Mahmoud 1

Pr. Victoria Clark

Amira Mahmoud
Research Paper
Draft One
Egyptian Mythology: The Greco-Roman Diaspora
The word mythology is a combination of the Greek mythos, which means legend, and
logos, meaning discourse ("Mythology"). It is a story of unknown origin (qtd. In Madden, 45)
that first appeared over 10,000 years ago (Madden, 43), making it deeply rooted in the
earliest civilizations. There were several functions of mythology. First, mythological tales
were the basis of some religions. In addition to their religious functions, myths also helped
explaining mysterious events (Madden; "Mythology") to simplify understanding of the world
therefore allowing people to live in harmony with it. Another function of mythology was to
promote good virtues and convey that bad deeds had negative consequences (Madden, 44).
This means that mythology served as an early justice system. From prehistoric time onward,
myths changed for two main reasons. In addition to responding to modernity as the need for
more comprehensive explanations increased ("Mythology"), myths were adapted to reflect a
society's cultural image (Madden, 44). This self image could be affected by invasion. For
example, two of the conquests on Egypt were those of the Greeks and Romans. The Greeks,
particularly Alexander the Great, started ruling Egypt in 332 B.C. The whole reign ended in
310 B.C. (Dodson) when the Roman dynasty started. Although the Romans ruled for 403
years more than the Greeks, the close features between both cultures results in the
combination of their periods into one termed the "Greco-Roman" period, that lasted for 727
years (Department of Egyptian Art). This paper is a demonstration of how Egyptian
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mythology was affected during the Greco-Roman period in terms of changing perceptions of
divine symbols and introducing new mythological concepts.
The following section is about the change of the goddess Isis during the Greco-Roman period
and the reasons for that change.
Isis started as an Ancient Egyptian goddess who was famous for many positive qualities.
She was believed to have been born on the 4
th
day that the ancient Egyptian moon god,
Khonsu, added to the normal 360-day year. Egyptian tales claim that Isis was the key to
agriculture as she discovered wheat and barley (McDevitt). Therefore, she was known as the
"goddess of fertility" (Gill). In their book Greek and Egyptian Mythologies, Honigsblum et al.
state that Isis was also known for protecting love (245).This is proven by a statue sculpted
around 590 B.C. that shows Isis wrapping her wings around her brother and husband Osiris
as a symbol of love and protection [see figure one]. In addition to being the goddess of
fertility and love, Isis was also known as the goddess of motherhood (Honigsblum, 245). This
can be demonstrated by a bronze statue completed in 600 B.C. that depicts Isis nursing her
son Horus, which indicates her popularity as a strong mother who cares for her child despite
losing her husband [see figure two]. Finally, the belief that Isis revived her husband Osiris
made her the goddess of magic ("Bronze Statue"). Clearly, Isis was a very popular goddess
of entirely Egyptian origin.
During the Greco-Roman period, Isis went through three stages of mythological evolution.
In her first stage, Greek characteristics were added to the Egyptian goddess. A statue
completed during the Greek conquest is a clear indicator of those additions (Honigsblum,
246). Although the statue shows Isis wearing a crown with Pharaonic symbols, it shows her
also wearing a draped linen chiton and her hair is raised in "slanky curls" [see figure three],
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which were typical features of Greek costumes at that time (Robinson). Undoubtedly, Isis
became abstract from her Ancient Egyptian origin during the first stage of transformation.
During the second stage, at the time of the Roman conquest, Isis became more abstract. Not
only was she associated with the Roman goddess Venus (Rappoport), but her strong
association with the goddess Aphrodite ("Figure of Isis-Aphrodite ") made them merge into
one Roman goddess of love, fertility and motherhood: Isis-Aphrodite. The fact that the name
Isis precedes Aphrodite indicates that the Romans were inspired by her more than her
Roman counterpart. An illustration of the more abstract Isis is demonstrated by a statue
representing Isis in an Egyptian vulture cap that, unlike the preceding Greek statue, has no
Egyptian hieroglyphics [ see figure four]. This demonstrates that Isis was gradually losing all
Egyptian features and becoming completely Roman. In her final stage, the Egyptian Isis
became the fully Roman Isis-Aphrodite. A demonstration of this is a statue made during the
late Roman conquest that shows Isis wearing many accessories, which was unusual to
Egyptians, in addition to the calathos, which was the crown of female Greco-Roman
divinities [see figure five].
The mythological evolution of Isis as well as other symbols was for political and religious
reasons. Several maneuvers during the Greco-Roman period aimed at politically controlling
the Egyptian population. For example, female Roman rulers wore the calathos which Isis'
sculpture shows her wearing [figure five]. This association of Roman rulers with the famous
Egyptian goddess was to remind Egyptians of her so that they would not only obey their
rulers, but also admire and worship them ("Figure of Isis-Aphrodite"). Clearly, the Roman
additions to Isis and therefore her association with rulers targeted peaceful political control.
In addition to modifying symbols of divinity to suit their best interest, the Greek political
authority derived from introducing their rulers to Egyptian mythology. One example of this
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introduction is Alexander the Great, who was the first Greek ruler (Dodson). In addition to
claiming he was the son of the main Egyptian god Ammon, Alexander argued that he was
allowed to sacrifice to certain gods (Bosworth, 73). He even brought rival oracles from Asia
to support his claims to ensure that no one will doubt them (Bosworth, 71). Furthermore,
Alexander held large athletic meetings more than once annually in memory of an Egyptian
god or goddesses (Duff). His appeal to Egyptians by affiliating himself with their gods is the
reason why his achievements were "superhuman" (Bosworth, 5). As for the religious
purposes, the Greek colonists and mercenaries wanted to combine Egyptian and
Greek/Roman religions into one. This desire indicates their fascination with the Ancient
Egyptian mythology. One example of their fascination is the fact that when they merged
Aphrodite and Isis, the Egyptian goddess preceded her Roman counterpart in the combined
name Isis-Aphrodite. In addition to being a sign of fascination by the Egyptian religion, Isis
preceded Aphrodite as a gesture to the Egyptian population to make them satisfied. These
new symbols of divinity reached Greece and Rome through trade and were worshiped there
(Honigsblum, 246). Overall, it is obvious that symbols of divinity changed for political and
religious reasons.
The following section will demonstrate four examples of the addition of new mythological
aspects during the Greco-Roman period to Egyptian mythology.
One example of the indirect Greco-Roman influence on Egypt is the belief that twins'
souls enter cat bodies during their sleep and do not return to the human bodies if the cats
are locked. In her book The Fellahin in Upper Egypt, the British Egyptologist, anthropologist
and archaeologist Winifred S. Blackman noted how in the late 20
th
century this was a
"common belief all over Egypt." In fact, she demonstrated several examples of situations
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where the association was clear. One of those examples was about a cat in Asyut which
opened the lid of a food container, jumped in it and ate the food. When someone closed the
lid without noticing the cat, she was locked there for three days, during which a boy a twin
in the same province remained asleep, "motionless and unconscious" (89). Therefore, his
soul was believed to have been in the body of the trapped cat. One would assume that this
weird superstition was limited to the previous century, yet, ironically, it is so widespread
that a show on the official Egyptian T.V. Channel 1 hosted people to speak about their
experiences as cats only 5 years ago precisely on 23 September 2007 (Haikal, 134). AUC
Egyptology Professor Fayza Haikal provided a theory on the origin of this superstition. In her
article Of Cats and Twins in Egyptian Folklore, Haikal stated that cat popularity rose
significantly in the Greco-Roman period. This popularity is demonstrated by the depiction of
the Egyptian goddess Bastet, which was previously known to Ancient Egyptians as a lioness,
as a cat (132) as well as the introduction of the new divinities Shu and Tefnut (133). These
two new symbols were interpreted as both kittens and twins since they looked similar but of
different sex. Later, in the Roman reign, Shu and Tefnut were the Gemini symbols in the
Roman calendar, which could be considered a confirmation of the assumption that they
were manifested as kittens (134). Clearly, the origin of the common belief of the twin - cat
manifestation is an indirect consequence of the Greco-Roman period.
Another example of the Greco-Roman additions to Egyptian mythology is the omen of
sneezing. The belief that sneezing is a sign of good luck began in the time of Homer (Pease,
443), who was an ancient Greek poet (Dickinson).The omen of sneezing was a very common
superstition throughout the classical period, and it developed several factors to confirm that
it was a sign of good luck. For instance, Socrates considered that sneezing to the right would
bring luck to the person that sneezes, while Aristotle claimed that sneezing before midday
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was necessary for good luck (Van Der Horst, 104; Pease, 441). Plutarch believed that the
good luck would extend to the people in front of or behind the person who sneezes (Pease,
432; Van Der Horst, 104). Generally, sneezing was considered a lucky Greek omen as the
involuntary action was believed to be either the exit of a demon or the entry of a good
ancestor (Pease, 439). Another interpretation of the action of sneezing was that it was a
"god-given omen" (Van Der Horst, 104). In addition to being a symbol of good luck, sneezing
was considered a confirmation of plans. For example, during a Greek war, the leader
Xenophon was telling his soldiers that their chances of returning home are high, when one of
them sneezed. Immediately after he sneezed, all soldiers bowed and Xenophon, considering
the sneeze a confirmation of his words, promised to sacrifice to the gods upon arrival (Van
Der Horst, 21). This superstition continues to be widely believed in Egypt nowadays as
sneezing is considered a symbol not only of good luck, but of confirmation and prosperity.
Clearly, the omen of sneezing was an addition of Greco-Roman origin to Egyptian mythology.
Another example of the introduction of Greek and Roman concepts to Egyptian
mythology is the omen of touching wood. The first recorded touching of wood for the sake
of good luck appeared at the times of the Pagans and Greeks. The Pagans were accustomed
to pleading for the help of tree gods by stroking tree barks during rituals (Wiseman). As they
believed that trees, particularly the Oak tree, was sacred to Zeus, the Greeks also worshiped
trees and believed stroking them would bring them good luck. In fact, there was an entire
temple in Athens for the worship of tree gods and serpents (Fergusson, 16). In addition to
the Pagans and the Greeks, there were two tree gods that the Romans worshiped. The
Roman goddess Pomona was one of the few that had no Greek counterpart. She was
worshiped first as a wood nymph. Later, she was believed to rule gardens and orchards in
addition to trees, especially nut and fruit trees. Another Roman tree god was Vertemnus,
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who was associated with Pomona. Unlike Pomona, Vertemnus was a more general tree god
as he was believed to have been the "god of changing seasons" (Barrette, 25). The omen has
spread massively throughout the Egyptian mythology in the sense that it is extremely
common among all social classes in Egypt nowadays to touch wood for good luck including
the prevention of envy. A demonstration of this widely accepted belief is the fact that there
are over a dozen businesses ranging from supermarkets to furniture shops which are called
"Touch Wood," according to the Egyptian Yellow Pages 2012 directory. Not only was this
superstition introduced through the Greco-Roman period, but it was also so powerful that it
became one of the most common beliefs among Egyptians to this day.
In addition to the omens of cat-twin association, sneezing and touching wood for good
luck, the mythological symbolism of butterflies was also a Greco-Roman addition to Egyptian
mythology. The very first reference to the interpretation of the iconography of butterflies is
in the famous Greek book The Golden Ass, in which Apuleius tells the story of Psyche that
revolves around Venus' jealousy from her beauty and Cupid's attempt to demolish it, yet his
task was not completed as he eventually fell in love with Psyche ("Psyche;" Bulfinch, 72).
Interestingly, the Greek word Psyche means both butterfly and soul, and from here came the
analogy between a human soul and a butterfly ("Psyche"). The human soul is thought to be
imprisoned during its existence in a body, which resembles the imprisoned caterpillar in a
cocoon. After its metamorphosis, by death, the soul's beauty radiates without boundaries
like that of a butterfly and experiences "true love and happiness," according to the Greek
interpretation (Kritsky, 9; Bulfinch, 71). Therefore, seeing a butterfly was considered a sign
of good luck and intellectual liberation. This interpretation has influenced many poets and
writers, such as the overwhelmingly famous Arab poet Mahmoud Darwish, whose poetry
includes a whole book titled The Butterfly's Burden that was published in the year 2006.The
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book could be considered a reflection of his soul's burdens, as his life was extremely difficult.
For example, he was on exile for 26 years ("Mahmoud Darwish"). Therefore, the
interpretation of the butterfly as a human soul is clearly a continuation of the Greco-Roman
period. The association of butterflies with the human soul continues in Egypt nowadays,
where seeing a butterfly is interpreted as receiving a greeting from a close deceased family
member or friend as well as a reminder of the inevitable freedom that awaits people after
their death.
Overall, this paper clearly demonstrated that the Greek and Roman conquests had
extremely powerful effects in shaping Egyptian mythology. These effects include altering the
symbols that Ancient Egyptians worshipped in addition to associating themselves and their
rulers with them. Another aspect of the Greco-Roman effects is the introduction of Greek
and Roman concepts and interpretations of iconography to Egyptian mythology. Not only did
the Greco-Roman period witness a paradigm in Egyptian mythology, but its consequences
were so strong that now, after almost 2000 years of the end of their reign, as well as other
conquests such as the British and the French, ] the Greek and Roman concepts are still
engraved in the mythology of Egyptians. This means that Egyptians are considered partly
Greek in terms of mythology. It is also an indicator of one of the strongest ways of
controlling a population: by carving its beliefs to your advantage.




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Figure One: Statue of Isis Protecting Osiris
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Figure Two: Bronze Figure of Isis and Horus
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Figure Three: Isis (Honigsblum, 246)
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Figure Four: Isis-Aphrodite with Egyptian Vulture Cap

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Figure Five: Figure of Isis-Aphrodite
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