9. Other Metal -l ens Structures. -Several other methods of l ens
constructi on have been tri ed wi th success. 1 One ur ocedur e that l eads to
good structural characteri sti cs makes use of pol ys~yrene foam (e = 1.018
and wei ght 1 to 2 l b/ft 3, as a di el ectri c medi um between the pl ates.
FI G. 11.16. Pol yst yrene-foam l ens.
(Courtesy of the Bell Telephone Labora-
tory.)
el ectri c-fi el d vector do not radi ate.
The pl ates are actual l y sheets of
metal foi l bonded to the pol ysty-
r ene. The sl abs of pol ystyrene foam
wi th the metal foi l si di ngs may be
mol ded i nto a bl ock, and the l ens
contour can then be cut out on a
l athe.
Another method i s to repl ace the
l ens pl ates by a system of paral l el
wi res. Lenses ofthi stype arei nter-
esti ng pri nci pal l y because they poi nt
to the possi bi l i ty of usi ng l enses at
l ong wavel engths wher e metal pl ates
are out of questi on but curtai ns of
wi r e suspended from pol es are feas-
i bl e. The l ens structure i s based on
(
the fact that sl ots i n the wal l of a
wavegui de whi ch are paral l el to the
The system of paral l el wi res maybe
thought of as a l i mi ti ng condi ti on arri ved at by cutti ng sl ots i n the paral l el
pl ates consti tuti ng the l ens. The pri mary probl em i n the desi gn i s the
yI G, 11 .17, Wi r e l enses: (a) paral l el -wi re l ens; (b) wire mesh l ens. ((l wmtes~ oj the Bell
Telephone Laboratory.)
determi nati on of the practi cal rati o of sl ot wi dth to conductor wi dth.
I t has been found that at a wavel ength of 3.2 cm wi res of di ameter O.O49
i n. and spaced 0.3 i n. center to center have a l oss of 0.1 db per i nch or
about & db per wavel ength. Si nce the l ens i s onl y a few wavel engths
1 w. E. Kocl c, kfetal Pl at~ Lenses for Mi crowaves, ?3TL Repor t MN1.45-160-23,
March 1945.
~I V. I L Kock, Wi re Lens Antennas, J3~L Repor t MM-44-160-100, Apri l 1944.
4 -
SEC. 11.10] METAL-PLATE LENS TOLERANCES
407
thi ck, thki s not prohi bi ti ve. The over-al l performance of a l ens of thi s
type has been found to compare favorabl y wi th an equi val ent l ens mak-
i ng use of sol i d pl ates.
Several of these types of l enses are i l l ustrated i n Fi gs. 11.16 and
11.17. The for mer shows a l ens maki ng use of a pol ystyrene-foam base.
Fi gure 11.17a shows a paral l el wi r e l ens, and Fi g. 11.17b shows a wi r e
mesh l ens. The l atter takes as i ts starti ng poi nt the use of rectangul ar
wavegui des as the l ens medi um. The wavegui de wal l s are repl aced by
wi r e mesh, agai n maki ng use of the fact that sl ots i n a wavegui de wal l ,
when sui tabl y ori ented, do not radi ate.
11.10. Metal -pl ate Lens Tol erances.-Tol erances on the l ens surface
are l arge wi th r espect to deformati on by warpi ng and twi sti ng, as they
are for di el ectri c l enses. Extr eme ri gi di ty i n the cel l ul ar structure i s
consequentl y not necessary. Tol erances on the l ens thi ckness and pl ate
spaci ng are i nterrel ated. Usi ng the same cri teri a as for the di el ectri c
l enses (al l owi ng an er r or ei ther i n thi ckness or refracti ve i ndex al one
to cause mor e than hal f the al l owabl e phase er r or X/8),
\
and
I
A
t S 16(1 n)
(39)
(40)
wher e An depends both on pl ate spaci ng and wavel ength. Reservi ng
di scussi on of changes wi th wavel ength unti l l ater (Sec. 11.11), the vari a-
ti on of n wi th pl ate spaci ng a i s gi ven by
An = (1 n) Aa
.
n a
(41)
I f i n addi ti on (1 n)t i s assumed to be approxi matel y a wavel ength,
as i t i s for zoned l enses, Eq. (40) becomes
Aa <
x = 16 (nn+ 1)
(42)
When n i s equal to 0.5, Aa must be l ess than 0.024k, whi ch i s 0.030 i n.
at 3.2 cm. At thi s wavel ength the tol erance on a woul d pl ace a l ower
practi cal l i mi t of about 0.3 on n, because thi s woul d l ead to a tol erance
of about 0.014 i n. From Eq. (39) a val ue of 0.5 for n l eads to an exceed-
i ngl y l i beral tol erance on t, i .e., At s x/8. Thi s i s about twi ce the
tol erance on a r efl ector contour for the same over-al l phase er r or of A/8;
a di screpancy of A/16 i n a r efl ector contour l eads to a phase er r or of
approxi matel y k/8. The tol erances gi ven her e are conservati ve, based on
the assumpti on that both thi ckness and pl ate spaci ng are i n er r or . I f
408
DI ELECTRI C AND ME1AL-PLA TE LENSES [SEC. 11.11
the process of fabri cati on i s such as to hol d one or the other to better
than the stated val ues, the al ternate tol erance may be i ncreased.
11.11. Bandwi dth of Metal -pl ate Lenses; Achromati c Doubl ets.
Si nce the i ndex of refracti on of a metal -pl ate medi um depends on the
rati o of pl ate spaci ng to wavel ength, metal -pl ate l enses are frequency-
sensi ti ve devi ces. The rel ati on between smal l changes i n x and cor r e-
:
spendi ng changes i n n i s obtai ned by di fferenti ati ng Eq. (34):
1 nz Ak
An= TT. (43)
The effect on the wavefronts from an unzoned l ens wi l l be consi dered
fi rst. Let L, r epr esent the total l ength of the l i ne segments FP and
PP (Fi g. 11.18) passi ng through the edge of the l ens and LI the l ength
FQQ on the axi s. I f Pa and PI are
I t F1h- the opti cal l engths of L, and L,
p! I
respecti vel y and t i s the di fference
I
between the thi ckness of the l ens at
F
the edge and at the center , the op-
Q I Q
ti cal path di fference (P2 Pl) i s
l \
gi ven by
l \ P, P,=(L, t+nt) L,.
FIG. i l .l S,Effect on a wavefmnt of
(44)
change i n wavel ength fr om the desi gn
wavel ength.
The path di fference (P2 P,) i s a
functi on of wavel ength because n depends on wavel ength. At the desi gn
wavel ength AO,(Pj Pl ) must be zer o i n or der that PQ may r epr esent a
wavefront. Hence
L, (1 no)t = L,. (45)
At a near-by wavel ength AO+ AX, the wavefront at P is di spl aced a di s-
tance b al ong the axi s wi th r espect to the wavefront at Q, wher e ti /h
i s gi ven by
(23)
The approxi mati on i s good onl y for ver y smal l Ax. Substi tuti ng from
Eqs. (43) and (45),
6 1 + nO(1 n,)t AA
=
A nO Ar j x
(46)
I f the l i mi ts of bandwi dth are defi ned by Ial /k equal i n magni tude to
0.125, the band\vi dth i s gi ven by
25no X.
Bandwi dth =
1 + n, (1 ?,o)t
per cent. (47)
*d
!
1
.,
I
-=4 .-.- -- .- ..
SEC. 11.11] BAN I ) WI I MH OF METAL-PLATE LENSES 409
v
I n the speci al case n, equal to 0.5,
Bandwi dth = 8.3
(1 10nO)t
per cent. (48)
Si nce (1 na)ti s at l east several ti mes ~,, bandwi dths are of the or der
of a few per cent. I t i s bel i eved that Eq. (48) gi ves aconservati veesti -
mate of the bandwi dth, because, wi th consi derabl e taper i n the aperture
i l l umi nati on, val ues of (161/h)_up to O.25 mi ght be tol erated for certai n
appl i cati ons.
I n determi ni ng the bandwi dth of zoned l enses, the same type of
pr ocedur e i s fol l owed. The frequency sensi ti vi ty of zoned l enses i s due
not onl y to the vari ati on i n n but al so to the steps. As for unzoned
l enses the maxi mum devi ati on i n the wavefront can be cal cul ated by
compari ng the opti cal path al ong the l ens axi s \vi th the path by way of
the edge. Usi ng the same notati on as before, we have
P, P,=(L2t+?zt)-L1, (44)
wi th the somewhat di fferent condi ti on at XOi ntroduced by the zoni ng
P, P,(Kl )XO=O.
(49)
Her e K k the number of zones, counti ng the zone on the axi s as the
fi rst. I n thi s case
[:r+)l x=xo
Ak= (K1)% (l +nO)(l no)t~
nO
ko
(50)
and the bandwi dth i s approxi matel y gi ven by
Bandwi dth = 25
1
1 + nO(1 nO)t
per cent. (51)
(Kl )+= ~.
For zoned l enses (1 no)t is approxi matel y one \vavel ength at the
thi ckest porti ons. For practi cal purposes, ther efor e,
Bandwi dth = 25 0
1 + Kno
per cent. (52)
For the speci al case no = 0.5,
25
Bandwi dth =
2+K
per cent. (53)
Zoni ng i ncreases the bandwi dth of a l ens. For exampl e, the use of
Eqs. (48) and (53) to compare equi val ent zoned and unzoned l enses
whi ch i ntroduce compensati on of fi ve wavel engths i n the l ongest opti cal
path [(1 nO)t = 5A0 for the unzoned l ens; (1 n~)t = A,, K = 5, for
the zoned l ens] shows that the zoned l ens has sl i ghtl y mor e than twi ce
the bandwi dth of the unzoned l ens, 3.57 per cent as compared wi th 1.67
410
DI ELECTRI C AND METAL-PLATE LENSES [SHC. 11.12
per cent. For l arge val ues of K the zoned l ens wi th m equal to 0.5 has
approxi matel y thr ee ti mes the bandwi dth of the equi val ent unzoned l ens
si nce a l ens wi th K zones i s equi val ent to an unzoned l ens wi th (1 nO)t
equal to KhO. Thi s i ndi cates the advi sabi l i ty of zoni ng on the basi s of
bandwi dth al one. Mor eover i t suggests the possi bi fi tyl of usi ng a
doubl et consi sti ng of zoned and unzoned l enses wi th opposi te frequency
characteri sti cs to obtai n i ncreased bandwi dth. A zoned convergi ng l ens,
for exampl e, i s str onger than an unzoned di vergi ng l ens of opposi te fr e-
quency sensi ti vi ty, and the combi nati on i s a convergi ng l ens. I t must
be remembered, however , that the focal l ength of the doubl et i s much
l onger than that of the uncor r ected convergi ng l ens unl ess the compensat-
1
n
FKQ. 11,19.Power refl ecti on at normal i nci dence as a functi on of n.
i ng l ens can be made opti cal l y thi n and gi ven the requi si te frequency sen-
si ti vi ty by spaci ng the pl ates cl osel y to yi el d smal l n.
For any l ens the fi rst-order effect of change i n frequency i s to al ter the
effecti ve focal l ength of the l ens. For frequenci es cl ose to the desi gn
frequency the defor med wavefronts are so nearl y spheri cal that movi ng
the feed al ong the axi s effecti vel y r emoves the deformati on. The effec-
ti ve bandwi dth of a l ens i s consequentl y i ncreased by a provi si on i n the
Q
antenna system for feed moti on.
11.12. Refl ecti ons from Surfaces of Paral l el -pl ate Lenses. Whi l e the r
general probl em of refl ecti on from the surfaces of a paral l el -pl ate kns
has not been sol ved, some i ndi cati on of magni tude can be obtai ned from
a study of the refl ecti on of a pl ane wave from the edges of an array of
paral l el , equal l y spaced pl ates when the edges l i e i n a pl ane. Thi s
probl em has r ecei ved ri gorous theoreti cal treatment. 2 I t seems reason-
abl e to expect that the val ues of R deri ved for thi s case at vari ous angl es
of i nci dence shoul d be a good approxi mati on to l ocal val ues of R on a
1W. E. Kock, I ;xperi ments wi th Metal Pl ate Lenses for i l I i crowaves, BTL
r
Repor t M Xf-160-67, Afarch 1944,
2 J. F. (;arl son and Al bert E. Hei ns, The Refl ecti on of an El ectromagneti c Pl ane
Wave by an I nfi ni te Set of Pl ates, I , Quart. Applied Math,, 4,313-329, January 1947, :
I
SEC. 11.12] REFLECTIONS FROM PARALLEL-PLATE LENSES 411
l ens surface, provi di ng that l ens surfaces and wavefronts do not appre-
ci abl y depart from a pl ane over di stances comparabl e to a wavel ength.
For normal i nci dence R is gi ven by
~=l nejm
l +n
(54)
Thi s expressi on di ffers from the expressi on for normal i nci dence on o
di el ectri c surface onl y by the pr esence of the phase angl e @. Because
n i s l ess than uni ty, the magni tude of R i s l arger, however , than that
from a di el ectri c surface wi th the same val ue of 11 n[. The magni tude
f
FI Q. 11.20.Pl anes of i nci dence at the pl ane face of an i nfi ni te set of paral l el pl ates.
of I R12at normal i nci dence i s pl otted i n Fi g. 11.19. I ts val ue for smal l n
obvi ousl y puts a l ower practi cal l i mi t on n, especi al l y for equi phase l ens
surfaces wher e the r efl ected wave i s i n phase at the feed. For n equal
to 0.5, the refl ecti on i s al ready qui te l arge (11 per cent power refl ecti on).
Surface-matchi ng devi ces are, of course, a possi bi l i ty.
The average refl ecti on over a l ens surface i s probabl y l ess than the
val ue deri ved for normal i nci dencq because the magni tude of the r efl ected
wav% probabl y decreases wi th the angl e of i nci dence i n both pl anes.
For the magneti c pl ane (MF i n Fi g. 11.20) wher e the change i n angl e
at the surface i s determi ned by the constrai nt and not by Snel l s l aw,
an expressi on has been deri ved for [RI as fol l ows:
Thi s expressi on i s val i d for a restri cted range of angl es:
(55)
,
I
412
DI ELECTRI C AND METAL-PLATE LENSES
[SEC, 1112
wi th
1<; <2.
The restri cti on on i ari ses from the fact that grati ng l obes become possi bl e
()
for angl es of i nci dence l arger than si n] ~ 1 I nspecti on of Fi g.
a
11.20 and a pl ot of l R12i n Fi g. 11.21 shows that IRI decreases wl thi ncreas-
i ngi , reaches zer o fori equal tocos1 n, and i ncreases beyond that angl e.
0.5
e e=
= =
~;
E
SM?*-1)
~ //
o
30 60 90
Angle
FI Q. 11.21.Power refl ecti on at the pl ane fare of an i nfi ni te set of paral l el pl ates as a
functi on of angl e of i nci dence.
,.
For the el ectri c pl ane (eeFof Fi g. 11.20) theexpressi on forthevari a-
ti on of R wi th angl e of i nci dence has not been deri ved. I n thi s pl ane
the change of angl e upon refracti on i s descri bed by Snel l s l aw. One
mi ght expect some si mi l ari ty to the di el ectri c case wher e the magni tude
t
of the r efl ected waw? decreases from i ts val ue at normal i nci dence wi th
i ncreasi ng i unti l i t reaches zer o at the %ewster angl e, tan n, and then
i ncreases. I t i s hoped that a sol uti on for thi s pl ane wi l l become avai l abl e
i n the future.
9
I
r
I
i
.:
!:
,,
,.
.,
: /
PENCI L-BEAM
CHAPTER 12
AND SI MPLE FANNED-BEAM ANTENNAS
BY S. SI LVER
PENCI L-BEAM ANTENNAS
12.1. Penci l -beam Requi rements and Techni ques.-The term penci l
beam i s appl i ed to a hi ghl y di recti ve antenna pattern consi sti ng of a
6
si ngl e major l obe contai ned wi thi n a cone of smal l sol i d angl e and al most
ci rcul arl y symmetri cal about the di recti on of peak i ntensi ty. As used
her e, i t wi l l appl y to beams wi th hal f-power wi dth l ess than 15. These
beams are anal ogous to searchl i ght beams, and, as wi th an opti cal search-
l i ght, the el evati on and azi muth coordi nates of a target i n space can be
si mpl y cor r el ated wi th the si mi l ar coordi nates that defi ne the ori entati ons
of the antenna. I n connecti on wi th the techni que of usi ng radar echoes
for obtai ni ng range i nformati on, the penci l -beam antenna serves to defi ne
,.
the posi ti on of a target compl etel y.
Ther e are several possi bl e techni ques for produci ng penci l beams.
*
The si mpl est i n concepti on and from the poi nt of vi ew of practi cal
desi gn i s that of pl aci ng a poi nt sour ce at the focus of an opti cal
system, such as a r efl ector or l ens, to pr oduce a beam of paral l el rays.
I t i s evi dent that to pr oduce a ci rcul arl y symmetri cal beam, the optci al
system shoul d have rotati onal symmetry wi th the feed l ocated on the
axi s of rotati on (opti cal axi s).
Thi s presupposes that the pri mary feed
pattern l i kewi se has rotati onal symmetry about the same axi s; i n prac-
ti ce thi s i s approxi mated by a feed pattern havi ng a pai r of orthogonal
t
pri nci pal pl anes (symmetry pl anes) that i ntersect al ong the opti cal axi s,
wi th nearl y equal hal f-power \vi dths i n the t\vo pl anes. I n many cal cu-
1
I ati ons thi s actual feed pattern can be repl aced by an equi ~ral ent ci r-
cul arl y symmetri c pattern that i s the average of the patterns i n the two
pri nci pal pl anes. I f the si mpl e geometri cal pi cture-that the beam
pr oduced by the opti cal system consi sts of a fami l y of paral l el ra.v
,,jer e stri ctl y y-sl i d, the beam woul d have zer o ~vi dth as pl otted i n a
pol ar di agram, Ho\\ever, thi s si mpl e pi cture i s markedl .v modi fi ed by
di ffracti on phenomena due to the l i mi ted aperture of the opti cal system.
The aperture i s the pr ojected area of the r efl ector or l ens on a pl ane
*
normal to the opti cal axi s, and for a rotati onal l y symmetri cal system i t
i s [i r(,l l l ar i n shape. .1s a resul t cf di ffracti on the antenna pattern has
a major l obe of fi ni te wi dth and characteri sti c si de-l obe structure.
413
414 PENCI L-BEAM AND SI MPLE FANNED-BEAM ANTENNAS [SEC. 121
The general theor y of apertures and di ffracti on has been devel oped
i n Chap. 6. I t was shown ther e that of al l the phase and ampl i tude di s- .
tri buti ons over a pl ane aperture that gi ve ri se to a beam wi th maxi mum
i ntensi ty i n the di recti on normal to the aperture, a uni form ampl i tude
and phase di stri buti on gi ves ri se to maxi mum gai n; i n general , mi ni mum
beamwi dth i s concomi tant wi th maxi mum gai n.
The rel ati on between antenna gai n and range i n radar systems has
been noted i n Sec. 1.2 [Eq. (1.12)]. The beamwi dth i s al so an i mportant
factor i n the preci si on wi th whi ch target l ocati on can be effected. The
consi derati ons her e are partl y opti cal (of exactl y the same nature as
those whi ch determi ne the resol vi ng power of a tel escope) and i n part
i nvol ve system factors such as pul se wi dth; a rather compl ete di scussi on
of resol vi ng power of a radar set and i ts beari ng on beamwi dth requi re-
ments i s gi ven i n Vol . 1 of thi s seri es. 2 On the basi s of gai n and beam-
wi dth consi derati ons a fundamental design requirement jor radar antennas
is that the phase distribution over the aperture be uni form-n terms oj
geometrical optics, that the optical system produce a beam oj parallel rays.
I t shoul d be noted that i n addi ti on to the gai n and beamwi dth requi re-
ments, the greatest possi bl e suppressi on of al l secondary l obes i s desi r-
abl e; for i f a target i s suffi ci entl y cl ose to be detected by the si de l obe,
i t becomes i ndi sti ngui shabl e from a target detected by the mai n l obe
at the same range. However , as was found i n the treatment of general
di ffracti on theor y, requi rements of maxi mum gai n and mi ni mum si de- T
l obe l evel are general l y i ncompati bl e. The necessary compromi se
between them i n antenna desi gn i s made i n opti cal systems by adjusti ng
the i l l umi nati on, that i s, the ampl i tude di stri buti on, over the aperture.
The advantages of mi crowaves become strongl y evi dent i n the desi gn
of the penci l -beam antennas. Wi thi n reasonabl e l i mi ts on the over-al l
si ze of the antenna, the di stance from the r efl ector (or l ens) to the antenna
feed can be made so l arge that the opti cal devi ce i s i n the radi ati on zone
of the feed. Thus the di ffi cul ti es associ ated wi th the phase quadrature
of the i nducti on fi el d are avoi ded; that i s, i t i s possi bl e to oper ate i n
that regi on of the feed pattern wher e the feed i s essenti al l y a poi nt ,
source. Because the di mensi ons of the r efl ector s and l enses are fai rl y
l arge compared wi th the wavel ength, i t i s possi bl e to si mpl i fy the theo-
reti cal consi derati ons by sui tabl e approxi mati ons. As a resul t the desi gn
of a penci l -beam antenna becomes to a l arge extent a cal cul abl e pr ocedur e.
I nasmuch as l enses have been di scussed i n detai l i n Chap. 11, the
treatment of desi gn probl ems i n the present chapter wi l l be confi ned
al most enti rel y to refl ectors. Many probl ems are common to both: The
secondary pattern i s determi ned essenti al l y by the fi el d over the aper-
ture, and the requi rements to be i mposed on the l atter, whi ch wi l l be
r
1}1, Born,Optdc,EdwardsBi ns., I nc., Ann Arbor, \fi ch., Chap,4.
2Ri denour,Radar ,$ystem Engtneerzng, Vol . 1, RI . rechni cal Seri es, ~hap. 14.
.
SEC. 12.2] GEOMETRI CAL PARAMETERS
415
arri ved at from the di scussi on of refl ectors, can be transferred di rectl y
to l enses. The l atter just began to commond seri ous attenti on at the
cl ose of the war peri od, and thei r study and use are sti l l i n the i ni ti al
stages.
PARABOLOI DAL REFLECTORS
12.2. Geometri cal Parameters.-The nature of a r efl ector that trans-
forms a spheri cal wave, ari si ng from a poi nt source, i nto a pl ane wave-
front was di scussed i n Sec. 4.9, wher e i t was found to be a parabol oi d
of revol uti on wi th the sour ce at the focus.
I n di scussi ng these systems
i t i s conveni ent to use several di fferent coordi nate systems si mul tane-
ousl y; these are defi ned i n Fi g. 12.1.
.4 rectangul ar coordi nate system
z, y, z wi l l be used, wi th the ori gi n at the ver tex of the parabol oi d and
the z-axi s the axi s of revol uti on. I n these coordi nates the equati on of
the parabol oi dal surface i s
X2 + Y2 = 4f%
(1)
wher e j = OF i s the focal l ength. We shal l al so use cyl i ndri cal coor di -
nates r, ~, z, wher e r and &are pol ar coordi nates i n the pl anes z = constant,
~ bei ng measured from the zz-pl ane. I n these coordi nates the equati on
of the surface i s
7-2= 4fz. (2)
I n expressi ng the rel ati on of the pri mary feed pattern to the r efl ector ,
ther e i s empl oyed a spheri cal coordi nate system p, +, ~, wi th the ori gi n
at the focus F and the pol ar axi s di r ected i n the negati ve z-di recti on;
the axi muth angl e ~i s the same as that defi ned i n the cyl i ndri cal system,
and ~ i s the pol ar angl e. The equati on of the surface r efer r ed to these
spheri cal coordi nates was obtai ned i n Sec. 4.9 [Eq. (4.69)]; i t i s
2f
~=l+cos~
()
=jsecz ~
(3)
Lastl y, to di scuss the fi nal antenna pattern we use a spheri cal coordi nate
system wi th pol ar axi s i n the ~ositive z-di recti on and ori gi n agai n at the
1The materi al to he pr esented i n the fol l owi ng secti ons represents a summary of
Bri ti sh and Ameri can wor k done dur i ng the >varper i od; the fol l owi ng i s a parti al bi bl i -
ogr aphy of reports on parahol oi dal refl ectors: L. J. Chu, (Theor y of Radi ati on fr om
Parabol oi dal Refl ectors, I LL,Repor t h-o. V-18, Feb. 12, 1941; 13.U. Condon, Theor y
of Radi ati on fr om Parabol oi d Refl ectors, l ~csti nghouse Repor t No. 15, Sept. 24, 1941;
G. F. Hul l , Jr., Appl i cati on of Pri nci pl es of Physi cal Opti cs to Desi gn of UHF
Parabol oi d Antennas, BTL Repor t ~f31-43-110-2, Feb. 8, 1943; and F. R. N.
Nabarro, (Theoreti cal \Vor k on the Parabol oi d Mi rror, Bri ti sh Report, Mi ni strv
of Suppl y, .4. C. 1435, RL)F 103, ~om. 72, NTOV.27, 1941. Refer ences to earl i er
French and Ger man wor k are gi ven by F. E. Terman, Radio Engineers Handbook.
MoGraw-Hi l l , New l -ork, 1943, p. 837.
416 PENCI L-BEAM AND SI MPLE FANNED-BEAM ANTENNAS ~Sm,, 12.2
focus; the coordi nates are R, O, +, wi th O the pol a~ angl e and I #Jthe
azi muth angl e, the l atter bei ng measured from the zz-pl ane.
The r efl ector i s cut off by the aperture pl ane A at z = Zo. The
di ameter of the aperture wi l l be desi gnated by D, and i i x area by A.
The shape of the r efl ector i s speci fi ed by the rati o of focal l ength to
z
1
A
I
I
1!
I
.f+zo
I
/
Y
v
A
di ameter, j/D, or al ternati vel y by the angul ar aperture T, that i s, the
angl e subtended at the focus by a radi us of the aperture. The rel ati on
between the f/D rati o and the angul ar aperture i s gi ven by
.
FI G. 12. 1.Geometri cal parameters for the paral ml o i dal refl ector.
(4b)
One of the most i mportant desi gn probl ems i s the determi nati on of the
shape that gi ves maxi mum antenna gai n for a gi ven aperture di amct:r
and a gi ven pri mary feed pattern.
t
The geometri cal properti es of parabol oi ds are wel l known. .4ny rcc-
ti on of the surface contai ni ng the z-axi s i s, of col l rse, a parabol a ~vi th
SEC. 12.3]
THE SURFACE-CURRENT DISTRIBUTION 4A7
focus at F. I n addi ti on, however , the cur ve of i ntersecti on of the surface
.
wi th any pl ane paral l el to the z-axi s (normal to the zy-pl ane) i s al so a
parabol a of the same focal l ength f as the parabol oi d. As a consequence
of the pr oper ty, onl y a si ngl e parabol i c templ ate i s needed i n the con-
structi on of the r efl ector to test the accuracy of al l parts of the surface.
The normal to the surface at a poi nt p, ~, ~ l i es i n the pl ane contai ni ng
thi s poi nt and the z-axi s and makes an angl e $/2 wi th the i nci dent ray
from F,
12.3. The Surface-current and Aperture-fi el d Di stri buti ons.I n the
treatment of the general theor y of r efl ector s devel oped i n Chap. 5 i t
i s shown that the over-al l pattern of the antenna, that i s, the secondary
pattern, ari ses by the superposi ti on upon the radi ati on fi el d of the antenna
feed of the radi ati on fi el d of the di stri buti on of cur r ent gener ated on the
surface of the r efl ector i n the pr esence of the feed. I t was shown further
that the r efl ector fi el d can be determi ned ei ther from the surface-current
di stri buti on di rectl y or i n the form of a di ffracti on pattern from the fi el d
di stri buti on over the aperture of the mi rror. Befor e pr oceedi ng wi th
the cal cul ati on of the surface-current and aperture-fi el d di stri buti ons,
some fundamental i deas and assumpti ons whi ch underl i e al l of the sub-
sequent di scussi ons shoul d be noted. The feed pattern i n the pr esence
of a r efl ector , i n general , di ffers from i ts free-space pattern, because the
reacti on of the r efl ector on the antenna feed modi fi es i ts cur r ent system.
v
I f, however , the focal l ength of the parabol oi d i s at l east several wave-
l engths i n magni tude and the mi rror i s i n the radi ati on zone of the fr ee-
space pattern of the feed, the i nteracti on between the mi rror and the
antenna feed i s a second-or der effect as far as the pri mary pattern i s
concer ned. These condi ti ons are usual l y real i zed i n mi crowave antennas;
and subject to thei r real i zati on, i t wi l l be assumed that the feed pattern
i n the pr esence of the r efl ector i s the same as under free-space condi ti ons.
To avoi d the compl ex probl em of i nter fer ence between the fi el ds
of the r efl ector and the antenna feed i n the formati on of the mai n struc-
tur e of the antenna pattern [cf Eqs. (5.75) and (5.76)], the di recti vi ty
of the feed pattern shoul d be such that the major porti on of the ener gy
l i es wi thi n the cone defi ned by the feed and the r efl ector . Referri ng
to Fi g. 12.1, i ftaki ng an i deal casethe pri mary pattern i s zer o for
angl es $ > 90, the mai n structure of the beam i s determi ned by the
r efl ector currents al one. The di recti ve feeds di scussed i n Chaps. 8 and
10 approxi mate thi s condi ti on rather cl osel y; thei r back l obes, however ,
are not compl etel y negl i gi bl e and have si gni fi cant effects not onl y on
the wi de-angl e si de l obes wher e the back-l obe fi el d i s comparabl e to the
#
weak r efl ector fi el d but al so on the peak i ntensi ty, that i s, on the antenna
gai n. The effect of the back l obe on gai n wi l l be i n~esti gatecl i n Sec.
12-5.
The general approxi mati on pr ocedur e bawd on geomctri ral opti cs
418 PENCIL-BEAM AND SIMPLE FANNED-BEAM ANTENNAS ~~EC. 12.3
and pl ane-wave boundary condi ti ons, whi ch i s di scussed i n Chap. 5, wi l l
be used to eval uate the surface-current and aperture-fi el d di stri buti ons.
Let the pri nci pal E- and H-pl anes of the pri mary feed pattern coi nci de
wi th the ZZ- and yz-pl anes, respecti vel y, i n Fi g. 12.1. I f PT i s the total
power radi ated by the feed and G,(f,v) i ts gai n functi on, the power P((,~)
radi ated per uni t sol i d angl e i n the di recti on .f, ~ i s
F(.E,I)) = ~ G,(&x).
The el ectri c-fi el d-i ntensi ty pri mary pattern, r educed to the uni t sphere
about the center of feed, i s then gi ven by
E()*)]P-l= 12(:)H[:Gf(*11e0(J~
(5)
wher e eOi s a uni t vector defi ni ng the pol ari zati on i n the pri mary pattern.1
The fi el d i ntensi ty i n the i nci dent wave at a poi nt p, & $ on the r efl ector
i s ther efor e gi ven by
0= [wwG(Y%-e@e@
The fi el d i ntensi ty El i n the r efl ected wave at the same poi nt i s
1= [2(YwG(Ye$e$
(6)
(7) w
wher e e ~defi nes the pol ari zati on i n the r efl ected wave; accordi ng to the
pl ane-wave boundary condi ti on [Eq. (5.25)] the vector s e, and el are
connected by the rel ati on
nx(eO+el )=O,
(8)
i n whi ch n i s the uni t vector normal to the r efl ector at the poi nt of i nci -
dence. The vector n wi l l be taken to be di r ected outward from the
I
r efl ector i nto fr ee space. Fol l owi ng Eq. (5.57a), the surface-current
densi ty K i s gi ven i n terms of the i nci dent wave by
t
=[8(;)fi21[G(:*)]4 -k[nx(Qoxe0 g)
wher e pOi s a uni t vector i n the di recti on of the i nci dent ray.
Expandi ng
the vector product, we obtai n
= [8(:Y:l$[Gf(:~)]-]k[eocos:+(e0n)@o] (ga)
t
The cur r ent can be expressed i n a si mi l ar manner i n terms of the r efl ected
] I t i s bei ng assumed that the radi ati on fi el d of the pri mary feed i s l i nearl y pol ari zed
at ever y poi nt but that e~i s a functi on of L #.
SEC. 12.3] THE SURFACE-CURRENT DI STRI BUTI ON 419
fi el d bymaki nguseof Eq. (5.57 b), noti ng that ther efl ected rayi s paral l el
to the z-axi s; we have then
=[8(:) =l}G(:*)]-knx ixel110)
or
=[8(YwG(Y%e-k[-ec0s: +i Jned oa)
To obtai n the fi el d over the aperture we note that si nce the r efl ected
rays are al l paral l el , the fi el d i ntensi ty remai ns constant i n magni tude
\
ne
!
H-plane
FI O. 12.2.Typi ca1 aperture-fi el d di stri buti on; the fi el d i s resol ved i nto pri nci pal and
cross-pol ari zati on compments.
al ong the r efl ected ray (cj. Sec. 4.4). The el ectri c-fi el d i ntensi ty E(T,f)
at a poi nt (r, () on the aperture i s thus gi ven di rectl y by El at the cor -
.
respondi ng poi nt (p,~,~), except for the phase retardati on correspondi ng
to the path from the r efl ector to the aperture pl ane. The rel ati on i s
E(r, f) = El(P, f,#)ek@-zJ
= [2(:) H[G(Y%-k(ti zz-)el e1. 1)
The di stance p + zO z i s the total opti cs! path from F to the aperture
pl ane; i t i s ther efor e i ndependent of the poi nt (r, ~), and mor e speci fi cal l y
t
i t i s equal to f + z,. Compari ng the surface-current di stri buti on as
gi ven by Eq. (l Oa) wi th the aperture-fi el d di stri buti on [Eq. (1 1)], i t i s
seen that except for constants, the aperture fi el d i s the pr ojecti on of the
(12)
wher e the vector 1, expressed i n terms of the i nci dent fi el d on the r efl ector
X p si n + sec ~ W df (12a)
and, i n terms of the r efl ected fi el d,
4
420 PENCI L-BEAM AND SI MPLE FANNED-BEAM ANTENNAS [~EC, 124
surface-current di stri buti on i nto the aperture pl ane. I n thi s connecti on
i t shoul d be noted that the l ongi tudi nal component of the cur r ent gi ven
by the term (e, cn)i . i n Eq. (10) fi nds no counterpart i n the aperture
di stri buti on because the fi el d over the aperture i s whol l y transverse to
the z-axi s. Thi s l ongi tudi nal component of the cur r ent has general l y
been negl ected i n parabol oi d theor y. I t contri butes nothi ng to the fi el d
i n the forward di recti on and ther efor e does not enter i nto the computa-
ti on of the peak i ntensi ty, but i t does modi fy the si de-l obe structure of
the beam. The general character of the aperture di stri buti on (and the
transverse component of the cur r ent di stri buti on) i s i l l ustrated i n Fi g.
12.2. I t i s seen that the pol ari zati on refl ects the symmetry of the pri -
mary feed pattern. The component e,z of the aperture pol ari zati on
whi ch i s paral l el to the pri nci pal E-pl ane of the feed i s known as the
pri nci pal pol ari zati on component, and the component el ~, whi ch i s
transverse ther eto, i s known as the cross-pol ari zati on component. By
vi rtue of the symmetry condi ti ons the cross-pol ari zati on components
at any pai r of poi nts that are symmetri cal wi th r espect to tbe pri nci pal
pl anes are effecti vel y 180 out of phase wi th one another.
12.4. The Radi ati on Fi el d of the Refl ector.-The secondary pattern
pr oduced by the r efl ector may now be cal cul ated from ei ther the cur r ent
di stri buti on or the aperture fi el d, usi ng the methods of Sees. 5.9 and 5.12,
respecti vel y. The two cal cul ati ons do not l ead to compl etel y concordant
resul ts; the di fferences between them vani sh, however , i n the l i mi t of
y
zer o wal el ength. The di screpancy l i es i n the fact that the aperture
fi el d whi ch woul d be cal cul ated as pr oduced by the surface currents i s
equal to that cal cul ated on the basi s of the r efl ected rays onl y under
the l i mi ti ng condi ti on of zer o wavel ength. To exhi bi t the rel ati onshi ps
we shal l set up the expressi ons for the radi ati on fi el d as obtai ned from
the cur r ent di stri buti on. Letti ng Rl , i e, i + be uni t vector s associ ated
wi th the spheri cal coordi nates R, 0, @ (l Fi g. 12.1), we have, by Eqs.
(5.74a) to (5.74c), that the radi ati on fi el d of the r efl ector i s
SEC. 12.4] THE RADIATIO.V FIEI>IJ OF THE REFLECTOR 421
Compari ng wi th Eqs. (10) and (l Oa) i t i s seen that i n the form of Eq.
(12f)), the vector I i s resol ved i nto a transverse component paral l el to
the q-pl ane,
and a l ongi tudi nal component
As regards the l ongi tudi nal component i t i s obser ved that 1, makes no
contri buti on to the Ed-component of the fi el d because i . i s al ways i n a
pl ane normal to i ,. Furthermore, si nce i Z. i ~ = si n O, the l ongi tudi nal
component makes no contri buti on to the fi el d i n the di recti on o = &
the physi cal basi s for thi s bei ng that a cur r ent el ement i s equi val ent to
a di pol e and does not radi ate i n the di recti on al ong i ts axi s. The con-
tri buti on of 1, i s si gni fi cant onl y at wi de angl es. For the systems wi th
whi ch \ve are concer ned that pr oduce narrow beams, the contri buti on
of I =i s a second-or der effect; i t vani shes i n the l i mi t of zer o wavel ength.
Ther e i s no counterpart of the 1, contri buti on i n the cal cul ati on of the
pattern from the aperture-fi el d di stri buti on.
y
Consi deri ng the transverse component 1,, i t wi l l be obser ved that i f
the radi ati on fi el d i s confi ned to a smal l angul ar regi on about the d = O
axi s, the vari ati on of cos 0 i n the phase term of Eq. (13a) can be negl ected;
we have then P(1 + cos ~ cos 0) = 2,f. Al so i t wi l l be noted on com-
pari ng wi th Eq. (11) that except for a mul ti pl i cati ve constantwhi ch i s
contai ned i n the fi el d expressi ons [Eq. (12)]the factor [G1(~,~)]~$el /p
i s the fi el d i n the aperture pl ane at the poi nt (r, ~) whi ch corresponds to
the poi nt (p,~,~) on the r efl ector . Equati on (13a) i s, ther efor e, gi ven
approxi matel .v by the i ntegral
over the aperture plane, on setting up the radiation fi el d on ti l e l ):~si s
of the aperture fi el d by the methods of Sec. .5.12 i t ~vi l l be fount] th:l t (ho
same resul t i s obtai ned for the pattern as that from the ~l sc of E(I , (14)
i n conjl mcti on ~vi th Eqs. (12). Thus, the current-di stri buti on metl u.xl
passes i nto the aperture-fi el d method as the angul ar spread of the pa~-
ter n decreases, that i s, as the rati o of the \vavel ength to aperture di am-
eter , x/D, apprwwhcs zer o. The si gni fi cant di fference bet~veen the
f
resul ts of the two methods i s the dependence of the pattern on the rati o
h/D. I t ~1-asshoi m i n Sec. 68 that on the basi s of the aperture-fi el (l
cal cul ati on, the ang~l l ar di stri buti on of the secondary pattern i s pr opor -
ti omd to k 1) for a gi ven rel ati ve di stri b~l ti on ovr r the aperture and the
si de-l obe i ntrnsi ti cs arr i ndependent of k I ). On the nther hand, i t has
422 PENCIL-BEAM AND SIMPLE FA NNIID-BEA Al ANTENNAS ~f+EC. 12.4
been found i n a study of speci al forms of Gl (f,Y) by the current-di stri bu-
ti on method, usi ng the compl ete expressi ons Eqs. (12a) and (12b), that
the si de-l obe i ntensi ty i s al so a functi on of A/D, whi ch asymptoti cal l y
approaches the val ue gi ven by the aperture method as A/D approaches
zer o.
Principal E- and H-plane Patterns.In an arbi trary di recti on the
fi el d has both the Ee- and the E$-component. They are general l y out of
phase wi th the resul t that the fi el d i s el l i pti cal l y pol ari zed (cj. Sec. 3.12).
However , i n the pri nci pal pl anesthe pl anes + = O and o = r/2the
fi el d i s l i nearl y pol ari zed i n the di recti on determi ned essenti al l y by the
pri nci pal pol ari zati on component of the aperture fi el d. Consi deri ng
the E-pl ane, @ = O, we see that the y-component of I t whi ch ari ses from
the cross-pol ari zati on component of the cur r ent di stri buti on (or aperture
fi el d) vani shes because contri buti ons from poi nts i n the r efl ector that
are symmetri cal l y l ocated wi th r espect to the zz-pl ane are 180 out of
phase. The fi el d i s pr oduced by the 1,- and I ,=-components and,
ther efor e, has onl y an Ep-component whi ch l i es i n the E-pl ane.
Si mi l arl y i t i s found that i n the H-pl ane the fi el d has onl y an E$-compo-
nent and i s, ther efor e, ever ywher e normal to the H-pl ane and paral l el
to the pri nci pal component of the aperture fi el d. Agai n, si nce the
cross-pol ari zati on components of the cur r ent at a pai r of poi nts on the
r efl ector that are symmetri cal l y l ocated wi th r espect to the yz-pl ane are
180 out of phase, thei r resul tant contri buti on to the H-pl ane vani shes.
?.~
I t was noted earl i er that the l ongi tudi nal cur r ent el ement contri butes
nothi ng to the E+-component; ther efor e the H-pl ane fi el d i s pr oduced
enti rel y by the pri nci pal component of the aperture fi el d. Usi ng the
aperture-fi el d approxi mati on [Eq. (14)], we fi nd that the pri nci pal pl ane
patterns are
a, E-pl ane:
(15a)
b. H-pl ane:
(16a)
1
The two patterns have the same val ue, of course, al ong the axi s (i n the
di recti on 8 = 0).
SW. 12.5] THE ANTENNA GAIN
423
Cross Pol ari zati on.The pol ari zati on of the fi el d i n a penci l beam i s
general l y expressed wi th r efer ence to the m and y-axes rather than
the spheri cal coordi nate di recti ons as we have done above. The use
of the cartesi an components has associ ated wi th i t an er r or i n that the
fi el d i s transverse to the radi al di recti on from the ori gi n and not to the
z-axi s; but i f the beam i s narrow, the er r or i s smal l . The l atter mode of
descri pti on has the advantage that the E.-component i s associ ated di rectl y
wi th pri nci pal pol ari zati on component of the aperture fi el d and the
Eu-component wi th the crosr-pol ari zati on component. The E=- and
Ev-components are desi gnated correspondi ngl y as the pri nci pal pol ari za-
ti on and cross-pol ari zati on components of the secondary pattern. They
aregi ven by rel ati on sequi val ent to Eqs. (12) wi thi ~. I andi ~. I repl aced
byl ,. andl ,V, respecti vel y.
Byusi ng the cartesi an components, thesecondary pattern i s resol ved
i nto a pri nci pal pol ari zati on pattern and a cross-pol ari zati on pattern.
The E- and H-pl ane patterns gi ven by Eqs. (15a) and (16a) bel ong to
the former. I t i s obvi ous that the symmetry properti es of the aperture
fi el d wi th r espect to the pri nci pal pl anes, whi ch l ead to zer o cross pol ari -
zati on i n those pl anes, do not hol d for other di recti ons i n space. The
cross-pol ari zati on pattern must, ther efor e, have maxi ma i n the four
quadrants between the pri nci pal pl anes. A detai l ed anal ysi sl shows
b.: that the cross-pol ari zati on pattern takes the form of four l obes whose
maxi ma l i e i n the 45 pl anes between the pri nci pal pl anes. Any
two l obes rel ated by refl ecti on i n a gi ven pri nci pal pl ane are out of
phase by 180.
The maxi ma of one set of l obes occur at angul ar dLs-
tances from the parabol oi d axi s equal to the posi ti on of the fi rst mi ni mum
of the pri nci pal pol ari zati on pattern,
whi ch i s ver y cl osel y equal to
the hal f-power wi dth of the mai n l obe.
A second set of cross-pol ari zati on
l obes appears at much wi der angl es; the peaks are qui te l ow, but the
l obes are ver y broad and ther efor e r epr esent a not compl etel y negl i gi bl e
fracti on of the total ener gy.
Cross-pol ari zati on studi es shoul d be made on al l antennas on whi ch
I
the si de-l obe speci fi cati ons are ver y stri ngent.
Al though the pri nci pal
pol ari zati on l obes may meet the operati onal requi rements, the cross-
pol ari zati on l obes may not. Furthermore, si nce they l i e cl ose i nto the
mai n beam, they effecti vel y i ncrease i ts wi dth.
12.6. The Antenna Gai n.-The gai n i s gener al l y the pri mary con-
si derati on i n the desi gn of the antenna.
The factors affecti ng the gai n
are treated conveni entl y i n thr ee parts: (1) the dependence of the opti -
mum angul ar aper tur e v on the feed pattern, for a fi xed di ameter D i n
f
the apcrt ur e pl ane, assumi ng that Gj(t,l) = O for V > 90; (2) the back-
l abe i nter fer ence effect; and (3) phase-error consi derati ons. I n thi s
LF,.U. Condon, Theor y of Radi ati onfrom Parabol oi dRefl ector , Westi nghouse
Repor t No. 15, Sept. 24, 1941.
*
_. ._..
424 PENCIL-BEAM AND SIMPLE FANNED-BEAM ANTENNAS [SEC. 125
di scussi on the pri mary pattern wi l l be taken to be ci rcul arl y symmetri cal ,
i ndependent of ~; as was noted i n Sec. 12.1 thi s means that i n practi ce
the feed pattern i s repl aced by the ari thmeti c mean of i ts pri nci pal
E- and H-pl ane patterns. I t i s i mmateri al for the cal cul ati on of gai n
whether the surface-current or aperture-fi el d di stri buti on i s taken as
the starti ng poi nt, because as was poi nted out above, the l ongi tudi nal
component of the cur r ent i s i neffecti ve i n determi ni ng the peak i ntensi ty.
Optimum Angular Aperture Relations.The fi el d i ntensi ty i n the
secondary pattern on the axi s at a di stance RO from the focus i s gi ven by
ei ther Eq. (15a) or (16a) for o = O. For the present purpose, i t i s mor e
conveni ent to express Ilt i n the form of Eq. (13a) as an i ntegral over the
surface of the r efl ector rather than i n the form of Eq. (15b); we have
The pol ari zati on component el , i s i n general a functi on of ~and v because
of the pr esence of cross pol ari zati on. Ho\vever , i n most cases of i nterest
the cross pol ari zati on e,. i s a ver y smal l fracti on of the total fi el d and the
vari ati on of el z over the aperture may then be negl ected. I ntroduci ng
the equati on of the parabol oi d [Eq. (3)] and performi ng the i ntegrati on
over f, we get
=%[(wl e-yk(+) JI Gf(+)an@ 8)
The power per uni t sol i d angl e P(O,O) radi ated i n the forward di recti on
i s gi ven by
()
~ }i
P(o,oj = ; R; ~
lE(Ro,o,0)12,
(19)
and the antenna gai n i s ubtai ned from i t as
G = P(o,o)
P,

(20)
h
because the total power radi ated by the antenna as a whol e equal s that
radi ated by the feed. The gai n i s thus found to be
(21)
The focal l ength i s rel ated to the angul ar aperture and the aperture di m-
eter D by
f = : cot;. (22
-. _,
-. --...
~
1.$
--
SEC. 125[
TIIE ANTENNA GAIN
425
Substi tuti ng i nto the precedi ng rel ati on, we obtai n fi nal l y the worki ng
formul a
G=t+Yc0t2~l/ovG*ta 23)
The factor (mD/x) 2 i s the gai n for a uni forml y i l l umi nated constant-
phase aperture; the rest i s the gai n factor or effi ci ency
(23a)
Thus the effi ci ency i s a functi on onl y of the feed pattern and the angul ar
aperture; that i s, for a gi ven feed pattern, the effi ci ency i s the same for
al l parabol oi ds havi ng the same j/D rati o.
I t i s i nstructi ve to consi der the cl ass of feed patterns defi ned b-y
Gf(+) = G$) COSn~,
()~$~;,
=0
p;.
(24)
Many feed patterns can be r epr esented by some one member of thi s cl ass
over a si zabl e porti on of the mai n l obe.
The gai n G~) i s determi ned by
the condi ti on that
/
G,(+) da = 47r,
dfl bei ng the el ement of sol i d angl e; thi s gi ves
G$) = 2(n + 1).
Substi tuti ng Eqs. (24) and (24a) i nto Eq. (23a), we obtai n
(24a)
[/
S = 2(n + 1) cot ~ ,* cosn ~ tan
() 1
+
i jd$) (25)
wi th the fol l o~vi ng expl i ci t expressi ons for the even val ues of n between
n=2andn =8:
( )
2
S2 = 24 si n ~ + I n cm ~
*
cot
2
( )
2
$4 = 40 si n; + I n cos~ ~; cot
[
(1 Cos )3 + ~si n, V cot2x.
GG=14 21ncos~+ ~
2
1
2
[
1 Cos *
s, =18 ~ 21ncos~
(1 COS Z) 1 . , coty.
3 ~sn q
1
2
These resul ts are shown graphi cal l y i n Fi g. 12.3, \vher e S. i s pl otted as
426 PENCIL-BEAM AND SIMPLE FANNED-BEAM ANTENNAS [SEC. 12.5
a functi on of the angul ar aperture ~.
For each pri mary pattern ther e
i s an opti mum aperture for whi ch the maxi mum gai n factor i s attai ned.
The mor e di recti ve the feed pattern the smal l er i s the opti mum aper-
tur e and, si nce the di ameter of the aperture pl ane i s const~.nt, the l onger
i s the opti mum focal l ength. The general cour se of the curves and the
1,0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
C%
i
-0.5
c
.=
a
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
00 100 200
30J 40 w 6(Y 70 800 900
Angular a~ure ~
Fro. 12.3.Dependence of the gai n factor on angul ar aperture and pri rnary feed pattern.
G,(t) = 2(7L+ 1) COB+,
O<$<T
2
= o,
+>;.
exi stence of a maxi mum are readi l y understood ~vhen i t i s r ecogni zed
that the gai n factor ari ses essenti al l y as a product of two factors: (1)
the fracti on of the total power radi ated by the antenna feed that i s
i ntercepted by the r efl ector and i s thus made avai l abl e to i ts aperture
for the mai n beam and (2) the effi ci ency wi th whi ch the aperture
concentrates the avai l abl e ener gy i n the forward di recti on. The fi rst
factor obvi ousl y i ncreases wi th i ncreasi ng angul ar aperture. The
second factor, determi ned by the fi el d di stri bl l ti on over the aperturr,
.- . .
SEC. 12.5]
THE ANTENNA GAI N 427
decreases wi th i ncreasi ng v; for as Z i ncreases, the i l l umi nati on over the
aperture becomes mor e and mor e tapered toward the edge rel ati ve to
the center . Thi s taperi ng i s accentuated by the superposi ti on of the
space attenuati on factor I /p on the al ready di recti ve feed pattern
[G,(+) ]~fi ; as was shown i n Chap. 6, such taperi ng of the i l l umi nati on
resul ts i n a decr ease i n aperture effi ci ency.
The opti mum angul ar
aperture represents the pr oper compromi se between spi l l over of the
feed ener gy and aperture effi ci ency.
For an arbi trary Gf(~), the opti mum
angul ar aperture i s obtai ned as a sol uti on of
(26)
a rel ati on obtai ned by setti ng the deri vati ve of Eq. (23a), dS/d~, equal
to zer o.
The val ues of the gai n factor at the maxi ma i n Fi g. 123 are consi d-
erabl y hi gher than the val ues real i zed i n practi ce.
Thi s i s because i deal -
i zed feed patterns have been assumed i n whi ch no feed ener gy i s radi ated
beyond ~ = 90. As a resul t the gai n G$) of the i deal i zed pattern i s
much gr eater than the gai n GfOof an actual feed whose mai n l obe can
be r epr esented cl osel y by GJOCOS+ but whi ch i n addi ti on radi ates
beyond 90.
The gai n factor S r e-
al i zed wi th the actual feed i s r e-
l ated to S. by
The val ue of the opti mum angul ar
aperture i s unaffected by thi s scal -
i ng i n the pri mary feed gai n. I t
wi l l be obser ved that the val ue of
the maxi mum vari es but sl owl y
wi th the i l l umi nati on functi on.
The broader the pri mary feed
pattern the broader i s the maxi -
mum i n the S-cur ve and the l ess
cri ti cal i s the choi ce of angul ar
a~erture. I t i s conveni ent to
n
FI G. 12.4Cutoff poi nt ,n pri mary feed
pattern for n,axi murn gai n M a functi on of the
sharpness of the feed pattern.
d~si gnate the opti mum angul ar aperture i n terms of the deci bel l evel
of the pri mary pattern at the edge of the aperture rel ati ve to i ts maxi -
mum. Thus for a cosi ne-squared pattern the opti mum val ue of v cor -
d
responds ta that angl e i n the pri mary feed pattern at whi ch the power
i s 8 db down from the peak i ntensi ty. The deci bel -cutoff poi nt i n the
pri mary pattern i s pl otted as a functi on of the di recti vi ty i n Fi g. 12.4.
The deci bel -cl l totl poi nt agai n i s not a sensi ti ve functi on of the di recti vi ty.
For most feeds the a~wmge onti murn fi gure i s from 9 to 10 db.
I
1
428 PENCIL-BEAM AND SIMPLE FANNED-BEAM AN TENAAS [SEC. 12.5
The opti mum angul ar aperture can al so be expressed i n terms of the
i ntensi ty of i l l umi nati on at the edge of the r efl ector rel ati ve to that at
the ver tex. Thi s i s obtai ned by mul ti pl yi ng the rati o of the pri mary
pattern i ntensi ti es Gf O/Gf(J) by the rati o of the space attenuati on
factors pif. I t i s found i n the case of each of the di stri buti ons studi ed
above that the opti mum angul ar aperture corresponds to an edge i l l u-
mi nati on 11 db bel ow the ver tex i l l umi nati on.
Back-1obe l nter~erence.The above resul ts may be modi fi ed si gni fi - ;
cantl y by the effect of i nter fer ence between the back l obe of the pri mary
feed pattern and the r efl ector fi el d. I .et G. be the gai n of the antenna
feed i n the di recti on ~ = 180. The back-l obe fi el d i ntensi ty at the fi el d
poi nt (RO,O,O) al ong the axi s i s then
)
(28)
The choi ce of posi ti ve or negati ve si gn i s made accordi ng to whether the
fi el d of the feed i n the di recti on x = T i s paral l el (i n phase) or anti paral l el
(180 out of phase) to that i n the di recti on ~ = O. Superposi ti on of the
back-l obe fi el d cm the r efl ector fi el d [Eq. (18)] yi el ds the total fi el d
i ntensi ty
By the pr ocedur e fol l owed previ ousl y the gai n factor i s found to be
wher e
\
U. = ~
[G,(+)]; tan ~ d~. (30a)
I n most cases of i nterest G= i s so smal l that the l ast term i n Eq. (30) i s
negl i gi bl e; under thi s condi ti on the gai n factor becomes
$=(oCot:)[ =%n:si %cw 3)
The term i n brackets i s the modi fi cati on of the previ ous resul t i ntroduced
by the back-l obe i nterference. Thi s modi fi cati on i ntroduces an addi -
ti onal X/D dependence; the i nter fer ence effect depends on the rati o of
the back-l obe fi el d i ntensi ty to the r efl ector fi el d i ntensi ty, and the l atter
:
i s proporti onal to D/x. For a gi ven pri mary pattern S i s no l onger a
functi on of the parabol oi d shape al one.
~
I
SEC. 12.5]
THE ANTENNA GAI N 429
The back-l obe effect i s i l l ustrated graphi cal l y i n Fi g. 12.5. The
curves pertai n to an actual feedthe +i n. stub-supported di pol e-di sk
feed of Sec. 8.8and a r efl ector wi th a, 30-i n. aperture di ameter; the
wavel ength i s 10 cm. The mai n l obe of thi s parti cul ar feed i s fi tted
cl osel y by the functi on
G(+) = 7.0 COS4 +.
I t wi l l be noted that the gai n i s 7, as compared wi th G~4J= 10 for the
i deal i zed cos~ ~ pattern used previ ousl y, The back-l obe gai n Gr i s
0.142. Cur ve A i s the rel ati on between the gai n factor and aperture,
J
0.7
0.6
0.5
~o.4
z
~
~ 0.3
0.2
u.1
n
-00 100
20 300 400
500 600 700 800
900
Angular aperture ~
FIG. 12.5.Effect of back l obe on gai n.
negl ecti ng the back l obe, whi l e Cur ve B i ncl udes the i nter fer ence effect.
The gai n fal l s above or bel ow Cur ve A accordi ng to whether the back
l obe i s i n phase or out of phase wi th the r efl ector fi el d. The two fi el ds
add when the focal di st ante i s such that, together wi th the 180 phase
change at the r efl ector , the fi el d of the l atter i s brought i nto phase wi th
the back l obe. The poi nts of maxi mum devi ati on from Cur ve A cor r e-
spond to di fferences i n focal l ength ver y nearl y equal to x/2. The
opti mum aperture i s not al tered noti ceabl y, but the maxi mum real i zabl e
gai n factor i ncreases by 2,5 per cent. The effect i s smal l for thi s par-
ti cul ar feed because the back-l obe l evel i s so l ow rel ati ve to the mai n l obe.
j
Wi th i eeds such as the 3-cm-band doubl e-di pol e feed di scussed i n Sec.
(89), havi ng a comparati vel y hi gh back-l obe l evel , the back-l obe i nter-
~
fer ence effect i s much mor e si gni fi cant.
4
430 PENCIL-BEAM AND SIMPLE FANNED-BEAM ANTENNAS [%C. 12.5
Phase-error Effects.-I t was poi nted out earl i er that a di mi nuti on of
gai n resul ts from any departure from uni form phase over the aperture
that, however , l eaves the peak i ntensi ty on the axi s of the parabol oi d.
The di recti on of peak i ntensi ty remai ns unchanged i f the phase-error
di stri buti on over the aperture i s i ndependent of (; thi s di scussi on i s con-
fi ned to such di stri buti ons. The phase devi ati on can ari se from a
number of scurces: (1) devi ati on of the r efl ector from a parabol oi dal
shape, (2) defocusi ng (di spl acement of the feed center from the focus), or
(3) devi ati on of the antenna-feed wavefronts from spheri cal wavefronts.
From the poi nt of vi ew of the aperture i t i s i mmateri al whi ch of the thr ee
factors i s operati ve. To ti e i n wi th the precedi ng di scussi on of the rel a-
ti on between the r efl ector and the feed pattern, the phase-error sour ce wi l l
be taken to be the thi rd of the above, that i s, the absence of a tr ue center
of feed. Back-l obe i nter fer ence wi l l be negl ected. The fi nal resul ts can
easi l y be i nterpreted i n terms of equi val ent er r or s ari si ng from surface
di storti on or defocusi ng. Let us then assume that the fi el d-i ntensi ty
pattern of the antenna feed has the form
(32)
wher e d(~) represents the phase er r or i n the feed pattern. A r evi ew
of the steps l eadi ng to the fi el d i ntensi ty E(Ro, O,O) of the secondary
pattern on the axi s, gi ven i n Eq. (18), wi l l show that the onl y change
i ntroduced i n Eq. (18) i s the repl acement of [Gj(+)]~~by [GJ(~)]~~e~~6t$J.
By preci sel y the same devel opment as before, the gai n factor i s gi ven by
By way of i l l ustrati on, the effect of a quadrati c phase er r or has been
computed for the pri mary pattern of the di pol e-di sk feed consi dered
above i n connecti on wi th back-l obe i nterference.
The phase functi on
i s taken to be
The opti mum angul ar aperture i n the absence of phase er r or i s taken as a
base for compari son and a i s adjusted to pr oduce a preassi gned phase
er r or at the edge of the aperture for that case. The curves gi ven i n Fi g.
12.6 are for val ues of a that resul t i n phase er r or s of k/24, k/16, k/8, and
~/4 at the edge of an aperture of angl e w = 61. The l oss i n gai n i s 2 per
cent for an er r or of A/l 6 at the edge, 6 per cent for A/8, and 20 per cent for
A,4. The eff wt of a hi ghl y tapered i l l umi nati on i s shown i n Fi g. 126 by
SEC. 12.5] THE ANTENNA GAIN 431
theval ues of thegai n factor for the aperture of angl e~ = 90. For thi s
val ue of Vtheal curve represents aphase er r or of approxi matel y ~/11 at
the edge, whi l e the a, cur ve represents an er r or of approxi matel y X/6; the
correspondi ng l osses i n gai n rel ati ve to the a = O cur ve are 2.7 and 3.6
per cent respecti vel y. Si nce the gai n curves are not ver y sensi ti ve to
the i l l umi nati on, the resul ts obtai ned her e for the cos4~ di stri buti on
may be taken as characteri sti c; a conservati ve eval uati on sets X/8 as
the maxi mum al l owabl e phase devi ati on over the aperture.
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 503 600
700 ~o go.
Angular aperture ~
FI G. 12,6. Phase+rror effects on gai n.
Ther e i s another aspect of the feed pattern that shoul d be noted i n
connecti on wi th phase-error effects. The di scussi on above i s based on
the assumpti on that the r efl ector i s i l l umi nated by the mai n l obe of the
feed. For some purposes i t may be desi rabl e to accept the l oss i n gai n
associ ated wi th a l arge angul ar aperture i n or der to suppress the si de
l obes. The angul ar aperture, however , must not extend beyond the
fi rst mi ni mum of the feed pattern. General l y, i n passi ng through a
mi ni mum (mor e exactl y a nul l ) i nthefeed pattern ther e i s a di sconti nui ty
of 180 i n the phase. I ncl usi on of any porti on of the pattern beyond
the mi ni mum thus i ntroduces compl etel y out-of-phase i l l umi nati on at
the peri phery of the aperture, wi th a ver y seri ous reducti on i n gai n.
Resul ts si mi l ar to those obtai ned above are obtai ned when the phase
er r or ari ses from defocusi ng. .As shown i n Fi g. 12.7, i f the center of feed
i s di spl aced a di stance &l from the focus al ong the axi s, the phase-error
432 PENCI L-BEAM AND SI MPLE FANNED-BEAM ANTENNAS [SEC!. 125
function is
6 6,
X=x
Cos +. (34)
The k/8 cri teri on i ndi cates a focusi ng tol erance rel ated to the angul ar
(===
.
=.
+
. L5=60COS+
.
F 60
FI Q. 12.7.Defocusi ng phase er r or s.
aperture by
130= ~ sec V.
I n practi ce, the focusi ng condi -
ti on i s not adhered to ri gi dl y. I t
i s not practi cabl e to tai l or ever y
r efl ector to the feed, because fr e-
quentl y i t i s necessary to i nter-
change feed systems. I n these
cases the back-l obe i nter fer ence
effect may be a deci ded asset; by defocusi ng to bri ng the back l obe i n
phase wi th the mai n beam i t may be possi bl e to achi eve an i ncrease i n
gai n that far exceeds the l oss due to defocusi ng phase er r or s. Thi s i s
parti cul arl y tr ue wi th feeds such as the 3-cm-band doubl e-di pol e feed
whi ch has a ver y l arge back l obe.
Design Procedures.The theoreti cal anal ysi s may be summed up i n
terms of desi gn pr ocedur es for real i zi ng a maxi mum gai n factor:
1. The shape factor j/D i s to be chosen so that the ful l angl e sub-
tended by the refl ector,at the feed i s i n the range between the 9- and
10-db wi dths of the pri mary feed pattern. A mor e exact val ue for
a gi ven pri mary pattern i s obtai ned by sol vi ng Eq. (26).
2. The focal l ength of the parabol oi d shoul d be an i ntegral number of
hal f wavel engths j~ = mk /2 i f the back l obe of the pri mary pat-
ter n i s 180 out of phase wi th the mai n l obe; i f the back l obe and
mai n l obe of the pri mary pattern are i n phase, the focal l ength
shoul d be f~ = (2m + 1)A/4 wher e m agai n i s an i nteger,
Lnder
these condi ti ons the back l obe ~vi l l be i n phase wi th the parabol oi d
beam and add to the gai n. I f i t i s not possi bl e to sati sfy these
requi rements exactl y, the feed shoul d be pl aced at the poi nt,
nearest the focus, at whi ch the di stance to the ver tex sati sfi es the
hal f- or quarter-wavel ength requi rement.
3. Devi ati ons from constant phase of the aperture shoul d be kept
wi thi n A/8 and certai nl y shoul d not exceed A/4. Two factors
contri bute to phase er r or : di storti on of the parabol oi d surface and
devi ati on of the pri mary m-a~,efronts from spheri cal \vaves. Wi th
r efer ence to the fi rst of these the phase-error cri teri on can readi l y
be conver ted to tol erances that may be al l owed i n constructi ng the
r efl ector . .4s concerns the feed, the phase-error cri teri on serves
SE<. 127] EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ON SECONDARY PATTERNS 433
to defi ne the poi nt-source cone (cj. Sec. 8.1). The angul ar aperture
of the parabol oi d shoul d l i e wi thi n the poi nt-source cone.
12.6. Pri mary Pattern Desi gns for Maxi mi zi ng Gai nMenti on
shoul d be made of the techni que of shapi ng the pri mary feed pattern
so as to pr oduce uni form i l l umi nati on over the aperture and thereby to
maxi mi ze the gai n. The requi red pri mary pattern i s obtai ned di rectl y
from the expressi on for the aperture fi el d i n Eq. (11), For E(r, &) to be
constant, the pri mary pattern must be such that wi thi n the cone sub-
tended by the r efl ector at the feed
[GAW)l! = Const
P
(35)
or
i
Gf(&,v) = Gf, S(7C ~. (35a)
I n addi ti on, the feed must radi ate no ener gy outsi de the angul ar aperture
T i n or der to real i ze the gai n of 4mA/A. The val ue of GJOi s obtai ned
from the condi ti on
~vhence
(36)
I t i s, of course, i mpossi bl e to pr oduce a pattern havi ng a sharp cut-
off, but the rec~ui red pattern can be approxi mated qui te cl osel y. Tech-
ni ques of shapi ng the pri mary patterns of horn feeds are di scussed i n
Sec. 10.16. I t wi l l be noted that the pai tern [Eq. (35a)] has a mi ni mum
i n the di recti on v = O. I n or der to pr oduce such a mi ni mum consi d-
erabl e phase di storti on must be i ntroduced over the mouth of the horn.
Such feeds must be used wi th cauti on, for a concomi tant effect of the phase
di storti on to that of produci ng the desi red i ntensi ty di stri buti on may be
that of el i mi nati ng the center of feed. Thi s \\-i l lresul t i n phase er r or s i n
the fi el d over the aperture of the r efl ector that may \\-el lcancel the gai ns
whi ch mi ght have been made by the uni form i l l umi nati on.
12.7. Experi mental Resul ts on Secondary Patterns.The rel ati on
between the secondary pattern and the apertl l re-fi el d di stri buti on can
be studi ed by eval uati ng the expressi ons i n Sec. 124 for the secondary
pattern for a number of di fferent tyl ws of gai n functi ons G, (f,+). The
essenti al resul ts of such cal cul ati ons have been summari zed i n Sec. 6.8.
I n thi s secti on the rel ati on between the pri nci pal -pl ane patterns and the
aperture wi l l be di scussed by r efel ence to experi mental data, The
materi al wi l l al so ser ve as a presentati on of the performance of several
of the mor e i mportant types of feeds descri bed i n earl i er chapters.
100
0
:
2
4 4
2
6
10
8
8
10
6
2
~
4 4
%2
G+
: 1.0
s:
~8
20 z
6
?%
t
*4 4s
22
6
0.1
:0
t
;
4
2
6
0.01
8
40
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Angle i n el ectri cpl ane
100 0
8
6
2
4
2
:
8
10 10
8
6
2
4
Z4
Z2
6+
8%
E 1.0
S8
20 m
6
2$
&
54
4g
~2
6
0.1
8
30
:
2
4
4
2
6
0.01 :0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Angl ein magnetic plane
(a)
(b)
l :I G. 12. S.Pri nci pal pl ane patterns as a functi on of di ameter for a seri es of parabol oi ds of
j/ D = 0.25; k = 4.00 i n.: (a) E-pl ane; (b) H-pl ane.
The dependence of the pattern on the di ameter for a gi ven rel ati ve
di stri buti on over the aperture i s exempl i fi ed by the seri es of patterns, 1
10
8
I I I I I
-o
shown i n Fi g. 12.8, for a set of
6
%
I
. 2
parabol oi dal antennas al l of the
4
Side lobes in
.#
\
the ~agn~tic plane 4
same shape, j/D = 0.25, and i l -
~
2
\
- 6
l umi nated by the same antenna
.:
\,) Fl r~{ ~i del obe
- 8 feed. The l atter i s a coaxi al -l i ne-
; 1.0
8
L \ ,
10 fed doubl e-di pol e feed of the same
%6
\
12 general type as was di scussed i n
E4
\
14 ~ Sec. 8.9. The i nstal l ati ons are
~
\\
Second
.@ 2
side lobe - 16 ~ the r ear -feed type i n whi ch the
g b\ - 18 feed l i ne l i es al ong the axi s of the
s 0.1
Largeangl eI ~ \
_side lobe
4
7 ,
20
.S 8
r efl ector , passi ng through i ts ver -
\
%6
. 22
tex (cf. Sec. 12.11). The focal
.-
54
=. , *4
l ength i n each case i s an i ntegral
$
2
- 26
mul ti pl e of a hal f wavel ength so
- 28
that the i nteracti on between the
0.01
30
0 8 16 24 32 40 48
aperture beam and back l obe of
Di ameter, in.
the feed al ong the axi s i s the
Mo, 12.9. Depende,l ce of rel ati ve hei ght of
same for al l members of the
si de l obes On aperture di al neter.
seri es.
I t i s obser ved that ~vi th i ncreasi ng di ameter the bearnw-i dth decreases
I L. C,. Van Atta, Effect of Parabol oi d Si ze and Shape on Beam Patterns,
RI , Repor t No. 54-9, .4ug, 5, 1942.
1
I
1
y
I
,
!
S~c. 12.7] I I XPI ?RI MENTAI . I LE,~[JI ,l .V{)I VSl l COhrD,lR1 PA TTERN,q 43,-)
and the si de l obes move i n toward the axi s. The i ntensi ti es of the si de
\ l obes are di ameter dependent, contrary to the resul ts of the aperture
theor y. However , as was noted i n Sec. 12.4, such devi ati ons are to be
expected for l arge val ues of x/D. Fi gure 12.9 shows the vari ati on of
si de-l obe i ntensi ty wi th di ameter. The i ntensi ty approaches an asymp-
toti c val ue as x/D decreases, becomi ng i ndependent of the di ameter as
the l atter becomes l arge compared wi th the wavel ength; the asymptoti c
l i mi t agrees wi th aperture theor y predi cti ons. The di ameter dependence
of the si de l obes may be accounted for onl y i n part by the cor r ecti ons
to the aperture theor y that are contai ned i n the current-di stri buti on
!
method for cal cul ati ng the pattern (cf. Sec. 124). Another si gni fi cant
1,
factor i s the overl appi ng bet~veen the pri mary feed pattern and the
aperture pattern. The overl appi ng al so has the effect of fi l l i ng i n the
mi ni ma. I t i s seen that i n some cases the si de l obes have been fused
i nto the mai n l obe and appear onl y as shoul ders.
The same effect i s
pr oduced by phase er r or s i n the aperture fi el d (cj. Sec. 6.7).
The beamwi dth al so shows an anomal ous behavi or from the poi nt
of vi ew of aperture theor y. Accordi ng to the l atter the product of the
beamwi dth and D/A i s a constant for a gi ven di stri buti on over the
aperture. The products for each of the pri nci pal pl ane patterns of
f
TABLE12.1.BEAMWI DTH AND GAI N FACTOR AS A FUNCTI ON OF DI AMETERS.
(E)i s i n radi ans
-!
s
8 1 22 1.07 0 66
16 1 44 1.15 0.63
24 1.42 1.25 0.62
32 1.46 1.28 0.59
48 1 47 1 38 0 50
I
\
Fi g. 12S are l i sted i n Tabl e 12.1; i t i s seen that the product, for each of
the pri nci pal pl anes, vari es wi th the di ameter. The B-pl ane hal f ~vi dth
appears to be approachi ng an asymptoti c val ue that i s proporti onal to
A/D. The di fference between the E- and H-pl ane beamwi dths can be
cor r el ated wi th the di recti vi ty of the feed. Because of the di recti vi ty
of a si ngl e di pol e i n the E-pl ane, the pattern of the doubl e-di pol e system
i s l i ke~vi se mor e di recti ve i n the E-pl ane than i n the H-pl ane.
Conse-
quentl y, the aperture fi el d i s mor e tapered i n the E-pl ane than the
H-pl ane, and the for mer has a broader secondary pattern.
The vari ati on of the gai n factor S wi th di ameter, as shown by Tabl e
12.1, ari ses from the back-l obe i nter fer ence effect. Al ong the axi s i n
each case, the back l obe of the feed adds to the fi el d pr oduced by the
I
r efl ector . Si nce the l atter i s proporti onal to D/A, the addi ti on of the
436 PENCI L-BRA M AND ,SI MPI .E FAN VEI )-BEAM ANTENNAS
back-l obe i ntensi ty produces a gr eater fracti onal i ncrease i n
[SEC. 127
the total
i ntensi ty and peak power for smal l er di ameters than for l arge di ameters
and correspondi ngl y l arger gai n factors.
I t wi l l be of i nterest to r ecor d the data on the performance of the
wavegui de doubl e-di pol e feed shown i n Fi g. 8.14 and of the stub-ter-
mi nated di pol e-di sk feed shown i n Fi g. 8.10 because of thei r extensi ve
use. The beam characteri sti cs obtai ned wi th the doubl e-di pol e feed
TABLE 12.2.PERFORMANCE OF THE DOUBLE-DI POLE FEED I N VARI OU SPARfi OLOI DS.
V i s the di stance fr om the vertex of the parabol oi d to the fr ont edge of the wavegui de
Parabol oi d
Di am,
Focal
l ength,
i n.
i n.
18 4.5
18 5.67
18 6.0
24 8.0
30 10.0
v,
cm
10.8
13.9
14.2
19.5
24.0
s
i 3%
0.61
0.61
0.64
0.63
0.60
Beamwi dths I Si de l obes, db down
1
J.----L

1.2 1.27 27
1.25 1.2 24
1.15 1,15 26
1.13 1.20 22
1.25 1,16 22
H, E,
30 25
29 25
27 26
28 23
28 25
I
E,
30
29
30
28
28
at a wavel ength of 3.2 cm are summari zed i n Tabl e 122. HI and H2
are the fi rst and second si de l obes i n the H-pl ane; El and Ez desi gnate
the correspondi ng l obes i n the E-pl ane.
The data for the thr ee 18-i n. di ameter parabol oi ds can be compared
for the effect of tapered i l l umi nati on; the l onger the focal l ength the
l ess tapered i s the aperture i l l umi nati on wi th a gi ven pri mary pattern.
The effects are qui te evi dent i n the decr ease i n the H-pl ane beamwi dth
and the ri se i n the H-pl ane si de-l obe i ntensi ty l evel s; the HI l obe of the
parabol oi d of 5.67-i n. focal l ength i s an excepti on to the general behavi or.
The E-pl ane characteri sti cs are al so anomal ous. The di screpanci es are
caused by the pecul i ar properti es of the feed. As was poi nted out i n
Sec. 8.9, the center s of feed are di fferent i n the E- and H-pl anes; thi s
gi ves ri se to smal l defocusi ng phase er r or s. I n addi ti on, the back-l obe
i ntensi tv i s l arge, and the posi ti on of the feed on the axi s i s determi ned
pri mari l y by the opti mum i nteracti on between the back l obe and mai n
l obe rather than by the focal poi nt of the r efl ector . The l ast thr ee r ows
form a sequence of parabol oi ds of the same shape; her e too i t i s seen that
the behavi or i s not i n accor d ~vi th the mor e systemati c characteri sti cs
obser ved i n the set of patterns consi dered i n Fi g. 12.8. Whi l e the char-
acteri sti cs of the feed l eave much to be desi red from the standpoi nt of
theoreti cal anal ysi s of the patterns, the pattern characteri sti cs gi ven i n
Tabl e 122 are hi ghl y sati sfactory for operati onal purposes.
1I V. Si chak, T)ouhl wdi po]eRectangul arWave Gui de Antennas, RL Repor t No.
51-25, J une 26, 1943.
7
9
SEC. 12.7] EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ON SECONDARY PATTERNS 437
I
(
I
The stub-supported di pol e-di sk feed i s the one to whi ch the gai n
factor curves i n Fi g. 12.5 appl y. The patterns obtai nedl wi th a r efl ector
of 30-i n. di ameter and 10.6-i n. focal l ength, at a wavel ength of 10 cm,
are shown i n Fi g. 1210. The angul ar aperture of the parabol oi d i s
100
8 \
o
6
\
- 2
4
\
4
2 \
- 6
\
- 8
10
8 -
I
10
,
~
6
\
-.2
;4
\
I
4g
n
- 6$
~2
3 - 8:
\
g
~ 1.0
20&
z
g:
\
-2 2
~4
.4.~
\
.-
\ / 1,
L
.1
-6 g
r \\
a
\ / -
\
,/
-A 8
0.1
\ ,- . / ;-
8
I
---
\
30
6
/
i
\
/
. -2
4
/
4
2
-6
-8
0.01
00 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 90!0
Angl e
IrIG. 12.10.-Pri nci pal pl ane patterns of 30-i n. -di ameter parabol oi d (f/ D = 0.354
i l l umi nated by the di pol e-di sk feed; A = 10 cm; E-pl ane; H-pl ane; @E = 10.2;
@H = 9.5.
v = 70.5, l arger than the theoreti cal val ue of 60 for a maxi mum gai n
factor. Whereas thi s represents a smal l l oss i n gai n, the l arger angul ar
aperture resul ts i n a mor e tapered i l l umi nati on over the aperture pl ane
and better si de-l obe characteri sti cs. The hal f-power wi dths (i n radi ans)
are
@, = 1.403; e. = 1,26;.
1S. Br een and R. Hi ;i l t, Ar]tcl )na Feeds for &m. Stub-supported (~oaxi al Li ne,
l {L I {epor t So. 54-23, .Tunc21. 1943.
I
438 PENCI L-BEAM AND SI MPLE FANNED-BhAM ANTENNAS @EC. 12.7
Attenti on was cal l ed i n Sec. 8.3 to the fact that wi th a feed of thi s
type the axi s of the beam does not coi nci de wi th the axi s of the r efl ector .
The devi ati on i s not shown i n Fi g. 12.10 because of i ts smal l magni tude;
i t i s l ess than hal f a degr ee. The squi nt phenomenon has great opera-
ti onal val ue; by rotati ng the feed about i ts axi s, the antenna beam
i s made to descri be a cone, thus creati ng an effecti ve cusp-shaped mi ni -
+
A

(a)
TB
A
(b)
FI G. 12.11.Producti on of squi nt by the asymmetri c di pol e: (a) cur r ent on the feed; (b)
di storti on of the phase front.
mum al ong the axi s of the parabol oi d. The i ntensi ty di fferenti ati on i n
the cusp i s mor e sensi ti ve than on the peak of the beam, and by thi s
techni que the accuracy of poi nti ng the antenna at a target i s i ncreased,
The producti on of the squi nt may be understood by r efer ence to
Fi g. 12.11. I t wi l l be recal l ed (Sec. 8.3) that the asymmetri c di pol e
termi nati on gi ves ri se to currents al ong the outer conductor of the coaxi al
l i ne, and the effect of the choke i s to confi ne the l i ne cur r ent to the
termi nal regi on as shown i n Fi g. 12.1 l a. The feed can be r egar ded as
two radi ati ng el ements: A the transverse di pol e cur r ent and B the axi al
current. The rel ati ve magni tudes and phases are determi ned by the
posi ti on of the choke. The pri mary pattern of A is the normal type
of pattern shown i n Fi g. 12.1 l b and gi ves ri se to the fi el d di stri buti on i n
the aperture that we have di scussed previ ousl y (cf. Fi g. 12.2). The
pattern of the el ement B has a nul l al ong the axi s; i t produces a
fi el d di stri buti on over the aperture i n whi ch the el ectri c vector al ong
any di ameter undergoes a reversal i n di recti on through the center ,
SEC. 12.8] I MPEDANCE CHARACTERI STI CS 439
whi ch i s equi val ent to a 180 reversal i n phase. The space rel ati onshi p
between theaperture fi el ds of A and Bi nthe E-pl ane areshown i n Fi g.
12.l l b. I f the cur r ent el ements A and B are i n phase, the fi el ds at two
di ametri cal l y opposi te poi nts i n the E-pl ane, such as z, and zti n the
fi gure, are a b and a +b, respecti vel y; ther e i s no di storti on of the
phase front, provi di ng b is al ways l ess than a. I f, however , ther e i s a
phase di fference @between the currents, the resul tant fi el ds at the same
two poi nts area be-@ anda + be@, respecti vel y ;the resul tant phases
are
b si n @
xl ; tanl
abcos@
b si n @
xz; tanl
a+ bcos+
The aperture i s no l onger an equi phase surface; the phase front i s ti pped
wi th r espect to the aperture as shown i n the fi gure.
For a gi ven posi ti on of the choke, the beam devi ati on vari es wi th
frequency. I n the case of the antenna whose patterns are shown i n Fi g.
12.10, the obser ved vari ati on i s as f ol l ows: A = 9.7 cm, devi ati on = 0.3;
A = 10.0 cm, devi ati on = 0.19; k = 10.3 cm, devi ati on = 0.38.
Fi nal l y, i t shoul d be menti oned that the cur r ent el ement B produces
cross pol ari zati on i n the H-pl ane. Thi s, however , does not affect the
accuracy of poi nti ng, si nce the cross pol ari zati on i s zer o al ong the axi s.
12.8. I mpedance Characteri sti cs.Another consi derati on of major
i mportance i n the desi gn of an antenna i s the i mpedance bandwi dth.
The i mpedance characteri sti cs are the resul tant effects of the i mpedance
characteri sti cs of the antenna feed i n fr ee space and the mi smatch pr o-
duced by the i nteracti on between the r efl ector and the antenna feed.
The l atter probl em was tr eated qui te general l y i n Sec. 5.10. I t was
shown that i f the feed i n fr ee space i s i tsel f matched to the l i ne, the
r efl ector gi ves ri se to a refl ecti on coeffi ci ent
(5.97)
i n the transmi ssi on l i ne. GJ($, ~) i s the gai n functi on of the feed; i i s
the angl e of i nci dence at the poi nt (p,+, ~) on the r efl ector . I f the feed
i n fr ee space i s mi smatched, wi th a refl ecti on coeffi ci ent rj, measured
at the same poi nt i n the l i ne to whi ch r, i s r efer r ed, the total mi smatch
of the antenna i s to a good approxi mati on the sum
!
r=rf+ r,; (37)
II
!
that i s, the refl ecti on coeffi ci ents add vectori al l y on the refl ecti on
,
coeffi ci ent chart (Sec. 2.8),
440 PENCIL-BEAM AND SIMPLE FANNED-BEAM ANTENNAS [%c. 12.8
I f the wavel ength i s smal l compared wi th the focal l ength and aper-
tur e di ameter, the asymptoti c val ue of Eq. (597), gi ven by Eq. (5.98),
may be used. For the present case of the feed at the focus of the parab-
ol oi d, the radi i of curvature Rt and Rn at the poi nt of normal i nci dence,
whi ch i s the ver tex, are both equal to 2j, and p. i s equal to j. We have
then
> ~j(2k/+6)e
= 47rj
(38)
Mor e general l y, i f the feed i s on the axi s near the focus, but at a di stance
p from the ver tex, the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent of the r efl ector i s
foA ~j(2kp+6).
r,=
4?rj
The magni tude of the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent
(38a)
(39)
,
,
:
F1@.12. 12.Vari ati on of the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent wi th posi ti on of the feed al ong the axi s;
- experi mental , theoreti cal cur ve as obtai ned fr om 13q. (38a).
can be determi ned by measuri ng the total refl ecti on coeffi ci ent r as a
functi on of posi ti on of the feed al ong the axi s. The feed refl ecti on coeffi -
ci ent rj remai ns fi xed, whereas r, undergoes a cyclic vari ati on by vi rtue of
. .
1
t
SEC.128] I MPEDANCE cHARAcTERI S7I CS
441
the changi ng di stance to the r efl ector .
Over smal l di stances about the
focal poi nt Ir,l i s essenti al l y constant. As the feed i s moved al ong the axi s,
the total refl ecti on coeffi ci ent ther efor e descri bes a ci rcl e i n the refl ecti on
coeffi ci ent pl ane correspondi ng to the rotati on of r, about the termi nal
poi nt of the vector r,; thi s i s i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 12.12. The magni tude of
r, i s determi ned di rectl y from the radi us of the ci rcl e.1 The measure-
ments can, i n fact, be used to obtai n the gai n GO{of the feed pattern by use
of Eq. (39).
0.5
R
Magnitude of I vs,~
Fead:~;n. stub-supported-
dipole-disk.
Wavelength: 9.1 cm
Theoretical
- Experimental
~ 0.4
18 dia.
z
.I!
*Q
.4
~ 0,3
f24
p /
/
E
Y
.-
5
=0
a 0.2
r -48. ~
7
~30
!Aa!f3fk
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-j x 102 ~ (cm
I JI o. 12.13.Contri buti on of the parabol oi d to the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent as a functi on of
focal l ength.
The data presented i n Fi g. 12.12 \vere obtai ned wi th the stub-sup-
ported di pol e-di sk feed shovm i n Fi g. 8.10 and a parabol oi dal r efl ector
of 10.6 i n focal l ength and havi ng an aperture di ameter of 30 i n. The
gai n of the feed was eval uated by graphi cal i ntegrati on of i ts pri mary
pattern, and the theoreti cal cur ve of Fi g. 12.12 was then obtai ned fr om
Eq. (38a), the constant 6 bei ng adjusted to make the theoreti cal and
experi mental val ues agree at the focal poi nt. Si mi l ar studi es wi th the
same feed i n a seri es of refl ectors of di fferent focal l engths gave the resul ts
shown i n Fi g. 12,13, demonstrati ng the appl i cabi l i ty of Eq. (3~).2
I t i s seen fr om Eq, (37) that, the process of matchi ng the antenna
1 S. Si l ver, contri buti on of the Di sh to the I mpedance \I i smatch of an Antenna,
RI . Report No. 442. Sept. 17. 1943.
z I bid.
442 PENCIL-BEAM AND SIMPLE FANNED-BEAM ANTENNAS lSEc. 12.8
reduci ng r to zer~by means of a transformer i n the l i ne can be r egar ded
as that of transformi ng the mi smatch rf of the feed i n fr ee space i nto
r,. Ther efor e, i f an antenna i s matched wi th the feed at a posi ti on
pl , i t wi l l al so be matched wi th the feed at posi ti ons pl f nX/2, wher e n
i s an i nteger, for r, has the same val ue at al l these poi nts [cf. Eq. (38a)].
Furthermore, the feed can be pl aced i n an enti rel y di fferent parabol oi d;
and provi di ng the di stance from the ver tex i s pz = pl + nA/2, a good
i mpedance match wi l l be obtai ned. A smal l di fference wi l l be obser ved
from the val ue obtai ned wi th the ori gi nal r efl ector because of the di fferent
magni tude of r,, but the phase rel ati ons between rf and r, i n each case
are the opti mum for mi ni mi zi ng the total refl ecti on coeffi ci ent. I f the
di stance pl i s chosen to be the cl osest to the focal l ength that i s equal to
an i ntegral number of hal f wavel engths, the feed may be pl aced at the
correspondi ng hal f-wave poi nts i n other parabol oi ds wi th both the pr oper
condi ti ons for i mpedance match and the constructi ve superposi ti on of
the back l obe and mai n l obe bei ng mai ntai ned. 1
The seri ousness of the mi smatch caused by the r efl ector l i es i n i ts
frequency sensi ti vi ty. Si nce the focal l ength i s l arge compared wi th A,
a smal l change i n the l atter produces a l arge change i n the phase of r,.
The antenna can easi l y be matched at one wavel ength kOby a conven-
ti onal type of matchi ng transformer (cj. Chap. 7). However , the char-
acteri sti cs of the transformer do not vary rapi dl y enough wi th frequency
to fol l ow the rapi d change i n the phase of r, and i n any case do not
necessari l y vary i n the pr oper di recti on. The total refl ecti on coeffi ci ent,
ther efor e, vari es rapi dl y wi th frequency. For thi s reason i t i s necessary
to el i mi nate the mi smatch caused by the r efl ector by other methods i n
or der to real i ze sati sfactory i mpedance characteri sti cs over a wi de fr e-
quency band.
Ther e are two obvi ous sol uti ons to the probl em. One i s to r educe the
refl ecti on coeffi ci ent of the r efl ector to zer o. 2 For thi s purpose we musi
return to Eq. (5.97), whi ch formul ates the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent as a
superposi ti on of contri buti ons from the enti re r efl ector surface. The
matchi ng techni que that suggests i tsel f i mmedi atel y i s to di vi de the
r efl ector i nto two areas, whi ch gi ve i ntegrated effects of equal mag-
ni tude, and then by a smal l di spl acement of one of the areas wi th
r espect to the other to make thei r contri buti ons 180 out of phase.
Si nce onl y a smal l di spl acement of one area wi th r espect to the other i s
LH. Krutter, R. Hi att, J. Bohncrt, Some hl atchi ng Properti es of Antenna
Feeds, RL Repor t No. 54-13, Nov. 17, 1942.
a N. I ?l son and A. B. Pi ppard, Wi de Band l l atchi r,g of tVavcgui de Radi ators and
Parabol oi ds) AD RDI I U (Bri ti sh) Report Xo. 220; W. Kock, l l ethod for Reduci ng
Refl ecti on I Xfects i n Antenna Feeds, BI L Report 3111-42-160-92; S. Si l ver, Anal y-
si s and Correcti on cf the I mpedance Jl i smatch Due to a Refl ector, RL Report No.
810,
b
SEC. 12.9] THE VI I RT17X-PI .A 71( J f.17(CHJ iVG TE(:HN[Q[E 443
i nvol ved, the matchi ng process i s not ver y frequency sensi ti ve. The
bandwi dth of the antenna i s then l argel y determi ned by the i mpedance
characteri sti cs of the feed i n fr ee space. A second sol uti on i s to r ender
the feed i nsensi ti ve to the r efl ected radi ati on. Thi s wi l l be accompl i shed
i f the pol ari zati on of the l atter i s r otated through 90 by the refl ecti ng
surface. Such a rotati on can be effected by i ntroduci ng a sui tabl e grati ng
over the surface of the r efl ector . The detai l s of the two methods wi l l
be devel oped i n the fol l owi ng two secti ons.
12.9. The Vertex-pl ate Matchi ng Tech.ni que.-A compl ete eval ua-
ti on of Eq. (5.97) i nvol ves consi derabl e numeri cal wor k. For the present
purposes the computati on can be si mpl i fi ed by repl aci ng G(*, ~) by a
ci rcul arl y symmetri cal functi on G(+) whi ch i s the mean val ue of the gai n
functi ons i n the E- and H-pl anes of the feed pattern. By vi rtue of the
symmetry we can take as the el ement of area d.! the ci rcul ar zone sub-
tendi ng the angl e d+ at the focus. I t i s mor e conveni ent to base the
i ntegral upon the pr ojecti on of dS on the aperture pl ane:
2m- dr
dS = .
Cos
()
*
2
(40)
The gai n functi on G(x) can be expressed as a functi on of r through the
rel ati on
(41)
Si nce z = 4/2, we have for the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent ccmtri buted by the
porti on of the r efl ector of aperture radi us r,
constant terms i n the phase bei ng di scarded. Changi ng vari abl es
=5
we get
h )
_jzf
r(~) = ~
G(v)
,e A dv.
1+;
o
(42)
to
(+3)
(44)
444 PENCI L-BEAM AND SI MPLE FANNED-BEAM ANTENNAS I SEC. 12.9
I f we take the real and i magi nary parts of r(u),
/
~(~) = +
G(v)
()
d
()
~COSV dv,
A
0 1+;
1
(45)
~(v) = ~
/

G(v)
()
d
()
~si n u dv,
o 1+;
A
and pl ot Z(v) agai nst R(v), we obtai n a refl ecti on coeffi ci ent spi ral for the
parabol oi d as shown i n Fi g. 12.14a.
The vector r. from the ori gi n to any
poi nt on the spi ral i s the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent due to the porti on of the
I (v)
I
t~ I
(a) (b)
J t -
t
c
Zc
(c)
FI G. 12. 14.El i mi nati on of the mi smatch caused by the refl ector: (a) refl ecti on coeffi ci ent
spi ral ; (b) effect of i nfi ni tel y thi n zone pl ate; (c) fi nal posi ti on of zone pl ate.
parabol oi d whose aperture radi us r corresponds to that poi nt v on the
spi ral . The refl ecti on coeffi ci ent due to the enti re parabol oi d i s gi ven by
the vector to the termi nal poi nt correspondi ng to
D,
= p
For any parti cul ar case R(v) and Z(U) can be eval uated numeri cal l y once
the gai n functi on of the feed has been measured, and the spi ral con-
structed accordi ngl y. I t has been found that i n many cases the functi on
SEC, 1242] THE VERTEX-PLATE MATCHI NG
can be fi tted sati sfactori l y by an exponenti al
~r,
GOe P ~GOemV,
TECHNI QUE 445
(47)
GObei ng the gai n of the feed, Assumi ng thi s form we can eval uate
!,
R(o), l (o) anal yti cal l y:
Thel i rni t poi nt of the spi ral , correspondi ng too = ~, comesat
=;(a:~~); =44% g)
Thi s i sto be contrasted on theone hand wi th the Cornu spi ral i n whi ch
R~ = 1~ and on the other hand wi th the ci rcul ar aperture di ffracti on
spi ral i n whi ch R~ = O and 1~ i s the radi us of curvature of the i ni ti al
porti on of the spi ral . Thernagni tude of the vector to the l i mi t poi nt i s
(50)
,-
I f the aperture of theparabol oi d i s l arge, thedi fference between l r,l , the
refl ecti on coeffi ci ent due to the enti re parabol oi d, and I rml i s smal l .
.
We obser ve further that i f j>> A, Irml becomesGok4~~, i ndependent of
the i l l umi nati on functi on. Thi s i s the resul t obtai ned previ ousl y from
Eq, (38).
I t i s further of i nterest to note that the radi us of curvature of the
spi ral i s
G,A
p = Gf -a
(51)
I n the l i mi t of a ver y l arge aperture and ~>> X, the center of curvature of
t
the spi ral i n the nei ghborhood of , = O coi nci des wi th the l i mi t poi nt.
Under these condi ti ons \ve obtai n the resul t that the spi ral has the
form of the di ffracti on spi ral for a poi nt on the axi s of a ci rcul ar aperture,
:1
i ndependent of the feed i l l umi nati on functi on.
.4
446 I fi:.V(!I I ,-I ! l</ l.1/ .t .Vl) 51. }111>1<1,.1.V.VI (l)-1<1<.I .lf .I NI EJ V,VA,Y [Ss,, 1210
l _he method of i mpedance cor r ecti on i s as fol l o\\-s: The perpendi cul ar
bi sector of I I ,, the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent due to the refl ector, i s erected,
and i ts i ntersecti on poi nt ~~,
on the spi ral i s determi ned [r efer back to
Fi g. 1214a). Thi s di vi des the surface i ntt~ tl ro zones, one \\-i t,hi nthe
radi us r. = j(~,) contri buti ng thr vector 1., the other the regi on outsi de
r, contri buti ng I b, The magni tudes of r. and I ~ are equal , No\v sup-
pose that an i nfi ni tel y thi n pl ate of ra(l i us r, i s pl aced agai nst the
surface (Fi g. 12.14 c), The path from F to the edge i sj + z,; the path to
the center i s j z.; the average path l ength i s ~, The pl ate thus
rotates ra onto the R-axis to coi nci de i n phase \vi th the contri buti on
from the ver tex area of thr parti bol oi d (Fi g, 12.14b). I t i s desi red to
bri ng ra 180 out of phase \vi th [~,
Thi s i s acl ;i eved by rotati ng r.
by movi ng the pl ate for\vard a l i i stancc ( (<mmaki ng th(~-pl ate of ~hat
thi ckness),
Al ),
t= (2n+l ); -.<T! /L== (), 1,2, , (52)
~. bei ng the angl e between I I *and the R-axi s. I t i s evi dent that onl y
a smal l porti on of the spi ral i n the nei ghborhood of L = Oand the termi nal
vector I t arc rcql l i recf to determi nr ti l e pw-ametrrs of the cor r ecti on
pl ate, I n most cases r, can be repl aced for thi s purpose by ]~, and the
r
fi nal posi ti on of the pl ate i s adjusted empi ri cal l y to compensate for the
er r or .
,
I n the l i mi t A/~ = Oand l arge apertures, the parameters of the cor r ec-
ti on pl ate become practi cal l y i ndependent of the aperture and pri mary
feed i l l umi nati on, provi di ng the l atter i s not too sharpl y peaked. We
ha~-e noted above that i n the l i mi t i ndi cated the resul tant r, di ffers
negl i gi bl y from I m ~vhi ch (i n thi s case) l i es on the I -axi s. .Mso from
Eq. (51) i t i s seen that i f the pri mary feed i l l umi nati on i s not too sharp,
i .e., magni tude of a i s not too l arge, the i ni ti al porti on of the spi ral can
be r egar ded 11-i thsmal l er r or as a ci rcl e of constant ra(l i l l s i r~l und r enter ,
on the I -axi s. W%en the pr ocedur e t)(l tl i ned i n tl l c precedi ng paragraph
i s appl i ed to thi s case, i t i s foun(l that the di ameter of the cor r e(,ti on
pl ate i s
and i ts thi rkness
(53)
We have assumed that the cur r ent di stri buti on over the cor r ecti on
.,, I
pl ate i s, except for phase, the samr as that (Jvcr the correspondi ng area
of th( pti r:l l )t)l fji (l . I n general the area of the cor r ecti on pl ate i s smal l , and
i
i i .hrn a smal l obstacl e i s i rradi ated, ther e i s an appreci abl e (,~l rrent di s-
[ rl l )l l ti f)n over the shad(nv area of the (Jhstacl e as l vel ] as on th(, i l l l l mi nated
)
SEC.1210]
R07A7I ON OF POl>At{lZATloK 7I WHVI QI J R 447
regi on. To el i mi nate the for mer i t i s preferabl e to use a pl ate of the
thi ckness speci fi ed by Eq. (52), maki ng good el ectri cal contact wi th the
parabol oi d, rather than athi n pl ate set at the speci fi ed di stance.
The one major objecti on to the ver tex pl ate i s the del eteri ous effect
onthe secondary pattern. The di spl acement of thever tex area produces
a phase er r or i n the fi el d over a correspondi ng area of the aperture, wi th
a resul ti ng l oss i n gai n, i ncrease i n beamwi dth and si de-l obe i ntensi ty.
I f the speci fi cati ons on the si de l obes are ver y stri ngent, the vertex-pl ate
techni que cannot be used.
I ?I G. 12.15,Quarter-wave grati ng to rotate the pol ari zati on of the el ectri c vector and
1
el i mmate the n!i sl l l atch.
12.10. Rotati on of Pol ari zati on Techni que.-The el ectri c vector of
the wave r efl ected by the parabol oi d can be r otated through 90 wi th
r espect to the i nci dent wave by means of a quarter-wave grati ng.
The
system i s i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 12.15. The grati ng i s made up of paral l el
!.
pl ates cut to the contour of the r efl ector ; the pl ates are ori ented to make
an angl e of 45wi th the E-pl ane of the feed.
The grati ng makes use of the pr oper ty of paral l el pl ates (Sec. 7.15)
*
that they v-i l l not support fr ee propagati on of a wave havi ng the el ectri c
vector paral l el to the pl ates unl ess the spaci ng s between them i s gr eater
\
than X/2. I f s < A/2, the wave i s attenuated; i f s < X/S, the paral l el
pl ates r efl ect al most compl etel y an i nci dent ~rave wi th the el ectri c vector
paral l el to the pl ates. Wi th the grati ng ori ented at angl e of 45 wi th
r espect to the E-pl anej the i nci dent el ectri c vector can be resol ved i nto
@
two equal components, one paral l el to the pl ates and one perpendi cul ar
to them. The pl ate spaci ng i s such that the paral l el component i s
F.
refl ected, \vi th a change i n phase of 180. The perpendi cul ar component,
i
on the other hand, propagates between the pl ates wi th free-space vel oci ty.
i I f the depth of the pl ates d i s h/4, the l atter component after refl ecti on
from the parabol oi d emer ges from the pl ates i n the same di recti on as i t
had on entry. Combi nati on wi th the r ever sed paral l el component then
resul ts i n a resul tant vector perpendi cul ar to the E-pl ane.
Prel i mi nary experi ments conducted at the Rodi at,i on Laboratory to
test the effecti veness of the techni cl l l c gave promi si ng rrs~l l ts i n so far
as the i mpedance characteri sti cs ]fer e concr r ned. The effects on the
secondary pattern ~ver c not determi ned. I t i s to be expected that the
grati ng does not functi on pr oper l y at the edges because of the obl i que
i nci dence of the pri mal y radi ati on, th~l s i ntr(xl uci ng phase di storti on.
Further study of the sl [l )ject i s needed i n or der to eval uate the rel ati ve
val ues of the grati ng and vertex-pl ate twhni ([nes,
12.11. Structural Desi gn Probl ems.tn antenna must general l y
mret certai n mcchani (~~l speci fi cati ons sl l ch as a mi ni mum ~vri ght strengtl -.
factt)r, l (JI V~i -i nd rcsi st~n(c, an(l yi sl l al trans~)al cncy i n addi ti on to ful -
fi l l i ng the requi rements on the secondary pattern.
((1) (/,) (c)
VI<;. 12.16,- I {e:tr-feed ;Lt)dfrollt-feed ltlstdl:htlotls: (a) re:u-fw<l tcrl l l ]i quc (or a di pol e-di s~
feed; (b) rear-feed [erl LI I Jque for :1 hor I I ; (c) fro!l t-feed terl , ni que for :L hor I I .
//ww-~ecd a~d J ron (-jecd Sys[cws.-rl l e fi rst fti ctor to be consi der e(i
i s the type of feed i nstal l ati on. f\vo grnerti l i netho(l s-rear-f eed and
f r ent-feed i nst al l ati ol l -arr i l l ust rti ted i n l ~i g. 121 (i . ~he r ear -fce(f
i nstal l ~tti [)ns (1i g. 12.1 (k] and b) ha~e the advant +yw of compactness
and retl ui ri ng a mi ni mum l ength of trunsmi ssi f)n l i ne. The l atter has
i mportant beari ng on the i mpwl ance presrnt ed by the syst cm at the
gr ur r ator ternl i nal s, I f the focal l ength i s short, a si mpl e fl ange con-
necti on bet I veen the transmi ssi on l i ne and r e~l wtor i s suffi ci ent to 9
?I l pp, )rt, the fecd system.
I f the f,)(:d I rngth i s I argc, a mor e extended
rol l ar sl l ch as i s sho\vn di agr:l nl rn:~ti (,:~l l y i n 1<i g. 12.1(k i s nrcessary to
I)f-cv(mt free phiy of ttle fe(xl . The r(ar-frcd i nst;l l l ati ou of a horn, such
as i l l ust ra(,d i n I ~i g. I 2. I (i b, i s fe:l si l )l {~onl y at s}l tjrt I ral -el engtl l s (3 cm
or l ess). ]~vcn for tl l c I attrr i t i s not to be r(,(t)l ]~i ~~(,]l cl (([ l)(WaUSC of the
asymmetry and possi bl e phase di stort i on i nt r educed i nto thc pri mary
pattern.
l he fr ont-feed i nstal l ati on (l ~i g. 121 (k-) i s r(,(,onl l ~~el l (l (,(ifor al l horn
i
feeds. I t suffers from onc scri ol l s (1{fe(t of OI W(rl l cti ng too much of thr
aperture. The i ntr r fcr enee i s re(l uced some\\.hat i f the ~~ti vcgl l i de i s
pl aced i n the 11-pl ane. Thi s may make i t necessary to put a t~vi st i n
I
SEC. 12,11]
the wavegui de i n
hori zontal pl ane.
STRUCTI J RAL DESI GN PROBLEMS 449
or der to ori ent the horn pr oper l y wi th r espect to the
Grating and Screen Reelectors,-The wei ght and wi nd resi stance of
the parabol oi d can be r educed consi derabl y by repl aci ng the conti nuous
r efl ector surface by a per for ated surface or a grati ng structure. An
exampl e of an antenna usi ng a per for ated parabol oi d i s showm i n Fi g.
1.5; exampl es of grati ng r efl ector s wi l l be found i n Fi g. 12.23 and i n
several photographs i n Chap. 13.
The refl ecti vi ty of the per for ated surface i s i nsensi ti ve to pol ari zati on.
.(
The perforati ons can be r egar ded as short wavegui des desi gned to +]
t
far beyond cutoff for the frequency band over whi ch the antenna i s to
1
used. For exampl e, i f the r efl ector i s a wi r e scr een wi th square openi n s, ~
the edge l ength a of the openi ngs must be such that
r i
Thi s i s the condi ti on for cutoff i n a square wavegui de.
{.
The grati ngs are sensi ti ve to pol ari zati on. The space between the
grati ng el ements may be thought of as \vavegui des beyond cutoff fo~
t the el ectri c vector paral l el to grati ng el ement. The grati ng el ement$-
~ :.
I
,,, ffl-xis:
(a) (b)
(c) L.:!
FIG. 12 17.Grati ng refl ectors: (a) broadsi de stri ps; (b) r ound bars; (c) edgewi as stri ps.
may be di vi ded i nto thr ee groups: (1) broadsi de stri ps, (2) bars, and (3)
edgewi se stri ps; these are i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 12.17. The vari ous types
of grati ngs have been studi ed experi mental l y to determi ne the rel ati on-
shi ps bet~veen the grati ng di mensi ons and wi nd resi stance and transmi s-
si vi ty. Ther e are t~vo major restri cti ons that appl y to al l grati ngs:
1. The el ectri c vector of the i nci dent ~vave must be i n the pl ane
determi ned by the i nci dent ray and the axi s of the grati ng el ement.
i
2. The center to center spaci ng of the el ements must be l ess than
A/(1 + si n 6), wher e o i s the angl e between the i nci dent ray and
1W. D, Hayes,
4
Grati ng and Screens as Nl i cr owave Refl ectors, RI , Repor t No.
54-20, Apr. 1, 1943.
450 1E,V(,l L-BA.4M AND SI MI LA I A,YNEI )-BEA lvf A,VTENN.4,Y [Sm. 12.12
the normal to the axi s of the grati ng el ement. Larger spaci ngs
cause the appearance of undesi rabl e hi gher-order l obes i n the
secondary pattern.
The edgewi se stri ps are general l y to be pr efer r ed. Thei r transmi ssi on
characteri sti cs are summmi zed i n Fi g. 12.18, ~vhi ch gi ves the rel ati on
between the stri p depth and the spaci ng for fi xed val ues of transmi ssi vi ty.
The properti es vary, of course, wi th the wi dth of the stri ps; the r eader
i s r efer r ed to the r epor t by Hayes for mor e extensi ve data,.
The vari ati on
of the depth of the stri ps to control the r-f transmi ssi on has a negl i gi bl e
effect on ~vi nd resi stance; both can be made qui te l o~v.
Jl echani cal
0.40
0.35
t-----r
T=per cent r-f transmission * - ~
normal incidence
J I 1 [1
II r r
I
1
v-n?
0.4 1 35
i , I I
0.30
0.05
0
Bti
&
\_
1 I I I I I I I I I J
o 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0,50
s/h, center to center spacing, wavelengths
FI G. 12 l S. Grati nR of edgewi se stri ps: l {el :l ti otl between stri p depth and spaci ,, g f<,r
constant t ranhmi sbi on.
ri gi di ty can be obtai ned by pr oper braci ng. The stri ps al so have the
advautfi ge that the r efl ector shape can bc (Jbtti i ned by a cutti ng oper -
ati on; i n maki nz up a parabol oi d al l the stri ps ran be i denti cal punrhi ngs .
of fl at sheet metal .
SI MPLE FANNED-BEAM ANTENNAS
12.12. Appl i cati ons of Fanned Beams and Methods of Producti on.
i
The si ngnhm advantage of a penci l beam for l orati ng a target \vi th accu-
racy i s offset by the di ffi cul ty oi i ntercepti ng L target i n the cour se of a
random. search Lwcal l se t}l e beam u)~,ers {Jul y a narn)!v cone of space at a
t
SE{. 1213] SYMA4k7RICALL,Y CUT P.4&.t BOLol~S 451
gi ven i nstant. Further di ffi cul ti es are encounter ed i n the case of
antennas on shi ps; i n the cour se of the rol l and pi tch of the shi p the beam
swi ngs i nto the water wher e i t serves no purpose or ti p above the hori zon
l osi ng i ts effecti veness i n l ocati ng surface vessel s. To counter these
vari ous di ffi cul ti es i t i s necessary to sacri fi ce the di recti vi ty by fl ari ng
the beam i n one of i ts pri nci pal pl anesgeneral l y the verti cal pl ane.
By retai ni ng the narrow wi dth i n azi muth, resol uti on i s mai ntai ned i n
thi s aspect and the radar echo techni que suppl i es i nformati on on range.
The present chapter concerns i tsel f onl y wi th si mpl e fanned beams
whi ch may be thought of as bei ng devel oped by di storti ng the al most
ci rcul arl y symmetri cal beam i nto a symmetri cal el l i pti cal beam. The
mor e compl ex fanned beams whi ch are desi gned for hi ghl y speci al i zed
operati onal functi ons wi l l be tr eated i n the next chapter. From the
general rel ati ons devel oped i n Chap. 6, between the symmetry of the
aperture and aperture fi el d and the symmetry of the beam, two basi c
techni ques suggest themsel ves: (1) to use an aperture ~~i th two hi ghl y
di fferent di mensi ons i n the pri nci pal pl anes, the beamwi dths i n the pri n-
ci pal pl anes bei ng i nversel y proporti onal to the aperture di mensi ons, and
(2) to taper the i l l umi nati on di fferentl y i n the t~vo pri nci pal pl anes.
The second of these may be di smi ssed as an i sol ated techni que because
*
the bearnwi dth i s not suffi ci entl y sensi ti ve to the i l l umi nati on. The
onl y practi cal techni que, ther efor e, i s the fi rst, of usi ng an aperture wi th
$.
sui tabl e di mensi ons i n the pri nci pal pl anes. The i l l umi nati on techni que
may be used as auxi l i ary to the other method.
The fanned-beam antennas take the fol l owi ng forms: (1) an ovoi d
secti on of a parabol oi dal r effector wi th a poi nt-source feed at the focus,
(2) a parabol i c cyl i nder wi th a l i ne sour ce produci ng a rectangul ar
aperture, and (3) a paral l el -pl ate antenna consi sti ng of a parabol i c cyl i n-
dri cal r efl ector i l l umi nated by a si mpl e feed at the focus and l ocated
between paral l el pl ates that are perpendi cul ar to the gener ator of the
cyl i nder; thi s l i kewi se produces a rectangul ar aperture. Desi gn tech-
ni ques wi l l be presented for each of these types of antennas.
.
12.13. Symmetri cal l y Cut Parabol oi ds.The si mpl est pr ocedur e
i s to cut a parabol oi d symmetri cal l y by a pai r of paral l el pl anes as shovm
i n Fi g. 12.19a. The l ong di mensi on wi l l be denoted by d,, and the nar-
r ow di mensi on by d~. The resul ts obtai ned from a ci rcul ar aperture ~vi th
many types of feeds and parabol oi d shapes show that the beam~vi dth
i s i n the range (1.2 + 0.2)h/D. These resul ts have been extrapol ated
to the cut parabol oi d, and the rel ati ons betneen the di mensi ons of the
I
l atter and the pri nci pal -pl ane beam \\-i dthsare general l y taken to be
i
A A
1=12Z; =2z
(56)
I
f
I t i s ql l i l c e\.i fl enl 111:{(a ri rcl l l ady symmetri cal pri mary feed pattern
4
I
452 I EiVCI L-BEAM AND SI MI I >E FA.%-NED-B17A I f A NTENNAS [SF,C. 12.13
i s unsui ted to i l l umi nate the r efl ector ; a l arge fracti on of the ener gy woul d
be ~vasted i n spi l l over. The pri mary feed pattern must be shaped to
the same symmetry as the r efl ector .
Taki ng the resul ts for opti mum
performance of a ci rcul ar aperture agai n as a cri teri on, we may requi re
that the 10-db wi dth of the feed pattern i n a gi ven pri nci pal pl ane be
equal to the angl e subtended by the r efl ector at the feed i n the gi ven
pri nci pal pl ane.
Horns ~vi th rectangul ar apertures l end themsel \-es parti cul arl y wel l
to the desi gn of sui tabl e freds, si nce the beam\vi dths i n the tl vu pri nci pal
_ _
,/ --\
/
\
/
Y
/
\
/
\
/
\ /
\
/ \
/
\
,r_._ . . ..].g.g
\
/
\
1,
4
\
/
/
\ /
\
/
\ /
=.
/
\
/
- _-
+____
pl anrs can bc control l ed vi rtual l y i ndepend(,nt]y of one another by choi ce
of the pri n(i pal pl ane di mensi ons, The rel ati on bct\vecns the pri mary
pattern 10-cl b beam~vi dth and the horn di mcnsi orrs are gi ven by Eqs.
(10.52) and (10.53). The pri mary patt crn beaul wi dths that are requi red
are dutcrrni ned by the di mensi ons 01and d? of the r efl ector aperture and
the focal l vrrgth. The l atter shoul d br chosen as smal l as possi bl e to keep
the pri mary pat ter n 10-db \\-i dthl arge; othrrnvi sc tl l c desi gn of a pra(,ti ral
horn brcomcs vvr y di fi cl l l t. Di fhcl l l ti cs are enco~l ntcred i f the rati o ,
dl ~dz i s too hwgc; si n(,e t}l c di mensi on of the horn i n the al l -pl ane must be
so n~l l (,h sm:Ll l er than thti t i n the CZz-pl anethat the resul ti ng horn has
l i i d(,l y di ffercnt center s of fcwl i n the t\~o pl anes.
Thi s wi l l gi ve ri se to
seri ous phase er r or s :md 10ss i n gai n.
Thr pri mary pattern of the horn desi gned to meet the pri nci pal pl ane
reql l i rrments has an cl l i pti cti l cross secti on,
Consequentl y, the equi -
i ntensi ty i l l umi nati on contours on the r efl c(tor are al so el l i pti cal i n shape.
~her c fi re several rcastl ns for r(l (t i ng the r ef{ector al ong s(l ch a conto(l r
as shown i n l i g. 12. I W.
4
I t i s f,]{l nd i n ~encrul that the gai n factor
i ncreases and the gen-r:l l fc:l t I I l cs of 1he pattern arc improved I]Y a redur-
1
tji on i n si de l ol ms i n thr pri nri pal pl anes.
Tl l c basi s for thi s l i es i n thr
fart, that t hc cfl c(, i i \e i l l l l nl i l l :i t i on for s:l J, thr d-pri n(i l xd pl an{ at J
Sm. 12.14] (!ONTO(J R C1J T7I NG OF lcEFI ,ECTOR,$ 453
gi ven poi nt on the dz-axi s i s the i ntegrated i ntensi ty across the aperture
paral l el to the d,-pl ane. Wi th the aperture of the type shown i n Fi g.
12.19b the i ntegrated area tapers al ong the al l -axi s, and the effecti ve
i l l umi nati on i s, ther efor e, mor e tapered than i n the correspondi ng case
of Fi g. 12.19a, hence the i mproved si de-l obe characteri sti cs. The ovoi d
shape of Fi g. 12. 19b al so has advantages of l ow wi nd resi stance and
smal l er moments of area and i nerti a whi ch are of consi derabl e i mportance
i n connecti on wi th the mechani cal probl ems of support and rotati on of
the antenna.
100
8
0
6
2
4
4
6
8
-- 10
8s
g
zg
:
4A
~
32
6?
8~
g 1:0
8
20:
:6
2$
4
4K
z
%!2
6 .2
.-
~
8:
; 0.1
s
30
2
: 4
2
6
8
0.01
- 180 _160_140- 120- 100- 80- 60- 40 -20 oO 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 18: 0
FIG. 12. 20. E- and H-pl anepatterns of the beavertai l antenna, shown i n Fi g. 13.12a.
.kn antenna usi ng the symmetri cal ovoi d-shaped r efl ector i s shown i n
the fol l mvi ng chapter i n Fi g. 13.12a. The di mensi ons of the r efl ector
are dl = 20 ft, da = 5 ft, and the focal l ength f = 5 ft. The
feed that was fi nal l y adopted for thi s antenna i s a fl ared box hornz
desi gned to meet the i l l umi nati on requi rements i n the pri nci pal pl anes,
The secondary patterns of the antenna are shown i n Fi g. 12.20, The
rati o of the hal f-power wi dths @E/@H is0.29, and the rati o of the aperture
di mensi ons d,/dl = 0.25. The H-pl ane si de-l obe l evel s are al l down
bel o~v 17 db wi th no promi nent wi de-angl es l obes; the E-pl ane si de
l obes are al l bel ow 23 db, showi ng that the i l l umi nati on i s pr oper l y di s-
tri buted over the r efl ector .
12.14. Feed Offset and Contour Cutti ng of Refl ectors.-The symmet-
ri cal l y cut parabol oi ds have the dra~vback that the feed must be l ocated
1c. s. Pno, The Beavertai l .4ntenna, RL Repor t No. 1027, Apr. 9, 1946.
z S. J. ~hmn, Fl ared BOX Horn,; RL Repor t ho. 653, Jul y 9, 1945; see al so
Chap. 10.
I
i n the center of the aperture. I n thi s posi ti on i t i s i n the path of the
r efl ected rays from the most i ntensel y i l l umi nated area, and hence the
mi smatch i ntroduced by the r efl ector i s qui te si gni fi cant.
Furthermore,
the use of a horn feed i ntroduces a l arge secti on of wavegui de, whi ch i n
l arge r efl ector s necessi tates addi ti onal supporti ng structures; these
together wi th the feed bl ock out aperture area, causi ng a l oss i n gai n and
i ncrease i n si de l obes (cf. Sec. 6,7).
Both of these defects are el i mi nated by the offset feedi ng techni que
whi ch i s i l l ustrated schemati cal l y i n Fi g. 12.21. The center of feed i s
pl aced at focus of the parabol oi d ?s i n the previ ous case, but the horn i s
ti pped so that the peak of the pri mary pat-
A
ter n makes some angl e ~0 wi th the para-
Peak
~oloid axi s. The major porti on of the
illumination
w. .
l ower secti on of the parabol oi d i s di scarded.
([
.
az
The di mensi on d, is agai n determi ned from
.
the secondary pattern beamwi dth by Eq.
+;q \

&

(56), The offset feedi ng r emoves the horn

and i ts supporti ng structure out of the way
of the most i ntensel y i l l umi nated area of
,:,,;, 7
122 I.offset feeditig twll-
the aperture wi th resul ti ng i mprovement
lllque.
i n gai n and i n si de-l obe characteri sti cs.
The redl l cti on of the mi smatch can bc understood i n terms of the geomet-
rical-o[>tics Dicturc that the radiation returning to the feed comes from the
,
:Lreaal :ol l ndthe ver tex of the parabol oi d. The-magni tude of the mi smatch
is gi ven b.v a rel ati on equi val ent to Eq. (39):
(57)
I there GJ($O)i s now the gai n of the feed i n the di recti on al ong the axi s.
1l y offsetti ng the feed the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent i s r educed by the rati o
GJ(+o)/GJ,, wher e GJ, i s the peak gai n.
The desi gn pr occdur c i s essenti al l y the fol l o\vi ng: The di mensi ons d,
and d.l arc chosen i n accordance \vi th the bearnwi dth rel ati ons [13q. (56)].
The focal l ength and the di mensi ons of the horn aperture are chosen as
though the r efl ector i s to be cut symmetri cal l y; the angl e subtended by
d, at thc focus sho~dd not exceed 160. The horn i s constructed, pres-
suri zed, and matched by the methods di scussed i n Chap. 10. I ,et r, be
the resi dual mi smatch of the feed and r the al l owabl e total mi smatch
of the antenna; the al l o~vabl e r efl ector mi smatch i s then
(58)
[si ng a ci rcul ar parabol oi d of the focal l ength of the fi nal antenna, the
parabol oi d refl ecti on coeffi ci ent i s determi ned as a functi on of the feed
I
d
!,
~
s~c, 1214] CWN7Or?l i cUYYI NG OF RIWLIKTORS 455
offset ~0 by the ci rcl e di agram method r efer r ed to prewcusl y (qf. Fi g.
12.12), or the peak gai n G,o i s determi ned from the mi smatch at the
angl e l o = O, and the mi smatch at any other angl e i s computed by means
of Eq. (57) from the knowl edge of the pri mary pattern.
For the chosen val ue of ~o the pri mary feed pattern i s transformed
i nto equi -i ntensi ty i l l umi nati on contours on the surface of the parabol oi d
by taki ng i nto account space attenuati on accordi ng to the i nverse square
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
g
0.4
f
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
x
-7
J
FI CJ.12.22.Constant i ntensi ty contours i n parabol oi d aperture (hor n feed axi s ti l ted 20
rel atl ve to parabol oi d axi s).
l aw, An exampl e of such an equi -i ntensi ty contour pl ot i s sho\vn i n
Fi g. 12.22. The parabol oi d i s then cut to fol l ow an equi -i ntensi ty con-
tour, general l y chosen as the 14-db contour.
A number of antennas have been desi gned accordi ng to thi s pr ocedur e
wi th ver y successful resul ts.1
Fi gure 12.23 i s a photograph of the
antennaz to whi ch the constant i ntensi ty contours (Fi g. 12.22) appl y.
Ther efl ector di mensi ons aredl = 54 i n., dz = 24 i n., j= 14.5 i n. The
horn aperture di mensi ons are2cmi n the E-pl ane, 6.Ocmi nthe H-pl ane
\vi th fl are angl es of 10 and 40 i n the r especti ve pl anes. The offset
angl e i s20; thi s waschosen so that r, < 0.04i n or der that the resul tant
mi smatch of the feed and parabol oi d over the enti re band of 8600 to
1 T. J, Kcary and J. I . J30hnert, RL Report h-o. 659, hfar. i , 1345; RI , I teport ho.
660, Feb. 19, 1945; RL Repor t No. 779, Aug. 30, 1943; J. I . Bohner t and H, Krutter,
I t I , Repor tNo,665, Feb. 7, 1945.
T. .J,Kear y and J. I . Bohner t, RI , Repor t h-o. 659, Jl ar. 7, 1945.
.
456 PLNCI L-BEA M AND SI M1>LE lAI VNEl~-B13Ahf AIVT~JVN/!S [SI X
Fm.
100
8
6
4
2
4
2
0.01
12.23.Fanned-beam antenna usi ng the offset feed techni que.
-40 -30 -200 -10 0
100 200 3f30 400
Angle
121!
FI Q.12.24.Pri nci pal E- and H-t)l a:l e pol ar di agrams of the antenna shown i n Fi g. 12.2:3.
.-- .
I
0
f
4
skc. 12.15] TI I E PARABOLI C CYLI NDER AND LI NE SO lJ ltCE
457
9700 Mc per sec shoul d r epr esent a refl ecti on coeffi ci ent l ess than 0.091.
The performance of the antenna i s demonstrated by the E- and H-pl ane
patterns shown i n Fi g. 12.24.
The rati o of the beaml vi dths @./@.
agai n i s ver y cl osel y equal to the rati o dz/dl. The l ow l evel of the si de
l obes attest further to the val i di ty of the desi gn pr ocedur e.
The el i mi nati on of one of the pl anes of symmetry by the offset feedi ng
techni que produces one seri ous effect. The process destroys the sym-
metry of the cross-pol ari zati on component of the aperture fi el d l eadi ng
to cross pol ari zati on i n the pl ane of the l arge di mensi on of the aperture.
The cross-pol ari zati on pattern has l obes on ei ther si de of the mai n l obe
i n the pl ane of the nar r ower beamwi dth, whi ch may seri ousl y affect the
121G. 12.25 --- Parabol i c cyl i nder and l i ne source.
performance of the system. Cross-pol ari zati on studi es shoul d be made
i n the narrow-wi dth pl ane for al l antennas of thi s type.
12.15. The Parabol i c Cyl i nder and Li ne Source.I n pri nci pl e a si m-
pl e fanned beam i s most easi l y pr oduced by usi ng a rectangul ar aperture
wi th a separabl e type of aperture fi el d such as was di scussed i n Sees. 65
and 6,6. The pri nci pal pl ane patterns are then determi ned compl etel y
by the aperture di mensi on i n the gi ven pl ane and the fi el d di stri buti on i n
that aspect. Ther e i s no i nteracti on between the di stri buti ons i n the
pri nci pal pl anes. A second advantage i s the reducti on of cross
pol ari zati on.
The requi red aperture confi gurati on and fi el d di stri buti on are readi l y
obtai ned by i l l umi nati ng a parabol i c cyl i nder by a l i ne sour ce l ocated
al ong i ts focal l i ne. An antenna of thi s type i s shown i n Chap. 1, Fi g.
1.6. The general theor y of such systems has been devel oped from the
standpoi nt of the r efl ector currents i n Sec. 5.9 and from the aperture
fi el d standpoi nt i n Sees. 68 and 69. We shal l her e si mpl y state the
resu!ts whi ch are parti cul ar to the parabol i c cyl i nder. I n Fi g. 12.25,
the l i ne sour ce i s taken al ong the x-axi s whi ch i s al so the focal l i ne of the
parabol i c cyl i nder. Let 1be the l ength of the sour ce and v be the angul ar
aperture of the r efl ector . The performance of the system depends on the
~
4
458 PENCI L-BEAM AND SI MPLE FA NNE1)-BEAM AN TE.VNAS [SEC. 1215
fact that the r efl ector i s i n the cylindrical wave cone of the source. I t i s,
ther efor e, necessary that
l>> A,
1,
pm < ~)
(59)
wher e p- i s the maxi mum radi al di stance from the sour ce to the r efl ector .
For wavel engths gr eater than about 10 cm condi ti ons (59) i mpl y that
the l ength of the cyl i nder i s gr eater than the hei ght of the aperture.
I t i s cl ear that al l rays from the sour ce i nci dent on the r efl ector i n a
pl ane paral l el to the yz-pl ane are r efl ected i n that pl ane i nto a fami l y
of rays paral l el to the z-axi s. The r efl ector thus produces a uni form
phase di stri buti on over the aperture. Al so, si nce the r efl ected rays arc
paral l el , the fi el d i ntensi ty at a gi ven poi nt on the aperture i s the same
i n magni tude as that of the r efl ected fi el d (or i nci dent fi el d) at the cor r e-
spondi ng poi nt on the r efl ector . The i ntensi ty di stri buti on, F(z), i n the
z-di recti on over the aperture i s, ther efor e, the same as that of the l i ne
source, and the aperture di stri buti on i n the transverse di recti on i s deter -
mi ned enti rel y by the two-di mensi onal gai n f unct i on G(+) of the cyl i n-
dri cal wave zone of the l i ne sour ce (cf. Sec. 5.9). Eval uati ng the fi el d i n
the forward di recti on by means of Eqs. (5.86) and (588), we fi nd that
for both the l ongi tudi nal l y and transversel y pol ari zed systems the gai n
i s gi ven by
The gai n factor S = G.,fx2/4mA is, ther efor e,
The term i nvol vi ng F(z) gi ves the effect of the devi ati on from uni form
i l l umi nati on al ong the z-di recti on. The second term gi ves the depend-
ence on the angul ar di stri buti on of the pri mary pattern. As i n the case
of the parabol oi d of revol uti on ther e i s an opti mum angul ar aperture
for a gi ven feed pattern that represents the compromi se between spi l l -
over and tapered i l l umi nati on over the aperture i n the y-di recti on. The
opti mum angul ar aperture can be found by graphi cal methods as \vas
done i n Sec. 125 for the parabol oi d of revol uti on.
For maxi mum gai n, the di stri buti on F(x) shoul d be equal to uni ty,
Thi s, however , gi ves maxi mum si de l obes i n the l ongi tudi nal pattern
that i s, i n the pl anes contai ni ng the l i ne sourceas compared ~ri th
!
tapered di stri buti ons. The l ongi tudi nal pattern can be studi ed as a two-
di mensi onal probl em, i ndependentl y of the transverse pattern. .\l l of ,
f
the resul ts of Sec. 6.6, other than the actual val ues of the gai n, ran l )e
r
sEc. 1216] PARALLEL-PLATE SYS7EMS 459
appl i ed her e wi thout modi fi cati on. The gai n i s affected by the trans-
ver se di stri buti on as i s shown by Eq, (60).
The essenti al di ffi cul ty wi th antennas of thi s type i s i n produci ng an
effi ci ent l i ne source. Li near arrays such as are di scussed i n Chap. 9 are
frequentl y used. The i mpedance characteri sti cs are general l y poor due
to strong i nteracti on between the r efl ector and the source.
12.16. Paral l el -pl ate Systems. Cheese and Pillbox Antennas.The
l i mi tati ons i mposed on the antenna desi gn by condi ti ons (59) can be
el i mi nated by pl aci ng the parabol i c cyl i nder between paral l el pl ates as
shown i n Fi g. 12.26. The feed may then be a wavegui de or a horn wi th
one of i ts aperture di mensi ons equal to the di stance h between the pl ates.
(a)
(b)
FI G. 12.26.Paral l el -pl ate systems: (b) ui l l box al , tenna; (a) cheese antenna.
From the poi nt of vi ew of the rays bet\veen the pl ates, t!l e system i s
equi val ent to a segment of an extended l i ne sour ce and parabol i c cyl i nder.
The antennas di ffer from the open system of the precedi ng secti on
i n that propagati on can take pl ace bet~veen the pl ates i n vari ous modes
(cf. Sec. 7.15). The paral l el pl ates support fr ee propagati on of a pri nci pal
wave-the TE.W-mode-i n whi ch the el ectri c vector i s normal to the
pl ates; the vel oci ty of propagati on and the ~vavel ength i s the same as i n
fr ee space. TE- and TJ1-modes are al so possi bl e, ~vhi ch are equi val ent
to the modes i n a rectangul ar ~vavegui de. We need concer n oursel ves
onl y wi th the l o~vest ZE-mode i n whi ch the el ectri c vector i s paral l el to
the pl ates and vari es i n magni tude al ong the l i ne normal to the pl ates
accordi ng to si n (z/h), wher e h i s the di stance between them, The pl ates
~vi l l support propagati on i n thi s mode onl y for free-space wavel engths that
sati sfy the condi ti on
x < 2h. (62)
460 PENCIL-BEAM AND SIMPLE FANNED-BEAM ANTENNAS [SW. 12.17
The wavel ength of propagati on i s
g= [-(W
(63)
l he cutoff condi ti on for the next hi gher mode i s
The paral l el -pl ate systems may be cl assed i nto two groups: (1) those
wi th spaci ng h < k whi ch support fr ee propagati on i n the 7E.M-mode
and possi bl y the Z111-mode i f h > A/2, (2) those wi th spaci ng h > x
whi ch support addi ti onal modes. The two groups are l abel ed pi ctori al l y,
the for mer bei ng cal l ed the pi l l box antennas, the l atter cheese antennas.
The cheese antennas can be desi gned to meet any l ength-to-hei ght
rati o desi red. I f onl .v the 2WM-mode i s desi red, the feed must be
desi gned wi th great ca~e i n or der to avoi d the exci tati on of other modes.
The di ffi cul ty of el i mi nati ng other modes i s the major objecti on to the
TEM-cheese antenna. On the other hand, the feed can be desi gned to
exci te vari ous TE- and TM-modes purposeful l y. Each mode travel s wi th
a characteri sti c phase vel oci ty, and the superposi ti on of the modes i s
used to synthesi ze vari ous types of phase di stri buti ons over the aperture. 1
The l i mi tati ons i mposed on the secondary pattern of a pi l l box i n the
pl ane contai ni ng the h-di mensi on, because of the restri cti ons on the l atter,
can be obvi ated to some extent by fl ari ng the mouth of the pi l l box i nto
a two-di mensi onal horn. Thi s has a further advantage of reduci ng the
refl ecti on by the aperture of the wave between the pl ates. Another
method of control l i ng the pattern i s by means of fl aps such as are shown
i n the hal f-beacon antennaz i n Fi g. 12.27. Hal f a pi l l box i s used i n thi s
parti cul ar case; i t i s fed by an H-pl ane sectoral horn. The h-di mensi on
i s equal to k/3 so that the pl ates can support onl y the TEl f-mode.
Attenti on shoul d be cal l ed to the curl ed edge of the fl ap; the curl fol l ows
an exponenti al spi ral i n or der to r educe the i mpedance mi smatch ari si ng
from the di sconti nui ty at the edge of the fl ap. The pattern obtai ned
i n the pl ane of the h-di mensi on i s shown i n Fi g. 1228.
12.17. Pi l l box Desi gn Probl ems.There are thr ee major probl ems to
be consi dered i n the desi gn of the pi l l box: (1) the f/d rati o for maxi mum
gai n factor, (2) i mpedance mi smatch, (3) structural probl ems.
I The cheese antenna r ecei ved mor e attenti on i n Bri tai n than i n the L-ni ted States.
I nfor mati on pertai ni ng to Bri ti sh reports may be obtai ned fr om the Bri ti sh Sci enti fi c
Commi ssi on offi ce i n Washi ngton, D.(. or the Bri ti sh central Radi o Bur eau i n
~
I ,ondon. Much of the Bri ti shwor k i s appeari ngi n the ne~vsecti on Part I I I a, Radi o-
l ocati on, of the jo{l rnal of the I nsti tuteof El ectri cal Fhgi l l eers.
ZA, I I raunl i ch, Hal f Beacon .4ntcnna, RI , Rrport No. 41!), Scpt, (i , 1!)43.
f
,,
,
4
1
[
.
.
SEC. 1217] PI LLBOX DESI GN PROBLEMS
461
Optimum Shape.-The anal ysi s of the gai n factor pr oceeds al ong the
same l i nes as for the parabol i c cyl i nder i n Sec. 12.15. The resul t i s
essenti al y that of Eq. (61) except for mul ti pl i cati ve constants.
The
Ii3==aveguide
FI G. 1227.-Hal f-beacon antenna.
opti mum angul ar aperture v (cJ. Fi g. 12.29) i s the val ue for whi ch the
expressi on
()[~
*
~,* [GJ(~)]J~sec ~ d~
1
2
cot
2
(65)
hfi s i ts maxi mum val ue. The gai n functi on G,(+) i s that of the feed
radi ati ng ,bet~veen paral l el pl ates, not i n fr ee space; l i ke that of the cyl i n-
dri cal ~vave zone of a l i ne sour ce i t i s two-di mensi onal .
)
The opti mum angul ar aperture i s general l y l ess than 90. The pi l l -
box i s then constructed as shown i n Fi g. 12.29 wi th the paral l el pl ates
j
1T. J. Kear y, .4. R. Pool e, J. R. Hi sser, H. Wol fe, Ai rborne havi gati onal Radar
Antennas, RL Repor t No. 808, Mar. 1.5, 1946.
I
462 PENCI L-BEAM AND SI MPLE FANNED-BEAM AN TENAAS [SW. 12.17
3200 3300 3400 3500 0
100 200 300 400
3103
500
3000
600
290
700
280
80
270
900
260 1000
250 1100
2400 120
230
130
220
210 200 1900 1800 1700 160J 150 140
F1~.12.28.Patternof the hal f-beacon antenna i n the h-di mensi on pl ane.
F1~.12.29.A pi l l box of angul ar aperture W.
,-+-
.
i
SEC. 1217]
I I I ,LBOX I ) E,VI GN PRO BLEM,? 463
extendi ng a l i ttl e beyond the focal poi nt. The gai n factors real i zed by
)
pi l l boxes are consi derabl y hi gher than that of parabol oi dal antennas,
rangi ng i n val ue up~rard from 0.8.
Impedance l Wi wnatch.-The mi smat~h pr oduced by the paral l el -pl ate
system ari ses from the parabol i c stri p and from refl ecti on at the aperture.
The l atter can be reduced, as was noted before, by fl ari ng the mouth of
the pi l l box i nto a two-di mensi onal horn. The refl ecti on coeffi ci ent pr o-
;
duced by the parabol i c stri p can be devel oped al ong l i nes si mi l ar to
that fol l owed i n the case of the parabol oi d The essenti al di fference i s
that the fi el d between the paral l el pl ates i s i n the form of a cyl i ndri cal
wave rather than a spheri cal \rave. The refl ecti on coeffi ci ent i s found
?
to be
/
*
rr=:
~fkp
G(*)
+
COS - ds,
7rlJ
P
2
(66)
wher e ds i s the el ement of l ength al ong the refl ecti ng stri p. Let z measure
posi ti on al ong a l i ne paral l el to the aperture; on i ntroduci ng the vari abl e
+
v=3=2t,an
f
2
the refferti {m coeffi ci ent becomes
/
u G(v)
_,.yfu,
r.(v) = : - e dv,
To
1 +g
(67)
(68)
di sregardi ng al l constant-phase terms. I f fh >>1, the i ntegral of Eq.
(68) i s ver y cl osel y equal to
(69)
wher e GO i s the peak gai n of the feed. Thi s i s the two-di mensi onal
anal ogue of Eq. (39).
The mi smatch can be el i mi nated by means of a ver tex pl ate as i n
the case of the ci rcul ar parabol oi d. The techni que of determi ni ng the
di mensi ons of the pl ate i s the same as that descri bed i n Sec. 12.9. I t
shoul d be noted that the i ntersecti on poi nt v. on the spi ral gi ves x. whi ch
i s onl y hal f the l ength of the pl ate. The ver tex pl ate has the same unde-
si rabl e effects on the secondary pattern as i n the parabol oi d: reducti on i n
gai n, i ncrease i n si de-l obe i ntensi ty.
Structural Probl ems. Speci al attenti on must be pai d to the structure
and assembl y of the pi l l box. The feed must make good el ectri cal con-
tact wi th the paral l el pl ates. The contact can be establ i shed by sol der-
I Detai l s are gi ven by S. Si l ver, Anal ysi s and Cor r ecti on of the I mpedance Mi s-
match Due to a Refl ector, RI , Repor t No, 810, Sept. 25, 1945.
464 PI?NCIL-BLA .}{ ,1ND ~$IMPLIc IANNI$JBEA M AiVTllIVNAS [SEC. 1217
i ng; a better techni que, however , i s to make a choke joi nt between the
feed and the pi l l box. 1 Good el ectri cal contact must al so be mai ntai ned
between the refl ecti ng stri p and the paral l el pl ates. Thi s i s a mor e
i mportant consi derati on for the Zl tl f-rnode, i n whi ch the el ectri c-fi el d
vector i s normal to the pl ates, than the TE-mode, i n whi ch i t i s paral l el
to the pl ates, and zer o at the surface of the pl ates. The space between
the refl ecti ng stri p and the paral l el pl ate, i n the case of poor contact, i s
too smal l to propagate a Z11-mode.
I t i s recommended that the parabol i c stri p be cut out of a metal
pl ate and cut to a si zabl e thi ckness so that the pl ates can be bol ted to
the stri p wi thout warpi ng the parabol i c curve.
l :I G, 1230, - Structural desi gn of a pi l l box.
l l ai ntai ni ng a uni form spaci ng between the pl ates poses a number
of di ffi cul t probl ems. The spaci ng probl em i s not too seri ous for the
ZE.l f-mode. I f the spaci ng h i s wel l bel ow x/2, ther e i s no si gni fi cant
mode control probl em. I n thi s case, pr oper rei nforcement of the paral l el
pl atesz as sho~~n i n Fi g. 12.30 together wi th the spaci ng support pr o-
vi ded by the feed i s suffi ci ent. Addi ti onal support i s necessary onl y i n
extr emel y l arge structures.
The tol erances on the spaci ng are mor e restri cti ve i n the case of the
TE-mode. The phase vel oci ty vari es wi th the spaci ng [Eq. (63)]; a
nonuni form spaci ng produces phase di storti on over the aperture.
The
spaci ng can be mai ntai ned by a di stri buti on of metal or di el ectri c posts.
These scatter the ener gy, however , produci ng both a mi smatch and di s-
torti on of the fi el d over the aperture. The pi ns shoul d be kept out of
the hi gh i ntensi ty regi on of the pri mary pattern of the feed.
1T. J. I GYWYd cl ., .iirbornc XTavigational Itadar .4ntcnnas, RI , Repor t No.
808, I l ar. 1.5, 1!)46.
2 \J, Si rl mk a]]d 1<:.P(l rrel l ,
(osec .i ntcnnas \vi th a I ,i ne Sour ce and Shaped
~yl i udri ral l tefl cctor, l U. l teport Xo. 624, Nov. 3, 1944.
4
I
CHAPTER 13
SHAPED-BEAM ANTENNAS
BY L. C. VAN ATTA AND T. J. KEARY
The hi ghl y di recti ve beams attai nabl e wi th mi crowave antennas have
been uti l i zed to achi eve l arge antenna gai n, preci si on di recti on fi ndi ng,
and a hi gh degr ee of resol uti on of compl ex targets. The expl orati on
of a wi de angul ar regi on wi th such sharp beams requi res an i nvol ved
scanni ng operati on i n whi ch the scanni ng ti me becomes a l i mi ti ng factor.
Thi s probl em i s much si mpl i fi ed i f the requi red scanni ng can be r educed
to onl y one di recti on, the cover age of the angul ar regi on bei ng compl eted
by fanni ng the beam broadl y. The characteri sti cs of si mpl e fanned-
beam antennas have been di scussed i n Chap. 12. For many appl i ca-
ti ons, however , the characteri sti c shape of the fanned beam obtai ned
FI G. 13.1.Beam fr om ground-based or shi pl mrne antenna provi di ng coverage on ai rcraft.
by si mpl y reduci ng the correspondi ng di mensi on of the aperture i s unsat-
i sfactory; i t may be wasteful of the l i mi ted mi crowave power , or i t may
resul t i n a ver y unequal i l l umi nati on of targets i n di fferent di recti ons.
To over come these l i mi tati ons i t i s necessary to i mpose on the beam
by speci al desi gn techni ques some shape not characteri sti c of the normal
di ffracti on l obe. These beams are r efer r ed to as shaped beams, and the
antennas that pr oduce them as shaped-beam antennas.
The purpose of thi s chapter i s to descri be several appl i cati ons for
shaped beams, to di scuss requi rements i mposed on the beam by these
appl i cati ons, and to present a number of desi gn techni ques for produci ng
shaped-beam antennas.
13.1. Shaped-beam Appl i cati ons and Requi rements. Ther e are a
number of radar appl i cati ons for mi crowave systems that i mpose mor e
or l ess sever e beam-shapi ng requi rements upon the antenna. The
appl i cati ons and requi rements ~vi l l be consi dered her e; the means for
real i zi ng the shaped beams \vi l l be defer r ed to l ater secti ons.
S/(r~ace .-l n(enna jor Air Search.For use i n search for ai rcraft, an
antenna on the ground or on a shi p i s requi red to pr oduce a beam sharp
i n azi muth but shaped i n el evati on; the azi muth cover age i s obtai ned
465
by scanni ng. The el evati on shape of the beam must provi de cover age
on ai rcraft up to a certai n al ti tude and angl e of el evati on and out to the
maxi mum range of the system. Thi s i s to be accompl i shed wi thout
wasteful use of avai l abl e pofver . Fi gure 13.1 i ndi cates the general shape
of the co~er age requi red i n the ~erti cal pl ane. Tbe antenna beam need
not meet the cover age requi rement ver y accuratel y, si nce conservati on
of po\ver and a rel ati vel y constant si gnal on a pl ane at a fi xed al ti tude
are the onl y objecti ves.
I n or der to mai ntai n a fi xed mi ni mum of i l l umi nati on on the ai rcraft
at vari ous poi nts al ong the uppm contour of the cover age di agram, i t i s
necessary that the ampl i tude of the antenna pattern be proporti onal to

/ /
l :l <;, 132,-Beam fr oxu antenna of ai rl mrne radar for surface search.
the (I i stanrc r from the antenna to the ai rcraft on that contoul . I n
other ]vords, the cover age contour of Fi g. 13,1 can be taken to be the
arnpl i tl l de pattern of the antenna (c~. Sec. 1.2). Si nce r = h csc 0, the
ampl i tude pattern must be proporti onal to csc O, or the po}}-er pattern
must be proporti onal to Cscz 0. The proporti onal i ty must hol d over the
. .
regi on from a mml mum angl e arc sl n h/rmax, to the maxi mum el evati on
angl e for whi ch cover age i s requi red.
.4i r+or-neAntenna jor Surjacc Smrch.-.&n ai rborne antenna i s requi red
to pro(l ucc a beam sharp i n azi muth but, so shaped i n el evati on as to
provi de ~mi form i l l umi nati on on the ground; azi muthal cover age agai n
i s achi eve(i by scanni ng. Fi gure 13.2 i l l ustrates the verti cal cover age
requi rement; thi s ]vas showm i n the previ ous paragraph to be i denti cal
~vi th the verti cal ampl i tude pattern. Both thi s and the previ ous pattern
assume i sotropi c scatteri ng b,y target objects. Devi ati ons from thi s
assumpti on for vari ous tar~et objects w-i l l be di scussrd i n the next secti on.
l Vhen an ai rborne antenna i s used pri mari l y for surface search over
s?a agai nst such poi nt targets as shi ps and buovs, the purpose of beam
shapi ng i s to conser }e power , to mai ntai n a rel ati vel y constant si gnal as
the target i s approached, and to avoi d overl oadi ng the i ndi cator scope
wi th sea return. h-one of these objecti ves i mpose exacti ng requi re-
ments on the beam shape. I I owever, for successful surface search o~r r
l and i t i s necessary to i l l umi nate the ~round \cr y uni forml y i n or dr r to
obtai n [ sol i d pai nti ng on the i ndi cator scope and a f ul l y i ntel l i gi bl e
pi cture. he resul ts from the opcratous \i e\rp(,i nt of Sati sfactt)ry an[l
umati stat,tor. v rl eval i on patterns ar(: des(,ri l xvl i n SC(I , 14 I aI I Li its ;it,(t)m-
pauyi ng fi gl l res.
1
I
Sm. 131] SHAPED-BEAM APPLICA 7TIONS AND RAQ (JIREbfE,VTS 4(;7
5hipborne Antenna jor Surjace Searth.-A shi pborne antenna for use
i n surface search must scan i n azi muth wi th a sharp azi muth pattern.
To accommodate rol l and pi tch the beam of an unstabi l i zed antenna must
be broad i n el evati on. Thi s broadeni ng \vi l l be mor e conservati ve of
power and wi l l provi de a mm-e constant i l l umi nati on of the target i f i t i s
accompl i shed wi th a shaped beam (Fi g. 13,3) rather than a si mpl e fanned
Shaped-
beam
antenna
------ --= ==. ----- __
Ship
1TG. 133. -Sertor shaped beam for surface search by shi phorne antenna.
!
I
,ntenn
(CL)
Horizontal
- __
Ctennawx
(b)
I:lG. 1:14.-Beavertai l beam for t,ei ght-fi ndi ng a,,te,, na: (a) el e~ati on pattern; (i i ) shaped
azi l nuth patter,l .
beam. The i deal beam shape for thi s purpose n-oul d be gi ven by 1 = 1~,.
for angl es i n the regi on + 191to 61 and 1 = O for angl es outsi de that
regi on. Thi s sector shape can be approxi mated mor e cl osel y as the
verti cal aperture of the antenna i s i ncreased, but a cl ose approxi mati on i s
not justi fi ed.
Surface Antenna for Height Finding.A ground or shi p antenna
desi gned for hei ght fi ndi ng must have a sharp el evati on beam for obtai n-
i ng preci se el evati on i nformati on and a rapi d el evati on scan. Provi si on
must al so be made for scanni ng the antenna sl o~vl y i n azi muth or for
turni ng the antenna to an assi g~ed azi muth. Tbe beam must be rel a-
ti vel y broad i n azi muth i n or der that the target ~vi l l be hel d i n the beam
468 SHAPED-BEAM ANTENNAS [Sm. 132
l ong enough to obtai n hei ght i nformati on. I f the beam i s assumed to
bestati onary i nazi rnuth, anai rpl ane fl yi ng across the beam wi l l bei l l u-
mi nated for a peri od proporti onal to i ts di stance away. To i ncrease
the ti me of i l l umi nati on on near-by crossi ng targets, a l ow-i ntensi ty
broadeni ng of the azi muth beam i s requi red. I f a fi xed mi ni mum of
i l l umi nati on i s to be achi eved at a gi ven l i near di stance on both si des
of the center l i ne of the azi muth beam, the ampl i tude pattern must have
the so-cal l ed doubl e csc o or beavertai l shape i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 13.4,
13.2. Effect of a Di recti onal Target Response.I n the previ ous sec-
ti on i t was assumed that the target response i s i sotropi c. The effect of a
di recti onal target response i s to al ter the beam shape requi red of the
antenna from that predi cted by si mpl e (i nverse-square consi derati ons.
The power r ecei ved by a radar system fr om a target i n a gi ven di recti on
i s pr opor ti onal to the radar cross secti on of the target; t,he radar
cross secti onl may be defi ned as the i ntercepti on cross secti on mul ti pl i ed
by the scatteri ng gai n for that di recti on. Si nce the radar cross secti on
of some targets vari es wi del y wi th di recti on, thi s effect must be taken i nto
consi derati on i n establ i shi ng the r equi r ed beam shape for the antenna.
The power transmi tted i n a communication system from a shaped-beam
antenna to a recei vi ng antenna i n a gi ven di recti on i s proporti onal to the
product of the gai ns of the two antennas al ong the l i ne joi ni ng them.
A di recti onal recei vi ng antenna wi l l modi fy, ther efor e, the beam shape
requi red of the transmi tti ng antenna.
Let us consi der i n gr eater detai l the case of a radar antenna l ocated
a perpendi cul ar di stance h from a pl ane (Fi g. 13.2) and requi red to
obtai n equal si gnal s from i denti cal targets l ocated arbi trari l y i n that
pl ane, Let us assume that the antenna i s to scan wi th a sharp beam i n
azi muth, as i n the case of the fi rst two shaped-beam appl i cati ons descri bed
i n the previ ous secti on, Then the speci fi cati ons for the verti cal pol ar
di agram may be deri ved i f quanti ti es are defi ned as fol l ows:
P = power emi tted by the antenna
G(o) = power gai n of the antenna at depressi on angl e 6
r = sl ant range to the target
U(O) = i ntercepti on cross secti on of the target for a pl ane wave from
the di recti on of the antennaz
1Al so known as the back-scatteri ng coeffi ci ent,
Zfhe defi ni ti on of the scatteri ng cross secti on i s bei ng set up her e i n mor e detai l ed
for m than was done i n Sec. 12. I t i s based on the physi cal pi cture that the target
presents an i ntercepti on area such that i t r cr noves fr om the pl ane wave al l the ener gy
i nci dent ther eon and redi stri butes i t i n space i n a scatteri ng pattern. Both the
i ntercepti on area and the scatteri ng pattern var y \vi th the aspect pr esented by the
target to the i nci dent wave. The hack-scatteri ng cross secti on i s the pr oduct of the
i ntercepti on area and the gai n of the scatteri ng pattern i n the di recti on of the trans-
mi tter. I t i s the cross section of the equi val ent sphere that woul d pr oduce the same
I
1
,
+
P
SEC. 13,2]
7(9) =
p=
EFFECT OF A DI RECTI ONAL TARGET RESPONSE
power gai n of the scatteri ng object i n the di recti on
antenna
power r ecei ved by the antenna from the target
Nu, 13.5. Effecti ve ground target area and i ts i ntercepti on cr oss serti on for
pul sed radar.
469
of the
ai rborne
The fracti on of the transmi tted po~ver r ecei ved by the antenna i s gi ven
by
p _ G(d) u(61)T(0) G(0)k2
P 47r2 ~T 41#
= [G(o)l ~2
(47r)%-
0(0)7(0). (1)
To i mpose the condi ti on that, equal si gnal s be r ecei ved from i denti cal
targets i n the pl ane, l et us note that r = h csc 0 and wri te p/P = Cz,
a constant. Then
G(o) = C(47r)$fi~
CSC2o
k [a(e)~(e)p
(2)
I f [u(0)~(o)] i s i ndependent of angl e, we obtai n the earl i er resul t that
G(6) for the shaped-beam antenna i s proporti onal to CSC20. Thi s shoul d
be r ecogni zed as onl y a cr ude approxi mati on i n the majori ty of cases of
actual i nterest.
I n the parti cul ar case of refl ecti ons from ground targets, seri ous con-
si derati on has been gi ven to the angul ar dependence of the quanti t:~
[u(8)~(tI )]. Theeffecti ve area of thetarget ontheground depends upon
beamwi dth (6))4), range (r-), pul se l ength (7), and depressi on angl e (o).
By r efer ence to Fi g. 13.5, i t i s evi dent that the effecti ve target area A.,,
on the ground as determi ned by the pul se l ength i s rel ated to depressi on
angl e by the proporti onal i ty
Aeff E r -see 8 cc csc Osec O
r etur n si gnal at the transmi tter as does the target; thus, the pr oduct u(@)T(@) used
here i sequal tothescatteri ng cr oss secti onuof Sec. 12,
l R. 1;, ~l app, ATheoreti cal a ndl l xperi mental S tudyof Radar Ground Return,
RL Report X-o. 1024, Apr. 10, 1946.
470
SHAPED-BEAM AN1ENNA,Y [SEC. 13.2
and that the pr ojecti on of thi s area i n the di recti on of i nci dent radi ati on i s
u(O) = A.i f si n O m sec 0. (3)
The angul ar di stri buti on 7(0) of the radi ati on scattered by the area u(0)
wi l l depend upon the nature of the target or terrai n. .4 mathemati cal
expressi on deri ved for -y(fI ) wi l l depend upon the si mpl i fi ed target model
assumed. Best agreement wi th exper i ence i s obtai ned by assumi ng a
fl at pl ane made up of cl osel y spaced components whi ch scatter i sotrop-
i cal l y. The radi ati on wi l l thel . be equal i n al l di recti ons for any gi ven
condi ti on of i l l umi nati on; i .e.,
-y(f)) = 1. (4)
Combi ni ng Eqs. (3) and (4) gi ves the angul ar dependence
[u(L9)y(@)] c sec /?. (5)
I ntroduci ng thi s dependence i nto Eq. 2 gi ves the proporti on
G(19)a CSC2 e se (6)
for the assumed ground target model .
An antenna wi th a verti cal pattern shaped accordi ng to Eq. (6) woul d
produce, wi thi n the l i mi ts of the assumpti ons, a range tr ace of uni form
bri ghtness on an i ndi cator scope for any gi ven azi muth setti ng of the
antenna. A successi on of range traces from an antenna scanni ng i n
azi muth woul d sti l l be di spl ayed I vi th uni form bri ghtness on a B-scope
presentati on \vhi ch makes a rectangul ar pl ot of range vs. azi muth On
a pl an posi ti on i ndi cator (PP1), however , the range traces are presented
radi al l y and the azi muth angl e, as pol ar angl e. The spaci ng bet~veen
range traces ther efor e vari es i n di rect proporti on to the range wi th the
resul t that the scope i s bri ghtened to~vard the center . Thi s effect can
be compensated i f the verti cal pattern of the antenna i s used to modi fy
the r ecei ved pm~er by a factor of I /r; i .e., the gai n functi on G(6) of the
antenna shoul d be modi fi ed by a factor r = csc O.
For the case of PPI
presentati on then, Eq, (6) becomes
The several i deal
cur~es for G(d) di scussed above are presented
i n Fi g. 13.6:
Cur ve A. CSC2o dependence for a uni form range tr ace wi th i sol ated
i sotropi c targets.
Cur ve B. csc~ OVcos d de.xndence for a uni form range tr ace wi th
cl osel y packed i sotropi c targets,
(ur ve C. CSC28 #cot O dependence for uni form PPI presentati on
wi th cl osel y packed i sotropi c targets.
~
SEC. 133]
Cur ve D.
mental
SURVEY OF BEAM-SHAPI NG TECHNI QUES 471
CSC2 e . cm 6 dependence whi ch approxi mates the experi -
opti mum pattern shape obtai ned from consi derabl e fl i ght
exper i ence wi th a number of antenna desi gns at wavel engths
between 10 and 1.0 cm.
These curves are al l pl otted for a mi ni mum depressi on angl e of 10; thi s
corresponds to the case of an ai rborne radar system wi th a maxi mum
100
100 0
80
60 2
40
4
6
20
8
10
10
78
z
~6
2e
~
n
-4
~
4$
% :
?
6~
92
z
i i
8$
$
1.0 20
0.8
0,6 2
0.4
4
6
0.2
8
01 30
?
03 ,00 200
30 40 50 60 70
800 900
FI G. 13.6.I deal cur ves for dependence of verti cal pattern on depressi on angl e.
range about si x ti mes the al ti tude of the ai rcraft. Several cur ves of
CSC2 0. cos o for di fferent val ues of mi ni mum depressi on angl e are pr e-
sented i n Fi g. 13.7.
13.3. Survey of Beam-shapi ng Techni ques.I n the precedi ng sec-
ti ons we consi dered vari ous appl i cati ons for shaped-beam antennas and
the requi rements that they i mpose on the beam shape. I n thi s secti on
we ~vi l l di scuss the physi cal pri nci pl es i nvol ved i n vari ous beam-shapi ng
techni ques and survey a number of antenna desi gns that have been used
for produci ng beams of vari ous shapes.
Physical Pri nci pl es.I n Chap. 12, the characteri sti cs of penci l beams
and si mpl e fanned beams wer e descri bed. Such beams wer e showm to
have a common shape, characteri sti c of the mai n l obe i n the di ffracti on
472 SHA1ED-13EA3i A,VTENNAS [SEC. 13.3
pattern of a constant-phase aperture. Thi s i s tr ue i ndependent of the
shape or si ze of the aperturefor apertures l arger than about 2i and
i ndependent of the i ntensi ty of i l l umi nati on across the aperture. The
etfect of these vari abl es i s to change onl y the scal e factor for the angul ar
coordi nate of the pattern. The onl y means avai l abl e for al teri ng thi s
characteri sti c shape i s to vary the phase of the i l l umi nati on across the
aperture.
2j050 10 15 200
100
0
80
60
2
40 4
6
20
8
10
10
~8
:
?46
2e
~
-4
~
4?
>
:
?
b=
2*
~
5
82
~
1.0 20
0.8
0.6
2
0.4 4
6
0.2
8
0.1
30
00 loo 200 30.
403 50
600 700
80
900
11~, 1:<7.-Af a,,,i l yofct,rvcs, csc~ r3cos#, for (l ~ffcrel l t val ues of I l l i l l i l l l ul l l dcprcssi ol ~ :l t@,,.
The el ementary pri nci pl es of beam shapi ng can be understood i n
terms of gromctri ral opti cs, From Huvgrns pri nci pl e of propagati on
normal to the phase front, i t i s evi dent that a cur ~ed phase front ~vi l l
pr oduce a mor e cl i spcrsed beam than a pl ane phase front. For a fi xed
aperture si ze, beam shapi ng ran be accompl i shed onl y at the expense of
antenna gai n, si nce the curvecl porti on of the phase front subtracts from
the total apert~l rc a\rai l al >l (]ft)rcontri b(l ti oni nthedi recti (~n of maxi mum
gai n. Ther:~cl i ati ~)n i ntensi ty f\)ragi ven di recti on i nashapcd beam ~~-i l l
depend upon the radi l ~s of curvature of the pl mse front normal to the
gi ven di recti on and upon the i ntensi ty of i l l umi nati urr i n that rrgi on; the
exact rel ati ons i nvol ved \vi l l l x: dvri wxl i n Sfw. 12,G.
hy shaped-beam
n
,,
SEC. 13.3] S UR Vli Y OF BEA M-SHAPI NG lECHNI QUES 473
I
4
antenna can be consi dered to be a devi ce for obtai ni ng the pr oper phase
and i ntensi ty of i l l umi nati on across an aperture to real i ze a speci fi ed
beam shape. 1
I n the l anguage of ray opti cs, a constant phase front across an aper-
tur e produces a col l i mated beam of rays from that aperture. Thi s col -
l i mated beam i s obtai ned usual l y by focusi ng the di vergi ng rays from
an antenna feed ei ther wi th a parabol i c r efl ector or wi th a l ens. The
process of formi ng a shaped beam can then be vi sual i zed as a defocusi ng
4
l l G. 13.S.Formati on of a shaped beam by means of a feed array i n a parabol oi d refl ector.
process; the rays emergi ng from the aperture wi l l not al l be col l i mated
but wi l l be di stri buted through a range of angl es wi th a vari abl e densi ty
dependent I I pon the pattern requi red. Defocusi ng i n one pl ane can be
accompl i shed ei ther by extendi ng the poi nt sour ce i nto a l i ne sour ce i n
that pl ane or by modi fyi ng the r efl ector or l ens i n that pl ane.
The extensi on of a poi nt sour ce i nto a l i ne sour ce can be accompl i shed
by di sposi ng an array of di pol es or horn feeds i n a l i ne i n or near the focal
pl ane and by exci ti ng them i n the pr oper i ntensi ty and phase. The for -
mati (m of a shaped beam by such a feed array i n a parabol oi d r efl ector
i s i l l l l st,rated i n Fi g, 13.8. Each of the el ements i n the array can be
vi su:di zcd as a poi nt sour ce that forms i ts own sharp beam i n the parab-
ol oi d. The i ntensi ty of thi s beam wi l l depend upon the i ntensi ty of
exci tati on of i ts feed; the angul ar di spl acement of the beam from the
axi s ~vi l l be proporti onal to the angul ar di spl acement of the feed poi nt
about the ver tex on the opposi te si de of the axi s. The overl appi ng
beams formed by an array of poi nt sources wi l l synthesi ze by ampl i tude
addi ti on i nto a shaped beam, as i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 13.8. The resul ti ng
beam can be qui te smooth i f the component beams are pr oper l y spaced
and phased.
1R. C, Spencer , Synthesi s of Mi crowave Di ffracti on Patterns wi th Appl i cati on to
Ckcz 8 Patterns, RL Repor t No. 54-24, June 23, 1943.
474
SHAPED-BEAM AN ThNNAS [SEC. 133
I t has been assumed above that a feed moved off axi s from thq focal
poi nt wi l l form i n a parabol oi d a sharp beam on the other si de of the
axi s. Thi s i s tr ue for smal l di spl acements from the axi s; for l arge di s-
pl acements of a poi nt source, i ts i ndi vi dual beam i s broadened i n the
pl ane of di spl acement, whi ch i s not seri ous, si nce the beam i s bei ng broad-
4
I
4
(a)
+
*
.
////
/
(b)
FI G, 13.9. l tefl ector modi fi cati ons for
produci ng an asyrnmetri ral fl ared beam:
(a) by shapi ng the r efl ector on the op-
posi te si de fr om the fl are; (b) !.Y shapi ng
the r efl ector on the adjacent si de to the
fl are.
ened i ntenti onal l y i n that pl ane,
but i t i s al so broadened i n the per -
pendi cul ar pl ane, whi ch i s seri ous,
si nce i t reduces resol uti on and gai n
(Sec. 13.4). The extended feed
method of beam shapi ng i s ther e-
for e not recommended as a means
for formi ng wi de-angl e patterns.
I t i s recommended for formi ng
shaped beams confi ned to smal l
angl es, si nce i t accompl i shes the
beam shapi ng by i ncreasi ng the si ze
of the smal l feed rather than by i n-
creasi ngfor equal gai nsthe si ze
of the rel ati vel y l arge r efl ector or
l ens.
.i sharp beam formed by a poi nt
sour ce and parabol oi d r efl ector or
by a l i ne sour ce and parabol i c cyl -
i nder can be di spersed i n a con-
trol l ed way by modi fyi ng the shape
of the r efl ector . The process can
be thought of as one of di spersi ng
col l i mated rays i nto new di recti ons
di ctated by the shaped-beam pat-
tern, or i t can be vi sual i zed as one
of control l i ng the phase and i ntens-
i ty of i l l umi nati on across the aper-
ture. I n the l atter case, the next
step to the far-fi el d pattern can be
made by use of Huygens pri nci pl e
i
t
i n some cases and by a ~ouri cr transform process i n other cases (cf. Chap.
6). Fi gure 13.9 shows two r efl ector modi fi cati ons for obtai ni ng an asym-
metri cal fl ared beam. I t has been shown that-one aperture i l l umi nati on
whi ch gi ves an asymmetri cal beam consi sts of a sharpl y peaked ampl i -
tude di stri buti on v-i th a sudden 180 phase reversal i n the regi on of maxi -
..
mum ampl i tude. One means of real i zi ng thi s i s to use a poi nt sour ce feed
\vi th two parabol oi d r eel ector s of focal l engths jl and .fz = jl + X/+ for
the top and bottom hal ves of the aperture respecti vel y. Other methods
of beam shapi ng wi l l be descri bed i n connecti on wi th speci fi c beam-shap-
i ng probl ems.
Symmetrical Shaped Beams.i% sector shaped beam wi th sharp si des
and a square end, approxi mati ng the requi rement i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 13.3,
1
I
I
.?,
(a)
Reflector.
Two-horn
Overlapping
feed
beams
(h) (c)
13. l o.-Two-el el ,, ent :i rr:i y and paral ><,l oi d for l ,mduri ng sector shapwi I W:L, I I
antenna; (b) o\wrl apl ~i rl g bea I I u,; (.) aperture ,Hu,,],r)ati <,l l .
(:1)
476 SHAPED-BEA .11 ANTENNAS [SEC. 133
can be pr oduced by means of ei ther an extended feed or a shaped r efl ector .
I f an array of radi ati ng el ements i n the focal pl ane are equal l y exci ted,
so spaced that thei r i ndi vi dual patterns cross over at the hal f-ampl i tude
poi nt and so phased that the patterns add i n ampl i tude, the resul t wi l l
be a beam wi th sharp si desdetermi ned by the si ze of the aperture
and a square end. Fi gure 13.10a shows two el ements combi ned i n thi s
way. Thedesi gn pr ocedur e can r ei nter pr eted asabove andi l l l l strated
i n Fi g. 1310b, or the fol l owi ng. The two feeds exci ted equal l y and i n
phase wi l l form a symmetri cal i nter fer ence pattern. I f each feed i s so
di mensi oned that i ts i ndi vi dual pattern pr oper l y i l l umi nates the r efl ector ,
&
/
/
/
Path lengths
~
P2=P, + $
A
T
Feed
Focal lengths
,.(
k
\
1, ~=~++
\
Composite
ref Iector
(a)
(b)
FI G. 13. i l .Cut parabol oi d method for obtai ni ng sector shaped beam: (a) antenna:
aperture i l l umi nati on.
*
F
(b)
and i f the two feeds are cor r ectl y spaced, thei r i nter fer ence pattern wi l l
resul t i n the (si n u)/u aperture illumination shown i n Fi g. 13, 10c. The
Fouri er transform of thi s i l l umi nati on cur ve wi l l be approxi matel y the
sector shaped pattern requi red (Chap. 6). The antenna shown i n Fi g.
13.10 produces i ts sector shaped beam i n the hori zontal pl ane. The
r efl ector i s cut wi th a sl i ght asymmetry to bri ng the nul l i n the i l l umi na-
ti on pattern opposi te the feed for i mproved i mpedance performance.
The sector shaped beam can al so be obtai ned wi th a poi nt-source and
modi fi ed parabol oi d r efl ector . Let the aperture be di vi ded i nto thr ee
parts al ong the l i nes correspondi ng to the nul l s of Fi g. 13. 10c. Let the
two outer porti ons of the aperture be i l l umi nated wi th segments of a
parabol oi d havi ng a focal l ength 1/4 l onger than that of the central parab-
ol oi d. Thi s si tuati on i s i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 131 l a. Then the phase of
the i l l umi nati on over the outer porti ons of the aperture wi l l be del ayed
by A/2. I f the antenna feed provi des a normal pri mary pattern, the
aperture i l l umi nati on shown i n Fi g. 13.1 l b wi l l then be obtai ned. Thi s
wi l l be a cr ude approxi mati [)n t o the (si n I I ) 1( aper tur e
r equi r ed for a sector shaped beum.
477
i l ]um.i nati on
The beavertai l be:~nl i l l ~l stl aterl i n Fi g 134 i s not obtai ned conven-
i entl y by means of an extcmdrd feed; the angl r of co~-cr -age i n actual
appl i cati ons i s too hwge, and the t:~i )~r i n t~,:o di recti ons from the center
compl i cates the feed, I t i s obtai ned ver y easi l y, hor evcr j ~ri th a r effector
modi fi cati on. The si mpl est arrangement i s a narro~r ~-erti ral stri p down
the mi ddl e of the r efl ector set out from the surface of the mai n r efl ector
by a fracti on of a ~ravrl ength. The factors affecti ng the ]ri dth and
offset of the stri p can be appreci ated by r efer ence to Fi g. 13.12 whi ch
i l l ustrates the desi gn and the mechani sm of beam shapi ng for an actual
1
case. The wi dth of the stri p affects the rotal pol ~cr that i t i ntercepts
.?
and the di recti ri ty of i ts pattern. I ts offset from the mai n r ef!ec~or
establ i shes the phase rel ati onshi p for ampl i tude addi ti (,n \vhi ch i s i mpor-
tant i n the regi on wher e the two am.pl i tudes arc of the same or der of
magni tude. I n the actual case at A = 10 cm, a r efi ector wi th a 20- by
5-ft aperture and a 5-ft focal l ength was fi tted wi th a stri p r~l nni ng the
l ong way of the r efl ector . The opti mum wi dth of the stri p pr )ved to
be 8 i n., and the offset, + i n. I t i s evi dent that the pr esence of ~ stri p
of thi s wi dth ~vi l l i ntroduce i nterfmmce si de l obes i n the pattern of the
remai nder of the r efl ector , ~vhi ch ~vi l l i mpai r the qual i ty of the fi nal
beavertai l pattern. .4n i mproved pattern woul d be obtai ned i f the
fl ari ng of the beam wer e accompl i shed by modi fi cati on at the t}vo edges
of the r efl ector rather than at the center , i n whi ch case the i ntcrfercmce
l obes woul d be l ess promi nent.
.4symmetrical Shaped Beams. Extended feed and modi fi ed r efl ector
desi gns ha~e both been used surccssful l y to ol ]tti i n asy-mmetri cal shaped
beams. Extended feed desi gns have been used i n genend for ground and
shi p antennas for ~1-hi ch the recl ui red el evati on cover uge was l i mi ted
usual l y to smal l angl rs and for ]rhi ch the r efl ector s 1}.ere too l arge for
conveni ent modi fi cati on. Extended freds arc readi l y adopted ako to
the use of mul ti pl e transmi tters I I hen the prescri hcd cover age requi res
hi gh power . Modi fi ed r efi ector desi gns ha~-c been used al most excl ~l -
si vel y i n ai rborne antennti s whi ch are requi red to provi de ~~i de-angl e el e-
vati on cover age and to possess smooth and stabl e pattern characteri sti cs.
.
Both di pol es and horns h~ve ber n used i n l i near-array feeds for
shaped-beam antennas; i n some cases both have been used i n the same
array. The choi ce brtl ~een a di pol e and a horn as the rti di ti ti ng el ement
i n a gi ven si tuati on dcpcnds upon the po~r er to bc handl ed, the requi red
i mpedan[,e characteri sti cs, and cf)n~-eni encc i n c[)nstrl l (ti on, The desi gn
and performance? of thr r c extended feed untrnuas ]\-i l l be descri bed i n
(jr dcr of i ncrefl si ng cornpl rxi ty. .i cut paruh(jl oi (i r efl ector ]vi th a tl vo-
I [;, s. 1:10, 1l )t, l +t:i vfvt:l i l .\nt{t]t):L, 1{1, l i cport So. 1027, :I pr, 0, 1!)46.
SHAPE I I -BEA ,il AN TEKNA,V [sm. 133
c.
(a)
FI G. 13.12.Cent r :+]stri ]] i n r efl r r tor fc>r]Jr,,du<i !,g l wa~. crtai l I XX*I I 1: (<L) antenna with-
di pol e array fwd I for ol xrati fm a+k = 10 cm i s i l l ustrutcd i n Fi g. 13.13.
The aperture di mensi ons are S by -1 ft, and thr focal l ength, 27.5 i n.
The el evati on pattern i s sho\vn i n l ~i g. 131(;a,. hi s pattern and the
i mpedance match (I SI VR < 1.2) \ver c mai ntai ned sati sfactori l y over a
2 per cent bandl vi dth. .-l cut par~bol oi d r efl r ctor wi th the l ong di men-
si on hori zontal and wi th a four-horn array feecl z for X = 10 cm i s shown
i n Fi g. 131}. The aperture di mensi ons are 5 by 14 ft, and the focal
l ength, 60 i n. The feed dmi gn wi l l be di scussed i n the next secti on.
The el evati on pattern i s shown i n Fi g. 1316/). I n i mpedance match, the
feed shoved a }-SJTR < 1.12 for a (i per cent band \vhen tested i n fr ee
space and a TSJVR < 1.25 for a 3 per cent band ~1-hentested i n the
1 C. F. Portcrfi cl {l and I,. .J CI I U) .i Si]llplific(l S(,;trrh .tntcnna, RI , Repor t No. 4
486, Jl n. 1, 1!)4.5.
2 },. .J J1-[,st, .1 l ;{Jl l r-I I OrI l F~d t{) ~i i v(, C*(2 @ l l )t[,nl );~ Pnttern s, 1/1, l {cport
S0. 8!)6, l l ar, 15, 1!)46.
4
SEC. 133]
I
SUR VE I (I F HEA itf-SHAPI ArG 7ECH,VI Q UES
T
r
Refl ector
J.
~~11
8strip
,l-F
L
+ yl
4

(b)
479
Contri buti on
from stri p
/
~
Contri buti on from
contours
parabol oi d
(c)
out strip; (h) central her, zont:d w{, ti on .I >owi ng stri p; (c) nl erhan, smof beam shapi ng.
r efl ector . i i l fi r ge and com~jl i [atc(l :~utenna] for k = 10 cm i s sho\vn i n
Fi g, 131.5. The rcfi ector i s a cut parabol oi d 10 by 25 ft \\-i th a 78-i n.
focal l ength. Of the el m-en rl cmcnts i n the feed army, one cl ement i s
fed from a fi rst transmi tter, tl vo el ements from a second transmi tter,
and ei ght el ements from a thi rd transmi tter. Horn radi ators are used
wi th the fi rst tw-o transmi tters I x,(,ause of the concentrati on of po~ver ,
and di pol es wi th the thi rd transmi tter. Thr thrcwl obe pattern i s sho\vn
i n Fi g. 13.16c. Thi s el cyati on cor cr ayc rcprcsrnts the l i mi t practi cabl e
wi th thi s antenna, si nce the azi muth bcam~vi dt]l of a poi nt fm>d 30 i n.
off axi s (or 21 r efer r ed to the vr r tcx) i s i ncreased by abo~l t 70 per
cent. The i mpcdancc match presented to al l thr ee transmi tters ~\as
VSWR < 1.12 o~-er at l east a 4 pm cent band,
A vari ety of r efl ector shapes hare bccm used for beam shapi ng i n
ai rborne antenna drsi gns. Of these the most conuntl n and sl l cccssful
was the so-cal l ccl burr-clrf,jlccior antenna. I The shape of thi s mfi cctor i s
obtai ned by repl aci ng the top hal f of a parabol oi d r efl ector \vi th a fi gure
of revol uti on pr oduced by rotati ng the generati ng parabol a of the parab-
(a)
SEC. 133] SURVEY OF BI I A.W-SHAP1.VG TI I CH.VI QUES 481
further i n Sec. 13.8. I ts el evati on pattern, shown i n Fi g. 13.20a, i s
~
best sui ted to hi gh-al ti tude use. El evati on patterns sui tabl e for l ow
al ti tude can be obtai ned wi th several r efl ector shapes. The shovel
r-ejector-l bel ongs to the fami l y defi ned i n Fi g. 13.9b. I t i s obtai ned by
1
8
(a)
(b)
~r~. 13.14.Cut parabol oi d r efl ector wi th four -hor n array feed: (a) antenna; (b) central
verti cal secti on.
] J. H. Gar dner , Low Al ti tude Navi gati on Antennas, RI , Repor t No. 615,
Oct. 3, 1944.
482 SHAPED-BEAM A.YTE.V.VAS [SEC, 133
o
60I
(c)
FI G. 13.15.Cut parabol oi d r efl ector wi th 11-el ement array feed: (a) antenna; (~) feed;
(c) central verti cal secti on.
4
lb,
4
SEC. 133] S1.RiEl O]: I I E,I .J I -Sll,llI .Y-G lEC)[.~-I QCE.T 483
repl aci ng the l ower thi rd or so of a parabol oi d r efl ector wi th a parabol i c
cyl i nder. The shovel -refl ector antenna i s i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 13.18; i ts
el evati on pattern i s gi ~en i n Fi g. 13,20b. The general shape and smooth-
ness of the pattern depend upon the poi nt of attachment of the she\-el ,
10.
8
/ x
/
2
/ \
2
/ \
1.:
/
I ,
:
\>
2
0.1
\
8
I
6
-6. -40 _2. f). 2.
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 300
(a)
10.
----- Y
:
/ \
4 -
/
2
/ r---
\
Lo
8
J \
$
\
t \
2
I
v
0.
$
\,
)
1
+0 -40 -20 00
z 4 6 8 11)9 12 14 ]6 18 20 22 24 26 28 300
(b)
10
8
A
6
/
4
L 1/ \
2
/ \
1.0
/ / \
\ \
8
I / l \
/ I / \ ._ ~
2
/
/
J
\
\
/ L - \
2
\
0.
~ :
\
\
-6 4 2 O 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 .200220 24o 260 28o 300
Elevation angle
(c)
l 1~. 13. 16.El evati on patterns ol ]tai ned wi th cut parabol oi d refl ectors and l i near-
array feeds: (u) two-el ement array of l ~]g, 13. 13; (~) four-el ement array of I hg. 13.14; (c)
Cl cven+l er,l el ,t, tl ~rcc-tral l brI l i tter array of Fi g. 13,15.
484 SH.4PED-BEAM A.l;TE.\ -.l-AS
[sEC. 133
i ts di spl acement normal to the surface of attachment, and i ts ti l t ~vi th
r espect to the tangenti al di recti on.
.4 l ow-al ti tude beam can be obtai ned ,
al so by i nserti ng a narrow hori zontal stri p just above the center of a
(a)
Orw!al parabola
Fe
Sam! surface.
Focal po,nt
(b)
UT{}. 13.17 .Barm-refl ectur ar,t,en,,a for hi gl l .:dti tude LC:LJI Isha~~i ng: (a) photograph;
(b) drawi ng.
parabol oi d r efl ector \ri th the pr oper \\-i dth, offset, and ti l t. 1 A sb-i p-
r -ejtector antenna i s i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 13.19, and i ts el evati on pattern i s
gi ven i n Fi g. 1320c. The basi c l i mi tati on wi th thi s stri p-refl ector desi gn,
as poi nted out earl i er i n connecti on wi th the beavertai l -shaped beam,
is that the stri p di vi des the aperture i nto two parts between whi ch i nter-
1 C. G. (}utl er, I Sotes on the Desi gn of Asymmetri cal (Cl osecant) Antennas,
BTL Repor t i l l hf-43-160-192, Nov. 12, 1943; J. H. Gar dner , Low Al ti tude Aavi ga-
ti on Antennas, RL Repor t N,,. 615, Oct. 3, 1944.
r
Snc. 133] SlrRT7EJ OF BEAL-SHAPI NG TECHNI QUES
485
fer ence occurs. Even wi th the rel ati vel y narrow stri ps requi red for l ow-
al ti tude beams, the i nter fer ence l obe that appears ontheopposi te si de of
the peak from the fl ared porti on i s onl y 10 db down from the peak gai n.
I n many ai rcraft i nstal l ati ons thi s upward-di rected i nter fer ence l obe woul d
-.
b
Paraboloid
reflector
k
_-- ---
\
Shovel
\
attachment
\
\
\
(a)
(b)
klG, 1~18.--S!l<lV[>, Cfleit<l,1, :L!ltt,!lll:l
f<,r l o!v-:dt, fu<l r I >c:l ,!l : (11) :Lllte!lrl:l; (b) wtltml
(a)
/
/
p
stri p
attachment
\
, Paraboloid
reflector
\
.
(b)
l :,<;, 1:1.19.Stri l l -rcfl c, t{]r antrunz for I oxv-:dti tu<l e
\)cal l l : (u) :Lllt CllllX; (l,) (e!(tr:(l
vcrtl {,.al .cct,t,]l of I c,fl cr tfl r .
be r efl ected from the un~l rr si de of tl m fusrl agc and \\-i ngsand pr oduce
ti n i nter fer ence ri ppl e i n the pattern on the grml nd.
The best si rnpl r
desi gn for a l ow-al ti t~l dc Shape{l -hr:l m antenna has been one that l i ses
a ml t-down barrel r efl ector .
Thi s ant rnnal romi sts of a Xl -i n. di amct er
by 10,6-i n, focal l ength parahul oi [l \\-i t h a barrrl i nsert cut ci o~vn i n
I ,J, H. Gardnrr, I ,OTVAl ti tl l dc (scZ .9Al l tcnl ]a, 1{1, l l cport h-o. 1073, Fch. 21,
1946.
486 ASHAPIID-BEA <if ANTENNAS [SEC. 133
the verti cal to 19 i n. (7+ i n. above the axi s, 1l + i n. bel ow) i n or der to
el i mi nate that part of the barrel whi ch contri butes to the steep angl e
porti on of the pattern. Thi s r efl ector i s then fed wi th a horn so di r ected
o
4
\ \
8
%
g 12
1P L 7.
5
/
s
~ 16
1
:
~
?
:20 -
\
.*
2
~
g
c
24 -
.-
$
.=
~
%
:
E 28

32 -
-.. -_ --- .
36 - -- --- - - -
40
40 -30 -20 -10 0 10L 20 30 40
0-
4
8
\
12
/ q
16
20
h .
24
A
28
\
32
II
36 ~
U
40 1 L 1 1 1
-30 -20 -10 o 10 200 30 W
(b)
o
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
-30-20-10 o 100 20 30 400 500
l (l ) (d
~IG. 13.20.El evati on patterns obtai ned wi th ai rl mrne shaped-refl ector antennas: (a)
barrel -refl ector antenna of Fi g. 13.17; (h) shovel-reflector antenna of Fi g. 13. 18; (c) stri p-
r efl ector antenna of Fi g. 13. 19; (d) cut-down barrel -refl ector antenna,
as to obtai n pr oper i l l umi nati on. The antenna can be vi sual i zed by
r efer ence totheuncut antennasho\vn i n Fi g. 13.17. I ts verti cal pattern
i s shown i n Fi g. 13.20d.
A number of shaped-beam antennas obtai ned by r efl ector modi fi ca-
ti ons ~vr r e descri bed i n the previ ous paragraph. These ~ver e trul y
r efl ector modi fi cati ons i n the sense that the desi gn started \ri th an exi sti ng
parabol oi d r efl ector andprocecded on the basi s of obtai ni ng the requi red
beam shape wi th a mi ni mum of remodel i ng. Ti me-consumi ng cut-and-
tr y processes ~ver e i nvol ved, and the ul ti mate resul t ~vas frequentl y l ess
than sati sfactory. A sati sfactory desi gn i s obtai nabl e mor e rapi dl y
and rel i abl y i f the r efl ector i s vi sual i zed as a devi ce for transformi ng the
pri mary pattern of the feed i nto the requi red secondary pattern. I n thi s
sense the r efl ector shape i s di ctated by speci fyi ng the t~vo patterns; the
probl em i s one for computati on rather than cut-and-try. The computa-
ti on of shaped cyl i ndri cal r efl ector s i s a strai ghtforward probl em and
has r ecei ved experi mental confi rmati on i n a number of antenna desi gns.
These resul ts ~vi l l be descri bed i n detai l i n SCc. 13.6. The l i ne sour ce
used wi th a cyl i ndri cal r efl ector coul d be used equal l y I vel l ~vi th a shaped
cyl i ndri cal l ensl to obtai n an antenna ~vi th certai n advantages over the
r efl ector antenna. The cal cul ati on of the compl ete shape of a doubl e
ctmutwe reflector for beam shapi ng i s mor e i nvol ~ed and subject to
further study, but experi mental confi rmati on of present desi gn pr ocedur es
has been obtai ned i n a l i mi ted number of cases.
13.4. Desi gn of Extended Feeds.I n the prexi ous secti on, several
shapm-beam antennas uti l i zi ng extcndr d feeds \~cr e descri bed as to
over-m]l desi gn and performance, I n actual fact the pri nci pal r-f desi gn
probl em i s c{mumtratml i n the rxtrndmi feed i tsel f. I t has been poi nted
o~l t that hotl l di pol es and horns have been I I sed as the radi ati ng el ements
i n l i near-ti rray extr ndcd feeds and that, th~ choi ce bet\vecn them depends
l l pon l J(~\vcr-tl ~~n(l l i ng, i mpedance, and mechani cal consi derati ons. These
(I l l esti ons and others i nvol ved i n the desi gn of these arrays wi l l be con-
si dered i n t}l i s secti on. l Ve \~i l l consi der fi rst, hol vever, some opti cal
focusi ng probl ems common to al l extended feeds used i n parabol oi ds
(cf. Scc. 67).
Optical Focusinq Propcrtirs oj Paraboloid Rcjl cctors.-f,et us begi n wi th
a si ngl e radi ati ng el rmcnt at the focal poi nt of a ci rcul ar (uncut) parab-
ol oi d r efl ector . The resul ti ng di ffracti on pattern ~vi l l depend upon the
di recti vi ty of the feed and upon the shape (focal l ength to di ameter rati o,
I ,/D) of the parabol oi d. As the feed i s moved off axi s by a rotati on
about the \-er tex, the beam \vi l l move off axi s on the si de opposi te the
feed and i n di rect proporti on to the feed di spl acement. Thi s pr opor -
ti onal i ty factor wol l l d be uni ty for a fl at pl ate accordi ng to Snel l s l a~v;
i t i s sl i ghtl y l CSSthan uni ty for parabol oi ds i n the usrful rmgc of shapes,
.1. s. Dl l l l kl r, ~~ct:{l I l :i t{,I AI I Sfor (sc2 At)t(,tl ]l :i , 1{1, l {vpor t so. 1070, F(l).
15, 1!)46.
~s S,lv,. r :,,, (I (:. ,<. 1:10, l:~r:il~{,l{,i,l .\)]t(,tl]l:l Cl~:ir:[,tf,risti{s :1s :i Ftl ncti ou (,(
1~(,(111l l t , 1{1, l {eport so. 47!), 1(,1). I fi , 1!)44.
488 SHAPED-BEAM ANTENNAS
[SEC. 134
as shown i n Fi g. 13.21. As the beam moves off axi s, i t deteri orates, at
fi rst sl owl y and then mor e rapi dl y as the angl e i ncreases. The gai n
decreases; the beamwi dths i ncrease; and a seri es of si de l obes (the so-cal l ed
1.0
;
&
0.9
~
.=
.
.-
z
u
~ 0.8
g
07
0 0.2 04 0.6 0.8 1.0
%
lIQ. 1321.-Beam devi ati on pr opor -
ti onal i ty factor as a functi on of r efl ector
shaps.
coma l obes) appear on the axi s si de
of the di spl aced beam. These
effects can be descri bed uni quel y
i n terms of the angul ar di spl ace-
ment expressed i n bearnwi dths,
but onl y i f the r efl ector shape and
feed di recti vi ty are hel d constant.
The vari ati on of gai n wi th feed ti l t
for r efl ector s of di fferent shapes
wi th a rel ati vel y di recti ve feed i s
pl otted i n Fi g. 13.22. I n addi ti on
to these pattern changes, an an-
tenna i ni ti al l y matched i n i mped-
ance \vi th the feed on axi s wi l l l mdergo a seri es of i mpedance changes wi th
feed ti l t. These effects are i l l ustrated by the measured data pl otted i n
Fi g. 13.23, ~vhi ch are suscepti bl e of qui te accurate theoreti cal veri fi cati on.
The curves have been r otated i nto separate quadrants of the Smi th Chart
i or cl ari ty i n presentati on,
100
90
80
-z 70
8
i i 60
n
.~ 50
,$ 40
%
6
K 30
20
10
0
12345678 9 10 11
Feed tilt in beamwidths
1,IG. 1322. -l l eper1ci er~ce of antenna gai n On feed ti l t and parxi >nl oi d shape. FID IS the
focal I e,l gth to di al ,l ctcr rati o.
l ~hen the parabol oi d i s cut to r educe the apertl l re i n (me di mensi on
or the other, i ts ofi -axi s focusi ng properti es are modi fi ed consi derabl y,
These effects can be undmst ood ql l al i t ati vel y l ~y refcrcu(.c t,) Fi g. 1324.
The ci rcl e represents the aperture of a parabol oi d r r fl ector , 1~hen the
feed i s mo\,ed off axi s i n the verti ral pl ane to some posi ti on i n the r ec-
SEC, 134] DESI GN OF RX TENDED FEEDS 489
tangl e shown at the center of the ci rcl e, rays r efl ected from vari ous por -
ti ons of the parabol oi d I vi l l devi ate from paral l el i sm wi th the ray r efl ected
from the ver tex. I he equal devi ati on contours pl otted i n the fi gure
are purel y schemati c, si nce actual contours ~voul d depend upon r efl ector
shape and feed di spl acement. However , they ser ve to i l l ustrate the
fact that the outer porti ons of the r efl ector l yi ng between the pri nci pal
pl anes are responsi bl e for the most seri ous devi ati ons. From Fi g. 13.24a
l~rc. 13.23 .1mpedanre changes at A = 10 rrn i n 30-i n, paral >ol ol i l refktors of di fferent
shapes (F/Z)) as the feed i s t]l ted off axi s.
i t i s evi dent that cutti ng do~vn the aperture al ong l i nes BB \vi l l el i mi nate
regi ons of hi gh devi ati on and i ncrease the al l o~vabl e angl e of feed di s-
pl acement. I t i s mi sl eadi ng now to express thi s angl e i n beam\vi dths,
si nce ther e are two di fferent beam\vi dths i n the two pl anes.
I n actual practi ce the r efl ector of a careful l y desi gned antenna i s not
cut al ong the strai ght l i nes shown i n Fi g. 13.24a, but rather al ong one
of the equal illumination curves of the feed (cf. Chap. 12), e.g., the equal
i l l umi nati on cur ve 14 db down from the poi nt of maxi mum i l l umi nati on.
Thr ee such curves are shown i n Fi g. 1324b superi mposed on the equal
devi ati on contours: Cur ve A i s appropri ate to a feed on axi s and poi nted
at the ver tex of the parabol oi d; Cur ve Z?, to a feed on axi s bl l t poi nted
i nto the top hal f of the r efl ector ; ancl ~u r ve C, to a feed bel ow the axi s
490 SHAPED-BEAM AATTEKNA,T [SE(. 134
but pointed at the vertex. Whereas areflector shape that followsChrve
B is satisfactory for a poi nt-source feed on axi s, i t woul d i ntroduce seri ous
defocusi ng when used wi th an extended feed because of the hi gh devi a-
ti on contours that i t i ncl udes. Forthi s reason symmetri cal l y cut refl ec-
tors are al ways used wi th extended feeds. I n the case of a feed array
extendi ng downward from the axi s, the top el ement woul d favor the
r efl ector shape gi ven by Cur ve A whi l e the bottom el ement woul d favor
the shape gi ven by Cur ve C. The actual r efl ector shape \vi l l ther efor e
be a compromi se between these.
m
E
B 2-
1
l !-11~1
1
;1114
B 2-
W
(a) (b)
IIG. 13,24 .Apertureof paral >ol oi d r efl ector shon,i ng contours ofequal devi ati on of rays
frorl l direction of central ray as feed i s moved off focus i n verti ral pl ane: (a) Li nes BB
represent ~trni gt,t mts to narrow the aperture i n one pl ane; (b) Curves A, B, and C r epr e-
w[l t equal i l l r i nati on contours for di fferent feed pohl t]ons and ori entati ons,
I n the precedi ng di scussi on the feed di spl acement has been descri bed
as a si mpl e rotati on about the vertex. I t i s not necessari l y true that thi s
pl aces the feed at the di stance fr om the vertex correspondi ng to maxi mum
gai n. l ~easurements macfe under a vari ety of condi ti ons have sho~vn
that the feed must then be moved away fr om the vertex to or sl i ghtl y
beyond the verti cal pl ane through the focal poi nt. Thi s opti mum ci i s-
tance for a gi ven di spl acement angl e \vi l l depend upon how the r efl ector
has been cut.
To obtai n opti mum performance of a cut parabol oi d wi th an extended
feed, i t i s necessary to car r y out an experi mental desi gn procedure. Thi s
pr ocedur e \\-i th i ts resul ts wi l l bc dcscri brd for the 10 by 25-ft r efl ector
sho\vn i n Fi g, 13.15 at X = 10 cm,l A di pol e feed ~vas mo~,ed transversel y
over a range of 30 i n. off axi s (21 r efer r ed to the vr r tcx).
At each
di spl acement the feed was then moved p~ral l cl ~ri th the axi s to fi nd the
poi nt of maxi mum gai n. 1hc opti mum feed poi nt pr oved to bc 5 i n.
farther out al ong the axi s for t}l c maxi mum feral di spl acement than for
the feed on axi s. For these opti mum feed poi nts, the vari ati on \\-i th
1C. C,,Strrgi (,p,l l i ,,,s, 1{1, I ?r p,,r t X-,,. !)51, 101]. 12, 1946,
di spl acement of gai n and azi muth beamwi dth (perpendi cul ar to the di s-
pl acement pl ane) wer e measured ~vi th the resul ts shown i n Fi g. 13.25.
The reducti on i n gai n i s not so seri ous as i t appears, si nce a major part
of the reducti on i s due to beam spreadi ng i n the verti cal pl ane i n whi ch
a fl ared beam i s requi red. The i ncrease i n azi muth beam~vi dth i s
seri ous and sets the l i mi t for thi s r efl ector on the angul ar range over whi ch
i t i s practi cabl e to fl are the beam.
1=1=1=11.60
Gain
~ 6,000
\ /
~
m
4,000
x
rT_T--l&
~~ ~o0.60
20
Oipole paition, in. below focus
FIG. 13.25.Vari ati on of gai n and azi n, uth I }ea],, wi dth wi th di pol e feed di spl acement
r efl ector of Fi g. 13.15,
for tl w
Dipole-array Extended Feeds. Several probl ems ari se i n the desi gn
of a di pol e array to be pl aced near the focal pl ane of a parabol oi d for
the pur pose of obtai ni ng a fl ar ed beam. Fi rst the array shoul d be
l ocated w-i th r efer ence to the focal pl ane so that the i ndi vi dual over l appi ng
l obes compri si ng the fl ar ed beam have maxi mum gai n. The di pol es
al ong the I vavegui de must be so spaced that the i ndi vi dual l obes are al l
i n phase ~vi th each other . The i npl l t i mpedance of the di pol e array
must bc such as to termi nate the transmi ssi on l i ne pr oper l y. Fi nal l y,
the avai l abl e power must be di vi ded among the several di pol es i n such
pr opor ti ons as to obtai n the desi r ed beam shape.
The array i s or i ented wi th respect to the parabol oi d axi s and focal
pl ane on the basi s of gai n and beamwi dth i nformati on of the type pr e-
sented earl i er i n thi s secti on. The i ndi vi dual l obes n-i l l combi ne i n phase
i f the radi ati ons fr om successi ve di pol es arri ve at the ver tex i n phase.
Wi th the wavegui de or i ented for maxi mum gai n of the i ndi vi dual l obes,
the rel ati ve phases are cent r ol l ed by the spaci ng bctm-een di pol es al ong
the v-avegui de. I n terms of the ql l anti ti es shown i n Fi g, 13.26, the
492 SHAPED-BE.4. V A .VTE.VAAS [SEC. 13.4
spaci ng for r ever sed di pol es i s gi ven by the rel ati on
The di pol e array i s usual l y fed from a travel i ng wave whi ch i s real i zed
by termi nati ng the array i n a dummy l oad or preferabl y by usi ng the
l ast di pol e i n the array as a l oad. I f the l atter techni que i s used, the
l ast di pol e i n the array must have i ts i mpedance such that i t absorbs
al l the power transmi tted down the v-avcg~l i de to i t.
Thi s condi ti on
i s attai ned by pr oper adjustments of the depth of the pr obe feedi ng the
l ~l u. 13.2ti .-Arrmy of chuol es on wavcgui de i n paral x,l ni d refl ector, sl mxvi n~ di pol e spaci )l g
and ori ent at, un of array wi th r mpcct to vertex.
l ast di pol e and of the di stance from the pr obe to the s}~orti ng pl ug at, t,hc
end of the \vavegui de. The probes of the other di pol es are next i nserted
i nto the wavegui de i n successi on starti ng from the l ast di pol e i n the array
and pr oceedi ng to the fi rst di pol e. The depths to whi ch the sucmwsi ve
di pol e probes are i nserted are determi ned by the po~ver di vi si on among the
di pol es necessary to pr oduce the requi red fl ared beam. Oncc the desi red
antenna pattern i s obtai ned, the fi nal i mpedance match of the array may
be accompl i shed by i nserti ng an i nducti ve i ri s of appropri ate di mensi ons
at the pr oper l ocati on i n the ~vavegui de.
The pri nci pal advantage of the di pol e array i s i ts si mpl i ci ty i n desi gn
and constructi on. The di sadvantage of thi s array i s the i nterdependence
of spaci ng and phasi ng of the i ndi vi dual el ements. Each cl ement, of the
array i ndependentl y shoul d provi de pr oper i l l umi nati on of the r efl ector .
The di pol e el ements suffer from the di sadvantage that thei r radi ati on
SEC. 134] DESI GN OF EX 7E.VI )I iI ) FhhI ),S 493
patterns are dependent upon the pol ari zati on requi red and are rel ati vel y
i nfl exi bl e.
Horn-array Extended Feeds.The probl ems i n the desi gn of a horn
array are si mi l ar to those ari si ng i n the desi gn of a di pol e array. Opti -
mum gai n l ocati ons for the horns near the focal pl ane of the parabol oi d
are determi ned i n the same manner as for the di pol e el ements. The
radi ati on from the several horns of the array i s made to arri ve at the
Power dividing
irises
E vector E vector
(a)
(b)
Kl ti , 1327. -Mul tl pl c l l orl l feeds for i l l unl i ,l :l ti l l g a cut p:tr:%l l <,l oi d:(u) mul ti pl e Y-juncti otl ;
(b) succe~Mvc T-ju,,rlio,,s.
parabol oi d ver tex i n phase by a pr oper choi ce of the l engths of ~vave-
gui de extendi ng to the i ndi vi dual horns.
Tari ous methods of di vi di ng the po~ver i n mul ti pl e horn feeds exi st;
two methods are i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 13.27. I n the mul ti pl e Y-juncti on,
the po\ver i s pr opor ti oned among the se~eral horns by septums extendi ng
i nto the mai n wavegui de. The i mpedance match of thi s mul ti pl e feed
may be accompl i shed by a si ngl e i ri s i n the mai n wavegui de. I n the
array empl oyi ng successi ve T-juncti ons (Fi g. 13.27 b), the di vi si on of
power between the upper horn and the mi ddl e horn i s determi ned by an
i ri s i n the secti on of ~favegui de feedi ng the mi ddl e horn. The i mpedance
match of the combi nati on of upper and mi ddl e horns to the wavegui de
i s accompl i shed by an i ri s just bel ow the juncti un. The di vi si on of
pmrer bet \\-eenthe combi nati on of top and mi ddl e horns and the l o~ver
horn i s determi ned by the i ri s i n the secti on of wavegui de feedi ng the
494 SHAPE I )-BEA M A NT fi:,VKA,Y
[Sl!x. 135
l ower horn. The over-al l i mpedance match of the mul ti pl e feed i s accom-
pl i shed by the i ri s i n the mai n wavegui de. A four-horn array of the
l atter type i s used i n the antenna shovm i n I ?i g, 13.14.
The advantage of the horn array l i es i n the fact that the phasi ng
between successi ve el ements and the radi ati on pattern of each el ement
are compl etel y at the di sposal of the desi gner and are suscepti bl e of
cal cul ati on, The di sadvantages of thi s type of array are the extr eme
compl exi ty of the desi gn and the bul k and wei ght of the resul ti ng feed.
IJIG. 13.28.-Shaped c>I I nchr al r efl er tor llluniillated I)y a pillkx line source
13.5. Cyl i ndri cal Refl ector Antennas.The techni ql l e of obtai ni ng an
asymmetri cal beam by a shaped cyl i ndri cal r efl ector and l i ne sour ce has
been used extensi vel y i n ai rborne navi gati onal radar antenna desi gn
wher e sharp azi muth beams and v-i de-angl e verti cal cover ages arc
requi red. Fi gure 13.28 i l l ustrates a shaped cyl i ndri cal r efl ector i l l u-
mi nated by a pi l l box whi ch serves as a l i ne sour ce paral l el to the gener -
ati ng l i ne of the r efl ector .
The general theor y of cyl i ndri cal r efl ector s and l i ne sources i s tr eated
i n Sec. 5.9. I t was shonm ther e that the pattern i n the pl ane perpen-
di cul ar to the gener ator of the cyl i nderthe verti cal pl ane i n the present
di scussi oni s determi ned by the ener gy di stri buti on of the sour ce i n
that pl ane and the cross-secti on contour of the r efl ector , and that the
pattern i n the trans~erse pl anes i s determi nccf by the ener gy di stri buti on
al ong the axi s of the source. The cross-secti on contour of the r efl ector
i s so shaped and ori ented wi th r espect to the l i ne sour ce that i ts l o~ver
secti on concentrates the rays from the sour ce i nto approxi matel y paral l el
di recti ons, thereby concentrati ng the ener gy i nto the peak of the beam.
The upper part of the r efl ector i s bent forl vard ~~i th i ncreasi ng curvature
to di sperse i ts rays i nto a broad fl are.
The net resul t i s an asymmetri cal
Sl cc. 13.5] CYLINDRICAL REFLECTOR ANTENNAS 495
beam, the exact verti cal Mfracti on pattern of whi ch depends upon the
shape of the cyl i nder and the di stri buti on of i l l umi nati on from the l i ne
sour ce on the r efl ector surface.
General Requi rements.The speci fi cati ons on the verti cal pol ar di a-
gram are determi ned by the operati onal requi rements. For exampl e,
i f a navi gati onal radar i s to be desi gned for an ai rcraft fl yi ng at an al ti -
tude of about 1 mi l e and i s to be capabl e of cover i ng a radi us of about
20 mi l es, then the peak of the antenna beam shoul d be depressed about
3 from the hori zontal and the beam shoul d be asymmetri cal so as to
pr oduce approxi matel y constant i l l umi nati on of the terrai n. Whereas
the beam speci fi cati ons depend on operati onal requi rements, the over -
al l si ze of the r efl ector usual l y depends on the avai l abl e i nstal l ati on space.
I f the antenna i s part of an ai rborne radar, the al l owabl e over-al l hei ght
of the r efl ector i s l i mi ted; the antenna i s i nstal l ed wi th the sharpl y cur ved
upper porti on of the r efl ector r etr acted i nto the fusel age, so that the
protuberance bel ow the fusel age for housi ng the antenna need not be
l arge (cj. Sec. 14.3).
I n or der that the power r efl ected from the cyl i nder back i nto the l i ne
sour ce be negl i gi bl e and that the l i ne sour ce have no destructi ve effect
on the verti cal pol ar di agram of the r efl ector , i t i s necessary that the
r efl ector be so shaped that the compl ete system of r efl ected rays cl ears
the l i ne source. To achi eve thi s condi ti on the radi ati on from the l atter
i s di r ected down i nto the r efl ector and the major part of the r efl ector i s
bel o~v the l i ne source. I t i s al so i mportant that the radi ati on r efl ected
opti cal l y from the top of the r efl ector shoul d not stri ke the bottom of the
r efl ector . A profi l e vi ew of a typi cal r efl ector and l i ne sour ce i s shown i n
Fi g. 13.29. The ori entati on of the top of the r efl ector i s such that the
radi ati on r efl ected ther e passes cl ear of the l i ne sour ce and the bottom
of the r efl ector .
Li ne Sow-ces.-Wi th the r efl ector hei ght l i mi ted, i t i s necessary so to
desi gn the r efl ector contour and feed aperture that the angl e subtended
by the r efl ector at the feed i ncl udes most of i ts radi ati on; the i l l umi nati on
shoul d taper to a l ow val ue at the top and bottom of the r efl ector . Thi s
precauti on i s necessary i f the ampl i tude of radi ati on from the l i ne sour ce
goi ng past the edge of the r efl ector i s to be mai ntai ned l ow and i f the
si de l obes i n the verti cal di ffracti on pattern of the r efl ected radi ati on are
to be kept down. I n addi ti on, the feed must be desi gned and ori ented
i n the r efl ector wi th a vi ew to mi ni mi zi ng the amount of feed back-l obe
radi ati on i n the angul ar regi on of the fl ared beam. The azi muth di ffrac-
ti on pattern of the antenna i s determi ned by the desi gn of the l i ne source.
Si nce the beamwi dth shoul d be as narrow as possi bl e i n azi muth to secur e
good resol uti on on objects, and si nce rel ati vel y hi gh si de l obes i n the
azi muth pattern are al l owabl e, the l i ne sour ce i s requi red to have as
sharp an azi muth beam as can be obtai ned \vi th the l ength of l i ne sour r e
49G SHAPI I I I -BI I AJ 1 A.VTI <,Y.VAS [Six. 135
used. Thi s means that the i ntensi ty of the sour ce shoul d be uni form
al ong i ts axi s.
The vari ous desi gns of l i ne-source feeds used i n thi s connecti on can
be cl assi fi ed accordi ng to two general types: (1) arrays of radi ati ng e]e-
ments arranged i n a l i ne on a ~vavegui de and radi ati ng
broadsi de and (2) paral l el -pl ate l i near focusi ng systems
approxi matel y
that have r ec-
.A
I nci dentray
Line source
I
I
Reflected ray
passing clear
of line source
and boftom
of reflector
FI G. 13.29.Verti cal secti on through SI ULpCdC)I I l l dri cal r efl ector and l i ne source.
tangul ar apertures wi th a l arge l ength-to-breadth rati o. I n the terms
used i n the treatment of l i near arrays i n Chap. 9, ei ther resonant <Jr
nonresonant arrays may be used;1 desi gn pr ocedur es and performance
characteri sti cs are tr eated i n detai l i n Chap. 9. The acl vantagm of
l i near arrays for thi s appl i cati on are thei r compactness and l i ght \vci ght.
The di sadvantages of the nonresonant array are (1) that the beam scans
through a smal l coni cal angl e as t}l e resul t of frequency fl uctuati ons and
I J. R. Ri sser, A. i l . Stwnl :md, ,J.Stci nhwger,1,. J. 13ygrs,RI , Repor t ho. 973,
hl ar. 19, 1946.
(2) that the beam must be kept off normal to avoi d cumul ati ve i mpedance
mi smatch; thi s resul ts i n a coni cal beam that i l l umi nates a hyperbol i c
trace on the gr ound. The resonant array suffers fr om the di sadvantages
of fr equency sensi ti vi ty i n i mpedance match and pattern.
A vari ety of paral l el -pl ate focusi ng systems have been exami ned for
thei r useful ness i n thi s connecti on.
One type consi sts of a rapi dl y fl ari ng
sectoral horn wi th ei ther a di el ectri c or metal l i c l ensz i n the horn so
desi gned that radi ati on across the horn aperture i s al l i n phase.
Another type of paral l el -pl ate l i ne sour ce i s the pi l l box antenna di s-
cussed i n Sec. 12.16. The pi l l box l i ne sour ce i s si mpl e to desi gn and
rel ati vel y si mpl e to construct but suffers from certai n basi c di sadvantages,
The center of the aperture i s necessari l y obstructed by the feed at the
focus of the parabol a; thi s resul ts not onl y i n si de l obes i n the azi muth
pattern but al so i n an i mpedance frequency sensi ti vi ty as the resul t
of radi ati on r efl ected back down the feed l i ne.
Efforts to cor r ect one
or both of these effects, have taken vari ous forms: the desi gn of a matchi ng
pl ate to be put at the ver tex of the parabol a, 3 the desi gn of new pi l l box
feeds,4 and the desi gn of doubl e pi l l boxes to obtai n cancel i ng refl ecti ons. s
13.6. Refl ector Desi gn on the Basi s of Ray Theory.A successful
pr ocedur e has been devel oped for desi gni ng the shape of the r efl ector
that i s requi red to pr oduce a speci fi ed verti cal -pl ane pattern. The l atter
i s usual l y speci fi ed i n i deal i zed form: the po~ver di stri buti on i s to bc a
prescri bed functi on F(o) bet\veen the depressi on (or el evati on) angl es 8,
and 192,and zer o for al l other angl es. I t must be recogni zed, ho~vever ,
that i t i s i mpossi bl e to real i ze a di sconti nuous power di stri buti on of thi s
type accuratel y wi th a r efl ector of fi ni te extent. Di ffracti on phenomena
are unavoi dabl e, and the best that one can hope to achi eve i s to approach
the i deal i zed pattern wi thi n acceptabl e l i mi ts of devi ati on from the pr e-
scri bed P(tJ) i n the range (01,tJZ)and wi th an acceptabl e l ow l evel of i nten-
si ty outsi de the gi ven range.
A good fi rst approxi mati on to the cross-secti on cur ve can be arri ved
at on the basi s of geometri cal opti cs. G I f i t then pr oves to be necessary,
1 C. C. Cutl er, I ,i nc %ur cr s of l l i rro~v~vc I :ncr gy for Feedi ng (cyl i ndri cal Refl ec-
tors, BTL Report hi l l -45-160-3, ,Jan. 5, 1!)4,5.
ZM. A. Taggart, Hor n wi th Nfctal Lens, l U, Repor t No. 863, i YoI ,. 13, 1!)45.
3S. Si l ver, .knal ysi s and (;orrccti on of the I mpcdancc l l i smatch Due to a Refl ec-
tor, RL Repor t No. 810, Scpt, 2.5, 1945.
i Nf. .4, Taggart, A NW Pi l l hox FrcrJ, I U, l kport No. 862, Nov. 7, 1945; L. J.
Eyges, Lens Fwd for Pi l lhoxcs, RI , l {cport Xo. 86!), ,Jan. 23, 1946.
W. O. Smi th , A Br o:~d-hand 7L.tf Pi l l hox, RI , l tcport No. 901, Jan. 11, 1946.
GR. C. Spencer , Synthmi s of i l l i cro~v:l ve Di ffr :~(ti on l :i ttcms ~vi th App]i c:l ti on
to CSC2(JPattmms, RI , l l cport No. 54-24, .JI I I ]C23, 1943, dcwri hrs J,, ,J.(hl l s method
for c:dcul ati ng the r efl ector sh:i pr. SW :L1.o(. (1, (Xutl cr, RTL I teports 3111-44-160-
37, Feb. 14, 1944; hI M-45-160-4, J:uI . 5, 1!)45.
the cur ve i s modi fi ed by means of the mor e exact anal ysi s gi ven i n the
fol l owi ng secti on. We shal l consi der her e the geometri cal -opti cs tech-
ni que. The cross-secti on confi gurati on of the r efl ector , the l i ne source,
and the rays i s shown i n Fi g. 13.30. The z-axi s i s taken i n the hori zontal
di recti on; F is the tr ace of the l i ne source.
Posi ti ve angl es are measured
i n the cl ockwi se sense as showm. The r efl ector subtends a total angl e
*Z ~, at the sour ce F. Let p be the radi us vector from F to an arbi -
1
I
1
-z
I
I
I
I
1
\
a
Direction of
peakintensity
of the I!nesour ce
do
Fl u. 13.3U.GeonLctry of ray refl ecti on at surface of refl ector.
rrar,v point, on the curve, From the l aw of refl ecti on i t fol l ows that the
angl e bet!veen the normal to the cur ve and the i nci dent or r efl ected ray
i s (O ~) /2; the di fferenti al equati on of the cur ve i s then readi l y found
to be
(8)
The functi onal rel ati on between 0 and $ must be determi ned to pr o-
duce the pr oper di spersi on of the pri mary feed ener gy i nto the secondary
pattern di stri buti on. To thi s end consi der the \vedge of i nci dent rays
bet l ~een $ and x + d+; on refl ecti on thi s becomes a ~vedge of rays bet!veen
0 and 8 + df?. I I y the ener gy bal ance pri nci pl e of geometri cal opti cs the
power i n the i nci dent wedge i s equal to the power i n the r efl ected v-edge.
Let Z(+) be the di stri buti on i n the pri mary pattern about the l i ne sour ce
I . The i nci dent power i s then proporti onal to 1($) d+. Si mi l arl y the
r efl ected power i s proporti onal to P(19)de. I I re have then
The constant K is determi ned from the rendi ti on that the total pri mary
feed ener gy i ntercepted by the r efl ector must appear i n the secondary
pattern i n the requi red range (@I@z), \~-hence
/
* 1(+) d+
K=+;, .
/
(If))
P(o) do
6,
,Si mi l arl y the total pri mary feed ener gy i n an arbi trary range (~1,~) must
appear i n a correspondi ng range (61,6) of the secondary pattern.
Thi s
l eads to the i ntegral rel ati on
(11)
whi ch serves to determi ne Oas a functi on of ~ for prescri bed di stri buti ons
I (i ) and P(6).
For exampl e, i f F(O) i s CSC2EI ,17(1.(11) gi ves
/
cot 02 rot 0, *
cot e = cot e, +
/
I(+) (w. (12)
1(+) d+ $,
+1
The pri mary pattern functi on I (i ) i s general l .v knol vn only i n numeri cal
form from experi mental data.
I he i ntegrati ons over ~ must tI I er efor e
be carri ed out numm-i cal l y or graphi cal l y.
The functi onal rel ati on 0($) determi ned from Eq. (I 1) i s then sul )-
sti t~l ted i nto Eq. (8) to obtai n the equati on of the c~l rve.
The i ntegral
of hkl . (8) i s
.
%=b+wd
(13)
Thi s i ntegrati on must al so he per for med graphi cal l y or numeri cal l y.
I t i s seen that thi s l eads onl y to the shape and not the absol ute scal e of
the r efl ector . The di stance po from F to the r efl ector al ong the axi s i s
determi ned so that the rsqui rcd hei ght of the r efl ector conforms to the
total angl e ~1 +2 subtended at F.
Ther e are a number of arbi trary ~-ari abl es i n the pr ocedur e, the choi ce
of ~rhi rh can be determi ned onl y by exper i ence.
I t \ri l l be obser ved
thti i the l i ne sol wm i s ori ented so that i ts peak i ntensi ty i s i n a di recti on
+., 1]lis takes co~ni zance of i 11(>fact that the l o\\t=rporti on of the
r efi ector i s rcql l i rrd to prl xl l l ce th( hi gh-i ntensi ty rrgi on of the secondary
.500
,YH,lP1(D-BE.4J I f A.VTfi 3NA-.i S
[s1,,. 137
pattern. The choi ce i s not cri ti cal , and ~o may be as l ow as 0 and as
much as 25. The angl e ~j ~, subtended by the r efl ector shoul d be
suffi ci entl y l arge to make effi ci ent use of the pri mary feed ener gy. As a
general gui de ~Z ~, shoul d cor r espond cl osel y to the 10-db ~\-i cfthof
the pri mary pattmn l (~).
I t i s i nteresti ng to obser ve that the l ower secti on of the r efl ector i n
general turns out to be ver y nearl y a parabol a wi th focus at F and axi s
FV paral l el to the r efl ected ray i n the di recti on 0,, The physi cal basi s
for thi s pr oper ty i s readi l y c~-i dent, for thi s porti on of the r eftector must
conver ge the di vergent rays from the feed i nto a nw-ro\v beam to pr oduce
the requi red peak i ntensi ty. The total fl ared pattern may be r egar ded
as a superposi ti on of a narro\v beam pr oduced by the parabol i c segment
and a broad beam pr oduced by the di spersi ve secti on of the r efl ector ,
13.7. Radi ati on Pattern Anal ysi s.The secondary pattern that \vi l l
actual l y be obtai ned \ri th the r efl ector determi ned on the basi s of geo-
metri cal opti cs can be cal cul ated to a hi gh degr ee of accuracy by the
methods of Sec. 59. Such a udcul ati on ser}-es a scverti l -fol d purpose.
The extent of the devi ati ons from the i deal i zed pattern can be determi ned
pri or to constructi on and test of an cxperi rnrntal model . The di ffrac-
ti on effects arc qui te sensi ti ve to the scal e factor POi n Eq. (13). I f ther e
i s some l ati tude al l ol ved i n choi ce of the r efl r ctor di mensi ons, the radi ati on
pattern can bc cal cul ated for sc~rcra.l val ues of P{, for a gi ven shape to
determi ne the best di mensi ons wi thi n the al l o~vect range. For a gi ven
choi ce of di mensi ons, the effect of smal l al terati ons i n the cross-secti on
centour from the geometri cal -opti cs cur ve can be studi ed to arri ve at a
cur ve that yi el ds an acceptabl e pattern. These resul ts al so ser ve as a
basi s for setti ng the tol erances that are to be requi red on the r efl ector
sl jape i n the producti on of the antenna.
The r e~der i s r etcr -r wl tt) Srcs. 5.7 to 59 for the theoreti cal detai l s.
Tl w cal cul ati on i s biLscd on the uswl mpti uns that the r efl ector i s i n the
(,yi i ndri cal \\avc zone of the so~l r[e, that the mi ni m\ml val ue of p i s
l arge c(unparcd ]vi tb the ~\uvel ength,
and that, the m~xi murn va]ue of
p i s l ess than ~, wher e 1i s the l ength of the sml rce. The pri mary pattern
of thr stnl rce i s speci fi ed l ),v the di stri buti on fl l ncti on J(r) al ong the l ength
of the sour ce and the angl l l ar (Di stri buti on G(i ) armmd the source. Thus,
i f P i s the total pmvrr rml i atcd, the power radi ated i n a segment of angul ar
wi dth d+ and l en@ h d.r i s
(u = 2:Llf(.r)G(i) (fr d+. (14)
The properti es of the di stri b~l ti on functi ons are gi vm i n mor e detai l i n
1:(1s.(5%1) :Lnd (582).
The pr(mdl l rr i s l t) ral cl l l :l tc the cl l rrrnt di sl ri l )l l ti on i nduced on the
refl cctur b,v thr pri mary fi el d and then to cal cl l l atc the radi ati on pattern
SEC. 137] RADIATION PATTERN ANALYSIS 501
of the surface-current di stri buti on. Two cases are to be di sti ngui shed:
(1) l ongi tudi nal pol ari zati onhori zontal pol ari zati on i n the present di s-
cussi oni n whi ch the el ectri c vector of the pri mary fi el d i s paral l el to the
l i ne sour ce and (2) transvers~verti cal pol ari zati on i n whi ch the el ectri c
vector i s paral l el to the pl anes perpendi cul ar to the l i ne source. The
coordi nate system i s descri bed i n detai l i n Fi g. 5.9 and wi l l not be r epr o-
duced her e. Onl y one change need be noted: I n the present secti on the
posi ti ve d,recti on of the angl e 8 i s r ever sed wi th r espect to that chosen
i n Sec. 5.9. The compl ete expressi ons for the patterns are gi ven for
the t\vo types of pol ari zati on by Eqs. (5.86) and (587), respecti vel y.
k<~rthe verti cal pl ane pattern, that i s, the pl ane @ = Oi n Fi g. 59, these
r educe to
1, Hori zontal pol ari zati on:
/
*L
E(E)) = jLl
*1 pG(@)cOsi [l + +fi )2ee-e)d+-e)d+ 5)
2. l erti cal pol ari zati on:
(17)
The angl e i i s the angl e bet\vmm p and the normal n to the surface; the
angl e (n,R~) i s between the normal and the uni t ver tor R, i n the gi ven
di recti on of observati on i n the secondary pattern. l ~e note al so that
from the precedi ng secti on
(18)
The r efl ector cur ve bei ng gi ven, p, cm i , and cos (n, R,) are kno\vn func-
ti ons of posi ti on on the r efl ector . The i ntegral s are then eval uated
numeri cal l y for successi ve val ues of ~,
The po~ver pattern i s then
obtai ned by the usual methods whi ch are di scussed i n Chap, 5:
2111(1 the
1hc
()
P(8) = ~ : i RIEI,
(19a)
gai n i n a gi ven di recti on i s
G(e) = -).
(19b)
ral r~l l ati cms arc l abori ous but strai ghtforward.
The rel i abi l i ty
502
SHAPED-BEAM ANTENNAS [SEC. 138
of the method may be judged by the compari son between the cal cul ated
and measur ed patterns shown i n Fi g. 13.31.1 The posi ti ons of the
maxi ma and mi ni ma are predi cted accuratel y, and the maxi mum devi a-
ti on from the measured val ues i s 2 db. The performance of the r efl ector
coul d have been i mproved by the pr ocedur e, outl i ned at the begi nni ng
-o
4
8
* 12
0
~
3 16
32
36
-40
!
;
---Calculated
\ Observed
r
\
1
\
,
\
I
I
I
I
1
( Q ,
1
\J
/ ,
\ 4
1
1
I
\
,, ,-.
I
.,
\
1
I
\
/
\
. ~
\
: \
.J
\
\
1 1 I
ZSI)O -200100 00 1~0 ZOO 300 400 ~oO 600 7o0 800 900
Angle
FrG. 13.31.-Cal cul ated arl dobs&rved verti cal patterns ofcyl i ndri cal r efl ector antenna wi th
hori zontal pol ari zati on,
of the secti on, of modi fyi ng the r efl ector cur ve unti l the ampl i tude fl uc-
tuati ons i n the cal cul ated pattern are r educed to an acceptabl e val ue.
13.8. Doubl e-curvature Refl ector Antennas.-The l i ne-source feeds
requi red to i l l umi nate the cyl i ndri cal r efl ector s di scussed i n the precedi ng
secti on have a number of di sadvantages as compared ~~i th poi nt-source
feeds. They are i n general bul ki er, heavi er, l ess sati sfactory as to i mped-
ance properti es, and mor e compl i cated to desi gn, bui l d, and pressuri ze.
When a r efl ector i s used wi th a poi nt-source feed to form a shaped beam,
i t i s requi red to provi de a pattern of the speci fi ed shape i n one pl ane and
to focus i n transverse pl anes. A number of cut-and-try i mprovi sati ons
for accompl i shi ng thi s end wer e descri bed i n Sec. 13.3 under Asymmetri cal
Shaped Beams.
1Taken fr om ~r. J. Kear y, Cal cul ati on of Verti cal Pol ar Di agrams and Poi rer
Gai ns of Antennas for .4i rborne Navi gati onal l kdars, I tL Repor t No. 75o, Sept. 10,
1945.
SEC. 138] DO UBLE-CURVA Ti3RE REFLECTOR AN7ENNA,S 503
BarFel RejZector Antenna.The barrel r efl ector antenna shown i n Fi g.
13.17 was the most successful of these i mprovi sati ons but i s subject to
some seri ous l i mi tati ons. A consi derati on of these l i mi tati ons wi l l pr o-
vi de hel pful gui de l i nes i n the desi gn of doubl e-curvature refl ectors. I n
the fi rst pl ace, the shape of the central verti cal secti on of the r efl ector
was determi ned, not as the pr oper transformati on from pri mary to
secondary pattern, but by the si mpl est geometr y whi ch provi des a focus
i n transverse pl anes. The bottom
hal f of the r efl ector focuses hal f
of the radi ati on from the feed
i nto a penci l beam. The barrel -
shaped top hal f of the r efl ector
focuses the pri mary pattern i n
transverse pl anes but refl ects i t
unchanged i n the verti cal pl ane.
The superposi ti on of the two
porti ons of the secondary pattern,
1+~, 1332.-Superposi ti on of barrel and
showm schemati cal l y i n Fi g. 13.32,
parabol oi dalampl i tudepatterrl s.
i nevi tabl y resul ts i -n a depressi on i n the pattern near the peak of the
beam, as can be seen i n the pattern of Fi g. 13.20a. Second, si nce the
feed i s at the center of curvature of the barrel secti on i n the pl ane of
symmetry, al l the r efl ected rays i n that pl ane pass through the feed.
Thi s causes an excessi ve amount of power to be r etur ned to the transmi ssi on
l i ne resul ti ng i n a frequency-sensi ti ve i mpedance mi smatch. A thi rd
di ffi cul ty i s that the ri ght and l eft upper porti ons of the barrel r efl ector
are set at such angl es as to gi ve ri se to strong cross-pol ari zed components
i n the wi de-angl e porti on of the fl ared beam. These cancel i n the medi an
pl ane but add to the si des of the normal pol ari zati on l obe to gi ve a con-
si derabl y broader effecti ve transverse pattern. These several di ffi cul ti es
wi th the barrel r efl ector antenna can be avoi ded by pr oper desi gnl of the
general i zed surfaces to be di scussed bel ow.
General Consi derati ons. The pri mary feed pattern and the r efl ector
are to have as a common pl ane of symmetry the pl ane i n whi ch the beam
i s fl ared-pl ane XFZ of Fi g, 13.33. Two consi derati ons enter the desi gn:
The central verti cal secti on of the r efl ector i s to be adjusted on the basi s
of the central verti cal pattern of the feed to gi ve the speci fi ed secondary
pattern; the remai nder of the surface i s to be so shaped as to obtai n
penci l -beam characteri sti cs i n the transverse pl anes. The second con-
si derati on requi res that al l rays from the poi nt sour ce after refl ecti on
1R. ~. Spencer , Synthesi s of l fi cr owave Di ffracti on Patterns wi th Appl i cati ons
to Ckcz @Patterns, RL Repor t No. 54-24, June 23, 1943; J. F. Hi l l , G. G. Lfacfarl ane,
W. Wal ki nshaw, TRI ? Repor t No. 1878, Xl ay 17, 1945; S. Si l ver, Doubl e ~urvaturc
Surfaces for Beam Shapi ng wi th Poi nt Sour ce Feeds, RL Repor t No. 691, June 15,
1945.
504 SHAPED-BEAM AN TE.VN.4S
[SEC, 138
from the surface emer ge paral l el to the central pl ane; the r efl ected wave-
front i s thus a cyl i nder whose gener ator i s normal to the central pl ane.
Transverse Sections of the Refl ector.-The transverse secti ons of the
surface are determi ned by the requi rement that the r efl ector i s to conver t
(
l<IU. 13.33 .Dout)1e curvature surface and
spherird cOordlllate hyhtcm.
the
Let
a spheri cal wave i nto a cyl i ndri cal
wave. The condi ti on i s easi er to
formul ate from the poi nt of vi e\\
of recepti on. Referri ng to Fi g.
13.34, consi der the sheet of rays,
al l paral l el to the central pl ane,
i nci dent on the r efl ector i n the
pl ane OA NP. The l atter i s per -
pendi cul ar to the central pl ane.
We requi re al l these rays to be
brought to a focus at F. I f then
we take any l i ne i n the pl ane
OA NP perpendi cul ar to the rays,
opti cal path from that l i ne to F i s the same for al l rays i n the sheet.
p be the radi us vector from F to the central secti on curve, @ i ts angl e
Central
s
curve p
Parabolic
section
x
I
x
z
/
\/
*A ~\
/ \ \
FI G. 13.34.Surfaces of paral ml i r secti on.
of el evati on, and u the angl e bet]!-een the i nci rkmt and refl ectd ray i n
the cent ral secti on. Through F dra,\- O.r normal tf) the pl ane 0.1 .I P.
I n the pl ane 0.4 NP set up the orthogonal axes 0?/, OZ. \~i th Oy normal
to the central pl ane. Wri ti ng the condi ti on of the opti cal path (cf. Sec.
4.9) l ye have
AN+.VF=OP+p
or
(P2 sin u + U + z)> z == P(I + IYB 0).
(20)
SEC. 13.8] DOUBLE-CURVATURE REFLECTOR ANTENNAS 505
Thi s gi ves
yz = 4pcos2; (z+p Cos u). (21)
The secti on of the surface i n the plane OANP i s, ther efor e, a parabol a
wi th ver tex at P and focal l ength
f(o) = P(o) COS2y
(22)
Gi ven the central secti on curve, p(.$), j(~) and the associ ated refl ec-
ti on pl ane are determi ned. I t i s readi l y seen that the whol e fami l y of
refl ecti on pl anes corresponds to a cyl i ndri cal wavefront. The barrel
secti on r efl ector i sobtai ned bysetti ngp = constant, U(O) = O.
Central Secti on Curwe.-The cent,ral secti or cur ve i sto redetermi ned
so that the system wi l l radi ate a desi red Fraunhofer pattern. Ther e i s
no si mpl e deci si ve pr ocedur e forrel ati n~ the central cur ve to thi s ~at,tern.
whi ch takes di ffracti on effects i nto account properl y.
cussed her e i s based on geometri -
cal concepts of ener gy bal ance
Circle
between the pri mary feed and
about F
,-:P
%
Fraunhofer patterns. The l atter _~ - ~
i s a thr ee di mensi onal ~attern for 2 - 2
.
L
The method di s-
X
I
whose speci fi cati on we shal l use
spheri cal coordi nates such as are
~$$~l Lz
shown i n Fi g. 13.33. The angl e
\
/
of el evati on wi th r espect to the
XY-pl ane wi l l be denoted by o
dO
(@ bei ng used for the pri mary feed
FI ~, 13.35, Geor netr Yof rentralcurve.
pattern). ~ i s the azi muth angl e i n the pl anes 0 = constant. The pat-
ter n i s speci fi ed i n the form P(o, v), the power radi ated per uni t sol i d angl e
i n di recti on (d,~). The central pl ane pattern P(8,0), her eafter desi gnated
as P(o), is assumed to be speci fi ed.
Referri ng to Fi g. 1335 i t i s seen that the di fferenti al equati on of the
central cur ve i s gi ven by
a bei ng the angl e between the i nci dent and r efl ected ray. Or si nce
1 dp
()
+0
= tan-2-
p d~
(23)
The posi ti ve di recti ons of o and @ are shown i n the fi gure. The rel ati on
between 0 and O, whi ch i s necessary for i ntegrati ng the above equati on,
i s obtai ned from ener gy bal ance consi derati ons.
Thi s method i s based stri ctl y on geometri cal opti cs. The assumpti ons
506 SHAPED-BEAM AN1ENNAS [SEC. 138
i nvol ved are that the beam i s narrow i n the transverse (~) di recti ons
and that the transverse aspect of the beam i s vi rtual l y i ndependent of O.
The effect of di ffracti on i s assumed to be the same i n al l such pl anes.
Accordi ngl y we assume that we have a cyl i ndri cal wavefront i n the far
fi el d correspondi ng to geometri cal opti cs and that the ener gy fl ow through
the cyl i ndri cal wavefront between the pl anes .9and O+ dO per uni t l ength
al ong the generati ng el ement i s of the form
~((1) do F(y),
wher e F(y) represents the di stri buti on i n the transverse aspect of the
beam.
Let us take a smal l cone of rays from the sour ce F i n the central secti on
defi ned by the pl anes @ and @ + do and azi muth extent chj. The ener gy
i n thi s cone i s
I(o) d~ d+,
wher e 1(o) i s the power radi ated per uni t sol i d angl e i n di recti on (0,0). ]
On refl ecti on thi s ener gy appears i n a wedge defi ned by the pl anes @
and 6 + de, si nce the r efl ected rays are paral l el . 2 The wi dth of the wedge
i s p d+, so that i n terms of P(d) the ener gy contai ned therei n i s
P(e) dep d$.
Equati ng thi s to the i nci dent ener gy gi ves
or
pp(d) do = Z(O) dd
l(o) g = @
P
(24)
(Ma)
Because of the factor p occurri ng i n Eq. (24), the l atter cannot be i nte-
grated as i n the case of the cyl i ndri cal r efl ector to gi ve the rel ati on between
0 and O. Taki ng l ogari thmi c deri vati ves \vi th r espect to @ of Eq, (24a)
and substi tuti ng from Eq. (23), we get i nstead the di fferenti al equati on
whi ch i s
%+[tan(i) -%+1%+%($=0 25)
to be i ntegrated numeri cal l y. Her e
I(o) = dI/d@,
pf(e) = g.
The general arrangement of the central cur ve and feed i s shown i n
1The sol i d angl e i n tl )e spi !cri {,al coordi nates I M~d I r r ~, i .s ros @ do rf@. For the
central secti on cos @ = 1.
ZThe mr r espoi l dence i s not stri ctl y trl [c. si ]l r(, ravs i n al l i l l ri tl cnt sheet do not l i e
i n a pl ane on refl ecti on. \Veare assumi ng that the er r or i s negl i gi bl e i n the nei ghbor -
hood of the central secti on.
SEC. 13,8]
I XI UBLE-((:R VA 71 1{1< 1(1<1<l,fi;C7{)li AN7EI V,VA,? 507
Fi g. 13.36. The angul ar l i mi ts o,, OZ of the r efl ector are arbi trary.
A sati sfactory choi ce i s to take these to cor r espond to the 10-db poi nts
i n the pri mary pattern. The angl l l ar aperture OZ +, must be taken
fai rl y l arge, or the s~l rface wi l l be found to curl i n too rapi dl y i n
the transverse aspects. By setti ng up the r efl ected rays as shown i n the
fi gure the feed i s kept out of thei r paths and the mi smatch due to the
r efl ector i s kept at a l ow l evel . Si nce the regi on @l ~ @ ~ Ocontri butes
to the hi gh ener gy regi on of the Fraunhofer pattern, the pri mary feed
Peak illumination
of the primary
feed pattern
i
FIG, 1336.-General arrangement of central cur ve apd feed
pattern i s ti pped to i l l umi nate that area mor e strongl y. The angl e of
ti p i s arbi trary. For cyl i ndri cal r efl ector s wi th a l i ne sour ce thi s i s
usual l y taken i n the nei ghborhood of 15. Thi s shoul d be sati sfactory
her e. Wi th the choi ce of these vari ous factors deci ded upon, the i ntegra-
ti on probl em i s defi ned.
I ntegrati on fo~ the CSC20 Pattern-We shal l di scuss the i ntegrati on
of the central cur ve equati ons wi th parti cul ar r efer ence to the CSC26 pat-
ter n used i n ai rborne navi gati onal antennas. P(o) i s requi red to be a
CSC2@di stri buti on between the angul ar l i mi ts 01 and e~. That i s,
P(fJ) = K2 CSC2e, 01<8 <02, e,>o
=0
outside thi s range. Usi ng Eq. (25), I re fi rst fi nd 8(o) so that
0=0, when
4 = +1,
0=6, when
4 = +2.
F~)r the CSC2d pattern we get
%+[an(~)-%l: -otf%)= 2 )
-SW nl l meri cal i ntegrati on of thi s equati on subject to thr end-poi nt con-
508 SHAPED-BRA 1[ AA TI I N.VA,9 [s,:(. 130
di ti ons at O, and d, requi res a guess as to the val ue of the sl ope dO/d@
at the starti ng poi nt. The i ntegrati on i s carri ed thr ough for the tri al
val ue of i ni ti al sl ope, and the resul ti ng end val ue OZi s deter mi ned. on
the basi s of thi s resul t a second assumpti on i s made for the i ni ti al sl ope,
and the i ntegrati on i s r epeated. The second or , at most, a thi rd gI I ess
i s suffi ci ent, especi al l y si nce the end val ue OZi s not cri ti cal . The i ni ti al
sl ope may be expected to be smal l , si nce thi s r egi on of the r efl ector con-
tri butes to the peak of the beam and the r efl ected rays are ver y near l y
paral l el . Thr oughout the cour se of the c~l rve dfl ~d@ m~~st be posi ti ve.
13,9. Vari abl e Beam Shape.I t i s frequentl y speci fi ed for an ai rborne
navi gati onal radar antenna that the shaped el evati on pattern be con-
trol l abl e, ei ther conti nuousl y or i n a l i mi ted number of steps. Thi s
requi rement i s i mposed because of the need to oper ate the ai rcraft at a
range of al ti tudes, whereas the Cscz o pattern i s desi gned for a si ngl e al ti -
tude. Several means have been empl oyed to exer ci se control over the
el evati on beam shape, I n one cyl i ndri cal r efl ector antenna the di rrc-
ti vi ty of the feed was al tered by means of a fl ap to di rect mor e of the
radi ati on onto the sharpl y cur ved porti on of the r efl ectcr and thus p(l t,
mor e power i nto the wi de-angl e part of the el evati on pattern for hi gh-
al ti tude operati on. I n the case of the cyl i ndri cal refl ector-pi l l box
antenna, measurements have been made on the change i n shfi pc of the
secondary pattern of the antenna as the pi l l box i s r otated about the
l ong axi s of i ts aperture. Si mi l ar measurements have been made \vi t h
encouragi ng resul ts by rotati ng a di recti ve horn feed i n the barrel refl ec-
tor . 2 I n al l such cases, after the al tered pattern shape has b~en obtai ned
by a change i n feed, i t i s then necessary to rotate the enti re antenna to
obtai n the cor r ect mi ni mum depressi on angl e. Rotati on of the r efl ector
about a hori zontal axi s near the ver tex changes the i l l .urni nati on and
depressi on angl e together i n such a way as to gi ve sati sfactory patterns
i n an actual case3 for depressi on angl es from 3 to 13.
I t i s someti mes necessary to compensate for rol l and pi tch of the ai r-
craft by l i ne-of-si ght stabi l i zati on whi ch mai ntai ns a fi xed rl evati on angl e
of the beam wi th r espect to the hori zon. For si mpl i fi ed mcchani cfi l
control and to el i mi nate mechani cal i nterferences, tl wre are ad\wntages
i n obtai ni ng stabi l i zati on i n the beam by rotati ng the r effcctor al one i n
the verti cal pl ane. I n thi s case, i t i s desi rabl e to change the posi ti on
of the beam wi thout changi ng i ts shape. Thi s i s di ffi cul t because di s-
pl acement of the feed cw~ses changes i n the i l l umi nati on over the r efl ector .
Both of these probl ems }voul d be much si mpl i fi ed i f the r efl ector wer e
1 C. C. Cutler, BTT, Report l f3~-4.5-160-4.
2 J. H. Gardner, 1I ,O\v Al ti tude Csr z tl Antenna, RI , Report Xo, 1073, Fch, 21,
1946.
3 T. J. Keary, .4. R. Pool r, J. I t. Ri sscr, H. Wol fej 1.i i rl l tjr]l r N-:tv]g:l ti o!)al l t:i tl :i r
.i ntennas, RI , Repor t Xo. 808, ~I ar. 15, 1946.
not asked to per for m the dual functi on of foml si ng and shapi ng the beam.
I n one antenna desi gn a poi nt sour ce and cut I ]arahol fji (l procl (l cmf a
col l i mated beam whi ch ]~as then shaped i n the verti cal pl :me by a ser(md
r efl ector . I n thi s case an excel l ent el evati (m pattern \\asol )t:l i nml . Fl y
control of the second r efl ector al one i t \vas possi bl e to chang~, the shape
and di recti on of the beam for deprmsi on angl es rangi ng from 10 to 9
and to accompl i sh l i ne-of-si ght stabi l i zati on over a range of t 1.5. The
seri ous di sadvantage of the doubl e-refl ector antenna i s 1he spare that
i t requi res.
I E. B. Chi shol m and B. R. Vogel , (I l ouhl r Refl rctof .fj]tenn:~, 1{1, Repor t
No. 775, Jul y 16, 1945.
CH.\PTER 14
ANTENNA INSTALLATION PROBLEMS
BY L. C. 1.m .iTT.LAND R. 31. REDHEFFER
GENERAL SURVEY OF INSTALLATION PROBLEMS
The customary procedure in microwa~-e radar antenna development
has been to design the antenna and to carry out the early experimental
tests on the assumption of free-space conditions surrounding the antenna.
Whereas this represents a good approximation in general, it is necessary
eventually to consider the effect upon the antenna performance of the
supporting structure on which it must be mounted. .Mso, it is generally
necessary to place the antenna in a dielectric housingthe radom~
which likewise affects its performance, It is sometimes possible so to
choose the antenna location on the structure and to design the radome
that the original performance of the antenna is unimpaired, The final
result can be predicted with greater certainty, hofvever, if the electrical
design of the antenna is considered from the beginning in conjunction
with that of the raclome and ~1-itha ~-iel!- to the structure and location
that the antenna-radome system must occupy,
The purpose of this chtipter is to present the problems imposed by
installation requirements and the practices that have been adopted for
dealing ~vith them. These con.. iderations are intended to serve merely
as background for one enga~ed in antenna design.
14.1. Ground Antennas.The meclumiral drsi~n of an antenna for
ground use n~~lst effect a compromise bet\vecn the factors of electrical
rehability, mechanical rugge(lnes, an(l portal) ility. .In antenna in a
permanent site has moderate l! eight and portability requirements, is
not required to sur~irc repciatcd ro(lgh handling, but sho(lld l)e ideally
sited and should be designed to opemte rrlial)ly o~er an extended period
in the face of l ( J cal conditions of !!eathf r and l\ind.
The antenna of a high-l]rrfornli~n(( radar set \\-hichmust be moved
quickly from time to time o~er consi(i(rul)le di+tanc~ to a ne~v site is
still not seriouslv rcwtrirtrd in ]reight bllt must disassemble into rela-
tively light ~~eight components of limited (limexwions for transportation
by air or truck. Its com~tr(lction rnw+t permit precision reassembly after
repeated handling, (omp(ments m(l>t lw >Ilweptiblr to repair or replace-
ment under field conditions.
The ontenna of a +)nle!l-h:ii lixhter ra(l:~r set may be trllck-rnounted
\\it}) I be rest of the set. Tl]i. (,lin~in:~t(+ tl)( nrc(+~i~y for disassembly
,510
SEC, 14.2] SHIP AN TLNIVAS
511
and facilitates ground transport when relocation of the set is required.
At the same time it rules out the desirable features of air transportability.
Very lightweight sets have been designed for transport by mule or pack
for use in inaccessible regions. So much is sacrificed in reliability and per-
formance, however, by this severe portability requirement that such
sets have not been demonstrated to be practicable.
Some ground antennas, particularly truck-mounted units, are pro-
vided with radomes. More often the antenna is exposed. It proves to
be more practicable in these cases to design the antenna for operation in
the open than to provide a satisfactory housing. The antenna feed
must then be weatherized by means of a dielectric cup or plate. The
reflector is generally of mesh, perforated, or grating construction to
reduce windage effects. Mechanical and electrical components must
be enclosed in a metal housing.
14.2. Ship Antennas.-The distinctive features of a ship as an antenna
location are the small number of suitable sites and the large amount of
other gear that invariably interferes with the placement and performance
of an antenna. The top of a mast is obviously the ideal location either
for an antenna with an omnidirectional pattern or for one with a com-
plete azimuth scan. Any other location }vill involve obstruction of the
beam by the mast or by other parts of the superstructure. Such obstruc-
tion will result in blind regions, false signals, or transmitter pulling.
In addition to competing for favorable sites, antennas obstruct each
others view and jam each other \\-hen fre<luency relations permit.
Furthermore, mechanical and electrical considerations are frequently
at cross purposes. A consideration of each antennas performance
argues for placing it at the top of the mast, ]vhereas a consideration of
ship stability would place it beloiv deck. An antenna mounted alongside
a mast on a bracket should be far out from the mast for electrical reasons
but close in for mechanical reasons The electrical performance is seldom
improved by the modifications introduced to provide resistance to shock
and vibration.
A structure of limited extent equipped with a large number of antennas
is referred to as an antenna s,vstem. The antenna system problem then
is to obtain satisfactory performance from the severid antennas by relo-
cating them, by combining their functions or othernrise reducing their
number, by redesigning them, or by redesigning the supporting structure.
The ship antenna s,vstem problem is still far from solution, and each ne~v
ship type and mnr eq([ipmcut serve to increase the over-all problem.
Extensi\e mcwt[ remen ts, illcl ((ding mo(lcl ln(>:~slllcr~](rlts, :tre required t o
assess the ~)(:rfotrll~l]l(,(>of cxistillg tint [)rlnas in prcs(s]ll ]tx,atitms and to
predict their ]J(tlfJrI]l~Lrl(( in ot Iwr ltNat io]ls.
Slli[) sIIp(,Ixt rll[,tlllc+ and
antennas m(lst lx more closely integrated in tllc dcsi~n stages.
onc
approach to the problem that is commanding considerable attentiou is
512 A.V Y1<.V.Y.i I N, Y1ALLA lI ON PRI )BL14M, S [Sin. 143
the desi gn of seri es or paral l el coupl i ng ci rcui ts to permi t the mul ti pl e use
of antennas of certai n types. Rejecti on fi l ters can be desi gned to
el i mi nate jammi ng between antennas and to r educe background noi se.
Speci al arrangements have been empl oyed for i mprovi ng the per -
formance of i ndi vi dual equi pments i n ti l e pr esence of screeni ng structures.
Radars wi th scmni ng antennas maybe dupl i cated for e and aft so that
thei r regi ons of effecti veness suppl ement one another. An antenna wi th
an omni di recti onal pattern may be r ep!aced by two antennas on opposi te
si des of the superstructure wi th 180 azi muth patterns.
Another cover age probl em i s i ntroduced by i nter fer ence nul l s i n the
el evati on pattern when suffi ci ent radi ati on from the antenna i s r efl ected
from the deck or sea. One sol uti on to thi s probl em whi ch has been
empl oyed i n the case of nonscanni ng antennas i s to repl ace the antenna
by several pr oper l y di stri buted i n hei ght. Such a set of nonscanni ng
antennas may be connected to di fferent r ecei ver s or may be connected
to a si ngl e r ecei ver wi th a di versi ty hookup whi ch l eaves the anter,na
recei vi ng the strongest si gnal actual l y connected to the r ecei ver .
I n desi gni ng an antenna for shi pboard use, the effects of dampness,
sal t spray, condensati on, temperature extremes, hi gh wi nd vel oci ti es,
and i ci ng condi ti ons must be consi dered. Some smal l nondi recti onal
antennas and scanni ng antennas are encl osed i n radomes. The l arger
scanni ng antennas are ~veatheri zed at the feed and are provi ded ~~i th
open\r or k r efl ector s of per for ated pl ate or grati ng constructi on to r educe
wi ndage effects.
14-3. Ai rcraft Antennas.An ai rcraft ~vi th i ts mari j antennas for
communi cati on, navi gati on, i nstrument l andi ng, radar, i denti fi cati on,
and radar countermeasures pro~-i des an antenna system probl em of great
compl exi ty. To the probl ems of si ti ng, avoi di ng i nter fer ence between
antennas, and obtai ni ng a pr oper pattern wi th the antenna on the struc-
tur e i s added the probl em of meeti ng seri ous aerodynami c requi rements.
I n the faster ai rcraft i t i s desi rabl e to have the antenna total l y contai ned
wi thi n the ai rframe. I Vhen thi s i s not possi bl e, the extensi on shoul d
present mi ni mum frontal area and shoul d be streaml i ned wi th a housi ng
that must have a gr eater el ongati on i n the di recti on of moti on for a
hi gher desi gn speed of the ai rcraft. Any changes i n ai rframe i mposed
by antenna requi rements must be i ncorporated i n the ver y earl y stages
of the ai rcraft desi gn. To r educe drag, to pr otect the antenna from
wi nd for ces and weather, and i n some cases to provi de for pressuri zati on,
ever y scanni ng antenna must, be pro~-i ded v-i th a racfome.
Thi s i s tr ue
~rhether the antenna i s total l y i ncl uded ~vi thi n the ai rframe or i s exposed
i n a streaml i ned ho~wi ng, often r efer r ed to as a bl i ster or nacel l e.
The
el ectri cal and mech:mi cal dmi gn req~l i rements i mposed on such radomes
have become i ncreasi ngl y sever e because of the trend to\vard shor ter
~~a~,el engths, l arger antennas, and mor e compl ete streaml i ui ng; the sati s-
factory sol uti on of the radome desi gn probl em hm rm~ui red i ncreasi ngl y
mor e sophi sti cated engi neeri ng.
I mproper si ti ng of the antenna on the ai rcraft, or unsati sfactory desi gn
of the radome may resul t i n a vari ety of performance defects i n the
system. The radi ati on pattern of the antenna may br sm-i ousl ,v al tered
by near-by conducti ng edges or surfaces. Excessi ve absorpti on or refl ec-
ti on by the di el ectri c ~val l of the radome may i ntroduce a number of
undesi rabl e pattern and i mpedance effects. Such defects have been
tol erated to a certai n extent i n the r ecent past as unavoi dabl e i n the face
of the rapi d devel opment i n ai rcraft desi gn and i n the vari ety of antenna
i nstal l ati ons. However , wi th a better understandi ng of the desi gn prob-
l ems i nvol ved and wi th the possi bi l i ty of accommodati ng antennas mor e
sati sfactori l y i n new ai rcraft desi gns, performance defects i n ai rcraft radi o
systems can be drasti cal l y reduced. I t wi l l be necessar.v, however , to
accompl i sh thi s i mprovement i n el ectri cal performance wi th antenna
desi gns that are at the same ti me mor e sati sfactory aerodynami cal l y.
14.4. Scanni ng Antennas on Ai rcraft.A scanni ng antenna empl oyed
i n ai r-to-ai r search i s rec~ui red to have a narrow penci l beam and to scan
a for~vard angul ar regi on onl y. Such an antenna can be l ocated i n the
nose of a mul ti engi ned pl ane or i n a wi ng nacel l e i n a si ngl e-engi ne pl ane.
The wi ng nacel l e can be l ocated i n the l eadi ng edge or at the ti p of the
wi ng wi thout i ntroduci ng seri ous drag. The performance of a narro~v
penci l -beam antenna i s not appreci abl y affected by metal parts of the
ai rcraft. I t need not be affected seri ousl ~ by the radome ~val l exmpt i n
cases of poor radome desi gn. The effect of the l atter ~vi l l be di scussed
l ater and i s i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 148. Di ffi cul ty i s al so encounter ed \~i th
streaml i ned radomes desi gned to meet the aerodynami c requi rements of
ver y hi gh math numbers, si nce thi s necessi tates near-grazi ng angl es of
i nci dence of radi ati on upon the wal l s,
An antenna scanni ng i n azi muth for ai r-to-ground search i s requi red
co have a beam that i s sharp i n azi muth and achi eves ~vi th hi gh accl l racy
a prescri bed shape i n el evati on such as was descri bed i n Chap. 13. I f an
i ntel l i gi bl e pi cture of the ground i s to be presented on the cathode-ray
scr een of the radar set, the el evati on pattern must fol l ow the CSC2o shape
r i ver a wi de range of angl es wi th an accuracy of 1 db for cl osel y spaced
vari ati ons. I f a maxi mum range of 50 mi l es i s to be cover ed from an
al ti tude of 5 mi l es, the steep-angl e porti on of the pattern i s at l emt 20
db down f rGm the near-hori zontal porti on. Surfaces or ed~es near the
antenna can refl ect, or di ffract a smal l amount of po~~er from nc:ar-
hori zontal porti ons of the beam i nto di recti ons correspondi ng to steep
angl e por t i ons of the beam. I f such an un~vantcd cent ri but i on at steep
angl es i s pr went even i n power i ntensi ti es 40 db dol l -n from the pcal i or 20
cfb down from steep-angl e porti ons of the beam, the resul ti ng i uter fer encr
efl ect wi l l prodl l cr a l -dh ri ppl e i n 1hi s porti on of the cl c]afi on patt~rn
514 ANTENNA I NI STALLA TI ON PROBLEMS [SEC. 14.4
The most seri ous i nstal l ati on probl em i s encounter ed when an antenna
that i s empl oyed i n ai r-to-ground search i s requi red to scan through 360
i n azi muth. The i deal l ocati on for thi s antenna i s at the l owest poi nt
i n the fusel age. Si nce obstructi ons on thi s porti on of the ai rframe i ntro-
duce seri ous drag, the antenna and radome must be so desi gned as to
mi ni mi ze the transverse area exposed and to real i ze streaml i ned fl ow.
The probl em i s aggravated by the fact that these antennas are general l y
l arge. Certai n desi gn features may be i ncorporated to meet thi s si tua-
ti on. The antenna may be so shaped (Sec. 13.4) that the upper por -
ti ons of the r efl ector contri bute to the steep-angl e pattern and onl y the
l ower porti on of the r efl ector protrudes from the fusel age. The wel l
i nto whi ch the antenna i s r ecessed may be made l arge so that metal
edges are further r emoved from the antenna and are mor e compl etel y
cl eared by the sl i ghtl y depressed beam. However , we sti l l have a si tua-
ti on i n whi ch an antenna that i s requi red to pr oduce ver y accuratel y a
prescri bed pattern i s cl osel y surrounded by a metal surface i nto whi ch i t
i s parti al l y recessed. Furthermore the beam i s requi red to pass through
a radome w-al l at near-grazi ng i nci dence. Thi s combi nati on of condi ti ons
makes these antennas parti cul arl y subject to the performance defects
menti oned i n the previ ous secti on. Exper i ence wi th scanni ng antennas
wi l l serve ther efor e to i l l ustrate some of the major defects encounter ed
i n ai rborne mi crowave radar performance due to faul ty desi gn or si ti ng
of the antenna-radome component.
Performance defects from the oper ator s vi ewpoi nt are best i l l ustrated
by actual photographs of the cathode-ray tube that suppl i es hi m wi th
vi sual i nformati on. A PPI photograph substanti al l y fr ee of defects i s
fi rst presented for the sake of compari son. PPI stands for pl an-posi ti on-
i ndi cator i n whi ch sl ant range i s di spl ayed radi al l y and azi muth angl e i s
r epr esented by pol ar angl e. Fi gure 14.1 i s a PPI photograph of fai rl y
fl at wooded terrai n taken wi th 3.2-cm radi ati on. The antenna empl oyed
a 29-i n. parabol oi d r efl ector wi th a barrel -shaped i nsert i n the upper hal f
to obtai n a shaped beam. The uni form i l l umi nati on of the ground and
especi al l y the absence of l obes i n the el evati on pattern al l ow such detai l s
as the smal l l akes and the r i ver wi th i ts i sl ands and bri dges to be cl earl y
recogni zed. The bl ack di sk i n the center i s a measure of the di stance
of the ai rcraft above the ground; the bri ght ci rcl e surroundi ng the di sk
i s caused by perpendi cul ar refl ecti on from the earth and i s cal l ed the
al ti tude ci rcl e. Thi s photograph i s to be compared wi th some l ess sati s-
factory ones whi ch fol l ow.
Ther e are certai n defects i n performance that can be traced to the
pr esence of conducti ng edges or surfaces near the antenna and can be
i nterpreted i n terms of such physi cal phenomena as refl ecti on, refracti on,
and i nterference. Mi crowave radi ati on shows a suffi ci entl y opti cal type
of behavi or that antenna si tes whi ch woul d i nvol ve total obstructi on
SEC. 14.4] SC A.VNI .YG .4.J TEN,VAS O.V AI RCRAFT .515
of the beam by porti ons of the ai rcraft uni mportant di recti ons arc r ecog-
ni zed and general l y avoi ded. Two exampl es of excusabl e obstructi on
are shown, however , toi l l ustrate the effect. Fi gure 14.2i s aPPI photo-
graph taken wi th 1.25-cm radi ati on i n a shaped beam pr oduced by a
42-i n. shaped cyl i ndri cal r efl ector . I n addi ti on to hi l l s, a ri ver, and thr ee
.PPI photogr aph of wooded terrai n, Thi s photogr aph i s essenti al l y fr ee of FI G. 14.1
defects due to antenna pattern.
ai rfi el d runways, the photograph shows two bl ack sectors extendi ng i n
to steep angl es and caused by the l ower ed l andi ng wheel s. I n thi s
PPI the al ti tude ci rcl e had been subtracted out. I n Fi g. 14.3 the
shaped beam of 3.2-cm radi ati on from a 30-i n. parabol oi dal r efl ector
wi th a barrel i nsert has been obstructed by a second ai rcraft bel ow the
antenna. The effect of thi s obstructi on i s to bl ock off a porti on of the
radi ati on and to cr eate a radar i shado\v agai nst the i l l umi nated
background.
Thet~vo el evati on patterns sho\~ni nl i g. 144i l l ustratea neffectt hat
can resul t from mounti ng the antenna ,,n an ai rcraft. Thi s antenna,
516 A.VTENii-A I ,YSTALI .A TI OiV PI iO13LE.lfA [SEC, 144
desi gned to gi ve a, shaped beam of 3.2-cm radi ati on, empl oys a pi l l box
l i ne-source feed and a W-i n. shaped cyl i ndri cal r efl ector . The r effector
i s 12-i n. hi gh but extends onl y 4 i n, bel ow the center l i ne of the fusel age
forthepattern shown i n Fi g. 1+.4a. The beti m i s di r ected forward al ong
the l i ne of fl i ght \vi th the peak ti l ted dovm 6 bel ow hori zontal ; as the
ti l t angl e i s decreased from 6, the pattern becomes rapi dl y ~vorse. The
i ntcr ter ence effect whi ch i s evi dent i n thi s pattern resul ts from a combi na-
ti on of the di rect radi ati on from the antenna ~vi th a smal l amount of
radi ati on scattered by the strai ght ri m of the rectangul ar hol e i nto whi ch
FI G. 142,-PPI photograph showi ng bl ank sectors pr oduced by l andi ng wheel s.
the antenna i s recessed, Thi s scattm-cd radi ati on i s spread broadl y i n
el evati on but i s essenti al l y confi ned i n azi muth to the sector of the
ori gi nal beam \vhen the antenna i s poi nted for\vard, Refl ecti on from
the undersi de of the fusel age can bc shov n by geometri cal arguments not
to be a contri buti ng factor. Fi gure 14.5 sho~vs the appearance of thi s
i nter fer ence effect i n the centrul porti on of a PPI photograph. Thi s
photograph \vast akm from an al ti tude of 25,700 f t over Lake Okecchobee,
Fl ori da, wi th a 50-mi l e maxi mum range setti ng.
Whereas fl at surface refl ecti ons di d not contri bute to the effects
descri bed abovr, ther e wer ~ a number of cases obser~-ed i n whi ch i nter-
fer ence effects \\-cr ed~l e to refl ecti ons from. the undersurfaces of fusel age
sm. 14.4]
,YCA .V.YI .VG A STl l )V.h-A,S O,Y .1 lRCRAFT 517
or wi ngs. Some PPI photographs sho~v smal l regi ons of i nter fer ence
fri nges at ri ght angl es to the di recti on of fl i ght. These fri nges occur wi th
ver y cl ose spaci ng i n angl e and can be shown to resul t from i nter fer ence
bet\rcen the di rect beam and radi ati on r efl ected from the undersurfaces
of the \ri ngs. The fri nge pattern observabl e i n Fi g. 14.6, on the other
hand, i s qui te extensi ve for e and aft wi th a ~vi dcr angul ar spaci ng between
fri nges whi ch al so vari es wi th ozi muth angl e. Cal cul ati ons confi rm the
assumpti on that thi s i nter fer ence pattern i s due to refl ecti ons fr om the
cl l r ved under sur face of the ftl scl agc.
i1(,. 14.3-PPI photograph showing l>lank area duc to obstructi on by motker ai rrr:, ft
~l ]t,rc :~re 01her d(fects i n the pcrformanm of a radar set \vhi ch can
I N, traced tc) el crt ri cal effcrts ul xm the beam cal l sed by the di el ect ri e
Jval l s of the rad(ml e hml sl ng the antcuna. These defects may be l i st d
m c(ml pl ete bl anki ng out of al l si gn:l i s i n certai n azi muth sectors, reti ur-
ti on i n ran~c, obscuri ng of the srrren, fal se si gnal s, and di spl acement of
tl l r tarxet. Sr yer e bl :ul l i i n~ i n cer t ti i n srctors, as shown i n Fi g. 117, is
(Ilie t [) rc(lcctions at the radome Jvall. These r efl ect i ons di rect radi ai i (~n
back do~~n the r-f l i ne to the transmi tter whi ch i s thereby pul l e(l i n
fre(l uency off the pass band of the r ecei ver . A smal l er reducti on i n range
whi ch i s at the same ti me mor e uni form i n azi muth resul ts from excmsi ~.c
absorpti on of r:di ati (m i n thr w:i l l of tl l c radome.
!
,\
,
E@ 55:
20
/ 1
-.. )
=. ,< . .,,
. ../ . .. . .
[+
=.
:,+
=.!
=..
, -.,
-+,
50 60 70
5,4,37
90 100
0
,
. 1
. %b
g.
..
-y:
30...- L . , \ -43 ..L
Uk 1 Ll _- f_ I / \ / 1
,.
93 em m,
6Y 55, 50~ 45Q 40~ 35.
(b) 30
25.
20~ lW
I :l G. 14.4. El ev:,ti on pattern. obtal ,,cd ,,-i t!, z sl,:,ped.l,ea,,l X,,tcn,,a: (a) ,noullte~ on the
undersi de of a fusel age; (h) !I ,ounted i n fr ee spare.
FI G. 14,5.PPI photogr aph showi ng i nterference fri nge due to edge refl ecti on.
SEC,14.4
IhG. 14.6.PPI photograph showi ng i nterference due to refl ecti ons fr om fusel age surface.
l l ti . 14.7,PPI l jhotograph showi ng sector bl anki ng cl ue to radome wal l refl ecti ons.
520
.hVTE.V.V.AI .VS!I ALLATI O,V 1I WBI ]EMS [SEC. 144
Other effects than transmi tter pul l i ng can resul t from radome wal l
refl ecti ons. Fi gure 14.8 presents four photographs of a B-scope (range
vs. azi muth angl e) taken wi th 10-cm radi ati on and a 29-i n. parabol oi d
antenna l ocated i n the streaml i ned di el ectri c nose of a two-engi ne ai r-
ground whi ch then r etur ned a si gnal by the same path. Two methods
of reduci ng thi s ground si gnal wer e proposed: the use of verti cal pol ari za-
SKC. 14,5]
I I E.I C().V A.VTI {.Y.V.I ,Y ().V A I RCR.APT 521
ti on and the use of a radome I vi th a thi nner wal l . Fi gure 14.8a shows
the parti al obscurati on of the tar~et si gnal by the al ti tude si gnal even
v:i th opti mum gai n setti ng, when the thi ck radome and hori zontal pol ari -
zati on arc used. The reducti on i n al ti tude si gnal accompl i shed by
changi ng to verti cal pol ari zati on i s shol rn i n Fi g. 14.8b. The i mprove-
ment resul ti ng from the use of a r-dome wi th the wal l thi ckness r educed
by one-thi rd i s shown i n Fi g, 1-18c. The i mprovement real i zed when
both verti cal pol ari zati on and the thi n radome arc empl oyed i s evi dent
i n Fi g. l -1.8d, si nce i t has been possi bl e to bri ng the target si gnal out
qui te strongl y ~vi thout bri ngi ng out the al ti tude si gnal .
Effects of the
radome on system performance wi l l be di scussed mor e ful l y l ater i n the
chapter.
14.5. Beacon Antennas on Ai rcraft.The majori ty of l ong-wa~e
antennas on ai rcraft are requi red to have omni di recti onal patterns.
Because of the strong and unavoi dabl e i nfl uence of the ai rcraft on the
antenna pattern at these wavel engths, the omni di recti onal requi rement
i s usual l y not N-c1lsati sfi ed. I n the case of mi crowave beacon antennas,
~vhi ch are al so requi red to have omni di recti onal patterns, the i nffucncc
of the ai rcraft on the pattern i s sti l l strong but i s mor e predi ctabl e and
al so mor e nearl y a~wi dabl e. Ther e are a l i mi ted number of si tes on an
ai rcraft sui tabl e for a mi cro~va~~ebeacon antenna; the top of the verti cal
stabi l i zer, the hi ghest poi nt on the upper si de of the fusel age, and the
l owest poi nt on the undersi de of the fusel age are thr ee favored l ocati ons.
I n sel ecti ng such a si te the i nfl uence of the supporti ng structure on the
pattern must be consi dered, not onl y ~vi th the ai rcraft i n l evel fl i ght but
al so under condi ti ons of rol l and pi tch. The i deal el evati on pattern
woul d have uni form i ntensi ty for 10 about the hori zontal pl ane to al l ow
for rol l and pi tch of the ai rcraft and ~voul d have an approxi matel y
cosecant-sqrrared dccrcase i n i ntensi ty on the l ower si de of the beam to
provi de uni form i l l umi nati on of the ground i n to steep angl es. The
l m\-est poi nt on the undersi de of the fusel age i s the onl y l ocati on from
\vhi ch an unobstructed vi e~\-of the ground at steep angl es can be obtai ned.
Even ~vi th thi s l ocati on the vi c~v i n near-hori zontal di recti ons may be
obstructed by rol l of the ai rcraft i f the bottom of the fusel age i s fl at.
Let us consi der the el e~ati on patterns that are obtai ned ~vi th a beacon
antenna mounted on the undersi de of a fusel age. The vari ous factors
that must be consi dered are the pol ari zati on of the radi ati on, the verti cal
di rccti vi ty of the antenna, the di stance between the radi ati ng el ements
and the fusel age, and the extent and curvature of the fusel age. .4 radi -
ati ng el ement l ocated bel ow the fusel age wi ]l send some radi ati on di rectl y
to~vard the ground and some i ndi rectl y to~~ard the ground by refl ecti on
i n the fusel age. Tbc over-al l effect can be si mpl y descri bed by postul at-
i ng an i mage of the radi ati ng el cmrnt i n the f~wel age. JI rcausc of the
natl l re of the reflection process, t,f)ei rnagc of :Lvrrti cal l .v pol ari ze{] el ement,
522 ANTENNA INSTALLATION PROBLEMS [SEC. 14.5
wi l l be i n phase, whi l e the i mage of a hori zontal l y pol a?i zed el ement wi l l
be 180 out of phase wi th the radi ati ng el ement. I f for the moment
we consi der the undersi de of the fusel age to be an i nfi ni te hori zontal
pl ane, i t i s evi dent that the over-al l el evati on pattern from a radi ati ng
el ement and i ts i mage wi l l have a maxi mum i n the hori zontal pl ane i n the
case of verti cal pol ari zati on and a mi ni mum i n the hori zontal pl ane i n
the case of hori zontal pol ari zati on.
Let us now assume a requi rement of conti nuous el evati on cover age f o r
an angul ar range from 2 to 30 bel ow hori zontal . For verti cal pol ari za-
ti on the cover age requi rement i n the hori zontal pl ane i s automati cal l y
met except for the effects of rol l and pi tch. The steep-angl e requi rement
can be met by l i mi ti ng the combi ned l ength of the array and i ts i mage
i n accordance wi th the rel ati on d = X/si n o wher e 0 i s chosen somewhat
gr eater than 30. For hori zontal pol ari zati on i t i s mor e di ffi cul t to
obtai n cover age i n di recti ons near the hori zontal . Under the assumpti on
of an i nfi ni te pl ane fusel age i t woul d be necessary to make the l i near
array l ong and to accept an i nter fer ence pattern i n the regi on to be
cover ed. Si nce the fusel age i s actual l y cur ved and of l i mi ted extent, i t
i s possi bl e to obtai n the requi red cover age by the use of a rel ati vel y
di recti ve array ei ther l ocated near the fusel age or set off at some di s-
tance from i t, dependi ng upon the shape of the fusel age. I t i s evi dent
that thi s amounts to sol vi ng the el ectri cal probl em by creati ng an aer o-
dynami c probl em.
Mi crowave beacon antennas have regul arl y been encl osed i n radomes.
Many of the smal l er arrays ori gi nal l y wer e provi ded wi th cyl i ndri cal
radomes, but l ater i t was r ecogni zed that no antenna protrusi on i s smal l
enough to justi fy the omi ssi on of streaml i ni ng. I n the case of verti cal
pol ari zati on the streaml i ned radome can have seri ous effects on the azi -
muth pattern. Thi s si tuati on favors l arge refl ecti ons, si nce i t i nvol ves
wi de angl es of i nci dence for radi ati on pol ari zed perpendi cul ar to the pl ane
of i nci dence. A sol i d radome of l ow-densi ty materi al affects the azi muth
pattern al so because of the focusi ng effect due to path-l ength vari ati on
i n the materi al wi th azi muth di recti on. Verti cal wi res pr oper l y spaced
i n the di el ectri c offer a possi bl e means to mai ntai n uni ty di el ectri c
constant.
RADOME DESI GN PROBLEMS AND PROCEDURES
The rel ati on of the di el ectri c housi ng, or radome, to the general
i nstal l ati on probl em has been consi dered i n the previ ous secti ons.
The
pri nci pal purpose of thi s part of the chapter i s to anal yze the probl ems
and to descri be the pr ocedur es associ ated wi th radome desi gn. 1,2 I t
1Thk subject has been tr eatedmor e ful l y i n Radar Scanners and Radornes, Vol . 26,
Radi ati on Laboratory Seri es.
2Thk materi al i s a sever e condensati on of the subject matter i n a seri es of RL
wi l l be necessary to consi der several ~val l desi gns and t~vogeneral radome
types i n terms of the mechani cal and aerodynami c, as wel l as the r-f
requi rements that are i nvol ved. These consi derati ons wi l l be assi sted
by a prel i mi nary exami nati on of the nature and magni tude of the effects
that radomes can have on system performanm, An appreci ati on of these
effects establ i shes the need for further i nvesti gati on and i ndi cates the
di ffi cul ti es that must be avoi ded i n or der to achi e~e good radome desi gn.
14.6. Rel ati on of the Radome to System Performance.-I n Sec. 14.4
radar system performance defects caused by faul ty radome desi gn wer e
presented from the oper ator s vi c\vpoi nt. I n the present secti on vari ous
reacti ons of the radume on the radar system wi l l be presented from the
radome desi gners vi e\rptji nt.
reports on rmdonl c s(l hjc,(,ts. r h(%c report. ar c l i sted here to avoi d repeated mul ti pl e
references:
Y. Dowker, l )i el ct,tri c f70r,st;mt a,,d 1,0ss ~:mgcnt ~ompl l tati on,) No. 483-1!},
Aug. 7, 1!)45.
, Trans,t,i ssi on of I ,OSSJ-S:l t,,l }!-i c}l cs, Xo. 483-22, ,Jcn. 23, 1{)46.
El i zabeth Jl vcrh:~rt, I tcccnt I )i cl cctr i c ( onstant and Loss Ymgcnt I l l easuremcnts.
NO. 483-5, ,J\dy 14, l !)M.
, Sand\vi ch l ~al l s at V:l ri :l hl r .-i n~l cs nf I nci r Jcncc, h-o. 483-8, Dec. 19, 1944.
Radome W-al l I tefl ccti ons at Yarm}]l c Angl es of I nci dence,f h-o. 483-20,
Jan. 4. 1946.
i l l . Hegarty, 1. l )owker, 1{. 31. l {cdhcffcr , 1;. D. I l i nkl cr, (urrtnt I r ogr css on I L-f
Research, X-o. 483-17, I [:l y 10, 1!)4,5.
E. B. l l cl I i l hm, Outl l nc of l {ado]!l c Dcvcl opn]cnt Prohl cms, N-o. 483-1, Der. 2,
1943.
H. A. Perry, I l c(tri cal ~rst 31et hods for I {c(l nmcs, A-o. 483-26, ,Jan, 11, 1946.
R. M. Redhcffci -, .l n Wtl i nc of the l l cctri cal Properti es of ]{adomcs, No. 483-2,
Dec. 20, 1!)43.
, Transmi ssi on and Refl ecti on of Si ngl e Pktnc Sbccts, X-o. 483-4, ,Jul y 12,
1944.
, Radomcs ~]l d Svstcm Pc,rformancr, ] No. 483-6, Xov. 17, 1944.
, Tral l sl ]l i s.+i on al ]d l {ci i e(,ti o]l of I %ral l cl l l a]]c Sheets, A-o. 4S3-12, ,Jan. 2(;,
1945.
, I l cctri c~l Properti es of Dol l bl c l ~al l and Sandwi ch Radomcs, ] No. 483-11,
Feb. 1, 1!)4,5.
, I -;l l i pti r;l l l ol :l ri z:l ti on I rodl l t,r(l by Strc:~l l l l i ncd Radomes, No. 483-13,
Feb. 12, 1945.
and 1;. D. l f-i nkl rr, fl c 31eastl rc)ncnt of Di el ectri c (70nstwrts i n the Onw
centi meter R:u)d, So. 483-15, l bi y 11, 1945.
, 1The I ntcr:~cti on of l Ji cro\v:i ve .$ntcnnt~s \vi tl l Di el ectri c Sheets, A-o.
483-18, 31:i r. 1, 1946.
E. R. Steel e, So,T]r I .;l mtri ral .fspects of ]fi crowavc %rdwi ch Radome Desi gn,
NO. 483-16, l I fl y 9, 1!)45.
T. J. SI I rn, I ,l i z:i hctl ~ I ;vcri l :l rtj Di cl crtri c ( onst:mts nl l d Loss Tangents of Radome
I I atcri ak, X(). 483-2.5, Jan, 11, 1!M6.
J. S. l Vhi tc, I CC F(,r,l u(ti orl t,), Sl ,i phor,,r l {:,[I (,I TI M, Xo. 48;3-3, Fch. 15, 1944.
524
ANTENNA I NSTALLATI ON PROBLEMS [SEC. 14.6
Range.A radome does not transmi t al l the r-f ener gy i nci dent upon
i t but refl ects and absorbs certai n fracti ons of that ener gy. I f suffi ci ent
r efl ected r-f ener gy fi nds i ts way back down the feed l i ne to the trans-
mi tter, frequency pul l i ng of the transmi tter can resul t i n total bl anki ng
of the r ecei ver or i n the ver y sever e range reducti on i l l ustrated i n Fi g.
14.7. I ndependent of thi s effect, an appreci abl e reducti on i n range can
resul t from attenuati on of the transmi tted si gnal , especi al l y si nce attenua-
ti on i n the outgoi ng si gnal i s r epeated on the return si gnal . Radar range
i s proporti onal to the fourth r oot of the transmi tter power [cf. Eq. (1.17)],
so that range reducti on i s rel ated to radome transmi ssi on by Eq. (1):
Range reducti on ( Yo) =
one_,ya.y transmi ssi on 10sS ( 70).
2
(1)
To pi ck l arge but not unusual val ues, i f one-way attenuati on due to
raci ome wal l refl ecti on i s 12 per cent and due to absorpti on i s 8 per cent,
then the range wi l l be r educed by 10 per cent.
Pattern. Refl ecti on and absorpti on at the radome wal l can r educe
the absol ute val ue of the radi ati on pattern by the processes descri bed
above. Due to a vari ati on i n effecti veness of these processes wi th dh-ec-
ti on and to rel ated mechani sms, the shape of the pattern as wel l as i ts
magni tude can be al tered. Several mechani sms that have been gui l ty
of pattern di storti on wi l l be descri bed because of the seri ousness of thi s
effect i n certai n cases. Pattern di storti on i s especi al l y objecti onabl e i n
the case of a penci l beam that i s bei ng used i n a coni cal scan for preci si on
di recti on fi ndi ng and i n the case of a shaped beam that i s bei ng used for
uni form i l l umi nati on of the ground.
Pattern di storti ons have been traced to a vari ety of causes. I n some
cases the effects wer e barel y appreci abl e, but i n most cases they wer e
seri ous enough to requi re study and el i mi nati on. Some of the causati ve
mechani sms are l i sted bel ow wi th bri ef descri pti ons.
1.
2.
I n a streaml i ned radome the reducti on i n transmi ssi on due to
absorpti on and refl ecti on vari es consi derabl y wi th azi muth angl e
and can ther efor e pr oduce a mi nor change i n the shape of the
mai n l obe.
An antenna transmi tti ng through a spheri cal porti on of a radome
can exper i ence troubl e owi ng to focusi ng of refl ecti ons from the
radome wal l . The focal poi nt of these refl ecti ons may l i e near
the focal poi nt of the antenna r efl ector and act as a secondary
source. The beam pr oduced by the focused rays from thi s
secondary sour ce can combi ne i n vari ous ways wi th the ori gi nal
beam to pr oduce di storted patterns. Thi s process i s i l l ustrated
i n Fi g. 14.9a.
SEC. 14.6] RELATI ON OF THE RADOME TO SYSTEM PERFORMANCE 525
/
--
Center of spherical
surface
Antenna
Oirection of lobe
i\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
from secondary source
(a)
/
Streamlined nose radome
3:
--
--
~ ~ Original beam
Antenna
\
\
\
L
Reflection lobe
(b)
Center line of fuselage
r
~
Antenna
-..
-.
%tlon of flight
Twice reflected
Streamlmed radome
lobe
Original beam
(c)
FI G, 14.9. Yfechani ams by whi ch radome wal l refl ecti ons can di stort patterns: (a)
secondary sour ce pr oduced by focused refl ecti ons; (b) wi de-angl e l obe pr oduced by r efl ec-
ti on fr om the upper port,on of a radome; (c) wi de-angl e l obe pr oduced by a doubl e refl ec.
ti on i nvol vi ng the undersurface of the fusel age.
526
.4.VTEAN.4 fNSTALLA7lUN PROBLEMS [SEC. 146
3. Wi th the geometr y i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 14.9b, excessi ve refl ecti ons
from the upper porti on of the radome can pr oduce a broad down-
ward l obe at a wi de angl e from the ori gi nal beam.
Thi s l obe can
pr oduce a strong ground return capabl e of obscuri ng ai rcraft
targets at the same range, as i l l ustratedi n Fi g. 148. I n case the
antenna beam i s shaped for surface search, a spuri ous cl o\\-nward
l obe \vi l l pr oduce a ver y objecti onabl e i nter fer ence ri ppl e i n the
el evati on pattern \rhen combi ned \vi th the ori gi nal beam.
Streamlined radome
7
Phase front reside radome
l:IG, 14.10 .Di stort1or1 of the pl ~ase fro]l t of tl m rad~ati on fm, ~, an antenna by v;ui al ~l c
phase del ~~-s i n sharpl y r ur ved p<)rti ons of the rwi onl c.
4. .-l streaml i ned r adome mounted on the under sur face of an ai rcraft
can pr oduce a dowm]var d l obe by the process i l l ustrated i n Fi g.
14.9c. l hi s l obe ~vi l l have the objecti onabl e features descri bed
i n the pr ecedi ng para~raph.
5, l >hasedel ays i nthetransmi ttr( i radi ati [jn ca~l sccl bythedi el et,tri c (Jf
the r adomc I van var y appreci abl y over sharpl y cur vccf porti ons
of the wal l . Jvhen the antenna apertl l rc spans such a por ti on
of the r adome, the constant phase fronts i n the near zone of the
antenna arc di storted upon transmi ssi on thr ough the ~val l . The
resul t upon the pattrrn i s a di storti on of the mai n l obe. Thi s
process i s i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 14.10.
.4pparent Pattern .The di scussi on of the previ ous paragraphs r efer r ed
to the radi ati on pattern \vhi ch can be defi ned os the vari ati on of radi ati on
i ntensi ty or reeei \-i ng sensi ti vi ty ~t-i tb angl e for a fi xed posi ti on of the
antenna. I n di sti ncti on to the radi ati on pattern, the appm-ent pattern
from the radar obscr~rers vi el vpoi nt (an I )e dcti ned i n terms of the ret(l rn
si gnal from an cffccti vr poi nt -sol l rcc tar~rt as prrwni ed on hi s ra(i ar
s(,ope Jf-hi l t the ant rnna i s sranni ng. I n parti c~l l ar, the apparent pattern
can be defi ned as the extent al ong an angul ar coordi nate i n the rzdar
scope of the return from a poi nt target. I l ecause of thel i mi ted range i n
spot i ntensi ty on the scope, the descri pti on of an apparent pattern con-
si sts si mpl y of a statement of the angul ar regi on on the scope coordi nate
that i s occupi ed by the target si gnal .
The apparent pattern depends upon the beamwi dth of the radi ati on
pattern, but i t depends on other factors as wel l . An i mportant modi fi ca-
ti on of apparent pattern i s i ntroduced by a transmi tter frequency pul l i ng
whi ch vari es ~vi th the scan angl e of the antenna. Thi s vari ati on i n
pul l i ng ari ses from a vari ati on i n the phase or magni tude of the refl ecti on
back i n the r-f l i ne toward the transmi tter.
The modi fi cati on i n apparent pattern most perti nent to the subject
matter of thi s secti on i s that \vhi ch ari ses as the resul t of an angul ar
vari ati on i n the refl ecti on from the radome wal l . Thi s pul l i ng effect can
be seri ous even i n the case of a radome that has not appreci abl y attenu-
ated or di storted the transmi tted beam. An antenna mounted sl i ghtl y
off axi s i n a cyl i ndri cal radome and scanni ng i n azi muth wi l l be subject
to a refl ecti on of constant magni tude but sl owl y changi ng phase. A
streaml i ned radome can i ntroduce l arge vari ati ons of magni tude as ~vel l
as mor e abrupt changes i n phase of the r efl ected \vave. The most
abrupt changes i n both magni tude and phase are encounter ed i n the
case of a rel ati vel y thi n wal l ed radome wi th i nternal rei nforci ng ri bs.
Seri ous operati onal effects can be traced to a vari abl e frequency pul l i ng
by radome refl ecti ons. The resul ti ng change i n the apparent pattern,
even though not accompani ed by a noti ceabl e reducti on i n range, can
affect the apparent di recti on of the target i n suffi ci ent amount to rui n
the performance of a radar empl oyed i n preci si on di recti on fi ndi ng. Thi s
effect i s especi al l y seri ous, si nce i t i s not reveal ed by careful measurements
of the radi ati on pattern.
Automatic Frequency Control.No di scussi on of radomes and system
performance i s compl ete wi thout menti on of automati c frequency con-
trol (AFC), si nce i ts use profoundl y modi fi es radome desi gn requi rements.
AFC causes the l ocal osci l l ator frequency to fol l ow the transmi tter fr e-
quency i n such a \\-ayas to mai ntai n bet\veen them a constant di fference,
the i -f frequency. AFC i s strong enough i n the case of a rel ati vel y
stabl e magnetron to fol l ow l arger frequency changes than those ordi nari l y
pr oduced by radomes. Ho~vever , the AFC ci rcui t i nvol ves a ti me con-
stant that may be consi derabl y l onger thfi n the i nterval requi red for
the change i n the radome refl ecti on. .%n extr eme exampl e of a rapi d
change i n radome refl ecti on i s that ~~hi ch occurs as the antenna s~veeps
by an i nternal supporti ng ri b i n the radornc wal l . The AFC \vi l l not,
fol l o\v ra;)i dl y enough to cor r ect for the c}l angi ng refl ecti on and, i n addi -
ti on, \vi l l not return to the ori gi nal fre(l l l rncy setti ng unti l l ong after
tI )e radome ref!r(ti on l MS rrtl l rned to its ori~in:il vall]e. In this case
528 AiVTl?.VAA I NSTALLATI ON I 1{O13LI <I I {,Y
[SEC. 147
the frequency shi ft has been extended i n ti me rather than r educed by
AFC. Thi s i s not to be i nterpreted as an argument agai nst the use of
AFC but rather agai nst the use of l ocal i zed supporti ng ri bs i n radome
desi gn. I n general , AFC changes the radome desi gn probl em from one
of reduci ng refl ecti on to one of reduci ng rate of change of refl ecti on.
Cl aswji cati on oj Radomes.The system performance effects descri bed
i n thi s secti on are not al l present si mul taneousl y for a gi ven radome,
but some are emphasi zed and some mi ni mi zed accordi ng to the type of
radome consi dered. For thi s reason i t i s conveni ent to cl assi fy radomes
under several headi ngs and to fol l ow a di fferent desi gn pr ocedur e i n each
case. A natural cl assi fi cati on on the basi s of use provi des thr ee general
groups: pressuri zi ng seal s for antenna feeds, beacon housi ngs, and hous-
i ngsfor scanni ng antennas. The fi rst group, pressuri zi ng seal s, wi l l not
be di scussed her e. For the other two i t i s conveni ent to make a further
subdi vi si on i nto cyl i ndri cal radomes and streaml i ned radomes, a di s-
ti ncti on that i s of consi derabl e i mportance i n practi cal wor k. Not
onl y are the equati ons for radomc wal l desi gn di fferent i n the two
cases, but the underl yi ng objecti ves are al tered. The objecti ve i n the
case of cyl i ndri cal radomes (normal i nci dence) i s to r educe the refl ecti on,
but i n the case of streaml i ned radomes i t i s pri mari l y to i mprove trans-
mi ssi on. After presenti ng the quanti tati ve consi derati ons of the next
secti on, i t wi l l be possi bl e to state thi s di sti ncti on mor e preci sel y.
14.7. Radome Wal l Desi gn.An i deal racl ome \val l woul d compl etel y
transmi t an i nci dent el ectromagneti c wave \vi th nei ther refl ecti on nor
absorpti on, and for such a radome wal l the del eteri ous effects associ ated
~vi th one or the other of these causes woul d be el i mi nated. Al though thi s
i deal si tuati on cannot be attai ned i n practi ce, the transmi ssi on can be
maxi mi zed or the refl ecti on mi ni mi zed, dependi ng upon the type of
radome under consi derati on.
The cal cul ati on of transmi ssi on and refl ecti on by the radome wal l i s
most conveni entl y carri ed out i n terms of transmi ssi on and refl ecti on
coeffi ci ents. }Vhereas s(l c1l coeffi ci ents cannot be defi ned sui tabl y for a
cur ved surface, a cur ved surface can be repl aced by a pl ane sheet for
approxi mate anal ysi s i f the radi us of curvature i s I arKe. The compl ex
fi el d di stri buti on of the antenna that provi des the i nci dent wave i s al so
rcpl accd by a pl ane wave of uni form ampl i tude. The i nvesti gati on i s
thus based on the coeffi ci ents that exi st and are easi l y defi ned for the
si mpl er si tuati on of pl ane sheets and uni form pl ane \vaves.
Ph,yszca.l Pr-i nci pl cs.-Rcfl ect i on of an el ect romagncti c wa~e occl l rs
onl y at a di sconti n~l i ty, that i s, at the transi ti on fr om one mrdi l l m to
another. F:ver,v r adome l val l l \-i thol l t cxcrpti on may br r egar ded as L
set of pai rs of s(l ch di sco nti nl l i ti es. The over-al l refl ecti on ~vi l l resl l l t
from superposi ti on of the i n(l i vi (]{l al rcf~ccti ons; i ts nu~gni t(l (l r \\i l l be
dctrrmi l l e(l 1).y f hei r nl agt)l l I l (l w :Ln(l r(~l :l ti ~,(,])I I :LSPS. I {cfl ecti ,)ns c:m
SEC:. 147]
RA DOME WALL DhsI GN 529
be r educed or transmi ssi on i ncreased ei ther by reduci ng each of the
i ndi vi dual refl ecti ons or by adjusti ng the spaci ng between the di scon-
ti nui ti esto obtai n parti al or compl ete phase cancel l ati on.
I n Fi g. 14.11 a general i zed radome wal l i s r epr esented as a pai r of
di sconti nui ti es, or sheets. I ndi ~i dual transmi ssi on and refl ecti on coeffi -
ci ents for sheets 1 and 2 and over-al l transmi ssi on and refl ecti on coeffi -
ci ents for the wal l are defi ned i n the fi gure. I n terms of these coeffi ci ents,
the advantage to be gai ned from mi ni mi zi ng the i ndi vi dual refl ecti ons
and adjusti ng thei r phases for cancel l ati on can be expressed by the
rel ati ons
[Rim.. = 17-,1+ Ir,l, (2)
and
11?[,,.=
I rl I rzl ; (3)
these negl ect hi gher-order i nteracti on
terms and absorpti on.
A preci se phase cancel l ati on of the
component refl ecti ons requi res an ac-
curate spaci ng between thei r sources.
Si nce devi ati ons from thi s opti mum
spaci ng must be al l owed i n manu-
facture, the effect of such devi ati ons
on transmi ssi on and refl ecti on must
be i nvesti gated. The i nvesti gati on
can be carri ed out by di vi di ng the ~val l
confi gurati on i nto two groups and by
expressi ng the over-al l transmi ssi on
and refl ecti on i n terms of the i ndi -
vi dual transmi ssi on and refl ecti on co-
effi ci ents of the two groups. I n the
case of a si ngl e, uni form sheet, the t\vo
groups woul d be the two ai r-di el ectri c
Shaet 1 Sheet2
*+
1 1
rl
tl rz t2
s
Radome wall
l <I G. 1411.-General i zed ra do ,)) e
wal l showlllg chvisio!l into two groups or
sheet. whlrh are treated as separate
sources of reflection, The figure serves
to define symbols used in the text for
reflection and transmission coefficients.
i nterfaces of the sheet. I n the case of a doubl e-wal l confi gurati on each
gr oup woul d r epr esent the total effect of one of the ~val l s. The method
can be extended to mor e compl i cated confi gurati ons. I n any case the
nomencl ature of Fi g. 14.11 appl i es.
As the geometri cal spaci ng s betl veen the sheets of Fi g. 14.11 i s
~ari ed, the over-al l transmi ssi on coeffi ci ent T wi l l reach the maxi mum
,,ral ue
I Tl:.x =
ltd,~
(1 1,1?-21)2
for the opti mum spaci ng s, gi ven by
.s0=$:(41 +4?);
)/ = 0,1 ,2,..., (5)
!530
ANTENNA I NSTALLATI ON l l WBLEMLS [SEC.147
wher e x i s the wavel ength i n the regi on between the sheets and +] and
d, are the ~hases of r-, and r -j respecti vel y. I f 6 = sO s i s the devi ati on
from opti mum spaci ng, the ovei -al l transmi ssi on wi l l
~[, =
tl tzl z
1 21r,r21cm:: + \T1T212
The cm-respondi ng over-al l refl ecti on, for the case of
I T-I I 21r,r-,1cm ~b + ]r,l
be
(6)
zer o absorpti on, i s
I R12=
A
(7)
1 21r1rzl cos ~~ + lr,r2i2
From these equati ons nearl y al l the resul ts needed for radome wal l desi gn
may be obtai ned di rectl y.
1.0
9
8
7
6
5
34
0
3
2
0,01
0.(
0.9
:0.7
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.14 z
0,10 g
.-
0.07 ~
0.050 5
0,040x
0.030:
.
0,020:
&
0.014
0.010
Spaci ng er r or , wavelengths (a/h)
FI ~, 14.12.Over-a1l reflection roefirient (R) for a symmetrical roufiwlratinll Of zero
absorption plotted as a fu,lction of the err<)r irl s~>arill~(6) aIId the ,,lrl,~-iduxl reflert)on
coefficient (r).
The symmetri cal radosne \val l consi sti ng of i denti cal groul )s of approxi -
matel y zer o absorpti on spaced i n accordance \\-i t h E(I . (5) \vi l l bc mcol l n-
ter ed al most i nvari abl y i n practi ce. For thr symmetri cal confi g~l rati {l n,
t, = tz = t, rl = Tz = r, 4, = OZ= 1#1and Eqs. (4), (5), ((i ), and [7)
SE(,. 14.7] R.4 D(),lf E J I A 1,1. DE,71GN
53 I
assume si mpl i fi ed forms ~rhi ch wi l l not be r epeated her e. The expressi on
for the over-al l refl ecti on can be si mpl i fi ed fl l rther to
for smal l 6l k, or al ternati vel y to
(8)
(9)
when [rli s smal l enough to be negl ected. The exact val ue of I l i ?lfrom
Eq. (7) i s pl otted i n Fi g, ]4.12 for the symmetri cal confi gurati on.
Si ngl e Wal Z.-The si mpl est radome wal l desi gn i s a si ngl e, uni form
sheet of di el ectri c materi al . I n thi s case the two sources of refl ecti on
tr eated above and i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 14.11 are the two ai r-di el ectri c
i nterfaces. I f the speci fi c i nducti ve capaci ty k. of the materi al i s denoted
by p, the over-al l refl ecti on i s gi ven by Eq. (7) wi th
Equati on (10) i s pl otted i n Fi g. 1413. The opti mum spari ng i s
n~ 71A0
0=~=2vj
si nce 01 = f#J2= O; k. i s the fr ec-
space wavel ength.
The two desi gn pr ocedur es
menti oned abovereducti on of r
or adjustment of phasepermi t of
si mpl e i nterpretati on for si ngl e-
wal l ed radomes. The fi rst
method i ndi cates the use of a l o\r-
di el ectri c-constant materi al to r e-
duce r [Eq. (10)]. The second
method requi res the use of a thi n
sheet or i n general one that sati s-
fi es Eq. (11). I f a thi n sheet i s
used, the tol erance 8 i n the equa-
ti ons above stands for the thi ck-
ness i tsel f, The si ngl e-wal l con-
st ru c t i on becomes i ncreasi ngl y
(10)
n=o, 1,2, ..., (11)
Dl el ectrl cconstant(~)
FJG. 14 1:3,The reflection coefficient (r)
of an :ti r-d~el ectrl r illterf arc as a fllrlrtion ot
the spevIfi, i,,<]urt,ve capti.ity (~)
attracti ve at l onger wavel engths wher e a smal l ~al ue of 6~Acan be real i zed
vi th a wal l thi ckness suffi ci ent for mechani cal strength,
.532 A 7VTRI VNA I NSTA I ,J ,A TI ().V llTOBI ,l<:J f,S
[s,:(,. 147
The assumpti on of zer o absorpti on l oss, even i n the case of actual
radome materi al s, does not i nval i date the resul ts for refl ecti on and opti -
mum spaci ng, but the resul ts for transmi ssi on must be modi fi ed appro-
pri atel y. The general equati on for a si ngl e sheet i s qui te compl i cated
except when the thi ckness s~ti sfi es Eq. (11). For a hal f-\\-avel cmgth
thi ckness of rel ati vel y l o\v-l oss di el ectri c
T=] -xv%);
(12)
L i s the l oss tangent ~~ for the matcri :i l ~vhcr c c and e am the r ed
and i magi nary components of the compl ex di el ectri c constant (see ,Sec.
10
0.9
08
~-
~07
1>
:
0.0018
;06
0018
s
0036
:
:05
0072
:
%
o 0108
04
0,144
018
03
00 01 02 03 0.4 05 06 07
Thi ckness, wavel engths (d/h )
11(;.14.14. LVLI 1lM of 10ss
3.2). The rxact val ues of the pr over transmi ssi on 11] as a functi on of
thi ckness forl -ari ous val ues of L i s gi veni n Fi ~. 11.14 for the parti c~dar
speci fi c i ndl l cti ve capfi ei ty S = 4.
The si n~l (,-~t-al l desi gn i s usual l y not practi cabl e at mi crowave fr(~-
quenci es. l he hal f-l rav~l engt,h I I al l i s freql l entl y tool l c:~vyfc)rai rt){)rne
i nstal l ti ti ons, ~thercas the ]fal l thi n ~noug$ to have good el ectri cti l pr op-
erti es i s not sati sfactory mechani cal l y.
Sardwich Wdl.-.i major-i mprovement both mechani ral ]y and el ec-
tri cal l y i s real i zed by substi t~l ti n% s:i nd!t-i (11-tl ->i l l for si ngl e-l ~al l desi gn.
Thesandni ch-\val l dcsi gncf)mi stsof ashcct of l o\v-den.si ty cor e materi a]
fac~don bothsi dcswi ththi nj hi gh-densi ty ski ns.
f+l :l n(]l ~-i (,l l const,ru~t,i ~~n
has seen consi derabl e use i n purel y mechani cal i mtal l ati ons \r her c the
strengtl ~-to-~~ei ght rati o m[wt be hi xh. Fmrn the el ectri cal poi nt of
vi ew, the ski ns sho\r l o\\-refl ecti on beca~we they am thi n, :md the cor e,
bccausei t has a!oI \ di el ectri c constant..
l ~l l rtl l (,rmore the cor e provi des
a means of accuratel y hol di ng the ski n separati on to a val ue favorfi l )l e
formmrel i rrg refl ecti ons.
SW. 14.7]
RADOME WALL DESI GN 533
~
A doubl e-wal l constructi on whi ch i s obtai ned by omi tti ng the cor e
materi al from between the ski ns l oses most of the advantages of the
sandwi ch constructi on. I t has been used, however , si nce i t provi des
means for dei ci ng by ci rcul ati ng hot ai r between the ski ns of the radome
wal l . The opti mum spaci ng of the ski ns for reduci ng refl ecti on when
separated by ai r i s gi ven i n terms of thei r thi ckness d and speci fi c i nduc-
ti ~e capaci ty a by the approxi mate r e-
l ati on
s, g (Zn + 1) > d >/Q. (13)
The over-al l refl ecti on i s nearl y pr opor -
ti onal to the spaci ng er r or and to the
refl ecti on from a si ngl e sheet when these
are smal l and i s gi ven by Eqs. (7), (8),
and (9). The power transmi ssi on i s
gi ven by Eq. (6) i n the general case and
by 1 R2 when the l oss i s zer o.
The general sandwi ch wal l i s shown
i n Fi g. 14.15 whi ch serves to defi ne some
of the symbol s to be used i n the di scus-
si on. The el ectri cal thi cknesses are
D = d ~a/~OandS = s @/Ao. The
i ndi vi dual refl ecti on coeffi ci ent i s now
Skin Skin
Sandwich wall
-1
\ \ :<< \\j
\\p \\ \a
Dielectric
\\\ ,1 ,i,
constants
.\\ \\\
.\ \\\\\
Geometrical
<\s~~ \;, ~ dimen~ion~
---n-
\\\\ \\\;
*S D Electrical
\\\\ >\~/ dimensions
FI G, 14.15.Sandwich-wall design.
The figure serves to define s~mbols
used in the text,
that for the three-medi um transi ti on from the ai r through the ski n to the
cor e. I t i s gi ven by
]r]z =
A k ~j
A + 4a <P
(14)
wher e
A = (a+ f?)(a + 1) (d @)(a 1) COS(4mD). (14a)
The val ue of r obtai ned from Eq. (14) can be used i n Fi g. 14.12 together
wi th the appropri ate val ue of the spaci ng tol erance to determi ne the
over-al l refl ecti on coeffi ci ent. The opti mum el ectri cal spaci ng i s si mi l arl y
found to be
SO= ~ & tanl
2 =P (a 1) si n (~~D)
(6 ~)(~ + 1) + (a + P)(a 1) Cos (47rD) (15)
Under certai n condi ti ons thi s equati on can be approxi mated by
(16)
The range of val i di ty of Eq. (16) i s i ndi cated i n Fi g. 14.16 whi ch i s a
534 A.VTENFA I ~YSYALLA YI O,V PROBLEMS [SEC. 14.7
typi cal fami l y of curves cal cul ated from Eq, (15) for a fi xed val ue of a
and a range of val ues of D.
I n certai n methods of sandwi ch-wal l fabri cati on the ski ns are gl ued
rather than mol ded to the cor e. The l ayer of gl ue i ntroduced by thi s
process effecti vel y i ncreases the ski n thi ckness and i ntroduces appreci abl e
er r or i nto the cal cul ati ons. Thi s concept of an effecti ve skin thickness
whi ch i ncl udes the effect of the gl ue i s an approxi mati on that ceases to
be val i d when the angl e of i nci dence i s vari abl e or when both tol erance
FI G. 14.16.
0.50
-.
~
g
G0.40
g
$
3
%
E
%
g 0.30
g
o
0.20
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
Ski rI thickness, wavelengths (D)
-opti mum cor e thi ckness as a functi on of ski n thi ckness for
rangi ng fr om 1.0 to 2.0.
~=4andfj
and spaci ng are i nvol ved. I t has pr o~-ed ver y useful and i s enti rel y justi -
fi ed when one i s concer ned wi th opti mum spaci ng al one at a fi xed angl e
of i nci dence.
Arbitrary I nci dence.The resul ts deri ved hi therto appl y to normal
i nci dence onl y. They may be used for arbi trary i nci dence at ei ther
pol ari zati on, however , i f the quanti ti es D, S, l~o, a, and ,6 are repl aced
by appropri ate quanti ti es as gi ven i n Tabl e 14.1. Si mi l ar equi val ence
rel ati ons for arbi trary 10SSwi l l not be gi ven her e. Li mi ti ng val ues for
TABLE 141.-EQUIVALENCE R~LATIONS FOR CONVERTING FROM NORMAL TO ARBI -
TR.+RY INcIIIF:xc~ VALt-~S
P = si n%: Oo = angl e of i nci dence measared fr om normal
Normal i nci dence quanti ti es D s so a
B

Arbi trary i nci dence val aes,

op
perpendi cul ar pol ari zati on. :x/m_p ? >= y~/j_p <
;A l p
Arbi trary i nci dence YZI UCS,
I
paral l el pol ari zati on. ~~ ~/~~~ ~~ \ ~ N
-az(l p) (P(l p)
ix
V?-Pj~
I
PP
grazi ng. i nci dence, si mpl i fi ed forms at l l re~~sters angl e, and approxi mate
rel ati ons for thi n ski ns, though useful for computati on, i l l ustrate no new
pri nci pl es and wi l l not be i ncl uded i n the present di scussi on.
Consi derati ons up to thi s poi nt have been based upon the assumpti on
of a si ngl e angl e of i nci dence~rhethcr normal or otherwi se-and a si ngl e
pl ane of pol ari zati on for the i nci dent \vavc. I t \vi l l be shown i n Sec.
149 that a gi ven porti on of the wal l of a streaml i ned radome wi l l be
requi red to transmi t for a range of angl es of i nci dence and for a range of
pol ari zati ons. I f al l porti ons of the radome wal l are consi dered, the
ranges i nvol ved wi l l be correspondi ngl y i ncreased. I n the i nterest of
si mpl i ci ty i n fabri cati on i t i s ver y desi rabl e to usc the same \val l structure
throughout the radome. The rml dti ng probl em, ther efor e, i s to fi nd a
>val l desi gn that wi l l be sati sfactory for a ranqc of angl es of i nci dence and
for both pol ari zati ons,
To thi s end the equati ons for arbi trary i nci dence are pl otted as shown
i n Fi g, 14.17 \vher e contours of constant refl ecti on for a sandwi ch wal l
are presented as a functi on of cor e thi ckness and angl e of i nci dence.
Si mi l ar charts can be used for si ngl e-\val l constructi on. Wi th such
di agr~ms the opti mum thi ckness i s readi l y detcrrni ncd for a speci fi ed
range of 6and for a speci fi ed tol erancc i n thi ckness; the thi ckness r efer r ed
to her e i s the total \val l thi ckness of the si ngl e-wal l desi gn or the cor e
thi ckness of the sand\\-i chdesi gn,
The r epr esent ati on for the si ngl e wal l requi res onl y thr ee vari abl es;
the angl e of i nci dence, the di el ectri c constant, and the thi ckness i n ~vave-
l engths. A si ngl e seri es of chw-ts for vari ous di el ectri c constants ther e-
for e provi des compl ete i nformati on for si ngl e-i val l desi gn ~vor k. I n the
case of the sandtvi ch ~ral l , fi ve ~-ari ahl cs arc requi red: ski n di cl ect,ri c
constant and thi ckness i n wavel engths, cor e di el ectri c constant and
thi ckness i n ~vavel engths, and angl e of i nci dence, .1 ver y l arge number
of charts are requi red; i n practi ce per centage refl ecti on contours are
pl otted agai nst cor e thi ckness and angl e of i nci dence, each chart, bei ng
for speci fi c Tal ues of ski n thi ckness, ski n (, and cor e c.
J[echanical Reql{ircmr~lfs-l l csi drs sati sfyi ng the el ectri cal requi re-
ments t}l at form the mai n subject of the present chapter, a radome must
sati sfy certai n mechani cal rml ui rcrrmnts as \rel l . An ai rborne radome
must \ri thstand the di stri l )~l ted l oad prodl l ce(l by wi ndage; i t must not,
ddorrn }vhen a concentrated l oad i s appl i ed as i s necessary i n i nstal l ati on
procedures; and i t must often stand the i mpact of r ocks and water i n
l undi ngs. To these mechani cal rml ui rcmcnts must be added certai n
requi rements i n physi cal pr oper t i t, s; e.g., the radorne shoul d not be
sol ubl e i n ~asol i ne or i n any other sol vent l i kel y to he brought i n contact
\vi th i t; i t shoi l l d \\i thstan(l hi gh trmpcrat[l rcs ]t-i thout softeni ng, l o~y
temperat i l rvs \\l tho~l t becomi ng I )ri ttl e; i t must not absorb moi stl l re to
an,v appreci abl e extent ; and i n certai n (,ases i i m~l st be provi ded \\i th
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
.E 1.2
:
~ 1.0
5
2
g 0.6
0,6
0.4
0.2
0
00
15
300 450 600 750 900
Angl eof i nci dence
(a)
Fr<;. 14.17 .-Typi rd rh:wts showi ng contours of constant, refkti on as a i uncti o,, of row tI Li rknc.ssand anEI c of i nci det, <,efor the f<>l l o,vi r,gcon.
cl i t,on.: A,, = 3.2, n,; cur e //eO = 1.4; ski n e{/eu = 3,7; ski n t h,rk,,e~s = 0.050 i l l . (u) Fol mi z:,ti on perpendi cul ar to the pl m, e of i nci dence; (b)
paral l el wjl ari za~ i on.
Angle of incidence
(b)
SEC. 14.8] .VOILVAI, I .VCI DE.VCE RA IJOME.Y 537
means for removi ng i ce deposi ts as they are formed. Some of these
requi rements are cl earl y of the utmost i mport ante; part i ml l arl y i n ai r-
borne systems, fai l ure of the radome can have ver y seri ous c(msequences
and shoul d be avoi ded m-en at the expense of el ectri cal performance.
I t i s thi s si mul taneous pr esence of mechani cal and el ectri cal reql l i re-
ments, whi ch must, be sati sfi ed ~vi thout excmsi ~e compl i cati on i n
manufacture, that consti tutes the radome probl cm. These mechani cal
requi rements are met by m~thods standard i n the ai rcraft i ndustry; the
si gni fi cant change i ntroduced by el ectri cal requi rements i s the restri cti on
to sui tabl e materi al s and to sui tabl e rel ati ons, as determi ned above, for the
l i near di mensi ons, l Yi thout gi ~i ng a detai l ed di scussi on of fabri cati on
{Jr mechani cal desi gn techni ques, i t i s ther efor e suffi ci ent her e to obser ve
thei r grrat i mportance.
14.8. Normal I nci dence Radomes.There ha~e been earl i er al l usi ons
i n %cs. 14.4, 145, and 146 to the fact that the most seri ous probl em wi th
normal i nci dence (cyl i ndri cal ) radomes i s the resul ti ng i mpedance
mi smatch at the transmi tter, \vhi l e the most seri ous probl em wi th stream-
l i ned radomes i s the resul ti ng attenuati on and di storti on i n the trans-
mi tted pattern. These probl ems and pr ocedur es for sol vi ng them wi l l
be consi dered fur ther i n thi s and the fol l owi ng secti on. Fi rst consi dera-
ti on \vi l l be gi ven to the pattern and i mpedance effects encountered i n
nf)rnl al i nci dence radomm.
Pat/m-r~ ~~~~rc(s.-~hc effect of a cyl i ndri cal radome on antenna gai n
(an be mi ni mi zed i n a strai ~htforl vard manner by use of the normal
i nci dence rel ati ons of Sec. 14.7. I n case the radorne \val l i s uni form, thi s
prnce(l l l re al so mi ni mi zes the effect on pattern, si nce i t l eads to smal l
.,
refl ecti on as \vrl l as to l arge transmi ssi on. Ther e i s another sour ce for
pattern di storti on, honm-crj even i n a radonw havi ng compl rtc trans-
mi ssi on. .4 radorne \val l havi ng a structural ri b, overl ap, or but [strap
coul d he desi gned for compl ete transmi ssi on throl l ~h both the thi n part
and the thi ck part of the wal l . l l ~hercas thi s wol Ll d mai ntai n the ampl i -
tude of the transmi tted ~vave unchanged, i t \\-onl dnot compensate for
the change i n phasr. A doubl e thi ckness se(ti on of \val l ~~oul d i ntrod~l ce
t i ~i ce the phase del ay and so di stort the transmi tted phase front. Thi s
phasp di storti on can become so seri ous that the pr esence of a thi ck cl i el ec-
tri c ri b may be mor e harmful than a metal ri b of the same di mensi ons.
4 si mi l ar effect i ntroduced by sharpl y cl l r~-ed surfaces i s i l l ~l stratcd i n
Fi g. 14.10. Tf di sconti nl l i ti es are avoi ded and tbc refl ecti on i s mi ni mi ze(l ,
[hen a cyl i ndri cal radome wi l l not ha~-e an appreci abl e effect upon the
antenna pattern
I mpcdanrc E,~~mts-The probl em of antenna mi smatch and trans-
mi tter pul l i ng i s mi l ch mor e seri ol l s for normal i nci dence radomcs. For
quanti tati ve ronsi drrati on of the rase of a sl i ghtl y ti l ted antrnna i n a
cyl i ndri cal racl ome, the ampl i t~l cl e of thr refl ecti on back i nto thr l i ne may
538 A.VTE.VNA I ,VSTALLA TI O.V PRoBLEMS [SEC. 14.8
be wri tten
7R ~~P ~-(,I.,) (+/@),
pL =
19CL
(17)
wher e the symbol s have the fol l owi ng defi ni ti ons:
over-al l refl ecti on coeffi ci ent for the radome \val l fl attened i nto a
pl ane sheet
free-space ~vavel ength
radi us of the cyl i ndri cal rarfome
radi us of the antcnnti aperture
angl e between axi s of the penci l beam and a l i ne normal to the
gener ator of the cyl i nder
hal f-power wi dth of the antenna beam
12quati on (17) i s val i d onl y for smal l val ues of @j but thi s i s obvi ousl y
the condi ti on for maxi mum refl ect i on i nto the fi ne and ther efor e the
condi ti on of greatest i nterest.
I f the antenna has a sharp verti cal beam fi xed at zer o el evati on, p,,
can be greatl y r educed by the use of a truncated cone i nstead of a cyl i nder
for the r adome shape. I n gener al i t must be assumed that the sranni ng
r ange ~vi l l cause the maxi mum r efl ecti on to be attai ned; fur ther mor e i t
must be assumed that the phase of the r efl ecti on wi l l var y by at l east a
hal f wavel ength. Under these condi ti ons the fr equency pul l i ng of the
transmi tter wi l l be
Af = 5P~(P.j.),
(18)
~~her e the symbol s have the fol l owi ng defi ni ti ons:
A! = fr equency pul l i ng of the transmi tter i n megacycl es
P~ = val ue from Eq. (17) ~vi th the exponenti al factor set equal to uni ty
p.~. = the pul l i ng fi gure of the transmi tter.
A modi fi ed i n~-esti mati on i s requi red i f the radar system i s equi pped
\vi th .LFd. The probl em i s then to esti mate the rate of change of fr e-
quency due to transmi tter pu]]i ng. Thi s i nvol ves the use of the I l i cke
di agram for the transmi tter, resul ts from Eq. (17), si mi l ar resul ts for the
phase of the refl ecti on, and a ti me factor i ntroduced by the scan mt c. ~
These cal cul ati ons become i mportant i n esti mati ng the apparent shi ft i n
the di recti on of a penci l beam or i n the cr ossover poi nt of a l obe s\vi tchi ng
beam.
Design Consi derati ons.The consi derati ons beari ng on the desi gn of
c,vl i ndri cal radomes wi l l be summari zed i n several quasi -chronol ogi cal
steps. For thi s purpose i t i s assumed that the desi gner i s equi pped wi th
1l l h~pl l ]]i n~fi g,I rcof ,2 magnc?ron h;Ls hem defmcd as the! maxi mum fr eq[l cncy
1 fr om the i ni ti al fr : -l ucncj-, whi ch can l x, i nduccr l by % (T-SI VR) shi ft i n ]l l cg:l {,y{, (,s
1.5 of :i r},i tr:l ry PI I :I W.
z I {(ff{(rri$jj,!tf m k,rl fl i n<>e{i ng, Vol . 1, and l?adur ~ca?Lners and i i adomes, Vo]. 26,
I {adi ati on L:i boratory Seri es.
sEC. 14.8]
AORMA L I :VCI I )ENC17 I t. t I )(7:lf I t:,$ 539
consi derabl e i nformati on r egar di ng the di el ectri c constants and [0sS tan-
gents of materi al s known to be avai l abl e commerci al l y and to be sui tabl e
for fabri cati on purposes. I t i s assumed al so that he i s equi pped wi th
r adome wal l desi gn charts sho\vi ng the pr oper di mensi onal rel ati onshi l >s
for di fferent wal l desi gns, di el ectri c constants, l osses, and i nci dent angl es
and pol ari zati ons.
1. A background of perti nent i nformati on must be obtai ned from
several sources: tacti cal appl i cati on of the systcm; r-f requi rements
of the system i ncl udi ng al l owabl e maxi mum mi smatch and rate
of change of mi smatch; i nformati on regardi ng the antenna, such
as si ze, angl e and rate of scan, i mpedance match, far-fi el d pattern,
near-fi el d ray di agram; mechani cal requi rements of the actual
i nstal l ati on i ncl udi ng method of mounti ng, wi ndage] shock l oadi ng,
chemi cal exposure, \veather condi ti ons.
2. The most favorabl e wal l desi gn must be sel ected i n the I i ght of
avai l abl e materi al s and on the basi s of el ectri cal and mechani cal
requi rements from among the several possi bi l i ti es: thi n \val l of
arbi trary di el ectri c constant, l owdi el ectri (~-constzmt materi al (f
arbi trary thi ckness, hal f-i vave thi ck ]val l , doubl e v-al l , sandwi ch
constructi on.
3. The speci fi c materi al s to be used i n the sel cctcd wal l desi gn must
be determi ned. Thi s i nvol }-w usi ng the di el ectri c constants and
l oss tangents of the several al ternati ve matrri al s and the desi gn
charts for the radomc \val l to c~i cul atc thr transmi ssi on and refl ec-
ti on that woul d resul t from the rhoi ce of each materi al .~ com-
pari son can then be made bet\~een these r-f performance fi gures
and the r-f requi rements ancl betl veen si mi l ar mechani cal per -
formance fi gures and mechani cal requi rements to a,rri vc at, the
fi nal choi ce of materi al s.
4. A number of fl at panel s must be fabri cated usi ng the materi al s
and di mensi ons sel ected. These di mensi ons and the mrthod of
fabri cati on may be vari ed some\vhat to obtai n opti mum perform-
ance. The panel s are tested for al l properti es dmmcd rcl evaut
i n the radome under desi gn, e.g., structural strength, moi sture
absorpti on, temperature resi stance, transmi ssi on, and refl ecti on.
5. A compl ete radome must be fabri cated on the basi s of resul ts
obtai ned i n the panel tests. Fi nal tests are made of those char-
acteri sti cs requi ri ng the enti re radome, e.g., strai ns due to con-
ti nuous l oadi ng and effects on the antenna pattern.
I n the sequence of operati ons outl i ned abo~-c the l ess expensi ve and
ti me-consumi ng operati ons are rarri rd out fi rst, ~rhereas the major uncfer-
taki ng of bui l di ng the compl ete radome i s del ayed unti l al l prel i mi nary
probl ems have been resol ved.
540 A .VlE~VNA IA-STALLA IIO,V PROBLEMS
[SEC, 149
14.9. Streaml i ned Radomes.The cyl i ndri cal radomes di scussed i n
the previ ous secti on are sui tabl e for ground and shi p i nstal l ati ons and
have been used i n the past on sl ow ai rcraft. For modern ai rborne i nstal -
l ati ons, however , i t i s necessary for the radome to be sever el y streaml i ned,
preferabl y to the extent of bei ng compl etel y i ncorporated i nto the ori gi nal
ai rframe. These streaml i ned radomes present probl ems qui te di fferent
from those di scussed above; antenna gai n and pattern requi re detai l ed
i nvesti gati on, \vhereas the probl em of transmi tter pul l i ng assumes
secondary i mportance. Both favorabl e and unfavorabl e aspects stem
from the wi de angl es of i nci dence usual l y encountered. A nonscanni ng
antenna, such as a l i near-array beacon antenna, i s fr ee of transmi tter
pul l i ng because of the fi xed rel ati onshi p of antenna to radome.
Uniform wall,
Low-density filler ~ . Low-density filler
@&&ion,
High. density skins
x
(a) (b)
High.density skins>>
(c)
l I ti . 14.18. Beacon radon~e designs: (u) uuiform wall; (1,) solid wall; (c) perforated solid
culu,tructmt,.
Iattwn Efi ecfs.-The pattern effects caused by streaml i ned radomw
for beacon antennas can best be di scussed i n terms of the several beacon
radome desi gns i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 1418, I n transmi ssi on thr ough
sharpl y cur ved porti ons of the uni for m r adome ~val l shonm i n Fi g. 14.18a,
the cyl i ndri cal phase fr ont i s appreci abl y di storted by vari abl e phase
del ays. Thi s mechani sm i s si mi l ar to that i l l ustrated for a pl ane phase
fr ont i n Fi g. 14.10. The pattern i s fur ther di storted i n the case of verti cal
pol ari zati on by l arge refl ecti ons fr om the taper ed por ti on of the r adome
wal l . The use of hi gh-densi ty materi al i n the streaml i ned shape can
be confi ned to a si ngl e thi n ski n i f a l ow-densi ty fi l l er i s used. Thi s
desi gn (Fi g. 14.18b) r educes the refl ecti ons bel ow those resul ti ng fr om
the uni for m wal l but i ncreases the vari ati ons i n phase del ay. A system
of perforati ons (Fi g. 14. 18c) deter mi ned partl y by exper i ment r educes
these vari ati ons i n phase del ay to such a degr ee that the azi muth pattern
i s not seri ousl y affected by the r adome. Ampl i tude r educti on i n the
transmi tted wave i s present i n suffi ci ent amount to cause appreci abl e
SEC. 144)] STREA ML I ,VED RA1x2MES
541
di storti on i n the pattern but i s not nearl y so seri ous as the other effects
just di scussed.
The pattern effects to be expected from a pr oposed streaml i ned
radome desi gn for a scanni ng antenna can be predi cted qual i tati vel y by
drawi ng el evati on and pl an vi ews of the antenna wi th i ts ray di agram
and l ocated i n the radome. Thi s type of dra\ri ng i s i l l ustrated schemat-
i cal l y i n Fi g. 14.19 of a streaml i ned bel l y radome and an antenna empl oy-
Antenna
Axis of
rotation
of flight
(a)
Antenna
shaped beam
(b)
(c)
i ng a shaped cyl i ndri cal r efl ector . The rti ys from the antenna are i nci dent
upon the radomc I van under a \vi de ~ari ety of condi ti ons, as can he swm
by a study of the fi gl u-e. The angl e of i nci dence ~-ari es from 0 for
steepl y defl ected ra~% to al most 90 for near-h(]ri zontal rays I (mki ng
hack!vard. One pol ari zati on ~fi th respect to the pl ane of i nci drnce ~fi l l
prevai l over the bottom of the r adome, the opposi te over the si des, wi th
i ntermedi ate pol ari zati ons i n i ntermedi ate di recti ons. A speci fi c por -
ti on of the radome may be requi red to trunsmi t rays hayi ng a wi de ran~e
of angl es of i nci drmcc at each (Jf tl vo opposite po]arizati(ms; this can be
seen I)y studying parts (b) and (c) of thr fi ~ure \\i l l l the :antrmna sta-
ti onary ah s}l (jf[-n or kjy exami ni ng a porti [m of the si dr wal l of tl l r ra(l omc
i n I mrt (u.] of the fi gl l re \vi th the antenna scanni ng. The pr(wedl l res to
542 >!i v7Ki \l v.4 I A-S 7.4[,[,.471().V I ltollI l?.J r,?
[SEC. 149
be fol l owed i n radome wal l desi gn to meet si tuati :ms of thi s type wer e
di scussed i n Sec. 14.7 under Arbi trary I nci dence,
Design consi derati ons.I t i s possi bl e now to outl i ne i n several steps
the consi derati ons i nvol ved i n the pr or edl l r c of dmi gni ng a streaml i ned
r adome for a scanni ng antenna. I n the earl y stages thi s pr ocedur e i s
si mi l ar to that descri bed for normal i nci dence radomps i n Sec. 14.8.
The fol l owi ng descri pti on i s based on the antenna-r ador ne system shown
i n Fi g. 14.19:
1. The major di mensi ons of the radome must be det ermi nrd. These
depend upon the si ze of the antenna, the si ze of the hol e i n the
fusel age, the amount of retracti on of the antenna. ~hese l ast
t~vo i tems are i nterrel ated, si nce a l arger fusel age hol e wi l l permi t
mor e retracti on i n the case of a sl i ghtl y depressed beam. Amount
of rol l and pi tch of the ai rpl ane and pr esence or absence of antenna
stabi l i zati on are ako i nvol ~-ed.
2. The shape of the radome must be establ i shed. The fi rst approxi .
mati on i s based stri ctl y upon aerodynami c consi derati ons. Thi s
shape i s then used together wi th the antenna shape and ray di agram
to construct an accuratel y di mensi oned fi gure of the type i ndi cated
schemati cal l y i n Fi g. 14.19. The radomc shape i s modi fi ed to
keep angl es of i nci dence bel o\v some maxi mum fi gure, say 700,
but subject to approval from aerodynami c consi derati ons.
3. The radome wal l desi gn must be cal cul ated. Further study of the
antenna-radome di agram i s necessary to fi x the ranges of i nci dence
angl es at both pol ari zati ons. The wal l must be desi gned to meet
the system mi smatch requi rements by keepi ng dmi n refl ecti ons
at smal l angl es of i nci dence and to meet pattern and gai n requi re-
ments by keepi ng do\rn refl ecti on and absorpti on at l arge angl rs
of i nci dence.
Furt her steps, as i n the case of cyl i ndri cal radomcs, are constructi on
and testi ng of fl at panel s of the radome \ral l and constructi on and testi ng
of the compl ete radome. l ~cchani cal as ~vel l as el ectri cal tests are made
on the panel s, whi l e tests on the compl ete radome i ncl ude aerodynami c
performance and effect on antenna patterns.
I
CHA1TER 15
ANTENNA MEASUREMENTS-TECHNI QUES
BY H. KRUTTER
15.1. I ntroducti on.l he pri nci pl es and techni ques of antenna desi gn
wer e devel oped i n the precedi ng chapters wi thout consi derati on of the
methods for obtai ni ng desi gn data and for testi ng the performance of the
compl eted antenna. Thi s and the ful l o\\i ng chapter wi l l be devoted to
a di scussi on of measurement techni ques and a survey of the equi pment
requi red for such measurements.
The antenna characteri sti cs to be measured fal l i nto four groups:
i mpedance, pri mary feed patterns, secondary patterns, and gai n. The
i mpedance measurement techni ques di ffer l i ttl e i n detai l from those for
other r-f components of mi crowave systems; the probl em i s compl i cated
to a smal l degr ee by the fact that the antenna i s a radi ati ng l oad. The
i mport ante of the pri mary feed pattern i ncreases \vi th the progress that
i s made i n reduci ng antenna desi gn from an empi ri cal to a cal cul abl e
pr ocedur e. The study of penci l beams and fanned beams has shomm the
need for a detai l ed knowl edge of both the phase and i ntensi ty di stri bu-
ti on i n the pri mary feed pattern. The over-al l characteri sti cs of the
antenna are parti cul arl y sensi ti ve to the phase characteri sti cs of the feed.
I t i s ex-i dent from (hap, 13 that the desi gn of shaped-bearn antennas
woul d be deci dedl y l i mi ted i n scope \~-i thout a compl ete kno~vl edge of
thi s pri mary feed pattern.
The pattern of the antenna as a whol e, r efer r ed to as the secondary
pattern, i s taken partl y i n the cour se of the desi gn and de~-el opmental
research and fi nal l y, of course, as a test of the antrnna performance.
A parti cl l l ar advantage of the mi rro~~-ave regi on i s that, on the one hand,
the secondary pattern ran be determi ned so as to be cl osel y i denti cal
wi th that of the mtpnna i n fr r w spare and, on thp other , by usc of ful l -
scal e model s, the di storti on of the free-space pattern due to the i nstal l a-
ti on and hol l si n~ can be studi ed.
s(,r oncfar ~ patterns of penci l -beam and
f anneal -beam ant cnnas are general l y confi ned to the pri nci pal l ;- and
H-pl anes; ho\\-e\-er, the i mportance of compl ete space patterns i s bei ng
r ecogni zed part i t~l l arl y i n r egar d to thc effect of cross po]ari zat i on i n
red~l ci ng the resol vi ng poi vm of the antenna beam. (ompl etc space
patterns are, of CO(I rsc, al \\-:LySnercss:uy i n the desi gn of shaped-beam
antennas; her e ag~~i n the pol ari zati on of the fi el d m~l st be dctermi ne(i
compl f>tf,l y i n or der to arri ve at a cor r ect eval l l ati on of the antenna
performance.
543
The range of a system for a gi ven amount of avai l abl e power i s l i mi ted
by the gai n of the antenna (Sec. 12). From the poi nt of vi ew oft echni que,
the di rect measurement of gai n i s pm-haps mor e exacti ng than that of
other antenna measurements. A necessary compl ement to the i nstru-
mentati on of an antenna l aboratory i s a set of pri mary and secondary
gai n standards.
I MPEDANCE MEASUREMENTS
15.2. Transmi ssi on-l i ne Rel ati ons.The subject of two-wi r e l i nes
and the rel ati on of wavegui dcs ther eto wer e tr eated i n consi derabl e
detai l i n Chaps. 2 and 7, respecti vel y. For the sake of conti nui ty of the
di scussi on i n the present chapter the pri nci pal transmi ssi on-l i ne rel ati ons
\~i l l be r evi e\ved hr r e bri efl y.
The vol tage and cur r ent at aposi ti onz al ong the l i ne are
v(z) = Ale
-r. + ..12p=
(218)
1
i (z) = ~. (A1e~ A,(r), (219)
wher e y i s the propagati on constant, i n general a compl ex number
y=a+.i?. (217)
The constants a and 6 are resperti vcl y the atten{l ati fm and phase con-
stants; the l atter i s rel ated to the \vavel ength on the l i ne by
The ampl i tudes of the component ~vaves A 1and A ?are eval uated i n terms
of the condi ti ons at the two ends of the l i ne.
Thr ori gi n z = o \\-i l l[w
taken at the termi nati on, and the i nput end of the l i ne ]~i l l br l ocated
at z = L. I f Z,, i s the tcrmi rmti ng (l oad) i mpedance, ~ve have by
13q, (223)
1
. 2
Z,, zo= r,.
.1, = z,. + z;
(1)
~,, i s the l oad refferti on rxwffi ri ent tlcline(l by Ph. (2.27) on set ti n~ z = (),
At the i nput, end of the ]i ne z == /,, we h:LYe
v. = V(L) + zc; i (L), (2)
wher e V~i s the gynerator emf and Z,; i s i ts i nt~,rnal i mpedance. .1 refl e[-
{i on ctwffi (,i ent ~,, m:l y l )e (I rfi ne(l (t)l rfsl )ol ~(l i l ~~ to thv mi smat (h I x,tl ! r en
the gener ator i mpedance Z,, and the c}l ar:l cteri st i c i rnpukmce of the l i nf,:
r(, =
Z(, z!.
z,, + z,
(3,)
SEC, 15.3]
obtai n
S1.4 ,V1)I ATG- WA VE RATI OS
and
2= (a%), -r~:=.
545
(4;
(5)
The vol tage and cur r ent at any poi nt i n the l i ne are ther efor e expressed
i n terms of the sol l rrrj the transmi ssi on l i ne, and the l oad by
()(=)
z,+ z. 1 X2z -(+)
(6)
(z) (z%)l ~~:::~Le-(z+) 7)
The l i ne has i mpedance transformati on properti es that are descri bed
by Eq. (232), from ~~hi ch we may obtai n the i mpedance at a poi nt
z = z rel ati ve to the l oad i mpedance at z = O; i .e.,
V(1)
= Z(1) = z,
[ 1
.,. + ., tanh (71) .
i(1) 20+ Z. tanh (7L)
(8)
Si mi l arl y the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent transforms al ong the l i ne, and \vehave
from !@. (231 )
r(~) = rL@71. (9)
I t i s evi dent that .,, or r, can be determi ned by these rel ati ons from
measured val ues of .( 1) or r( 1) at any poi nt al ong the l i ne a di stance
1 from the l oad.
For a I ossl ess l i ne Eqs. (8) and (9) si mpl i fy to
and
(lo)
(11)
The rel ati ons for admi ttance (Y ==1 Z) are gi ven by Eqs. (8) and (10)
wi th Z ever ywher e repl aced I )y Y. Al so ~. i n terms of admi ttance i s
gi ven by
rL=Yo YL
}0 + Y.
(12)
15.3. Standi ng-wave Rati os. I nstruments for vol tage measurement
used i n i mpedance determi nati ons i ndi cate some functi on (not neces-
sari l y l i near) of the ti me z~-erage of the square of the real vol tage; thi s
i s gi ven i n terms of the compl ex vol tage by ~VV*, ~\-hereV* i s the compl ex
conjugate of V. Carryi ng out the i ndi cated operati on on Eq, (6), we
546
obtai n
ANTENNA MEASUI LEMENTS-T ECHNI QUI I S
[SEC.153
~VV* = ~[e 2[rLlc0S (292+ ~) + \IL\2e2=], (13)
wher e ~i s the phase angl e of I ~(r~ = l r~l ei ~).
The attenuati on constant i n mi crowave transmi ssi on l i nes i s smal l
and may usual l y be negl ected i n i mpedance measurements of antennas.
The si mpl i fi ed expressi ons that fol l ow are stri ctl y tr ue onl y for a l ossl ess
l i ne. Assumi ng that a = O, Eq. (13) si mpl i fi es to
1 1 + zl r~l COS (2@Z + @ + l rL12].
;VV*=I
T[
(14)
~VV* is a peri odi c functi on of z wi th maxi ma occurri ng at 2pz + 6 equal
to even mul ti pl es of mand mi ni ma.at 2PZ + J equal to odd mul ti pl es of m.
Vol tage maxi ma occur , ther efor e, ever y hal f wavel ength, and mi ni ma
occur ever y hal f wavel ength, wi th adjacent maxi ma and mi ni ma sepa-
rated by a quarter wavel ength.
The rati o of maxi mum vol tage squared to mi ni mum vol tage squared,
obtai ned from Eq. (14), i s cal l ed the power standi ng-wave rati o and i s
[1
1 + lrL] 20
= 1 lrLl
(15)
The square r oot of r i s r efer r ed to as the vol tage standi ng-wave rati o and
i s gi ven by
1 + ]r.1.
=llrLl
(16)
Accordi ngl y, the magni tude of the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent of the l oad i s
gi ven by
I r.1 = ~ (2.44b)
Fol l owi ng the argument of Sec. 2.7 i t i s obser ved that the refl ecti on
coeffi ci ent i s equal to Ir~] at a vol tage maxi mum and to lr~lat a vol tage
mi ni mum. Cor r espondi ngl y at a vol tage maxi mum the i mpedance i s
real and equal to r Zo, and at a vol tage mi ni mum the i mpedance i s real
and equal to Zo/r. I f 1 is the di stance from a vol tage mi ni mum to the
l oad termi nal s, the l oad i mpedance can be expressed i n terms of r and
1 by repl aci ng 2( 1) i n Eq. (10) by Z,/r, thus obtai ni ng
z. = z,
1 jr tan ~1
rjtan~l
or , separati ng Z~ i nto a resi sti ve component R~ and reacti ve component
.X-L,
Zt, = R,L + .iiYL
= 20
r see=@ (r 1) tan /3/
p + tan2 @ ~~o
Tz -~ ti n! @l
(17)
SEC. 154]
,LI Eli.YLliEI J I E,Yl OF }0L1.4GEL YT.I, VDJ.YG-JVAIE KI 17l U 547
The l oad i mpedance can thus be cal cul ated by means of Eq. (17)
from the measured val ues of the standi ng-wave rati o and the di stance
from a vol tage mi ni mum poi nt to the l oad. The cal cul ati on may be
per for med graphi cal l y on the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent or bi pol ar charts as
was di scussed i n Sec. 2.8.
15.4. Measurement of Vol tage Standi ng-wave Rati o.The most
common method of determi ni ng l S}YR i s by means of the apparatus
Indicalor
7a&a~
!
Tuner Attenuator
I
&
/:
Space
/
Slotted section
P7
shown
whi ch
bei ng tuned over the wavel ength band on whi ch measurements are to
FI G.15.1.Bl nchdiagrarlt of i I l l I >cdal l ce-r ,, casur e,,l ent apparatus.
schemati cal l y i n Fi g. t 5. t. The fi rst uni t i s an r-f po\ver sour ce
at rni crol vaves i s usual l y a wl oci ty-rnodul ated tube capabl e of
be made. Si nce these tubes are sensi ti ve to the i mwdance mi smatch.
an r-f tuner i s general l y connected cl ose to the sour ce and tuned for
maxi mum stabl e output. The tuner i s then fol l owed by a vari abl e
attenuator whi ch i s prcferabl v matched. The attenuator serves to
control the r-f power l evel and to r educe the pul l i ng effect of a vari abl e
l oad. .4 wavemeter shoul d be i n the set but shoul d be detuncd dur-
i ng standi ng-~vave measurements. The attenuator i s fol l o~ved by a
sl otted secti on of l i ne; the sl ot i s narro\v and cut i n such a wa,v that i t
does not i nterrupt the cur r ent l i nes i n the wa~-egui dc wal l appreci abl y.
The l atter i s necessary i n or der that the coupl i ng between the l i ne and
space be negl i gi bl e; then the rharactcri sti c i mpedance of the sl otted sw-
ti on does not di ffer si ~ui fi cti ntl y from that of the uncut l i ne. The fi el d
i nsi de the gui de i s expl or ed by means of a pr obe mounted on the sl otted
secti on. The mi crowave i nstruments general l y empl o,v an el ectri c-fi el d
probea ~vi re or needl e enteri ng i nto the gui de paral l el to the el ectri c
\-ector of the fi el d. Such a pr obe measures the vol tage standi ng wa\c.
Nl ounted i n the pr obe i s a detrrtor that suupl i es di rect cur r ent or audi o
frequency to an i ndi cator.
. .
The response of tbc dctcctm-i ndi cator com-
bi nati on i s a measure of the fi el d i ntensi ty at the probe. The sl otted
548
ANTENNA MEASUREMENTS-TECHNIQUES [SEC. 154
secti on i s pl aced as cl ose to the antenna as possi bl e i n or der to r educe
errorsi n measurement of el ectri cal l ength.
The actual measurements consi st of movi ng thepr obe al ong the l i ne
and determi ni ng the maxi mum response and mi ni mum response whi ch
shoul d be separated by a di stance of ko/4. From the cal i brated response
the VSWRi s obtai ned, The di stance of a vol tage mi ni mum (the reason
for choosi ng a vol tage mi ni mum rather than a vol tage maxi mum i s
gi ven l ater) from the l oad i s noted. These two quanti ti es together wi th
knowl edge of the wavel ength i n the transmi ssi on l i ne suffi ce to determi ne
the i mpedance of the l oad.
Precautions in Standing-wale Measurements.The pr ocedur e descri bed
above i s exactl y the same as that used i n measuri ng any r-f component,
except for one ver y i mportant di fference. The antenna i s a radi ati ng
l oad and ther efor e precauti ons must be taken so that refl ecti ons from
near-by wal l s or objects do not affect the measurements of VSWR or
phase (posi ti on of mi ni mum or maxi mum vol tage). To avoi d or di mi ni sh
the effect of refl ecti ons the most i ntense porti ons of the radi ati on shoul d
be di r ected toward an open space wi th as much open space i n al l other
di recti ons as possi l i e. Measurements maybe taken i nsi de the l aboratory
by di recti ng the mai n beam at an angl e of approxi matel y 45 toward a
wal l , preferabl y of l ow refl ecti on. To ensure that the space i n whi ch
measurements are bei ng made i s sati sfactory, the antenna shoul d be
moved to several posi ti ons (varyi ng the di stance to the wal l and changi ng
the angl e of i nci dence pl us or mi nus a few degr ees from 45) and the
effect on phase as wel l as VSWR observed. I f no changes occur , the si te i s
sati sfactory. Parti cul ar cauti on must be exer ci sed when i mpedance
measurements on l ow gai n, nondi recti ve antennas such as beacons are to
be made. I f such antennas are to be mounted on a metal l i c sheet i n actual
use, i mpedance measurements shoul d be made i n such a way as to si mul ate
as cl osel y as possi bl e the actual fi nal condi ti ons.
Several other precauti ons must be taken to ensure the accuracy of
VSWR and phase measurements. The pr obe shoul d be l oosel y coupl ed
to the l i ne i n or der to avoi d al terati on i n the standi ng wave pattern whi ch
wi l l occur i f the pr obe has an appreci abl e refl ecti on coeffi ci ent.
The
refl ecti on coeffi ci ent of a pr obe i s a functi on of the tuni ng of the pr obe
as wel l as the pr obe i nserti on. The effects of thi s wi l l be di scussed i n
mor e detai l i n Sec. 15.7. For a matched gener ator thi s refl ecti on resul ts
i n apparent VSWR l ess than the tr ue VSWR and asymmetry i n the
standi ng-wave pattern wi th the maxi ma and mi ni ma not separated by a
quarter wavel ength. The posi ti on of the mi ni mum i s not affected appre-
ci abl y. I f r, i s the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent of a tuned pr obe when the
l i ne i s termi nated i n i ts characteri sti c i mpedance, the measured VSWR
correspondi ng to a l oad of refl ecti on coeffi ci ent rL i s l ess than the tr ue
val ue by the factor (1 11~1Pl )/(1 + \rLrPl). Thus, for exampl e, a
pr obe presenti ng a refl ecti on coeffi ci ent r, = 0.05 v-i l l measure a stand-
i ng-wave rati o r z = 4 as I -2= 3.75. I f the i nternal i mpedance of the
gener ator i s di fferent from the characteri sti c i mpedance of the l i ne
(mi smatched generator), these effects wi l l be even mor e aggravated.
The pr obe mount shoul d be tunabl e so as to obtai n maxi mum output
for vari ous fr equer mi es and for a gi ven pr obe i nserti on. Ti mi ng shoul d
be smooth and not subject to errati c contact; the pr obe i s general l y a
fai rl y hi gh Q devi ce, and the response wi l l be affected easi l y by i nst abi l i t y.
Furthm-morej for a gi ven pr obe i nserti on the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent of the
pr obe \vi l l be real when the pr obe i s tuned; under the l atter condi ti on no
asymmetry wi l l resul t i n the standi ng-~rave pattern al though the meas-
ured TSWR \vi l l sti l l be l ms than the tr ue 173WR.
The response of the pr obe and i ndi cator must be cal i brated. I t i s
not safe to assume that the response i s proporti onal to the square of the
vol tage, A crystal detecto~] i s accuratel y square l aw onl y for ver ,y
l ow r-f power l evel s. The I a\vof the crystal vari es from crystal to crystal ;
for a gi ven crystal i t i s a functi on of the power l evel and the l oad of the
i ndi cati ng system. A current-bi ased bol or neter el ement, such as a T,i ttel -
fuse, i s ver y accuratel y square l aw over a ver y l arge range of power
l evel s except i n the nei ghborhood of burnout. A si mpl e and conveni ent
method for cal i brati ng the detector \ri l l be gi ven i n Sec. 15$.
I rregul ari ti es i n the standi ng-~rave pattern are frequentl y due to
structural defects i n the sl otted secti on such as errati c contact between
the pr obe carri age and the l i ne. A common fai l i ng of coaxi al -l i ne sec-
ti ons i s that the i nner conductor i s not acmrratel y concentri c wi th the
outer . The usual effect i s a pr obe depth varyi ng al most l i nearl y al ong
the secti on resul ti ng i n a standi ng-wave pattern that, appears to be super-
i mposed on a monotoni c vol tage; thi s effect i s f-mown as sl ope. The
effect of sl ope can be compensated for by cal cul ati ng the l -SI VR from the
rati o of the geometr i c mean of tl vo maxi mum val ues of response separated
by x,/2 to the mi ni mum vahl e between them or by taki ng a maxi mum
rrsponsc di vi al ed by the geometr i c mean of the t~vo mi ni mum responses
on both si des of the maxi mum. Both pr ocedur es shoul d gi ve the sarr:e
resul t. Actual l y an ari thmeti c avm-a~r i s sati sfacto~y. The avw-apy of
t~~umaxi ma di vi ded by the a\~cragcof two mi ni ma shoul d not be used i n
corrccti n~ fur sl ope Jl axi murn :mci mi ni mum val ues shol l l d be taken
near the c~ntm of thc sl ot ted secti on s () as to avoi d the edge effect at the
ends f)f the sl otted secti on.
The i mpml ancc of the sl otted secti on shoul d be the sam~ as that of
111Pfccd l i nt of 1I I (an! (nna bci ug i nvcs( i gal [xl and good el cc( ri (,al cent act
bctl vecn tI ]c t\\ol i nes sho~l l (i occl l r. l ;or most accurate resl l i ts the I i nfs
should LLISOlx; geometri cal l y tl l c same. For exampl e, i f tl ~o 50-ohm
!350
ANTENNA ,J ffi:ilS URE.tfEiV7,~-TI < (!I I ,VI QI J R,< [SW.155
coaxial l i nes wi th an appreci abl e di fference i n the radi i of thei r r especti ve
conductors are connected together , the two l i nes v-i l l not be matchwl
because of the capaci tance i ntroduced by the juncti on.
15.5. Determi nati on of El ectri cal Length.I n determi ni ng the
pr oper posi ti on for i nserti on of i n~l )f,(i ance-mat(hi ng devi ces, accurate
knowl edge of the posi ti on of a vol tage mi ni mum poi nt cl me to the antenna
termi nal s i s requi red. For good i mpedance matchi ng, thi s i nformati on
frequentl y must be knovm to a hi gher degr ee of accuracy than the val ue
of VSWR. To r educe the er r or i n determi ni ng the posi ti on of the vol tage
mi ni mum the standi ng-l vave secti on i s al ways put as cl ose to the antmma
as i s physi cal l y possi bl e.
l ol tage mi ni ma i n the sl otted secti on are fi rst dr+crmi ned. l l rter-
mi nati on of the posi ti on of a mi ni mum by adjustment of the pr obe posi -
ti on so that the response i s a mi ni mum i s i naccurate, si nce wi th normal
VSWR the mi ni ma are broad and the posi ti on i s h~rd to determi ne
exactl y. A mor e accurate method i s to determi ne the posi ti on of the
pr obe for equal response on both si dw of the mi ni mum; the a>-mage of
these posi ti ons wi l l then be the l ocati on of the mi ni mum. For gr eater
accuracy the average posi ti on for several di fferent resJ>onses mav be
taken. Havi ng l ocated such a mi ni mum posi ti on, i t mi i y be transf~rred
up the l i ne an i ntegral number (Jf h:Llf \~avcl engths to a poi nt, nrar the
antenna termi nal s. I n actual practi ce, except for certai n si mpl e cases,
thi s i s easi er sai d than done.
Perhaps the best method for transferri ng thr posi t i on of the mi ni mum
i s to short-ci rcui t the transmi ssi on l i ne at a poi nt cl ose to the :mtenna
termi nal s and to use thi s as a r efer ence poi nt. Thi s mcthtxl , of cml rsej
assumes that such a short ci rcui t can be made.
Thi s \\-i l l l wl al l y be tnl e
for experi mental antennas, hut not usual l y vi th prod(l cti on antennas.
(onsi der as an i l l ustrati on Fi g. 152 \vhi ch sho\rs the experi mental srt~l p
t,~r determi ni ng the vol tage mi ni ml ~m near the tcrmi mds of ~ coaxi al -
l i ne-fecf antenna. Let 11 be the posi ti on of a vol tage mi ni ml l m i n the
~!otted secti on i n Fi g. 15,2a.
The feed i s noi t- r emoved at the fi tti ng,
and a shorti ng pl ate i s pl aced at the end of the coti xi al l i ne as i n Fi g. 152b.
A new vol tage mi ni mum (zer o) i s l ocated at 1, on the l oad si de of posi ti on
1,. Transferred up the l i ne, thi s ne~v mi ni mum i s at the short ci rcui t
or an i ntegral number of hal f \vavel engths from the short ci rcui t and
ther efor e provi des a conveni ent r efer ence poi nt to I vhi ch the l oad vol tage
mi ni mum may be r efer r ed,
l [casl ~ri ng a di stan(e 111 1,1 to~vard the
gener ator f tom the shorti ng pl ti tc determi nes the l oa(l vol tage mi ni mum
posi ti on rel ati ve to the short ci ucui t.
For ai r-fi l l ed coa,xi d l i nes, the m[a.sl l red physi cal l cngt}l s :md el ec-
tri cal l engths ~~i l l show good a~reement, becal l se the ~ra,-el ength i s i nde-
pendent of vari at i fl ns i n i i ne i nl pedanrc. 1I oi rcver, i n ~}avrgl l i dcs the
gui de \va\,el ength de,,:,l l ds on the di mensi ons of the ~l l i d~>;}l enee the ]l se
SEC. 15.5] DEI ERMI NA 11ON OF EI ,ECTRI CAL I ,ENGTH 551
of an i ncor r ect gui de wavel ength wi l l l ead Lo an er r or i n the l ocati on of a
transferred vol tage mi ni mum. For exampl e, suppose that ho wer e
actual l y 4.52 cm i n the transmi ssi on l i ne and a gui de wavel ength as
determi ned i n the sl otted secti on \r er e 4..50 cm. I f one wi sh~d to fi nd
the posi ti on of the vol tage mi ni mum approxi matel y 90cm (about20AQ)
from the mi ni mum i n the sl otted secti on, then the er r or resul ti ng from
theuseof theval ue 4.50cmi nstead of4.52cm \\'ol 1l dbe2O XO.02 = 0.4
cm. Theshorti ng method di sc(l ssed i ntheprevi ous secti on \voul d al most
/
(a)
/
I
a
Padded
generator
,
\
Shorti ng
plate
(b)
/
FI G. 15.2.Short-ri rcui twI l i ne techni que for drtermi ni ngel ertri ral l ength
compl etel y rancel thi s er r or . I t shml l d br emphasi zed that thi s pr oce-
dure assumes that the connectors, bends, or smal l vari ati ons i n i mpcdanm
i n the transmi ssi on l i ne are rrfl ecti onl rss and ther efor e ca~l se no phas~
shi ft.
When the shorti ng method cannot be l l swl , the probl em becomes r nor p
di ffi cul t, and \-ari ol l s tri cks may be used i ~i th mor e or l ess accurac.v to
gi ve the desi red i nformati on. one method frequentl y used i n ~varegui dc
matchi ng probl ems i s to have made a set of experi mental i nducti ve
i ri ses of vari ous openi ngs, si mi l ar to that i n Fi g. 15.3, so that the outsi de
di mensi ons of the frtimr of the experi rmmtal i ri s are such as to ensure a
snug fi t i nsi de: the I i -avegui de wi th just suffi ci ent cl earanre to permi t,
sl i di ng. To a gi ven prrcenta~e (Jpcn are:~of the i ndl l rti re i ri s ther e cor -
responds a defi ni te mi sm:i tch l vhi ch \\i l l I )e el i mi nated by l ocati ng thr
i ri s i n the pr oper posi ti on. Knofvi ng the JSI VR of the l oad from meas-
urement, an i ri s whose open area i s most nearl y that requi red to cancel
the mi smatch i s chosen from the set and sl i d al ong i nsi de the ~vavegui de
to a poi nt i n that porti on of the l va~-cgui de \vher e i t i s desi red that the
matchi ng transformer shoul d be. The posi ti on of
heh~z+ the experi mental i ri s i s vari ed unti l a matched (or
#
nearl y matched) condi ti on i s obtai ned, The posi -
ti on of the i ri s so determi ned for a mi ni mum JSWR
then determi nes the pr oper poi nt for actual i nser-
ti on of an i nducti ve i ri s. Thi s method has been
----
. .
found to gi ve the pr oper posi ti on to ~vi tbi n a mi l l i -
l~IG. 15.3.Trial iris,
meter i n 1 by ~-i n. ~varegui de. The si ze of the
actual i ri s to be i nsertrd i s obtai ned from the
\S}VR of the l oad and kno\vl ecfge of the i nducti ve smx-eptance i ntro-
duced by an i ri s as a functi on of the i ri s openi ng.
.4nothcr method that may be used i n ~vavegui des i s to cut a smal l
hol e i n the center of the broad si de of the \vavegui de near the antenna
termi nal s and to i ntrodum a capaci ti ~-e screl r, The JSWR and posi ti on
of the mi ni ma are obtai ned for se~-eral scr ew depths. A ~-ol tage mi ni -
mum posi ti on i s assumed to bc at the screl v posi ti on, Referri ng to thi s
poi nt, the admi ttance of each val ue of I SI VR and phase are pl otted on
the admi ttance cfi agram. z I t ~~i l l then be obser ved that the poi nts do not
fal l al ong a verti cal strai ght l i ne ,orrmpondi ng to capaci tance bei ng added
\vi th i ncreasi ng screl v depth. The poi nts \vi l l al l be on a strai ght
l i ne J\-fmnthey have al l been r otated the same phase angl e on thei r
r r specti r e r ci rcl es. I n tbc exampl r sho\vn i n Fi g, 154, rotati ng each
poi nt 30 on i ts correspondi ng VSI VI t ri rcl c the poi nts then fal l on a
~erti cal Strai ght l i ne wi th added scrc\v i nscrt,i on i ncreasi ng the capaci tance
i n paral l el . Thi s then means for thi s exampl e that the tr ue \-ol tagc
mi ni mum i s l ocated a di stance / = 301\720 toward the gener ator from the
posi ti on of the center of the scre\r. I n practi ce, thi s method i s subject
to er r or because ther e i s, i n addi ti on to the capaci t anre of the scre~v, a
smal l shunt conductance ~vhi ch i ncreasrs wi th i ncreasi ng di anl rter of
the scre~v. For smal l w~r e~r di ameters and smal l scrc\v dc~]ths thi s
method gi ves an approxi mate posi ti (m for the mi ni mum,
15.6. Cal i brati on of Detecti on System..4s has been stated pr e-
vi ousl y, the l al v of rrsponse of the detecti on systcrn must be kno~vn for
accurate mcasurem(,nt of I SI VR. I ?an accurate attenuator i s avai l ah]c
and the pol vcr level is knonm, the response as a fl l ncti on of po]r er i nput,
can easi l y be drl er mi ned. Or a cal i brati on i s aI -ai l abl e i f thr r esDonse
system can be Compared wi th a kno~~n response system. Both of these
methods hal e been l l sed. Ho\\-ever, thr metboci di st~l sse{] I )c101v i s a
si mpl e one, uti l i zes the apparatus al rra(l l , a~-ai l abl c for l SI Wl meas~l rc-
Lwawgui d?Handbook. (I TO1,10 of thi s seri es. )
z See Sec. 2.8.
SEC. 15.6] CALIBRATION OF DETECTION SYSTEM .553
ments, and can be carri ed out easi l y from ti me to ti me i f a vari ati on i n the
l aw of the detecti on system i s suspected (as may happen when a crystal
i s bei ng used).
____
~ w
I
I -t
I
-200
-- ,-
_
WA
1,0
0.5
-0.5
-1.0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2,5
FI G. 15.4.Admi ttance di agram for capaci ti ve screw. I ncreasi ng srrew depths cor r espond
to i ncreasi ng capaci tance i n paral l el .
Indicator
R-f source Wavemeter Probe
-@
4
I
t
Matched
Tuner
variable
,
1
attenuator
/

Short
Slotted
circuit
section
FI G, 15.5.Bl ock di agram for cal i brati on of detector.
Fi gure 155 shows a schemati c setup for thi s experi ment showi ng a
shorted standi ng-wave secti on bei ng fed by a gener ator , the power l evel
of whi ch i s adjusted by a vari abl e matched attenuator.
Si nce wi th a
short ci rcui t, the vol tage i s a si nusoi dal functi on of posi ti on [Eq. (14)
wi th 11~1= 1, 6 = r] wi th peri od Au/2, the response 1 for the detecti on
554 AN TE,VNA MEASUREhfENTSTECHNI Q UES [SE(:. 1.5.6
system as read cm a meter wi l l be gi ven by
()
2i Tl
I = 10 COS ~ I
v
(18)
wher e the exponent n i s the so-cal l ed l aw of the system and 1 i s the
maxi mum response at 1 = O (note that 1 = O her e r efer s to the posi ti on
of maxi mum response).
The l aw of the detector may be a functi on of
power l evel , a not uncommon occur r ence i n the case of crystal s. Equa-
ti on (18) can be wri tten
I
10$410 ~ .
n=
(18a)
l ogl o Cos 2:
9
I t i s advi sabl e to pl ot the experi mental val ues of I ogl o ~/~0 VS. l og,O
cos 2i rl /Aa i n or der to smooth out experi mental i rregul ari ti es.
The sl ope
of the cur ve at any i ndi cated l evel 1 i s equal to n.
I f n = 2, the system i s a square-l aw system and the meter readi ngs
are ther efor e proporti onal to the square of the vol tage.
The rati o of
maxi mum response to mi ni mum response for a l oad then gi ves di rectl y the
r z of the l oad. I f n # 2, r z i s gi ven by
(maxi mum response)
(mi ni mum response)~
if the l aw of the system i s nl at the maxi mum readi ng and n~at the mi ni -
mum readi ng. For l ow (VSWR) 2 the rati o of maxi mum to mi ni mum
response may be used uncor r ected i f n does not di ffer greatl y from 2.
For exampl e, suppose that the meter readi ng wer e 15 and 10; then
(VSWR)2 woul d be wri tten as 1.5; but i f the I a\v of the system at both
l evel s wer e 2.2, the tr ue VSWR woul d be (1.5)222 = 1,45.
I t i s much si mpl er, when n does not vary greatl y for di fferent power
l evel s, to determi ne n experi mental l y over 3-db po\ver i nterval s. I f
21 = d corresponds to the separati on of hal f response, that i s, when
1 = ~1~, then Eq. (18a) may be approxi mated by
0.2206
~=
d
A.
0.1397
The er r or i n thi s approxi mati on i s l ess than 0.02 for the range
(19)
Fi gure 15.6 i s a pl ot of n as gi ven by Eq. (18a) as a functi on of the ful l
wi dth d/& at hal f response. I t shoul d be noted that d A,, must be deter -
mi ned accuratei ,v I wca(l se an er r or of 0.01 i n d A,, results in an error in j{
SEC. 15.6] CALI BRA llOAT W DETECTI OV SYSTEM
555
of 0.2. For smal l wavel engths a di al i ndi cator cal i brated i n thousandths
of an i nch i s mounted on the standi ng-wave smti on for accurate measure-
ments of d,
3.2
3.0
\
1
2.8
\
2.6
\
2.4
2.2
2.0
\
1.8
v
1,6 -
\ \
1.4
0.20 0,22 0,24 0.26 0.28 0.30
%g-
~IG. 15.6.--~etector law IW.
full wvdth dI h. at half response.
A possi bl e pr ocedur e to be used i s as fol l ol vs: (1) Use the same
.ni croammeter or audi o ampl i fi er that \vi l l be used \vi th the crystal or
bol ometer i n practi ce. ~hi s i s necessar,v, si nce the apparent l aw of the
detector depends on the i mpedance of the meteri ng arrangement as \vel l
as on the r -f po\ver l evel . (2) .i djust the po~ver l evel by varyi ng the l i ne
power l evel or by varyi ng the pr obe i nserti on.
The pr obe i nserti on sh(ndc!
be so smal l that the standi ng-~vave pattern i s not di sturtwd as i t i s moved
al ong. l %i s may bc tested by moni tori ng \vi th a second pr obe hel d at a
556
ANTENNA M.7ALYLrEEMEA TS-7XECH)T1Q C:E,Y
[sm. 15.7
fi xed posi ti on i n a sl ot tcd secti on bet~veen the gener ator and the secti on
carryi ng the detector bei ng cal i brated. I f the fi xed pr obe readi ng i s
i ndependent of the posi ti on of the movi ng probe, the i nsrrti on depth of
the l atter i s acceptabl e. (3) l I easurc the separati on of thr poi nts 3 db
down from the maxi mum for several maxi ma posi ti ons al ong the standi ng-
wave detector . Aver age these val ues of d. (4) he di stance bet!r een
al ternate mi ni ma wi l l be the wavel ength X. i n the transmi ssi on l i ne.
I n the case of coaxi al l i nes the wavel ength i s best ol ]tai ned by m(ans of a
preci si on waver neter . (5) The average ~-al ue of n for these condi ti ons i s
then determi ned from Fi g. 156. (6) Determi ne n at other po~ver l evel s
by a si mi l ar pr ocedur e.
15.7. Pr obe Refl ecti ons.-The whol e of the previ ous di scussi on i n
r egar d to maki ng standi ng-wave measurements by means of a pr obe i n
a standi ng-wave detector i s based on the assumpti on that the pr obe i tsel f
does not affect the fi el d bei ng measured. I f the pr obe has a refl ecti on
coeffi ci ent di fferent from zer o, consi derabl e er r or may resul t i n the deter -
mi nati on of the l aw of a detector or i n the measurement of standi ng-~vave
rati os, es~eci al l y i f the mi smatch bei ng measured i s great. 1 The most
noti ceabl e effect of pr obe refl ecti ons i s a di storti on of the obser ved stand-
i ng-wave pattern.
For the most part, resul ts that occur i n standi ng-wave measurements
may be accounted for by assumi ng that the pr obe i s a shunt admi ttance.
We may obtai n the vol tage V at any poi nt of the l i ne by Eq. (6) upon
repl aci ng r~by the combi ned refl ecti on coeffi ci ent of the l oad and of the
probe. For si mpl i ci ty, assume that, the gener ator i s matched so that
r~ = O. The vol tage wi l l be proporti onal to (1 + r,,,), \vher e r,,, i s the
total refl ecti on coeffi ci ent at the probe. The l utter can be sho}rn to be
r; + r, + 211;,111,
re,f= -- -
1 I jI p
(20)
i n \vhi ch I ~ i s the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent of th<prol w, gi \-en i n terms of the
pr obe admi ttance Y, by
r, =
1,
1-,, + 2Y
and 11~i s the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent of the 10wJ refcrmd to the pr obe
posi ti on
r: = r,d~z.
The vol tage vari ati on, ther efor e, i n terms of r, and r, i s gi ven as a
functi on of z by
V = const
1 l -+r :+I - ~z
(21)
1 Y. Dowker and R. l \l . I {wl hr ffr r , An I nvesti gati on of I GF Pmhm, I U, Report
No. 483-14; I f-. .Utar, F B. \[:trsl ~:dl , I .. P. Hl l ntcr, Prohc l l rrors i l l Standi ng-\vavc
Detectors, I rI Jc, I R1:, 34, 1, 33-44,
SEC. 158]
PRI .MAI <Y PA TTER.V APPARAT(J S 557
l he effect of a fi ni te refl ecti on coeffi ci ent as gi ven by Eq. (21) i n
measuri ng VSl }TR and phase shows the fol l owi ng resul ts for a matched
gener ator (for a mi smatched gener ator the state of affai rs becomes even
mor e compl i cated). For a tuned pr obe the measured VSWR wi l l al ways
be l ess than the tr ue VSWR; however , the mi ni ma and maxi ma wi l l occur
i n thei r pr oper posi ti ons. For an untuned pr obe the measured VSWR
wi l l al so be l ess than the tr ue VSI VR; the standi ng-wave pattern, how-
ever , becomes asymmetri c ~vi th maxi ma and mi ni ma di spl aced from thei r
cor r ect posi ti ons and maxi ma and mi ni ma no l onger separated by k,/4,
despi te the fact that adjacent mi ni ma are sti l l separated by A/2 as are
al so adj scent maxi ma. The posi ti on of the mi ni mum i s l ess affected
than the posi ti on of the maxi mum; the hi gher the VSWR the l ess the
mi ni ma are affected; and i t i s for thi s reason that mi ni mum posi ti on has
been recommended i ,l stead of maxi mum posi ti on for phase determi na-
ti ons. For exampl e, for a l oad mi smatch 11,1 = 0.1 (r = 1.49), wi th
17, = O. l eTi 4 the mi ni mum posi ti on i s di spl aced onl y 0.0063Ar from i ts
tr ue posi ti on: and for r. = 1, the mi ni mum i s not di spl aced at al l .
I n the cal i brati on method of Sec. 15.6 a pr obe refl ecti on as smal l as
r, = .005 wi l l l ead to an apparent val ue of n = 1.97 wher e the cor r ect
val ue i s n = 2.
PRI MARY FEED PATTERN MEASUREMENTS
15.8. Pri mary Pattern Apparatus for Poi nt-source Feeds.The
di mensi ons of mi crowave radi ati ng systems that are empl oyed as poi nt-
sour ce feeds for r efl ector s and l enses are such that the physi cal di stance
from the feed at whi ch the radi ati on zone sets i n i s wi thi n the di mensi ons
of normal l aboratory space. The di stance i s, of course, l arge compared
wi th the feed di mensi ons i n conformi ty wi th the requi rements of the
far-zone fi el ds (Sec. 3.11). A compl ete pri mary pattern consi sts of the
spati al di stri buti on of radi ated ener gy about the feed, the surfaces of
constant phase, and the ori entati on of the el ectri c vector (pol ari zati on)
at al l poi nts on a sphere center ed at the feed. The techni ques for deter -
mi ni ng each of these components of the pattern i n the radi ati on zone wi l l
be consi dered i n the fol l owi ng secti ons.
The techni que of measurement i s, i n general , the choi ce of the experi -
menter. I t has been found conveni ent, however , to take transmi tti ng
patterns of pri mary feeds; that i s, the parti cul ar feed i n questi on i s made
to transmi t mi crowave ener gy of the requi red frequency, and a smal l
horn or pi ckup i s then used to measure the i ntensi ty O; the radi ated
ener gy, phase, and pol ari zati on. Later, i n di scussi ng the measurement of
secondary patternsthe pattern of the composi te antennai t wi l l be
conveni ent to consi der recei vi ng patterns.
Transmi tti ng patterns may be obtai ned i n pri nci pl e by recei vi ng the
radi ated ener gy from the transmi tti ng antenna i n a pol ari zed pi ckup
antenna at al l poi nts on a l arge sphere center ed about the transmi tti ng
558 ANTENNA MEA8UREMEAVTS-TECHNI Q UE.V [SEC. 15$
antenna. A sui tabl e form of apparatus to accompl i sh thi s for an essen-
ti al l y poi nt-source pri mary feed i s sketched i n Fi g. 157. The r-f com-
ponents i l l ustrated are typi cal 9400-Mc equi pment. The general l ayout
\
Waveguide - coaxial
Probe
Amplifier
FI G. 15.7,Apparatus for pri mary pattern measurement on point-source
md i deas, hon-ever, may be used throughout the mi crowave regi on.
As an r-f source, a square wave modul ated kl ystron has been uti l i zed
10 gi ve a steady output. The output from the gener ator i s connected
by means of coaxi al cabl e to the wavegui de that i s termi nated by the
feed under studv, whi ch i s shown her e as a horn. .4 cavi ty waver neter
i s i ncl uded i n the r-f l i ne, The l i ne and feed are cl amped i n an adjust-
abl e mount so that the apparatus may be pr oper l y al i gned. These
adjustments i ncl ude hori zontal and verti cal di spl acements as wel l as
I
Sm. 15.8] PRI MARY PA7TI $RN APPARA7US
,r~;j 9
means of rotati ng the feed about i ts axi s (feed axi s bei ng her e defi ned as
the di recti on of peak radi ati on). The feed i s mounted so that i ts approxi -
mate center of phase i s l ocated on the axi muth axi s of rotati on of the
pi ckup antenna. The pi ckup antenna i s mounted on a turntabl e i l l us-
trated her e as a 30-i n. gun mount, the upper ri ng of whi ch i s fr ee to r otate
on bal l beari ngs between i t and the l ower ri ng. The pi ckup may be
r otated about a hori zontal axi s, and i ts di stance from the axi s of the gun
mount i s adjustabl e.
I f onl y i ntensi ty and pol ari zati on measurements are of i nterest, the
detecti ng el ement may be pl aced behi nd the pi ckup and the output
del i vered di rectl y to the i ndi cati ng system. I l l ustrated i n Fi g. 15.7,
however , i s a system sui tabl e for the measurement of phase as wel l as
of i ntensi ty and pol ari zati on.
I n or der to el i mi nate cabl e fl exi ng whi ch
may pr oduce phase er r or s, the ener gy i s del i vered to the detecti ng system
vi a a cabl e, fastened to the pi ckup MOUIlt, to a rotati ng joi nt mounted
\vi th i ts axi s coi nci di ng l vi th the turntabl e axi s, and from the joi nt to
the detecti ng system by a fi xed cabl e or a ri gi d wavcgui de, The detect-
i ng system consi sts of a tuner, a sl otted secti on on whi ch i s mounted a
movabl e tunabl e pr obe through whi ch r-f ener gy from the sour ce may be
i ntroduced for phase determi nati ons, I and fi nal l ,v the detecti ng el ement,
crystal or Li ttel fuse. For i ntensi ty measurements the cabl e from the
r-f sour ce to the pr obe i s di sconnected.
A detecti ng el ement, ~vhi ch has been found to be ver y sati sfactory,
i s a current-bi ased Li ttel fuse or I l rol l aston ~vi re, Thi s i s i n seri es ~vi t,h the
transformer i nput of a l o~v-noi se, narrow bandpass, 10,000-gai n, I i nei w
ampl i fi er. The change i n the resi stance of the el ement i s proporti onal
to the modul ated r-f power i nput over a ver y \vi de range of po\ver l evel ,
and the resul tant readi ngs on a model 300 I l al l anti ne vol tmeter or
other sui tabl e el ectroni c \-ol tmeter are ver y accuratel y proporti onal to the
square of the fi el d i ntensi ty.
A crystal may be used as a detector \vi t}l
the above apparatus; but al though the sensi ti vi ty i s of the or der of 10 db
gr eater than the I ,i ttel fuse, the l a~v of the crystal vari es as a functi on of
the r-f power l evel . Consequentl y, i t i s necessary to kno~v the cal i brati on
or l aw of the crystal as a functi on of the power l evel befor e cor r ect fi el d
i ntensi ti es may be obtai ned. Thi s objecti on to rrystal s hol ds onl y for
i ntensi ty measurements and not for phase measurements. I n addi ti on,
the l a~v of the crystal has been known to change \vi th ti me and handl i ng.
Crystal s are prefmabl e for both i ntensi ty ti nd phase measurements i f a
c-w sour ce and super heter odyne detecti on system are used i nstead of the
modul ated sour ce and :~mpl i fi (~r-~rol tm(,ter system, si nrc the r-f po\ver
l evel requi red i s greatl y r educed and the crystal i s square l a}r for l o~r
po\ver l evel s.
:1s far as possi bl e, al l r-f components shol l l d he I vel l matched to ol )t:l i n
.41)tllt(,rll:itivr 111(.ttlodfor I)]()\,i(lit)g :11)11 :{.s(, r(.t(.rvll(,(, is (Iiw[l,w,.(1 III %,,., 1,512.
560 AN TENNA I I f EA S L~REM E.V 1STECHA I Q (J E.S [SEC. 15.8
maximum-power transfer and to pr event possi bl e i nteracti ons, Gen-
erators shoul d usual l y be l oosel y coupl ed to avoi d a change i n power
output and frequency due to a vari abl e l oad, The srune tcchni qups
and cauti ons requi red i n other r-f measurements are genendl y true for
antenna measurements. Ho~~evm-, i n some CLWS,mi smatch i n the var -
i ous el ements does not resl dt i n i ncorrect, measurements. l l l erever good
matchi ng i s requi red, thi s \vi l l be emphasi zed i n the text,
Ther e are several requi rements th~t the pi ckup antenna shoul d
sati sfy. (l ) I tshoul d bep(Jl ari zed andarral l geti sothatr efl ecti (,1l sfrom
i ts mount wi l l be negl i gi bl e. (2) The pi ckup shoul d be mounted su that
i ts feed axi s i s perpendi cul ar to and i ntersects the turntabl e azi muth
axi s. (3) '~hepi ckup shoul d ha~es(~nl edi rtcti vi tyi n orci ert(>mi ni mi ze
the effect of possi bl e refl ecti ons. (4) The pi cki ~p shoul d be capabl e of
bei ng r otated about i ts axi s i n or der todeterrni n ethepol ari zati o no fthe
antenna bei ng studi ed as ndl as to meti sure i ntensi ty for vari ous ori enta-
ti ons of the transmi tti ng antenna. I t i s a!so desi rabl e to be abl e to vary
the di stance of the pi ckup from the turntabl e axi s so that the fi el d
may be measured at di fferent di stances from the fed when necessary.
A si mpl e and sui tabl e pi ckup antenna consi sts of a rectan~l l l ar ~ravegui de
horn of mouth di mensi ons such that the apertl l rei n the cl ertri c pl anei s
equal to the wi dth of the ~vavegui de i n the magrwti c pl an?. For rxanl -
pl e, i n the 3-cm regi on a fai rl y wel l matched pl jhwi zed pi ckup horn i s
obtai ned by fl ari ng 1- by ~-i n. rectangul ar wavegui de to an aperture
1 by 1 i n.
The pri mary pattern apparatus shoul d be I ocatcd i n as open a space
as possi bl e to el i mi nate undwi r~hl e refl ecti ons from s~[rrwundi ng objects.
I t i s ver y di ffi cul t toestabl i sh acri tcri on for thi s bec:uwe i t i s afl l ncti on
of the desi red accuracy, the si ze and di recti vi ty of the frrd as Nel l as
of the pi ckup, and the scatteri ng cross secti ons of the vari o~l s objects i n
the nei ghborhood of the apparatus. I n many cases i t i s di ffi cul t to
ascertai n the cal l se of unexpected pecul i ari ti es i n the pattern, I f ther e
are objects near-by suspected of refl ecti ng, the dfects ui thri r remo~,al
natural l ,v shoul d be observrd. I f a symmet,-i cal ]y cc)nstr [l cted f?ed i s
bei ng studi ed, the pr esence of a si de l obe on one si de and not on the other
at the same angl e dcnotw ei ther an er r or i n the :di gnrnent of apparatus
or the pr esence of a refl ecti ng object on one si de. A useful precauti on
agai nst the effect of refl ecti ons, i n parti cul ar those of neav-by \ral l sj
i s to cover the scatteri ng objects I I -i l l ] nl i croi vave al worbi ng materi al .
one must be certai n that the materi al i s actual l y an ubsorber i n the
I ravekmgth regi on bri ng (onsi dcrc(]. part i (,{l l arl y i f a I ossy materi al
backed (I 1>l )Y a metal sheet i s ~MJtl i ts al ] absorl wr. 1 [u thi s (ase, the
angl e of i nci (l ence as uel l as the i ravel ength ml l st be consi (l crc(l ,
] .4n Ml v,ti v{, :It )so, -l ]i ]l z , s<, r{x, l IO:LJI bc Construct, u~ I)y I):,(kil]g :1 S],11) of wool] $$
I n gf,ncra], the ~PPLi~2L~USi tsel f shoul d be as fr ee as possi bl e of r efl ecti ng
surfaces or objects. l ti tterns shoul d be taken pr efer abl y i n azi muth
because refl ecti ons fr om a hori zontal surface may be made symmetri cal
and wi th the msual di mcti vi ty of feed and pi ckup they ~~-i l lbe negl i gi bl e.
The pri mary radi ator and pi ckup shoul d be l ocated as far as possi bl e
fr om hori zontal surfaces such as the tabl e and cei l i ng i n or der to mi ni mi ze
the effect of these refl ecti ons. I n most cases, i f the di stance between
the tabl e and the feed i s of the or der of 10 ~vavel ength.s or greater, ver y
l i ttl e troubl e \vi l l be encount~r ed.
A number of other mor e el aborate pri mary pattern setups have been
devi sed, pri mari l y v-i th a ~-i mv to gr eater accuracy i n phase measur e-
ments. onc possi bi l i ty i s to use a verti cal transmi ssi on path, thus
el i mi nati ng refl ecti ons fr om ei ther the fl oor or the cei l i ng whi ch may
concei vabl y cmse errors i n phase measurements made on the apparatus
descri bed above, Hol vevcr , a verti cal -path devi ce i s consi derabl y mor e
compl ex rnechti ni cal l y and i s warranted onl y wher e defi ni ti ve measure-
ments ar~ req~l i md.
15.9. I ntensi ty Measurements.The i ntensi ty patterns i n the pri nci -
pal el ectri c and magneti c pl anes (hereafter to be denoted by E- and
H-pl anes respecti vel y) are us~l al l y suffi ci ent for si mpl e antenna desi gns;
someti mes, however , a knowl edge of a gr eater porti on of the space pat-
ter n i s requi red i n mor e careful antenna desi gn. The method for deter -
mi ni ng the fi el d i ntensi ty as a functi on of di recti on wi l l be di scussed fi rst
for the pri nci pal 1?- and 11-pl anes and then for other pl anes or cuts.
The r-f components need not be \vel l matched when onl y rel ati ve
i ntensi ty measurements are re(l ui red. 31i smatch i n the vari ous com-
ponents wi l l al fect onl y ~he power l e~-el at the detector and wi l l not
tl -,er efor e affect the measurement unl ess the mi smatch i s vari abl e. The
separati on of feed and pi ckup shoul d be of the or der of 2d2~Xor grrater,
wher e d i s the maxi mum aperture of the feed. For smal l d of the or der
of a \va\el ength, thi s reql l i i -ement may be open to questi on, and one
shoul d i n thi s case ha~-c a few-to-pi ckup separati on of at l east several
wa~,el engths. These cri teri a ensure that the frwf i s bei ng exami ned i n
i ts I raunhofer re~i on. The di stancw suggested ~~-i l l mi ni mi ze i nteracti (m
bettveen the transmi tter and recri \-er. I f the feed i s to be used i n conl .
bi nati on wi th a r efl ector such as a parabol oi d, i t i s desi rabl e that the di s-
562 AN Tl i I V.V.4.!ll$A,Y LrRli,i{lliV TS-TEL<H.VI Q UhS [SEC. 159
tance from the pi ckup to the feed shoul d be roughl y equal to the di stance
from the feed to the contempl ated r efl ector .
A check on whether the Fraunhofer pattern i s bei ng measured may
be obtai ned by mmi ng the pi ckup a\~ay from the feed at a fi xed angl e,
say the peak di recti on, and determi ni ng whether the po~ver response, as
measured on the el ectroni c vol tmeter, vari es i n~m-sel y \vi th the square
of the di stance. Fi gure 158 i l l ustrates the dependence of the measured
FT~.16.8.Tenth-power wi dth @ ~~oas a functi on of the path di stance R between test h{,r,i
and pi ckup horn.
10-db wi dth of the i ntensi ty pattern upon the separati on bet\\-een a
feed and the pi ckup. I t wi l l be seen that the beam~vi dth becomes prac-
ti cal l y constant for path di stances gr eater than 1.5d/A. Thi s i s i n agr ee-
ment wi th the choi ce of 2d2/A as a mi ni mum separati on (cf. al so Sec, 691.
To measure the H-pl ane i ntensi ty di stri buti on, the pri mary feed
under study i s mounted so that the esti mated center of feedl i s l ocatevl
di rectl y over the center of rotati on of the turntabl e and the feed ori ented
so that the E-vector i s verti cal . The pi ckup horn wi th E-vector verti cal
i s al i gned wi th the feed so that the axes of the feed and of the pi ckup, i f
extended, become a common hori zontal l i ne. The I f-pl ane i ntcnsi i y
pattern i s then determi ned by movi ng the pi rl i up feed i n azi muth :1( :1
fi xed di stance and taki ng readi ngs from thr \-ol tnl ctcr as :1 fun(ti {)n tjt
sm. 159] 1.Y-7[<A-,V[ 7)- .l [[<. ! V( l i I <.l rl <.v r#Y 563
angl e. Wi th a square-l aw detecti on system the rel ati ve powm per uni t
sol i d angl e i s thereby determi ned as a fl l nrti on of angl e for the pri nci pal
H-pl ane of the radi ati on fi el d. l ;Y rotati ng the pi ckup and tccd 90
about thei r owm axes and c:i rryi ng out the procwi l l r e dwrri hwl for the
H-pl ane, the pri nci pal E-pl ane pnttern i s determi ned,
Vari ous methods of presmti ng thi s cfata have been used, rach
wi th i ts own meri t. Al l too fr e-
quentl y i n the l i terature and r e-
ports ther e i s a fai l ure to l abel
pr oper l y the i ntensi ty axi s as fi el d
i ntensi ty or square of fi el d i nten-
si ty (power pattern). A semi -
l ogari thmi c pl ot of the po\r er as a
functi on of angl e i s commonl y
used and has the advantage of
emphasi zi ng the l obe structure,
The rel ati ve fi el d i ntpnsi ty (or
si mpl y the rel ati ve fi el ~l i ntrnsi ty
squared) as a functi on of an,ql c on
a pol ar pl ot i nval uabl e f<]rol Jtai n-
i ng a good pi cture of I be fi el (l di ~-
tri buti on; i n parti cul ar for fi el d
i ntensi ty, thi s pl ot gi ~-es thr rel :L-
ti ve range as a functi on of :mg]e at
Y
f
1
)
z
Turntabl e ax(s
1:1<,. 15.9.C<]<,rcl i t]:Lte sysr el n for pri mary
~):i ttl ?rl , h.
whi ch a gi ven rwri ~-er wi ]l r ecei ~-e a constant si gnal tronl the fi xed trans-
mi tti ng antcmna (qf. Sec. 12).
We now have the pri nci pal Z- and H-pl ane i ntensi ty patterns;
l et us consi der the probl em of o})tai ni rl g the space ci i stri buti on of i ntc-nsi ty
and the pol ari zati on, }Ye defi nr :Lcf)[jr(l i nat~ system a and ~, sh,)~~n i n
Fi g. 15.9. Thez-axi s i stheaxi s t]ftl ]t, )jri n~a],y f(,(,ci;@r[J]~I [>seI ]t sr(jt:Lti (Jn
of the pi ckup aho~{t the ti xi s of tbr tl l rni abl e; and a r epr wents the ori en-
tati on of the L-ve(tor at poi nts on the feed axi s rel al i ve to the pl ane
defi ned by the y- and z-ti xrs, Tl l c, al )p:~l tl tl l si sfi rstl i nfdl l p, asdmcri be(i
befor e so as to obtai n the pri nci pal H-pl ane pattern. To check the
pohu-i zuti on i n thi s [Jl ane, at rach azi muth posi ti on of the pi ckup, the
pi ckup i s r otated abol l t i ts axis unti l the maxi mum po\ver i s r ecei ved.
The angl e of the pi (,kup then ~l (t(rmi n~,stl l e:~ngl e of pol ari zati on of the
radi ati on at that poi nt. .i fter the pol ari zati on and i ntensi ty have been
determi ned for the pri nci pal 11-pkme pattern, the feed and pi ckup are
ret{l rned to thei r i ni ti :d cc)ndi ti on of a = O und ~ = (), I he feed i s then
r otated through an angl r a (s:~~-100) abo~l t i ts mi s, and ti l e pi ck~l p i s
r otated through a si mi l :Lr an,gl e so tl l :l t thei r I x)l ari z:l ti oru=are paral l el .
The i ntensi ty readi ng s1l {NI I (Ibe exartl y the s:hm( :LSthe i ni ti al readi ng.
~-;)tc that thi s mrthtd hastbf> (](si t:l ])l (.f(>:Lt\l r(,th:Lt:Nf YLrh cut i st,akrn
the power l evel i s checked at + = 0, that i s, for peak i nt~nsi ty. The
pi ckup i s agai n moved i n azi muth; ancl at each an~k>~, the maxi mum
i ntensi ty and pol ari zati on are 01]1ained as alxn-c.
This pr ocedur e i s
r epeated for sl l ccmsi ~e val ues of a. I f the fi el d-i nf (nsi ty-sq{l ared data
are pl otted as a funrti on of a and + (m s(l i tabl e coordi nate paper, contol l rs
of constant i ntcmsi ty can be dra~vn.
Di r ect pol ari zati on on a parabol oi d i s that component of the radi ateci
pri mary fi el d whi ch, after refi erti on from tfw parabol oi d, i s paral l el to
the domi nant, pol ari zati on of the antrnna pattern, Di rect- and cross-
pol ari zati on components exi st for each poi nt on the parabol c}i d, I f one
i s i nterested onl y i n the di rect-pol ari zati on component of thi s feed for
use wi th a parabol oi d, the pr ocedur e di scussed abo~-e i s consi derabl y
si mpl i fi ed. For exampl e, the I f-pl ane patter-n i s takrn \vi thout rotati ng
the pi ckup about i ts axi s for pol ari zti ti orr ddermi nati ou. I ,i ke~vi se, i f the
feed i s r otated by an angl e a for the a cut, then thr pi ckup i s r otated
the same angl e a and kept ther e \vhi l c the i ntensi ty as a functi on of ~
i s obser ved by movi ng t,hc pi ckup i n azi muth. Thi s pr ocedur e i s cor r ect
as may be obser ved by consi deri ng the properti es of a parabol oi d of
revol uti on. I f for any reason the cross-pol ari zati on p:i ttem of the feed
i s desi red, i t may be obt ai nrd cxti ct l y as above ~fi th the excepti on that
when the feed i s r otated a degr r es, the pi ckup i s r otated a + 90.
I f \venow desi re to determi ne the contours of constant i ntensi ty on a,
parabol oi dal r efl ector , i n or der to obtai n opti mum i l l umi nati on of the
r efl ector area, I we may, by a sl l i tabl e transformati on of coordi nates and
rememberi ng to account for space attenu:i ti onj pr oject the contours of
constant. i nt rnsi ty al wad,v dm \rn on the sphere onto the parabol oi d, 2
1.5.10.Phase Determi nati ons. -I n determi ni ng the phase front of a
pri mary radi ator i t i s usual l y ctmsi d~red s~l ffi ci ent to mami ne the phase
i n onl y the pri nci pal E- and 1{-pkmes, si nce, i f the cur~,es of constant
,
phase i n these t~vupl anes are ci rcl es \vi th a common center , i t i s reawmab]c
to expect that the phase front i s sphpri cal . Ho\\-ever,i f other pl anes are
of i ntcrrst, they may be rxami ned i n a manner si mi l ar to that empl oyed
for i ntensi ty measurrmcnts, Thr met hods for determi ni ng phase i nvol ve
the compari son of ener gy from thc pi ckl [p l l [)rn ~ri th enmgy trom thr r-f
sourre. The appar~tus for (}~e n~cthfxl descri bed I l erc i s i l l ustrated i n
Fi g. 157. me poff-er from the r-t so{l rcr i s di vi []ed betl \-een thr pri -
mary radi ator and the tl l nal )l r +I i (l i nx pr obe i nwrtc(i i o the l taveg~l i de.
Encr~y from the pi {kl l p anfi frc,m t]l c so(l rce I ri l l then a({(i i n or out of
phase at the cfrtc(,t(]r (I rpen(l i ng on tl l r plolx. l~osil i~)ll.
I f the Ph:we []i stri l )~l ti (]n i n tl l ( /f-I I ]an~ i s }xi rl g i n~wti gal cd, then
1Sl ,[,sm. 1214,
2.J. 1. I l ol l ]l {,rt :111(Il . .J. I {(,:i rt, J{J. l {(l )t)rt \-{,. (1.1<1, \l :\\I ,l ) 1!14.5: .J. [. Jl [jl l t){,rt,
1{1, I i !]x,rt X,,. Mi . i l,l,r,l:ir~ 1{,)-lfi: S. ,J, Jl!xt,,], t Il{}rll 1{,{1. Il,r I:ll:,lx,li(. I{rllt,f.
tors, 1{1, I{{]){)rt X(). Ii!W, ,J:,t,[u, ry l!).l(i, ]]]). 21 22,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
SEC. 1510] PHASE DE1ERMI NATI ONI S 565
the apparatus i s l i ned up as befor e for H-pl ane i ntensi ty measurements
wi th the axes of the pi ckup horn and pri mary radi ator coi nci di ng.
Keepi ng the pi ckup fi xed, the posi ti on of the pr obe i s vari ed unti l a
mi ni mum si gnal i s obser ved on the el ectroni c vol tmeter. For thi s si tua-
ti on, the moni tored powerand thepi ckuppov-erarc ml t of phase. Thi s
\vi l l be the r efer ence val ue, and the posi ti on of the pr obe i s r ccor dcd. I t
wi l l be noted that a si mi l ar mi ni mum wi l l occur i f the nrobe i s moved a
di stance h, (A i f the detecti on components
are coaxi al ), si nce thi s represents a 3600
change i n phase. For thi s setup, moti on of
~he pr obe toward the bol ometer i s equi val ent,
so far as phase i s concer ned, to keepi ng thr
pr obe fi xed and movi ng the pi ckup toward
the pri mary radi ator al ong a radi us through
the center of feed. Ther efor e, movi ng the
pi ckup a di stance d toward the radi ator i s
equi val ent to movi ng the pr obe a di stance
p = d(X, /X) toward the bol ometer. The
r efer ence val ue for the pr obe posi ti on hav-
i ng been determi ned, addi ti onal poi nts on
the phase front are determi ned i n he fol l ow-
i ng manner. The pi ckup i s moved i n azi -
muth through an angl e ~; agai n the posi ti on
of the mi ni mum i s noted; and the di fference
I ~l G. 15 l (J.Ccnter of feed
cnrrertl nu. I hrkup I noves o!)
rirrle of ra<lius H. True wave-
front is cirrlc of radi us r.
l {cfer enr e fm,nt @ = 0.
p from the r efer ence mi ni ml l m posi ti on i s obtai ned. Thi s i s carri ed out,
through the requi red range i n angl e +.
I f the posi ti on of mi ni mum defl ecti on i s i ndrpendcnt of +, then the
phase front i n that pl ane i s a ci rrl e whose center i s rxact]y the poi nt on
the feed di rectl y over the turntabl e axi s of rotati on, Thi s determi nes
the center of feed i n that pl ane. I f the mi ni ma posi ti ons are di fferent, the
esti mated center of feed, ~vhose l ocati on i s knmvn ttj bc on the z-axi s as
showm i n Fi g. 15.10, may be cor r ected by means of the cxl uati on
wher e r R i s the
(22)
d
1%
i-R=[i-
. !
l (.os+-:
cor r ecti on to be ad(l e(l t f) t hr assumed center of fec(i
l ocated i n thi s pl ane and on the axi s of the tl l rntabl c. IAIUCS of d at
correspondi ng angl es + are obtai ned from d = t p(x A,) \vi th due r egar d
to the choi ce of si gn, the pl us si gn correspondi ng to moti on of pr obe away
from bol ometer. Si ne? R i s I argc :I I I d ~
R is small, the correction ternl
ma,y be obtained ~vith a high degree of occ~lracy.
The relation :ibo~-e may
be obtained by considcrin< ~i~. 1510, I t wi l l I w noted that d f)r p(~ X,)
i s measured al ong the radi us r. I I y the l :LI \- of cosi nrs,
(r d) = R + (r R) + 2R(r ~?) COS+,
or sol vi ng for r,
[,_co,+_(~v]
T=R
[ 1
I cos+j
when R i s subtracted fr om I wth si des, the dcsi rml rel ati on i s obtai ned.
Eqwimmtal l rrca~~ti or~s. -Severa1 pract i cal prvcaut i fms shoul d be
taken i n or der to ensure pr oper phase measurements. The po\ver from
the pr obe and from the pi ckup i nto the bol ometer shoul d })e of approxi -
matel y the same l evel i n or der that \\-el l -cfefi nedmi ni ma shoul d occ(i r.
I t i s undesi rabl e to change the power l evel from the gener ator or the
pr obe tuni ng duri ng the phase measurements, si nce not onl y i s i t a
nui sance but ther e i s al so the possi bi l i ty of a change i n phase. A r ecom-
mended pr ocedur e i s to adjust the tunabl e pr obe at fi rst so that the
power whi ch i t del i vers to the bol omcter i s 6 db bel o~v the power del i vered
by the pi ckup i n peak posi ti on. Thi s may be accompl i shed by fi rst di s-
connecti ng the pr obe and then r-otfi ti ng the pi ckup i n azi muth unti l the
po~ver del i ~-ered to the bol ometer i s b db bel o\v pezk val ue. l he prol )c
connecti on i s then made; the pr obe moved to a mi ni m-urn posi ti on; the
pr obe tuni ng adjusted to d(?cpcn the mi ni mum; and fi nal l y, the mi ni rnl l m
may be sharpened by adjusti ng the pr obe depth. Sl i ghtl ~- mow t~l ni ng
may be necessary after the pr obe depth i s changed. he pr o}w depth
shoul d not be so great as to have a I :l rge rctl ecti on cocffi ci rnt.
After t})(.
above adjustments have been rna[l e the prol w tuni n~ i s not vari rd (I l i ri ng
the phase measl l rcments. The l east chanw bctwccn maxi ma AI N(
mi ni ma over :L 12-db range of pi ckup power fri l l l hti n bc tb:~t i n \\hi c]lt}W
power s from the pi ckup an(l the pr obe di ffer by a f:wtor of 4 ((j (l b), and
ther efor e the ampl i t(l (l cs I T-i l ldi ftcr l )Y :L factor of 2. llr rwl l t]ng r:~ti o
of the maxi ma ampl i tl l dr to the mi ni ma I \-i l lI w (2 + 1), (2 I ) = 3, :I n(l
the rati u of maxi mum to mi ni ml ]m Vol t:l gc as ol )s(rvd on the 13al l :mti nc
vol tmeter ~~i l l be 9, whi ch i s su~l ci cr)tl y l arge for accuratel y determi ni ng
mi ni ma.
l Vi th the system dcsrri bed :~ho~-ci t i >ntwss:~ry that a goo~l mutch bc
ensl l red l ooki ng from tl w bol ometcr to the pi (ki l l ], si nrc l hr l )()!~(i r
radi ated by t,hc prob(~ i nto the l i nr di \i [l cs. p:~l t goi nx to I hc l M)I OI U(,(CY,
part goi ng tol ~ard 1he pi ckl l p horn. r o (J}l ti l i n a g{l f)(l m:l l (l l :~tl l n~,r i s
pl aced bet\\-cenI l l e prwlm secti(m :111(1the t-f l i ne (tl l l nrctcd 10 I hc I )i fkl l l l
horn, as i n Fi g. 157. I f thi s SC(Ii on i s rni snmi (I I c(l , i l i e l xj\\cr (I cl i l rr[d
sm. 15.10] PhASE 1jE7ER.~fl,Y.4 TI 0.T,Y 567
bytheprobe tothebol omcter i s a functi on of i tsposi ti on al ong the l i ne,
~vi thamaxi ml l m tc~mi ni ml .tm rati o proporti onal tothe (VSWR)2 (l ooki ng
from bol ometer to pi rk~l p), and a peri od of 1/2. .ksaresul t fal se mi ni ma
may occur wi th roughi y k(,/2 spari ng i nstracf of the expected Ag spaci ng.
A good check on the phase-mrasl wi ng equi pment, i s to make sure that
no maxi ma ormi i l i ma ocr ur othe rthanthos eexartl y~(, apart.
The effect of a mi smatched pi ckup ma,v be i l l ustrated by the fol l owi ng
exampl e. ~Suppose that the vol tage ampl i tude at the bol omet~r from a
matrhecl pi ukup i s uni ty and that the ampl i tude from the pr obe at the
bol {)metrr i s 2, i ts phasr bri ng dcp(,ndc,nt on i ts posi ti on; then the res~l l tant
fi el (l ~t the bol omet~r i s
E = 1 + 2@~++, (23)
\vher ez i s the di stance of the pr o})e from the pi ckup and @ i s a phase angl e
that mprewnts the rel uti ve phasr l mti rern the vol tfi ge at the pr obe and
at the pi ckup. The po\~er i nto tl ~~ bol ometcr i s proporti onal to EE*
\vhicb is
Ei* = 5 + 4 cm (2@z + +). (24)
I l l ustrated i n Fi g. 1,5.11 i s a pl ot of EE* as a functi on of z for the case
@ = m. H(;I w 1~1 has a mi ni mum ~a]~l e of 1 at z = () and a maxi mum
va]ue of 9 at z = A,,/2 and 01hfi r mi ni ma at i ,,, 2k0 . . . and other maxi ma
at 3X(,12, 5k0,/2 . Thi s cxaml )l e sl l o\rs the pr oper peri odi ci ty that i s
obtai ned l vi th a I Vel l -mal rl l ((1 pi (kl ]l j.
I f, ho\Jever, thr pi rkul ) i s mi smatrhwl (for exampl e YSWR = 3), the
resul t ant fi el d at thc 1)[)l t)m(>l m depc]l ds on the pr obe posi ti on and i s
gi ven by
E = ] + 2r,(6z+$,+ f,t-~z+~+.),
(251
a depends on the phase of the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent of the pi ckup and
wi l l be chosen equal to zer o i nthi s exampl e wi thout affecti ng the qual i ta-
ti ve nature of the i l l ustrati on.
The bol omcter power ,for o = r, ~vi l l bc
II; =26cospz+8cos& (26)
The dashed cur ve i n Fi g. 15.11 shows the ~ari ati on of I E12VS. z. I t wi l l
be noted that i nstead of a mi ni mum at z = 0, ther e i s actual l y a maxi -
mum, and l i kewi se mi ni ma do not occur at kg spaci ng hi l t at spaci ngs of
0,378X, and 0.622 k,, and are poor l y deti ned. By vari ati on of the ampl i -
tudes and phases other undesi rabl e confi guratei ons may be obtai ned.
(a)
~ 2;/(2;+ZJ> a
3%402
a
l ;l ~. 1512.-Equi I wl cl , t {i rr(l i t of r -f probe.
That the vari ati on of pol ver as determi ned by the pr obe posi ti on i s a
functi on of the mi smatch of the pi ckup may be vel i fi ed by the fol l owi ng
anal ysi s. I f a gener ator of vol tage V~ and i nternal i mpedance Z. i s
connected to a l oad ZL by means of a transmi ssi on l i ne whose charac-
teri sti c i mpcdancc i s ZOaml l ength i s L, and i f Z,, and Z. are assumed to
be real (thi s assumpti on \\i l l not affect the general resul t), the po~ver
del i vered to the 1o:,(I i ; ~(()){*(()) 12 as obtai nwl tr[,m Fkl s. ((;) :md (7);
setti ng ~ = ~~,wc I 1:JI .c*
Power to the l oad =
2(,T: 1 r;.

2(Z + z(,)
(
4iI.
- (27]
I 2rI ,r(, cos ~ + r~r;
0
)
Note that the po\ver del i vered i s a funrti on of the l i ne l ength. The i nter-
acti on between the gener ator and the l oad i s contai ned i n the expressi on
(1 21,,1Ccos 4~L/xu + r~r;,) \\-hi ch~ari es bet\veen (1 + r,.r,,) and
(1 r,.r~)z,dependi ng upon the l i ne l ength.
The properti es of the prol w i n the phase-mrasuri ng ci rcui t. as r epr e-
sented i n the equi val ent ci rcui t of Fi g, 15. 12(1, may he (I etrrmi nerl from
Eq. (27). The i mpedance of the pi ckup arm i s reprcsrntcd by Z*, 1hr
SEC.15.10] PHA, YE l) I Wli[tM I NA 7IOAS 569
pr obe i s to be consi dered as a sour ce wi th ver y hi gh i mpedance; moti on of
the pr obe wi l l cause 12and 11to vary, but thei r sum wi l l be fi xed. J3Y
means of Th6veni ns them-em (See. 24), the above ci rcui t can bc repl aced
by the ci rcui t i n Fi g. 1(512b i n whi ch Z~ i s the i mpedance Z, transformed
to the termi nal s au. The repl acement of J. i n ~q. (27) hy vc~.zi ~(Z; + ZG)
and of ZQby Z~Z~/(Z~ + ZG) gi ~es as the power i nto the l oad
P = +~~ (1 r?.) (3~_r 2 cos 2P12+ r;)

. (1 2r,r,, COS2P1. +ri r))

(28)
for Zc >> Z. or Z,. The onl y factor that contains the position of the
probe is (1 + 2~z ros 2(312 + ri) ~vhich has a maximum value of
(1 + rJ and a mi ni mum val ue of (1 r,). Thus the rai i o of maxi -
mum to mi ni mum po\ver r ecei ved by the bol ometer by varyi ng the pr obe
posi ti on i s (I + r2)z/(1 rJ2 or the (Jswl t)? of the pi ckup arm.
To r emove thi s vari abl e effect of posi ti on a tuner may be used effec-
ti vel y to make I z = O. Another possi bi l i ty i s to use a wel l -matched
attenuator pad. A 3-db matched pad or attenuator (l ooki ng both ways)
reduces the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent by one-hal f; a 6-db pad, by one-quartm.
,Suppose, for exampl e, that the pi ckup (l SWR)~ i s {1 (rz = ~) and that a
6-db pad i s put between the pi rkup and the pr obe secti on; then the square
of the resul ti ng mi smatch wi l l be
2=[%-+-i ] = 65
(29)
thus appreci abl y reduci ng the effect of the pi ckup mi smatch. The l atter
method can be used onl y i f the l oss i n po\\-erl evel can be tol erated.
Frequency Sm.srl i ui ty.-I n or der to r educe frequency sensi ti vi ty i n
the pri mary pattern phase measurements, the path l engths from the
r-f sour ce to the mi xer must, be chosen so as to mi ni mi ze the change i n
phase of the two paths as a functi on of the \vavel ength. Consi der the
path from tuner A (Fi g. 157) to the mi xer ri a the feed and pi ckup, and
l et ther e be a l ength La for ~vhi rh the ~vavel engtb i s the fr ee space wa~c-
l ength 10 and a l cn.gth L. for ~vhi ch the ~vavel ength i s A,. I f the path
l ength Lo i ncl udes a secti on of di el ectri c-fi l l ed coaxi al l i ne of l ength 1.,
then L. = la + l.k,~, \~her e la i s the path l ength i n f r ee space or ai r-fi l l ed
coaxi al l i ne and k. i s the speci fi c i nducti l -e capaci ty of the di el ectri c
secti on. The cor r espondi ng di stances fr om poi nt A to bol mmcter vi a the
pr obe wi l l be i Soand S,. The di fference i n phase l x%~i een the t~vopaths i s
thi s:
(30)
(30a)
570 ANTE.VNA ME.4sURJ ;.tf E.V T,s-TI KH.VI (J 7_:lM [sm. 1511
For wavegui de ~, = AO/Vl (A O/ 2a) so that dk,/dAO = (~g/Ao) 3, ;vhence,
on cl i fferenti at i ng ~ wi th r espect to AO,we have
d4
[
La s=
=27r
-----( )1
__~ L$,, A,
dAo Ao (x,) x,
(31)
For a mi ni mum phase vari ati on d@/dA, ,= 0, and [W see that the di fference
i n path i n wavegui de for the t\vo paths shoul d he rel ated to the di ffcrenm
i n path l engths i n coaxi al l i ne or fr ee space by
s, L, = : ([,. s.). (32)
u
I t wi l l be noted that thi s k not the same rcs~dt \rhi ch one ~voul d obtai n
by si mpl y maki ng the el ectri cal path l engths equal , whi ch gi ves the
resul t S~ L~ = (A,,lko) (L. S.). Oi course, i t onl y transmi ssi on l i rms
wi th wavel ength k. are used, equal path l engths i n the t~vo di recti ons are
necessary to mi ni mi ze the fr equency sensi ti vi ty.
i % an exampl e of the decr ease i n frequency sensi ti vi ty, suppose
that Xo/?I O = 1.4 and that the frequency of the sour ce changes by 0,2 per
cent. Cal cul ati ng from Eq. (3oa) the change i n phase that occm-s for
thi s change i n frequency fvhen the pr oper di stance gi ven by Eq. (32) i s
used, one fi nds i t to be ~l uu of the phase change obtai ned by ~wi ngm~l l al
path l engths. I f L. S= = 50A0, the change i n phase i s 0.034 wi ng
pr oper path l engths, whereas ~vi th equal el ectri cal path l engths a phase
er r or of the 34.6 resul ts. The for mer i s negl i gi bl e i n phase measure-
ments. I n actual practi ce the rcqui rcrncnts of Eq. (32) need be met onl y
approxi matel y i f the l i ne I engt hs i n terms of vvi vel engt.h arc not ]argc.
15.11. Li ne-source Pri mary Pattern.The measurement of the
i ntensi ty and phase ci i stri buti ou al ong the l ength of a l i ne sour ce such
as a l i near array or pi l l box i s of i nterest. The measurement of the fi el d
cl ose to the l i ne source, whi ch usual l y has a smal l effecti ve ~erti rai
aperture and wi de hori zontal aperture, affords a ~al ual )l e check on the
desi gn of the l i ne source. The tcchni (~~m i n\ol vccf i n thi s measurement
are exactl y the same as those {i i scl l ssed a]mve i n connecti on ~vi th poi nt
sources, wi th the excepti on th:Lt moti on of the pi ckup must be paral l el
to the l i ne sour ce as the i ntensi ty fi nd phase measurements are taken.
Thi s does not r epr esent any cl i ffi (l l l t y i f i ntrmsi ty di stri buti on al une i s
desi red. For phase determi nanti f)n+. hf)i ~-c.,cr, the appwutus l xx,f)mes
mor e compl i ratccf, si nce sevcrfi l l ot Nti ug j(~i nt>l uust be ut i l i zcd i n (Jr(h,r
to el i mi nate the tfe~i ng tal )l es i )-l l i ch mi Ly cal be .3,pparcnt tha])ges i l l
phase. Fi ~ure 1513 i s a skct (I 1 of a sl l i tal jl c :Lpl )a]atl l sj col l t :Li ])i ])~
thr ee rotati ng joi nts i n or (l r r to nMl w I wwi tde thc rrtl ui rc(l l i ucar u:t)ti on.
These thr ee are necessary i f tl w l i ne sour ce I wi ng studi ed i s hori zontal l y
SEC. 1511] I . I .l -I i -oY(i l -l {(l ~ l l i l .l l . i 1{~ 1.1 77l.l<.\ - 57 I
pol ari zed. For ver t i ca! pol ari zati on the r otar y joi nt attached to the
opti cal bench can be el i mi nated by usi ng a coaxi al pi ckup mounted i n a
beari ng. Care ml l st l W taken that the rotary joi nts u,r p pr oper l y desi gned
so as not to shoJv a changr i n phaw !~-i lh rot at i on. They shoul d be
fastened i n such a l vay tl l :~t the!- If ill not go out L~r al i gnment. The
nput from
I
r-f source
1
-a&k&-. J]
> /7i Movatl e
sldfv
t 7/
T tmolmt,,,i
er t~ble
I
probe
?&
. .
~------
To ampllfler
rotary joi nts are al l mounted i n a pl ane wi th the fi rst joi nt fastened to
the travel i ng arm of the opti cal bench, the second movabl e about a
ci rcl e whose center i s the thi rd fi xed r otar y joi nt.
The r-f output from
the thi ~d r otar y joi nt i s she\\-nher e bei ng fed i nto the phase detecti on
system. The mi xi ng system i l l ustrated her e uti l i zes the m-cal l ed Ll agi c
T that wi l l be di scussed bel o\~-.
The power coupl ed from the gener ator
output for a phase r efer ence i s fed i nto a tunabl e sl i di ng pr obe \vhi ch
exci tes the \vavegui de, one end of whi ch i s termi nated i n a matched l oad
and the other end connected by cabl e to the 31agi c T. A di al i ndi cator
(cal i brated i n O.001 i n.) i sshownr nounted ontheprobe secti on so that
the moti on of the pr obe may be accuratel y measured. For i ntensi ty
measurements the cabl e to the pr obe i s di sconnected. Usual l y the di s-
tance between l i ne sour ce and pi ckup i s onl y of the or der of 2 to 4X i n
or der to stay wi thi n the cyl i ndri cal ~vave zone of the source. The
pi ckup shoul d be as smal l as feasi bl e i n or der to pre~-ent any i nteracti ons
of the pi ckup i n the fi el d of the l i ne source. The sketch al so i ndi cates
that the movabl e parts of the apparatus are r emoved from the i ntense
~orti on of the radi ated fi el d so as to r educe extraneous refl ecti ons. The
oper ator shoul d l i ke\vi se be out of the strong fi el d.
15.12. Magi c T.The Magi c T1 may be advantageousl y used i n
phase measurements to r educe i nteracti on effects di scussed i n connecti on
\vi th the apparatus showm i n Fi g. 15.7. The wavegui de form of thi s
devi ce i s shown i n Fi g. 1514. I f po\\-eri s fed i nto branch P (paral l el
arm) and A and B are termi nated by matched l oads, then the power
di vi des equal l y between branches A and B, si nce a symmetri c condi ti on
s
exi sts and ther e i s no component of fi el d
a
avai l abl e to exci te arm h. I f power i s
fed i nto arm S (seri es arm), the po\\er
*
- i-
agai n di vi des equal l y bet\veen A and b
A )_____ ., B but the fields in each arm are 18(3 O[lt,
-
/
+--
of phase and no po~ver i s del i vered to
/
/
branch P. I n or der to pr event r efl ected
/
P
poi ver i n arms P and S respecti }-el ~-, i t
i s necessary that a match exi st, l ooki ng
~10. 15.14.The .Magic T.
into arms P and S respecti vel y when arms
A and B are termi nated bv matched l oads. I n thi s \vav i nteracti on
between the two sources del i ~eri ng po\ver from P and S to ~rms A and B
i s made negl i gi bl e.
I n the Magi c T as used i n the pri mary pattern apparatus, arm A i s
termi nated by a matched l oad and arm B i s termi nated by a rnatchwi
bol ometer. Po\ver from the pi ckup i s fed to P as she\\-ni n Fi g. 15.13,
and power from the sour ce i s fed to arm S (thi s or der can, of course, be
1 SCC \rO1.11 of thi s seri es.
SEC. 15.13] BEAPON AZ IMIJTH IATTERNS 573
r ever sed). Therel ati ve phase of the fi el ds from thetwoe ffecti vesourcm
i s vari ed by means of the sl i di ng probe. 310ti onof the pr obe a di stance
p = d(A./A) toward the bol ometer i s exactl y equi val ent to moti on of
the pi ckup horn a di stance d perpendi cul ar to i ts path toward the
source.
15.13. Beacon Azi muth Patterns.A mi crowave beacon antenna
may be exami ned for uni formi ty of azi muth pattern by uti l i zi ng the
apparatus descri bed for poi nt sources, wi th the si mpl i fi cati on menti oned
wher e i ntensi ty onl y i s measured. 1 The accuracy requi red for azi muth
patterns i s not ver y hi gh because one i s usual l y i nterested i n uni formi ty
to wi thi n 1 or 2 db. Because of the essenti al l y uni form azi muth patterns,
refl ecti ons from many sources may affect the resul ts; ther efor e parti cu-
l ar car e must be taken that refl ecti ons from surroundi ng wal l s and objects
are negl i gi bl e and the apparatus shoul d be l ocated i n as open a space as
possi bl e, si nce a 360 pattern i s desi red. The pi ckup shoul d be as smal l
as possi bl e i f measurements cl ose to the beacon are bei ng made. How-
ever , i f suffi ci ent r-f power i s avai l abl e so that a l arger di stance between
pi ckup and beacon can be used, then the pi ckup may be l arger and mor e
di recti ve. Si nce i n the measurement of azi muth patterns onl y a few deci -
bel s vari ati on are observed, gr eater sensi ti vi ty i n the apparatus may be
obtai ned by the use of crystal i nstead of a bol ometer as a detecti ng
el ement. Over a range of several deci bel s the l aw of the crystal wi l l
not appreci abl y affect the rel ati ve readi ngs. For exampl e, assumi ng a
square-l aw crystal , the rati o of peak power to mi ni mum power mi ght
be 100 to 50 or 2; i f the exponent i n the l aw of the crystal wer e 2.3;
the correspondi ng readi ngs woul d have a rati o of 2.2 whi ch i s wi thi n
~ db. For a l i ttl e mor e accuracy, the rati o may be cor r ected to a suffi -
ci ent degr ee i f the approxi mate l aw of the crystal i s known.
Ther e may be some questi on about the di stance requi red for measure-
ment; obvi ousl y a di stance between pi ckup and beacon of 2L2/k, wher e
L i s the verti cal l ength of the beacon, woul d certai nl y be safe. However ,
because the di recti vi ty i n the azi muth pl ane i s al most nonexi stent, thi s
di stance coul d easi l y be r educed by a factor of 2 or 4 befor e an appre-
ci abl e change i n azi muth pattern i s observed.
Two schemes have been used for beacon measurements. I n one of
these the transmi tti ng beacon i s kept fi xed and the pi ckup i s r otated i n
azi muth about the verti cal axi s passi ng through the beacon. The ,other
pr ocedur e i s to r otate the beacon about i ts verti cal axi s, feedi ng power
i nto the beacon by means of a r otar y joi nt, whi l e the pi ckup i s kept
fi xed. I n l i ni ng up the apparatus, the pi ckup i s adjusted verti cal l y so
that a cut through the peak of the beam i s taken. Usual l y the axi s of
the pi ckup wi l l be i n a hori zontal pl ane bi secti ng the beacon.
1Sec. 15.8.
SECONDARY PATTERN MEASUREMENTS
15.14. Si ti ng Consi derati ons.I n general , the term secnndarY
pattern i s associ ated wi th di rerti ve antennas that are l arge, measured
i n \va\-~l engths, and wi th a l arge di stance hetl veen the transmi tter and
r ecei ver . A di recti ve antenna wi l l usual l y consi st of a pri marl - radi ator
together \\-i tha r efl ector or l ens or combi nati on of r efl ector s or l enses.
The secondary pattern i s the Fraunhofer pattern of the antenna i n
questi on. '~hetechni ques i nvol uted i nnl casurementa rcfai rl ysi mpl eancl
cl osel y rel ated to those i n the di scussi on of pri mary feed patterns. The
si mpl i fyi ng consi derati on her e l i es i n the fact that onl y the rel ati ve fi el d
i ntensi ty or po\ver per uni t sol i d angl e, and not the phase, i s of i nterest.
The di scussi on wi l l center about the method of taki ng recei vi ng pat-
terns. I n bri ef, a di stant transmi tter sends an essenti al l y pl ane-pol ar-
i zed \vave toward the recei vi ng antenrm. The power r ecei ved by the
recei vi ng antenna as a functi on of i ts ori entati on wi th r espect to the l i nti
of si ght bet\veen the transmi tti ng and recei vi ng antennas i s r ecor ded
ei ther manual l y or by a r ecor di ng devi ce; the data thus obtai ned provi de
a pattern of rel ati ve fi el d i ntensi ty or rel ati ve po!ver per uni t sol i d angl e
for the antennaunder study.
The di stance between the transmi tti ng and recei vi ng antennas i s di c-
tated by the si ze of the antenna bei ng i n\-esti gated, Tbe si te shoul (i
411. Rk
be cbosenl vi th the l argest antenna
/
to be i n~esti gated i n mi nd. I t i s
fB+___
<
requi red by theor y that a pl ane
\
~, ~ wave be i nci dent on the recei vi ng
~__ ~-$ antenna; actual l y, thi s requi rement
D L4. .f. ___h___h
// /
/ i s met wi thi n a certai n tol erance.
f/
/--- Transmitter
A parabol oi dal antenna as a trans-
l ~r<;.15.1,5.OI I tl ,e pattl l ength for second-
my natcerns,
mi tter w-i l l appear to be a poi nt
sour ce when vi ewed fr om a l arge
di stance. I f the di stance i s suffi ci entl y l arge, then-avefr ont over asm:,.11
porti un of the mai n beam ~ri l l de~i atefr om apl ane~vave byonl y a smal l
amount.
Refer r i ng to Fi g. 15.15, l et D be the aperture di mensi on over \vhi ch
a pl ane wa\~ei s desi red for pattern measurements and R be the di stance
between the transmi tter, of aperture d, and the antenna to be i n\-esti -
gated; then tbe di fference i n path l ength bet\veen the outer edge of D
and the center i s gi ven by
AR= R R.
Sl l mmi ng the squares of the si des of the ri ght tri angl e 0.1 B ~~e have
()
r) 2
R+ ~ = (R + JR).
SE(!. 1514]
,s171.V(; (() !YLVI 1)EI {A Tl oi ji 5
575
I f \ve requi re that AR shal l be a smal l fracti on of a \~avel ength, (AR)
i s negl i gi bl e, and ther e resul ts
~=p_
8AR
(33)
For a path di fference M? = A/16 I VCi l ave
(34)
whi ch i s a safe di stance to USC. ~he effect (If such small deviation fr{m~
a pl ane wave onl y sl i ghtl y affects any gai n detm mi nati onsl and causes
ver y sl i ght changes i n the pattern obtai ned as compared }~i th that whi ch
woul d be obtai ned i f the \vave w-er e trul y pl ane.
1his di stance ~vi l l al so
mi ni mi ze any i nteracti on betl !wen transmi tter and r cr ei ~r er . ~
.krt,ual l y
i f space or po\ver l i mi tati ons do not al l o\~ such a g~ei i t di staure, then a
di stance of D A may be tol erated.
Thi s \vi l l l ead, i n general , to an
apparent decr ease i n measured gai n, an apparent i ncrease i n the mi ni ma
of the si de-l obe structure, practi cal l y no effect on the maxi ma of the si de
l obes, and gr eater possi bi l i ty of transmi tter and r ecei ver i nteracti on.
Cal cul ati ons may be carri ed out for certai n i deal cases i l l ustrati ng the
semi quanti tati ve nature of the above remarks.
I n the for egoi ng di scussi on the di stance R is determi ned by a con-
si derati on of the phase dm-i at i on of the i nri derl t \ra\re. Anothw fartor
to be consi dered i s the uni formi ty of the power di stri buti on over the
aperture D. I f we rcql l i re that the po~ver at the edge of the apertnrc
shal l be a certai n fracti on of thr pol ver at the ccntcr, another cri teri on
for R resul ts. I n the vi ci ni ty of the peak of the brai n of the transmi tter
of aperture d, the po~vcr i n di rert i on 6may he approxi mated by
=+-2(01
(35)
!vher e @l = 1.2k/d i s the fl l l l I vi dth of thr t ransrni tti ng l warn at. hal f
power . Then i f P = O.!) P,, an(l 0 ~ 1) 2R radi ans at the edge of the
aperture, ther e resul ts by substi tuti on
R=~. (36)
Accordi ngl y, i f the transmi tter al wrture i s equal to the recei vi ng aper-
ture, the cri teri :l of dkt2LII(C for I )ropcr phase Mld for i ntensi ty over the
r ecei vi ng aperrl l rr are tl l c s:Lnl e. 1hr tramsmi t ti ng antenna i s usl l al l .v
smal l er than t I l e recei vi ng al x, rl I I re; ami thcr ef(jr e uml er the previ o]l s
cri teri on [l ;q. (34)], tl I c l )()!rer at tl I e LI I l gr (Jttl l c rm,ei vi ng :l pcrture i s
the same wi thi n :L fr\\-per cent as tl )at at 1}i c center of the aperture.
1S(YSW6!1
2See Ser . 1522
Other factors determi ni ng the separati on of transmi tter and r ecei ver
are the power avai l abl e i n the r-f sour ce and the sensi ti vi ty of the r ecei v-
i ng system. Gi ven two antennas separated by a di stance R, the power
~erei ved, P,, by the r ecei vi ng antenna w-hen power P~ i s transmi tted I vi th
gai n G, i s gi ven by
(37)
~vi th the absorpti on cross secti on (A,) gi ven by GEx~/47r. Her e one i s
real l y concer ned \vi th the smal l est antenna that can be i nvesti gated,
si nce thi s w-i l l be the l i mi ti ng factor on P,.
To i l l ustrate the appl i cati on of the cri teri a consi der the probl em of
choosi ng a si te for measurement of antennas at wavel engths varyi ng from
3 to 10 cm. Assume (1) that r-f (magnetron) sources of 50 watts a~crage
po\ver are avai l abl e, (2) that antennas to be studi ed vary from 1 to
10 ft, and (3) that 1 mw of average power r ecei ved i n the bol ometer
detecti ng system corresponds to 100 vol ts on the el ectroni c vol tmeter.
The l i mi ti ng condi ti ons are most stri ngent at the shortest wavel ength;
and i f sati sfactory for thi s wavel ength, they wi l l be mor e than sui tabl e
for the l arger wavel engths as far as di stances and power are concer ned.
Al so, hi gher power sources are usual l y avai l abl e at the l onger wavel engths.
For the above assumpti ons the fol l owi ng condi ti ons resul t:
1.
2.
3.
Speci fyi ng that the phase vari ati on over the aperture D, whi ch i s
taken equal to 10 ft, shal l not exceed k/16 for a wavel ength of
3 cm, the di stance R requi red i s found to be 2130 ft by l ;q. (34).
The maxi mum di ameter d of the transmi tti ng antenna can be as
l arge as 10 ft and sti l l sati sfy the 90 per cent power requi rement
at the edge of D.
To read 100 vol ts on the vol tmeter for the smal l est antenna bei ng
studi ed, namel y, D = 1 ft, a conservati ve esti mate for the gai ns of
the recei vi ng and transmi tti ng antennas i s gi ven by GR = ~(mD/A) ~
and Gr ==~(ml /N2. Setti ng R = 2000 ft i n accordance \ri th
condi ti on 1, NWhave by I tq. (37) that the mi ni mum aperture of the
transmi tter i s d = 2.5 ft. Thus al l the condi ti ons of the probl em
are sati sfi ed.
At a wa~el ength of 10 cm the transmi tter aperture requi red
woul d be approxi matel y 7 ft i n or der to r ecei ve power of 1 m\v at
the detector of u 1-ft antenna at the r ecei ~er j assumi ng the trans-
mi tter po\r er i s 50 w~tts as before.
The next mo,t i mportau~ condi ti on for chomi ng a si te, \vhen the
power and di stance requi rements are s~ti sfi ed, i s the ti bseuce of refl ecti ng
objects, parti cul arl y bui l di ngs, I f 3000 p~ttmms arc desi red, then cl ear
s~wrouncl i ngs for 360 must be avai l abl e. IJOICdi stances as great as those
SK(. 15.14] ,TI TI .T(; (():V,SI D1<I !. iTI ().V,Y
577
requi red for studyi ng l arge mi crowave antennas, one us~l al l y must
choose a si te between tl l o hi gh poi nts, such as bui l di ngs or hi l l s. The
i nter fer ence bet;veen the di rect beam fr om the trarwmi ttrr and the
r efl ected beam fr om the grfnmd may resul t i n a poor fi el d di ~tri buti nu
over the aper tur e that, i s bei ng
studi ed. To el i mi nate thi s i nter-
fer ence, the transmi tti ng antenna
shoul d be as di recti ve as possi bl e
so that i fs fi rst mi ni mum \vi l l be
i n such a di recti on that even a
specul ar refl ecti on wi l l not affect
the fi e!d. Thi s i s i l l ustrated i n
m
Ground
Fi g. 15.16. Si nce the fi rst mi ni mum i n the transmi tti ng beam \vi l l m,(l l r
at approxi matel y k/d radi fi ns from the peak, then 2}1/1? ~ k/d or
(38a)
the l arger the transmi tti ng di sh the l o\\-mthe hei ght requi red, and tl ,e
l onger the Tvavel ength t}l e gr eater the hei ght, for a gi ven di stti nre R.
I f R = 2D2/k, then
(381))
Tn the probl em di scussed befor v i ri th ?) = 10 ft and d = 2,5 ft, Eq,
(381,) \voul d mean a rml ui red hei ght of 100/2.5 = 40 ft. Ho\vever , si nce
the cri teri on for the 10-cm wavel ength i s not ful fi l l ed, I md refl ecti ons
may occur at the l onger ~vavel engtbs. Thi s i s one of the di ffi cul ti es
i nvol ved i n hal ,i ng one si te for a l arge spread i n wavel engths. A pos-
si bl e method to mi ni mi ze the effect of the r efl ected beam i s to pl ace
absorpti on screens or di ffrarti n~ edges hal f\\-ay bet\\-ccd the two si tr%.
[t mi ght appear that a refl r(ti ou of 1 per cent i n pol ver may be negl i gi bl e;
ho\\-ever, one ml l st remember that i f \r e ha~-c ti vo \vti vcs of r especti ve
power s 100 and 1, and i f they i nter fer e ronst rurt i vrl y m dest rurti vdy,
the resul ti ng vari ati on i n po!!-er r ecei ved i s not 101 to !)!) but rather
(10 + 1)2 to (10 1) or 121 to 81, si nce i t i s the ampl i tudes that add, n(,~
the powers.
The vari ous condi ti ons hare bcxm stated, and a sl l i tabl e compromi se
must be made l wt\\-een the vari uus factors i nvol vc(l l s(l ch :LS hei ghts
and separati sm of si tes, sprrud uf \\-a\-el engthsl l ei ng consi f~me(i , pofyer
avai l abl e, sensi ti vi ty of the (l ctccti on system, and the accuracy desi red
i n the radi ati on pattern. I n the exampl e di scuswl , i t mi ght I w nwws-
sary to resol ~-r the confl i ct txti wx.n the vari ous ron(l i ti ons by the use of
several si tes.
After i hr si te hm lwen rh(wm,
it sht)lll(l lm chet,~c{l for l }ni formi ty
578
ANTENNA MEA SUREMEN T.~TECHNIQ lJ ES [SEC. 15.15
of fi el d. The pr ocedur e to be fol l owed i s to di rect the transmi tter beam
so that the center of i ts peak i s on the center of the recei vi ng si te. A
pi ckup antenna, ei ther a parabol oi d or a horn, i s then moved over the
aperture of i nterest, and the fi el d i ntensi ty i s exami ned for uni formi ty.
The fi el d shoul d al so be exami ned i n depth to be sure that the i ntensi ty
does not fl uctuate seri ousl y for moti ons toward or away from the trans-
mi tter correspondi ng to the depth of the antenna system. I f the di stance
requi rement i s sati sfi ed and the fi el d i ntensi ty i s uni form over the aper-
ture, i t wi l l not be necessary to check the phase.
15.15. Pattern Measurernents.-l l e mount on whi ch the recei vi ng
antenna i s to be pl aced shoul d have at l east t\vorotati on axes: an azi muth
axi s and an el evati on axi s, so that compl ete space patterns may be
obtai ned wi thout too much di fi cti l ty. Al though other axes may be mor e
conveni ent for some purposes, the two stated are certai nl y suffi ci ent.
Whenever possi bl e, patterns shoul d be taken i n azi muth, si nce refl ecti ons
from the ground can usual l y be mi ni mi zed. For mechani cal reasons the
azi muth patterns are l i kewi se desi rabl e, as i t i s easi er to make an accurate
mount for azi muth rotati ons than for el evati on.
The transmi tti ng antenna shoul d be on a mount whi ch permi ts moti on
through an angl e suffi ci ent to di rect the peak of the beam at the recei vi ng
antenna, and ther e shoul d be provi si on for l ocki ng the antenna i n pl ace.
For conveni ence, the mount shoul d al so ha~-e the pr oper ty that turni ng
the antenna 90 for changi ng the pol ari zati on does not requi re shutti ng
off the transmi tter sour ce and does not change the di recti on of the peak
of the beam. I f a parabol oi d antenna i s used as a transmi tter, the unde-
si rabl e cross-pol ari zati on component may be r educed by fasteni ng to the
aperture of the parabol oi d a grati ng structure \vi th spaci ng approxi -
matel y 3k/8 and depth approxi matel y 1/4, wi th pol ari zati on of the
antenna perpendi cul ar to the grati ng sl ats. Such a wavegui de-beyond-
cutoff grati ng wi l l decr ease the cross pol ari zati on of the transmi tti ng
antenna about 10 db bel o~v i ts normal val ue. 31agnetron sources have
pr oved sati sfactory as a fai rl y constant, hi gh-l evel r-f sour ce for the
transmi tti ng antenna. Modul ated hi gh-po\ver kl ystrons may be used
i f the potr er requi rements are sati sfi ed, or an unmodul ated c-w transmi t-
ter , i f a super heter odyne detecti on system i s used.
The antenna under study i s mounted, for exampl e, wi th i ts domi nant
pol ari zati on verti cal so that the H-pl ane pattern may be studi ed i n azi -
muth, The transmi tter must ha~-e verti cal pol ari zati on. The antenna
i s adjusted i n azi muth and el evati on to r ecei ve maxi mum potver , The
transmi tter i s then adjusted to be sure that i ts peak i s di rectl y poi nted
toward the recei vi ng antenna. The antenna i s then r epeaked for maxi -
mum power , and the mechani sm control l i ng el evati on i s I ockcd, These
l ast two steps shoul d be necessary onl y i f the transmi tter has been
repl aced or moved si nce the ori gi nal si ti ng measurements. A n:mi -
tori ng r ecei vi ng antenna r oughl y peaked on the transmi tter shoul d bc
avai l abl e to cherk the transmi tti ng po]ver l e~-el at any ti me. The verti cal
axi s of the antcnua mount sl i (Ju!d be perpendi cul ar to the l i ne of si ght
beti reen the transmi tter Jnd test antenna to ensure that the pr oper azi -
muth cut i s takru, Thi s condi ti on i s parti cul arl y i mportant, m-hen
nar r oI v-beam antennas arc bei ng i nvesti gated. The bol ometer dctect,i on
system nrccl not be m~tche(l to the transmi ssi on l i ne, si nce the mi smatch
of the bol ometer does not affect rel ati ve response. The antenna i s then
r otated i n azi muth, and the po}ver r ecei ved as a functi on of angl e i s
r ecor ded ei ther manual l y or by means of a r ecor der . The val ue of a
r ecor der l i es mai nl y i n i ts speed when the effects on the pattern cal ]sed by
changi ng \-ari abl es are bei ng studi ed and i n thr conti nui ty of data as
}vel l as i n the permanent Yal ue as a r ecor d. For si ngl e patterns i ts val l l c
i s questi onabl e as far as ti rw saved i s concer ned, si nce most of the ti me
requi red for antenna measurements i s used i n setti ng up the antenna and
prepari ng the el ectri cal equi pment for measurements.
To obtai n the E-pl ane pattern, the antenna i s r etur ned to i ts peak
di recti on and l ocked i n azi muth. The antenna i s then r otated i n el eva-
ti on, and i ts E-pl ane pattern taken. I )ata taken poi nti ng i nto the ground
may be questi onabl e; to get the remai ni ng 180 of the pattern i t \vi l l be
necessary to r ever se the mounti ng of the antenna. A better pr ocedur e
i s to r otate the antenna {10 so that i ts pol ari zati on i s hori zontal (the
transmi tter must al so be r otated 90) and i ts E-pl ane pattern taken i n
azi muth.
The si mpl est pr ocedur e for obtai ni ng compl ete space cm-erage pat-
terns ~vi th a tl ro-a,xi s rntmnt i s to take the normal E- or I I -pl ane pattern
i n azi muth and then to r otate the antenna O i n el evati on and take an
azi muth pattern, thus obtai ni ng the d cut. Thi s i s r epeated for al l
angl es o of i nterest. Space patterns are usual l y taken or,l y for fanned
beams of the type used for navi gati on purposes. (er t ai n precauti ons
must be observed, ho\ve\-er,i n the choi ce of axes i n the event that pattern
cuts are requi red for a shap~d-bearn antenna such as descri bed i n Chap.
13, The ant enna shoul d be mounted so that the pl ane cent ai ni ng the
fl are of the beam i s verti cal . The angul ar \\-i dthsmeasured i n the trans-
ver se cut patterns \vi l l then be true. I f the antenna i s mounted \~i th the
fanned beam i n the hori zontal pl ane, the angul ar wi dths, now measured
i n the verti cal pl ane, are too l arge by a factor of sec 0, wher e o i s the
cut angl e. These condi ti ons are i mposed by the mechani cal aspects
of the mount desi gn.
The cross-pol ari zati on pattern for any desi red cut i s obtai ned by
si mpl y rotati ng the transmi tti ng antenna 90 and taki ng the pattern as
usual . ~he grati ng i n front of the transmi tti ng paral ~t)l (~i (iensures that
the cross pol ari zati on of the recei vi ng antenna i s measurml :l nd not that
of the transmi tter, Together wi th thi s prcxaut i (ul I i rs the addi t i on:i l
580
AI VTENNA MEASLJ REii{EiV7,SlECH.VI QUES [SEC. 15.17
l arge factor of safety that i f thetransmi tter i sasymmetri c parabol oi dal
antenna, the cross pol ari zati on al ong the peak of the beam i s negl i gi bl e.
The maxi mum of the cross pol ari zati on occurs roughl y at an angl e of
X/d radi ans from the peak and i s usual l y at l east 16 db down from peak
power .
15.16. Gai n Measurements.Thus far the pr ocedur es for determi n-
i ng rel ati ve fi el d i ntensi ty or rel ati ve power per uni t sol i d angl e i n al l
di recti ons have been di scussed. Ho\vever , for the cal cul ati on of the
transmi ssi on or r ecepti on of radi ated ener gy i t i s necessary to pl ace the
radi ati on pattern on an absol ute basi s. To do thi s a standard uni form
radi ator i s assumed, and the di recti ve gai n of an antenna i s then defi ned
as the rati o of the peak radi ated power per uni t sol i d angl e to the radi -
ated power per uni t sol i d angl e from an i sotropi c radi ator, assumi ng the
same total radi ated power i n each case. Knowl edge of the gai n and the
radi ati on pattern ther efor e fi xes the radi ati on i n any di recti on.
For practi cal appl i cati ons, one woul d l i ke to have a quanti ty that
expresses the power per uni t sol i d angl e i n the di recti on of maxi mum
radi ated power i n terms of the power del i vered to the antenna termi nal s.
Or conversel y, i f the antenna i s used as a recei vi ng antenna, one woul d
l i ke to know the maxi mum power del i vered to a l oad matched to the
antenna transmi ssi on l i ne of assumed zer o l oss when the power per uni t
sol i d angl e i nci dent on the antenna i s kno\vn. Thi s effecti ve gai n, as
defi ned above, wi l l di ffer from the defi ni ti on of di recti ve gai n that was
used i n previ ous chapters onl y i n so far as i t takes i nto account heati ng
10SS?Si n the antenna and the l oss of power due to refl ecti on as a resul t of
havi ng a mi smatched antenna. I t i s assumed that the same l osses wi l l
resul t whether the antenna i s used as a transmi tter or a r ecei ver , and
ther efor e the recei vi ng and transmi tti ng gai ns of an antenna are i denti cal .
Typi cal pr ocedur es for determi ni ng di recti ve gai n and effecti ve gai n
wi l l be di scussed, and pr ocedur es for determi ni ng effecti ve gai n standards
~vi l l be outl i ned.
15.17. Di recti ve Gai n.The di recti ve gai n of a transmi tti ng antenna
r efer r ed to an i deal i sotropi c radi ator i s gi ven by
Di recti ve gai n =
peak po\ver radi ated/uni t sol i d angl e
total power radi ated/4n
or that of a recei vi ng antenna by
Di recti ve gai n =
peak power r ecei ved
average power r ecei ved
Thi s defi ni ti on does not take i nto account any heati ng l osses or refl ecti on
l osses.
Experi mental l y the di recti ve gai n is obtai ned di rectl y from the radi a-
ti on pattern (ei ther recei vi ng or transmi tti ng). I f the rel ati ve po\\cr
SE(,. 1.51s] G.4 [,+ COMPA RI ,VO.V 581
per uni t sol i d angl e P(o, 1#1) as a functi on of ori entati on o and @ has been
dete~mi ned, then
Di r ecti ve gai n = 7
4TP(0,0)
//
T P(@, @) si n 0 de db
00
(39)
\vher e o = Oand @ = Oi s the di recti on of peak radi ati on. For accuracy
a compl ete space pattern i s requi red.
For an antenna wi th essenti al l y a penci l -beam pattern, the assump-
ti on i s frequentl y made that P(L9,@) may be r epl aced by the aver age of
the radi ati on pattern i n the pri nci pal E- ancf If-planes ~vith no depend-
ence on O. I f P,, (6] and P~(0) are the patterns i n the pri nci pal E- and
H-pl anes respecti ~rl y, then
Di r ecti ve gai n =
4P(0,0)
~ P,.(o) si n 0 dtl + ~oTP~(0) si n 0 de
(40)
For i ntegrati on
to l rri tl e 1 = 1
the equati on
purposes (pl ani meter or Si mpsons r ul e), i t i s conveni ent
cos o ti nd pl ot P~ and 1,, as a f~mcti on of T, l eadi ng to
Di recti ve gai n =
4P(0,0)
/
o [PE(X) + PH(r)l (ix
(41)
Thi s approxi mate pr ocedur e has been found to be fai rl y accurate (wi thi n
10 per cent) for penci l -beam antennas i n \rhi ch not too l arge a porti on
of the radi ated ener gy i s contai ned wi thi n the si de-l obe structure).
The experi mental determi nati on of di recti ve gai n i s ver y tedi ous
and i s subject to many possi bl e er r or s such as i ncompl eteness of radi ati on
pattern measurements, spuri ous l obes due to i mproper setti ng, i naccuracy
of angl e determi nati ons, i mproper e~-al uati on of noi se, and er r or s i n
graphi cal i ntegrati on. I t al so suffers fr om the fact that the ti me r c(l ui r ed
for such a measurement i s l ong and thus rapi d gai n det ermi nat i ons can-
not be made.
15.18. Gai n Compari son .The best method for determi ni ng effecti ve
gai n, \~hi ch i s the quanti ty of most i nt crest,
i s h!; compari son of the
antenna under i nvesti gati on wi t, h that of a gai n standard, ei ther on
r ecepti on or on transmi ssi on. The pr ocedur e for determi ni ng such a
gai n standard i s di scussed l ater.
The experi mental setup for gai n compari sons of a recei vi ng antenna
i s the same as that uti l i zed for recei vi ng pattern measurements.
I ;ni -
formi ty of fi el d arross the pattern mount, i s esscuti al for accurate gai n
cornparl sons. The antenna i s fi rst peuked i n azi muth, and el evati on for
rnaxi ml l rn r ecei ved po\ver and the r ecei ved potver P,, i s noted.
The
antenn:~ i s thrn repl aced by the standard ant mma jfhi ch i s al so peaked
i n azi muth and el evati on for nmxi mum r ecei ved po\ver P. usi ng the same
detecti on apparatus. The effecti ve gai n of the antenna i s then
G = ~ X gai n of standard.
8
I f the fi el d i s uni form, the gai n standard may be cl amped to the mount
near the antenna under study. The reci procal pr ocedur e i s uti l i zed for
measuri ng gai n on transmi ssi on.
Several precauti ons must be taken to ensure accurate gai n com-
pari sons, (1) I t i s essenti al that the fi el d di stri buti on be uni form; other -
wi se the gai n compari son \\-i l ldepend on the rel ati ve posi ti ons of the t\vo
antennas. (2) A moni tori ng antenna at the recei vi ng stati on peaked
on the transmi tter shoul d al \vays be avai l abl e to check the constancy of
the transmi tter output. I f the output has vari ed duri ng the measure-
ments, the rati o P./P. must be cor r ected for the change i n power l evel .
(3) The same detecti on system shoul d be used for both the antenna and
antenna gai n standard. (4) The detecti on system shoul d be matched
to the transmi ssi on l i ne. Thi s may be accompl i shed ei ther by means of
a tuner or by a sui tabl e matchi ng transformer. I n ~ny case, the match-
i ng devi ce shoul d be consi dered M part of the detecti on system and not
changed duri ng the determi nati on of P,, and P.. (5) The readi ngs P,,
and P, must be cor r ected i f the response of the detecti on system i s not
square l LW. (6) The matched gai n stand:ard sho(l ]d be (1i recti ve and pref-
erabl y have a gai n comparabl e (\~i thi n 10 db) to that of the antenna
under study.
Assumi ng that the gai n standard i s matched to the transmi ssi on l i ne
and that the detector i s l i ke\vi se matched to the l i ne, the gai n determi ned
i n the above pr or edur e measures the effi ci ency of the test antenna com-
pared \vi th the gai n standard. I f the mi smatch of the test antenna i s
known, the measured gai n under matched condi ti ons may be cor r ected
by mul ti pl yi ng by 1/(1 I rl ), wher e I ,, i s the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent of
the antenna. I I n pri nci pl e the effr cti ve gai n of the matched antenna can
be obtai ned by i nserti ng a tuner i n the transmi ssi on l i ne and adjusti ng
the tuner for maxi mum r ecei ved pu\rer, Thi s serves to rmphasi zr the
fact that them i s actual l y no di fference between (1) matchi ng both the
detector and the antenna to the l i ne and (2) matchi ng the detector to
the antenna, but owi ng to unavoi dabl e l osses i n most tuni ng dcri ces i t i s
mor e sati sfactory to match the detector to the transmi ssi on l i ne by other
methods and then make cor r ecti ons for the mi smatch of the antenna,
15.19. Pri mary Gai n Standard Determi nati on .Ci vcm two i denti cal
matched antennas separated by a l arge di stance R ]~i th po~ver P~ bei ng
del i vered to the transmi tti ng antenna, hotr much po\ver \vi l l be r ecei ved
i n the termi nati ng l oad at the recei vi ng antenna?
I t n-i l l be assumed that,
free-space propagati on exi sts, that the transmi ssi on l i ne l wtl veen the
rerei vi ng antenna termi nal s and the l oad i s I ossl ess, and that the l oad
, S(.e %.,.. ,j,1,5.
SEC. 1519]
PRI MA R} GAI N S7.4)V1)ARI I l) E7EI <.t/ I NA YI (),V ,-)8:3
i s matched to the transmi ssi on l i ne.
The two antennas are peaked so
that maxi mum power i s r ecei ved i n the recei vi ng antenna.
The maxi mum po\ver transmi tted per uni t sol i d angl e i s gi ven by
Pm/4T, wher e G i s the effecti ve gai n of the antenna. The sol i d angl e
subtended at the transmi tter by the effecti ve absorpti on area A, of the
recei vi ng antenna i s gi ven by A,/R2.
The po\ver P, r ecei ved by the l atter
i s ther efor e
P,G A , PTG2A2
P,=j%F.
(41r)2R2,
(42)
wher e A, has been repl aced by GkJ/4m.
I t wi l l be noted that l osses i n the antenna have been combi ned i nto
the factor G and that the recei vi ng gai n and transmi ssi on gai n have been
assumed equal . The factor G determi ned by means of thi s equati on
i s what i s meant by effecti ve gai n. I f such an experi ment i s per for med
and a number G obtai ned, al l other antennas at the same wavel ength may
be compared \\-i t h thi s antenna and thei r effecti ve gai ns may then be
obtai ned. The effecti ve gai n defi ned i n thi s manner may be expressed
on transmi ssi on by
~P
eak power radi ated ;uni t sol i d angl e
po~ver del i vered to antenna/4i r
The experi mental determi nati on of
(43)
requi res the determi nati on of R, A, FE and P7. Wavel ength can be ver y
accuratel y measured by means of a \vaverneter. R, the separati on
between the t \vo antennas, can be deter mi ned I jy measurement \vi th good
accuracy. The exact poi nts between ~vhi ch R shol l l d be measurd i s a
l i ttl e doubtful ; howe}er , \vi t,h R l arge (R > 2rl z,;X, correspondi ng to a
phase vari ati on of I rss than A/16 over the aperture of \vi dth d) the use
of the aperture to aperture di stance i s suffi ci entl y exact. By uti l i zi ng a
method that i nvol ves measuri ng the rati o I ~11~ i nstead of I E and P7
separatel y, G can he cl ctmmi ned qui te accuratel y, Wi th sui tabl e pr e-
cauti ons i n experi mental techni qoc G can ewi l y be measured to better
than 5 per cent.
The pr ocedur e for det ermi ni n~ G i s to fi rst r.l atch t \vo practi cal l y
i denti cal antennas and match the cal i brated detecti on systcr.~ to the
transmi ssi on l i ne. The antennas shoul d he separated by a di stance R
gr eater than 2d~A and i n a cl ear space so that refl ecti ons from the groun(i
or near-by ol )jects are negl i gi l )l e i n compari son !vi th (he di rect beam
bet}veen the tl vo antennas, 1he setup i s sho\\l \schemati cal l y i n Fi g.
15.17. The el ectri cal apparatus used i s the same as that used i n pattern
684
A NT E,VNA ME AS UREMENTS TEC:H:VIQUhl,Y [SEC, 1519
n~~asurements.
The transmi tti ng and recei vi ng antennas are peaked for
maxi mum r ecei ved power . The pr ocedur e for thi s i s fi rst to l i ne up the
antennas roughl y and, wi th the transmi tti ng antenna fi xed, to adjust
the recei vi ng antenna for maxi mum r ecei ved power . The r ecei ver i s
then fi xed and the transmi tter adjusted so as to make the r ecei ved power
a maxi mum. The transmi tti ng antenna i s agai n fi xed, and the recei vi ng
antenna r epeaked. Thi s shoul d be suffi ci ent for accuratel y l i ni ng up
the antennas. The r-f transmi tter shoul d be l oosel y coupl ed to the trans-
mi ssi on l i ne by means of a matched attenuator pad so that removi ng
Transmitter Bolometer
&
Attenuator
A- 7 h /
/ \
~ ~ R______v
Ha Am
/
~ Coupling Coupling ~
E
volt.
Monitoring tuobe to
the
~l G. 15.17.On the method for t Ile dctem,ination of the gain of identiral antennas.
antenna does not affect the power output of the r-f transmi tter (thi s can
be veri fi ed by usi ng a moni tori ng pr obe i n the l i ne betl vecn transmi tter
and attenuator). Assumi ng the use of a bol ometer-l i near-ampl i fi er-
detecti on system the el ectroni c vol tmeter readi ng i s r ecor ded at the
recei vi ng end and i s proporti onal to P~. The bol ometer system i s then
di sconnected from the recei vi ng antenna, and the transmi tti ng antenna
i s di sconnected. The bol ometer detecti ng system i s then brought over
and attached to the transmi tter, and a readi ng on the el ectroni c vol tmeter
proporti onal to P, is obtai ned. The rati o of these readi ngs i s then
PR/P,. The usual experi mental pr ocedur e of repeati ng the experi ment
several ti mes and wi th several di stances R shoul d be fol l o~ved i n or der to
obtai n a good degr ee of accuracy. Ther e i s no techni cal reason for
net bei ng abl e to per for m thi s experi ment to an accuracy wi thi n 5 per
cent.
Actual l y i n thi s experi ment G = \/GI Gz i s obtai ned ~vher e G, and
72, al l bough supposedl y i denti cal , may di ffer by a few per cent due to
i nabi l i ty to make t~vo exactl y dupl i cate antennas. I n or der to di ffer-
enti ate between the t\vo, a compari son experi ment, \vhi ch has been
descri bed for determi ni ng the gai n of an unknown antenna, i s made.
Antenna G, i s pl aced on the recei vi ng mount for secondary pattern
antenna measurements and set up i n the usual fashi on, and the po\ver
r ecei ved i s noted on the vol tmeter as P,,
I t i s then repl aced by antenna
(7Z, and the ~,ol tmcter readi ng P~ is noted.
The gai n of antenna G, wi l l
be G, = P,G,/Pz so that
Thi s experi ment then produces two absol ute gai n standards at the oper -
ati ng wavel ength.
Even i f these two gai n standards wer e l ossy, the resul t of the experi -
ment woul d be the determi nati on of the desi red val ue of G for practi cal
appl i cati on. Wi th no heati ng 10SSPSthe val ue G obtai ned i n thi s fashi on
\voul d be exactl y that obtai ned on the basi s of the defi ni ti on of the
di recti ve gai n.
15.20. Refl ecti on Method for Gai n Determi nati on.A modi fi cati on J
of the precedi ng method for determi ni ng absol ute gai n uti l i zes a si ngl e
-T
r; -l
PT
T
d
;. ,
,\
Pr
---
h
I &J --
P~
1
~r7--
1
/
:/ / )
A- B
Mirror
FIG. 15.lS,On the reflection method for gain determination.
matched antenna and a pl ane metal l i c refl ecti ng surface as shown i n
Fi g. 1518. The second antenna used i n the method di scussed i n the
precedi ng secti on i s repl aced her e by the i mage i n the r efl ector . Ener gy
i nci dent on the l atter i s r efl ected and absorbed by antenna A g ,Ti ng
ri se to a r efl ected wave i n the transmi ssi on l i ne. The rati o P,/P, i s
then found by measuri ng the stand i ng-\rave vol tage rati o i n the l i ne:
P,
()
T12
G2~2
c= r + I = (4?r)W
(44)
wher e S i s the di stance from the antenna to i ts i mage i n the r efl ector .
Sol vi ng for ~, we obtai n
()
~_4mSr-l
A r+]
(45)
The practi cal i ty of the method depends on the di stance S/2 that i s
requi red from the antenna to the rni rrcr and the requi red di mensi ons of
the l atter. The use of the I mage antenna i s based on the i deal si tuati on
of an i nfi ni te r efl ector . The tri te-i on for the di stance S i s the same as
previ ousl y di scussed, S > M2/x, al though expwi menta,l l y di stances l ess
than 2d2/~ have been tri ed wi thout appreci abl e er r or . The mi rror must
1I l . M. Purcel l , A I l fethod for Mesauri ng the Absol ute Gai n of Mi crowave
Antennas,) RI . Repor t No. 41-9,
586 A .VTE.V.VA ,lfE.i,7(RE.tf ENTL7-7ECH.VI Q1 E,S [SI X. 1!5.21
be l arge enough to i ntercept most of the mai n beam ~vhose \vi cl th i s (f
the or der 2k/d radi ans. For a square mi rror of edge l ength h, lye ha\-e
then
For S = 2d/k, the di mensi on h requi red i s equal to or gr eater than 2d.
(a)
a
(c)
1:1(J , 15.19. Elect r0r,lzg,,eti< honlh:
(a) E-plm,e bevtoral horu; (IJIIf-pla,, e wc-
toral lLonL; (c) IJJral,, iclal Imnl.
The mi rror must be fl at to a smal l
fracti on of a ]vavel ength, at l east
1/16.
The exper i mental pr ocedur e con-
si sts of setti ng up the matched an-
tenna on a mount, peaki ng the
antenna i n azi muth and el evati on so
that the r efl ected power , as denoted
by the maxi mum standi ng-wave
rati o, i s a maxi mum. The gener ator
shoul d be wel l padded so that i t ap-
pears as a matched l oad to the r etur n-
i ng ener gy. The next step i s to
measure the Wi l WR at a di stance
S/2 fr om the mi rror at the posi ti on
chosen, and agai n at a posi ti on just
A/4 near er or farther fr om the mi r-
r or . The x/4 di spl acement reverses
the phase of the r etur ni ng si gnal ,
];-i th negl i gi bl e effect on i ts i ntensi ty;
and by taki ng the ari thmeti c mean
of the gai ns computed for the two
posi ti ons, most of the er r or caused by
any smal l resi dual mi smatch i n the
antenna and l i ne i s el i mi nated. Thi s
pr ocedl me al so compensates for mul -
ti pl e refl ecti ons fr om the metal l i c
surface. The exper i ment shoul d be
r epeated at several di stances. The
di ffi cul ty i n the method l i es i n deter -
mi ni ng VSWR accuratel y, si nce the
or der of magni tude of VSWR ~ri l l
l x, smal l . l he mrtl od i s not so accurate as the two-antenna method,
15.21. Secondar y Gai n Standards.The theoreti cal gai n has been
cal cul ated) for a pyrami dal hor n \vi th an aper tur e a i n the I f-pl ane, an
1S. .\, Sc}l el kl l t)ofl , / ~~lCiCOltlU(~7L?liC }1fIws, l:w A-f)st r:m(l, A-eiv Y~)rk. I !)43,
(hap. 9.
SEC. 15.22] 1A TERACTI O.V BE TWEE.V .4/ VTANNAS 587
aperture b i n the E-pl ane, and correspondi ng sl ant hei ghts 1. and lb as
shown i n Fi g. 15.19. A few pyrami dal horns have been compared wi th
gai n standards at 1, 3, and 10 cm, and the cal cul ated val ues have agr eed
wi th the compari son val ues to wi thi n 5 per cent. Accordi ngl y, horns
may be used as secondary gai n standards havi ng a hi gh degr ee of accu-
racy. Thi s i s parti cul arl y val uabl e when expl ori ng a new \vavel ength
regi on because the horns are easy to make and are fai rl y wel l matched,
The pyrami dal horn may be thought of as a superposi ti on of an
E-pl ane sectoral horn and an H-pl ane sectoral horn. The gai n i s
expressed i n terms of the gai ns of the component horns, Defi ni ng the
Fresnel i ntegral s,
we have the fol l owi ng expressi ons for gai n:
E-pl ane sectoral horn:
Wcz(+a+s(id]
H-pl ane sectoral horn:
. = ~ {[c(u) - C(z!)] + [s(u) s(r))]),
(47)
(48)
Pyrami dal horn:
GGG%G)
(50)
(urves of (k/ a)G~ as a functi on of b/X are pl otted i n Fi g, 1520. [or -
responrl i ng cur ves for (x/b)G~ as a functi on of a/A are pl otted i n Fi g.
15.21. These cur ves obvi ate the necessi ty of eval uati ng the Fresnel
i ntegral s of Eq. (46) for most horn si zes, si nce the ranges of a/A, l WI X,
f)/A, lb/x are wi thi n the l i mi ts that have been found conveni ent for horn
desi gn.
15.22. I nteracti on between Antennas.-The i nteracti on between
antennas has been menti oned i n the di scussi on of pattern and gai n meas-
urements \vi thout r efer ence to the or der s of magni tude i nvol ved. We
shal l now di scuss the i nteracti on between antennas such as may occur
i n the determi nati on of gai n. Consi der, as shown i n Fi g. 15.22, two
mat ched systems; one a transmi tter, the antenna and gener ator of whi ch
are both mat,-hed to the transmi ssi on l i ne; the other the r ecei ver , i n
588 ANTENNA MEA SUREMENTS-TECHNI Q UE,S [%c. 15.22
whi ch the antenna and l oad are al so both matched to thei r l i ne. The
vol tage across the l oad may be consi dered as the superposi ti on of com-
ponent vol tages gener ated by a seri es of waves ari si ng by mul ti pl e scat-
teri ng between the antennas. Al so, as a resul t of the i nteracti on between
29
27
25
I
$
<I d
23
21
19
#
20 2.2 2.4 2.6 2
I
d
6.2
5.8
5.4
4
5.0
1 4,6
FIG. 15.20.Gain of E-pl ane sector al hor ns as a functi on of bjh.
the antennas, a r efl ected wave wi l l be obser ved i n the transmi ssi on l i ne
of the transmi tter system that may l i kewi se be anal yzed i n terms of
mul ti pl e scatteri ng.
The scatteri ng process of an antenna may be descri bed, as i n the
case of absorpti on, i n terms of an i ntercepti on area, or scatteri ng cross
SEC. 15.22] I NTERACTI ON BETWEEN ANTENA.4S 589
secti on, presented to a pl ane wave.1 The scattered fi el d set up by an
antenna i s di recti ve and can be speci fi ed by a gai n functi on anal ogous to
the gai n functi on of i ts trunsm.i ssi on fi el d. Let S be the magni tude of the
Poynti ng vector i n an i nci dent pl ane wave, .4s the scatteri ng c ross secti on
35
34
I
33
$
4-32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
3.2 3.6 4.0 4,4 4.8 5.2
7A
l :cc; . 1.5 21. Gai l l r)f 11-pl :tnP w<tord hor ns as 4 funrti on of a/A.
of the antcnnu; t}~el l the ampl i tl [(l e of the scattered fi el d at a di stance I f
i n a gi ven di recti on may be \vri ttrn
590 .4,VTENIJ-.4MEA SUREMENTS-TECHNI Q UES [SEC. 1522
wher e G, i s the scatteri ng gai n functi on i n the gi ven di recti on. The
scatteri ng cross secti on i s a functi on of the aspect presented by the
antenna to the i nci dent wave; for a gi ven di recti on i n space G, i s l i ke~\ri se
a functi on of the aspect of the antenna. I t shoul d be noted that the
d
L Ao, Go
%J,90
P
T
q
CR=3
FI G. 15,22.On the i nteracti on of antennas,
scattered fi el d pattern di ffers i n general from the transmi ssi on fi el d pattern.
Consi der now the probl em of the two antennas. Let A obe the absorp-
ti on cross secti on and Go the transmi ssi on gai n of the transmi tti ng system
i n the di recti on of the l i ne of si ght bet\\-een the two antennas; l et A,
and G. be respecti vel y i ts scatteri ng cross secti on and scatteri ng gai n
for the same di recti on. The correspondi ng quanti ti es for the r ecei ver
are aO, gO, a,, g., respecti vel y. We shal l compute the vol tage i n the
transmi ssi on l i ne of the recei vi ng system i n detai l . Lrt P, be the total
power radi ated by the transmi tter i n the absence of i nteracti ng systems.
The transmi tter radi ates a pri mary wave to the r ecei ver \vi tl l po\r cr per
uni t sol i d angl e i n the di recti on of the l atter gi ven by G@f/4m. The
r ecei ver woul d extr act from thi s \\-aveal one the power
(52]
(52a)
at a fi xed r efer ence poi nt i n the l i ne; a and 6 are constants of the r ecei v-
i ng system, the preci se val ues of whi ch are not needed her e. The scat-
teri ng cross secti on of the recei ~-el i ntercepts the power G@,a./ 4mR of
the i nci dent wave and sets up a scattered \vave carryi ng power pcr uni t
sol i d angl e
P, = ;;;:: ~
i n the di recti on of the transmi tter. The l atter i s r escatter ed by the
transmi tter; the scatteri ng cross secti on of the transmi tter i nterce~ts the
po~ver P,A ,,/R~ and reradi ates i n the di recti on of the r ecei ver the pol ver
per uni t sol i d angl e
P, 4, G,
p, = -R-y. ~.
From thi s secondary \rave al one the recei vi ng antenna ~vol l l d abstract
power
SEC. 15.22] I NTERACTI ON BETWEEiY- AN I ENNAS
591
correspondi ng to a vol tage
wher e
V2 = v1&,[(klm)+61,
(53)
(54)
The factor e~c4rRjxJ i s i ntroduced to express the phase del ay i ntroduced
by the path 2R traversed by the scattered \rave from the r ecei ver to
the transmi tter and back. The secondary ~va~e i s r escatter ed by the
r ecei \er ; and fol l o\vi ng the process through as before, i t i s seen that the
vol tage exci ted i n the r ccei ~er l i ne as a resul t of the second scatteri ng
stage i s
T, = v,p(?-J[(~~~+Jl . (55)
The total vol tage, as a resul t of succemi ~-e mul ti pl e-scatteri ng processes,
(56)
The net powerabsorbed by the recei \eri sP, = m21t~,or
the absorpti on cross secti on of the rec~i ~-i ng antenna has I xwu repl aced by
(zI J= goA?;41r.
The r efl ected l i ne ~vave \-ol tage of the transmi tter can be computed
i n the same \vay. The magni tude of the refl ecti on coeffi ci ent i n the l i ne
i s then found to be
I t i s seen ttl at the pr over al )sorhed by the r ecei ~-er an(d the standi ng-\vave
rati o obser x,ed i n the transmi tter are per i odi c funrt i ons of R ~vi th a peri od
of A/.
Ver y l i ttl e i nformati on i s avai l abl e on the subjec! of the scatteri ng
cross secti on and g,i i > fi .mcti ons. To obtai n an or d~r of magni tude of
the intt}raction effect ~~e shall make the crcl hoc awlmption that the
scattering cross section and gai n are rel ated i n the sanl e \wl y as the absorp-
ti on cross secti on and transn]i ssi on gai n:
(59)
592
A,\-lENflA MEASUREMENTS-lhtH.l-I Q lES [SK. 1522
I f the two antennas are i denti cal , the i ntroducti on of Eq. (59) i nto Eqs.
(57) and (58) expresses the l atter i n terms of onl y two parameters A O
and A,. The val ues of A Oand A. both can then be found from studi es
of P,/P, or Ir Ias a functi on of R. I n an experi ment wi th a parabol oi dal
antenna by the mi rror method i t was found that A, = j..l 0. Taki ng thi s
as a general esti mate, the power r ecei ved i n the two-antenna experi ment
wi th i denti cal antennas i s seen to vary between l i mi ts
(60)
for a di spl acement of x/4 i n di stance, I f we wi sh to r educe thi s vari ati on
i n power to l ess than ~ db, \vearri ve at a di stance of R = 2d2/k [assumi ng
ao = 0.6(~d2/4) whi ch i s approxi matel y cor r ect for parabol oi dal anten-
nas]. For a di stance d2/k ther e i s al most a l -db vari ati on. Thi s i s,
ther efor e, another reason for the choi ce of R = 2d/A rather than d2/k
i n pattern and gai n compari son measurements, and perhaps R = 3d2/A
i s requi red for accurate gai n standard measurements. The magni tude
of the power r efl ected back i nto the transmi tti ng antenna wi l l be appre-
ci abl e and resul ts i n a mi smatch wi th r espect to the gener ator of
magni tude
(61)
()
I n the case of two parabol oi dal antennas, assumi ng agai n that a, = 0.6 ~- ,
~vefi nd r = 1.25 for R = dzji and r = 1.0-1for R = Zdz, ~.
.4 si mi l ar argument for the mi rror method l eads to the rel ati on that
the power r ecei ved i s gi ven by
g W=U!$==+
(62)
I t wi l l be noted that i n thi s case ~PR P. i s mor e sensi ti ve to di stance
vari ati ons, si nce the cor r ecti on term i s proporti onal to the reci procal
of the di stance rather than the square of the di stance as i n the two-antenna
system. At a gi ven di stance S/2, taki ng the maxi mum and mi ni mum
VSWR separated by A/4 enabl es one to determi ne G.,A. as wel l as GO;
experi mental l y of course, several di stances S/2 are chosen for accuracy.
CHAPTER 16
ANTENNA MEASUREMENTSEQUI PMENT
BY O. .4. TYsON
16,1. Sur vey of Equi pment Requi rements..Measurements on mi cro-
wave antennas di ffer i n character from those carri ed out on most other
radar components. A hi gh or der of ampl i tude stabi l i ty i s requi red of
measuri ng equi pment for the study of antennas and associ ated compo-
nents, whereas hi gh accuracy i n ti mi ng and frequency control are the
mai n requi si tes i n measurements on other radar components. These
requi rements make the desi gn of speci al e{l ui prnent for antenna measure-
ments most desi rabl e.
The precedi ng chapter has menti oned bri efl y the chi ef i tems of equi p-
ment used i n maki ng antenna measurements. I t has been poi nted out
that ei ther a kl ystron or a magnetron i s the most sati sfactory sour ce of
power i n the mi cro\vave regi on (2000 31c/sec and hi gher). The r efl ex
kl ystron has a defi ni te advantage when the pover rcqui remeut i s 250
mw or l ess. The mul t i czvi t> kl ystron] i f avai l abl e at the cl esi red fr e-
quency, i s useful \vl l en the po\~er re(l oi remcnt i s 10 \\atts or l ess; i f the
power requi rement i s grefi ter than 10 i vatts, magnetrons must be used.
hl enti on }Ms al so been made of the demodul ators or detector s com-
monl y used, that, i s, bol orneters and crystal s. Some wor k has heen
cl one \vi th di odes, but as yet they are not general l y accepted for use above
1000 l l c/sec. Bol ometers are especi al l y useful because of thei r uni form
square-l aw behavi or. Crystal s arc approxi matel y 15 db mor e sensi ti ve
than a bol ometer but are not uni form i n thei r behavi or; they must he
i ndi vi dual l y cal i brated over the enti re power range for }vhi ch they are
to be used. When a bol ometer i s used together \ri th an ampl i tude-
modul ated power source, i t i s best to empl oy a tuned audi o ampl i fi er
and stabl e vacuum-tube vol t meter for a sensi t i ~e i ncl i r~ti ng syst cm.
I f a crystal or a di ode i s used, the ampl i fi er-vol tmeter cornhi nati on may
be used \vi th an ampl i tude-modul ated source; or wi th a c-w source, the
detector may be connected to J mi rro~mmeter or gal ~wnorneter m an
i ndi cati ng devi ce. Another c-fv method i s to use the crystfi l m di ode
as a mi xer, to ampl i fy i ts output at some sui tabl e i -f frequency, and t o
use as an i ndi cator the l ow-current meter i n the second dctect(]r ci rcui t.
A ver y i mportant i nstrl l mcnt i n antenna I r or k i s tl ~e autt)mati c
r ecor der , whi ch can be used to r ecor d my r-f ampl i tude as a functi on of
angl e, posi ti on, or ti me.
593
594 ANTENNA ,lfE.4S UREM EATS-EQ LI PME,V T ISEC, 16.2
16.2. Sources of R-f Power.The di scussi on i s her e confi ned to a
rel ati ve eval uati on of vari ous types of sourcm for antenna measurements.
For detai l s on the oper ati on of these tubes, the r eader i s r efer r ed to
Microwaae .Vagnetrons, Vol . 6, and Klystrons and .Wicrowaue Triodes,
Vol . 7, of thi s seri es.
Rejlex Kl ysb-ons.I n measuri ng i mpedances, pri mary patterns of
antennas, attenuati ons, etc., tvher e the power r equi r ed i s between 25
and 250 mw, refl ex-kl ystron sources may be conveni entl y used, Thi s
type of osci l l ator has several advantages, among whi ch are
1. Wi de tuni ng r ange wi th a si ngl e adjustment,
2. El ectroni c tuni ng for fi ne adjustments \r hen preci se fr equency i s
sought.
3. Rel ati vel y smal l power -suppl y-and-modul ator combi nati on.
4. Ease of ai r cool i ng, accompl i shed ~vi th l oi v-~-el oci ty qui et-operat-
i ng bl ol }-ers,
The ci rcui t of a typi cal si gnal gener ator i s shown schemati cal l y i n
Fi g. 16.1. I t consi sts gener al l y of an el ectroni cal l y r egul ated anode
Anode .+ -
d-c
v
$&=
Square wave
@ ~ +-
100k
0.01
8eraZl
1
Amp, Freq,
R-f
=
-
_-
Single -
-
-.
cavity
Reflector -
,
oscdlator
d.c
.(3 -Q
v
+
FIC. 16.1.Diagram of a typical signal generator.
power supply, readily adjustable o~-er a 2-to-1 ~-oltage range, and a
regulated reflector supply consisting of a string of l R tubes capabl e of
pr oduci ng the r equi r ed maxi mum r efl ector vol tage and a means (usual l y
a potenti ometer ) for var yi ng thi s r efl ector vol tage conti nuousl y fr om the
maxi mum to a ver y smal l mi ni mum. The potenti ometer i n thi s ci rcui t
al l ows sati sfactory adjustment because the r efl ector i s al ways negati ve
wi th respect to the cathode and draws no current; hence, no appreci abl e
change of resi stance as a functi on of appl i ed vol tage i s encounter ed i n
the l oad el ement. hl odul ati on i s most sui tabl y i ntr oduced i n the
r efl ector ci rcui t. by a square-l vave vol tage super i mposed on the steady-
state r efl ector vol tage, whi ch keys (i . e., sw-i tches) the osci l l ator off and
on at the modul ati on rate. A l i mi ti ng tube, whi ch consi sts of a shunti ng
di ode, i s used i n thi s ar r angement to cut off the posi ti ve hal f cycl e of the
SEC. 16.2] SOURCES OF R-F POWER 595
modul ati on wave, thus pr eventi ng the r efl ector fr om bei ng dr i ven posi -
ti ve. Any hi gh-vacuum di ode wi th a l ow vol tage dr op, capabl e of
supporti ng a peak vol tage of several hundr ed vol ts, can ser ve as a l i mi t-
i ng tube. The 6X5 i s fr equentl y used for thi s pur pose.
Thi s modul ati on and bi asi ng pr ocedur e avoi ds the frequency modul a-
ti on that woul d exi st i f a si nusoi dal modul ati on ~va~-e\~er e bei ng used.
The rel ati on between the frequency
modul ati on that resul ts and the type
of modul ati on ~rave used i s best di s-
cussed wi th r efer ence to Fi g. 16,2.
Fi gure 16.2a show-s the r-f power out-
put of a kl ystron as a functi on of r e-
fl ector vol tage (the numeri cal val ues
i ndi cated are merel y i l l ustrati ve of
the or der of magni tude). I t i s seen
that po~ver i s obtai ned onl y over di s-
cr ete vol tage ranges correspondi ng to
the power modes of the tube.
The frcc~nrncy of osci l l ati on of the
tube as a functi on of r efl ector vol t-
age, ~~i thi n any po\\-ermode, i s of the
general form i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 16.2b.
Si nce the frequency i s a functi on of
r efl ector vol tage, a si nusoi dal modu-
RLdLfJ
60
100 200 300 400
Reflector voltage
(a)
N-7%+7K
:1
a
Reflector voltage
(b)
F1c;, 162.-C)peratirlg rharacteristi(s
of a reflex kl\->tro!L: (a) var]atio,l in out-
put r-f poxvcr with vultage; (h) chalwe
in outuut frequerlc> with re. pert to the
freciucurs u,,, of tke maximum Power of
the rl]ode.
l ati on ~ol tage ]vonl d resul t i n a ~vi de fr equency ~-ari ati on i n the output.
Further, si nce the r -f power i s not a l i near functi on of r efl ector vol tage,
a si nusoi dal modul ati on ~vi l l not pr oduce a si nusoi dal po~ver envel ope
but onc that i s consi dcrahl y di storted. Thi s i s avoi ded wi th on-off
squa,re-l vave modul ati on.
I t shoul d be noted thti t the pol r er output can be s~vi tched off and on
wi th a square wave of ampl i tude consi derabl y l ess than the maxi mum
r efl ector vol t age. Thi s means that onl y a rel ati ~cl y smal l modul ati on
ampl i tude need l )e superi mposed on the steady-state r efl ector vol tage to
obtai n compl ete modol at i on. For i nstance, as i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 16.3, the
steady-state vol ta~c To may be some\vhat l ess than that requi red to
acti ~-ate any one of the possi bl e modes, and the kr yr d vol tage V added i n
seri es to thi s may be justequal to the i nterval bet\vecn the nonosci l l ati ng
condi ti on and the poi nt of maxi mum pol ver. The steady-state vol tage 10
i s general l y so chosen that the ampl i tude of the keyi ng vol tage does not
exceed 100 vol ts, axi s to peak, for cornpl ctc modul ati on. The keyi ng i s
general l y sust ai nrd :~t a regul ar rate of some 100 to 2000 cps.
To i l l ustr:l tc the opcr:~ti ng bcbavi or of the si gnal gener ator l et us
take the Sper r y 419B kl ystrun.
The anode vol tage \voul d then be
adjusted for 1000 vol ts; the square-]yavc gener ator \\oul d be set for ful l
596 AN TEN,VA fifE.4SUREME,V7.Y-EQ UI I .\ fE77 [SEC. 162
output of 100 vol ts, axi s to peak, i f modul ati on i s desi red.
The r efl ector
vol tage can now be i ncreased from the mi ni mum of 25 vol ts unti l a mode
of osci l l ati on i s found. .4t the i nstant the tube goes i nto osci l l ati on the
anode cur r ent suddenl y begi ns to i ncrease from i ts normal steady-state
val ue of about 40 to 4.5ma to a val ~l e of perhaps 43 to 48 ma at maxi mum
power output. I t wi l l be noted that for any tuni ng adjustment of the
tube cavi ty and for a fi xed anode vol tage, ther e wi l l be from t~vo to
thr ee modes of osci l l ati on ~vi th the vari ous possi bl e r efl ector vol tages i n
the range of 25 to 450 vol ts.
-n__La_
) 80
100 120
Reflector voltage
FIG. 16.3.OII the klystron-operating point.
I f, i n coupl i ng the kl ystron to the l ed, a rather l arge mi smatch i s
unavoi dabl e, then i t i s desi rabl e to use a tuner betueen t}l e kl ystron
and l oad i n or der to obtai n both maxi mum pol r er and stabi l i ty.
L)ouble-cauity Kl yshorr.s.-The measurement of antenna secondary
patterns, l arge attenuati ons, etc., usual l y requi res somcl l -hht hi gher
po~ver (approxi matel y 10 watts) than i s obtai rmbl e from the r efl ex kl y-
stron. Ther efor e, a di fferent sour ce i s necessary: for exampl e, a doubl e-
cavi ty kl ystron, such as the Sper r y 4 IO-R kl ystron, for the range of
approxi matel y 7 cm up~vard. .L magnetron al so may be used i n thi s
range.
A po~ver-suppl y-and-modu] ator combi nati on si mi l ar to that sho~~n
for the r efl ex tube (Fi g. 16.1) may be usrd for the doubl e-cavi ty kl ystron,
wi th the el i mi nati on of the r efl ector sl l pp]y and a modi fi cati on of the
method of modul ati on. .i typi cal ci rcui t for use wi th the 41O-R kl ystron
i s shown schemati cal l y i n Fi g. 16.4,
The outpl l t poi ver i s a functi on of anode potenti al ; i f the output po\ver
i s pl otted as a functi on of appl i ed vol tage, i t i s fo~urd that ther e i s a set,
of po~ver modes si mi l ar to those shown i n Fi g. 16.2 for the r efl ex kl ystron.
The doubl e-ca~i ty kl ystron di ffers from the rcfl rx kl ystron i n that ther e
SE(, 162]
is very little change
of the anode vol tagr.
Si nce POI !r r (kws
or dy to add a s(l uare
,?()( R(I <S 01 1{.1~I >() lvI ;R
~!)~
i n the frc(l l l rncy of osci l l ati on \vi th the vari ati on
exi st, i n these di screte modes, i t i s agai n necessary
l wve to a ronst ant, d-r vol tage trhen modul ati on i s
desi red. Thi s i s acrompl i shrd I )y srt ti ng the constant d-c vol tage to a
l -ai uc rorrcspoml i ng to a posi ti on just out of the (kwi red mode on the
l ow si (l c. The s(l ~l or(>-11 aYc ampl i tude i s then rhoscn surh that, ti l e sum
of the constant cl -r and thr s(l uarw\vave Tol tagcs causes the anode poten-
ti d to ri se to thc opt i mum ~al uc for thc power mode duri ng the peak
posi ti on of the ~vave. I n a practi cal case the constant d-c potenti al
Modul ator
y! Hir-1 ~ .
Feedback loop
L
)
, q
AmD. Frea. l 1%$=-:.r
d K
~{)~
.1IV YIIIYIVA IlfI<Ai7[i[<I<L111{A TS-EQIJIIM l<,V 7 [SE(;. 1(;.2
nearl y resonant at the same frequency.
Si nce i t i s often requi red that
the tube be used at a frequency not obtai nabl e wi th a narrow-range
mi crometer tuner, a few words pertai ni ng to the adjustment of these
cavi ti es are i n or der . Thi s adjustment can best be made by usi ng each
i ndi vi dual cavi ty as an absorpti on devi ce; a reducti on i n power to a
detector wi l l then be noti ced whenthecavi tyi sad justedto exact r eso-
I :l G. 16
-J
FI G. 165. -Photographof the Sperry 410-i t kl ystron.
410 R-fiystron
.G.Schemati c di agram of a ci rcui t for adjusti ng cavi ty
to r esonance.
nance. Fi gure 16.6 shows asuggested r-f ci rcui t. Themethodi s to set
the gener ator to the exact desi red wavel ength as read on the wa.vemeter
and i ndi cated by the mi croammeter.
The kl ystron cavi ty i s connected
to the ci rcui t as shown, and the thr ee adjustment screws are mani pul ated
unti l resonance at the gener ated frequency i s obtai ned (i f thi s frequency
i s i n the range of the kl ystron).
I t i s wel l to note that ti ghteni ng the
tuni ng screws (cl ockwi se moti on) wi l l cause the frequency to i ncrease;
the screws shoul d not be ti ghtened to the poi nt of causi ng excessi ve bul g-
i ngof the di aphragm. Al so, i nthetuni ng process car e shoul d be taken
to keep the tuner frames substanti al l y paral l el . When thi s adjustment
has been made on both cavi ti es, they wi l l be resonant at the same fr e-
quency and i n a condi ti on to be i nstal l ed i n the si gnal gener ator . I t i s
SEC. 16.2] SOURCES OF R-F POWER 599
possi bl e that fi nal adjustments wi l l be needed after i nstal l ati on; one of
the top tuner screws can then be moved back and forth sl i ghtl y unti l
sati sfactory osci l l ati on i s obtai ned.
Magnetrons.-The i nvesti gati on of the secondary pattern of l arge
antennas requi res that a l ong transmi ssi on path be used i n or der to ensure
a uni form pl ane wave across the antenna aperture. I n vi ew of the rel a-
ti ve i nsensi ti vi ty of accurate measuri ng devi ces, thi s general l y means
that an average power i n excess of 10 watts i s necessary. The magnetron
i s the sour ce of power usual l y empl oyed for these power l evel s; at wave-
l engths l ess than 7 cm the magnetron i s the onl y osci l l ator capabl e of
generati ng power hi gh enough for the majori ty of secondary-pattern
measurements. Thi s type of osci l l ator i s avai l abl e for most of the ranges
throughout the expl or ed mi crowave regi ons. They are constructed i n
thr ee pri nci pal types:
1. Spot frequency, pul sed operati on.
2. Tunabl e, pul sed operati on.
3. C-w, spot frequency, or tunabl e.
For antenna wor k i t i s general l y desi rabl e to use pul sed magnetrons
because of the fai rl y hi gh effi ci ency and smal l di mensi ons of both the
tube and the dri vi ng modul ators requi red. Ther e are several ways i n
whi ch a magnetron can be pul se modul ated, but for antenna wor k the
so-cal l ed (soft -tube l i ne-t ype modul ator i s pr efer r ed, except for power s
i n excess of 200-kw pul se peaks. Thi s method of modul ati on i s shown
schemati cal l y i n Fi g. 167.
The modul ator provi des ver y short pul ses of ver y l arge cur r ent to
the magnetron, whi ch i s to have a duty rati o (V dt) of about 0.001 or l ess.
(Here ti ti s the durati on of the pul se, and v i s the repeti ti on frequency, the
number of pul ses per uni t of ti me.) The magnetrons used i n thi s fashi on
are, of course, desi gned for radar use, wher e the short pul ses of hi gh
power are needed for measurement of echo ti me. However , they ser ve
ver y wel l for antenna wor k when a power-i ntegrati ng demodul ator, such
as a bol ometer, i s used for the detecti ng el ement.
The ci rcui t functi ons i n the fol l owi ng manner. A vari abl e d-c vol tage
sour ce charges a pul se-formi ng networ k (syntheti c transmi ssi on l i ne)
through a 60-henry choke duri ng the ti me that the thyratron i s not con-
ducti ng. At regul ar i nterval s a tr i gger ci rcui t dri ves the thyratron gri d
suffi ci entl y posi ti ve to r ender the thyratron conducti ng whereupon the
pul se-formi ng networ k di scharges through the pri mary of the pul se
transformer. Thi s causes a vol tage four to fi ve ti mes gr eater to appear
across the magnetron, connect ed to the secondary of thi s transformer.
I f the ori gi nal d-c vol tage i s adjusted properl y, the ampl i tude of the pul se
to the magnetron wi l l be cor r ect for operati on. I n thi s system the pul se
wi dth and shape are control l ed by the pul se-formi ng net~vor k. The
number of pul ses per uni t of ti me i s determi ned by the repeti ti on rate
of Lw tri gger.
I n a typi cal case the d-c vol tage may be adjusted to provi de a 12-kv
pul searrms the rr~fi gl ~etr{~n ff)ra peri od of 1 psec, a thousand ti mes earh.
second. (The appl i ed vol tage i s approxi matel y the product of the d-c
suppl y ~'ol tage ancl tl l e l J~~l se-transformerstepuprati o.) Themagnetren
60 h
- ___________
1
D-c +
supply
L ___________________
Trigger =
la]
p
Freq,
311K&
Fil. trans.
115V
60 Cps
I
2.5mh
0-10 amp
I
0-50 ma -
Fr~. lG7,-Sr}wnl:Ltir dia~ram of a mmznetron signal generator.
wi l l then pass an average cur r ent of about 10 to 12 ma. The approxi -
mate i nput potr er to the mn~netron, cxcl {usi ve of fi l ament pol ver, i s
1,2 X 104 peak vol ts X 101 amp or 120 \vatts. The peak i nput power
i s gi ven by
120 \v:Ltt s Aver age po{ver i nput = _P_ = __
Duty rati o
= 120 kw,
v M
10:1--
and the peak cur r ent i s
1.2 x 105 \\atts
1.2 x -10 vol ts
= 10 amp.
The fi l ament vol tage i s measured l )y the ammeter i n the fi l ament
ci rcui t, \rhi ch has previ ousl y been cal i brated for a measured potenti al
di fference at the magnetron fi l ament of al mut 6 vol ts. Thi s method i s
chosen because of the vol tage dr op across the pul se transformer, \~hi ch i s
dependent on the cur r ent through i t; a Vol tage mc~surwi at the fi l ament
t ransi ornwr vi l l not bc thr tr ue vol tage at the fi l ament. Tl m magmt r on
fdament vol tage shotdd be r educed to about, 3 vol ts for a fi -vo]t tnbp
SE(,. 163] I )l<T1<(CTOI <,V (Xl 1
after osci l l ati on starts i n or der to mai ntai n the cathode at a safe operati ng
temperature. Thi s i s necessary because of the l arge el ectr on bombard-
ment of the cathode under operati ng condi ti ons
The l oad to \rhi ch po\ver i s bei n~ suppl i ed I )y the transmi ssi on l i ne
from the magnetron mustbe ver y Jwl l snatchwl to the l i ne i f i t i s not to
pul l the nl agnetronf l -efl ~l ency excessi vel y. I f the mi sma,tch i ssufhci ent
to cause a po}ver standi ng-~vave rati o of se~rerul to 1 ~vi th J practi cal
l ength of feed l i ne, the tube ~ri l l probabl y not owi l l ate at al l ; at l east i t
wi l l have poor stal )i l i ty. Poor stjal ]i ]i ty must, parti cl dady l W avoi ded i n
antenna \vor k, l vhere a hi gh or der of ampl i tude stal }i l i ty, of I or 2 per
cent, i s absol utel y nrcmsary. .ky of the undpsi ral )l c effects j~l sl mm-
ti oned can usual l y be avoi (l rd I )y coupl i ng the magnetr(m to t}w trans-
mi tti ngantennabv:ui sht)rt :l tr:~l l snl i ssi on l i l l [~abi * nl (,(l l :l l l i (:111~fcti si })l e
2 ft or I rssaml mai ntai ni ng
l ti - ,
the mi smatch bel ol r 2 to 1 i n
power .
w
R,
16.3. Detector s. l 3ol ometers
h. I
and crystal s are most trc(l ~l cnt]y --~
o% <
l i ned as detectorsi n mi cro\vavc an-
tenna measurements. The bo-
Y<
I ometer has the deci ded adyantage
Bi aspower
that i ts resi stance-poi ver cur ve i s
(a)
I i near over a \vi de range of po\ver , ~
b k
whereas crystal s, al th[)u~h murh 3
mor e sensi ti ve than I )t)l omcters,
have a nonl i near r cspor we.
The crystal detector i s a ver y
smal l barri er l ayer recti fi er cor n- ~ ~ ~
posed of a chi p of si l i con i n ron-
(6)
(c) <
tact \\-i th a fi ne tungsten ~ri re.
1:1G. 168, ~;ll:lrartrri.t irbnf:l ix,l,ll!lrtc.r
When thi s el ement i s pr oper l y i n-
:I l l fliL .iliro,l rr) st:!l (a) rc. i.t:~,,rr v. l,fj>vrr
tr oduced i ntoan r-f ci rcui t, a\,ery
:,i, plied t<, Ix]l,>t,,prcc; (h) l:LIV of lx.l,;{~,<>r
n v.. ]I<]bvcr :Il)i,ve Iu:w I,<, ir]t; (r] I; Lw of
Iml,avior
sensi ti ve and efhci ent recti fi cati on
I <v.. ],I I uer{C, r t> 111<:11rrv. t:tl ,
even at ver y hi gh fre(l l l enci es resul ts, I n sl )i tc of tl l ci rscl l si ti vi ty,l ]{)\r-
ever , crystal s fi nd comparti ti ve]y l i mi ted appl i cati on i n antcnl i a l l l c>:l s~l re-
mcnts l xw:~l wc of thri r nonl i near charocter.
and i l I I I Jl i C!d pf)\\er i l l :L I )(l l t)nl e(er, an(l i t, nl ay he 11(1{((1 that thi s rc]at i on
i sl i ncar i l l the I x)\\et r:[n~(, /), tf)fJ2. .1 ).(,l :l i i tjtl (,xi s( sl )(, t\\c{l l tl l epo\vcr
/ :l l )])l i etl 10 (I l e r]w:wl i l i ]l g (I evi (e ati (l (l i e (I l l tpl l t vol tage 1 (l cvel oped
:L(lOSS th(> ]():L(l:
1 = I i-l,
602 AiV1EiVI VA ,tfI $A,Yl~RE,\ f lt.v7.7EQUI P.41 EK 1
[Sm. 163
wher e K i s a proporti onal i ty factor and n the l aw of behavi or.
I n the
range PI to P2, n = 2 for the boi ometer. I n crystal s for thi s same range
of appl i ed si gnal power , hol vever, n vari es consi derabl y. Thi s compari -
m
1-
Bolometer
LIII!WLJ
(a)
R-f
Irfnl Y?
1
.

-.
.
-
. .
L Bolometer
(b)
FIG. lG!I-CONIIILOIL lmlometcr ci rcui ts
son for a typi cal case i s shown
graphi cal l y i n (b) and (c) of Fi g.
168. As a resul t of thi s nonl i near
behavi or, the crystal , }rhi l e about
15 db mor e sensi ti ve than a bol om-
eter , cannot be used for measure-
ments v-i thout bei ng previ ousl y
cal i brated and the measured data
cor r ected accordi ngl y.
The bol ometer el ement con-
si sts of a short pl ati num wi r e from
30 to 70 rni croi nches i n di ameter.
l hi s cl ement has an extr emel y l ow
thermal capaci ty and because of
i ts ver y smal l di ameter possesses a
\er y favorabl e surface-to-vol ume
rati o.
I t has been sho~vn that the r e-
si stance of a pl ati num \vi rebol om-
eter i s l i near wi th po\ver above a certai n mi ni mum. Ther efor e, when a
bol ometer el ement i s used i n a ci rcui t, i t i s necessary to provi de a bi as i n
or der to wor k on the l i near porti on of the curve. Fi gure 16.9 sho\vs the
two most common ci rcui t arrangements usrd wi th bol ometem.
I n ci rcui t a the pr oper bi as i s obtai ned by choosi ng the cur r ent i n the
bol ometer branch of the bri dge Jrhi ch yi el ds an i ni ti al po\ver di ssi pati on
i n the bol ometer equal at l east to PI of the cur ve a of Fi g. 168. Then
i f the pov.er di ssi pati on of the hol ometcr i s i ncrcascd by coupl i ng i t to
an r-f fi el d, the consequent l i near ri se i n resi stance \ri l l cause the defl ec-
ti on of the l i near nul l meter to be di rectl y proporti onal to the al )sorbed
r-f power .
Si mi l arl y i n ci rcui t b the bol ometer cur r ent i s control l ed by adjusti ng
the rhcost at to a poi nt l ~here the uncoupl ed po~vr r di ssi pati on i s equal
to or gr eater than P,. When modul ated r -f i s coupl ed t o the l ml ometer,
a per i odi c resi st ante change I vi l l ocr ur , can~i n~ a I -aryi ng (wr r ent that
i s proporti onal to po\ver to fl ol v i n the transformer pri mary. Ther e i s
then i nduced i n the secon[l o.ry a ~-ul t~ge tl mt i s l i ke\vi se prwpurti onal to
po\ver .
The I wst ~rorkal ]l r rangr of nl ocl ~dati ou fre([~l enci e~ l i t>+}wt\veen 100
and 20~() CpS. 111 ]Jig. 1(j 10 iS gI:l])h(>(lI)olom(t(r S(USitiVit~ VS. fr e-
quency for a wire 70 nl i croi ~l chcs i n di anl ftcr 11 is clear from thi s cur ve
that greatest sensi ti vi ty appeti rs bcl o~r 100 cps but on the other hand
SEC, 163] J )ETECTORS
603
di ffi cul ti es i n constructi on of a sui tabl e ampl i fi er el i mi nate the use of
l ower frequenci es for thi s purpose.
The parti cul ar bol ometer used depends on the radi o frequency
i nvol ved. For frequenci es of l ess than about 4000 MC the standard
8 AG meter fuse of i +a or ~~ amp made by Li ttel fuse Company of
Chi cago i s an excel l ent per for mer . For frequenci es above 4000 MC i t
becomes necessary to desi gn the el ement for the parti cul ar appl i cati on.
$:\,
o
10
100 1000
10,000
Frequency, cps
FIO. 16,10.Bolometer sensitivity vs. modulation frea.uencs for Platinum wire (70 micro-
inches in diameter),
). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L
8010meter
(a)
t-i
d
meter
ric
Bolo
Resonant wind
(b) (c)
FI G. 16,11.Methods of coupl i ng bol ometer to r -f fi el d: (a) coaxi al termi nati on; (b)
bolometer wire stretched directly across small dimension of waveguidc; (c) Imlometer in
housing across small dimension of waveguide.
Figure 1611 shows several methods of coupling the Lolometer element to
the r-f field. These methods of coupling along with the geometry and
loss characteristics of the protective enclosure greatly influence the
bolometer element design for use with micro\vaves.
With frequencies below 4000 MC coaxial bolometer terminations are
most frequently used. It is generally quite satisfactory at such fre-
quencies to use either a ~~m- or ,&amp Littelfuse as the r-f integrating
element. lhe choice is dictated by the operating resistance of these
units, since their reactive components are quite similar. The T&arnp
fuse has an operating resistance of about 200 ohms at 10 ma, while the
A-amp fuse operates at about 400 ohms at 5 ma.
Matchi ng a coaxi al termi nati on to the l i ne maybe achi eved by varyi ng
the l ength of the stub, whi ch i s nomi nal l y A/4, and/or the di stance
1A detai l eddescri pti onof ti l e constructi onof Wal l aston wi r ebdometers may be
found i n Vol . 11, Chap. 3, of thi s seri es.
604 A~VYE.V.V.i .tfl<. 1SlI REMI ?)Y 7SI X! lT1lME.VT [SW, 16-I
between the center conductor and the poi nt at \vhi ch contact i s made wi th
the fuse. By adjusti ng these t\r o parameters pr oper l y a reasonabl e
match (VSWR ~ 2) may be achi ered on i -i n. (4(i -ohm) l i ne for about
a 10 per cent band\~i dth. I f a better match i s desi red (YSI VR of 1.2),
i t may be effected by i ntroduci ng a coaxi al transformer of cor r ect di men-
si on, but the band~vi rl th for \vhi ch thi s i mproved match wi l l hol d i s
r educed to about 1 per cent.
For frequenci es above 4000 31c wavegui cl e bol or neter termi nati ons
are most frequentl y empl oyed. These are sho\vn i n Fi g. 16.11 b and c.
When used di rectl y i n ~ravegui de the bol ometer rl ement must have
axi al el ectr odes that are paral l el to the E-vector so as to achi eve a rea-
sonabl y l arge coupl i ng. The materi al of the protccti ~-e envrl ope, i f usecl ,
must have a ver y l o\v l oss and i n general shoul d be no l arger i n di ~meter
than absol utel y necessary for mechani cal support. I t has l i nen found
that thi s envel ope need not excewl T3(7i n. i n cl i wnctrr and c:m be suc-
cessful l y made of pol ystyrene ~ri th ~l g-i n. v LA.
The match i n gui de i s i nfl uenced by the choi ce of thc effect i ~-eresi stancc
of the wi r e and the di stance d bet I vmn the \ri rc and the sht)rt ci rcui t i n
Fi g. 16.1 l b and c. Wi th pr oper choi ce of Vari abl es ver y cl ose matchi ng
(VSWR = 1.1) can be achi eved for a band\ vi dthof 1 per cent or l ess. HoN-
ever by usi n~ a ~vi ndo!}- (Fi g. 16.1 l c) that i s resoni mt at one frequency,
the i mpedance match may be hel d for a baml l ri (l th of, say, 8 per cent;
the reactance of the \\-i ndowvari es \\-i tl lfrxxl uency i n the opposi tr sense
to the vari ati on of the reactance of the bol ometer el ement \vi th the short-
ci rcui ted ~vavegui de termi nati on.
16.4. Ampl i fi ers.-The power avai l a})l e at, the detecti ng cl ement
i s ver y smal l (5 mv- or l ess) i n the majori ty of the methods used i n
antenna measurements. For thi s reason the avai l al )l e vol tagp at the
detector output termi nal s \~i l l I i kei [-i se bc smel l . For i nstanre, the vol t-
age at the termi nal s of a sensi ti ve bol omrtcr ranges from 1[)7 to 102
vol t rms over the l i near part of the dct r c( i on curve. Crystal s al so have
an upper useful termi nal vol tage of al mut the surne or der of magni t udc,
but the l o\~er l i mi t extends do}rn to arouml 10 vol t for the au~l i o
regi on. I t i s eti dent, ther efor e, ttmt some ampl i fi cati on i s ncwl rd \\-i th
these mi cro~vave detector s i n or der that a prarti rti l i ndi cati ng meter l x,
used for measurements.
The re(l ui red performance characteri sti cs of surh an ampl i fi er are:
1. Li neari ty over a range of at l f~ast 1()()dt).
2. An i nherent noi se l evel ti t l east 6 db I wl o!l the rni ni ml l m i nput,
si gnal .
3. Good stabi l i ty.
4. Fr eedom from rrsponsc to ol l l si (l c fiel(ls.
1S.(>sec. 7.9.
SEC. 16.4]
A,J {FLI FI ERS 605
Fi gure 16.12 shows the schemati c di agram of a tuned audi o ampl i fi er
meeti ng the above requi rements whi ch \vas desi gned to oper ate a Bal -
l anti ne i l l odel 300 vol tmeter as the i ndi cati ng devi ce. Thi s uni t i s
l i near from O.001 to 100vol tsrmsoutputj ori nother wm-dsover a range
of 100 dbj ~vhi ch corresponds to the range of i hc Bal l anti ne meter.
Voltage gain 10,CXJO.
Rl w Rlw
Output noise level wth zero
papprOx0O05vm~Rappr0x*00k mPe~::e500k
Freed 12C02
b l.,
1620
*
,
6J5
or UTCA-11
240 k 0,004
F% i -+y ; & ~ ~~ ~
1W Mica
- ,0OH
. _
=
--- ---
---
0.004
1
lM
~ Thor 1C62
~ I RC Mica
1
lW
I 1C63 or
- 200k 2M lo 3k
~ UTC A-30
0.5
lM 10 6A
I w m,~ Ww
Paper lW 50V1W
J __

=
(&=J ==J
Input impedance 200Q
Thor - 13R11
5W4
m
115V
F
x
Ocp
x
11/2 a
c
X
x
&
1:1<,. !(,12. 1(l,,c,l :, u<l i <):i I, L! IIIf i cr
Faraday cage
5fl
?5w
Thor - 13C27 UTC A-30
Ih 200 h
x
Al l fixed resistors 1 watt
unless otherwise noted.
I
1}1(: ~ol tagf, ~:~i n i s 1(),()()(), !Illich Iwrrnits (Jperal i fm of tI l e i n!)l l t from
10 to lo? \-olt.
111( t Ilr)f,(l :I l ul i o :Lnl[)liflf,r is l)awl 111)1)11 t 11( IIW of :L t II ill-l RC-l)ridge
:LX u i(wll)a(k (Jl(r[l(,rlt to rwlll(,c tlI(, l):m(l!ii(~tl), 1llis r(>(lu(wl b:ln(i-
\\-i(llt! tl:~> :Ln al )pr{v,i :l l )l r cl fe(( on tl l (, ~i gri :~l -(f)-l l oi w rati o; i n fact, thf
606 A,VTE,V,VA MEASUREMENTS-EQ UI PMEN1 [SEC. 164
Thi s i s equi val ent to an i nput vol tage of 5 X 10-s, or 6 db bel ow the
mi ni mum si gnal vol tage. Typi cal performance curves are presented i n
Fi g. 16.13. I n (a) i s pl otted vol tage gai n agai nst l ogari thm of the vol tage
output of the ampl i fi er. Thi s cur ve i s cl earl y l i near for practi cal pur-
poses, over the range from 0.001 to 100 vol ts. The graph i n (b) i s a
pl ot, of rel ati ve vol tage ampl i tude vs. frequency for the ampl i fi er, showi ng
the di scri mi nati on of the fi l ter at 1000 cps.
Consi derabl e car e mus~ be taken i n sel ecti ng the components for the
ampl i fi er, al so i n the l ayout of the ports and wi ri ng. For i nstance, i t
200 400 600 800 100U12C01401I WO WI 200il
Frequency, CPS
(b)
FIG. 1613.-Per f<>rrxl al l re rurxws for tunrd :Ll l (l i c, :I l ,l r)l i fi .r: (~) output-g:>i n curve; (5)
cur ve Sl l owi tl g <i i .r,ri l l l l tl :Lti {)l l Of fi ]tcr :Lt I WO CPS.
i s i mperati ve to assure excel l ent rnagnel i c shi el di ng for the i nput trans-
for mer and the output chokr ; other\vi se unfl mi ml l l e currents can l m
i nduced i n the ~vi ndi ngs by surroundi ng ti el d>.
For a si mi l ar reason i t i s
necessary that ground wi res be short and connected to a common poi nt.
Tul ws must have ver y 10JVmi crophoni cs rcsponsej hence the use of the
1620 tube i n the fi rst stage.
Al so, the fi rst tul l e shoul d be shock-mounted.
The po~ver transformer is best packaged separately; it is not included in
the amplifier cabinet but houwf in a separate container and connected to
the amplifier by a flexihlc cal)lc about 3 ft, long.
Thi s permi ts the trans-
for mer to be pl aced 2 or 3 ft al vay tvhen i n actual operati on, a pr occdur c
that i s not i nconveni ent, si nce the requi red transformer i s qui te smal l
and l i ght i n \rci ght.
The fi l ters are construrtcd as smal l fi xed-tuned pl ug-i n uni ts ~rhi cl l
are arranged i n the ampl i fi er for easy repl ti cement.
The frequency range
i s normal l y about 100 to .5000 cps.
Ther e are mti ny ~-ari a ti ons possi bl e \\i th thi s type of ampl i fi er, most
of whi ch are j~l st a(l aptati ons to special requirements.
Ho\vevcr, one
modification is very (lmiral)lc for iml)edance work,
lt consists essentially
of the system already shown with the cxccption that the Y2LCUUIn-
tube voltmeter is built as part of tl)e amplifier J\it h an iudi.cat infg meter
placed i n the fr ont pa,ncl . ~hi s nl c,ter i s gml cr:Ll l y cal i brated i n vol ta~e
stand i ng-\\avc rati o l \i (l l ful l -sca]c dvfl ccti on :1s uni ty.
Tl l c ( : Ll i -
SEC. 16.4] A MI LI FI EI LY
607
brati on i s based on a square-l aw detector regardl ess of the type of detector
used.
Another type r ecei ver , based on a heter odync pri nci pl e, i s used to
some extent i n antenna wor k, especi al l y i n the measurement of secondary
patterns ei ther wher e space attenuati on i s l arge or wher e for some reason
the transmi tted power i s l ow. Thi s method i s capabl e of consi derabl y
gr eater sensi ti vi ty than i s real i zabl e wi th the audi o method and al so
does not requi re the si gnal sour ce to be modul ated. The or der of maxi -
mum practi cal po~ver sensi ti vi ty wi th the heter odyne system, when usi ng
R-f
o
Attenuator
I
Crystal
mixer
l-f / -
/ attenuator
l-f
_ Synchronizing pulse
Second
Video
to trigger transmitter
amplifier
30-60 mc
detector
r--+ Linear sweep to
frequency modulate
klystron
E!ZIE!EI
FIG. 16.14,l\lock di:~gra,?l (If lleterodsne receiver.
a crystal mi xer, i s about 10l Z vmtt, ~vhereas the audi o ampl i fi m and
crystal combi nati on has a maxi m~l m po~ver srmsi ti vi ty of xbout 109
watt.1 Fi gure 1614 i s a bl ock di agram of a typi cal heter odyne r ecei ver
arranged for measurement wor k.
l hi s setup makes use of ei ther an r-f or an i -f attenl mtor or both
and depends l argel y upon the attenuator as the measuri ng el ement.
The attenuator, whi ch i s pre~-i oudy cal i l )rfi tetl , i s a{l justwl to have a
mi ni mum i nserti on i n the ci rcui t \\-hrnthe r er ci vr d si gn:d i s a mi ni mum,
and the i ndi cati on on ei ther of the meters or the osci l l os(wpr i s l ~oted.
Then for any si gnal of gr eater ampl i tl l {l c the attenl l :l i or i s a(l justed to
an i nserti on gr eater than the ori gi ~l :d setti ng l l nti l tl l v o(l t l )l l t i ndi cator
1Sce T[Ic7/tt7fI7ul)e .1 mp//ji (,r.s, \ol Lq (,I tl l i h wri ~w
returns to the ~wl ue obser ved for mi ni mum si gnal . The change i n si gmd
ampl i tude then, of course, i s the di ffercnce i ndi rated by the cal i hratcd
attenl ]atcn-. Artwdl y ei ther the c-u- meter or the \-i d~o mr ter may be
cal i brated for a ran~e of, say, 5 or 10 db.
Thus, si gnal di ffcrencm can
be measured by the i ndi cati ng meter and the attenu~tor i n com})i nati on,
Thi s provi des a si mpl e means Of measl wi ng the smal l rr vari ati ons that,
may be ~vi thi n the l i mi ts of the ndi cati n.g meter \vi thout readjusti ng
the attenuator.
The use of an i -f attenuator as the measuri ng el ement i s to be pr e-
fer r ed i f the mi xer cti n be she\\n to be l i near o~er the desi red range to
be col cr ed. Ysu:Llly, for crystal mixers, this is true to about :30 dl )
above the mi ni mum detect al )l e si gnal ti nd to about 20 db further \vi th
rm-eful l y sel ected crystal s, Thi s metho(l dots not requi re a di fferent
attenuator for wi del y di fferent fre[]uenci (,s c~fmcci vrd si gnal but, on the
ront,rarv functi ons equal l y JVCI Iat :LOY rrgion for \rhi ch a sui tabl e mi xer
.,
can he i ntroduced. For ver y l arge pol fc~ cl Mngcs i n the r ccei wxf si gnti l
(60 db or more), i t may bc nercssary to use an r-f attenuator sol el y or
i n coml ] i nati on ~vi th an i -f attenuator to mai ntai n the (l esi r ed accuracy.
The hctr r odyne ri rcl l i t contai ns thr ee output i n[l i cati ns devi ces.
( hoi m \~i l l depcmd upon surh condi ti ons as rharartrr of si gnal and fl exi -
l )i l i ty of i ndi cati on: (1) I f the si gnal i s apprrri al )l y nl odl l l atrcl . ei ther
the osci l l oscope or meter nx~y l x usrd fol l owi n: thc ~i (l ro :I m])l i fi el .
The srope has the ad~-ant+y of i ntcrral -t i mi ng, anti I l l rrcfore tl l c (l rsi rr[l
si gnal and any spuri ous si gnal ran (wual l y bc di sti ngui fi hml \vhcn usi ng
synchr oni zed short-ti me pul se mo<l ul ati orr on the transmi tter. l hr
undmi rml romponcnts arp usual l y rrfl wl i ons frt)nl Sl l rroun(l i ng ol )j(,rts
i vhi rh pr{xl l l cc an cr ho of di fferent ti me (I el ay from thr drsi rrd si gnal .
l -l o\vevm, the osrillusropc is (Iiffi(ldt to calil)r:Ltc acrlwatc]y over C>TCII a
fe!y drri l wl s of po!,-rr range. Thus, th[ :ltt(Ylll;Ltol 11)11s1 1)(, con(in{l:llly
rcadj I I str{l to mai ntai n a r~mstant (i l fi rrt i on on 1hr sr opr \\l Nmnwas(l ri ng
the pol r er (h:lU~W 1l w mctrr ral mol di st i ng~l i sh l wt j!(,rn the {I rxi rcxl
si gu;d an(l an i ntcl .frl i ng si gl l ai I l i l t i s cal ~~l l )l e, ;1S !):1S ] )(>(>11 ])l(>Yioll>l~
poi nted out, of I wi ng cal i l )mt d I~l l i t( :u({l rat rl y over a rangr of l l ossi l )I y
10 db. A synrhrol l i zr(l s(](l rrc i s not USC(1}vi th thr nwtrr. (2) I f th(,
transmi t ted si gnal i s a conl i nl l [ms \va~r. nu al trrnat i l l g rl )mponrnt \\-i l l l x,
av:l i l al )I c at the scrond dcl r r t or . Thrrrfol cj a cl -c al ul )l i fi er :ul (l meter
roml )i nati on or :L mctrr :dol m, i f 1hr (k>l r[i or si gual I re-cl i s hi gh enough,
i :; used. Tl l (, owi l l (wrl )pe i s of l i t t1( :l (l f:~l l t :~~ei n thi s :[l l :l l l g(,l ~l crl t, si n(,[~,
\Vi tl l a (I-W SOIIIW) intc~val-1 iulirlg (ullIlot 1)[, usr(l Jn(l th(,rrft)re the
(l [~si rctl si gnal (,:ul nt)l l x} (iislill~(lisl)r([ II.0111llIOW (, ;LLIs(Tt l ])v r(,fl (,[.~i Ol l s.
1he i -f anl pl i fi er for :~l l y of tl l r i I I r I I l i f)l l ftl I I I C(}I (XI + s}l t)(l l (l }1(> \\-i ,l C
rn~mgh ({) al l o]y for tl l o i ns(:~l )i l i ty (ji tI l r st)l l ](,r g(,l )(,r:l tor . ~W:L]l~
:Irl :I ml )l ]l l (,r 11-1111 :t :5- (() 10-.11(. l ~:l l l tl jl i {l l l l I S 11x,(1I fjl ol i (,l .~)i i .:1~(~i r(jrl c.
.1 ,sl i ~l l l nl t){l i l i r:~l i {l l l of 11)1I l (,l {,rfdyl )r ~i rtl l i l r(wl i l i s i l l :1 sysl cm
SEC. 16..5] RECORDERS 609
that i s someti mes useful i n c-w measurements, Her e the i -f ampl i fi er
i s desi gned to have a ver y narrofv band~ri dth, and the osci l l oscope saw-
tooth s\\-eepi s used to freqwmcy modul ate the l ocal osci l l ator. Thus,
ther e \vi l l be an output pul se from the second detector at the i nstant the
l ocal osci l l ator passes through a frequency that i s equal to the i nter-
medi ate frequency above or bel o\r the frequency of the r cr ei ved si gnal .
Thi s pul se i sthcn ampl i fi ed by the ~-i deo ci rcui t and appl i ed as a defl ec-
ti on vol tage to the osci l l oscope on whi ch the si gnal appears as a sharp
pi p or verti cal l i ne. Thi s pi p can bc control l ed and measured by the
attenuator as previ ousl y descri bed. The advantage of thi s system for
i ntensi ty measurements l i es chi efl y i n the fact that the i -f ampl i fi er has
a qui te narro\\- band]ri dth and consequentl y a hi gher si gnal -to-noi se
rati o. I n addi ti on the vi deo ampl i fi er i s used ~vhi ch i s l ess compl i cated
than a stabl ed-c ampl i fi er. I t i s apparentthat any number of separate
pi ps can appear on the osci l l oscope scr een i f a l i ke number of sl i ghtl y
di fferent si gnal frequenci es are bei ng pr oduced by the si gnal source.
Thus, a ver y accurate means i s provi ded for measuri ng the frequency
di stri buti on and rel ati ve ampl i tude of the ener gy gi ~renoff from the source.
Uni ts are bui l t usi ng thi s ci rcui t and are kno\vn as spectrum anal yzers
and, as such, are frequentl y used for ampl i tude measurements \vi th
si ngl e-frequency sourcrs.
16.5. Recor der s. The use of an automati c antenna pattern r ecor der
has been poi nted out previ o:dy i n the general di scussi on of secondary
patterns. The fol l o\~i ng i s a di scussi on of thevari ous rnethodsforauto-
mati cal l y pl otti ng recei vi ng pol ver patterns.
l he si mpi est r ecor der consi sts merel ~ of a r ecor di ng cur r ent meter.
Thi s meter i s attached to the output of a l i near peaked audi o ampl i fi er,
the i nput of ~vhi ch i s fed from the antenna under test through a square-
l aw dct ect or . I f the angul ar coordi nate i s synchroni zed wi th the angul ar
di spl acement of the antenna, i t i s possi bl e to obtai n a ver y sati sfactory
l i near pl ot of po\u3r. Hoil(vf l) for any antenna of appreci abl e gai n,
much of the desi red i nformati on i n~ol vi ng the si de l obes wi l l be l ost,
bccausc such a l i near r cr or dcr \\-i l lnot vi si bl y r esol ve po~~ers that arc
from 20 to 40 db bel ol v the mai n peak po~ver . Al so, must r ecor di ng
meters of thi s type have the styl ~l s attached to a central pi ~ot :i l ~out
whi ch i t rotates as a functi on ()( varyi ng c~mcnt. Thi s does not yi el d
a pl ot i n rcct:mgul ar coor(l i ntt,cs,
frcq(l ent,l y gi ~,i ng ri se to conf(lsion
Iegar(]irlg thC f3i(tUIC PO~tliL~(& I t i s evi dent, then, that in order
to record side 10I xw an(! iw rcms(ms of cl ari ty other methods nl l l st be
contl i ~r(l .
l ;\p(,ri (n((, h:w +IIOJII1 th:Lt t}]e rnmst desirallle s(,ale to IISC Ilith an
a(ltomatic systcm i s :L (I cti bcl sc:l l r (xt(,n(i i l l g tJ\er Q range of al ml l t
40 al l ). Thi s ma} l x>i ~((ol l ~~jl i sl l ((1i n t\\-odi ti ti n(t l vays. (1) The l i near
r ecor di ng currcn(. meter may I W dri vel ] by :~l ogari thmi c ampl i fi er \rhi ch
610 A.VTB,ViVA h{EASUl<EMENI SE(J UI I 3fl$.V7
[SEC. 165
i s fed by the square-l aw detector , thus obtai ni ng the desi red resul t by
the use of the nonl i near ampl i fi er. (2) .4 system can be bui l t around a
nonl i near potenti ometer or attenuator wi th ser vo fol l ow-up for styl us
Signal
ampltfier
<m; =
Potentiometer
amplifier Nonlinear potentiometer
Sewo
amplifier
Drum
Selsyn
motor
.
1,lG. 16.15, -Au[l i o a[l tenmz pattern r ecor der .
I
di spl acement. The l atter metl]()(l is ,gener:dly preferred, since it does
not require u nonlinear amplifier; a(I(, IIra(,y of s~i ch an ampl i fi er i s usual ].;
di ffi cul t to mui ntai n,
SYstCmS bflst:d 011 thi s second nl etl l oc~ ,,-i l l be
descri bed.
f%!. 16.5] I ?ECORDER,$
611
Fi gure 16.15 shows a bl ock di agram of a typi ral r ecor der desi gned to
oper ate on the audi o vol tage devel oped by a bol ometer or crvstal used
as the antenna feed termination. I t shouhi
be understood, of co~l rse, that the trans-
mi tter i s modul afed at the pass frequency
of the audi o system of the rcmml m.
The system operates as fol l ows: The
angul ar di spl acement of the mount to
\vhi ch the antenna i s affi xed i s trans-
mi tted to the r ecor di ng drum by a Sel syn
generator-and-motor combi nati on \vhi ch
synchroni zes the angul ar rotati on of the
drum wi th that of the antenna. 1 The i nput
to the si gnal ampl i fi er vari es \vi th the
ori entati on of the antrnna; si nce thi s ampl i -
fi er i s l i near, the vol tage appeari ng across
the cal i brated potenti ometer i s di rectl y
proporti onal to the power pi cked up by the
antenna. The tap-of vol tage from the
potenti ometer i s fed i nto the potenti ometer
ampl i fi er, the output, of \\-hi chi s compared
wi th a constant vol tage. The di fference
between the l atter two vol tages i s appl i ed
to the ser vo ampl i fi er; the servomechani sm
then dri ves the potenti ometer tap-off to
a poi nt such as to r educe the di ffcrcnce
vol tage to zer o. Si nce the styl us i s attachc(l
to the same mechani sm that dri ~es the
potenti ometer, i t i s di spl aced i n a l i ke
manner; consecl uentl y, the styl us di spl ace-
ment i s proporti onal to the ampl i tude of
the si gnal .
...__
An i nstrument based esmnti al l y on the system just descri bed has i mm
bui l t and used. z Photographs of the rontrol ond r ecor di ng consol e and
the el ectroni c, cabi net of thi s i nstrument, are shown i n Fi g. 1616. Wi th
thi s i nstrument i t i s posti i hl e to obtai n si de-l obe i nformati on i n fi ne
1C,omlac(wrncy In:ly hc :i(hi(,~(,(l i n tl l i +m:l nncr, si nce the %l syn gencmtor m the
l nount i s +ywrml to t I l c l l ](l t i on t llroII~lI :1 pl (,{i +i [)n ~(wr tr:i i l l I vi tl l :L stcpl l p r:tti o of
ahont 1 (0 3C)w]~l tl l r St,l +yI I l ]l t)t{~l dri vi l l ~ tl l [, (I rl l l l l i s gl ,:l r[,cl doi rn n l i kr :Inlount ;
171i s mcl ns th:~t the [,l ,(tri ,:l l i ,,;l ((,t:(ti (s 0[ tl ](, S(,l syn sy+tt,l r] :Lrc di vi ded by 36,
:LI I CI I )y tl l c rl l oi (,c of gmxl gt,:l ri l l g, I I l (,rl l :l tl i ,,:l 1 (,rrt,rs ])):I v I )(, 1)(,1(1(I l ,i tc sl n:tl l .
z (). A. ~ysw, .\tl tl ,l l l ):L l l l :l +l l ri l l ~ l ;t{l )i l ]l ~l [tl t, 1{1, l {(,p{,rt .\-~).(X)1-4, .J:ul (mrv
1945.
612
A >MTE:V,Y.! ,~f~:( .V[~l<bl.lft<.V7tV -[<()( [1.I 1I <.V T Em. 1(15
detail; a typical plot of pow-w vziriation vs. dispkmcment angle is sho~~n
i n Fi g. 16.17,
Al ternati ve methods of suppl yi n~ the i nformati on to the servomecha-
ni sm make use of the r-f r:l rri m NU!-Cr:l ther th:m thc awl i o-modul at ed
output, of a square-l aw detector . (Me method use< :~ cal i brated i -f
attenuator i n a hetmodvne ci rrui i 1 i n pl aec of the a-f attenuator. Thi s
setup i s shown i n bl ock di agram i n Fi g. 16,18. Angul ar coordi nates
Angle
FIG. r6,17..lntenna pattern sllnwing det:iil ol]tain:tl!lc wittl :Lu<licl rm,riler.
are transmitted in a manner similar to tfl~t shmvn in l~ig. 1(j] 5. his
consi sts of a Sel syn gener ator gear ed tu the fi ntenna mol mt :Ln(l a ,Sely,YI
mot or gear ed t o the r ecor di ng drum. I f the antenna un(l er twt i s i l l u-
mi nated I )y ei ther a mo(l ul atwl or a C-)Vvave, :Lni -f V()]t:L~fi is (kT.CIOP(Ad
at the output of a sm:LH mixrr and local os(i}lator \\-hi(h is usc(l to ter-
minate the antenna feed. MI.= i-f volt ag(~ is 1)2LssNI i hroll~ll a calil)ratcd
logwith mi c attcnuut or and ampl i fi e(l ; i t i s thcn rcct i f icd and IIsed t o
cent rol a ser vomotor just. M i s done i n the a~l <l i os~-stem. The Styl uh,
of course, i s agai n gear ed to tk wrl omotor, I fhi ch dri ves the r:~l i l )rakd
attenuator wd traces a si gnal ampl i tu(k pl ot on the syl l rl l rtmi zcd gwpl l
drum.
The chi ef adranta%c of the hetr[,](l ~-ne system i s t}ul t i t i s I cry m~l (h
mor e sensi ti ve to we~~k si ~n:d i nput<1hau I wl ,,nl c,l ,,rs I Jr cry~fal s ,I wcl M
) l t. J. ,S)WU)I I (I ,>. I I i ,r,jl r;,v[ .i ]]t[],,);,
I :l tf[,!l l l {r(x)!l l lr % 1+11. J{(y)rt \[ lI -4-i-
170-,j,j, 1-O1. 1,j, 1W+.
Sk;(. lri5]
RECORDERS 613
recti fi ers, as ~vas i ndi cated i n Sec. 16.4. As a resul t i t i s possi bl e tc
r educe transmi tter po\ver by possi bl y 10 db (Jr to extend the range of
po~vm cover age from 40 to approxi matel y 60 db under i deal condi ti ons.
The l i mi tati ons to thi s method ari se i n the mi xer, whi ch i s often not
Selsyn generator
Antenna
+
I M,xer and local oscillator
Detector &
comparator
Selsyn
motor
A
Servo
Servo
motor ampllfier
I I (; . 16.18,-- .I ut?nna pattern r er nr der uti l i zi r]g ~n r -f attenuator i n a hctermi ~l !e ci rcui t
compl etel y l i near over the hi gher porti ons of the desi red po!ver range.
.41s0, di ffi ml l ty someti mes ari ses from the l arge hul k of the n~i xcr-osci l -
l ater termi nati on \\fl i chm~l st be attached to arel ati vel ysrna]] antenna.
Bol ometers, ontheotherh and, are mor e adaptabl e because of thei r si ze.
Index
A Antennas, stri p r efl ector , 484
surface, for ai r search, 465
Absorbi ng materi al , 560 transmi tti ng, equi val ent ci rcui t of,
Achromati c doubl ets, 410 37-40
Admi ttance, characteri sti c, 26 Aperture, angul ar, 416
normal i zed, 26, 213 ci rcul ar, 192195
termi nal , of wavegui de, 366 far -zone regi on of, 172
Admi ttance characteri sti cs, ~f E-pl ane gai n fl mcti on for, 162
sectoral horns, 369374 near-zone regi ou of, 170
of H-pl ane sectoral horns, 37*376 rectangul ar, uni forml y i l l umi nated.
AFC, 527,538 180-182
Ai r-to-surface search, 466 Aper tur ebl ockI ng,effcct sof, 190-192
Ai rcraft antennas, 512 .4perture effi ci ency, 178
Amcraft mstal i ati ons, i utcr fcr cr r cc effects Aperture-fi el d di stri buti ons, moments of,
i n, 515-51tl 184
41tar, W., 556 wparabl c, 182
Al ti tude ci r cl c, 514 .kpcrture-ti cl d method for refl ectors, 158-
.l mp!i fi cm, 60460<9 160
audi o, 60,5 .l perturc gsi u, maxi mum, coudi ti on for,
Antenna feed, defi ni ti on of, 12 177, 178
Antenna mi smatch, dependwrcc of ah- Apr r tur e rel :i ti ons, opti mum angul ar, 424
sorpti on cr oss secti on on, .553 .%pcr tur e trmtmeut, of radi ati on fr om
Antenna pattern r ecor der , autonl ati c, horus, 357
609613 of radi oti ou fr om wavrgui des, 334-336
.4ntenna system, 511 .4rmy desi gns, broadsi de, 318-333
Antennas, heavertai l , 4.53, 477 cl l d-fi re, 31&318
cheese, 45!) uonrcsonant, 328333
coni cal l y scannirlg, 347 .I rr:i y ckmrnt, I ongi tudi ual k pol ari zed,
ground, 510 302, 30!), 312
hal f-beacon, 460 ::l ot-fed di pcl c as, 28z-286
i nteracti on bct}vwn, 5875!)2 dots M, 2!)1301
pencil-beam (seeIeucd-beam :tj,tc,,u:{sj streamlined, longitudinally polarizrd,
pill-box, 459464 312
impedance cor r ecti on fur , 463 transl crsel yp ol ari zed, 310, 311
recei vi ng, equi val ent ci rcui t of, 4C45 tri di pul cradi ator as, 304, 305
scanni ng, 513521 wz~rcgui cl e radi atOrs as, 301303, 329
shaped-beam, l i ne so~l r ccs for, 4954!)7 .I rrayfzi ctor, 260
secondary patwru uf, m(msurement Arraysj hi uomi al , 269
of, 579 broadsi de (see Broadsi de arrays)
shi p, i nstal l ati on prol ]l t,nl s{]f, 511 en[i -ti re, gai u of, 277278
shi pborue, for stl tf:i rc SC:{I I ,I I , 467 horn, 319
ski rt-di pol e, 2-K-2+2 I i nrar, pattrrn synthesi s by, 279-284
615
Arrays, pol ynomi al assori :i tcd ,vi th, 26-
264
Tchc+yschr ff, 282-284
uni fornl , 264267
uni forml y l l l l i nl i n:~t{,(l , 267269
Austi nl P. \[., 186
Azi n)l l th r:Lti o, 304
13
Bahi ncts pri nri pl c, 167
I tack.l ohc i nt(,rf,r{n{,., 42g, 435
Back-srt~ttrri n# c(wffi ci (,,,[,, 468
Baker. 1;. 1~., 1(M
13arl d\vi (l tl l , of di rl ((tri ( l rI I s, 3!)8
of I n(,t:l l -pl l tr 1(?11s,408410
Barker, (, B., 139
I i ;wro\v, l y. 1.., 349
Beacon antrmu~ systems, 327
l kacon :l ntrnn as, 011 :ti r(mft, 521
Bczcon cl rrn(,nts (see Gl adi ators, axi al l y
symmctri cd)
BP:LCOI, pattern mc:l s,,r(,mcnts, 573
Bcaron radome (I esi grl ,s, ,540
BCaI n) l w:~vcrtni l , 477, 478
brcmdsi dc, 267-27+
cn(i -i i rc, 274278
fanne(l, 7
appI i c:~ti ons of, 450
i owal ti tl l cl r, 484
omrl i chrecti omd, 6
penci l , 7
sector sI I ;l P(I 1, 47,5
sl I :\pI ,(l (we SI I :Lp(Yl IM:LIII)
toro;[l:ll, 6
11.,:1111 (Itv,:,ti(,rl f: Lctt]r, .488
11(,:,,11Sh,lp[,, Iwrl:llll(, 508-509
II,,:,,,, sl l ;l l ]i ,l g, I ,J- ,, I w(:Lc1(s i ,, l I (,rTI :111(1
\\: Lv(,-KI I I (l r :1])(M l l l [>S, :380 ,38,3
Jh,;l l l l \rl (l l l )s Ys. :I [wrttl rr i l l \l !l l i l l :Ltl ,,],,
17!), 183187, 1!)5
B(,(hr, II. ,[,, 208
I I i r o]]i (al I 1(,uI , !)
l l I I N,l ;Lr tl {art>, 3336
I I i r(l l ar[l , 11. 1,,, 31(5
I {l i st,. r, 512
Jl ol )n(,rt, ,J., 4!2, 1.35, 564
13010111( ti n, ,555, 601, (X)4
lh)l(,lll(. t(,r (,1( Ill(,llt, ,$1!)
I hmk(,r, 11. (~., 107, 2!)4
Born, 11. , 125, 166. 167, 197, 414
Boundary condi ti ons, gr ncr :d formul ati on
of, 6668
at i nfi ni ty, 8486
for srztt~,ri l l g prol )l cms, 13CK132
Box horns, 377-380
l )r:{l l rdi ch, ..1,, 460
13reckcnri dge, I L. C,., 399
Br ccn, S., 251, 437
]I r cwstr r angl r, 402
Bri l l o!l i n, L,, 42
Bro:tcl l >:i rl cl -norm:tl -fi ri ,,g arrays, 331-333
l l rcm(l si (l c arrays, bi nomi al i l l umi nati on
of, 269
gal )l e(l i l l umi nzt,i nn of, 269
g:i i n of, 271-274
m:t~i m(l rn g:{i n col l (l i ti ons for, 270, 271
rrsona,,t, 321-327
l l rownl o~v, J. hf., 399
c
( :,mpt,cl l ]s l oa(l ml -l i ne forrnl das, 313316
Carl son, J. F., 410
( i nter of fcr d, 239, 343, 562
d(t(,rmi n:~ti ol l (jf, 564-570
Chwdey, F. G., 39!)
(hi shol m, E, R, 331, 332, 509
Chok(, 242, 243, 245
Chu, I ,. J., 80, 146, 248, 334, 341, 349,
357, 41.5, 478, 497
Cl app, 1{. K., 20!), 46!)
Coaxi al l i ]l (,s, 217226
cwca(l c transformers i n, 221-?23
pur:~l l rl stubs for, 223-22,5
wri ts r cact:mcc transformer for, 225
Ti t;.11-,,)o(l e of, 217-219
( 01,1:1h)hcS, +88
( ?,,,(10,,, h:. [-., 415, 423
( (,I I (I I I (I ;I I L{,(,,i l ~trt.]~~,j,t:d, 2!)8
(O1)M,l l . 1:. T., 108, 167
( U([l ]l i ri K, t]rtwm,n tr:msmi ttcr and r c-
cci ,(r, 45-48
(+ovcr :(gc I mttern, onc-wwy, 4
t \W-\\-:l j,5
(<r oss pol :l ri z:l ti on)
of bi l rr(,l -ucfl c,l , t(l r
:I l l trl l l l :l j 503
Of f:~l l l l r(l 1)(,:1111:Lntrl )]l m, 4.57
lll(:ls(lr (ltl(,llt of, 37!1 580
[I f [x.jl (,i i -l , (,:l tl l :,nt(,l l l l :\s, .419, 423
( rww s,vti(,]l. :(llsorpi ion, 3, 42
:l v(,r:1~(, for ]I l :[t(h,.(1 SJ+VI I 1, 50, 51
Cross section, deprndcnc(, of, on autenna
mi smatch, .5153
i ntercepti on, 46S
radar, 468
recei vi ng, 3
scatteri ng (see Scatteri ng cr oss srrti on)
Crystal , 555, 559, 601, 604
cal i brati on of l a\v of, 552556
Cscz (1pattern, 466, 470, 507
Ckdl cn, A, 1,., 295
Cur r ent di stri buti on, (l i scol l ti nl l o!l s, 146
149
far -zone fi el ds of, 87-91
over refl ector, 144--149
Cut parabol oi d, fred-ti l t effcr ts i n, 488,
489
offset feedi ng of, 454
for shaped hca, rs,477483, 487-491
for si mpl e fannrd brai ns, 451-457
Cutl er, (7. C,, 484, 4!)7, .508
Cutoff wa~rrl rngth, 205
Cyl i nder, parahol i rl 457-459
1)
I X: Brcttcvi l l r, .f. P., .Jr., 399
Dehyc, I ., 114
Detecti on, sl l pcrl l ~,t(,rrj{l ynr, ,5.50, 578,
607-60!)
I )rtwti on system, cal i br:tti on of, ,5!52-,556
I )etw,tor, l ml omrtcr, 55.5, 601-004
(,ryst:d, 5+!), 554, 555, 601, 604
I )ctwtor rcspol ,sc, 601-603
l )i tki (,, I L. 11., 200
I )i l l on, R. 1;., 316
1)i p<)l e, cl [,(tri l ,, !)295
hal f-\ vav(, !)8
gai n of, W
magl l t,ti c, !)5
sh)t-f(,(l , 245248
:1s arr:i y (l cmrnt, 284286
sphrroi fl :~l , 24!)
i :np(, (l anr(hof, 24!)
I )i pol c-(l i sk f(wl s, 251-2.53
I )i pol c fr c(l s, (I i rc(ti vt,, 250
I )i vr r gcl )cc f:~ctor, I 43
I )odds, ,J. \V., 2!)5, 2!)!)
I )OI I l h, (, I , , 282
I )r,l l bl twl i pol r xystrm, o,, r,,:*xi :,l I i nc,
253-254
r{J:L\i :i l -l i ri {,.f,,,l , 253
I )ouhl e.di pol e system, theory of, 101 - ] 04
on wavegui de! 2,552,56
Doubl et hYI S, 410
Do\vker, Y., 523, 556
l )unbar, A. S., 480, 487
1;
E-pl ane, pri nci pal , 103
E-pki tl f~ pattcrm, pri nci pal , of pcnfi l -
hearn antennas, 422-423, -433-437
E-pl ane sectord horr,s, a(l rr,i ttanm. rl ,zw-
actcri st,i cs of, 36!)374
modes i n, 350354
mouth admi ttance of, 369
radi ati on from, 357, 3.58-365
terl tl l -po\vcr \ri dths of, 364, 365
throat transi ti on, 3b!)371
trz,)srni ssi oml i ne equati ons for, 366-
36!)
Eaton, J. E., 316
Edge di ffmrti on, 516
Edw, refl ecti on, 518
I ?i s(l l h:wt, I ,. ],, 142
l >l wt,ri c:d l ength, 550552
I l son, X,, 442
Emdr, 1., 1!M, 220, 233
Er r or , c(~l )i c pl l asr, 189
l i n{mr, 188
quadrati c, 188
Evcrbart, 14;., .523
]vrri tt, I V. 1,., 17, 1+21
];y~(IS, 1,, ,1., 316, 328, 496
1
Far-zone fi el ds, of c,l r r cnt (l i st ri l n,t i o,,s,
87-!)1
of I i ]l wcurrl >rl t {I i +tri buti ol l s, 96-!)8
Far-zonr r c~i on of :Ll x,rt,,r(w, 172
l +cml , cc]l t(r of (.s{>,( [,l l tcr of f(,~,[lj
di pol (,-tl i sk, 251- 2.;3
cl ol l l l l f.-[l i p{jl (,, 2<5;32.56,434
d(,l l l )k-s]ot, 348-34!)
Cxt(m(l (, (l , 473, 474, 177, 4874$)4
di pl }l t,-:Lrri LJ-, 4!)14!13
horrl -arr;Ly, 4!13- 4!) I
fol l r-[l i p,~l r, 256
poi l l t-so(l rcc (.wr I fl i l l t-sourrc feed)
])ri , r,:try, 12
Feed requi rements, pri mary, 239-240
618 MI CROWAVE A ,VT.V,V,VA
Feed systems, front, 448
rear, 347, 434, 448
Feed ti l t, i mpedance changes wi th, 488
Feed-ti l t effects, i n cut parabol oi ds, 488,
489
i n parabol oi dal refl ectors, 487, 488
Feedi ng coeffi ci ents, 259
Fermats pri nri pl e, 122-125
Fi el d equati ons for cyl i ndri cal wavegl l i de,
201-203
Fi el ds, domi nant-mode, of sectoral horns,
352, 355
superposi ti on of, 99-101
ti me-peri odi c, Maxwel l s eq(mti ons for,
68
Fkke, M. D., 387
Fouri er i ntc.gral representati on of l :ra~Ln-
hofer regi on, 174-175
Frank, N. 11., 173, 174
Frank, P., 110
Fraur,hofer regi on, 16&162, 172
cri teri a for, 198, 199, 561, 57.!
Fouri er i ntegral representati on of,
174-175
Frequency control , automati c (see AF()
Frequency pul l i ng, 538
Fresnel regi nr., of ci rcul ar apertl l rc, 106-
199
general characteri sti cs of, 171172
Fresnel zones, 196
Front-feed syste,ns, 448
G
Gai n, 3, 90, 177
absol ute, 90
of broadsi de arrays, 271-274
maxi mum, condi ti on for, 271
of ci rcul ar wavegLl i des, 340-341
dependence of, on ti pert(l re i l l umi na-
ti on, 177-178
directive, 580-581
effective, 583
of end-fire arrays, 277278
of hdf-wave dipole, 99
of parabolic cylindrical antennas, 458
of pencil-beam antennas, 423432
of pyramidal horns, 587
of rectangular wavegui{les, 346
of scattering pattern, 468
of sectoral horns, 587
THEORY A .Vl) DESI GN
Gai n compari son, 581
Gai n determi nati on, refl ecti on method
for, 585586
Gai n factor, 178, 425
vs. aperture i l l umi nati on, 187, 195
Gain functi on, 2, 90, 94
for aperture, 162
scatteri ng, 590
Gai n measurements, 580-586
Gai n standard determi nati on, 582-585
Gai n standards, secondary, 586
Gardner, J. H,, 481, 484, 485, 508
Gol dstei n, H., 320
Grati ng, quarter-wave, 447
Grati ng refl ectors, 449-450
Greens theorem, scal ar, 108
vector, 80
Cr ound antennas, 510
Ground target arm, effecti ve, 469
Gui l l emi nj E. A., 17, 18
Cupti l l , E. I f., 295, 299
H
H-pl ane, pri nci pal , 103
H-pl ane patterns, pri nci pal , of penri l -
hmm antennas, 422-423, 433437
H-pl ane sectoral horns, admi ttance char -
acteri sti cs of, 374376
modw i n, 355357
mouth admi ttances of, 375
radi ati on from, 35 S365
tenth-power wi dths of, 365
throat transi ti on, 375
Hal f-power wi dth, 94, 104
Hansen, W. 1$-., 278
Hayes, }V. D,, 419
Hegarty, Nf., .523
Hei ght fi ndi ng, 467
Hei ns, A. E., 410
Hi att, R., 251, 437, 442
Hi l l , J. F., 503
fI Or n arrays, 319
as extended feeds, 481, 493-494
Horns, bi coni cal , 9
box, 377-380
compound, 350, 376
pyrami dal , 587
sectoral (see E-pl ane sertOr:Ll bor]ls;
H-pl ane sectoral }I or f]s)
11~111, C. F., Jr., 415
I NDEX
619
Htl ntrr, L. P., 556
Huygens-Fresnel pri nci pl e, 108
I
I l l umi nati on, aperture, beamwi dths vs.,
179, 183187, 1!35
dependence of gai n on, 177-178
gai n factor vs., 187, 195
si de l obes vs., 179, 187, 195
bi nomi al , of broadsi rl c arrays, 269
gabl ed, of broadsi de arrays, 269
I mages, of di pol e radi ators, 135137
pri nci pl e of, 132-137
for di pol e-sources, 135-137
I mpedance, characteri sti c, 23, 216
normal i zed, 25, 213
of spheroi dal di pol es, 249
transverse wave, 209
I mpedance changes, wi th feed ti l t, 488
I mpedance correcti on, for penci l -beam
antennas, 443448
for pi l l box antennas, 463
I mpedance effects, i n normal -i nci drmse
radome, 537
I mpedance-measurement apparatus, 547
I mpedance measurements, probe er r or s
i n, 548, 556
I ndi cator, response of, 549
I ntensi ty measurements, pri mary pat-
terns, 561564
I nter fer ence effects i n ai rcraft i nstal l a-
ti ons, 515519
I ri s, tri al , 552
I sotropi c spheri cal waves, 78
J
Jahnke, E., 194, 220, 233
Juncti on effects, i n wavegui dm, 214, 215
K
Keary, T. J., 455, 461, 464, 502, 508,
564
Kel vi n, hrd, 121
Ki ng, .4. P., 349
Ki ng, D. D., 248
Ki ng, R. W. P., 21, 248
Ki ngsbury, S. hi ., 399
Kl ystron, doubl e-cavi ty, 596599
Kl ystron, refl ex, 594-596
Sperry 41o-R, 596
Sperry 41913, 595
Kock, W. E., 402, 405, 406, 410, 442
Krutter, H,, 442, 455
L
Lament, R, I ,., 200
Latti ce factor, 105
Lens, di rl wtri c, 389-402
attenuati on i n, 399400
bandtri dth of, 398
frequency sensi ti vi ty of, 398
one surface, wi th el l i pti cal contour,
302_3~3
wi th hyperbol e contour, 390392
refl ecti ons fr om surfaces of, 401
tol erances on, 400
two surface, 390, 394
zoned, 395398
doubl et, 410
metal -pl ate, 4024 12
achromati c doubl ets, 410
bandwi dth of, 408-410
one surface, wi th el l i pti cal contour,
403-405
of paral l el pl ates, 402405
of paral l el wi res, 406
pol ystyrene-foam bon[l ed, 406
refl ecti on fr om surfaces of, 410-412
tol erances on, 407408
spheri cal , 390
l ,cwi s, F. D., 349
l ,i ne,, corrugated, 319
10SS1CSS, 26-29
I ,i ne-current di stri buti ons, far -zone I i rl ds
f, 9&98
I ,i nr -sour ce pri mary pattrrn, 570572
Li ne-source feed, and refl ectors, 151-154
I ,i ne sources for shaped-beam antennas,
495-497
Li ttel fuse, 549, 559
Li ttel fuse Company, 603
Loaded-l i ne constants, 313-316
Loaded-l i ne formul as, Campbel l s, 313-
316
I ossl ess l i ne, 2&29
Low-al ti tude cscj@antcnnas, 484-486
Luneberg, I LK,, 126
620 .VICIK)WT.LVEAN7E.V.VA THEolil .I .V1) 1)E5J G.%
M
Mmfarl ane, G. G.,503
l .l chfi l l an, E, B.,523
Ll agi c T, 572
NI agnetrous, 599601
JI al us, theorem of, 126
Narcuvi tz, N., 200
kfarshal l , F. f3., 556
hI ason, S, J., 377, 380, 453, 564
Matchi ng of wavegui de and hor n f(,ccl sl
383387
hl axi mum-powcrt heorem, 20, 21
I l faxwel l s equati ons, di fferenti al form, 64
i ntegral form, 64
forti me-peri odi c fi el ds, 68
Mi mno, H. R., 21
Mi ses, V., 110
Mi smatch, i ntroduced by r efl cr tor j 155-
158, 439443, 454
kfoments, of aperture-fi el d di stri butml l s,
184
&fOntgOmery, C. G., 200
Mueller, C. E., 316
~
Kabarro, F. R. N.j 415
Nacelle, 512, 513
Near-zone region of apertures, 170
N-etwork, four-terminal, 1719
twO-termirl&p:Lir, 17
A-etwork equivalent, four-terminal, of
section of transmission l i ne, 36
Network parameters, four-termi nal , 17
Nowak, W. B,, 253
0
Obsruratinn, of target signal, 520
offset feedi ng techni que. 453-457
Opti cdFrrwnei fi el d, 171
Opti cal path I rngth, 122
Orthogonal i ty of wavegui de mode., 207-
209
Oster, G,, 399
P
n-secti on, 19
l b, (. s., 381, 383, 453, 477, 487
Pamm(,tr:rs, ronsti tuti vc, 65
cur r ent, 210
Vol tage, 210
Pattern, :,l ,p:i re,Lt, 526
pri mary (see I ri nl :u-y p:l ttrrl l )
second:wy (see Sccond~Lry pnttrr!l )
Pattern [I i storti om by r:l domm, 524-,526
Wttr r n synthesi s by l i near a,rray, 279
284
l cI 1ci l }]cam, rcqui remrnts for, 413, 41-1
Pcllcil-h(,:,m ;ultrun: is, ,I sing ci rci l hi r p;i -
rahol ui (l al rcfl wtor, aperture fi c,l {l
of, 419
dcsi g]l pr ocr dur cs for, 432
cr oss pol ari zati on of, 41!), 423
gai n of, 423-432
i mpcdmcc mrwcti on for, 443448
parahol oi [l ~l , 41 5450
usi ng partl l ml oi cl al rcfkxtors, al l tt,l l rl a
gai u of, 423-433
Perry, I f. .L, .523
l h:,sr constant, 23, 205
I hasc c] etorl l l i rl : l l i orl s on poi [ ] t- sol ] l ( , c
feeds, 564570
Phase-error effect.s, on pcn(, i l l )~:t]]~ g:l i l ],
430
on secoudary p:ttterl l s, 1861!)2
Phase er r or s, (I cfo(l l si ng, 432
Phase mcasurcmcntj l i nwl cn~tl i r ffmt i l l ,
56{)
I h:w,-reversal tc,hui qucs, i ,, :Lrr;,ys, 321
Phi l l i ps, H. B., 62
l i l l ho~ dcsi ~n prol ,l rm., 460-404
l i pp;~rd, A. 11., 442
Poi nt-so,l rre, cone, 240
Point-soiiwc fr cds, prim:iry lJ:It(I,rII ft,r,
557-570
and rcfi c.tors, 14!)- 151
Puktr di t[grwn, 3, !10
Pol wi 7,:~ti ou, ci rrl l ]:tr, !)2
cr oss (sr r ( row pol :tri z: i t i on)
cl l i pti c:d, !)1
I ol yuol ui :i l , assol i nt~,(l \ri ttl / Lrr:ty, 2ti l -
264
1[)01(, .1. I L, 461, 508
Porterfi f] [l , (. 1:., 478
Pol }-cr mwl m, 5!)5
Poyl l ti l l gs i l l cor[,l rl , 6!)-71
l oyl tti n~ vct,tor, 6!)
t i me:l veragv, 70
WI , 514
I .\[)EaY
621
IJrcssurizing, 383-387
lrcssurizing d(>vicc, 376
Irinl:lry f(d, 12
lr,ru:lry p:, t tern, 12
linr-so~lrce, 570572
for point-source frc(ls, 557,570
]rim:Lry-p:tttcrn app:Lr:LtIIs, sitill~ of, 560
Protw, re.ponsc of, 549
Imhe vrr(jrs, in inlpul:mrr III1,:I>IIrlX-
mrnts, 55fi
l r[)pti gi l ti ~)l l ronst:i l l t, 20,5
l urc(l l , 1;, \t., 200, 301, 330, 4(N, 585
l hul ar cr oss swti on, 468
l twl ar sl l I t{l ,)\v, 5 I 5
I t:ul i :,ti f)n, from E-l)lltlc scrt(,r:,l I l(,rtw,
357
fr om H-pl :mc scrtor:d her,,., 3.jX
fr om \vavcgui de, :l pf,rt(l w t r(:l t l l l (l ]t ,~f,
334
l tadi ati on condi ti ons, 85
I i :t[l i i l ti otl pattrrn, !)()
l {:ul i :~t i on r(mi st:ul cc, 39, !15
I {atl i :l tors, :i ki :dl y syml l l ,t ri <:l l , 303-30!)
(I i pol e, !12!)6
i mages of, 135-137
strc:LmIinc(l, 310313
wavc~lli[lr, 301303, 32!)
Rml i o I t[wmr ch I ,al wratory, 223
l ki ~l omr, normzl i l l ci (l onvr. X37 53!)
desi gn col l si (l {,ri l ti (,l l s for, .538
i mpml atl rc cffwts 011, X37
p;l ttl r,l fffccts of, 537
patttrn (I i ht,)rti ons hy, 524--.526
str(,aml i jl ctl , 524, 535, ,540-.542
{l ~wi gl l c(~]l <i [l t,r:i ti fJI l s for, ,342
pxttcrn (ff(,(ts [i f, 540
l l :l dol l l l . \v:dl s, r cfi ccti f)r l rl , rfl i ri cl l th of,
52!1,537
tri msl ni ssi on coeffi ci ents of, 52!)- 537
I tangc rwi l l [ti o]l , 524
nay cl (rv:l t(l rc, 111, 112
I {ay vel oci ty, 110
l {:tyl ri ~l l , T,ortl , 1!)
I t:l yl ci gh reci proci ty t,hcorcm, 1!)
l {~,:l r-fwd systcnl s, 448
l tw(,i vi l )g p:i ttx,rn, 4
I tL,ci l Jr(wi ty, I wt]r ecn tranfi l l l i ttl ]l g :[tl (l
rl wri vi ng patterns, .+8-,>()
l ((v,i prt,ri ty rcl :,ti or, I ](,t!r cc,l trm,sft,r co-
cfhci (jl ts of )]cti r f~r k, 18
I {r[l l l el l (, r, 1{. 1[ , 523, 556
l {cfl tvti {]l l , from cl[rvcd surfaces, 138143
frol l ) rtl rvl ,l llI1(imsllrf;L(P 0[ fuw+lglj,
;17
rtl~f,, ,318
l l \w of, 124, 134
l {(,fl t,ti f,l ] rf,(fl i fi c]l t, ml rrent, 32
(,l (,ttri ,-f,~,l ~l , 212
of l );~ri l t]c,l ,,i fl :l l r(,fl rl ,ttjrs, 43!144;+
of r:l (l ol l l (> W;l ]]s, 52!)- 537
W)l ti [g(,, 25
l {tfl ,rti ,,,, r[,{, ffi ri {,nt cl ,:i rt, 2!)-33
(,$w ct/,soSmi th ch;,rts )
l {(,fl ([,ti ,)]] l l l t,tl l ~xl for g:~i l l {i (t(~rl l l i rl :l -
ti l ~l l , 585
l {(fl (,{t(,r :Lnt(mn:l s, (Ion}) 1(, -(llrvtittll(,,
502-50s
I{(fl((tor Illislll:ltch, 155-158
l{, fi((t(,rx, :11)(,utllr(.fi(,l(l ]11(, tllocl f{lr,
1.58-160
1):1,,(.1, 480, .503
c(~lltotlr ((lttitlg of, 453457
Cllrrf,tlt (Iistrllll[ti{,]l over, 14414!)
cllt l):\r:limloi<l;(l, 4.51-4571 477
syt]ll,]f,tric;ll tyfm, 4514,53
Cyl i l l [l ri c:l l . for shaped h(~i l ffl s, 494 4!)7
gr:l ti rl g, 44!)4,50
l i l ,(-s{,l l r((, ft,,,<l :,,)(1, l,jl - 155
I l l i ,tl l ateh i rl t UX1,,C<,C1l )y, 155-158,
43!)-443, 4,54
I I l o(l i fi c[l , 474, 477, 47$)4!),j, 503
l ~:l f:~l )[)l []i cl tLl , f~,(,{l -ti l t (,li(,lts iii, 487,
W?
St[l l [,t(l r:l l fl mi ~n l )l t,l )l ,,t])s, 4484,30
pt,i ]]t-w,~l r[x, ftvxl i ~l l [l , 14!1 1.51
S(,r(,,,,,, 44!)
si l o\ (,1-, 4X1 , 483
l{,ir:i,ti,,,,, l:LI,S Of, 125
1{(.1)011([(!, 327
l i i l jl [,t, 11., 13!), 247, 282, 30.5, 316, 323
T{i c(, S, ()., 247
I {i ,l [l ][,((r, 1,., 414
l {l l l g .I )l l r, (, 3.18
I {i wtr, J l {., 3;32, t3(i f}, 3(i !l , .l (i l , 4!)(), ,508
s
S{;i l ;l r, (~rc(,l ]s tl ,,~~r,,]]), I OX
,St:i r,,,i ,,g :(,,t~,,,l l :l s, 51;3-521
622 MI CRO WAVE ANTENNA THEORY AAD DhSI GN
Scatteri ngr mul ti pl e, 588
Scatteri ng cr oss secti on, 5, 42, 468
equi val ent sphere. 5
Scatteri ng gai n functi on, 590
Scatteri ng pattern, gai n of, 468
Schel knrroff, S. A., 248, 261, 279, 282,
586
Schwartz i nequal i ty, 177
Screen, absorbi ng, 560
Screen refl ectors, 449
Secondary pattern, 12, 169
general features of, 1751?.0
phase-error effects on, 186-192
Sector bl anki ng, ,517
Seri es reactance, on coaxi al l i nes, 223-
226
Shaped beam, appl i cati ons for, 465468
cut parabol oi d for, 477483, 4874tJ 1
cyl i ndri cal refl ectors for, 494-497
requi rements for, 465468
Shi p antennas, 511
Shi pborne antenna for surface search,
467
Si chak, W., 230, 231, 255, 301, 330, 436,
464
Si de l obes, 176
vs. i l l umi nati on, 179, 187, 195
Si gnal generator, 594
Si l ver, S., 155, 157, 441, 442, 463, 487,
497, 503
Si ti ng, of i mpedance-measurement app:t-
ratus, 548
of pri mary-pattern apparatus, 560
of secondmy-patter n apparatus, 574
578
Skel l ett, A, M., 396
Ski n thi ckness, effecti ve, 534
Ski rt-di pol e antenna, 24W242
Sl ater, J, C., 51, 173, 174, 200, 2] 1
Sl ope, 549
Sl ot array, axi al l y symmetri cal , 3115
Sl ot radi ators, i mpedance i n wavegui ~]e,
287-299
Sl ots, dumbbel l -shaped, 296
l ongi tudi nal , 291-297
nonradi ati ng, 287
probe-fed, 299-301
resonant, 291-299
transverse, 291, 292
Smi th, P. H,, 29
Smi th, W. O., 497
Smi th charts, 29
Snel l s l aws, 12%125
Sommer fcl d, .\., 59, 1]4
Southworth, G. C,, 349
Space arrays, re,ql l ar, 104-106
Space fmtors, 89
Spati al pattern measur?mentsj 563
Spmccr, R, C., 139, 184, 186, 191, 194,
473, 497, 503
Sper r y 4 10-1{kl ystron, 596
Sper r y 4191f kl ystrun, 595
Spheri cal waves, i sotropi c, 78
Squi nt, 245, 438
Stabi l i zati on, 508
Standi ng-wave measurements, 548-550
Stan i ng-wave rati o, 28, 545
power, 28
vol tage, 28
Standi ng-wave vol tage rati o, measure-
ment of, 547549
Stati onary phase, pri nci pl e of, 119122,
157
Steel e, E. R., 523
Steenl and, .4, 11,, 496
Stei nbergerj J., 331, 332, 496
Stergi opoul os, ~. G., 479, 490
Stevenson, .4. F,, 292
Stratton, J. A., 57, 61, 67, 78, 80, 93
132, 146, 15{), 248
Stubs, pardl el j 223226
Suen, T. J., .523
Supcrposi ti nn pri nci pl e, 66
Surface-to-ai r search, 465
.Surface antenna for ai r search, 465
Symonds, R. ,J., 612
Syng[,, J. L,, 110, 122
T
T-secti on, 18
Taggart, l f. .\., 497
Tar@ response, di recti onal , 468-471
Target si gnal , obscurati on of, 520
Tchebyscheff arrays, 282-2S4
I W-mode, of ci rcul ar wavegui de, 233
of coaxi al l i ne, 220
of cyl i ndri cal wavqzui de, 204206
of ~-pl ane sectoral gui de, 352353
~f H-pl ane sectoral gui de, 35>356
of paral l el -pl ate wavegui de, 237
of rectangul ar wavegui de, 22&221J
I.YI)E.Y
711,0- to T.l i t,-l nCNl r r[l l l vrrtrr, 308
?1111-tn[~(!f, of co:l xi al l i ,l m, 217-21!)
c~l r r cnt of, 216
of cyl i nl l ri l :l l w:t~cgl l i {l r, 203, 204
of par:i l l r-l ~l ~l tr w:~vcgtl l {l m, 235236
vol tage of, 216
Tenth-po\vrr N i ,l tl l , !14, 104
Terman, F, F;,, 34!), 41.5
Thc%eni ns theorem, 20
Ti sza, I ,., 3!)9
T.V-mode, of rir((ll:tr ~v:lvrRtlidr, 233
of coaxial line, 220
of cylindrical wal,rguidt-, 206
of parallrl-plate wzvcg~[idc, 236
of rectangular w:~vegllidc,, 226- 22!)
Transfer admittance cocffirimrts, 1S
Transfer corllcients of nct\vork, rrri-
pmcity relation between, 18
Transfer impedance rocfflcirnts) 1S
Transformation charts, 2!)36
Transfnrmcrs, Cascadoj in coaxi~d li]lrs,
221-223
Transmission cocfficicnts, of r: i ( l omc
wal l s, 52!)537
Transmi ssi on l i ne, homo~cncotl s, 23-26,
544-546
thrm-~vi re, 247
two-wi re, 2137
Transmi ssi on-l i ne equati ons, for l t-pl une
sectoml horns, 36&36!)
Trammi ttcr pul l i ng, 517, 537
Transmi tter-recei ver system, cqui vahmt
nrt!vork of, 5360
1ransml tti ng pattern, 3, 557
Transpondcrj 327
Tri di pnl c transverse cl cmc,,t, 304
Trurl l , R, 221
Tyson, O. .\., 612
v
Vzl l ee Potl ssi n, (;, de l a, 280
Val ues, characteri sti c, 204
Van .ktta, L. ~., 43-1
Vari abl e beam shape, 508-509
I ector, Greens theorem, 80
Vertex pl ate, 443, 463
Vogel , B. I t., 509
Vol tage attenuati on constant, 23
Vol tage parameters, 210
JlJltagr rrffrrt iou r{wficicnt, 2,5
iron IIippel, A., 399
}$
Walkinsha\v, IV., 503
\f-all, stirld\vich, 532
single, 531
\Yatson, G. >-., 76, 194, 195, 236, 341,
353, 354, 367
lVatson, J\. 11., 2!)5, 299
lfa~r rqllations, 71-73
l~avr v(,locity, 110
\~:Lvcgui(le, circuhLr, TJ;-mrNlr of, 233
T$[-mnde of, 233
cyli!l(lrical, field cqll:itions for, 201203
Th.lf-rnn(l(> of, 203, 204
jl l nrti ou r ffwt i n, 214, 215
radi ati orl from, apcr tur r treatment of,
334
rcctangl l l at, 7FLm ode of, 22622{)
T.tf-mn(i r of, 226-22!)
termi nal adn]i ttanc(, of, 366
}Vavrgl l i {l c modes, mthognr,:di ty of, 2n7-
209
tl vo-~vi rc l i ne rrI ]r(,sc,l l t:i ti (~I l of, 209-
216
l f-avegui de radi ati on patterns, ci rcul ar,
336-341
rectangul ar, 341347
\Vm~,qql i dr radi ators, as array el ements,
301-:303, 32!)
JVaves, cyl i ndri cal , 75
pl an(,, 73
pri nci pal , 203
Wmson, 1,. G., 399
Wcst, \V. ,J., 478
}TmtI ,hal , TV. B,, 399
Whel pton, ,J,, 285
Whi te, J. S., .523
Wi nd rrsi stznce, 450, 453
Wi nrl o,v, capaci ti ve, 230
i nducti ve, 230
resonant, 231
Wi ng, .~, H., 21
Wi nkl er, F;. D., 523
Wi ntncr, A., 122
Wol fe, H., 461, 500
Wol ff, I ., 282
Wol l aston wi re, 559, 603
}Voodyard, J. R,, 278