Environment & BioDiversity by Shankar IAS Academy Part 1 of 5

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SHANKAR. lAS ACADEMY
Pl t o.1742, lst lo r, 18th Main Road, rma Olen'nai- 60 040.
Phone: 044-26216435, 64597JZ1,43533445, Mobile

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Facebook Group: Indian Administrative Service ( Raz Kr)
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SD4!CMS richn and endemiSQl as well as of agro-biodiversity, India, with only
m astounding 8.1% of the world's She also supports
18%of-tlieworld's cattle In fact, an estimated 70o/o of India's
eDlmCJaent locally on natw:al ecosystems for subsistence means of livelihood, including fuel,
J, 'att:'r, the country's biodiversity faces immense pressure.
1b vironmental problems in India are growing rapidly. The increasing economic development and a
r 1 'ing p I 1 ation are putting a.strain on the envirorunen t, b"od versity, and the country's na ral
re ourc s. IndustJ:ial pollution, soil erosion, deforestation, poachfug, rapid indust?alization,_
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a1 d are all worsening-problerns. Overexploitation of the country s resourc s, b it and or
h ted n the environmental degradation.
There is so far a positive of information for the student and general public on Environment.
I a1n pleased to therefore this book "ENVIRONMENT'', 1-vhich covers on Environmental
E o ogy, Bio-di ersity and Climate Change 'tNTfh reference to In d ia, a pioneering attempt by the
SHR KAR lAS presented in a and visually appealing format to raise the level of
and awareness among the people from of life.
This book is exclusively prepared for all aspirants who prepare for Civil Services and
other Competitive exams.
ccwe Grow.th-Not.Mere Economic-Gr-owth!' . ------
uNature If She Is Protect.edn
ALLTHEBEST
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D. SHAI'iKAR
DIRECTOR
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SHANKAR lAS ACADEMY

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us Year UPSC paper analysis .............................. .......................... : ...... , ................. ; .... :. ;,i
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PARTI
ENVIRONMENT ECOLOGY
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1. ECOLOGY - -." ............... 3-9
, J!. . PY OF EC LOGY ... .... . -............ ........ : .... ....... : ...................................................................... 3
r ENVIRONMENT & ITS COMPONENTS ................................. ................................................. 3
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0 .... . ............. ................ . . . ..... . ............. . 4
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)> ENERGY FLOW .................... ...................................................... -------- ........... ........... .... 10
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> fl10D CHAIN ... ...... . : ....... : ....... ....... .... .... .. ..... ........ .. ......... .. ..... ............................. ..... .... ..... ......... 10
.r FOOD vVEB ...... : ......................... ... .............................................................. _ ........... ...... .... ..... ........ 11
> ECO -1 D .... .. .... .. ............ ............. .. ....... ........ ........ .... .... ........ .. ... .. ... ... ... . : ...... . 12
> POLLUTANTS & TROPHICAL LEVEL ... ... ............. .. ................. ... .... ... .. : ............ ........... ... ...... 14
? BIOTIC JNTERACTION ........ .... ... ... ............... ... .. .................. .. ......................... ............. ............. 15
? BIO-GEOCHEMICAL CYCLE ................... ....................... .... ....... ....................... 15
;... ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION .... ............. ... ...... .... ............. .......... ....................................... .... ... 19
3. l ' ERRES"fRlAL "ECOSYS EM ...................................... : ......................... -............... .' ............................ 21-30
> TUNDIZA ... ............................... =: ............. .................................................. _ .................. . .... . ............ 21
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> FOREST ECOSYSTEM .. ....... .. .. .' .. .... ................................................................... : .. . ........ ..... 2f ____ --

}> INDIAN FOREST -ra.r'PES ....................... : ............................................... .-..... , .......... : .................... 23
)>. DEFORES'fATION ...................... :.,._. ...... : ............................................................... ... ................. ... 24
> E OSYSTEM .. ................................ ......... .......... ... ..... - .............. ... .... ................ .... 26
, DESET<T ECOSY TF 1 (TI-JAR .. COL ) ................ ......... ......... .' ...... .. .. ........................... ; ......... 27
) DESERTIFICATION ................. ........................... .................. .............. _ ....... : ........... ......... : .... 30
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N.. . ..... ..... ......... ......... ....... ............ . . .................... 34
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"' N ERVATI N PR RAMME ................................................ .40
l 't::t\1 ....... :. .. .. .. ..... . ... _ .. ........ .... .' ....... - ........ ... ............... 11
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~ 1 .. .. .. . ...... .. ... .. ... ...... ........ .... ...... ..... .. .................................. .. .. ....... .... 43
F, .. ..... ..... ......................................... ........ : ....... .. : .... : .. ................................................ 45
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E T ASTAL ENVIRONMENT ....................................... .............. 48 .
1 P tJTJON .................... ...... ............ .. ............... .. .............. : .............. .. .. ........ 49-70
liT NT .......................................... ...................................................................................... -49
............ '-'""-' ............... .......... -...................................................................................................... 50

! :>( _ l . 1TJ yN .. .. ... .. .... ... ... .... .. ... .. ... .... .. ....... .. .. ... .. ..... .. .. ... ........ ... .......... ...... . - .

FL ASH .. .......... , ............ .. ........ .... ...... ........................ .... ........... .' ......................... .................. 52
.. ... - r ~ ~ : o : ... .... ... ..... .. ............... ... .. .. .... :: ............ ... .. .. ....... .. ... .......... ............. ....... . 55
> \\ATER POLLUTION .. ...... .. ..... .................. ..... .. ..... ..................... .......... , ... ......... ........ ... ............... 55
...., IL . LLU.f lO ................ ................................ .. ........................ .... .......................................... 5b
ISE f>()LLliTION ....... .... ... .. ... ... .. .. .. .. .. , ... .. .. .. ... .... ...... .. .... ....... .... ... ... ..... ........ ..... .. ......... .. .. ..... .. 60
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DIO CTI E POLL TIO I ............ .. ........... ... ... .... ...... .... .... ..... .. ... ... .. .... .. .... ... ...... .......... .... .. 61
);:- E-\ ASTE ........... .. ...... ... ... ..... .. .. ...... .. .... ...... ..... ... . ... ......... ..... ... ...... .... ... .......... ... ...... .... .. ....... ... ..... 62
~ LID ; STE .... ..... ......... ........ ...... .. .......... ... .' .... ...... ... ... .. ....... ... .. .... .. .... .. .. .. .......... ...... ..... ..... ... .. 65
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> BlO-REMEDIATlON ...... ... ........ .. .......... ... ... .... .... .. ...... ......... ..... ....... .............. .. ....... ...... ............... 67
> E VIRO l'v1E TAL Hv1PACT ASSESSMENT .. .......... : .... : .. ... .. ... .... .. : .. .... ... .. ... .. .. .. ............ ....... 69
PART-II .
BIO IVER ITY
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6. .BIODIVERSJTY .... u ................... - ............................................................... .-.................................. ...... 72-75
)> B10Dl ERSI'f .. .. ........... ............ ....... ... ........... ........ ..... .... .. .......... ................ .. ........... ..... _ ........... 72
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LEVEI..S OF BIODIVERSI.TY ................................ ........................................................ ................ 72
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EASUREMENT OF BIODNERSITY ..... ....... ... .. .. .. ................. ................................................. 73
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r BIODIVERSI1"Y SERVICE$ ... ... ......... ................................................ .......................................... 74
,.. ODES OF CONSERVATION .. .. .. . : ..... ............. ..... ..................................... ..... - ...................... 75
BOTANICAL GARDEN&. ZOO.................. ..... ..... ......... ...................................... ................ 7

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HICALCLASSJFICATION .......... .................. ..... ..... .. ........... ... ...... . 76
DIVERSITY ................... .......... ........ ....... ... ..... .... .. ..... ... .... ............................................. : .. 80
> INDJ N WILDLIFE ............................ ........ .......... .. ... ... ....... .... ...... ...... - 82
.... DlVERSITY OF lNnlA .. - ..
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RED BOOK DATA ......... ................................. .. .. : ... ...... .......... .... ....... ... .... .... .................. 85
)> IUCN CLASSIFICATION ...... ................... ... .. ...... ..... .. .......... .. _ .. : ... ... , ....... .. .. .... ......................... 85
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CRJTICALLY ENDANGERED MAMMALS ........... : .. : ............... ... .......................... ............ ...... 87
}:- ENDANGERED MAMMALS ........................................ :_: ....... , ..... : ..... ......... ...... ... ........................ 88
);> VlJI_NERABLE.MAMMAl5 .................................. ..... .. .. . : ......... ........ .. _ .. ......... .... ...... .................. 90
)> 1\.fARl, E lvli\t ,1J,IALS ... .. .................................. .... .... .... ...... ..... ... .. ....... .. ................ .. .. .................. 91
EG . A'11l\JG :iv1A.! ilvlA ... .............. .. .... .... .... ...... ........ ... .. ...... ..... .... .. .. ..... .... ..... ....... .. .... ......... 91
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A 1ARSUPIAL .... ...... .-....... ....... .. ..... ................... ... .... :' .. .. ... ..... ............ ............... 92
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CRJTir T.Y EJ'TDANGERED BIRDS ..... ....... .... .. .... ....... .... .............. ... ... . .. .... ..... .. ... ................. 92
)> CRJTICALLY ENDANGERED REPTILES .. ...... ... ..... .. ... , .. .:: ......... ..... .. ..... ......... .... .. .... ..... ...... .. 94
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- D CALLl L 'DA1 GEJ?ED F. S : ....................... ........... ." ... ................ .... .. ... ............ .... .. : .. . 95
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);> CRITICALLY ENDANGERED SPIDERS & CORJ\L ..... ....... .. . .... ...... : ........ .... ......... .......... .. ... 9?
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BIRD. 11GRATJO 1 .. . ........ .. ... ..... .... .. ......... . ................. . . .... . .. .. : .... . ...... . ....... . ....... . ... ...... ............. . . 96
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)> W1LD LIFE DISEASE ..... ................. ........ .. ... ....... ..... ..... ... .... .... ... ...... .. ......... ...... .... .... ......... .. .. .... .. . 97
SPECIES EXTL ... ... ... ... .. ... ................. : ..... ... ..... ..... ... .. .... ... ....... ..... .. ::-:.. ........... ... ..... ...... 97 -
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:;::. :MAN- ANI viAL CONFLICT ....... .... .. .. ..... ..... ....... ............ ...... .. .... ..... ..... ... .. .. ....... ... ......... .... : ...... 98
9. PLANT DIVERSlll' OF INDIA ................. .... ....... .............. .... ............ ...... ......... ...... ......... : ............ 99-107
> PLANT CLASS!FICATION ................... .. ............ .... ..... .... ... ..... .... .. ... .. .. .. .... .. ........ .... ......... .... ... .. 99
> EFFECT OF ABIOTIC COMPONENTS ON PLANTS .... ........ ... .. .... ... .. ...... .-......... ......... .... ...... 99
r Ll\JSECTIVOROUS PLANT ............... ....... ... ......... ....... .. ...... ... ... ... .. .... ... .. ..... ... .. .... ... ............. .. ... 100
> INVASlVEAUEN SPECJES , ... : ...................... ...................... ... .. ... .. .. ... . ... ..... ........ ... .... ........ ..... 102
r INVASIVE ALIEN FLORA OF INDIA .... ..... ....... ......... .... ............. .... . : .. .... ... .. ......... .. ........... .... 102
r MEDICINAL PLANTS ........ .' ..... : .. : .................................. : ... : ........ ... .. ... ... .. : .... ... .. - .. ................. 104
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r TREEGIARAC-r-ERS ................ ........... .............. .... ....... _ ... ........ ....... ................ ....... ...... ....... :105
10. MARINE ORGANISM ...... .. .................... ..... ......... ....... ....... ................ ..... ... .-.... ...... ..... .. ............... .. 108-110
r .. ....................... ...... ............. .......... .......................... 108
)> PHYTO:PLANKTON .... ... ................. .. .......... .. ... .......... . : ................. ..... .... ... ... ...... ..... ................ 108
,.. ZCXJ..Pl..ANKTON .... ........... ....... ...... ............. ........ ............ , ............ ... ........ .. ........... ....... ...... ....... 110
;,;; SEA GRASS ...... -:-.................................... .. .............................. : ..................................... .............. 110
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N UARY & NATIONAL PARKS ..... ........ ... ..... .... ..... .... ............ ......... . 112
V. 11 N RESERVES & COMMUNITY RESERVES ..... .............................. : .. 1 i4
PROTEC..JED AREA$ ............ : .................................... ............. ................. .. ......... 114
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SA ED GROVES OF INDIA .......................................................................................... 115
EXPORT PROHIBI1'ED .......................................................... .............................. 116
. L BAL lT<JI JIATIVE
AN AND BIOSPHER .......................... ................ ......... .. ..... ......... .... ..... : ................... ... 117
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BIOSPHERE RESERVES .................................. .' ....... .-..... .. .. .. : ....... ...... .. .. .. .. ..... .. ...... ....... .. .. 117
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NATIONAL BIOSPHERE RESl!RVE PROGRAMME : ................................................. 119
WORLD.NETWORK OF BIOSPHERE RESERVES .. .................................................... . 121
BIODIVERSn'Y HOTSPOl"S ............................... .................. ........... ............ ......... ... ......... 122
WORLD HERITAGE SITES ................... ................. ...................................... ......... ........... 124
12. CONSERVATION ..... .. ....................................... ..... ............. ..... ...................... .............. 127-139
}> PROJECT TJGER ..... ...................................................... .. .............. : ........ : .................. .. ................ 127
}:> PROJECT ELEPHANT .................... .. .. ...... .... ....... .. ..... ........................ , ............ .. .. .. ... .. ...... .. .... ... .. 130
. VUL l 'URE ........... ................................. :., .................. ............................. ........... .. .. ....... .... ........... .. 132
? oNE HOR1 ED RHJ ....... ............... ................ .. ......... : .. ..... .. ... 135
PROJECT SNOWLEOPARD ... .. ... .. ....... ... .... ... ... .. .... .... ... ... ... .. .. ...... ... ... ........... .... .. ...... .. ........ .... 136
}> SEA TURTLE PROJECT .......... ... .............. .... ... .......... ..... .... ...... .............. ........ ........ ... .. ... ....... ...... 137
}> CROCODILE CONSERVATION PROJECT ... .. .. .. ... .. .... .. ..... .. ...... .. ... .. ... .. .. ........ .. .... .......... .. .... 37
}> PROJECI' HANGUL ... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ............... ..... ...... .... .. .. .... ............. ... .................. ._.......... .. .. 138
}> CAP'flVE BREEDING ........ ............ ..................... ...... .... .... .... .......... .... ...... .......... ... .. ......... .. .. ..... 138
GA NCES DOLPHI 1 ..... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. .. ..... ... ..... .......... . . .. . ....... .... .... . ........ ...... . ....... .. ...... ........ .. .. 138
PART-Ill
CLIMATE CHANGE
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13 CLIMATE CHANGE ................................ ... .... ...................... .. .. .... ............... ................................... l-:11-149
):> GLOBAL WARMING ......... ......... ....... _. ........ ... ........ .............. .............. ...... ..... ..... .. ... ............ .... .. .. 141
-6-REEN HOUSE EFFEcr.:.::.::: .. :: :.:.:::::.::-.. : .... ... :.: ..... .-... .. : ...... :: ........ ................ ..... .. ................. .. 142

,. GREEN HOUSE.GASES ............................. : ............................ ...... ........................ : .................... 143
}> CLIMATE FOR ON G .......... ............................... .... .. ..... ...... ... : ------ : ....... ... 146
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GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL .. .... .. ....... .. .... ........ ... .... .... ......... ...... .. ............. : ... ., ... .. -, ..... 147
}> GLOB A EMMISSJON&........................ .... .. ... . .. .. ... ...... .. ... .. ... .... .. ... .. .... ... ... ......... .. ..... .............. 8
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5. ZONE l > LE ................................................... - ....................
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IMPACf ( IMATE CHANGE- INDIA .............. ........................ .................. ...... ....... ." ....
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> AGl' .: ................... :: ............................................. : ............... :1
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> \VATER STRESS .
& WATER INSECURfi'V ....................................................... .. .. ............. .... .-.. 163.
> SE.t JEVEL RJSE .................................... ."........................................ . 164
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> EC< YSTEM & BiODIVERSITY .................................................................. ......... .. ....... . .-:: ........ 165
)> CL TECHANGE&HEALTH ..................................................................................... : .... ;. i66
17. MITIGATION STRATEGJ.ES ............................................... :--------....... ..................... 168-1
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)> CAl.., BON SEQUESTR..t\l'lON ........................................................................ ........................... l68
> AJ BC..)N ' 11'-lK ......... ............ ..... ... .... .... .... ... ... .. .... .... ......... .... ...... ... ... ....... .. ........... ...... ........ ....... 169
)> CARBON CREDIT ........... .. : ........................................ ..... :-- 170
)> C.ARBGN-0 FSEmNG .. ....... ... ............ ... ...... ............... .. ... .... ... .. ... ... ............. : ... .. .. .... . : .. : .... :. 70
)> CARBON TAX .............. ... .... : .... ........ ....... ................ .. .- ..... ... .. ...... .................. .. ... ..... .............. ... .. :.17.1
.:. "r- --GEO- E:l .G:i1 ' EERI G .................. .. ......... ......................................................... ........................... l7 .
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18. INDIA AND CLll\1ATE CHANGE ............... ................. : ............................................ .. .... .......... 173-l<Jn . .
> INDIA'S POS1TION ON-CLIMATE CHANGE .......... ......... : .. .. : .. .. ...... : ..... ..... .. ..... .... .. ... .... :. 173
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)> OBSERVED CLIMATE AND WEATHER CHANGES IN INDJA .... : ......... ........... .... .... ... ... .-174'
)> CORRECT ACTlONSFO ADAPTATl01 A 0 l\tflTlGATIOi
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)> NATIONAL ACTION PLAN. ON CLIMATE CHANGE ............................... ........................ 175
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? INDIAN NE1WORK ON CLIMATE CHAN6E ASSESSMENT. ............... .. ............. .......... : 181
}:;> NATIONAL COMMUNICATION (NATCOM) .................... : ............... ...... ... .... .... ...... ... ....... 182
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DIA' S POLICY STRUCTURE RELEVANT TO GHG NIITIGATION ....... .. .. ... ....... ..... ... . 183
)> BUILDING : -- 184
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> GRIHA ... .. .......... : ....... ..... ..... ....... ... ... .... ..... ..... ........... .. ................... ... : ................ ............ ........... 185
> INITIATIVE ON CLIMATE RESILIENT.AGRlCULTIJRE ........ ..... ............ : .. 188
> BSE GREENEX ................................... ...................... ; ............. ." .................................................... 189
> 24 OTHER CRITICAL ENTITIES .......... -... : ..... ..... ......... : ....................... :: .............. .................... 190
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19. CUMATF. C'JIANGE ORGANJSATJQNS ........ : ............................................... : ... ............ ........... 191-203
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tJ1'J c::c ........ ........................... ...... :.-........................... ........................ .... ... .-.. : ....... :.-........... .-.. : .... 191
)' KYOTO PROTOCOL ....... : ...... ... .... ....... _. ........................ :.: ........... : ....................... .. .... ...... : ......... 191
> , BALI MEET ... : ..... : .. .... .. .... ..... ................................ .. .. : .............. : ... ......... .......... 193
> COPENHAGEN S,lJMMl1' ............. ........................... .......................
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NM NT FA ILJ11 .............................................................. : ................ 199
T A ICULTIJRE ......................................................................................... 199
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TI N L GREEN HOUSE GAS INVENTORIES PROGRAMME .................................. 201
G EE1 ... , .......... ........ _. ..................... .: :::: ........ ........................ 202
PART-IV
AGRICULTURE
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20. GRICULTURE ........................................................
}> CROP AND ITS CLASSIFICATJON._ ....................................................................... ............... 206
}> CROPPING SYSTEM AND PATTERN .................................................................................... 210
}> FARMING SYSfEM ................................................................................................... .. ............... 212
}> SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE .............................................................................................. 213
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}> J TEGRATED FAR1v1ING SYSTEM ....................................... ....... ........ ........ .... ... .. .... ...... ... ... .. 214
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)> SOIL SCIENCE ............................................ ............................................................................... 217
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21. ACTS AND POLICIES ............................................................................................................ ........
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J> "\\TJLD LIFE PROTECTION ACT 1972 ...... ... : ... ..... ............. .. ............................. .... .. .. .... .. . .. -2-23-
ENVIRONMENTALPROTECTION ACT 1986 ........................................................ ... ... ........ 224
> NATIONAL FOREST POLICY 1988 ............................................................. : ........ .... ................ 225 , .
.. -:>- .BIOLOGJCAL DfVERSITY ACT 2002 .............. ..... ..... ................................ ...... .. ... .. .. .... .... ... ... . 225
}> SCHEDULE TRIBES AND OTHER FORESf DWELLERS ACT 2006 ................................ . 226 ,-
COASTAL REGULA'nON ZONE ........................................................................................... 227
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)> WE'fLAND RULES 2010 .................................................. ..................................... ...................... 228
J> NATION GR-gEN l"'RIBUNAL ..... ....................................................................... _. .................. 228
J;> THE OZONE DEPLETING SUBSTANCES RULES ........................ :.: ..................... , .............. 228
22. INSTITUnON AND .. ............................... -... ........... ... ;;-; ... ....... .............. 229-235
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"' NATIONAL \VIDE LIFE ACTION PLAN ............................................................................ , .. 229
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> NATIONAL AFFORESTATION AND.ECO-DEVELOPMENT BOARD ............................ 229
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> CAMPA ......................................... ............... : ................................................................... ,a.-.:..-.. ,.-230:
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> , JOINT FORESf MANAGEMENT ..................................... ................. ............... .".. ... ............. 230
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S()CIAL FORESfRY .. :.............................................................................. . 231
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NATIONAL BAMB()() ...................................... ............................ ............. : ........... 232
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LJll......... ... .................................................................................. .... ...... 233
TIONA I. Cl.EAN ENERGY FUND ..... ......................... .......... .. : ....... 233
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A ONAL MISSION FOR ELECTRIC ..... ............. ....... .................................. 234
),> - SCIENCti M.XPRESS- BIODIVERSITY SPECIAL ....... : ............... : ..... : .. .' ................. .-.. :-: ....... .... 234
> MANGROVE FOR FUTURE ......................... -........................... ............. ... ............................... 235
ORGANISATIONS ................................... ..................... ................. .............. 236-239
> WELFARE BOARD .......................................................................... ... ................ ...... 236
)> CEN'TRAL Z()() A ............. , ................. .................................................... .. ........ : ...
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)> NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY AUTHORITY ......... ............. : ............ .. ..... .... ... ............. ... .... .... . 237
)> WILDLIFE CRIME CONTROL BUREAU ........................................ ... ............ ............ .' .......... 238
N TI01 TAL AKE CONSER AT ON PLAN ...... ............ ........ ... ............... ........... .................. 238
> NA110NAL GANGA RIVER BASIN AUTHORffY ................... ..... ... .................... ....... ....... 239
24. INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONVENTIONS ....................... ............................. 240-255
> U. TED N_A'IJQ .. .!FERE CE 0 l E . .. 'TI Oil. 1E .. :c DE\.'E OP T .....
> CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (CBD) ........................... ............................. 241
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RAMSAR CONVENTION ON WETLANDS.' .. ......... .. ................. ................. ... ............ ..... ...... 246
CITES ............................ ........ ........................ ... ........................ : .......... ...... ..... ................................ 247
> _. THE \IVILDLIFE TRADE 10NITORJ rc NETIVORK {TRJ FF C, ... ..... ............ ... ...... .. ...... 248
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CONVENTION ON THE CONSERVATION MIGRATORY SPECJES (C 15) ..... ........ 248
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COAUTION AGAINST \1\TJLDLJFE TRAFFICKING (CAWT) ... ........................... .............. 248
INTERNATIONAL TROPICAL TIMBER ORGANIZATION (ITT0) ......... ...... . ............... 249
> UNITED NATIONS FORUM ON FORESTS (UNFF) ............................... ; .... _ ............ : ........... 249
> IUCN ::.: ........... ............................ .. . : .. .... ............... ............ ... .... ......... .. ........ ... ........................ ........ 250
? GLOBAL TIGER FORUM (GTF) ................... ............................ .. ..... ....................... ..... ............. 251
___ SI.OCK.HO.LM ...................................... ... ... 252
? BASELCONVENTION ......... ... .......... ... ..... ..... ............ ... ....... ... : ... ........ ... ........................ ....... . 252
)> ROTTERDAM CONVENTION-....... : ........................................................ .................... :: ... : .... 253
>- UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION TO COMBATDESERTIF1CA'110N ......................... 253
}.> INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION (lWC) ............... .. ................. : .................... 254
viENNA CONVENTION AND ...................................... ......... 254
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25. ENVIRONMENT ISSUES AND HEALTH EFFECTS .. -............................................................ 256-261
GLOSSARY
......................................................................................................... -:-. .... 2.62
................................ .. a
A
UPENDlX .................................... --............... - ............................................. ..
270
1: ........................... - -

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viu statements:
it i n rm 11y greater in the lower
n1p r d to the higher latitudes.
1 ng th mountain gradients, biodiversity
i. n rmally greater in the lower altitudes as
mp d to the hig}:\ r altitudes. ..
\ 1i h the statem nts given above is/are correct?
1 nly
b. 29nly
c. Both 1 and 2
d. Neither 1 nor 2
2 of the follow\ng criteria have contributed
io the recognition of Western Ghats- Sri Lanka
and indo-Burma regions as hotspots .of bio.-
. e sty.
J.. Spet?es richness
3.
- 5.
ege a ' on ensit
Endemism
.
. . -
Ethno-bolanical importance
Threat perception
6.
.Adaptation of flora __ and fauna to warm and
humid conditions
Which three of the above are __ in this
context?
a. 1, 2 and 6
b. 2,4and6
c. 1, 3 and 5
d. 3,4and 6
3. Biodiversity forms tl1e basis for l1uman
existence in the following ways :
Cl. Soil formation
b...Ptevention of erosion
c. Recycling of waste
d. Pollination of crops
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below:
. .
a . 1,2 and 3 oruy .
. 2,3 and 4 only

. . . -
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. 2012
1. of be threats to the
btodtverstty of a area ?.
1_. Global warming
2. Fragmentation of habitat
3. Invasion of alien species
1. :.- of vegeranan1sm
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below. .
a. 1, 2 and 3 only
b. 2 and 3 only
c. 1 and 4 C?nly
d. 1, 2, and 4
2. ln which one among the following categories
of protected areas in India are local people
not allo'lved to col ect and use the biomass?
a. Biosphere Reserves
b. National Parks
c. Wetlands declared' under Ramsareunventrorr
d. WHdlife Sanctuaries
3. Consider the following protected areas
1. Bandipur
.,. ...
3. Manas
Sunderbans
Which of the above are declared !iger Reserves?
a. 1, 3 and 2 oruy
b. 3 and 4 only
c. 2, 4 only
d. 1, 2,3 4
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t?
m
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,
hi h r inf II that supports luxuriant
t ti growth.
nfluence of different bio geographical
otic and. have not been
.._ ....,.duced m this regton.
d. has less human interference.
12. If a tropical rain. forest is removed, it does not
regenerate quickly as compared to a tropical
deciduous forest. This is because
a. the soil of rain forest is deficient in nutrients
b. propagules ofthe trees in a rainforest ha e poor
viability
c. the forest species are slow-growing . .
d. exotic species invade the fertile so}l of rain forest.
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13. When the b.ark of a tree is removed in a
circular fashion all around near its base, it
dries up and dies because
a. 'Vater from soil cannot rise to aerial parts.
b. Roots are starved of energy
c. Tree is infedl:d-b oil microbes
d. Roots do not receive oxygen for respiration
CLIMATE CHANGE
14. c_ons!der the : _ _
1. Photosynthesis
2. Respiration
3. Decay of organic matter
4.. VoJcanic action
WhJch of the above add carbc;l dioxide t"o the carbon
cycle on Earth 1
a. 1. and 4 only
b. 2 and 3 only
c. 2,3 and 4 only
1 2 3 and 4
-ll-: _Co_nsjder _fol1owing :
Cholorofluorocarbons, know.n as ozone-
depleting substances, are used
1. in the.production of plastic foams .
2. in the production of tubeless tyres
3. in cleaning certain electronic
4. as pressurizing agents-in aerosol cans
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a. l, 2 and 3 only
b. 4only
c. 1, 3 and 4 only
d. 1, 2,-3 and 4
t
"'' t rv
r th d it
th ultraviolet part of th
ol
n.
i
I
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1n1 s1
U the solar radiations.
wr
]
nts?

d. th infrared the solar radiation
.. .
ion of ozone hole in the Antartic 13. lbe acidification of oceans is Why
ha .. 1: een a cause of concern .. .\'Vhat is this phenomenon a cause of concern?
e the reason for the formation of this 1. The growth and survival of calcareous
ole?
cs - C'.' .. ;tJm ntt oposp encturb 1 ence;
d =n o .: of chlorofluoro carbons
p.,.. e f -r j e t pola r f n <lnd
stratospheric douds; and inflow of chl?ro
1
__
1
_c_._ Absence of polar front and stw:1tospheric douds;
z d iJ .flcv.- of me ane and dlloro fl uorocarbons.
d. Increased at polar region due to
global'
17.
a.
b.
c.
Regarding '"'carbon credits'', which one of the
following statements is not correct? ,
The. carbon credit system was ratified in
conjunction with the-Kyoto
Carbon credits are awarded to countries or .
groups that have reduced greeftheuse
below their emission quota
. .
The goal of the c:redit system is to limit
the increase of carb(ln einission quota .
arbor crcj tS are 1!a ed at a pri e d from
tim to time by the United Nations Envuorunept
rogramme.

. . . .
phytoplankton will be adversely affected.
2. . The growth and survival of coral reefs will be
adversely affected.
3. The survival of some. -animals that have
hytoplanktonic arvae wjll ad ' ezsely
affected.
4. he cloud seeding and formation of clouds. will
be adversely affected.
Which of statements given above is I are correct ?
a. 1,2 and 3 only b, 2 only
c. 1 and 3 only d. 1,2,3 and 4

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5. Among the following SJates,. whjch one has
the most suitable climatic conditions for the
cultivation of a variety of orchids with
minimum cost of production, and can develop
an export oriented industry in this field.?
a. Andhra Pradesh
. rui achal Pradesh
t c._ ,
d. t: a radesh
6. A sandy and saline area is the natural habitat
of an Indian ?nima] species. The.anima] has
no in that area but its existence
is threateneq due to the destruction of its
habitat. 1-\Thjch one of the foJJowing could
be that animal ?
a. lndian wild buffu)o
b. Indian wild ass
c. Indian wild boar
d. Indian Gazelle
7. The '
1
Red Data Books' published by the
International Uniov. for Cons.ervation o
Nature and Natural Resources (lUCN)
contain lists of
a. Endemic plant and animal species present in the
biodiversity hotspots.
Threaten d plant and animal species.
c
. What is th
ryx and Chiru? n the antelop
a.
b.
Oryx is adapted to live in h t d .
whe!eas Chiru is adapted to liove areas
semi-desert areas of cold high and
. mountams.
Oryx IS poa0ed for its antlers whereas oiliu .
poached for Jts musk. Is
c.
Oryx e:xists in western India orJ.y whereas Cruru
eXIsts m north-east India only. _ . ---
d.
of the statementsa, b, and c given abov
IS correct. e
5. the following :
1. Black-necked crane
2. Cheetah
3. Flying squirrel
4. Snow leopard
'\7JUch of the abo e are naturall y found in India?
a. 1,2 and 3 only
b. 1,3 and 4 only
c. 2 and 4 oJ:lly
.:.:.:.:.1,2,.;L<IDd-4 .....
6. Cpnsider the following ldnds of organisms
1. Bat
2. Bee
3. Bhd
Which of the above is/are polli.nuhng agent I agents?
a. 1 and 2 only
b. 2 only
c. 1 and 3 only
d.l, 2 and 3
7. Which one of the following groups of animals
_elongs to the _cate.gor.y. -of . .end-arigei:ed
species?
a. Great Indian Bustard, Musk Deer, Red Panda
and Asiatic WHd Ass
b. Kashmir Stag, Cheetal, Blue Bull and .Great
Indian Bustard
...
c. Protected sites for conservation of nature & c:
natural resources in various countries.
Snow Leopard, Swamp Deer, Rhesus Monkey
and Saras (Crane)
of the statement given above is I are correct?
3

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d. Macaque, Blue BuJl,
Langur and Cheetal

Hanuman

i roorganisms to the surface.
utri ts to th surface.
Hon-dwellingorganisms to the surfare.
f the given above is/are correct?
1 and ...
2only
2and3
d. 3 nly
9. The Tsunami made people realize that
mangroves serve as a safety
_TV-I .
What would if phytoplankto of
oceafs completely destroyed for
1. The ocean as a carb<?n sink would be ad
1
affected. . verse y
2. The food chains in the ocean would be ad 1
affected. verse y
.. :
3. The density of ocean water would drasticall
deqease. Y
Select the using codes given :
a. 1 and 2 only
b. 2 only
c. 3 only
d. 1,2 and 3

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9. .Wilh reference to the wetlands of India,
consider the following statements;

!,
h dge coastal calarnit.i es. How do l .
a gr ves fu ction ns a s .. fety e ge?
&
'The country's to al geographical area under the ;

categ,oryof "\1\'et Gujcuat t
. . .
a.
The ma.ngroves swaps separate the human as compared to other States.
2. .In India, the total geographical area of coastal
w tlan s s arger than hat ehl land "'.e
settlements from the sea by a wide zone in which
t- l f :u: '-er r ,'er re o t
b. The mangroves rovide both food and medicines
w.hlch people in need of after any natural
disaster.
W[rich of the statements gjven is/are co
a. . 1 only
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b. 2only
The mangroves trees are taU with dense canopies c:
and ser.e as an excellent shelter during a cyclone
Both 1 and 2
Neither 1 nor 2 or tsunami . d.
d. fhe mangr.:Hes trees do T I Ot get uprooted by
storms and tides because of their extensive roots_
ect?
10. There is a concern over the increase in 10. Vnltures which used to be very common in
harmful algal blooms in the sea waters of Indian countryside s(>me years age are rarely
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India. \That could be the causative factors seen no\ ' adays. This is attributed to ;
;
for this phenomenon 7 a. the destruction of their nesting sites by.new t
i
1. Discharge of nutrients from the estuaries. species. 1
2. Run-off. from the during the monsoon. b. a drug used..by cattle for treating their ..
diseased cattle.
3. Upwelling in the seas.
Select V"ae correct answer from the' codes given c. scarcity of food available to them f
below : d. a widespread, persistent and fatal disease among , ,
l
a. 1 only
b. 1 and 2 only
2 3 y 1
,2 3

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T &: POLICIES
t I dia, the
ds:
rt ( ontrol) Act, 1947.
Development (Regulation)
u t et, 196.2
Indi 1 For st Act, 1927
"<=!' abo:ve Acts have relevance to I on
I tversrty conservation in the country ? .
1 and 3 only
b. 2,3 and only
c. 1,2,3 and 4
d. None of the above Acts
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14. The Natipnal Green ... T. .b
n unalA
enacted in consona . ct, 2010 was
nee Wllh h" h
followingprovisions of th ': . .. the
India? e onshtUtion of
1. Right to healthy environm t .
2. part part of Rightto life I as a
Pro":Js_ion of grants .for raising the 1 l f
in the Schedtd d A efve o
e reas or - -
_welfare of Scheduled Tnbes underA:rtide 275(1)
Which of the statements above iS/are correct?
a. 1 only. .
b. 2 only
c. Both 1 and 2
d. Neither 1 nor 2
15. How does National Biodiversity Authority
(NBA) help in .prot ect i ng the Indian
agriculture?
1. "NBA checks the b]opiracy and protects the
indigenous and genetic
2. NBA diriTtJy monitms aJitfsapenise-rr-lte
scientific research on genetic modification of
crop plants.
3. Application for intellectual Property Ri ghts
related to genetic I biological resources cannot
be made without the approval of NBA.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a .. 1 only
b. 2 and 3 onlv
J
c. 1 and 3 only
d. .1 ... 2 and 3
CURRENT AFFAIRS
19. Recently, "'oilzapper was in the news. What 16. Governm-en-t -of -India encourages the
is it 1. . - cultivation of :sea buckthorn< What is the
a." It i s an eco-friendly technology for . the importance of this plant?
remediation of oil sludge and. oil spilJs. a. It helps in controlling soiJ erosion and in
tis e a test echnoJogy developed for under. preven!ffig desertification.
sea oil b. It is a rich source of biodie5e1.
c_ 1 is a gen e ti calJy engineered high biofuel c. It has nutritional value and is well-adapted to
yielding variety. live in cold areas of high altitudes.
s he ]a tec'hno]ogy to control the d. Its timber is of greatcommerci al value.
acc::Ja4erna11y caused fl aines from oil \.ve1l._s_. __
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nother, with its source
............ _ . t a place only a short
o the co st of Bay of Bengal
flo ing into the sea. This is an
im rtant site of wildlife and bio-diversity
nd protected area. Which one of the
f llowing (oiil'd he this ?
. .Bhitarkanika
Chandipur-on-sea
c. Gopalpur-on-sea
d. Simlipal
2011 - Answers
7. A Particular Stat In
h
. . e In d1a ha the following
c aractenstics :
1. It is located on the same Lati tude which passe
through northern Rajasthan.
2
lt has ovey BO% of its area under forest cover.
3
<iver
12
% of forest cover constitutes Protected
Area Network in this State.
W)Uch one anwng the. follq,\,,:ing Stn_ cs h;Js a he
above characteristics?
a. Arunachal Pradesh
b. Assam
c. J1imachal
d. Uttarakhand .
20i2 - Answers
ll(b),. 12(a), 13(a), 14(c), 15(d), 16(b), 17(d), 18(c), ll(d), 12(d), 13(a), 15{c), 16(a), 17(a)
19ta), 20ta)
tQ.no. 7 is disputed)
2011
UPSC MAINS
PA ERl.
2012
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Evolution of Green Benches (12 marks) Causes and the Extent of ' Desertifi cati on' in Indi a
and Remedial Measures (25 marks)
Impact of C. C. on Indian at r resources (12 marks) Endosulphan marKS)
Phase IV of tiger monitoring programme (5 n1arks) Tiger tourism (25 n1arks)
PAPER%
2011 2012
.
'E-waste (5 mar.lqij Permaculture (12 marks}
Diminishing popuJation of VuJture (5 marks) CBD (5 marks)
.
.
Sustainability (S marks)
Billion Acts of Green (2 marks)
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:-ECOLOGY -o.

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1 uniti .
rth- .. at
i nd nt n n igh ttring
led soo ti s. Th )yare
n ' ithiR a maj r community
completely independent
' and nutrient dyn mi s are
t of lichen on a cow dung pad.
tructureof a community
mmunity the , wnb r 9f and size
ft. :Tf fU al\n Y<H _ -. at y. , ('( l!n"l 1't r n a_:
C'r .everal s ecies.
t: t.n\i 1 e1 < c rs Ern i1 th
characteristic of the co1nmunity as' ell as the pattern
f hiT!' i.1 .
The characterisb pattern of the community is
: .::. ... .._;: c-C:L.C c.. I ". ; hi l is ' t .: ..n 1 c cJ ! ..
played ) various population, their range, the
f rea t j a it, the di 'ersity of s ie
in 1e mmum the spectrum of i1 ter
bern een them.
co- e
An ecosystem is defined as a structural and
fun ional unit of biosphere consi ting of con1muruty
of living beings and the physical environment, both
interacting and exchanging materials bet-ween them ..
ro stem s a complex set of r 1ip
among the living resources, habitats, and residents of
an area. It includes plants, trees, animals, fish, birds,
miGro-organisms, water, soil, and people.
EcOsystems vary greatly in size and elements
but eadt is a functioning unit _of nature. Everything
hat Jives in an ecosystem is dependent on the
r ecies and f' mt: n . that are also ,f t a
ecological community. If one part of an ecosyst m
1
damaged or disappears, it has an impact on
e rything else.
"yst m is .. sustainable)
f> J m nt. livP in ar d a e
, t Jves. can
tr oraslarg asentir fo st.
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iffr .n 1 tw
.- vir H
osystern.
Components of Ecosy$lem
TI1e omponentsof thee osys t m is categorised
nto abiotic of non-Hv.in and o c of living
components. Both the components of ecosystem and
n rir 1 me1 l re sam .

1. mpo nt
Abjotic c m p onents are the inorganic and non-
living parts of the world. The abiotic part consists of
soil, wa r, ai1, and etc. ll also in ol ves
a number of chemical hke xvoen, rutrooen
tc. an p 1ysi al processes inc u ing volcanoes,
earthquakes, floods, eforest fi.res, climates,
w al r onditi ns.
A i tic factors a re th e m o st j mport ant
determinants of where and how well an organism
ex . L n vrC' ent. Alt ough t he e ac o
intera t ith ach oth r, OJ e si n gl I tor an limi t
the range of an organism.
a) Energy
Energy from the sun is essential for
of life. In the ase of plants, the SW1 ire tly supplie
the nece sary energy. ince animals cannot use solar
nergy directly they obtain it indirectly by eating
plants r animals or both. Energy determines the
djstril: uti on of in_ th_e en ironment.
b) Rainfall
. .
Water is essential for all liVing beings. Majority
of bioch 'nu al reactions tak p1a .in an aqu 0
m dillin. h lps l r gul, e bu Iy len r. i It. . .
Further, water bodies f rm th habit,pt f r many
aquatk plants and animals.
c) Temperature
Temp r ture-isacritical fact r f th vinmn nt
\. ; d b ... l t J i ufl 1 ' ;. , ! , 1
C"Jrga i.' m: n tol , t o 1ly l1 <
ctn i humidity.
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wid v ri ty-
small animals
ts f pl r -
pw t and nutrients. Organisms
qu Terr trial animals live
qu tic lants, animal and microbes live in
teras ell as in th s a. Some microbes live
in h water nts under the
(i)
J J
at rials:
rganic compound such as proteins,
r h} drat lipids, h umic subsfances
are formed fiom inorganic compound on
decomposition.
organi compound such as carpon,
carbon dioxide, water, suJphur, nitrates,
phosphates, and-ions of v_arious;neta]s are
essential fot: organisms to survive.
1 e a d a tihtde
Latitude has a strong influence on an area's
resulting change of climates such
as polar., tropical, and temperate_ 'These climates
determine different natural biomes.
From seale;;eJto highe t peaks, wild life is
influenced by altitude. As the altitude increases,
he air becomes colder and drier, affecting wild life
accordingly.
2. Biotic Components
.
Biotic -components include living organisms
comprising plants" animals and microbes and are
classified according to their attributes into
) 'on um r I t rotr ph uJ hct i oh
(other nou.rishin g)
onsumers are incapable of producing th ir wn
food (photosynthess).
They depend on organic food derived from
__ .m1ts, animals or both.
Consumers can be divided into two broad
groups namely micro and macro consumers.
(i) Macro consumers
They feed on plants or animals or both and are
categorised on the .basis of food sources.
Herbivores are primary consumers which feed
mainly on plants e.g. cow., rabbit.
);> Secondary consumers feed on pdrnary
consumers e.g. wolves.
);> Carnivores which feed on secondary consumers
are ca1Jed tertiary consumers e.g. lions which
can eat wolves.
);> which consume both
san-d animals e.g. man.
C i) icro consumers - Saprotrophs (deco p sers
or osmotrophs)
);> They are bacteri.u anctfungi-whit:h obtain energy
and nutrients by decomposing dead organic
substances (detritus) of plant and animal origin.
);> The products of decomposition such as inorganic
nutrients which are released in the ecosystem are
reused by producers and thus recycled. .
.. . ... Earthworm and certain soil organisms (such as
nematodes, and arthropods) are detritus feeders
and help in the decomposition of organic matter
and are called detrivores .
,of Eco-system:
producers and consumers. - ----- -- - - - -- - -
___ . ____ Natural. Ecosystem
I

a rimary producers - Autot.tophs (self-
n g)
,
rimary producers are basically green plants
r-..+.;r.. bacteria and algae).
the ise carbohydrate from simple
Dr.tDI* rawmaterials like carbon dioxide and
pr en e of sunlight by the process
PllmiD&lmtlnesis for therns Jves" and supply
r on-produ rs.

Terrestrial

Forests
Grasslands
Deserts

.Aquftic
Fresh Vv t r
. Saline \-Vat rs
.Marine VV ters
The detailedstudy .of e sy. h'm will b d !t .;_.
th u >nt ch. pt rs.

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HAPTE - 1
ECOLOGY
r.2.
gy is a sci ntific study of the reciprocal
lationship_bet:Ween organisms (includiDg
microb s, plants, animals, mali) with
vironm nt. It dea)s with .the. ways in tts hfe ti:me is collectively known as. its
anis:ms are moulded by their environment, how . .comprises both living (biotic)
they make use of environmental resources including. .and n.onhvmg (abwtic) components.
energy flow and m neraJ cycling. All organisms(from vii-us to man) are obligatorily
The term ecology was coined only as ]a teas 1868. on the en ironment for food, energy
h been
water, oxygen_. shelter and for other nee s '
lt as derived from two Greek words
m anin me or pla e to live in and ' logos'. The e iro men is defined as ' t e su["l o a
meaning study. it is the study of the home of li ing, non- i\:ing comp onents; influence an '
of nature. . . an organism.
Ecology is defined '' as a scientific study of the
relationshi of the Jiving organisms "\"lith each other
and with their environment."
. .
1.1 . OF ECOLOGY
The roots of ecology lie in Natural History,
which is as o]d as human civilization itself. Since
ez : history, man has indulged in ecoJogy in a
practical sort of way, knowingly and unknowingly.
In primitive societies .every individual was required
to have an intimate knowledge of .his environment
for their survival; i.e., about the forces of nature and
of plants and around him.
Our ancient Indian texts have references to
ecologica) principles. The classical texts of the
_ period such as_ the Vedas, t}}e Samhi tas, the
Brahmanas and the contain
many to ecological . ..
1be Indian treatise on medicine,. the .Caraka-
Samhita and the surgical text
that people during this period had a good
\U.\derstanding of plant and animal ecology.
These texts contaii) dassification of animals on
the basis of habit and habitat, land in terms of nature
of soil, climate and vegetation; and-description of
pW\ts typical to various JocaJities. Carai<a- Samhita
fnrmn n that air, land, W;)tP.r and 5<'fl SOn
\CWiDEns b]e for 11fe and thnt po1Juted air and
injurjous for health.
1.2. . C n ee . f e e
The re1ationship and interaction behveen
organism _and are highly complex.
N? _organism. hve alone without iJ!teracting
'-n lh o tJ- organlSrns. So each organism has other
9rganisms as a part of its environment. Each and
everyJ;hing vvith which we interact or which V.Teneed
for ur s ustenance forn s our e vironmenl. . .
The environment is not stat ic. Both biotic and
abio:ic factors are in a flux and keeps changing
contlnuouslv.
.r
. - .
ComP.onents of
.Abiotic Biotic
' Energy Green. plantS
Radiation
Non-green plants
Temperature & heat flow

\"later
Parasites
gases and wind
Symbionts.
Fire
. Gravity
Animals
Man
Topography
Soil
.
:
Geologic substratum
.
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ir nt t f
pul ti js .group of ory,ani.
lly of
lh same sp des, crupying hn
urm
" a sp cific thne.
I bi tic nvir nm nt consists of microscopic
all d pl es weli as aquatic
nt and anim ls and decomposers.
nt mal environment of fish
It is enclosed by the uter body surface.
The internal envir nment is relatively stable as
compared to the external environment.
However, it is not absolutely constant. Injury,
:1 e s or e. ces ive s tress upse ts the internal
\ ro e t.
For e.xample, fa marine fish is transferred to a
1 'ater environn1ent, it il not be able to
1. 0 LS SAT IO S
TheJTi ain levels of organisation of ecology are six
and are as fo lov s .
?.1. Jndj "d
Organism is an individual living }?eing that haS
abilitytoact r function independently. It maybe
ba t =- rium, fungi, etc. It is a body made
r gans, organelles, or other parts that
e variou! prr Cf'.
Population growth r at is th percenta c
variation between the number of in dividuals :a
population at two different times. Therefore the
population growth rate can be p ositive or negative.
. The m_nin thut make pQptl lation grow are
b.iJttl and 1IDm1gration. The main factors that make
decrease are death and emigration.
The main limiting factors for the growth of a
population abiotic and biotic componentS.
de!lsity is the relation between the
number of ind_ividua]s of a popul ation and the area
they occupy.
1.3.3. Community
If we lo_ok around ourself, we will notice that
population o f plants and animais seldom ocarr by
themselves. The reason ior this js quite obvious.
Jn order survive, individuals of any one species
on indi iduars of fferent species i h
which they active]y interact in several ways.
For eg: Animals require plants for food and trees
for shelter. PJ_an ts require an.imais for poUination,
seed dispersal, and soil microorganism to fa cili tate
nut rient supply.
Communities in most instances are named after
the dominant plant fonn (species).
For example: A gr ass land community is
dominated by grasses, though_ i t may contain herbs,
shrubs, and trees, alongwith associated animals of
different _species.
A commu nity is not fi xed or rigid; communities
may be large or _small.
Types of Community
On the basis oi size and d gree of relative
independence communities n'lny be divided into
two types:
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ter

J<."
m 'lh orgCliW;ms whic ur .
1
, bundantly in 7.0n "r> ,. , n_man! ,.. r 1 : >. t
1 1
't.
1
'n a c. c .. p r;
n t 1 t rres na ceo ystl!meClg effe . .
11

i n f f , fu I and fibr applicable to birds.
1
sp eta Y
f h It rand building materials ;..
. l'Or example the density of birds
1
9
g t .
ti n fair and wat r h d h hi f rea er m
t e mtxe a tat o the ecotone between th. f t
i.fi tion and d composition of wastes and the deserl e ores
ta ili:lati and moderation of the Earth's climate
Niche
> d ration f floods, droughts, temperature
tr m sand the forces of wind. A is the uniq2te funciional role or place of
:> - Gl'ttt!f tion and of soil fertility, including:v::---,aro-. an ecosystem. It is a description of all ..
nutri nt cycling. the biOlogtcaJ, phys1cal and chemical factors that a
Pollination of plants, including many crops species needs to survive, stay healthy and reproduce.
Control of pests.and A niche is unique for a species, which means no
:> Maintenance of genetic resources as key inputs two species have exact identical niches. Niche plays
to crop varieties and livestock breeds, medicines, an important role in conservation of organisms.
and other products 1f we have to conserve species in its na tive
)> Cultural and aesthetic benefits habitat we shquld have knowledge about the niche
Ecotone of the species and should ensure that
all requirements f rJd-e are fulfilled.
Ecoton is a zone of junction bet-ween h vo or
more di erse ecosvstems. For e.g. the mangrove Types of Niche
forests represent' an ecotone between marine J. Habitat niche- where it ]jves
an terres ria e os),stem. Other examples are - 2. Food niche-what is eats or de:omposes & what
gra'ssland, estuary and river bank species j cc . e es . 7

-- - -- -- Ecotone- --- --
Characteristics of Ecotone
> It may be very narrow-or'<luite wide.
);> It has the conditions intennediate to the adJacent
ecosystems. Hence it is a zone of tension.
> It is linear as jt shows progre.ssive increase in
species composition of one in coming community
and-a simultaneous decrease in species of the.
other ouf going adjoining community.
A well developed ecotones contain some
organisms which.are entiz!!ly different from that
of the adjoining
,. So l:t IH<: tl c numLer of sp il:s nd tl
population d nsity of some of the _species. is
much greater in thiszonethan either commuruty,
Thi -1 all d edg effect.
3. Reproductive niche- how and when it reproduces.
4. Physical & chemkai n che - temperature, land
shape, land slOJ-te, humidity 8y other requirement.
1.3.5.
The terrestrial oart of the iosoh ere is divisibl e
into enormous regions called biomes, which are
characterized, by climate, vegetation, animal life and
general so.i] type.
No two biomes are alike. The climate determines
the boundaries of a biome and abundance of plants
and animals found in each. one of them. The most
important climatic factors are temperature and
precipitation.
COLD
..
WARM

BJQJVIE Distribution b s 1 on mp ratur
and Precipitation
----. ---- _______ .....
-

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4
5
6
7
Toi
Temperate
Deciduous
Forest
Tropical
forest
Savannah
rain
Grassland _
ic
una
Devoid of trees except stnnted shrubs in the
rart of tundra biome, ground flora
mcludes lichen, mosses and sedges.
The typical are reindeer, arctic fox,
polar bear, snowy owl, lemming, arctic hare
Reptiles and amphibians are
absent.
Northern Ell!'ope, dommatigg vegetation is
North America. Moderate evergreenmosUy spruce, with some pine afid
than tundra. firs.
Also known as boreal forest. The of small seed eating birds,
hawks, fur bearing carnivores, little mink, elks,
puma, Siberian tiger, wolverine, wolves etc.
Extends over Central and J1te flora includes trees like beech, oak, maple
Southern Eastern and cherry.
North America, 'Vestern Most animals are the familiar vertebrates and
China, Japan, New Zealand invertebrates.
etc. Moderate average
temperature and abundant
rainfall. These are generally
t h e o s t p r o d u c.t.Lv e
are as of h e
...earth
Tropical areas in the
equatorial regio:ns, which
is abound vvith Jde.
Temperature and_ rainfall
high. . - - .
------ :..:..:....:..:.::.:. :;;.: ..::...:.._ ...
Tropical rainforest covers about 7o/o of the
earth's surface & 40% of the world's plant and
animal species. Multiple storey of broad-leafed
tree species are in abundance. Most
animals and epiphytic plants are concentrated
in the canopy_or tree top zones.
Tropical region: Savannah Grasses with scattered and fire resisting
is most extensive in Africa. - thomy shrubs.
North America, Ukraine,
etc. Dominated by grasses.
Temperate conditions with
rath r low rainfall.
The fauna include a great diversity of grazers
and browsers such as antelopes, buffaloes,
zebras, elephants and rhinoceros; the carnivores
include liof\ cheetah, hyena; and mongoose,
and many roden.Wt.- -- . ----- -- -----"-
Grasses dominate the vegetation. The fauna
include large herbivores bison, antelope,
cattle, rodents, prairie dog, wolves, and a rich
and diverse array of ground nesting bird.
,
Continental interiors with The flora is drought resistance vegetation
very low and sporadic such as cactus, euphorbias, sag brush. Faun :
rainfall with low humidity. Reptil s, M mm ls and birds.
The days ar very h t but
mghts a cold.
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.,
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, ......

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1.
2.
3.
m ; howcvcr.
li zon s, with regions
d anim Hfe. The major
n the v rious aquatic zones are
, I v ls of dissolved nutrients,
th f sunlight penetratipn.
qua tic
ccosyst m
Fresh Water
Ecosystem
Characteristics
Fresh water ecosystem
are dassified as ]otic
(moving. water) or len tic
(still or stagnant water).
Lotic w.ater system
includes freshwater
s fie am s, springs;
rivulets, creeks, brooks,
and rivers. Lentic water
bodies include pools,
ponds, some swamps,
bogs and lakes. They vary
considerably in physical,
c
. .3.6.
Biosphere is a part of th th _
. B' . e ear wher lif .
, l?sphere represents a highl r. e e can
Jnteracting zone f Y mtegrated and
hydrosphere (water) and hatmo(lsphere (air),
. p ere and).
It IS a narrow layer around th f
th lf . . e sur ace of the
ear I . th the earth _to be the size of an
app e e Iosphere would be as thick as its skin.
Life in the biosphere is betWeen
200
metres { 660 feet) below the surface of the ocean and
about 6,000 metres (20,000 feet) above _sea level.
and bi ological- --_
tics.
1arine
Ecosvstein
-'
Estuaries
,
Nearly three:_ quarter
of earth's surface is
covered by ocean
with an average d epth
of 3,750 m and with
salinity_ 35 ppt, (parts per
thousand), about 90 per
cent of which is sodium
chloride.
Coastal bays, river
mouths and tidal

estuarie-s. ln estuaries,
fresh water from rivers
. .. .
meet ocean water and
the two are mixed by
action of tides. Estuaries
are highly productive
as compared ;o the
river or sea.

Biosphere
---------
Biosphere" is absent at extremes of the orth
and South poles, the highest mountains and the
deepest oceans, since existing hostile conditions
there do not support life. Occasionally spores of
fungi and bacteria occur at great height beyond
8,000 metres, but they are not metabolically acti e,
and hence represent onl 'dormant life.
T-he energy required for the _life within the
bi_osphere co:ines from the sun. The nutrients
-----necessary for iTv'lng-organismscoine from air, water
. and soil. The same chemicals are recycled over and
. over again for life to continue. .
Living organisms are not uniformly distributed
throughout the biosphere. Only a few organism live
in the polar while the tr rain f r s
have an exceedingly rich diversity of plants nd
:mima1s.

FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
.
i .n of an system is a broad, vast
llnd mpl t dynamic system. It can be
tudi d under the following three heads.
flovv
utrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)
Ec logical succession or ecosystem development
2.1 ENERGY FLOW
is the basic fprce responsible for .all
ic a j i ti es. Tl flow of energy fr on1
co -u erR L ,J e e erg_' flow
c 1 al.
The study of Trophic level interaction in an
E te:r
0
}pes an i ea 0 1. l E ener gy
t.hro.ugh the ecosystem.
2.1.1. ropnic level
-
T de Js ith how the
r e . e rs of v ecosystem are corJlected based on
nutritional needs.
1 Autotrophs
11 Heterotrophs Herbivore
(primary consumers)
m
Carnivores
(secondary con u mers)
IV Heterotrophs
Carnivore
(tertiary consumers)
Heterotrophs
- .
. '
Energy flows through the trophic levels: fr.om
producers to subsequent trophic levels .. This" energy
always flows from lower (producer) to higher
erbiv01e, carnivore etc.) trophic level. lt never
flows in the reverse direction that is from carnivores
o rbivores to producers.
re is a loss of oome energy in the form o{
a at each trophic lev 1 o that energy
t I. firr t r J j } : np . 1
. -.

As a resun usnmty four or fi"\\"e h hie - .
levels. more than six as beyondupthat
very energy IS left to support any
Trophic numbered to'the steps .
an organism IS away from the source of food or
energy, that is the producer.
The trophic level interaction involves three
concepts namely :-
1. Food Olain
2. Food Web
3. Ecological Pyramids
2.2. OOD CHAl
Organisms in the ecosystem are related tq.each
o er Ll-tro g. !'ee j g nTe anism o tr E s,
i.e. one organism becomes food for the other. A .
e ce of org<'rr at fee en one ano er, form
a food chain. A food chain starts with prod ucers and
ends With top carnivores. _
The sequence of eaten and being eaten, p roduces
transfer of food energy and it is knuvvn as food chain.
The plant conver ts so]ar energy into protoplasm by
p otosynthesis. -- - - -
Small herbivores consume the vegetable
matter and convert them into ani mal matter. These
. herbivores are eaten by large carnivores:
----------
1.:
., ,
l..
.
-
r t d
ins hav
rs whi :h start th food chain, utilising
as their food, constitute the grazing
:1 d1ain b gin. from green plants at .
rimary consumer is herbivore.
Grazing Food Chain
For example, In terestriat-ecosystem, grass is
ea en up by caterpillar, which is eaten by lizard and
Jizard is eaten _by snake. .
.. tcosystezn pry to Janktons {primary
p .. oducers) is eaten by zoo plank tons which is ten
by fishes and fishes are eaten by pelicans.
ii. Detritus food chain
- . . -
'The food chain starts from dead organic matter
ci decaying animals and plant bodies to the mlcrcr
g and U n to detritus feeding organism
r an to ot er
, ot r f' nf f Tl('f y
ihl f od chaiii
matt i or d tritu .
. TIONS OF
-- ANEosys M
- two food ch ins are linked - -. -. -. ....:_:..::.:.:.:._:...
for d tritu food .h . . .-The lnltial n rgy
, C <Hn lS th \ ,
and dead organic matter fro th te mntc j<l
. m e grazmg food chain
2.3. FOOl:> WEB . .
A food chain or\J . . . . . .
or energy flow through Y one part of the food
an ecosystem and im li
isola'ted relationship, which
m the ecosystems. . m occurs
An consist Of sevefal
food chams. More typ . icallv the sam f d .
J' e oo resource
lS part of than one Chain, especially when that
resource the lower trophic levels.
uA food web illustrates, all possjble transfers of
energy and nutrients among the organisms in an
ecosystem, whereas a food chain traces : only one
pathway of the food". ,._
If any of the intermediate food chain is removed,
the succeeding Hnks of the ch?in will be affected
largely. The .. food web provides more than one_
alternative for food to most of the organisms in an
ecosystem and therefore increases their chance of
survivaJ. ----------- --.. ---- -.--
For example, grasses _may serve food for rabbit or
grasshopper or goat o:r;- cow. Similarly a herbivore may
be food SQurce for many different carnivorous species_.
Also food availability and pre'ferences of food
of the organisms may shift seasonally "'a'f .
watermelon in an_q peaches in the 'Wint r.
Thus there are networks off eding
relaUonships that take the of food webs.
If any of th in food chainis r t;n ved,
the cc ling Iinke; of th :hain. 1 be afkded lar ly.
'l ht f()()d w l> proviJ s mur, U\ 1 e d l:1
food to rn of tl1 >rg ni ms in L n n td
th r for in 11 :1h ar :h. f u
1 glc I
r f n s th b of the
miv r f nn th tip. Oth r
1 in b twc n.
nsi ts of a number of horizontal
Hie tr phic levels which are_
uenti Ily from primary producer level
rbi
9
[" I runivoreon'\ 'cltds; -:fhe lt:llglh of
ret>re:;ents the t tal number of individuals
vel in an osystem.
nun;ber, and energy of organisms
duall decrease with each step from producer
1 1 to the c nsumer level
representation assumes a pyramid:shape . .
T e LO] pyr n i s are of three categories.
1. P)-ram d of numbers,
Pyramid f biomass .. and
)> 3. Pyramid of energy or productivity.
)Tami of .. urn ers.
11tis deals with the relationship the
.1' ... :. _ ; t- rim<:.I) t' 1::: t: cers d - S'.JJJ us of
different levels. It is a graphic of the
, ... . j, : . t.r i1 ue:.ls cf i(ertr s_p:cie::;,
be onging to each trophic level in an ecosystem.
Depending upon the size and bjomass, the
p_ a id of numbers may not always be upright,
and may even be completely inverted.
z.. y:-amid of l1 1m ers- -prigh
;> In this pyramid, the number of individuals is
decreased hom lower level to higher trophic level.
This type of pyramid can pe seen in grassland
ecosystem.

-
xt high r tr phic l _ v
n m r- h ( ampl grasshopper).
> Til individ.u 1 numb r f grn!:shoppcr less
than thnt of grass. The n x "ncrgy 1 v 1 is
primary carnivore (example - rat)..
> The number of rats are less than grasshopper
because, they feed on The nex;
higher trophic level is secondary carnivore
(example -snakes). They feed on rats.
. )> The next higher trophic level is the top c<lrnivore.
(Ex.Hawk). ..
)> .. With ea.ch higher trophic level, the number of
indiviaual decreases.
(b) Pyramid of numbers - inverted
)> In this pyramid, the number of individuals is
increased from lower level to higher trophlc
level.
.. .. \'
e' .
:::.- . ..
> A count in a forest would have a small numberof-- ---
large producers, for e.g. few number of big trees.
)> This is because the tree (Primary producer) being
few in number and would the base
of the pyramid and the dependent herbivores
(Example- Birds) in the next higher trophic level
and jt is followed by parasites in thenexttmphlc
leveL Hyper parasites being at hlgher trophic
level higher fu number.
)> And the resulting pyramid is in inverted f>hape.
A pyramid of does not take into.
the fact that the si:t.t:: of rgani ms being
(' tf>d in c>ach trophic lP C;> '"n'

-. . .
.. -
-
(
.. . (
.. I
::"" . I
. .1
.,
: .. . <
,- .. 1
' ..
. . c

"'-.::.
,:._ :. '
. (

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.. I
._ l
-
r t rcome the shortcomings of
f nwnber , the pyramid of biomass is used.
rr ch individuals in each trophic level are
i instead of b ing counted. 1bis give$ us a
f biomass, i.e., the total dry weight of an
anisms at each trophic level at a particular
Pyramid of biomass is usually. determined by
col1ecting all organisms occupying each trophic level
separately and measuring their ,dry weight. This.
overcomes the size difference problem because all '
.kin s of org"anisn1s a trophic level are weighed.
Biomass is in glm2.
(a) Upward pyramid
For most ecosystems. on land, L'"le pyramid of
1 ma. , has a ;:n e ba. e oJ prjmary producer with
a trophic level perched bn top.
Pmnory C cmtvorf!
Producers
Upright Pyramid of Biomass
The biomass of producers (autotrophs) is at the
maximum .. The biomass of next trophic level i.e
primary .consumers is less than. the producers.
biomass of next high_er trophic level i.e secondary
consumers less than the primary consumers. The
top, high uuphjc le. el has vtry less amount ofbiomass.

. .
..
In in many aqua'tk -:-eco.,._
f b
the
o 10m ass may assume an m J t d .f,
. ver e orm.
... -. ., ..
This is because the producers are t iny
phytoplanktons that grow rapidly.
ere, he p ramid of bomass has a srna ase,
with consumer biomass at _any instant actually
ex ti1e p roducet biv.:J:ass anct--the-pyrarni<Y- :..._:_ .. :...
assumes shape.
2.4.3. Pyramid of Energy
To compare the functional roles 6 the trophic
levels in an ecosystem, an energy pyramid is most
An energy pyram d, reflecls t e la\. s of
thermodynamics, with conversion of solar energy
to_chem.ic:al energy and heat energy at each trophic
level and with loss of energy being depicted at each
transfer to another trophic level. the pyramid
is always upward, with a Jar-ge energy.hase at the
bottom.
Let us explain this with an example. Suppose an
ecosystem receives 1000 calories-of-light enetgy-rn-a-- ---
given day_Most of the energy is not absorbed; some
is reflected back to space; of the energy absorbed
only a small portion is utilised by green plants, out
of whkh the plant up some for respiration and
f the 1000 calories, only 100 cjl}ories are
stored as energy rich materials:
--
Pyramid of energy
'\.V suppose an animal, say a deer, eats the plant
containing 100 cal of food energy. The deer uses some of
u rits "rn etabo and stQr s only 10 cal as food
.. on at eats the deer gets an even smaller
amount of energy. Thus--usable energy decreases
1 sunJight t produ er t -n eroi ore to cam.i ore.
Therefore, the energy pyramid will always be upright.
Energy pyramid concept helps tc) explain the
phen menon of bio og)cal magnification-the tenancy
or OY. c o crease i co ce ation
progressively at higher levels of the food chain.
2.5 POLLUTA TS Al D TR PH C
LEVEL
Po1lutants espedaJ!y n eg a a Je o es mo e
thro gh t e Yarious trophic evels in an ecosystem.
Nondegradabale pollutants mean materials,
hich cannot be metzbolized by the living organi ms.
Example: chlorinated
We concerned about these phenomena
because, ogether hey enable even small
concentrations of chemicals in the environment
to find their way into org_arusins in high enough
dosages to -cause problems.

1ovement of these pollutants involves two main
processes:
Bioaccumulation
..
B iornagnification.
2 .1. Bioaccn.mulation
lt el rs to how pollutants cntet a food chain.
n ioaccumulation there is an increase in
tt oiapoJJutant fr m th nvirorun nt
r ani min ' f od f'hain.
-
Biomagnific
- Biomagnification r f rs to th t d
. rnJlutantstocon (>nfrilt a tJpym n frn(y Of
. ov rn n
trophic 1 vel to th n x .
);:- Thus in biomagnification ther
1
s . .
. an mer as ln
co[ of a pollutant from one link ina
oo cham to anoth r.
Biomagnification
-
In rder for biomngn ifica =o o o ui, he
pollutant t:JlUSt be: long-lived, mobile, soluble in fats,
biologically active.
If a pollutant is short-lived, ]t will be broken
down it can become dangerous. If it is not
moJ:>ile, it will in one p lace and is unlikely to be
taken up by If the pollutant is soluble in
water, it will be excreted by the organi m. Pollutants
that dissolve m fats, however, may be retained for
a long time.
It is traditional to measure the amount of
. pollutants. in fatty tissues of organisms such as
fish. In mammals, we ofte test the n r tl
y fern es, ince t e n1i s o of fa t i1 i nre
often more .susc ptible to damage fr rri t ins
(poisons). p Uutant is not activ bi 1 ally, it
may biomagnify, but we really don't vorry ut it
inu , since it probabl w n't cnn , y r bl m
1 ; DT.
-
-
Biotic Interaction
s..No..
.
Species 2
Type
Spices 1
J..._ Mutualism
..
(+)
(+)
. Commensalism . (+) .
. (0) ..
3. Competition
(-)
(-)
. Predation.
(+) (-}
5.
(+)
(-)
6. A.mensalisni (-)
(0)
7. Neutralism
(0)
(0)
( +) Benefited
. . (-) Hanned
(0). T,;: ...er B- 1ef.t d c: .c. n e .
2.6.1. Types of
r .l.a a ' sm: o be efi .
T: Y3 . Je: in -poll" a ti o mu t ua sms, e
pollinator gets -food (pollen, nectar), and the
plant has its poJ}en transferred to other flowers
or cress-fertilization
r Commensalism: one species benefits, the other
1s unaffected.
Example: cow dung provides food and shelter.
to dung beetles. The beetles have no effect on
the-cows.
. . ..
> Competition: both species are harmed by the
interaction.
Exarr. ple: if h\'O . pedes eat the same food, and
there isn't enough for both, both may have access
to Jess food than they would if alone. They both
suffer a shortage of food
> Predation and parasitism: one species benefits,
the other is harmed. . .
Example : predation- one fish kills and eats
arasitism: tick gains benefit py suck]n . blood;
t is harmed' by losing blood.
AIIRCJIIAI m :One species is harmed, the other
aHected.
shades a small plant,
of the smalJ plant. The
1 rg : t1 (.
fit or harm
r
1 t rsp
NCTIONS
Y T M
t ra tions, the CQsts and ben fit s . d
b cl
expen nc
y efl 1 are. ex_actly th e same s tha t
they to zero. It is not. deai how often this
happensmnature. Neutralism is alsosom ti .
d
. . b d h e m s
esc:1 : e relati<:>nship between two .
speoes the same space and using the
same resources, but that have no effet.--t on each
othe;- _In !his _case, one could argue that they
aren t mteracting at alL
2. 7. BIOGEo cHEMICAL cYCLE
. . , . . .
The living world depends upon the energy .
f.low and the hutdents circulation that occurs
through Both influence the abundance
of organisms, the metabolic at which they live,
and e<:>mplexity of the ecosystem.
Energy flows through ecosystems enabling the
organisms to perform various kinds of work and
this energy is lost as heat fore er in tenns
of the usefulness-of the system. On the other h and,
nutrients of food matter never get used up. They can .
.., e re -yc e rtgai, arid -g2in indefinitely.
For e.g. when we breath e we be
sever al .million atoms of elements that may h ave
been inhaled by our ancestors or other organisms.
C a rbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nit r ogen and
phosphorus as elements and compounds make u p
97% _ 9f the mass of our bodies and ar.e more than
9 of the of all li ing organisms. ln addition
to these about 15 to 25 other elements are n eeded in
some form for the survival and go_Qg_heaJth .of plants
and animals. .
These elements or ririneral nutrients are always
in circulation moving from non-living t<? Hving
and then back to the non-living con1ponenfs of the
ecosystem in a more or less circular fashion. TIUs
circular fashion is known as biogeochemiCal cycling
(bio j o,; living; geo for atmosphere).
2.7.1. Nutrient Cycling
The. nutrient cycle is a concept that describes
how nutrient;S move from the physical environment
to th e li ing rganisffi:S,. and subs u 1 tly recy 1
back to the phY.,sical environment.
This movement of nutrients fr o m th
enviro:unent into plants and animals and again
back to th environment is ess ntial for life and it is
th vit ' l fun ti n of thf> ec l of anv reo ion. In
p rtiru' .r nvironment, t n1aint lJl .it u
a su. ta ed mann r, theImtri nt I n u ;t
ala d a d st bl .
'l
...

f ungl nnd _be; ttt'lll
Nutrient cycling_
son.
1\umu.! and miMrols
. :. . .
T'_rpes of utr ent Cycfe
}> Based on the replacement period a nutrient cycle
is rt!ferred to as Perfect or Imperfect cycle.

A perfect nutrient cycle is one in which nutrients
are replaced as fast as they are utilised. Most
gasec s cy cles are generally consi dered as
perfect cycles.
In contrast sedilnentary cycles are considered
relatively imperfect, as some nutrients are lost
from the cycle and get locked into sediments and
so become unavaila.ble for immedi_ate cycling.
Based on the nature of the reservoir, there
are two types of cycles namely Gaseous and
sedimentary cycle . . . --
eou Cvc1e - where the reservoir is the
phere' or the hydrosphere, and .
,._.. ..... ..... entary Cycle- where the reservoir is the
.
ru .

2.7.2.
L t u fir t study som f th rn . t iU\port n
g s us cyd s; ' orb nan nitr
(a) Water Cycle (Hydrologi )
Water as important ecological
factor detennmes the struchue a d
fu . n
nchon of the ecosystem. Cycling of
all other nutrients is also dependent
upon water as it provides their
transportation during the
steps. It acts as a solvent medium for
their of nutrients b_y or_g_anisms.
The hydr<?logiccycleis the continuousciiculation
of water in the Earth-atmosphere s),stem. which is
driven by solar energy. Water on our is stored
in major reservoirs like atmosphere, ocearu, lakes,
rivers, soils, glaciers, snowfields, and groundwater.
Water moves from one reservoir lo another
by the processes of evaporation, transpirati on ,
conden.sa ti on, p ecipit a f on, .ep osi i0n, n o , .
infi ltra ion, and gro nd1 -ater fl ow.
Water Cycle
.. L_ __
(b) Cycle

Carbon is a minor constituent of the
atmosphere as compared to
nitrogen. However, without ca:rb. n
l.i.fi u}dnotexist, ca 1t1s 'l .al r
the production of carb hyd:at s thr gh_
phot synthesis by pl_an . lt 1 th 1 m t
that... dK,>rsallcrgam.r sul.:-t.m
- d oil t NA (d oxyri
u d

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p of photosynthesis, and then
llft)re;:s of respiration and_decomposition
matter it returns back to atmosphere. It
art term cycl .
..
Carbon Cycle
Some carbon also enters a long term cycle. It
accumu ates as u..'l- ecomposed orga.J c matter i e
peaty layers of marshy soil or as insoluble carbonates
in bottom sediments of aquatic systems which take
a long time to be released. ..-.
In deep oceans such carbon can remained buried
for millions of years till geological movement may
1ift these tocks abo e ]e';el. These rocks ma} be
exposed to erosion, releasing their carbon dioxide,
carbonatesandbicarbonatesintostreams.and
_ Fossil as coals, oil and natural gas etc. are _
organic compounds that were buried before they could
be deoomposed and were subsequently transformed by
tiJ.ne and geofogical processes into fossil fUels. Whe-n
they are burned the cat bon stored in them is released
ack into tr..!! a ospl as carbon:dioxide.
e ilrogen Cycle
itrogen is an essential constituent of protein
a basic building block of all living It
CGDIIIIII. tuft!!& y 16% by weight of all the proteins.
l-'1} uf l
1 m nt 1 fonn 1 not
t of the Jiving organisrns.

Nitrogen fixation on earth is accomplished in
three different ways:
(i) By microorganisms (bacteria and blue-green algae)
(ii) B rr.a. - c-in g L. d"uE- t1iz.l T':c-E.sses
factories) and
To a limited extent by atmospheric phenomen n
such as thunder and lighting
The amount of Nitrogen fixed by man
thro gl- in t:st:ri al rocess as far e. ceeded
the amount fixed by the Natural Cycle. As
a result Nitrogen has become a po11utant
which can disrupt the balance of nitrogen.
ltmay lead to Acid rain, Eutrophication and
Harmful Algal Blooms.
Certain microorganisms are capable of fixing
atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium ions. These
include free living nitrifying bacteria (e.g. aerobic
Azotobacter and and
rutrifying bacteria living in association
with legumi"nous plants and symbiotic bacteria
living in non leguminous root nodule p1a ts
( .g. .izobiui s ">'e I as e gr e algae
Anabaena, Spirulina):
Ammonium ions can be directly tak n up
as a source of nitrogen by orne plan'ts, or are
oxidized to nitrites . or nitratPs by two groups of
specialised bacteria: Nitro om na ba t ria pr m te
traJ fom''' iuH Jt J.
...
th nfurther trnn form dint
Nit rob ct r. -
. -.

of soil nitrates, being highly
r, lost to the 'ystem by being
y by e run-off or ground
s n swell as oceans there are special
cteria ( .g. ;pseudomonas), which
. . nitrates/nitrites to elemental nitrogen.
llu n1tr g n escapes into the atmosphere, thus
mf 1 ting th cycle.
. The thunderstorms convert the gaseous
rutr gen m the atmosphere to ammonia and nitrates
hi . 1. _ntu lly reach the earth's surface through
rr l f 1 a n a d then into the soil to be utilized by
I ants.
The main storage for phosphorus is in the earth's
crust. On land phosphorus is usual1y found in the
form of By
and eros10n e enter rivers and stre2 ms
that transport them t o the ocean.
In the ocean once-the . os ho s CI CC1Jm1 1 a 0
con?nental shelves in the form of insoluble deposi ts.
(\ . illi f
r-..u r m ons o ye<ns, th e plat es freT.!-. lh e
'
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I.
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sea floor and expose the phosphates on land . After
more time, weathering release them fr o rock - -
and the cycle's geochemical phase again.
2.7.3. Sedimentary Cycle
Phosphorus; calcium and magnesium circulate
by means of the sedimentary cycle. element
involved in the sedimentary cycle normally does
et c_:de through the atmosphere but foJlows a
basic ihrough erosion, sedimentation,
mountain building, volcanic activity and biological
transport through theexcreta of marine
(a) Phosphorus Cycle
(b} SulphurCyde
The sulphur rese1 :oir is L'l the soil and sed imeJ ts
where it is locked in organic (coal, oil and peat) and
inorganic deposits (pyrite rock and sulphu r rock) in
th_e formofsulphates, sulphides and organic sulphur.
It is released by weathering of rocks, erosion a 1
runoff and decomposition of organic matter and is
carried to terrestrial_ and aquatic ecosystems in salt
solution.
Tilesulp ufcyc1e 1s mostly sedimentary
two of its compounds hydrogen sulphide (H
2
S) and
sulphur dioxide (S0
2
) add a gaseous component to
Phosphorus plays a central role in aquatic its normal sed!mentary cycle.
. ..
ecosystems and ater quality. Unlike carbon and Sulphur enters. the atmosphere from se eral
g i xocpriman1y from l1 e atmosphere, s ources !ike volcanic eruptions, combustion of fossi l.
- ---phorus occurs in large am0unts as a in fuels, from surface of ocean and from gases released
hat rocks and enters the cycle from erosion l?Y de.composition.Atmospherichydrogen sulprude
g activities. This is the nutrient considered also gets oxidised into sulphur dioxide. A tmo ph ric
Of excessive growth of rooted su1 phur dioxide is carried back lo th rth fter
oscopic plants in lakes. . being dissolved in rainwat r as weak u1phuric cid .

. .
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. .
, . .
.. ...
'.
Sulphur
h source, sulph
1
r i1 the form of
e u by r a t and inco porated
trOt: .. 3 ri of r C p OCESSeS in O S 1lphur
b aring ?mino acid which is incorp01;ated in the
roteins of autotroph tissues. It then-passes through
e-g z.j, . g ood am.
. bo nd in r j g 0 sm jc:; carrie
back to the soil, to the bottom of ponds and lakes
and seas through_- excretion and decomposition of
ea organic material.
The Bio-geochemical cycles discussed here
are only a few of the many cycles present in the
eco ystem. Tnese cycle usually do not per ate
mdefe:tdent]y bu t interact with E.'ilCh other a some
point or the other.
2.8. SUCCESSION
Succession is a universal process of directional
argc in \ C; g<:t aliun, u an ecologi al time ' 1
Succession when a series of unities
replace one another due to large scale
ei r natural or manmade. This process
one community replacing another community,_ tmtil
bl , matur community develops.
:, I s '- of
t l}, !>tJbli!:.hrn nt of a relatively stable
omr u ity.

...
Ecol ogi cal Succession
2.8.1.. Primary Successi on
Jn primary succession on a terrestrial site he
new _si te is first colonized by a hardy pio eer
species that are often microbes, lichens and mosses.
T e pioneers over a f ev,r genera io .s <1 ter:l.e .. abita!
conditions by their. growth and development.
These new conditions may be conducive to the
estab1ishrnent of ad ditional organisms that may
subsequently arrive at the site. The pioneers through
their death any .decay leave patches of organic matter
in which small animals can Hve.
The organic produced by these pioneer
species produce organic acids during decomposition
that dissolve and etch lhe substratum releasing
nutrients to the substra_tum. Organic
accumulates in pockets and crevices, providing soil
m hich seeds can become lodg d and gxow.
As the cmnmtmity of or-ganisms continue to
develop, it becomes more diverse and compe_tition
increases, but at the s ame time new ni h e
opportunities de elopE.-.
The pioneer sp des di nppear as th
, t 1 di tim c <P t;t.. i'J d l ' F ' :c
d' lh 1..,.,. mnnt of the
r o g - s c.6, It, a . 111 g t o r p en. "
pr ceding c mn unity.
-

-
-
s i n is the sequentiAl
f i ti ommunities after the
J p rti I d struction of the existing
unity. Am tur or. intermediate community
d troyed by natura) ev*:?nts such as floods,
fires, O!,. by human intervent!_ons
defoxcstation, agriculture, overgrazing, etc
This abandoned farmland is first invaded by
ha rdy species of grasses can survive in bare, sun-
baked soil. These grasses may be soon joined _by tall
grasses and herbaceous plants. These dominate the
ecosystem for some years along with mice, rabbits, -
insects and seed-eating birds. .
Eventually, some trees come up in this area,
seeds of which may be brought by wind or animals.
0\'cr the year s, a forest community de_velop s.
Th g an abandoned farmland over.a period
n- u.at 'y trees an is transformed mto a fores t

prim ry and secondarf
lljlielldfm, th secondary successi n starts n a
,.,.,IP@.nped i1 alieady formed at th ... ite.Thus
secondary succession is relatively foster as compared
to primary succession which m ay ft ej1 requite
hundreds of years.
2.8.2. Autogenic and Allogenic Succession
When succession is brought about by living
inhabitants of that community itself, the pioa?Ssis c:alled
while chnnge brought about by
outm'ae forces is known as allogenic Succession. _____ _
2.8.3. Autotrophic Heterotrophic

Succession in which, initially the green plants
are much greater is is known as
Succession; and the ones in whi the heterotrophs are
greater in quantity is known as heterotrophic succession.
Succession would occur faster in area
in the middle of the large continen t. This is because,
here all propagules or seeds of plants b elongjng to
the different seres would reach much faster, establish
and ultimately result in climax community.
_ .. ::. :: ..:. ::.::.

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.. _ ....
...
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.-
CHAPTER-3
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
T
he interrelations between organi_sms
and environment on the land constitute
Ecology". Dl}e to variation in
the topographic features of valleys, mountains arid
sl pes, ertain differences occur. These differences are
reflected in both the material and biotic diversities.
Altitudinal and Jati tudinal vaFiations cause shh'is and
differ nces in the climatic patterns. Due to varied
c
1
i 2 e, the plant and anmal life existing in different
t r cstri 1 xeas ary .vhich result in differentiation
of ecosystem as segments within the large biosphere.
The m portan t Hm ting factors of the terrestriaJ
. ecosystems are moisture and temperature.
The v;ord hmdra means a "barren land" since
U1ey are found where environmental conditions are
. very severe. There are two types of hllldra- arctic
<!.fld
> Di5tribution: Arctic tundra extends as a
continuous belt below the polar ice cap and
above the tree line in the northern hemisphere. It
occupies the northern fringe of Canada, Alaska,
European Siberia and island group of
Arctic Ocean. On the south pole, tundra is very
small since most of it is covered by ocean.
Alpine tundra occurs at high mountains above
the tree line:-Since mountains are 7ou_n_d af"all -
latitudes therefore-alpine tundra shows day and
night temperature variations. .
) Flora and fauna: Typical vegetation o(arctic
tundra is cotton grass, sedges, dwarf heath,
birches and lid1ens. Animals of tundra
are reindeer, musk ox, arctic
lemmings and squirrel.
Most of themhave1ong life e.g. Salix arctica (i.e)
arctic willow has a of 150 to 300 years. They
are protectPd from by the presence of thick
qmde and epic:lermal hair. Mammals of the tundra
region have large body size and small tail and ear
to avoid the loss of heat from the surface. The body

-

-
is covered wilh fur for insulation. Insects have short
life cycles which are completed during _favourable
p_eriod of the year.
3.2. FOREST ECOSYSTEM
. .
The forest ecosystem includes a complex
assemblage of different kinds of biotic communities.
Optimum conditions such as temperature and grolll!d .
moisture are responsibl e for thE esl List e of
forest communities.
The.natur.e.of soil, dimate and local topbgraphy
determine the distribution of trees an their
abundance in the forest vegetation. Forests mav-be .
.
evergreen or deciduous. They are distinguished on
the 9asis of leaf into broad-leafed or needle leafed ..
coniferous forests in the case of temperate areas.
The forest ecosvstems have been Classified into
.r
three major categories: coniferous forest, ter.1pera e
forest and tropical forest. All these f rest biomes are
generally arranged on a gradient from north to south
latitude or from high to lower altitude.
3.2.1. Coniferous forest (boreal forest):
Cold regions with high rainfall, strong seasonal
climates with long winters and short s-ummers
aie characterised by boreal coniferous
)> . This is characterised by -evergreen plant species_
such as Spruce, fir and pine trees, etc and by
aJli.mal::; ucl1 Js t 1 Jyn: , 'c lf, 1 , !' f ,
squirrel, nnd am1 h.ibi;u\5 like Hyla,
Rana, et(!
"1fD

-
-
-
-
. .
) i ffiDo.!IH?Q
. nutri nts.
d r min ral deficient.
nt of large of
ugh th il, without a significant
r-upward movement of
luble nutri nts lik calcmm, mtrogen
which are leached sometimes
the reach of roots. This process
n alkaline oriented cations _to encounter the
r anic acids of the accumulating litter.
The producti ity. and community stability of a
real f rest are 1 'ver than those of any other
forest ecosystem.
. 2..2. Temperate deciduous forest:
Y. The are characterised by a
rat ll'1 -n ro d-le fe deciduo 1s
trees, which shed their leaves in fall; are bare
over winter and grow new .foliage in the spring.
r t: p c' p1 aivll s a riy unilom ll roughout.
? 'T e ate . s il re p0d ozo1ic a d
fairly deep.
. .
Temr era e e rer gr een forest: ----- --
> Farts of the :W. orld that have Mediterranean
type of climate are characterised by warm, dry
and coo}. moi t winters.
r- Tnese are commonly inhabitated by low broad
Jeafed evergreen trees.
)> Fire is an important hazar9ous factor in this
ecosystem and the adaptation of the plants enable
them to regenerate quickly after being burnt.
. .
3.2.4. Temperate rain forests:
The temperate rain forests exhibit a
easonality with regard to temperature_ ar.::l

-.
. .

. . .
..
biotic div rsity of t mpcrat rain fore ts
high as comparerl tooth r t ' rnperate fon:.-st.
Howev r, the diversity of plants and animals is
much low as compared to the tropiCal rainforest .
3.2.5. Tropkal rain forests:
')> Tropical rain forests occur near the equator.-
}> Tropical rain forests are among the most diverse
and rich communi ties on the earth .
)> Both temperature and humidity remain hlgh
and more or less uniform . . .
)> The annual rain fall exceeds 200 em and is
generally distributed throughout the year.
)> The 1y .. , .. .. .. .....
)> The extreme dense vegetation of the tropical
rain fores s remains ertically stratified \Vith tall
trees often covered with vines, creepers, lianas,
epiphytic orchids and bromeliads.
')> The lowest l ayer is an of trees,
shrubs, herbs, like ferns and palms.
; -- sor-ot tropical rainforests are red latosols, and
they are very thick.
)>_ The high ra te of leaching makes soils
virtuaily useless for agnrultural purposes, but'
when left undisturbed,. the rapid cycling of
nutrients wi thin the litter layer, formed due to
decomposition can compensate for the natural
poverty oi the soil.
)> Undergrowth is restricted in many areas by-th-e--- -
lack of sunlight at ground level.
3.2.6. Tropical seaso!'al forests:
)> Tropical seasonal forests also _!<nown as monsoon
forest occur in where total annual rainfaJJ
is very hlgh but segregated into pron01mced wet
and dry perf'ods.
. .
- This ki.n.d of f01est is found in South East Asia,
-
central and south America; northern Australia,
we5tem.Africa artd tropical islands of the eaci.fic
s '-''] . ;n Jndia .
-
.. .
--
-
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.
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. c
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.... ...
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u tro i
f fairly high rainfall
iff r nce5 belweenwinter
iph are common
nimaJ life of subtropical forest is very similar
to that of tropical rainforests.
.3 . . INDIAN FOREST TYPES
Indja has a diverse range of forests from the
rainforest of Kerala in the south to the alpine pastures
f Ladakh in the north, the deserts of Rajasthan
in the west to the ev.ergreen forests in the north-east.
Climate .. soil type, topography, and
main factors that determine the type of forest. Forests
aried according to their nature and composition,
"le _-pe of climate in which they thrive, and its
relationship with the surrounding environment.
Forest types in-India are classified by-Olampion
and . eth into sixteen
rr. --
1
u r t ..... (XU>.f>Jl-ferests '
... . . . ",'e

\ et evergreeniorests are folllld along the Western
Ghats, the Nicobar and Andaman lshmds and all
along the north-eastern region.lt is characterized by
> TEJilRESTRIAL E OSYSTEM -:.
3.3.3. Tropicall\loist deciduous forest --
lv1oist d.eciduous forests are th gh
1
cl' . t.h . 4 rou out
:.r.' .. and the lJ.9rt.h-western
The trees are tall, have broad trunks;
branching trunks and roots to hold them firmly to
the ground. Some of the taller trees shed their leaves
in the dry season. There is a layer of shorter trees and
evergreen shrubs in the undergrowth. forests
are domina Led by sal sod te,ak, .along wH:h mango,
baxpboo, and rosewood .
3.3:4. Littoral and
Littc:>ral swamp foreSts. are found the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the delta area of
the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. They have roots
. consist of soft tissue so that the plant can breathe
in the water.
3.3.5. Tropical Dry_ deciduous forest
Dry deciduous forests are found throughout t1 e
northern part of the country except in the North-East.
It is also found in Madhya Pradesh, Gu a rat, An"dnra
Pradesh, Kamataka, and Tamil Nadu. The canopy
of the trees does not- oorma11y excee-d me res.
The common trees are t)le sal, a variety of acacia,
.and bamboo.
3.3.6. Tropical Thorn forests
tall,. straight evergreen trees. The more common trees . This type is found in ar-eas-:wi-thi:IJ.ack soil: North,
hat are fou:1d here are the jackfruit, betel nut palm, Wes , Central, ;md South lnd ja. The trees do not
jamun, mango, and hollock. The trees in this forest grow beyond 10 metres. Spurge, caper, and cactus
form a tier pattern: shrubs cover the layer closer to are typical of this regjon.
-n\e ground, followed by the short structured trees 3.3.7. Tropical Dry evergreen forest
and then the tall variety. Beautiful fern of various Dry evergreens are found. a}ong Tamil Nadu,
colours and different varieties of orchids grow on Andhra Pradesh and Kama taka -coast. It is mainly
the trunks of the trees. hard-leaved trees with fragrant flowers,
3.3.2. Tropical Semi-evergreen forests along with a few deciduous
Semi-evergreen forests are folind in the sub hoplcitl-Broad: leaved forest-s
Ghats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the forests .are found in the Eastern
Eastern Himalayas. Such forests have a mixture of Himalayas and the Western Ghats, along the Silent
the wet evergreen trees and the moist dedd"uous Valley. There is a marked difference in forin of
trees. The is dense and is filled with a large . vegetation in the .two areas. In the Silent VaHey, the
ariety of trees of both types. poonspar, cinnamon, rhododendron, and fragrant
grass are predominant". _In the Eastern Himalayas,
the flora has been badly affected by the shifting
cultivation and forest fires. These wet forests
consist miliuy of trees witha sprinkling
of deciduous here and there. There ur oak, er,
chestnut, birch, and cherry trees. There a la.q;e
variety of orchids, bamboo and creepers.
----- - ------------

..
..
chir,
- , amla,
ons.
ft.rtSts no y have a prolonged
cold winter. It generally
.UII.-!.-...n. s ith shining leaves that have
Joo . Th forests are round in the
Hills and foothills of the Himalayas up to a
. .
..... of 1000 metres.-
ontane Wet temperate forests
In _the North, Montane wet temperate forests
ound in the region tQ the east of Nepal into
. 1 a a Pra , recei ing a minimum rainfall
of 2000 mm. Jn the Nort.h, there are three ]ayers of
? st : t.I- c: higher ayer as mainly conifero s, lhe
middle layer has deciduous trees such as the oak
. d le> a ?er s c0ve ed bv r ododend on
and
. .: .e - d 1 i 1 . Q ir 2f 5 C e: wgiri
Hills, he higher reaches of Kerala. The forests in
he r _hern region are denser than in the South.
Rho9odendrons and a variety of ground flora can
be found here.
3.3.1 . 1-Iimalayan 1oist ernperate ores1
This type spreads from the Western Himalayas
to the Eastern Himalayas. The trees found in the
western section are broad-leaved oak, brown
oak, alnut, rhododendron, etc. In the Eastern
imalayas, the-rainfa.l is much heavier and therefore
the vegetation is also more lush and dense. There-
are a large _variery of broad-leaved trees, ferns, and
bamboo. Coniferous trees are also found here, some
of the varieties being differE;Ilt from the ones
th.

im I Y n ry temp rate rest
. typ j found in Lahul, I<innaur sa.L:_ d
th rp ftheHim . , IAI'.Uil, an
. . alayas. fhere ar
omf rous treeFJ; illong with broad-) aved trees s J:
jun
s t;he oak, mapJe, and ash. At higher elevation fir
lper, odar, and chilgoza are found. , '
3.3.14. Sub alpine forest
Sub alpine forests extend from Kashmir to
Arunachal Pradesh between .2900 to 3500 metres.
In Wef Hithataya-s,-the CUilSists-
Y o JUmper, rhododendron, willow, and black
currant. In the eastern p<rrts; red-fir, black juniper
.Iar0 are the COI_nmon trees-:-bue to heav;
rainfall and high humidity the timberline in this part
is higher than that in the West.-Rhododendron of
manyspecies covers the hills in these parts.
3.3.15. Moist Alpine scrub
Moist alpines are found all alo;ng the Himalayas
an d on the higher hills near t.l e Myanmar border. It
}las. a low scrupt dense evergreen fores( consjsting -
mainly of rhododendron and bircn.Mosses and ferns
cover the ground in patches. Tills region receives
heavy snowfall .
3.3.16. Dry alpine scrub
Dry alpines are found from about 3000 metres
to abotn 4900 metres. I:h..varf plants predominate,
mainly the black juniper, the droopi ng juniper,
honeysuckle, and willow.
Importance of Forest
From air we breathe, the food we eat to the paper
and wood we use; we depend on forest directly or
indirectly. forests rnc:>st of the woul d
have been deserts
}> Forests keep up the naturaJ balance.
}> Forests purify the air
}> Forests provide micro climate
}> Forests indirectly play a role in precipitation_
}> Forests prevent floods
r Forests prevent soil erosion
}> Forests provide inedidrial properties
}> Forests provide us fuel timber
> Forests provide raw materials for industries
. 3.4. DEFORESTATION
Indiscriminate felfing of trees as a result of
urbanization, operations,
and use of wood fo, domestic and purposes,
caused heavy depletion of forests .

. -. - .

..

-
... -
!.':
.. ,
: .-. -
-;-:- -.
... ' . .
:: 2
.
, !;',

>
quirements
The in demand !or fire\..,ood with ever
growing populatiqn inqeases greater pressure
on the forests, which results in increased
intensityo deforestation.
4) Raw Materials
}>
Wood is used as a raw materialby various
industries for making paper, plywood, fuiniture,
tp@Lch stids, crates, packi.I)g cases, .... ---
Causes of Deforestation
3.4.1: Causes
J S i P g cu fiv- tion.:
> In this a of. land is cleared, _
::nped an' ash L nixed with
the soil thus-adding nutrients to the soil.
also obtain1:their raw IJ?.alerials. from
plants such as drugs, scents a.nd perfumes,
resin, gums; waxes, tuwentine, latex and rubber,
alkaloids, _ _bees wax.
)> This exerted tremendous pressure on forest
ecosystem and theirunreshicted exploitation for
various other raw materials is the main cause of
degradation of the forest ecosystem.
5) Other Causes
)> Deforestation also results from overgrazing,
agriculture, mining, urbanization, flood, fire,
pest, d_iseases, defence and communication
actiirites .. _ .... ... ,_._._ .... .. .
--=-=-
3.4.2. How it affects?
1rus patch of lanci is used for raising crops for
- two to and the yield is modest.
)> Closed forests (based on canopy level ) have
Then this area is C'l andoned and is )eft to recover
. . being diminished due to deforestation leading
its fertility, and the same practice IS repeated __ __ __ _ t9 increase in degraded forests.
here on a fresh pece of )and. "
r Forests recycle moi st u re from soil into their
All that is required for this method of cultivation immediate abnosphere by transpiration where
is a set of simple tools, not high level of it again precipitates as rain.
mechanisation.
2) development project:
The human population have increased
considerably, so with their requirements.
Development projects like the hydroelectric
projects, large dams and reservoirs, laying down
of railway lines and are_ not only extremely
beneficial, but they are also linked with several
envirorunerital problems.
Many of t11ese projects require
dt:lvrt:5lation.

> Deforestation results in an immediate lowering
of ground water level and in long-tenn reduction
.. . . .. . . of precipitation.
>:- Due to deforestation, this natural reuse cycle is
broken and water is lost through rapid run off.
)> Much- of the minlng acfiVlty m ]ndia"is bem_g_
carried out in forest The obvious result
is deforestation and erosion.
)> UndergrO\mdmining also significantly den:udes
forests because timber is used for supporting the
roofs of mine galleries. :.
A large number of abandoned mines are in
bad shape and are under extensive gully erosion
leading to degradation of the habitat .
. Deforestation affects biota and
ecosystems, soil (>rosion, land degradation,
alteration of ground cha.Jlnels_, polluti n
and scarce.
-
-
..
-
Vfla,....ation f r lion
in r t limat
, th y f und mainly in th high
r st oflndi 's grasslands are mainly
f t pp d savannas.
forznati 11 Of Sandy
oil; in west rn Rajasthan, where tl:te
is mi-arid, average rainfall is less than 200
year with a dry oflO to 11 months,
variation in rainfall. _ .
1he soil is always rocky b.ut
more often s. dy'
1
ith fi'<ed or mobile dunes . Forage
is available only during the brief wet season. The
grass layer is sparse and consists of annual
nss s
n t . cc.:1tra nnd tern p r.ts of .Rajas han,
where the rainfall is about scm rnrn-per year and the
dry season is of six to dry
& steJ:. ha;e ue.'e qp' . '?"he Jig.
shade cast by the sparse population of trees like
W1t ri rosvfis t.j e ari ) fuvvurs the gro -.L f
the grasses.
The major difference between steppes and
sa 'annas is that all the fo nge in the steppe is
provided only during the brief wet season. whereas
:-the sa an as forage is largely from grac::ses that no
only grow during the wet season but also from the
smaJler amount of regrowth in the dry season.
3.5.1. Types of Grasslands .
Based Ot:\ climatic conditions are six types
of grasslands found in the different regions of .the
Indian subcontinent. Four major types of grasslands
are discussed here.

Grassii
t NOt A
. .
. SEBIMA,DlCH1rN.
bt6kAN;..CENC.t.ASI.
..sACCH.tMP.
,
o TEII.Ar-ERATE. ALPIN
ZON; OF T 3-3
1) .dry humid zone m1e Sehima-clichanthiunl
type)
):> It covers the whole of peninsular India (except
f'il g,ill).
):> The thorny bushes are Acacia catechu, mimosa,
Zi:z.yphus (ber) and sometimes Deshy Euphorbia,
along with low trees of Anogeissu labfolia,
soymida febri.h.iga and other deciduousspe.cies.
,. Str irna (grass)is more p t: ' :;: cnt on grtl el and th
cover may be 27%. Dichanth.ium (grass) flourishes
on level soils and co er 80% 0f the grou d.
2) semi-arid zone (The Dichanthium-cenchrus-
lasi trrus type)
r lt co er the nor! ern portion of Guj;na t,
Rajasthan (excluding Aravallis), westem-Httar
Pradesh, Deihl and Punjab.
):> The topography 'is broken up by h.ilJ spurs and
sand dunes.
):> senegal, Calotropis gigantia, Cassia auriculata,
Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora oloides and
ziz.yphits NummuJar a wh ch make the sa anna
rartgeland look like
3) moist subhumid zone(The Phragmities-
sacchrum.::imperata type)
..
It cov rs the Ganga alluvial plain in Northern
Jndia .
. ,
. .
. -. .. . .

..
-
..
'=-.,. ..
4)

. f.f
'_ .

, .
, ..
... .
.
r

.....
'
'
t
I
.
l
-
d
t'OiuaanastnCIh,....tk!llareAcada arabica,-
Qnlpa, Bu a monospenna. Phoenic
tris Zizyphus nummularia. Some of
h cue iepJaced by Borassus sp in the palm
especially near Sunderbans. . -
The Themeda- ArundineiJa type .
)- This extends to the humid regions and
moist sub-humid axeas of Assam,
West Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal
Prade'Sh and Jammu and Kashmir.
};> The savanna is derived from the humid forests
on aero 1t f, hifting cultivation and sheep
grazing.
3.5.2. .Economic impor ance of grasslands
}> India teems with arUmals of a11 shapes and sizes
fr J1 - Ll.ff 1 es eEp's and tJ ere ar
millions of them.
)> The livestock wealth plays a crucial role jn
Indian life_ [t-is a major source of ftrel, draught
power, nutrition and raw material for village
indushies.
This huge needs fodder for
s ul ere is not e1 ough of it.
}> Only about 13 million hectares in the_ country
are dassified as permar1ent grazing lands. On
top of it, they exist in a highly degraded state.
};> Grassland biomes are important to maintain
the population of many domesticated and
wild herbivores such as horse, mule, ass, .CQW,
pig, sheep, goat, buffalo, camel, deer, zebra,
etc. which provide food, milk, wool, hide or
u:ansportation to man.
> Indian Grasslanps and Fodder Research
Institute
1
jhansi and Central Arid Zone Research
institute, Jodhpur.
3.5.3. Impact of grazing
> Due to heavy grazing pressure, the quality of
grasslands deteriorates rapidly, the mulch cover
of the soil reduces, microclimate become:; more
dry radiJy invaded by xerophytic plants.
Due tu absencE: of humu!> wi.J&era] soil
surface is trampled when

. .

. -.

. . .
: TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM
produces of the surface layer. In -tum
Jt reduces the of water
and accelerates 1ts run off, producing drought.
> These changes contribute to lhe reductiun of
energy flow, and the disruption of the stratification
and periodicity of the primary producers. It
results in a breakdown of the biogeochemkal
cycles of water, carbon and nHrogen.
Water and :Wind erosion completely deteriorates

}> Intensive gra2.ing results in increased areas
of bare soil, which creates a new habitat for
burrowing animals sucJ:t. as mice, jack-rabbits,
gophers, prairie dogs, locusts etc., which rendei
large areas of forage lands sterile.
3.5.4. Role of fire
r fire plays an important role in the management
of grasslands.
> n er moist conditions fire favours grass over
trees, whereas in dry conditions fire is often
necessary to maintai grasslands agains t
invasion of desert shrubs.
-; -B1Hr.ing irrc:reases the forage-yi e tds, e :g.:-
. Cynodon daotylon.
3.6. DESERT ECOSYSTEM
>- Deserts are formed in regions with less than
25 em of annual rainfall , or sometimes in
hot regions where there is more rainfall, but
unevenly distributed in the annual cycle.
> Lack of ram m the mid latitude is often due to
stable high-pressure zones; deserts in temperate
regions often lie in "rain ;-that is, where
gh mountpins block off moisture from the seas . .
> The climate of these biomes is modified by
altitude and latitude.At high altitudes __ _?t .
greater distance from the equator the deserts are
.cofd near equator and tropics.
}> The perennial plant species like creosote bush,
cactus, fetrocactus are scattered throughout the
desert biomes.
> In shallow depressed areas with salt geposits
sarcobatus, geesewood, seepwood s,alt
grasses are common.
-
-
-
3.6.1. Adaptations-
Desert plants are hot and City conditions.
(") These Jants onsene wa r y foJ owi ng
m thods:
c a:e. s y _hn.lvS.
.....
...
> Leaves are absent or reduced in size.
Leaves and stem are succulent and water storing.
some plants even the s em contains chlorophyll
fer p otosynthesis.
Root system is well developed and spread over
ar a.
The annuals wherever present germinate, bloom
and reproduce only _during the short rainy season,
and not in summer and winter. This is an ada ptiqn
to desert condition.
(ii) The animals are physiologica1Jy and
behaviorally adapted to desert conditi ons.
,.. lbey are fast nm.ners.
> They are nocturnal in habit to avoid the sun's
during day time.
> They conserve water by excreting concentrated
urine.
> Anjma}s ang birds usually have long legs to keep
tile body away from the hot ground.
Lizards are mostly insectivorous and can live
without drinking water for several days.
Herbivorous animals get sufficient water from
whkh they eat.
-
.)>. The winter rains of northern 1ndia
penetrate into the region.
)> The cold season starts from about the middle of
. to the middle of. March.
)> This season is characterized by
variat.ions of temperature and the te peratur e
is frequently below freezing point at night.
)> Dudng Apdi to June. the heat .are _intense,
frequent scorch ing winds preva il Wi th great
desiccating.
)> The relati ve humidity of the atmosphere is
alw.ays low.
J.> The climate is hostile to all vegetahon, only plants
and .<! imals s n. ,ec:!3L nr:L"r at i0.
being able to establish themselves.
(a Fl ora
These ada.pl ations in general are of two types,
having two dis.tinct objects in view: to enable the
plant to obtain vat r, and to retain i t obtain d.
)> The bulk of the vegetation consists of a kind of
scrub made up of shrubs and perennial herbs,
capable of great drought resistance.
)> There are a "few trees and these are stunted and
generally thorny or prkkly, thus protecting
tl emsel
1
es ag insl plant feed ing anin a1 .
The proper desert. plants may be divided into
two main groups.
i) depending directly upon on rain and .
ii) those depending on the presence of subterranean
water.
Tne first group consists of two types:
)> depending dire!=lly upon on the rain are of two
types- the J ephernerals' and the ram perennials' .
)> The C!re delicate annuals, apparent!Jr
ftee from any. xerophilous adaptations, havfug
slender stems and root-systems and often Jarg
-

-

-

-
-
, "":-. '
' '
. I
-
.,#
. ;

- ;
1
.,._ .. ...
..
. to sOme of India's most magnificent
0
I : , J S<ild ry :or a arisn\ c ir ,
e Great Bustard .
n.m ng-th mammal fauna, the blackbuck, wild
ass, chinkara, and grou e and de ert fox
inhabit the open plains, grasslands, and saline
ciep
r The nesting ground of Flamingoes and the only
o 'Tl p_spulation of Asatic wild Ass lies in the
remot e part of Great Rann, Gujarat.
,. lt is the mi gration flyway by cranes and
flamingos.
_orne endemic flora species of Thar Desert
inc udes Calligonum Polyg onoides, Prosopis
cineraria, Tecomella undulate, Cenchrus billorus
and Sueda fruticosa, etc.
3.6.3. Cold Desert/Temperate Desert
. llu. 1 .. I . ; d ladi.tk, ld1
I I tUrur nd" it i alley of Him'<I'Chal
ra..._...,. and some part$ of northern Uttaranchal
TI<JAl. : '() y TEM .:,
--
allcl Pikkim. Th('. ari<l ar as ur t aff t d y nw
lndi;m mon: n ? c, u c th y li inth

low
>f th l timoli1yan sy t ms. .
'haract ri sed by xtr m cold w ath r and
d nud d terrain th y a r e n ot suj table for p lant
g r w th. Jso.lated, s att e r d and ov r grazed
herbaceous shrubs ar found. mzing peri od is Jess
than 3-4 rri. rnths.
The fl ora and fauna is unique to the are11 . Oak
p i ne, deodar, biich ana rhoOoaendrori
important trees and found there. Major
ani,mal indude yaks, dwa rf cows, and goats:
3.6.4. Cbar.acters
>
Severe arid conditions - Dry Atmosphere
Temperature Jess an 00 C for most of the
period,' drops to - SOoC d u ring winter.
> insigruficant monsoonal- Mean annual r ainfall
Jess tJ-,an 400mm
> Heavy snowfall occurs etween Io ember and
march.
> oil type- sandy to sandy loam
i . I ;lt t J<!
1
: .. -
Soil nut ri ent- Poor organic matter<:antent
Soil has low water r ten bon capncity.
> Vind erosion is more comnton.
Jil r0 gro\ n g peri od; }" wri : b fhe
: JJnmer.
> Due to aforesaid cold conditions
growth of veget a tion is slow and- of-stunted
nature.
Bi o-diversity
'old desert is the om of highly adaptive, rare
endangered fauna, such as Asiatic Ibex Tibetan
Arg_ali, Lad_akh Ud yal, Bh aral, Tibetan Antelope
( h nu), Tibe t an Gazelle, Wi ld Ya k, Snow
Bear, Tibetan Wolf, Wild Dog
-and Ttbetan Wtld Ass ('J(jang' a close relative of
Indian w_ild ass) , Woolly-hare, Black Necked
rane, etc. .
'old o! alpine mesophytes and
desert vegetation. _
t mp rature zone : B tula utilis, Sali
Juruperus recurva. .
Alphine zone": Junipers, Birch, Rhododendron
. j Jl r:,. ... , "(
Pf'rpehHll snow :1 rw No ,rg t. ti n d.u f1
pennan ntl y frozEn s i l.
-
. . . .., .
- - .
-
. -.

aus s
' P ulation pressure
1cr in attle poJ ulation
)> J a riculture
\elopment activities
f re tation
N
.7.1. Status of Ind.ian desertification
t nti.1l
dt f>t'rl

1
r e- _ en :0 an ... an Deg a 0
tlas of India, 2007, the perc.entage of country under
_ ry -, 's !s 69.6%. t e>tal re<l lll"!cleT going the
process of }and degradation in India is 105.48 million
ares, w ich cons i tutes 32.07 percentage of
Jndia's total land area.
81.45 million hectares area of the country is
nc!u I and d egr ad a I io n \ i II in
drylands). The details of drylands unde rgoing
desertification are given below:
34.89 million hectares
Semi-Arid 31 .99 mil1ion hectares
Dry sub-humid
Control measures
14.57 million hectares
India as a signatory to United Nations
Convention to Combat f)esertification (UNCCD)
has c:ubmitted four National Reports to UNCCD
in the years 2000, 2002, 2006 and 2010. The fourth
report was submitted in the year 2010. The National
Action Programme for combating. .desertification'
wa prepared in 200l_to take appropriate action in.
addressing the problems of
Some of the major programmes currently
implemented that address issues related to land
plK-btion and desertification are-

Int ';t It- J W. 1
(IWMI ),
Nnli t t i n tnw r, rnr e (NAP),
N< ti narMic: ion f r Cr . ia ( ,JM ,
)> Th Me h a tma an hi National Rur I
Employment S hem (M NR S),
)> Soil onservation in the atchm nt of River
Vnlley Pr ject and Flood Prone Riv r,
)> National Watershed D v"e}opment Project for
Rainfed Areas (NWDPKA),
)> Desert Development Programme (DDP)
)> Fodder and Feed Development Scheme-
component of Grassland Development including
GrassReseives, Command Ai-ea and
Water Management (CADWl\1) programme etc.
3.7.2. Afforestation
)> The desert regions of Rajastl <l n, Gujarat,
Haryana, Punjab and Trans-Hirrial ayan regions
are in scarce of vegetation.
)> Peo le equ re fj r e wood, ti . er and fe>dder
for their domestic consumptions nna livestock
)> Presence of vegetation revents the soiJ erosion
and modifies the hostile climate.
)> !' f o es t a io is i:1c.: i 0n c
to modify the climate, desertification and to meet
the demands of people living in that regon.
Problems for Afforestation
)> Hostile climate.
)> Shallow, sandy and ston, soil
)> poor moisture holding capacity
)> Poor nutrient s tatus.
)> Wind erosion.
)> Grazing pressure.
Unless swift to conservationm asur s are tak n
apd proper employment opportunities are found ..
for the.Jocal people, the increasing density of the
human and cattle population in trust:lesert area will
inexorably lead to further desertification.
-

-
-
-
CHAPTft .. 4
ECOSYSTEM
E
cosyst ms onsistlng<?fwateras the.main
habitat are as aquatic
Aquatic ecosystems are class1fied based
n their salt content. .
i) Fresh water The salt_ content of fresh
bC' es is very low, always less than 5 ppt (parts
per thousand). E.g lakes, ponds, pools, springs,
streams, and rivers
n Marine ecosv terns- the water bodies containing
salt equal to or above -that of sea
-v.rater (i.e., 35 ppt or above). E.g shallow seas
ai 0 en 0 ean
at:J<is water stems- these
7
ater bod
have salt c-<>ntent in between 5 to 35 ppt-. e.g.
estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove swamps and
forests.
4.1. AQUATIC ORGANISMS
The aquatic organisms are classified on ihe basis
of their zone of occurrence and their ability to cross
these zones. .
The organisms (both flora and fauna) i n the
aquatic ecosystem are unevenly distributed but can
be classified on the basis of their life form or ]oration
into five groups
i) Neuston:
);> These are unattached which Jive at
the air-water interface such as floating plants,
etc.
> Some organisms spend most of their li,es on
top of the air-water in_t erface .such as . er
striders, while others spend most of theu hme
just beneath the air-water interface and obtain
most of their food within the
E._g., beetles. and back-swimmers.

1bese are u.)!an.isms which remain to
tans . .nd le;ves of rooted plants ot substances
-
emerging above the b9ttom mud such as se;sile
algae and their associated group of animals.
iii) Plankton:
iv)
This gr oup include both microscopic plants
like. algae (phytoplankton) and animals like
cru staceans and protozoans (zoop ankton)
found in al l aquatic ecosystems, except certajn
swift moving waters.
Th _locom otory ower f th 1 nK o s :s
limite d so that their distribution is controlled,
Ia . ely. b C1 ents the aq 1a ic eco .. s
Nekton:
This group contain$ anima s which are
swimmers.
'The nektons are relati\e y large and powerful
as they have to overcome the water currents.
The animals ange in size fwm e s ': ming
insects (about 2.mm long) to the largest animals,
the bJue whale.
v) Benthos:
The benthic organisms are those found living in
the bottom of the water mass.
Practi ally e ery aquatic e osystem con tains
well developed benthos.
4.1.1. Factors limiting the Productivity of
Aquatic Habitats
Sunlight and oxygen are most important
limiting factors of the aquatic ecosystems wh!as
moisture and temperature are the main limiting
factors of terrestrial ecosystem.
Sunlight: .
Stinlight penetration rapidly diminishes as it
passes down the column of water.
to which light Pf'netrates a lnke det rmmes the
extent of plant distribution.
);> Based on light penetration and plant distribution
they are as photic and a _photic iones
--
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Environment & BioDiversity by Shankar IAS Academy Part 1 of 5

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