INTRODUCTION

GENERAL
A. Pressure installations are techniques, which allow alterations, relocation, extension,
addition, repair, replacement or abandonment of piping without shutdown or
interruption of service to critical processes or customers.
B. What is wrong with a shutdown or interruption of service? Nothing...
Until the possible consequences are considered of:
1. Contamination and loss of water (either process or drinking).
2. Loss of fire protection.
3. Disposal of flammable or toxic fluids in product lines
Until one can accurately evaluate the many "hidden" costs of a shutdown:
4. Planning and coordination - meetings, schedules, paperwork.
5. Lost production and profits.
6. Direct manpower - open and close valves, bleed, cool down, and warm up.
7. Overtime.
8. Draining, purging.
9. Refilling.
C. Like anything else, some pressure installations are quite routine while others are very
complex and could be dangerous. It is therefore extremely important that the design
engineer be aware when a pressure installation is routine or when he should get assistance
from a specialist.
D. The specifications and detailed drawings for pressure installations must define the true
scope of the work; otherwise:
1. The contractor will be overprotective in his bid.
2. Frequently the plant will later be charged for extras.
E. What are the specific pressure installation techniques?
1. Pressure tapping (hot tap, wet tap, pressure cut, side cut).
2. Pressure plugging (Linestop, stopper, "stopple" or pressure stop).
3. Valve inserting (insert, pressure cut-in).



PRESSURE TAPPING
GENERAL

The first of our three techniques is the pressure tap. It is also known variously as a hot
tap, pressure cut, or side cut. Essentially, three things are required to execute a pressure
tap. First of all, a suitable tapping fitting is attached to the existing pipe. The next thing
needed is a tapping valve. The last requirement is the actual machinery, a tapping
machine, which is used to execute the pressure cut.

If we are dealing in the waterworks industry the word "tapping valve" has a definite and
specific meaning. This is a double disc parallel seat valve that carries a specially
oversized bore. The seat ring lugs are removed and, in addition, special care is taken to
insure that the bolt circle and outlet of the tapping valve (and remember, this is a special
valve) a full size cut can be made. Thus, a 36-inch diameter cut can be made thru a 36
inch tapping valve. The reason for this is the fact that the tapping valve is actually bored
out from 36 to 36 inches in diameter.

However, in order to execute the pressure tap, we do not need this "special tapping
valve". We can utilize any valve that has a clear round concentric bore. By concentric we
mean that the bore must be relatively concentric with the two flange bolt circles or, if the
valve happens to be a screwed valve, the pipe threads generated in each end of the valve
must be relatively concentric with the bore thru the seat rings.

For that matter, we can use a ball valve, a pipeline gate valve, a waterworks line valve or
practically any other type of gate valve even though the valve was not intended by the
manufacturer to be a 'tapping valve". However, we must exercise extreme caution in the
choice of the valve, as we will point out later in "tapping traps".

Tapping machines are available in all sizes. There are approximately four major
manufacturers of tapping machines in the United States today. Each manufacturer has
built a machine to be used with his own product, which is, generally speaking, identified
with a particular industry. Thus, the company that sells pipe pressure fittings, for use on
cross country pipelines, will then make a tapping machine that will withstand extremely
high pressures. Conversely, a firm that sells low pressure water main fittings, or fittings
for use on low pressure gas distribution systems, will tend to make a machine that is
somewhat lighter and will have a much lower pressure rating. Extreme care must be
exercised in the selection of the tapping machine since temperature/pressure ratings vary
with each machine.

No one seems to know why the section of the main that is served is called a "coupon". At
any rate, this term is, generally speaking, universally used.

When cutting into a flat plate, all of the teeth on a standard cutter are in contact at any
given moment. Because each tooth is forming a chip, extremely high forces are generated
and conventional tapping machines, no matter how large they are, cannot generate the
torque necessary to complete the cut. Therefore, when making so called plate or flat taps,
special cutters with a reduced number of teeth must be used.

Every fitting/valve/tapping machine assembly is subject to certain possible "tapping
traps". A general awareness of these various "traps" must be maintained because any one
of them could stop the successful completion of a pressure tap.

GENERAL METHODS
A. The process is old, dating back to the late 18th century when the wooden water mains
were literally tapped like a wine keg.
B. Pressure tapping is relatively unlimited with respect to the type of pipe. These include:
1. Steel.
2. Cast Iron.
3. Reinforced concrete, non-cylinder.
4. Reinforced concrete, cylinder.
5. Asbestos cement.
6. Nonferrous metal.
7. Plastic.
C. Pressure taps using plug, globe, butterfly, check and angle valves or others with
restricted, obstructed or non-concentric openings require special techniques.

D. Cutter size is limited to commercially available cutters unless extra expense is
warranted. Many special cutters are available for:
8. Tapping valve cutters.
9. Conventional valve cutters.
10. Linestop cutters.
11. Drills for small size taps.
E. The coupon is the severed section of pipe, which cannot be allowed to drop into the
pipe. Therefore, a pilot drill retains the coupon by one or more of the following
mechanical retention devices (Note that the correct retention method must be matched
with each pressure tap characteristic):
12. Latches (May prevent cutter retraction if problems occur).
13. Spring detents (No good at high temperature).
14. Wire clips (Require layout for each tap).
15. Threaded pilot drill (Must match automatic feed of machine).
Pipe condition can greatly affect the problems of coupon retraction.

F. Shell cutter design is in its infancy despite the fact that pressure tapping is 75 years
old. Industries studies being conducted include:
16. Tooth geometry.
17. High speed inserted teeth.
18. Various carbon steel cutters.
19. Cement inserted carbide teeth.
20. Mechanically inserted carbide teeth.
G. Geometry must always be considered in designing a pressure tap. Pertinent factors are:
21. Machine travel.
22. Gate clearance for the pilot drill.
23. Cutter depth for heavy wall pipe.
24. Pilot drill length for heavy wall pipe.
25. Concentricity.
26. Perpendicularity
H. Design must consider the type of reinforcing and/or blocking for fittings.
Considerations are:
27. Code requirements.
28. Good practice.
29. Condition of pipe.
30. Beam strength.
31. Thrust blocking.
32. Cyclic loading.
33. Pressure surges (Water hammer).
I. RED FLAG!!! Get advice if your taps involve any of the following factors:
Temperature of 500 degrees F. or higher.
Pressure of 350 PSIG or higher.
High pipe diameter to tap diameter ratio (i.e., tap approaches plate tap). When tap
sizes are over 10 inches nominal diameter.
Low pipe diameter to tap diameter ratio (i.e., tap approaches size on size). When
tap sizes are over 16 inch nominal diameter.
Ring joint flange, lap joint flange, butt weld, etc., outlets on valves.
Extra strong pipe.
All taps on the following pipe:
Concrete (either cylinder or non-cylinder).
Asbestos cement pipe.
Nonferrous metal.
Cast iron above 12 inch diameter.
Plastic.
All taps in tight quarters, taps with long nozzles.
Any taps in which the designer would prefer a "non-tappable" valve (i.e.,
butterfly, globe, check, plug, etc.).

PRESSURE TAPPING PROCEDURE
After the tapping fitting has been joined to the existing pipe, the tapping valve is bolted to
the outlet of the fitting to make a pressure tight connection. The tapping machine, by
means of a special adapter, is bolted to the outlet of the tapping valve, which also makes
a pressure tight connection. The tapping valve is opened and the cutter pilot drill
assembly is advanced through the valve to the nozzle until contact is made with the
outside of the existing pipe. With the tapping machine's automatic feed set, power is
supplied and rotation is then started. The pilot drill penetrates the side of the pipe. As
soon as this penetration is accomplished, the fitting, valve, and tapping machine adapter
are filled with whatever fluid happens to be inside the pipe. If this fluid is combustible, it
is normal practice to open a bleed in the adapter, thereby allowing the pressure in the pipe
to purge out whatever air might be in the existing components. The bleed valve is closed
as soon as the product begins to appear and the cut continues.

The tap is completed when the shell cutter not only has severed the coupon, but also has
actually continued its travel into the existing pipe. In other words, the cut is not fully
completed to its proper diameter until some period in time after the coupon has actually
been severed.

By some suitable means, usually on the pilot drill, the coupon is prevented from dropping
into the existing pipeline. Therefore, by retracting the boring bar on the tapping machine,
the cutter, pilot drill and coupon return back into the tapping machine adapter. At this
time the gate of the tapping valve can be closed. The tapping machine can now be
removed having thus gained access to the interior of the pipeline without taking a line out
of service.

PRESSURE TAPPING CONCRETE PIPE
GENERAL
Dealing with concrete pipe is a somewhat specialized area.

Although there are several different designs, we like to think of concrete pipe as falling
into two general categories: cylinder pipe and non-cylinder pipe. Non-cylinder pipe
consists of a concrete wall in which there are embedded longitudinal and circumferential
reinforcing bars. Cylinder pipe starts with a relatively thin steel cylinder of, perhaps, 16
or 14 gauge. Think of it as a piece of stovepipe. A concrete core is poured or spun inside
this steel cylinder. The fluid that the pipe will carry flows inside this core. So far, the
bursting strength is all in the thin cylinder and strength must be added. One means of
doing this is to reinforce the cylinder. A circumferential and longitudinal cage of
reinforcing steel is laid outside of the steel cylinder. This cage is embedded in a concrete
outer shell. Now the only purpose of the steel cylinder is to prevent gradual weepage
through theconcrete, whichh is a porous material.

Prestressed concrete cylinder pipe also starts with a lightweight steel cylinder and an
internal concrete core. The reinforcing is accomplished by taking prestressing wire,
placing it in tension and wrapping it around the O.D. of the steel cylinder. Incidentally,
this is a high tensile strength wire with yield strength of around 140,000 PSI. A
conventional reinforcing bar for normal concrete work has yield strength of 40-75 PSI.
This prestressing squeezes the concrete core or liner placing it under compressive stress.
A concrete cover is then poured to protect the prestressing wires.

Since the pipe wall is in compression, application of fluid pressure inside the pipe will
tend to offset the initial compressive prestressing. Thus, in a perfect design, the concrete
core is under no stress whatsoever.


Linestop fitting on concrete pipe
PRESSURE TAPPING TECHNIQUE
There are two basic types of saddles for tapping concrete cylinder pipe. Fig. 8 shows a
so-called floating or adjustable gland that seals to the steel cylinder with an "0" ring. The
second design uses a more rigid gland. Note, however, that both designs seal to the
contour of the steel cylinder with an "0" ring.

It can be seen that in order to make this seal, the outer concrete covering must be chipped
away to expose the reinforcing cage or prestressing wires. The wires are then cut away
with a cold chisel or burning torch. A horizontal weld seam on the steel cylinder may
have to be ground away to provide a smooth seat for the "0" ring.

A major problem exists in making larger diameter taps in concrete pipe. The inner
concrete core tends to break or fracture away from the cylinder during the culling
process. To prevent this it is necessary to install some means of keeping the core intact.
This is called the "core retention means". The most common method is nothing more than
butterfly or toggle bolts. They are installed under pressure with a small tapping machine
and special adapter. This operation is called "toggling".
After the nozzle with "0" ring is properly seated against the cylinder, the assembly is
checked by pressure testing. The saddle portion is filled with grout through the small
nozzle at the top and allowed to cure.

A valve is mounted and a conventional pressure tap is made using carbide tipped shell
cutter.

LINESTOPPING
(PRESSURE PLUGGING)
GENERAL
Linestopping is essentially the installation of a temporary valve in a line where one
presently does not exist. The existing pipe serves as part of the sealing surface for the
temporary valves. There are four general types of linestops or pressure plugs. The first
effects stoppage with a cylindrical plug sealing against machined surfaces of the pipe.
These can either be the elastomer type stoppers or a steel wedge type stopper. Probably
the most popular is the second method where an elastomer cup seals against the pipe
bore. This seal is affected by line pressure and is available in the greatest range of
pressures and sizes. In the third type of stopper, an expandable elastomer stopper seals
against the bore of the pipe. This type is for low-pressure application only. An inflatable
gasbag or balloon sealing against the bore of a pipe is the fourth type of stopping device.
This seal is generally independent of line pressure and must be restricted to very low
pressures.

Linestopping machine for 4" through 12" pipe diameters
When linestopping, the choice of method is extremely important. There is no universal
line stopping technique. The correct technique depends upon the following variables:
1. Temperature.
2. Pressure.
3. Size of main and wall thickness.
4. Interior condition of main deposits, corrosion, welds beads, etc.
5. Duration of the linestop.
6. Degree of leakage tolerated.
7. The flowing medium.
A point to remember is that a linestop operation can be repeated at a later date. Many
pipe and gas companies install linestop fittings instead of valves at points where a valving
action will be needed infrequently.

Complete "bubble tight" shutoff is difficult to achieve. When it is achieved, it is usually
the result of good job site techniques. On hazardous jobs (steam, flammables, etc.) use of
special flanges, etc., can decrease the hazard. Pipe O.D. - (2 x Pipe Wall) = I.D. This
simple formula can be the most important factor in reaching a "bubble tight" shutoff. The
pipe I.D. must be verified exactly for every linestop. Sample inspection tags should
always be specified unless the linestop is extremely low cost / noncritical.

Linestops can be used in an endless variety of ways:
1. To isolate or dead-end a pipeline.
2. To relocate a pipeline with two permanent valves.
3. To relocate a pipeline without permanent valves.
4. To install a valve into a pipeline without shutdown.
5. To install a piece of process equipment into a pipeline without shutdown.
6. As a means of laterally installing "non-tappable" valves.

LINESTOP PROCEDURE
A special linestop fitting is installed on the pipeline by either welding or a
mechanical seal. After pressure testings, a temporary valve is installed onto the
fitting.


A pressure tap is made with a special cutter. When the tap is completed, the cutter and
coupon are retracted into the tapping machine and the temporary valve is closed. If
bypass taps are required, they are also made.

The tapping machine is removed from the temporary valve and replaced by a linestop
machine. The valve is opened and the linestop plugging head is lowered in place cutting
off flow in the pipeline.

To completely affect the plugging head seal and to test the seal efficiently, a bleed off
point must be used. By opening the bleed off and reducing the pressure on the
downstream side of the head, or in the case of double linestops, in between stops, the
pipeline pressure will help seal the plugging head.
When the required work is completed and the linestop is to be removed, line pressure
must be equalized on the "dead" side of the plugging head. This allows the head to be
retracted and the line put back in service.

To complete the operation, the linestop machines are removed and completion machines
are installed onto the temporary valves. A special closure plug is installed into the outlet
flange of the linestop fitting. This allows the linestop machines and temporary valves to
be removed. A blind flange is usually installed to finish the linestop operation.

VALVE INSERTIONS
GENERAL
Valve inserting is the installation of a cast iron IBBM, double disc, NRS, lead caulk gate
valve into a pipeline without interruption of service.

There are three basic techniques used to insert a valve into a pipeline under pressure.
They are:
1. The Mueller method for 4 inch through 8-inch valves.
2. The Smith method for 4 inch through 20-inch valves.
3. The Smith method for 24 inch through 45-inch valves.
All three of these methods are somewhat competitive on cast iron water mains. However,
special valves for insertion into steel and ductile iron mains are available on special
order.
MATERIAL DESCRIPTION
A.P. Smith Inserting Valves: The materials, internal design construction, workmanship
and test rating of these inserting valves are in general compliance with AWWA standard
C-500, or the latest revision thereof, insofar as they apply, as modified by the following
supplementary requirements:

A. An inserting valve has a cast iron body, bronze-mounted
non-rising stem, double non-revolving disc, parallel seat,
and side-wedging construction.
B. All grey iron castings conform to the requirements of
ASTM specifications: A126, Class B (31,000 PSI
minimum tensile strength).
C. Valve stems are cast manganese bronze, free from defects
and have a minimum tensile strength of 65,000 PSI and a
yield strength of 32,000 PSI.
D. Valves have hollow bell (lead caulk) ends, one bell being
larger than nominal to accept the inserting sleeve. Bells
contain elastomer gaskets permanently attached in a plane
perpendicular to the centerline of the bore.
E. Valves are rated at 300 PSIG working water pressure.
F. Valve stem seals consist of conventional stuffing boxes or
the "0" ring seal. Gland bolts and nuts shall be of the same
quality bronze as the valve stems.

Inserting Sleeves: Each inserting valve is provided with a split sleeve of the stuffing box
type. Said sleeves have a bell (lead caulk) outlet outboard of the valve for sealing to the
conduit. Wall thickness, materials of construction and workmanship conform to AWWA
standard C1OO-55 or the latest revision thereof, insofar as they apply.

Mueller Inserting Valves: The materials, internal design construction, workmanship and
testing of inserting valves are in general compliance with AWWA standards, insofar as
they apply.

A. Each inserting valve consists of a sleeve and a valve body. The sleeve is in two
parts, which are installed around the main. After the main is drilled and a section
removed, the valve body containing the gate valve mechanism is inserted in the
sleeve.
B. The valve bodies and bonnets are high strength cast iron.
C. Body seat rings and disc rings are cast from high copper content bronze.
D. Stems are fabricated from high tensile strength solid bronze rod. Steel bolts and
nuts are heavily plated.












SUGGESTED PROCEDURES FOR WELDING
ON PRESSURIZED EQUIPMENT
CONTAINING FLAMMABLES
SCOPE
These procedures are for welding as well as making hot taps on pipelines, pressure
vessels or tanks containing flammable liquid or other materials. They represent a
composite of industry-safe practices for this type of work. They may be used as a guide
or as a source of information; however, they cannot be expected to cover all
contingencies, which may be encountered. If a special need or a special problem exists,
responsible supervision should revise these procedures, keeping in mind that safety of the
operation is the primary consideration.

The methods described herein may be used by anyone desiring to do so.

GENERAL
Connections or other appurtenances may be installed on equipment by one of several
methods. The method considered herein involves welding a piece of equipment, which is
under pressure. Because air is excluded from the contents, the possibility of fire or
explosion from hydrocarbons is reduced as compared with methods requiring the
equipment to be opened. The possibility of burning through the wall of the equipment
during welding operations can be minimized by employment of capable welders and
proper inspection of equipment prior to welding.

APPROVALS
To maintain control of the conditions under which welding or hot tapping can be done,
responsible supervision in charge will:
1. Determine that the contents of the system will permit welding. Hot work on lines
or vessels containing corrosive or toxic materials should be given special
consideration. Certain materials may cause metallurgical or chemical changes in
the heat zone. Carbon steel, for ex-ample, is changed metallurgically at elevated
temperatures in the presence of caustic or elemental sulfur. Welding should never
be performed on equipment, which is operating above its rated working pressures
and temperature, nor on equipment, which is operating at less than atmospheric
pressure (vacuum). Where air may occur in the presence of vapors in equipment,
the oxygen content should be and should remain at a level, which precludes
formation of a flammable atmosphere. Heating compressed air lines or vessels
may cause detonation if lubricating oil has been vaporized and distributed through
the system by the compressor. These lines or vessels usually can be removed from
service and cleaned prior to hot work.
2. Determine if the equipment is metallurgically suitable for welding. For example,
hydrogen embrittlement or attack would make it impossible to complete the weld.
Special treatment is required for high tensile alloy steels and special welding rods
must be used.
3. State conditions under which welding may be done and establish a safe procedure.
The individual responsible for authorizing welding operations should inspect the
job and he should designate precautions to be followed before granting
authorization to proceed. A gas test of the hot work area may be required. An
inspection of the parent metal is necessary.
4. Observe the operation to make sure the foregoing conditions are followed during
performance of the job.
PROCEDURE
1. Obtain the above stated necessary approvals.
2. Provide either a suitable fire extinguisher (preferably dry chemical) and/or a
pressurized fire hose.
3. Determine by inspection and by use of hammer testing ultrasonic thickness
devices, radiography or the use of other approved thickness measuring devices
that the equipment to be welded is of sufficient strength and thickness to receive
the connection. Previous inspection records and data on corrosion rates will be
useful in making this determination.
4. Studies have indicated that most steels should be preheated prior to welding when
the fluid or metal temperature is less than 50 degrees F.
5. Select the proper fitting for use in making the connection. Many types of
connecting fittings are available, such as Threadolets, Socklolets, Weld-Ends,
split tees, saddles, nozzles and plain miters. Design the connection according to
the proper code; i.e., ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code; API Std. 650,
Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage; or the applicable section of ASA B31,
American Standard Code for Pressure Piping. When hot tapping, be sure the
fitting is of proper length to accommodate the hot tap tool. We design and
fabricate many specialized fittings for this purpose. These fittings are intended for
pressure installation use only and should not to be interpreted as commercially
available standard fittings.
FIELD SAFETY
In performing hot work jobs below ground level, excavation should permit quick access
and exit by personnel. If necessary to remove fumes or flammable vapors, an air siphon
or some other positive means of ventilation should be provided. If the job is above
ground in a congested area, necessary precautions should be taken to prevent the trapping
of personnel.
Flow in the line should be maintained at least until after welding operations have been
completed. If the line is sufficiently long and the heat can be dissipated without flow, the
flow may be discontinued. Generally, lines in overland transmission service would be
considered long lines. Lines in refineries, plants, etc. would usually be considered short
lines.

In certain cases, such as flare lines with insufficient flow or without flow, it may be
necessary to flush the line with steam or inert gas. Such steam or gas should be kept
flowing through the line during the welding operation.

If an underground line runs through a casing, be sure that welding is done on the line and
not on the casing.

Never pump in or out of tanks, or agitate the contents of tanks, while hot work is in
progress. The agitator switches should be tagged "open". Close and tag all valves on
product lines at the tanks. Avoid any procedures associated with operation of gas
blanketing valves or heater coil valves, which would cause venting to occur.

On cone roof tanks, maintain at least three feet of liquid heat above the hot work area
when welding or similar hot work is being done. A tape gauge reading of the tank
contents should be made.

If oxyacetylene cutting and electric arc welding are employed on pipelines filled with
combustible gas, the gas must be free of air because of the possibility of an internal
explosion. If air is introduced during any operation, the line must be purged with gas
before cutting or welding is started.

During a cutting or welding operation, air is often prevented from entering the line at the
joint by maintaining the gas pressure slightly above atmospheric and allowing the gas to
escape through the joint (to burn on the outside). This procedure is referred to as
"controlled fire welding". Another method that is used, to provide safe working
conditions during cutting or welding operations, is to replace the gas in the pipe with a
noncombustible gas.

If a gas filled pipeline is opened to the atmosphere, air will flow into the pipe very
rapidly. During a tie-in operation, even momentary opening of the line will allow enough
air to flow to be hazardous if welding is done. Therefore, the air should be removed with
gas by purging before welding is undertaken.

The practice of "drifting gas" out of an open-end large diameter pipeline to prevent air
from entering is not effective. It requires a flow of gas of greater volume than would be
safe to discharge.

Because air running into a gas filled pipeline flows and stratifies along the bottom of the
pipe, it can be most effectively purged with gas though a bottom opening. It is essential to
be sure that air is absent after purging.

Cutting into a gas filled pipe with an oxyacetylene torch does not inject unconsumed
oxygen into the pipe from the torch.

In controlled fire cutting or welding on large pipe, the size of the flame burning from the
joint required to keep out air is often too large for the welder to work near. The amount of
air that enters the joint with a flame of tolerable height, if mixed with gas and exposed in
the pipe, could cause serious burning of the welder.

In order to keep air out of a pipe, using the controlled fire cut-ting or welding procedure,
it is essential in the case of cutting to progressively "mud" behind the cut as it is made
and, in the case of welding, taping the joint, thus burning off the tape as the weld is made.

During a tie-in, the amount of air entering the pipe can be minimized by the following
procedures:
1. All new sections, which are to be tied in, should be previously purged of air, filled
with gas and capped.
2. When a pipe is to be opened to the atmosphere, the open end should immediately
be covered by some appropriate closure.
3. All cuts or open joints in the pipe should be "mudded" or taped as soon as they
are made.
The air, which still gets into the pipe by observing the above practices should be purged
before any welding is done. This can be most effectively accomplished by purging to a
final joint where both ends of the pipe are covered with a plate or canvas. By opening the
covering at the bottom of the pipe, the air at the bottom can be displaced by "drifting in"
gas from either direction.

Confirmation of the completeness of purging should be deter-mined by testing the
exhausting gas from the bottom of the pipe with a reliable combustible gas indicator or
suitable gravitometer. The instrument used should show essentially 100% gas.

Test the finished welding before cutting is started. Testing may be done hydrostatically
below 200 degrees F. If the temperature of the line or vessel is above 200 degrees F., an
air test (soaping the welds for leaks) may be used. Radiography, dye penetrant or
magnetic particles also may be used for testing the integrity of the weld.

Do not weld on the I.D. of fittings. Use a reinforcing saddle instead.


INSTRUCTIONS FOR INSTALLING SMALL
(3" or less) LINESTOP FITTINGS
OR OTHER INTERNAL / EXTERNAL
SCREWED HOT TAP NIPPLES
GENERAL
The access or linestop fitting consists of a body and a plug. The body is to be butt welded
directly to the line. The plug screws into the nipple body and seals the nipple completely.
The plug allows removal of valves under full operating pressure.

PROCEDURE
1. Remove The Plug.
The plug must be removed from the nipple body before welding it to the line to
prevent damage to the packing of the plug.
2. Protect The Nipple Body.
The bore of the nipple and the external threads must be protected from weld
spatter. A protective coating can be made by mixing powdered non4lammable
material and water to a thick clay-like consistency and spreading it over the
external thread area. Stuffing a retrievable wad of non-flammable material into
the internal bore can protect the bore.
3. Establish Weld Gap.
The welding type nipple body must be raised off the surface of the pipe to
establish proper weld gap. Placing spacers of 8 welding rods under the fitting
does this. The spacers or welding rods provide the necessary gap between the
curvature of the pipe and the base of the fitting.
4. Welding Procedures.
Arc welding on all grades and types of steel should be used if at all possible. This
will minimize warpage and distortion of the nipple body. The electric arc welding
ground clamp should be clamped to a small piece of (scrap) steel plate. This is the
arc-striking pad and should be placed relatively close to the nipple body. Avoid
arcing the run or nipple as arc spots on the nipple can cause the nipple to warp
while cooling.

Tack weld: If possible, preheat nipple body to 400 degrees F. Center nipple on
absolute top dead center of run on which it will be installed. The base joint is tack
welded, preferably at four (4) points, using 1/8" rod. Use AWSE 7016 rod or
equivalent. The spacers are then removed and all slag is removed.

Stringer Bead: The stringer bead is applied completely around the base of the
fitting. Use 1/8" diameter rod with a 1/8" maximum layer. The established weld
gap assures full penetration and prevents a stress riser. The first pass is the most
important one. Between passes all slag must be removed. The nipple body is to be
kept cool during welding. Cold water or water soaked rags should be used in
conjunction with tempil sticks to insure that the temperature of the access fitting
does not exceed 1000 degrees F. If a liquid is used as a cooling agent, none should
be allowed to come in contact with the hot weld metal.

Note: Hot tap fittings should never be welded on the I.D. Certain materials may
cause metallurgical or chemical changes in the heat zone that temper the metal.
Extreme difficulty or serious damage to the hot tap cutter may occur due to the
temper. If the code requires welding on the I.D., a considerably undersized cutter
must be used.
5. If Preheat Is Used.
It is advisable to preheat to a temperature of 100 degrees F. more than those
shown. This is done to eliminate the possibility of the material cooling to a
temperature below the minimum (400 degrees F.). Temperature crayons or
electrical temperature controls are generally utilized to determine when the proper
heat has been reached. Isolate all welding from chills and drafts.
6. Cover Beads.
Use 5/32" diameter rod to complete the job. Continuous cover beads should be
added to fill the bevels and provide a smooth tapered weld.
The nipple body should be completely cool before the plug is screwed in. This is
done to ascertain that the nipple body has not become warped.
7. Test the Finished Welding.
Testing may be done hydrostatically below 200 degrees F. If the temperature of
the line is above 200 degrees F., an air test (soaping the welds for leaks) may be
used. Radiograph, dye penetrant, or magnetic particles also may be used for
testing the integrity of the welds.
NOTES FOR PRESSURE ENGINEERING
GENERAL
It is extremely important, in the design stages of any project that involves pressure
tapping, that the designer be aware of the size of the equipment that is required to make
the tap.

For those who work with steel pipe, tapping fittings generally consist of a welded branch
connection. However, when tapping into a pipe that is cast iron, asbestos cement or
concrete, we cannot, of course, weld the fitting onto the existing header. In this tapping
situation one of a great variety of alternate fitting attachment techniques must be used.

It is important to understand the different types of fittings that are available and which
can be interchanged in the event of an emergency situation.

The forerunner of all tapping fittings is a split cast iron sleeve that is bolted around a cast
iron main and made pressure tight to the existing header by means of a lead caulk joint in
each end. These sleeves have been made since the late 1890's. Because the use of lead is
a rapidly vanishing art and due to the high cost of labor, the mechanical joint tapping
sleeve was developed for use on cast iron pipe. Generally speaking, on the smaller size
pipes, this saddle, though it is more expensive than the lead caulk saddle, is less costly to
install because of the labor savings on the job. As a general rule, a 12x12 saddle is the
largest that is encountered of this type of construction. There are manufacturers who
make this type of saddle in sizes for up through a 48" main. However, the cost of this
saddle is usually quite prohibitive.

This mechanical joint saddle is essentially the same type that is fabricated from steel. It
uses a rubber compression joint to seal the saddle to the periphery of the existing main.
This saddle can be used with any type of pipe. It can be used on a steel main, for instance,
merely by manufacturing it to a different inner diameter.

SADDLE SELECTION
In the event that the diameter of the tap is relatively small with respect to the diameter of
the pipe, a saddle that seals between the branch connection, or hot tap, and the main may
be used. It is accomplished by a "0" ring or a suitable molded rubber gasket around the
periphery of the nozzle.

If the pipe is of fairly robust construction, a tapping fitting which uses straps for drawing
the saddle in tightly against the main can be used instead of a formed full section. When
the pipe is somewhat corroded or has a thin wall section, the concentrated stresses that
would result from using the straps are usually undesirable. In this case, the previous type
of saddle is a good choice.

SADDLE DESIGN
The simplest fitting is a piece of pipe shaped to the contour of the pipe to be tapped,
beveled or scarfed and welded to the pipe. This is the unreinforced shaped nipple. We
will get into the question of branch connection reinforcing; however, at this time, we
would like to briefly cover some of the reinforcing that can be utilized with the basic
shaped nipple. Note in every case that the fitting has started with an unreinforced nipple.


The simplest method of reinforcement is to flame cut an inner and outer ellipse and then
roll the resultant elliptical ring to the contour of the pipe. This is then slipped over the
shaped nipple, which has previously been welded, to the pipe. This elliptical pad is then
welded down to the pipe. This assembly is known as pad reinforcement.


It is possible to purchase a forged or hot drawn saddle from suppliers such as Taylor
Forge, Tube Turns, Ladish, Steel Forging, etc. This can be welded over the shaped nipple
as a second type of reinforcement.


The third type of reinforcement starts with two rectangular plates. An elliptical hole is
burned in one and both pieces are rolled to fit the outside contour of the pipe. Installation
procedure is much like the pad type reinforcement above. It is optional whether or not the
girth welds are made. Of course, the horizontal weld must be made.


A forged full encirclement saddle is also available from commercial suppliers to go one
step beyond the above reinforcement.


In the event that the forged full encirclement saddle is not commercially available, it is
possible to field fabricate an extremely good encirclement reinforcement by combining
the full encirclement sleeve above with the forged saddle. The virtues of this marriage of
the second and third type of reinforcement will be discussed later.


Three other types of suitable tapping fittings should be discussed. These three would
generally be classed as reinforced tapping fittings.

The first is what is known as a forged pressure retention tee. It looks a great deal like the
forged full encirclement saddle. The only difference is that the pressure retention tee is
girth welded to the pipe and can be thought of as actually a pipe around a pipe.
Previously, the full encirclement saddle was only optionally girth welded to the header.
Thus, the seal weld between the shaped nipple and the pipe contained all of the pressure.
In the case of the pressure retention tee, all of the pressure is contained at the girth filled
weld. Of course, the longitudinal weld is mandatory.


The second fitting type is the familiar "Weldolet", which is merely a forged nozzle that
has extra strength in it to provide the required reinforcement.


As previously mentioned, a full encirclement sleeve could be additionally reinforced with
either a pad or a forged saddle and we can field fabricate our own pressure retention tee
merely by rolling two hoops to form the saddle, shaping a nozzle to fit the O.D. of the
saddle and then reinforcing this junction with a simple pad. Here, as in the case of the
forged pressure retention tee, the seal between the pipe and the fitting occurs only at the
end girth welds.


There is a very special pressure retention tee that is a combination of the compression
joint tapping saddle discussed earlier and the pressure retention tee just examined. Inside
each end of this particular tee is specially designed rubber compression joint. When the
tee is bolted up around the existing pipe, this rubber compression joint effectively seals
the tapping tee to the pipe. At some time in the future, this tee can be permanently welded
to the pipe. A longitudinal weld could also be made at the junction between the two
halves. Thus, a mechanical joint or compression type tapping tee becomes a pressure
retention tee.

This installation is used in an environment where welding is prohibited. This sort of thing
is useful in a refinery, for instance, where welds could not be tolerated. Then, some time
in the future, the welding could be completed, for instance, at a time two or three years
hence when this section of the refinery was put through a turndown for repair purposes.

Another possible use for this type of installation, and one that we have furnished several
times is on compressed air lines. If there is not good separation of oil at the outlet of the
air compressor, it is possible to entrain an explosive mixture in the compressed air line.
This is a rather bad problem in small shops and factories that may be equipped with
extremely old compressors. In such a case the heat from welding a fitting onto a line
while it is in service could detonate the contents. Here a mechanical joint type of tee
would be ideal allowing the pressure taps to be made today, then the final welding could
be accomplished at some time in the future. It should be noted that it is not really
necessary to ever weld this type of tee to the line unless desired for additional strength
and safety.

BRANCH CONNECTION DESIGN
We would like to review the question of branch connection reinforcement. This is an area
of discussion that has come into the gas and pipeline industries, initiated by Ralph Nader.
As you know, Congress has passed PL90481, "Natural Gas Pipeline Safety Act of 1968".
This has caused quite a furor with people like Drew Pearson and Ralph Nader saying that
the law is senseless. Also, the petroleum, pipeline and gas interests are saying that the law
is going to cause them financial hardship and as a result they are going to have to
increase their tariffs. One conclusion can be reached and that is the fact that this
controversy has caused a great deal of thinking (and this has been constructive thinking)
on the part of gas and pipeline engineers as to what is and is not a safe branch connection.

A second comment can be made and this is: Everyone now realizes that the classical
ASME pressure vessel and pressure piping codes need a great deal of revision in terms of
branch connection reinforcing.

Certain authorities consider that the area replacement method (upon which our codes are
based) is somewhat archaic and should be superseded by more sophisticated design
criteria.

One of the biggest objections to the area replacement method is that the technique does
not give a consistent margin of safety with respect to failure, distortion or fatigue from
one design to another. In other words, one designer might fulfill the requirements of the
code and actually create a design that is far less safe than one prepared by a fellow
engineer whose design also meets the area replacement criteria, but goes about it in a
different manner.

Let us stress one thought, however, before we get into some of the "nuts and bolts". Stay
with that code which is defensible to your superior and is defensible to the plant in the
event of a failure. In other words, no matter how good new German, British or Belgian
pressure vessel or pipeline codes might be from an engineering standpoint, do not design
according to it unless you can prove that by following that design you also conform to the
ASME of USAS codes. The old pressure piping code for water and steam has not been
revised since 1955.

Thus, it represents the best thinking that evolved before World War II and during the
early postwar period. Technology moved very slowly in those days.
The most recent code is USAS B31 .8, which is the gas transmission and distribution
piping code. These people have been under pressure because of Congressional action and
their code probably represents the best practice that we have today, still within the
framework of the old area replacement methods.

Why do we have branch connection reinforcement? The following drawings represent
actual measured and observed deflection due to the presence of a branch connection.
Why does the pipe bulge and deflect like this? Obviously a portion of it has been
removed due to the hole being cut into it. The metal that was removed was, theoretically,
in pure tension, known as the old Barlow hoop stress. Now, with that hole cut in it, the
tensile load must be transferred to portions of the piping adjacent to the opening. This
means that sections of the metal in this area are carrying a higher stress than the hoop
stresses farther away on the pipe. Good designers size the wall thickness of the pipe to
provide a given factor of safety based upon the hoop stress calculations. Now, a hole is
cut in the pipe, which means that certain sections of metal will be stressed beyond the
design stress. Let us reiterate that this deflection pattern is exactly what has been
observed.

Many theoreticians have tried to explain this behavior in two-dimensional analysis. To
date, there has been practically nothing done in three-dimensional analysis of the forces
arising from branch connection openings. Since we now have computers as a design tool,
it is very possible that some good sound, solid three dimensional stress analyses may
come soon. Actually, after some thought, one can take a straight piece of pipe with no
external loading, but with internal pressure, and examine the forces that exist at, let's say,
section A and section B. One will find that they are collinear and that the centerline of
this two-dimensional section, of course, lies along the centerline of the pipe. Hence, the
resultant of the pressure at each section falls at the center of gravity.

A section of the metal at B is cut away. This has a net effect of lowering the center of
gravity to a new point. However, we still have the same cross sectional area, looking
down the pipe, and the same pressure, therefore the same resultant force. The only
problem is that it is now concentrated at a different center of gravity. In effect, what do
we have then? A moment arm is now set up because of the change in the center of
gravity. This moment arm causes a longitudinal deflection that is shown in the previous
picture.

Working with two-dimensional analysis, we are indebted to a gentleman by the name of
Hohn for this work, which was performed in Germany and reported in 1939.

Obviously, that center of gravity at Section B must get back to midstream. This can be
accomplished by putting a mass of metal in section B, more or less floating in the
centerline of the nozzle. This amount of metal (remember now, this is two dimensional so
we are discussing area rather than a three dimensional mass) would shift the center of
gravity back to the horizontal centerline of the pipe.

The problem, though, is that we cannot replace the metal, or area, in the center of the
outlet. It must be placed adjacent to the centerline of the outlet around the periphery of
the nozzle. Thus, we think it can be seen that Mr. Hohn's theory will never get the center
of gravity exactly back on the horizontal centerline of the pipe. If a section in between A
and B is examined, a new center of gravity, somewhat offset, Will be found. Thus, we are
again forced to accept the moment arm.

Even worse, using Mr. Hohn's theory, too much reinforcing can be put around the outlet
nozzle, and, if this happens, a moment arm in the opposite direction will result and
longitudinal distortion will be different from that which was originally seen.

This brings us to one extremely important point. No matter what is done with nozzle
reinforcement, there is going to be stress intensification, or a stress riser, of a minimum of
140% to 160% at the crotch. This means that there will be some point or points that will
be subjected to a stress approximately 50% greater than the Barlow hoop stresses.

Whenever we have an outlet size we must use, there is nothing that can be done about it
except to try to prevent those increased stresses from increasing to 200, 300, 400 or 500%
of the design stresses.

If one is a theoretician and does not subscribe to Hohn's theory here, or if one does not
understand Hohn's theory, we think of it this way: Given an internal pressure in a pipe,
the pipe will tend to expand according to its modulus of elasticity with an increase in
internal pressure. Because the section through the reinforcing pad is greater, the girth
expansion will not be as great, or in other words, the pad will be flatter and it will not
"give" as much. Thus, there is a bending moment. This bending moment, placed on top of
the Barlow hoop stresses, gives a net stress that, by definition, has to be higher than the
hoop stress itself.

At the risk of overemphasizing, there is no way to prevent stress intensification less than
140% adjacent to a branch connection.

Let's look at the pipe itself. When a pipeline is designed, three factors must be taken into
account. First, there must be a certain amount of material in the pipe wall thickness to
withstand the internal environment. This thickness is determined by applying the
applicable code rules concerning the nature of the material flowing in the pipe, its
temperature, the location of the pipe, the material from which the pipe wall is made, the
method in which it is joined together, etc. Secondly, an allowance must be provided for
corrosion and erosion, again according to prescribed code rules. Third, an additional
allowance must be provided for mechanical strength. For instance, an allowance might
have to be provided if the pipe is to be threaded, if it is grooved for Victolic coupling or
other special end preparations. The sum of these three calculations and/or allowances,
gives a total thickness. This is the minimum thickness with which this particular pipe can
be constructed.

Keep in mind that the resultant number will not always come out even; that is, a stock
wall thickness.

When buying pipe, it must be purchased according to the capabilities of suppliers or
manufacturers. In addition to the fact that a manufacturer has certain so-called stock or
standard wall thickness, pipes cannot be held exactly to that given wall thickness. A
certain mill tolerance must be allowed. This tolerance will vary according to the type of
pipe, the manufacturing process, etc. For example, if the manufacturer has a 10,000 mill
tolerance on pipe of 3/8" wall thickness, count on only having a 0.365 inch wall, so in
performing our various design calculations, 0.365 must be used.

Thus, on one hand, a given thickness is required in the pipe for strength, corrosion,
erosion and for mechanical consideration. On the other hand, a pipe supplier or
manufacturer replies, "I don't make that thickness. You will have to use the next larger
size." Find out how much variation is allowed and deduct that amount, giving the net
thickness that we can work with. Any difference in thickness represents excess.

This is a very important point.

This excess wall thickness can be used for branch connection reinforcement. Likewise,
the same analysis can be applied to a fitting or branch. It is possible to make the branch
thicker than actually needed in order to obtain additional strength for reinforcing
purposes. This brings us to the heart of the area replacement concept used in pressure
vessel and pipeline design in this country. Remember, whenever we use the term "branch
connection" we are speaking in terms of tapping fittings. When we have a pipe that is H
thick, we only require T thickness. When we have a nozzle of B thickness, however, we
only require Tb. In each case, we have more material in the pipe and the branch than we
require satisfying the code. How does this affect us?

The code states, "Any material removed from the header pipe must be replaced adjacent
to the nozzle". What is meant by material removed? Obviously, that is the diameter.
Remember, this is area rather than volume replacement. Multiply the diameter of the
opening in the pipe, (in this case the pressure tap) times the thickness of material required
to satisfy the code. Remember now, that this thickness consists of three elements: That
which is required to satisfy pressure, that for corrosion and erosion, and third, that for
mechanical contingencies.

This area of metal removed must be replaced. You can see that with a very thick header,
no reinforcing needs to be added. All the excess thickness is already cleaned off.

One important point is that the metal must be replaced reasonably close to the nozzle.
Remembering the early two-dimensional analysis, it follows that if the metal is placed too
far away from the opening, it will have virtually no effect on shifting the center of
gravity. Thus, all codes define a so-called reinforcement zone in which the metal must be
placed in order to count. Any metal outside the zone does not count. The zone in this
particular code lies longitudinally at a distance equal to the diameter of the tap and in
each direction from the centerline of the tap.

Parallel to the direction of the nozzle or perpendicular to the pipe, the zone extends
approximately 2 1/2 times the thickness of the pipe. This figure should always be
calculated for each individual case.

It is wise to bear in mind that a great majority of the pressure taps made is on low-
pressure water, steam, wastewater and gas. A second point is that existing piping is,
generally speaking, very heavy for the job that has to be done. At any rate, given a thick
pipe at low pressure, quite frequently reinforcing is not required.