Glaze Chemistry

Primer
2nd Edition
by
Hamilton Williams, Jr.
Copyright 2006
INTRODUCTION 2
1. WHY BOTHER LEARNING GLAZE CHEMISTRY? 2
2. OXIDES 3
3. AN OVERVIEW OF GLAZE 3
4. THE OXIDE GROUPS 4
5. THE FLUXING OXIDES 4
6. WHAT IS THE USE OF CALCULATING A GLAZE? 6
7. MOLECULAR WEIGHT 7
8. GLAZE CALCULATION, STEP-BY-STEP 8
9. THE LIMIT FORMULA 10
10. GLAZE CALCULATION SOFTWARE 11
11. DEVELOPMENT OF COLOR 11
12. OPACITY 12
13. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS 12
14. RESOURCES 13
APPENDIX A: WEIGHTS OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES 15
APPENDIX B: EXPANSION OF OXIDES 15
APPENDIX C: UNITY FORMULAE OF COMMON GLAZE MATERIALS 16
APPENDIX D: EXPERIMENTS 18
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Authors Note: Readers of this primer may notice the conspicuous absence of references to Lead Oxide.
While Lead has been a mainstay of ceramic glazes for centuries, its use in modern day functional ware is
obviously problematic. It is true that properly formulated glazes using fritted forms of Lead could be completely
harmless. Nonetheless, I feel that including lead in glazes in any capacity will always raise the question of
safety, especially if we recognize that most pottery studios do not have the means to thoroughly test glazes and
do not seek testing at commercial labs.
In addition to the safety issue, Lead in glazes creates a problem from the marketing standpoint. The
one thing that almost every potential pottery customer knows about ceramic glazes is that glazes commonly
contained Lead at one time. Although Lead has largely been removed from the standard palette of materials
and Lead is of little use at stoneware temperatures anyway, customers still ask about the presence of Lead in
glazes very frequently. One can imagine the response in overall sales if the answer to the question of Lead is:
Yes, there is lead in my glaze, but...
Glaze Chemistry Primer
2nd Edition
by Hamilton Williams 2006
INTRODUCTION
Having been a professional potter for thirteen years or so, I can think of many occassions when my good
humor, and perhaps even my sanity, smashed up against a glaze problem that I could not quickly solve. One instance
several years ago occurred in late summer as I was rushing to fll pre-Christmas orders for shops and galleries while
also getting ready for several shows. That time of year is our busiest, so it was with a little shock, and a mildly quesy
feeling in the pit of my stomach, that I opened a kiln-load of pottery to fnd my two main glazes covered with pits,
pinholes, and craters. These glazes were not only unattractive and unsellable, they were completely unsafe to use.
I tried refring a few pieces, but that only smoothed the smallest of the defects. While a few pots were salvageable,
most of the fring went under the hammer. I did a little reading in my a glaze texts, made a change or two, and fred
another load of pottery confdent that I had remedied the problem. The same thing happened, and another load of
pottery fell under the hammer. Orders stopped going out, and I had to place some embarrassing calls to gallery
owners explaining the problem. I did a little more research, made some new changes, fred another load. Again,
most of the kiln load was no good. This went on for weeks. My mood darkened, my confdence slumped, and I
began to seriously think of giving up pottery as a career. I fnally discovered the source of my glaze problem after
the better part of eight loads of pottery were ruined. The culprit was a new material I had started using a couple of
months before. Once that material was removed from new glazes batches, things got back to normal, and I was able
to complete orders and prepare for shows. The episode left a bit of a mark on my psyche, though.
During this period I delved into glaze chemistry like never before, desperate to fnd a solution for my
problem. Even after the immediate issue was resolved, I realized it was only a matter of time before something like
it happened again. My partial ignorance of the processes from which I made my living left me completely exposed
to such occurances. My livelihood was sitting on a house of cards. So I resolved to get better, to learn more. This
became true of every aspect of my business: the clay, the glazes, the processes, the studio, and the business itself.
This period is the point at which I changed from a slacker potter to a professional.
A few years later, I began teaching a glaze testing class at the local community college, which provided the
me the opportunity to organize all of the glaze knowledge I had accumulated along the way. It also forced me to
delve even deeper in the subject so that I would be prepared to answer students questions. I sat down to organize
my notes, and this glaze primer is the result.
For students and novice potters, glaze formulation can seem like a daunting body of knowledge. This primer
is designed to introduce potters who have little or no glaze formulation experience with a basic understanding of the
how and why of glazes. While this article assumes the reader has already advanced to mixing and using glazes
from established recipes, little else is taken for granted. In addition to an explanation of glaze chemistry, this primer
outlines several simple experiments that will give the reader frst hand experience with glaze materials and their
affect on color and texture in glaze.
1. WHY BOTHER LEARNING GLAZE CHEMISTRY?
Ones understanding of glazes can occur at different levels as one becomes more deeply involved in
ceramics. At the initial level, potters understand the physical application of glazes to pottery: brushing, dipping,
pouring, adding or subtracting water to thin or thicken the slurry, etc. Experimentaton at this level usually consists
of trying different commercial glazes and overlapping or blending glazes in different ways.
As one studies clay more seriously, using raw materials to mix glazes from published recipes becomes the
next level. At this stage, a potter becomes familiar with the endless variety of raw materials available. Collecting
new and interesting glaze recipes from a variety of sources, both reliable and otherwise, becomes an ongoing hobby.
At this level, potters may also become more familiar with different fring processes and their effect on the glaze:
2
reduction, oxidation, fring schedule, etc. At this stage potters are perhaps at their greatest risk of glaze defects and
mechanical problems in the glaze slurry. The reason for this is that potters using commercially available glazes are
somewhat protected from glaze problems since commercial glaze manufacturers must provide carefully formulated,
refned, and tested glazes if they care to stay in business. Potters who mix glazes from acquired recipes are at the
mercy of bad recipes, questionable materials, and lack of ability to diagnose and correct problems.
Potters generally move gradually into the next level of understanding glazes as they learn that different
materials provide different characteristics to the fnished glaze. They compare recipes and notice the recurring
similarites in materials and percentages. One might notice that talc and dolomite will usually cause a glaze to have
a matte surface or that gerstley borate seems to make the glaze melt more effectively while also making the glaze
slurry gummy. At this level, one begins to ask the question: Why are these materials in this glaze? Trying to
answer this basic question is what sends a potter down a path that eventually leads to the next level.
A little reading about glaze materials will soon provide the understanding that all glaze materials are
composed of substances called oxides, and it is these oxides that provide the characteristics that one may desire in
a glaze. They learn that clay provides both silica and alumina to a glaze and that the magnesium oxide found in
dolomite and talc is what creates a matte fnish. Only at the oxide level does one develop a genuine understanding
of glazes and their formulation. Knowing which oxides produce which effects and knowing what materials will
successfully provide those oxides is the basis of developing, controlling, and ensuring the safety and quality of ones
glazes.
The most important reason to learn and understand the chemistry of glazes and oxides is so that one can
save a lot of time, money, effort, and frustration. Having the deepest possible level of control over glazes allows
one to avoid ruining pieces of pottery with glazes that melt too much (or not enough), come out the wrong color
too often, are hard to apply, or prone to glaze problems. One can also develop new glazes with the quality, color,
texture, and melting temperature one wants. Finally, one can increase the proftability of pottery sales by reducing
the failure rate of glazes and freeing oneself to create new work.
2. OXIDES
All of the materials that potters use to create glazes are comprised of various molecules called oxides.
A molecule is a combination of atoms, and an atom is the smallest particle possible of any element. All known
atoms are listed on the periodic table. On the periodic table, each element is assigned a one or two letter symbol
that is helpful in describing molecules and their chemical reactions on paper: Iron is
expressed as Fe, Hydrogen as H, Magnesium as Mg, and so on. An oxide is a
molecule made up of oxygen and any other element, or radical. Iron Oxide, commonly
called rust, is a combination of Iron and Oxygen, or Fe
2
O
3
. The small numbers beside
each element denote the number of atoms of each element in the molecule, so in this
example there are two atoms of Iron (Fe) and three atoms of oxygen (O). In chemistry
terminology, a specifc oxide will often be described by dropping the oxide part of
the name and replacing the end of the radical with an a (Examples: Silicon Oxide
would be shortened to Silica, Aluminum Oxide becomes Alumina, Magnesium
Oxide becomes Magnesia, etc.) The elements, and their oxides, that are most
relevant to glaze chemistry are listed in Appendix A.
3. AN OVERVIEW OF GLAZE
When most substances solidify from a liquid state to a solid state, they form a crystalline structure (a regular
recurring pattern). Ice crystals, sugar, and salt are all examples of solids that have a crystalline structure. Glass
and glaze, on the other hand, are solids that have no crystalline structure, so-called super-cooled liquids. As glass
and glaze turn from a liquid state to a solid state in the furnace or kiln, the quickly cooling glass does not have the
opportunity to form crystals. If a glaze is cooled slowly in a controlled way, some crystallization can take place
forming a category of glaze known as crystalline glazes.
There are several substances that can form glass or glaze, but by far the most important is silica. Silica
can form a very high quality glass all by itself but unfortunately silica has a melting temperature of approximately
3100
o
F, a temperature that is diffcult and costly to reach. For making common glass or glaze, the temperature at
H
H
O
Water Molecule (H
2
O)
3
which silica melts must be lowered, and this is accomplished by the use of a fux. A fux is defned as a substance
that aids, induces, or otherwise actively participates in fusing or fowing
1
. In other words, a fux is a material that
will help the silica melt at a temperature that is much lower than 3100 degrees. Different fuxing oxides have a
varying ability to lower the melting point of silica, and each fuxing oxide has a slightly different textural and color
affect on the resulting glaze or glass. Once one succeeds in getting silica to melt at a specifc temperature with the
help of a fux, the next concern is keeping the resulting glass from fowing right off the pot when it melts. This
is where glass and glaze differ. To control the movement of the molten glaze on the pottery during the fring, a
suffcient amount of alumina must be present in the glaze. Alumina is a refractory oxide that resists the action of
fuxing oxides and therefore adds a structural element in the glaze. Imagine small specks of solid material distributed
evenly throughout the glaze that help to retard the fow of molten glaze down the side of the pot, much like fne sand
added to honey would cause the honey to fow less. Alumina also has the effect of preventing the molten glaze from
crystallizing while the glaze cools by preventing other oxides from getting together in a crystalline structure.
4. THE OXIDE GROUPS
As described in the last section, glazes are comprised of three groups of oxides: glass-forming oxides (exp.
silica), fuxing oxides (exp. magnesia), and refractory oxides (exp. alumina). These groupings have also been
described, respectively, as the acid, alkaline, and neutral groups (owing to the pH of the substances), and as the
RO
2
, RO, and R
2
O
3
groups (which describes the numbers of radicals and oxygen atoms in each group). A more
poetic way of describing the groups are as the bones, blood, and muscle of a glaze. The glass-formers form the
structure of the glaze, the fuxes bring fuidity, and the refractories hold the glaze on the pot. The most common
ceramic oxides are listed below in their appropriate RO, R
2
O
3
, and RO
2
categories:
RO R
2
O
3
RO
2
PbO Lead Oxide Al
2
O
3
Aluminum Oxide SiO
2
Silicon Oxide
Na
2
O Sodium Oxide B
2
O
3
Boric Oxide TiO
2
Titanium Oxide
K
2
O Potassium Oxide Fe
2
O
3
Iron Oxide ZrO
2
Zirconium Oxide
CaO Calcium Oxide P
2
O
5
Phosphorus Oxide
MgO Magnesium Oxide
BaO Barium Oxide
Li
2
O Lithium Oxide
SrO Strontium Oxide
ZnO Zinc Oxide
In addition to the three groups described, two additional oxide groups are the coloring oxides and the
opacifying oxides. The coloring oxides primary function in the glaze are, not surprisingly, to add color to the
fnished glaze. It should be noted that coloring oxides can also have an infuence on the melt of the glaze if the
coloring oxides are present in high enough amounts. The most obvious example of this effect is Iron Oxide, which
can have a noticable infuence on the melting temperature of a glaze (and on a clay body.) The opacifers make
glazes less transparent, changing the look and color of many glazes. Generally, most coloring oxides and opacifers
are included in fairly small amounts and therefore have a minimal effect on the melting of the glaze and are not
typically included in glaze calculations.
5. THE FLUXING OXIDES
The effect of Silica and Alumina in the glaze have already been discussed, and the role of coloring oxides
and opacifers will be discussed later, so lets take a look at the effects of the fuxing oxides. Each of the fuxing
oxides has a slightly different effect on the glaze melt and the particular color that the coloring oxides produce.
Despite its position under the R
2
O
3
column, Boric Oxide is included in this section due to its infuence on the melt
and character of glazes.
Boric Oxide (B
2
O
3
)
Character: Boric Oxide is a unique oxide in that it acts as both fux and glass-former. It has no specifc melting
point, but rather softens over a broad temperature range. Materials rich in Boric Oxide will melt even at bisque
temperatures. Due to its low melting range, Boric Oxide can be used at any fring temperature and can be used
4
as the primary or secondary fux of a glaze. Boric Oxide has a low rate of expansion so is helpful in eliminating
crazing. It promotes a milky or mottled texture in the glaze melt and helps to produce more intense colors from
the coloring oxides.
Color Effect: No specifc color effect, but Boric Oxide is often used to move copper reds toward purple or
oxblood, helps develop the color/textural effect of rutile blues, and moves chrome-tin pinks toward purple in
bases that are free of Zinc.
Sources: Gerstley Borate, Gillespie Borate, Laguna Borate, Various Frits (3124, 3134), Borax
Barium Oxide (BaO)
Character: Barium is a less active fux and is best used at the higher temperature ranges in small quantities.
Barium tends to produce a matte fnish due to the formation of micro-crystals in most instances, but will develop
dry, rough surfaces if used in too high an amount. In combination with a suffcient amount of Boron, it will
create glossy, runny glazes even at lower temperatures.
Color Effect: Barium helps to develop celadon blues in reduction, and can produce colors ranging from pink
to purples from cobalt in high fred oxidation. It encourages copper to fre turquoise in oxidation. With nickel,
plums, reds, and purples are possible in oxidation above Cone 4. With small amoutns of chromium, acid-
yellows, yellow-greens, and chartreuse are possible.
Sources: Barium Carbonate
Toxicity: Toxic (inhalation, ingestion) in material form, and will leach out of fred glazes if not properly fused.
Calcium Oxide (CaO)
Character: Calcium lends hardness, durability, and scratch resistance to glazes. Calcium is the chief fux in
most high-fre glazes due to its reliability and low cost, but must be accompanied by one or more secondary
fuxes. Used alone, or in high concentrations, calcium will produce dull, dry surfaces.
Color Effect: Minimal color effect in most glazes, but does favor the the development of celadons.
Sources: Whiting, Wollastonite, Dolomite, Various Feldspars, Various Borates, Various Frits, Wood Ash
Lithium Oxide (Li
2
O)
Character: Lithium produces effects similar to Sodium and Potassium. Lithium is an active fux even at lower
temperatures. It is limited to use in lower percentages due to its low rate of expansion, but even in amounts of
1 - 2%, Lithium can signifcantly assist the melt of a glaze. Substituting Lithium for portions of Sodium and
Potassium in a glaze can reduce crazing without a signifcant affect on glaze color.
Color Effect: Can produce blue effects from copper, and pinks and warmer blues from cobalt.
Sources: Lithium Carbonate, Petalite, Spodumene
Magnesium Oxide (MgO)
Character: Magnesium Oxide is typically a high temperature fuxing oxide, but can be used at lower temperatures
as an opacifer. Magnesium will produce smooth matte or satin-matt surfaces, while too much Magnesium will
cause dry, rough surfaces. Magnesium has a low rate of expansion that can be helpful in reducing crazing.
Color Effect: Can produce purples, pinks, and lavenders from cobalt. With small amounts of nickel, will
produce lime to olive greens.
Sources: Talc, Dolomite, Magnesium Carbonate, Various Feldspars
Potassium Oxide (K
2
O)
Character: Potassium Oxide, or Potash, is a powerful fux at any temperature. It has the effect of intensifying
colors, but has a high rate of expansion that leads to signifcant crazing in glazes where high amounts of
Potassium are present. Potassium produces glazes that are softer and less resistant to wear.
Color Effect: With Barium, can produce pink from manganese. Encourages the celadon blues and greens from
small amounts of iron oxide in reduction. Promotes reds from copper in reduction, and blues from copper in
oxidation. Can produce purples, violets, burgundys, and red-blues from manganese.
Sources: Custer and G-200 Feldspars, Nepheline Syenite, Cornwall Stone, Potassium Carbonate, Various
Frits
Sodium Oxide (Na
2
O)
Character: Sodium Oxide, or Soda, is a powerful fux at any temperature. It has the effect of intensifying
5
colors, but has a high rate of expansion that leads to signifcant crazing in glazes where high amounts of Sodium
are present. Sodium produces glazes that are softer and less resistant to wear.
Color Effect: Effects are similar to that of Potassium.
Sources: F-4 and other Feldspars, Nepheline Syenite, Sodium Frits
Strontium Oxide (SrO)
Character: Strontium is usually used as a fux in the mid to high temperatures, but can be used in small
quantities at lower temperatures to good effect. Strontium is often used as a replacement for Barium in glazes
in order to reduce toxicity. Strontium has a similar textural effect as Barium, and will create a matte surface if
used as the primary fux. Strontium is a slightly more powerful fux than Barium so is generally used in smaller
amounts.
Color Effect: No signifcant color effect.
Sources: Strontium Carbonate
Zinc Oxide (ZnO)
Character: Zinc Oxide is helpful across all temperature ranges in small amounts. At stoneware temperatures,
zinc is a potent secondary fux that can have a pronounced effect on the glaze melt. Higher amounts of Zinc
tend to produce rough, dry surfaces. Zinc also tends to produce crystalline formations in the glaze and is used
in the formulation of crystalline glazes.
Color Effect: With copper, can produce turquoise greens. With chrome, produces brown instead pink, and zinc
must absent to produce chrome-tin pinks.
Sources: Zinc Oxide
For more detailed and thorough descriptions of the fuxing oxides and their source materials, check any one of the
texts listed in the resource section. Also check the educational section of the Digitalfre web site.
6. WHAT IS THE USE OF CALCULATING A GLAZE?
The typical glaze recipe is expressed as a percentage recipe, meaning that the total amount of materials in
the base glaze total up to 100%. While this kind of recipe is necessary for actually mixing up a batch of glaze, it is
not so helpful in comparing different glazes or determining the relative amounts of oxides in a glaze. Two different
recipes can appear to be very different, but their oxide formulas could turn out to be quite similar. A cursory glance
at the two recipes below may lead one to believe the glazes are quite different. They use different materials in
different amounts, and yet their formulas are nearly identical.
Glaze A Glaze B
Silica 35% Silica 16.17%
G-200 Feldspar 25% Custer Feldspar 22.56%
EPK 12% OM-4 Ball Clay 9.64%
Whiting 15% Wollastonite 30.17%
Dolomite 10% Talc 9.02%
Lithium Carb. 2% Aust. Spodumene 12.44%
By converting a glaze percentage recipe into a glaze formula, a potter can get a clearer view of what oxides are
present and in what amounts. Glaze formulas can be adjusted more easily and accurately, then converted back into
a new percentage recipe for actual testing. Also, in the event that a specifc material becomes unavailable (such as
Gerstley Borate or Albany Slip), understanding a glaze at the formula level makes it possible to use a replacement
material to achieve the same oxide makeup in the glaze, allowing the potter to continue using a favorite glaze
virtually unaltered.
Calculating the formula for a glaze can also make the development of new glazes quicker and easier. Say,
for example, that I have a glaze that has most of the qualities that one would want in a glaze: the glaze melts easily
at the proper temperature without fowing too much, the glaze is fairly resistant to scratches, and the glaze does not
craze or have any other common faults. In short, its a wonderful, trouble-free glaze that is reliable and easy to use.
6
But what if I decide to develop a glaze that gives me a different color or texture that my original cannot produce?
Do I start from scratch with my testing? No. I frst calculate the formula for my original glaze and see what oxides
are present and in what amounts. Here is one of the recipes we compared a moment ago:
Original Recipe Original Formula
Silica 35% CaO .628 Al
2
O
3
.269 SiO
2
2.862
G-200 Feldspar 25% MgO .165
EPK 12% K
2
O .087 Expansion: 66.64
Whiting 15% Na
2
O .037
Dolomite 10% Li
2
O .082
Lithium Carb. 2%
The glaze above is rich in Calcium, low in Sodium and Potassium, and has a good balance of Alumina
and Silica. From experience, I know that this glaze fts my pots, meaning it does not craze or shiver. Let us
say, then, that I want to produce a glaze that is rich in Magnesium because of a particular color effect I read about.
The quickest, simplest way to produce an initial Magnesium-rich test is to use the original formula above, but
increase the amount of Magnesium in the fux column while reducing one or more of the other fuxes, probably
Calcium, while leaving everything else the same. Using a glaze calculation spreadsheet, I shuffe the ingredients
and percentages and produce a new formula and its resulting recipe:
New Formula New Recipe
CaO .279 Al
2
O
3
.269 SiO
2
2.866 Silica 29.2%
MgO .509 G-200 Feldspar 27.73%
K
2
O .090 Expansion: 58.30 EPK 11.68%
Na
2
O .039 Dolomite 14.6%
Li
2
O .084 Talc 14.65
Lithium Carb. 2.19%
Thus, using the calculated formula of a glaze helps to direct ones glaze research more precisely and results in a
large savings in time, effort, and materials over the long term.
Another reason to calculate the chemistry of glazes is to help control their rate of contraction in comparison
to the clay that the glaze is on. By aligning the contraction of the glaze with the contraction of the claybody during
fring, one can not only eliminate some glaze faults but also strengthen the fnished pottery by quite a bit. There is
more on this topic in Section 13.
7. MOLECULAR WEIGHT
Calculating the formula for a glaze begins with using the molecular weight of each oxide to arrive at a
comparative amount of each oxide in the fred glaze. This may sound confusing, but think of it the following way.
To compare glazes, one wants to compare apples to apples, but a since all of the oxides have unique masses, or
molecular weights, then trying to compare an unconverted percentage recipe is like trying to compare apples to
oranges, or grapefruits, or even watermelons. By taking the molecular weight of each oxide into account, then all
the different oxides (an entire basket of fruit) can be successfully compared in apple-to-apple terms.
So what is molecular weight? Looking at the periodic table, one fnds each element has been assigned
a specifc mass. This mass, or atomic weight, has nothing to do with pounds or ounces, grams or kilograms.
The weight of an atom is really an expression of its mass relative to the mass of Hydrogen. Hydrogen has been
assigned an atomic weight of one (1) because it is the lightest element. All of the other elements were then assigned
weights as multiples of the weight of Hydrogen. Oxygen, for example, has an atomic weight of 15.9998 because it
is 15.9998 times heavier than Hydrogen.
So this explains the atomic weights of each element, but how does one determine the weight of a molecule,
or molecular weight? Determining molecular weight is simply a matter adding up the atomic weights of the elements
in the molecule. To fgure the molecular weight of Iron Oxide (Fe
2
O
3
), for example, one would refer to the atomic
7
weights of Iron (55.8457) and Oxygen (15.9994) on the Periodic Table and multiply these weights by the numbers
of atoms present for each element. Since there are two atoms of Iron and three atoms of Oxygen, the molecular
weight would look something like this:
Iron (2 x 55.8457) + Oxygen (3 x 15.9994) = 111.6914 + 47.9982 = 159.6896
This is how one arrives at the molecular weight of any molecule, however simple or complex.
8. GLAZE CALCULATION, STEP-BY-STEP
The following describes the procedure for converting a percentage recipe into a fux unity formula. It is a
bit of math, but its not diffcult math. A later section describes some software that makes this job easier, but it is
still important to understand calculation frst-hand.
Obtain or produce a glaze percentage recipe.
Obtain or calculate the molecular formula (unity formula) for the materials used in the glaze (See Appendix C).
Construct a table (see example below) in which to enter the oxide contributions of each glaze material.
Enter materials and percentages used in the table.
Calculate moles by dividing the percentage in the recipe by the materials molecular weight (also Appendix C),
and enter results in table.
For each material, multiply moles by the amount of each oxide present in the material (according to the unity
formula) and enter the result in the appropriate column.
Total the amounts of oxides in each column. This gives you the molecular equivalent formula.
Express the molecular equivalent formula as a Flux Unity formula by totaling the fuxing oxides and dividing
each oxide in the formula by the sum of the fuxes.
CALCULATION EXAMPLE
We start with the following glaze recipe:
Silica 10%
G-200 Feldspar 50%
Whiting (Calcium Carbonate) 15%
Laguna Borate 10%
OM-4 Ball Clay 15%

Referring to the material analyses for these materials in Appendix C: Unity Formulae of Common Glaze
Materials, one can see that the following oxides are present in the glaze: Calcium (CaO), Magnesium (MgO),
Potassium (K
2
O), Sodium (Na
2
O), Titanium (TiO
2
),

Iron (Fe
2
O
3
), Silica (SiO
2
), Alumina (Al
2
O
3
), and Boron (B
2
O
3
).
Using these oxides, construct a chart that includes a column for each oxide present, such as the one below.
Material % Moles CaO MgO K
2
O Na
2
O TiO
2
Fe
2
O
3
SiO
2
Al
2
O
3
B
2
O
3
Silica 10
G-200 Feldspar 50
Whiting 15
Laguna Borate 10
OM-4 Ball Clay 15
Total: 100
Having constructed the chart, now look up the molecular weight for each material used in the recipe. Again,
this information can be found in Appendix C. The molecular weights for the materials are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
8
Silica 60.084
G-200 Feldspar 557.378
Whiting 99.96
Laguna Borate 211.193
OM-4 Ball Clay 3254.07
Now divide the percentage of the material in the recipe by the molecular weight of that material and enter the
result under the Moles column. The chart should then look like so:
Material % Moles CaO MgO K
2
O Na
2
O TiO
2
Fe
2
O
3
SiO
2
Al
2
O
3
B
2
O
3
Silica 10 .1664
G-200 Feldspar 50 .0897
Whiting 15 .1501
Laguna Borate 10 .0474
OM-4 Ball Clay 15 .0046
Total: 100
Next, multiply the Moles number for each material by the amount of each oxide present in that materials unity
formula. The unity formula for G-200 is shown below (and in Appendix C). Each oxide in G-200 is multiplied by
the mole number, 0.0897, and entered into the appropriate column in the chart below (Note: All calculations in this
example are rounded to four decimal places in order to ft in the space provided. For that reason, a few entries will
appear as zero amounts even though a trace amount of the oxide is present.)
Feldspar, G-200 Weight: 557.378
CaO .081 Al
2
O
3
1.014 SiO
2
6.169
MgO .007 Fe
2
O
3
.003
K
2
O .638
Na
2
O .274
Material % Moles CaO MgO K
2
O Na
2
O TiO
2
Fe
2
O
3
SiO
2
Al
2
O
3
B
2
O
3
Silica 10 .1664
G-200 Feldspar 50 .0897 .0073 .0006 .0572 .0246 .0003 .5534 .0910
Whiting 15 .1501
Laguna Borate 10 .0474
OM-4 Ball Clay 15 .0046
Total: 100
Now perform the same calculation with the other materials in the recipe. Then total the columns and enter the
results at the bottom. The fnal chart should look like this:
Material % Moles CaO MgO K
2
O Na
2
O TiO
2
Fe
2
O
3
SiO
2
Al
2
O
3
B
2
O
3
Silica 10 .1664 .1664
G-200 Feldspar 50 .0897 .0073 .0006 .0572 .0246 .0003 .5534 .0910
Whiting 15 .1501 .1501
Laguna Borate 10 .0474 .0337 .0057 .0015 .0064 .0000 .0311 .0080 .0395
OM-4 Ball Clay 15 .0046 .0008 .0015 .0016 .0007 .0022 .0010 .1375 .0410
Total: 100 .1919 .0078 .0603 .0317 .0022 .0013 .8884 .1400 .0395
9
The totals at the bottom of the columns are a molecular equivalent formula for the glaze recipe, however this formula
is not all that helpful in analyzing this glaze or comparing it to others. To make this formula more readable, it
needs to be expressed as a fux unity formula, meaning that the total of the fuxing oxides in the formula should
add up to one. Expressing the molecular equivalent formula as a fux unity formula is simply a matter of totaling
the fuxing oxides in the formula (in this example, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium) and dividing each
oxide in the formula by the total of the fuxing oxides.
The resulting fux unity formula, arranged in the appropriate RO, R
2
O
3
, and RO
2
columns looks like this:
RO R
2
O
3
RO
2

CaO .6579 Al
2
O
3
.4799 SiO
2
3.0456
MgO .0267 Fe
2
O
3
.0045 TiO
2
.0075
K
2
O .2067 B
2
O
3
.1354
Na
2
O .1087
9. THE LIMIT FORMULA
A limit formula is a formula in which all of the oxides present have the minimum and maximum amounts
recommended for a glaze temperature range or a specifc glaze type. The formula below is an example from Clay
and Glazes for the Potter, 3rd edition, by Daniel Rhodes:
Cone 8 - 12 Stoneware or Porcelain Glazes
KNaO .2 - .40 Al
2
O
3
.2 - .28 SiO
2
2.0 - 3.0
CaO .4 - .70 B
2
O
3
.1 - .3
MgO 0 - .35
ZnO 0 - .30
BaO 0 - .30
A limit formula can be helpful in originating new glaze bases and provides a standard for comparison with
other glazes. If one knows that the maximum amount of calcium in a typical functional stoneware glaze is .7, then
a glaze with a calcium level of almost .9 should raise a red fag and inspire thorough testing. Glazes that do not
have the proper balance of fuxes, silica, and alumina may not mature and fuse properly. This can cause a variety of
problems, the most serious of which is the leaching of toxic materials from the glaze into food or drink. Sometimes
a potter may have a very good reason for breaking the guidelines of a limit formula, perhaps for a specialty glaze
or a glaze intended for sculptural work, but glazes for functional ware should generally fall within the limits of the
limit formula.
With the issue of safety and toxicity at hand, is it responsible for a potter or ceramicist to develop a glaze that
goes outside the boundaries of the limit formula for functional ware? In the quest to develop glazes with specifc
or unique characteristics, a potter may be tempted to use more or less of an oxide than is recommended by limit
formulas. While glazes such as these may turn out to have stunning effects, they are likely to be unsafe for use with
food or drink. Even if a potter or sculpture develops a glaze strictly for visual effect, there is some responsiblity
to keep that glaze out of circulation. As Tony Hansen, owner of the Digitalfre Corporation and a proponent of the
formula and oxide viewpoint in developing glazes, describes:
Then, divide each oxide by the total of the fuxes:
CaO .1919 / .2917 = .6579
MgO .0078 / .2917 = .0267
K
2
O .0603 / .2917 = .2067
Na
2
O .0317 / .2917 = .1087
TiO
2
.0022 / .2917 = .0075
Fe
2
O
3
.0013 / .2917 = .0045
SiO
2
.8884 / .2917 = 3.0456
Al
2
O
3
.1400 / .2917 = .4799
B
2
O
3
.0395 / .2917 = .1354
Total the fuxing oxides:
CaO .1919
MgO .0078
K
2
O .0603
Na
2
O .0317
Total: .2917
10
if a glaze formula has twice the maximum of an oxide (I see this all the time with manganese, barium,
lithium, fuxes, metallics) or half the minimum (i.e. SiO2 or Al2O3) eyebrows should raise! It is true that
visual glazes often defy the norms (i.e. fuid variegated glazes often lack alumina) but no one expects them
to be food safe, ft the clay perfectly, and fre to a very hard and abrasion resistant surface either. We also
expect that such glazes not be traffcked on the functional glaze market where they quickly develop amnesia
about who and what they are.
2
10. GLAZE CALCULATION SOFTWARE
Now that the reader has some understanding of calculating the formula for a glaze, it may be a good point
to discuss the usefulness of commercially available glaze calculation software. The two products that I am mopst
familiar with are Digitalfre Insight and Glazemaster. Both of these software packages provide the basic
function of calculating the unity formula of any glaze recipe, which in itself would make them worth the money.
However, the software also allows the user to conveniently store recipes within the program, compare different
recipes, make easy adjustments to formulas and recipes, calculate the thermal expansion of glazes, and input new
materials. Both products offer a 60-day free trial download from their respective web sites, so trying out the features
of these packages is easy. Another software package is The Glaze Calculator, available as a free download. I have
not had the opportunity of use this last package. The web sites for these programs are included in the Resource
section.
Lest the reader think the author is peddling glaze calculation software, Id like to point out that it is possible
to design a rudimentary calculation program using a spread sheet such as MS Excel. Looking at the chart one
constructs to perform the calculations by hand, one can see that the procedure for calculation is relatively simple
but requires both a lot of repetitious calculating and referencing of oxide data, so automating the calculations in
a spreadsheet makes perfect sense. I have created such an Excel program so that my glaze chemistry students
would have a free, consistent way to calculate their test glazes throughout the semester. My program is limited in
that it uses only forty-six of the most common glaze materials, but it serves its purpose fairly well and has become
the program I turn to most often when working with my glazes. This program will be freely available on my web
site sometime in early 2007.
11. DEVELOPMENT OF COLOR
One should note that in all of the glaze calculations thus far, the coloring oxides have not been included.
As mentioned in section four, the coloring oxides do not offer, for the most part, any qualities other than color and
opacity in the melted glaze. Most of the time, one will develop a glaze base that melts at the proper temperature
and has the desired fred properties and then introduce different coloring oxides. Before focusing too much on the
coloring oxides, though, frst consider all of the variables that might affect color in a glaze. These are:
Coloring oxides
Fluxing oxides
Texture of the glaze (matt, semi-matt, gloss, etc.)
Atmosphere during fring
Color of the clay body
While fve variables may not seem like a lot to work with, a surprising number of colors and variations
can be achieved through persistent and vigorous testing. Many beginning glaze chemists will already be familiar
with the differences in an oxidation fring versus a reduction fring as well as the dramatically different affects of
the coloring oxides. The changes that can occur from the color of the underlying clay and the texture of the glaze
may also be familiar. The color variable that often goes under-appreciated among students and others new to glaze
chemistry is the color affect of the fuxing oxides. Understanding the color affect of the fuxes is really at the heart
of color development because manipulation and blending of the fuxing oxides in a glaze base is what achieves the
variety and intensity of color possible in glazes. Copper will produce a signifcantly different color in the presence
of sodium than it will in presence of magnesium. While reading some glaze texts will reveal many descriptions of
the effect of fuxes on colorants, only through experimentation can one really appreciate the variety and subtlety of
these differences. The different tests in Appendix C quickly lead up to producing a wide variety of color and texture
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
11
in glazes.
12. OPACITY
As mentioned in Section 4, some oxides are responsible for making glazes less transparent and more opaque.
Some glazes are essentially clear and one can clearly see the claybody underneath the layer of glaze. These glazes
can be said to be completely melted, as all of the components of the glaze have vitrifed leaving little or no unmelted
particles suspended in the glassy layer. If a glaze is underfred, leaving some particles out of the melt, then a glaze
becomes more opaque.
Even when a glaze is fully matured at the right temperature, opacity can be caused by a few other factors.
The presence of tiny bubbles in the glaze can produce a opalescent effect, such as in a blue celadon. The presence
of Phosphorus, contributed by bone ash, can produce this effect. Opalescence can also be produced by a mixture
of glasses of differing indexes of refraction.
3
Boron can encourage this quality in a glaze, producing a milky blue-
white texture typical in rutile blue glazes. Solid crystals in the glaze, both tiny and large, can refract light and also
create an opaque effect. Glazes rich in iron oxide, such as iron red or tenmoku, are an example of this effect. Some
fuxing oxides -Calcium, Magnesium, and Barium- have an opacifying effect on a glaze if they are present in high
enough concentrations. The opacity derived from all of these effects, though, can be driven out if the glaze if fred
to a high enough temperature.
The opacifying oxides can generally produce opaque or semi-opaque qualities in the glaze regardless of
fring temperature (within reason). These are Tin Oxide, Zirconium Oxide, and Titanium Oxide. Tin Oxide has
been in use the longest and produces perhaps the best opacifying and textural effect in a glaze, but the high price of
Tin Oxide makes Zirconium Oxide a more affordable alternative. Zirconia is sold under a variety of brand names,
such as Zircopax, Superpax, and Opax. Titanium Oxide contributes opacity to glazes, but also has a softening effect
on some colorants. Titanium Oxide is often introduced into glazes as part of the material, Rutile, and is the chief
contributing factors to the creation of rutile blues.
13. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
Once a potter has produced a glaze that melts at the correct temperature and has a desirable color and
appearance, two additional areas can become a concern. The frst is the mechanical nature of the glaze batch.
Calculating the chemistry of a glaze becomes fairly simple when one gets comfortable with the process, but looking
at a glaze from a strictly chemical point of view fails to address the challenge of getting the glaze on the pot
successfully and consistently. For example, a glaze recipe needs to include enough plastic material, such as
kaolin or ball clay, in its make-up in order for the glaze batch to remain in suspension in the bucket during the
glazing process. Without this plastic component, the glaze materials would simply settle out of the water to the
bottom of the bucket. In addition to the help with the suspension of the glaze, clay provides both alumina and silica
to the glaze chemistry. From the chemistry standpoint, the alumina portion of a glaze could be provided exclusively
with alumina hydrate and the silica provided exclusively with silica, however neither of these materials are plastic
and would fail to provide the needed suspension for applying the glaze to the pot.
Another mechanical factor to consider is the soluability of the materials one uses to make a glaze. Some
common glaze ingredients such as lithium carbonate, soda ash, and gillespie borate are soluable or partially soluable
in water, a feature which can cause problems in the glaze batch. Materials that dissolve in water may soak into
porous bisqueware during glazing, then leach back out of the clay as the piece dries. During glaze fring the soluable
material will volatize and run the risk of faws in the fred glaze surface. Pitting, pinholing, and cratering can all
be caused by volatized gases erupting through the molten surface of glaze during fring. By avoiding the use of
soluable materials whenever possible one can often solve some of these glaze faults before they begin. If one needs
lithium in a glaze, then consider the use of spodumene instead of lithium carbonate. When boron is required, Frit
3134 may be a more reliable source than Gerstley Borate. Sometimes one must use a soluable material to satisfy
the oxide requirements of a glaze, but most often glazes can constituted from insoluable alternatives.
Another source for pitting and pinholing problems are materials that are not soluable, but do have components
such as carbonate and sulphates that similarly volatize out of the glaze during fring. Whiting, a source for calcium,
loses more than 40% of its mass in the form of carbonate during fring. Dolomite, another source for calcium, loses
almost half of its mass during fring. If a glaze that included these materials demonstrated a problem with pinholing,
12
a possible solution might be eliminating whiting or dolomite in favor of wollastonite, which loses only 2% of its
mass during fring. A simple solution to a problem which can best be accomplished by calculating the formula for
the glaze.
Having just commented on reasons to avoid the use of soluble materials, let me now point out one case
where a bit of soluble material may be desirable. Anyone who has ever attempted to glaze a pot with a glaze slurry
that has focculated (become thick and gummy), knows that it is an unpleasant, if not impossible, task. Flocculation
occurs when particles in the glaze slurry cling together, forming clumps, due to electric attraction. These clumps,
or focks, do not fow across one another as fuidly as single particles do, and therefore the glaze slurry requires
more water to attain the same viscosity as a non-focculating glaze
4
.

Materials such as gerstley borate, gillespie
borate, and laguna borate seem to be particularly culpible in producing such glaze batches. This condition can
often be remedied with a small addition of a soda ash solution, which introduces an electrolyte into the slurry that
breaks up the focks. Three tablespoons of soda ash dissolved in one quart of water seems to be just enough of
a defocculant to treat two 10,000 gram batches of glaze. The small amount of soluable material does not seem to
have a signifcant effect on the quality of the fred glaze.
Beyond the mechanical properties of the glaze batch, the second area of concern is the expansion of the
glaze during fring. All glazes will contract, or shrink, a bit as they fuse. The rate of contraction varies among
different glazes according the amounts of the different oxides present in the glaze. The expansion (or contraction)
of a glaze can become a problem when the rate of expansion of the glaze differs from the rate of expansion of the
clay that the glaze is applied to, described as the coeffcient of expansion. When the clay and the glaze contract at
different rates, glaze faults such as crazing and shivering can result. Crazing describes the tiny network of cracks
that form when the fred glaze contracts more than the fred clay, while shivering describes the shearing off of
glaze from the clay when the glaze contracts less than the clay. Both conditions can cause the fred clay to become
weaker than it would be without any glaze at all. A glaze that fts well, however, can strengthen the clay quite a
bit.
A glaze chemist can control the expansion of the glaze by changing the chemistry of the glaze slightly.
Some oxides, such as sodium and potassium, have a very high rate of expansion, while other oxides have a
comparatively low rate expansion, such as silica, zinc, and magnesium. By reducing oxides with a high expansion
rate and increasing oxides with a low expansion rate, one can eliminate crazing. Similarly, one can solve a shivering
problem by increasing the level of oxides with higher rates of expansion. Experience shows that a small addition of
lithium, with its very low rate of expansion, can be very helpful in reducing crazing in a glaze without a signifcant
effect on the color of the glaze. Again, familiarity with glaze materials, and their oxide makeup, will be most helpful
in solving expansion issues. The expansion rates of some oxides are available in Appendix B.
14. RESOURCES
Recommended Glaze Tests:
Clay and Glazes for the Potter, 3rd edition, by Daniel Rhodes; ISBN 0-87341-863-8
This is the glaze text that I came through school with (well, actually the 2nd edition) so it would be diffcult for
me not to give it high praise. With that being said, the chapter on glaze calculation has some problems that Im
surpised have not been corrected in this latest edition. However, it is still a very valuable text and has very good
descriptions of materials and oxides as well as many other topics.
The Ceramic Spectrum, Robin Hopper, ISBN O-80197-275-2
Another good glaze formulation text, but one that does not dwell on calculation. Robin Hopper takes an
experimental approach with developing glaze bases. I especially like his glaze saturation tests. I did a similar
type of experiment during college.
Glazes for the Craft Potter, Harry Frasier, ISBN 1-57498-076-9
This book is at the top of many studio glaze chemists must have lists. I think it is an excellent text with a
good section on calculation.
Mastering Cone 6 Glazes, John Hesselberth and Ron Roy, ISBN O-97300-630-7
13
With so many potters relying on electric kilns for their glaze frings, it is important to have a text that specifcally
addresses Cone 6 glazes. I highly recommend this text for anyone interested in developing their own electric
kiln glazes.
Web Sites:
The Glaze Calculator http://www.glazecalc.com/index.htm
Free glaze calculation software.
Glazemaster http://www.masteringglazes.com/
Digitalfre INSIGHT http://www.digitalfre.com/
This web site has much more to offer than just the INSIGHT program. Tony Hansen has created an easily
accessible database of ceramic materials as well as a collection of articles and tutorials on glaze chemistry and
related topics. One could easily spend hours reading through all the valuable information provided.
SDSU CeramicsWeb http://grafk.sdsu.edu/main.html#anchor29623254
Robert Fromme Glaze and Clay Tutorial http://ceramics.sdsu.edu/articles/classmaterials.html
The two sites above are both on the San Diego State University web site. The frst address some some interesting
links while the second takes you to a tutorial much like this one.
Duncan Shearer, Glaze Course http://www.duncanshearer.co.nz/glaze/glaze.html
Another online glaze tutorial, with experiments.
Claystation.com http://www.claystation.com/technical/glazestation/claylinks.html
A site with lots of links to articles and resources for technical ceramics and pottery issues.
References:
1. The American Heritage College Dictionary, 3rd edition, ISBN 0-395-67161-2, p. 525
2. Limit Formulas and Target Formulas, http://ceramic-materials.com/cermat/education/206.html
3. Clay and Glazes for the Potter, 3rd edition, Daniel Rhodes, ISBN 0-87341-863-8, p. 216
4. Clay and Glazes for the Potter, 3rd edition, Daniel Rhodes, ISBN 0-87341-863-8, pp. 99-100
14
APPENDIX A:
WEIGHTS OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES
Aluminum Al 25.981538
Antimony Sb 121.76
Barium Ba 137.327
Boron B 10.811
Cadmium Cd 112.411
Calcium Ca 40.078
Carbon C 12.0107
Chromium Cr 51.9961
Cobalt Co 58.9332
Copper Cu 83.546
Hydrogen H 1.00794
Iron Fe 55.8457
Lead Pb 207.2
Lithium Li 6.941
Magnesium Mg 24.3050
Manganese Mn 54.938049
Nickel Ni 58.6934
Oxygen O 15.9994
Phosphorus P 30.973761
Potassium K 39.0983
Selenium Se 78.96
Silicon Si 28.0855
Silver Ag 107.8682
Sodium Na 22.98977
Strontium Sr 87.62
Sulphur S 32.066
Tin Sn 118.710
Titanium Ti 47.867
Uranium U 238.02891
Vanadium V 50.9415
Zinc Zn 65.409
Zirconium Zr 91.224
Aluminum Oxide (Alumina) Al
2
O
3
99.961276
Antimony Oxide Sb
2
O
3
291.5182
Barium Oxide BaO 153.3264
Boric Oxide B
2
O
3
69.6202
Calcium Oxide CaO 56.0774
Chromium Oxide Cr
2
O
3
151.9904
Cobalt Oxide Co
2
O
3
165.8646
Copper Oxide CuO 99.5454
Iron Oxide Fe
2
O
3
159.6896
Silicon Dioxide (Silica) SiO
2
60.0843
Lead Oxide PbO 223.1994
Lithium Oxide Li
2
O 29.8814
Magnesium Oxide MgO 40.3044
Manganese Dioxide MnO
2
86.936849
Nickel Oxide NiO 74.6928
Phosphorus Pentoxide P
2
O
5
141.94452
Potassium Oxide K
2
O 94.196
Sodium Oxide Na
2
O 61.97894
Strontium Oxide SrO 103.6194
Tin Oxide SnO 134.7594
Zinc Oxide ZnO 81.4084
Zirconium Oxide ZrO
2
123.2228
Note: All atomic weights, and molecular weights that are
derived from them, are from the most accurate information
available to the author. The reader must decide whether
to round these fgures, and by how much. The opinion of
the author is to use the most precise fgures throughout the
calculations and round the fnal results as needed.
APPENDIX B:
EXPANSION OF OXIDES
Aluminum Oxide 0.63
Barium Oxide 1.29
Boric Oxide 0.31
Calcium Oxide 1.48
Iron Oxide 1.25
Lithium Oxide 0.68
Magnesium Oxide 0.26
Potassium Oxide 3.31
Silicon Oxide 0.35
Sodium Oxide 3.87
Strontium Oxide 0.13
Titanium Oxide 1.44
Zinc Oxide 0.94
Zirconium Oxide 0.20
15
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17
18
APPENDIX D:
EXPERIMENTS
The following experiments are designed to provide the reader with direct, relevant information and
experience with glaze materials and glazes bases. These experiments were initially designed as part of a science
fair project for my nine-year-old niece, Claire. She had no trouble performing the experiments, largely unassisted,
and drawing excellent conclusions from the results. My hope is that the reader will fnd them equally helpful.
The frst experiment looks at the melting properties of single materials, while the second experiment
demonstrates how to develop an original glaze base from basic materials. The third experiment adds coloring
oxides to the base to begin producing a palette of glaze colors, and the fnal experiment shows how to develop
additional glaze bases that will offer a wide variety of textures and color effects with the fuxing oxides.
EXPERIMENT 1: MELTING OF SINGLE MATERIALS
This experiment demonstrates the melting of single materials at the two critical temperatures for a potter,
bisque temperature and glaze temperature. All one needs to do this experiment is to make a tile of roughly 5 inches
by 8 inches. While the clay is still soft, use a fnger to make small depressions in the tile, one for each material
you have available to you (excluding colorants), and number each depression. My studio currently has twenty-one
different materials so I would make a tile with that many depressions. Once the tile has dried, place a tiny amount
(1/4 teaspoon) of each material in the depressions, one material for each depression. Be sure to make note of which
material is in which depression. Fire the tile to your normal bisque temperature (for me, Cone 09). Once fred,
which of the materials, if any, melted or fused in some way? Record your observations and move on to the next
part. Fire the same tile (or a duplicate) up to glaze temperature (Cone 6 - 10).
Which materials have melted or fused at the higher temperature? Again, record your observations. What
conclusions can you draw from this simple test? Of the materials that melted at bisque temperature, what oxides
might they have in common? What oxides are common to the materials that melted at the higher temperature?
What materials might be helpful in lowering the melting temperature of a glaze?
EXPERIMENT 2: CREATING A BASE GLAZE
The frst experiment demonstrated the
melting of single materials. This experiment
begins to blend materials in an effort to fnd a
combination that melts at a glaze temperature
appropriate for the type of work that you do (or
want to do.) This experiment, while simple, is
a bit more involved, so the procedure is laid out
more formally.
The frst part of the experiment is really
a bit of research. Look through various glaze
recipes designed for Cone 6 - 10. What materials
are included in just about every stoneware glaze
recipe? The answer is Feldspar, Whiting, Silica,
and some kind of clay (EPK, Ball Clay). So,
the experiment is a methodical testing of each
variation possible of these four materials in
amounts ranging from 0% to 50% at 10%
intervals. To make sure each variation is tested,
its helpful to lay out the tests on a quadraxial
blend grid (Fig. 1). On the grid, any point where
two lines meet represents a variation in the
blend of the four materials. (For example, Test
0 10 30 20
50
50 40
10
20
30
40
40
30
20
10
0
0
0 10 20 30
40 50
50
Silica
C
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m

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Feldspar, G-200
E
P
K
1
7
6 5 4 3 2
16 15 14 13
12 11 10 9 8
24 23 22 21 20 19
18 17
29 28
33
27
32
26
31
25
34 35 36
30
Figure 1: The Quadraxial Blend
Variation #7 would be: EPK 40%, G-200 Feldspar 50%, Silica 0%, Calcium Carbonate 10%.) For this experiment,
one should use specifc brand name materials (when possible) so that an accurate analysis of the tests can be made
later. In my test, I used Silica (brand name unknown), G-200 Feldspar, Whiting (brand unknown), and OM-4 Ball
Clay, but one could use any of the brands effectively.
Tools Needed:
37 plastic cups or other containers, a gram scale, a cup-size 60 mesh screen (or a blender), some spoons or scoops,
plastic wrap, and rubber bands
Procedure:
Create four 9 x 9 tiles
approximately 1/2 thick. (or one large
18 x 18 tile.)
Make nine 2 diameter, 1/8 to
1/4 deep impressions (3 rows of 3) in
each tile using the bottom of a cup (I
used a plastic measuring cup). Number
the impressions 1 - 36 across the four
tiles. If you are using the 18x18 tile,
make 36 impressions (6 rows of 6)
Note: What you are doing here is creating
cavities in which to test the separate
variations. By testing in these cavities,
one avoids the risk of variations that are
too runny and cause kiln shelf damage.
Allow tile(s) to dry thoroughly, and bisque.
Label 36 of the cups 1 - 36 (one for each of the variations) and retain one cup for use on the scale.
Write out the recipe for each variation for a twenty gram batch. Twenty grams of glaze is plenty for
carrying out this test and avoids unnecessary waste.
Calibrate the scale. Since you are working with very small batches of glaze, precision is critical for
achieving accurate results.
Weight out the materials for each variation and deposit them in the appropriate cups. One may fnd it
easier to weight out one material for each variation before moving on the next material (i.e. weight out the
feldspar for all 36 variations, then weight out the silica for all 36 tests, etc.)
Once the dry batch of each variation is complete, mix each batch with a small amount of water in order
to produce a usable glaze slurry. Mix thoroughly and pour through a cup-sized 60 mesh screen. If you
have one available, using a blender for mixing the glaze slurry is a lot faster and easier. A blender will
thoroughly blend the dry materials and water without the need for screening. Just be sure not to let any dry
material cling to the damp inside walls of the blender (that would make your tests less accurate by unevenly
removing some materials) and rinse the blender between variations. If, after creating the wet batches, you
realize you have used too much water, simply allow the batches to settle overnight and sponge off some of
the clear water before performing the next step in the test.
Pour a bit of each variation into the numbered depression on the tile(s) that the variation corresponds
to. It is not necessary to fll the depression or to use all of the wet batch.
After all of the variations have been applied to the appropriate depressions, allow the tile(s) to dry.
Then place the tile(s) fat into your kiln and fre to glaze temperature.
After the fred tile(s) emerge from the kiln, study the results. How many of the variations in this test
melted? How many did not fuse at all? Which variations have a melted consistency that interest you? Notice that
some of the tests that are very high in calcium carbonate did not melt any more than some of the tests that have little
or no calcium. Why might this be so? If any of the results from this test did not come out the way you expected,
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
19
33
27
21
32
26
20
31
25
19
18 17 16
12 11 10
6 5 4 1
15 14 13
9 8 7
3 2
24
28
34
22
29
23
30
36 35
Four Tiles
1
24
18 17
28
34
16
33
27
21
15
32
26
20
14
31
25
19
13
12 11 10 9 8 7
6 5 4 3 2
22
29
23
30
36 35
Single Tile
Figure 2: The Test Tiles
then this is a good moment to do some additional reading (or re-reading) from a glaze text.
Since this test is designed to give you direct experience with glaze chemistry and developing glazes, take
some time to really analyze the results. Calculate the unity formula for each of the tests (or at least the tests that
melted). What seem to be the minimum and maximum amounts of calcium that is useful in melting the glaze? How
much variation is there in the alumina and silica content among the tests that melted?
EXPERIMENT 3: COLOR TESTING
Select the coloring oxides that you are interested in using in your glazes. The coloring oxides I tend to use
are: Copper, Cobalt, Iron, Rutile, Manganese, Chromium, and Yellow Ochre, but you could add others to your list.
For the purposes of outlining the experiment, Ill use my short list of seven. This series of tests is simpler than
the previous series, so a specifc procedure is not necessary. With the feldspar, clay, silica, and whiting (calcium
carbonate) base that you have developed, mix up a 50 gram test batch for each coloring oxide you wish to use and
add that colorant to the base before mixing with water in the blender (or screening). How much of each colorant do
you use? If you want to be truly methodical, then mix up a base with 1%, then one with 2%, then one with 3%, etc.
for each colorant you want to test. If, like me, you dont want to waste expensive coloring oxides on unnecessary
tests, then refer to a glaze text to see what percentage of each coloring oxide is recommended. Appendix 7 on page
339 of Clay and Glazes for the Potter, 3rd edition, by Daniel Rhodes has a good chart of recommended colorant
percentages for achieving different colors. I have had success with the following percentages:
Cobalt Carbonate 1% Black Copper Oxide 1%
Chromium Oxide 1% Manganese Carbonate 4%
Light Rutile 4% Yellow Ochre 4%
Red Iron Oxide 1% Red Iron Oxide 12%
Note that Red Iron Oxide is tested at two different percentages, which provides an opportunity to develop a celadon-
type glaze and a iron saturation glaze.
Once you have mixed up your base/colorant tests, apply the glazes to a test tile with a sponge or dip a free-
standing test piece into the cup of glaze, or do both. The test tile is nice because it provides a broader surface for
examining color and is easier to store for future reference while the free-standing test piece is better for showing the
fuidity of the melted glaze. Fire the test pieces to temperature in reduction and/or oxidation. Ideally, you should
test all of your color tests in both atmospheres, but some students and potters only have access to one or the other.
EXPERIMENT 4: DEVELOPING OTHER BASES
Having now developed a calcium-rich base glaze and added a variety of coloring oxides, the next step is to
develop other base glazes that are rich in the other fuxing oxides in order to see their effect on the colorants. The
simplest way to create new bases is to use the base you have already created and perform a line blend between your
base and a different material. A line blend is much like a quadraxial blend in that it is a methodical way to blend
substances but differs in that it only blends two variables rather than four. In this case, a line blend is a way to
introduce a new material, and its constituent oxides, to the base in increasing amounts to test their effect. The list of
materials that one could select for this line blend is nearly endless; from Nepheline Syenite and Aberta Slip to more
exotic materials to your own local materials such as surface clay or crushed sea shells. The likeliest candidates for
this test, though, are standard ceramic materials that are easily and reliably available. Any of the materials you used
in Experiment 1 would make a good start, but a list of recommended materials is given below.
All one needs to do to perform a line blend is to lay out the incremental amounts by which one wants to
blend the two materials. A very brief line blend might blend two materials in increments of 25% :
Test: 1 2 3 4 5
Material A 0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
Material B 100% 75% 50% 25% 0%
20
But for this test a more helpful blend would be increments of 5% or 10%:
Test: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Base Glaze 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10%
Variable Material 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%
In the above example, I have dropped the mixes that would test 100% of the base glaze and the variable material
since these have been tested in earlier experiments. As the variable material increases in relation to the base glaze,
one gets higher and higher concentrations of the oxides contained in that material. By testing in this fashion, one
should be able to create at least one new base glaze per line blend with desirable properties.
To perform this test, assemble your supplies (materials, cups, labels for the cups, blender, etc.) and work out
the amounts for each individual test to create a 50 gram batch. If you plan to mix several line blends for different
materials, you may consider mixing a large dry batch of the base glaze (mixing and dry screening thoroughly to
ensure homogeneity) in order to speed the mixing process. Mix the individual tests, clearly marking the cups the
tests are in, add some water, and mix in the blender (or mix and screen through a cup-sized 60 mesh screen). You
can apply and fre the tests on a tile or on free-standing test pieces, however the free-standing test pieces will show
you more about the fow of the test glaze. Once the tests are fred, you should fnd that one or more of the tests has
melted to a functional and attractive surface. Now perform the color testing for your new base just as you did in
Experiment 3, preferably using the same colorants in the same percentages so that you can get a good comparison
of the color effect of the different oxides.
One can see that a chemist could spend a lot of time mixing all of the possible tests, not to mention the tests
one could perform to blend different oxides and different colorants. This is when working in a group with other
potters or students and sharing results could be of great beneft. At some point, you will have to make decisions
about what tests you care to perform and which tests to set aside. Simply follow whatever avenue of testing interests
you, but always remember to keep your testing notes (observations, conclusions, and ideas for follow-up tests)
where you can fnd them.

Suggested Materials:
The following materials are recommended because they will provide a cross section of the different oxides available
for ceramics. There are plenty of other materials that could give good results. The primary oxide that the material
is intended to provide is given in parentheses.
Spodumene (Lithium)
Alberta Slip (Iron)
Nepheline Syenite (Sodium/Potassium)
Gerstley, Laguna, or Gillespie Borate (Boron)
Talc (Magnesium)
Dolomite (Magnesium)
Barium Carbonate (Barium)
Strontium Carbonate (Strontium)
Zinc Oxide, calcined (Zinc)
Borax (Boron & Sodium)
Wood Ash (Different Oxides)
One could also try Soda Ash and Potassium Carbonate for Sodium and Potassium, respectively, but these oxides
generally show up in lower amounts than most of the tests in this line blend will provide. One may consider
combining Soda Ash or Potassium Carbonate with Nepheline Syenite (50% / 50%) to achieve a more functional test
for Sodium and Potassium.
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