Physics-12-Ch 11 & 12 & 13-Solns

Copyright 2003 Nelson Chapter 11 Einsteins Special Theory of Relativity 639
Unit 5 Matter-Energy Interface

ARE YOU READY?

(Pages 558559)
Knowledge and Understanding
1.

2.
Frequency (Hz) Wavelength (m) Product f (m/s) Spectrum Location
5.0 10
10

6.0 10
3

3.0 10
8
radio, TV
3.8 10
14

8.0 10
7

3.0 10
8

infrared
1.2 10
15

2.5 10
7

3.0 10
8

ultraviolet
1.0 10
18

3.0 10
10

3.0 10
8

X ray

(a) The product is the same for each example of electromagnetic radiation, 3.0 10
8
m/s.
(b) The results conclude that all electromagnetic waves travel at exactly the same speed.
(c) See table for spectrum location.
3. (a) The source of all electromagnetic waves is an oscillating electric or magnetic field.
(b) Electromagnetic waves obey all of the laws of optics and travel through a vacuum.
(c) 3.0 10
8
m/s
4. 1 positive; 2 negative; 3 no charge
5. An electron accelerated through an electrical potential of 258 V would gain 258 eV or (257 eV)(1.6 10
19
J/eV).
m
e
= 9.11 10
31
kg
v = ?

2
K
K
19
31
6
1
2
2
2(258 eV)(1.6 10 J/eV)
=
9.11 10 kg
= 9.5 10 m/s
E mv
E
v
m
v
=
=

The speed of the electron just before it hits the second plate is 9.5 10
6
m/s.
6. Law of conservation of energy: For an isolated system, energy can be converted into different forms, but it cannot be
created or destroyed.
7. (a) The two quantities conserved in elastic collisions are the total kinetic energy of the system and momentum.
(b) For an elastic collision, we know that

1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
p p
m v m v m v m v
=
+ = +

Since m
1
= m
2
and v
2
= 0, we can simplify to

1 1 2
v v v = +

640 Unit 5 MatterEnergy Interface Copyright 2003 Nelson
We can apply the conservation of momentum to the x-components:
( )
1 1 2
1
1
10.0 cm/s = (cos 30 ) 5.0 cm/s cos 60
9.05 cm/s
x x x
x
x
v v v
v
v
= +
+
=

The speed of ball 1 after the collision is 9.05 cm/s.
A scale vector diagram would yield the same result.
8. (a) The speed of light is a specific magnitude of speed (c = 3.00 10
8
m/s). A light-year is the distance light would travel
in one year.
(b) v = (0.5)3.00 10
8
m/s = 1.5 10
8
m/s
d = 4.3 ly =
( )
8 16
365 d 24 h 3600 s
4.3 y 3.00 10 m/s 4.068 10 m
y d h

=

t = ?

16
8
8
4.068 10 m
1.50 10 m/s
2.712 10 s
d
v
t
d
t
v
t
=
=
=

To convert to days:

8 3 3
1 h 1 d
2.712 10 s 3.139 10 d, or 3.14 10 d
3600 s 24 h

=

It would take you 3.14 10
3
days to travel to Alpha Centauri.
(c) t = 8.3 min = 8.3 min
60 s
min

= 498 s

8
11 8
= (3.00 10 m/s)(498 s)
1.49 10 m, or 1.49 10 km
d v t
d
=
=

The Sun is 1.49 10
8
km from Earth.
9. (a)
226 4 222
88 2 86
Ra He + Rn
(b)
214 0 214
82 1 83
Pb e + Bi

Math Skills
10. (a) y = mx + b
(b) f-intercept = 6.1 10
14
Hz
E-intercept = 2.5 eV
(c)
rise
slope =
run

14
15
5.5 eV
=
13.5 10 Hz
slope = 4.1 10 eV/Hz

The slope of the line on the graph is 4.1 10
15
eV/Hz
(d) y = 4.1 10
-15
x 2.5

11. (a) x = 0.5y
t
1
= 1.0 h

1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
3.6 10 m/s
(0.5 )
1
4.8 10 s
t
t
x
y
y
y
t
=
=

The value of t
2
is 4.8 10
2
s.
(b)
4200 1
25 220
2
t

=

4
1
log 25 log 220 log
4200 2
log 25
log 220
4200
1
log
2
13 177 a, or 1.3 10 a
t
t
t

= +

=

=

The value for t is 1.3 10
4
a.
Technical Skills and Safety
12. Some precautions when working with a source of ultraviolet light:
Do not stare directly at the light or light source.
Wear protective eye wear, such as dark goggles or glasses with side shields that are specifically coated to block out
UV light.
13. Some precautions when using a high-voltage power supply:
Before connecting or disconnecting a high-voltage power supply, always make sure the power supply is in the
OFF mode.
When plugging or unplugging cords, always grasp the base of the cord closest to the outlet, never yank on the cord.
Keep all cords and plugs off the floor to avoid stepping on them.

CHAPTER 11 EINSTEINS SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
Reflect on Your Learning
(Page 560)

1. All motion is relative. To say that the ball is moving at 16 m/s, you would have to also state what it is relative to.
For example, you could state that the ball is moving at 16 m/s relative to the boat, the water, or Earth.
2. We must have some reference point (position, size, personal experience, etc.) in order to relate most things and opinions
we encounter in life. Thus, everything is relative to some frame of reference, whether physical or nonphysical.
3. Student answers will vary. What the student should understand from this question is that the perception of a time interval
is always relative to the observer; each observer can have a different view of the rate of the flow of time.
4. It is expected, under Newtonian physics, that the velocity vectors would add together and the speed of the laser light beam
relative to Earth would be 0.9c + c = 1.9c. For the speed of the laser light beam relative to the ship, it is expected that it
would be c 0.9c = 0.1c. This is actually not the case.
5. On cursory analysis, the answer would be no. But, if it is known that the mass of the sun is slowly diminishing, the answer
is yes, since mass is not conserved.

6. E = energy
m = mass
c = speed of light (3.00 10
8
m/s)
The equation implies that as mass decreases or increases, energy inversely increases or decreases. Since energy cannot be
created or destroyed, we conclude that mass is another form of energy.

Try This Activity: A Thought Experiment
(Page 561)
(a) Intuitive reasoning based on Newtons laws of motion tells us that we should catch up with the light waves.
(b) The light waves should appear stationary, that is, light will stand still relative to the observer.
(c) Classically, the beam should be some form of a wave front of energy.
(d) According to Maxwells theory, and all reliable observations, there is no such thing as stationary light; no one has ever
held a stationary clump of light in the palm of his or her hand. Light always travels are 3.00 10
8
m/s in a vacuum
no slower, no faster. (And as we will see in this chapter, in all frames of reference.)
(e) If the light is stationary relative to the observer, it would not flow to the observer nor be reflected from a mirror.

11.1 FRAMES OF REFERENCE AND RELATIVITY
Section 11.1 Questions
(Page 568)
Understanding Concepts
1. There are no physics experiments or measurements that will determine whether you are moving. This is because no
physics experiment can determine whether one inertial frame is moving with respect to another inertial frame.
2. An inertial frame of reference is one at rest, or one moving with a constant velocity, while a noninertial frame of reference
is one that is accelerating. The Newtonian laws of physics are valid in all inertial frames of references, but break down in
noninertial frames. Earth is strictly a noninertial frame of reference, but its acceleration (rotating on its axis while moving
along its Sun orbit) is so small that it may be considered very nearly inertial. A rapidly accelerating car, an accelerating
elevator, or a merry-go-round are all noninertial frames of reference where the normal laws of physics are found not to
hold. We often account for unexpected motions that occur in noninertial frames by introducing fictitious inertial forces
into the picture. The centrifugal force in a rotating frame of reference is an example of such a fictitious force. Such forces
are not necessary if we pick an inertial frame.
3. The ball will fall in front of you. The ball will retain the horizontal component of velocity, v
1
, which the train had when
the ball was thrown, and will travel a horizontal distance d
1
= v
1
t while in the air. You and the train are slowing down
while the ball is in the air. The ball will travel a horizontal distance d
2
= v
avg
t, where v
avg
< v
1
. Therefore, the ball will
land in front of you, since d
1
> d
2
.
4. The Michelson-Morley experiment was designed to detect the so-called ether or absolute frame of reference against
which the speed of light could be measured. Its great significance lies in the fact that it failed to detect such an effect,
allowing for the conclusion, by Einstein, that the speed of light was absolute, regardless of the frame of reference from
which it is measured.
5. (i) The laws of physics are valid in all inertial frames of reference.
(ii) Light travels through empty space with a speed of 3.00 10
8
m/s, relative to all frames of reference.
6. Yes, in certain circumstances. Consider a stationary
observer, O
s
, standing midway between two
lampposts in a straight line, as shown. If the lamps
come on at the same time, he will observe them as
simultaneous events since he is equidistant from
them. If observer O
m
is moving towards O
s
as shown,
he may be at O
m1
when the lights come on, and at O
m2

when he observes them. But since O
m2
L
1
= O
m2
L
2
,

he will see them as simultaneous events. This will
only be true if O
m
is moving toward, or away from O
s
.
If he were moving in any other direction, he would
not see the two events as simultaneous.

11.2 RELATIVITY OF TIME, LENGTH, AND MOMENTUM
PRACTICE
(Page 573)
1. Airline pilots watches are running slow relative to Earth. However, the change is so small that the watches do not record
any change at all when the pilots return to Earth.
2. v = 2.0 10
8
m/s
t
m
= 1.6 10
8
s
t
s
= ?

s
m
2
2
2
s m 2
8
9
8
8
s
1
1
2.0 10 m/s
(1.6 10 s) 1
3.0 10 m/s
1.2 10 s
t
t
v
c
v
t t
c
t
=

=

=

The particles average lifetime when at rest is 1.2 10
8
s.
3. v = 0.60c
t
m
= 32.0 h
v = 0.94c
t
m
= ?

First we must determine the time interval relative to Earth:

( )
s
m
2
2
s
2
2
s
1
32.0 h
0.60
1
25.6 h
t
t
v
c
t
c
c
t
=

To calculate the time interval relative to the Vulcans for their new speed:

( )
s
m
2
2
2
2
m
1
25.6 h
0.94
1
75.0 h
t
t
v
c
c
c
t
=

The new time interval would be 75.0 h.

4. v = 2.6 10
8
m/s

( )
s
m
2
2
m
2
s
2
2
8
2
m
s
1
1
1
1
2.6 10 m/s
1
2
t
t
v
c
t
t
v
c
c
t
t

Its lifetime has increased by a factor of 2.

PRACTICE
(Page 576)
5. v = 0.90c
L
m
= 50.0 m
L
s
= ?

( )
s
m
2
2
m
s
2
2
2
2
s
1
1
50.0 m
0.90
1
114.7 m, or 115 m
L
L
v
c
L
L
v
c
c
c
L
=
=

The spaceships length at rest is 115 m.
6. v
1
= 0.60c
L
m
= 8.0 ly
v
2
= 0.80c
L
m
= ?

2
1
m s 2
m
s
2
1
2
1
1
v
L L
c
L
L
v
c
=
=

Since L
s
is the same in both cases:

m m
2 2
1 2
2 2
m
m
1 1
8.0 ly
0.80 0.60
6.0 ly
L L
v v
c c
L
L
=

The friend measures the length of the trajectory to be 6.0 ly.
7. v = 0.65c
L
m
=3.00 10
2
m
L
s
= ?

( )
2
m s 2
s
m
2
2
2
2
2
2
s
1
1
3.00 10 m
0.65
1
3.95 10 m
v
L L
c
L
L
v
c
c
c
L
=
=
=

8. L
0
= 40.0 ly
(a) v = 1.00 10
8
m/s
L = ?

( )
2
0 2
2
8
2
1
1.00 10 m/s
40.0 ly 1
37.7 ly
v
L L
c
c
L
=
=
=

You would determine the distance to be 37.7 ly.
(b) t = ?
For you as the observer, v = 1.00 10
8
m/s, which is
3
c
.

37.7 ly
3
113 a
d
t
v
c
t
=
=

=

You would determine the journey to take 113 a.

9. v
1
= 0.40c
v
2
= ?

2
m s 2
1
v
L L
c
=

Since L
m
= L
m
, and L
s
= 2L
s
:

2 2
2 1
s s 2 2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2 2
2 2
2 1 1
0.40
2 1 1
4
4 0.84
0.84
4
0.84
4
0.84
1
4
0.89
v v
L L
c c
v c
c c
v
c
v
c
c v c
v c
v c
=
=
=
=

=

=

=

The speed of the faster spaceship is 0.89c relative to Earth.

PRACTICE
(Page 578)
10. v = 0.999c
m
e
= 9.11 10
31
kg
p = ?

( )( )
( )
2
2
31
2
2
21
1
9.11 10 kg 0.999
0.999
1
6.11 10 kg m/s
mv
p
v
c
c
c
c
p
=

The relativistic momentum of the electron is 6.11 10
21
kgm/s.
11. m = 2.00 kg
v = 0.40c
p = ?

( )
( )
2
2
2
2
8
1
2.00 kg 0.40
0.40
1
2.62 10 kg m/s
mv
p
v
c
c
c
c
p
=
=

The relativistic momentum in the Earth frame is 2.62 10
8
kgm/s.

12. v = 0.60c
m
p
= 1.67 10
27
kg
p = ?

( )( )
( )
2
2
27
2
2
19
1
1.67 10 kg 0.60
0.60
1
3.76 10 kg m/s
mv
p
v
c
c
c
c
p
=

The relativistic momentum in that system is 3.76 10
19
kgm/s.

(Page 579)
1. The clocks run at the same time if they are in the same inertial frame. Moving clocks affect the time of an event, as
measured by an observer in another inertial frame, where the object (with the clock) is moving relative to the observer.
2. To an observer moving with the process, the observer is stationary relative to the clock measuring the time. Proper time
for an observer moving relative to the process, the time interval (t
m
) will be longer.
3. Given that
s
m
2
2
1
t
t
v
c
and
2
m s 2
1
v
L L
c
= , if c approaches infinity, the expression
2
2
1
v
c
approaches 1. In this
case, there would be no relativistic effects for both time and length.
4. If the speed of light were 100 km/h, relativistic effects would become noticeable at much smaller speeds, and we would
be confined to a much smaller space in which we would move more slowly and time would pass more slowly. Travelling
at 60 km/h (0.6c) would introduce time and length changes that play havoc with daily life. For example, people in a car
would age slower than those at rest, and the car could not exceed 100 km/h. That is, 110 km/h would be impossible.
5. As discussed in Section 11.2, exceeding the speed of light is impossible. Matter can exceed the speed of sound, but this is
not true for light.
6. t
s
= 2.2 10
6
s
(a) v = 0.99c
t
m
= ?

( )
s
m
2
2
6
2
2
5
m
1
2.2 10 s
0.99
1
1.6 10 s
t
t
v
c
c
c
t
=

The average lifetime in the laboratory inertial frame of muons is 1.6 10
5
s.
(b) d = ?
( )( )
6
2
0.99 2.2 10 s
6.5 10 m
d v t
c
d
=
=
=

The muons could travel an average distance of 6.5 10
2
m in the laboratory inertial frame.
(c) L
m
= ?


2
m s
2
2
2
2
m
1
0.99
6.5 10 m 1
92 m
v
L L
c
c
c
L
=
=
=

The muons travel at an average distance of 92 m in the laboratory frame.
7. t
m
= 40 a
v = 2.5 10
8
m/s

( )
s
m
2
2
2
s m
2
2
8
2
s
1
1
2.5 10 m/s
40 a 1
22 a
t
t
v
c
v
t t
c
c
t
=
=

Therefore, her age upon return is 20 a + 22 a = 42 a.
8. v = 0.90c
L
m
= 50.0 m
L
s
= ?

Since a stationary observer measures the relativistic length of the spaceship:

( )
2
m s
2
m
s
2
2
2
2
s
1
1
50.0 m
0.90
1
115 m
v
L L
c
L
L
v
c
c
c
L
=
=
=

The tape measure shows a length of 115 m.
9. v = 0.80c
L
m
= 40.0 m
L
0
= 2.0 10
6
m
(a) L
s
= ?

Since a stationary observer measures the relativistic length of the spaceship:

( )
2
m s
2
m
s
2
2
2
2
s
1
1
40.0 m
0.80
1
66.7 m
v
L L
c
L
L
v
c
c
c
L
=
=
=

The tape measure gives a value of 66.7 m.

(b) L = ?

Since the observer in the spaceship observes the relativistic diameter of the planet:

( )
2
0
2
2
6
2
6
1
0.80
2.0 10 m 1
1.2 10 m
v
L L
c
c
c
L
=
=
=

The resulting value of the diameter of the planet is 1.2 10
6
m.
(c) t = 8.0 s
t
0
= ?

( )
0
2
2
2
0
2
2
2
0
1
1
0.80
8.0 s 1
4.8 s
t
t
v
c
v
t t
c
c
c
t
=
=
=
=

The astronaut considers the journey to take 4.8 s.
10. b
s
= 1.00 m
v = 0.90c
D = 2.70 10
3
kg/m
3

(a) Only dimensions in the direction of motion are affected, therefore dimension b is affected.
(b) V
m
= ?

First we must calculate the relativistic length of dimension b, since it is the only one affected by the motion:

( )
2
m s
2
2
2
m
b b 1
0.90
1.00 m 1
b 0.436 m
v
c
c
c
=
=
=

To calculate volume:
( )( )( )
0 0
3
a bc
1.00 m 0.436 m 1.00 m
0.436 m
V
V
=
=
=

The relativistic volume of the cube is 0.436 m
3
.
(c) p = ?

First we must calculate the rest mass of the cube:

( )( )
3 3 3
3
2.70 10 kg/m 1.00 m
2.70 10 kg
m DV
m
=
=
=

To calculate the relativistic momentum of the cube:

( )( )
( )
2
2
3
2
2
12
1
2.70 10 kg 0.90
0.90
1
1.67 10 kg m/s
mv
p
v
c
c
c
c
p
=
=

The relativistic momentum of the cube is 1.67 10
12
kgm/s.
11. m = 6.68 10
17
kg
v = 0.400c
p = ?

( )( )
( )
2
2
17
2
2
9
1
6.65 10 kg 0.400
0.400
1
8.71 10 kg m/s
mv
p
v
c
c
c
c
p
=

Applying Inquiry Skills
12. Table 1
v
c

2
2
1
v
c

t
s
t
m
L
s
L
m

0.050 0.9987 100 s 100.13 s 100 m 99.87 m
0.100 0.9950 100 s 100.50 s 100 m 99.50 m
0.150 0.9887 100 s 101.14 s 100 m 98.87 m
0.200 0.9798 100 s 102.06 s 100 m 97.98 m
0.250 0.9682 100 s 103.28 s 100 m 96.82 m
0.300 0.9539 100 s 104.83 s 100 m 95.39 m
0.350 0.9367 100 s 106.75 s 100 m 93.67 m
0.400 0.9165 100 s 109.11 s 100 m 91.65 m
0.450 0.8930 100 s 111.98 s 100 m 89.30 m
0.500 0.8660 100 s 115.47 s 100 m 86.60 m
0.550 0.8352 100 s 119.74 s 100 m 83.52 m
0.600 0.8000 100 s 125.00 s 100 m 80.00 m
0.650 0.7599 100 s 131.59 s 100 m 75.99 m
0.700 0.7141 100 s 140.03 s 100 m 71.41 m
0.750 0.6614 100 s 151.19 s 100 m 66.14 m
0.800 0.6000 100 s 166.67 s 100 m 60.00 m
0.850 0.5268 100 s 189.83 s 100 m 52.68 m
0.900 0.4359 100 s 229.42 s 100 m 43.59 m
0.950 0.3122 100 s 320.26 s 100 m 31.22 m

(a) 0.89c
(b) 0.40c
(c) 0.10c to 0.15c; Objects that travel at this speed are typically particles.

(d) Graph of t
m
versus v:

Graph of L
m
versus v:

11.3 MASS AND ENERGY: E = mc
2

PRACTICE
(Page 583)
1. m
p
= 1.67 10
27
kg
E = ?

( )( )
2
2
27 8
10
1.67 10 kg 3.00 10 m/s
1.50 10 J
E mc
E
=
=
=

To convert to electron volts:

10
19
1.50 10 J
1.60 10 J/eV
939 MeV
E
E
=

The rest energy of the proton is 1.50 10
10
J, or 939 MeV.

2. E = 2.00 10
2
MJ
m = ?
( )
2
2
8
2
8
9
2.00 10 J
3.00 10 m/s
2.22 10 kg
E mc
E
m
c
m

=
=
=

The rest mass of the small object is 2.22 10
9
kg.
3. v = 0.950c
(a) E
total
= ?

( )( )
( )
2
total
2
2
2
27 8
2
2
10
total
1
1.67 10 kg 3.00 10 m/s
0.950
1
4.813 10 J
mc
E
v
c
c
c
E
=

To convert to MeV:

10
total
19
9 3
total
4.813 10 J
1.60 10 J/eV
3.00 10 eV, or 3.00 10 MeV
E
E
=

The total energy is 3.00 10
3
MeV.
(b) E
K
= ?

Since E
K
= E
total
E
rest
, we must first calculate E
rest
:

( )( )
2
rest
2
27 8
10
rest
1.67 10 kg 3.00 10 m/s
1.503 10 J
E mc
E
=
=
=

After converting to MeV, the rest energy is 939 MeV.

To calculate kinetic energy:

K total rest
3
3
K
3.00 10 MeV 939 MeV
2.07 10 MeV
E E E
E
=
=
=

The kinetic energy is 2.07 10
3
MeV.

4. v
i
= 0c
v
f
= 0.990c
E = ?
( )( )
( )
total rest
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
31 8
2
2
13
1
1
1
1
1
9.11 10 kg 3.00 10 m/s 1
0.990
1
4.99 10 J
E E E
mc
mc
v
c
mc
v
c
c
c
E
=
=

=

The work required is 4.99 10
13
J.
5. E = 9.80 10
18
J
m = ?

( )
2
2
18
2
8
2
9.8 10 J
3.00 10 m/s
1.09 10 kg
E mc
E
m
c
m
=
=

The amount of mass that would have to be converted to energy is 1.09 10
2
kg.
6. E
p
= 938.3 MeV
E
n
= 939.6 MeV
m = ?

( )
( )
( )
( )( )
( )
2
2
2
8
2
8
6 19
2
8
30
939.6 MeV 938.3 MeV
3.00 10 m/s
1.3 MeV
3.00 10 m/s
1.3 10 eV 1.60 10 J/eV
3.00 10 m/s
2.31 10 kg
E mc
E
m
c
m
=

The difference in their rest mass energy is 2.31 10
30
kg

(Page 584)
1. The equation E = mc
2
is consistent with the law of conservation of energy in that it predicts that whenever an amount of
mass m disappears, an amount of energy mc
2
appears in some form or another. Mass is simply another form of energy to
be considered when applying the law of conservation of energy.
2. m = 1.0 kg
E = ?
( )( )
2
2
8
16
1.0 kg 3.00 10 m/s
9.0 10 J
E mc
E
=
=
=

The amount of energy that can be produced is 9.0 10
16
J.
3. m
E
= 5.98 10
24
kg
v = 2.96 10
4
m/s
m = ?

First we must calculate the energy of Earth revolving around the Sun:

( )( )
2
2
24 4
33
1
2
1
5.98 10 kg 2.96 10
2
2.62 10 J
E mc
E
=
=
=

To calculate the amount of mass required:

( )
2
33
2
8
16
2.62 10 J
3.00 10 m/s
2.91 10 kg
E
m
c
m
=

The amount of mass required to accelerate Earth from rest to its orbital speed is 2.91 10
16
kg.
4. E = 5.0 GW = 5.0 10
9
W
m = ?

First we must convert the amount of energy produced per second in one year:

( )
9
17
365 d 24 h 60 min 60 s
5.0 10 J/s
a d h min
1.577 10 J
E
E

=

=

To calculate the amount of fuel converted:

( )
2
17
2
8
1.577 10 J
3.00 10 m/s
1.75 kg, or 1.8 kg
E
m
c
m
=

The amount of fuel converted to energy in one year is 1.8 kg.
5. v = 0.90c
m = 1.673 10
27
kg
E
K
= ?


( )( )
( )
K total rest
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
27 8
2
2
30
K
1
1
1
1
1
1.673 10 kg 3.00 10 m/s 1
0.90
1
1.95 10 kg
E E E
mc
mc
v
c
mc
v
c
c
c
E
=
=

=

The energy required to accelerate the particle is 1.95 10
10
J.
6. E = 1.60 MeV =
( )( )
6 19
1.60 10 eV 1.60 10 J/eV
= 2.56 10
13
J
E
T
= 3.20 MeV
(a) m = ?

( )
2
2
13
2
8
30
2.56 10 J
3.00 10 m/s
2.84 10 kg
E mc
E
m
c
m
=
=
=

The rest mass of the particle is 2.84 10
30
kg.
(b) E
K
= ?

K total rest
K
3.20 MeV 1.60 MeV
1.60 MeV
E E E
E
=
=
=

The kinetic energy of the particle is 1.60 MeV.
Making Connections
7. E = 9.0 10
16
J (from question 2)
t = 1 h = 3600 s
cost = ?

Recall that a 1-W power source delivers 1 J per second.

16
9.0 10 W
P E
P

=
=

Therefore,

( )( )
16
16
9.0 10 W 1 s
9.0 10 W s
E
P
t
E P t
E
=
=
=

To convert to kWh:

16 10
3
1 h 1 kW
9.0 10 W s 2.5 10 kW h
3600 s 1.0 10 W

=

To calculate the cost:

10
10
$0.15
cost 2.5 10 kW h
kW h
cost $0.38 10

=

=

The cost of the rest energy would be $3.8 10
9
.
8. Let the subscript g represent gas and the subscript a represent the Aspirin tablet.
m = 325 mg = 0.000325 kg, or 3.25 10
4
kg
E
g
= 1.05 10
8
J
d
g
= 30.0 km
d
a
= ?

First calculate the energy provided by the Aspirin tablet:

( )( )
2
a a
2
4 8
13
a
3.25 10 kg 3.00 10 m/s
2.925 10 J
E m c
E
=
=
=

To determine how far the car could travel:

( )
( )
a
a g
g
13
8
6
a
2.925 10 J
30.0 km
1.05 10 J
8.36 10 km
E
d d
E
d
=

The distance the car could travel on a single Aspirin tablet is 8.36 10
6
km.
9. E
rest
for deuteron = 1876 MeV
Total rest mass of proton and neutron = 911 MeV + 941 MeV
E = 1876 MeV 1842 MeV
E = 24 MeV
The amount of energy liberated is 24 MeV.

11.4 THE LIFE AND TIMES OF ALBERT EINSTEIN
PRACTICE
(Page 586)
Making Connections
(a) A description of Einsteins early education, his lack of success in school, why he was not accepted at universities, why he
ended up as a clerk in the patent office, etc.
(b) This topic emphasizes his humanitarian interests and outlines his pacifism, with some emphasis on his intervention during
the war years.
(c) Although he was not involved in the project, he was instrumental in encouraging the projects beginning and asking that
its results (the atomic bomb) be demonstrated, not used on Japan. The role of others, such as Leo Szilard, who cajoled and
convinced Einstein to write letters to President Roosevelt, would be part of the report.
(d) In the post war period, with nuclear proliferation collimating in the testing of the hydrogen in 1951, many concerned
scientists opposed these developments, often being accused as being communist sympathizers. This campaign and
Einsteins role should be the emphasis in this report.
(e) An overview of what Einstein was attempting would begin this report, followed by why he was unsuccessful.
An overview of developments since his death could complete the report.

CHAPTER 11 SUMMARY
Make a Summary
(Page 587)

(a) Although time will move at the same rate, as seen by the occupants of the spacecraft, the time on the space craft, relative
to the people left behind, will be slower. As a result, the occupants of the spacecraft will age at a slower rate than their
friends and relatives in Earth.
(b) Barnards star is far enough away that the round trip would be over 12 ly. Assuming the spacecraft does not stop on the
way, and it is travelling at close to the speed of light, the twin paradox will prevail. All your friends and relatives will be
much older that you.
(c) Although your spacecraft may end up travelling at close to the speed of light, it must accelerate to that speed, requiring
more and more energy the faster it travels. To achieve the speed of light, an infinite amount of energy would be required,
which is impossible. Nevertheless, the maximum speed will be limited by the large amount of energy required, and the
inability to carry enough fuel to reach these speeds.
(d) Since it is impossible to carry enough fuel or provide enough propulsion even from ion engines, somehow mass must be
converted to energy, using the mass-energy conversion relationship. The fuel would have to be swept up from the free
hydrogen in space and converted into energy in some type of thermal nuclear system. (Many physicists are skeptical that
these types of space travel will possible at all, given the present state of knowledge.)

CHAPTER 11 SELF QUIZ
(Pages 588589)
True/False
1. F The speed of light in water is less than the speed of light in a vacuum. This fact does not violate the speed-of-light
postulate of the special theory of relativity because it states ... light travels through empty space with a speed of c
2. T
3. T
4. (a) T
(b) F Since both observers are moving relative to each other, and simultaneously moving relative to a clock, they are
measuring two-position time, and will probably never agree on the rate at which the clock ticks.
(c) T
5. F If you are in an inertial frame at a point a few thousand kilometres above the North Pole, the clock at the pole is
stationary relative your inertial frame, while the equator is moving relative to your frame, As a result, there will be time
dilation at the equator and the clock will run slower at the equator than at the North Pole, relative to your frame of
reference.
6. F She could be addressing her son (see twin paradox, Section 11.2).
7. (a) T
(b) T
8. T
9. T
10. F The rest mass energy is contained in the molecules of the spring. When the spring is compressed the mass does not
change, only the potential energy in the spring changes (increases).
11. F The classical laws of conservation of energy and conservation of mass need to be modified mass-energy conversion, but
this is usually only a factor at speeds greater than 0.1c
Multiple Choice
12. (d) In Newtonian mechanics, no physics experiment can identify which inertial frame is truly at rest and which is moving.
Since the train is windowless, there is no external frame of reference and thus there cannot be any relative velocity.
13. (c) Second postulate: Light travels through empty space with a speed of c = 3.00 10
8
m/s in all inertial frames of
reference no more no less. Thus, (c) is the only correct option.
14. (d) Simultaneity is relative to the inertial frame of reference. Simultaneity is a relative concept (see Section 11.1).
15. (a) The MichelsonMorley experiment established that there is no observable ether wind. All of the other options are
incorrect.
16. (b) Speed of light is constant in all inertial frames of reference (see question 13). Thus, (b) is the only correct answer.

17. (e) None of the options will inform you that you are moving, since none of the changes indicated will be observable to the
astronaut.
18. (a) Since you are observing the duration of two events (two position time), there will be time dilation and the clock will
tick slower, relative to the observer
19. (a) Proper time is the duration of a process measured by the observer who sees the entire process as occurring in one
position. Thus, the correct option is (a).
20. (b) On the spaceship, time would run at the same rates as those seen by the occupants. Thus, the value does not change
relative to those on the spaceship. In other words, the hearts beat at the same rate. Of course, to an observer in another
inertial frame of reference, the rate could be slower.
21. (d)
s
m
2
2
1
t
t
v
c

s
2
2
s
s
m s
(0.5 )
1
1 0.25
0.877
1.2 or 1.2
t
c
c
t
t
t t T
=
=

The period is 1.2T, therefore (d) is correct.
22. (b) Length contraction only occurs along the length of the moving object as seen by an external observer. Thus, (b) is the
only correct answer.
23. (a)
2
E mc =

2
6
2
9
3.7 10 J
4.1 10 kg
E
m
c
c
m
=
=
=

Matter is converted to energy at the rate of 4.1 10
9
kg/s, therefore (a) is the correct answer.

CHAPTER 11 REVIEW
(Pages 590591)
1. (a) The passenger measures the proper time since the passenger is stationary relative to the clock.
(b) Again, the passenger is stationary relative to the train, and would measure the proper length.
(c) You would measure the proper length between the railway ties, since you are stationary relative to the railway ties.
2. Only observers stationary relative to the event would record the proper time interval.
(a) The spectator is stationary relative to the event and is in the same inertial frame. The spectator would record the proper
time.
(b) The fan sitting on the couch is stationary relative to the event, because the fan is watching the game through the TV
cameras eyes, which is also stationary relative to the event. The fan would record the proper time.
(c) The short stop is moving relative to the event since he is running in to cover the play. He would not record the proper
time.
3. Yes, all motion is relative to the observer. Therefore, stationary and moving can vary between an observer on the plane
and an observer on Earth.
4. It means it does move slower. This is the actual behaviour, not just the perception of the observer.
5. As discussed in the text, the clocks in orbit will run slower by a factor predicted by the time dilation relationship.
Although the difference will be small, the two clocks will no longer by synchronizedthe clock on the airplane will be
slower.

6. To measure proper time, since the observer is at rest relative to the event, only one clock is needed. To measure time
intervals, where the object or event is moving relative to the observer, the beginning and ending of the event are in two
positions. Thus, two synchronized clocks are required.
7. One instance is the experiment where synchronized clocks were sent around the world on passenger jets and then
compared with another at rest on Earth. Another instance is the lifetime of high speed particles (muons) increased when
accelerated to velocities approaching c.
8. v = 0.92c
L
m
= 48.2 m
L
s
= ?

( )
2
m s
2
m
s
2
2
2
2
s
1
1
48.2 m
0.92
1
123 m
v
L L
c
L
L
v
c
c
c
L
=
=
=

The ship is 123 m long at rest.
9. L
s
= 3.20 10
3
km
v = 0.70c
L
m
= ?

( )
2
m s
2
2
3
2
3
m
1
0.70
3.20 10 km 1
2.28 10 km
v
L L
c
c
c
L
=
=
=

The voyagers aboard the UFO measure the distance as 2.28 10
3
km.
10. v = 0.90c
L
m
= 228 m
L
s
= ?
( )
m
s
2
2
2
2
s
1
228 m
0.90
1
523 m
L
L
v
c
c
c
L
=
=

The length you now obtain is 523 m.
11. v
X
= 0.70c
v
Y
= 0.86c
X
Y
?
L
L
=


( )
( )
2
X
2
X m
2
Y m
Y
2
2
2
2
2
X
Y
1
1
0.70
1
0.86
1
0.714
0.510
1.4
v
Ls
L L
c
L L
v
Ls
c
c
c
c
c
L
L
= =
=
=

The ratio of the values for the planets diameter is 1.4.
12. v = 0.866c
p = ?

( )( )
( )
2
2
31
2
2
30
1
9.11 10 kg 0.866
0.866
1
1.58 10 kg m/s
mv
p
v
c
c
c
c
p
=

30
kgm/s.
13. E = 4.9 MeV = 4.9 10
6
eV = 7.84 10
13
J
m = ?

( )
( )
2
13
2
8
30
7.84 10 J
3.00 10 m/s
8.7 10 kg
E
m
c
m
=

The rest-mass equivalent of the energy is 8.7 10
30
kg.
14. P = 3.00 10
9
W = 3.00 10
9
Js
t = 1 a =
7
365 d 24 h 3600 s
3.15 10 s
a d h

=

m = ?

9 9
3.00 10 W 3.00 10 J/s
E
P
t
=
=

To calculate E
total
:

( )
9
7
total
16
total
3.00 10 J
3.15 10 s
s
9.45 10 J
E
E

=

=

To calculate the change in mass:

( )
2
16
2
8
9.45 10 J
3.00 10 m/s
1.05 kg
E
m
c
m
=

The change in mass is 1.05 kg.
15. m = 9.11 10
31
kg
v = 0.20c
E
total
= ?

Total energy before the collision = E
K electron
+ E
K positron
+ E
rest electron
+ E
rest positron
, but rest masses are equal and thus rest
energies of the two particles are also equal.

( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
total
2 2
2 2
2
31 2
14
total
1
2 2
2
9.11 10 kg 0.20
9.84 10 J
E mv mc
mv mc
m v c
c c
E

= +

= +
= +
= +
=

Converting to MeV:
14
5
19
9.84 10 J
6.15 10 eV, or 0.615 MeV
1.6 10 J/eV

The energy of the electromagnetic radiation is 0.615 MeV.
16. E
rest
= 105.7 MeV
E
total
= 106.7 MeV
E
K
= ?

K total rest
K
106.7 MeV 105.7 MeV
1.0 MeV
E E E
E
=
=
=

The kinetic energy of the muon is 1.0 MeV.
17. (a) m = 1.20 10
3
kg
v = 28.0 m/s
c = 47.0 m/s
E
K
= ?

( )( )
( )
( )
K total rest
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
5
K
1
1
1
1
1
1.20 10 kg 47.0 m/s 1
28.0 m/s
1
47.0 m/s
6.49 10 J
E E E
mc
mc
v
c
mc
v
c
E
=
=

=

=

=

The relativistic kinetic energy of the car would be 6.49 10
5
J.

(b)
K rel
K nonrel
?
E
E
=

First we must calculate the nonrelativistic kinetic energy:

( )( )
2
K nonrel
2
3
5
K nonrel
1
2
1
1.2 10 kg 28.0 m/s
2
4.70 10 J
E mv
E
=
=
=

To calculate the ratio:

5
K rel
5
K nonrel
K rel
K nonrel
6.49 10 J
4.70 10 J
1.4
E
E
E
E
=

The ratio is 1.4:1.
18. E
total
= 1.00 10
68
J

1
2
E
total
= 5.00 10
67
J
m = 4.00 10
30
kg
number of stars = ?

First we must calculate the change in mass:

( )
2
67
2
8
50
5.00 10 J
3.00 10 m/s
5.56 10 kg
E
m
c
m
=

To calculate the number of stars:

50
30
20
5.56 10 kg
number of stars
4.00 10 kg/star
number of stars 1.39 10 stars
=

The number of stars half of the energy could create is 1.39 10
20
stars.
19. m = 1.97 10
31
kg
E = 1.02 10
44
J
(a) m = ?

( )
2
44
2
8
27
1.02 10 J
3.00 10 m/s
1.13 10 kg
E
m
c
m
=

1.13 10
27
kg of mass are converted to energy in the explosion.
(b)
star
?
m
m
=

27
31
star
5
star
1.13 10 kg
1.97 10 kg
5.75 10
m
m
m
m

=
=

The ratio of the mass destroyed to the mass of the star is 5.75 10
5
:1.

20. E = 1.00 10
34
J
(a) E = 1.00 10
33
J
m = ?

( )
2
33
2
8
16
1.00 10 J
3.00 10 m/s
1.11 10 kg
E
m
c
m
=

The decrease in the mass of the oceans would be 1.11 10
16
kg.
(b) D
w
= 1.00 10
3
kg/m
3

V = ?

16
3 3
13 3
1.11 10 kg
1.00 10 kg/m
1.11 10 m
m
V
D
V
=
=

The volume of water this corresponds to is 1.11 10
13
m
3
.
21. (a) energy consumption = 485 kWh
m = 1.00 g
efficiency = 40%
t = ?

5
9
4.85 10 J h 3600 s
485 kW h 1.746 10 J/month
s h

= =

For 12 months total energy:
9 10
1.746 10 J 12 2.095 10 J =

To calculate the change in energy:

( )( )
2
2
3 8
13
1.00 10 kg 3.00 10 m/s
9.00 10 J
E mc
E
=
=
=

To calculate time:

( )
13
9
4
0.40 9.00 10 J
1.746 10 J
2.06 10 months
t
t
=

A mass of 1.0 g would last 2.06 10
4
months.
(b) number of homes?

13
3
10
9.00 10 J
number of homes 4.30 10 homes
2.095 10 J/homes
= =

The number of homes that could be supplied with this energy is 4.30 10
3
homes.
Making Connections
22. Science fiction authors utilize some of the concepts of special relativity in their writing to suggest time as a fourth
dimension, time standing still, space warp, and vapourization of mass into energy (ray guns).
23. Since v =
c
n
, and n =1.33 for water:
299 792 500 m/s
of light in water 230 609 315 m/s
1.33
v = =
Pavel Cerenkov had succeeded in speeding electrons up to 257 500 000 m/s

by 1934, thus sending particles at speeds
greater than light. particles with kinetic energies of 0.26 MeV will travel at speeds in excess of 2.30 10
6
m/s in a dense
medium such as water. Frank and Tamm also conducted this work in 1937 and the three shared the 1958 Nobel prize for
their work in this area.

While no particle can exceed the speed of light in a vacuum (3.00 10
8
m/s), it is possible for a particle to travel
faster than the speed of light in certain media, such as water. This is not a violation of the Einsteins prediction
(Section 11.2) that no object can equal or exceed the speed of light since it refers to the situation in a vacuum or air, that
is, 3.00 10
8
m/s. When the charged particle moves through the water it tends to polarize the water molecules in a
direction.

Extension
24. p = ?

First we must calculate the value for v:

total rest
2
total
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
5
5
5
1
1
1
5
1
1
25
1
1
25
0.96
0.96
0.98
E E
E mc
mc
mc
v
c
v
c
v
c
v
c
v
c
v c
v c
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

To calculate momentum:

( )( )
2
2
31
21
1
9.11 10 kg 0.98
1
5
1.34 10 kg m/s
mv
p
v
c
c
p
=
=

The momentum of the electron in that frame is 1.34 10
21
kgm/s.
25.
s m
1
2
t t =

m
2
s
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
4
3
4
0.75
0.75
0.87
t
t
v
c
v
c
v
c
v
c
v c
v c
= =
=
=
=
=
=

The value of v, expressed as a fraction of c is 0.87c.

26. p
R
= 3p

R
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2 2
1
3
1
1
1
3
1
1
9
9 9
8
9
0.943
mv
p
v
c
p
p
v
c
v
c
v
c
c v c
v c
v c
=
=
=
=
=
=

The speed of the particle is 0.943c, or 2.83 10
8
m/s.
27. m = 1.40 10
5
kg
p = 3.15 10
13
kgm/s
v = ?

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
2
2
5
13
2
2
13
5
2
2
8
2
2
2
2
8
2
2
2
2 2
2 8 8
2
2 2
2 8 2 8 2
2 17 2 2
1
1.40 10 kg
3.15 10 kg m/s
1
3.15 10 kg m/s
1.40 10 kg
1
2.25 10 m/s
1
2.25 10 m/s
1
2.25 10 m/s 2.25 10 m/s
2.25 10 m/s 2.25 10 m/s
1.406 10 m /s 4
mv
p
v
c
v
v
c
v
v
c
v
v
c
v
v
c
v
v
c
cv c v
v
=
=
=
=
33 2 2
8
.556 10 m /s
1.80 10 m/s v
=

The rocket is travelling at a speed of 1.80 10
8
m/s.
28. (a) In the special theory of relativity, Einstein concluded that there is no way for an observer to determine whether a given
frame of reference is at rest or is moving at constant velocity in a straight line. Therefore, Einstein said, the laws of
physics must be the same in different inertial reference frames. To consider only uniformly moving reference frames is
somewhat restricting. What about the general case of motion, where reference frames can be accelerating?
It is in the general theory of relativity that Einstein tackled the problem of accelerating reference frames and
developed a theory of gravity. You sense that you are accelerating when in a car moving around a sharp curve. You

could not prove by any experiment that in fact you werent simply experiencing the pull of a gravitational field.
Conversely, we might think we are being pulled by gravity when in fact we are undergoing an inertial acceleration
having nothing to do with gravity. For example, pilots making a steep bank often have this experience, and cannot tell
in which direction Earth lies without their instruments.
As a thought experiment, consider a person in a freely falling elevator near Earths surface. If an observer held
out a ball and let go of it, gravity would pull it downward toward Earth. But, it would fall at the same rate
(g = 9.8 m/s
2
) at which the person and elevator were falling. So the ball would float right next to the persons hand. The
effect is exactly the same as if the elevator was at rest and no forces were acting on it. On the other hand, suppose the
elevator were far out in space where there is no gravitational field. If the person released the ball, it would float. If
instead, the elevator in space were accelerating upward at an acceleration of 9.8 m/s
2
, the ball as seen by an observer
would fall to the floor with an acceleration of 9.8 m/s
2
, just as if it were falling because of gravity on Earth. According
to the principle of equivalence, the observer could not do an experiment to determine whether the ball fell because the
elevator was accelerating upward at 9.8 m/s
2
in the absence of gravity, or because a gravitational field with g = 9.8 m/s
2

was acting downward and the observer was at rest on Earth. The two descriptions are equivalent.
The principle of equivalence is related to the concept of mass and to the idea that there are two types of mass.
For any force, Newtons second law says that F = ma, where m is the inertial mass. The more inertial mass a body
has, the less it is affected by a given force and the less acceleration it undergoes. You might say that inertial mass
represents resistance to any type of force. The second type of mass is gravitational mass, present when one body
attracts another by the gravitational force. Up to this point, inertial and gravitational masses are the same because no
experiment, not even high-precision experiments, has been able to discern any measurable difference between inertial
and gravitational mass. This, then, is another way to state the equivalence principle: gravitational mass is equivalent to
inertial mass.
(b) The principle of equivalence can be used to show that light ought to be deflected due to the gravitational force of a
massive body. Let us consider a thought experiment to get the idea. Consider an elevator in free space where no gravity
acts. If there is a hole in the side of the elevator and a beam of light enters from outside, the beam travels straight across
the elevator and makes a spot on the opposite side if the elevator is at rest. If the elevator is accelerating upward, the
light beam still travels straight across in a reference frame at rest. In the upward accelerating elevator, however, the
beam is observed to curve downward. Why? Because during the time the light travels from one side of the elevator to
the other, the elevator is moving upward at with an increasing speed. Now, according to the equivalence principle, an
upwardly accelerating reference frame is equivalent to a downward gravitational field. Hence, we can picture the
curved light path in as being the effect of a gravitational field. Thus we expect gravity to exert a force on a beam of
light and to bend it out of a straight-line path.
(c) That light is affected by gravity is an important prediction of Einsteins general theory of relativity, and it can be tested.
The amount a light beam would be deflected from a straight-line path must be small even when passing a massive
body. For example, light near Earths surface after travelling 1.0 km is predicted to drop only about 10
10
m, which is
not detectable. The most massive body near us is the Sun, and it was calculated that light from a distant star would be
deflected by 1.75 of arc as it passed near the Sun. However, such a measurement could be made only during a total
eclipse of the Sun, so the Suns intensity would not overwhelm the starlight passing near its edge. An eclipse occurred
in 1919 and scientists journeyed to the South Atlantic to observe it. Their photos of stars around the Sun revealed shifts
in accordance with Einsteins prediction, producing headlines in the popular press at the time and making Einstein
famous beyond the scientific community.
Copyright 2003 Nelson Chapter 12 Waves, Photons, and Matter 667
CHAPTER 12 WAVES, PHOTONS, AND MATTER
(Page 592)

1. In both cases, if white light is emitted, most of the wavelengths of the visible spectrum originate in the source of light.
However, the sources of energy are different. In the incandescent lamp, thermal energy agitates the atoms and molecules
to the point that their changing electric and magnetic fields radiate electromagnetic energy. In the fluorescent lamp,
changes in the energy levels within the atom produces radiation, not heat. It is this radiation that causes fluorescence in
the phosphors on the inside of the tube, therefore producing white light.
2. Light energy causes changes and eventually a breakdown in the colour pigments in the printing ink. A red colour printing
appears red because most of the other wavelengths in the white light spectrum are absorbed, and the red wavelength is
reflected. For a blue surface, most of the wavelengths of the white line spectrum are absorbed, and the blue wavelength is
reflected. Since the emissions of red and green wavelengths from the surface are of a lower energy than that of blue, the
source of energy reflected by these pigments or dyes require less energy to be damaged by the incident radiation, and thus
fade sooner than that for blue and violet.
3. Quantum is defined as an abrupt change, sudden increase, or dramatic advance. A quantum leap is an abrupt change or
advance, particularly in method, information, or knowledge.
4. An electron microscope is a microscope that uses electron rather than visible light to produce images.
5. (a) The force holding the satellite in orbit is the centrally acting gravitational force between the satellite and Earth.
(b) Friction on the satellite and irregularities in the orbit eventually cause its speed to decrease and it enters successively
low orbits. Eventually, it enters Earths atmosphere and either burns up or crashes on Earths surface.
(c) The Coulomb force of attraction between the positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electron holds the
electron in orbit around the nucleus of the atom. The electron stays in a stable orbit and does not 'crash' into the
nucleus.

Try This Activity: Discharging with Light
(Page 593)

The discharge times will vary, depending on the level of humidity in the air.
The negatively charged zinc plate will typically discharge within 2 min., as water molecules adjacent to the plate absorb
electrons.
With the glass filter in place, the ultraviolet light incident on the zinc plate should have little affect and the discharge rate
will be similar to that without the ultraviolet light.
Without the glass filter in place, the ultraviolet light causes the zinc plate to discharge quite quickly, typically in one-half to
one-quarter of the time without the ultraviolet light.
(a) For the negatively charged electroscope to discharge, the electrons on the zinc plate must have escaped into the
atmosphere.
(b) The ultraviolet light has provided energy to the electrons making it easier for them to escape.

12.1 FOUNDATIONS OF QUANTUM THEORY
PRACTICE
(Page 597598)
1. Discrete quantities include money, matter (atoms), and scores because all are exact.
Nondiscrete quantities include time, energy, and length because all are measured and therefore error is introduced.
2. h = 6.63 10
34
Js
c = 3.00 10
8
m/s
E = ?
(a) = 941 nm = 9.41 10
7
m

( )( )
34 8
7
19
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
9.41 10 m
2.1 10 J
hc
E
E
=

=
=

The energy is 2.1 10
19
J, or 1.32 eV.
(b) f = 4.4 10
14
Hz

( )( )
34 14
19
6.63 10 J s 4.4 10 Hz
2.9 10 J
E hf
E

=
=
=

19
J, or 1.8 eV
(c) = 435 nm = 4.35 10
7
m

( )( )
34 8
7
19
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
4.35 10 m
4.57 10 J
hc
E
E
=

=
=

19
J, or 2.86 eV.
(d) f = 1.2 10
18
Hz

( )( )
34 18
16
6.63 10 J s 1.2 10 Hz
7.96 10 J
E hf
E
=
=
=

16
J, or 5.0 10
3
eV.
3. E = 3.20 10
19
J
= ?

( )( )
34 8
19
7
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
3.20 10 J
6.22 10 m
hc
E
=

=
=

The wavelength is 6.22 10
7
m, or 622 nm. The colour is red (from Section 9.6).
4. E = 2.25 eV

To convert energy into joules:
E = (2.25 eV)(1.60 10
19
J/eV)
E = 3.60 10
19
J

To calculate frequency:

19
34
14
3.60 10 J
6.63 10 J s
5.43 10 Hz
E hf
E
f
h
f
=
=
=

=

The frequency is 5.43 10
14
Hz.
5.
1
= 3.80 10
7
m

2
= 1.14 10
7
m

2
1
= ?
Since
photon 1
1
hc
E
= and
photon 2
2
hc
E
= ,

photon 1 1
photon 2
2
2
1
7
7
photon 1
photon 2
3.80 10 m
1.14 10 m
3.33
1
hc
E
E hc
E
E

=

=
=

The ratio of a quantum of soft ultraviolet radiation to a quantum of hard ultraviolet radiation is 3.33:1.
Making Connections
6. Let the subscript R stand for radio waves, and C stand for cosmic rays.
R
= 1.0 10
2
m
C
= 1.0 10
16
m
Since,
R
R
hc
E
= and
C
c
hc
E
= ,

R R
C
C
C
R
16
2
18 R
C
1.0 10 m
1.0 10 m
1.0 10
hc
E
E
hc
E
E

=

=
=

It would take 10
18
quanta of radio waves. Radio waves have a long wavelength (low frequency), thus they have low
penetration and low energy. Cosmic radiation has a high frequency, therefore, they have high energy and high penetrating
power, which would be a biological hazard.

PRACTICE
(Pages 604605)

7.

8. Intensity is the quantity or number of protons. Frequency determines the energy (E = hf). For photoemission to occur, the
photoelectron needs sufficient energy to be released from the surface. If the photons, no matter how many, do not have
sufficient energy, no photoemission occurs.
9. The energy of the emitted photons is directly related to the energy of the incident photon (E = hf) by the constant h. Thus,
all the graphs have the same slope (h).
10. According to classical wave theory, the energy would have to build up to the point where the photoelectron is released
from the surface, which isnt the case. The photoelectron is released immediately if there is sufficient energy.
11. W = 2.4 eV
f = ?

( )( )
photon
19
34
14
2.4 eV 1.6 10 J/eV
6.63 10 J s
5.8 10 Hz
E W
hf W
W
f
h
f
=
=
=
=

=

The minimum frequency of the photon is 5.8 10
14
Hz.
12. W = 3.33 eV
f = ?

( )( )
19
34
14
3.33 eV 1.6 10 J/eV
6.63 10 J s
5.02 10 Hz
W
f
h
f
=

=

The threshold frequency is 5.02 10
14
Hz.
13. W = 2.48 eV
= 450 nm = 4.50 10
-7
m
E
K
= ?

First we must calculate the energy of the incident photons:

( )( )
34 8
7
19
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
4.50 10 m
4.42 10 J
hc
E
E
=

=
=

Converted to electron volts, E
photon
= 2.76 eV.

We can now calculate the kinetic energy:

K,max photon
K,max
2.76 eV 2.48 eV
0.28 eV
E E W
E
=
=
=

The maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons is 0.28 eV.
14. = 3.50 10
2
nm = 3.50 10
7
m
E
K
= 1.20 eV
W = ?

( )( )
( )( )
K photon
photon K
34 8
7 19
1.20 eV
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
1.20 eV
3.50 10 m 1.6 10 J/eV
2.35 eV
E E W
W E E
hc
W

=
=
=

=

=

The work function of the metal is 2.35 eV.
15. f = 8.0 1014 Hz
W = 1.2 eV
v = ?

First we must calculate the kinetic energy:
( )( )
( )
K photon
34 14
19
K
6.63 10 J s 8.0 10 Hz
1.2 eV
1.6 10 J/eV
2.115 eV
E E W
hf W
E
=
=

=
=

For the maximum energy of photoelectrons that reach the plate:

( )( )( )
K
19
31
5
2.115 eV 1.0 eV 1.115 eV
2
2 2.115 eV 1.6 10 J/eV
9.11 10 kg
6.3 10 m/s
E
V
m
V
=
=
=

The maximum speed with which an electron reaches the plate is 6.3 10
5
m/s.
Making Connections
16. Students answers will vary depending on their choice of device. Some choices may include smoke detectors, fibreoptic
detectors, security systems, garage door openers, or automatic light switches.

PRACTICE
(Page 607)
17. The units of momentum are kgm/s. Since,
( )
2 2 2
J = N m = kg m/s m = kg m /s , therefore:

2 2
kg m /s s
m
kg m/s
h
h

=
=

Therefore, the units of
h
are the units of momentum.

18. = 5.00 10
2
nm = 5.00 10
7
m
p = ?

34
7
27
6.63 10 J s
5.00 10 m
1.33 10 kg m/s
h
p
p
=

=
=

The momentum of the photon is 1.33 10
27
kgm/s.
19. f = 4.5 10
15
Hz
p = ?

( )( )
34 15
8
27
6.63 10 J s 4.5 10 Hz
3.00 10 m/s
9.9 10 kg m/s
h
p
hf
c
p
=
=

=
=

27
kgm/s.
20. E = 1.50 10
2
eV
p = ?

( )( )
2 19
8
26
1.50 10 eV 1.6 10 J/eV
3.00 10 m/s
8.00 10 kg m/s
E
p
c
p
=

=
=

26
kgm/s.
21. v = 1.0 10
6
m/s
= ?

First we must calculate momentum:

( )( )
31 6
25
9.11 10 kg 1.0 10 m/s
9.11 10 kg m/s
p mv
p
=
=
=

To calculate wavelength:

34
25
10
6.63 10 J s
9.11 10
7.3 10 m
h
p
=

=
=

The wavelength of the photon is 7.3 10
10
m, or 0.73 nm.

(Pages 608609)
1. The historical discoveries and interpretations that led to the confirmation of the photon theory of light are
blackbody radiation ultraviolet catastrophe
quanta Planck
photoelectric effect Einstein
momentum of a photon Compton
2. To escape, the photoelectron requires sufficient energy to overcome being bonded to the surface. Since E
p
f, the
photoelectron is only emitted when the frequency is high enough, that is when E
p
> W.
3. Students may include some of the following:
security system detectors
TV, audiosystem remote controls
outdoor security lights
automatic night lights
garage door detectors
cameras light control
digital still and movie cameras
scanners for computers
4. E
K
= the maximum energy of the photoelectron
hf = the energy of the incident photon
W = the work function, the energy binding the electron to the photoelectric surface
5.
Photoelectric Effect Compton Effect
photon disappears photon re-emerges with lower frequency
low energy photon high energy photon
result electron with kinetic energy result lower energy photon and electron with
kinetic energy
energy conserved energy conserved

6. Five interactions are reflection, the photoelectric effect, the Compton effect, an increase in the internal energy of an atom,
and pair production.
7. (a) The surface temperature of the emitting source determines the relative magnitude of the colours of the spectrum present
in the radiation. (The surface temperature is often called the colour temperature for this reason.) The chemicals in
daylight colour film are chosen to match the relative spectral density of the light radiated from the Sun (6000 K),
therefore only artificial light of similar composition will work. Since incandescent light and fluorescent light have
lower colour temperatures, the radiation they produce is improperly balanced. For example, pictures taken with
daylight film under incandescent light tend to have unnatural colours (skin tones are orange instead of white).
(b) A common flash in cameras today, the xenon flash, provides radiation similar to the radiation produced by the Sun.
The resulting colours on the film are correct.
8. = 122 nm
E = ?

( )( )
34 8
7
18
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
1.22 10 m
1.63 10 J
hc
E
E
=

=
=

The energy of an ultraviolet photon is 1.63 10
18
J, or 10.2 eV.
9.
hc
E
=

( )( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
34 8
9 19
3
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
nm 10 m/nm 1.6 10 J/eV
1.24 10
eV
nm
E
=

10. All three curves intersect on the x-axis and at this point the photocurrent is zero. The maximum retarding potential (V
0
)
represents the maximum energy, and, as a result, the maximum velocities of the photoelectrons. Since all three intensity
curves intersect at V
0
, the maximum velocities of the photoelectrons are independent of the intensity of light directed at
the photoelectric surface.
11. From Table 1 we obtained the following data:
sodium = 2.26 eV
copper = 4.46 eV
potassium = 1.60 eV
barium = 2.48 eV
The work function represents the energy that binds the electron to the photoelectric surface. The minimum energy
required for an electron to be released from the surface to become a photoelectron, is the value given to the work function
for a particular metal. From the values above it is apparent that it takes 2.20 eV more energy to release a photoelectron
from copper than it does for one from sodium.
The larger the value of the work function, the larger the threshold frequency. We can therefore conclude that since
barium has a higher work function than potassium, barium will have a higher threshold frequency.
12. W = 7.2 10
19
J
f = ?

Since the work function is the energy required to release an electron from an illuminated metal, we can use the following
relationship:

19
34
15
7.2 10 J
6.63 10 J s
1.1 10 Hz
E hf
E
f
h
f
=
=
=

=

The minimum frequency is 1.1 10
15
Hz.
13. W = 4.52 eV
E
K
= 1.68 eV
= ?

First we must calculate energy:

K
1.68 eV 4.52 eV
6.20 eV
E E W
E
= +
= +
=

To calculate wavelength (using the relationship from question 9):

3
3
3
2
1.24 10
(nm)
1.24 10
1.24 10
6.20 eV
2.00 10 nm
E
E
=
=

The wavelength of light required is 2.00 10
2
nm.
14. = 482 nm
W = ?

K photon
photon K
3
7
1.24 10
1.2 eV
4.82 10 m
1.38 eV
E E W
W E E
W

=
=
=

15. (a) = 2.0 10
7
m
f = ?

8
7
15
3.00 10 m/s
2.0 10 m
1.5 10 Hz
c f
c
f
f
=
=
=

The frequency of the photon is 1.5 10
15
Hz.
(b) E = ?

To calculate energy in electron volts:

( )
3
3
1.24 10
nm
1.24 10
200 nm
6.2 eV
E
E
=
=

To calculate energy in joules:

( )( )
19
19
6.2 eV 1.6 10 J/eV
9.9 10 J
E
E
=
=

The energy of the same photon is 6.2 eV, or 9.9 10
19
J.
(c) p = ?

( )( )
34 15
8
27
6.63 10 J s 1.5 10 Hz
3.00 10 m/s
3.3 10 kg m/s
E
p
c
hf
c
p
=
=

=
=

The momentum of the same photon is 3.3 10
27
kgm/s.
16. (a) = 2.50 10
-9
m
p = ?

34
9
25
6.63 10 J s
2.50 10 m
2.65 10 kg m/s
h
p
h
p
p
=
=

=
=

25
kgm/s.
(b) m
e
= 9.11 10
-31
kg
p = 2.65 10
-25
kgm/s
v = ?

25
31
5
2.65 10 kg m/s
9.11 10 kg
2.91 10 m/s
p mv
p
v
m
v
=
=

=
=

The speed of the electron is 2.91 10
5
m/s.
(c) E
K
= ?
E
photon
= ?

To calculate the kinetic energy of the electron:

( )( )
2
K electron
2
31 5
20
K electron
1
2
1
9.11 10 kg 2.91 10 m/s
2
3.85 10 J
E mv
E
=
=
=

To calculate the energy of the photon:

( )( )
photon
34 8
9
17
photon
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
2.50 10 m
7.96 10 J
hc
E
E
=

=
=

The kinetic energy of the electron is 3.86 10
20
J, which is substantially smaller than the energy of the photon, which
is 7.96 10
17
J.
17. Let the subscript 1 represent the first radio station and 2 represent the second radio station.
f
1
= 5.70 10
2
kHz = 5.70 10
5
Hz
f
2
= 102 MHz = 102 10
6
Hz
E
1
= ?
E
2
= ?

Using the relationship
photon
: E hf =

( )( )
34 5
1
28
1
6.63 10 J s 5.70 10 Hz
3.78 10 J
E
E
=
=

( )( )
34 6
2
26
2
6.63 10 J s 102 10 Hz
6.76 10 J
E
E
=
=

The energy of the photons emitted from radio station 1 is 3.78 10
18
J, or 2.36 10
9
eV. The energy of the photons
emitted from radio station 2 is 6.76 10
26
J, or 4.23 10
7
eV.
18. (a) Leaves containing chlorophyll appear green in white light because the red and violet photons are absorbed and not
reflected, whereas the green photons are reflected and not absorbed.
(b) As seen from the graph, green light has a much smaller effect on the rate of photosynthesis than does red and violet
light.
(c) As seen from Figure 2 on page 595, a source with a surface temperature of 2500 K is very weak in the blue region of
the spectrum and does not produce any radiation in the violet region. The graph in this question shows the
photosynthesis reaction is stimulated by light from the blue-violet region. Therefore, the rate of photosynthesis
produced by an incandescent lamp will be too low for most green plants and will be unable to maintain the health of the
plant.
Making Connections
19. The higher the value of Plancks constant, the steeper the slope and the lower the cutoff frequency. Thus, photoemission
would occur for a broad range of materials, creating a state of change in many of them. On the other hand, the smaller the
constant, the lower the slope and the higher the cutoff frequency. It is possible that the cutoff frequency is high enough
that the photoelectric effect does not occur. Therefore, solar cells, cameras (picture and digital), and detectors would not
work.
20. = 552 nm = 5.52 10
7
m
P = 1.0 mW = 1.0 10
3
W = 1.0 10
3
J/s
number of light quanta = ?

To calculate the energy of each photon:

( )( )
34 8
7
19
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
5.52 10 m
3.60 10 J
hc
E
E
=

=
=

Since 15% of the solar energy is converted, 15%(3.60 10
19
J) = 5.4 10
20
J.

To calculate the number of photons:

3
20
16
photons
number of light quanta
1.0 10 J
5.4 10 J
number of light quanta 1.85 10
E
=

Therefore, 1.85 10
16
light quanta would be needed by the calculator each second.
21. (a) = 1.0 cm = 1.0 10
-2
m
E = ?

( )( )
34 8
2
23
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
1.0 10 m
2.0 10 J
hc
E
E
=

=
=

The energy of a single microwave quantum is 2.0 10
23
J.
(b) = 1.0 cm = 1.0 10
2
m
m
w
= 0.250 kg
T = 100C 20C = 80C
c = 4.2 10
3
J/kgC
number of quanta = ?

First we must calculate the change in energy:
( )( )( )
3
4
0.250 kg 4.2 10 J/kg C 80 C
8.4 10 J
E mc T
E
=
=
=

To calculate the number of quanta:

4
23
27
8.4 10 J
number of quanta
2.0 10 J
number of quanta 4.2 10
=

Therefore, 4.2 10
27
quanta are required to raise the temperature of the water.
22. All the detectors on the Hubble telescope are photodetectors since the information must be digitized for transmission to
Earth. Some areas for the students to research are construction and type of detector, placement of detectors, and the
sensitivity/range of detectors (infrared, ultraviolet, X ray).
23. Ultraviolet photons have shorter wavelengths and a higher energy than infrared photons. This energy is sufficient enough
to kill the skin cells, which is the result we see when the skin is sunburned. On the other hand, the infrared photons have
sufficient energy to warm the cells but not damage them. Students should be careful not to confuse individual photon
energy with total energy. A few joules of ultraviolet radiation can do more damage than a few hundred joules of infrared
radiation.

12.2 WAVEPARTICLE DUALITY
PRACTICE
(Page 614)
1. (a) m = 2.0 kg
v = 15 m/s
= ?

( )( )
34
35
6.63 10 J s
2.0 kg 15 m/s
2.2 10 m
h
mv
=

=
=

The de Broglie wavelength is 2.2 10
35
m.
(b) v = 1.3 10
5
m/s
= ?

( )( )
34
27 5
12
6.63 10 J s
1.7 10 kg 1.3 10 m/s
3.0 10 m
h
mv
=

=

=

12
m.
(c) v = 5.0 10
4
m/s
= ?

( )( )
34
31 4
8
6.63 10 J s
9.11 10 kg 5.0 10 m/s
1.5 10 m
h
mv
=

=

=

8
m.
2. E
photon
= 3.0 eV
E
electron
= 5.0 eV
photon
= ?
electron
= ?

To calculate the wavelength of the photon:

( )( )
( )( )
photon
photon
34 8
19
7
photon
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
3.0 eV 1.6 10 J/eV
4.1 10 m
hc
E
=

=
=

To calculate the wavelength of the electron, we must first calculate the speed of the electron:

( )( )( )
electron
19
31
6
2
2 5.0 eV 1.6 10 J/eV
9.11 10 kg
1.325 10 m/s
E
v
m
v
=

To calculate the wavelength of the electron:

( )( )
electron
34
31 6
10
electron
6.63 10 J s
9.11 10 kg 1.325 10 m/s
5.5 10 m
h
mv
=

=

=

The de Broglie wavelength of the photon is 4.1 10
7
m, and of the electron is 5.5 10
10
m.
3. m = 0.50 kg
v = 5.00 10
2
m/s
= ?

( )( )
34
2
36
6.63 10 J s
0.50 kg 5.00 10 m/s
2.7 10 m
h
mv
=

=
=

36
m.
4. = 0.15 nm = 0.15 10
9
m
E
K
= ?
Since E
K
=
2
1
2
mv ,
K
2E
v
m
= . Plugging this value for v into the relationship p = mv:

( )
K
2
K
2
K
2
2
34
9
31
17
K
2
2
2
2
6.63 10 J s
0.15 10 m
2 9.11 10 kg
1.07 10 J
E
p m
m
p E m
p
E
m
h
m
E
=
=
=

=

=

The energy required is 1.07 10
17
J, or 67 eV.
5. E
K
= 1.00 10
2
V = 100 eV
= ?

To convert E
K
to joules:

( )( )
19
K
17
K
100 eV 1.6 10 J/eV
1.6 10 J
E
E
=
=

To calculate wavelength (using the relationship found in question 4):

( )( )( )
2
K
K
K
34
17 31
10
2
2
2
6.63 10 J s
2 1.6 10 J 9.11 10 kg
1.23 10 m
p
E
m
p E m
h
E m
=
=
=

=

=

The associated de Broglie wavelength is 1.23 10
10
m.
6. (a) = 1.0 10
10
m
p = ?

34
10
24
6.63 10 J s
1.0 10 m
6.6 10 kg m/s
h
p
p
=

=
=

The momentum of the electron is 6.6 10
24
kgm/s.
(b) v = ?

( )( )
34
31 10
6
6.63 10 J s
9.11 10 kg 1.0 10 m
7.3 10 m/s
h
mv
h
v
m
v

=
=

=

=

6
m/s.
(c) E
K
= ?

( )( )
2
K
2
31 6
17
K
1
2
1
9.11 10 kg 7.3 10 m/s
2
2.4 10 J
E mv
E
=
=
=

The kinetic energy of the electron is 2.4 10
17
J, or 1.5 10
2
eV.

(Page 620)
1. (a). Diffraction of electrons, because the behaviour is the same as for electromagnetic waves (X rays).
(b) The momentum of a photon.
2. The equation sin
n
n
w
= for a single slit predicts the most probable location on the screen. For example, for
1
1.5
sin
w
= , the photon is most likely to land on the screen in a bright area, whereas
1
sin
w
= will most likely not

land on the screen at that point (a dark area).
3. Students may find it easier to summarize their points in a table:

Property Photon Electron
energy 2 eV
(3.2 10
19
J)
2 eV
(3.2 10
19
J)
mass m = 0

m = 9.11 10
31
kg
momentum
19
8
27
3.2 10 J
3.00 10 m/s
1.1 10 kg m/s
E
p
c
p
=

( )( )( )
31 31
25
2
2 9.11 10 kg 3.2 10 kg
7.6 10 kg m/s
p mE
p

=
=
=


Property Photon Electron
speed
8
3.00 10 m/s
v c
v
=
=

( )( )
19
31
5
K
2
2 3.2 10 J
9.11 10 kg
8.4 10 m/s
E
v
m
v
=

wavelength
( )( )
34 8
19
7
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
3.2 10 J
6.2 10 m
hc
E
=

=
=

( )( )( )
34
31 19
10
2
6.63 10 J s
2 9.11 10 kg 3.2 10 J
8.7 10 m
h
p
h
mE
=
=

=

=

4. (a) m = 1.67 10
27
kg
v = 1.5 10
4
m/s
= ?

( )( )
34
27 4
11
6.63 10 J s
1.67 10 kg 1.5 10 m/s
2.6 10 m
h
mv
=

=

=

The de Broglie wavelength of the neutron is 2.6 10
11
m.
(b) m = 9.11 10
31
kg
v = 1.2 10
6
m/s
= ?

( )( )
34
31 6
10
6.63 10 J s
9.11 10 kg 1.2 10 m/s
6.1 10 m
h
mv
=

=

=

The de Broglie wavelength of the electron is 6.1 10
10
m.
(c) E
K
= 1.0 10
9
eV
= ?

( )( )( )( )
K
34
27 9 19
16
2
6.63 10 J s
2 1.67 10 kg 1.0 10 eV 1.6 10 J/eV
9.1 10 m
h
p
h
mE
=
=

=

=

The de Broglie wavelength of the proton is 9.1 10
16
m.
5. E
K
= 5.00 10
4
eV
= ?
Since
2
K
1
2
E mv = , then
K
2E
v
m
= .
Therefore,

h
mv
=

( )( )( )
K
34
4 19
31
31
12
2
6.63 10 J s
2 5.0 10 eV 1.60 10 J/eV
9.11 10 kg
9.11 10 kg
5.49 10 m
h
E
m
m
=

=

=

The de Broglie wavelength of the electrons is 5.49 10
12
m.
6. = 0.20 nm = 0.20 10
9
m
p = ?
m = ?

To calculate momentum:

34
9
24
6.63 10 J s
0.20 10 m
3.3 10 kg m/s
h
p
p
=

=
=

To calculate mass:

24
8
32
(for a photon)
3.3 10 kg m/s
3.00 10 m/s
1.1 10 kg
p mv
p mc
p
m
c
m
=
=
=

=
=

24
kgm/s. The mass of the photon is 1.1 10
32
kg.
7. v = 1.2 10
5
m/s
= 8.4 10
14
m
m = ?

( )( )
34
5 14
26 26
6.63 10 J s
1.2 10 m/s 8.4 10 m
6.57 10 kg, or 6.6 10 kg
h
mv
h
m
v
m

=
=

=

=

The mass of the microscopic object is 6.6 10
26
kg.
8. E
K
= 5.0 eV
w = ?

( )( )( )( )
K
34
31 19
10
2
6.63 10 J s
2 9.11 10 kg 5.0 eV 1.60 10 J/eV
5.5 10 m
h
mE
=

=

=

For a single slit, sin
n
n
w
= . For significant diffraction, 1

w
, or w . Therefore, slit width must be less than

5.5 10
10
m.
9. v = 0.25c = 7.50 10
7
m/s
(a) = ?

( )( )
34
27 7
15
6.63 10 J s
1.67 10 kg 7.50 10 m/s
5.29 10 m
h
mv
=

=

=

The associated de Broglie wavelength is 5.29 10
15
m.
(b) E
K
= ?

( )( )
2
K
2
27 7
12
K
1
2
1
1.67 10 kg 7.5 10 m/s
2
4.70 10 J
E mv
E
=
=
=

The kinetic energy is 4.70 10
12
J.
(c) E = ?

12
12
19
7
4.70 10 J
4.70 10 J
1.60 10 J/eV
2.94 10 eV
E
E
=

Therefore, the proton was accelerated through a potential difference of 2.94 10
7
eV (since electron and proton have
the same charge).
10. = 1.0 10
11
m

( )( )( )
K
2
2
K
2
K 2
34
11 31
15
K
2
2
2
6.63 10 J s
2 1.0 10 m 9.11 10 kg
2.41 10 J
h
mE
h
mE
h
E
m
E
=
=
=

=

=

To calculate the potential difference:

15
15
19
4
2.41 10 J
2.41 10 J
1.60 10 J/eV
1.5 10 eV
E
E
=

The potential difference is 1.5 10
4
eV.
Making Connections
11. The scanning tunnelling microscope (STM) allows scientists the ability of atomic vision where they can actually see
atoms. An STM works by passing an electric current between an experimentally manipulated scanning probe the size of
an atom and the surface of the material under study. The STM is able to feel the topography of the object by detecting
small variations in the current.
The STM can map the surface of atoms by probing a semi-conductive surface with a very small needle. When the
electron shells overlap and a current is applied, the electrons participate in quantum leaps. If the surface of the atom has a
depression, the electron shells are farther apart and the electrons do not leap. If the surface is raised, the electron shells are
closer together and more electrons jump to the probe. By measuring the amount of electron jumps, the STM can pass
the info to a computer which makes a false colour map of the surface
The word tunnelling, as it relates to the STM, refers to a small current being applied to a separate materials, and
artificially joining them together so that an electron is able to move from one atomic landscape to another. The image on
the IBM website http://www.almaden.ibm.com/vis/stm/images/stm.gif shows the standing-wave patterns in the local
density of states of a copper surface.
12. In a transmission electron microscope, exposure time must be limited. The high-energy electrons bombarding the
specimen can cause physical changes that will affect the resulting image. In scanning electron microscopes it is desirable
that the specimen be rendered electrically conducting, otherwise a sharp picture will not be obtained. Conductivity is
usually achieved by evaporating a film of metal 50 to 100 angstroms thick onto the specimen in a vacuum (such a
thickness does not materially affect the resolution of the surface details).
13. Biographical information for Willard Boyle:
physicist, Retired former Executive Director of Research, Communications Sciences Division, Bell Labs in
New Jersey.
born: August 19, 1924 in Amherst Nova Scotia
resides in Wallace, Nova Scotia
degrees: BSc, McGill, 1947; MSc, McGill, 1948; PhD (Physics), McGill, 1950
co-inventor of the Charge Coupled Device, first continually operating ruby laser
Awards: The Ballantyne Medal of the Franklin Institute, 1973; Morris Lieberman Award of the IEEE, 1974; Progress
Medal of The Photographic Society of America; Breakthrough Award by the Device Research Conference of the IEEE;
Co-winner, C&C prize of the NEC Foundation, Tokyo, 1999; Edwin H. Land Medal, Optical Society of America, 2001

Biographical information for James Hillier:
physicist, Retired Executive Vice President and Sr. Scientist RCA Labs, Princeton, NJ
born: August 22, 1915 in Brantford, Ontario
degrees: BA, U of Toronto, 1937, MA, U of T, 1938, PhD, U of T, 1941
co-designer of the first commercially available electron microscope in North America
Awards: Inductee, National Inventors Hall of Fame, 1980; Albert Lasker Award, 1960; Commonwealth Award, 1980

12.3 RUTHERFORDS MODEL OF THE ATOM
(Page 625)
1. The atomic model must have a very small, but very massive, positively charged nucleus, and the remainder of the atom
must be empty space.
2. The electrons are kept in orbital paths by the Coulomb force of electric attraction between the positive nucleus and
themselves.
3.
g
e
F
F
= ?

( )( )( )
( )( )
1 2
g
2
1 2
e
2
1 2
1 2
11 2 2 31 27
2
9 2 2 19
g 40
e
6.67 10 N m /kg 9.11 10 kg 1.67 10 kg
9.00 10 N m /C 1.6 10 C
4.4 10
Gm m
F
d
kq q
F
d
Gm m
kq q
F
F

=
=

=

=

Therefore, F
g
10
40
F
e
, and we can ignore F
g
due to its negligible effect.
4. E
K
= 4.5 MeV = 4.5 10
6
eV
m = 6.6 10
27
kg
q
2
= +79e
r
0
= ?

At the point of closest approach, the initial kinetic energy has been totally converted into electric potential energy:

1 2
K p
0
kq q
E E
r
= =
To convert E
K
into joules:

( )( )
K
6 19
13
K
4.5 MeV
4.5 10 eV 1.6 10 J/eV
7.2 10 J
E
E
=
=
=

To calculate the closest distance:

( )( )( )( )( )
1 2
0
K
9 2 2 19 19
13
26 2
13
14 14
0
9.0 10 N m /C 2 1.6 10 C 79 1.6 10 C
7.2 10 J
3.64 10 N m
7.2 10 J
5.05 10 m, or 5.1 10 m
kq q
r
E
r

=

=
=

The closest distance the particle could approach a fixed gold nucleus is 5.1 10
14
m.
5. r
0
= ?

1 2
0
0Au Au
0Al Al
Au
Al
0Au
0Al
(If is constant)
=
79
13
6.1
kq q
r
E
r kq q
E
r kq q
q
q
r
r
=
=
=
=

Therefore, the closest distance an particle can approach the gold nucleus is 6.1 times the distance it can approach the
aluminum.
6. Place one magnet (N-pole upwards) at the centre of the air table. Lock or hold it in place. Direct the other magnet (N-pole
upwards) at the fixed magnet from the left. Since like poles repel, the incident magnet will be deflected by the same
magnetic field of the fixed magnet. For a straight on hit, the moving magnet will rebound along the same path or back
to the same side of the air table. Misses will be deflected at various angles, with the smaller the aiming error, the larger
the deflection. The angle of deflection can be measured. The pattern of deflections is similar to that for the Coulomb
scattering of alpha particles, demonstrated by Rutherford, Marsden, and Hertz.
Making Connections
7. Students should report on Rutherfords academic achievements and his work with Soddy and Geiger. They may also note
that Neils Bohr, James Chadwick, and Robert Oppenheimer studied under him. Rutherford had many strong qualities
including his ability to foster wonderful relationships with his colleagues, and his unpretentious demeanour. He often
didnt put his name on research papers that he initiated, even if he did the bulk of the work, and would give students the
opportunity to complete the paper. He never put his name on Geiger and Marsden's paper announcing large angle
scattering of alpha rays, nor on Chadwick's paper announcing the neutron, nor on Cockcroft and Wilson's paper
announcing the splitting of the atom using a particle accelerator. He is remembered by colleagues to be an inspiring
person.

12.4 ATOMIC ABSORPTION AND EMISSION SPECTRA
PRACTICE
(Page 630)
1. The lowest excitation energy level for free mercury atoms is 4.9 eV. Therefore, a 3.9-eV electron will have an elastic
collision with a free mercury atom, and continue on with 3.9 eV of energy.
2. The electron can lose only the amount of energy corresponding to the difference between ground state (E
1
) and any
excited state (E
e
).

2 1
e
e
3 1
e
e
4 1
e
e
4.86 eV
9.00 eV 4.86 eV
4.14 eV
6.67 eV
9.00 eV 6.67 eV
2.33 eV
8.84 eV
9.00 eV 8.84 eV
0.16 eV
E E
E
E
E E
E
E
E E
E
E
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

The energies with which it can scatter are 4.14 eV, 2.33 eV, and 0.16 eV.
3. From data point (ii):

2 1
1.8 eV 0.3 eV 1.5 eV E E = =

From data point (iii):

2 1
5.2 eV 3.7 eV 1.5 eV E E = =

3 1
5.2 eV 1.9 eV 3.3 eV E E = =
Therefore, the value of E
2
is 1.5 eV, and the value of E
3
is 3.3 eV.

PRACTICE
(Pages 633634)
4. = 589 nm = 5.89 10
7
m
E
p
= ?

( )( )
p
34 8
7
19
p
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
5.89 10 m
3.38 10 J
hc
E
E
=

=
=

The energy difference is 3.38 10
19
J, or 2.11 eV.
5. = 684 nm = 6.84 10
7
m
E = ?

( )( )
34 8
7
19
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
6.84 10 m
2.91 10 J
hc
E
E
=

=
=

The atom loses 2.91 10
19
J, or 1.82 eV of energy.
6. E
1
= 8.25 eV
= 343 nm
E
f
= ?

First we must calculate the electric potential:

3
p
3
p
1.24 10
(nm)
1.24 10
343 nm
3.62 eV
E
E
=
=

To calculate the energy of the final energy level:

f 1 p
f
8.25 eV 3.62 eV
11.87 eV, or 11.9 eV
E E E
E
= +
= +
=

The energy of the final energy level is 11.9 eV.
7. A 7.0-eV electron can excite a mercury atom to its first or second excited state (4.9 eV, and 6.7 eV above ground state).
Therefore, the energies of emitted photons are:

2 1
3 1
3 2
4.9 eV
6.7 eV
6.7 eV 4.9 eV 1.8 eV
E E
E E
E E
=
=
= =

8. (a) The energy the mercury vapour absorbs from white light causes some electrons to be elevated to higher energy levels.
They then quickly descend by giving off this energy in the photons of electromagnetic radiation.
(b) Some of the excited mercury atoms will return directly to the ground state, giving off photons of identical wavelengths
as those absorbed. Other atoms will return via intermediate levels, giving off longer wavelengths. All emitted photons
will come off in random directions, so the dark band in the original white light will not be filled in.
9. One way atoms can receive energy is in collisions with other particles. An example of this is electrons colliding with
mercury atoms. Since the mass of the electron is much smaller than the mass of the mercury atom, the electron bounces
off and the mercury atom recoils very slightly. Another way atoms can receive energy is in collisions with photons. An
example of this is a photon colliding with a mercury atom. The mercury atom absorbs the photon, which then raises the
internal energy of the mercury atom.
10.
21
= 172 nm = 1.72 10
7
m
31
= 194 nm = 1.94 10
7
m
41
= 258 nm = 2.58 10
7
m
(a) E
21
= ?
E
31
= ?
E
41
= ?

For any photon:

hc
E hc
= =

For any transition to the ground state the photon has energy:

( )( )
2 1
2 1
34 8
7
19
2 1
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
2.58 10 m
7.71 10 J
n
n
hc
E
hc
E
E
=
=

=
=

Performing similar calculations for to determine all three energies:

2 1
3 1
4 1
4.82 eV
6.41 eV
7.22 eV
E
E
E
=
=
=

(b)
43
= ?
32
= ?
42
= ?

Other spectral lines occur for transitions from E
4
E
3
, E
4
E
2
, and E
3
E
2
.

4 3
19
4 3
7.22 eV 6.41 eV
0.81 eV
1.30 10 J
E
E
=
=
=


( )( )
4 3
4 3
34 8
19
7
4 3
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
1.30 10 J
1.52 10 m
hc
E
=

Performing similar calculations to determine all three wavelengths:

43
= 152 nm

32
= 782 nm

42
= 518 nm
11. = ?

For its emission spectrum, each possible downward transition produces a line.
From E
2
E
1
:

2 1
19
2 1
3.0 eV
4.8 10 J
E
E

=
=


( )( )
2 1
2 1
34 8
19
7
2 1
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
4.8 10 J
4.14 10 m
hc
E
=

Similarly,
E
2
E
1
= 414 nm
E
4
E
1
= 207 nm
E
3
E
1
= 249 nm
E
4
E
3
= 1240 nm

For its absorption spectrum, only upward transitions from E
1
are possible. Therefore,
E
1
E
2
= 414 nm
E
1
E
3
= 249 nm
E
1
E
4
= 207 nm

(Page 638)
1.
Continuous Spectra Line Spectra Absorption Spectra
Source
heated solid discharge in gas discharge in gas
Pattern
continuous spectrum discrete bright lines continuous with discrete dark lines

2. The experiment was so important because it showed that there were discrete energy levels within the atom, related to the
energies and orbitals of electrons. This lead to a quantum interpretation of spectra, and verified the Bohr quantum/wave
model of the atom.
3. Spontaneous emission is energy absorbed from a photon, which raises the atom to a higher energy level. The photon
emitted is equal to the original photon with no amplification. Stimulated emission is when an atom emits a photon
identical to the passing photon.
4.
Ordinary Lamp Laser
Source
heated solid excited gas
Spectra
continuous emission discrete emission (monochromatic)
Coherence
noncoherent (divergent beam) coherent (parallel beam)
Polarized
no yes
Power
low high

5. Since the laser light is coherent, it tends to stay in a narrow beam. The light from the street lamp obeys the inverse law,
spreading the light energy over a large energy, which diminishes the intensity.
6. E
p
= 3.66 10
19
J
= ?

( )( )
p
p
34 8
19
7
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
3.66 10 J
5.43 10 m
hc
E
hc
E
=
=

=
=

The wavelength emitted by the laser is 5.43 10
7
m, or 543 nm.
7. P = 5.00 mW = 5.0 10
3
J/s
= 632.8 nm = 6.328 10
7
m
t = 2.50 10
2
s
(a) E = ?

( )( )
3 2
4
5.0 10 J 2.50 10 s
1.25 10 J
E P t
E

=
=
=

The energy radiated with each pulse is 1.25 10
4
J.
(b) number of photons = ?

First we must calculate the energy of each photon:

( )( )
photon
34 8
7
19
photon
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
6.328 10 m
3.14 10 J
hc
E
E
=

=
=


4
19
14
1.25 10 J
number of photons
3.14 10 J/photon
number of photons 3.98 10 photons
=

There are 3.98 10
14
photons per pulse.
8. (a) The electron will bounce off the atom, emerging with 4.0 eV.
(b) Nothing will happen because the photon energy must be exactly equal to the atom energy to change the energy level.
(c) The photon will be completely absorbed by the atom.
(d) The atom will be ionized.
9. If light from a star passes through a spectrograph, the relative shape of its emission spectrum can be determined.
By comparing its emission spectrum with those of a known temperature, the temperature can then be determined.
The emission spectrum provides a sensitive thermometer for any emitting surface. Through careful analysis of the
absorption spectra, specific lines in the spectrum indicate elements in the gas of the star.
Making Connections
10. The absorption spectra will have black lines at discrete points in the spectrum. These lines identify the gases present in the
Suns atmosphere.
11. This is known as the Doppler shift. The shift in the spectrum can be measured and the speed and direction (away or
towards Earth) of the star can be calculated.
12. Lasing has been observed in a large number of molecular gases. Of particular importance is the carbon dioxide (CO
2
)
molecular gas laser, which has lasing energy transitions at several wavelengths in the infrared, principally around
9.6 10
9
m and 10.6 10
9
m. CO
2
lasers are capable of continuous, repetitively-pulsed, Q-switched, and mode-locked
operation with high energy outputs and large working efficiencies (10%30%). Furthermore, they emit light at a
frequency exhibiting little atmospheric absorption.
An important area of industrial application for CO
2
lasers has been in materials processing, including drilling holes in
various substances, paper cutting and perforation, cloth cutting, scribing of semiconductor wafers, and welding. In
addition, carbon dioxide lasers are being used in laser-induced fusion studies, experimental optical communications and
tracking systems, and in environmental testing and monitoring. Areas to be discussed include power, types, physical
construction with diagrams, lasering action, cooling, and applications.
13. (a) The Advanced Ballistic Laser (ABL) weapon system consists of a high-energy, chemical oxygen-iodine laser mounted
on a modified 747-400F (freighter) aircraft to shoot down ballistic missiles in their boost phase. A crew of four,
including pilot and copilot, is required to operate the airborne laser, which patrols in pairs at high altitudes (over
10 000 m), flies in orbits over friendly territory, and scans the horizon for the plumes of rising missiles. Capable of
autonomous operation, the ABL acquires and tracks missiles in the boost phase of flight and illuminates the missile
with a tracking laser beam. Simultaneously, computers measure the distance and calculate the missiles course and
direction. After acquiring and locking onto the target, a second laser with weapons-class strength fires a three- to five-
second burst from a turret located in the 747s nose, destroying the missiles over the launch area.
The lasers fuel consists of the same chemicals found in hair bleach and Dranohydrogen peroxide and
potassium hydroxidewhich are then combined with chlorine, gas, and water. The laser operates at an infrared
wavelength of 1.315 m, which is invisible to the eye. By recycling chemicals, building with plastics, and using a
unique cooling process, the laser is comparably light and efficient. This has also increased its power by 400% over
previous designs. For the operational ABL system, several modules are linked together in series to achieve ABLs
required megawatt-class power level.
(b) Atmospheric turbulence, which weakens and scatters the laser's beam, is produced by fluctuations in air temperature
(the same phenomenon that causes stars to twinkle). To overcome this, a complex mirror is used to compensate for tilt
and phase distortions in the atmosphere. The mirror has 341 actuators that change at a rate of about a 1000 per second.
The key issues in the program will be the effective range of the laser and systems integration of a Boeing 747 aircraft.
The fact that this type of missile defense only attacks missile as they rise from Earth and not when they descend,
means that anti-missile missiles would also be required for those that get through the laser defenses.
(c) If the system works, and it has yet to be tested successful, nations that have ballistic missile capability would probably
build more missiles to ensure that some of their missiles will get through the laser defenses, thus provoking a world-
wide proliferation of missiles.

12.5 THE BOHR MODEL OF THE ATOM
PRACTICE
(Page 642)
1. = 388 nm = 3.88 10
7
m
n = ?

( )( )
p
34 8
7
19
p
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
3.88 10 m
5.13 10 J
3.20 eV
hc
E
E
=

=
=
=

From examining the energy levels for hydrogen atoms, the two levels that are separated by 3.20 eV are n = 8, and n = 2.

8 2
2 2
13.6 eV
0.21 eV
8
13.6 eV
3.40 eV
2
E
E
= =
= =

The values of n are n = 8, to n = 2.
2. (a) Since the ground state is 13.6 eV, the ionization energy is 13.6 eV.
(b) When n = 3, the energy is 1.51 eV. Therefore, the ionization energy is 1.51 eV.
3. = 656 nm
n = ?

First we must calculate the energy:

3
1.24 10
(nm)
1.89 eV
E
E

=
=

To calculate the levels of transition:
( )
3 2
1.51 3.40 1.89 eV n n = =
The levels where the transition occurred were between n = 3 and n = 2.
4. E = ?
(a) For n = 3 n = 5: 0.54 eV (1.51 eV) = 0.97 eV
The energy of the photon is 0.97 eV.
(b) For n = 5 n = 7: 0.28 eV (0.54 eV) = 0.26 eV
The energy of the photon is 0.26 eV.

PRACTICE
(Pages 647648)
5. To calculate the de Broglie wavelength:

( )( )
34
31 6
19
6.63 10 J s
9.11 10 kg 2.19 10 m/s
3.32 10 m
h
mv
=

=

=

To calculate the circumference of the first orbit:
( )( )
11
10
2
2 5.3 10 m
3.3 10 m
C r
C
=
=
=

Therefore, the circumference of the first orbit in the hydrogen atom is equal to the de Broglie wavelength of the electron.
6. The energy levels of hydrogen are:
E
1
= 13.6 eV
E
2
= 3.4 eV
E
3
= 1.5 eV
E
4
= 0.85 eV
E
5
= 0.54 eV

Therefore, the energies of all the possible photons are:
E
5
E
4
= 0.31 eV
E
5
E
3
= 0.96 eV
E
5
E
2
= 2.86 eV
E
5
E
1
= 13.1 eV
E
4
E
3
= 0.65 eV
E
4
E
2
= 2.6 eV
E
4
E
1
= 12.8 eV
E
3
E
2
= 1.9 eV
E
3
E
1
= 12.1 eV
E
3
E
1
= 10.2 eV
7. Electrons with energy 12.3 eV can excite an H atom to its first and second excited states; therefore, photon in the emission
spectrum are:
( )
3 1
p1
p1
1.5 eV 13.6 eV
12.1 eV
E E
E
E
=
=

( )
2 1
p2
p2
3.4 eV 13.6 eV
10.2 eV
E E
E
E
=
=

( )
3 2
p3
p3
1.5 eV 3.4 eV
1.9 eV
E E
E
E
=
=

For the wavelength of E
p1
:

( )( )
( )( )
1
p1
34 8
19
7
1
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
12.1 eV 1.6 10 J/eV
1.03 10 m
hc
E
=

=
=

Similarly,

1
= 103 nm

2
= 122 nm

3
= 654 nm
The wavelengths that could be emitted by hydrogen are 103 nm, 122 nm, and 654 nm.
8. For the Balmer series, E
2
is the lower level.

4 2
2 2
13.6
eV 0.85 eV
4
13.6
eV 3.40 eV
2
E
E
= =
= =


( )( )
( )( )
p
p
34 8
19
7
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
2.55 eV 1.6 10 J/eV
4.88 10 m
hc
E
hc
E
=
=

=
=

The wavelength is 4.88 10
7
m, or 488 nm.
9.
7 2
13.6 eV
0.278 eV
7
E

= =
E
1
= 13.6 eV

6 2
13.6 eV
0.378 eV
6
E

= =
= ?
(a) For the most energetic photon:

( )
p 7 1
18
p
0.278 eV 13.6 eV
13.32 eV
2.13 10 J
E E E
E

=
=
=
=

( )( )
p
34 8
18
8
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
2.13 10 J
9.33 10 m
hc
E
=

=
=

The wavelength of the most energetic photon is 9.33 10
8
m, or 93 nm.
(b) For the least energetic photon:

( )
p 7 6
20
p
0.278 eV 0.378 eV
0.100 eV
1.6 10 J
E E E
E

=
=
=
=

( )( )
p
34 8
20
5 5
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
1.6 10 J
1.24 10 m, or 1.2 10 m
hc
E

=

=
=

The wavelength of the least energetic photon is 1.2 10
5
m, or 1.2 10
4
nm.
10. E
p
= ?
= ?

At room temperature, nearly all hydrogen atoms are in the ground state, with n = 1.
E
1
= 13.6 eV

For the least energetic photon absorbed, the hydrogen atom excited to the first level, with n = 2.

2 2
13.6 eV
3.4 eV
2
E

= =

Therefore,

( )
p
p
3.4 eV 13.6 eV
10.2 eV
E
E
=
=


( )( )
( )( )
p
34 8
19
7
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
10.2 eV 1.6 10 J/eV
1.22 10 m
hc
E
=

=
=

The energy of the least energetic photon is 10.2 eV. The wavelength of the least energetic photon is 1.22 10
7
m, or
122 nm.
11. = ?

The longest wavelength is the least energetic; therefore, it is the smallest transition.
(a) n = 1
n = 2 n = 1 = 3.40 eV (13.6 eV) = 10.2 eV

3
p
3
1.24 10
(eV)
1.24 10
10.2 eV
122 nm
E
=
=

The longest wavelength in the hydrogen Lyman series is 122 nm.
(b) n = 3
n = 4 n = 3 = 0.85 eV (1.51 eV) = 0.66 eV

3
p
3
3
1.24 10
(eV)
1.24 10
0.66 eV
1.89 10 nm
E
=
=

The longest wavelength in the hydrogen Paschen series is 1.89 10
3
nm.
12. r
n
= 1.0 mm = 1.0 10
3
m
n = ?
E
n
= ?

For the hydrogen atom:

11 2
11
3
11
6
3
5.3 10 m
5.3 10 m
1.0 10 m
5.3 10 m
18.9 10
4.3 10
n
n
r n
r
n
n
=
=
=
=

To calculate the energy:

( )
2
2
3
7
13.6 eV
13.6 eV
4.3 10
7.4 10 eV
n
n
E
n
E

=

The value of n is 4.3 10
3
. The energy of an electron in that orbit is 7.4 10
7
eV.

(Page 649)
1. Theoretically, the spectral lines become closer and closer together as n increases. However, as the ionization level is
approached, the electrons will begin to escape.
2. (a) n
1
n
3
= 1.51 eV (13.6 eV) = 12.1 eV
The energy of the absorbed photon is 12.1 eV.
(b) n
3
n
2
= 1.51 eV (3.40 eV) = 1.9 eV
n
3
n
1
= 12.1 eV
n
2
n
1
= 3.40 eV (13.6 eV) = 10.2 eV
The atom could emit photon energies of 12.1 eV, 10.2 eV, and 1.9 eV.
3. For n = 2, E
2
=
2
13.6 eV
3.4 eV
2
=
Therefore, the energy required for ionization is 3.4 eV. This is not likely to happen, since an atom is not in the n = 2 state
for any appreciable time and absorption of energy, in that level, is highly improbable.
4. = ?
f = ?

6 2
13.6 eV
0.38 eV
6
E = =

2 2
13.6 eV
3.40 eV
2
E = =

First we must calculate the energy of the photon:

( )
p
19
p
0.38 eV 3.40 eV
3.02 eV
4.83 10 J
E
E

=
=
=

To calculate the wavelength:

( )( )
p
34 8
19
7
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
4.83 10 J
4.12 10 m
hc
E
=

=
=

To calculate frequency:

8
7
14 14
3.00 10 m/s
4.12 10 m
7.28 10 Hz, or 7.3 10 Hz
c
f
f
=

The wavelength of the fourth Balmer line is 4.12 10
7
m, or 412 nm. The frequency of the same line is 7.3 10
14
Hz.
5. r = 0.847 nm = 0.847 10
9
m
n = ?

11 2
9 11 2
9
11
5.3 10 m
0.847 10 m 5.3 10 m
0.847 10 m
5.3 10 m
4
n
r n
n
n
n
=
=
=

The hydrogen atom can have this radius when n = 4.
6. v = 2.19 10
6
m/s
(a) = ?

( )( )
34
31 6
10
6.63 10 J s
9.11 10 kg 2.19 10 m/s
3.32 10 m
h
mv
=

=

=

10
m.
(b) r = 4.8 10
10
m
n = 3

11 2
10 11 2
10
11
5.3 10 m
4.8 10 m 5.3 10 m
4.8 10 m
5.3 10 m
3
n
r n
n
n
n
=
=
=

Therefore, when the radius of the Bohr orbit is 4.8 10
10
m, the quantum number is 3.
7. F
e
= ?
At the ground state, r
1
= 2.1 10
10
m.

( )( )
( )
2
1 2
e 2 2
2
9 2 2 19
2
10
9
e
9.0 10 N m /C 1.6 10 C
2.1 10 m
5.2 10 N
kq q ke
F
v r
F
= =

=
=

The Coulomb force of attraction is 5.2 10
9
N.

12.6 PROBABILITY VERSUS DETERMINISM
(Page 653)
1. The Bohr model assumes precise values for orbital radius r, but the uncertainty principle says this means the radial
velocity will be uncertain. The Bohr model also assumes precise values for orbital velocity v, but again the uncertainty
principle says this means orbital position will be uncertain. Although the precise orbits predicted by the Bohr theory are
no longer accepted, the model paved the way for better theories.
2. A particles position may be known with an uncertainty x at the same time as its velocity is known with an uncertainty
v, only where
2
h
x v
m
.
3. m = 12.0 g = 1.20 10
2
kg
v = 1.80 10
2
m/s
(a) = ?

( )( )
34
2 2
34
6.63 10 J s
1.20 10 kg 1.80 10 m/s
3.07 10 m
h
mv
=

=

=

34
m.
(b) x = 0.60 cm = 0.60 10
2
m

( )
34
2
32
2
6.63 10 J s
0.60 10 m
2
1.76 10 kg m/s
h
x p
p
p

The minimum uncertainty in momentum is 1.76 10
32
kgm/s.
4. If Plancks constant were much larger, the right hand side of the equation,
2
h
, would be much larger as well. As a result,

the quantity of xp would be larger, since it must be equal to or greater than
2
h
. Therefore, uncertainty increases if the

value of Plancks constant increases. When shooting an arrow at a fixed target, the uncertainty of its position (x) would
increase as well, making it harder to hit. When shooting at a moving target (a deer) its velocity (v) would also be more
uncertain, making it even harder to hit.

CHAPTER 12 LAB ACTIVITIES
Lab Exercise 12.1.1: Analyzing the Photoelectric Effect
(Pages 654656)
Analysis
(b) The graph shows the relationship between photocurrent (A) and retarding electrical potential (V).

(c) When the photocurrents for low- and high-intensity violet light are compared, we see that the higher the intensity of the
incident light, the larger the value of the maximum photocurrent.
(d) The violet light has the largest cutoff potential. The values of the cutoff potential for both intensities of violet light are the
same. This indicates that the intensity of the light source has no effect on the cutoff voltage.
(e)
Maximum E
K
of Ejected Electrons Colour of
Light
Wavelength
of Light (nm)
Cutoff
Potential (V)
(eV) (J)
Frequency of
Light (Hz)
yellow 578 0.25 0.25

4.0 10
20

5.2 10
14

green 546 0.40 0.40

6.4 10
20

5.5 10
14

blue 480 0.70 0.70

1.1 10
19

6.3 10
14

violet 410 1.15 1.15

1.8 10
19

7.3 10
14

Sample calculation to find E
K
in J:

( )( )
K 0
19
20
K
1.60 10 C 0.25 J/C
4.00 10 J
E eV
E
=
=
=

Sample calculation (using yellow wavelength) to find E
K
in eV:

20
K
19
K
4.00 10 J
1.6 10 J/eV
0.25 eV
E
E
=

Sample calculation to find frequency:

8
9
14
3.00 10 m/s
578 10 m
5.2 10 Hz
c f
c
f
f
=
=
=

Violet light has the highest-energy photons since the electrons ejected by violet light photons have the highest maximum
kinetic energy.
(f) The graph shows the relationship between frequency (10
14
Hz) and energy (10
19
J). For energy, students should
convert 4.0 10
20
and 6.4 10
20
to 0.40 10
19
and 0.64 10
19
respectively.

Values for f are listed in the table above. As indicated by the straight-line graph, the maximum energy of the ejected
photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of the incident light for each colour of light. In other words, it
appears that
K
E f .
(g)

To calculate slope:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
19 19
14 14
19
14
34
rise
slope
run
1.6 10 J 1.5 10 J
7.0 10 Hz 2.3 10 Hz
3.1 10 J
4.7 10 Hz
slope 6.60 10 J s

=

=

=

The slope is 6.60 10
34
Js.

To calculate experimental error:

34 34
34
measured value accepted value
% error 100%
accepted value
6.60 10 J s 6.63 10 J s
100%
6.63 10 J s
% error 0.005%

=

=

=

The measurement is acceptable within experimental error.
(h) Extrapolating the graph to the intercept on the y-axis, we obtain 3.0 10
19
J. The significance of the negative intercept
means this value is considered the work function. An incident photon with a minimum energy of 3.0 10
19
J (1.90 eV) is
required for a photoelectron to be released from the surface of the cesium.

(i) The threshold frequency f
0
for cesium as measured by the x-intercept on the graph is 4.6 10
14
Hz.

8
4
7
c
3.00 10 m/s
=
4.6 10 Hz
= 6.5 10 m
f
c
f

=
=

The wavelength of cesium is 6.5 10
7
m, or 650 nm.
(j) Based on the information derived above, the general equation for the graph is:

34 19
K
(6.60 10 J s) 3.0 10 J
y mx b
E f

= +
=

(k) From
K
E hf W = , we obtain
K
hf E W = + or
photon K
E E W = + .
(l) After plotting the data for barium and calcium on the graph in step (f), the two intercepts can be read as follows:
barium: W = 3.8 10
19
J; f
0
=

5.95 10
14
Hz
calcium: W = 5.1 10
19
J; f
0
=

8.00 10
14
Hz
(m) Since the visible spectrum ranges from 4.0 10
14
Hz to 8.0 10
14
Hz, and the threshold frequency for calcium is
8.00 10
14
Hz, calcium will not produce photoelectric emission for the visible range of the spectrum.
(n) The slopes of the graphs for the three substances are nearly the same, and each has a value very close to Plancks constant
(6.63 10
34
Js). This indicates that Plancks constant is the same for all photoelectric surfaces.

Investigation 12.5.1: The Energy Levels of Hydrogen
(Pages 656657)
Observations and Calculations
(Data based on the PSSC Apparatus)
The table below shows answers the required calculations in step (a) and (b).

Distance to Centre
Line x
Average
Value of x
(m)
Wavelength
d x
L

= (nm)
Energy
hc
E
= (eV)
Transition
Involved (eV)
Colour of
Spectral
Line
left (m) right (m)
pale violet 0.071 0.0765 0.0738 419 2.96
6 2
3.02 E E
violet 0.0755 0.0805 0.0780 443 2.81
5 2
2.86 E E
green 0.085 0.091 0.0880 500 2.49
4 2
2.55 E E
red 0.122 0.1265 0.1243 706 1.76
3 2
1.9 E E

Sample calculations:
d = 1.72 10
4
cm = 1.72 10
6
m
L = 30.3 cm = 0.303 m
(a) To calculate the wavelength for pale violet:

6
7
(1.72 10 m)(0.0738 m)
0.303 m
= 4.19 10 m
x
d
L

The wavelength for pale violet is 4.19 10
7
m, or 419 nm.
(b) To calculate energy for pale violet in joules:

34 8
7
19
(6.63 10 J s)(3.00 10 m/s)
=
4.19 10 m
4.74 10 J
hc
E
E
=

To calculate energy in electron volts:

19
19
4.74 10 J
1.60 10 J/eV
2.96 eV
E
E
=

The energy of the photons comprising pale violet is 2.96 eV.
(c) Energy levels in hydrogen:

2
2
2
6
2
13.6 eV
13.6 eV
3.4 eV
2
13.6 eV
0.38 eV
6
n
E
n
E
E
= =
= =

For E
6
E
2
, the energy of the emitted photon would be:
E
6
E
2
= 0.38 eV (3.4 eV) = 3.02 eV
The experimental value was 2.96 eV.
(d) Similar calculations gives results for the other three spectral lines observed. The values are reflected in Table 1.
(e) See Table 1.
Evaluation
(f) The percent error would be:

measured value accepted value
percent error = 100 %
accepted value
2.86 eV 3.02 eV
= 100%
3.02 eV
percent error = 5.3%

Synthesis
(g) To find the visible energy transitions for neon, a neon discharge tube could be placed in the apparatus, and similar
processes and calculations to those used for hydrogen could be used.

CHAPTER 12 SUMMARY
Make a Summary
(Page 658)

(Pages 659660)
True/False
1. F The wavelength of a single quantum is directly proportional to its frequency.
2. T
3. F For a given photoelectric surface, the shorter the wavelength, the higher the cut off potential.
4. T
5. F Photons have momentum whose value is given by
h
p
=
6. F When light passes through a medium, its behaviour is best explained using its particle properties, whereas when light
interacts with matter, its behaviour is best explained using its particle characteristics.
7. T
8. F Electrically excited gases produce an emission spectrum or line spectrum, while a continuous spectrum is produced
from a heated solid.
9. T
10. T
11. F In an atom we think of the electron as a particle moving in a circular orbit, whose wave properties predict the
probability of it position and velocity.
Multiple Choice
12. (d) Increasing the frequency of the light incident on a metal surface:
- has no affect on the threshold frequency for the emission of photoelectrons
- increases the number of photoelectrons emitted
- decreases the threshold frequency for the emission of photoelectrons
(d) - increases the kinetic energy of the most energetic photoelectrons
- increases the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
13. (b) The light beam that produced graph B had the highest frequency because it required the largest negative potential
difference to reduce its photoelectric current to zero
14. (c) The longest wavelength is associated with the lowest frequency. Thus, the beam having the lowest frequency must
have produced curve C, because it fell to zero current with the lowest negative potential difference.
15. (b) Photons with highest momentum have the highest kinetic energy. These high energy electrons would have require the
highest negative potential difference to be stopped. Thus, the light beam of graph B must have produced them.
16. (a) The formation of these rings is similar to that produced by waves passing through a small opening and would be similar
to that produced by light passing through a grating, if the grating were rotated through 360. Thus, the electrons
diffraction pattern is similar to that for light, illustrating the wave nature of electrons scattered by a thin gold film.
17. (e) Since
2
K
2 p mE = , increasing the energy increases the momentum of the electrons. Since
h
p
= , increasing p
decreases . For diffraction grating, sin
d
= , decreasing decreases , and thus decreasing the distance of the rings

from the axis of the beam.
18. (d) As the 8.0 eV electron collides with the atom, energy can be absorbed as follows:
8.0 eV 6.67 eV = 1.33
8.0 eV 4.86 eV = 3.14
The electron could bounce off in an elastic collision, emerging with 8.0 eV.
19. (d) Since the 9.0 eV electron has energy exceeding that of all of the energy levels shown in the diagram, energies of
4.86 eV, 6.67 eV and 8.84 eV are all possible.
20. (e) For a photon to be absorbed, it must have exactly the same energy, as energy levels in the atom. It does not, so the atom
cannot be excited by a 9.0-eV photon.
21. (d) Ionization energy is the energy required to move the electron from its lowest energy level completely away from the
atom. (18 eV)
22. (d) For , 18 eV n E
= =
For
1
1, 0 eV n E = =
The ionization potential is the energy required to increase the potential energy of an electron from a lower energy level
to n = .

1
ionization potential =
18 eV 0 eV
ionization potential = 18 eV
E E

=
23. (a) For
3
3, 12 eV n E = =
For
2
2, 8 eV n E = =

emitted photon 3 2
emitted photon
=
12 eV 8 eV
= 4 eV
E E E
E
=
24. (b) The electron can transfer enough energy to the atom to raise the level from one state to another state, with a higher
energy level. In this case, the only possible transition is from n = 1 (0 eV) to n = 2 (8eV). Thus, the electron transfers
8 eV to the atom and rebounds with 2 eV remaining.

CHAPTER 12 REVIEW
(Pages 661663)
1. Visible photons are the ones our eyes can detect. A dark room is full of photons with infrared wavelength and greater, but
none have sufficient energy to activate the nerve cells in the retina of our eyes. Therefore, we cannot see in the dark
because visible light photons do not exist. There may also be photons of ultraviolet wavelengths and shorter, but these are
also invisible to our eyes.
2. Photographic film chemicals are chosen to respond to certain light wavelengths or photon energies. Some black and white
films are insensitive to low energy red photons and thus are not exposed by the red light used in the dark room. Since
colour film is sensitive to all visible photons a red light is not sufficient, and the film must be developed in complete
darkness.
3. The photon gives up its fixed amount of energy to an electron. However, the electron can lose any amount of this energy
jostling its way to the surface. As long as it still has enough energy left to overcome the work function, it can escape.
Hence the variations in the speeds of the photoelectrons.
4. E = 2.46 eV
= ?

3
3
3
1.24 10
(nm)
1.24 10
1.24 10
2.46 eV
504 nm
E
E

The longest wavelength of light is 504 nm, or 5.04 10
7
m.
5. = 6.0 10
2
nm = 6.0 10
7
m
W = 2.3 10
19
J
E
K
= ?

( )( )
K
34 8
19
7
19
K
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
2.3 10 J
6.00 10 m
=1.02 10 J
0.64 eV
E hf W
hc
W
E

Therefore, the required potential difference is 0.64 eV. The value is negative because a negative potential is required to
stop the electrons.
6. = 4.30 10
2
nm
E
K
= 1.21 eV
W = ?

p K
3
2
1.24 10
1.21 eV
4.30 10 nm
2.88 eV 1.21 eV
1.67 eV
W E E
W

The work function of the surface is 1.67 eV.
7. = 410 nm = 4.10 10
7
m
p = ?

34
7
27
6.63 10 J s
4.10 10 m
1.62 10 kg m/s
h
p
p

The momentum is 1.62 10
27
kgm/s.
8. = 7.5 10
10
m
E = ?

2
2
K
1
2 2
p
E mv
m

Since
h
p
,

( )
2
2
34
10
31
19
2
6.63 10 J s
7.5 10 m
2 9.11 10 kg
4.29 10 J
2.68 eV
h
E
m
E
j \
, (
( ,
j \
, (
( ,

The energy required is 2.68 eV.
9. If the electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 1.50 10
4
V, it will gain 1.50 10
4
eV.
1.50 10
4
eV = (1.50 10
4
eV)(1.60 10
19
J/eV) = 2.40 10
15
J

2
K
K
2
2
p
E
m
p E m

Plugging this value for p into the equation:

( )( )( )
K
34
15 31
11
2
6.63 10 J s
2 2.40 10 J 9.11 10 kg
1.00 10 m
h
p
h
E m

11
m.
10. v
1
= 1.00 10
6
m/s
v
2
= 0.50 10
6
m/s
= ?


( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
p K 1 2
2 2
1 2
2 2
31 6 6
19
p
1 1
2 2
1
2
1
9.11 10 kg 1.00 10 m/s 0.50 10 m/s
2
3.42 10 J
E E mv mv
m v v
E

, ]

, ]
]


( )( )
p
34 8
19
7
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
3.42 10 J
5.82 10 m
hc
E

7
m, or 582 nm.
11. (a) v = 2.52 10
6
m/s
= ?

First we must calculate momentum:

( )( )
31 6
24
9.11 10 kg 2.52 10 m/s
2.30 10 kg m/s
p mv
p


34
24
10
6.63 10 J s
2.30 10 kg m/s
2.88 10 m
h
p

10
m.
(b) = ?
Since for an electron,
h
p
, the value will be 2.88 10
10
m, the same as in part (a).
12. In the case of light, wave theory predicts the interference pattern if light is diffracted through a series of adjacent, equally
spaced slits (see Section 10.2). When X rays (a form of electromagnetic wave) are diffracted by equally spaced atoms in a
lattice structure in thin crystals, the interference pattern yields a circular pattern as illustrated in Figure 5(a), page 615. In
other words wave theory predicts the interference pattern observed.
De Broglie predicts that particles have a wavelength that will predict their behaviour. When electrons are directed at a
equalled spaced atoms in the lattice structure of a crystal of nickel, the electrons are diffracted into a similar pattern to that
produce by X rays in the same questions, as predicted by the de Broglie wavelength. In other words matter wave theory
predicts the interference pattern observed.
13. Rutherfords model suggests a continuous spectrum of light frequencies would be emitted as the spiralling electron
collapsed into the nucleus. However, the observed spectrum consists of a distinct number of discrete frequencies only,
with no evidence of atomic collapse.
14. To analyze the composition of a gas, an absorption spectrum is used. Since the light arriving from Mars or Venus must
pass through Earths atmosphere, no conclusive results are possible since Earths atmosphere is 20% oxygen.
15. We don not observe any other series because the Lyman series of lines are in the ultraviolet section of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
16. Since the electron is a circular orbit, it has centripetal acceleration. According to Maxwell, an accelerated charge moving
at a constant speed should emit a continuous electromagnetic wave.
17. The energy of their photons is sufficient to ionize moving atoms, causing damage to constituents of matter, (e.g., human
cells).
18. To understand a specific experiment, one must use either the wave or the photon theory, but not both.
19.
Water Waves Electrons
low speed high speed
large slits very small slits (spaces between atoms)
interference patterns spread over a large surface interference pattern very small
diffraction is easy to utilize diffraction is difficult, very short wavelengths

20.
Classical Mechanics Quantum Mechanics
positron, velocity, and momentum discrete position, velocity, and momentum uncertain
location determined by classical laws of mechanics location predicted by wave properties
mass finite mass interconvertable with energy

21. In ground state,
3
1 1
4
3
V r .
In first excited state, r
2
= 2
2
r
1
= 4r
1
, therefore:

( )
3
2 2
3
1
3
1
2 1
4
3
4
4
3
4
64
V r
r
V
V V

The volume is greater by a factor of 64.
22. Bohrs relationship
2
13.6 eV
=
n
E
n
j \
, (
( ,
yields the same energy levels for the hydrogen atom those discovered
experimentally for hydrogen gas excited by a high electric potential. Calculations of the wavelengths of the emitted
wavelengths produce exactly the same values predicted mathematically by Bohr.
23. As the electron moves from one Bohr orbit to another, with a higher energy level:
(a) the speed will increase
1
n
v
n
j \
, (
( ,

(b) the orbital radius will increase
( )
2
n
v n
(c) the energy will decrease in magnitude
2
13.6 eV
=
n
E
n
j \
, (
( ,
, but increase in value relative to the ground state (13.6 eV)
(d) the de Broglie wavelength will decrease, since the energy has increased.
24.
11 2
5.3 10 m
n
r n

( )
11 2
2
10
2
= 5.3 10 m 2
2.1 10 m
r
r

The radius of the second excited state of the hydrogen atom is 2.1 10
10
m.
25. intensity = 1.0 kW/m
2

(a) = 5.50 10
2
nm = 5.50 10
7
m
number of photons = ?

2
4 2
1 2
1 2
intensity 1.0 kW/m
1000 W
10 cm
1.0 10 W/cm
intensity 1.0 10 J/cm s


( )( )
p
34 8
7
19
p
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
5.50 10 m
3.60 10 J
hc
E
E


1 2
19
17 2
1.0 10 J/cm m
number of photons
3.6 10 J/photon
number of photons 2.8 10 photons/cm m

The number of photons striking the area per second is equal to 2.8 10
17
.
(b) There are 2.8 10
17
photons in a box with dimensions of 1 cm 1 cm 3.00 10
8
m. Therefore, the number of
photons in a thimble with dimensions of 1 cm 1 cm 1 cm is:

17
8 3
8 3
2.8 10 photons
9.3 10 photons/cm
3.00 10 cm

26. Applying the principle of uncertainty to an electron orbiting a nucleus we say that there is uncertainty in measuring the
electrons position and velocity. Thus, it becomes impossible to say for any individual electron where it is now or where it
will be at any future time. Rather than saying where it is, we must be satisfied with describing its location by stating the
probability that it will be found near any point. One way of visualizing this situation is to think of the electron existing as
a cloud of negative charge distributed around the atom, rather than as a particle moving in a circular orbit. The cloud is
denser in areas of high probability and less dense in areas where the electron is less likely to be found.
27. An object can never be truly at rest. The equation
2
h
x p
indicates that there is uncertainty in any measurement of

position, speed, and momentum. If the position is uncertain, then the object can never be at rest, at least as we know it in
classical mechanics. In reality, for macroscopic objects the uncertainty is so small that we do not notice it in normal,
everyday life.
28.

29. (a) If x is f = 7.5 10
14
Hz on the graph, the y value will be 2.7 eV. In other words the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
is 2.7 eV. To reduce the current to zero a retarding potential of 2.7 eV would be required.
(b) The y-intercept is 2.7 10
14
Hz. Thus, light with a minimum frequency of 2.7 10
14
Hz is required before the work
function is exceeded.
(c) When the graph is extrapolated back to the y-axis, the value of 1.0 eV is obtained. This represents the work function.
(d)
rise
slope =
run

14
14
15
34 34
3.0 eV
=
(1.0 2.7) 10 Hz
3.0 eV
=
7.3 10 Hz
= 4.109 10 eV
slope = 6.58 10 J s, or 6.6 10 J s

The value for Plancks constant is 6.6 10
34
Js.
30. diffraction grating = 5000 lines/cm

4 6
1.00 cm
2.00 10 cm 2.00 10 m
5000 lines
w

r = 30.0 cm = 30.0 10
2
m
AB = 16.4 cm

1
sin
sin
n
n
w
w

Since
1
sin
x
L
, x =
1
2
(16.4 10
2
m), and L = r = 30.0 10
2
m, therefore,

( )( )
2 6
2
7
1
16.4 10 m 2.0 10 m
2
30.0 10 m
5.47 10 m
xw
L

The wavelength of the first-order green line of mercury is 5.47 10
7
m, or 547 nm.

Making Connections
31. (a) When the sun's energy strikes a photoelectric surface, the energy 'knocks' electrons loose, allowing them to flow freely.
Photovoltaic cells also all have one or more electric fields that act to force electrons freed by light absorption to flow in
a certain direction. This flow of electrons is a current, and by placing metal contacts on the top and bottom of the cell,
we can draw that current off to use externally.
Topics could include:
electron structure of silicon
crystalline silicon and conductivity
doping, n-type, p-type, junction
photon action in the silicon
(b) Unfortunately, the most a simple photovoltaic cell could absorb is around 25 percent, and more likely it is 15 percent or
less. Since the light that hits the cell has photons of a wide range of energies, it turns out that some of them won't have
enough energy to be useful and they pass through the cell as if it were transparent. Still other photons have too much
energy. Only a certain amount of energy, measured in electron volts and defined by the cell material (about 1.1 eV for
crystalline silicon), is required to knock an electron loose. If a photon has more energy than the required amount, then
the extra energy is lost. These two effects alone account for the loss of around 70 percent of the radiation energy
incident on our cell.
There are other losses as well. Electrons have to flow from one side of the cell to the other through an external
circuit. We can cover the bottom with a metal, allowing for good conduction, but if the top is covered, then photons
can't get through the opaque conductor and we could lose much of the current. If the contacts are only at the sides of
the cell, then the electrons have to travel an extremely long distance to reach the contacts. (Silicon is a semiconductor.
Its not nearly as good as a metal for transporting current and its internal resistance is fairly highhigh resistance
means high losses). To minimize these losses, a metallic contact grid that shortens the distance that electrons have to
travel while covering only a small part of the cell surface covers the cell. Even then, the grid, which can't be too small,
blocks some photons.
The cell can't use photons that are reflected. For that reason, an anti-reflective thin film coating is applied to the
top of the cell to reduce reflection losses to less than 5 percent.
(c) Advantages
nonpolluting
continuously recycling energy source
uses free energy from the sun
Disadvantages
expensive
low efficiency
solar panels take up large areas
low power output
(d) On Earth
remote location power (e.g., weather sensors, emergency telephones, Third World)
low-power sensing devices
photovoltaic applications (security devices, lamp switches)
In space
telescope power (Hubble)
powering television and telephone satellites
space station
(e) If the efficiency improves, solar cells could be used for supplementary power in a home, backup power for an electrical
grid and in many remote locations requiring power, (Northern Canada, Third World)
32. Moving neutrons have de Broglie wavelengths. Fast moving ones (4 10
6
m/s) have de Broglie wavelengths of
approximately 1.0 10
13
m, while slow moving ones have wavelengths of approximately 2.0 10
10
m. Since a typical
nuclear dimension is 10
13
m, we can see that the diffraction behaviour will change. There are other effects too. If we
consider head-on collisions between moving particles and stationary targets we can use the equation to derive an
expression for the fractional change in speed as follows:

1 1 2
1 1 2
v m m
v m m
+

For neutrons striking carbon-12 nuclei:

1
1
1 12 11
1 12 13
v
v

+

The minus sign indicates a reversal. Thus, the incident neutron moves on, after the collision, with
11
13
or 85% of the
original velocity. In order for the speed to be reduced by a factor of 2000, the number of collisions required would be:

11 1
13 2000
13
2000
11
13
log log 2000
11
log 2000
13
log
11
46
n
n
n
n
n
j \
, (
( ,
j \
, (
( ,

This is what occurs in the nuclear reactor that has a graphite core. However, if the fast moving neutron strikes a deuterium
nucleus (in heavy water) it takes only about seven such collisions to reduce the speed by the required factor of 2000.
33. Terms from science that have entered everyday language include: refractory, reflecting, echoing, mirroring, accelerating,
impulse, virtual imagery (computer), inertia, turbulence, momentum, and transmutation.
Extension
34.
1
= 1.6 10
4

p
1
= 1.2 10
22
kgm/s
2
= 4.0 10
4

p
2
= ?
Since
1
1 1
sin , and
h
w p
,

1
1
1
1
sin
(Equation 1)
sin
h
p
w
h
p
w

2
2
2
2
sin
(Equation 2)
sin
h
p
w
h
p
w

Substituting Equation 1 into Equation 2:

( )( )
2
2
1 1
1 1
2
22 40
23
23
2
sin
sin
sin
sin
1.2 10 kg m/s sin1.6 10
sin 4.0 10 kg m/s
4.8 10 kg m/s
h
p
h
p
p
p
j \
, (
( ,

A magnitude of 4.8 10
23
kgm/s is necessary.
35.
e
p
?

Since E
Ke
= E
Kp
,

2 2
e e p p
2
p
e
2
p e
p
e
e p
1 1
2 2
m v m v
v
m
m v
v
m
v m

Since
p
p p
h
m v
and
e
e e
h
m v
,

e e e
p
p p
p p
e e
p
e
e p
27 31
31 27
2 e
p
1.67 10 kg 9.11 10 kg
9.11 10 kg 1.67 10 kg
2.33 10
h
m v
h
m v
m v
m v
m
m
m m

The ratio of the de Broglie wavelengths is 2.33 10
2
:1.
36. v = 8.75 10
6
m/s
d = 5.0 10
6
m
L = 1.0 m
x = ?

First we must calculate wavelength:

( )( )
34
27 6
14
6.63 10 J s
1.67 10 kg 8.75 10 m/s
4.537 10 m
h
mv

To calculate the distance apart:

14
6
9 9
4.537 10 m
1.0 m
5.0 10 m
9.07 10 m, or 9.1 10 m
x L
d
x

j \

, (
( ,
j \
, (
( ,

The interference maxima will be 9.1 10
9
m apart.
37. v = 0.05c = 1.5 10
7
m/s

photon
particle
?

particle
photon
p
h h
p mv
hc
E

But E
p
= E
K
, therefore,

photon
2
2
photon
particle
photon
2
particle
1
2
1
2
1
2
hc
mv
hc
mv
h
mv
c
v
j \
, (
, (
, (
, (
( ,
j \
, (
( ,

Since v = 0.05c,

( )
( )
( )
photon
2
particle
2
2
2
2
photon 6
particle
1
2
1
0.05
2
1
0.05
2
1
1
0.05
2
2.7 10
c
v
c
c
c
c
c

The ratio of the photon wavelength to the de Broglie wavelength is 2.7 10
6
:1.
38. This is an order of magnitude question. Forgetting about the spaces between the spheres, you need to consider that you
need a volume 10
81
bigger than one proton so you need a radius of 10
27
times bigger. 10
15
10
27
= 10
12
, so we need a
container that has a radius of approximately 10
12
m. (The empty voids would put in an error of two in the volume or about
30% in radius.)

Copyright 2003 Nelson Chapter 13 Radioactivity and Elementary Particles 715
CHAPTER 13 RADIOACTIVITY AND ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
(Page 664)

1. Radioactivity refers to reactions that take place at the atomic level in which either , , or particles are emitted. These
reactions can be detected using radio receivers.
2. Living material tends to absorb small quantities of a radioactive form of carbon. When the material dies the radioactivity
declines at a known rate. By comparing the present level of activity to the amount thought to exist when the material was
alive the archaeologist can measure the age of the material.
3. (a) The forces are the electromagnetic force, the gravitational force, the weak nuclear force, and the strong nuclear force.
(b) It is assumed that when the golf club gets very close to the ball the charged particlesprimarily the electronsin one
object tend to strongly repel the like-charged objects in the other object. This means that the force is the
electromagnetic force.
(c) The strong nuclear force is assumed to hold the nucleus together.
4. (a) Physics sees a symmetry in particles that ensures that each type of particle has, associated with it, a corresponding
antiparticle. The antiparticle is similar to the particle in some ways, particularly mass, however there are fundamental
differences. For example, the anti-electron (also called a positron) has a positive charge.
(b) When a particle collides with its corresponding antiparticle the reaction is called annihilation. In this reaction the matter
transforms to energy. The two particles produce two photons, typically with very high energies, depending upon the
initial kinetic energy and rest mass of the original particles.
5. The four days is equal to two half-lives. One-half remains after one half-life and half of that amount remains after the
second half-life. Overall, one-quarter of the original remains after two half-lives.
6. Elementary particles are considered fundamental in that they cannot be subdivided into simpler particles. These are
classified according to some well known properties as well as some lesser known properties that will be dealt with in this
chapter. The well known properties include mass and charge. The lesser known properties are known as spin, strangeness,
and baryon number.

13.1 RADIATION AND RADIOACTIVE DECAY
PRACTICE
(Page 673)
1. (a) According to the periodic table, x = 82. In order to determine y, we must determine the values for the superscript a and
the subscript b by balancing the equation:

212 212
82 83
Pb Bi
212 212
0
a
b
y
a
a
+
= +
=

82 83
1
b
b
= +
=

The particle is designated as
0
1
y
. Based on the values of N and Z, this is a beta particle. Therefore,

0
1
212 212 0
82 83 1
e
Pb Bi e
y

=
+

(b) To determine x and y, we must balance the equation:

214 0
214
x
x
= +
=

83 ( 1)
84
y
y
= +
=

Therefore,
214 214 0
83 84 1
Bi Po + e
.

(c) To determine x and y, we must balance the equation:

222 4
226
x
x
= +
=

86 2
88
y
y
= +
=

Therefore,
226 222 4
88 86 2
Ra Rn + He .
(d)
215 211
84 82
Po Pb +
a
b
x

To determine x, we must determine the value of a and b by balancing the equation:

215 211
4
a
a
= +
=

84 82
2
b
b
= +
=

From the periodic table we know that x is He, therefore
215 211 4
84 82 2
Po Pb + He .
(e)
3
1
H +
a
b
x

To determine x, we must determine the value of a and b by balancing the equation:

3 0
3
a
a
= +
=

1 0
1
b
b
= +
=

From the periodic table, we know that x is H. Therefore,
3 3
1 1
H H + .

(Page 676)
1.
Type of
Emission
Mass (kg) Charge Speed Penetrating
Ability
Ionization
Ability

6.68 10
27
kg
+2

up to 6.67 10
7
m/s
thin paper
(5 cm of air)
low

9.31 10
31
kg
negative
+
positive

6.67 10
7
m/s
to 3 10
8
m/s
thin metal
(36 mm of
aluminum)
moderate
0 0

3 10
8
m/s
thick metal
(30 cm of lead)
low

2. (a)
222 218
86 84
Rn Po +
a
b
x

222 218
4
a
a
= +
=

86 84
2
b
b
= +
=

Therefore,
4
2
He x = , decay.

(b)
141 141
57 58
La Ce +
a
b
x

141 141
0
a
a
= +
=

57 58
1
b
b
= +
=

Therefore,
0
1
e x

= , decay.
(c)
238 238
92 90
U Th +
a
b
x

238 234
4
a
a
= +
=

92 90
2
b
b
= +
=

Therefore,
4
2
He x = , decay.
(d)
141 141
56 57
Ba La +
a
b
x

141 141
0
a
a
= +
=

56 57
1
b
b
= +
=

Therefore,
0
1
e x

= , decay.
(e)
35 35
17 18
Cl Ar +
a
b
x

35 35
0
a
x
= +
=

17 18
1
b
b
= +
=

Therefore,
0
1
e x

= , decay.
(f)
212 212
82 83
Pb Bi +
a
b
x

212 212
0
a
a
= +
=

82 83
1
b
b
= +
=

Therefore,
0
1
e x

= , decay.
(g)
226 222
88 86
Ra Rn +
a
b
x

226 222
4
a
a
= +
=

88 86
2
b
b
= +
=

Therefore,
4
2
He x = , decay.
(h)
215 211
84 82
Po Pb +
a
b
x

215 211
4
a
a
= +
=

84 82
2
b
b
= +
=

Therefore,
4
2
He x = , decay.

3. (a)
212 212
83
Pb Bi +
a
x b
y

From the periodic table, x = 82. For y:

212 212
0
a
a
= +
=

82 83
1
b
b
= +
=

0
1
e y

=
Therefore,
212 212 0
82 83 1
Pb Bi + e

(b) 214 0 x = +
214 x =

83 ( 1)
84
y
y
= +
=

Therefore,
214 214 0
83 84 1
Bi Po + e
.
(c) 222 6 x = +
226 x =

86 2
88
y
y
= +
=

Therefore,
226 222 4
88 86 2
Ra Rn + He .
(d)
215 211
84 82
Po Pb + x
a
b

215 211
4
a
a
= +
=

84 82
2
b
b
= +
=

From the periodic table,
4
2
He x = . Therefore,
215 211 4
84 82 2
Po Pb + He .
(e) 3 0 a = +
3 a =

1 0
1
b
b
= +
=

From the periodic table,
3
1
H x = , therefore
3 3
1 1
H H + .
(f) 141 0 x = +
141 x =
Therefore,
141 141 0
58 59 1
Ce Pr + e
.
4. (a) The average binding energy per nucleon increases toward a maximum at about Z = 56. From there it declines again.
This means that as Z increases beyond approximately 56, less and less energy is required to remove a nucleon from the
nucleus. Thus, larger nuclei tend to be more unstable.
(b) Because nuclei become increasingly unstable as Z increases, the elements with large atomic numbers have a tendency
to decay through radioactive emission.
5. In alpha decay only one particle is produced. Obviously this carries off the released energy. In decay, on the other hand,
two particles are producedthe particle and the neutrino, or antineutrino. In this instance , collectively, the two emitted
particles carry off the released energy. The requirement is that the sum is constant, not that any one particle should have a
fixed proportion of the total. Because of this the emitted particle can have an energy anywhere from practically 0% to
practically 100% of the total energy released.

6. n = 6
z = 14
m
C-14
= 14.003242
number of neutrons 14 6 = 8
mass of parent 14.003242 u

Daughter Products:
6 protons 6 1.007276 u = 6.043656 u
8 neutrons 8 1.008665 u = 8.069320 u
total mass 14.112976 u
mass difference ( ) m 14.112976 14.003242 = 0.109734 u

E = mc
2

2
2
931.4 MeV/
(0.109734 u) 102 MeV
1 u
c
c

=

Carbon-14 has 14 nucleons, so:

102.2MeV
7.30 MeV
nucleon 14
E
= =
The total binding energy is 102 MeV, or 1.02 10
8
eV. The average binding energy per nucleon is 7.30 MeV, or
7.30 10
6
eV.
7. (a)
14 0
6 1
C + e
a
b
x

+

14 0
14
a
a
= +
=

6 ( 1)
7
b
b
= +
=

Using the values of N and Z, the unknown product is identified as nitrogen. Therefore,

14 14 0
6 7 1
C N + e
+
(b) The following masses are obtained from the periodic table.
C-14 mass = 14.003242 u
N-14 mass = 14.003074 u

(mass of C-14) (mass of N-14)
14.003242 u 14.003074 u
0.000168 u
m
m
=
=
=

(Note that with
decay it is customary to use the masses of the non-ionized materials and to thus neglect the mass of
the emitted particle.)

2
2
2
5
931.4 MeV/
(0.000168 u)
1 u
0.156 MeV, or 1.56 10 eV
E mc
c
c
E
=

=

=

The amount of energy released in the reaction is 1.56 10
5
eV.
8. Radioactive decays release the binding energy as kinetic energy. Some of this kinetic energy will be transformed back to
thermal energy in the substance.
Making Connections
9. One example of a device is a smoke detector, which contains a small quantity of a low-activity substance. The radioactive
particles emitted ionize the air between two electrodes and permit a small current to flow in a circuit. Traces of smoke
particles can interrupt this current. The circuit, in turn, can sense this interruption and trigger an alarm. Another example
is clock and watch dials, which contain traces of a low-level radioactive substance that emits photons of visible light.
Three other examples of common household products are cosmetics, nonstick pans, and computer disks.

13.2 RATE OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Try This Activity: Modelling Radioactive Decay
(Page 677)

It is reasonable to assume that approximately one half of the coins will decay each time. The following data are reasonable:

Number of Trials
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of Coins
40 20 10 5 2 1 0

The graph shows the data. A smooth curve has been drawn through the points.

PRACTICE
(Page 678)
1. (a) Note the data point (10 000, 240) shown in the graph below. This indicates that the amount remaining after 10 000
years have passed is 240 g.
(b) Note the data point (8000, 300) shown in the graph below. This indicates that the amount remaining after 8000 years
have passed is 300 g.

2. (a) The table below lists the amount remaining after each number of half-lives.

Number of
Half-Lives
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (a)
0 1600 3200 4800 6400 8000 9600
Amount (g)
0.005 0.0025 0.001 25 0.000 625 0.000 313 0.000 156 7.8110
-05

The graph shows the data. A smooth curve has been interpolated between the points.

(b) The data point (5000, 0.000 57) shows that the amount remaining after 5000 years is 5.7 10
4
g.
(c) The data point (3700, 0.001) shows that when the amount remaining is 0.001 g, the elapsed time is 3700 years.
3. According to the mathematical model the amount will never be zero. As time progresses the graph approaches the
horizontal axis. In mathematical terms you can say that the horizontal axis is a hoizontal asymptote. In practical terms the
fraction of the amount remaining after 6 half-lives is just
1
64
of the original amount. After 10 half-lives (about 60 000 a)
the fraction remaining is approximately
1
1000
of the original. Given that the whole of human existence spans a period of
about 1 million years and also given the incredible number of atoms present in even a small sample, there will always be a
some finite number of atoms present in a sample. The fraction of the original amount may, however, be an exceedingly
small number.

PRACTICE
(Page 680)
4. N
0
= 5.0 mg
t
1/2
= 29.1 a
(a) t = 5 a

1/ 2
0
5
29.1
1
2
1
5.0
2
4.4 mg
t
t
N N
N

=

=

=

The amount of the sample remaining after 5 a is 4.4 mg.

(b) N = 0.1 mg
t = ?

1/ 2
0
29.1
29.1
1
2
1
0.1 5.0
2
0.1 1
5.0 2
0.1 1
log log
5.0 29.1 2
29.1 log0.02
1
log
2
164 a
t
t
t
t
N N
t
t
t

=

=

=

=

=

=

The time required is 164 a.
5. (a) t
1/2
= 193 h
t = 2.00 h
A
0
= 5.00 10
2
g
A = ?

1/ 2
0
2.00
193
2
1
2
1
5.00 10
2
496 g
t
t
N N
N

=

=

=

The amount remaining after 2.00 h is 496 g.
(b) t = 1 a
t
1/2
= 193 a =
365 d 24 h
193 a 8760 h
a d
= =

0
N
N
= ?

1/ 2
1/ 2
0
0
8760
193
45.4
45.4 45
0
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2 , or 2
t
t
t
t
N N
N
N
N
N

=

=

=

=

=

The fraction of the original amount that remains after 1 a is approximately 2
45
, or 2.8 10
14
.
(c) t
1/2
= 193 a
t = ?
The fraction remaining is
1
100
. This is
0
N
N
.


1/ 2
0
193
193
1
2
1 1
100 2
1 1
log log
100 2
1 1
log log
100 193 2
1
193 log
100
1
log
2
1280 h
t
t
t
t
N N
t
t
t

=

=

=

=

=

=

The time required for the amount to be
1
100
of the original quantity is 1280 h.
6. The lower half-life of I-131 indicates that the process of decay proceeds more quickly. In any given period of time atoms
of I-131 have a higher probability of decay than do atoms of C-14. The sample of I-131 will thus register a higher activity.
Note that chemistry students may notice a complicating factor: I-131 has a higher atomic mass. Since the two samples
have the same mass then the C-14 sample actually has more radioactive atoms than does the I-131. If the samples actually
had the same half-life then the C-14 would register higher. The difference in half-lives (when converted to hours the ratio
is 5 10
7
to 131) is so pronounced that this effect would be negligible here.

PRACTICE
(Page 683)
7. N = 0.25 g
N
0
= 2.00 g
t
1/2
= 5730 a
t = ?

1/ 2
0
5730
5730
5730
4
1
2
1
0.25 2.00
2
0.25 1
2.00 2
0.25 1
log log
2.00 2
0.25 1
log log
2.00 5730 2
0.25
5730log
2.00
1
log
2
1.7 10 a
t
t
t
t
t
N N
t
t
t

=

=

=

=

=

=

=

The time required for the amount remaining to drop to 0.25 g is 1.7 10
4
a. This is the approximate age of the sample.

8. A = 7.13 Bq
A
0
= 8.00 Bq
t
1/2
= 5730 a
t = ?

1/ 2
0
5730
5730
5730
2
1
2
1
7.13 8.00
2
7.13 1
8.00 2
7.13 1
log log
8.00 2
7.13 1
log log
8.00 5730 2
7.13
5730log
8.00
1
log
2
9.5 10 a
t
t
t
t
t
A A
t
t
t

=

=

=

=

=

=

=

The age of the sample is approximately 9.5 10
2
a.
9. N = 705 mg
N
0
= 772 mg
t
1/2
= 4.468 10
9
t = ?

( )
1/ 2
9
9
9
0
4.468 10
4.468 10
4.468 10
9
9
8
1
2
1
705 772
2
705 1
772 2
705 1
log log
772 2
705 1
log log
772 2 4.468 10
705
4.468 10 log
772
1
log
2
5.9 10 a
t
t
t
t
t
N N
t
t
t

=

=

=

=

=

=

=

The age of the sample is approximately 5.9 10
8
a.
10. When new, the knife would have contained only trace amounts of C-14. Dating the knife directly using C-14 would be
impossible. A trained archaeologist might be able to determine whether the knife was consistent with the same culture as
was the parchment. If this was the case, the parchment would be able to date the knife indirectly.

PRACTICE
(Page 684)
11.
238 234 4
92 90 2
U Th + He

234 234 0
90 91 1
234 234 0
91 92 1
234 230 4
92 90 2
Th Pa + e
Pa U + e
U Th + He

12. Using the chart, there is only one path from
238 214
92 83
U to Bi . From here there are two paths to the final product, thus there
are two possible unique ways by which a stable daughter can be produced.

(Page 686)
1. (a) A
0
= 3.8 10
8
Bq
t
1/2
= 4.5 10
9
a
t = 1.00 10
6
a
A = ?

( )
1/ 2
6
9
0
1.00 10
4.5 10
8
8
1
2
1
3.8 10
2
3.8 10 Bq
t
t
A A
A

=

=

=

After 1.00 10
6
a the activity is 3.8 10
8
Bq.
(b) N = 0.100 mg
N
0
= 1.00 mg
t
1/2
= 4.5 10
9
a
t = ?

( )
1/ 2
9
9
9
0
4.5 10
4.5 10
4.5 10
9
9
10
1
2
1
0.100 1.00
2
0.100 1
1.00 2
0.100 1
log log
1.00 2
0.100 1
log log
1.00 2 4.5 10
0.100
4.5 10 log
1.00
1
log
2
1.5 10 a
t
t
t
t
t
N N
t
t
t

=

=

=

=

=

=

=

The time required for the amount to decrease to 0.100 mg is 1.5 10
10
a.

2. A
0
= 1.20 10
3
Bq
A = 1.00 10
3
Bq
t = 1 h
t
1/2
= ?

1/ 2
1/ 2
1/ 2
1/ 2
0
1
3 3
1
3
3
1
1/ 2
1/ 2
1/ 2
1
2
1
1.00 10 1.20 10
2
1.00 10 1
2 1.20 10
1.00 1
log log
1.20 2
1.00 1 1
log log
1.20 2
1
log
2
1.00
log
1.20
3.8 h
t
t
t
t
t
A A
t
t
t

=

=

=

=

=

=

=

The half-life of sample X is 3.8 h.
(Note that the time was given as one hour. This could be interpreted two ways with regard to the number of significant
digits. The number could be assumed to be exact and, as such, not affect the answer. This was what was assumed.
Alternatively the number could be taken as having one significant digit. If this were the case then the answer would be
expressed as 4 h.)
3. t
1/2
= 4.468 10
9
a (from Appendix C)
If 9.55% of the material is consistent with daughter products then you can infer that 100% 9.55% = 90.45% of the
original atomic material remains. In other words N = 0.9045 N
0
, which can be written as
0
0.9045
N
N
= .

( )
( )
( )
1/ 2
1/ 2
9
9
0
0
4.468 10
4.468 10
9
9
8
1
2
1
2
1
0.9045
2
1
log 0.9045 log
2
1
log 0.9045 log
2 4.468 10
4.468 10 log 0.9045
1
log
2
6.47 10 a
t
t
t
t
t
t
N N
N
N
t
t
t

=

=

=

=

=

=

=

The age of the specimen is 6.47 10
8
a.

4. A = 4.00 Bq
A
0
= 18.0 Bq
t
1/2
= 5730 a
t = ?

1/ 2
0
5730
5730
5730
4
1
2
1
4.00 18.0
2
4.00 1
18.0 2
4.00 1
log log
18.0 2
4.00 1
log log
18.0 5730 2
4.00
5730log
18.0
1
log
2
1.24 10 a
t
t
t
t
t
A A
t
t
t

=

=

=

=

=

=

=

The age of the fragment is 1.24 10
4
a.
5. The transuranium elements have very short lives. They may have once existed, however they decayed very quickly
afterwards and therefore these elements are not presently found in minerals.
6. The clay would never have contained more than a trace of C-14. Chemical analysis might reveal the presence of another
radioactive substance in the clay. If this were the case then radiometric dating might still be possible. Alternatives to
radiometric dating would include reliance on other archaeological evidence. For example, it might be possible to compare
the tablet to another, similar one, whose age is known.
7.

Making Connections
8. It was likely that the dating process was based on the age of the rocks that the fossils were found in rather than using
radiocarbon dating. This may have been done in absolute terms using radioactive substances present in the rocks. It may
alternatively have been arrived at indirectly using relative dating based on the geologic principle of superposition, which
states that older rocks tend to be found below newer rocks (once the effects of folding have been accounted for).
Suppose, for example, the fossils were found in rock layer B, which was between layers A and C. Suppose further
that the ages of the rocks in layers A and C were known. It would be possible to interpolate the age of the sample to be
between that of the rocks of layers A and C.

9. The radiology department of a local hospital would likely be able to supply approximate costs. These should include
several factors such as the purchase cost, the annual maintenance, the costs of housing the device, and the human
resources costs. If possible, ask the department to supply the typical cost of one such scan, with all factors included.
10. Look for general procedures used in the mining and refining process. A Web search will yield sufficient information in
this respect. Ask in particular about the steps taken to protect the workers from the effects of the radiation. These include
the use of shielding around equipment, protective clothing, and special badges that measure the amount of radiation a
worker has received in any particular time.

13.3 WORKING WITH PARTICLES
Explore an Issue: Funding Research on Elementary Particles
(Page 692)
Understanding the Issue
1. Many of the sites, such as the one at Fermilab, have interactive tutorials that deal with other learning outcomes covered in
Chapter 13. It is a good idea to browse these tutorials.
2. (a) Answers might include the following:
The Provincial Government: particularly the Provincial Department of Health since the radiation produced by
synchrotrons is ideally suited to microscopy related to biological and medical research
The Federal Government: research centred around synchrotrons tends to raise the status of the country as a world
leader in modern physics
Universities: given the costs involved, a consortium of many universities should be organized, each with research
interests centered around the synchrotron
Electrical Companies: synchrotrons use massive amounts of electricity and, as such, constitute a significant customer
Municipal Governments: a large synchrotron would cross the boundaries of many municipalities, probably
distributing wealth, through employment, throughout the municipalities
Private Companies: such as pharmaceutical companies, tend to make great use of the imaging capabilities of
synchrotrons. As such they should be considered funding partners.
(b) Sources of opposition might include:
Groups suspicious of the radiation or other potential health risks: An appropriate design, coupled with an effective
public-relations campaign, should both minimize the real risks while showing the public the many benefits.
Groups who are opposed to the massive expenditure of money: An appropriate, globally-based funding plan should
lessen the amount of public money that would have to be spent on the project.
3. The experience of the CLS has demonstrated two important factors that should be recommended.
(a) Find and use as many funding partners as possible.
(b) Include, in the funding model, provisions for the fact that synchrotrons now have important commercial applications.
Include the financial benefits as part of the funding model.
Form an Opinion
4. There is no right or wrong answer. The key term is balance. Clearly synchrotrons are extremely expensive to both
build and operate. Experience has shown, however, that the device can be expected to provide important, perhaps critical,
discoveries. In addition, the synchrotron has every possibility of being a device that can lead to the type of discovery that
can revolutionize thinking in science. The key issue is to ensure that international co-operation is in place so that the
massive costs do not need to be borne by one nation.

PRACTICE
(Page 694)
1. As the speed of the particle approaches c, the mass increases greatly. The acceleration produced by a magnet (which alters
its direction) or in an RF cavity (which alters its speed) depends upon both the charge of the particle and on its mass. This
means that as the objects relativistic mass increases, the magnetic field strength and the frequency of osculation of the
electric field must be appropriately altered to ensure that accelerations act in a resonant fashion.
2. The TRIUMF is designed to produce beams of high-energy protons. Special equipment exists that can direct proton
beams and cause them to collide with targets. These collisions release large quantities of mesons, particularly pions.

3. When charged particles are accelerated they radiate photons. This is the cause of synchrotron radiation. The fraction of
the kinetic energy radiated away depends upon the cube of the charge to mass ratio. The electron has the same (absolute
value of the) charge as does the proton. Because its mass is smaller by a factor of about 2000, the fraction of the energy
radiated away is larger by about 2000
3
.
4. The operators of the CLS wish to ensure that the positive benefits to society are emphasized. As such they cannot be
blamed for avoiding a termradiationthat often carries negative connotations in everyday language.

(Page 698)
1. As the speed of the accelerating particle approaches c, its relativistic mass increases dramatically. This tends to cause the
particle to fall out of synchronization with the periodic electric field, which is causing it to increase speed. The end result
is that particles in ordinary (classical) cyclotrons can only be accelerated to speeds at which the mass increase is
negligible.
There are two ways of dealing with this technological problem. One way is to modify the frequency across the RF
cavity that causes the acceleration. Another method, one used by the TRIUMF cyclotron, is to modify the strength of the
magnetic field that causes the particle to move in its circular motion.
2. The acceleration occurs in the RF cavity that exists between adjacent drift tubes. Because the particle is neutral the
electric field will not accelerate it.
3. E
initial
= 8.0 GeV = 8.0 10
9
eV
E
final
= 1.0 TeV = 1.0 10
12
eV
E = 2.5MeV = 2.5 10
6
eV (for each revolution)
(a) d = ?

First we must look at the initial and final energies. Since E
final
>> E
initial
you can say that the amount of energy needed
is E
final.

The number of revolutions is given by:

9
6
8.0 10 eV
2.5 10 eV/revolution
3200 revolutions
n
n
=

The distance travelled by the particle is equal to the circumference. The overall distance is the product of n and the
circumference:

3
7
2
(3200)(2)(3.14)(1.0 10 m)
2.0 10 m
d nC
d n r
d
=
=
=
=

The proton travels 2.0 10
7
m while accelerating.
(b) d = 2.01 10
7
m
v = c = 3.00 10
8
m/s
t = ?

7
8
2.0 10 m
3.00 10 m/s
0.067 s
d
c
t
d
t
c
t
=
=
=

The proton is accelerated in the synchrotron for 0.067 s.

4. The nature of the charge can be determined from the interaction with a magnetic field directed perpendicular to the
motion. The diagram below shows one possible set-up. The indicates that the magnetic field is coming out of the paper.
As such, emitted particles moving upwards will be moving perpendicular to the field.

A right-hand rule shows that positive particles experience a force directed to the right. Similarly, negative particles
experience a force directed to the left. Neutral particles experience no net force. Curved trails therefore indicate charged
particles. The direction in which the particles curve (with respect to the magnetic field) can be used to determine the type
of charge.
5. If you knew that the particles all had the same mass and velocity then you might just observe their behaviour in a
magnetic field using a setup similar to the one in question 4. The particles with the greatest charge would be deflected the
most. Unfortunately this is not feasible here since the varying masses and speeds could also account for different amounts
of deflection.
A better method is to realize that the positively charged particles are most likely the results of either or
+
emission.
You can therefore distinguish between them based on their penetrating ability. First try some thin paper. If a detector on
the other side of the paper shows no emissions then the material was only emitting particles as these are readily stopped
by paper. If the level of activity is reduced then you can say that it is emitting both, since the particles are being stopped
while the particles are being transmitted. If the level of activity is unchanged than you can say that it is only emitting
+

particles since these are not stopped by paper.
Making Connections
6. If the mesh opening is smaller than the wavelength, the wave will tend not to pass through the mesh. Since there is
negligible absorption, the energy will be reflected at the same wavelength. Waves with wavelengths between 3 m and
3 10
4
m are normally classified as microwaves. Obviously this is a rather broad classification. Typical mesh tends to
have openings that range from about 0.5 cm to about 2 cm, which are comparable with the wavelengths of typical
microwaves. For any given mesh size, say 1 cm, then microwaves with wavelengths longer than this will see the mesh
as an opaque solid.
7. h = 6.63 10
34
Js
m = 1.673 10
27
kg

Owing to the enormous difference in mass that occurs at relativistic speeds, it is not feasible to directly estimate v using
2
K
1
2
E mv = . Instead, an estimate of v = 0.9c will be used.

( )
( )( )
34
27 8
15
6.63 10 J s
1.673 10 kg 0.9 3.00 10 m/s
1.5 10 m
h
mv
=

=

Visible light has typical wavelengths between 4.0 10
7
m and 7.5 10
7
m. Clearly the typical wavelengths of the
high-energy protons are much smaller than this value. Therefore, their resolving ability is much greater.

8.
Name Method for Accelerating Particles Particles Accelerated Energies Achieved
cyclotron RF cavity between two D shaped
magnetic fields
protons, electrons,
particles
tens of MeV
synchrocyclotron RF cavity between two D shaped
magnetic fields. Frequency of
oscilation is varied to compensate for
relativistic mass increase.
protons, electrons,
particles
1 GeV
linac RF cavity between drift tubes
arranged in a line
protons, electrons,
particles
50 GeV
synchrotron RF cavity between superconducting
magnets
protons, electrons,
particles, and others
> 1 TeV

9.
Experiment Typical Particle Energies Resolving Ability Types of Questions Addressed
by Experiment
gold foil scattering several MeV

>> 10
15
m
What is the atom made of?
early experiments
with cyclotrons
tens of MeV

> 10
15
m
What particles are in the nucleus?
expriments with
synchrocyclotrons
hundreds of MeV

10
15
m
What particles are in the nucleus?
What other particles exist?
experiments with
linacs
GeV

< 10
15
m
Are nuclear particles (proton and
neutron) fundamental?
tevatron
experiments
TeV

< 10
15
m
What particles exist?
CREN LHC
experiments
tens of TeV

<< 10
15
m
Are quarks fundamental? Are
there other particles?

10. Student reports should include some of the following points:
in experiments with subatomic particles, information from the particle detectors flows to the computers
sometimes too much information is sent too rapidly
TRIUMFs new microchips can temporarily store this information in the right sequence until a computer accepts it
technology is being transported to a firm that will manufacture the microchips for use in advanced radar, satellite
communications, and similar situations where a huge volume of information must be processed very rapidly

13.4 PARTICLE INTERACTIONS
PRACTICE
(Page 701)
1.

2.

PRACTICE
(Page 703)
3. It was assumedincorrectly as it turns outthat the meson was the carrier of the strong nuclear force. It was also
assumed that the particle appeared from the quantum vacuum. Because the force was only active through the nucleus, the
diameter of a typical small nucleus is a good estimate over the distance d that the particle could be expected to last.
The uncertainty principle ( )( )
2
h
E t
could be rearranged giving

2
2
hc
mc
d
. The known values of h and c, as well

as the estimated value of d are then used to yield the value of the rest mass.
4. The particle discovered in 1936 was first thought to be Yukawas meson. However, closer examination of the particles
properties revealed two reasons why the particle had to be eliminated as a contender. First, the rest mass was too low.
The predicted mass of the Yukawa meson was 270 MeV and that of the newly-observed particle was only 207 MeV.
Second, the particles interactions with matter were much too weak for it to be seriously considered to be the carrier of the
strong interaction.

(Page 704)
1. The term element originated from an understanding of matter that saw certain substances as fundamental, or indivisible.
Discoveries dating from the early part of the twentieth century led to the conclusion that these fundamental substances
were, themselves, formed from particles. Originally, it was thought that there were three fundamental particles: the
electron, the proton, and the neutron. Since then it has become apparent that two of these particlesthe neutron and the
protonare composed of sub-particles. Clearly then, the so-called elements are not elemental. In this way the term is now
outdated.
2. When dealing with particle interactions it is important to realize that much of the thinking is metaphoric. With this in
mind, it is often said that the force-carrying particles are actually messenger particles. If a negatively charged particle
exchanges a virtual photon with a positively charged particle then the message is move closer. If, on the other hand a
negatively charged particle exchanges a virtual photon with another negatively charged particle then the message is
move away. The following simple analogy is commonly used to help put attractive interactions in concrete form: the
particles are exchanged by being grabbed from one anothers hands.
3. The particle is not observable using ordinary means. It is therefore virtual in the sense that its existence is indirectly
inferred.
4. Under quantum theory, various interactions have associated probabilities that they will occur. These values tend to be
quite low. When a compound event (first this, then this, then this, and so on) is examined, the probability that it will occur
is the product of the individual probabilities of each event. Because the probability of any given photon exchange is small,
the probability of a compound event that requires several of these exchanges is exceedingly small.

5. (a) Beta decay was the nuclear process. It could not be explained using the strong nuclear, electromagnetic, or gravitational
forces. A fourth force, the weak nuclear force, was therefore conceptualised.
(b) The W boson is assumed to be the carrier of the weak nuclear force. In electroweak theory, which seeks to unite the
electromagnetic and weak nuclear force, a second particle, the Z boson, is also a carrier.
6. (a)

(b)

7. (a) Gravity can be considered the odd one out in two important ways. First, the hypothetical charge carrier, the graviton,
has never been observed. This contrasts sharply with the other three forces, in which the charge carriers have been
observed. More importantly, at present there is no theory that can unite gravity with the other three forces. That is,
there is no scale of activity in which gravity is indistinguishable from the other three.
(b) The interactions between gravitons are quite complex, partly owing to the fact that they can interact with one another.
Photons, for example, do not interact with one another and instead interact only with the types of particles that produce
them. Gravitons, on the other hand, can possibly self-interact. The mathematics that must be devised to describe such
situations in a probabilistic manner will have to be incredibly complex.
8.

Electromagnetic Strong
Nuclear
Weak Nuclear Gravitational

(a)
Electron
yes no yes yes

(b)
Positron
yes no yes yes

(c)
Proton
yes yes yes yes

(d)
Neutron
no yes yes yes

(e)
Neutrino
no no yes no

9. m
W
= 80.3 GeC/c
2
= 80.3 10
9
eV/c
2

m
Z
= 91.2 GeV/c
2
= 91.2 10
9
eV/c
2

d = ?

For the W boson:

( )
( )( )
( )( )( )
2
W
W
W
2
W
34 8
9 2 19
18
W
2
2
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
2 3.14 80.3 10 eV/ 1.6 10 J/eV
2.5 10 m
hc
m c
d
hc
d
m c
c
d

For the Z boson:

( )
( )( )
( )( )( )
2
Z
Z
Z
2
Z
34 8
9 2 19
18
Z
2
2
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
2 3.14 91.2 10 eV/ 1.6 10 J/eV
2.2 10 m
hc
m c
d
hc
d
m c
c
d

The range of the weak force is 2.5 10
18
m to 2.2 10
18
m.
10. (a) A team of 100 scientists worked on the project.
(b) The overall cost of the project is about $73 million, not counting the donation of about $300 million in heavy water
from the Atomic Energy Commission of Canada. This funding came from the following institutions: Natural Sciences
and Engineering Research Council of Canada, US Department of Energy, UK Science and Engineering Council,
National Research Council of Canada, Northern Ontario Heritage Fund Corporation, Industry Canada, and Inco
Limited.
(c) One way in which neutrinos are detected is through the small amount of light produced when neutrinos interact with
matter. A reaction unique to heavy water in which a neutrino changes a neutron to a proton and an electron can also be
detected. Finally, now that salt had been added to the heavy water, a third neutrino reaction can occur in which all three
types of neutrinos are found to interact.
(d) To date, the research has provided evidence that the three types of neutrinos can transmute from one form to the other.
Because the neutrinos can transmute they can have a small amount of mass associated with them. Note also that
because neutrinos are produced in massive amounts by supernovae, the SNO is expected to be an effective monitor of
such events.

13.5 THE PARTICLE ZOO
PRACTICE
(Page 707)
1. (a) A gauge boson is described by gauge theory, which unites the electromagnetic force with the weak force. Gauge boson
includes the photon, as well as the W and Z bosons.
(b) Leptons do interact through the weak nuclear force, but do not interact through the strong nuclear force. Leptons
include the electron, muon, and tau, as well as the respective neutrinos of the particles.
(c) Baryons mainly interact through the strong nuclear force. Note that this classification includes a great many particles.
Baryons are subdivided into the mesons (small mass, spin 0) and the baryons (larger mass, spin
1
2
)

2. Certain particles, such as the K (kaon), the (lambda) and the (sigma) were found to display certain sets of behaviours.
These included unexpectedly long decay rates and the fact that the particles were produced in pairs. The particles with
these traits were said to have the quantity strangeness.
3. Gell Manns work is an excellent example of the type of genius that draws from the logical left side of the brain as well as
from the imaginative, intuitive, right side of the brain, at the same time. It is logical in that certain patterns and
symmetries have been observed. It is also imaginative in that Gell Mann discerned the patterns from the basic data, that is,
he was able to see the patterns in his minds eye.

PRACTICE
(Page 709)
4. (a) charge of u =
2
3
+

2 2 2
uuu
3 3 3
6
3
uuu 2
= + + +
= +
= +

The charge of uuu is +2.
(b) u =
2
3
+
u =
2
3

2 2
uu
3 3
uu 0

= + +

=

The charge of uu is 0.
(c) charge of d =
1
3
+
charge of u =
2
3
+

ddu
ddu
1 1 2
3 3 3
4
3
q
q
= + + +
=

The charge of ddu is
4
3
.
(d) charge of d =
1
3

charge of s =
1
3
+

1 1
ds
3 3
ds 0
= +
=

The charge of ds is 0.
5. (a) The antiproton is a baryon, with baryon number = 1 and so, must be composed of three antiquarks. The strangeness
number is 0, which suggests that you should use a combination of u and d . The charge is 1. Based on Table 3 on
page 708 the combination uud will work. To confirm this combination, we check the other quantum numbers:

The baryon number is
1 1 1
1
3 3 3

+ + =

(correct)
The charge is
2 2 1 3
1
3 3 3 3

+ + = =

(correct)
(b) The antineutron is a baryon, with baryon number = 1, and so, it must be composed of three antiquarks. The
strangeness number is 0, which suggests that you should use a combination of u and d . The charge is 0. Based on
Table 3 on page 708 the combination udd will work. To confirm this combination, we check the other quantum
numbers:
The baryon number is
1 1 1
1
3 3 3

+ + =

(correct)
The charge is
2 1 1 0
0
3 3 3 3

+ + = =

(correct)
(c) The neutral pion (
0
) is a meson and is composed of a quark-antiquark pair. The strangeness number is 0 and we are
limited to the combination of uudd . The possibilities are uu and dd . For both combinations, the charge is 0, the
baryon number is 0 and the spin is 0 so, in the absence of further information, both combinations could form a (
0
).
(d) K
kaon is an antiparticle (according to Table 2 on page 707), and a meson with spin 0, charge 1 and strangeness 1.
Due to its strangeness number, one of its constituents must be s. The other particle must be d to ensure that the charge
is 0. Therefore, the combination is sd .

PRACTICE
(Page 711)
6.

7. The chromo in chromodynamics is indicative of the fact that a colour quantum number is used in the theory that
describes the force interactions through gluons.
8.

(Page 712)
1. (a) To identify the particle, we must determine the quantum numbers.
For s:
1 1
, , 1
3 3
Q B s = = =
For u :
2 1
, , 0
3 3
Q B s = = =
For the combination of su :

1 2
1
3 3
1 1
0
3 3
1 0 1
Q
B
s

= + =

= + =

= + =

The particle that has these quantum numbers is the anti-kaon (
).
(b) To identify the particle, we must determine the quantum numbers.
For d:
1
, 1, 0
3
Q B s = = =
For u :
2
, 1, 0
3
Q B s = = =
For the combination of du :

1 2
1
3 3
1 1
0
3 3
0 0 0
Q
B
s

= + =

= + =

= + =

The particle that has these quantum numbers is the pi minus (
).
(c) To identify the particle, we must determine the quantum numbers.
For u:
2 1
, , 0
3 3
Q B s = = =
For d:
1 1
, , 0
3 3
Q B s = = =
For s:
1 1
, , 1
3 3
Q B s = = =
For the combination uds:

( )
2 1 1
0
3 3 3
1 1 1
1
3 3 3
0 0 1 1
Q
B
s

= + + =

= + + =
= + + =

The particle that has these quantum numbers is the sigma zero (
0
).
(d) To identify the particle, we must determine the quantum numbers.
For u:
2
, 1, 0
3
Q B s = = =
For s:
1
, 1, 1
3
Q B s = = =

For the combination uus:

( )
2 2 1
1
3 3 3
1 1 1
1
3 3 3
0 0 1 1
Q
B
s

= + + = +

= + + = +
= + + =

The particle that has these quantum numbers is the sigma plus (
+
).
2. It is assumed that the spins of u and d are each
1
2
. The possible results for three quarks can therefore be given by
1
2

1
2

1
2
. Analysis of the possible sums give the results
1
2
and
3
2
.
3. A proton containing two red up quarks would contain two particles with identical sets of quantum numbers. According to
the Pauli-exclusion principle this is impossible.
4. Each type of quark comes in three colors: red, green and blue. Each type of antiquark also comes in three colours: antired,
antigreen and antiblue. It is therefore assumed that the combinations (red and antired), (green and antigreen) and (blue and
antiblue) are colour neutral.
5. According to chromodynamics, the gluon is thought to be the carrier of the strong nuclear force. This was once thought to
be the role of the meson.
6. (a) Table 3 on page 708 summarizes the properties of each type of quark.
(b) Presently, several important symmetries exist. First, for every quark discovered there exists experimental evidence of a
corresponding antiquark. Second, the number three seems fundamental to quarks. Presently three families seem to
exist. Thirdly, within each family there exists a pair of quarks. Family 1 contains u and d. Family 2 contains c and s.
Family 3 contains T and B. Each member of each family now has a corresponding member in the other family, that is
u, c, and T seem to correspond, as well as b, s and B seem to correspond.
7. (a) K
+
is a meson with spin 0, charge +1, and strangeness +1. Since it is a meson, the K
+
particle is composed of a quark
and an antiquark. A strangeness of +1 can only be obtained by the following quark-antiquark combinations:
us and ds . The ds combination has a charge of 0, therefore the K
+
particles quark composition is us . This
combination produces a charge of +1.
(b)
0
is a baryon with spin
1
2
, charge 0, and strangeness 1. Since it is a baryon, the
0
particle is composed of three
quarks. The combinations that produce a strangeness of 1 are: uus, dds, and uds . Since the uus produces a charge
of +1, and dds produces a charge of 1, the
0
particles quark composition is uds. This combination produces a charge
of 0.

8. The diagram below shows one possible change that occurs:

Note that in this instance the green u quark and the blue d quark exchange a gluon. The Feynman diagram below
represents the interaction.

Making Connections
9. Carbon
6 protons 3 quarks/proton = 18
6 neutrons 3 quarks/neutron = 18
6 electrons = 6
Total for carbon = 72

Oxygen
8 protons 3 quarks/proton = 24
8 neutrons 3 quarks/neutron = 24
8 electrons = 8
Total for oxygen = 96 2 atoms = 192

Total for molecule = 264
There are 264 different elementary particles in a CO
2
molecule.

13.6 CASE STUDY: ANALYZING ELEMENTARY PARTICLE TRAJECTORIES
PRACTICE
(Page 720)
1. 12.3 cm l
=
0.8 cm s
=
(a) ?
q
m
=

( )
2
2
8 2
12.3 cm 0.8 cm
8(0.8 cm) 2
24.0 cm, or 0.24 m
l
s
r
s
r

= +
= +
=


8
8
8
1.9 10 C m/kg
1.9 10 C m/kg
0.24 m
7.9 10 C/kg
q
m r
q
m

=

=
=

The charge-to-mass ratio of the

particle is
8
7.9 10 C/kg .
(b) m = ?

8
8
19
8
28
7.9 10 C/kg
7.9 10 C/kg
1.6 10 C
7.9 10 C/kg
2.0 10 kg
q
m
q
m
m
=
=
=

The rest mass of the

particle is
28
2.0 10 kg
.

13.7 THE STANDARD MODEL AND GRAND UNIFIED THEORIES
(Page 732)
1. (a) Table 1 shows 6 quarks. Recall that each quark has an antiquark associated with it. This gives 12 quarks. According to
quantum chromodynamics, each of these quarks can exist in one of 3 colour states. This gives a total of 24 fermions.
Since each fermion has an associated antiparticle, this gives us a total of 48 fermions.
(b) In part (a) it was noted that there are 48 fermions. Additionally, Table 1 lists all 6 leptons. This gives a total of 54
fermions. Furthermore, counting the 8 different types of gluons and 3 different types of bosons for the weak force there
are 13 different bosons. Overall there are 54 + 13, or 67 different types of particles.
2.
Fermions
Leptons Quarks
Name Charge Mass (m
e
) Name Charge Mass (m
e
)
electron 1 1 up 2/3 20
electron
neutrino
0 ~0 down 1/3 20
Bosons
Name Spin Force
photon 1 electromagnetic
W
+
, W
0
, and Z bosons
1 weak nuclear force
gluons (8 different types) 1 strong nuclear force
graviton 2 gravitational force

3. The standard model has been constructed to fit the available data in a similar way that a line of best fit is calculated to best
fit data obtained from measurements. While it does have powerful predictive ability regarding what reactions occur, it is
weak with regard to answering the question of why the events occur.

4. (a) The GUTs seek to unify the electromagnetic, strong nuclear, and weak nuclear forces.
(b) These extend symmetries to the particles and forces that already exist. It is assumed that leptons and quarks are
members of one class of particle. At distances below the unification scale of 10
30
m, it is assumed that there is no
distinction between the types of forces and of particles. At this point, for example, quarks can become leptons (and vice
versa) through the exchange of X bosons.
5. The X particle is massive (about 10
14
times heavier than a proton) and exists over a short distance (< 10
30
m). It therefore
has an extremely small probability of coming into existence. Even if it did, it would only exist for such a short period of
time that it would leave an almost imperceptibly small detection signature.
6. It is possible (although extremely unlikely) that an X boson can come into existence inside a proton. It could come close
enough to be exchanged between nearby quarks. If this happened, the two quarks would produce an antiquark (which
could annihilate the remaining quark) and a positron (which could annihilate an orbital electron). The end result of this is
that all matter is unstable.
7. Since there is no direct evidence that supports the instability of matter, there is some doubt on the current GUTs.
Additionally the GUTs omit one major interactiongravity. As a result, some scientists seek to develop theories of
everything with the goal of uniting all four forces.
8. The strings are assumed to be extremely small. Because they are thousands of times smaller than the unification distance,
they appear as point-like particles.
9. The strings are assumed to have more than four dimensions. One version of superstring theory, for example, assumes the
existence of 10 dimensionsthe strings are vibrating in all 10 dimensions. Different particles are therefore represented by
different vibrational modes.
10. Assume that the particles need to travel close to c. For the X boson, the distance is about 10
30
m and for the strings the
distance is about 10
35
m.

For the X boson:

34
30
8
4
2
2
2
6.63 10 J s
10 m
2
3.00 10 m/s
3.2 10 J
h
E t
h
E
t
h
x
c
E

=

To convert to eV:

4
23 17
19
3.2 10 J
2.0 10 eV 2.0 10 MeV
1.6 10 J/eV
= =

For the string:

( )
2
34 19
35
8
28
2
2
2
6.63 10 J s 1.6 10 J/eV
10 m
2
3.00 10 m/s
2.0 10 eV
h
E t
h
mc
t
h
x
c
E

=

The particle energies that would have to be produced to observe the X boson is 2.0 10
17
eV. For the strings it is
2.0 10
28
eV.

11. Using the uncertainty principle:

( )( )
( )( )
34 8
30
4
2
2
2
2
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
2 3.14 1.0 10 m
3.167 10 J
h
p x
h
p
x
hc
c p
x
hc
E
x
E
=

To convert to eV:

4
23
19
3.167 10 J
2.0 10 eV
1.6 10 J/eV

Therefore, the unification distance corresponds to 2.0 10
23
eV, or 2.0 10
17
MeV.

Using de Broglies formula:

( )( )
( )
2
34 8
30
4
2
6.64 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
2 1.0 10 m
3.170 10 J
h
mv
h
mc
hc
mc
hc
E
hc
E
hc
x
E
=
=
=
=
=

=

=

To convert to eV:

4
23
19
3.170 10 J
2.0 10 eV
1.6 10 J/eV

The unification distance corresponds to a value of 2.0 10
23
eV, or 2.0 10
17
MeV.

CHAPTER 13 SUMMARY
Make A Summary
(Page 734)

The following key points should be included:
Three types of radioactivity were discovered in the late 1900s. One type, radiation, was explained making reference to
one new force, the strong nuclear force. A second type, radiation was explained making reference to a second new force,
the weak nuclear force.
New technologies resulted in the production of nuclear reactions with ever-increasing energies. These technologies were
accompanied by new methods to both detect and analyze the reactions. The experiments gave evidence of many more
particles.
The work of Dirac and others suggested that each type of particle had a corresponding antiparticle.

So many particles were discovered that the task of classifying them became important. Scientists searched for satisfactory
models. One notable example was Murray Gell Manns eight-fold way.
Further developments led to the realization that protons and neutrons were not elementary but were instead composed of
other particles called quarks.
Modern classification systems start with two basis types of particles: bosons (force carriers) and fermions (matter-formers).
Bosons are of four basic types, one type for each force. Photons mediate the electromagnetic force, W and Z bosons the
weak nuclear force, gluons the strong nuclear force, and gravitons the gravitational force.
Fermions are further divided into leptons and quarks. There are six of each.
Grand unified theories seek to unite the strong nuclear, weak nuclear and electromagnetic forces.
Theories of everything seek to unite all four forces. So far, these tend to be mainly speculative.

(Page 735)
True/False
1. T
2. F The average binding energy per nucleon increases for Z = 1 to about Z = 56. From that point forward, the average binding
energy per nucleon decreases.
3. T
4. F decay can be explained in terms of the strong nuclear force. decay can be explained in terms of the weak nuclear
force.
5. T
6. T
7. F Electrons always have spin of
1
2
.
8. F According to quark theory, three quarks are needed to form a baryon and two quarks are needed to form a meson.
9. F When a quark absorbs or emits a gluon, its mass remains unchanged.
Multiple Choice
10. (b)
11. (c) 214 0 x = +
214 x =

( ) 82 1
83
y
y
= +
=

12. (d)
1/ 2
0
1
2
t
t
N N

=

573
5730
1
10.0 mg
2
9.30 mg N

=

=

13. (a) The frequency with which a particle revolves in a cyclotron varies as follows:
- directly with both the charge and the magnetic field strength.
- inversely with the mass.
Since the mass is increased by a factor of 2 the frequency therefore decreases by a factor of 2.
14. (a)
15. (e)
16. (a)

CHAPTER 13 REVIEW
(Pages 736737)
1.
Type Composition Charge Penetrating Ability
2 protons and 2 neutrons;
essentially a helium nucleus
+2 thin paper
electron 1 thin metal
+
positron +1 thin metal
photon 0 thick metal (lead)

2. (a) 212 0 x = +
212 x =

( ) 83 1
82
y
y
= +
=

(b) 238 4 x = +
234 x =

92 2
90
y
y
= +
=

(c) 84 2 x = +
82 x =
(d) Since has no quantum numbers to balance with the rest of the equation:

49
116
x
y
=
=

(e) 30 30 y = +
0 y =

15 14
1
x
x
= +
=

Therefore, z = e.
(f) 13 0 y = +
13 y =

7 1
6
x
x
= +
=

From the periodic table, z = C (carbon).
3.
Strong Nuclear Force Electric Force
can be attractive can be attractive
can be repulsive can be repulsive
acts on the proton acts on the proton
acts on the neutron does not act on the neutron
does not act on the
electron
acts on the electron

active over distances of
the order of 10
15
m
can be felt at any distance

4. The alpha particle consists of two protons and two electrons. It is therefore impossible for
2
1
H to undergo decay because
it does not have the constituent parts of an particle to begin with.

5. (a)
239 235 4 239 235
94 92 2 94 92
Pu U + He or Pu U +
(b) parent: Pu-239 = 239.052157 u
daughters: U-235 = 235.043924 u
= 4.002602 u
total = 239.046526 u
m = 0.005631 u

Therefore,

931.4 MeV
= 0.005631u
u
E

= 5.24 MeV E
When one atom of Pu-239 decays to U-235 by emission, 5.24 MeV of energy is released.
6. (a) N
0
= 22.0 mg
t = 24 h
t
1/2
= 10.64 h (from Appendix C)
N = ?

1/ 2
0
24
10.64
1
2
1
22.0
2
4.61 mg
t
t
N N
N

=

=

=

The amount of lead remaining after 24 h is 4.61 mg.
(b) N
0
= 22.0 mg
t
1/2
= 10.64 h
N = 5.0 mg
t = ?

1/ 2
0
10.64
10.64
10.64
1
2
1
5.0 22.0
2
5.0 1
22.0 2
5.0 1
log log
22.0 2
5.0 1
log log
22.0 10.64 2
5.0
10.64log
22.0
1
log
2
23 h
t
t
t
t
t
N N
t
t
t

=

=

=

=

=

=

=

The amount of time required for the amount to decrease to 5.0 mg is 23 h.
7. A = 89 Bq
A
0
= 105.4 Bq
t
1/2
= 5730 a
t = ?


1/ 2
0
5730
5730
5730
1
2
1
89 105.4
2
89 1
105.4 2
89 1
log log
105.4 2
89 1
log log
105.4 5730 2
89
5730 log
105.4
1
log
2
1382 a
t
t
t
t
t
A A
t
t
t

=

=

=

=

=

=

=

The estimated age of the sample is 1382 a.
8. Some examples of medical application are described on pages 684685. These include:
The use of radiation to kill cancerous cells. This might involve placing many tiny radioactive samples close to the
tumour, or bombarding the area with radiation from several external sources.
The use of radioactive samples as medical tracers. For example these can be injected into the bloodstream and external
monitors can be used to follow their progress through the system.
The combination of positron emitting tracers in addition to gamma cameras to produce PET scans.
9. (a) The electric field is timed precisely to oscillate in such a way that the particle will be accelerated across the gap as it
emerges. With each successive acceleration across the electric field between the dees, the particle gains kinetic energy.
Owing to mass-energy equivalence, its mass also increases as the particles kinetic energy increases. Because the
frequency of rotation through the dees also depends upon the mass, the particle will become out of synchronization
with the oscillating field between the dees.
(b) The synchronization problem can be overcome in two ways. One way is to continuously alter the frequency of
oscillation of the field to keep the particles synchronized with it. Another is to alter the strength of the magnetic field to
compensate for the increase in mass.
10. Particles in a synchrotron are continuously being accelerated, even when they are not in the RF cavity. This is because
superconducting magnets are used to bend their path into a circle. When charged particles are accelerated they tend to
emit radiation. The fraction of the kinetic energy that is radiated away varies with the cube of the charge to mass ratio.
Because the electron is 2000 times less massive than the proton, it tends to radiate away a much higher proportion of its
kinetic energy.
It is worth noting that while this synchrotron radiation can be a nuisance for applications that require very high
energy particles, it can also be useful. The synchrotron radiation is a full spectrum of electromagnetic radiation than
includes significant amounts of radiation that are particularly well suited for use as imaging tools. The Canadian Light
Source (CLS) is an example of a synchrotron devoted to the production of synchrotron radiation to be used mainly for
imaging purposes.
11. The linear accelerator only takes a particle through its path one time. On the other hand, the synchrotron is capable of
accelerating the particle many times. All other things being equal, the synchrotron is therefore capable of obtaining the
highest energies. It is worth noting, however, that the linacs acceleration is all linear. Accelerating particles are therefore
less susceptible to the phenomenon of reradiating away the kinetic energy. Less massive articles such as electrons are
therefore easier to work with in linacs than in synchrotrons.
12. Each part has a different purpose. Some parts (the calorimeters) measure the kinetic energy through the particles
penetrating ability, while others track, or measure, position. Additionally, because various particles respond differently,
there are separate components for different types of particles. For example, photons are not detected by tracking detectors,
and therefore must be detected by other means.

13.

14. m
= 135.0 MeV/c
2
Assume that this rest mass comes equally from the kinetic energies of the two protons. This means that each proton
contributed one-half the total, a minimum of 67.5 MeV.
15. (a) To identify the particle, we must first determine the quantum numbers.
For the u:
2 1
, , 0
3 3
Q B s = = =
For the s:
1 1
, , 1
3 3
Q B s = = =
For the combination uss:

( ) ( )
2 1 1
0
3 3 3
1 1 1
1
3 3 3
0 1 1 2
Q
B
s

= + + =

= + + =
= + + =

The xi zero (Xi
0
) has these quantum numbers.
(b) To identify the particle, we must first determine the quantum numbers.
For the u:
2 1
, , 0
3 3
Q B s = = =
For the u :
2
, 1, 0
3
Q B s = = =
For the combination uu :

2 2
0
3 3
1 1
0
3 3
0 0 0
Q
B
s

= + =

= + =

= + =

Both pi zero (
0
) and eta zero (
0
) have these quantum numbers.
16. The bosons are the particles that mediate the various forces. One way to think of the interaction that results in a force is to
think of the boson as carrying a message such as move closer or move away. Because the particles can be seen as
conveying information, they are sometimes referred to as messenger particles.
17. (a) Fermions, which all have a spin of
1
2
, are the building blocks of matter. Bosons, which have a spin of 1 or 2
(gravitons), are the force-carriers.
(b) Leptons are found outside the nucleus and are considered fundamental. Hadrons, which are found inside the nucleus,
are not considered fundamental and are instead considered to be made up of quarks.
(c) The hadrons are classified into two types. Mesons are formed of quark-antiquark pairs and have spins of 0 or 1.
Baryons are formed from three particles, each of which can be a quark or an antiquark. The baryons have a spin of
1
2
.

18.
Charge Mass (m
e
)
First Family
up
2
3

20
down
1
3

20
Second Family
charm
2
3

3 000
strange
1
3

300
Third Family
top
2
3

350 000
bottom
1
3

11 000

19. (a) Spin measures the angular momentum of a particle. The spin quantum number can be considered as a multiplication
factor that measures the angular momentum in units of
2
h
.
(b) Some particles have been found to exhibit consistently strange behavior in that they have unusually long decay times
and tend to be produced in pairs. The strangeness number reflects this property.
20. 11 cm l

=
0.6 cm s

=
(a) ?
q
m
=

( )
2
2
8 2
11 cm 0.6 cm
8(0.6 cm) 2
26 cm, or 0.26 m
l
s
r
s
r

= +
= +
=

8
8
8
1.9 10 C m/kg
1.9 10 C m/kg
0.26 m
7.3 10 C/kg
q
m r
q
m

=

=
=

The charge-to-mass ratio of the

particle is calculated to be
8
7.3 10 C/kg .

(b) m = ?

8
8
19
8
28
7.3 10 C/kg
7.3 10 C/kg
1.6 10 C
7.3 10 C/kg
2.2 10 kg
q
m
q
m
m
=
=
=

The calculated mass of the

particle is
28
2.2 10 kg
.
21. The helium atom has two protons (each is uud), and two neutrons (each is udd), as well as two electrons.

22. (a) The standard model is sophisticated and complete in that it has the ability to make accurate predictions about the
behaviour of particles. Furthermore, every particle postulated to exist according to the model has been detected.
(b) The standard model is crude because it lacks the quality of simple mathematical elegance. Furthermore, it is more
concerned with describing the behaviour of particles than it is with explaining the behaviour.
23. It is assumed that at distances smaller than the unification distances, the types of forces are indistinguishable. The X
boson assumes that the matter particles are different forms of the same thing. Within distances smaller than 10
30
m,
objects can theoretically interact through the exchange of an X boson. In doing so, they can transmute from one type of
particle to another.
24.

25. The table below shows the activity over a one-year (12 month) period.

Years
0 0.083 0.167 0.25 0.33 0.417 0.5 0.583 0.667 0.75 0.833 0.917 1
Months
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Activity
(Bq)
240 238 235 232 230 227 225 222 220 217 215 213 210


The table can be used to construct either of the graphs that follow. Notice that the elapsed time in relation to the half-life
is very short. It is only about 0.2 half-lives so only a small fraction actually decays. The graph is therefore fairly linear in
shape.

26. (a) The graph is shown, along with a curve of best fit.

(b) The initial activity is 1000 Bq. When the half-life occurs, the activity will have declined to 500 Bq. Inspection of the
graph shows that this occurs at 35 h. The half-life is therefore 35 h.

(c) A = 1000 Bq
t
1/2
= 35 h (from part (b))

1/ 2
0
35
1
2
1
1000
2
t
t
t
A A
A

=

=

In the above equation the units of t are hours and the units of A are Bq.
27. (a) The rate of detection was lower when the tube was covered in aluminum foul.
(b) The most likely explanation is that the tube is being bombarded by radiation from netural sources. This background
radiation is blocked by the foil, hence lower readings occur when the window of the tube is covered.
Making Connections
28. (a) Scientific discoveries in particle physics have followed from technological breakthroughs in both accelerators and
detectors. For example, the development by Glaser of the cloud chamber resulted in many discoveries about particles
because their motions could be analyzed much more accurately and precisely.
(b) An example of this is the devices that have been developed based on superconducting magnets. The magnets were
primarily designed to facilitate the development of high-energy accelerators. The resulting knowledge and availability
of the superconducting materials helped create machines such as MRI scanners. An interesting example of this is the
CLS, which is based on the technology used in high energy pure-physics particle research. It is likely that the most
interesting discoveries and developments will exist in other fields, particularly biotechnology.
29. Unlike the standard model, only indirect experimental evidence exists in favour of superstring theory. As a result, most of
the work is still speculative and not testable in the way that scientific knowledge is expected to be.
30. (a) It is expected that the behavior of the virtual particles is in keeping with the uncertainty principle. That is
( )( )
2
h
p x >
or the equivalent ( )( )
2
h
E t >
.
(b) The conditions imply that the more massive the particle, the shorter the time (and hence the shorter the distance) over
which it can act. Likewise, the less massive the particle, the longer the time (and hence the longer the distance) over
which it can act.
(c) As the mass of the particle decreases, the distance over which it can act increases. A particle without mass, such as a
photon or a graviton, could therefore act over an unlimited distance.
Extension
31. m
proton
= 938.3 MeV/c
2

m
neutron
= 939.6 MeV/c
2
(a) m of parent particles = ?

proton K
2
K
2
K
2
2(938.3 MeV/ )
1876.6 MeV/
m m E
c E
m c E
= +
= +
= +

The mass of the parent particles is 1876.6 MeV/c
2
.
(b) m of daughter particles = ?

rest proton neutron
2 2 2
2
rest
938.3 MeV/ 939.6 MeV/ 139.6 MeV/
2017.5 MeV/
m m m m
c c c
m c
= + +
= + +
=

The mass of the daughter particles is 2017.5 MeV/c
2
.
(c) E
K
= ?

Assuming conservation of mass-energy you can equate the two expressions

K
K
1876.6 2017.5
140.9
E
E
+ =
=

The total E
K
is 140.9 MeV. If this is divided equally among the two initial protons then the E
K
of each proton must be
70.45 MeV before the collision.
Copyright 2003 Nelson Unit 5 Performance Task 753
UNIT 5 PERFORMANCE TASK

THE PHOTOVOLTAIC (SOLAR) CELL
(Pages 738739)

The Unit 5 Performance Task requires students to study the application of the photoelectric effect in photovoltaic cells (solar
cells). The performance component of this task allows student to choose one of the two following options:
Task 1: Make a Photovoltaic Cell
Task 2: Using Solar Energy in a Remote Location

In Task 1, students construct a working solar cell, while in Task 2, students conduct research on the technology required
to power an isolated cottage or retreat. In either case, students are required to submit a written report for assessment/
evaluation. Although students select either Task 1 or Task 2, they are all required to conduct library and Internet research on
the following topics (this will be called Part 1):
How solar cells use the photoelectric effect to convert solar energy into electricity
The efficiency of solar cell technology, and improvements to their efficiency
The differences between photovoltaic technology and conventional electricity-generating technologies with particular
attention paid to environmental impacts
Advantages and disadvantages of solar power generation
In this option students construct a photovoltaic cell and test its output. They follow the instruction given in a suitable kit
provided by the teacher. Commercially produced kits are available from most science supply companies. Students are required
to develop a procedure for testing and measuring the electrical output of the cell they construct. A schematic diagram of the
process is required in the submitted formal report. Also, students are required to use their knowledge of wave optics to propose
a way of controlling the intensity or colour of the light used to power the photovoltaic cell theyve constructed, and devise a
process for measuring the relationship between intensity or colour and output. They should graph the relationship if possible.
A formal scientific report containing sections titled Materials, Procedure, Analysis, and Evaluation must be submitted for
assessment/evaluation.
This task requires students to conduct extensive library and/or Internet research on the technology used to power an isolated
home (retreat). A written report will be submitted for assessment/evaluation. The scenario described in the text provides the
student with a context for conducting the research. It outlines the electrical needs that will be used as a basis for determining
the following:
minimum number of hours of sunlight expected in the darkest months for the location
average power requirements in a 24-hour period
size and type of solar panels needed, the power of the inverter, and the type of storage batteries required
type of water turbine needed to provide supplemental power during the winter months

The submitted report must describe:
equipment needed
costs of materials and maintenance
physics principles associated with the system

Relevant Web sites include:
http://www.newenergy.org/
http://www.mrsolar.com/education.htm
http://www.newenergy.org/re_guide_toc.html
http://www.newenergy.org/organizations.html
http://www.solarbuzz.com/Canada.htm
754 Unit 5 Matter-Energy Interface Copyright 2003 Nelson
Assessment
The report containing the common research (Part 1) will be assessed and/or evaluated on the basis of the following criteria:
adequacy and accuracy of researched information
level to which the applicable physics principles seem to have been understood
referencing
quality of the diagrams
quality of the written communication
This task will be assessed and/or evaluated on the basis of the following criteria:
demonstrated ability to carefully follow instructions
viability of the manufactured solar cell
quality of the written report
This task will be assessed and/or evaluated on the basis of the following criteria:
adequacy and accuracy of researched information
level to which the applicable physics principles seem to have been understood
referencing
quality of the diagrams
quality of the written communication
Copyright 2003 Nelson Unit 5 Self Quiz 755

UNIT 5 SELF QUIZ

(Pages 740741)
True/False
1. T
2. F It is impossible for a particle with a nonzero mass to be accelerated to the speed of light. Otherwise the particle would
have to infinite momentum, or the energy required to accelerate it to c would have to be infinite (see Section 11.2).
3. T
4. T
5. F The intensity of the light does not affect the threshold frequency.
6. T
7. F Coulombs law,
1 2
e
2
kq q
F
r
= , holds for forces between small charged particles even at distances smaller than the size of
atoms. This was shown first to be true by Rutherford and his colleagues.
8. T
9. F An particle is also called a helium nucleus.
10. T
11. F For any given energy, less synchrotron radiation results in an accelerator when more massive particles are used.
12. F The strong nuclear force can only be attractive.
13. T
14. F All hadrons are baryons or mesons
15. T
16. T
Multiple Choice
17. (a) According to the second postulate, the speed of light has an absolute value of c in all inertial frames of reference.
18. (c) Since you are stationary relative to the moving spaceship, your measurements of the time on the moving spaceship will
be in two-position time and will be dilated or the clock will tick at a slower rate relative to your frame of reference.
19. (a) Classical physics only provides and explanation for (a). All the others required quantum physics.
20. (a) In decay, the neutrino was postulated to account for the conservation of energy and momentum. See Section 13.1.
21. (a) Gamma radiation is a photon that travels as an electromagnetic wave, not a particle with a non-zero mass.
22. (e) Since particles have a positive charge and particles have a negative charge, they will be deflected in opposite
directions by an external magnetic field.
23. (a) Since a positron is produced, the Feynman diagram represents
+
decay.
24. (b) The quantum quantity called strangeness was postulated because the observation revealed unexpectedly long decay
times and opposite charges.
25. (e) The baryon number must add up to 0 or 1.
The spin must add to 0 or
1
2
.
The strangeness must sum to 0
The only option where the rules do not hold up is (e).
Completion
26. inertial, noninertial
27. the ether does not exist
28. length
29. rest mass
30. quanta
31. different
32. lower
33. probability
34. 0, 1.0
35. heated solid, electrically excited gases
36. not deflected
37. decreases, increases, decreases
38. 400 a
39. spin
Matching
40. Scientist Discovery or Innovation
-scattering experiment Rutherford
radioactivity Becquerel
diffraction of particle Davisson
energy levels in the hydrogen atom Bohr
energy levels in an excited gas Frank
matter waves de Broglie
particle classification Gell-Mann
momentum of a photon Compton
photoelectric effect Einstein
planetary model of the atom Rutherford
quanta Planck
uncertainty Heisenberg
Copyright 2003 Nelson Unit 5 Review 757
UNIT 5 REVIEW

(Pages 742745)
1. In your car, you are moving relative to the other car, whether you view it from the frame of reference of your car, or in
the frame of reference of the other car. In other words there is motion relative to the second car, and motion of your car
relative to the second car, even if you are at rest. We can conclude that all motion is relative and there is no absolute
motion in either frame of reference.
2. For the observer moving relative to the duration of a process (two position time), the time will be dilated or seem longer.
One position time, that is, where the observer is moving with the process, is the proper time.
3.
2
s
m s m
2
2
2
1 and
1
t v
L L t
c
v
c
= =

2
2 2
2
If , then and the expression 1 0.
v
v c v c
c
In the case of length contraction, the relativistic length will also
approach zero at c, which is impossible. Thus, speeds of c are impossible. In the case of time dilation, the expression

s
2
2
1
t
v
c
will approach infinity, which impossible. Thus, speeds of c are also impossible.
4. Applying a constant force to accelerate a nonzero mass to c would require an infinite energy. The faster the mass goes, the
larger its relativistic momentum. At c the momentum (and mass) would be infinite which is impossibility.
5. v = 2.8 10
8
m/s
t
m
= 4.86 10
6
s
t
s
= ?

( )
( )
s
m
2
2
2
s m
2
2
8
6
2
8
6
s
1
1
2.80 10 m/s
4.86 10 s 1
3.00 10 m/s
1.74 10 s
t
t
v
c
v
t t
c
t
=

The lifetime of the particle at rest is 1.74 10
6
s.
6. d = 5.9 10
8
km = 5.9 10
11
m
v = 0.67c
(a) t
s
= ?
t
m
= ?

To calculate the time you claim it to be:

( )
s
11
11
8
3
s
5.9 10 m
0.67
5.9 10 m
0.67 3.00 10 m/s
2.935 10 s
48.9 min
d
t
v
c
t
=
=

If the local time at launch was 12:00 noon, the time you claim it is when you reach Jupiter is 12:00 P.M. + 48.9 min =
12:49 P.M. To calculate the time mission control claims it to be:

( )
s
m
2
2
2
2
m
1
48.9 min
0.67
1
65.9 min
t
t
v
c
c
c
t
=

If the local time at launch was 12:00 noon, the time mission control claims it is when you reach Jupiter is 12:00 P.M. +
65.9 min = 1:06 P.M.
(b) L
m
= 5.9 10
8
km
L
s
= ?

( )
2
m s
2
m
s
2
2
8
2
2
8 8
s
1
1
5.9 10 km
0.67
1
7.947 10 km, or 7.9 10 km
v
L L
c
L
L
v
c
c
c
L
=
=
=

The distance from Earth to Jupiter, in the inertial frame of your ship, is 7.9 10
8
km.
(c) t = 2.935 10
3
s

( )( )
3 3
1.0 10 kg/s 2.935 10 s 2.935 kg m

= =
E = ?
( )( )
2
2
8
17
2.935 kg 3.00 10 m/s
2.64 10 J
E mc
E
=
=
=

If the usable energy is converted at an efficiency of 10%, the usable power generated is (2.64 10
17
J)(0.10) =
2.6 10
16
J.
7. v = 0.850c
L
m
= 52.2 m
L
s
= ?

( )
2
m s
2
m
s
2
2
2
2
s
1
1
52.2 m
0.85
1
99.1 m
v
L L
c
L
L
v
c
c
c
L
=
=
=

The length of the spaceship when at rest on Earth would be 99.1 m.
8. v = 0.60c
p = ?

( )( )
( )
2
2
27
2
2
19 19
1
1.67 10 kg 0.60
0.60
1
3.757 10 kg m/s, or 3.8 10 kg m/s
mv
p
v
c
c
c
c
p
=

The relativistic momentum of the proton is 3.8 10
19
kgm/s.
9. v = 0.866c
p = ?

( )( )
( )
2
2
31
2
2
22
1
9.11 10 kg 0.866
0.866
1
4.73 10 kg m/s
mv
p
v
c
c
c
c
p
=

27
kgm/s.
10. v = 2.8 10
8
m/s
d = 3.0 km = 3.0 10
3
m
(a) t
s
= ?

3
8
5
3.0 10 m
2.8 10 m/s
1.07 10 s
d
t
v
t

=

t is t
m
since it is two position time. Therefore,

( )
( )
s
m
2
2
2
s m
2
2
8
5
2
8
6 6
s
1
1
2.8 10 m/s
1.07 10 s 1
3.00 10 m/s
3.84 10 s, or 3.8 10 s
t
t
v
c
v
t t
c
t
=

It takes the electron 3.8 10
6
s to reach the target.
(b) p = ?

( )( )
( )
( )
2
2
31 8
2
8
2
8
22
1
9.11 10 kg 2.8 10 m/s
2.8 10 m/s
1
3.00 10 m/s
7.1 10 kg m/s
mv
p
v
c
p
=

The electrons momentum when it hits the target is 7.1 10
22
kgm/s.
11. The mass of a proton is 1.673 10
27
kg, while that of an electron is 9.11 10
31
kg. The proton is over 1800 times
more massive than an electron. To accelerate a particle from rest to a speed approaching c requires a certain magnitude of
force. Since F ma = , this force is much larger for a proton than an electron. Thus, it is easier to accelerate an electron
than a proton.
Alternately, from the relationship
2 2
total K f i
1 1
2 2
W E mv mv = = , the energy required to accelerate a particle will be
equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the particle. Since
K
E m and m
p
>> m
e
, a great deal more energy will be
required to accelerate a proton than is required for an electron.
12. E = 2.3 10
8
J
m = ?

( )
2
2
8
2
8
9
2.8 10 m/s
3.00 10 m/s
3.1 10 kg
E mc
E
m
c
m

=
=

13. 60 W = 60 J/s
m = ?

To calculate the amount of energy required per year:

9
60 J 3600 s 24 h 365 d
s 1 h 1 d 1 a
1.89 10 J
E
E
=
=

To calculate the amount of mass:

( )
2
2
9
2
8
8
1.89 10 J
3.00 10 m/s
2.1 10 kg
E mc
E
m
c
m

=
=

The amount of mass that must be converted is 2.1 10
8
kg.
14. f = 2.15 10
18
Hz
E = ?

( )( )
34 18
15
6.63 10 J s 2.15 10 Hz
1.42 10 J
E hf
E
=
=
=

The energy associated with a single quantum of X radiation is 1.42 10
15
J.
15.
2
2
or
E
E mc m
c
= = . In other words, mass and energy are interconvertible and mass can be expressed in energy units.
From the standpoint of units,
2
( joules)
(kilograms) =
E
m
c
. But, the energy in joules is a very small number in particle

physics, so the energies in eV and MeV are used after converting joules to electron volts (1.60 10
19
J/eV).
16. Let the subscript s represent the soft radiation, and h represent the hard radiation.
s
= 3.80 10
7
m
h
= 1.14 10
7
m

s
h
?
E
E
=
Since
s
s
hc
E
= and
h
h
hc
E
= ,

s s
h
h
s
h
7
7
s h
h s
1.14 10 m
3.80 10 m
0.300, or 3.33
hc
E
hc
E
E E
E E
=
=
= =

The ratio of the two energies is 3.33:1.
17. E = 3.20 10
19
J
= ?

( )( )
34 8
19
7
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
3.20 10 J
6.22 10 m
hc
E
hc
E
=
=

=
=

7
m, or 622 nm.
18. Since
hc
E hf
= = , if the wavelength is lower the energy of the incident photons is lower. To overcome the energy
binding the electron to the surface (work function W), requires a minimum amount of photon energy. If no photoelectrons
are released, the energy of the incident photons is not high enough to release the photoelectron since the wavelength is too
long.
19. Given that
hc
E hf
= = :
(a) To release photoelectrons the photon energy must be equal or greater than the binding energy (work function). This
energy will be different for each metal and thus the frequency of the required incident light will be unique for each
metal.
(b) Although the red light is intense, the energy of the incident photons is only determined by its frequency. High intensity
red light has a larger number of photons, but the energy of each photon is insufficient to liberate photoelectrons
However, the blue light, although of low intensity, has photons each with a higher energy (higher frequency), and
enough energy to liberate photoelectrons.
(c) As noted above, the more intense the light the larger the volume of photons incident on the metal. If the frequency is
equal or higher than the threshold energy, each photon releases a photoelectron. The larger the number of photons, the
larger the volume of photoelectrons, and the larger the photocurrent.
20. W = 2.48 eV = (2.48 eV)(1.60 10
19
J/eV) = 3.968 10
19
J
= ?

The minimum energy of the photons will equal the work function. Thus:

K photon
E E W =

Since E
K
= 0,

p
34 8
19
7
(6.63 10 J s)(3.00 10 m/s)
=
(3.968 10 J)
= 5.01 10 m
E W
hc
W
hc
W
=
=
=

The colour of light will liberate photoelectrons from the barium surface are dark green, blue and violet. (All have a
wavelength shorter than 5.01 10
7
m.)
21. W = E
K
= 5.01 eV
(a) f = ?

( )( )
19
34
15
5.01 eV 1.60 10 J/eV
6.63 10 J s
1.21 10 Hz
E hf
E
f
h
f
=
=
=

=

The threshold frequency for the photoelectric effect is 1.21 10
15
Hz.
(b) = 1.50 10
7
m
cutoff potential = ?

( )( )
34 8
7
18
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
1.50 10 m
1.326 10 J
8.29 eV
hc
E
E
E
=

=
=
=

The maximum E
K
of photoelectrons is 9.29 eV 5.01 eV = 3.28 eV. Therefore, the cutoff potential is 3.28 eV.
22. W = 2.48 eV
= 452 nm = 4.52 10
7
m
E
K
= ?

( )( )
( )( )
K photon
34 8
7 19
K
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
2.48 eV
4.52 10 m 1.60 10 J/eV
2.75 eV 2.48 eV
0.27 eV
E E W
hc
W
E

=
=

=

=
=

The maximum kinetic energy of the ejected photons is 0.27 eV.
23. E
K
= 1.20 eV
W = ?

( )( )
( )( )
photon K
34 8
7 19
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
1.20 eV
3.55 10 m 1.60 10 J/eV
3.50 eV 1.20 eV
2.30 eV
W E E
W

=

=

=
=

24. f = 8.0 10
14
Hz
W = 1.2 eV
v = ?


( )( )
photon
34 14
19
photon
6.63 10 J s 8.0 10 Hz
5.304 10 J
2.1 eV
E hf
E
=
=
=
=

Next, we must calculate the maximum kinetic energy:

K photon
K
3.32 eV 1.2 eV
2.1 eV
E E W
E
=
=
=

But the retarding potential is 1.0 V. Therefore, the maximum energy is 2.1 eV 1.0 eV = 1.1 eV, or 1.76 10
19
J.

Finally, we can calculate the maximum speed:

( )
2
K
K
19
31
5
1
2
2
2 1.76 10 J
9.11 10 kg
6.2 10 m/s
E mv
E
v
m
v
=
=
=

The maximum speed of at which the electron reaches the conductor is 6.2 10
5
m/s.
25. (i) For the photoelectric effect, lower energy photons usually in the visible spectrum initiate the effect. For the Compton
effect, high-energy photons in the X-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum initiate the effect.
(ii) For the photoelectric effect, the result of the interaction is that a low-energy photon liberates a photoelectron and gives
it kinetic energy. For the Compton effect, it is that an incident high-energy photon emerges as a lower energy photon
and scatters an electron.
(iii) The photoelectric effect implies that the energy of light is carried as quanta or photons. The Compton effect implies
that photons have momentum as well as energy.
26. The emerging photon has lower energy and momentum when compared with the incident photon. It also travels in a
different direction, as predicted by the conservation of momentum.
27. = 525 nm = 5.25 10
7
m
p = ?

34
7
27
6.63 10 J s
5.25 10 m
1.26 10 kg m/s
h
p
p
=

=
=

The momentum of the photon is
27
1.26 10 kg m/s
.
28. f = 4.5 10
15
Hz
p = ?
Since
h
p
= and
c
f
= ,

( )( )
34 15
8
27
6.63 10 J s 4.5 10 Hz
3.00 10 m/s
9.9 10 kg m/s
hf
p
c
p

=

=
=

27
9.9 10 kg m/s
.
29. E = 136 eV
p = ?
Since
h
p
= and
hc
E
= ,

( )( )
19
8
24
136 eV 1.60 10 J/eV
3.00 10 m/s
9.86 10 kg m/s
h
p
hc
E
E
c
p
=
=
=

24
9.86 10 kg m/s
.
30. E
p
= 6.0 10
4
eV
E
K
= 5.6 10
4
eV
(a) E
p
= ?

p p K
p p K
4 4
p
6.0 10 eV 5.6 10 eV
0.4 eV
E E E
E E E
E
= +
=
=
=

The energy of the scattered proton is 0.4 eV.
(b) v = ?

( )( )
2
K
K
4 19
31
8
1
2
2
2 5.6 10 eV 1.60 10 J/eV
9.11 10 kg
1.4 10 m/s
E mv
E
v
m
v
=
=

=
=

8
m/s.
(c) p = ?

( )( )
( )
( )
2
2
31 8
2
8
2
8
22 22
1
9.11 10 kg 1.4 10 m/s
1.4 10 m/s
1
3.00 10 m/s
1.13 10 kg m/s, or 1.1 10 kg m/s
mv
p
v
c
p
=

The momentum of the electron is 1.1 10
27
kgm/s.
31. v = 1.0 10
6
m/s
= ?

( )( )
34
31 6
10 10
6.63 10 J s
9.11 10 kg 1.00 10 m/s
7.28 10 m, or 7.3 10 m
h
p
h
mv

=
=

=

=

10
m.
32. (a) 3.0 eV for an elastic collision is not enough energy to equal an energy level.
(b) 8.0 eV 4.9 eV 3.1 eV =
8.0 eV 6.7 eV 1.3 eV =
The electron would have either 3.1 eV, 1.3 eV, or, for an elastic collision, 8.0 eV of energy after passing through the
vapour.
33. An atom can absorb neither a 13.6 eV nor one greater that 13.6 eV. For a photon to be absorbed, the photon energy must
be exactly equal to the energy levels above the ground state. Since this not the case, no absorption is possible. (13.6 eV is
the ionization energy, not an energy level for the atom.) (On the other hand, if were an electron colliding with the atom,
ionization would be likely in either case.
34. (a) In the second Lyman transition:

( )
3 1
15.1 eV 13.6 eV 12.1 eV
n n = =
=

In the second Balmer transition:

( )
4 2
0.85 eV 3.40 eV 2.55 eV
n n = =
=

(b) From part (a), the energy the atom must absorb to make the transition from n = 2 to n = 4 is 2.55 eV.
35. Although a photon has zero mass, it does have momentum (see Compton effect
h
p
= , page 605). In classical mechanics,

when a particles direction is changed there is a change in momentum. For momentum to change, the particle exerts an
impulse on the surface given by F t m v p = = . For a photon, the change in momentum is extremely small compared
with that of a nonzero mass of a particle (e.g., an electron). Nevertheless, there is a small impulse on a reflecting surface
when the momentum of the photon changes. Since
p
F
t
, there is a force on the surface that is small, but still

measurable. An example is the solar wind created by photons originating from the sun.
(Note that Newton made a similar argument in his particle theory to explain the reflection of light; see page 462.)
36.
Type Description
of Particle
Effect on N and Z Example
(examples will vary)
helium nucleus N is decreased by 2
Z is decreased by 4
238 234 4
92 90 2
U Th + He +
electron N is increased by 1
Z is unchanged
14 14 0
6 7 1
He N + e
+
positron N is decreased by 1
Z is unchanged
15 15 0
8 7 1
O N + e +
+

photon both N and Z are
unchanged
238 234 4
92 90 2
U Th + He +

Note that decay usually occurs in conjunction with either or decay as the above examples show.
37. (a) 15 0 y = +
15 y =

( ) 8 1
9
x
x
= +
=

From the periodic table, the element is fluorine (F). This is decay.
(b) 226 4 y = +
222 y =

88 2
90
x
x
= +
=

From the periodic table, the element is thorium (Th). This is decay.
(c) 231 227 y = +
4 y =

91 89
2
x
x
= +
=

From the periodic table, the element is Helium (He). This is decay.
(d) 214 0 y = +
214 y =

( ) 82 1
83
x
x
= +
=

From the periodic table, the element is bismuth (Bi). This is decay.
(e) 239 0 y = +
239 y =

( ) 92 1
93
x
x
= +
=

From the periodic table, the element is neptunium (Np). This is decay.
38. component particles
29 e
= 29 0.00055 u = 0.01595 u
29 p
+
= 29 1.00728 u = 29.21112 u
36 n
0
= 36 1.00867 u = 36.31212 u
total mass = 65.53919 u

copper 65 mass = 64.92779 u

m = 0.61140 u
E = 0.61140 u 931.4 MeV/u = 569.5 MeV
average energy per nucleon =
569.3 MeV
8.762 MeV/nucleon
65 nucleons
=
The average binding energy per nucleon is 8.762 MeV
39. (a)
214 210 4
84 82 2
Po Pb He +
(b) This energy was some of the binding energy that originally held the component parts of the particle in the nucleus.
(c) Conservation of momentum suggests that both particles would be given some kinetic energy. Initially there is only one
object. There are two objects after the reaction, and one of them, the particle, is likely moving at a considerable speed
(around 0.1c). Conservation of momentum suggests that the lead particle would have to recoil in the opposite direction
as a result. This means that it also must have some kinetic energy, though not nearly as much as the particle.
40. (a) The Geiger-Mueller tube detects the particles through the ionizations they produce within the tube. The particles
produce very little ionization and hence are virtually invisible to the device.
(b) A scintillation detector uses a crystal that readily absorbs and re-emits the energy from rays.
41. The initial activity is 2500 Bq. This activity will be one-half that amount, or 1250 Bq, when the half-life occurs. By
inspecting the graph you can see that t = 30 a when A = 1250 Bq. Therefore, the half-life of the sample is 30 a.
42. (a) A
0
= 2.50 10
12
Bq
t
= 28.8 a
t = one half-life

At the half-life the activity is one half the original quantity. Since A
0
= 2.50 1012 Bq, the activity at the half-life is
one-half this amount. Therefore, after one half-life the activity is 1.25 10
12
Bq.
(b) A
0
= 2.50 10
12
Bq
t
= 28.8 a
t = 5.0 a
A = ?

( )
( )
1/ 2
1
0 2
5.0
28.8
12
12
1
2.50 10
2
2.22 10 Bq
t
t
A A
A
=

=

=

After 5.00 a, the activity is 2.22 10
12
Bq.
43. N
0
= 2.50 g
t
= 1600 a
N = 1.00 g
t = ?

1/ 2
0
1600
1600
1600
3
1
2
1
1.00 2.50
2
1.00 1
2.50 2
1.00 1
log log
2.50 2
1.00 1
log log
2.50 1600 2
1.00
1600 log
2.50
1
log
2
2.1 10 a
t
t
t
t
t
N N
t
t
t

=

=

=

=

=

=

=

The amount remaining after 2.1 10
3
a will be 1.00 g.
44. A
0
= 2.99 Bq
a = 1.93 Bq
t
= 5730 a
t = ?

1/ 2
0
5730
5730
5730
3
1
2
1
1.93 2.99
2
1.93 1
2.99 2
1.93 1
log log
2.99 2
1.93 1
log log
2.99 5730 2
1.93
5730log
2.99
1
log
2
3.62 10 a
t
t
t
t
t
A A
t
t
t

=

=

=

=

=

=

=

The age of the sample is 3.62 10
3
a.
45. A
0
= 450.0 Bq
t
= 3.7 a
t = 10.0 a
A = ?

1/ 2
0
10.0
3.7
1
2
1
450.0
2
69 Bq
t
t
A A
A

=

=

=

After 10.0 a, the activity is 69 Bq.
46. A grand unified theory seeks to unify the electromagnetic, strong nuclear, and weak nuclear forces. The gravitational
force is the one left out.
47. With each successive acceleration across an RF gap in a cyclotron, the particle gains kinetic energy. Due to relativistic
effects its mass therefore increases. The frequency of rotation in the cyclotron is a function of the mass so the particle will
gradually become out of synch with the electric field that is intended to accelerate it across the gap. This sets an upper
limit of the amount of energy that can be imparted in a cyclotron. A synchrocyclotron compensates for the relativistic
mass increase by varying the frequency of the electric field. In this way much higher energies can be achieved.
48. Both devices accelerate the particles in an RF cavity. The electric field in the cavity is precisely timed to accelerate the
particle across the gap. The motion in the linac is linear, as one would expect. The particles move through drift tubes
when not in the RF cavity. One significant linac is located at Stanford University.
The motion in the synchrotron is circular. Super-conducting magnets bend the path of the particles when they are not
in the RF cavities. Both the frequency of the electric field and the magnetic field strength can be adjusted to compensate
for relativistic effects. Significant synchrotrons include the CLS at Saskatoon, the Tevatron at Fermilab, and the various
synchrotrons operated by CERN.
49. Charged particles travelling through the wire grids in the tracking detector produce electrical signals that allow their
motion to be analyzed. In addition, a magnetic field in this region can be used to help determine the quantity and type of
charge. The calorimeters absorb the kinetic energy of most of the particles. By measuring the penetration of the particles
one can measure their kinetic energy. The muon chamber is the calorimeter that works with the more penetrating muons.
It both detects and measures the kinetic energy of these particles.
50. m
neutron
= 1.00728 u
m
antineutron
= 1.00728 u

m
total
= m
neutron
+ m
antineutron
= 1.00728 u + 1.00728 u = 2.01456 u

E = 2.01456 u 931.4 MeV/u
E = 1.87 10
3
MeV
The minimum energy of the photon is 1.87 10
3
MeV.
51. The quark composition of a proton consists of uud. In the process of
+
decay one u quark transmutes to a d quark. In this
process it emits a W boson. The W boson decays, producing a neutrino () and a positron (e
+
).
52. The quantum numbers were obtained from Table 2, on page 707. Q = 0, and spin =
1
2
since the particle is a baryon.
B = 1 for the same reason, and s = 1. Since the strangeness is 1, one of the components must be an s quark. The charge
on the s quark is
1
3
. The remaining two particles must have charges that bring the sum to 0. By inspection of the
charges on the various quarks you can see that the combination ud provides the correct sum of the charge and baryon
number. The quark composition of the lambda0 particle is uds.
53. Thus far, attempts to reconcile the gravitational force with the other three forces have been unsuccessful. Additionally,
only indirect evidence exists for the presence of the graviton, the hypothetical force-carrier for gravity.
54. (a)
2 1
u : , , 0
3 3
Q B s = = =

1 1
d : , , 0
3 3
Q B s = = =
For udd:

2 1 1
0
3 3 3
1 1 1
1
3 3 3
0 0 0
Q
B
s

= + + =

= + + =
= + +

The particle that has these quantum numbers is the neutron.
(b)
1 1
s : , , 1
3 3
Q B s = = =

1 1
d : , , 0
3 3
Q B s = = =
For sdd:

1 1 1
1
3 3 3
1 1 1
1
3 3 3
1 0 0 1
Q
B
s

= + + =

= + + =
= + + =

The particle that has these quantum numbers is the
.
55. According to quantum chromodynamics, the quarks within the nucleus exchange particles called gluons. There are eight
types of gluons. The colour force is the cause of the strong nuclear force. The theory says that the force between various
hadrons in a nucleus is actually due to the force between the quarks from which they are composed.
56. The parent particles have no net charge. Since one of the emitted particles is negative, the unknown particle must be
positive. The parent particles each have spin
1
2
. Since one of the emitted particles, the electron, has spin
1
2
then the
unknown emitted particle must either have spin
1
2
or 0. One of the parent particles is a lepton and the other is a baryon.
Since the electron is a lepton then the unknown particle must be a baryon. This is consistent with the spin number.
The neutrinos mass is negligible compared to that of the neutron. The parents combined mass is therefore that of the
neutron. The electrons mass is about
1
2000
that of the neutron so the unknown particles mass is slightly less than that of
the neutron. The unknown particle is a positively charged baryon with a mass slightly less than that of the neutron. It is
most likely a proton.
57. (a) e
+
+

Baryon Number Lepton Number Spin Charge
e+ 0 +1
1
2

+1
0 +1
1
2

0
0 0 1 0

Charge and spin are not conserved.
(b) p p p n n + + +

p +1 0
1
2

+1
p +1 0
1
2

+1
p +1 0
1
2

+1
n 1 0
1
2

0
n +1 0
1
2

0

Baryon number, charge and spin are not conserved.
(c)
0
e
K +

B L s Q
K
0

0 0 0 0
0 +1
1
2

1
e
0 1
1
2

+1

All quantum numbers in the table are conserved.
58. Only (c) is theoretically possible since both (a) and (b) do not conserve all the quantum numbers.
59. (a) p e n
+ +

Mass Charge Baryon Number Lepton Number
p 938.3 +1 +1 0
e
0.511 1 0 1
n 939.6 0 +1 0
small 0 0 +1

The small difference in mass can be attributed to the kinetic energy of the particles. The quantum numbers are
conserved so the reaction is theoretically possible.
(b) n
+
+

Mass Charge Baryon Number Lepton Number
n 439.6 0 +1 0
+
139.6 +1 0 0
135.0 1 0 0

The large difference in mass could be attributed to an enormous kinetic energy in the emitted particles, however,
because the baryon number is not conserved the reaction is not theoretically possible.
60. (a) The standard model lacks the virtue of simple mathematical elegance. It is also more concerned with describing particle
interactions than with explaining them.
(b) The chief alternative to the standard model, superstring theory, sees all particles as multi-dimensional closed loops
vibrating in all dimensions. The strings are extremely small in size, of the order of about 10
35
m. The different types of
particles are seen as just different harmonics.
Owing to the extremely small size of the strings it is highly unlikely that direct evidence will be found in support
of the theory in the near future. The current research is therefore purely theoretical.
61. The chip inside the remote control can detect when a key is pressed. A signal is created that modulates the carrier
frequency (see Section 10.9). A unique sequence is produced for each key pressed. The chip sends the resultant
information out to a transistor, which amplifies it and makes it stronger. At the end of the circuit board there is an infrared
light emitting diode (LED). Although LEDs produce visible light, the remote's LED produces infrared light that is
invisible to the human eye. However, it is not invisible to a TV, stereo, CD, DVD or VCR. The receptors in these
devices are able to detect the infrared light and react appropriately. (You can see the infrared signal being sent by the
remote control if you view if through a digital camera since digital cameras can see infrared.)
62. It is likely that the film has been exposed by the low-level radiation from the luminous dial. The developed photograph
should reveal the shape of the luminous features.
Making Connections
63. One implication is time dilation and the twin paradox. Astronauts on long journeys at relativistic speeds will age at a
much slower rate than their friends and relatives on Earth. In fact, the friends and relatives on Earth may not be alive
when the travellers return, and it is feasible that if the journey is long enough the world may have changed, for example a
new ice age. To reach relativistic speeds, the spaceships will require very large amounts of energy, more than can be
carried. Some other propulsion system will be necessary, a system the converts mass, picked up along the way, into
energy.
64. = 550 nm = 5.50 10
7
m
number of photons = ?

( )( )
( )( )
34 8
7 19
6.63 10 J s 3.00 10 m/s
5.50 10 m 1.60 10 J/eV
2.26 eV/photons
hc
E
E

=

=

=

At an efficiency of 100% and a requirement of 60 W or 60 J/s of energy:

( )( )
19
20
60 J/s
number of photons
2.25 eV 1.60 10 J/eV
number of photons 1.67 10 photons
=

Since the efficiency is only 25%, the light bulb requires four times the number of photons to receive adequate power.
Therefore, (1.67 10
20
photons)(4) = 6.67 10
20
photons are required.
65. = 5.0 10
7
m
m = 4.0 10
5
t = 4.0 10
8
kg
v = 1.5 10
8
m/s
number of protons = ?

First we must calculate the momentum of the photons:

34
7
27
6.63 10 J s
5.0 10 m
1.33 10 kg m/s
h
p
p
=

=
=

Using the unknown x, we can calculate the number of photons:

( )( )
photon spaceship
spaceship
photon
photon
8 8
27
43
4.0 10 kg 1.5 10 m/s
1.33 10 kg m/s
4.5 10 photons
xp p
p
x
p
mv
p
x
=
=
=

=

=

Therefore 4.5 10
43
photons are required to accelerate the spaceship.
66. Speculation about the movement of the moons of Jupiter added to our knowledge of the speed of light. Jupiter has twelve
moons, four of which are easily seen with a simple telescope. All of the moons move relatively quickly around Jupiter.
One of them has a period of only 42.5 h. Although the accurate measurement of their periods had been made earlier, it
was Olaus Roemer (16441710), a Danish astronomer, who attempted to predict the precise moment they would be
eclipsed by Jupiter (as viewed from Earth).
To his surprise, the eclipses came progressively earlier at the times of year when Earth approached Jupiter, and
progressively later when Earth was moving away from Jupiter. Roemer concluded, correctly, that light must travel at a
finite speed, and that the eclipses were delayed because the light had to travel a greater distance when Earth and Jupiter
were farther apart. He calculated that when Earth and Jupiter were farthest apart, it took 22 min, or 1320 s, for light to
cross the diameter of Earths orbit.
A few years later, Christiaan Huygens, a Dutch mathematician and scientist, calculated the diameter of Earths orbit
and, using Roemers data, calculated the speed of light as follows:

d = 3.00 10
11
m
t = 1320 s

11
8
3.00 10 m
=
1320 s
2.3 10 m/s
d
v
t
v
=

Modern telescopes and accurate timers have enabled scientists to determine that the time difference is 1.00 10
3
s;
nevertheless, Huygens calculation was astonishingly accurate considering the equipment he had. The value Roemer and
Huygens gave for the speed of light was so great that their fellow scientists rejected it at first. The work of these two
scientists was not accepted until after both were dead.
In 1905, Albert Michelson made very accurate measurements of the speed of light. His work was recognized, and he
was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1907. Michelsons method involved an ingenious arrangement of mirrors (see
the diagram that follows). Light from a very bright source was reflected from surface A, on an eight-sided, rotatable
mirror, to a mirror located about 35 km away. The distant mirror reflected the light back to surface G where it was
observed in a telescope. The octagonal mirror rotated, and there were only certain positions in which it reflected light that
could be seen in the telescope. These positions occurred every one-eighth of a rotation. If the mirror moved by this
amount in the time interval taken by a light pulse making the round trip, then the telescope would detect the pulse
reflected from face A via face F, in its new position.
For this to happen, the octagonal mirror had to rotate very quicklyapproximately 32 000 times/min. The period of
rotation of the mirror was accurately determined, and the time for the light to make the round trip was measured. The
speed of light could then be calculated, using this time and the distance travelled by the light on its round trip.

In 1933, Michelson supervised the remeasurement of the speed of light with a long, evacuated tube in which light
rays were repeatedly reflected for a total distance of over 16 km. Although he died before the final results were calculated,
his experiment produced an even more accurate value for the speed of light.
Today we have very accurate measurements made with lasers. The current accepted value for the speed of light in a
vacuum, c, is 2.997 924 562 6 0.000 000 011 10
8
m/s. In air, the speed of light is only about 0.000 87 10
8
m/s less
than in a vacuum.
69. 8.0 cm l
=

2
2
0.3 cm
0.6 cm
140.0 MeV/
1197.0 MeV/
135
s
l
m c
m c
=
=
=
=
=

(a)
0
? m
=

( )
2
2
8 2
8.0 cm 0.3 cm
8(0.3 cm) 2
26.8 cm
l
s
r
s
r

= +
= +
=

(6.86 MeV/ cm)
(6.86 MeV/ cm)(26.8 cm)
184 MeV/
p c r
c
p c

=
=
=


2 2 2
2
2 4
2 2 2 2 4
4 2 2
4 2
2
(184 MeV/ ) (140.0 MeV/ )
3.4 10 MeV 1.96 MeV
5.4 10 MeV
2.3 10 MeV
E p c m c
c c c c
E
E

= +
= +
= +
=
=

4
4
4
174 MeV/ 1
0.597 cm
0.6 cm
174 MeV/ 1
0.597 cm
174 MeV/ 1 1
0 MeV/
l
p c
c
c
p c
=
=

2 2 2
2
2 4
2 2 2 2 4
6 2
3
(0 MeV/ ) (1197.0 MeV/ )
1.43 10 MeV
1.197 10 MeV
E p c m c
c c c c
E
E

= +
= +
=
=

0 2 2
0
0
2 2 4 4 4
3 2 2 4 2 4 4
2 2 4 2
5 2
2 2
2 2
( ) ( 2 )
(1.197 10 MeV 2.3 10 MeV) (0 0 (3.4 10 MeV / ))
(9.7 10 MeV) 3.4 10 MeV
9.1 10 MeV
9.5 10 MeV
9.5 10 MeV/
m c E E p c p p c p c
c c
m c
m c

= +
= +
=
=
=
=

The mass ratio of the invisible
0
particle is
2 2
9.5 10 MeV/c .
(c) The
0
particles mass
2 2
(9.5 10 MeV/ ) c corresponds best with the
0
n particle, which has a mass of 940 MeV/c
2
.

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Copyright 2003 Nelson Chapter 11 Einsteins Special Theory of Relativity 639

Unit 5 Matter-Energy Interface

are the units of momentum.

= will most likely not

= . For significant diffraction, 1

, or w . Therefore, slit width must be less than

, would be much larger as well. As a result,

. Therefore, uncertainty increases if the

= , decreasing decreases , and thus decreasing the distance of the rings

indicates that there is uncertainty in any measurement of

. Based on the values of N and Z, this is a beta particle. Therefore,

could be rearranged giving

. The known values of h and c, as well

electron 1 thin metal

. But, the energy in joules is a very small number in particle

= , page 605). In classical mechanics,

, there is a force on the surface that is small, but still

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Physics-12-Ch 11 &amp; 12 &amp; 13-Solns

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Physics-12-Ch 11 &amp; 12 &amp; 13-Solns

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Formati disponibili

Copyright 2003 Nelson Chapter 11 Einsteins Special Theory of Relativity 639

Unit 5 Matter-Energy Interface

are the units of momentum.

= will most likely not

= . For significant diffraction, 1

, or w . Therefore, slit width must be less than

, would be much larger as well. As a result,

. Therefore, uncertainty increases if the

= , decreasing decreases , and thus decreasing the distance of the rings

indicates that there is uncertainty in any measurement of

. Based on the values of N and Z, this is a beta particle. Therefore,

could be rearranged giving

. The known values of h and c, as well

electron 1 thin metal

. But, the energy in joules is a very small number in particle

= , page 605). In classical mechanics,

, there is a force on the surface that is small, but still

Potrebbero piacerti anche

Physics-12-Ch 11 & 12 & 13-Solns

Physics-12-Ch 11 & 12 & 13-Solns