Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Structural Analysis
The structural analysis collection includes frame analysis and also some specialised finite
element and beam analysis modules.
3-1
Quick Reference
Structural Analysis using PROKON
3-3
Frame Analysis
3-5
3-78
3-78
3-78
3-2
Frame analysis
Frame can take account of own weight, temperature changes, prescribed displacements and
elastic supports. Loads are entered as load cases and grouped in load combinations at ultimate
and serviceability limit states.
The following static analysis modes are available:
Second order analysis: Models sway behaviour by incorporating P-delta effects. The
solution is obtained by iterative analysis, thereby allowing for options like tension
elements.
Non linear analysis. This takes the second order analysis a bit further. The load is
applied in steps and the deflected structure at the end of each step is used to apply the next
step. Material non linearity is not yet supported.
Buckling analysis: For calculating safety factors for structural instability due to buckling.
Beam analysis
Modules are available for the analysis of simple beams and beams on elastic supports.
3-4
Frame Analysis
Frame can be used for the analysis of the following types of structures by selecting a domain
on the General input tab:
Space Trusses: Analysis of three-dimensional trusses where only axial forces are
considered.
Frame analysis results can be post-processed using the steel member design modules for axial
and combined stress, namely Strut and Com.
3-5
3-6
Frame Analysis
Sign conventions
Frame input and output uses a mixture of global axis and local axes values.
Global axes
The global axis system is nearly
exclusively used when entering frame
geometry and loading. Global axes are
also used in the analysis output for
deflections and reactions.
The global axes are defined as follows:
3-7
The local z-axis and axial force is chosen in the direction from the smaller node number to
the larger node number.
The y-axis is taken in a vertical plane perpendicular to the z-axis. The y and z-axes thus
describe a vertical plane with the y-axis pointing vertically or diagonally upward.
The x-axis is taken perpendicular to the y and z-axes, using a left-hand rule.
In the case of a vertical member, the z-axis is taken parallel to the global Y-axis. A
unique definition of the y-axis is obtained by taking it parallel to the global X-axis.
Vertical elements: The y-axis is taken vertically upward, i.e. parallel to the global
Y-axis. The x-axis is taken horizontal in the plane of the shell and z-axis is taken
horizontal perpendicular to the shell. The z-axis points towards you if the shells nodes
are defined in an anti-clockwise direction and away if defined clockwise.
To simplify the analysis output, the orientation of the local shell axes can sometimes be
manipulated by slight rotation of the shell elements. In the case of horizontal slab, for example,
the local x and y-axes (and stresses) are taken parallel to the global X and Z-axes. In the case of
a circular slab, radial and concentric stresses may often be more desirable. By generating the
shell elements at a slight slope towards the centre, they will not be considered as horizontal
3-8
Frame Analysis
anymore. As a result, local y-axes will point (upward) towards the centre and the x-axes taken
perpendicular to that, i.e. radial and concentric respectively. The small inclination will
normally have no significant effect on the analysis.
Note: Rotating elements (for the sake of manipulating the local axes) can induce additional
support conditions in some cases. Such manipulation should thus be performed with
great care.
Beam
element
forcesThe
conventions are as follows:
sign
Note: In this manual, the global and local axes are written in uppercase and lowercase
respectively.
Shell element stresses
Shell element stresses are given using the local axes:
Bending stresses: The entities Mx and My are moment per unit width about the local x and
y-axes. Mxy represents a torsional moment in the local x-y plane. The principal bending
moments per unit width are represented as Mmax and Mmin.
Plane stresses: The stresses in the plane of a shell, Sx and S y, are given in the directions of
the local x- and y-axes. Sxy represents the shear stress in the plane of the element. Values
are also given for the principal plane stresses, Smax and Smin.
Note: To assist you in evaluating shell element stresses, stress contour diagrams show
orientation lines at the centre of each shell element. An orientation line indicates the
direction (not axis) of bending or plane stress. In a concrete shell, the orientation line would
indicate the direction of reinforcement resisting the particular stress.
3-9
Units of measurement
The following units of measurement are supported:
Units
Metric
Imperial
Distance
mm, m
ft, inch
Force
N, kN
lb, kip
Use the Convert Units button on the Settings page to change the units for the current analysis:
Convert Units: Changes the units and converts all numeric data from the old to the new
units of measurement.
Analysis modes
The following types of analysis are possible:
Linear analysis: Basic linear elastic analysis. A linear analysis is normally sufficient for
the static analysis of a frame or truss with negligible sway.
Second order analysis: Choose this mode to include p-delta effects in the analysis. This
option is recommended for structures where sway may have a marked effect on the
member forces, e.g. portal frames. The second order analysis is an iterative procedure. The
total strain energy of the frame is calculated after each iteration. The analysis is deemed to
have converged once the total strain energy of two sequential iterations differs by less than
the specified tolerance. If convergence was not possible, e.g. structural instability due to
buckling of critical members, a message to that effect will be displayed.
Non Linear analysis: Choose this mode where non-linear effects and large deflections
may be expected or where second order analysis might not provide sufficient accuracy.
3-10
Frame Analysis
Loading is applied in a series of steps and an iterative analysis is carried out at each step so
that the forces in the deflected structure at that point balance with the applied loading.
Modal analysis: For calculating the natural modes of vibration. The modal analysis is an
iterative procedure during which several sets of trial vectors are selected and evaluated.
The process takes relatively long to complete and it is therefore recommended that the
structure size be limited to a few hundred nodes. You can specify the number of mode
shapes to be calculated and other dynamic analysis parameters.
Harmonic analysis: Choose harmonic analysis to determine the response of the frame to
harmonic loading. Load amplitudes are entered exactly like static nodal and element loads.
You can enter a load frequency and phase angle for each harmonic load case. The first step
of a harmonic analysis is the calculation of the frames natural modes of vibration.
Therefore, if preceded by a modal analysis, the results of that analysis are re-used and only
the harmonic response calculated. The harmonic response is taken as the sum of the square
(SSRS) of the maximum modal responses, a method that is considered fundamentally
sound when modal frequencies are well separated. When frequencies of major contributing
modes are very close together, the SSRS method can give poor results.
Earthquake analysis: Use this option to calculate the response of the frame to the
specified a seismic acceleration parameters. Nodal and element loads entered are treated as
static loads. The analysis procedure starts by calculating the frames natural modes of
vibration. Therefore, if preceded by a modal analysis, the results of the modal analysis are
re-used and only the seismic response calculated.
Buckling analysis: Use this option to determine the buckling load factors and mode shapes
for each load case or combination. Being the critical case, the first buckling mode shape is
normally the only one of interest.
elements. This means that deflections calculated using triangular elements are generally quite
accurate, but moments may be less accurate.
Stress smoothing
A reduced integration technique is used to calculate the element stiffness matrices. The stresses
are calculated at the Gaussian integration points and subsequently extrapolated bi-linearly to
the corner point and centre point of each element. Taking the average of all contributing stress
components smooths stresses at common nodes.
Element layout
Consider a typical continuous flat concrete slab supported on columns or walls. To ensure
accurate modelling of curvature, a minimum of about four elements should be used between
bending moment inflection points. This translates to a minimum of about eight elements per
span in both directions.
Using more elements per span often does not yield a significant improvement in analysis
accuracy. In addition, the particular finite element formulation yields its most accurate results
when the element thickness does not greatly exceed its plan dimensions.
For a typical concrete slab with a thickness of about one-tenth or one-fifteenth of the span
length, a reasonable rule of thumb is to make the plan dimensions of the shell elements no
smaller than the thickness of the slab. In other words, use a maximum of about ten to fifteen
elements per span.
Frame Analysis
To ensure accurate modelling of curvature, a minimum of about four elements should be used
between bending moment inflection points. This translates to a minimum of about eight
elements per span direction in a continuous slab.
Concrete design
Frame can perform reinforced concrete design for shell elements. The Wood and Armer
equations are used to transform the bending and torsional stresses to effective bending
moments in the user-defined x and y-directions.
To allow for the effect of in-plane forces, bending moments Mx, My and Mxy are increased to
include the effects of these forces. The moments are increased by conservatively taking the inplane forces to act with a lever arm of a quarter of the section depth. The Wood and Armer
equations are then evaluated in same manner as described above.
Codes of practice
The following concrete design codes are supported:
BS 8110 - 1997.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
Steel Member Design for Axial Stress, Strut: Can design steel trusses.
Steel Member Design for Combined Stress, Com: Can design beam members.
3-13
Settings
Settings are done on the Settings tab:
Analysis type
Linear analysis: Normal linear elastic frame analysis. A linear analysis is normally
sufficient for the static analysis of a frame or truss with negligible sway. The linear
analysis procedure is performed faster than any other type of analysis. If you need to
perform a second order, buckling or dynamic analysis, it will be wise to first verify the
basic integrity of the frame input by performing a linear analysis.
Second order analysis: Models sway behaviour by incorporating P-delta effects. The
solution is obtained by iterative analysis, thereby allowing for options like tension
elements.
3-14
Frame Analysis
Non-linear analysis: This analysis is used when large deflections or non-linear behaviour
are expected. Only geometric non-linearity is supported a this stage. Material non-linearity
will be added in the near future. The solution is obtained by a stepped iterative analysis.
Loads are added in steps. The analysis is iterated to convergence for each step so that the
reactions and forces are in balance with the applied loads after each step. The deflected
structure at the end of each step is then used to apply the next load step and the process is
repeated until the total load has been applied.
Modal analysis: Calculation of a frame s natural modes of vibration. The process takes
relatively long to complete and it therefore recommended that the structure size be limited
to a few hundred nodes. You can specify the number of mode shapes to be calculated and
other dynamic analysis parameters.
Buckling analysis: For calculating safety factors for structural instability due to buckling.
You can specify the number of mode shapes to be calculated.
Analysis parameters
Depending on the selected analysis type, you may need to specify additional analysis
parameters:
Concrete design parameters: Concrete and reinforcement properties. Details are given
on page 3-64.
Second order and buckling parameters: Required analysis tolerance and number of
buckling mode shapes. Refer to page 3-65 for detail.
Non linear parameters: Values influencing the non-linear analysis. A detailed discussion
is given on page 3-67.
Own weight
The own weight of the frame can be calculated using the entered cross-sectional areas and
member lengths. If you specify a load case, the own weight is calculated and added to the other
loads of that case.
The following are points of importance:
By default, the own weight of the frame is set to not be included in the analysis. Be sure to
select the appropriate load case for own weight or, alternatively, to include the frame'
s
own weight in the values of the loads entered.
3-15
The list of load cases from which you can select is based on the load cases defined on the
Nodal loads, Beam loads, and Shell loads input pages. You may thus prefer to specify the
own weight load case only after completing all other input for the frame. However, you
can also enter the own weight load case at the start of the frame input process in which
case you may ignore the warning message (that the load case does not exist).
Tip: If you wish to use own weight in its own separate load case, you can do so by defining
an empty load case. You can enter a zero load at any node number, for example, and then
select that load case as the one to use for own weight.
The own weight or beam elements are modelled as uniformly distributed loads along the
lengths of the beams. In the case of a vertical beam element, own weight is modelled as two
equal point loads at the ends of the beam, yielding a constant axial force equal to half the own
weight. In the case of shell elements, own weight is modelled as point loads at the corner
nodes. In the case of solids, the weight is added as point loads at the nodes.
Graphics Options
Click on the graphics options button to have the graphics options dialog displayed.
All surfaces are drawn as polygons. You can choose to make the surfaces transparent or have
them filled and outlined.
Tip: The Graphics options and 3D rendering function can also be accessed using the buttons
next to the displayed picture.
3-16
Frame Analysis
3-17
Input
Work through the relevant Input pages to enter the frame geometry and loading:
General input: Select the domain (Plane frame, grillage etc.) The input wizards can also
be selected here. More about these wizards later.
Beam sections input: Enter properties or read sections from the database.
Spring elements input: For special effects, optionally enter spring elements.
Beam element loads input: Uniform distributed, triangular, trapezium and point loads on
beams.
Load combinations input: Group dead, live and wind loads in load combinations.
Alternative methods of generating frame analysis input are discussed on page 3-61.
Use the Zoom buttons to zoom into a part of the structure or view it from another angle.
Use the View Point Control to set a new viewpoint or camera position.
3-18
Frame Analysis
General input
Wizards
The wizards are suitable for the
rapid generation of complete
input files for some typical
structures. Because the resulting
input data is presented in the
normal way on the input pages,
you are free to edit and append
to the data as necessary.
Input generated this way can
optionally be appended to
existing data you can therefore
repeatedly use the wizards to
generate complicated structures.
Note: The frame analysis modules are not limited to modelling only those frames generated
by the wizards. Any general two or three-dimensional frame can be collectively built up.
The wizards merely serve to simplify input of typical frames.
Adding input data to the Calcsheets
You can append the input tables (as they appear on the screen) to the Calcsheets by clicking
the Add input tables to Calcsheets button.
You can add a picture from any input pages to the Calcsheets by clicking the Add to
Calcsheets button next to the picture in question.
Title
Enter a descriptive name for the frame. It should not be confused with the file name you use
when you save the input data.
3-19
Nodes input
Use as many lines as necessary to enter the nodes defining the frame. A unique number must
be assigned to each node. The node number is entered in the No column, followed by the X, Y
and Z-coordinates in the X, Y and Z columns. If you leave X, Y or Z blank, a value of zero is
used.
You are allowed to skip node numbers to simplify the definition of the frame. You may also
leave blank lines in the input to improve readability. If a node number is defined more than
once, the last definition will be used.
Note: Most of the examples given in this section show 3D co-ordinates as would be
applicable if the domain is set to Space Frame or Space Truss. If the domain is set to
Plane Frame or Grillage use the X-Y and X-Z planes respectively.
3-20
Frame Analysis
Error checking
The program checks for nodes lying at the same position. If a potential error is detected, an
Error list button will appear.
Generating additional nodes
When defining a node, you can have additional nodes generated at regular intervals. Example:
The Y-coordinate of node 4 is left blank. Therefore, node 4 is put at the coordinate
(0.805,0,14.614).
Setting Increment to 7 means that the node numbers are incremented by seven.
Therefore, node 4 is copied to node 11 and node 11 is copied to node 18.
The values in the X-inc, Y-inc and Z-inc columns set the distance between copied nodes.
The coordinates 4 to 18 are horizontally spaced at 1.140 m and 0.472 m along the X and
negative Z-axis respectively. The coordinates of the additional nodes are thus
(1.945,0,14.142) and (3.085,0,13.670).
An alternative method to generate equally spaced nodes is to use the Inc to End option. This
method allows you to define two nodes and then generate a number of nodes in-between:
Use the same procedure as above to define the first nodes coordinates.
Set the values of X-inc, Y-inc and Z-inc to the total coordinate difference to the last node
and enable the Inc to End option. The last nodes coordinates are then first calculated and
the specified number of intermediate nodes then generated.
3-21
X
0.00
2.00
4.00
0.00
2.00
4.00
Y
5.12
5.12
5.12
5.62
5.62
5.62
Z
0.00
0.10
0.20
1.00
1.10
1.20
Block generation
A group of nodes can be repeated by entering a B in the No column followed by the first and
last table line numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the line numbers with a '
.
Block generation example:
The nodes defined in lines 11 to 26 are copied twice. Node numbers are incremented by thirty for
each copy. The X, Y and Z-coordinate increments are 10 m, zero and zero respectively.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. '
B10' copy line 10 only.
to
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program' window.
s
The block generation function may be used recursively. That means that the lines specified
may themselves contain further block generation statements.
Moving nodes
To move a group of nodes to a new location without generating any new nodes, use the block
generation function and set No-of to ' and Inc to ' .
1'
0'
Arc generation
A group of nodes can be repeated on an arc by entering an ' in the No column, followed by
A'
the start and end line numbers. Enter the centre of the arc in the X, Y and Z columns and use
the X-inc, Y-inc or Z-inc column to specify the angle increment about the X, Y or Z-axis
respectively. If the program domain is set to Plane Frame or Grillage, the angle increment
should be entered in the last column. Rotation will be about the Z and Y-axis respectively.
3-22
Frame Analysis
Example:
All nodes defined in lines 5 to 9 of the table will be repeated eleven times on an imaginary
horizontal arc. The centre point of the arc is located at the coordinate (10,0,1.5). The node
number increment is set to 5, i.e. node number 3 becomes node 8, etc. The rotation angle
between the generated groups of nodes is 30 degrees about the Y-axis, i.e. anti-clockwise using
a right-hand rule.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line numbers, e.g. A12 to copy line 12 only.
Note: The arc generation function may be used recursively.
Rotating nodes
To rotate a group of existing nodes without generating any new nodes, use the arc generation
function and set the No-of to 1 and Increment to 0.
Deleting nodes
Nodes can be deleted by entering Delete in the Inc to end column. This can be especially
handy if you have generated a large group of nodes and then need to remove some of them
again.
Example:
rectangle on the screen with the mouse. All nodes inside the rectangle will be deleted. Press
Done when finished. Pressing Undo will undo the deletions in reverse order, one by one.
Pressing Undo All will undo all deletions done with this function.
Click the Explode nodes button to
explode the node input. This results in
the list of nodes being written, each
on a separate line without block & arc
generations etc. Once done, it cannot
be reversed.
3-24
Frame Analysis
An element definition must include a section number entered in the Section Name column.
The section name is used to identify the relevant section. The actual section properties for each
section number defined on the Beam Sections input page.
An element can be rotated about its axis by entering a beta angle. The beta angle is measured
about the z-axis, taking the default orientation as 0. Instead of entering a beta angle, you may
also enter a reference node the beta angle is then taken in the plane described by the element'
s
nodes and the reference point. To use a reference point, first define a node with the relevant
coordinate and then enter ' followed by the node number in the Beta column
N'
Tip: Enable full 3D rendering in the Graphics options to view the true beam orientation.
Section orientation in a 2D analysis
In the case of a 2D analysis, the local y-z plane of an element is taken in the global X-Y plane.
The principle can be illustrated by considering an I-section in its normal orientation. For this
case, the web will always be considered to be in a vertical plane.
Tip: Enable full 3D rendering in the Graphics options to view the true beam orientation.
A section can be rotated through ninety degrees by selecting the alternative orientation when
reading it from the section database.
Note: In a space truss analysis the section orientation is of no importance. The analysis
results are influenced by the section area and not by it' second moment of inertia.
s
End fixity
The fixity at each end of an element, i.e. continuous or pinned, must also be defined in the
Fixity columns. Pins are modelled on the element itself and not on the node. External pinned
supports should be defined on the supports input table. External supports are described in the
next section.
The following types of end fixities can be specified:
Fixed: Specify ' to provide full rotational continuity. If you leave the field blank, ' is
F'
F'
assumed.
Torsional fixity: Use ' to provide restraint for rotation about the element axis only. This
T'
option is only available in the Grillage domain and the Space Frame domain.
Note: To retain compatibility with the Dos version, you may also use ' , ' or ' instead of
0' 1' 2'
' , ' or ' respectively.
F' P' T'
Entered fixities are applied at an element' lower node number (designated as the ' end) and
s
left'
higher node number (the '
right'
end). The order of the node numbers entered in the first column
of the table has no bearing on the application of the fixity codes.
To define a pin only at the two remote ends of a group of elements, enable the Group fix
option by entering a ' . In this case, the normal convention of smaller and larger node
Y'
3-26
Frame Analysis
numbers does not apply. Instead, pins are put at the remote ends in the same order that the
nodes have been entered.
Example:
The group of elements from node 42 to 24 is continuous except for the pins used at nodes
42 and 24.
Note: Do not use an internal pin on an element to model an external support that allows free
rotation. Rather allow the beam to be fixed to the node and define a simple support on the
Support input page.
If the Group fix is left blank or N is entered, the normal individual element fixity mode is
assumed.
Tip: Element fixity can be displayed graphically on the screen. For this, edit the Graphics
options to disable the Elements Continuous option.
When using pins, especially in the Space Frame domain, you should take care to ensure
overall stability of the frame. Consider two elements on a straight line with pins at all three
relevant nodes, for example. The centre node will be unrestrained for rotation about the
element axis, resulting in instability during the analysis.
Note: When performing a second order analysis, you can use tension elements to model
bracing, for example. For this, special settings need be made on the Beam Sections input
page. Refer to page 3-33 for detail.
Tapered beams
A beam can be made to taper between by entering two or three section names, separated with
commas:
Use two sections, e.g. Rafter,Haunch or 1,2, to make the program vary the section
properties linearly along the length of the beam element. The first and second sections are
taken at the lower and higher node numbers respectively.
For a more accurate non-linear variation, enter three section names, e.g.
Rafter,Middle,Haunch. The first, second and third sections are taken at the at the lower
node number, the centre of the element and at higher node number respectively.
3-27
Rigid links
You can use rigid links to rigidly offset sub-structures, e.g. slabs with downstand beams. To
define a rigid link, enter R in the Section Name column.
Rigid links are modelled as very stiff beams. The stiffness of a rigid link is determined by
multiplying the maximum area and bending stiffness of the other beams with a factor, typically
one thousand. The rigid multiplication factors can be adjusted using the Advanced option on
the Beam sections input page. Refer to page 3-33 for detail.
Rigid link example:
Rigid links are defined between nodes 12 and 24, 14 and 26 and 16 and 26.
Generating additional elements
You can generate additional elements with the same section and fixity code values using the
No of extra and Node No Inc columns. Example:
The elements between nodes 251 and 266 are copied ten times with the node numbers
decrementing by five with each copy.
Block generation
A group of elements can be repeated by entering a B in the No column. Then enter the first
and last table line numbers in which the elements were defined, separated with a '
.
3-28
Frame Analysis
All elements defined in lines 11 to 26 will be copied twice with a node number increment of
thirty. The copied elements will use the same section number and fixity codes as the original
elements.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. B11 to copy line 11 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
programs window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Tip: When entering a complicated structure it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional nodes at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Deleting elements
Beam elements can be deleted by entering a special section name Delete. This can be
especially handy if you have generated a large group of elements at regular increments and
need to remove some of them again.
Example:
3-29
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add beams click the Add beams
button. Enter the section name, angle
and fixities for the beams. By clicking
two successive nodes, a beam will be
inserted between them. If follow on is
checked, the last node of the previous
beam is taken as the first node of the
next beam. If Link end nodes only is
checked, only one beam is placed
between the last two nodes entered. If
not, all nodes between the last two nodes
are also added into the beam string. The
nodes must lie within a certain tolerance
from the straight line between the end nodes to be included. This tolerance can be entered in
the Tolerance (%) field. If e.g. 1% is entered, any node closer than 1% of the distance between
the end nodes from the line joining them is included. Pressing Undo will delete the beams in
reverse order, in which they were entered, one by one.
To delete beams click the Delete
beams button and then select the
beams to be deleted on the screen using
the mouse. Click Done when finished.
Clicking Undo will undo the deletions
in reverse order.
To block delete beams click the Block
delete beam elements button. Select a
rectangle on the screen with the mouse. All
beams inside the rectangle will be deleted.
Press Done when finished. Pressing
Undo will undo the deletions in reverse
order one by one beam. Pressing Undo All will undo all deletions done with this function.
3-30
Frame Analysis
Second moment of area about the local x-axis, Ix (not required for Space Truss analysis).
Second moment of area about the local y-axis, Iy (Space Frame domain only).
3-31
Each section should also have an associated material selected. If no section or material
properties are entered, the values applicable to the previous line in the table are used.
Reading sections from the database
Use the Section database function to display and select sections from database. You can add
your own sections, e.g. plate girders, to the database using the procedures described in
Chapter 2.
Entering haunches
Haunches are entered by appending the haunch depth to the section designation. To add a
haunch of 180 mm to a 305x102x66 BS taper flange I-section, enter 305x102x66 (0.280h).
The overall depth is then taken to be 305 mm + 280 mm = 585 mm.
Tip: You can verify your definition of haunches by enabling 3D rendering. Refer to page
for 3-18 more detail.
3-32
Frame Analysis
Tension members
When performing a second order analysis, you can designate members to have tension stiffness
only, e.g. slender bracing members. To make a member be ignored during the analysis when it
would act in compression:
1.
2.
Edit the value for the cross sectional area and change its sign to negative.
Note: The program uses the absolute value of the cross sectional area. The negative sign
entered merely enables the tension-only behaviour for beams of the given section group.
Own weight
If a materials definition includes a density value, the own weight of a member is calculated
automatically and added to the load case specified on the Settings page.
Selecting materials
Each section should have an associated
material.
To add one or more materials to a frame
analysis data file, click Materials. Open
the relevant material type screen and
select the materials that are required for
the current frame input.
After adding the selected materials to
the input, you can select them by
clicking the Material column to drop
down a list.
3-33
graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
Click the Change beam properties
button to change beam properties. Enter
the desired properties for the beam(s) on
the dialog. One can also use the Get
properties button to do this. Click the
button and then click on a beam. The
beam s properties will then be
transferred to the dialog. Clicking on
beams will now change their properties
to those specified on the dialog. The
Undo button will undo the changes in
reverse order.
Frame Analysis
Note: Quadrilateral elements generally yield more accurate analysis results than triangular
elements. Refer to page 3-11 for more detail.
An element definition must include a thickness and material type. Refer to page 3-33 for more
detail on using materials.
Own weight
If a materials definition includes a density value, the own weight of a member is calculated
automatically and added to the load case specified on the Settings page.
Tip: When entering a complicated slab, it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional elements at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Error checking
3-35
The program checks for duplicate elements and nodes not connected to elements. It also checks
that a group number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button
will be displayed.
Generating additional elements
You can generate additional elements with the same group number using the Number of Extra
and Node no Inc columns.
Block generation
You can use the block generation to copy shells you defined earlier in the table. A group of
shells can be repeated by entering a B in the Node 1 column followed by the first and last
table line numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the line numbers with a '
.
To copy a single line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. '
B11' copy line 11 only.
to
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program' window.
s
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Deleting elements
Shell elements can be deleted by entering '
Delete' the Material column. This can be useful if
in
you have generated a large group of elements and need to remove some of them again.
Example:
The element 15-16-26-25 and the generated element 18-19-29-28 are deleted.
3-36
Frame Analysis
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add shells click the Add
shell elements button. Enter the
material, thickness and shell
type (triangular or quadrilateral).
The easiest way to enter shells is
to define a plane in which they
lie. Click 3 nodes to indicate the
plane. The three node numbers
can also be typed directly into
the dialog. Also enter the
thickness of the plane. Only the
nodes lying in the plane and half
of the thickness on either side
are now displayed. If one now
moves the mouse across the
picture, possible shells are
shown in purple. Click the
mouse to have each shell entered
into the input table. If you do not want to use a plane in this way, click Don t use plane .
Pressing Undo will delete the shells in the reverse order in which they were entered, one by
one.
To delete shells click the Delete
shells button and then select the
shells to be deleted on the screen
using the mouse. Click Done
when finished. Clicking Undo
will undo the deletions in reverse
order.
To block delete shells click the Block
delete shell elements button. Select a
rectangle on the screen with the
mouse. All shells inside the rectangle
will be deleted. Press Done when
finished. Pressing Undo will undo the deletions in reverse order one by one. Pressing Undo
All will undo all deletions done with this function.
3-37
On the shells input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as on
the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-24 for details
3-38
Frame Analysis
An element definition must include a material type. Refer to page 3-33 for more detail on
using materials.
3-39
Own weight
If a materials definition includes a density value, the own weight of a member is calculated
automatically and added to the load case specified on the Settings page.
Tip: When entering a complicated model, it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional elements at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Error checking
The program checks for duplicate elements and nodes not connected to elements. It also checks
that a group number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button
will be displayed.
Generating additional elements
You can generate additional elements with the same group number using the Number of Extra
and Node no Inc columns.
Block generation
You can use the block generation to copy shells you defined earlier in the table. A group of
solids can be repeated by entering a B in the Node 1 column followed by the first and last
table line numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the line numbers with a '
.
To copy a single line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. '
B11' copy line 11 only.
to
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program' window.
s
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Deleting elements
Solid elements can be deleted by entering '
Delete' the Material column. This can be useful if
in
you have generated a large group of elements and need to remove some of them again.
Example:
The element 201-202-152-151-226-227-177-176 and the generated element 251-252-201-201276-277-227-226 are deleted.
3-40
Frame Analysis
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add solids click the Add
solids elements button. Enter the
material
and
solid
type
(tetrahedral,
wedges
or
hexahedra). At the time of
writing only hexahedra were
available for this function. The
easiest way to enter solids is to
define a plane in which they lie.
Click the set up plane button to
do this. Click three nodes to
indicate the plane. The three
node numbers can also be typed
directly into the dialog. Also
enter the thickness of the plane.
Only the nodes lying in the plane
and half of the thickness on
either side are now displayed. If
one now moves the mouse across
the picture, possible solids are shown in purple. Click the mouse to have each solid entered into
the input table. If you do not want to use a plane in this way anymore, click Clear Plane .
Pressing Undo will delete the solids in the reverse order in which they were entered, one by
one.
To delete solids click the Delete
solid elements button and then select
the solids to be deleted on the screen
using the mouse. Click Done when
finished. Clicking Undo will undo
the deletions in reverse order.
To block delete solids click the
Block delete solid elements
button. Select a rectangle on the
screen with the mouse. All solids
inside the rectangle will be deleted.
Press Done
when finished.
Pressing Undo will undo the deletions in reverse order one by one. Pressing Undo All will
undo all deletions done with this function.
3-41
Click the Change solid element properties button to change solid element properties. Enter
the desired material for the
solid(s) on the dialog. One can
also use the Get properties
button to do this. Click the button
and then click on a solid. The
solid s material property will then
be transferred to the dialog.
Clicking on solids will now change their material to that specified on the dialog. The Undo
button will undo the changes in reverse order.
Click the Explode solids
button to explode the solids
input. This results in the list of
solids being written, each on a
separate line without block
generations etc. Once done, it
cannot be reversed.
On the solids input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as on
the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-24 for details
The y-axis defined in the same way as for a normal beam element, i.e. perpendicular to
spring element in a vertical plane.
The z-axis is taken perpendicular to the x and y-axes using aright-hand rule.
3-42
Frame Analysis
Spring elements are defined between nodes 16 and 116, 17 and 117 up to 19 and 119. The
spring elements are aligned parallel to the imaginary line joining nodes 3 and 4.
Tip: Spring elements can also be made "rigid" to force two nodes to have the same
translation and/or rotation. In the above example, a very large value for Kx would
cause nodes 16 and 116 to have identical displacements in the direction described by
nodes 3 and 4.
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add springs click the Add spring
elements button. Enter the spring
stiffnesses and orientation nodes on
the dialog.. Now click the mouse on
nodes to have springs entered into
the input table. Pressing Undo will
delete the springs in the reverse
order in which they were entered,
one by one.
Press the Done button when finished. Pressing Undo will undo the deletions in reverse
order, one by one. Pressing Undo All will undo all deletions done with this function.
Click the Change spring element
properties button to change
spring element properties. Enter
the desired spring stiffnesses and
orientation on the dialog. One can
also use the Get properties
button to do this. Click the button
and then click on a spring. The
spring s properties will then be
transferred to the dialog. Clicking
on springs will now change their
properties to those specified on
the dialog. The Undo button will
undo the changes in reverse order.
Supports input
Frames require external supports to ensure global stability. Supports can be entered to prevent
any of the six degrees of freedom at a node, i.e. translation in the X Y and Z-directions and
rotation about the X, Y and Z-axes. You can also define elastic supports, e.g. an elastic soil
support, and prescribed displacements, e.g. foundation settlement.
Enter the node number to be supported in the Node No column. In the next column a
combination of the letters ' , ' and ' can be entered to indicate the direction of fixity. Use
X' Y'
Z'
capitals and lowercase to define restraint of translation and rotation respectively, e.g. '
XYZy'
means fixed against movement in the X, Y and Z-direction and rotation about the Y-axis.
3-44
Frame Analysis
Note: The use of lowercase for rotational restraints should not be confused with the
convention of using lowercase for local element axes.
Tip: To enter a simple support with no moment restraint, one would typically enter a XYZ
or Y. Avoid using a pin on an element to model an external hinge.
If you want to repeat the supports defined on the previous line of the table, you need only enter
the node number, i.e. you may leave the Fixity column blank. If the XYZxyz column is left
blank, the supports applicable to the previous line will be used automatically.
Prescribed displacements and elastic supports
Use the X, Y, Z, Rx, Ry and Rz columns to enter prescribed displacements and rotations in
the direction of and about the X, Y and Z-axes. Being a global support condition, the effect of
the prescribed displacement is not considered to be a separate load case. Instead, the effect
3-45
of prescribed displacements is added once only to the analysis results of each load case and
load combination.
Elastic supports, or springs, are defined by entering spring constants in the X, Y, Z, x, y and z
columns. The spring constant is defined as the force or moment that will cause a unit displacement or rotation in the relevant direction. Enter an S in the P/S column to indicate that an
entered value is a spring constant rather than a prescribed displacement. If you leave the P/S
column blank, the entered values are taken as prescribed displacements.
Note: The display of supports can be activated or suppressed by editing the Graphics
options.
Error Checking
The program does a basic check on the structural stability of the frame. If a potential error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Note: You cannot define an elastic support and a prescribed displacement at the same node
because it will be a contradiction of principles.
Generating additional supports
Additional supports and prescribed displacements can be generated using the Number of extra
and Node number inc columns. The procedure is similar to that described on page 3-21 for
generating additional nodes.
3-46
Frame Analysis
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add supports click the Add
supports button. Enter the fixities,
prescribed displacements, spring
constants and fixity type on the
dialog. Now click the mouse on
nodes to have supports entered into
the input table. Pressing Undo will
delete the supports in the reverse
order in which they were entered,
one by one.
3-47
On the supports input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as
on the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-24 for details
3-48
Frame Analysis
To define a load case, type a descriptive name for each load case in the Load Case column.
Use up to six characters to describe each load case. If the load case name is not entered, the
load case applicable to the previous line in the table is used.
The load case at the cursor position is displayed graphically. Press Enter or Display to update
the picture.
A nodal load can, as its name implies, only be applied at a node. If a point load is required on
an element, use the Beam loads input table instead.
Sign conventions
Nodal loads are applied parallel to the global axes an explanation of the sign conventions are
given on page 3-7.
Tip: For a typical steel or timber frame or roof truss, it may be easiest to define a node at
each purlin position. Roof loads transferred via the purlins can then be entered as
nodal loads.
Error checking
3-49
The program checks that specified nodes have indeed been defined in the Nodes input table. If
an error is detected, an Error list button will appear.
3-50
Frame Analysis
3-52
Frame Analysis
A point loads magnitude is entered in the P column and its position from the smaller node
number in the a column.
For a distributed load, entered in the load intensity at the smaller and larger node numbers
in the W-begin and W-end columns respectively. If the load is constant over the length of
the element, W-end may be left blank.
3-53
Error checking
The program checks that element definitions match previously defined elements. If an error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Generating additional element loads
The No of extra and Node number Inc columns can also be used to generate additional
element loads.
Block generation of beam loads
You can use the block function to copy blocks of beam loads. The procedure is similar to that
used to generating additional beam elements see page 3-28 for detail.
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add beam loads click the Add beam loads
button. Enter the loads, direction and
temperature change on the dialog. The load
case also needs to be entered. Now click the
mouse on beams to have beam loads entered
into the input table. Pressing Undo will
delete the beam loads in the reverse order in
which they were entered, one by one.
3-54
Frame Analysis
3-55
Shell loads
Distributed loads can be applied on shell elements. Enter a load case description in the Load
case column followed by the relevant element numbers in the Shell numbers column. The
program automatically assigns numbers to all shell elements in the sequence they are defined
on the Shells input page.
A series of elements can be entered by separating the first and last element numbers by a '
character, e.g. ' to define elements 1 up to 6.
16'
Tip: If the shell element numbers are not visible in the picture, edit the graphics options to
enable detailed rendering and disable the full 3D view. Refer to page 3-18 for detail on
changing the graphics options.
Sign conventions
Shell loads are applied parallel to the element' local z-axes an explanation of the local axes
s
of shell elements are given on page 3-7.
Types of shell loads
The following shell loads can be entered:
For a distributed load, entered in the load intensity in the UDL column.
3-56
Frame Analysis
Error checking
The program checks that the entered element numbers are valid. If an error is detected, an
Error list button will appear.
Generating additional element loads
The No of extra and Node number Inc columns can also be used to generate additional shell
loads.
Block generation of shell loads
You can use the block function to copy blocks of beam loads. The procedure is similar to that
used to generating additional shell elements see page 3-36 for detail.
3-57
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add shell loads click the Add shell loads
button. Enter the UDL, direction and
temperature change on the dialog. The load
case also needs to be entered. Now click the
mouse on shells to have shell loads entered
into the input table. Pressing Undo will
delete the shell loads in the reverse order in
which they were entered, one by one.
3-58
Frame Analysis
3-59
You can model practical scenarios by grouping load cases together in load combinations. Enter
the load combination name in the Load comb column; followed by the load case name and
relevant load factors.
If the Load comb column is left blank, the load combination is taken to be the same as for the
previous line of the table. The load cases to consider in a load combination are entered one per
line in the Load case column. Enter the relevant ultimate and serviceability limit state load
factors in the ULS factor and SLS factor columns.
Tip: You may leave one or more blank lines between load combination definitions to
improve readability.
The ultimate and serviceability limit states are used as follows:
3-60
Deflections are calculated using the entered SLS loads. A set of reactions is also calculated
at SLS for the purposes of evaluating support stability and bearing pressures.
Frame Analysis
Element forces and a second set of reactions are determined using the entered ULS forces.
Tip: If you plan to use a working stress method to design the frame members, e.g. steel
design according to SABS 0162 - 1984, you may use the same load factors at ULS and SLS.
Error checking
The program only checks that valid load cases are specified. It has no knowledge of the design
code that will be used in the member design and therefore does not check the validity of the
entered load factors.
Input Wizards: Modules are available for the rapid generation of input for typical frame
structures.
External Graphical input: Structures can be drawn in Padds or another CAD system and
converted to frame analysis input.
Input Wizards
A number of typical frames can be input by entering a number of parameters. The Input
Wizards do most of the data input. See page 3-19 for more detail on the Input wizards.
Note: The frame analysis modules are not limited to modelling only those frames generated
by the input wizards modules. Instead, the input wizards merely serve to simplify input of
some typical frames.
Use Padds to draw the frame. Alternatively, import a drawing from another CAD system.
2.
The frame should be drawn to scale using millimetres as unit. Identify different beam
sections by using different pen numbers.
3.
Use the Generate input command on the Macro to display the drawing conversion
options. Choose the target frame analysis module and press OK to start the conversion
procedure.
3-61
The resultant frame analysis input file will be compatible with both the Dos and Windows
versions of the frame analysis modules. The file is saved in the working folder as a last
file, e.g. Lastsf.a03 for Frame Analysis.
4.
3-62
Frame Analysis
When importing 3D .Dxf & .Dwg drawings, you can optionally interchange the Z- and Y-axes.
This option is given to correctly import a drawing where the Z-axis is taken as vertical, into
Frame Analysis where the Y-axis is vertical.
Typical problems experienced include the following:
Polylines may not be recognised correctly. Break or explode polylines into single lines
before saving the .Dxf file.
Blocks may not import correctly and may need to be broken or exploded into individual
entities.
Using AutoCAD, lines colours set by layer translates to the default pen number. Rather
set colours using pen numbers to ensure correct section numbering.
If you experience problems importing a DXF file saved using a brand new version of your
CAD system, it may help saving the file as an older DXF file version, e.g. version 12.
CIMsteel
The Space Frame Analysis module can import complete frame models, including geometrical
and loading data, defined in the CIMsteel (Computer Integrated Manufacturing for
Constructional Steelwork) integration standard. Modelling packages that can create CIMsteel
files include Intergraph Frameworks and Microstation Structural Triforma. Note that at the
time of writing this feature had not been fully developed.
3-63
Settings
The Settings page allows you to set the parameters relevant to the analysis method.
Analysis type
Select the type of analysis to be performed. Refer to page 3-14 for a description of the various
analysis modes.
3-64
Enter the concrete and reinforcement material characteristics, fcu and fy.
Frame Analysis
Define the orientation for the main and secondary reinforcement, i.e. the x and y-axis.
Looking from the top, the x-axis is measured anti-clockwise from the local x-axis to the
reinforcement x-axis. The y-axis is in turn measured anti-clockwise from the local x-axis.
The direction of the local x-axis of a shell element is explained on page 3-7.
Define the reinforcement levels in the slab by entering the concrete cover values for the
top and bottom reinforcement in both directions.
Reinforcement contours can be displayed on the Reinforcement tab under the View Output
age. Values are calculated for reinforcement at the top and bottom of shell elements. In this
context, top and bottom are defined as follows:
The top of a shell element is taken on the side towards which its local z-axis points.
For a non-vertical element, the top side is the visible side when looking down on the
element.
For a vertical element, the top side is the visible side if the nodes (as entered on the Shell
elements input page) defining the element are orientated anti-clockwise.
calculates quite a few more mode shapes than specified to improve the accuracy of the
output for the modes that are specified. Because of this, the model should not contain too
few nodes. If no convergence is obtained, split the members into smaller portions by
adding extra nodes.
3-66
Frame Analysis
The number of mode shapes should preferably not exceed the number of degrees of
freedom in the structure divided by twelve.
In a harmonic analysis, use enough mode shapes so that the highest natural frequency is at
least 50% higher than the applied loading frequency.
3-67
For an earthquake analysis, the first three or four mode shapes are normally sufficient to
obtain the probable maximum combined effects.
Do not use too few nodes. If convergence is not obtained when calculating the natural
frequencies, add more nodes and split the elements. See also the first point above.
A static analysis is first performed with the mass of the structure, i.e. own weight and the
Y-components of the specified load cases, being the only load case.
The resulting axial forces are then incorporated when calculating the modified geometric
stiffness matrix of the structure. The geometric stiffness matrix is subsequently used to
modify the global stiffness matrix to account for the axial force effects.
The own weight of the frame, calculated using the density values entered in the Section
properties input table.
Own weight and distributed vertical loads are added using the consistent mass matrix
formulation. Point loads are added as lumped masses at the relevant nodes.
Note: In a seismic analysis all loads not selected as masses will be excluded from the
analysis.
3-68
Frame Analysis
2%
3% to 5%
5% to 7%
5%
7%
Reinforced concrete
7% to 10%
Working stress
near yield point
Damping
ratio O
Working stress no
more than about
half of yield stress
Stress level
10% to 15%
For an earthquake analysis, specify the maximum ground accelerations. TMH7 - Part 2 gives
the following typical values according to a modified Mercalli classification:
Modified Mercalli
intensity at epicentre
Design ground
acceleration
ii iii
0.003 g
iv v
0.01 g
Vi
0.03 g
vii viii
0.1 g
Ix
0.3 g
x xi
1.0 g
For structures, symmetrical and non-symmetrical, the seismic effects along two orthogonal
axes may normally be considered independently of each other.
The vertical components of selected load cases are included as masses when determining
the mode shapes. Refer to page 3-68 for detail.
All other effects of all load cases and combinations are ignored.
The dynamic response of the structure to the applied ground accelerations is amplified
with the specified design load factor.
The design load factor for forces and moments should be chosen in accordance with the
relevant loading code. At ultimate limit state, an average factor between 1.3 and 1.5 is
normally applied.
3-70
Frame Analysis
Structural
ductility factor P
4
If you enter a value greater than one, the elastic response spectrum will be adjusted to obtain an
appropriate inelastic response spectrum. The program allows you to adjust the design response
spectrum as required.
3-71
Foundation
factor f
1.0
1.2
1.5
TMH7 - Part2.
UBC 1194.
Alternatively, define a custom response spectrum by entering the ground acceleration for
damping ratios of 0.5%, 3%, 5% and 10% for nine different periods. Any period values can be
entered, including those for the acceleration/velocity and velocity/displacement bound regions
dividing points.
If the ductility value greater than unity is specified, the elastic response spectrum is adjusted to
obtain an inelastic response spectrum. The elastic spectrum, for any given damping ratio, is
modified along the displacement bound region by multiplying it with a factor 1/. Along the
acceleration bound region the elastic spectrum is multiplied by a factor 1/(21)..
3-72
Frame Analysis
Analysis
To analyse the structure, open the Analysis page and press Start Analysis:
The analysis progress is displayed to help you judge the time remaining to complete the
analysis.
After a successful analysis, the deflected shape is displayed for the first load case or load
combination or, in the case of modal or buckling analysis, the first mode shape.
Error checking during analysis
During the input phase, the frame geometry and loading data is checked for errors. Not all
reported errors are necessarily serious. To define duplicate elements between two nodes, for
example, could be an accidental error on your side. However, the program can deal with a
situation like this and will allow the analysis procedure to continue.
Other input errors could be serious enough to prevent an analysis from being completed
successfully. Nodes with no elements, for example, have no restraints and will cause numeric
instability during the analysis.
3-73
The first step of any analysis is the final verification of the input data. In the case of critical
errors still present, a warning message will be displayed. If you then choose to not proceed
with the analysis, you will be taken to the input table with the error. However, choosing to
proceed and ignore the warning will have an unpredictable result.
3-74
Frame Analysis
If an error was detected during the analysis, a warning will be displayed. The cause of the error
should become clear when studying the output file:
The text at the end of the output file normally gives the reason for the error.
If the output file seems complete, the problem will require more careful attention. Scan all
output tables for excessively large or small values.
During a second-order analysis, an element is removed from the frame as soon as its axial
force exceeds its Euler buckling load. If one or more elements have been removed from
the frame in this way, structural stability cannot necessarily be guaranteed any more. The
removal of a single element may cause a chain reaction of elements failing. If the
remaining members do not constitute a stable structure, the structure will fail. All member
forces in the output file will then be shown as .
A second order analysis fails in instability can be verified using a buckling analysis. You
can examine the buckling mode shapes to easily locate problem areas in the structure that
may require stiffening.
Slender non-structural elements often buckle before major structural members, distorting
analysis results. Such elements should preferably be excluded from the model.
If the linear and second order analysis results show negligible differences, the structure is
likely not sensitive to p-delta effects for the given loading. This is often true for truss-type
frames.
Tip: Perform a buckling analysis to get an indication of the general stability of the frame
under the entered loads. A frame with a buckling load factor less than unity normally
experiences the same local or global stability problems during a second order analysis.
3-75
Design Links
Once the analysis is complete, Frame can link up with other Prokon modules for further postprocessing and design. This is done on the Design links tab:
3-76
Steel connections: Select this option on the left hand side of the screen. Now click on any
node in the structure. A dialog with possible connections will appear as shown above. The
program will look at the types of members meeting at the node. These members must be
steel members selected from the Prokon database. There should also be at least two
members meeting at the node. If for example, there are no hollow sections at the node, the
Hollow section connection option will remain greyed. For the Apex connection the
members must be I- or H-sections. Check the type of connection that you want. Sometimes
there is more than one possible connection of the chosen type at the node. The desired
connection can be chosen from the drop-down(s) to the right of the connection type
Frame Analysis
chosen. Pressing OK will convert the output data and transfer it to the relevant
connection design module.
Concrete columns: Select rectangular or circular column on the left hand side of the
screen. Now select a member on the screen with the mouse. The data will be transferred
from Frame and the relevant column design module will be opened.
Concrete base: Select Concrete base on the left hand side of the screen. Now select a
support node on the screen with the mouse. The data will be transferred from Frame and
the base design module will be opened. Note that only support nodes can be selected.
Member design modules: Separate buttons are provided to call up Member design for
axial stress , Member design for combined stress and Timber member design . Each of
these modules will open with the current structure and output, ready for further processing.
Important note regarding load combinations: If the analysis was a linear analysis, the
load combinations are broken up using the load factors entered in Frame. In the case of a
second-order analysis, the results of a combination are not necessarily equal to the sum of
the load cases times their load factors, due to the secondary effects taken into account. The
program will calculate appropriate load factors, which will be similar to the ones entered,
but adjusted so that the sum of load case forces times load factors gives the final forces
calculated by Frame.
3-77
Viewing output
The analysis results can be viewed graphically or in tabular format. Output data, including
graphics and tabled values, can be selectively appended to the Calcsheets using the Add to
Calcsheets function on each output page.
Mode shapes: In the case of a dynamic or buckling analysis, you can display the mode
shapes one-by-one. Use the Animate function to bring a mode shape to life. If you tick the
record animation box, the animation is stored as an animated .gif file as shown below.
3-78
Frame Analysis
Note: Mode shapes should not be confused with deflections. Mode shapes represent the
natural dynamic characteristics of a structure. Values are normalised with the maximum
"displacement" given as one thousand.
Reactions: The reactions forces and moments at all supported nodes are displayed. The
arrowheads points in the direction of each reaction.
Axial forces: The force is shown as expanded red and blue lines. Compression forces
are shown in red and tension forces in blue. The distance of a line from the element
centre line is in proportion to the size of the axial force.
Moments: Bending moments about the local x and y-axes. A plot factor can also be
entered to enlarge or reduce the bending moment diagram on the frame.
Shear: Shear force diagrams are drawn for the local y and x-directions. A beam
elements shear force diagram is constructed by viewing it with its local z-axis
pointing to the right. Since the direction of the z-axis depends on the node numbers,
irregular numbering of nodes can result in apparent irregular signs used in the shear
3-79
force diagrams. Refer to page 3-8 for detail on the sign conventions used for beam
element forces.
3-80
Torsion: The torsional moment about the z-axis, i.e. element axis.
Envelopes:
Enter a series
of elements
and select the
load case and
combinations
to include in
the envelopes.
Envelopes are
drawn using
the values as
tabulated
from the output file. Positive moments, for example, are drawn below the line and
negative above. Because members of different orientations can be included in the
same envelope, no simple distinction is made between tension and compression faces
of members.
Frame Analysis
Maximum and minimum stresses: These correspond to the largest tensile and
compression stresses respectively. Positive values indicate compression and negative
values tension.
Von Mises stresses: The Von Mises stresses give a graphical indication of a yield
criterion, i.e. a general indication of the combined effect of all stresses. The
Von Mises stresses takes into account in-plane stresses as well as bending stresses and
is presented for both the top and bottom faces of the shell elements..
3-81
3-82
The x, y and xy bending moments: The bending moments about the local x and yaxes and the torsional moment. The direction (not axis) of bending is shown as a small
line on each shell element.
The x, y and maximum shear forces: The shear forces are in local x and y-axes.
The maximum shear stress is also given and is obtained by dividing the maximum
shear force by the thickness of the element.
Frame Analysis
Reinforcement in shells:
Contours of the required reinforcement in the top and bottom faces in the x and ydirections are given. The corresponding Wood & Armer moments from which the
reinforcement was calculated is also given. The reinforcement direction is shown as a
small line on each shell. Refer to page 3-64 for the definition of the reinforcement
directions.
Tip: If the lines indicating the direction of bending or of the reinforcement is not clearly
visible, enable detailed rendering under the graphics options. Refer to page 3-18 for
instructions.
Tip: Shell element stress contours are drawn on the deflected shape of the structure. Careful
choice of the deflection magnification factor can enhance contour diagrams.
3-83
Stresses in solids:
The stresses presented are the direct stresses in the X, Y and Z directions, the shear stresses in
the XY, XZ and YZ planes, the 3 principal stresses 1,2 and 3 as well as the maximum shear
stress and the von Mises stress. For solids all the stresses are plotted in the global co-ordinates.
3-84
Frame Analysis
Open the Output file page for a tabular display of the frame analysis output file. You can filter
the information sent to the calcsheets by enabling or disabling the relevant sections.
The Find heading function allows you to quickly locate any main section of the output file.
If you right click on the output, various editing functions are available. For example, you can
search for any string by pressing Ctrl and F.
3-85
Calcsheets
Frame analysis output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad. To
include a particular component of the output in the calcsheets, view the relevant output
information and then click Add to Calcsheets.
3-86
Frame Analysis
3-87
3-88
Scope
The program analyses membrane structures of any general shape, including openings. The
cases of plane stress and plane strain are both supported. Element grids are automatically
generated with a customisable grid size.
3-89
Sign conventions
When entering coordinates and forces, the following sign convention is used:
Positive Y-coordinates and vertical forces are taken upward, i.e. parallel to the Y-axis.
Positive X-coordinates and horizontal forces are taken to the right, i.e. parallel to the
X-axis.
In the analysis results, deflections are measured along the Y-axis. A positive deflection
therefore denotes an upward movement.
3-90
Input
Use the four input tables, i.e. Nodes, Supports, Material properties and Loads, to define the
structures geometry and loading.
Nodes input
A structure is defined by entering one or more shapes. A shape may comprise straight lines and
arcs. When more than one shape is entered, the shapes will accumulate and form one structure.
Often, a complicated section is easier defined using more than one shape.
Note: Shapes must be entered in an anti-clockwise order.
An explanation of the node input table is given below:
The Mat. No. column is used for categorise the data that follows in the next columns:
1 to 9 : The start of a new polygon with the specified material property. An absolute
reference coordinate must be entered in the X and Y columns. If you leave X or
Y blank, a value of zero is used.
0 : Start of an opening. An absolute reference coordinate must be entered in the X
and Y columns.
R : If you enter an R or leave the Mat. No. column blank, a line is drawn using
relative coordinates, i.e. measured from the previous coordinate.
A : Enter an A in the Mat. No. column blank to make the coordinate absolute.
Use the Bulge column to define an arc of a specified radius. Consider an imaginary line
joining the previous coordinate and the coordinate entered in the X and Y columns. A
bulge greater than zero then defines an arc to the right of the line. Similarly, a negative
bulge draws an arc to the left of the line. If no bulge is specified, a zero value is used, i.e. a
straight line.
You do need to close the polygon defining a shape the starting coordinate is automatically
used as the ending coordinate. If two polygons intersect, the geometry of the last polygon takes
preference and the previous polygon is clipped. A hole in a structure can, for example, be
entered on top of previously entered shapes.
3-91
Nodes are automatically numbered as they are input. You can later use the node numbers to
position supports and loads.
Supports input
You can define point supports, distributed support and prescribed displacements anywhere
along the edges of the structure. Supports are entered as follows:
Nodes : Enter a single node number for a point support or a range of nodes for a
distributed support, e.g. 2 for node 2 only and 2-5 for the zone described by
the straight line joining nodes 2 and 5.
XY support : Enter X and/or Y for horizontal and/or vertical support.
Displ. : Specify the value of any horizontal or vertical prescribed displacement in the
relevant column (m).
Note: Point supports invariably result in localised stress concentrations, with the effect
increasing for smaller element grids. It is therefore recommended to avoid point supports
and rather distribute each support over as large a width as possible.
3-92
Material properties
The following material properties must be input for every material property code used in the
Code column of the Nodes input table:
t : Thickness (m).
E : Modulus of elasticity (kN/m3). If left blank, the value for the preceding
material type is used. Typical values are tabled below.
Poisson : Poisson ratio. If left blank, the value for entered in the previous row is used.
Typical values are tabled below.
Dens : Density on (kN/m3). Typical values are tabled below.
Material
E modulus
(kPa)
Poisons
ratio
Density
(kN/m3)
Masonry
10E6
0.20
20 - 25
Concrete
(normal strength)
25E6 to 35E6
0.20
24
Aluminium
70E6
0.16
27
Structural steel
205E6
0.30
78
Loads input
Point loads and distributed loads can be defined anywhere along the edges of the structure. Use
as many lines as necessary to define the loads.
Loads are entered as follows:
Nodes : Enter a single node number for a point load or a range of nodes for a
distributed load, e.g. ' for node 2 only and ' for the zone described by the
2'
2-5'
straight line joining nodes 2 and 5.
X : The load direction can be either ' or ' for horizontal or vertical respectively.
X' Y'
Wleft : Distributed load intensity at the smaller node number (kN/m).
Wright : Distributed load intensity at the larger node number (kN/m).
3-93
a : Distance from first node to beginning of distributed load (m). A value of zero
is used if field is left blank.
b : Length in m, of distributed load. The load is taken up to the ending node if this
field is left blank.
Note: Positive forces are taken to work upward and to the right.
3-94
Analysis
On completing the input, go to
the Analyse page to analyse the
structure. Following a successful
analysis, use the View page the
display the analysis results.
The following text describes the
analysis
options
that
are
available and gives information
on finding and fixing analysis
problems.
Analysis options
During the analysis, the program generates a rectangular grid of nodes in which rectangular
and, where necessary, triangular finite elements are placed. The grid spacing can be set
independently in the horizontal and vertical directions.
Choose Settings to set the grid spacing and other analysis options:
3-95
Analysis results
The analysis results can be viewed and printed in tabular or graphical format:
Elastic deflections.
Minimum principal
i.e. the largest
compression
Negative values
compression.
You can also inspect the results in tabular format by displaying the output file,
named PS.OUT
3-96
stresses,
possible
stresses.
indicate
If the program is unable to analyse the structure, there may be errors in the input. A
common mistake is the definition of shapes in a clockwise direction the program expects
anti-clockwise input.
Stress concentrations will be present at positions of point loads and point supports. Such
concentrations are further exaggerated when using finer element grids. In practice, loads
and supports rarely act at points, but rather on small areas. It is likewise recommended to
spread all point loads and supports over small lengths.
3-97
Calcsheets
The finite element analysis output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
Calcpad. Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and
pictures.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
3-98
3-99
3-100
Sign conventions
When entering forces and moments, the following sign convention is used:
Positive vertical forces act downward, i.e. parallel to the negative Y-axis.
3-101
Input
The beam definition has two main input components:
Loads.
Beam input
The following values must be entered:
Length : The overall length of the beam (m).
M Left : The applied moment at the left-hand end (kNm). If you leave the field blank, a
zero moment is used, e.g. the beam is simply supported. You can also fix an
end by entering an F or make it a free cantilever end with a C.
M Right : The applied moment at the right-hand end (kNm).
3-102
E modulus (kPa)
Timber
5E6 to 15E6
Concrete
(normal strength)
25E6 to 35E6
Aluminium
70E6
Structural steel
205E6
Section input
The moment of inertia of a standard steel section can be selected from the section database.
You can also define your own sections or remove sections from the database.
Own weight
On selecting a steel section form the database, the own weight is automatically entered as a
uniform distributed load.
Loads input
Use as many lines as needed to enter any general loading on the beam in the Loads input table:
W Left : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied at the left-hand starting position of
the load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of zero.
W Right : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied on the right-hand ending position of
the load. If you leave this field blank, the value is made equal to Wleft, i.e. a
uniformly distributed load is assumed.
P : Point load (kN).
M : Moment (kNm).
3-103
a : The start position of the distributed load, position of the point load or position
of the moment (m). The distance is measured from the left-hand edge of the
beam. If you leave this field blank, a value of zero is used, i.e. the load is taken
to start at the left-hand edge of the beam.
b : The end extent of the distributed load, measured from the start position of the
load (m). Leave this field blank if you want the load to extend up to the righthand edge of the beam.
Note: Positive forces and moments are taken to work downward and taken anti-clockwise
respectively.
3-104
Analysis
Press Analyse to display the analysis results:
3-105
Calcsheet
The beam analysis results can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and pictures.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
3-106
3-107
3-108
Positive vertical forces act downward, i.e. parallel to the negative Y-axis.
Deflections are measured along the Y-axis. A positive deflection indicates uplift and
negative deflection a downward movement.
Bearing pressure is also measured along the Y-axis. A positive bearing pressure denotes an
upward reaction.
Shear forces are measured along the Y-axis. A positive shear force at the left edge of the
beam, for example, represents an upward vertical reaction.
Analysis procedure
The program performs a linear analysis in which the beam is modelled as a two-dimensional
frame on a series of least fifty closely spaced springs. Rigid supports are put at the specified
positions and gaps in the elastic support where the supporting width is set to zero. Nodes are
taken at close intervals along the length of the beam. A node is also introduced at every support
and load position.
If negative soil pressures are not allowed, i.e. uplift is allowed, springs with negative reactions
are removed and the analysis repeated. Likewise, previously removed springs are restored if
downward deflections are calculated at the points concerned. The analysis procedure is
repeated until the iteration converges to a stable solution.
A beam is considered unstable, i.e. to overturn under the applied load, if the analysis yields less
than two springs with compressive forces.
3-109
Input
The beam definition has several input components:
Supports input
Loads.
Beam input
The beam is defined as one or more segments, each with its own properties. The following
values must be entered:
Lsec : The length of a beam segment with a specified stiffness and support width (m).
You may enter more than one segment to define a beam varying section or an
elastic medium of varying stiffness. Each additional beam segment entered is
added to the right-hand side of beam.
Isec : The stiffness of the beam segment, express as the second moment of inertia of
the relevant cross section (m). The value of Youngs modulus, applicable to the
whole beam, is entered under the analysis settings.
Bsec : The support width of the beam segment (m). This beam width is multiplied by
the foundation modulus of the soil, Km, to obtain the support stiffness per unit
length of the beam. Enter a zero value for no foundation stiffness, i.e. a gap in
the elastic medium.
Supports input
Use the Support input columns to enter rigid supports in the elastic medium:
Position : A rigid support position, measured from the left-hand side (m).
Support : You can set the support type to vertical and/or rotational:
Support
Description
YR
3-110
Loads input
Use as many lines as needed to enter any general loading on the beam in the Loads input table:
W Left : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied at the left-hand starting position of
the load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of zero.
W Right : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied on the right-hand ending position of
the load. If you leave this field blank, the value is made equal to Wleft, i.e. a
uniformly distributed load is assumed.
P : Point load (kN).
M : Moment (kNm).
a : The start position of the distributed load, position of the point load or position
of the moment (m). The distance is measured from the left-hand edge of the
beam. If you leave this field blank, a value of zero is used, i.e. the load is taken
to start at the left-hand edge of the beam.
b : The end position of the distributed load, measured from the start position of the
load (m). Leave this field blank if you want the load to extend up to the righthand edge of the beam.
Note: Positive forces and moments are taken to work downward and taken anti-clockwise
respectively.
Analysis settings
Press Settings to edit the material constants and other parameters to be used in the analysis:
E modulus: Youngs modulus for the beam (kPa). Values for typical building materials are
tabled below:
Material
E modulus (kPa)
Timber
5E6 to 15E6
Concrete
(normal strength)
25E6 to 35E6
Aluminium
70E6
Structural steel
205E6
3-111
Soil type
K modulus (kN/m3)
Loose sand
4 800 to 16 000
9 600 to 80 000
Dense sand
32 000 to 80 000
24 000 to 48 000
Clayey soil:
qa 200 kPa
12 000 to 24 000
24 000 to 48 000
> 48 000
The foundation modulus, K, is a conceptual relationship between the soil pressure and
deflection of the beam. Because the beam stiffness is usually ten or more times as great as
the soil stiffness as defined by K, the bending moments in the beam and calculated soil
pressures are normally not very sensitive to the value used for K. Recognizing this,
Bowles suggests that the value of K can be approximated from the serviceability limit state
bearing capacity, qa, as being 40 qa (kN/m3) or 12 qa (k/ft3).
Note: The foundation modulus, Km, is multiplied with the support width to obtain the
support stiffness per unit length of the beam. Enter a zero value for no foundation stiffness,
i.e. a gap in the elastic medium.
'
Foundation Analysis and Design, Fifth Edition'by Joseph E. Bowles, published by
,
McGraw Hill
3-112
Example
The sketch shows an 800 mm wide by 300 mm deep beam is modelled on an elastic
foundation:
The first fourteen meters of its length is supported on very stiff clay. The foundation
modulus is set to 40 000 kN/m3.
The beam crosses a rock intrusion ten meters from the left that provides vertical support.
The beam then spans four meters over a ditch, i.e. no support. This is modelled by entering
a zero section width.
On the other side support is provided on a strip of hard clay, two meter wide. The hard
clay is modelled by increasing the support width to 1.2 m. The resulting effective
foundation modulus is then given by 1.2/0.8 x 40 000 = 60 000 kN/m3.
The beam is loaded with a long trapezoidal distributed load, twelve meters long, a point
load and a moment at its right-hand end.
3-113
Analysis
Press Analyse to display the analysis results:
Bearing pressure.
Bending moment.
3-114
Calcsheet
The beam analysis results can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and pictures.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
3-115