JEDA OCT 2013 Journal of Education in Developing Areas1x

Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) October - Vol. 21, No. 2, 2013.
Official journal of the Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt. | www.jeda-uniport.com

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PERCEPTION OF THE COMMUNITY LEADERS ON INHERITANCE
DISCRIMINATION AGAINST FEMALE CHILDREN IN MBAITIOLI
LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF IMO STATE

By
OKORO CECILIA, Ph.D
Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology
Faculty of Education University of Port Harcourt
Email: ceciliaonuwa@yahoo.com

&
MONANU, NKECHINYERE
Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology
Faculty of Education University of Port Harcourt
Email: nkechimonanu@yahoo.com

Abstract

The study investigated perception of community leaders on inheritance
discrimination against female children in Mbaitoli Local Government Area of
Imo state. Systematic random sampling technique was used to select 4 Council
Wards and 20 villages while the proportional stratified random sampling
method was used to select 40 participants comprising of 20 male and 20 female
from the villages. The instrument used for the study was the Inheritance
Discrimination Assessment Scale (IDAS) developed by the researcher. The
questionnaire was constructed on a Modified 4 point Likert scale of strongly
Agree (SA) 4points, Agree (A) 3points, Disagree (D) 2points, strongly Disagree
(SD) 1 point and was validated by experts in curriculum studies. The reliability
of the instrument was determined using the split-half method for a measure of
its internal consistency and correlated using Pearson Product Moment
Statistics. A reliability co-efficient of 0.82 was established and considered high
enough for the study. Paired samples t-test, independent t-test and one-way
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were used to test the three hypotheses. Based
on the analysis it was found that community leaders perceptions have
significant influence on Socio-cultural norms. Therefore, the study recommends
that customary laws that discriminate against female children according to
United Nations Convention on the Elimination of all forms of discrimination
against women CEDAW should be abolished.


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Introduction
Inheritance according to Investopedia (2013) has been defined as all or part of a persons
estate/assets that is given to an heir, once the person is deceased. While discrimination
has been defined by Web Finance (2013) as follows;
Bias or prejudice resulting in denial of opportunity or unfair treatment regarding
selection, promotion, transfer.
Unequal treatment provided to one or more parties on the basis of mutual accord
or some other logical or illogical reason.
Inheritance based on the above definition is a very important aspect of a family and
can affect the distribution of wealth since it has to do with passing on of rights, titles,
debts, property when an individual dies. The implication of this is that families who have
a high amount of inheritance transmit more to their children which means that they are
more likely to own homes than those who did not inherit.
Women form the majority of the worlds poorest people and the number of women
living in rural poverty has increased by 50% since 1975. Women work two-thirds of the
worlds working hours and produce half of the worlds food yet they earn only 10% of the
worlds income and own less than 1% of the worlds property. In some countries women
unlike men, cannot dress as they like, drive, work at night, inherit property or give
evidence in court an article by the office of the High commissioner for Human Rights
(OHCHR 2013).This could be classified as discrimination against women.
The Convention on the Elimination of all forms of discrimination against women
adopted in1979 by the United Nations General Assembly, has defined discrimination
against women as any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which
has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise
by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women,
of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil
or any other field.(CEDAW, 2000)
In spite of the efforts made by different organizations, womens property rights are
violated. Chief among them are discriminatory laws and customs, biased attitudes,
unresponsive authorities and ineffective courts, low level of awareness of their rights, the
time and expense of pursuing claims, and the social stigma of being considered greedy or
traitors to culture of they assert their rights. NGOS that work with these women also face
harassment for their work (Win Africa 2013)
Efforts have been made by the United Nations and different organizations to curb
discrimination against women especially in Africa. Such efforts are enshrined in the
Protocol to the African charter on Human and Peoples Rights on the Rights of women in
Africa. (African Commission on Human Rights, 2013).

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Article 2 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights states the
principle of non- discrimination on grounds of race, ethnic group, colour, sex,
language, religion, political or any other opinion, national and social origin,
fortune, birth or other status.
Article 18 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights which calls on
state parties to eliminate all forms of discrimination against Women and to ensure
the protection of the rights of women as stipulated in international declarations
and conventions.
The African Platform for Action and the Dakar Declaration of 1994 and the
Beijing Platform of Action of 1995 call on all Member States of the United
Nations, which have made a solemn commitment to implement them, to take
concrete steps to give greater attention to the human rights of women in order to
eliminate all forms of discrimination and of gender-based violence against women.
The United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325(2000) on the role of
women in promoting peace and security
The Constitutive Act of the African Union and New Partnership for Africas
Development, relevant Declarations, Resolutions and Decisions, which underline
the African States to ensure the full participation of African Women as equal
partners in Africas development.
The protocol to the African Charter on Human and peoples Rights on the Rights
of women in Africa Article 21(2003) which gives a widow the right to an equitable
share in the inheritance of her husbands property. The protocol also protects the
girl child by stating that Women and Men have the right to inherit equitable
shares. This provides an equal inheritance rights for female and male children.
The United Nations in its Resolution 1998/15 in UN-HABITAT (2006) urged
governments to amend and repeal laws and policies pertaining to land, property and
housing which deny women security of tenure and equal access and rights to land,
property and housing. Encourage the transformation of customs and traditions which
deny women equal access to rights to land, property and housing and adopt and enforce
legislation which protects and promotes womens rights to own, inherit, lease or rent land,
property and housing.
The effort being made by the United Nations and various organizations to prevent
women from being denied access to inheritance, exploitation, subjugation and oppression
has resulted in finding out community leaders perception of inheritance discrimination
against female children in Mbaitoli local Government area of Imo State, Nigeria.

Statement of Problem
There is unequal distribution of inherited wealth in many families in the world especially
in Africa and specifically Nigeria. While many female children receive little from
inheritance, most male children receive large amounts. Inheritance can play a major role in

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class position in the society, since it has to do with material accumulation, which was not
consumed from one generation to the other. This means that the advantages and
privileges of some people at the time of birth can be linked to inheritance while the
disadvantages and fewer privileges of others at the time of birth can also be linked to
inheritance.
In most African countries the female child is not given equal opportunity as the
male child to inherit property or any form of wealth from their late parents estate, because
property is viewed as belonging to men and should be under the care of a male guardian
who could be a father, husband, brother or brother in-law, especially under the customary
law. Effort made by various International Organizations, to curb the discrimination of the
female child shows that, curbing it has to start with the communities. This has
necessitated the need to find out how community leaders perceive inheritance
discrimination against female children in Mbaitoli Local Government Area of Imo States
Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is to find out community leaders perception of inheritance
discrimination against female children in Mbaitoli Local Government Area of Imo State.
In specific terms the study intends to:
1. Find out the difference between male and female community leaders perception
of inheritance discrimination against female children.
2. Determine the difference between educated and non-educated community
leaders perception of inheritance discrimination against female children.
3. Determine the difference between socio-cultural norms and community leaders
perception of inheritance discrimination against female children.
Significance of the Study
The findings of this study helped to throw more light on the impact of the activities of
various International human rights Instruments on communities. It showcased the fact
that more work has to be done if women are to enjoy any form of inheritance rights.
There is need for intensification of programs that will ensure public enlightenment of
Women on their fundamental human rights as citizens of Nigeria.
Research Questions
1. What is the difference between male and female community leaders perception of
inheritance discrimination against female children in Mbaitoli Local Government Area
of Imo state?
2. What is the difference between educated and non-educated community leaders
perception of inheritance discrimination against female children in Imo State?
3. What is the difference between socio-cultural norms and community leaders
perception of inheritance discrimination against female children in Mbaitoli Local
Government Area of Imo State?

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Hypotheses
1. There is no significant difference between male and female community leaders
2. There is no significant difference between the educated and non educated
community leaders perception of inheritance discrimination against female children.
3. There is no significant difference between socio-cultural norms and community
leaders perception of inheritance discrimination against female children.
Literature Review
Inheritance discrimination against women could be explained in this sentence stated by
the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Adequate Housing (2002) thus; in all most all
countries, whether developed or developing, legal security of tenure for women is almost
dependent on the men they are associated with. Women headed households and women
in general are far less secure than men. Very few women own land.
Discrimination against women in Nigeria has been traced by Olagbegi & Afolabi
(2004) to the patriarchal Nigerian society which readily adopts the legal system which is
favorable to the relegation of women to the background. The male-dominated society
prefers the application of some of those discriminatory aspects of the Customary and
Sharia laws which adversely affected the status and positions of women in the society.
The above statement has been buttressed by the Federal Ministry of Women
Affairs (2006) which states that inheritance succession in Nigeria is patrilineal with the
exception of some communities. It is so because it is believed that a daughter has no right
to succeed her fathers estate or property because she is expected to get married and leave
her parents home, and so she cannot inherit land because that will mean transferring it to
another family though there are some exceptions.
A customary practice in the South East of Nigeria known as Nrachi Nwanyi
allows a man who has no son to keep one of the daughters at home to raise children to
succeed him. Once the ceremony has been performed the daughter becomes a man.
Among the Ijaws in the South-South of Nigeria, an unmarried daughter enjoys the same
rights of inheritance with her brothers while in Efik, a daughter whether married or not
has the right of succession.
Benschop (2004) states that where statutory national laws recognize womens
rights to land, housing and property, traditional values prevail amongst judges, police
officers, local councilors and land officials. They often interpret statutory laws in what at
present are understood to be customary ways, as a result of which women are deprived of
the rights they should enjoy under statutory law.
Religion also plays a role in inheritance discrimination as the two religions
practiced in Nigeria (Christianity and Islam) prevent womens rights to inheritance.
According to Islamic inheritance jurisprudence, sons inherit twice more than daughters

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while in Christianity inheritance is patrilineal. The promised land is passed on from one
Jewish father to the other but there is an exception in Number 27:1-4, where the
daughters of Zelophehad came to Moses and asked for their fathers inheritance, as they
had no brothers and in verses 7-11, he said that the Lord grants that if a man has no sons
then his daughter may inherit in this order: a mans sons inherit first, daughters if no sons,
brothers if he has no children.
Inheritance discrimination is not peculiar to Nigeria. In Bangladesh according to
Sultana (2010), the socio-cultural values and norms has a strong influence on the issue of
women discriminations due to the existing patriarchal social system. In matters of
marriage, divorce, maintenance and inheritance, women are deprived of equal rights. Men
always inherit more than women living most of the rural women in Bangladesh landless
since very few can own property under their names.
In Malawi, according to the Wills and Inheritance act of 1937 (Womens Property
and Inheritance Rights 2003), property is supposed to be distributed according to the
wishes of the deceased if there is a will, but if there is none the customary laws take over
which leaves little to women and children if a husband dies.
In Nepal, Steinzor (2003) states that some aspects of their law are discriminatory,
especially the one that deals with daughters returning their inheritance upon marriage.
Crowley (2011) perceives inheritance discrimination as a factor that leads to poverty by
stating that women and children suffer disproportionately from shocks when their rights
to household resources, including land, are mediated through men. Direct access to land
minimizes womens risk of impoverishment and improves the physical well being and
prospects for their children.
Efforts have been made in the statutory laws of Nigeria according to Ezeilo
(2011), to erase the inheritance discrimination against women such as Land use Act of
1978 which prohibits the application of any customary law which prohibits, restricts or
regulates the devolution on death any particular class of person or the right to occupy
land for the purposes of depriving any person of any beneficial interest in any such land
other than the right to occupy same, or depriving him or her of the right to the proceeds
of sale thereof to which he or she may be entitled under the rules of inheritance or any
other customary law.
In spite of these laws, Ezeilo (2011) points out that it is significant to observe that
lives of the majority of Nigerians are governed by customary laws. Not surprisingly, about
80% of disposition of property are settled under customary law. Since customary laws are
generally weighted against women, their rights of inheritance suffer unduly in the face of
systematic gender discriminatory and oppressive rules.
Steinzor (2003) is of the opinion that curbing inheritance discrimination poses
some challenges which if tackled could curb some of the discriminatory practices against

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women. However she stated some problems faced and efforts that can be made as
follows;
Ensuring Womens rights is part of the democratization process.
Many women lack the awareness that there are statutory laws applicable to them.
Improvement will come if attitudes towards women and social norms are
addressed.
Gender concerns are most effectively addressed when they are linked to broader
discussions and national development.
Efforts to improve property and inheritance rights are hindered by a general lack
of political will and the slow pace of legal change.
Change must begin at the local level and effort should be made to reach isolated
communities.
Literature review on inheritance discrimination suggests that curbing inheritance
discrimination must begin at the local level. Community leaders have been blamed for
encouraging all forms of discrimination meted against females. With all the efforts made
by international organizations toward curbing inheritance discrimination, the perception
of community leaders is pertinent.
Methodology
Research Design
The descriptive survey design which sought to find out community leaders perception of
inheritance discrimination against female children was adopted in this study.
Population
The study population was made up of all male and female community leaders in 12 wards
that make up Mbaitoli Local Government Area.
Sample and Sampling Technique
Systematic random sampling technique was used to select (4) council wards and 20
villages from the study population while proportional stratified sampling technique was
used to select 40 participants comprising of 20 male and 20 female participants from the
villages.

Instrument for Data Collection
The Inheritance Discrimination Assessment Scale (IDAS) developed by the researcher
was used to assess the perception of community leaders toward female Inheritance
discrimination. The instrument consisted of two sections A and B. Section A contained
items that elicited biographical information of the respondents, while Section B contained
items that addressed the variables of the study. The questionnaire was constructed on a 4

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point Likert- type scale of strongly agree (SA) 4 points, agree (A) 3 points, disagree (D) 2
points, and strongly disagree (SD) 1 point.
Validity of the Instrument
The questionnaire was validated by three experts in the Department of Curriculum
Studies and Educational Technology, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
Reliability of the Instrument
The reliability of the Inheritance Discrimination Assessment Scale (IDAS) was
determined using the split half method for a measure of its internal consistency and
correlated using Pearson Product Moment Correlation and a reliability coefficient of 0.82
was established and considered high enough for the study.

Method of Data Analysis
Data was analyzed using Pearson product moment correlation. Paired sample t-test and
one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Findings
Results of the findings are presented in table 1, 2, 3, with Hypothesis.
Hypothesis 1:
There is no significant difference between male and female community leaders perception
of inheritance discrimination against female children in Mbaitoli Local Government Area
of Imo State.
Since there are two leaders perception option on the inheritance discrimination against
female children (Female leaders and Male leaders), then independent t-test was used to
test the hypothesis. The results are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Independent t-test comparisons of male and female leaders perception of inheritance
discrimination against female children
Gender N

SD T df Sig-level
Female 19 59.53 6.535

-0.107 35 0.916 Male 18 59.78 7.780
Significant 0.05 level, Critical t = 2.02
As observed in Table 1, the male leaders perception of inheritance discrimination against
female children is slightly higher than the Female leaders in Mbaitoli Local Government
Area. Also, the results revealed that the calculated t-value of -0.107 is less than the critical
t-value of 2.02 at 0.05 significant level on the 35 degrees of freedom, therefore the null

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hypothesis is accepted. The interpretation of this is that both genders strongly agree that
the inheritance discrimination against female children is very high.
Hypothesis 2:
There is no significant difference between educated and non-educated community leaders
Government Area of Imo state.
A one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to test the hypothesis. The results
are shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Means, Standard Deviations and one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of educated
and non-educated communities leaders perception of inheritance discrimination against female children (i.e.
Areas of Qualification).
Educational Qualification N SD
NCE 4 58.75 1.500
B. Ed 17 59.53 7.811
M.Ed 2 61.00 2.828
Others 14 59.85 7.068
Source of Variation
Sum of
Squares Df
Mean
Square F Sig.level
Qualifications 7.733 3 2.578 0.048 0.986
Error 1790.700 33 54.246
Total 1798.432 36
Significant 0.05 level, Critical F = 2.92
The result in Table 2 shows that M.Ed qualifications have the highest mean scores of
61.00, followed by others (59.85), M.Ed (58.53) while NCE qualification have the least
mean scores of 58.75. The calculated F-value is 0.048 and since it is less than the critical
F-value of 2.92 at 0.05 significant levels with (3 and 33) degrees of freedom, it means that
the mean qualification scores of the communities leaders perception of inheritance
discrimination against female children do not differs significantly (p > 0.05). This implies
that community leaders qualification does not influence leadership perceptions of
inheritance discrimination against female children. Both educated and non-educated
community leaders perceptions of inheritance discrimination against female children are
similar.
Hypothesis 3:
There is no significant difference between Socio-cultural norms and community leaders
Pearson Product Moment Correlation and Paired Samples Correction were employed to
test the hypothesis above. The results of the data analysis are shown in Table 3.

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Table 3: Pearson Product Moment Correlation and Paired Samples t-test of Socio-cultural norms
and Total leaders perception
N Correlation ( R) Means
Std.
Error
Sig-
level
Pair 1 Total-Norms 37 0.026 51.378 1.237 0.878
N SD T df
Sig-
level
Total 37 59.65 6.535 41.529 36 0.000
Norms 37 8.27 7.780
Significant 0.05 level, Critical t = 2.02
The results in Table 3 indicate that the calculated r value is 0.026. This implies that a
relationship exists between Socio-cultural norms and community leaders perception,
since the significance level of the calculated r value (0.878) is greater than 0.05, it means
that null hypothesis is therefore accepted. Also, the Paired samples t-test shows that the
calculated t-value of 41.529 was found to be greater than the critical t-value of 2.02
needed for significance at 0.05 alpha level of significance (with 36 degrees of freedom).
With this result, it therefore implies that there exist disparity in Mbaitoli Local
Government Area of Imo state between Socio-cultural norms and community leaders
Discussion of Findings
The study sought to find out the difference between male and female community leaders
perception of inheritance discrimination against female children. The result obtained
showed that there is no significant difference between male and female leaders perception
of inheritance discrimination against female children. Investigation on the difference
between educated and non-educated community leaders perception of inheritance
discrimination against female children, revealed a strong, positive and significant effects
on educational qualification, while the findings on the effect of Socio-cultural norms and
community leaders perception of inheritance discrimination against female children
showed that there exist disparity between Socio-cultural norms and community leaders

Implication of Findings
The educational implication of findings is that since the customs of the people is a major
factor preventing female children from inheriting. Effort should be made to create social
awareness in the curriculum of schools which will portray the disadvantages of
disinheriting female children which range from inability to support their families, social
stratification or class position in the society.
Since the advantages and privileges of people at the time of birth can be linked to
inheritance while the disadvantages and fewer privileges of others at the time of birth can

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also be linked to inheritance there is need to create awareness for women to know their
fundamental human rights which includes insistent on being part of family inheritance
and seek legal help if denied of such rights.
Conclusion
Based on the results of the study it can be concluded that both genders/sex strongly agree
that the inheritance discrimination against female children is very high. Also, community
leaders perceptions have significant influence on Socio-cultural norms. The community
leaders perceptions for both educated and non-educated leaders perceptions on
inheritance discrimination against female children are similar.
Recommendations
1. Public enlightenment on the Fundamental Human Rights of Women is necessary as
most women are not aware of their rights.
2. Setting consultation centers where women who have been denied of their rights could
lodge complain so that government can intervene.
3. Scholarships for women to acquire education should be encouraged since education
increases the level of awareness of women on their rights.
4. The different decisions of International human rights instruments should be included
in the Curriculum of Schools in Nigeria.
5. Government should provide legal aid for the poor who have been denied their
Inheritance Rights.

References
African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights (2013). Protocol to the African
Charter on Human and Peoples Rights on the Rights of Women.
http://www.achpr.org/instruments/women-protocol. Retrieved on 5/5/13.
Benschop, M. (2004). Womens Rights to Land And Property. UN-HABITAT
http://www.unhabitat.org/tenure Retrieved on 5/5/13.
CEDAW (2000) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women.
http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw Retrieved on 5/5/13.
Crowley, E. (2001). Empowering Women to achieve food security. International Food Policy
Research Institute. Washington, 20006-1002.
Ezeilo, J. (2011). Laws and Practices Relating to Womens Inheritance Rights in Nigeria.
Women Aid Collective. Enugu: (WACOL).
Federal Ministry of Women Affairs and Social Development (2006). Initial Country
Report on Implementation of AU Solemn declaration on gender equality in Africa
Nigeria: Abuja
Investopedia (2013). Inheritance. http://www.investopedia.com/terms/i/inheritance.asp
Modpagespeed-nonscript/ Retrieved on 5/5/13

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Olagbegi, O. & Afolabi, B .(2004). Actual Women Situation in Nigeria. Nigeria: Women in Law
and Development in Africa (WILDAF)
OHCHR (2013) Combating discrimination against women. http:/
/www.hrweb.org/legal/cdw.html. Retrieved on 6/5/13.
Steinzor ,N .(2003). Womens Property and Inheritance Rights: Improving Lives in a Changing
Times. U.S.A.: Development Alternatives Inc.
Sultana A. M. (2010) Socio- Cultural dimension of womens discrimination in rural
communities. Ozean Journal of Sciences. 3(1) 2010 ISSN 1943-2577
UN- HABITAT (2006). Womens Equal Rights to Housing, Land and Property in
International Law. Nairobi: UN-HABITAT
United Nations Rapporteur on Adequate Housing (2002). UNDOC.E/CN.4 2002/59.
Web Finance (2013). Discrimination. http://www.businessdictionary.com/
definition/discrimination.html. Retrieved on 5/5/13.
Win Africa (2013). Win Inheritance Now.
http://www. winafrica.org/faq-womens-property-rights-in-sub-saharan-africa Retrieved
on 6/5/13
Womens Property and Inheritance Rights (2003). Empowering widows in Development,
brief on inheritance Rights in Malawi. A project funded by the office of women in
Development Bureau for Global Programs, Field Support and Research. U. S.
Agency for International Development. Under contract number FAO-0100-C-00-6005-00


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REUNIFICATION OF EDUCATION IN CAMEROON: CO-EXISTING OR
DEVELOPING A NATIONAL CULTURE 1961-2001
By
ROLAND N. NDILLE
Department of History, Centre for Africa Studies
University of Buea, Cameroon

Research Scholar: University of South Africa, Pretoria.
roland.ndille@ubuea.cm, royndille@yahoo.com

Abstract
The paper studies the reunification of education in the state of Cameroon in the face of
the current structure which is not clearly defined, having in some domains similar
practice and in others, a completely different practice. A historical analytic method,
content analysis and textural reviews were used to exemplify the practical differences
in educational structure in the two colonial spheres. In Cameroon, the British and the
French administering authorities had operated two systems of education distinct in
matters of policy, structure and content at all levels. The future of Cameroon requires
harmonization which the study identifies need for the establishment of a policy of
education in which none of the heritages would feel marginalized or assimilated. A
number of questions are raised in the paper, following a no clear policy of
reunification. The reunification therefore imposed on the new nation, an urgent need
to restructure education in a way that will ensure that one colonial system does not
dominate the other; that will mitigate the overriding influence of the two colonial
heritages; that will assail the various state and cultural affiliations and most especially,
one that would develop into a unique and authentic system of education that will
inspire a sense of adherence to a single Cameroonian identity.


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Introduction
The German colony of Kamerun was partitioned in 1916 and administered as two
Mandates and Trusteeships of the League of Nations (L.O.N) and the United Nations
(U.N.) respectively by Britain and France between 1922 and 1961. The final phase of the
independence of the territory was achieved on October 1, 1961 when the British ended
their trusteeship over Southern Cameroons. The territory had in a plebiscite organized on
11 February that year, voted to reunify with the French sector which had obtained
independence on 1 January 1960 as La Republic du Cameroun. Reunification warranted the
development of a concrete political and socio-economic frame work that would not only
ensure the positive utilization of the gains from the two colonial systems but also
guarantee the development of an authentic Cameroonian identity in various sectors of life.
As far as education was concerned, the British and the French administering
authorities had operated two systems of education distinct in matters of policy, structure
and content at all levels. Reunification therefore imposed on the new nation an urgent
need to restructure education in a way that will ensure that one colonial system does not
dominate the other; that will mitigate the overriding influence of the two colonial
heritages; that will assail the various state and cultural affiliations and most especially, one
that would develop into a unique and authentic system of education that will inspire a
sense of adherence to a single Cameroonian identity.
Using the historical analytic method, content analysis and textural reviews, the paper
exposes the practical differences in educational structure in the two colonial spheres and
the efforts made to develop an authentic Cameroonian system between 1961 when
reunification was achieved and 2001 when the application of the 1998 law on education
went into force. The paper posits that for more than fifty years, the application of
reunification in matters of education is still an issue of circumnavigation. It also
demonstrates that the development of a national system is still illusory and that it is more
appropriate to talk of the co-existence of the two colonial heritages than a Cameroonian
educational system.
Harmonization as Reunification of Education
In the views of Tchombe (2001), structural reforms in any system strive to accommodate
social, political and technological changes as a function of historical development. Such
changes necessitate the re-adaptation of social services and their institutions, so as to
enable people meet with demands of the changing times. In education, the concept of
structural reforms reflects administrative and pedagogical adjustments during each
political epoch. The need for such reforms becomes even dire in the context where two
or more formerly autonomous states come together to form a new state or supra-state
structure. In some parts of the world, reunification has been a political and economic
option that has occasioned complicated but realistic processes of structural reforms in the
reunified entity. Most importantly, it has inspired a radical transformation of educational
permutations aimed at meeting the goals of the new reunified state. Apart from

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emphasizing the extension of educational opportunities to the entire population in the
union alongside man power development, the forging of national unity has always been a
major preoccupation of reunification.
Reunification implies the coming together of two previously autonomous systems,
the dissolution or blending of these systems for the purpose of establishing one common
system that would foster unity in all facets of life. It is often expected that those
establishing the union would set up one central system which would not divide the
allegiance of the citizens. In this way the new system would not permit the continued
loyalty to the erstwhile regions or systems because such an allegiance is apt to breed
discordance and separatist tendencies among the constituent units (Ray and Bhattacharya,
2005). Brief, the members of the reunified state are expected to prepare and embrace a
totally new system which although picking up good qualities from the old systems is
thought to be completely different from them. In terms of service delivery and structure
the new system should go a long way to meeting the demands of the reunified entities
better than any of the previous systems. Thus the establishment of a new system becomes
the ultimate fall out of reunification. This is what is called the homogenization or the
synchronization of previously autonomous, functionally different systems, in favour of a
system having a unique national character (Hoosen, Butcher, Khamati, 2009). Areas of
attention often include; national goals and philosophies of education, curriculum content,
educational structures, policies, legal frameworks, examination regulations, organization
and certification, quality assurance and control.
Harmonization has become the major term adopted to fulfill the demands of
reunification of the educational systems getting into the union. The specific purpose being
the establishment of a synchronized system as a strategy for strengthening the capacity of
education institutions to meet many emergent needs. Through innovative forms of
collaboration amongst the various stakeholders in the union, education can systematically
be improved against common agreed benchmarks of excellence, thereby facilitating the
mobility of students and teachers across the cultures being harmonized. The aim is to
have similar programmes, structures and curricula for enhancement of a productive and
creative human resource for the united socio-political systems.
Harmonization of education may not be peculiar to a reunified state as Cameroon
after 1961. In Germany, the vast differences between the former East-Germany and West
Germany in life style, wealth, political belief, education and other values have warranted
politicians and scholars to call for harmonization after 1990. It has also gone beyond
national to supra-state concerns as most regional blocs call for greater and more cohesive
regional integration policies. In the European Union for example harmonization of school
programmes, certificates and structures is currently underway (Ravioli, 2009). The
Bologna Process is an ongoing process of integration and harmonization of higher
education systems within Europe. Its conceptual framework and action lines have the
ultimate objective of establishing a European Higher Education Area (EHEA), where
harmonization of academic degrees and quality assurance practices are guaranteed.

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In East Africa article five of the treaty of the establishment of the East African
Community Education (East African Community, 2012) clearly states that in order to
promote the achievements of the objectives of the community, partner states agree to
undertake concerted measures to foster cooperation in education and training within the
community. Apart from agreeing to co-ordinate their human resources, develop
programmes and policies, the member states have agreed to also harmonize curricula,
examinations, certification, and accreditation and training institutions through the joint
action of their relevant national bodies in charge. In this region since 1998, harmonization
has moved from theory to practice as the states concerned have actually integrated and
harmonized the provision and training services through harmonized curriculum and
established regional organizations and institutions such as the East African National
Educational Council. Although unity of curricula has not yet been achieved, the treaty
setting up the East Africa Community Education noted that it would be preposterous to
completely rule out uniformity in this regard (as per the working definition of
harmonization) (East African Community, 2012). Consequently, the target is the adoption
of a common school structure and programmes for the whole region in the near future.
UNESCO (1962:43) has clearly made known three types or levels of harmonization
of education. The first option is for the various stakeholders to adopt the system in place
in one of the member states seen as more proficient and or efficient than the others. This
may not be a popular option as none of the states would be likely disposed to give up
their system if the others are not doing so too. The second option is for the
stakeholders/member states to run the same programmes in their various languages after
harmonizing structures and curricula. The third option is that a completely new system
could be introduced beginning with the lowest class or level and continuing year by year
until an entirely new local system comes into being. The EU and the East African
Community seem to be adopting the second option by establishing an increasingly
networked and interrelated group of curriculum and examination systems, linked in a way
that they demonstrate overlapping, inter-connected and comparable logics that are
capable of influencing each other across the partner states.
The pre reunification situation; what each side brought to the table
The Germans had established an effective educational system in the Cameroons based on
a five year elementary course and a series of vocational centres. These were expected to
take care of the educational needs of the whole colony. From the Conference of
Education held in 1907 culminating in the 1910 Education Act, it was evident that the
Germans were determined to develop an ultra-modern educational system in the territory.
However their ambitions for Kamerun were cut short by the First World War. Being a
battle field, most of the German educational institutions were destroyed during the over
18 months of intense fighting all over the territory and their eventual defeat saw the
partition of the territory by Britain and France.

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In 1922, the League of Nations was formed to ensure world peace and prevent the
occurrence of future wars. Article 22 paragraph 5 stated that the peoples of Cameroon
would be placed under the mandate of the League of Nations. Although Britain and
France accepted the General provisions of the League of Nations, it was evident that
France intended to administer the territory as an integral part of the French overseas
empire. As part of the 12 point Mandate Agreement that ensued in 1922, Fanso

(1989:60)
recounts that Britain and France amongst other things declared their intentions to be
responsible for the promotion of the material and moral wellbeing and the social
progress of their inhabitants. The Council of the League of Nations accepted the terms
without amending any article and on 20 July 1922 conferred the territories to their
respective powers; each of these powers administering the colony guided their
administrative and educational policies. These policies became so diverse that by the time
of reunification, the territories were so different in outlook and development. These
differences were to pose great challenges to the reunification of the two inherited systems
and have impeded the adoption of an authentic or unique Cameroonian national
education system since then.
As rendered in Ngoh (1996), France strongly believed that the partition of
Cameroon was not provisional and so moved on to establish an autonomous but effective
administration for their sphere. The educational system which they established was not
based on any new policy specifically for the territory although her legal connection with
the League of Nations and United Nations called for that. Throughout their stay in
Cameroon, the French believed that their acceptance of the League of Nations Mandate
and United Nations Trusteeship to administer Cameroon had many implications; first
amongst these was that France should lead the indigenous people to a superior stage of
civilization. This made her morally obliged to use her national genius and talent to
accomplish the mission she accepted in 1922 and 1945. This and many such believes
justified her argument for the exclusive use of the policy of assimilation in Cameroon and
other French overseas territories.
Assimilation aimed at creating a native-Cameroonian elite class by eliminating
African culture and replacing it with French culture, language and civilization. This was
with the calculation that, if an African elite was created, it could be used to convince their
kith and kin to accept French rule and tutelage. In 1903, the then Governor-General for
French West Africa explained this twofold objective of French education in Africa;
According to Moumouni (1968), the elites were trained to become auxiliaries of the
administration in every area and the masses were to be educated to civilize them and
assimilate them into the French way of life.
To Britain, her initial attitude towards the acquisition of parts of German Cameroon
guided her policy on education in the territory. She had acquired Cameroon as a
bargaining chip for more strategic territories elsewhere in the world. This justified her
laissez-faire attitude on Cameroon and her seeming neglect of the economic and social
development of the territory. Article 22 of the covenant of the League of Nations stated

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that if a territory lay adjacent to another territory of a mandated power, the former could
be incorporated into the latter, in order to effect the smooth customs, fiscal and
administrative union between the territories. (Aka, 2002: 26) On the basis of this
agreement, the Southern Cameroons was administered as part of Nigeria. This decision
brought education in Cameroon under the British education policy for Nigeria.
The philosophical orientation of education in British Cameroons was found in the
British policy of Indirect Rule. While the French carefully developed an assimilationist
education, the British favoured an Adaptationist philosophy of education to suit the
objectives of their colonial policy in Nigeria. The British believed that the wholesale
transfer of the educational conventions of Europe and America to the peoples of Africa
as the French did through assimilation was not certainly an act of wisdom. (Aka, 2002: 58)
Based on the recommendations of the Phelps-Stokes Commission and the British
Advisory Committee on education in her tropical territories, a memorandum of education
was published in 1925 as the education policy in British Tropical Africa. This policy
favored a system of adapting education to the mentality, aptitudes, occupations and
traditions of the various peoples so as to render them more efficient in their condition of
life and in the management of their own affairs (Aka, 2002: 59).
In terms of management and control of the educational sector, the two
administering authorities also demonstrated different approaches throughout the colonial
period. The French policy of assimilation favoured a tight and centralized system of
administration while the British policy favoured a decentralized system over African
territories. Centralization enabled France to create a sense of unity and belonging to
France. Since 1903 that assimilation was adopted, the French set up an educational system
in their African territories whereby both public and mission schools were centrally
controlled from France. In 1945, this policy was reiterated by an order which provided for
an expanded school system whose structure and duration was in conformity with the
metropolitan system and which was to be rigidly controlled from Paris.
Centralization also ensured that voluntary agencies operating schools in the territory
were strictly under government control and respected government policy on education
making sure that they did nothing to disturb the assimilation process (Mac Ojong,
2008:70).

All regulations governing education in French Cameroon were issued by the
commissioner in the form of orders, circulars and decisions. Educational programmes
were prescribed and detailed precisely so that every teacher should know what had to be
taught daily, weekly, monthly and yearly in all subjects and courses at various levels and
types of schools. Apart from matters of policy, the duration, financing, structure and
curriculum of all the school systems in French Cameroon was also centrally planned.
The educational system of the British colonial government varied extensively from
that of the French. The application of the Indirect Rule system meant that schools were
built and operated by the indigenous Cameroonian communities themselves and at best
by missionaries. This meant bearing the financial burden with funds derived from taxing

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the indigenes. Throughout the period, local education committees became formal
education authorities. The local education committees were entrusted with the
responsibility of the administration of primary education in their areas. The principle of
local education committees was made to stimulate local interest and generate co-operation
between the local communities and the government. The local committees which became
local boards of education after 1948 comprised representatives of the government in the
area, the voluntary agencies, the Native Authority concerned and members of the area
branch of the Nigerian Union of teachers (Gwei, 1975:91). These were features of the
policy of regionalization which became most instrumental for education and were
reiterated by the 1946 Richards constitution.
Another area of great discordance was in the language of instruction. In French
Cameroon the French language played a central role in education. To achieve their
purpose it was a matter of strict policy that French was to be taught to all the indigenes so
that they will think like French men and be able to acquire the fruits of French science
and literature. (Gwei, 1975:202) This was contained in the French educational programme
that was issued in a circular of August 29, 1916 and addressed to all Divisional Officers
and the presidential decree of May 10, 1924 which reorganized education in French West
Africa. The decree prescribed French as the only language of instruction and prohibited
the use of local languages on the school premises by both teachers and pupils. The
knowledge of a common language allowed all peoples to converse with one another and
permitted the development of a feeling of national unity and patriotism around France
and the beginning of a spirit of national awareness for the French Republic (France,
1923:19).
Contrarily, the British on their part made it a matter of policy to study the
educational use of the vernaculars. Teachers were to study the various vernaculars,
develop vernacular textbooks and adapt their content and method of teaching to African
conditions and environment. Even in the trusteeship era the vernacular was prescribed as
a means of instruction in the infant classes on the principle that the ideas presented to
younger children are most readily explained and correlated with their limited experience of
life in their own mother tongue. The argument was that the free development of their
minds must not be hampered by making the assimilation of ideas unnecessarily difficult
by presenting them in a language not readily understood. The policy laid down in all
schools or departments that; the vernacular should be the medium of instruction where
its use will aid in the thorough assimilation of instruction given(Great Britain, 1948:134).
Although they were initially worried that the territory was a country of innumerable
languages and that the use of the vernacular as a medium of instruction in government
schools would be problematic, the 1926 Cameroon Provisional School Committee
insisted on the use of the vernacular claiming that English would slow down the childs
progress (Great Britain, 1948:135) As a matter of policy therefore the British adopted
vernacular as the language of instruction in the first three years of elementary schooling
(Duala for schools in Victoria and Kumba Divisions and Bali for the schools in the

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Bamenda Division. (British,1926) In French Cameroon the greatest part of education at
this level was the reading and writing French.
School financing was another issue where the two administering authorities differed
significantly. In British Cameroon, the Grant-in-aid regulations were based on the school
being educationally necessary, efficient and socially useful. The grant covered recognized
expenses such as teachers salaries and was determined by an assumed local contribution
which varied from region to region, rural and urban.
1
In French Cameroon the only
requirement for the award of the grant was that the school was open to inspection by the
government. In this case while schools fell into categories of assisted and unassisted
schools in British Cameroon, according to whether or not they qualified for and received
grants, the French ensured that all schools benefited from government grants.
In matters of tuition, school fees became a significant feature of educational
financing in the British administration. Government, native administrations and mission
schools charged school fees which initially varied in amounts from one agency to another.
This was harmonized in 1935 when the provincial school committee decided that Native
Authority schools should charge the same fees as mission schools. (Great Britain, 1923)
School fees and education rates continued to play a significant part in educational
financing during the trusteeship period as they had during the mandate era. For education
rates the amount of the fees was based on a classification of areas as primitive, poor,
or wealthy. In 1951, the government increased the school fees despite the United Nations
earlier complaint of high fees and repeated appeals for free primary education in the
British sector of Cameroon (Great Britain, 1950:138).
While the French colonial administration took charge of the budget of the entire
education of the territory, the British did not. School fees contributed 50.800 pounds of
the 491.400 pounds spent on education in 1956 (Gwei, 1975). In addition to this the
government introduced education rates. This was a form of taxation introduced in 1949.
The assumed local contribution to education represented the expected income through
school fees, while the local rates represented income raised by local authorities through
the special taxation for the support of voluntary agency schools. (Great Britain, 1954:106-
107) This affected educational access as parents paying education rates, taxes and high
school fees became obsessed and tended to view education as a burden too heavy for
some of them to bear.
The French had abolished the system of school fees introduced by the Germans, as
early as 1918. Between 1918 and 1960, Engelbert (1963) says it was peculiar throughout
the territory and levels of education that tuition was free. Students from regional schools
were admitted to the advanced schools and later secondary schools on government
scholarship which covered tuition, room and board. While mission-sponsored students
into government post primary institutions paid no tuition fees, their sponsors were
responsible for their maintenance at the schools. The Commissioners order of December


315

26, 1926 made boarding at the advanced schools compulsory for all government-
sponsored students and half of those sponsored by the missions. (France,1953:244)
During the long vacation all the government-sponsored students received a holiday
allowance of fifteen French francs per month to enable them visit their families. A
uniform was also prescribed for all students of the school. This was the same policy
applicable in the secondary schools which replaced the advanced schools in the 1950s.
Differences were also revealed in the structure, and the curriculum of the school
systems. The British established a two level elementary school system. The First level was
that of the village schools which operated a four year program (Infants one and two and
standard one and two). This one led to the award of no certificate. Most of the village
schools were left in the hands of the native administrations and the missions. Unlike the
French the missions and Native authorities were given a certain level of autonomy in
matters related to curriculum. Because of the absence of qualified indigenous teachers, it
was impossible to implement a harmonized curriculum. For a very long time, the
curriculum of most of its schools was different and most of the teaching was in the
vernacular. In British Cameroons, the focus of the four years village school system was on
training the child to fit into his or her immediate environment-hence their strict use of the
vernacular. Graduates of village schools who showed interest in further education went
on to complete their standards III, IV, V and VI in the towns where the senior elementary
schools were located. The British aim was also to have one government school in each of
the four divisions of the province to stand as a model school for the junior schools. This
was the case until the establishment of the Quasi Federal status in 1954. Mission and NA
schools without the last four year classes were to send their pupils to such government
schools to complete their education.
In French Cameroon, the village school or the ecole du premiere degree also lasted four
years but was very different in orientation from the village school in British Cameroon. It
was to be adapted to the degree of the childs intellectual development; to the character
and needs of the country and to the intentions of the French administration. It was made
clear that the child must sustain the administrative work. He shall be prepared to better
understand so as to better help the intentions of the ruling power. (France,1953:242)
This justified the teaching of the French language. The remarkable thing here is that
unlike the British, village schools in French Cameroon received the greatest attention of
the administration. They were established in every village which could bring together at
least 40 pupils of school age (children between 6 and 12). The village schools were called
French Schools, or French language schools or schools for the diffusion of spoken
French. This was an indication of their purpose and objective. Although the village school
did not lead to any certificate, it enabled the French to reach the population of the whole
country in order to be assimilated.
As far as regional schools were concerned, the French divided the territory into
circumscriptions and established regional schools called lEnseignment de Deuxieme Degree
Primaire to take care of the village schools within the district. These schools lasted two

316

years and led to the award of the first school leaving certificate. Thus while the French
established a six years elementary education which ended with the writing of the Certificat
de Fin dEtude Primaires Elementaires or the First School Leaving Certificate, it took a
candidate in British Cameroons eight years to go through elementary school and receive
and equivalent certificate. In French Cameroon, A pupil was not allowed to repeat classes
more than twice during his primary school education where as in British Cameroons
promotion was based on an adequate pass grade. A pupil stayed in one class until he was
able to pass the promotion examination. This made the rate of repetition and wastage
higher in British Cameroon.
In French Cameroon there was a third level of primary education. This third level
of education was basically professional which was practically absent in British Cameroons.
These were called Ecoles de lEnseignment de Troisieme Degree Primaire or lEnsignment Primaire
Superieur. Such schools operated a three year programme; the first two years for general
culture and last one for specialization. Admission was based on an entrance examination.
These were the schools which developed into four year secondary schools after 1945 and
were upgraded into seven years high schools with another three year programme called
lycees after 1950. By the time of independence, most divisional headquarters and main
cities could boast of these lycees run by the government as well as the missions. The
secondary schools offered three different certificates; the Brevete or the BEPC after the
four years course, the Baccalaureat part 1 in the sixth year (today called Probatoire) and
Baccalaureat part II in the seventh year.
In British Cameroons, throughout the colonial period, the government had no
secondary school in the territory. Secondary education was championed by the
missionaries beginning in 1939 with St. Joseph College opened in Sasse, Buea, and the
Cameroon Protestant College at Bali in 1949 and in 1957, the Queen of the Rosary
College Okoyong in Mamfe. These were the only secondary schools in British Cameroon
prior to political independence. These schools which aimed at providing an education
which, while complete in itself, will fit students to become responsible citizens and
provide the groundwork for further training. As contained in the Great Britain
(1957:112) offered a five year programme leading to the award of the Cambridge School
Certificate and the West Africa School Certificate. A two year high school was
subsequently established awarding the GCE Advanced Level. Again remarkable
differences could be noticed in terms of duration of schools and structure of certificates
at both secondary and high schools.
In addition to such schools, the French placed a lot of emphasis on post primary
vocational education. The advanced primary school in Yaound offered courses in writing
and interpretation, clerical and postal services, nursing, education and teacher training. By
1937 many more vocational schools had been opened. In Douala the vocational school
trained local personnel in public works and railway services. There was also a four year
program in wood, iron, road and railway. There was an advanced school of agriculture
offering courses in agriculture, forestry, vertinary, teacher education, and work

317

supervision. There was another one in Foumban in operation since 1918 with courses in
road construction, wood work and public works. In 1932, a two year nursing school was
opened at Ayos for those interested in the field who had the advanced school leaving
certificate. Entrance was through a competitive examination (Gwei, 1975). In British
Cameroons, apart from teacher training, professional training was practically absent.
MacOjong (2008, p134) asserts that the British policy in this regard was technical
industrial training that was to be given in government workshops and departments like
medical, agricultural, forestry, veterinary, survey, post office etc . In French Cameroon
while such special centres, schools and courses existed for each of these specialized fields
as early as the 1918, the first technical school was opened in southern Cameroons in 1954.
There were also different approaches and laid down principles for teacher training.
In French Cameroon, there were three distinct types of teachers. The first grade was the
Grade A Teachers. These were people who had put in at least seven years of secondary
education, obtained the Baccalaureat II and did another year of teacher training called the
Certificat d Aptitude Pedagogique Elementaire. The Assistant Teachers made up the second
grade of teachers or teachers in Grade B. These were people who had put in at least the
first four years of secondary education and were holders of the lower secondary education
certificate and did an another year of pedagogy to earn them the Certificat dAptitude
pedagogique elementaire. In the third category were pupil teachers with either the pupil
teacher certificate of general education (secondary class III level) or the first school
leaving certificate (for temporal employment) (France, Rapport Annuel sur Cameroun,
1957).
In British Cameroon, the situation was different. Teacher training was divided into
Preliminary Teacher Training, Elementary Teacher Training and the Higher Elementary
Teacher Training. Because of the shortage of teachers in this region, the First School
Leaving Certificate was enough to get one a teaching job as a probationary or uncertified
teacher (the equivalence of the Grade 3 in French Cameroon). Entrance into the first level
of teacher training; the Prelimary Training Centres (PTC) began after the candidate must
have served as a probationary teacher for a few years. The candidate spent a year in a PTC
and then taught for a few more years to qualify for recruitment into the ETC. the ETCs
offered a two year course leading to the teacher Grade III certificate. With this certificate,
the teacher qualified to teach only the first four years of elementary school or what was
then the village school. After many more years of experience as grade III teacher, the
candidate could enter the Higher Elementary Teachers centre (HETC) for another two
year course to qualify as teacher grade II. This certificate permitted the teacher to teach in
the senior elementary school (standard V and VI) leading to the FSLC. The government
HETC later GTTC Kumba was the only school training this category of teachers for the
whole territory. Before 1945 when the school was upgraded to this level, training for
grade II teachers was nonexistent in British Cameroon and grade one never was until
independence. Generally, Tchombe (2000) clarifies that the expansion of teacher training
after WWII was solely the responsibility of the Roman Catholic Mission, the Basel
Mission and the Baptist Mission.

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A very significant issue in the French educational system in Cameroon was the
important role placed on the education of sons of chiefs. Children of chiefs and notables
had the first opportunities to be enrolled in village schools. Official instructions were that
the school shall receive in the first place children of chiefs and notables who will assist in
the administration of the country where they shall be called to assist. On February 4,
1933, the commissioner issued an order establishing the status of chiefs in Cameroon.
They were to serve as intermediaries of the administration and derived their authority
from it. On December 27, 1933, the commissioner issued another order organizing
schools for preparing future chiefs. The order authorized the establishment of special
conditions and facilities in existing village and regional schools for the education of future
chiefs (Commissaire de la Republique Francaise au Cameroun, 1933). The commissioners
justification was that since Cameroon had a hierarchical social system based principally on
birth, sons of chiefs and notables were to benefit first from the limited educational
facilities available in the territory. The order designated special schools for sons of chiefs
in Yaound, Dschang, Garoua and Doumie. Apart from these, the order also specified the
village or regional schools in which sons of chiefs could be educated. At such schools they
had special facilities in special sections of the schools known as section des fils du chef
(Commissaire de la Republique Francaise au Cameroun, 1933). Despite the fact that the
role of native authorities was more obvious in the British sector, no policy was put in
place to ensure that this group of people acquired a functional education.
From all intents and purposes education was more developed in French Cameroon
and like in other aspects of administration and personnel the English speaking
Cameroonians entered the reunification marriage in an inferior position to that of the
French. What the two sides brought to the reunification table were two very incompatible
educational experiences which posed great challenges for the development of education in
a one and indivisible federal republic; the diversity that had to lead to unity.
Fifty years of reunification of education in Cameroon
Since reunification in 1961, one of the many problems that plagued the new nation was
how to cope with the British and French inherited systems of education. A UNESCO
mission visited the country between March 10
th
and May 20
th
1962 to study the
educational problems that the young nation was facing and to suggest solutions that could
be used to have a uniform system of education. As indicated above, they made three
proposals and as we would come to find out below, the first option was overtly rejected
and as a matter of policy what the new state opted for was a union of UNESCOs
propositions two and three (Nwana). The year after UNESCO made its report to the
federal and state governments, a series of laws were passed geared towards tackling the
problem of harmonization of education amongst other things. The Federal Government
issued Federal law No.1. 63/DF/13 of 19 June 1963; on the organization of secondary
general and technical education. The East Cameroon State Government issued law No.
1.63/COR-5, of July 1963 on the organization of primary education and the West
Cameroon State Government issued the West Cameroon Education Policy in July 1963.

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These laws have not been repealed. As provided in the West Cameroon Education
Ordinance (1963) and stated inter alia, unification implies a unified system of education
and went on to say that:
for this reason government does not object to, and in fact
welcomes such measures as will promote a unity of the two
structures of education. The length of courses, the beginning and
ending of the academic year, the dates of holidays (even the basic
aims of education in the context of the Federal Republic) all these
and other structural details can easily and should be harmonized.
The same policy anticipated that the academic year will in future begin in September
and end in June, to harmonize with secondary school and university terms. This was to be
achieved by September, 1964. With the coming of reunification, the state ministries of
education and social welfare were in charge of only primary education. Secondary schools
which had come under the federal ministry had already adopted the September-June
academic year as was applicable in the French speaking sector. This was in order to
intensify the teaching of rural science and manual handicrafts for boys and domestic
science for girls at the end of the six-year academic course. In terms of the structure of
the school systems, Table 1 below shows the inherited situation.
Table 1: The nature of the school systems prior to independence
Aspect to be harmonized Anglophone
Cameroon
Francophone
Cameroon
1 Entry age into nursery school 3 years 4 years
2 Entry into primary school 5 years 6 years
3 Duration of primary 8 years 6 years
4 Expected age to attain FSLC 13 years 10years
5 Certificate offered FSLC CEPE
6 Duration of secondary school 5 years 4 years
7 Secondary school certificate GCE O/L BEPC
8 Duration of High school 2 years 3 years
9 High school certificate GCE A/L Baccalaureate
10 Education structure Decentralized Centralized
11 Education policy Indigenous needs Assimilationist
12 Language policy In favour of local
languages
In favour of
French
13 Attitude towards secondary education Negligent Positive
14 Attitude towards technical and
vocational education
Negligent Positive
15 Policy on school fees Compulsory payment
by all
Free education
and scholarships
16 On the training of chiefs No schools available Special schools
available

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Table 1 above demonstrates that the English and French speaking Cameroonians by their
training were two different people who had to put in a lot or give away so much to enable
reunification of education to succeed. For example, the different durations of school
courses demonstrated that by the time candidates got their high school certificates and
were vying for employment or admission into the university, everything being equal, those
educated in the Anglophone system would be more than three years older than their
francophone counterparts. This was a serious problem in a reunified Cameroon where age
limits were placed on competitive entrance examinations into most professions. In this
regard the Anglophone candidates were seriously disadvantaged.
To harmonize the duration of primary education which was within the jurisdiction
of the state ministries of education, the West Cameroon state government proposed in
the 1963 ordinance that the primary school academic course will be reduced to seven
years from 1963 and to six years from 1965 to harmonize with the practice in the French
speaking zone. For secondary schools which were under the auspices of the Federal
Government, the federal law No.1. 63/13 of 19 July 1963 stated that studies in secondary
general education schools would last five years. Complete high schools or lycees (those that
combined secondary and high school sections) would last seven years comprising a five
year first/secondary cycle and a two year second/high cycle. This was expected to be
implemented as from 1965. The west Cameroon government went on to implement the
1963 law by reducing its eight years primary education by one year in 1964 and was
looking on to reduce it to six in the subsequent year. This did not happen probably
because the francophone region failed to implement the restructuring of its four-three
years secondary and high school structure to the five-two years structure as the case in
Anglophone Cameroon. In matters of curriculum harmonization, all the laws were silent.
The west Cameroon law however mentioned the teaching of French in their sector.
In 1965/66 the Higher Council for Education requested for the harmonization of
structures and curricula of secondary education in the two federated states. A joint
committee of experts from the two federated states was set up to examine the secondary
school syllabuses and examination systems with a view of harmonizing them. Following
these instructions a Committee for the Harmonization of Education in the Republic made
up of experts from the two states, met in Yaounde from January 13
th
to January 15
th
1966.
In this meeting the Minister of National Education William Eteki Mboumoua explained
that the government;
aimed at providing the same content of education to all
Cameroonians no matter where they were situated in the
nationto determine examinations to be done on the national
levelsince the education was to be Cameroonian in content and
spirit (the committee of experts was) to select from both systems
what was valuable, enriching and educationally good, and which
would provide a recognized standard (Ndongko and Tambo,
2000).

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The committee recommended that the GCE Ordinary Level of west Cameroon and
the BEPC of East Cameroon should be replaced by a single certificate called the
Certificate of General Education (CGE) while the GCE Advanced Level and the
Baccalaureate be replaced by the Secondary Education Leaving Certificate (SELC).
Candidates to these exams were to study the same subjects and content although in their
respective languages. With these proposals the Commission demonstrated that
harmonization could in effect take place if the will was there. Their proposals painted a
positive picture around the country and hopes of having an indigenous national education
structure, curricula and examination were beginning to be realized. They demonstrated
that experts were ready to do the groundwork and ensure implementation and that it was
only the political will that was left to complete the process. In 1968, they met in Douala to
propose new syllabuses and in 1971 they met again in Yaound to put finishing touches.
Their work was only waiting final approval from the Higher Council of Education. This
final approval was never obtained and these efforts have since been dashed into thin air.
In 1972, the government set up the Institute of National Education (INE) in
Yaound by Presidential Order No.1. CMR/72/018. By another decree of September
1973, the president spelt out their functions. They were to carryout research in secondary
education with a view to harmonizing or improving the proposed secondary school
syllabuses. Pretesting of the mathematics, civics, history and geography programmes was
to be carried out at the Bilingual Grammar School Molyko, in Buea. Textbooks to this
effect were also written, but like the others, nothing had been heard in terms of
implementing the Institutes work.
In 1977, both the GCE advanced level and Ordinary level were Cameroonized
probably as a first step towards harmonization examinations and certifications but what
ensued demonstrated more, overt signs of assimilation of the Anglophone certificate to
the French system. The Ministry of National Education took over the setting,
administration and the award of GCE certificates from the University of London which
had been organizing the exams in Anglophone Cameroon since independence. From this
time onward the GCE began experiencing irregularities especially when some of the
London officials began to withdraw. In fact from 1990 when the London University
Examination Board relegated its former role on the Cameroon GCE, irregularities
increased in an alarming rate (Ndongko and Nyamnjoh).
Another attempt at harmonization of the certificates after the 1965 proposals came
in 1983. The government in a ministerial order dated 27 September, 1983, instituted the
Group Certificate Scheme in the GCE. This was to convert the single certificate
examination to a group certificate exam from 1985 for the Ordinary Level and 1987 for
the Advanced Level (MINEDUC, IGP, 1984). In this new situation, an aggregate
performance in a specific number and range of subjects was to be established and a pass
in some compulsory subjects (French, English and Mathematics) was required to qualify
for the award of the certificate. It is reported that the Minister of National Education who
made this proposal Rene Ze Nguele justified it with the fact that Anglophones were not

322

doing enough to be bilingual and that they were doing very poorly in science oriented
subjects. He lamented the fact that there were very few Anglophones in science oriented
professional schools like the National Advanced School of Engineering, the Institute of
Demography in Yaound and the University Centres of Ngaoundere, Douala and
Dschang. Even in the Departments of Mathematics and Physics of the then University of
Yaound, the rate of failure for Anglophones was said to be very alarming (Ngoh,
1987:320).
These proposals were rejected in a series of demonstrations by Anglophones in
Yaound and in the Northwest and Southwest provinces. The students wrote to the Head
of State demanding the annulment of the New GCE reform because according to them,
the group certificate was nave, over demanding and too rigorous. According to the
striking students, the reforms confused quantity with intensity by imagining that the more
the papers taken at A level, the better the chances of the candidate in higher institutions.
The students argued that if Anglophones were under-represented in professional schools
and institutions of higher education, the fault was not the GCE or the Anglophone
educational system, but rather, the fact that these institutions were designed to answer
more to the needs of those with the Baccalaureate than to the needs of candidates with
the GCE. In Bamenda Teachers, students and some parents marched from the
commercial avenue to the up-station Mendakwe office of Governor David Abouem a
Choyi to present their petition against the Yaound decision. The Anglophones also saw
the 1984 reforms as a prelude to the abandoning of the GCE for a translated version of
the BEPC and the Baccalaureate ().
2
The presidents response through the Speaker of the
National Assembly, seemed to be in favour of the ministerial decision. On Friday 2
December 1983 he ordered the striking students to return to class (Nyamnjoh, nd).
Contrary to the Minister, and the Speaker of the Assembly, experts in the field seem
to agree with the striking students that the poor performance of Anglophones in
Mathematics, physics and related science subjects in post secondary institutions in
Cameroon was not related to the poor system of the GCE. Eba for example writes that
the most important factor why Anglophones perform poorly in the sciences and
mathematics is that;
In mathematics and related subjects, the Francophones are more
philosophical and abstract whereas the Anglophones are practical
and problem solving. Even if the same topics in mathematics
appeared in the Baccalaureate as well as the GCE syllabuses and
are taught differently, the Anglophones will still fail if the
examination is conducted in the francophone manner and vice
versa. Since most of the lecturers in the universities are
Francophones and the programmes and methods of teaching in these
universities are a continuation of the Baccalaureate programmes,
Francophones have an edge over the Anglophones (Nwana,
2000:20).


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The students protests achieved some results. Ndongko and Nyamnjoh, (2000:248)
report that the plan was temporarily shelved and a Presidential Commission was formed
which travelled to Canada, Britain, West Africa and Cameroon to inform itself on similar
traditions and practices. However, their findings which were supposed to be urgent, are
yet to constitute a report.
In 1989 another Minister of National Education George Ngango, instead of
initiating the 1963 harmonization laws with the implementation of the five-two years
system of secondary education in the Francophone region, introduced another ministerial
package which would have imposed the Francophone four-three years system on
Anglophone Cameroon. This reform never took place because of the fierce opposition
and demonstrations by Anglophone students and their parents. This second package of
reforms demonstrated that the state had abandoned the harmonization laws and was
proceeding with the assimilation of the Anglophone system into that of the Francophones
as had been the case with many economic and political structures. This move embarrassed
the Anglophones, questioned the sincerity of reunification and completely led to their loss
of confidence in the francophone led government. Again protests were planned but were
nipped in the bud probably by the removal from office of the said minister as he was
closing a seminar on harmonization (Tatangang, 2011:82).
The government created IPAR in Yaound (for Francophone school system in
1967) and IPAR in Buea (for the Anglophone schools in 1974). One of its efforts at
harmonizing school programmes led to the introduction of Manual Labour in the
Francophone region in 1967 to match with the programme in west Cameroon. This was
not loved by the pupils as well as teachers and was implemented with little enthusiasm.
Because of such reluctance these institutions have produced syllabuses which if approved
would have formed the basis for the harmonization of primary education in the entire
country. They have written programmes, organized seminars but very little of their work
has since creation been adopted by the school systems.
In the area of technical and teacher education the situation has been less
antagonistic. In technical schools, there has been no problem as the technical schools in
Anglophone Cameroon have been operating the same syllabuses and structure with those
in Francophone Cameroon. The Francophone four-seven years structure and their
technical school examination/certificates have since reunification been extended to
Anglophone Cameroon; the Certificat dAptitude Professionelle (CAP) after the first cycle of
four years and the Baccalaureate Technique (BAC) after the second cycle of three years
(Ngundam and Tanyi, 2000:166). This was probably because since reunification technical
education has been managed by the Cameroon government rather than foreign
examination boards as was the case with the GCE.
As far as teacher training was concerned, the Anglophone and Francophone sectors
carried out different practices in terms of entry requirements, structure, syllabus, duration
and certificates of teacher training colleges. But governments attempt to increase teacher

324

population all over the country motivated them to reorganize and harmonize practice in
the sector in the 1980s. It opened two types of training institutions in all provinces; Ecole
Normale dInstitutuer (Grade I teacher colleges) and Ecole Normale dInstituteur Adjoint (Grade
II teacher colleges) (Tchombe, 2000:39). These were further reformed in the 1990s when
the Grade II class was cancelled. All aspiring teachers had to go in for the Grade I
programme now called the Certificat dAptitude Professionelle dInstituteurs Martenelles et
Primaires (CAPIEMP) although the duration differed depending on the entry qualification.
Here again the structure reflects more the system which was in place in Francophone
Cameroon; a re-introduction of the practice of teacher training in colonial French
Cameroon and thus, another instance of assimilation of the Anglophone system.
As far as secondary school teacher training is concerned, there was no practical
experience in Anglophone Cameroon before reunification apart from the Cameroon
College of Arts and Science, Bambili. This gave the government the free hand to extend
the system in place in French Cameroon on the Anglophone Cameroonians. The Ecole
Normale Superieur (ENS) in yaounde with mostly Francophone teachers and administrators
set up a branch in Bambili for the training of secondary school teachers of the English
subsystem. Again the structure, language of instruction, curriculum as well as the
certificates were predominantly French styled. Till date the names of the schools as well as
the certificates are solely known by their French appellations (Tchombe, 2000).
In 1995 an educational forum was organized in Yaounde by Minister Robert Mbella
Mbappe. This forum aimed at establishing a new orientation of the educational system
and its proposals were to lead to a new law of education which was imperative
considering the fact that since reunification a comprehensive law covering all facets of
education had not been established. It was expected that this forum would reopen the
debate on harmonization but the 12 points rationale for the convening of the conference,
was basically silent on the matter (MINEDUC 1995:10). Issues discussed included, the
aims of education, pedagogy, administration and management of educational resources.
Sadly too, the 1998 law that ensued from the forums recommendations seem to have put
a final nail on harmonization by acknowledging that Cameroon shall run two subsystems;
English speaking and French speaking subsystems. At the primary level coordinated
efforts to ensure that practice remains the same in the two subsystems have resulted in a
common syllabus document published in 2001. At the secondary level where the structure
is still different and two examination boards exist since 1993, (the Cameroon GCE Board
at Buea and the Office du Baccalaureate at Yaounde) the two subsystems have become
even more glued to those of their respective colonial masters.
At the level of the universities harmonization was not a call for concern as the
system has since reunification been structured on the French University lines. This posed
serious problems for most English speaking students who entered the then lone
University of Yaounde and other higher and professional educational institutions until
the creation of the University of Buea in 1993. The creation of Buea as an Anglo-Saxon
university brought in the English University system which operated parallel to the French

325

system in the other universities and once more reopened the departs on harmonization of
Higher Education. The Anglo-saxon university at Buea operated a Bachelor, Master,
Doctorate system on a 3-2-3 year basis with One year Post-Graduate Diplomas (PGD) in
some programmes. The French system on its part ran a Licence, Maitrise, Diplome
dEtude Approfondie, Doctorat de 3eme Cycle and Doctorat dEtat on a 3-1-1-3-3 year
basis. However, these have since been harmonized and the Bachelor, Master, Doctorate
(BMD) system is currently being adopted by most universities although in matters of
programmes and course contents, the universities act independently.
Has reunification of education been achieved?
To what extent has reunification been achieved in the field of education? Have we
succeeded in developing the much desired unique national education culture or do we
simply co-exist? An examination of the efforts of harmonization demonstrates a picture
of confusion, lack of will and an obstinate desire to cling to colonial set values. An
interpretation of the 1963 laws on the harmonization of education indicates that in
principle, primary and secondary education should have been structurally harmonized by
1965 if the will was there. As from 1965, West Cameroon was to operate a six years
primary school course to correspond to the six years primary education system in the East
Cameroon. East Cameroon should have also adjusted its secondary school course to five
years from four. Alternatively, a middle road situation would have been sought as advised
by UNESCOs third option. A careful examination of the present state of education
demonstrates some successes as well as some loop holes. At the primary level, the six year
course has been adopted in both sectors since 2007. Although the names of the
certificates differ, the syllabuses have also been harmonized. This took the Anglophones
the last nerve to give up their inherited system to adopt the French system.
At the secondary level, it has not been a similar picture. The Francophones were
expected to adopt the 5-2 year school structure of the Anglophones. The government up
to now is yet to effectuate this change. Added to that, this system runs an exam in the
sixth year, the Probatoire, which doesnt exist in the Anglophone general education
sector. The creation of separate examination boards has made harmonization even more
farfetched. The exams have very little of semblance in organization, setting and content.
At the level of the universities, the creation of the Anglo-Saxon University of Buea and
recently Bamenda has now made for a dual system in the country where harmonization
has been most sought. Although the BMD programme seems to be an effort to
harmonize the structure of higher education, the two systems have clung stubbornly to
their colonial metropolitan types of universities.
The differences that are still characteristic of the Cameroonian educational system
demonstrate that harmonization in terms of developing a unique Cameroonian school
system is still a thing of the future and what exists now is a kind of co-existence. It is also
important to note that the instances where harmonization has succeeded, it has taken the
good will of the Anglophones to give into the francophone system. On the other hand

326

where harmonization has failed has been in cases where the Francophone led government
has not been willing to implement the Anglophone structures. With the exception of
Higher Education, there has been no Minister of National Education of Anglophone
background in Cameroon. This rather justifies Anglophone skepticisms and the many
suspicions of assimilation that sparked the demonstrations of the 1980s and 1990s. It is
for this reason that no policy in this regard has succeeded to go through without being
taxed by Anglophones (Tatangang, 2011).
Apart from situations of mutual suspicion and reluctance, many more reasons have
been advanced for the slow pace of harmonization in the country. Some hold that
although many proposals were worked out on the principle of harmonization, they were,
owing to political reasons as well as the lack of technical and financial resources, never
implemented. others allude this failure less to the absence of political will and more to the
absence of proper research in this domain and the stubborn adherence to inherited
colonial subsystems.
Conclusion
The paper has demonstrated that so far, the reunified state of Cameroon is still to develop
a uniquely Cameroonian educational system. The current structure is not clearly defined.
In some domains the practice is similar while in others, practice is completely different.
What then is the future of harmonization in the country? First it requires the states
determination to establish a policy of education in which none of the heritages would feel
marginalized or assimilated. Second, experts need to study the situation and decide which
of the options would be most suitable for Cameroon. Thereafter, they must set up a
framework for operation which should become binding law on all sectors. After this, a
time-line for the implementation of the policy must be published; marking specific
deadlines and finally, resources must be made available for implementation, monitoring
and evaluation of such a programme.
Two excellent proposals for harmonization were put to the countrys table by
UNESCO in 1962 and the effective application of any of them would give the country a
more credible system than it is now. The country is either to adopt a dual and purely
parallel system or completely sink the inherited systems and develop a completely new
system unique to the country. Atayo (2000) advocates the parallel two systems approach
because the current educational system is ambiguously applied and would lead to more
misunderstandings if continued. In principle it talks of two subsystems but in practice this
is not the case. Atayo further maintains that any hope of sinking the inherited structure
and establishing a unique system is illusory. That is why the continued co-existence of the
two systems becomes more rational. He reasons that, separation for over forty years of
the colonial Mandates and Trusteeships created a big gap. With the disappearance of the
German generation of Cameroonians who had been administered under a single
government, the two coeval generations from both sectors who had agreed to reunify in
1961 deeply knew that they were strangers to themselves but played down this fact that

327

two people brought up in two different cultures for forty years were bound to have a lot
of differences which attempting to blend might cause a lot of headaches. Adopting two
parallel subsystems of education is therefore ideal and meant to keep the two cultures
alive. Coercing these two into a unique educational system is an ill-wind that is bound to
blow nobody good.
On the other hand it is a popular opinion that the two subsystems existing side by
side do not reflect the demands of a unitary state, instead they promote sectional
adherence to colonial heritages at the detriment of nation building efforts.
3
Shu (n.d)
asserts that scholars in comparative education and law would confirm that once two
different systems are brought together, the phenomenon called conflict of systems would
emerge, whether the people like it or not. Cameroonians by opting for reunification
bound themselves to play down such conflicts of systems in their daily life and committed
themselves to resolve inevitable conflicts through dialogue carried out in the spirit of
national unity. This had been proven in the 1960s when the National Harmonization
Commissions produced excellent recommendations for the establishment of a unique
educational system. When such excellent work is put into the dust bin and arbitrary
decisions of individuals are allowed to create unrest, it should not be said that the state
cannot produce a unique system. What the state needs are committed people in the right
places and a unique educational system with an authentic national character would be
achieved in no time. The two options are plausible and like Shu says, would require the
commitment of all stakeholders (the teacher, the curriculum developers, inspectors of
education, ministerial technocrats, politicians, Parents, and other social and economic
actors) to initiate, suggest, develop, approve, implement, monitor and evaluate for the
country to boast of an educational system worthy of such a name.
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330

THE INFLUENCE OF SEXUALITY EDUCATION ON THE SEXUAL
THOUGHTS AND BEHAVIOURS OF NIGERIAN ADOLESCENTS

By
MRS B. O. J. OMATSEYE, Ph.D
Institute of Education,
University of Benin, Benin-City.

&
PROF. (MRS) E. E. UKO- AVIOMOH
Department of Vocational and Technical Education,
Faculty of Education,
University of Benin, Benin-City.

Abstract
Adolescence is the period when youths prepare to become sexually healthy adults. It is
also the evolutionary process of human development which commences biologically,
with changes at the physiology of the pubis. It is therefore not surprising that
adolescents seek to know more about such issues as copulation, conception, pregnancy,
birth control and STDs. But where there is mis-information or a lack of information,
teenage pregnancy, abortion, sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS become
pervasive. In recent times, the issue of sex education has come under great scrutiny
and of great concern to educators. There is the general tendency towards a more
comprehensive sexuality education curriculum. It is expected that this will go a long
way to reduce teenage pregnancy, as well as other growing indecent sexual activities
and attitudes.


331

Introduction
It is now daybreak, all through the night sixteen years old Bisi hardly had a wink. All night
her one-week-old baby was fussing for hours. She had gas in her stomach, maybe because
her teenage mother was not careful enough to take time to help her belch after her
feeding. Motherhood was certainly not Bisis plans for her senior years in secondary
school. Not until she had this one night thing with seventeen-year-old Eze, another
teenager she met at a schools inter house sports. In her opinion everything about
pregnancy, now a baby, happened so fast, one thing leading quickly into another. This
immature mind and well informed too on sex matters saw it all as a mere fling. Now
she is saddled with the problem of late night feedings, diaper changes, visits to
paediatricians and more especially, she has to discontinue her education to fully nurse her
baby. Her parents are working class people and cannot take up that kind of responsibility
while she continued school. When it all happened, her parents would not understand her
predicament nor would opt for an abortion. Even when they are guilty of not informing
their ward on sex matters, they certainly would not give a go-ahead for an abortion. They
took the posture of rigid Christians, hinging it all on the doctrine that forbids abortion. Bisi
had no alternative but to carry her pregnancy to term, thus, saddled with motherhood at
adolescence. This picture is typical amongst Nigerian adolescents situation where sexual
intercourses are circumstantial. Sex takes place without caution and so are the possible
pregnancies that follow. But the fact here is that teenage pregnancy is a problem that
indirectly affects everyone. It is not just a burden to the girl and her family, but has a
significant impact on society as a whole.
Now the question is, who is to blame for such illicit sexual behaviours that
sometimes manifest into teenage pregnancies, adolescent mothers, fathers, too! Are these
teenagers well informed? Whose duty is it to educate them on sex the parents, the school
or the church? Is information from novels, magazines, films, the internet and social media
adequate or even fit all? More importantly, should our youths be provided with
information in school about safe sex practices in order to protect themselves from
increasing STD, HIV, and teenage pregnancy rates, or should they be taught that
abstaining from sexual activity is the only way? These questions can make more meaning
and be best answered when we firstly express the concept of sex education.
Sexual Education
In its broadest sense, sex education can be defined as any instruction given on the process
and consequences of sexual activities. The expectation too is that sex matters are given to
children and mostly, adolescents. However in contemporary times, the term usually refers
to classroom lessons about sex and reproduction taught in secondary schools, usually as
part of the subject biology.
Ordinarily, the task of educating adolescents about sex ought to be the
responsibility of parents. But the reality of this is that oftentimes, parent-child
communication on sexual matters is hindered by parental inhibition or by various inter-
generational tensions. The implication being that adolescents rarely receive their first
information on sexual matters from their parents. Take the case of the traditional
Nigerian culture is quite peculiar in its conservative on matters of sex. Most Nigerian
parents shy away from such discussions because it is generally believed that it will make
the adolescent attempt to experiment, what they know may mortgage their future. Even

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government in policy making is yet to appreciate the need to emphasize sex education in
our school curriculum. Maybe, it is believed that instructing children on sex matters might
inevitably sensitise them or even involve them in open discussions on issues that were
hitherto regarded as social taboos (Okonkwo and Eze, 2002). Such reservations are even
expressed in school, where ordinarily adolescents ought to get better informed on sex
matters. The teachers shy away from discussing sexual matters. Even the teacher of
biology carefully avoids the topic of reproduction in animals as it might lead to some
crucial questions that are taboos.
The trend since the late 19
th
century as an attempt on sex education was more or
less supplementing parental guidance in sex instruction, known as social hygiene.
Basically, social hygiene was more of biological and medical information about human
reproduction and venereal diseases. These were made available to adolescents as form of
sex instruction. But how adequate this will supplement for sex education is yet in doubt.
More especially in these modern times where traditional social governing attitudes toward
sex are seen as old and archaic. These have been overtaken by more sophisticated
attitudes. Technology may not have been much of help as the internet and social media
churn out daily what the youths would rather prefer as modern trends in sex-related
information. From the foregoing, the need for sex education among adolescents becomes
quite imperative. It will be morally wrong for adults to shy away from sex education for
their youths, while the latter are left to the whims and caprices of what they perceive as
acceptable sex norms. In this regard, a sex education instruction should include wide
variety of subject matters such as knowledge of physical processes of human
reproduction, how the male and female sex organs function, dissemination and effects of
sexually transmitted diseases, family roles and structure in sex matters, the ethics of
relationships, and the emotional and physiological causes and consequences of sex.
It is also important to note that while the prevalence of Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) much emphasis would be placed on safe sex. One may want
to question the ethical implication of the adolescents knowledge of safe sex. For one
thing, it is not quite common or fashionable for this group of people to let adults into
their sexual activities, more so on the crucial as when they to disvirgined. Information on
safe sex may just become useful as a guide. In the opinion of Botakis, Daskalakis and
Karpathics (1988) it is important for parents to teach their children practical knowledge
on contraception before needed and not when it is too late. In essence parents, teachers
and all other health professionals can help transmit proper sexual information and
education through programmes of instruction of social interference and sensitization.
Physical and Sexual Maturation in Adolescents
It could be amazing how children undergo a transformation at least in physical
appearance into young adults. Both boys and girls develop their sexuality during this
period. They experience changes in height and weight with other features which are
associated with the onset of pubescence. Also, sex appeal is usually welcome from both
sexes. In the analysis of Tanner (1972), this growth spurt increases as quickly as they did
during infancy. On the average, boys grow 4.1 inches a year and girls 3.5 inches. He
observed that this rapid growth is as a result of activity of the pituitary gland. The
explanation being that at this age, the gland increases secretion of hormones with
widespread physiological effects. Also Manolopoules as cited in Papethanasiou and
Lahana (2014), adolescence is the evolutionary process of human development which

333

commences biologically with changes at the physiology of the pubis and completes
psychologically with the ultimate organisation of sexuality.
Early sexual maturity in girls is marked by the onset of menstruation, and in boys by
the production of semen. Other features associated with the appearance of secondary sex
characteristics include facial, body and pubic hair, and deepening of voice in males. While
in females, we have pubic and body hair, enlarged breast and broader hips. Notably, the
attitude of parents and adults to these biophysical changes and sexuality play an important
role on how the adolescents view biophysical development.
While girls start puberty at about age eleven or twelve, boys begin at about thirteen
or fourteen. But unlike infants, who also undergo extraordinary rapid growths,
adolescents are quite aware of changes in their bodies. Girls experience menstruation, but
may not be too informed on everything about the menstrual cycle. The onset of
menstruation in the life of a young girl puts her on a new pedestal altogether. In the view
of Brook-Gunn and Reiter (1990), menstruation is typically accompanied by an increase in
self-esteem, a rise in status and greater self-awareness. Still on physical and sexual changes
among adolescents, a boys first ejaculation could be likened to a girls menstruation.
Whereas a girl feels free to talk to her mother or other young girls about her
menstruation, the boy shies away from matters of ejaculation. He would scarcely mention
it to either parents or even friends. Boys see the first ejaculation as part of their sexuality,
and would hardly want to discuss it.
Generally, it is the physical changes in adolescents that are responsible for the sex
drives. Significantly too, Drench (1994) says from all the stages of the adolescents
growth, the most intense is the increase of sexual urge and the new and often mysterious
emotions and thoughts accompanying them. Until recently the gratification of sex drives
among teenagers was complicated by social restrictions, taboos and misinformation about
sexuality. Sexual intercourse at adolescence has its own dignity and restrictions. Pre-
marital sex might be considered permissible for males and even when not spelt out, but
not for females. This may not be far from the fact that boys, mostly than the girls, sense
their sexual urge more intensely and it is difficult to ignore them. For the girls, the sexual
urge are more diffusive and vague and mostly related to other needs such as the need for
love, self esteem, self-ascertainment and tenderness. That is why it is easier for the girl to
have temporary denial of sexual urge at the beginning of adolescence. In the opinion of
Okonkwo and Eze (2000) boys and girls do not differ significantly in their permissive
attitudes towards pre-marital sexual practices. For Botakis, Daskalakis and Karpathics
(1988), besides the differences in physical maturation, basically, girls and boys are
occupied with common issues around sex. They want to know more about practical issues
around sex. They want to know more about practical issues such as copulation, orgasm,
conception, pregnancy, birth control and sexually transmitted diseases. Also, they wish to
know how to place sex within their own frame of values so that they are able to establish
satisfaction and constructive relationships with the same sex and the opposite sex. But
oftentimes, most young people had very little help on such issues.
One cannot quite say same for todays adolescents, both boys and girls. The level of
promiscuity among adolescents is quite alarming. For most adolescents, the first sexual
experience is unexpected, non-programmed and usually without any protection. Since the
adolescents are more fertile than adults, the adolescent woman is more likely to get
pregnant even with one sexual intercourse. This leaves her with investable motherhood.

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This is situation is quite prevalent in Nigeria. As observed by Onyemelukwe (1993), this
lack of sexual awareness among youths in quite on the increase. The sad reality we face in
Nigeria is that many more adolescent girls get pregnant because of a lack of adequate
information. This may be more rampart in the rural areas who are not as informed on
sexual issues than their counterparts in the cities. At least adolescent in the cities
familiarize themselves with sexual matters early enough. Even though some of these
access to information may be quite obscene and could easily excite as well as destroy
young minds. It is therefore completely groundless to believe that in this kind of scenario
undesired pregnancy and illicit sexual activities can never occur. This further reiterates the
urgent need for proper sexual education, so as to improve the adolescents knowledge, so
that undesired pregnancy, and abortions, and illicit sexual activities can be avoided.
Sexuality in Adolescence
Sexuality is a physical and natural component of human nature. It is an inseparable
element of every individuals personality whether the adolescent or adult. Thus, with the
maturity of sexual organs during the start of adolescence begins with a range of
possibilities in relations with others. This stems from the fact that sexuality is a basic need
and side of human existence, which no one can isolate from the other sides of life.
According to Papathansasiou and Lahana (2014), sexuality is that form psychic energy that
humans carry inside all times as an expression of our existence. It activates us to make
relationships which offer us emotional security, warmth and happiness. This proves
sexuality as a powerful force which influences our thoughts, feelings, sensitivities, our
choices and our physical and spiritual health. Thus it is not uncommon for adolescents to
express their sexuality.
As expressed by Coles and Stokes (1985), at adolescence, sexual behaviour and
thoughts are central concerns. In their words almost all adolescents think about sex, and
may think about it a good deal of time. Painfully though, the sexual attitudes of todays
adolescents is quite a departure from their parents. Probably, most adolescents are more
sexually experienced and have greater knowledge that their parents used to have at the
same age, but they tend to be really uncontrolled. They have adopted a new morality
altogether. Modern day adolescents have become increasingly liberal in their thinking
about sex. Quite surprisingly too, is their attitude towards sex which calls for attention
especially with the prevalence of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
problem. As this paper attempts, teenage pregnancy, abortion and the alarming increase
can be abated if adolescents are well informed on the consequences of their actions.
In most cases, adolescents meet themselves through dating otherwise known in the
Nigerian parlance (among teenagers) as toasting, chasing. Dating is an important ritual
for adolescents. According to Dickenson (1975) and McCabe (1984), by the time most
girls are twelve or thirteen or boys are thirteen or fourteen, they begin to engage in dating.
By the age of 16, more than 90% of teenagers have had at least one date, and by the end
of secondary school, some three-quarters of adolescents have been steadily involved with
someone. Ordinarily, dating, as a part of courtship may lead to marriage, and most times it
actually serves this purpose. Through dating, the individual learns to establish intimacy. In
another vein, Skipper and Nas (1996) hold that dating could also be for prestige purpose,
and used in developing ones own identity.

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However, for most adolescents, dating is not always carried out maturely. Thus, the
seemingly intimacy unfortunately results in illicit love affairs and other sexual escapades.
Williams and Berndt (1990) have described this form of dating as one of a superficial
activity where the participants easily let go their guard. They never become truly close or
express true emotions. Thus, psychological intimacy is lacking even when sexual activity is
a major part of the relationship.
Beyond dating, for adolescents, initiation into sexuality comes from masturbation or
sexual se-stimulation. Although masturbation is widespread it still produces a feeling of
guilt and shame. While some societies take strict measures on restricting this feeling, other
semi-restrictive societies have quite informal roles prohibiting early masturbation and sex
play. While not in support of illicit sex, matters of sex must be well expressed to
youngsters, this will certainly educate them on the norms of sexual activity especially for
their age. Basically, adolescence is the period when youths prepare to become sexually
healthy adults. It is also in this regard that cognisance should be taken of the fact that
these youths are sexually matured and ready to express themselves as such. There is gain
saying that without proper control, they could emotional excesses. As Tiefer (1984) rightly
observed, the period of adolescence is characterized by emotional and behavioural
disorders. This has its close affinity with hormonal change, which has its manifestation in
sexual characteristics like sexual urges and arousals. But the central question is how we
manage these physical urges, emotional cravings, imaginative fantasies and deep-rooted
psychological desires.
Unfortunately, many Nigerian parents still see discussions of this nature as quite
sacred. Why would a mother want to educate her daughter on safe sex? They feel doing
this is like giving the girl freedom to reckless sex. But the truth is that not very often do
we find adolescent girls who disclose to their mothers when they were first disvirgined.
More especially, when their own mothers did not share such cordiality with their mothers.
Thus, the only way to play safe so that your teenager does not become pregnant and end
up a teenager, inexperienced mother, or worse still have illegal abortion, is to educate her
on safe sex.
So far the discussion has been on sexual activity among adolescents. It becomes
imperative at this juncture, to make critical analysis on the values these young adults
attach to sexual activities. This too, has a lot to do with the instruction (if any at all) given
on sex education. According to Dreyer (1982) adolescents today believe that sex with
affection is more acceptable. In effect, they reject the old belief that premarital sex is
always immoral. The argument for them is that; if one is in love why wait for marriage
before one shows affection through sex. In a similar vein, the findings in a study carried
out on Abstinence-only sex education, it was revealed that a programme that teaches
adolescents to abstain from sexual activity and restricts information about the use of
condom and contraceptives is doomed to fail (Blackburn, 2009). Sharing this same view,
Kohler, Manhart and Lafferty (2007) affirm that abstinence-only education did not
prevent adolescents from engaging in sexual intercourse. On the other hand, Masters,
Beadwell, Morrison, Hoppe and Gillmore (2008) hold that a comprehensive sex education
is more of a preventive strategy. It informs the youth not only on abstinence but takes
cognisance of crucial issues such as pregnancy, STDs and the use of condoms and other
contraceptive measures that could promote safe sex practices.

336

The conclusion from the foregoing shows that todays adolescents attitude towards
sex has dramatically changed. Their involvement is quite high, which could be explained
by the adolescents search for identity and emotional fulfilment. Even in this disposition
of the adolescents, there is still the urgent need for a comprehensive education about
sexuality. This will teach youths how to manage their sexual development instead of
imposing guilty feelings about a natural process.
Conclusion
The period of adolescents development and their reaction to sexual instincts and urges is
quite inevitable. The risk of immorality among adolescents is further heightened in todays
society that is quite liberal and more permissive on sexual matters. This is quite some
departure from the past where people cared about morals, and sex lives were regulated by
religious rules, traditional beliefs and admonitions. Abstinence was promoted and chastity
was considered the ideal. People lived a life of shame over early or indiscriminate sex and
teenage pregnancy. This certainly cannot always be the case as the society is changing.
However, if people must change with society as the adolescents are doing, then the only
way to curb sexual excesses is to inject sex education in their everyday learning. Sexuality
education is a public issue. Based on the reality of the world in which youths develop, the
substantial health issues involved in sexuality and the implication it could hold for a
countys socio-economic value, it becomes imperative to provide a comprehensive
sexuality education programme for the Nigerian adolescents. Undoubtedly, sexual
education during adolescence is not a simple matter. It needs proper and co-ordinated
efforts in other to achieve the desired results. Such a comprehensive sexuality eduation
should also support adolescents parent communication about sexuality, and encourage
students to develop and adhere to their own values. In the ideal society, parents would
discuss sexuality issues, values and religion with their adolescents, so that the curriculum
would be left to the tax payers to choose. But doing this will be leaving sexuality
education again to chance.
Significantly too, if this comprehensive sex education programme must achieve its
goal, the quality and adequacy of the teachers become imperative. A comprehensive sex
education does not end with abstinence-only. It also incorporates information on
pregnancy, HIV and STDs, knowledge on the use of contraceptives and ways to promote
safe sex practices. As to who is qualified to teach sexuality education, Linday, Tetteh,
Kasza and Gillian discovered that most teachers who are employed to teach sexuality
education were not trained, and many teachers were not comfortable discussing sexuality.
These teachers often omitted educational points because of the discomfort, lack of
teaching materials and lack of experience and skills. In the summation of Tierfer (1984), a
society or institution that regards sexual desires as dangerous or wrong must reveal its
basic mistrust or the physical side of human nature.

References
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only vs comprehensive programmes. The Journal of Undergraduate Nursing
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Books-Gunn, J. & Reiter, E. (1990). The Role of Pubertal Processes. In Feldman, S. &
Elliot, G (eds). At the Threshold: Developing Adolescent. Cambridge: Havard University
Press.
Botakis, C,. Daskalakis, G., Karpathics, S. E. (1988). Adolescents and sexual activity:
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gynaecology, Rhodes Greece, September 29
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- October 2
nd
, 1988., 417 418.
Carrol, L. (1988). Concern with AIDS and the sexual behaviour of College students.
Journal of Marriage and the family. 50, 405 411.
Coles, R. & Stokes, G. (1995). Sex and the American Teenager. New York: Harper and
Row.
Cranston, K. (1992). HIV Education for Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Youth: Personal Risk,
Personal Power and the Community of Conscience. In Harbeck, K. M. (ed). Coming
out of the Closes: Gay and Lesbian Students, Teachers and Curricula. New York: Harrington
Press.
Dickenson, G. (1975). Dating Behaviour of Black and White Adolescents Before and
After Desegregation. Journal of Marriage and the Family. 37, 602-608.
Dreyer. P. H. (1982). Sexuality During Adolescence. In Woman, B. B. (ed). Handbook of
Development Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Egbule, J. F. & Ugogi, F. N. (2000). Understanding Adolescent Psychology. Ibadan: End-Time
Publishing House.
Furstenberg, F. F. (1998). Adolescent Mothers in Late Life. New York: Cambridge University
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Gibbs, N. (1993). How should we teach our children about sex? Time, 141 (21), 60-66.
Imonikebe, B. U. (2001). Sex Education: A Tool for Promoting the Health of Students in
Secondary Schools in Delta State of Nigeria. A Paper presented at the Zonal
Inauguration of National Association of Women Academics (NAWACS) at the
University of Benin, Benin-City. 18
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21
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November, 2001. Pp 1-4.
Kohler, P. K., Manhart, L. E. and Lafferty, W. E. (2007). Abstinence-only and
comprehensive sex education and initiation of sexual activity and teen pregnancy.
The Journal of Undergraduate Nursing Writing. Vol. 42, 344 - 351.
Kotz, D. (2007). A Debate about teaching abstinence: Teenage births have ticked up after
a long decline: Is sex eduation the reason? U.S News and World Report. 143 (23).,
28.
Linday, S. T., Tetteh, A. S., Kasza, K. and Gillian, M. (2008). What schools teach our
patients about sex: Content, quality and influences on sex education. American
College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, 11 (2), 256 266.
Masters, N. T., Beadwell, B. A., Morrison, D. M., Hoppe, M. J. and Gillmore, M. R.
(2008). The opposite sex? Adolescent thought, abstinence and sex and their sexual
behaviour. Perspectives on sexual and Reproductive Health 40 (2), 81 93.
McCabe, M. (1984). Towards a Theory of Adolescent Dating. Adolescence, 19. Pp 159-169.
Okonkwo, R. U. N. & Eze, I. (2000). Attitude of Nigerian Adolescents to Premarital
Sexual Behaviour: Implications for Sex Education. Journal of Counselling. A
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Onyemelukwe, O. (1993). Premarital Sex among the Youths and Hindrances to their
Adjustment. CASSON SERIES (1), Pp 29-37.
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Publishers.


339

EFFECT OF UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION COMMISSIONS
(UBEC) CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT TRAINING ON ASSESSMENT
PRACTICE OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS
By
JOSHUA O. ADELEKE, Ph.D
Institute of Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
joadeleke@yahoo.com
+2348033510688
Abstract
One of the major indicators of teachers classroom effectiveness is assessment
competence, hence there is need for update on this from time to time. This paper
investigated the effect which Universal Basic Education (UBEC) training had on
assessment practice for selected primary school teachers. One Group before and after
experimental research design was adopted to carry out the study. Two hundred and fifty
eight teachers were selected from the three senatorial district in Ogun state Nigeria.
Two instruments were used for data collection: Training Assessment Scale (r=0.89)
and Assessment Practice Scale (r=0.64). Both descriptive (Frequency counts and
percentages) and inferential (Paired t-test and Analysis of Covariance) statistics were
employed for data analyses. Four research questions were answered. Results from
analyses indicate that majority of the participants rated the UBEC training on
Assessment practice good. Generally, the participants gained significantly from the
training. Effect of highest academic qualification on assessment practice of the
teachers was found to be significant while that of sex and number of year of teaching
were not. Interaction effect of highest academic qualification and sex on assessment
practice was also found to be significant. The findings have implications for education,
particularly in Nigeria and in the entire globe in general. Regular training should be
organized from time to time for teachers on-the-job to update their classroom
practices.
Keywords: Universal Basic Education Commission, continuous assessment, training,
assessment practice, teachers


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Introduction

There are many challenges surrounding teaching job today especially in developing
countries. Most of these challenges revolve around Instructional delivery, subject mastery,
classroom management, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) use,
assessment practices and the like. This calls for professional training of teachers from time
to time. Developing practicing teachers on basic aspects of teaching business should be
set as priority by the government and major stake holders, however focusing on all
aspects at a time may be counterproductive. The assessment skill of each comes to play at
this point. Teachers ability to build effective assessment systems, adequate for assessing
students learning, is strongly connected with skills in setting clear learning targets. Need
for monitoring teaching and learning processes early and regularly requires teachers
competence in continuous assessment (Formative Assessment) practices.

Black and Wiliam (1998b) define formative assessment as including two interrelated
parts: first, activities undertaken by the teacher and the students as means of collecting
information about the students understanding or progress and, second, the use of this
information to modify teaching and learning activities by the teacher, the students, or
both. Nwaji (retrieved 2012) emphasized that, to ensure the success of the Universal Basic
Education (UBE) programme, adequate measures should be put in place to avoid the past
mistakes of the Universal Primary Education (UPE). Thus, aspects of provision of teacher
training and retraining among other things should be given preeminence. Up till date,
perfect alternative to human roles in instructional delivery is not yet found. These kinds of
teachers training and re-training ought to be frequent and regular which will ensure
capable and competent human resources to manage the programme.

On this basis, the Nigeria Universal basic Education Commission initiated capacity
building workshop for selected primary school teachers on Continuous Assessment
(Formative evaluation) practice in Ogun State Nigeria. Is assessment practice of teachers
so important? Black and Wiliams (1998a) through review of several empirical articles
concerned with classroom formative assessment report consistent learning gains for
students when teachers use assessment practices that support learning. Need for updating
assessment practices skills then become imperative. Sato, Chung & Darling-Hammond
(2008) report that a growing body of research has found that the extent to which teachers
embedded formative assessment practices in their everyday classroom interactions is
strongly related to student learning and is associated with improved student achievement.
Teachers assess their students differently, to the extent that, two teachers taking the same
topic, cannot assess learning the same way.

Teachers cannot improve what they do not know. According to Centre for
Universal Education at Brookings (2011), Simple, low-cost assessment systems are needed
that provide regular information at individual, school, and system levels, Wagner (2003).
Empirical researches show the benefits of assessments, when used correctly within an
enabling environment, on student learning, Darling-Hammond (2011). Assessment
systems are made up of different types of activities that serve multiple purposes:
classroom assessments (primarily continuous or formative in nature) that provide real-
time information to support teaching and learning in classrooms; examinations (primarily
summative and high-stakes in nature) to make decisions about a students progress
through the education system at distinct decision points; and large-scale, system-level

341

assessments for providing policy and programmatic information on overall performance
levels in the system Clarke Communication, (2011). Assessment exercises should include
a gender analysis and require sex-disaggregated data in order to adequately track the
impact of teaching and learning on boys and girls, respectively. Measuring learning should
be done in a smart way that generates timely, useful information for policy, planning and
classroom purposes but does not structure education around testing, (Wagner 2003). It is
important that learning should not be reduced to that which can easily be measured.
Centre for Universal Education at Brookings (2011) emphasized that to build effective
assessment systems linked to teaching and learning, four actions need to be taken:
Set clear learning targets.
Monitor teaching and learning processes early and regularly.
Ensure that examinations promote national education excellence and equity goals.
Involve teachers, parents, local communities, and schools to understand and use
information.

An important component of an effective assessment system is to work with key
stakeholders up frontincluding teachers, parents, and communities to develop clearly
articulated learning targets, preferably for each grade level. It is important to ensure that
these targets are widely known by all key stakeholders. Just articulating these goals can
provide policymakers with grounds for prioritizing what needs to be done. In resource-
constrained environments, targets preferably should be localized to inform teaching and
learning practices at the school level rather than relying on international benchmarks for
learning. The curriculum should be closely aligned to the desired learning outcomes, and
teachers should be involved as much as possible in designing any standardized assessment
exercises that will be used to measure progress toward these outcomes.

The current status of learning should be compared with expected levels, and should
be analyzed to ensure that expected levels of learning, as exemplified by textbook content
and the national curriculum, realistically reflect what a country is able to achieve in the
short run. Unrealistic expectations often drive processes in education systems rather than
the needs of children, the capabilities of teachers, and the aspirations of parents, (Banerji
Communication, 2011). To reduce variability in school performance, countries should
adopt time-bound, equity-based targets for achieving national education goals, such as
having education disparities based on wealth, location, disability, and gender, as called for
in the EFA Global Monitoring Report, UNESCO(2010).
The second needed action is to monitor teaching and learning processes early and
regularly. Teachers should conduct their own regular classroom assessment activities,
starting in primary school, to continuously assess students performance against learning
targets. Research shows a strong link between high-quality, formative assessment activities
carried out by teachers in their own classrooms, and improved students learning
outcomes as measured by performance on standardized tests, with the largest gains
realized by low achievers, (Black and William 1998a).This has important implications for
the closing of achievement gaps among student groups, including between male and
female students.
Technology has a role to play in improving the efficiency of analyzing and
responding to data. Companies in developed countries, such as Wireless Generation, have
developed handheld devices that allow teachers to conduct assessments and adapt
classroom materials to each students individualized learning style. Teachers are able to

342

assess each childs comprehension level and provide targeted help to students most in
need. Evaluations have shown that giving teachers the opportunity to focus on the
specific learning needs of students through this technology has resulted in significantly
improved students outcomes. Wireless Generation (2011) Periodic system-level
assessments allow education leaders to identify whether students outcomes are improving
and to determine where to allocate attention and resources. In addition to monitoring
overall progress and identifying areas of strengths and weaknesses, large-scale, system-
level assessments can serve as advocacy and accountability tools to mobilize communities,
highlight challenges in the education system, and place the quality of students learning
more prominently on the national agenda

The third needed action is to ensure that examinations promote national education
excellence and equity goals. Examinations are a crucial part of the education system in
most countries, and particularly so in low-income countries, where they often used as the
sole basis for allocating scarce educational opportunities at the next level of the education
system. The high-stake nature of examinations means that they exert a backwash effect on
the education system in terms of what is taught and what is learned. This in turn, negative
or positive, has an impact on the skills and knowledge profiles of graduates. It is
important to carefully monitor and avoid unintended consequences of examinations.
High-stake examination systems can lead to a focus on test preparation at the expenses of
learning, to the development of a private tutoring industry that favors the wealthy, and an
incentive for cheating, (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development,
2011).

Furthermore, the gatekeeper nature of many examinations, with students who do
not pass the examination being required to leave the education system, can result in
certain student groups being systematically excluded from further learning opportunities,
Clarke communication (2011). It is important for a country like Nigeria to carefully review
and monitor her national examinations and to ensure that they do not only test
accumulated information but also the application of broader knowledge and skills
(academic and personal) that prepare all students to succeed as they progress through and
out of school into society and the workplace. Challenges related to cheating and
corruption can be mitigated by external grading of examinations, whereby students and
parents know that teachers and schools are not in a position to change the grade.

The fourth needed action is to involve teachers, parents, local communities, and
schools to understand and use information. Feedback on assessment exercises should be
provided to students, parents, teachers, and schools about what has been learned to
stimulate discussion on how to improve, (Bernard, 2009). Schools and governments must
have the capacity to collect, analyze, interpret, disseminate, and use the data for
instructional and personnel improvements. This may require building institutional capacity
to analyze and respond to information, Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (2011). Data systems are also needed to chart students and schools
progress. Technology can play a role in designing instructional methods tailored to
address specific learning gaps. Gender differences that emerge in assessment results and
are reflected in feedback exercises must consider that different interventions may be
required for boys and girls and inform communities and families accordingly. In many
developing countries, parents or caregivers have not been to school themselves or are
non-literate. Therefore, it is difficult for them to engage in their childrens learning both
conceptually and in practice. Regardless of their education level, parents and caregivers

343

must be respected and empowered to understand the learning goal for their children for
the year, how they can assess whether their child is getting there, and what they can do to
help. This requires clear communication between school and home that takes into
account each parents level of literacy.

Thus the training workshop of such nature are expected to address different
assessment knowledge and skills which should include
Nature, philosophy and reason for Continuous Assessment practice
Methods of conducting Continuous Assessment practice
Resources for Continuous Assessment practice
Development of instrument(s) for Continuous Assessment practice
Tools for school based Continuous Assessment practice

The intention was to equip teachers to be efficient in performing their job roles.
Teachers will continue to provide formative or diagnostic information to students and
parents first and also, providing clear expectations and goals for learning, creating
coherence between assessment and curriculum, and supporting metacognitive practices.
For example, research on classroom-based assessment suggests that greater students
learning and higher task performance are achieved by providing task-oriented feedback to
students (Butler, 1987; Crooks, 1988). This can only be achieved by eliciting information
from students through assignments and discussion as a means of gauging where students
are in their progress toward a goal (Duschl & Gitomer, 1997).
Research on learning also suggests that understanding is strengthened when the
learners are asked to take an active part in determining what they understand and how
they came to that understanding, as well as what they still need to learn (National
Research Council, 2000). Classroom practices that aid this kind of metacognition include
peer- and self-assessment, reflection on ones own progress and determining what needs
further improvement, and activities geared toward allowing students to make sense of new
concepts through talk or writing, which allow the teacher to gather information on
students understanding to guide his or her next steps (White & Frederiksen, 1998).
At the classroom level, the extent to which the teacher sets clear learning and
performance goals helps both students and teachers assess what the students have learned
and where the students need continued work and support (Wiggins & McTighe, 1998).
Equipping teachers on these activities are likely to boost both classroom interactions and
assessment practice of teachers. Teachers assessment roles are likely to be influenced by
certain factors. Wayne and Youngs, (2003) based on their review of past research work
found that certification may result in more effective teaching effectiveness. This informs
the reason why Teachers Highest Educational Qualification is co-investigated in this
study. This background therefore, forms the bases for this study that investigated effects
of UBEC continuous assessment training on assessment practice of primary school
teachers.
Research Questions
Based on the background articulated, the following research questions were stated to drive
the study.
i. How did the participants rate the UBEC Continuous Assessment training content?

344

ii. Was there any significant gain on assessment practice, observed on the beneficiary
teachers, due to participation in UBEC training programme?
iii. Do highest qualification, sex and year of teaching of the beneficiary teachers affect
their assessment practice gain during the training?
iv. Will there be interaction effect of any pair of highest qualification, sex and year of
teaching of the beneficiary teachers on their assessment practice gain during the
training?

Methodology
Design
The study adopted One Group before and after experimental design as presented below.
.
Y
a
X Y
b
(Experimental)

Y
a
Pre-treatment Assessment measure.
X Treatment-training on Assessment practice.
Y
b
post-treatment Assessment measure.
Sampling
The selection of the participants in the UBEC training was done by the state government
to ensure Senatorial district representation. Ilaro had 82, Abeokuta 103 and Sagamu 73
participants. The distribution of the participants across the Local Government Areas
(LGAs) and Senatorial districts is presented in table 1
Table 1: Distribution of the Participants Across the Local Government Areas
(LGAs) and Senatorial Districts

Senatorial District Total
Ilaro Abeokuta Sagamu
Yewa South 32 - - 32
Ado-Odo Ota 21 - - 21
Ifo 12 - - 12
Yewa North 13 - - 13
Ipokia 4 - - 4
Abeok South - 21 - 21
Odeda - 28 - 28
Obafemi Owode - 24 - 24
Abeok North - 20 - 20
Ewekoro - 10 - 10
Ikene - - 23 23
Sagamu - - 31 31
Remo North - - 19 19

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Total 82 103 73 258
Instrumentation
Two research instruments were used for data collection in this study. They are:
i. Training Assessment Scale (TAS) comprises two sections. Section A elicited personal
information about the participants and where they came from, while section B
comprises 22 items that measured quality of the training given to the participants. The
reliability coefficient of TPS using Cronbach Alpha method was 0.89. The corrected
item-total correlation, ranged between 0.36 and 0.56 which ensured construct validity
of the instrument.
ii. Assessment Practice Scale (APS) has two components. Section A consists of
demographic information about the participants while section B comprises 20 items on
assessment practice. Spearman Brown Reliability method was employed to establish
reliability coefficient which produced r =0.64.
Data Collection and Analysis
The researcher administered the instruments through the resource persons that facilitated
the UBEC capacity building training. APS was administered to the participants before the
training to gauge their level of entry. Both APS and TAS were administered at the end of
the training. Data collected were analyzed using both descriptive (Frequency counts and
percentages) and inferential (Paired t-test and Analysis of Covariance) statistics
Results
Research Question One: How did the participants rate the UBEC Continuous
Assessment training content
Table 2: Participants Rating of the UBEC Continuous Assessment Training.

Training Content
Poor Fair Good Very Good
Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq %
Nature, philosophy and reason for
Continuous Assessment practice 2 0.8 13 5 159 61.6 84 32.6
Methods of conducting Continuous
Assessment practice
4 1.6 24 9.3 133 51.6 97 37.6
Resources for Continuous
Assessment practice 15 5.8 42 16.3 134 51.9 67 26
Development of instrument(s) for
Continuous Assessment practice 13 5 47 18.2 141 54.7 57 22.1
Tools for school based Continuous
Assessment practice 19 7.4 55 21.3 124 48.1 60 23.3
Nature, philosophy and reasons for Continuous Assessment practice as emphasized
during the workshop were rated as being good by the majority, 243 (94.2%) of the
participants. Methods of conducting Continuous Assessment practice as taught during the
training was equally rated as being good by 230 (89.2%) of the participants. Teaching of
Resources for Continuous Assessment practice during UBEC training was rated as good
by 201 (77.9%) of the participants. Development of instrument(s) for Continuous
Assessment practice was another aspect of the training that was rated as good by 198

346

(76.8%) of the participants. Tools for school based Continuous Assessment practice was
also taught and rated as being good by 184(71.4%) of the participants
Research Question Two: Was there any significant gain on assessment practice,
observed on the beneficiary teachers, due to participation in UBEC training programme?
Table 3: Paired t-test Indicating Training Effect on Teachers Assessment Practice
Mean N
Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean t Df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Pre_Test 10.49 258 3.275 0.204 -20.288 257 .000
Post_Test 15.09 258 3.058 0.19

Paired t-test as shown in table 3 was -20.29; p<0.05. This reveals significant gain by the
participants on Assessment practice during the UBEC training programme. Pre-test mean
score on Assessment practice was 10.49, while the post-test score was 15.09. Conclusion
can be drawn that there is significant effect of the training on the assessment practice of
the sampled primary school teachers.
Research Question Three: Do Highest educational qualification, sex and year of
teaching of the beneficiary teachers affect their assessment practice gain during the
training?
Table 4: Effects of Teacher factors (Highest educational qualification, sex and
year of teaching) on Teachers Assessment Practice.
Source
Type III
Sum of
Squares df
Mean
Square F Sig.
Partial
Eta
Squared
Corrected Model 323.037(a) 8 40.38 4.855 .000 0.139
Intercept 2584.446 1 2584.446 310.711 .000 0.563
Pre_Test 206.776 1 206.776 24.859 .000 0.094
High_Qualf 47.055 1 47.055 5.657 0.018 0.023
Sex 0.786 1 0.786 0.095 0.759 0
Levelofexp 3.2 1 3.2 0.385 0.536 0.002
High_Qualf * Sex 55.102 1 55.102 6.625 0.011 0.027
High_Qualf * Levelofexp 11.566 1 11.566 1.39 0.239 0.006
Sex * Levelofexp 0.541 1 0.541 0.065 0.799 0
High_Qualf * Sex * Levelofexp 29.144 1 29.144 3.504 0.062 0.014
Error 2004.599 241 8.318
Total 59451 250
Corrected Total 2327.636 249

R Squared = .139 (Adjusted R Squared = .110)


347

Fig 1: Estimated Marginal Mean by Highest Educational Qualification
The results presented in Table 4 and Fig 1 show that highest educational qualification had
significant effect on assessment practice of the primary school teachers (F=5.66; p<0.05).
Sex and year of teaching of the teachers did not have significant effect on the assessment
practice of the teachers. Fig.1 also shows that participants with higher academic
qualification (B.Ed) achieved significantly more (mean =15.75) in assessment practice
than their counterparts who had National Certificate in Education (NCE) with mean
=14.50.
Research Question Four: Will there be interaction effect of any pair of highest
qualification, sex and year of teaching of the beneficiary teachers on their assessment
practice gain during the training?
Table 5: Interaction of Highest Academic Qualification and Sex on Assessment
Practice.
High_Qualf N Mean
Std.
Error
Male N.C.E. 29 13.890(a) 0.774
B.Ed 23 16.691(a) 0.831
Female N.C.E. 136 15.079(a) 0.237
B.Ed 62 14.897(a) 0.371

B.Ed N.C.E.
Highest Educational _Qualification
15.8
15.6
15.4
15.2
15
14.8
14.6
14.4
Estimated Marginal Means of Post_Test
M
a
r
g
i
n
a
l

M
e
a
n


348

Table 4 and Fig. 2 revealed significant interaction effect of Highest Academic
Qualification and Sex on Assessment Practice of the primary school teachers. Table 5
gives the direction of the effect. Male participants achieved more (mean =16.69) in
assessment practice during the UBEC training than their counterparts with NCE (mean=
13.89). Reverse was the experience with the female participants where those with lower
certificate (NCE) achieved more (mean=15.08) in assessment practices than those with
B.Ed (mean=14.90)
Discussions
Participants rated the programme good. Teacher on-the-job training is very important
because it enhances effectiveness in the basic classroom activities that go on day to day.
The rating of the participants is therefore expected to translate to good assessment
practice in their respective classroom. Since the UBEC training has its objectives, it is
expected that participants had improvement on methods of conducting Continuous
Assessment practice, resources for Continuous Assessment practice, development of
instrument(s) for Continuous Assessment practice and tools for school based Continuous
Assessment practice. Since perfect replacement to teachers in classroom is not yet
discovered, effort needs be directed towards providing adequate training that will be
relevant to teachers. Nwaji (retrieved 2012) supports good training for teachers has
emphasize that, to ensure the success of the Universal Basic Education (UBE)
programme, adequate measures be put in place to avoid the past mistakes of the Universal
Primary Education (UPE).

Statistical confirmation was found on participants positive gain on Assessment
practice during the UBEC training programme. It is expected that the skills acquired by
the teachers will make them effective, especially in the effective assessment systems
proposed by Centre for Universal Education at Brookings (2011). Competence is
expected from each of the trained teacher in setting clear learning targets, monitoring
teaching and learning processes early and regularly, ensuring that examinations promote
B.Ed N.C.E.
Highest Academic Qualification
16.5
16
15.5
15
14.5
14
13.5
E
s
t
i
m
a
t
e
d

M
a
r
g
i
n
a
l

M
e
a
n
s
Female
Male
Sex
Estimated Marginal Means of Post_Test
Fig. 2 Interaction Effect of Highest Academic
Qualification and Sex on Assessment Practice

349

national education excellence and equity goals and involving teachers, parents, local
communities, and schools to understand and use information.
Highest educational qualification had significant effect on assessment practice of the
primary school teachers. This result corroborates Wayne and Youngs, (2003) who
reviewed past research works and reported that certification may result in more effective
teaching effectiveness. There seems to be a shift in the old trend, as many B.Ed degree
holders are now found teaching in primary schools. The tendency to deploy skills acquired
during school professional training is high and the finding supports this.
Highest Academic Qualification and Sex had significant interaction effect on
assessment practice of the primary school teachers. Male participants achieved more in
assessment practice during the UBEC training than their counterparts with NCE. Reverse
was the experience with the female participants where those with lower certificate
(NCE) achieved more in assessment practices than those with B.Ed. The findings lend
credence to Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (2011) that
gender differences that emerge in assessment results and are reflected in feedback
exercises must consider that different interventions may be required for male and female
teachers accordingly.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made:
(i) Federal government should continue with the programme until all the primary
school teachers are benefited from UBEC training especially on assessment
competence.
(ii) Federal Government should also provide adequate classroom environment in
all primary schools to foster the use of the knowledge and skills gained by the
participants.
(iii) The two other tiers of government should also corroborate the effort of the
Federal Government in providing similar training on assessment practice for
school teachers under their control.
(iv) Federal Government should also put a strategy in place to make participants
assessment practice trainers in their respective schools.
(v) School inspectors should also be carried along while introducing up-to-date
assessment skills to teachers for effective monitoring. This is important to
achieve the desired goals.
(vi) Gender based interventions are also proposed as the factor plays a vital role in
the way participants gain in a training.

Conclusion
A teacher is good to the extent of assessment skills possessed. A teacher that has acquired
all skills needed for effective assessment practice from the beginning of his career to the
end is yet found. Hence, teacher training has to continue to ensure global compliance.
The effect of such may not be immediate but if the stakeholders in education should
persist in training teachers, all the sectors are bound to reap the fruits.


350

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352

CHALLENGES TO INSTALLATION OF TOTAL QUALITY
MANAGEMENT (TQM) IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN RIVERS
STATE.
By

OKATA, FANNY CHIMEZIE
Department of Educational Management,
University of Port Harcourt

Abstract
The study was carried out with the intent of determining the constraints or challenges
faced by school Principals in the injection of total quality into secondary schools
through the vehicle of total quality management, TQM. Five research questions were
answered in the study. Data for the study were gathered through a 26-item
questionnaire. 234 Principals out of the 245 Principals of public secondary schools in
Rivers State responded to the questionnaire. Data collected were scored on a 4-point
Likert scale and analyzed using mean ( X ) scores and standard deviation (SD).
Findings revealed that Principals are constrained by a lot of factors in the installation
of total quality in the following key areas of TQM. These include gaining top
management support engaging in customer focused programmes, mounting staff
development activities for his/her staff, strategic quality planning and the use of teams
as administrative tool. It was thus concluded that a lot of factors limit the Principals
ability to install TQM in the schools. These constraints resulted to lack of funds, non-
cordial relationship of Principals with top management, lack of adequate facilities, and
lack of open channel of communication in the school. Based on the findings,
recommendation given include, that government should involve the Principals in
decision making and should intensify effort to improve the awareness and skills of
Principals and teachers in TQM principles by mounting workshops, organizing
seminars amongst others.
Key Words: Total Quality Management (TQM), Secondary Schools, Installation.


353

Introduction
For years now, there has been an unprecedented public demand for quality in secondary
education; hence the emphasis on installation of quality in schools. This is premised on
the fact that the government which has adopted education as an instrument for effecting
national growth and development is craning seriously that the output from educational
institutions be of high quality in order to meet the needs and expectations of the society.
The public also expects that the school system produces individuals who are in tune with
societal demands and who will perform excellently in recommended examinations.
Passion for quality in education extends to every member of the community.
The government and all educational service providers have made intense effort at
encouraging the installation of total quality management in schools by re-engineering the
various processes. This manifests in the series of workshops, seminars, short and long
term courses and various training programmes organized for all key-players at various
times with a view to establishing the necessary know-how on quality and to addressing
quality problems. TQM is a management technique developed in the business world for
making an institution more effective and efficient. It is increasingly being adopted in
educational management as a means of improving the system and addressing the
overriding need for quality in education especially in secondary schools.
Enaohwo (2000) defined TQM as the tool for the realization of the plans and
programmes for education in contemporary society. It is deemed the survival strategy for
schools. Inspite of the clamour for its installation or implementation, quality has however
remained elusive in Nigerian educational system, especially at the secondary level. No
appreciable positive change has been felt by the customers of secondary schools. It
becomes imperative to examine why this is so and to identify the constraining factors to
quality installation with focus on the following TQM principles; Gaining top management
support, Customers focused programmes, Strategic quality planning, Staff-development
activities and the use of teams as administrative tools.
Total Quality Management (TQM), requires commitment from the top. According
to Kelly (1994), commitment means a willingness to invest in the programme and the
willingness to change the style and culture in which the organization operates. TQM
requires fundamentally, a particular attitude and frame of mind on the part of all involved
in the educational sector especially Principals, teachers, other staff of the secondary school
system. These therefore demand from the top, total commitments which will then filter
down to all levels, units and departments in the school. Customer focus is what drives all
other aspects of total quality management. It is important therefore for every organization
especially the school system to recognize the central positioning of quality as demanded
by its customers and the need to satisfy them. Implementation of TQM can succeed if
everyone at all levels and departments in the school organization understand total quality
management concepts, practices, and implementation methods. Principals and teachers
need regular and up to date training in their subject areas so that they can effectively keep
pace with global trends and at the same time provide current and appropriate knowledge
skills, attitude and aptitude to their customers.
Oakland and Porter (1999) further explained that a good Total Quality Management
system should among other things go for absolute excellence and nothing but that.
Enaohwo (2000) holds that TQM in education involves continuous improvement in

354

school processes as a way of upgrading school outcomes under existing environmental
conditions and at the same time reducing operational costs. Okorie (2001), explained that
quality in teaching and learning results from an interplay of a range of success factor
which are all vital consequences for effective teacher performance and students learning.
Factors enumerated includes amongst others, basic school facilities, financing, quality and
quantity of personnel as well as quality mindset and orientation and schools
organizational environment.
Total quality management encompasses quality in everything people, process,
products and services. TQM is a change, a move towards continuous improvement,
Okeke, B.S. (2001). It emphasizes quality improvement, increase in productivity on the
part of employees and reduction of cost. Its overriding objective is continuous
improvement and maintenance of system in organizations. Creech (1994) holds that TQM
must be applied holistically so that its principles and policies reach every nook and corner
of the organization. All parts of the organization must work together to produce quality
results. TQM therefore requires a change of attitude on the part of the organizations
management and staff where all workers are encouraged, empowered, and committed to
seek out improvement process, products and services and to accept responsibility for
solving problems as they arise.
The theoretical framework employed in this study was drawn from, as Okorie
(2004) puts it, a contemporary management framework as postulated by Deming (1950),
Juran (1953) and Crosby (1951). TQM is a systematic approach to the practice of
management which requires changes in organizational processes, strategic priorities,
individual and group beliefs, attitudes and behaviour patterns. A total quality management
must be well defined by identifying cost of quality, setting quality standards and effectively
monitoring the achievements of the quality standards. Total quality management
emphasize total commitment to quality, to the customers, to continuous improvement
and to employee ownership.
TQM is geared towards satisfying both the external and internal customers; needs
and expectations, devotion to total customers service is the focus of an organization
under TQM. Employees must be motivated and encouraged to be fully involved. All the
human resources that make up the workforce must be empowered to make suggestions
and contribution and adopt TQM as a way in which they do their work in the
organization. Effective leadership is an important tool for the actualization of
organizational goals where leaders constantly search for improvement in product and
service quality as an important means of achieving effectiveness and high performance.
Leadership in TQM is concerned with shaping and influencing attitude and activities of
people rather than simply directing the activities of people. Participative leadership are
adopted where information, power, influence are shared with subordinates.
In applying TQM in education, certain differences exist in the concept as applied to
the industry and the educational system. The differences according to Tribus (1992:1)
includes amongst others that:
- the school is not a factory
- the students are not products
- their education is the product
- students are primary customers

355

- parents- secondary customers
- employers tertiary customers
- employees of educational organization are internal customers and others.

For Demings TQM principles to be adapted to schools, a quality culture has to be
created where every member of staff is committed to delighting their customers. This will
involve a restructuring of the educational system and which will often be associated with a
painful break from traditional ways of doing things.
The challenge before the principals in TQM in administering the school system is to
ensure that quality is maintained which makes it important for a clear understanding of
the administrative process itself. To ensure effective administration using the total quality
management for achieving the actualization of quality education in secondary schools calls
for a clear specification of roles and responsibilities between the school and controlling
agencies with inbuilt devices for periodic evaluation. According to Okeke (2001),
inhibitors or barriers to total quality include employees lack of commitment, personnel
management regulations, management not spending the desired time; lack of knowledge
and information on quality concepts and quality tools; funding constraints and lack of
resources; employees resistance to change; changing roles and participatory management,
employees not believing that they are empowered and lack of long-term plan. The
decision to undertake total quality management must stem from a decision by the top
management when a decision is made with no serious knowledge of the paradigm or
commitment to its development, failure is almost inevitable.
The importance of staff training cannot be over emphasized. The success of Total
Quality Management is hinged on vision, proper planning, efficient administration and
adequate financing. Teamwork is a very crucial element to the success of total quality
management.
Much effort had been devoted by government towards the realization of an
educational system that is responsive enough to the yearnings of the society and to the
development of the nation. One of such efforts has been the increasing demand for total
quality through the vehicle of TQM and its installation in schools by school
administrators. However, inspite of all these, efforts and claims by all stakeholders, quality
has remained the greatest challenge facing the Nigerian educational system with so much
public dissatisfaction about the quality of services and the quality of output from the
educational institutions especially at the secondary level.
The purpose of this study was to identify the challenges that undermine the
installation of TQM by secondary school Principals, by investigating the;
(i) extent to which Principals gain top management support.
(ii) extent to which Principals introduce and implement customer focused
programmes.
(iii) extent to which Principals introduce and implement staff development
activities.
(iv) extent to which Principals achieve strategic quality planning, and

356

(v) extent to which Principals use teams as an administrative tool.
The results of this study will provide enlightenment to all stakeholders of secondary
education on the factors which constrain the ability of secondary school Principals to
install TQM in schools. This will be relevant in providing recommendations to cushion
the effects of the challenges and reduce the stagnancy and failure of well intended
educational programmes.
Research Questions
1. What factors limit the principals ability to gain top management support?
2. What factors limit the principals in engaging in customer focused programme?
3. What are the challenges faced by principals in the area of staff development
activities for his or her staff?
4. What are the challenges faced by Principals in the area of strategic quality
planning?
5. What factors militate against the principals use of teams as an administrative tool?

Method
The study adopted a descriptive survey design. This design was found appropriate because
it involved a description of what exist or the present status of existence of what is being
investigated, in this case, total quality management in secondary schools and the
challenges faced by Principals. The study was carried out in the 23 local government areas
of Rivers State having a total number of 245 Secondary Schools and their Principals. All
the 245 Principals of the Senior Secondary Schools in the state made up the population of
the study. This population was found manageable and therefore constituted the sample
for the study. A 26-item four point scaled questionnaire tagged Challenges of Quality
Installation was developed, validated and used for the study as an instrument for
obtaining appropriate data. Two specialists in educational management and an expert in
measurement and evaluation vetted the items in terms of clarity of words, language
difficulty, sentence structure, adequacy and relevance of the items for the study. An r-
coefficient of 0.95 was obtained from testing for reliability. The instrument was
administered to the Principals. A return rate of data collected was 95.6%. The mean ( X )
and standard deviation (SD) were used to answer the research questions.
Results
The mean and standard deviation of the responses gathered using the questionnaire were
computed and presented in tables.
Criterion for acceptance was that an item /grand mean ( X ) score of 2.50 and above
indicated that a particular issue is a challenge, while a grand mean ( X ) score of less than
2.50 indicated that the issue being considered is not a challenge.


357

Table 1: Mean and standard deviation of the factors that limit the Principals
ability to get top management support.

Result in table 1 indicated that all the items constitute factors that limit the Principals
ability to get top management approval; as the respondents accepted that there is no
cordial relationship with top management (3.30), there is lack of easy access (3.15), no
participation in decision making (3.29) and little freedom in the use of allocated funds
(3.29). However, the most constraining factor was not being permitted to engage in
moderate risk taking with a highest mean of 3.39. A grand mean ( X ) score of 3.28
shows low level of top management support for principal. This indicates a challenge to
attainment of total quality in secondary schools.
Table 2: Mean and standard deviation of the factors that limit the School
Principals ability to engage in customer focused programmes.
S/N Engaging in customer focused programmes
Mean
X
Standard
Deviation
SD
1. Non-motivational pay packet for teachers 3.32 0.81
2.
Teachers not ready to accept additional
responsibility
3.28 0.80
3. Large class sizes 3.30 0.88
4.
Principals not sufficiently encouraged to update
skills through in-services training
3.43 0.81
5.
The channel of communication in the school is not
open.

3.15

0.99
Grand 3.296 0.85

Information from table 2 showed that the most constraining of all the factors was
Principals not sufficiently encouraged to update skills through in-service training with the
highest mean score of 3.43. This is followed closely by non-motivational pay packet for
teachers (3.32), large class sizes (3.30), teachers not ready to accept additional
responsibility (3.28) and the least being lack of open-channel of communication in the
school (3.15). A grand mean ( X ) score of 3.296 shows a low level of introduction and
S/N Gaining top management support
Mean

X

Standard
Deviation
SD
1.
Non-cordial relationship between principal and top
management
3.30 1.86
2.
Lack of easy access to the authorities to discuss pressing
problems.
3.15 0.99
3. Non- participation in decision making on school issues 3.29 0.94
4.
Little freedom in the use of funds allocated to solve immediate
problems in school.
3.29 0.85
5. No permission to engage in moderate risk taking 3.39 0.78
6. Grand 3.28 1.084

358

implementation of customer-focused programmes, which constitutes a challenge to the
attainment of total quality management in secondary schools.
Table 3: Mean and standard deviation of the challenges faced by principals in the
area of staff development activities for his or her staff.

Results from table 3 showed that the most challenging issue of all was the non-availability
of information and tools on total quality management (3.54). Lack of funds (3.47),
inadequate equipment and infrastructural facilities (3.45) were very closely related while
inadequate motivation of teachers was the least challenging (3.32). This therefore showed
that the extent to which Principals introduce and implement staff development activities
is low from the grand mean ( X ) score of 3.43, and thus a serious challenge.
Table 4: Mean and Standard Deviation of the challenges faced by Principals in the
area of strategic quality planning?

Information from the table indicated a low level of principals achievement of strategic
quality planning. All the issues raised were challenging with the highest mean ( X ) score
of 3.50 for Principals not being part of the physical planning of the school and the least
being Principals not making input in teacher recruitment (3.23). A grand mean ( X ) score
S/N
Introducing and implementing staff development
activities
Mean
X
Standard
Deviation
SD
1. Inadequate equipment and infrastructural facilities. 3.46 0.81
2. Lack of funds 3.47 0.69
3.
Non-availability of information and tools on total
quality management.

3.54

0.76
4. Teachers reluctance towards personal development 3.35 0.90
5.
Inadequate motivation
Of teachers
3.32 0.87
Grand 3.43 0.806
S/N Achieving strategic quality planning
Mean
X
Standard
Deviation
SD
1. Principals do not have a say in the admission of students 3.31 0.81
2. Non-availability of vital demographic data 3.24 0.91
3. Lack of time for quality planning 3.28 0.78
4. Principals not making impact in teacher recruitment 3.23 0.95
5.
Principals not being part of the physical planning of the
school
3.50 0.70
6. Lack of funds 3.32 0.85
Grand 3.33 0.83

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of 3.33 indicates low level of achievement of strategic quality planning, which a
consequently constitutes a challenge on the attainment of total quality in school.
Table 5: Mean and standard deviation of factors militate against the principals use
of teams as an administrative tool

Result from the table shows low level of Principals use of team as an administrative tool.
There is rigid adherence to hierarchical structure with the highest mean score of 3.43,
rigid organizational climate (3.28), lack of good interpersonal relationship (3.28), lack of
motivation of teachers to take up extra team activities (3.24) and lack of time for team
activities (3.22) were all closely related in their mean scores. A grand mean score of 3.29
revealed that indeed Principals use of teams as an administrative tool is low and this
constitutes a challenge to the installation of total quality management in secondary
schools.
Discussion
This study revealed that a clear indication of poor interrelationship between the Principals
and top management. This explains why the Principals do not find it easy to gain access to
the top management in order to discuss emergency issues, resulting in non-participation in
decision making in matters affecting the school and therefore permission of Principals to
engage in moderate risk taking and to have freedom to make decisions on how to allocate
funds. Schmoker (1992) agrees that for TQM to work, it must start at the top but should
permeate the workplace, it will fail without employee involvement particularly in decision
making processes about the school. When principals dont enjoy top management
support, their creative and innovative abilities which could drive efforts to manage for
quality becomes crippled. Principal therefore do not enjoy top management support
which is vital if they were to initiate quality programmes, particularly creative and
innovative ones which could drive efforts to manage for quality.
Once again, it was not surprising about the findings revealed on the extent to which
the Principals introduce and implement customer focused programmes. Two of them are
specifically related to motivational problems for the Principals. Fafunwa (1998) stated that
motivation is the major weapon that can help a school administrator to make the teacher
perform well. Uwaoma (2002) agreed that these tangible benefits are lacking in the
conditions of service of teachers and by implication of school administrators. When
S/N Use of team as an administrative tool
Mean
X
Standard
Deviation
SD
1. Rigid organization climate 3.28 0.80
2.
Lack of motivation of teachers to take up extra
team activities
3.24 0.79
3. Lack of good interpersonal relationship 3.28 0.90
4.
Rigid adherence to hierarchal structure of the
school
3.43 0.86
5. Lack of time for team activities. 3.22 0.94
Grand 3.29 0.858

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Principals feel that their remuneration packet is not commensurate with the task they
perform as is suggested by this findings, they sort of lack the drive to pursue school
programmes particularly those that are focused on school customers which includes the
teachers, the parents and others that have interest in the school products or outcomes.
Similarly, when Principals virtually rely on their pre-service preparation without
being provided with access to in-service programmes, they sort of stagnate on the job, use
old and outdated practices and processes which might not be compatible to efforts to
engage in customer focused programmes as advocated by TQM which is a current
management strategy. Once again, lack of open channel of communication as shown in
Table 2 may also be related to teachers reluctance to accept additional responsibility,
without which teachers commitment to customer focused programmes will not be readily
attainable. Consequently, this will negatively impact quality delivery of educational services
to school customers.
A continuous development of staff is a necessary ingredient for the installation of
quality in the management of schools. Another finding from the study was that a very
necessary ingredient for the installation of quality in the management of schools which is
the continuous development of staff was found not adequate or neglected. All the items
in table 3 were found constraining and not always available for school administrators. This
contradicts the view of Nnabuo (2001) who stipulated that a well training staff requires
courses such as long vacation courses, on and off the job update his knowledge and skill
to meet contemporary demands of the job. The principals effort in this direction is quite
necessary if his or her teachers are to vigorously pursue quality delivery of educational
services. Lack of funds cannot encourage such principals efforts to develop his or her
staff. Inadequate equipment and infrastructural facilities and very importantly lack of
information on total quality management and its tools amongst Principals can seriously
limit their efforts in disseminating information on TQM or in knowing what type of
information could be useful for such staff development activities.
It is often opined that workers will work up to 80% of their time if adequately
motivated. These challenges identified by this study are indeed quite worrisome. Strategic
quality planning enables the Principals to be proactive and in order to engage in strategic
quality planning, one of the necessary requirement is demographic data. Evans and
Lindsay (1993) agrees with this by stating that planning reduces duplication of efforts,
minimizes costs of achieving objectives, creates consistency and a coordination
mechanism for future activities and establishes a basis for control. Demographic data
allows the planner to look at the present figures of his students and staff personnel, past
and present figures, and with this make projections of staff and student needs of the
institution. Without such data, as was found in this study, whatever strategic planning
engaged in by the Principals is bound to be faulty at some points. For this reason, also, it
becomes important for Principals to have a say in both recruitment of teachers and
admission of students. Confusion that often arises in schools with regards to its operation
are often attributed to lack of congruence between the number of students admitted and
the number of school places provided for them and also congruence between teacher
supply and demand.
Use of team is a TQM strategy that seeks to cut across functional .lines rather than
hierarchical structure of schools in order to gingering subordinates to perform tasks that
would allow institutions to continuously improve its operations. Oakland cited in Okorie

361

and Uche (2004) supported this by stating that team work throughout any organization is
essential for the implementation of TQM, for it builds up trust, improved communication
and develop independence. Rigid organizational climate as was found in this study would
not allow team members to operate across functional lines. Hence good interpersonal
relationship which was found to be low in this research is very important for team to
work together effectively.
Conclusion
These findings provided empirical evidence to show that in managing for total quality in
secondary schools in Rivers State, school administrators had to contend with a list of
challenges, amongst which are in the areas of gaining top management support, engaging
in customer focused programmes, staff development activities, strategic quality planning
and use of teams as administrative tools. The factors which were identified in this study as
constraints, therefore can provide a reasonable conclusion as to why the positive impacts
of total quality management (TQM) are yet to be felt in the secondary schools in Rivers
State, as performance of students is still poor.
The findings of this study have far reaching implications for quality in the
educational system particularly in secondary schools. In this era when all management
systems globally are emphasizing on managing all organizations including educational
organization for quality, total quality management issues are not yet taken very seriously
by top management in Rivers State educational system. TQM in educational organizations
indeed addresses the need for quality in education particularly in the overall performance
of educational organizations. Therefore in the face of the numerous challenges identified
by this study, successful installation of TQM in schools will be difficult to achieve. The
implication of this is that delivering quality educational services to the society will be
impeded unless urgent steps are taken to redress the situation.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are made by the researcher based on the findings of the
study;
1. There is need for Government through the Ministry of Education to regularly
organize seminars and workshops on TQM principles to expose Principals to the
TQM techniques.
2. Principals should be constantly trained and retrained by the government to update
their management skills and keep them abreast with new management techniques
such as TQM.
3. Principals and teachers must be adequately motivated by the government to
render quality educational services.
4. Top management of the school should create more cordial relationship with the
Principals which will also make for easy access to them to discuss issues of the
school.
5. Top management should involve school principals in taking major decisions that
affect the school, particularly decisions that border on students admissions,
teacher requirement and physical planning of the school.
6. Principals should learn to use teams in administrative functions of the school as it
is often difficult for them to find time to attend to all school problems due to
other administrative issues.

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7. There is need for the Government to liberalize students admissions policy to
allow for the participation of Principals and the policy must consider the quality of
intake to avoid the problem of producing half-baked primary school graduates.
8. Government and controlling agencies of education should show more
commitment and support the success of total quality management by actively
involving the Principals in vital issues concerning the school.

References
Creech, Bill (1994): The Five Pillars of TQM; How to Make Total Quality Work for You. New
York: Penguin Book Inc.
Enaohwo, J.O. & Eferakeya, O.A. (1989): Educational Administration, Ibadan: Paper Back
Publications.
Enaohwo, J.O. (2000): Education Futurology, Praxis, Problems and the way forward. An
Inaugural Lecture. University of Port Harcourt.
Enaowho, J. O. (2003): Strategies for Achieving and Maintaining Quality Assurance in
Education. A Lead paper presented at the 18
th
National Conference of Nigeria Academy of
Education, held at the University of Port Harcourt.
Evans, J. and Lindsay, W. (1993). The Management and Control of Quality. Second Edition,
West Publishing Co.
Fafunwa, B.A. (1998). History of Education in Nigeria. London, George Allen & Union Ltd.
Kelly, John M. (1994): Total Quality Management: A How to Program for the High Performance
Business. New Jersey, USA. Alexander Hamilton institute, Inc
Nnabuo, P.O.M. (2001). Essentials of Educational Management. Owerri: Versatile Publishers.
Oakland, J.S and Porter, L.J. (1999). Total Quality Management. European Centre for TQM.
University of Bradford.
Okeke, B.S (2001): Quality Management and National Goal Attainment in Education: The Case of
Nigeria. An Inaugural Lecture at University of Port Harcourt, February 8.
Okorie, N. (2001) Supervisory functions of school managers Paper Delivered at
Workshop for Management Development for Primary School Administrators,
College of Continuing Education, University of Port Harcourt. August 27 to 30, 2001.
Okorie, N. C. and Uche, C.M. (2004). Total Quality Management in Education: Its imperatives
and key concepts. In Nnabuo, Okorie, N.C, Agabi, O.G.; and Igwe, L.E.B. (eds)
Fundamental of Educational Management. Port Harcourt: Uniport Press.
Schmoker, M. (2000) What schools can learn from Toyota of America Education Week II, 34
May 13, 1992: 23, 25.
Tribus, M. (1992). Total Quality Management in Education: The theory and how to put it to work.
Hayward: Exergy Inc.


363

EXPLORING THE ROLE PERFORMANCE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT
IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMING IN NIGERIA

By

ETIGBAMO ESUEFIENI JUBILEE, Ph.D
Department of Educational Foundations
Isaac Jasper Boro College of Education
Sagbama, Bayelsa State
E-mail: dretigbamoej@g-mail.com

Abstract
This paper focused on the role performance of local government in community
development. It discusses the concept and functions of local government as well as the
various role local government plays in the development of rural communities. These
include the provision of basic infrastructures such as water, electricity; rural
industrialization-palm oil processing, garri processing and bag and craft processing
industries; construction and maintenance of feeder roads and bridges; human capital
development and mobilization; provision of high-yielding varieties of seeds, fertilizers
and pesticides; construction of primary school blocks and health centres, markets,
provision of credit facilities as well as the implementation of national economic
policies among others. The paper also considered the concept of a community,
development and the compound word community development.
KEYWORDS: Role, Performance, Local Government, Community Development


364

Introduction
All over the world, local government councils play important roles in the development of
rural communities. Infact, the importance of local government in community
development can not be underestimated as it is primarily created to tackle the
developmental needs of rural dwellers. Dagana (2005) emphasized the importance of local
government in community development when he opined that the importance of local
government lies in its ability to cater for and meet the needs of the local citizenry since the
central government alone cannot provide and meet all the needs of the people.

It is in realization of the overwhelming importance of local government to the
development of rural communities that Nigeria has a total of seven hundred and seventy
four (774) local government councils spread across the thirty six states and the federal
capital territory. Local government as the third tier of government in Nigeria, operates at
the base of the society. Hence it is the closest tier of government to the people, both in
the urban and rural communities. Therefore, this paper x-ray the role of local government
councils in community development. Since this is one of the major reasons for creating
the local government council.

The Concept of Local Government
The term local government like most concepts lack a precise and generally acceptable
meaning as it is being defined or described differently by different scholars depending on
the background of the scholar. This has resulted in various interpretations of the meaning
of local government. Despite these plethora of definitions, scholars agree on some salient
characteristics which enables us understand its meaning.

Local government as a tier of government operates at the base level of the society.
It is the nearest government to the people. Historically, local government is the oldest
form of government since government began with the organization of people into smaller
communities in a limited area. Local government is sometimes referred to as local self
government.

The 1976 Local Government Reform in Nigeria saw local government as the
government at the local level exercised through representative councils established by law
to exercise specific powers within defined area. These powers should give the council
substantial control over local affairs as well as staff and institutional and financial powers
to initiate and direct the provisions of services and to determine and implement projects
so as to complement the activities of the state and federal governments in their areas, and
to ensure, and through devolution of functions to these councils and through the active
participation of the people and their traditional institutions, that local initiatives and
response to local needs and conditions are maximized. This definition according to Ugwu
(2000) is rooted in the meaning of local government by the United Nations, Office for
Public Administration as reported in Ola (1984) which described local government as a
political division of a nation or (in federal system) state, which is constituted by law and
has substantial control of local affairs, including the powers to impose taxes or to exact
labour for prescribed purposes. This definition according to Ola indicates some elements,
which precipitate the establishment of the third tier of government called the local
government. They include:
i) Citizens participation in the management of local affairs.

365

ii) Efficient and equitable provision of essential services.
iii) Resource mobilization for development purposes.

Okoli (2005) sees local government as a unit of government established by act of
law to administer the functions of government and see to the welfare and interest of the
local dwellers.

Vincent and Ugoo (2007) conceived local government as a statutory authority in a
specified local area (village or town or city) having the power to raise revenue through
taxes for the performance of local services like sanitation, education, water supply among
others. Dagana (2005) summed up local government as an administration of the rural area
by people who know their community needs. This type of administration according to
him is informed by the idea that since the people know the needs of their communities,
they will do every thing within available resources to develop the area.

Despite the varieties of meaning ascribed to the concept of local government, local
government possesses some general characteristics such as nearness to the people, defined
geographical area, statutory level of government, local responsiveness, local representation
and local participation among others.

Functions of Local Government in Nigeria
The fourth schedule of the 1999 constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria made
elaborate provisions for the functions of local government.

These functions include the following:
a) The considerations and making of recommendations to a state commission on
economic planning or any similar body on;
i) The economic development of the state, particularly in so far as the areas of
authority of the council and of the state are affected and
ii) Proposal made by the said commission or body
b) Collection of rates, radio and television licenses
c) Establishment and maintenance of cemeteries, burial grounds and homes for the
destitute or infirm;
d) Licensing of bicycles, trucks, other mechanically propelled trucks, canoes, wheel-
barrows and carts.
e) Establishment of slaughter houses, slaughter slabs, market, motor parks and
public conveniences
f) Construction and maintenance of roads, streets, street lighting, drains and other
public high ways, parks, gardens, open space or such facilities as may be
prescribed from time to time by the House of Assembly of the state.
g) Naming of roads and streets and numbering of houses
h) Provision and maintenance of public conveniences, sewage and refuse disposal.
i) Registration of all deaths, births and marriages
j) Assessment of privately owned houses or tenements for the purpose of levying
such rate as may be prescribed by the House of Assembly of a state.
k) Control and regulation of
i) Out-door advertising and boarding
ii) Movement and keeping of pets of all description
iii) Shops and kiosks

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iv) Restaurant and bakeries and other places for sale of food to the public.
v) Laundries
vi) Licensing, regulation and control of the sales of liquor
vii) Participation of such council in the government of a state as regards the following
matters.

i) The provision and maintenance of primary, adult and vocational education.
ii) The development of agriculture and natural resources, other than the exploration
of minerals.
iii) The provision and maintenance of health services
iv) Such other functions as may be conferred on a local government council by the
House of Assembly of the state.

Other functions that local governments do perform include the following:
a) Maintenance of law and order within their area of jurisdiction
b) Mobilization of the people for rapid rural development at the grass root with specific
reference to:
i) Self-help project, farm production
ii) Conflict resolution among warring communities, clans etc.
iii) Provision of housing and urban layout
iv) Enlightenment services

Concept of Community Development
The concept of community development has its root and strength in the term community
and development. Hence the proper understanding of the concept of community
development requires a survey into the meaning of the term community and
development. It is after these terms have been explained that one can then clearly and
meaningfully say what community development is all about.

What is a Community?
Osuji (1984) opined that a careful review of the literature on this subject would reveal that
the term community is not static. It entails the interaction of several elements whose
geographical boundaries are clear functions of time, place and the context or issue under
consideration. Hence there is no universally acceptable definition of the term community
thus different scholars sees the term community from different perspectives.

Anyanwu (1981) defined community from a six-fold approach.
i) Shared territory which gives them recognizable identity and unique features.
ii) Shared beliefs which give them common ideals, objectives, attitudes, values,
traditions which they cherish and nurture.
iii) Shared bonds of fellowship which distinguished them from other people or
groups.
iv) Shared set of standards and pattern of behavior which gives rise to common
values or norms by which they are identified.
v) Common culture- the sum total of their cherish custom, beliefs and usages as a
community which they jealously protect and pass on to individuals from
generation to generation.

367

vi) Common administration which helps them in the preservation of their culture and
civilization through effective regulations of community operations and processes.

According to Bola and Bello (1987) the term community means a territorially
bounded social system within which people live in harmony, love, intimacy and share
common social, economic and cultural characteristics. They also see a community as a
population living within a legally established city limits where the people have some social
and economic features in common which enable them to pursue common goals. They
opined that the most important characteristics of a community include:

i) Population which could be large or small
ii) Geographical limits which could be large or small
iii) Common socio-economic problems or characteristics such as poverty or
affluence, highly industrialized or agricultural, lack of infrastructures or availability
of facilities, highly socialized or every apathetic and
iv) A feeling of oneness and sense of belonging which enable them to pursue
common goals such as the development of the people and their physical
environment.

Considering the various definitions and descriptions of the concept of community,
it is clear that the following elements constitute what a community is,
- Group of people
- Shared territory that has geographical boundaries
- Common goals or interest, and
- Common ways of life

What is Development?
The term development is blessed with avalanche of definitions. Different scholars
conceptualize development in different ways. Development can be viewed from
economical, social, cultural, political, technological, agricultural perspectives and so on.

Kidd (1989) associates development with the ability of the people to solve their
own problems with their own wisdom, experience and resources such that they are able to
eliminate poverty, pestilence and starvation in their midst. Also, Adesina (1984) views
development as involving the development of man, the unfolding and realization of his
creative potentials exalting him to improve his material conditions of living through the
use of resources available to him. Angaye (1995) however, conceptualizes development as
the improvement in the material, intellectual, spiritual and moral quality of life through
increased per capita, the elimination of absolute property, the reduction in unemployment
and unjustified inequalities, the acquisition of good education, health, better food and
housing, increased security of life and poverty, high self esteem and self respect, greater
freedom of choice and ability to determine ones own destiny. Amirinze (2005) defined
development as any conscious effort made or designed by individuals, organizations or
state authorities to facilitate the gradual growth, advancement and improved wellbeing of
man and society.

The preview of the concepts of community and development no doubt throw some
light on the meaning of community development. At least it is clear that community

368

development is a people oriented programme geared toward the improvement of the
living standard of the populace.

According to the Great Britain Colonial Office (1955) the term community
development was first mentioned internationally at the 1948 Cambridge Conference on
Africa administration organized by the British Colonial Office. There it was agreed that
the compound word community development should be used in place of mass education
and defined it as a movement designed to promote better living for the whole
community with the active participation and if possible on the initiative of the
community, but if this is not forth coming spontaneous, by the use of techniques for
arousing and stimulating it, in order to secure its active and enthusiastic response to the
movement. Since then the concept has undergone some form of semantic
metamorphosis and has therefore been used in different context to refer to mutually
related development activities and situations. Accordingly, varieties of meaning are
ascribed to community development by different scholars and practitioners.

Oduaran (1994) noted that in community development, emphasis is laid on the process of
development and its effects on the people. It is the development of man, his insights,
knowledge, skills, aptitudes, attitudes and the appreciation of the techniques of utilizing
these for his own improvement and that of his community or society.

Okujagu (2000) opined that community development is the getting together of the
people of a particular community, to bring about the progress of the people, through self-
help programmes and projects organized by the people for the social, political, health,
cultural and educational wellbeing of the people of the community. Barikor (1984) sees
community development by contemporary standard as an amalgam of many dynamic and
complementary factors including educational, economic, social, political and cultural
transformation of the community and their subsequent emancipation from regressive
tradition, poverty, ignorance and diseases.

Community development can be seen as a deliberate plan of action undertaken by
an individual or group of persons, government or non-governmental organizations with
the active participation of members of the community or by the community themselves
with or without the support of external agencies in order to bring about economic, social,
political, technological and cultural improvement in the overall living conditions of the
people of the community.

From a broad point of view, community development is aimed at promoting better
material and non-material living conditions for the entire community relying on their
resources, initiatives and participation. Their initiatives and participation can be aroused
by specialist as well as support from government and non-governmental organizations.
This is where the role of local government councils in community development becomes
very important being the tier of government that is closest to the people especially rural
dwellers.

The Role of Local Government Councils in Community Development
According to Etigbamo (2012) the primary purpose of local government is to bring
government nearer to the local communities so that the grassroot people could participate
fully in the process of governance. This is in order to provide local services and thus

369

accelerate the pace of social, economic and political development of the local
communities through the involvement or active participation of the local populace. Local
Government therefore, makes appropriate and development activities responsive to local
wishes by catering for their needs. As grass root based, consisting of small units of local
communities upon which political powers are devolved to cater for their needs, local
government serves as a viable instrument for rapid and even development of local
communities. As a community based authority, it creates great sense of we feeling
among the people of the area.

As observed by Ona (1995) and Etigbamo (2012) the concern of local government
in rural and community development is because local government is better placed and has
superior capacity to understand and conduct local affairs. The rationale for this assertion
is that local government has the capacity to identify needs and demands of the grassroot
people than the other two tiers of government that is federal and state. Accordingly, the
1976 local government reform state three main objectives which directly formed the bulk
of roles it must play in rural and community development. These are:
i) To make appropriate services and development activities to local wishes and
initiatives.
ii) To mobilize human and material resources through peoples participation in
development process.
iii) To encourage local initiatives and leadership potentials.
The above implies that it is incumbent on local government to infuse and employ
necessary local traditional institutions and organizational structures like the village head,
district or clan head, town associations, youth and women groups into the institutional
and organizational arrangements of the lower tier of government for the achievement of
community development objectives.

Local government is also duty bound to mobilize the rural dwellers for effective
political participation. Okoli (1995) described this role as mobilizing the rural power
centres for the implementation of community development programmes. Mobilization
according to Oyeyipo (1987) is the awakening of the consciousness or awareness of the
people about their physical, cultural, international, social, economic and political
environment and forces that promote and inhibit their progress and well being.

Furthermore, as the nearest government to the people, local government is at best
to know the needs and demands of the local people and more so the leadership of the
people to be involved in the decision-making in order to enlist their support and co-
operation during programme execution. Apart from the above, local government
encourages the development of local technologies appropriate for community
development and self reliance.

Local Government also plays the role of human capital development. This lies in
the investment in human capital through formal and non-formal education, skill
acquisition, conscientization and social mobilization which are necessary ingredients of
community development. The preservation of local environmental resources is also a
cardinal role of local government in community development. Local government bye-laws
help in combating environmental degradation while promoting environmental friendly
habits in the local dwellers through mass campaign.


370

Ugwu (2000) noted that the importance of local government to rural, community
and national development cannot be over-emphasized. He opined that from colonial era
to date, the local government had been so re-organized as a vital instrument to enhance
community development in Nigeria. Hence the following are areas in which the local
government facilitates community development. They are:

i) Economic Sector: Since the constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria
bestows on the local government the power to be involved in planning and
execution of economic development, it is argued that this involvement will enable
local government develop programmes that will give direction and purpose to the
local communities. It can also mobilize both human and material resources
through the involvement of members of the rural communities in their local
economic development programmes. Onyishi (2000) noted that some other ways
local government enhance economic development in the rural communities
include; market development, implementation of national economic policies,
increased economic opportunities can be provided through the assistance of the
local government in form of credit facilities, land and other productive capital for
both agriculture and non-agricultural production among others.
ii) Transportation and Communication: Local government plays a role in the
construction and maintenance of rural roads. They build feeder roads and bridges
to link villages as well as farmlands in order to make transportation of agricultural
products easier. Local government also facilitates the development of rural
communities by embarking on mass transit programme. It also makes
communication easier by disseminating information to the rural populace about
national and state issues.
iii) Agricultural sector: According to Njoku (1993) local government has been very
active in the implementation of agricultural policies and extension services. For
instance, to educate and help the local farmers understand the mechanism and
appreciate modern techniques of production such as the use of quick maturing,
high-yielding varieties of seeds, chemical fertilizers, mechanization of agricultural
operations and crop protection measures like the use of pesticides. This increases
productivity as well as enhance socio-economic lives of farmers.
iv) Provision of Essential Amenities: This is one major role local government plays
in community development. Lack of basic social amenities such as water and
electricity contribute greatly to the dichotomy between urban and rural
communities. It is the lack of these amenities that causes rural-urban drift. Local
government has the duty to provide electricity and other social amenities to
communities through the rural electrification scheme and budgeting allocation.
v) Rural Industrialization: Local government contributes to community
development through rural industrialization. This they do by encouraging small
scale industries such as garri processing industries, live stock, palm oil processing,
bag and craft processing industries among others. The local government does
these by the provision of credit facilities such as soft loans, tax freedom as well as
provision of land. Industrialization plays a vital role in economic development
because it brings about improvement in the per capita income, employment
opportunities and makes communities and individuals self reliance.
vi) Encourages town unions and voluntary agencies: Local government councils
encourages and support town unions and voluntary agencies to participate in
community development efforts. Ofuebe (1996) observed that local government
councils supports community development projects embarked upon by town

371

unions and other agencies by providing grant in aid, technical experts and
necessary building and construction materials.
vii) Health and Educational Sector: Local government is charged with the
responsibility of both primary health care and primary schools. Local government
assists communities in the provision and equipping of primary health care
facilities.
In similar vein, local governments also build schools and provide instructional
materials in the primary schools. They also donate text books and laboratory
equipment to secondary and tertiary institutions.

Conclusion
Community development programming is one sure way of alleviating the standard of
living of the people in our society especially those at the grass root. The role of local
government in the development of rural communities cannot be under estimated. This is
why as the nearest tier of government to the people; local government has a lot to do in
the political, social, economical and cultural well-being of the people. This paper
concludes that because of the extensive nature of the role for local government in
community development, it deserves more budgetary allocation from the federal and state
government so that enough fund would be available to perform her roles in community
development and other areas. This paper further concludes that local government would
be more efficient in community development role performance if the on-going
constitution amendment could consider total autonomy for the local government so that
it stop being an appendage to the state that rely on the mercy of the state governor to
function.

References
Adesina, S. (1984). Growth with Development: An Inaugural Lecture. University of Ilorin.
Amirinze, B.(2005). Community Development Project Management. Owerri: Spring Field
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Anyanwu, C.N. (1981). Principles and Practice of Adult Education and Community Development.
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Barikor, C.N. (1984). Contemporary Issues in Community Development Education. Adult
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Bola, S.O and Bello, O. (1987). Community Development: The Backbone for Promoting Socio-
economic Growth. Zaria: Okuseyi Boladeji Company.
Dagana, J.A. (2005). Local Government Administrators: Productivity and Performance of Local
Government Functionaries in Nigeria. Port-Harcourt: Pearl Publishers.
Etigbamo, E.J (2012). Local Government Councils and their Contributions to Community
Development in Bayelsa State. Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation.
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Kaduna. Government Printers.
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Njoku D. (1996). Rural Economy and Local Government Administration in Nigeria. Academic
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Publications.
Okoli, M. U. (2005). Local Government Administrative System: An Introductory and Comparative
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Okujagu, T.N. (2000). Adult Education: Perspectives, Processes, Programming and Practice (ed)
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International.
Ona, R.C (1995). Political Authority and the Nigeria Civil Servant. Enugu: Furth Dimension.
Onyishi, A.O. (2000). Local Government and Rural Development. An Analysis in Umeballi et
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Development in Nigeria: Computer Edge Publishers.
Osuji, E.E. (1984). The University and Community Services in Nigeria. Adult Education.
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Oyeyipo, S. (1987). Financial Control and Accountability in Local Government Council,
Unpublished Seminar Paper.
Ugwu, S.C. (2000). Issues in Local Government and Urban Administrators in Nigeria. Enugu:
Academic Printing Press.
Vincent, N. and Ugoo, E. (2007). Local Government Administration in Nigeria. Issues and
Practice. Onitsha: Abbot Books Limited.


373

RECORD KEEPING PRACTICES BY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS IN
EDO STATE

By

HEZEKIAH OGBOMIDA ALONGE, Ph.D
Department of Educational Studies & Management
University of Benin, Benin City.
e-mail: alohezek@yahoo.com
phone:08038191012

&

MRS. UMEMETU MOMOH
Department of Educational Studies & Management
e-mail: umaimoh@yahoo.com

Abstract
The study investigates record keeping practices by school administrators in public
secondary schools in Edo State. Ninety secondary schools were selected through
stratified random sampling techniques from the three senatorial zones in Edo State. A
validated instrument titled: School Administrators Record Keeping Practices
Questionnaire (SARKPQ) was used to generate data for the study. Percentages and
inferential statistics (t-test) were used to answer the research questions and hypothesis
formulated for the study. The results revealed that school administrators in Edo State
do not use modern technological methods to keep vital school records rather
traditional and ineffective methods are still in vogue. There was also no significant
difference in the record keeping practices of experienced and less-experienced
principals. However, it was found that a difference exists in the record keeping
practices by principals based on locations of schools. It was therefore recommended
among others that school Parent-Teacher-Association (PTA), Old students,
Philanthropists and corporate organizations should complement governments efforts
in the area of funding and provision of school facilities that will promote effective and
efficient records keeping practices in schools.
Keywords: Record keeping, practices, school, administrators and Edo State.


374

Introduction
The school is a quintessential social organization saddled with the responsibility of
achieving educational objectives that will improve the well-being of the people in the
society. Human, materials and fiscal resources are thus provided to achieve these goals.
The inputs are further processed into desirable outcomes that act as positive socio-
political, economic and technological change agents. To realize these transformational
goals ultimately, school administrators need to effectively plan, organize, staff, direct, co-
ordinate, control, report and periodically evaluate school related activities. Planning for
result-oriented activities by school administrators is therefore anchored on effective
management and utilization of data, generated through efficient record keeping or
information management mechanism.

According to Ogonor and Ojoh (1995), decisions involving the proper mix of
resources to obtain optimum results, requires availability of data that must be properly
kept, accessible and utilized. School records are indispensable for meaningful
administrative and academic decisions within the school system. Record keeping therefore
occupies a strategic position in the efficient and effective management of the educational
system. Igwoku (2008) viewed record keeping as central in the administration of
institutions of learning. The success or failure of an educational system is a function of
record keeping practice by the school manager. Hence Nwagwu (1995:1) asserted that
records and records keeping constitute the arteries that supply life-sustaining blood
through the system and sub-systems of an organizations and institutions. Properly
managed school records promote school administrators performance (Fasasi, 2004).

Emerson (1989) posited that records are those documents in whatever medium,
received or created by an organization in the course of business because of the
information contained. Record Keeping is a legal educational requirement that must be
adhered to by educational institutions for effective school management. It is in light of
this that Osakwe (2011) viewed school records as official documents, books and files
containing essential and crucial information of actions and events which are kept and
preserved in the school office for utilization and retrieval of information whenever
necessary.

School records therefore include all the books and files containing information
relating to what goes on in the school, who is in the school as well as what type of
property the school want (Iguodala, 2011). He added that school records include facts or
ideas about the relationship the school has with external environment.

Fagbulu and Duze in Nwagwu (1995) identified 29 various types of records that are
kept in the school system while Multi Resources Associate Limited (1990) documented 44
school records. Egwuyenga (2000) emphasized that there are plethora of records kept in
the educational system. He therefore classified them into two broad categories, viz;
mandatory and optional (discretionary) records. Examples of mandatory otherwise
known as statutory records are: Admission Register, Log Book, Copy of the National
Policy on Education, Attendance Register, School Time Table, Scheme of work, Diary of
Works, Visitors Book, Examination and Continuous Assessment Record Book, Time and
Movement Book, A copy of Education Law Book and A copy of syllabus for Junior and
Senior Secondary School each as applicable.


375

The non-statutory (discretionary) school records include: Notes of lessons, Marks
Books, Staff Meeting Minutes Books, Inventory Book, School Calendar, Stock Book,
Health Record Book, PTA Account Book, Disciplinary Book, Correspondence with the
School, Duty Roster, Past Students Records, Budget Book, Handing over notes/files etc.

A school needs an array of records for it to meaningfully carry out pedagogical and
instructional responsibilities cum its counseling roles to the students. Okeke (2001)
described properly kept school records as information bank to practicing school
administrators (principals) and teachers. Chapman (1991) highlighted the purpose of
record keeping and management in school as follows. They are:
a. To facilitate research activities that will promote efficiency and effectiveness of
the school system;
b. To ensure that accurate and proper record of students achievements and
growth during their school days are kept;
c. To ensure that an up-to-date information on any school matter of students is
made available to users when requested for;
d. To provide useful information to the educational planners and administrators;
e. To provide useful information to an employer of labour who may want to
recruit pupils for jobs as required in testimonials, transcripts, certificates and
reference letters.

Consequently, for effective management of the various school records, Oyedeji,
Adeyemo and Adekoya (1995) classified them into five broad areas:
i. Reference records;
ii. Administrative records;
iii. Academic records/classroom records;
iv. Official correspondence records;
v. Financial management records

Despite the relevance of school records to quality educational attainment in Nigeria,
the spirit of proper and effective record keeping practices has not been fully internalized
by school administrators especially at the secondary education level. Makinde (1991),
Nwagwu (1995) and Nakpodia (2009) attributed the failure of Nigeria educational policies
to poor record keeping practices by relevant educational stakeholders.

Nakpodia (2009) explained record keeping as the practice of maintaining the
records of an organization from the time they were created up to their eventual disposal.
For effective and efficient record keeping practices in a school system the following
materials are needed: filling cabinets, Duplicating Machines, Photocopy machine,
Computers, Cash saves, Perforators, Office Pins, File jackets, File tags and Stationery
(Ajayi, 1992). Information managers who are skillful in information Communication
Technology (ICT) are equally needed for an efficient and systematic control of all the
relevant records that aid the administration of a school system.

In a typical Nigeria School, bulk of the records are manually kept by school
principals or dumped in an unused space thereby rendering their utilization ineffective.
Supporting this observation, Iwhiwhu (2005) and Iyede (2001) decried the insufficient
number of quality records managers in the school system. Asogwa (2004) however
recommended that record keeping practices should be improved upon through the
provision of both physical and electronic facilities that will aid the utilization and future

376

retrieval of such data. Osakwe (2011) in her study found that experienced principals are
more competent in records management than less experienced principals while principals
from urban and rural schools do not show significant difference in their record
management culture.
Records keeping practices play diverse roles in any school system. They are used to
preserve the history and culture of the school, they reveal the vision and mission of a
school, and they are used to measure the level of commitment of both the school
authority and students towards the realization of school objectives. Poor record keeping
culture by school administrators will also jeopardize the attainment of educational goals.
Since effective and efficient record keeping practices is sine-qua-none to school success it
is therefore imperative to investigate the records keeping practices by school
administrators in Edo State.

Problem Statement
School records are veritable data and information that enable management to plan school
operations for the purpose of enhancing teaching and learning activities. In spite of the
relevance of school records, there have been open lamentations by school inspectors and
supervisors, parents, students, educational planners and managers of schools about how
records are managed in the school system. Other stakeholders in the education business
have also decried the dearth and sometimes absence of vital records in schools.

Observation has equally revealed that of a few records that can be found in school,
they are usually not properly kept for optimum utilization by those charged with such
responsibility. It is against this background that the study x-rayed the record keeping
practices by school administrators in Edo State.

Research Questions
To guide the study, the following research questions were raised.
1. What methods do school administrators use in keeping school records?
2. What are the causes of poor record keeping practices by school administrators?
3. Is there any difference in the record keeping practices of experienced and less
experienced principals in Edo State?
4. Does the record keeping practices of principals in Edo State affected by school
location?

Hypotheses
Two hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 alpha level of significance.
Ho
1.
There is no significant difference in the record keeping practices between
experienced and less experienced principals in Edo State.
Ho
2
There is no significant difference in the record keeping practices between principals
in urban and rural secondary schools in Edo State.

Purpose of the study
The study is purposed to examine the records keeping practices by school administrators
in Edo State and factors that militate against effective record keeping practices. The study
further investigated if:
there is any significant difference in the record keeping practices between
professionally experienced and less experienced principals;

377

there is any marked difference in the record keeping practices between urban and
rural school principals.

Methodology
Design
Descriptive survey designed was used to investigate record keeping practices by school
administrators in Edo State.

Sample
For the purpose of this study 30 secondary schools were selected each from the three
senatorial zones that make Edo State through stratified random sampling technique. The
principals from each of the sampled school were selected. In all, a total of 90 public
secondary school administrators were investigated. Professional experience of the school
administrators and location of schools were other variables considered before the
selection of the subjects.

Research Instrument
A self designed instrument by the investigator tagged: School Administrators Record
Keeping Practices Questionnaire (SARKPQ) was used for the study. Following the
validation of the instrument, a test-re-test method was used to ascertain its reliability. The
Pearson product moment correlation established its reliability co-efficient to be r=0.68.
The instrument was divided into two sections; A and B. Section A elicited demographic
information like name of school and location, qualification(s), experience and sex from
the respondents. Section B generated data on types methods used for keeping records
and challenges faced in using such storage methods in school related records.

Administration of Instrument
The researcher and three trained research assistants administered the instrument to the
subjects in person. The essence was to guarantee 100% rate of return. Consequently, six
weeks was spent on data collection.

Data Analysis
Frequencies and percentages were used to answer unhypothesised research questions.
While the t-test statistical tool was employed in analyzing the hypotheses formulated for
the study.

Results
The results of findings are presented in tables below.
Research question 1: what methods do school administrators use in keeping school
records?
Table 1: Percentage distribution of observed methods of keeping school Records
by School Administrators
S/N Method No. of
Schools
Positive Responses
N (%)
Negative
Responses N

378

(%)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Office files
Office cabinets
Computer files
C.D ROMS
Flash drives
Drawer/lockers
Tables
Shelves
Cartons
Office Vault
Record folders
Students files
Teachers files
Audio recorder
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90 100
62 69
15 17
-
-
67 74
75 83
84 93
12 13
-
71 79
70 78
90 100
-
-
28 31
75 83
90 100
90 100
23 26
15 17
06 07
78 87
90 100
29 21
20 22
-
90 100
Source: Researchers field work

Table 1 reveals School Administrators record keeping practices with regard to methods
employed. Based on the table, principals adopt fourteen methods of keeping school
records. A cursory look at the table further reveals that school records are commonly
kept in office files, teachers files, shelves, tables, record folders, students files, drawers or
lockers and office cabinets.

However, it is also observed from the table that school principals do not use some
modern methods of keeping records such as Computer Disc Read Only Memory (CD
ROM), flash drives, office vault and audio recorder. Though only an insignificant number
of principals 15, (17%) adopt an electronic device (computer) to keep school information.
The table equally disclosed that (17%) of the principal still use cartons in this modern and
technological manual age to keep records.

Research question 2: what are the causes of poor record keeping practices by school
administrators?
Table 2: percentage distribution of observed causes of Poor Record Keeping
Practices by School Administrators
Causes Major
N %
Minor
N %
Poor/inadequate physical structures

Lack of electricity supply

Poor knowledge of computer appreciation

Absence of school information managers

Unavailability of computers

Poor financial support

Inadequate training of school record keepers

47 52

51 57

57 63

85 94

72 80

81 90

88 98

43 48

39 43

33 37

5 6

18 20

9 10

2 2


379

Students population 65 72 25 18

Table 2 graphically shows the observed causes of poor record keeping practices by school
administrators in Edo state. The major causes as presented in the table are inadequate
training of school record keepers, absence of school information managers and poor
financial support which account for (98%), (94%) and (90%) respectively as revealed by
the respondents. Others are unavailability of computer systems (80%), teeming students
population (72%) and poor knowledge of computer appreciation by school administrators
(63%). The least of the causes is poor or inadequate physical structures like classrooms
and office accommodation as attested to by 52% of the respondents. This is shown in
table 2.
Ho
1
There is no significant difference in the record keeping practices between
experienced and less experienced principals in Edo State.

Table 3: t-test difference in the record keeping practices by experienced and less
experienced principals in Edo State.
Variables N _
X
SD Df Calculated
value
Table
value
Decision
Urban
Principals
53 2.62 0.21
88

0.66

1.56

Not
Significant Rural
Principals
37 2.58 0.34
*P>0.05

In table 3, the mean score of experienced principals is 2.62 with a standard deviation of
0.21 while the mean score of less-experienced principals is 2.58 with a standard deviation
of 0.36. Since the calculated value of 0.66 is less than the table value of 1.56, it implies
that there is no significant difference in the record keeping practices of professionally
experienced and less-experienced principals in Edo State Secondary Schools.

Table 4: t-test difference in the record keeping practices of principals in Edo State
by location.
Variables N _
X
SD Df Calculated
value
Table
value
Decision
Urban Principals 47 3.60 4.12
88

3.51

2.49

Significant Rural Principals 43 2.46 3.06
*P>0.05
Table 4 reveals that the calculated table (3.51) is greater than table value of (2.49) at 0.05
level of significance with a degree of freedom of 88. Based on this result, the null
hypothesis is consequently rejected. This means that there is a significant difference in
the record keeping practices of principals in urban and rural areas in Edo State public
secondary schools.
Discussion
Results of the findings show that school administrators in Edo State adopt mostly
traditional methods of keeping school records. Most of which are office and teachers
files, shelves, tables and lockers. It is disturbing and shocking to further find that 13% of

380

school administrators in Edo State still use cartons and other forms of ineffective and
indecent objects to keep vital school records. Quite revealing also is that modern
technological methods for managing all-important and useful records like computer files,
flash drives, CD ROMS and audio recorders by school Guidance Counselors are hardly
used.
Only 15% of the administrators use computer system to manage
information/records in schools. This probably explains why academic and administrative
decisions are not optimally achieved. Obsolete and ineffective record management
system will certainly result to ineffective and inefficient school operations. In relation to
this study Makinde (1991), Nwagwu (1995) and Nakpodia (2009) at various times blamed
the failure of Nigeria educational policies to poor record keeping practices by relevant
bodies.
With regard to the causes of poor record keeping practices, table 2 reveals that
several factors are responsible. Inadequate training of school record keepers accounts for
98% of the causes while absence of school information manager was also considered as a
major factor as expressed by about 94% of the respondents. 80% of the school
administrators further attribute unavailability of computer systems in schools to be a
major cause of poor record keeping practices by school administrators. The finding is in
consonance with the claims of Iyede (2001), Iwhiwhu (2005) and Asogwei (2004). The
result further discloses that most schools do not have secured physical structures like
store rooms for vital records. While virtually all the schools in the rural areas do not have
access to electricity supply. Those in the urban areas grapple with the problem of
epileptic electricity supply. A sustained situation like this will render the drive for
computerization of school records and information management system for effective
service delivery an impossible mission in Nigeria educational system.
The study also discovers that there is no significant difference in the record keeping
practices between experienced and less experienced principals in public secondary schools
in Edo State. The implication of this observation is that both experienced and less
experienced principals in Edo State have not keyed into the transformational
computerization and modernization of record keeping mechanism for optimal goal
attainment. The study also reveals that professional experience of principals do not have
significant influence on the ways and means which schools administrators keep school
records especially when they are faced with similar challenges. However, this finding is in
variation to Osakwe (2011) who found that there exists difference in the effective
management of school records by secondary school principals based on experience in
Delta State.
The t-test difference in the record keeping practices of principals in Edo State by
location shows that the calculated value of 3.51 was greater than the table value of 2.49.
It therefore connotes that there is a significant difference in the record keeping practices
between principals in urban and rural areas in Edo State public secondary schools. This
revelation is in tune with Osawe (2011) in a similar study in Delta State. The possible
reason(s) for this difference could be as a result of the fact that school administrators in
urban areas have access to modern technological means of records management devices
than their counterparts in rural areas. It equally implies that schools in urban areas have
comparative advantage over others in terms of adequate facilities such as good storage
system for easy retrieval of records that are germane to instructional excellence and

381

effective administrative processes and positive decisions. It is believed that schools in
urban areas are models to others and therefore may enjoy adequate funding and regular
supervision from Education Ministry at achieving global best practices and quality
standards in the education industry in the state. To this end, a marked difference in terms
of efficient and effective record keeping methods may be observed in urban schools than
those in rural areas.
Conclusion
Resulting from the findings of the study, it can be concluded that majority of the school
administrators in Edo States do not use modern and technological method of keeping
school records. Also, it can be concluded that the poor record keeping practices by
school administrator is a function of numerous challenges being faced by schools such as
poor physical structures, poor financial support, absence of competent information
managers, poor training opportunities to the available records managers and unavailability
of computer systems in schools. Furthermore, it is concluded from the results of the
study that poor record keeping practices has adverse implication on the childs quality
educational attainment. Lastly, it is concluded that school location influences the record
keeping practices of principals in Edo State public secondary schools.
Recommendations
Based on the findings and conclusions made from the study, the following
recommendations are made to improve on the record keeping practices in Edo State
public secondary schools.
1. Government, Parent-Teacher-Association (PTA) body and examination bodies
like WAEC and NECO should assist in the provision of funds and school
facilities that will promote good and effective method of keeping valuable school
records.
2. Successful old students, philanthropists and corporate organizations should be
encouraged to donate computer systems and modern information management
devices to schools to complement government efforts in improving the standards
of education.
3. Government should organize at regular intervals mandatory seminars/workshops
on effective information management system for school administrators
irrespective of location, experience and gender difference.
4. Besides the appointment of adequate number of personnel in schools, at least a
specially trained school record officer should be deployed to every school to
guarantee proper and effective records management system.

References
Ajayi, K (1992). Record Keeping in Schools. In Federal Ministry of Education,
World Bank Primary Education Sector Programme Training of Master Trainers in
School Management and Supervision. A paper presented at training workshop
organized by the Educational Industries (Nigeria) Ltd. Federal College of
Education, Abeokuta, 3
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May.
Asogwa, G.E. (2004). Library record and maintenance. J. Library Information Science 2:88-
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Chapman, D.W. (1991). Education data quality in the third world: A five country study.
International Review of Education. 37(3):365-379
Egwunyenga, E.J (2000), Essential of School Administration Benin City: Justice Jeco
Computers and Business Centre.
Emerson, P. (1989). How to Manage your Records. Paris: ICSA Publication.
Fasasi, Y.A (2004). School Record Keeping: A strategy for Management of Nigerian
Secondary Education Institutions. Ilorin: Journal of Education. 23:73-78
Iguodala, W. (1998). Records in Educational Management In Educational
Management for Sub-Sahara Africa. Nwadiani, Mon (Ed). Benin: Monose
Amalgamates.
Iwhiwhu, B.E. (2005). Management of Records in Nigeria Universities: Problems and Prospect.
J. Electrical Library. 23:345-355.
Iyede, R.O. (2001). Managing Human Resources. Introduction to Educational Administration
and Supervision. Peretomode, V. F. (Ed). Lagos: Joja Educational
Research and Publishers Ltd.
Makinde, O. (1991) Records and Record-keeping by the school Counsellor.
Education Today Quarterly Journal of the Federal Ministry of Education. Lagos: Vol. 5, No.
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Multi Resources Associates Ltd. (1990). Record Keeping as Instrument for Excellence. Ikeja,
Lagos.
Nakpodia, E.D. (2009). Record Management in Nigerian Secondary School
Administration Education Resources Information Centre. Retrieved from http:/eric.ed
gov/
Nwagwu, N.A. (1995). The Development and Management of Records in
the Nigerian Education System. In Data Management in Schools and Other Issues.
Ehiametalor, E.T. (Ed). Benin City: NERA.
Ogonor, B.O & Ojoh, F (1995) A study of Record Management in Secondary
Schools in Ughelli North and South Local Government Areas. In Data
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Association. Vol.2,P.12.
Osakwe, N.R. (2011). Management of School Records By Secondary School Principals
in Delta State, Nigeria. The Social Sciences. 6(1):40-44.
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Data Management in Schools and Other issues. Ehiametalor, E.T. (Ed). Benin City:
NERA


383

FACTORS INFLUENCING ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF
ECONOMICS STUDENTS AT SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVEL IN
LAGOS STATE - NIGERIA
By
MRS. W. L. LAWAL, Ph.D

G. N. ODO,

&

K.O. SEIDU
Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education
Faculty of Education University of Lagos, Nigeria

Abstract
This study investigated the factors affecting academic performance of economics
students at secondary school level in Lagos State, Nigeria. The design was purely a
survey study. Questionnaire was used to collect primary data from 104 economics
students and 16 economics teachers randomly selected from the study area. The
collected data was analysed using percentages and multiple regression analysis. The
findings of the study revealed that the number of hours a student devotes to study
economics as a subject and the age of the mother significantly affect the performance of
the students in economics examinations. The study therefore, recommends that
economics students should cultivate positive learning attitudes to study always and
not necessary during the examinations only. In addition, schools should provide hostel
accommodation for the students and provide school buses to convey the students back
and forth. This will ease the stress of distraction to studies and improve the
performance in economics.
Key words: Academic performance, regression analysis, Economics


384

Introduction
Economics is a social science subject that explains human behaviours. It studies how
people organize production, consumption and exchange activities. The subject at micro
and macro level is concerned with efficient use of the scarce resources to maximize the
welfare of the people (Bakare, 1999). Economics education involves using appropriate
teaching methodologies in enhancing the understanding of economics as a concept. It
facilitates an in-depth residual knowledge of the learner in order to make them contribute
meaningfully to the growth and development of the society.
The subject was first taken in the West African School Certificate Examination
(WAEC) in 1967 (Obemeata, 1991). It was introduced into the curricular of secondary
school in Nigeria because of the controversy over the teaching of the subject. The
argument was based on the teaching ability of the subject to secondary school students
(Ajiboye, 2003). The principals in secondary schools in Nigeria then were missionaries
who were suspicious of the subject as a course of study for radicals that could breed
communism, which at that time was regarded as a great threat to stability in the colonial
territories and should therefore be kept at bay (N.T.I, 2003).
However, the subject was gradually accepted as a subject to be taught in secondary
schools. People began to appreciate the civic and educational value of the economy as
topics like inflation, national income, population banking etc. According to Adu, (2000),
economics was recognized based on its contribution to the intellectual development of
the recipient. It is taught at the senior secondary level to the students who had reached a
certain level of intellectual maturity.
According to National Policy on Education (N.P.E, 2004), secondary school education is
defined as the education children receive after primary education and before the tertiary
stage. It has the broad goal of preparing individuals for useful living within the society and
prepares students for higher education irrespective of sex, social status, religious or ethnic
background. It also provides trained manpower in the applied science, technology and
commerce and sub-professional grades etc.
Assessment of or measuring of the students performance in economics in
Nigerian secondary schools is a challenging study since students performance is a product
of socio economic, psychological and environmental factors. Education in Nigeria grows
as a profitable industry with prime objective of maximizing profit by delivering high
quality education that produces well-educated, skilled and mannered students according to
the needs and requirements of the dynamically growing market (Shiltu, 2004).
The National Policy on Education recognized the importance of Economics being
a subject that has relevance to everyday human life (Lawal, 1992). The subject has
objective of developing in students economic sense of being prudent and efficient in the
management of the scarce resources. It also enables one acquire knowledge necessary for
providing practical solutions to the economic problems of the society.
However, studies show that the performance of students in the subject in Senior
Secondary School Certificate Examination (SSCE) has been deteriorating (Obemeata
1991, and Adu, 2001). This was partially attributed to students dislike for mathematics,
which is a pre-requisite subject for economics. Students attitude to mathematics
determines the degree to which they master and pass Economics (Gallaham, 1991).

385

This study is of the opinion that apart from mathematics there are other individual
factors affecting the performance of the students in Economics in the study area as there
is little or no studies on this issue. This study, therefore aims at investigating the factors
that affects the performance of economics students at secondary school level in Lagos
State.
The study becomes relevant as the findings is expected to serve as a guide for
students of economics in Nigerian secondary schools, economics teachers, school
principals or administrators, parents, policy makers, the Nigeria government and the
curriculum developers in improving the performance of economics students in secondary
schools.
Statement of Problem
Economics is necessary for the students useful living and effective management of the
scarce resource (Badmus (1993). Obemeata, (1991) identified that the performance of
students in economics at secondary schools level has been deteriorating and this is
affecting the economy of the country. However, these studies were unable to determine
what factors were responsible for the poor performance in economics in the study area.
Moreover, a number of research studies have assessed the performance of students
in economics, i.e. Olotu 1994; Hansen, 2000; Ituah (2000) using regression models. Most
of the studies were carried out in other geographical areas with little or none in this study
area. This study, therefore, investigate the factors affecting the performance of students
offering economics subject at the secondary school level in Lagos State, Nigeria.
The main objective of this study is to investigate the factors affecting the students
performance in economics subject at secondary school level in Lagos State.
Specific objectives are to:
1. Assess the socio-economic characteristic of the economics students in the study
area.
2. Investigate the characteristics of the parent of the economics students in the study
area.
3. Examine the characteristics of the economics teachers in the study area.
4. Determine the effects of socio-economic characteristics of the economics
students on their performance in economics subject in the study area.
Research Questions
1. What are the socio-economic characteristics of the economics students in the
study area?
2. What are the characteristics of the parents of the economics students in the study
area?

386

3. What are the characteristics of the teachers teaching economics in secondary
schools in the study area?
4. What factors determine the performance of students in economics in the study
area?
Statement of Hypothesis
Null hypothesis: The socio-economic characteristics of economics students do not have
significant effect on the level of performance in economics.
Methodology
Research Design
The design adopted for the study was purely a survey.
Population
The study adopted survey research design. The population for the study was all the
economics students and teachers in secondary schools in Lagos State, Nigeria.
Sample and Sampling Techniques
A sample of 104 economics students and 16 economics teachers were selected from
private and public secondary schools in Lagos State through Stratified random sampling
technique.
Instrument
Questionnaire was used to collect data from the respondents. It was divided into two
sections A and B. Section A focuses on the students bio-data while section B focused on
specific questions relevant to the study. These sections comprised 44
statements/questions. The respondents were to indicate their response against the
questions asked in the questionnaire.
The questionnaire was given to some expert lecturers in the University of Lagos for face
and content validity. It was pilot-tested to ensure internal consistency. The reliability
coefficient of 0.86 of the questionnaire was considered consistent, adequate and usable
for this study.
Data Analysis
Simple percentage and multiple regression analysis were used to analyse the collected
data. Multiple regression analysis was used to determine the effects of socio-economic
variables of the students on examination performance.
Model Specification
The model for the regression analysis is expressed as follows:
Y = b
0
+ b
1
X
1
+ b
2
X
2
+ b
3
X
3
+ b
4
X
4
+ b
5
X
5
+ b
6
X
6
+ b
7
X
7
+ Ui
Where

387

Y = the performance of the economics student (marks scored in the last examination %)
X
1
= Class attendance
X
2
= Distance covered by the students from home to school (Km)
X
3
= Level of education of student mother (years spent in school)
X
4
= Age of the student (years)
X
5
= Age of the mother of the student (years)
X
6
= Average number of hours studied by the student daily (hours)
X
7
= Income of the student father (Naira)
Regression analysis is a mathematical analysis that defines the relationship between two or
more variables. It estimates the values that represent the effect of the independent
variable(s) on the dependent variable. Many researchers in similar studies (Hansen 2000
and Zimmerman 2000) have used the method.
Result: The results of this study are presented according to the research questions asked.
Research Question 1: What are the socio economic characteristics of the economics
students in secondary schools in Lagos State?
Table 1: Socio-economic characteristics of the Economics Students in Lagos State
Variable Explanation Frequency %
Number of hours studied per day
(hours)
1.0
2. 0 - 3.0

3.1 4.0
> 4.0
Total

Never study
Study for examination only
Study for home work
Study always

2
49

32
21
104

1.9
47.1

30.8
20.2
100
Distance between the home and
the schools (km)
< 2
2 - 10
> 10

Very close
Far
Very far

10
74
20

9.6
71.2
19.2
Class attendance %
< 75
76-90
> 90
Total

Highly irregular
Regular
Highly regular

2
27
75
104

1.9
26.0
72.1
100

388

Performance in Economics (%)
40
41 -49
51-50
60
Total

Poor performance
Average
Good performance
Excellent performance

5
31
28
40
44

4.9
29.8
26.9
38.5
100

Information answering this research question is found in Table 1 above. The result shows
that most students (47.1%) study for 2-3 hours during examination. Attend economics
(72.1%) classes very regularly (72.1%) and (61.5%) (64 out of 104 students) which is more
than half of the respondents scored below 60% in economics examination..
The result also shows that majority of the respondents come from a distance of 2-5 km
from their home to school.
Research Question 2: What are the characteristics of the parents of economic students
in Lagos State?
Table 2: Socio-economic characteristics of the parents of economic students in
Lagos State
Variable Explanation Frequency %
Age of mother (years)
< 35
35 45
46 - 50
>50

Young mothers
Middle age mothers
Aged mothers
Very aged mothers

3
42
34
25

2.9
40.4
32.7
24.0
Level of education of the mother
Do not complete primary school
Completed primary school
Attended secondary school
Attended higher institution of teaching
Total

No schooling at all
Low level of education
Moderate level of education
Highly educated

32
20
41
11
104

30.8
19.2
39.4
10.6
100
Family Income per month
< N20,000
N20,000 N40,000
N41,000 - N60,000
> N60,000
Total

Poor income
Below average income
Average
Above average income

30
43
21
10
104

28.9
41.3
20.2
91.6
100

The result shows that most parents of the respondents (40.4%) are middle aged mothers
having moderate level of education (39.4%) and earned below average income (41.3%)
between N 20,000 N 40,000 per month.
Research Question 3: What are the characteristics of the teachers of Economics in
secondary schools in Lagos State?


389

Table 3: Socio-economic characteristics of economics teachers in Lagos State
Socio-economic characteristics Frequency %
Sex
Male
Female
Total

8
8
16

50.00
50.00
100.00
Age
20-30
31-40
>40
Total

2
9
5
16

12.50
56.25
31.25
10.000
Years of teaching experience
5 10
11 20
> 20
Total

8
6
2
16

50.00
37.50
12.50
100
Academic qualification
N.C.E
H.N.D
Degree in Economics/other social science related courses
Degree in other course
Total

1
3
9
3
16

6.25
18.75
56.25
16.75
100.00
The result (Table 3) shows that equal number of male and female teachers were involved
in the teaching of economics in the study. Most of the teachers (56.25%) were between
31-40 years old, had at least 5 years of teaching experience and had first degree in
education with economics or other social science related courses as their teaching
subject.
Research question 4: What factors determine the performance of students in economics
examination in the study area?
Table 4 Result of the regression analysis showing the factors influencing the performance
of students in economics examination..
Variable Coefficient Standard t-statistics
Constant 22.92 15.31 1.50
X 1 0.58 0.60 0.97
X 2 -0.04 0.13 -0.32
X 3 0.22 0.35 0.63
X 4 2.92 1.34 2.18*
X 5 -0.17 0.39 -0.45
X 6 0.64 0.35 1.82**
X 7 -0.01 0.04 -0.17

R
2
0.12
R
-2
n
F

0.04
104
1.52

* Significant at 5% ** Significant at 10%.

390

The model specification is given as :

Y = 22.92 + 0.58 X
1
+ 0.04 X
2
+ 0.20 X
3
+ 2.92 X
4
+ 0.17 X
5

(0.47) (0.32) (0.63) (2.18) (0. 45 )
+ 0.64 X
6
+ 0.01 X
7

(1.82) (0.17)
* Where the figures in the parenthesis are the t-ratio
The result of the multiple linear regressions (Table 4) shows that the coefficient of
multiple determinations (R
2)
is 0.11 indicating that explanatory variables included in the
model accounted for only 11% of the variation in level of performance in economics in
the study area.
The number of hours studied by the students daily (x
4)
and the age of the
mother(x
6
) were the only significant variables influencing the level of performance of
students in economics in the study area. The regression coefficient of the number of
hours studied by the student is 2.92, which is positively related at 5% level of probability.
This implies that as the number of hours studied on economic by the students increased
their level of performance in economics also increased. If a student increase his study
hours in economics by about 3%, ceteris paribus (holding all other determinants constant)
his /her level of performance will increase by 3%.
Furthermore, the age of the mother tends to be positively related to the
performance of the students in economics. The regression coefficient is 0.64 (significant
at 10% level of significant) which implies that if the age of the mother increases by 1 year,
the students performance in economics will increase by 0.64% ceteris paribus.

Discussion of Findings
The study investigated the determinants of performance of students in economics at
secondary school level in Lagos State, Nigeria. The findings of the study revealed that
most of the economics students of the secondary school level in Lagos State come from
far distances (5- 10 km) from house to school daily and struggle to attend economics
classes regularly. This affected their level of concentration to study which results in
negative attitude to study as majority study only during examination. Thus, there is a
record of poor performance in economics examination in the study.
Hansen, (2000) from an evaluative perspective on the students performance and students
growth as a measure of success, a similar observation on the effect of distance on the
academic performance of students.
The result also indicated that most parents of the economic students on the study
area were middle- aged parent who pays attention to children home works. The parents at
this age groups have enough energy to handle students effectively. The parents of the
respondents also had moderate education and as such were able to provide necessary
counseling on the students mental ability interest and capability that could enhance their
performance in economics examinations. However, most of the parents earned below
average income. Thus, the parents are unable to provide adequately for the basic
functional, social and academic need of the economic students. Johnson (1996) asserts
that poverty of parents has elastic effects on the academic work on economics as they lack
enough resources to sponsor the education of the children.

391

The findings further revealed that the economics teachers on the study area were
experienced and qualified teachers in economics and economics related courses who can
improve academic performance in economics on the study area.
However, the findings revealed that among all these factors only the number of
hours studied by the students on economics and the age of the mother, were the
significant determinant factors of academic performances of economics students in the
study area. The more the number of hours on economics students studies the better
his/her performance in economics. Hansen (2000) also concluded that the study hour of a
student after and during the school hours affect their performances. Most mothers of the
respondents were middle aged who could provide matured parenting and effective
counseling on the academic performance of their wards especially on economic subject.

Conclusion
The study investigated the factors affecting the academic performance of economic
students at secondary school level in Lagos State. The number of hours a student devotes
to study economics subject significantly affect the performance in examination. Mothers
contribution based on their education and age cannot be overemphasized. Education is
very important to women of all ages to persuade their children to concentrate on their
studies. This will enhance the students academic performance in economics.

Recommendations
i. Students should cultivate positive learning attitudes always and not studying only
during examination for better performance in economics.
ii. Schools should provide students hostel accommodation and school buses for
transportation to ease students stress and distraction from studies.
iii. Parents of all ages should aspire for education in order to provide counseling on
the studies of the children to enhance better performance not only in economics
but as well as in other subject.

References
Adu, E. O, (2001) A comparative study of secondary school students performance in
economics and mathematics in Ibadan North East Local Government. In A.
Mansary and I. O Osokoya (eds) Curriculum development at the turn of the century the
Nigerian experience. Wemilore Press (NG) Ltd Pp 1159-167.
Ajiboye, J. O. (2003). Economics Methods In Ibadan Distance Learning Centre Series, University of
Ibadan, Nigeria www.google.com .Retrieved on 27-10-2010.
Badmus, M. M. O. (1993). An Assessment of the implementation of the National
Secondary School Economics Curriculum, South-West, Nigeria. P.Hd Thesis.
Bakare, O. A. (1999) Micro-Economics: Theory and Practices, Miroma International Books Ltd,
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Performance. International Journal of Mathematics Education, Science and Technology,
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Gallaham, O. (1991). Pupils Attitude to Science. N. F. E. R. Publication Co. Berks. U.
K. www.javascript.com. Retrieved on 18-09-2010.

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Hansen, Joe B. (2000). Students Performance and Students Growth as a Measure of
Success. An Evaluators perspective. A paper presented at Annual Meeting of the
American, Louisiana, 2000, www.journalofsociology.com. Retrieved on 9-10-
2010.
Johnson, A. (1996) Theoretical Model of Economic Nationalism in Development States. London:
George Allen and Unwind Lit.
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the School Certificate Examination unpublished B.Ed project submitted to
Teacher Education Department U.I. www.journalofsociology.com Retrieved on
9-10-2010.
Lawal, O. A. (1992). O Level Economics of West African, Ibadan, Heinemann Education
Books, Nig. Ltd.
National Policy on Education. (2004) Federal Republic of Nigeria 4th edition Abuja Press.
Nigerian Teachers Institute (2003) Manual for Retraining of School Teachers of
Economics Nigeria.
Obemeata, J. O. (1991). Effective teaching of economics in senior secondary schools. West African
Journal of Education . 1(1):9-13.
Olotu, O. A. (1994) Family Background as a correlate of students of economic academic
performance in Nigeria. An Unpublished B.Ed Project, University of Ibadan.
Shittu, M. R. (2004). Socio-economic Determinants of Academic Performance of
Secondary School Students in Nigeria. An Unpublished B.Ed Project, University
of Ilorin.
Zimnerman, B. J. (2000). .Attaining Self-regulation: A Socio-Cognitive Perspective. In
M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, and M. Zeidner (eds) Handbook of self regulation San-
Diago, Academic Press.


393

ADULT EDUCATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN
NIGERIA
By

KINGDOM E. ORJI, PhD
Department of History and Diplomatic Studies
Faculty of Humanities
Ignatius Ajuru University of Education
Rumuolumeni, Port-Harcourt

Abstract
The critical role of education as an institution in fostering sustainable development
cannot be overemphasized. This is against the backdrop of cardinal objectives of the
Nigerian polity in transforming society through the building of a united and strong
nation, the establishment of a just and egalitarian society, the entrenchment of a free
and democratic society cum the actualization of a land, bright and full of opportunities
for all citizens. These laudable targets may translate into an optical illusion where the
vision is not anchored on adult literacy and by extension the enlightenment of the
larger society. Non-formal education is a tool for capacity building and sustainable
development which is a brand of material progress that ensures that the economic stake
of future generations is not compromised on the altar of environmental degradation or
oil and gas pollution. This paper posits that a functional adult education programme is
a key to sustainable development with implications for fashioning a lasting solution to
the rehabilitation content of the Amnesty programme in the Niger Delta Region.


394

Introduction
Generally, there is a relationship between education and development in any nation.
Education has been identified as a primary instrument for the identification and analysis
of the resources of any nation, as well as seeking to provide solution to, or amelioration of
the problem and impediments that beset the people in practically all their endeavor
(Yesufu 1996). Nwogu (2013) notes generally that education has been seen as a major
instrument for achieving the goals of unity, political stability and equality of opportunity
and for circumventing situations which may give rise to conflict. Sound and proper
education has a far reaching implication for adapting the environment to meet human
needs. Kwapong (1995) notes that education satisfies a basic human need for knowledge
and accelerates overall development. It is in this regard that Radda (2008) highlights the
role of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in providing quality education for all
in addition to fighting diseases and reducing poverty.
To underscore the vital role of education in national development, the National
Policy on Education (2006) outlines the following objectives:
1) the inculcation of national consciousness and national unity.
2) the inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the survival of the
individual and the Nigerian society.
3) the training of the mind in understanding of the world around; and
4) the acquisition of appropriate skills, abilities and competence both mental and
physical as equipment for the individual to live in and contribute to the
development of his society.
Ejikeme (2005) delineates the link between education and sustainable development.
In the words of Olisa and Obinkwu (199) education plays a vital role in changing the
attitudes of rural dwellers and creating a disposition for self-reliance and contentment. In
a similar vein, Dienye and Kosemani (2002) conceive education as a veritable engine of
progress and development and a social mechanism for self-sustenance. Generally,
education as a discipline means a process by which a young child or adult develops the
abilities and other behavioral forms which are of positive or acceptable value to the
society in which he lives, Fafunwa (1994). Aminigo (2002) notes that education has
several forms namely formal education, informal education and non-formal education.
Adult Education
Having adumbrated on the general theme of education, it is crucial to examine the
meaning of adult education. In some circles, it is given that the primary objective of adult
education is to update adults of the latest development in the society thereby making
them useful to themselves and to the community at large (http://naijainformer.com
2013). The Encyclopedia Americana (1978) defines adult education as all experiences that
help mature men and women acquire new knowledge, understandings, skills, attitudes,
interest or values. In this sense, it encompasses practically all life experiences, individual or
group that result in learning. In a similar vein, Liveright and Haygood while working on
the First International Defence on Comparative Study of Adult Education 1966 cited in
Ezimah (2004) asserts that adult education is a process whereby persons who no longer
attend school on a regular and full-time basis (unless full time programmes are especially
designed for adults) undertake sequential and organized activities with the conscious
intention of bringing about changes in information, knowledge, undertakings or skills,

395

appreciation and attitudes or for the purpose of identifying and solving personal or
community problem.
While working on the Nigerian National Council for Adult Education and the
challenges of Professionalizing Adult Education in Nigeria, Fasokun (2005) makes a
reference to a definition provided by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) which views adult education as the entire body of
organized educational processes, whatever the content level and method, whether formal
or otherwise, whether they prolong or replace initial education in schools, colleges and
universities as well as in apprenticeship, whereby persons regarded as adult by the society
to which the belong develop their abilities, enrich their knowledge, improve their
technical or professional qualifications or turn them in a new direction and bring about
changes in their attitudes or behavior in the two-fold perspective of full personal
development and participation in balanced and independent social, economic and cultural
development.
Anowor, Ezema and Umezulike (2001) provide another detailed definition which
views adult education as an activity with educational purposes that is carried out by
people engaged in the ordinary business of life which could take the form or part-time or
leisure time activity at all levels of education i.e. literacy, elementary, secondary, university,
or other levels depending on the need of the students, the type of the community and the
demand of the age. Adult education could also be seen as any purposeful effort towards
self-development carried on by an individual without direct legal compulsory and without
such effort becoming his major field of activity.
A critical examination of the definitions so far evaluated will reveal a common
denominator i.e. the fact that adult education is non-formal and yet provides interested
individual with mental equipment to face challenges and improve their living conditions.
There is also a serious implication for lifelong learning, which means that adult education
could be embarked upon when the individual deems it convenient.
Having examined the scope of adult education, we need to understand the concepts
of sustainable development and the relationship between both in the overall progress of
the Nigerian nation states.
The Concepts of Sustainable Development
Until the 1972 Stockholm Conference, there has been crisis in development theories.
Most classical theories of development revolved around themes associated with economic
policy vis-a-viz the function and operation of a market economy. In an effort to find
solution, the Basic Need Approach (BNA) was given wide publicity by the International
Labour Organization. It is disheartening to note that some of these development theories
had obvious shortcomings because their strategies posed palpable danger to the future
generation.
The 1987 Brundtland report defines sustainable development as that brand of
development that meet the needs of the present without jeopardizing the survival of the
future posterity in their quest for material progress. Adeyemo (2003) observes that
sustainable development basically deals with present and future need in the process of
resource exploitation in addition to environmental protection. In their work, Koroma
and Bwala, (2005) emphasize that the concept of sustainable development is geared

396

towards the proper management of national and human resources, the environment ,
energy, waste and development based on pattern of production and consumption that can
be pursued into the future without degrading the human or natural environment.
According to Arokoyu (2012), critical issues associated with sustainable, include
competitive performance, promotion of entrepreneurship and endogenous growth. We
now turn our attention to the relationship between adult education and sustainable
development.
The relationship between Adult Education and Sustainable Development in
Nigeria
Practical issues bordering on development and material progress of the Nigerian polity
have attracted the attention of the adult education scholars. More often, argument centred
around community and rural development. Anonor, Ezema and Umezulike (2001) stress
that through conscientisation, the underprivileged are helped to free themselves from
oppressive forces and take posit action towards the collective progress of their
community; through rural animal animation, the rural population is enlivened, aroused to
greater consciousness and stirred up collective action to better its living condition rather
than waiting for the government or external aid.
In his own contribution, Ezimah (2004) conceives of community development as a
process of special action in which people of the community organize themselves for
planning and action, define their own common and individual needs and problems, make
group and individual plans to meet their needs and resolve their problems, executes their
plans with maximum reliance on the community resources in supplement to these
resources only when necessary with sources and materials from governmental and non-
governmental agencies outside the community.
On the relationship between adult education and community development, Ezimah
(2004) further notes that the provision of leadership features prominently. The relevance
of adult education could also be seen in the area of proffering viable tools for the
mobilization of the rural populace for specified projects. Olisa and Obiukwu (1992) note
that adult education programmes should be planned along the occupations of the people
in each community to achieve both functional literacy and skills among literate ones.
On the objective of community development, Zoufa (2006) focuses on two major
areas mainly the physical structure which deals with the provision of public utilities and
infrastructures such as roads, schools hospital, town halls, markets etc. On the other hand,
we have the development of the individual spanning all his mental and moral capacities.
The objective is built on the premise that community development geared towards
improvements in the life of the people through changes in the environment.
On the function of adult education vis-a-viz community education Eya, Ugwu and
Alu (2001) observe that adult education should (i) make adults aware of their civic
responsibilities to each other, their communities and nation (ii) develop in them a
knowledge of how to set about making personal adjustments to their home life and family
relationships (iii) promote their health and physical fitness (iv) provide them with the
means of encouraging cultural developments as well as an appreciation of the arts (v)
make them economically more efficient (vi) supplement and broaden their educational
backgrounds (vii) provide them with the means of developing both vocational and non-
vocational interest through opportunities for self-expression. Similarly Ewuzie (2013)

397

posits that the basic function of adult education are to provide functional literacy
education for adults who have never had the opportunity for any formal education to
provide remedial education for these young people who prematurely dropped out of the
formal school system to provide further education for different categories of completers
of the formal education system in order to improve their basic knowledge and skills
Ezimah (2004) identifies the critical role of community education for community
development and stressing that community education is implemented with the aid of
supervisors and facilitator and geared toward raising conscience, spreading understanding
and providing the necessary skills, including the human and material resources for the
holistic development of the community. Community development cover a wide range of
social economic activities, which include agricultural extension, health management,
home economics, co-operatives, rural industries, housing, public facility, recreation and
use of leisure.
Various agents included in community development comprised the government
through the ministry of rural and community development and parastatals and other non-
governmental organization other well-meaning individuals and voluntary organizations
actively involved in community development programmes. Zuofa (2006) lists the
achievement of some voluntarily organizations e.g. (i) the Ireoma Social Club Ogbahland,
which built a health centre of the community (ii) the Ndoni Women Association which
constructed a development centre at Ndoni (iii) Aribi-Abua which built a traffic control
post in Abua Central (iv) Odi Ebimo Ereamini Ogbo embarked on the renovation of a
dilapidated doctors and nurse quarters (v) Ekpein Kein of Kaiama procured books for
Girls Secondary School, Kaiama and so on. The viable role of voluntary organizations
underscore the need for the fellowship in the Nigerian polities to contribute to national
development (Mezobi, 2013).
The Niger Delta Economy, Adult Education and Concept for Sustainable
Development.
Ezimahs (2004) definition of community development makes reference to the
involvement of non-governmental organizations with implication for multinational
corporations. It is this observation that will usher us into an x-ray of the Niger Delta
economy and the concept of sustainable development.
The Niger Delta region forms an integral part of the Nigerian polities. It is made up
of autonomous group amongst which are the Ijaw, Ekpeye, Etche, Ogoni, Ogbah, Ikwere,
Egbeme, Ndoni and Ka Ibo, Urhobo and Itshekiri, Ibibio, Isoko, Kalabari, Efic, Bini,
Annang . Akpan (2011) observes that the Niger Delta is the single richest geographical
region in Africa. It is rich in natural and marine resources such as oil and gas, cash crops
including banana, plantain, oil palm, raphia palm, rubber, coca, coconut, and a number of
sea foods such as fish, shrumps and periwinkles. The deniliation of states that form the
core Niger Delta has been enshrouded in controversy. But when the oil mineral areas
development commission was to be inaugurated in 1992 the following nine states, namely
Rivers, Bayelsa, Delta, Akwa-Ibom, Edo, Cross-River, Ondo were recognized irrespective
of the tenacious submission of some advocates that the core of the Niger Delta States viz
Rivers, Bayelsa, Delta and Akwa-Ibom should be accorded statutory recognition, the
Niger Delta Development Commission (N.D.D.C.) that replaced OMPADEC retained
the status quo of nine states.

398

A critical examination reveals that the Niger Delta territory is grossly impoverished
because of its hazardous geographical terrain. The people of the Niger Delta are classified
as belonging to the minority ethnic groups in Nigeria. Right from the colonial era, there
has been some efforts directed at the development of the Niger delta area. The creation of
the Niger Delta development board in 1961 subsequent to a series of representation at the
Wilkinss Commission in 1959 prompted the Prime Minister, Sir Abubakar Tafawa
Balewa to set up a study group to uncover the possibilities of physical development of the
Niger Delta special Area in 1959-1960.
A mischievous plot to abolish the board at the 1963 constitutional conference in
Lagos for republican government was vehemently resisted by the delegates of the Niger
Delta congress (Dappa -Biriye, 1995). Much later with the granting of independence in
1960 the federal government response to demand from the area, created OMPADEC,
which replaced the NDDB and NDBD of earlier period. The initial 1.5% derivation fund
for OMPADEC was increase to 3% to mitigate the environmental hazard occasioned by
oil exploration and exploitation activities. OMPADEC did not really address the titanic
problems in Niger Delta communities as Nigerian factor crippling its operation through
inflated contracts and brazen mismanagement of funds, (Ozekhome 2005).
The decree establishing OMPADEC in 1992 had the following objectives (i) to
administer the monthly sums allocated to it from federal account, to rehabilitate and
develop oil mineral producing area to track ecological problems that are associated with
the exploration and exploitation of mineral; to consult the relevant federal and state
government authorities on the control and effective methods of tracking the problem of
oil pollution spillages, to obtain from the Nigerian National Petroleum Company
(NNPC), the proper formula for actual oil mineral production of each state and local
government area, and to ensure fair and equitable personnel in accordance with
recognized percentage production liaising with oil producing companies regarding the
proper number, location and other relevant data concerning oil producing area.
On 12
th
October 2000, the federal government under Chief Olusegun Obasanjo
promulgates the Niger Delta Development Commission, N.D.D.C with these terms of
reference:
(i) planning and implementing projects and programmes for the area in the field of
transportation, road, water way, health, education, employment, industrialization,
agriculture and fishing, housing and urban development water supply, electricity
and telecommunications;
(ii) to ensure that the Niger Delta area is surveyed for the purpose of physical
development;
(iii) to see to the implementation of all the measures as approved for the
development of the area by the federal government and member states of the
Commission;
(iv) identified factors inhibiting the development of the Niger Delta area and assist
member States in the formulation and implementation of policies to ensure
sound and effective management of resources of the Niger Delta area;
(v) assess and report on any project being funded or carried out in Niger Delta area
by oil and gas producing companies and any other company including non-
government organizations and ensure that funds released for such projects are
properly utilized;

399

(vi) to track ecological and environmental problems that arise from the exploitation
of oil minerals in Niger Delta areas and advise the federal government and the
member state on the preservation and control of oil spillage, gas flaring and
environmental pollution;
(vii) license with the various oil mineral and gas prospective and producing company
on all matters of pollution, prevention and control
(viii) execution of such other works and perform such other functions which in the
opinion of the Commission are required for the sustainable development of the
Niger Delta area and its people.
Closely associated with the goals of the federal government decision to set up the
NDDC is the determination to curb the ravaging effects of poverty. The recent statistical
data of poverty level in Niger Delta reveals the following:
Incidence of Poverty in Niger Delta
1980 1985 1992 1996 2004
Nigeria 28.1 46.3 42.7 65.6 54.4
Edo/Delta 19.8 52.4 33.9 56.1 Delta 45.35
Edo 33.09
Cross River 10.2 41.9 45.5 66.9 41.61
Imo/Abia 14.4 33.1. 49.9 56.2 Imo 27.39
Abia 22.27
Ondo 24.9 47.3 46.6 71.6 42.15
Rivers/ Bayelsa 7.2 44.4 43.3 44.3 Rivers 29.09
Bayelsa 19.98
Source: National Bureau of Statistics 2004.
Various factors are responsible for the scourge of poverty in the Niger Delta area and
this includes poor economic planning, the negative effect of oil exploration and
exploitation and corruption among the high and low. For the war against the menace of
poverty to produce desired result, the search light must be focused on the rural areas
where not less than 70% of Nigerian populace resides. In this regard, the link between
sustainable cum community development in relation to adult education comes to the fore.
In fact, in his inaugural speech at the International Conference in adult education
and poverty reduction; a global priority, Gaolothe (2004) stressed the seriousness of the
poverty situation in the world positing that one in five of the world population, (two-third
of them women) live in abject poverty i.e. without adequate food, clean water, sanitation,
health care and education; more than 24% of the population of the developing emerging
industrializing nation live in less than US $1 a day. In sub-Sharan African alone, over 46%
live on less than US $1 a day. About 113 million children of primary school going age
have never gone to school and one in four adults in developing world- that is 870 million
people- are unable to read nor write.
Similarly in his welcome address, Eid (2004) specifically stated that poverty means
lack of educational opportunities. Poverty was identified as both a barrier to accessing
education and exacerbated by insufficient education. To effectively achieve poverty
reduction goals using the machinery of adult education Mera (2004) suggests the following
programmes: (i) adult education and building citizenship; (ii) adult education and its ties to
production and employment; (iii) adult education and intercultural dialogue; (iv) adult

400

education and sustainable development, which imply a clear ecological consciousness and
(v) adult education equity, and overcoming of all forms of discrimination. In this regards,
the three tiers of government i.e., the federal government, the state government and the
local government must demonstrates unflinching support.
Encues (2004) identifies some of the outcomes of its strategies onslaught against
poverty in indigenous communities: on the short terms, quality knowledge will be
acquired and practices developed to guarantee food for the peasant families on the
medium term to reduce marginalization and poverty of the indigenous families and on the
long term to develop the social dimension to increase the constructive participation of the
people to solve their economic problem in our study area.
Another critical area where adult education could be very relevant is in the
rehabilitation of ex-while militants who have embraced Amnesty programmes of the Late
President Alhaji Umaru YarAdua in 2008 and sustained by his successor Dr. Goodluck
Ebele Jonathan. It will be recalled that the upsurge of militancy in Niger Delta came to a
climax when federal government deemed it necessary to grant all repentant militants state
pardon. While working on the report of the commission of Noble Laureates on Peace,
Equity and Development in Niger Delta Region of Nigeria (2006), Tamuno (2011) on the
evolution of militance in the area notes: disenfranchised by rigging election in 1999 and
2003, many youths had joined local militias that sabotage oil facilities and kidnap oil
workers.
Thom-Otuya and Eremie (2011) that over 15,000 militants embrace the Amnesty
gesture offered by the federal government on June 25
th
, 2009 and expired October 4
th
of
the same year. It is obvious that some of the ex-militants did not attain a high level of
formal education and then brings to the fore the need for adult education.
Summary and Conclusion
From the above discourse, it is obvious that adult education can contribute meaningfully
to result orientated strategies for suitable development in Nigeria. Various aspects of adult
education programmes such as community education and its bearing on rural
development have been examined. A critical examination of Niger Delta Region with
specific reference to the scourge of poverty reveals that this menace can be curbed with
increasing awareness which adult education and its components can provide for the
majority of the populace in the Niger Delta Region.
Against the background that sustainable development is a new approach which
ensures that social-economic fortunes of posterity is not jeopardized, it is expected that
adult education will provide the spring board for the holistic development of the Nigerian
polity through its various sensitization programmes.

References
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Akpan, O. (2011) The Niger Delta Question and the Peace Plan. Ibadan: Books Ltd.
Aminigo, I.M (2003) What is Education? In Kosemani, J.M (ed.) Introduction to Education.
Port-Harcourt: Shapea Publishers.

401

Arokoyu, S. B. (2012) Globalization and sustainable development in Nigeria. African
Journal Trade and Development. Vol. 1 (1)
Awonor, O.O.; Ezema, J.O & Umezulike N. (2001) Fundamentals of Adult Education (A
handbook for facilitators of learning), Enugu: CECTA (Nig.) Ltd.
Encues, L.I.N.Z (2004) The fight against poverty in indigenous communities. Adult
Education & Development Journal.
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Eya, L.O; Ugwu, J.C & Alu, B.E (2001) Adult Education, its nature and purpose. Nsukka:
Prize Publishers.
Ezimah, M.O.A (2004) Knowing Adult Education (Its Nature, Scope and Processes) Owerri:
Springfield Publishers Ltd.
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Fasokun, T.O (2006) NNCAE and the challenges of professionalizing Adult Education
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Nigeria: Emerging Issues.
Gaolathe, B. (2004) Inaugural Speech at the Botswana conference on poverty reduction
and Adult Education. Adult Education and Development Journal. Institute for
International Cooperation of the German Adult Education Association.
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Kalagbor, S.B. (2004) Development theories, strategies and administration. Port Harcourt:
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Koroma, D.S.M & Bwala, H.M. (eds) (2005) Towards sustainable development in Nigeria,
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Kwapong, A.A. (1995) Meeting the challenges of education in Onimode, B. & Synge, R
(eds) Issues in African Development, Essays in Honour of Adelayo Adedeji at 65.
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Nigerian Integrative Discourses. Vol.2, Resource Control, Lagos: Faculty of Arts,
University of Lagos.
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Tamuno, T.N. (2011) Oil Wars in the Niger Delta 1849 2009. Ibadan, Stirling Horden
Publishers Ltd.
Than-Otuya, B.E.N & Eremie, V.T (2011) Amnesty to Niger Delta Militants: challenges
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8 Nos 1 & 2.
Yesufu, T.M. (1996) The Nigerian Economy, Growth Without Development, Benin City:
The Benin Social Science Series for Africa. University of Benin.
Zuofa, C.C. (2007) (edition). Modern Perspectives on Adult Education in Nigeria, Port
Harcourt: Pre-Joe Publishers.


403

CORRUPTION IN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN NIGERIAN
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS: CHALLENGES TO
ADMINISTRATORS

BY

FASASI, Y. A. Ph.D.
Department of Educational Management,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.
adefasas@yahoo.com

Abstract
This paper focuses on resource management in Nigerian educational institutions and
the challenges which corruption has posed onto administrators in their efforts towards
achievement of educational objectives. Corruption, which is a problem in the larger
society, has affected all stakeholders in the education industry. Military and civilian
governments in the country, organized conferences, launched programmes and set up
commissions to fight corruption, but the problem remains with us. As a result,
resources could not be effectively managed and educational objectives could not be
achieved optimally. This poses challenge to educational administrators whose
responsibility is to ensure school effectiveness. Strategies suggested for curbing
corruption among stakeholders include appointment of professional educators as school
administrators, regular payment of salaries and pensions, reduction in poverty and
unemployment rates and sound religious and moral education.
Keywords: Corruption, Resource management, Nigerian educational institutions,
Administrators.


404

Introduction
Nigerian educational system is planned in a manner that could facilitate national
development. This is in line with governments belief that education is an instrument for
development and that using education as a tool the nation would attain freedom,
democracy, justice and egalitarianism. In addition, the nation is to be geared towards
unity, self-reliance, dynamic economy and bright opportunities for all citizens. (Federal
Republic of Nigeria, 2004). In pursuit of these laudable aspirations, primary, secondary
and higher educational institutions were established and supplied with human material and
financial resources.
In spite of efforts of government and other stakeholders, the pace of development
is very slow. In fact, Nigeria enters the new millennium as a developing country.
According to Nnamani (2003), Nigeria belongs to the category of countries that are non-
industrialized and technology dependent. This is in spite of the countrys population and
natural endowments with potentials to compete favourably with other countries of the
world. One of the factors of underdevelopment, which Nnamani identified, was
corruption. In the same vein, Keeper, (2012) observed that corruption has rendered
millions of Nigerian citizens unemployed and uneducated.
The Nigerian government sees education as an instrument of change and as a tool
for national development. Therefore, education should not only be able to liberate itself
from corruption, it should also be able to sanitize the socio-political and economic sectors
of the country. This poses a challenge to administrators of educational institutions. In this
paper, corrupt practices in educational resources management in Nigeria and the
challenges they pose to school managers are discussed.
Corrupt Practices in Nigerian Society
Encarta premium (2009) defines corruption as a wrongdoing by people in special
positions of trust. Encarta dictionary further defines it as dishonesty for personal gain,
exploitation, sleaze, bribery, fraud and venality. These interpretations could be seen as
instances of wrongdoing. Defining corruption as a wrongdoing is appropriate. However,
corruption is not limited to people in special positions of authority. Common people who
want one favour or the other could also engage in wrongdoing. In fact, all categories of
human beings could engage in wrongdoing when they attempt to acquire wealth, power,
position or any other favour through illegal means. Ukpong (2012), states that whatever is
morally reprehensible is corruption. Therefore, corruption could be viewed as an action
taken by individual or a group with a view to giving or getting undue favour or assistance.
Corruption has bedeviled human race from time immemorial. It existed in the
ancient time and it is with us until the present. In the Glorious Quran, it is referred to as
fasad. The Quran stated that corruption (fasad) has appeared on land and sea because
of what people have done (Chapter 30 Verse 41). Explaining the havoc which corruption
is capable of doing in a society, the Foreign Affairs and International Trade in Canada
(2012), stated that corruption is an obstacle to sustainable development, with the potential
to enlarge economic gap and breed organized crime.
Nigeria, like many countries around the world is not free from corruption.
According to Ukpong (2012), it has adversely affected development in all sectors in

405

Nigeria. The banking sector, the government, sports organizations, the law enforcement
agents and other sectors are found to be corrupt, he stated further.
In Nigerian primary, secondary and tertiary educational institutions, corruption
rears its head in form of examination malpractices, illegal fees collection, embezzlement,
theft (staff and students have been caught stealing school properties), sales and
destruction of school properties, falsification of records and engaging in other jobs during
office hours. Personnel within educational institutions trivialize these behaviours as acts
of indiscipline. In the real sense, they are acts of corruption (Noha, 2003). They could
disrupt school programmes and consequently the achievement of educational objectives.
It is probably in view of this that Nigerian government took steps at different times
towards eradication of corruption and wage wars against indiscipline, (Olagboye, 2004).In
1977, General Olusegun Obasanjo who was then the military Head of State organized a
national conference on indiscipline. The conference was attended by principals of
secondary schools across the federation. Causes of indiscipline were identified and
possible remedies were suggested. Another military administration, popularly referred
to as Buhari-Idiagbon administration, launched War Against Indiscipline (WAI) in 1984.
Principles of WAI were introduced into Social Studies curriculum of primary and
secondary schools and General Studies of tertiary institutions.
The introduction of Mass Mobilization for Social Justice, Self-Reliance and
Economic Recovery (MAMSER) in 1987 by General Babangida was intended to curb acts
of indiscipline in the society. In 1990, the Federal Ministry of Education organized
another conference on indiscipline in schools. Indiscipline in the society was identified as
the major cause of indiscipline in schools. General Sanni Abacha introduced War Against
Indiscipline and Corruption in 1996, The civilian regime which took over the countrys
governance in 1999 under the leadership of Chief Olusegun Obasanjo introduced the
Independent Corrupt Practices and other related offenses Commission (ICPC) in the year
2000. In addition, the same administration introduced the Economic and Financial
Crimes Commission (EFCC) in the year 2003. The two Commissions introduced by the
Obasanjo administration are still operating until the present.
Besides the efforts of the Federal Government to combat indiscipline and
corruption, some state governments initiated policies on corruption and indiscipline. In
1976, Kwara State Government through the State Ministry of Education set up a
committee to investigate the causes of indiscipline in schools and to suggest measures
towards curbing it. In 2003, Lagos State Government under the civilian administration of
Governor Ahmed Tinubu introduced Kick Against Indiscipline in order to bring positive
changes into lives of the people (www.lagosstate.gov.ng).
Resource Management in Education
A resource is human and non-human elements, which could be utilized in order to
actualize organizational or personal objectives. According to Olagboye, (2004),
educational resources are the assets, which make teaching and learning effective and
facilitate attainment of objectives. He identified the resources as:
1) Human resources: Teaching staff, non-teaching staff and students.
2) Financial resources: Money in various forms.
3) Instructional or learning resources.

406

4) Physical resources: Assets such as land, building, furniture, vehicle, electrical and
water supply infrastructures.
5) Time: Seconds, minutes, hours, days, week, month, year.
Resource management, which implies planning, organizing, and controlling the
provision and utilization of human and non-human assets, is carried out at government,
institutional and individual levels. It also means acquisition, utilization, maintenance, safe
keeping and disposal of resources in a manner that will facilitate achievement of
organizational objectives. Federal, state and local governments do allocate resources to all
sectors under their jurisdiction. In the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria
(1999), education is on concurrent legislative list. Each level of government has authority
to establish, finance, staff and equip primary, secondary tertiary educational institutions.
Thus, the government employs academic and non-academic staff, provides facilities,
admits or play a major role in admission of students. At institutional levels, head of
schools and officials charged with the administration under them, are expected to manage
their educational resources. They do this by making human and material resources
available, allocating and utilizing them and ensuring their safety. Resources are also
allocated at individual levels whereby parents and students are expected to provide
materials, money or other resources for educational purpose. This is in line with
governments policy that parents and other stakeholders are to be involved in provision of
educational resources (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004). In essence, all stakeholders in
education are involved in resource management either as providers or as users. However,
involvement of the stakeholders has been linked with corrupt practices and this has
negatively affected the achievement of the educational objectives.
Table 1. Education Stakeholders Involvement in Corrupt Practices
Stakeholder Instances of Corruption Resources Affected
Parents 1. Examination fraud
2. Admission fraud
3. Misuse of PTA levy
1. Students Competency
and
2. Finance
Principals & Head
Teachers
1. Illegal fee collection
2. Financial Mismanagement
3. Examination fraud
4. Poor personnel services
1. Finance
2. Students and
3. Facilities
Teachers 1. Certificate fraud
2. Divided loyalty
3. Examination fraud
4. Exploitation of students
1. School records
2. Time and
3. Students
Students 1. Examination fraud
2. Seeking undue favor
3. Union election fraud
4. School fee fraud
1. Students and
2. Finance

Administrative Officers 1. Staff employment fraud
2. Admission fraud
3. Misuse of school properties
1. School record
2. Facilities and
3. Finance
Government 1. Staff employment fraud
2. Admission fraud
1. Students
2. Facilities

407

3. Embezzlement
4. Award of contract
3. Finance and
4. Staff
Source: Author
As shown in Table 1, parents, teachers, students, administrative officers, heads of
schools and government officials are involved in a variety of corrupt practices, which
affect students competency level, finance, facilities and staffing. Although, all
stakeholders involvement would affect the efficiency and effectiveness of education, that
of institutional head portends a great danger. This is because responsibility for
achievement of educational objectives lies directly on the heads.

Challenges to Educational Administrators.
Heads of educational institutions are administrators of their institutions. They are referred
to as head-teachers (headmasters and headmistresses) at primary level and principals at
secondary level of Nigerian education system. At tertiary level, they are referred to as
provosts in colleges of education, rectors in polytechnics and vice-chancellors in
universities. Differences in title notwithstanding, they are expected to perform similar
roles. They are to plan, organize and co-ordinate all available resources towards
achievement of educational objectives. They face many challenges while discharging their
duties.
As heads of institutions, their leadership role is vital to survival and achievement of
objectives in the organization. A corrupt leader could mismanage resources. He could
engage in financial fraud, examination malpractice and poor personnel services. These
actions could breed crises and disrupt school programmes. In essence, his personality
could pose a challenge to his administration.
Besides, the personality of staff and students under him could constitute another
challenge to his administration. Involvement of these personnel in corrupt practices could
prevent achievement of educational objectives.
The government is expected to present budget of income and expenditure on all
sectors. A corrupt government would announce an amount of money, release less
amount, spend less than what is released and divert the remaining to personal use. This is
common practice in government circle ( Ayoola, 2012). In another dimension,
government, which employs teaching and non- teaching personnel to schools may employ
incompetent ones or post them to places where their services are not needed, these steps
are counter-productive.
Parents are supposed to cooperate with the school in order to influence the
behavior of children positively. Their involvement in corruption would not make them
play their roles effectively. Efforts made in school would be in futility without the
cooperation of the parents.
In a situation where stakeholders are corrupt, achievement of educational objectives
would be a mirage. This would spell doom for the country in view of the important role
an education system is expected to play in national development.


408

Recommendations
Education provides human resources for other sectors of the nation. It also ensures their
continuous existence. It has to be sanitized of corruption in order to cleanse the entire
society of this devilish monster. Therefore, the following recommendations are made.
i. Good leadership: A professional educator with considerable years of experience
and high moral standard should be appointed to head educational institutions. A
person of these qualities is likely to exercise self-control in his dealings with other
stakeholders and exhibit good characters that are worthy of emulation.
ii. Salaries and allowances of staff in educational institutions in particular, and
workers in general should be paid regularly and promptly. In addition, welfare
scheme such as housing, health and safety should be put in place, so that
economic, social and psychological problems, which could arise due to absence of
these social services, would be removed.
iii. Workers pension should be paid fully and promptly. Workers in active service
should not foresee problem of sustenance after service. The fear of what becomes
of them after service should be allayed by assuring them of comfortable living
after retirement.
iv. Poverty and unemployment should be addressed realistically. People who are able
to satisfy their socio-economic needs through their productivity are not likely to
engage in corrupt practices in want of survival.
v. Sound education in general and sound religious education in particular will make
people confident in oral and written examinations. This will reduce corruption
among students, job seekers and employed individuals who are seeking one form
of elevation or another in their organization.
vi. Finally, genuine hard work and honesty should be recognized and rewarded.
Conversely, laziness and dishonesty should be punished to serve as deterrent to
others.
References
Ayoola, S. O. (2012). Education expenditure and human capital development in Nigeria.
International Journal of Knowledge, Culture and Change Management. 9(9), 14-9-162.
Retrieved December 12th, 2012 from www.
Ijm.cgpublisher.com/product/prod.1041.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999). Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Lagos:
Federal Government Press.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education. 4
th
edition. Lagos: NERDC
Press.
Foreign Affairs and International Trade, Canada (2012). Corruption. Retrieved March 28th,
2012 from www.international.gc.ca.
Keeper, D. G. (2012). Systemic corruption in Nigeria: A threat to sustainable development.
Retrieved August 24th, 2012 from www.hrmars.com/admin/pics/224.
Microsoft Encarta Premium (2009). Corruption. Redmond, W. A. : Microsoft Corporation.
Noha, A. O. K (2003). Anti-corruption crusade in secondary schools. TESCOM News. Quarterly
Publication of Lagos State Post Primary Teaching Service Commission.

409

Nnamani, C. (2003). Globalising in poverty. A lecture delivered at the Political Science
Department, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.
Olagboye, A. A. (2004). Introduction to educational management in Nigeria. Ibadan: Daily
Graphics (Nigeria) Limited.
The Holy Quran: Arabic Text with English translation by Ali, W.S. Pakistan: Quran
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Ukpong, E. (2012). Corruption and development: The Nigerian example. Retrieved August 24th,
2012 from newsfrontonline.com/newspub.
www.lagosstate.gov.ng/kickagaistindiscipline


410

IMPACTS OF JOB RELATED NON-FORMAL EDUCATION ON
WORKERS PERFORMANCE IN NIGERIA
By
OLAJIDE, MUILI FOLARANMI Ph.D
Department of Continuing Education and Community Development,
Faculty of Education and Arts
Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida University, Lapai
Niger State, Nigeria.
Mobile Phone Numbers: 08033819613; 08099188616
Email: folaolajide2003@yahoo.com

Abstract
This paper seeks to discuss the impact of job related Non-Formal education on workers
performance in an organization. It examines non-formal education/training as
paradigms for improving quality and performance of workers in organizations. The
paper analyze the concepts of organization, non-formal education, non-formal
education/ training personnel among others. This is done so as to give the paper strong
justification for relevance and impact of non-formal education/ training to both small
and big organizations as weapon for employees development on the job. Hence, the
general objective of this submission is based on the fact that if employers of labour
organize training and re-training of employee, cost and time of production will be
reduced due to exposure of workers to new technological methods and the organization
would be able to break even. Thus standard of living will improved generally.


411

Introduction
When employee in an Organization is about to be posted to a new department and is
lacking basic knowledge of what the new posting demands, such an employee needs to be
trained so as to be able to function effectively on the job. Training as a Non- Formal
Education can be seen as a set of Organizational planned activities to increase the
employees job knowledge and skills or to modify the attitudes and social behaviour in
ways consistent with the goals of the organization and the requirements of the job Landy,
(1985); Kester, Olajide and Ogidan, (2010).
Thus, training is a systematic development of employees knowledge, skills, and
expertise to effectively perform given tasks or job. It becomes imperative for
organizations to understand the impact of non-formal education on the overall
development and growth of the organization. Any attempt to solve employee problem of
ineffectiveness on- the- job or to break- even must take into consideration non-formal
education.
There is need to do a systematic examination for employee to know the level of
understanding of the job. Through this training and retraining, employee will be organized
and it will improve their performance on the job and bring more profit for the
organization. Though, training have a considerable effect on organizational cost but once
such training progrmme is completed, the productivity of the employee undergoing the
training programme is expected to increase. Thus, the benefits of training will accrue to
the organization since it will increase employees output and productivity.
Apart from economic recession that affected organizations in the world, Nigeria
corporate organizations find it difficult to send workers for training hence they train
workers within the office. Using this method, when workers practice the experience
acquired may not be good enough for the organization as he/she may lack a vital
knowledge that suppose to have been acquired.
Training has inexplicable spread into work and has since influence workers
performance greatly as it brought about increase in productivity and reduction in time
used for production. The upsurge of new technologies and needed knowledge in the
application of such technologies demand that the individual and corporate organizations
must put in place management strategies towards ensuring the sustenance of the new
technological entrance into the world of production. Thus every organization provide
lifelong education opportunity for training and re-training and re- orientation of its new
entrants especially as the knowledge acquired in the formal education system may atrophy
and thus necessitating the need to acquire new additional but specific skills that are
specifically required in the world of work.
Generally, both new entrants and old workers must be continuously expose to new
skills as may be necessitated by the challenges of the new technologies, market frontier
demands, quality and standardization as well as been relevant on the job.
Armstrong (1999), observed that, training as one of the activities involved in human
resource development denotes an overall enterprise conception on the achievement of the
goal plan. The importance of above on human resource development is that non-formal
education/ training in the organization is that, the business plans form the basis for

412

human resource plans which define the number of employee needed and the knowledge,
skills and competences they will require.
Thus, this paper look into the impacts of job related non-formal education on
workers performance in Nigeria. However, the process of non-formal education
/training, approaches, objectives and organogram of dispensal, all provide an articulate
yardstick for determining the results in terms of impact of non-formal education/ training
on workers job performances in any organizational structure.
Concept of Organization
Organisations are outputs, which are identical with the individual purposes of group
members. Generally, individuals make up an organisation, yet its goals are constituted into
certain levels of hierarchical authority (James, Ode and Soola,1990); Ogundipe 2003; and
Omoeye, 2001). These according to them are structured/or divided in accordance with
areas of specialisation. Within an organisation the primary aim is conceived by its leaders
while its purposes are detailed in bye-laws, reports of its leaders and articles of
memoranda. (Oyeyinka, 2002; Ogundipe, 2003; Olowo, 2002; and Olajide, 2009).
Furthermore, the formation of an organisation is regarded simply as a manifestation
of the purposes of its designers, leaders or its key members since human purposes
deliberately built into organisations are specifically recorded in bye-law or other formal
protocol. Usually an organisation begins as a small entity, starting with one person, two or
more depending on the type of organisation. Thus, Rogers and Rogers (1971: 241),
describe an organisation as a conglomerate of individuals. According to him, an
organisation is a stable system of individuals who work together to achieve through a
hierarchy of ranks and division of labour, common goals.
Every organisation should be seen as having a highly efficient way of satisfying an
array of human needs. According to Bound, Dubbins and Oscar (1995) organisation plays
a very important role in society by enabling employee to collectively accomplish working
together more than they could have achieved, acting alone. Consequently, as a human
entity, it should have a means of processing its own information to satisfy certain basic
needs, which could be the assemblage and coordination of large magnitudes of specialised
resources for the attainment of certain specific objectives or goals.
Goldhaber (1990), Oyeyinka (2002), Ekorie (2001), and Olajide (2009) observed
that an organisation is a social unit deliberately designed and construed to achieve specific
goals. According to them, an organisation is a deliberate enterprise set to fulfil the specific
purposes of the designers or leaders. Another viewpoint holds that an organisation is a
social device for efficiently accomplishing through group means of some stated purposes.
The emphasis here lies on group achievement with a particular reference to its being a
social device.
According to Edward (1998) the essence of any organisation is to mobilise and
facilitate cooperative efforts with a view to achieving major ends which the organisation

413

wants and which the individuals within it also want. That is why Barnard, Simon,
Presthus, Strother (1963), Etzioni and Scott, Thompson, Gross, and Schein, cited by
Olajide (2009) state that organisation is composed of individuals and groups who come
together in order to achieve certain goals and objectives by means of differentiated
functions that are intended to be rationally coordinated and directed through time on a
continuous basis.
Porter, Lawler, and Richard (1975) regarded organisation as a social entity or
instrument set up to do something in which people take part, and to which they react. In
order words, it is a process in which structures are created and maintained. Generally, the
term organising therefore implies the process of organisation, which is used to institute,
create, modify, and expand the working environment, as well as advance the course of the
society. Koontz (1980) regarded any organisation, whatever the size may be, to have been
created for strategic reasons namely; to achieve verifiable objectives, or to accomplish
a set purposes. Magarland (1970) regarded firms as a separate organization, to make
contribution to attainment of the systems (national) objectives. From the foregoing
perspective, we can say that firms that joined together to form industry are separate
organisations established to advance the course of the Nigerian society by making
contributions towards the attainment of features of organizations.
Non- Formal Education
According to the National Policy on Education cited in Osokoya (1987), Maigida (2008)
and Sarumi (2008), classify this concept to include functional literacy, remedial,
continuing, vocational, aesthetic, culture and civic education for youths and adults outside
the formal school system. Okorosaye-Orubite cited in Maigida (2008), views the concept
as having all the attributes of formal education, but takes place outside the normal regular
school system, e.g. remedial programmes, adult literacy programmes, skills acquisition
programmes, agricultural extension service. Aminigo (2002) succinctly refers the concept
as an organized learning, in many cases on-the-job, but outside organized institutional
setting. Generally speaking, all the systems mentioned above revered to training as it is the
tool for updating knowledge of employee.
Non-Formal Education/Training Personnel
The training personnel depend largely on the type of organization and training to be
given to trainees. Large organizations, supervisory personnel and the representative of the
personnel department may work together in preparing employees for changes in jobs. The
personnel department may provide managers and supervisors with considerable assistance
in conducting training activities, including the organization of selection and training
instructors, the procurement of training equipment and liaison with educational
institutions and government agencies.
Smaller Organizations most of the training tasks fall upon the managers and
supervisors of the department where the employees work. The importance of the
directors and other senior executives is to add prestige to the occasion and give the
newcomers sense of belonging.

414

In an on-the-job training, full time qualified instructors in properly equipped
organization can exercise much better control and ensure that the correct methods are
used to give instruction to employees. Considering apprenticeship training, the best form
of guidance and control are given by a full-time apprenticeship supervisor who is normally
a member of the personnel department.

Validation and Evaluation of Training
Validation and evaluation of training will help the organization to know whether it is
effective to achieve the aim and objectives of the establishment and its effect on workers
performance on the job. Specifically, at any training level, it is important to evaluate the
trainee to determine how much he/she had acquire in the process of the training as it will
affect him/her positively in the process of production. Furthermore, evaluation is
important because cost of training and retaining of employee is huge and performance of
workers on the job must reflect the impact of the training acquired.
Impact of Non-Formal education/ Training on Workers Productivity
For any organization to achieve or accomplish her objective plans, it requires human,
financial and material resources. Thus, employees are required to contribute their skills,
knowledge, creative talents and efforts in order to achieve the goals and objectives of the
organization.
In order to make effective use of human and financial resources, the organization
must use non-formal education/ training to develop employee since technological
advancement is not static. The impact of non-formal education/ training however, cannot
be over emphasized since it is the tool for an enhanced productivity and profit
maximization in any organization. In essence, non-formal education/training will bring
expansion, new technological methods for products and services, new markets,
modernization, adoption of new managerial techniques, or organizational structure, raised
financial requirements.
Training is a powerful tool that helps or exposes employees to new techniques of
production. The hope of employer of labour is to maximize profit and produce at a
minimum cost; this depends solely on production capacity of the organization. To achieve
this, organization needs to employ skilled and experienced labour and such must be given
adequate and constant training to cope with the production demand in the world of work.
Hence, training remains the panacea to determine the level of production, maximization
of profit and level of production in an organization.
Conclusion
The economic recession biting hard on all nations cannot allow organizations to sponsor
employee in a full time formal system of education. In respect of this situation,
organizations should use non-formal system of education to improve employee on the job
and to make them aware of new technology currently in operation
Recommendations
Organizations is hereby advised to have budget for training and re-training of employee if
they (organization) intend to brake-even and in order not to fold-up.

415

References
Armstrong. (1999) A Handbook of human Resource Development Practice (7
th
Edition), London,
ELST/Letts Educational
Bounds, G. M.; Dubbins, H.; Osear, S. F. (1995) Management: A total quality perspective.
Cincinnati, Ohio: South-Western College Publications.
Edward, (1998) The effect of organizational climate on work behaviour: A case study of
the Federal Civil Service. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis University of Lagos.
Ekorie, J. O. (2001) Perception of effectiveness of total quality management
implementation; Employees needs organizational type and design as predictors.
Unpublished Ph.D Thesis University of Ibadan.
Goldhaber, G. M. (1990) Organizational Communication, Englewood Cliffs; New York.
James, S.; Ode, I. And Soola, O. (1990) Introduction to communication for business and
organizations. Ibadan Spectrum Books.
Kester,k.O; Olajide, M.F and Ogidan,O.T.(2010) Influence Of Training on Job
Satisfaction and Commitment Among Local Government-Based Adult Education
Officers In Oyo State, Nigeria. International Journal of Continuing and Non-Formal
Education, 7, (1):
Koontz, O. (1980).Management . 7
th
Ed. Mexico, McGraw-Hill Inter Book Co. 632.
Landy, F.J. (1985). Psychology of Work Behaviour. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press.
Magarland, D. E. (1970). Management: Principle and Practice. 3
rd
Ed. London, Macmillan
Company Ltd. P. 544.
Maigida, A.Y (2008) Homeschooling in Non-Formal Education: A Mechanism for
Sustainable Educational Development. International Journal of Literacy Education 5, (1)
Ogundipe, D. (2003) The influence of organizational communication and school
administrative climate on teacher productivity in public secondary schools in Oyo
State Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Ibadan.
Okorosaye-Orubite, K. A. (2002) Historical Foundations of Education. In J.M. Kosemani
(ed.) Introduction to Education, Port Harcourt: Hamaz Global Publishers.
Olajide, M.F.(2009) Influence of Organizational Climate on Workers Performance In
Selected Industries In Oyo and Lagos States, Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis
University of Ibadan.
Olowo, G. M. (2002) Organizational climate and teacher morale as determinants of
students academic achievement in public secondary schools of Oyo State, Nigeria.
Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Ibadan.
Omoeye, J. S. (2001) The effect of interaction of location, facilities and class size on
academic achievement of secondary school students in Ekiti State, Nigeria.
Osokoya, I. O. (1987) 6-3-3-4 Education in Nigeria: History, Strategies, Issues and problems.
Ibadan: Laurel Education Publishers.
Porter, L, W. Lawler, E. E, and Richard J. K., (1975), Behaviour in Organization. New York,
McGraw-Hill Book Company.

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Rogers, M. R. and Rogers, A. R. (1976) Communication in organization; New York; The Free
Press.
Sarumi, A. (2008). Adult and Non-formal Education as Catalysts For job and Wealth
Creation, International Journal of Continuing and non-Formal Education, Vol5, No1, Jan-
June.


417

APPROACHES FOR COMMUNICATING ENVIRONMENTAL
SUSTAINABILITY STRATEGIES TO ILLITERATE RURAL
FARMERS IN NIGERIA.

By
CAROLINE L. EHEAZU, Ph.D.
Department of Adult & Non-Formal Education
University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria

&

JOSEPH AKPABIO, Ph.D.
Department of Communication Arts
University of Uyo, Nigeria.

Abstract

This paper discusses some basic concepts and principles of communication with
particular reference to development and environmental communication. The
educational and occupational profiles of rural Nigerian farmers are also x-rayed. The
paper establishes, among other facts, that majority of the rural farmers are illiterate
adults whose occupational practices promote numerous environmental problems,
including deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion, land pollution and general
ecosystemic disequilibration. Besides identification of appropriates processes for
communicating environmental sustainability strategies to the illiterate rural farmers,
the authors further highlight and discuss prevalent peculiar indigenous forms and
structures of social organization among the farmers and recommend, among other
things, adoption of relevant elements of same in designing approaches for
communicating environmental sustainability strategies to the farmers.


418

Introduction
Agriculture is one of the oldest professions in the world. It is very fundamental to human
existence since food, the product of agriculture, sustains the physical body. Agriculture
also creates wealth. This explains the importance of agricultural activities in all nations,
developed or developing. Agricultural activities have been greatly facilitated in the
developed world through science and technology. In Nigeria, however, agriculture,
especially in the rural areas, is characterized by stress and environmental degradation.
This paper is an attempt to discuss various approaches for communicating
functional strategies for effective environmental sustainability to illiterate rural farmers to
mitigate such stress and environmental degradation in Nigeria. The discourse is divided
into two sections. The first section examines the basics of communication, especially
development communication and environmental communication. The second section
focuses on environmental issues in rural agriculture in Nigeria. The section also examines
the types and practical realities of approaches for communicating sustainability strategies
to Nigerian illiterate farmers.
Communication
Communication has many definitions based on different perspectives and disciplines. In
all however, the word communication emanates from the Latin word, communis, which
means common or shared understanding. Singh (2011), is of the opinion that
communication is a purposeful effort to establish commonness between a source and a
receiver. Whatever is shared could be associated with knowledge, experience, thought,
ideas, suggestion, opinions and feelings. Communication could therefore be seen as the
process of exchanging or sharing information, ideas and feelings between the sender and
the receiver.
Types of communication
Hasan (2013), has identified five types of communication, they are:
i) Intrapersonal communication.
ii) Interpersonal communication.
iii) Group communication.
iv) Mass communication
v) Non-verbal communication

Intrapersonal communication
This is the most basic form of communication. It occurs when an individual sends and
receives messages internally. Ndimele & Innocent (2006), refer to it as self
communication. The product of our thought processes is nothing but intrapersonal
communication.
Interpersonal communication
This is a form of communication that takes place between two individuals. It is a direct
interaction between two persons; it may be formal or informal. It can take place
anywhere by means of words, sounds, facial expression; gestures and postures. Since there

419

is proximity between sender and receiver, interpersonal communication has emotional
appeal. It can motivate, encourage and coordinate work more effectively than any other
form of communication.
Group communication
Group communication is an extension of interpersonal communication where more than
two individuals are involved in exchange of ideas, skills and interests. Communication in
a group, small or big, serves many goals including collective decisionmaking, self
expression, increasing ones effect, elevating ones status and relaxation.
Group communication, according to Hassan (2013), is considered effective as it
provides an opportunity for direct interaction among the members of the group; it helps
to bring about changes in attitudes and beliefs. Group communication is time consuming
and inefficient, especially in emergency situations. Other limitations include imbalances in
status, skills and goals.
Mass communication
Singh (2011), sees mass communication as a process whereby mass produced messages
are transmitted to large, anonymous and heterogeneous masses of receivers. In mass
communication, the nature of the audience and the kind of feedback is different from that
of interpersonal communication.
The characteristics of mass communication (Singh, 2011) include:
i) Messages are directed towards relatively large heterogeneous audience.
ii) Messages are transmitted publicly, not privately.
iii) Feedback is indirect, nonexistent or delayed.
iv) Cost per exposure per individual is minimum.
v) Source belongs to organization or institutions.
vi) Communication is done by social institutions which are responsible to the
environment in which they operate.

Non-verbal communication
This is a type of communication that does not use words. It often plays a supplementary
role to the verbal content delivered orally. Again, according to Singh (2011), Non-verbal
communication serves the following functions:
i) Repeating verbal messages
ii) Substituting verbal messages
iii) Complementing verbal messages
iv) Regulating or accenting verbal messages.

Non-verbal communication could be expressed through facial behaviour, kinestics
or body movement, posture and gestures, personal appearance, clothing, proxemics and
paralanguage.


420

Importance of Communication
Communication is central to all human activities. As Hassan (2013) also infers, the
importance of communication could be captured in the five social functions discussed
below:
i) Social interaction
Human interaction is possible because people can communicate. Human beings
relate because they share codes and symbols that make them understand one
another.
ii) Business and trade
Communication provides opportunity to transact business and engage in trade.
People are able to make known what they are offering for sale and what they want
to buy through communication channels. Prices and modes of delivery of goods
are also negotiated through communication.
iii) Exchange of ideas and spread of knowledge
Communication helps people to express freely their ideas, opinions and feelings
on issues. Knowledge is imparted from teacher to student through
communication. Various frontiers of knowledge are also expanded by reading and
listening to the various communications outlets.
iv) Socio-cultural integration
Communication enables exchange of culture and values. We are able to learn of
other peoples cultures through literatures, music, dances etc. and blend for
harmonious co-existence.
v) Socio-political development
Development is made possible through communication. Communication helps to
mobilize people to work together for social and political development in such
areas as health, science, technology and agriculture.
Development Communication
Development communication would better be appreciated through initial understanding
of the concept of development. Asemah (2011) sees development as the sum total or the
outcome of efforts made by the people to improve upon their living conditions. In
another vein, Njoku (2009),affirms that development is pro-people, that it pays attention
to priorities chosen by the people and has a democratic sustainability. Roger and Burge
(1972:22) capture the concept of development in the following words:
Development is a type of social change in which new ideas
are introduced to a social system in order to produce higher
per-capita incomes and levels of living through some modern
production methods and improved social organization.
Development corresponds to modernization of an individual.
If we think of the possibility of enhancing agriculture, we
can find a role for broadcasting. Such a role can only be
advantageous to rural development since agriculture is one of
the important ways of generating income for individuals and
revenue for government.

421

Despite the various opinions on the concept of development, there appears to be
consensus on its objectives which Todaro and Smith (2003), identity as including,
i) To increase the availability and widen the distribution of basic life sustaining
goods
such as food, shelter, health and security.
ii) To raise the level of living in addition to higher incomes, the provision of more
jobs, better education, greater attention to cultural and human values, all of
which will serve not only to enhance material well-being but also to generate
greater individual and national self-esteem.
iii) To expand the range of economic and social choices available to individuals and
nations by freeing them from servitude and dependence, not only in relation to
other people and nation-states but also to the forces of ignorance and human
misery.
Development communication seeks to promote the above objectives in its style of writing
and enquiry. Hence Quebral (1972) defines development communication as the art and
science of human communication linked to a societys planned transformation from a
state of poverty to one of dynamic socio-economic growth that makes for greater equality
and the larger unfolding of individual potentials.
Anaeto & Anaeto (2010), have made four cardinal submissions on how journalists
should practise development communication in Nigeria; namely, campaigns, advocacy,
adult education and conscientisation. These four submissions could be adopted as
strategies by the media practitioners to enhance environmental sustainability among rural
farmers in Nigeria.
Another means of accelerating environmental sustainability among illiterate rural
farmers is through informal adult education via the radio. Again through functional
literacy programmes, the farmers could be taught reading and writing skills, personal
hygiene, modern farming methods and other relevant skills to enhance their capacity to
sustain their environment.
Environmental Communication
According to Flor (2004), environmental communication refers to the study and practice
of how individuals, institutions, societies and cultures craft, distribute, receive, understand
and use messages about the environment and human interaction with the environment.
Environmental communication is the application of communication approaches,
principles, strategies and techniques to environmental management and protection issues.
As an academic field, environmental communication emerged from an
interdisciplinary work involving communication, environmental studies, risk analysis and
management, sociology and political ecology. Environmental communication is divided
into six units:
i) Knowledge of ecological laws
ii) Sensitivity to the cultural dimension
iii) Ability to network effectively
iv) Efficiency in using media for social agenda setting

422

v) Appreciation and practice of environmental ethics
vi) Conflict resolution (mediation and arbitration)
The effective grasp of environmental communication principles, plus the
application of the development communication paradigm, would sharpen the strategies
for a sustainable productivity by rural farmers in Nigeria. Since one of the functions of the
media is the surveillance of its environment, the media should be used to highlight
development programmes and for sustainable growth in agriculture among the illiterate
rural farmers in Nigeria.
Profile of Nigerias Illiterate Rural Farmers and Their Farming Environment
Most of Nigerias rural dwellers are farmers who engage in land cultivation, animal
husbandry, fishing and forest exploitation ( Eheazu, 1983). Statistically, farmers account
for up to 90 percent of Nigerias rural population of about 79.5 million. (World Bank,
2010; IFAD, 2012). Again, data provided in a Report by Nigerias National Commission
for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education (2010;20, table 36) show that 65
percent of the rural population are illiterate in any given language. Furthermore, there is
preponderance of adults in rural farming as many rural youth are in school or are being
attracted to move to urban areas in search of white collar jobs and enjoyment of
improved infrastructure (electricity, portable water and other amenities lacking in the rural
areas).
Although Nigerias farmers contribute up to 40 per cent of of the countrys GDP
(World Bank, 2010), it is well known that rural agricultural methods and production
processes they employ tend to create a number of environmental problems, including
deforestation through bush burning and other traditional methods of preparing the land
for cultivation, overgrazing, soil erosion and land degradation arising from improper
application of fertilizers (Okafor and Udeh, 2012). For instance, as a result of extensive
deforestation, overgrazing and serious ecosystemic disequilibration by farmers, erosion,
drought and flooding have become commonplace in many parts of Nigeria. Besides,
pollution of arable land through fossil fuel exploitation and spillage has also become a
major environmental problem for rural farmers, especially in the southern part of Nigeria.
Environmental Sustainability
In simple parlance, environmental sustainability refers to the ability of any given
surrounding to extend its natural endowments or resources from one generation of
mankind to another. Such ability, however, is predicated on the level of assurance by
mankind that the resources are regenerated or carefully utilized to avert their total
depletion at any stage of human development. This also calls for adoption of safe modes
of resource utilization to prevent, or at least, mitigate, possible harmful effects of resource
processing on the environment (e.g. pollution and chemical degradation of the
environment).

Environmental Sustainability Strategies for Nigerias Illiterate Rural Farmers
The environmental hazards associated with the production processes engaged in by rural
farmers in Nigeria (already highlighted here) require some special strategies to mitigate

423

their effects and ensure environmental sustainability. Such strategies would include,
among other strategies:
i) Adoption of new methods of preparing arable land for cultivation to avoid
deforestation and bush burning which occasion soil erosion, ecosystemic
imbalance and other devastating effects;
ii) Use of alternative grazing sites and fodder to mitigate drought and desertification;
iii) Use of alternative materials for staking crop tendrils and thus avoid massive use of
branches of trees that encourage deforestation;
iv) Practice of various methods of production and use of organic manure to obviate
land degradation and soil pollution through the use inorganic fertilizers;
v) Adoption and planting of new scientifically developed crop types on flooding and
oil spill sites.

Processes for Communication of the Strategies
The environmental sustainability strategies outlined above are meant to alter, in a positive
sense, the occupational habits, views and skills of the environmentally-friendly methods in
the practice of their occupation. Communication of these strategies would involve using
formal, non-formal and informal processes, including:
i) Use of functional literacy programmes, including at least the first level of
environmental literacy (Roth, 1992);
ii) Employment of the services of Agricultural Extension Agents for practical
demonstrations;
iii) Use of appropriate media.
Given the already noted low level of literacy, the preponderance of adults and the
prevalence of cultural/traditional orientation among Nigerias rural farmers, the above
and any other approaches for communicating environmental sustainability strategies to
the rural farmers need to be situation-specific; indeed socio-cultural and andragogical
in nature.
Socio-cultural Approach for Communicating Environmental Sustainability
Strategies to Rural Nigerian Farmers
In Nigeria, different groups of rural farmers differ in their traditions, initiatives and
receptiveness to innovation in occupational practice. Accordingly, it would be necessary
to consider the positive relationship between indigenous culture and receptiveness of new
strategies among the various groups of Nigerian rural farmers. This is so because cultural
elements (like indigenous modes of socio-economic organization and value systems) may
be crucial in non-formal education programmes where the desired gains may not be
visible or immediate as in the case of environmental sustainability. Cultural resistance or
resilience may occur in a situation where development agents attempt to replace or
supplement existing traditional institutional services with new ones by treating the
previous services as non-existent (Eheazu, 1987).
A number of socio-cultural forms tend to impinge on the success of rural non-
formal education. These forms include traditional leadership patterns, indigenous
communication methods and indigenous knowledge and belief systems. In
communicating the environmental sustainability strategies to rural farmers in Nigeria,

424

there is a need to elicit the co-operation of the indigenous leadership within the
community. at least to give the process a stamp of indigenous authority. Again, existing
indigenous systems of communicating services (such as use of town criers, talking drums
and ballad singers) need to be employed (especially where modern telecommunication
facilities and media are absent) to assemble the target group. Even where it is possible to
apply the modern information communication modes, highlighted earlier in this paper,
there is still the informed belief that the pace of adoption of agricultural innovations by
rural illiterate farmers would be quickened if traditional and modern approaches are
blended (Obinne and Ozowa, 1997).
Use of indigenous forums of social interaction and exchange of information, like
village squares, should equally be considered as venues for communicating environmental
sustainability strategies to rural illiterate farmers. Furthermore, indigenous knowledge
should be taken into account in bringing about or promoting environmentally-friendly
strategies among the rural formers. Such knowledge would, among other things, guide
plans related to, for instance, what alternatives to use instead of tree branches for staking
crop tendrils. In like manner, indigenous belief systems could be of inestimable benefit
for choice of days for practical demonstrations in the farm, as many illiterate rural farmers
in Nigeria and other developing countries are known to have days and calendar moon
phases for abstaining from farming activities (Kidd and Colletta, 1980).
Use of Andragogy in the Process of Communicating Environmental Sustainability
Strategies to Illiterate Rural Famers in Nigeria
Andagogy is the method of facilitating adult learning which is premised on a certain
number of attributes of the adult learners, including their self-concept, social experience
and orientation and motivation to learn. In general, an adult or a mature human being, as
distinct from a child or an adolescent, is said to have a self-directed rather than a
dependent personality. He/she is also known to have accumulated a growing reservoir of
experience that serves as a resource for learning. Again, the matured person is believed to
be ready to learn tasks related to his/her social roles. Furthermore, the learning
orientation of the adult moves from being subject centred to being problem centred.
These attributes of the adult leaner are emphasized in andragogy to tone the nature of the
interaction between the adult and the learning facilitator. Since majority of rural famers in
Nigeria are illiterate adults, approaches for communicating environmental sustainability
strategies to them should be more andragogically than pedagogically oriented. This
suggestion needs to apply to formal, non-formal and informal approaches to be adopted
by Agricultural Extension Agents, the media and other related organs for communicating
environmental sustainability strategies to the identified group of farmers in Nigeria. In
brief, this would involve using the farmers experiences as a starting point to introduce
them to new and environmentally-friendly methods and techniques of carrying out their
occupation.
Conclusion
This paper has attempted to discuss some basic general concepts and modes of
communication with more emphasis on development and environmental communication.
To accomplish its declared objective, the paper has gone further to discuss environmental
issues in rural agriculture as well as the preponderance of illiterate adults in farming in
Nigerias rural areas. Articulated also in this paper are the strategies for achieving
environmental sustainability in rural farming as well as the necessary approaches for

425

communicating the strategies to the rural illiterate farmers. In all, it could be concluded
that if the appropriate modes of communication, relevant approaches and delivery
techniques highlighted in this paper are applied, communication of environmental
sustainability strategies to illiterate rural famers in Nigeria will record appreciable success.
Recommendations
Based on the above conclusion and the overall discussion in this paper, the following
recommendations may be found useful in adopting processes for communicating
environmental sustainability strategies to illiterate farmers in Nigeria:
i) Deliberate efforts should be made for the establishment of rural based media such as
community radio, community newspaper and viewing centres to communicate
desirable information to the rural farmers.
ii) Concerted efforts should be made to design situation-specific formal and non-formal
processes of communicating environmental sustainability strategies to rural illiterate
farmers in Nigeria;
iii) The services of communication experts, agricultural extension agents and
environmental adult educators should be enlisted to ensure that approaches adopted
reflect the socio-cultural backgrounds and personal characteristics of the rural farmers.

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427

CHILD ABUSE AND ITS EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN OSUN STATE NIGERIA
By
OLUBAYO-FATIREGUN, M.A., Ph.D
Faculty of Education
Department of Physical and Health Education,
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife
martolufat@yahoo.co.uk

&
ADERONMU KEHINDE
Department of Physical and Health Education,
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife
Kennydudu_05@yahoo.com

Abstract
With the global economic meltdown, many countries are cutting down on
employment thus leaving many citizens unemployed. However, the population of the
world is ever increasing as children are born every day, and humans especially in
Africa put more emphasis on the ability to give birth to many children rather than the
ability to rear and nurture them. Children who are supposed to be taken care of by
parents are left uncared for and are exposed to all forms of abuse. This paper
therefore investigated the effect of some of these forms of abuse on the academic
performance of an abused child. Validated questionnaire was used to collect data and
percentages were used to analyse the data. Result showed the views of the respondents
which have strong implication on the academic performance of abused children.
Government should enact and adhere strictly to decrees/ laws banning child labour
and abuse, reported acts of sexual abuse, violence and forced marriages should be
severely dealt with by law enforcement agencies, were part of the recommendations
proffered to reduce or eradicate these practices.
Keywords: Child abuse, Child labour, Domestic workers, Workload, Urban poor, Exploitation


428

Introduction
Child abuse is not new; it is as old as human history. Abuse and neglect may be emerging
as a result of the peoples culture, religion, age, sex, educational level and experiences with
child bearing and rearing. It is an issue that has long elicited a variety of definitions and
reactions from both national and international communities. Fawole (2003) defined child
abuse as the intentional act which endangers the physical, emotional, moral health and
educational welfare of child. Also Oniama, Oniyama, and Asamaigo (2004), regard child
abuse as a conscious maltreatment of a child due to fault(s) or no fault of the child. Child
abuse is one of the worlds social problems, it is the dehumanizing treatment melted out
to a child, which jeopardizes his or her normal development. African traditional child
fosterage is a long cherished practice through which children are given out as domestic
helps or assistants and for proper upbringing to known adults by their families in the
community. Recruitment and trafficking in children by clandestine agents for domestic
work with false promises of fosterage, (vocational training education or employment) and
the attendant problems is a growing phenomenon in the society.
According to John Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health (2007) annual
report, there are 11.773 billion young people between ages 10 and 24 in the world (27% of
worlds population) with 1.537 billion of them living in low income settings. The report
reveals that young people 10-24 constitutes the fastest growing segment of the worlds
population, more than 100 million adolescents do not attend school, some 13 million
young persons aged 15 to 24 cannot read or write and up to 1 in 5 women worldwide are
reported to have been sexually abused before the age of 15.
Study carried out by Nihal, and Forcier, (2008), shows that girls in rural areas are a
disproportionately disadvantaged group. Twenty six percent of 13 to 19 years old girls
residing in rural upper Egypt either received no schooling or dropped out after just one or
two years. That the concept of vulnerability of children has been a sine qua non of policies,
programmes and advocacy, effects of community, national, international, non-
governmental organizations and agencies that address the needs of children globally.
Child abuse is directly linked with child labour which endangers the health and safety of
the child and which interferes with the basic rights and privileges. According to Yakubu,
Moronkola, and Sokoya, (2007) accurate statistics on child abuse in Nigeria is presently
unavailable; its existence has been reported by Ifeyinwa (2002); Bukoye (2004) and
Dunapo (2002). Specifically, Ifeyinwa (2002) stated that in Nigeria all forms of abuse
abound but sexual abuse is overriding with trafficking of female children for prostitution
and disregard for child rights. Also, the author cited a study carried out by Durosaro
(1993) on the effect of child abuse on the academic performance of secondary school
students in Oyo State, and it was discovered that physical abuse such as beating, corporal
punishment, and excessive workload, neglect as well as emotional and psychological abuse
were prevalent.
Ebigbo and Izuora (1985) indicated that over 112,000 children were labourers in
Enugu State. According to them, most of these children come from the neighouring
towns and villages around Enugu. About 25% of these children were less than 8 years
while 28% were between 9-11 years and 45% between 12 and 15 years. They went further
to say that 67% were girls and 33% were boys and all of them were employed by young
elite families as house helps. The functions of these young boys and girls are never
defined; it varies from being baby sitters, cooks, housekeepers and shop attendants. The

429

working hours are not defined also some of them work for about 15-18 hours on daily
bases.
Ebigbo (2002) provided empirical evidence on the magnitude and prevalence of the
most pervasive forms of child-labour found in developing countries. The data revealed
that in 1999/2001 as many as 398,000 children were engaged in agricultural labour in
Anambra State. The number of children and youths who live or work in the street is
known to be substantial. Many factors are related to this phenomenon such as violence,
drug and alcohol abuse poverty or parents unemployment, in general, these children start
going to the street trying to earn some money or to run away from the intra familiar
violence or sexual abuse and on the street they are exposed to many risk factors.
According to Obikeze (2002) the use of child-labour for agriculture in the state spreads
throughout the year. This means that these children are engaged in the farm all round the
year leaving no time for schooling or formal education. Thus, the health and physical
development of these children are adversely affected.
In this regard, Adeboyega (2002) laments that there is a lot of dependency of the
rural economy on child labour trading and culture where everyone within the extended
family system is his brothers keeper. Consumerism, an attitude of get rich quick and
westernization, have led to rural-urban migration and the emergence of the urban poor.
These migrants take on menial jobs and form the bulk of the traders in the streets and
markets in the eastern and western part of Nigeria, the seat of this study. In northern
Nigeria where the Muslim religion is predominantly practiced and permits begging, the
young boy and girls are used to escorting the handicapped adults men and women to the
streets for arm begging thus, exposing these young ones to delinquency and vulnerability
to prostitution at an early age (Kisekka, 1981).
Apart from child-labour, sexual harassment, child abandonment, child-neglect
vagrancy, kidnapping and hawking appear to be other areas of high risk that confront
children in Nigeria. Convincing indication of the enormity of this crime was deliberated
upon at the world congress held in Stockholm Sweden in 1999 with over 130 countries
represented. The congress rose against commercial sexual exploitation of children
worldwide. It was documented that well over a million of young girls of age 10 years are
engaged in child-labour worldwide. Erulkar and Mekbib (2008) maintained that it is
estimated globally, that there are 250 million child workers, with a large proportion of
these thought to be in domestic service. While the majority of these children and
adolescents that are domestic workers are found in urban areas, they most often originate
from poor rural families. As a group, they are overwhelmingly female and poorly educated
if at all. The study showed that they worked extremely long hours (mean of 64 work hours
per week) for low pay. With a mean income of only US$6 per month, domestic workers
reflected lower levels of self-esteem. Many domestic workers described the negative
experiences they faced with economic vulnerability exacerbating their exposure to abuse,
exploitation and sexual violence.
Osagbemi, Arulogun, Joseph, and Alui, (2008) posited that children in domestic
work in Nigeria are mostly from the rural areas, largely, paternal orphans, and from
broken or polygamous homes whose mothers were second or third wives. Unfulfilled
promises are the common experiences of these children. Failure to monitor progress of
the promises made by employers creates confusion in the minds of these children.

430

Example of comments made by the respondents revealed the mind of these children
below.
My parents did not come to see me as promised since I left them in the village..
but my Madam tells me at the end of the month that my father or my mother came to
collect my salary either through a relative/guardian. I want to see them. I do this
to help them and my other six siblings. What I am passing through now in this work
is not what I was told.
Nigeria is the largest black Africa country with a recent census population of 140
million people. There are several ethnic groups with major tribes comprising the Ibo in
the East, the Yoruba in the West and the Hausa in the North. Although endowed with
rich natural resources and human resources, Nigeria has not developed the necessary
technological, industrial, managerial and political know-how to pull its resources together
to take care of the basic needs of its population. As a result, poverty, and hard living
condition are prevalent affecting the people especially children and young adults. Socio-
economic pressure often compels children who are supposed to be in school to seek
employment and as a result are faced with the harsh realities of life. Most girls due to the
economic crisis veer into prostitution to fend for themselves. In most rural and urban
areas of this country you find these children, mostly girls, running after vehicles to sell
their goods while the boys are heavily engaged in agricultural labour (Obikeze, 2000).
Thus the streets of most highways in towns and villages are littered with children who are
supposed to be in schools. Those who managed to get themselves into schools find it
difficult to concentrate as they anxiously wait for the tolls of the bells in order to join their
counterparts on the street. The children are supposed to be symbol of beauty and future
of the nation; they need to be given full attention, affection, security, mental, spiritual,
moral and social development. Unfortunately millions of children in Nigeria are being
deprived of these basic necessities of life. Most children suffer the aforementioned,
including not getting education as they are exposed to hardship fending for themselves at
very tender age.
The research therefore seeks to find out the effects of child-abuse on the academic
performance of the abused children in the secondary schools in Osun State of Nigeria.
Research Questions
The study specifically seeks answers to these research questions:
1. What is the effect of child abuse on the academic performance of the child?
2. What is the effect of child abuse on the childs behaviour?
3. What is the influence of economic status of parents on child abuse?
Methodology
Design
Descriptive survey designed was employed to assess the effects of child abuse on the
academic performance of selected secondary students in Osun State.


431

The sample for the study comprised 1,200 students from thirty randomly selected public
secondary schools from the headquarters of the 30 Local Government Areas in Osun
State. A total of 10% of secondary school students was randomly selected from each of
the schools in the Local Government Headquarters. A total of 1,200 students were
sampled using age, and gender as strata for the study.
The research instrument used was the Child Abuse Inventory Questionnaire
(CAIQ) constructed by the researchers to collect the data. The CAIQ had two sections (A
& B). Section A dealt with the demographic data of the subjects while section B consisted
of 22 items which were used to assess the effect of child abuse on the academic
performance of the subjects. The instrument was validated by two specialists from the
department of Sociology, and Physical and Health Education Obafemi Awolowo
University Ile-Ife; the instrument was pre-tested for reliability on 30 students who were
not part of the study. Copies of the questionnaire were administered by trained research
assistants in the chosen schools for data collection purpose. Data obtained from the
questionnaire were analysed using percentages

Results and Discussion
The results of this study are presented under the following four broad areas.
1. Effect of child abuse on academic performance
2. Effect of child abuse on the childs behaviour
3. Influence of economic status of parents on child abuse
Table I: Effect of Child Abuse on Academic Performance
Variables N = 1200
Yes % No % Total (%)
Do you attend school regularly? 150 12.5 1050 87.5 100
Absent from school due to pressure of work 570 47.5 630 52.5 100
Can you concentrate in class after the days work? 500 41.7 700 58.3 100
Do you sometimes miss going to school due to
work given at home?
900 75 300 25 100

The table shows that a high percentage (87.5%) of abused children attends school
regularly, but 58% claimed that they cannot concentrate in class due to tiredness after
work; this will invariably affect their academic performance.


432

Table II: The Effect of Child Abuse on the Childs Behaviour.
Variables N = 1200
Delinquent behaviour is characteristics of an
abused child?
1000 83.3 200 16.7 100
Delinquent behaviour in abused child could result
from exposure to hardship?
1100 91.7 100 8.3 100
Do your parents punish you often 400 33.3 800 66.7 100
Do you get angry when punished by your
parent/master?
480 40 720 60 100
Could abuse-children make it/succeed in life? 1009 84 191 16 100

The table shows that child abuse affects the childs behaviour negatively due to his/her
exposure to hardship. (83%) of the respondents agreed that delinquent behaviour is
characteristic of an abused child though, this may not be indices of what he/she will later
become; as 84% of the respondents agreed that abused children can succeed in life.
Table III: Influence of Economic Status of Parents on Child Abuse
Variables N = 1200
Are your parents gainfully employed? 380 31.7 820 68.3 100
Do you live with your parents? 400 33.3 800 66.7 100
Are your parents responsible for your schooling? 105 8.8 1095 91.2 100
Are you being paid for living with somebody? 800 66.7 400 33.3 100
Do you use the money for your
schooling/education?
1100 91.7 100 8.3 100
Do you give part of the money to your parents for
their upkeep?
590 49.1 710 59.1 100
Do you miss your school or lesson due to pressure
of work?
900 75 300 25 100

The table shows that most of the parents of abused children (68.3%) are not gainfully
employed, and so are not responsible for their schooling. (91.7%) claimed that the money
realized from being maid/servants is used for their education.
Discussion
The findings of the study has revealed that 87.5(1050) of the respondents did not attend
school regularly, 52.5% were absent from school and 75% (900) maintained that they
usually miss school due to the pressure of work. This agrees with the findings of Nzeneri
(2007) who noted that illiteracy is a serious impediment to individual growth and
community development, he is of the view that high illiteracy rate correlates highly with
poverty, malnutrition, poor health, low productivity, low income and high mortality. The
National Economic Empowerment Development Strategy (NEEDS) also agreed that the

433

children are the bridge to a prosperous future, and so, the improvement of the
educational system a top priority (Mohammed, 2006).
In this study, 83.3% (1000) respondents agreed that delinquent behaviour is
characteristics of an abused child, 91.7% (1100) agreed that this is caused by exposure to
hardship but only 33.3% (400) of respondents submitted that their parents punish them
often. The finding support the explanation of Adesoji (2007) that lower class families are
burdened with survival in the present, they feel they have inadequate resources, such as
income, education and good job to meet their needs of life. He maintained that in rearing
their children, lower-class families put emphasis on not being a nuisance, physical
punishment is the form of discipline most likely to be used, children must be trained to
adjust to the harsh conditions, and they are also taught early to assume responsibility for
chores around the home, caring for smaller children and running errands. The issue is
capable of breeding anti-social behaviour like truancy, running away from school, stealing
by the less opportune adolescents, as poverty means that opportunities and choices most
basic to human development are denied, poverty is linked to the shortage of vital
resources and the endurance of harsh and in hospitable environment, including a
breakdown of economic, demographic and socio-cultural system.
With regards to the economic status of parents as a causative factor of child abuse,
the finding revealed that 68.3% of parents of abused children were not gainfully
employed, 91.2% (1095) were responsible for their schooling; 91.7% (1100) used the
money they get for their schooling and 49.1% (590) give part of the money realized for
their parents upkeep. Farley (2003); Eitzen and Smuth (2003) lay credence to this findings
by pointing out that a familys socio-economic status is based on the parents income,
occupation, and level of education. Also Berns (2004) posited that generally, parents of a
high economic status background have low income, unskilled or semi-skilled jobs and are
poorly educated.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of the study and the discussion of the finings the following
conclusions were made.
The percentage of the population today is majorly the youths particularly in the
developing world with Nigeria having 41% of the population under 15 years of age; with
such a structure the youth dependency ratio to economically active adults is very high, as
the workforce in Nigeria must support many children. The danger of child abuse and its
effects on academic performance of adolescents cannot be ignored. The street child is
vulnerable to a number of hazards notable; sexual harassment; sickness, injuries, violence,
antisocial behaviour and entanglements with the law. Forced marriage was agreed on by
all respondents as child abuse. These could be reduced by the government through
organized seminars and workshops to educate the populace on the evils of forced
marriage/child abuse.

Recommendations
Based on the results of the study and the conclusion reached, the following are hereby
recommended:

434

1. Government should enact and adhere strictly to decrees / laws banning child labour
and abuse in the country
2. Back to school programmes and proper funding of education that will improve the
enrolment of children / adolescents in schools should be pursued.
3. Reported acts of sexual abuse, violence and force marriages should be severely dealt
with by law enforcement agencies.
4. Provision and even distribution of amenities in the rural areas. This will check rural-
urban migration in the country.
5. Problems of the power sector are addressed as many of the vocational jobs are
dependent on uninterrupted power supply.
6. The social welfare department should be rejuvenated through provision of juvenile
corrective homes, and training of social workers to rehabilitate affected adolescence.

References
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Adeboyega, B., Ogunmola, O. (2002). Child abuse across cultural perspective. London:
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Bukoye, R.O. (2004). Attitude Towards Child Abuse and Neglect among Women:
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Enugu In Bioibo and ONYANGO, eds. Children in especially difficult circumstances.
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Eitzen, D.S., & Smith, K.E. (2003). Experiencing Poverty. USA: Thompson and Wads-
worth.
Erulkar, A.S., & Mekbib, T.A. (2008). Invisible and vulnerable: Adolescent Domestic
workers in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Book of Abstracts of International Conference on
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programs. P. 32-33
Farley, J.E. (2003). Sociology. New Jersey: Prentice Hall
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Obikeze, O. (2000). Sibling abuse hidden physical emotional and sexual trauma. Lexington: May
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436

IMPACT OF INFRASTRUCTURAL FACILITIES DECADENCE ON
STUDENTS ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN ONDO STATE
SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

By

OLOFINNIYI E.O., FASHIKU C.O.
Department OF Educational Administration and Planning,
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife, Nigeria.
fashxtopher@gmail.com

&
FASHIKU, B. C.
GSE Department Kwara State College of Education, Oro.

Abstract

This paper examines infrastructural facilities decadence and its impacts on students
academic achievement in secondary schools in Ondo State, Nigeria. The sample of the
study comprised 40 students from two secondary schools in each five local
governments making a total of 200 respondents randomly selected across the study
areas. The instruments used to collect data were the Infrastructural Facilities
Decadence and Students Academic Achievement Questionnaire (IFDSAAQ). Two
hypotheses were formulated and analyzed, using Pearson Product Moment of
Correlation Coefficient and t-test statistics. The result showed a correlation between
infrastructural facilities decadence in various schools and theirs academic
achievement. The study equally revealed that there was no significant relationship
between infrastructural facilities decadence and students academic achievement and
also there was no significant difference between the infrastructural facilities
decadence and students academic achievement of rural and urban schools. The
results of the two hypotheses showed that the calculated values are less than t-table
values (H
01
: t-cal. = 0.1955, t-table=1.000, H
02
: t-cal = 0.308, t-table= 0.960.)
respectively. Therefore, the paper recommended that; every stakeholders most
especially government at all levels including NGOs, school community, philanthropist
and other donor agencies in education sector are to make it a point of duties that
appropriate allocation are set aside to education as recommended by UNESCO in
their annual budget to stimulate and facilitate the development of infrastructural
facilities in secondary schools across the state in order to boost the students academic
performance and achievement at large.

Key words: Impact, infrastructural decadence, academic achievement, rural and
urban schools.


437

Introduction
Infrastructural facilities in schools have been observed as a potent factor to quantitative
and qualitative education (Owoeye and Yara, 2011). The roles in which good and relevant
infrastructural facilities play in teaching and learning cannot be over emphasized, most
especially at the primary and secondary school levels. Akande (1985) argued that learning
can occur through ones interaction with ones environment. Environment here refers to
facilities that are available to facilitate students learning outcome. The facilities here may
comprise technical and physical materials as: Buildings (Administrative, Classrooms,
Library and Laboratories). Other materials/equipment are books (note books and
textbooks), audio-visual, software and hardware of educational technology; so also, size of
classroom, sitting position and arrangement, availability of tables, chairs chalkboards and
shelves on which instruments for practical are arranged (Farombi 1998).

Decadences and Declining State of Infrastructural Facilities in Nigerian Public
Secondary Schools.
Severe overcrowding, dilapidated and crumbling buildings, electrical systems that
cannot support technology and myriads of other structural problems in many of the
nations schools have seriously retarded the pace of students academic performance and
achievement since pre and post independence era. In the word of Oni (1992) facilities
constitute a strategic factor in organizational functioning. This is so because they
determine to a very large extent the smooth functioning of any social organization or
system including education. He further stated that their availability, adequacy and
relevance influence the efficiency and high productivity. On the other hand, a nation
where government is less concerned about these, the outcomes will not be favourable.
Most of the public secondary schools in Nigeria are at the state of decadence in
terms of infrastructural facilities. In his report on secondary school education in Nigeria,
Adaralegbe (1983) reiterates that from Inspectors reports over the years, there is
abundant evidence and catalogue of inadequacies in the provision and judicious use of
school buildings and materials for instruction. He went further to say that many classes
have been held under unhygienic conditions while some schools have no ceiling, some
have no doors and windows, no shutters and some classroom floors have not been
cemented. The situation is even worst in rural areas and under these unfavorable
situations; much learning cannot be expected to take place. As a result of this decadence,
Obemeata (1985) concluded that only a few numbers of secondary school products are
qualified to enter the University in Nigeria. Akinwumiju and Orimoloye (1987) opine that
educational institutions from Nursery to University require conducive buildings for their
effective operations.

Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA)

Official journal of the Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt.

Sample of Schools in the Study Areas
Figure 1

Figure 2
Sample of Schools in the Study Areas
Vol. 21, No. 2, 2013.
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Figure 3

Figure 4

Vol. 21, No. 2, 2013.
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Figure 5
Source: Field work

School Facilities and Student Academic Achievement
Factors of physical surroundings that affect behavior are known as ambient
environmental conditions. ONeill (2000) notes that these factors include
ventilation, lighting, color and noise level. These elements produce comfort or irritation,
either of which can affect behavior of building inhabitants. The behavior of students is
often driven by how they perceive their surroundings, includin
environment (Maiden and Foreman, 1998). Annoyed students often become discipline
problems. For example, Earthman and Lemasters (1996) found that the thermal
environment of the classroom can be very important to the well being of children.
Temperature levels have been found to have a significant impact upon attention spans of
students (McGuffey, 1982) . Therefore, the dilapidated and un enabling environment will
definitely demoralize and discourage students from learning what is expected per
which will also result in poor academic performance and achievement in the school
system.

This decadence can also result in character re
when there is no proper classroom work where the good traits could be pas
teacher, students get too loose to playing about thereby exposing them to bad peer which
will automatically serve as the best alternatives to their academic excellence. As it was
mentioned in the study of Olofinniyi, Fashiku and Owombo (2012
aid the academic performance and achievement of students which may include conducive
environment, teachers effectiveness and access to improved technology such as mobile
phones internet facilities and the like.


School Facilities and Student Academic Achievement
environmental conditions. ONeill (2000) notes that these factors include
often driven by how they perceive their surroundings, including their physical
definitely demoralize and discourage students from learning what is expected per
This decadence can also result in character re-modification of student in the school,
when there is no proper classroom work where the good traits could be pas
mentioned in the study of Olofinniyi, Fashiku and Owombo (2012) several factors can
phones internet facilities and the like.
Vol. 21, No. 2, 2013.
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440

environmental conditions. ONeill (2000) notes that these factors include temperature,
g their physical
definitely demoralize and discourage students from learning what is expected per time
modification of student in the school,
when there is no proper classroom work where the good traits could be passed on by the
) several factors can

441

Statement of Research Problems
Provision of adequate infrastructural and instructional facilities for educational sector is
the function of government at all levels; Federal, State and local across the nation. It is
unfortunate to note that this sector is still crawling due to the decadence of facilities to
stimulate schooling (teaching and learning). Government paid little or no attention to the
state of facilities decadence in the country as a result of political wills and poor allocation
of resources to education sector in the annual budget. Schools in most of the rural areas
are characterized by poor funding, inadequate classrooms for teaching and learning even
the available ones are in dilapidated conditions which are not suitable for learning at all,
poorly stocked libraries and laboratories for teaching of science subjects. The situation is
even worst in rural areas and under these unfavorable situations; much learning cannot be
expected to take place. As a result of this deplorable condition, Akinfe, Olofinniyi,
Fashiku (2012) and Obemeata (1985) submitted that only a small proportion of secondary
school products are qualified to gain admission into the University in Nigeria. It is against
this background this study was carried out in Ondo State, Nigeria.

Research Questions
The following questions were raised to guide the study.
1. What are the possible impact of infrastructural facilities decadence on student
achievement, attendance, behavior, dropout rate and teacher turnover rate in Ondo
state, Nigeria?
2. What are the state of infrastructural decadence between rural and urban secondary
schools in term of availability of library facilities, conducive classrooms, and
availability of laboratory facilities, quarters for staff and hostels accommodation for
students in Ondo state, Nigeria?

Hypotheses
Ho
1
: There is no significant relationship between school infrastructural facilities
decadence and students academic achievement, attendance, behavior, dropout rate
and teacher turnover rate.
Ho
2
: There is no significant difference between state of infrastructural facilities decadence
in rural and urban secondary schools in term of availability of library facilities,
conducive classrooms and availability of laboratory facilities, staff quarters and
hostels accommodation for students.

Methodology
Design
The study adopted a descriptive survey research design, as its examine the impact of
infrastructural facilities decadence on the students academic achievement in Ondo State
secondary schools.

A multi-stage sampling technique was used to collected data from 200 respondents. First
stage involved purposive selection of Ondo South Senatorial District based on the poor
state of infrastructural facilities in secondary schools in the area. Second stage also
involved the purposive selection of five Local Government Areas based on the level of
their distance and inaccessibility to basic infrastructural facilities in the area. The third

442

stage involves the simple random selection of two schools per local government. In the
fourth and final stages, simple random selection of 40 students per school making a total
of 200 respondents in all for data collection of this study. The questionnaire titled
Infrastructural Facilities Decadence on the Students Academic Achievement
Questionnaire (IFDSAAQ) was employed as the instruments. It contained 40 twenty
items derived from the research questions The questionnaire was administered by
randomly selected sampled secondary school students in Ondo South Senatorial district to
achieve various responses. Equally, a checklist was used in caring out on the spot
observation of the existing facilities in study area.

Analytical Techniques
A self constructed questionnaire was used in order to elicit information from senior
secondary school students for the research work. The validity of the instrument was
ensured by four experts from the Departments of Educational Administration and
Planning and Guidance and Counseling. The reliability of the instrument was assured
through a test re-test method which yielded a correlation co efficient of 0.68. This was
considered reliable enough for use.

Frequency counts, percentage scores and Pearson Product Moment of Correlation
Coefficient were used to determine the relationship between school infrastructural
facilities decadence and students academic achievement, attendance, behavior, dropout
rate and teacher turnover rate, and t-test was used to test for the difference between state
of infrastructural facilities decadence in rural and urban secondary schools in term of
availability of library facilities, conducive classrooms and availability of laboratory
facilities, staff quarters and hostels accommodation for students.

The results of the data collected were discussed as follows:

Question 1: What are the possible impact of infrastructural facilities decadence on
students achievement, attendance, behavior, dropout rate and teacher turnover rate in
Ondo state, Nigeria?

Table 1: Infrastructural facilities decadence on students achievement, attendance,
behavior, dropout rate and teacher turnover rate in Ondo State, Nigeria.
Possible Impact Frequency (N) Percentage (%)
Positive 44 22
Negative 156 78
Total 200 100



Figure 1: Possible impact of

Table 1 and the chart above show that 78 percent of the respondents believed that the
decadence in infrastructural facilities has negative impact on students academic
achievement, attendance, behavior, dropout rate and
Nigeria. From the data therefore, it is clear that larger percentage (78%) of students in the
secondary schools in this area are operating under a very dilapidated structures which are
very poor for teaching and learni
the little and porous structures that were available. This is in line with the study of ONeill
(2000) that infrastructural conditions such as temperature, ventilation, lighting, color and
noise level produce comfort or irritation, either of which can affect behavior of building
inhabitants (students) that will automatically determine their academic performance and
achievement .

Question 2: What are the state of infrastructural decadence between rural a
secondary schools in term of availability of library facilities, conducive classrooms, and

Table 2: The state of infrastructural decadence between rural and urban secondary
schools.

State of Decadence
Rural Urban
High 150 40
Manageable 30 20
Low 20 140
Total 200 200

: Possible impact of infrastructural facilities decadence
achievement, attendance, behavior, dropout rate and teacher turnover rate in Ondo state,
very poor for teaching and learning. While lower percentages of 22% were impacted with
roduce comfort or irritation, either of which can affect behavior of building
: What are the state of infrastructural decadence between rural a
: The state of infrastructural decadence between rural and urban secondary
School Categories [F] Rural School [%]
Rural Urban
150 40 75
30 20 15
20 140 10
200 200 100
Positive
22%
Negative
78%
Possible Impact
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teacher turnover rate in Ondo state,
ng. While lower percentages of 22% were impacted with
roduce comfort or irritation, either of which can affect behavior of building
: What are the state of infrastructural decadence between rural and urban
: The state of infrastructural decadence between rural and urban secondary
Urban School [%]

20
10
70
100


Figure 2: State of decadence

Figure 3: State of decadence in urban centres

Table 2 and the charts above shows that
decadence in rural areas in Ondo state as its having 75% of respondents giving their
consent to it while a lower percentage of 10% to non decadence state and the remaining
15% believed in medium state r
centres because larger percentage of the respondents believed that infrastructural facilities
are in good state as 70% responded to lower state of decadence, 20% and 10% also
responded to high and m
deduced from this results that infrastructural facilities decadence is more prevalence in the
rural areas in Ondo state than the urban centres which is in line with the submission of
Obemeata (1985) and MCGOWEN (2007) in which they both made a clear difference
that exists between physical structures of schools in an urban centres and rural
communities and their impacts on the students attitudes, behaviours and academic
performances. Most of the sch
government in charge thereby making the academic performance and achievement of
students become unrealistic dream.

Ho
1
: There is no significant relationship between impact of school infrastruct
decadence on students academic achievement, attendance, behavior, dropout rate and
teacher turnover rate.

Medium
15%
Low
10%
State of Decadence (Rural)
State of Decadence (Urban)
decadence in rural areas
: State of decadence in urban centres
Table 2 and the charts above shows that infrastructural facilities is in a state of serious
15% believed in medium state respectively. The outcome was not the same at all in urban
edium state of decadence respectively. Therefore, it can be
5) and MCGOWEN (2007) in which they both made a clear difference
performances. Most of the schools in the rural areas receives little or no attention from
students become unrealistic dream.
: There is no significant relationship between impact of school infrastruct
High
75%
Low
10%
State of Decadence (Rural)
High
20%
Medium
10%
Low
70%
State of Decadence (Urban)
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infrastructural facilities is in a state of serious
espectively. The outcome was not the same at all in urban
edium state of decadence respectively. Therefore, it can be
5) and MCGOWEN (2007) in which they both made a clear difference
ools in the rural areas receives little or no attention from
: There is no significant relationship between impact of school infrastructural facilities

445

Table 3:
Correlation coefficient of relationship between impact of school infrastructural facilities
teacher turnover rate.

In order to test this hypothesis, relevant data collected on students academic
achievement with the use of West African School Certificate Examination Results for two
years are coded as follows:5 credits and above 3 points, 4 credits 2 points, below 4 credits
1 point. These points were computed as weighted mean using the number of students that
did the examination. Pearson correlation was used to determine if there was relationship
between the infrastructural facilities decadence and student academic achievement. The
results of the analysis were presented below:

Correlation t-calculated t-able
Infrastructural decadence
Students Academic
Achievements
0.1955

0.1955
1.0000

1.0000

Table 3 shows that infrastructural facilities decadence was not significantly related to
students academic achievement because the t-table of the correlation is greater than the t-
calculated. The hypothesis is therefore accepted, hence, there is no significant relationship
between the infrastructural facilities decadence and students academic achievement and
this high state of decadence most especially in the rural areas has retarded educational
development to the unbearable level. This was in line with King, & Marans, (1979) study
which revealed that infrastructural decadence in schools have not allowed academic
targets of rural schools to be attainable in terms of student performance and achievement,
attendance, students behavior, dropout rate and teacher turnover rate. Therefore,
infrastructural facilities decadence had no positive correlation with their academic
performances and achievement.

Ho
2
: There is no significant difference between state of infrastructural facilities decadence
in rural and urban secondary schools in term of availability of library facilities,
conducive classrooms and availability of laboratory facilities, staff quarters and
hostels accommodation for students.

Table 4
Analysis of the state of infrastructural facilities decadence in rural and urban secondary
schools.
Variable N Mean SD DF t-cal t-table
Urban 80 53.06 8.84
148

0.960

0.308
Rural 20 57.52 14.41

The results presented in table 4 shows that infrastructural facilities decadence in urban
schools have a mean score of 57.52 on academic performance and achievement while
their counterpart in rural schools have a mean score of 53.06. The table further revealed
that t-cal (0.960) which is less than the t-table (0.308) at significant level of 0.05.
Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected. Hence, there is significance difference between
the infrastructural facilities decadence in urban schools and rural schools.
It was revealed that there was a significant difference between the infrastructural
facilities decadence in urban and rural secondary school across the state based on the

446

school location. From observation, the school in the city seems to have more access to
government presence in terms of provision of basic infrastructural facilities such as
conducive class room for teaching and learning, laboratories facilities for the teaching of
science subjects, staff quarters, well equipped library and conducive students hostels
which are not available in the rural schools at all, even, the few ones available are in
dilapidated state that are dangerous to the health and the entire academic achievement of
the students.

Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to establish whether there is correlation between the
infrastructural facilities decadence and students academic achievement in secondary
schools in Ondo State. The results have demonstrated clearly that significant relationship
does not exist between infrastructural facilities decadence and students academic
achievement in the state.
Therefore, from the above results and the study of King, & Marans, (1979) and
Obemeata (1985) on impact of infrastructural facilities decadence on the students
academic achievement, was concluded; infrastructural decadence in the schools have not
in any way positively contributed to academic achievements of students in Ondo State
secondary schools at all, rather it has done more damages, retardation, and backwardness
in every sections of secondary school education in the state. Most of the schools in the
study area lack basic infrastructures that can aid teaching and learning process in the
school. While the available ones are in the state of dilapidation, the student hostels and
staff quarters are not functioning again, even some of the classrooms are without good
roof, characterized with unhealthy environment as revealed in the above pictures and the
results of the study.

Recommendations
Provision of good and sustainable infrastructural facilities in secondary schools is largely
the functions of government. Therefore, every stakeholders most especially government
at all levels in education section are to make it a point of duty that appropriate allocation
are set aside for education as recommended by UNESCO in their annual budget to
stimulate and facilitate the development of infrastructural facilities in secondary schools
across the state. Also, government should monitor strictly the implementation of the
funds allotted to education for better outcomes in students academic achievement. Non-
governmental organizations can also be of help in the provision of infrastructural facilities
to schools in order to boost the student moral towards their academic success. School
management should make it a point of duty to carry the individual philanthropist, donor
agencies and community where the schools are situated along in wiping away decadence
in the school in order to achieve the ultimate goal of schoolings.

References
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and teacher turnover rate at selected Texas middle schools in Region XIII ESC. Unpublished
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448

TERRORISM IN NIGERIA: NEED FOR SECURITY EDUCATION
By
ROSEMARY O. EKECHUKWU, Ph.D
Department of Educational Psychology
Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt
Email: mamatriplets01@yahoo.Com
0703-890-4233

&

ATEKE, BROWN WALTER
Email: komanda4real@yahoo.Com
08096123402

Abstract
The unending wave of acts of terrorism in Nigeria and the seeming absence of or near
lack of a comprehensive and systemic approach to tackling this menace necessitated
this paper. With a view to proffering solutions that will have long term impact and
bring succor to the government and the governed, this paper suggests security
education as a panacea for the security challenges in the country. The paper explored
the meaning and origin of terrorism in the world and in Nigeria; the effects of
terrorism on the environment, the economy and on the society and identified causes of
terrorism in Nigeria. Also, the paper discussed the need for security education in
Nigeria, the target audience for security education and put forward some method that
can be employed in the effective education on security of the country.


449

Introduction
The ability to contrive ways and respond decisively to terrorist activities is one of the most
challenging issues facing Nigeria today. It is a common knowledge that Nigeria since her
return to civil rule in 1999, has been facing some national security challenges across the
six geo-political zones (Abimbola and Adesote, 2012). These challenges though attracting
response from the government, have not been adequately met. Several measures have
been espoused and varying degrees of results have been realized. However, adequate
attention has not been given to security education which has the potentiality to equip the
citizenry with appropriate knowledge and skills to either thwart the activities of terrorists
or to reduce the impact of their activities when they strike.
Security consciousness and alertness is paramount if we must overcome the current
security challenges in the country; and security education is the vehicle to be summoned
to achieve this competence. This paper will discuss the meaning and origin of terrorism,
terrorism in Nigeria, causes of terrorism, effects of terrorism, meaning of security, types
of security, reasons for security, security education, the need for security education in
Nigeria, target audience for security education in Nigeria, and conclude by stating ways of
inculcate security in Nigeria.
Meaning and Origin of Terrorism
There is an obvious difficulty in defining terrorism and this is mostly due to the
disagreement on the basis for determining when the use of violence (directed at whom, by
whom, for what ends) is legitimate; and also to the notion that one state's (mans) terrorist
is another state's (mans) freedom fighter (Like beauty, terrorism is in the eye of the
beholder). Consequently, definitions of terrorism are inherently controversial. The
majority of definitions in use however have been proffered by agencies directly associated
with government, and so, are systematically biased to exclude governments from the
definition.

The Arab Convention for the Suppression of Terrorism, adopted by the Council of
Arab Ministers of the Interior and the Council of Arab Ministers of Justice in Cairo,
Egypt in 1998 defined terrorism as any act or threat of violence, whatever its motives or
purposes, that occurs in the advancement of an individual or collective criminal agenda
and seeking to sow panic among people, causing fear by harming them, or placing their
lives, liberty or security in danger, or seeking to cause damage to the environment or to
public or private installations or property or to occupying or seizing them, or seeking to
jeopardize national resources. The UN Security Council Resolution 1566 (2004) on its
part defined terrorism as criminal acts, including against civilians, committed with the
intent to cause death or serious bodily injury, or taking of hostages, with the purpose to
provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of persons or particular
persons, intimidate a population or compel a government or an international organization
to do or to abstain from doing any act.

Section 2331 of Chapter 113(B) of the United States Criminal Code defined
terrorism as: activities that involve violence or life-threatening acts that are a
violation of the criminal laws of the United States or of any State and appear to be
intended (i) to intimidate or coerce a civilian population; (ii) to influence the policy of a
government by intimidation or coercion; or (iii) to affect the conduct of a government by

450

mass destruction, assassination, or kidnapping; and(iv) to occur primarily within the
territorial jurisdiction of the United States

Here in Nigeria, terrorism has been defined in the Terrorism (Prevention) Bill, 2011
section 2(c) as acts causing an attack upon a persons life which may cause serious bodily
harm or death; kidnapping of a person; destruction to a government or public facility,
transport system, and infrastructural facility including an information system, a fixed
platform located on the continental shelf, public place or private property likely to
endanger human life or result in major economic loss. The Terrorism (Prevention) Bill,
2011 seeks to prevent, prohibit and combat acts of terrorism including the financing of
terrorism in Nigeria.
From the foregoing, it can be averred that the definitions of terrorism though
varied, have some commonalities; they all view terrorism as:
i. involving threat or use of violence;
ii. having political, religious or ideological objectives; they are aimed at or desire to
change the status quo;
iii. having the intention to spread fear by committing spectacular public acts;
iv. involving the intentional targeting of civilians, security personnel, private or public
property or resources.
Based on the foregoing, this paper will proffer the following as a working
definition: Terrorism is the use of, or threat to use violence by individuals, groups or
institutions against civilians or security personnel with the aim of promoting political,
religious, racial, cultural or ideological objectives or to influence individuals, governments,
or international institutions by spreading fear through committing spectacular criminal
acts in public.

Terrorism has been around since the dawn of human society in one form or
another. It is as old as humans' willingness to use violence to affect politics, but its
modern outlook and development can be traced to the French Revolution's Reign of
Terror (1793-1794). It was during this period that the term terrorism was first coined.
Through the past two hundred years, terrorism has been used to achieve political ends
and has developed as a tool for liberation, oppression, intimidation and international
politics.
There is a lot of secrecy that surrounds acts of terrorism. That is why in most cases
there is a wave of silence among perpetrators (Alao, 2012). Terrorism has worn different
masks through the ages. According to the state of Delaware criminal justice council, in the
late 18
th
Century, governments (the French revolution) sponsored terrorism to eliminate
opposition and consolidate power. In the Late 19
th
and Early 20
th
Century Individuals
(The Anarchists) used terrorism to bring down governments. In the Early 20
th
Century,
Government (Russian Revolution) sponsored terrorism to maintain power and control an
entire population. This era heralded the systematic society wide use of terror to the
concept of government-sponsored terrorism. Still in the early 20
th
century, selective
terrorism, sustained terrorism and cell operations (the Irish Rebellion) used terrorism to
gain independence. In the mid-20
th
Century, terrorism was used to fight colonialism.

Terrorism in Nigeria

451

Terrorism is not an entirely alien phenomenon to Nigeria. Even before the colonial era,
major ethnic groups used violence or the threat of violence to subdue and oppress minor
ones. In the colonial era, the colonial masters used violence or threat of violence to
advance their policies and in the post-colonial era, the government (the military especially)
used same weapon to keep the populace subservient while individuals and groups also
used it to influence the establishment. What appears a novelty is perhaps the dimension
and sophistication that terrorism has assumed in recent times. From the creeks of the
south-south to the desert of the north-east, we have, and are still witnessing a wave of
terror that have tasked the government in no small measures. The activities of terrorists
became odious, so much so that they seemed to overwhelm our security operatives at a
time.
In their wake, they wreaked so much havoc to virtually all facets of our national life
and threatened our nationhood. They posed a challenge so arm twisting and nerve aching
that the populace squealed in agony. From our private lives to our public lives, the impact
of the activities of terrorists was pervasive. Not only did we suffer individually and
collectively, the impact is felt also by the environment, the economy, the society, our
culture, religion and even technology that has facilitated its widespread has also suffered.
Causes of Terrorism
Nothing happens without a reason as every human phenomenon can be traced to an
ultimate cause either immediately or remotely, and the scourge of terrorism is not an
exception. From antecedent, humans are apt to blame their actions or activities on people,
events, institutions or ideas with a view to finding justification for such actions. Terrorism
is a concept that is fluid and a subject of contestations. It is also a concept that can
generate hot emotional exchanges because of differing perspectives and different
understanding of its causes (Muazu, 2011)

According to Nnekwe (2011), Terrorism has occurred throughout history for a
variety of reasons. Its causes can be historical, cultural, political, social, psychological,
economic, or religious-or any combination of these. Zumve, et al, (2013) identified official
corruption and state neglect as causes of terrorism while Ekwueme and Obayi (2012)
suggested that ineffectual government response and ineffective mass media response
helps the growth of terrorism. This paper therefore outlines the following as causes of
terrorism: poverty, undemocratic governments, alienated intelligentsia, indoctrination and
ethnicity, others are history, culture, political issues, economic factors, ideological factors,
social factors and psychological factors.

Effects of Terrorism
Terrorism is the deliberate creation and exploitation of fear for bringing about political
change (Nnekwe, 2011). All terrorist acts involve violence or the threat of violence. These
violent acts are committed by non-state armed actors. Terrorists attempt not only to sow
panic but also to undermine confidence in the government and political leadership of
their target country (Nnekwe, 2011). Terrorism is therefore designed to have effects that
reach far beyond its impact on the immediate victim or object of an attack; it will
therefore not be out of place to posit that the effects of terrorism are widespread and
impinge on every aspect of our lives. However, this paper will discuss its effect on the
environment, economy, and society.


452

Effects of Terrorism on the Environment
The environment refers to the physical and biological factors along with their chemical
interactions that affect an organism; it may also be seen as the surroundings of a physical
system that may interact with the system by exchanging mass, energy, or other properties.
The environment can be natural or constructed. The natural environment encompasses all
living and non-living things occurring naturally on earth or some region thereof (Johnson
et al, 1997). It is an environment that encompasses the interaction of all living species.
The natural environment is contrasted with the built environment which comprises the
areas and components that are strongly influenced by humans. A geographical area is
regarded as a natural environment.
The environment constitutes a focal and relevant part of the sustenance of mankind
and other species that inhabit the earth planet. However, mans activities have been more
destructive than revitalising to the environment. Of the many acts of man that destroy the
environment, none devastates more than acts terrorism. The use of bombs, chemical and
toxics and radio-active weapons by terrorists negatively affects the environment. Such
effects include environmental degradation, air, water, and land pollution and their
attendant consequences which may or may not be felt immediately.
Effects of Terrorism on the Economy
An economy consists of the economic system in a certain region, comprising the
production, distribution or trade, and consumption of goods and services in that region or
country. It is the total aggregate sum of all transactions of value between two agents, such
as between individuals or between groups or between nations. An economy represents the
diverse activity of all agents engaged in the production of valuable goods and services for
other agents in the economy.
A given economy is the result of a set of processes that involves its culture, values,
education, technological evolution, history, social organization, political structure and legal
systems, as well as its geography, natural resource endowment, and ecology, as main
factors. These factors give context, content, and set the conditions and parameters in
which an economy functions.
Acts of terrorism much like wars and other armed conflicts leads to the
displacement of people and the stagnation or disruption of economic activities. The
activities of terrorists have paralysed economic activities in the areas they hold sway.
People find it too risky to gather for commercial activities due to the prevalence of
terrorism and this have had resounding effects on the economies of the affected areas and
the nation at large. In the heat of the waves of terrorism, markets, financial institutions
and other business enterprises shut down because people fear for their safety.

Effects of Terrorism on the Society
According to Wikipedia: the free encyclopedia, A society, or a human society, is a group
of people involved with each other through persistent relations, or a large social grouping
sharing the same geographical or social territory, subject to the same political authority

453

and dominant cultural expectations. Human societies are characterized by patterns of
relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and
institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among
its constituent members. A society may be illustrated as an economic, social, or industrial
infrastructure, made up of a varied collection of individuals. Members of a society may be
from different ethnic groups. A society can be a particular ethnic group, such as the Ijaw;
a nation state, such as Nigeria; or a broader cultural group, such as African Society.
The effects of terrorism on the society are multi-faceted. The activities of terrorists
have had far reaching consequences on our family structure; family members are
separated from one another through death or displacement due to the activities of
terrorists.
Terrorism also affects development; it is an established fact that no meaningful
development can take place where there is no peace. Development exists in a peaceful
atmosphere; however, the activities of terrorists have made peace a scarce commodity and
an enabling environment for development a near impossibility. More so, the attacks of
terrorist are most times targeted at public facilities like schools, hospitals, markets,
churches, mosques, electrical installations, communication installations etc., and this has
militated against the much needed development in the nation. It has also left indelible
scars in our psyche; people that have been directly affected by acts of terrorism live with
the traumatic experiences they had and get suspicious of others, lose trust in people and
some become even less patriotic.
Terrorism affects education too. Owing to the activities of terrorists, education is
stalled especially in the epicentres of the scourge. This has further widened the gap
between the educationally advantaged and the educationally disadvantaged states and
therefore, has also furthered the disparity in the growth and development between these
states.
The effects of terrorism on the society rub off on culture. The English
Anthropologist Edward B. Tylor (1832-1917) in his book, Primitive Culture, published in
1871 said that culture is "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law,
morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of
society." Culture is an important aspect of social and human development, which
contributes to identity-building and self-esteem, fosters economic growth and social
cohesion, and helps to promote political participation and ownership. However, when
society bequeaths negative capabilities and habits to the younger generation through acts
of terrorism; what this portends is that our culture will in the future regard as values what
we abhor and term as socially unacceptable behaviour today.
Security
Security is the state of being free from danger or threat; it is the safety of a person,
organization or state against criminal activities such as terrorism, theft, or espionage. It is
also freedom from risk or danger; the prevention of and protection against assault,
damage, fire, fraud, invasion of privacy, theft, unlawful entry, and other such occurrences
caused by deliberate action. We can also define security as measures aimed at reducing the
risk to persons and critical infrastructure by physical means or defense cyber measures to
intrusions, attacks, or the effects of natural or man-made disasters

454

Security is the degree of resistance to, or protection from harm. It applies to any
vulnerable and valuable asset, such as a person, dwelling, community, nation, or
organization. Security systems are various means designed to guard persons and property
against a broad range of hazards, including crime, fire, accidents, espionage, sabotage,
subversion, and attack.
The need for security and protection of life and property predates modern
architecture and technology (Atolagbe, 2011). The desire for security of life and
properties prompted the development of perimeter walls around the shelter of trees and
barricades at cave entrances by the early man in prehistoric periods (Buah, 1969). As
civilization increased and technology advanced, the development of daring weapons,
tools, and mechanical and electronic devices rendered ineffective, the security devices that
were earlier considered insurmountable (Atolagbe, 2011). Security problems (destruction
of life and properties) are relatively more intractable in the less developed nations of the
world. In Nigeria, this is evidenced by the prevalence of burglaries (of homes and banks),
criminal assaults on roads and streets, political assassination (Atolagbe, 2011), and in
recent times, the wave of terrorism.
Types of Security
Basically, there are two types of security namely: private and public security. Private
security also referred to as propriety security is the type of security that individuals, groups
and organisations require for their safety and that of their property and sometimes for the
orderly conduct of persons in and around their surroundings. Public security on the under
hand is the security that the nation needs, and provides for the safety of lives and
properties in its sphere of influence and control. Whereas private security is needed and
provided for by individuals and organisations, public security is needed by both
individuals and the general public and is provided for by the government. The
government provides public security the security agencies (the Police, Army, Navy, Air
force, SSS and other Para-military outfits). While the need for private security is filled by
the use of civilian security guards.
Reasons for Security
Abraham Maslow (1908-70), theorized that all people are motivated to fulfil a hierarchy of
needs. At the bottom of the hierarchy are basic physiological needs, such as hunger, thirst,
and sleep. Further up the hierarchy are needs for safety and security. The need to protect
or secure self, family, friends and possessions; and anything that is held important is the
crux of the safety need according to Maslow.
Security is one of the most important needs; the need to survive. With their
physiological needs relatively satisfied, individual's safety needs take over and dominate
their behaviour. This need have to do with the yearning or desire for a predictable, orderly
world in which injustice and inconsistency are under control, where the familiar is
frequent and the unfamiliar is rare and where safety to life and property is ensured.
Security needs are primarily concerned with survival and includes: Personal security from
crime, financial security, good health and general well-being and also safety form accident
and attacks or any other source of harm.
Globalization, modernization and advances in information and communication
technologies have brought us many benefits. However, they have also brought us serious
challenges, in which the risks we face are increasing in magnitude, complexity and

455

sophistication. The activities of terrorist have shown that danger can face anyone,
anywhere, anytime. Not just terrorism; less spectacular dangers can also have a devastating
impact on individuals, businesses and nations. Only with preparation can we minimize our
exposure to risk, and, if disaster strikes, limit its damage. There is therefore the need to be
vigilant.

Security Education
In conceptual terms, education it is the process of imparting or acquiring general
knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and preparing oneself or
others intellectually for effective functioning and harmonious adaptation in the society.
While security is freedom from risk or danger; the prevention of and protection against
assault, damage, fire, fraud, invasion of privacy, theft, unlawful entry, and other such
occurrences caused by deliberate action. Security education therefore may be seen as the
process of imparting and acquiring general safety knowledge, developing powers of
reasoning and judgement in matters of security and preparing oneself for effective
functioning in times of emergency. Security education can be said to have occurred when
individuals and groups are adequately aware and equipped to forestall security breaches
and/or react competently when security breaches do take place.
In the context of the above, emphasis is on such security breaches that are the
product of malicious and deliberate human actions aimed at causing havoc to instil fear in
the populace through violence. When people know what to do when they suspect or
observe that acts of terrorism are about to be committed; or how to respond when such
acts do occur, we can say that such people have security education.
The need for Security Education in Nigeria
Living in an environment of peace and security is fundamental to human dignity and
development. However in Nigeria today, domestic terrorist networks, organized criminal
groups and corrupt political actors with varying combinations of technical sophistication
and intent (all of which are forms of terrorism in varying dimensions) have conspired to
make the attainment of such an environment difficult. Terrorist groups and their
sympathizers have continually expressed interest in using terror, violence and fear to cause
instability in the country. The dangerous combination of known and unknown
vulnerabilities, strong and rapidly expanding adversary capabilities, and a lack of
comprehensive threat awareness and security consciousness in Nigeria portend grave
danger to national cohesiveness.
Terrorist activities are occurring every day on an unprecedented scale with
extraordinary sophistication and Nigeria must brace up to the challenge. Today, there is a
need to pay increasing attention to security education in Nigeria. Recent activities of
terrorists only serve as impetus to accentuate this point, particularly given the low level of
security awareness in Nigeria due to ignorance and complacency.
Security education is one of the surest ways to solve the security challenges facing
the country. Today, we have terrorists and other forms of security challenges facing the
country. We can address a significant part of this problem of terrorism when we educate
the people on security. The only time we can feel safe in our society is when everyone is
security conscious and adequately educated on security measures. Security education is

456

vital to the task of acquiring the capacity to live in security consciousness. It can help to
prevent terrorist attacks, rebuild confidence in the society after terrorist attacks, and also
enhance the progress towards sustainable development.
Given that sustainable development is pertinent to every aspect of human life,
security education for sustainable development must have environmental, economic and
social perspectives. Through security education, learners acquire knowledge, skills
attitudes and values, which are necessary for a secured and progressive society and such
capabilities when exercised, will make our society safer.
Target Audience for Security Education in Nigeria
Experts have stated that in combating the threat of terrorism in Nigeria, we must go back
to the basics. Intelligence gathering and analysis, community policing, operational and
strategic approach to policing, vigilance and awareness by the public, renewed campaigns
and an integrated approach of all the security agencies are measures that should be
employed against the threats we face; and security education have the potential to take us
back to these basics.
According to Payne (2003), the most critical messages and most effective ways to
convey them can vary greatly from one target audience to another. In many ways, security
education is a social marketing campaign; and certain marketing principles apply: know
the target customers (audience) needs, select the right product for them, tailor the sales
method for each customer group, monitor sales results and repackage the product if need
be (Payne, 2003). In this context, the target customer group for security education should
include government functionaries, captains of industry, heads of institutions of learning
(nursery to tertiary), heads of healthcare facilities, students, private security guards,
teachers at all levels of education, students, motorists, trade union leaders, market men
and women, motor park administrators and all other persons or group of persons who
converge or lead the convergence of people for one legitimate reason or another.
How to Inculcate Security in Nigeria
As stated earlier, the most critical messages and most effective ways to convey them can
vary greatly from one target audience to another. Once the customer group for a given
security message (education) is defined, the next important task (method of delivery) is
made simpler. Depending on the customer group to be reached, the following methods
proffered by Payne (2003) are effective methods of teaching security education in Nigeria.

i. Meeting presentations and one-on-one discussions
ii. Hand books, hand-outs, hand bills and articles
iii. Billboards, posters and street furniture
iv. Communication tips
v. Quizzes and debates
vi. Security websites and web advertisements
vii. Security alerts
viii. Security fairs, conferences, seminars and workshops
ix. Radio and television jingles and advertisements
x. Drama sketches

457

Conclusion
There is an urgent need for security education in Nigeria in view of the many security
challenges that the country is currently faced with, especially the one posed by terrorism-
Terrorism is described as the calculated and extreme use of violence or threatened
violence, perpetuated by malice, to cause serious harm or violence against individuals,
governments and their assets with the intention to attain political, religious or ideological
goals, through intimidation or coercion or instilling fear in the civilian population
(Oserogho and Associates, 2012).
The security agencies in collaboration with the national orientation agency, security
experts, state ministries of information and communication and other relevant bodies
must rise up to undertake this onerous ventures. Critical times require critical measures;
and the security challenges posed by terrorism require direct and indirect response. While
those saddled with the responsibility to face the terrorists in their hide-outs are doing their
job, those of us that are not directly involved in the fight should be adequately educated
on measures to take to forestall the activities of these terrorists and on measures to take to
reduce the impact of their activities when they strike. This paper has marshaled a few
methods that can be utilized to inculcate security education in Nigeria. Education have
been and will continue to be the vehicle for transmitting socially acceptable values,
attitudes, knowledge, skills and competencies in the society; let us call it up to help us
brace up with our current challenge.
References

Abimbola, J.O, and Adesote, S.A, (2012) Domestic terrorism and boko haram
insurgency in nigeria, issues and trends: A historical discourse Journal of Arts and
Contemporary Society Volume Journal of Arts and Contemporary Society 4, 11-29
Alao, D. (2012) Terrorism in Nigeria: An analysis of North/South media coverage of
boko haram (November 2011 to March 2012) International Review of Business and
Social Sciences 1(8):49-62
Atolagbe, A. M. O. (2011) Security consciousness in indigenous Nigerian houses: A
preliminary survey of Yoruba ethno-medical devices Ethno Med 5(1):57-62
Buah, F. K. (1969) The Ancient World: A New History for Schools and Colleges. Book 1, 2nd
Edition. London and Basingstoke: Macmillan Education Limited
Ekwueme, A. C. and Obayi, P. M. (2012) Boko haram assault on Nigeria: Towards
effective mass media response New Media and Mass Communication 5, 1-7
Johnson, D. L., Ambrose, S. H., Bassett, T. J., Bowen, M. L., Crummey, D. E., Isaacson,
J. S., Johnson, D. N., Lamb, P., Saul, M., and Winter-Nelson, A. E. (1997)
"Meanings of environmental terms" Journal of Environmental Quality 26 (3):581-589
Muazu, A. (2011) Understanding the emerging trends of terrorism in Nigeria: A Case
study of boko haram and similar groups cleen foundation conference proceedings,
monograph series 16, 10-21
Nnekwe, L.I. (2011) The impact of terrorism in Nigeria: In view of the recent attacks by
boko haram. http://linusifeanyi.blogspot.com/2011/09/impact-of-terrorism-in-
nigeria-in-view.html accessed june 2013

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Ogulana (2012) Terrorism in Nigeria and the need for terrorism advisory system
http://saharareporters.com/article/terrorist-attacks-nigeria-and-need-terrorism-
advisory-system accessed june 2013
Oserogho and Associates (2012) Nigeria and terrorism: introduction of the terrorism
(prevention) act 2011 availabe at http://www.businessdayonline.com/
NG/index.php/law/legal-insight/32540-nigeria-a-terrorism-an-introduction-of-the-
terrorism-prevention-act-2011accessed june 2013
Payne, S (2003) Developing security education and awareness programs Educause
Quarterly 4, 49-53
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languages, art and customs, Volume 1. London: John Murray
Zumve, S., Ingyoroko, M. Akuwa, I. I. (2013) Terrorism in contemporary Nigeria: A
latent function of official corruption and state neglect European Scientific Journal
9(8):1857-788


459

SUBSCRIBERS PERCEPTION AND SATISFACTION OF NATIONAL
HEALTH INSURANCE SCHEME (NHIS) AMONG FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT WORKERS IN IBADAN METROPOLIS
By
AKOREDE, S.F. Ph.D
e-mail: docserifat@yahoo.com
&
OGUNGBAYI, O.A

Abstract
Accessibility to healthcare and at affordable cost constitutes a great challenge to
Nigerian citizen. While Federal government supported establishment of universal access
to health care through social policy known as National Health Insurance Scheme
(NHIS,) opinion is polarized among Nigerians on the efficacy of the scheme in
addressing the health problem in the country. This study therefore set to investigate the
subscribers perception and satisfaction of the scheme. A survey design was adopted for
the study. Three-hundred (300) Federal Government workers who were NHIS
subscribers were purposively selected as sample. Two instruments were constructed and
six research questions raised and answered. Findings revealed that Federal government
staffs in Ibadan metropolis had negative perception towards the scheme i.e. capacity and
personnel efficiency; the staffs were also dissatisfied with services rendered, though they
considered the programme as best option in health financing. The study recommended
among others that government should establish a commission for NHIS that will
regulate and repackage the scheme for better and effective service delivery.
Key words: Health-Care, NHIS subscribers, perception and satisfaction.


460

Introduction
Healthy population and indeed workforce are indispensable tools for rapid socio-
economic and sustainable development the world over. Despite this indisputable fact, in
Nigeria like most African countries, the provision of quality, accessible and affordable
healthcare remains a serious problem (WHO, 2007a, Omoruan, Bamidele & Philips,
2009). There are now pressures for change in the provision of health care and an attempt
is being made to plan the sort of service that would be required in this millennium. The
introduction of quality assurance and medical audit that constitute some of the tools for
the change is now important developments in general practice. Audit activities including
patient perception and satisfaction surveys are widely practiced in many general settings in
the developed countries. It has been suggested that audit should become integrated into
everyday routine of the practice. This growing interest in patient perception and
satisfaction survey stem from the increasing attention paid to the doctor-patient
relationship and the recent emphasis on the patients as consumers. Other contributing
factors are; the competitive environment in primary care, increasing patients expectations
and needs; and the assumption that patient views are important in the evaluation of the
quality of health care.
One facet that is of great concern in recent times is the soaring financial cost of
illness. For instance, in recent years, 500 million work days were lost in Europe because of
health problems, the situation is similar elsewhere, even in developing countries which
reduced productivity at workplace, together with the increasing cost of health care, creates
a financial burden that affects all (Woolhandler ,2003). The poor usually finds it difficult
to obtain health care, if any at all and this is the tragic plight of millions in developing
countries who have either limited access or no access to professional health services. Even
in wealthy countries, some people have to struggle to benefit from the available good
medical care. However, users perception assessments when properly utilized can also help
to maximize an organizations quality and the value of care it provides (Kelsey, 2001), and
this could be instrumental to improving health care services and hence the total quality.
Users perception is crucial to remaining competitive in todays health care market.
Patients tend to remain loyal to one particular health care institution when they have
positive perception about the health care services providers and this in turn has a positive
impact on the success of a scheme. Likewise, dissatisfied patients can negatively affect a
health care scheme.
Subscribers satisfactions have been viewed from different perspective and it has
been assumed as another threatening factor to the sustainability, continuity and success of
NHIS in Nigeria (Metiboba, 2011). Users satisfaction also hinges on whether the service
experience meets consumer expectations. Consequently, assessing users satisfaction and
quality of care depends on the way in which quality care is defined. Many observers and
numbers of subscribers are worried about the quality of services the scheme renders to
existing subscribers ranging from registration of enrollees, contributions of employer,
employees or subscribers contributions, access to care, respecting a users value, HMOs
activities, primary and secondary care provider services, attitude of health professionals at
those health care centers, administrative procedure and treatment rendered.
More so, NHIS have commenced services to enrollees since September, 2005 and a
cursory look at the lofty objectives of the scheme and the programmes roles reveals a
yearning gap between theory and practice. An objective analysis of the current state of

461

health in Nigeria shows that, even in the absence of raw supportive data, less than 25% of
the objectives of the scheme have not been achieved (Metiboba, 2011). While it is an
obvious truth that for instance most Nigerians still have no access to good health care
services, most families are yet to be protected from the financial hardship of huge medical
services, equitable distribution of health care cost among income groups is still far from
reality. Audu (2002), the executive secretary of the NHIS, while admitting in September,
2008 that the scheme would cater for all Nigerians particularly prisoners and disabled
persons who are located in rehabilitation centre have, nevertheless declared in 2009 that
the scheme had covered only 3% of the entire Nigerian population. Besides, Audu added
that the health insurance outfit would not take care of terminal diseases such as AIDS,
cancer, kidney transplant. The only reason proffered by him was that the diseases have
high cost indices. Many observers of the scheme and numbers of subscribers in Nigeria
have posed the question; why should the scheme fail to take care of terminal and
degenerative diseases such as prostate cancer, kidney and liver problems, diabetes,
hypertension etc, that have become un expected visitors in many homes in Nigeria today?
In an attempt to reduce health challenges face by Nigerian citizen, federal
government have taken various step to reform health sector in order to improve
efficiency in both public and private health care markets, to cover poor people who have
previously been marginalized, free health care provision, spread health risk, deliver
families from burden of huge financial medical bills, thereby introduced National Health
Insurance Scheme as a way out, which is a global practice, and yielding great success in
those countries especially developed ones. In Nigeria, federal government and other Non-
governmental organization have made meaningful impact in creating awareness of the
existence and purpose of the National Health Insurance Scheme to the citizen, especially
in formal sector that was used to start off the programme. Despite these considerable
efforts research has proved that many people in the country are yet to participate in the
scheme, while some subscribers even withdraw because they are not satisfied with the
scheme.
The Problem
This study sought to find out the level of perception and satisfaction of National Health
Insurance Scheme among federal government workers. It is also aimed at finding out
empirically how significant the impact of gender, academic qualifications on perception
and satisfaction of National Health Insurance Scheme.
Research Questions
1. What is the level of federal government workers NHIS subscribers perception about
NHIS?
2. What is the level of federal government workers NHIS subscribers satisfaction about
NHIS?
3. Does academic qualification of federal government workers NHIS subscribers
significantly affect their perception?
4. Does academic qualification of federal government workers NHIS subscribers
significantly affect their satisfaction?
5. Does the gender of federal government workers NHIS subscribers affect their
perception?
6. Does the gender of federal government workers NHIS subscribers affect their
satisfaction?

462

Methodology
Research design
The survey design was adopted for the study
Population
The population for the study comprised all federal workers in the federal parastatals in
Ibadan metropolis. All subscribers of NHIS in the federal parastatals served as the
population of the study.
Sample
The sample for the study was obtained using purposive sampling technique. From the five
Local Government Areas in Ibadan metropolis, three LGAs that have federal parastatals
within their jurisdiction were selected. Ten parastatals were purposively selected from
each of the three LGA. Finally three hundred NHIS subscribers were randomly selected
from those chosen parastatals.
Instrumentation
Two instruments were used to collect data for this study. They were:
1 National Health Insurance Scheme Subscribers Perception Questionnaire
(NHISSPQ)
2 National Health Insurance Scheme Subscribers-satisfaction Questionnaire
(NHISSSQ)
National Health Insurance Scheme Subscribers Perception Questionnaire: was constructed by the
researcher to measure federal government workers NHIS subscriber perception on
National Health Insurance Scheme. It consists of two sections, section A is on the Bio-
Data of the respondent, while section B contains twenty-four (24) items to solicit
subscribers perception about the scheme The content as well as construct validity was
established using cronbach-alpha and the resulting reliability co-efficient is .72.
National Health Insurance Scheme Subscribers-satisfaction Questionnaire: The instrument was
designed by the researcher to assess the extent or level of satisfaction of National Health
Insurance Scheme subscribers among federal government workers in Ibadan metropolis.
It was divided into two sections. Section A is on the Bio-Data of the respondents, while
section B contains twenty (20) items to elicit the opinion of subscribers on the level or
extent or degree of the satisfaction on the scheme. The content as well as construct
validity was established using cronbach-alpha and the resulting reliability co-efficient is
.74.
Procedure
The selected federal establishments were visited by the researcher and assistance of all the
head of human relation in the concerned establishment were sought in administering the
instruments to the selected NHIS subscribers. The National Health Insurance Scheme
Subscribers Perception Questionaire (NHISPQ) was administered during the first two

463

weeks while the National Health Insurance Scheme Subscribers Satisfaction Questionaire
(NHISSSQ) was administered during the last two weeks.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics- percentages and mean, T-test and ANOVA were used to analyze
the data collected for this study. Research Q1 and Q2 were analysed using frequency
count, mean and percentages. ANOVA was used in analyzing Research Q3 and Q4. T-
test was used in analyzing Research Q5 andQ6.
Result and Findings
Research Question One
What is the level of federal government workers NHIS subscribers perception about NHIS?
Table 4.1: Descriptive Statistics Showing Percentage and Mean of Subscribers
Perception on NHIS
S
/
N
Items Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Mean S.T.D Rank
1 There is no need for
NHIS Programme
136(45.3) 82(28.3) 28(9.3 51(17.0) 3.02 1.14 3
2 The NHIS objectives
are appropriate and
attainable
94(31.3) 154(51.3) 37(12.3) 15(5.0) 3.09 .794 2
3 Enough and adequate
health care are
rendered by NHIS
51(17.0) 129(43.0) 89(29.7) 31(10.3) 2.67 .878 15
4 The number of health
care provider and
hospital they have are
enough to realize the
objectives of the
programme
34(11.3) 134(447) 104(34.7) 28(9.3) 2.58 .812 20
5 Participating in the
programme is
discouraging.
78(26.0) 133(44.3) 71(23.7) 18(6.0) 2.90 .854 5
6 Subscribers needs in
terms of good health
care are well taken
care of.
43(14.3) 154(51.3) 82(27.3) 21(7.0) 2.73 .791 12
7 Government use
NHIS to siphon
money from citizen.
70(23.3) 138(46.0) 63(21.0) 29(9.7) 2.83 .897 10
8 NHIS is likely to fail
like former federal
mortgage housing
scheme
51(17.0) 135(45.0) 85(28.3) 29(9.7) 2.69 .865 14
9 NHIS is not capable
of meeting the health
needs of Nigerians.
43(14.3) 118(39.3) 88(29.3) 51(17.0) 2.51 .938 22

464

10 NHIS does not make
allowance for
treatment of chronic
sickness and diseases.
12(4.0) 41(13.7) 127(42.3) 120(40.0) 1.82 .816 26
11 NHIS programmes
enhances sound
health for federal
government workers.
56(18.7) 139(46.3) 69(23.0) 36(12.0) 2.72 .905 12
12 There is easy access to
any NHIS services
when emergency arise
in any location.
56(18.7) 108(36.0) 91(30.3) 45(15.0) 2.58 .959 19
13 Doctors act too
business-like in
NHIS.
35(11.7) 116(38.7) 104(34.7) 45(15.0) 2.47 .886 23
14 Doctors act harshly
towards NHIS
patient.
69(23.0) 147(49.0) 56(18.7) 28(9.3) 2.86 .879 8
15 NHIS registration
processing is
cumbersome and
discouraging.
52(17.3) 108(36.0) 92(30.7) 48(16.0) 2.55 .958 21
16 Government should
scrap NHIS
programme.
135(45.0) 107(35.7) 26(8.7) 32(10.7) 3.15 .972 1
17 The services rendered
by NHIS were well
organized.
349(11.3) 140(46.7) 99(33.0) 27(9.0) 2.60 .805 16
18 NHIS health workers
performed their
duties very well.
31(10.3) 143(47.7) 102(34.0) 24(8.0) 2.60 .780 17
relationship with
subscribers is bad.
71(23.7) 146(48.7) 64(21.3) 19(6.3) 2.90 .834 6
are not always on duty
95(31.7) 138(46.0) 48(16.0) 19(6.3) 3.03 .855 4
21 Workers are always
protected against
financial hardship
through NHIS in
term of health need.
73(24.3) 148(49.3) 52(17.3) 27(9.0) 2.89 .876 7
22 Some of the doctors
lack experience about
medical problems
71(23.7) 135(45.0) 70(23.3) 24(8.0) 2.84 .876 9
23 Some of the
healthcare providers
do not have
consultant and
qualified doctor.
54(18.0) 120(40.0) 74(24.7) 52(17.3) 2.59 .976 18
24 Most of NHIS service
provider centre
visited do not have
necessary equipment.
31(10.3) 70(23.3) 137(45.7) 62(20.7) 2.23 .895 24

465

NB: Figures in brackets are percentage
The researcher adopts a bench mark of 50% and above to serve as yardstick to
determine responses for negative or positive satisfaction of the scheme, after collapsing
strongly agree and Agree together and same treatment for Strongly disagree and Disagree.
The result shows as follow: Deducing from the result above it was observed that the
perception of federal government workers tends towards negative. this was affirmed by
going through the result, eighteen items established negative perception about National
Health Insurance Scheme by the 50% and above bench mark already set, while only six
items shows positive perception about the programme and these are items; 2,4, 11, 12, 18
and 21 respectively.

Research Question Two:
What is the level of federal government workers NHIS subscribers satisfaction about NHIS?
Table 4.2: Descriptive Statistics Showing Percentage and Mean of Subscribers
Satisfaction on NHIS

S/N

Items
S
t
r
o
n
g
l
y

A
g
r
e
e
(
%
)

A
g
r
e
e

(
%
)

D
i
s
a
g
r
e
e
(
%
)

S
t
r
o
n
g
l
y

D
i
s
a
g
r
e
e

(
%
)

M
E
A
N

S
.
T
.
D

R
A
N
K

1. The medical care
receiving in NHIS is
inadequate
50[16.7] 128[42.7] 96[32.0] 26[8.7] 2.67 .854 17
2. NHIS need to expand
scope of their services.
130[43.3] 145[48.3] 22[7.3] 3[1.0] 3.34 .658 1
3. Patients do not have
easy access to special
medical attention they
need through NHIS.
51[17.0] 126[42.0] 99[33.0] 24[8.0] 2.68 .849 15
4. The entire NHIS centre
should be open for more
hours than it is.
67[22.3] 190[63.3] 37[12.3] 6[2.0] 3.06 .652 4
5. Most health workers in
NHIS are in-
experienced.
28[9.3] 162[54.0] 96[32.0] 14[4.7] 2.68 .707 16
6. Receiving treatment at
NHIS is a waste of time
93[31.0] 135[45.0] 52[17.3] 20[6.7] 3.00 .867 6
7. The medical care
provided through NHIS
is not excellent
29[9.7] 135[45.0] 107[35.7] 29[9.7] 2.55 .798 18
8 Subscribing to NHIS has
not improved my health
status.
52[17.3] 139[46.3] 75[25.0] 34[11.3] 2.70 .887 14
9. Subscription to NHIS
provide opportunity for
regular health check-up
69[23.0] 164[54.7] 51[17.0] 16[5.3] 2.95 .783 89
10. NHIS healthcare 60[20.0] 160[53.3] 66[22.0] 14[4.7] 2.89 .772 11

466

package do not enhances
sound health for my
family
11. NHIS increases my
health expenses.
75[25.0] 147[49.0] 44[14.7] 34[11.3] 2.88 .951 12
12. Services provided in
NHIS did not
commensurate with my
monthly contribution.
36[12.0] 116[38.7] 119[39.7] 29[9.7] 2.53 .827 19
13. Healthcare service is
cheap in NHIS.
77[25.7] 140[46.6] 70[23.3] 13[4.3] 2.93 .831 10
14. In NHIS service
provider centre, people
usually wait too long for
emergency treatment
21[7.0] 123[41.0] 119[39.7] 37[12.3] 2.43 .796 21
15. NHIS need to be
repackage to get desired
success
106[35.3] 157[52.3] 28[9.3] 9[3.0] 3.20 .727 2
16 Doctors in NHIS
disrespect patient
79[26.3] 151[50.3] 52[17.3] 18[6.0] 2.97 .823 8
17. During medical check-
up patient are always
allow to explain their
health condition
83[27.7] 178[59.3] 32[10.7] 7[2.3] 3.12 .680 3
18. Doctor treat patient in a
friendly and courteous
manner
61[20.3] 190[63.3] 35[11.7] 14[4.7] 2.99 .713 7
19. Health officer hurry too
much when they treat
patient
41[13.7] 157[52.3] 81[27.0] 21[7.0] 2.73 .784 13
20. Doctors always do their
best to keep their patient
from worrying
70[23.3] 186[62.0] 33[11.0] 11[3.7] 3.05 .699 5
NB: Figures in brackets are percentages
Deducing from the result above it was observed that the satisfaction of federal
government workers NHIS subscribers tends towards negative. This was affirmed by
going through the result, we have fourteen items out of twenty establishing their negative
satisfaction about National Health Insurance Scheme by the bench mark already set, while
only six items shows positive perception about the programme and these are items 9, 13,
14, 17, 18 and 20 respectively.

Research Question Three:
Does academic qualification of federal government workers NHIS subscribers significantly affect their
perception?

467

Table 4.3: The Summary of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of Academic Qualifications
of Federal Government Workers NHIS Subscribers on Perception of NHIS
Assessment.

Sum of Squares df Mean Square f Sig.
Between Groups 915.682 5 183.136 2.387 .038
Within Groups 22484.004 293 76.737
Total 23399.686 298

Table 4.3 shows that academic qualification of federal government workers NHIS
subscribers significantly affects their perception about NHIS assessment. The mean
difference is significant at the 0.05 level. The computed outcome has the F=(5,293)=
2.387 P< 0.05. In the same vein, a Post Hoc Tests of each class of educational
qualification was carried out, which is the multiple comparison of each level; it shows that
there were significant differences in the classes of educational qualifications.
Research Question Four:
Does academic qualifications of federal government workers NHIS subscribers significantly affect their
satisfaction?
Table 4.4: The Summary of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of Academic
Qualification of Federal Government Workers NHIS Subscribers on Satisfaction of
NHIS Assessment.

Sum of Squares df Mean Square f sig.
Between Groups 324.682 5 64.936 1.661 .144
Within Groups 11452.201 293 39.086
Total 11776.883 298

Table 4.4 shows the model summary of ANOVA that there is insignificant differences
based on academic qualifications in the satisfaction of federal government workers NHIS
subscribers on NHIS assessment, this is statistically insignificant at F ( 6, 292)= 1.661 P>
0.05.
Research Question Five
Does the gender of federal government workers NHIS subscribers affect their perception?
Table 4.5 T-test analysis of gender difference on NHIS subscribers Perception

Gender

N
Mean t df sig
NHIS Perception
Male

Female

127

173

69.1496

70.3006

-1.106

298

.040


468

From table 4.5 the female mean (X= 70.30, S.D= 9.4) is greater than male mean (X=69.1,
S.D= 8.2 which suggested that federal government workers NHIS subscriber gender
influence their perception about NHIS assessment and it is statistically significant (t = -
1.106; df =298; P <0.05). Since P value is less than 0.05, thus there is significant
difference in the gender perception of federal government workers NHIS subscribers.

Research Question Six:
Does the gender of federal government workers NHIS subscribers affect their satisfaction?
Table 4.6:T-test analysis of gender difference on NHIS subscribers satisfaction.

Gender

N
Mean T Df Sig
Subsatisfaction
Male
Female

127
173

61.5197
61.3121

.317

298

.002

Table 4.6 shows that the female mean (X= 61.3,S.D = 6.3), with the male mean (X= 61.5,
S.D = 4.4) shows there is little difference in the male and female mean in the t-test
analysis of NHIS subscribers satisfaction of federal government workers in Ibadan
metropolis. This implies that NHIS subscribers gender influence their satisfaction about
NHIS assessment. It is statistically significant ( t = .317; df =298; P <0.05). Since P value
is less than 0.05, thus there is significant difference in the gender satisfaction of federal
government workers NHIS subscribers.

Discussion
Quality health care delivery constitutes a high profile challenge in Nigeria. The drive by
Federal government to ensure universal access to healthcare and at low cost through
NHIS has been proven to be difficult. The study demonstrated that the perception of
federal government workers tends towards negative; this was affirmed by going through
the result, eighteen items established negative perception about National Health Insurance
Scheme by the bench mark already set, while only six items shows positive perception
about the programme and these are items; 2, 4, 11, 12, 18 and 21 respectively. The
findings of this study is in consonance with Kelsey (2001) who asserted that patients tend
to remain loyal to one particular health care institution when they have positive
perception about the health care service provider and this in turn has a positive impact
on the success of a scheme. Likewise, these support Rahaban (1994) ideas that mans
movement for survival is always directed by his perception in many ways. If an individual
perceives pleasure, he or she will advance and make progress in a particular scheme, but if
he/she perceive dangerous or stressful situation, he will retreat. This assertion is in
support with the result in the finding of Adeleye (2012), which reported that hundreds of
NHIS subscribers withdraw from the scheme between 2009 and 2010. It can be deduced
that those subscribers that withdrew perceived dangerous or stressful situation with NHIS
in aspect of cost, administration, human relation or quality of health care they had
received through the scheme.

469

Moreover, in the aspect of assessment of satisfaction it was found to be negative
this was affirmed by going through the result we have, fourteen items out of twenty
establishing their negative satisfaction about National Health Insurance Scheme by the
bench mark already set, while only six items shows positive perception about the
programme and these are items 9, 13,14, 17, 18 and 20 respectively. Arahomy and
Strasser, (1993) in their findings asserts that satisfaction with care will be directly related
to the final outcome of that care which explain the assessment of health scheme and that
the consumer satisfaction should be the ultimate objective of healthcare providers, just as
it is that of other service providers. Therefore satisfaction should be seen as an attitudinal
response to value judgments that patients make about clinical encounter. Stimson and
Webb cited in
Adeagbo, (2008) stated that satisfaction is related to perception of the outcome of
care and the extent to which it meets patients expectations. The result is in consonance
with the above assertion since it shows a negative outcome of satisfaction derived through
the scheme. The result shows that even though federal government workers NHIS
subscribers believed that economically the scheme is good for them but in terms of
quality health care receives, it is not good enough and these explains while some
subscribers withdrew their subscription from the scheme between 2009 and 2010
according to Adeleye (2012). In considering this result, the researcher encountered some
of the federal government workers that were complaining on various aspects of the
scheme; such as non availability of important drugs, referral problem, exemption of
treatment of some chronic diseases and sickness and other administrative challenges they
face. It is glaring that package of service presently rendered by NHIS seems to be far from
expectation of subscribers.
The educational qualifications significantly affect the perception of subscribers of
NHIS because those with higher education appreciated the scheme than those with lower
education. However, the educational qualifications did not significantly affect the
satisfaction of the scheme because the study shows that people know what is good for
them irrespective of their educational status.
In terms of gender influence, the study shows that the females perception and
satisfaction is significantly higher than the male subscribers. The finding is in consonance
with the assertion of Al-Shammari (1994) who observed that females were at a higher risk
of experiencing sickness than males. The finding also corroborates Adeagbo (2008) who
reported that women were more satisfied with services provided by the health centre of
the polytechnic Ibadan than men.

Conclusion
The NHIS is a social security system put in place by the Federal government to provide
universal access to health care service in Nigeria. The scheme covers civil servants, the
armed forces, the police, the organized private sector, students in tertiary institutions, self-
employed, vulnerable persons, and the unemployed among others. More than seven years
after the scheme became operational in Nigeria. Perception of federal government
workers toward it are negative and majority of them are dissatisfied with service rendered,
because of inadequate and outdate medical equipment, lack of awareness and poor
funding is jointly affecting the potency of NHIS in Nigeria. The provision of quality,

470

accessible and affordable health care to all Nigerians would remain a mirage if these
problems that weaken the potency of the scheme are not properly addressed. We
therefore suggest that the recommendations made therein be strictly followed.
Recommendations.
Government should endeavour to increase its level of funding in NHIS, so that
the body will be able to expand their scope of services to subscribers in terms of
sickness and diseases they treat, drugs administered to patients and other logistics.
Government should establish council or commission to regulate or repackage
services of NHIS for better delivery. Also the activities of NHIS subsidiaries, like
Health Management Organisation, Primary and Secondary healthcare service
providers should be monitored.
NHIS should organize regular seminar or forum where subscribers and healthcare
service providers can discuss on how to make the scheme effective.
NHIS should embark on campaign and sensitization to create more awareness
about the scheme prospect and benefits subscribers will derive, so as to gain
confidence of members of the public.
Federal government workers that have not subscribe, should register now
because health care is very cheap with NHIS
Legislatures should rise up to their responsibility by enacting law that will enable
every willing Nigerian whether in formal sector or not to register in the scheme,
like it operates in Germany and other developed countries to save people, who
due to financial constraint died prematurely.
Private organization should borrow leaf from other private companies that have
enlisted their staff in NHIS, so as to reduce their huge medical bills incurred at
other health organization different from NHIS.
General members of the public need to voice out to government to extend the
scheme to them, as it is part of federal government social responsibilities to
provide good healthcare for the citizen.

References
Adeleye T, ( 2012). The Operational Modalities of National Health Insurance Scheme. A
Paper Presented at a one day sensitization forum on NHIS for staff of federal
ministry of land and Housing, Osogbo.
Araahony, L, Strasser, S. (1993). Patient Satisfaction: What we know about and what we
still need
to explore. Med Care Rev 50; 49
Adeagbo, O.A, (2008), Assessment of a Patient Satisfaction with the services Provided at
the Health Centre of The Polytechnic Ibadan. An unpublished Thesis.
Audu, I. (2002) NHIS will Abolish Industrial Strikes. Nigerian Tribune Tuesday, January,
p. 13
Kelsey T, (2001). Fostering Quality Healthcare OECD. Observers, 2001
Metiboba, S (2011), Nigerias National Health Insurance Scheme: The Need for
Beneficiary
Participation, Research journal of international studies, ISSN: 1453-212X Issue 22
(2011), Euro journals Publishing

471

Omoruan, A.I., Bamidele, A.P& Phillips, O.F (2009), Social Health Insurance and
Sustainable
Health care Reform in Nigeria. Ethno-Med, 3 (2); 105-110.
Rahabah, A.H.B (1994). Life, Education and work. Journal of Educational Behaviour, 3, 50-55
Woolhandler, S.T, Campbell (2003) Cost of Healthcare and Administration in United and
Canada
Journal of Med, 349(8):768-775.
World Health Organization (2002). Constitution of the World Health Organisation basic
document, Fourth-fifth edition
World Health Organisation, (2007a). World Health Statistics 2007. Geneva: WHO.


472

ROLE OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN SUSTAINABLE
ECONOMIC GROWTH IN NIGERIA.

By

ABDULLAHI, DAUDA
Department of Bussiness Administration and Management,
Nasarawa State Polytechnic, Lafia
Email: daudaabdullahi53@yahoo.com
08065395981

MOHAMMED, BABA. O
Department of Bussiness Administration and Management,
Nasarawa State Polytechnic, Lafia

&
HUSSAINI, ABARI ASEKU Dip., B.Sc., CNA.
Finance Dept. Doma Local Govt. Nasarawa State.

Abstract
The strategic importance of entrepreneurship can not be overemphasised. Thus, for
instance, United States of Americas practices of entrepreneurial businesses have
created some economic products like personal computer; biotechnology; fast food and
others. It has been postulated that no economy can attain meaningful growth, and
development without an enhanced vibrant, effective and efficient entrepreneurship.
This study evaluated the role of entrepreneurship development in sustainable economic
growth of Nigeria. Utilizing related literature review, the study identified the
functional roles and qualities of entrepreneurs; barriers to entrepreneurship
development in Nigeria and some solutions proffered to the barriers to
entrepreneurship growth in Nigerian economy. It also analyzed the needed skills and
competence to be acquired to boost and sustain the growth of entrepreneurship for
sustainable national economic development. To wrap it up, the study concluded that
for sustainable entrepreneurship to be achieved in Nigeria, entrepreneurship skills and
competence must be acquired and assessed by the Nigerians, including undergraduates
of Nigerian higher institutions of learning. It is therefore recommended that
government as a matter of urgency create an enabling avenue for people to actualize
their entrepreneurial potentialities by improving and removing all the impediments to
the growth of entrepreneurship in the country, leading to sustainable economic growth
in Nigeria. This is with a view to creating self-employment attitude in the minds of
the teeming population and reduces dependency on the government for white collar
jobs as well as reducing the scourge of poverty ravaging populace.
Key words: Sustainable, Growth, Economics, Entrepreneurship,
Development.

473

Introduction
Nigerian economy had experienced various micro economic imbalances over the years
which had mostly affected the welfare of her citizens. This is due to economic difficulties
emanating from financial meltdown, falling oil revenues, militancy in Niger Delta, and
other factors not mentioned. The role play by entrepreneurship for the growth of an
economic development could not be treated by a wave of hand. A well crafted
entrepreneurship practices globally including developing economy like Nigeria would
accelerate the growth of such economy. For instance, United States of Americas practices
of entrepreneurial businesses have created some economic products like personal
computer, biotechnology, fast food, and overnight delivery services; transformed the
retailing businesses; invented the integrated and microprocessor; and others not
mentioned. There is that believe that no economy can grow or develop in the absence of
effective and efficient entrepreneurial practices. It could be posited that without entrep-
reneurship- which involves conceptualization, birth, growth and development of new
ventures, there will be no serious business development in any given economy. It has
been observed that for Nigeria to witness drastic economic change, it would be a function
of availability of entrepreneurial activities in the economy.
In not too distant past, anybody who had gone to school, college or polytechnic or
university was almost sure to get one form of paid employment or the other. In Nigeria,
of today, this is no longer the case because the economy is not healthy. Nigerian economy
is characterized by high unemployment rate especially at the level of the youth. For
example, Nwaokolo (1997) reported that a federal office of bureau statistics report in
Nigeria, (Herald, April 3, 1987) shown unemployment rate in urban areas as 9.1% and
4.5% in the rural areas. The report also revealed that the bulk of the unemployment
continue to be school leavers who accounted for 67.4% of total unemployment in the
urban areas and 54.5%in the rural areas. Another report released about the same time
(Oranu 1990 in Nwaokolo, 1997) showed that there were over three million
unemployment people in Nigeria and three quarter of them were calculated to be people
of under the age of 25 years. According to Isidore (2010), about 61,779 of Nigerians were
unemployed between the years 2004-2005 which represented 5% of the total population
of the country. This ugly trend translated to increase the tempo of poverty ravaging the
people in the country. To buttress this point, the World Bank (2013) observed that
poverty rate remain high in Nigeria particularly, in rural areas. It further stated that the
number of poor Nigerians living below the poverty line has grown measurably.
Some analysts attributed the causes of unemployment in Nigeria to large turnout of
graduates from our tertiary institutions in the country. Further, lack of adequate capacity
in the job seekers is also part of the causes of unemployment in Nigeria. Finally, lack of
dignity in labour also constitutes part of unemployment components in the country. By
labour dignity, it means only white collar job is respected to the detriment of self
employment. This further compounded the labour market in the Nigerian society.
Thus, the quest by individuals to be proudly owners of businesses and to help
reduce the scourge of unemployment and poverty encouraged entrepreneurial attitudes in
the minds of the government and the well to do individuals in Nigeria. It is relevant to
preach to individuals that most businesses world over started their life with
entrepreneurship. This connotes that most businesses began as individual or family before
they threw away the garb of family ownership. Therefore, it is important to stress that in

474

Nigeria, developing and nurturing enterprise could largely be attributable to a partnership
between the dreamer or the visioner and the provider of conducive environment, in this
case the government.
According to Balogun (2004), entrepreneurship is the visualization and realization
of new ideas by insightful individuals who are able to use information and mobilize
resources to implement their visions. This information does not require entrepreneurs to
be highly skilled in generating new ideas instead stressed promotion and implementation
of radical change. Entrepreneurs with original ideas of their own are usually motivated to
succeed, but whether they do so depend on their ability to market their ideas as well as
their sensitivity and openness to other peoples view points and the challenges of the
economic environment.
Thus, the main objective of the study is to evaluate the role of entrepreneurship
development in sustainable economic growth in Nigeria. Other objectives specifically are
to identify the basic characteristics and the functional role of entrepreneurs, qualities of
entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship skills and competence development programmes.
The study was undertaken at the right time when the government at all strata are making
concerted efforts to improve on various strategies of which entrepreneurship is one to be
adopted to reduce the unemployment situation in the country. Of equal important is to
also employ the utilization of entrepreneurship to reduce the tempo of poverty
devastating the economy.
Literature Review
The term entrepreneurship is elusive, difficult to define and capable of taking various
meanings especially as regards to the context it is employed for. The behaviourists cited
by Usman (2006) identified it with individual trait and regards to some common character
among entrepreneurs with respect to need to achievement, perceived locus of control and
risk-taking propensity. Stokes (2004) argued that entrepreneurship entails bearing the risk
of buying at certain price and selling at uncertain prices. Sociologists on the other hand
concentrate on social and cultural processes in the definition of entrepreneurship as found
in Kirzner (1979) cited in usman (2006) as ability to recognise and act upon market. Brain
(2004) postulated that entrepreneurship is the art of finding profitable solution to
problems. Every successful entrepreneur or business person has been someone who has
been able to identify a problem and come up with a solution to it before anyone else does.
According to Balogun (2004) an entrepreneur is a dreamer or a visionary who
translates the dream or the vision into a mission that he would use both his mental,
physical and faculties and other endowment to achieve. An entrepreneur is a risk taker, an
innovator who in spite of an odd, uses focus, devotion and commitment to achieve his
goal. The spirit of entrepreneurship is an endowment given by God to an individual or
group of individuals. Schumpeter (2003) cited in goggles (2003) saw an entrepreneur as an
innovator who implements changes within market through the carrying out of new
combinations. The carrying out of new combinations can take several forms: the
introduction of a new method of production; the introduction of good or quality thereof;
the opening of new market; the congress of a new source of supply of new materials or
parts and the carrying out of the new organization of any industry.
Entrepreneurship is the characteristics of seeking business opportunities, taking
risks beyond security and having the tenacity to push an idea through to reality (Zimmerer

475

and Scarborough, 2006). Meredith et al (1996), opined that entrepreneurs are referred to
people who have the ability to see and evaluate business opportunities, together the
necessary skills and resources to take the advantage of them and initiate appropriate
action to ensure success. As for Kuratko et al (2001), entrepreneur is an innovator or
developer who recognizes and seizes opportunities; convert these opportunities into
workable or marketable ideas: add value through time, effort, money or skills, assures the
risks of the competitive market place to implement the ideas and realizes the reward
from the efforts.
Despite the modest efforts made by the scholars to define entrepreneurship, one or
two could not be sphered of one problem or the other. The most acceptable definition
adopted for this study is the one given by Balogun (2004) which defined entrepreneurship
as a dreamer or a visioner who translates the dream or the vision into a mission that he
would use both his mental and physical, faculties and other endowments to achieve. The
definition appears to be adequate and appropriate for the dimensions to entrepreneurship
such as, innovator, opportunities and workable ideas.
Methodology
This study employed the use of Exploratory Qualitative Research Techniques. The
adoption of this study design is necessitated by the fact that it sought to explore the
utilization of various literatures which are related to this study. Thus, the study was
conducted through obtaining relevant data from secondary source collection. Therefore
important books, published and electronic materials, journals, seminar papers, electronic
materials and other mimeograph related to this study were used.
Characteristics and Functions of an Entrepreneur
There are different opinions as to what makes one an entrepreneur. Some scholars
contend that entrepreneur are born with the entrepreneurial traits, other argued that every
person can become an entrepreneur if opportunities are available to him and he finds
himself in an entrepreneurial environment.
Experience has shown that in reality, the development of entrepreneurial traits and
behaviour are somewhere in between these approaches (Tolentino, 2004). Entrepreneurial
characteristics and traits can be developed through widespread practices of
entrepreneurial education, training and development and creation of conducive and
enable environment for the start and growth of enterprises.

Table 1: Characteristics and Traits of Entrepreneurs:
Characteristics Traits
Self-confidence Confidence, independence, individuality (belief in own
ability), optimism.
Strong will power Persistence and perseverance determination
Task result oriented Achievement oriented, profit oriented, hard work drive,
energy, and initiative.

476

Risk-taker Risk taking ability like challenges
Leadership Leadership behaviours, good communication, gets along well
with other, responsive to suggestions, criticism, and concern
for other person, develop other people.
Originality Innovative, creative, flexible (open minded). Resourceful,
versatile, knowledgeable.
Future-oriented Foresight, vision, perceptiveness.
Adapted from: Tolentino, A. (2004).Training and development of entrepreneur
Managers of small enterprises: pointers and lessons learned International Labour
organization.
Successful entrepreneurs are characterized and possessed the above features which
enable an individual to start a new business or expand an existing one. They are those that
exhibit some or all of the attributes in the profile.
These qualities as observed by Tolentino (2004) help people to seek-out for
business opportunities, to conceptualize and initiate business projects. They also enable
them to gather the physical, financial and human resources needed to start the business,
set goals for themselves and their enterprises and guide the enterprises and its people to
accomplish the goals.
The left hand side of the table depicted the characteristics features of entrepreneurs,
while the right hand side displayed the traits associated with the entrepreneurs.
Entrepreneurship functions according to Usman (2006) rest squarely on innovating and
creating a new venture, manage its growth through opportunity recognition and
exploitation. He does these:
i. Taking the initiative to combine factors of production (land, capital, labour and
entrepreneurial efforts) to produce goods and services in what is hoped to be a
profitable venture.
ii. Identification of investment opportunity: he looks at the unsatisfied needs and wants
of the customers and strives to satisfy their needs.
iii. Risk bearing: this is the principal function of an entrepreneur without which
entrepreneurship is not possible. Okpara (2000) observed that:
Business entails different degrees of risks. Entrepreneur must analyse not only the
expected profitability, but also the possible deviation from the expectations.
Risks in business constitute risk, threat and hazard. Possession of high degree of risk
bearing ability is always considered as paramount quality of entrepreneurial activity.
iv. Creativity: this attribute complements by risk bearing ability to evolve an enterprise.
According to Hodges cited in Gana (1995) saw creativity as the ability to process
information in such a way that the result is new, original and meaningful. Creativity in
this scale involves developing new marketing strategies in order to be efficient and
effective towards having a competitive edge over competitors.

477

v. Others are: selection of opportunities, decision making, combination of factors of
production, mobilization and utilization of resources and allocation of resources.
Balogun (2004) postulated that entrepreneurship development is not a simple
process of jump-starting or pioneering a new business venture on the assumption that
entrepreneurial activity is largely confined to the initial phase of a new business formation.
It is perhaps permissible to make a more picturesque and dramatic analogy between new
business formation and child rearing. Starting the task requires only a moment of
excitement, but a successful completion generally requires decades of careful thinking and
hard work.
Entrepreneurial qualities are derived from belief, attitude and behaviour of
entrepreneurs which drive them into actions. Successful entrepreneur believes that
environment and its changing forces can be influenced and managed for business
development. Tolentino (2004) asserted that entrepreneurial beliefs are sources of self
confidence in their leadership skills in starting a new business. Thus, one of the major
elements contributing to business success or failure is lack of entrepreneurial qualities.
These qualities are what separate the seriously committed entrepreneurs who are
successful in their undertakings from the rest.
Timmons (1994) identified six qualities of an entrepreneur viz: leadership,
commitment and determination, opportunity obsession, tolerance of risk, ambiguity and
uncertainty, creativity, self-reliance and ability to adopt, and motivation to excel. The
above are the functions and qualities of entrepreneurs as identified by the scholars
respectively which form the veracity for this study.
Opportunity for Entrepreneurs
Opportunities for entrepreneurs in developing countries like Nigeria are broader in scope
than in developed markets, allowing firms to pursue a portfolio approach to strategy that
can efficiently manage the higher levels of business and market risk (Hisrich and Peter,
2002). Entrepreneurs in Nigeria face different set of circumstances than their counterparts
in developed economies. These differences are rooted in the underlying economies in
which they operate. Emerging markets lack a stable of mature markets and the
consistency that such markets offer. Consequently, the opportunity for entrepreneurship
in emerging markets is pervasive. Thus, Western entrepreneurs operate at the fringes of
the economy, emerging market entrepreneurs operate closer to the core the needs and
opportunities are more widespread.
While the competitive threat to these entrepreneurs from well-established
incumbents is reduced, the risks posed by economic, political and regulatory uncertainty is
heightenedoften outweighing direct competitive threats. The rational, though counter
intuitive, response is for entrepreneurs in developing countries to spread resources across
several separate but related businesses in order to mitigate systematic risk. In effect, the
entrepreneur operating in segmented markets which is a feature of the Nigerian economy
often plays a surrogate role as a financial investor who manages risk through portfolio
diversification. He manages portfolio risk by operating several diverse businesses in lieu of
investors who might otherwise do the same. Lacking alternative sources of financing, the
successful entrepreneur may use internally generated cash flow from one business to fund
his other businesses. The keiretsu system in Japan and chaebols in Korea are examples of

478

highly developed conglomerates with interlocking ownerships and business partnerships
that developed in this manner. In Nigeria, the likes of Dangote use this approach. In
addition to risk mitigation and a source of funding, interlocking businesses provide a
source of informal information flow, access to a broader pool of skills and resources, and
when well implemented, a brand name that can be leveraged across all businesses.
If interlocking business conglomerates are common in emerging markets, how do
they start? Inadequate access to capital and fragmented retail and distribution often
require entrepreneurs to begin businesses downstream with direct access to the end
customer. Starting downstream businesses reduces initial capital requirements as working
capital is much reduced and permits access to customers and information flow that is
frequently lacking. Access to such information is often overlooked as a key success factor.
Lack of access to the end customer is a primary reason for the failure of businesses to
move beyond commodity markets into higher value added activities in emerging markets
(Fairbanks and Lindsay 1997). Having achieved success in retail and distribution,
successful entrepreneurs often leverage the domain experience, information flow, and
cash flow generated to vertically integrate and move into upstream businesses.
The above is the opinions of the aforementioned scholars as regard the available
opportunities for entrepreneurs as well as potential entrepreneurs to exploit for their
benefits and the growth of their enterprises.
Stumbling Blocks towards Entrepreneurship Development in Nigeria
From the various literatures analysed, the following problems are identified as the
stumbling blocks that impede the development of entrepreneurship Onifade (2004). The
major problem is financing. The financing problem have a multiple fold, first is the
availability of capital. Many entrepreneurs have innovation and ideas but lack the capital
to finance their idea. On the other hand, most entrepreneurs lack the knowledge to
manage their finance. Another major stumbling block to entrepreneurship development in
developing countries Nigeria in particular is government policies. These range from
infrastructure to tax policies. The country lacks infrastructures like good roads to easy the
transportation of products, poor electricity supply which forced entrepreneurs to use
other sources of power generation like generators. Further, another major obstacle is that
of security, the life of the people is not secured. Insecurity has led to the destruction of
investment properties. These problems are the responsibility of the government to
provide a serene business environment to allow entrepreneurship to flourish. Again, there
is already a high cost of investment in Nigeria. As stated earlier, no country can develop
without encouraging entrepreneurship. Government must forgone some of the benefits it
can gain now to encourage the development of enterprises. When government charge
high taxes along with high interest rates in money deposit banks, they increase the
mortality rates of businesses.
Other obstacles to entrepreneurship development in Nigeria include poor
understanding of the market condition. According to Usman (2002),it is not sufficient
enough to have a business idea or innovation. The question is whether such idea is
marketable in a given business environment. Other stumbling blocks to entrepreneurship
development in Nigeria are as summarized below.
The stumbling blocks towards the achievement of effective entrepreneurial development
in Nigeria is as tabulated below (NYSC, 1991).

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Table 2: Constraints and Developent Inputs
Constraints Development Inputs
a. Low motivation and lack of confidence
b. What business to set up?
c. How to get finance for the project
d. How to go about it
e. Who can help for what?
f. Lack of adequate marketing strategies.
g. Inadequate training to fine-tune the
Unskilled labour
h. How can i run the unit?
i. Am i the one to do it?
j. Would i be able to do it?
Behavioural and psychological
training.
Opportunities counselling
Market survey and project plan
guidance.
Information on source of assistance
and procedure.
Confident and competence,
development
Source: NYSC (1991). Entrepreneurship development programme hand book.
The left hand side of the table above has shown the militating factors for entrepreneurial
development, and the right hand side indicated the inputs necessary to solve the
constraints.
Solutions to Entrepreneurial Stumbling blocks in Nigeria.
According to Onifade (2004) solutions are found on decision making and problem
solving, resources, management, personnel management, stress management, inventory,
introduction to accounting feasibility study and others.
In addition to the above which stand as the entrepreneurial constraint, the government
through the establishment of industrial development centre (IDC) has provided the
following technical services:
i. Technical advice and assistance regarding the selection of proper
manufacturing process for the product in view
ii. Assistance in the installation and operation of machinery
iii. Give advice and assistance to small industrialists to improve the design and
quality of their products.
iv. Giving marketing counselling to small industrialists regarding pricing,
packaging, sales strategy, advertising and sale promotion.
v. Undertaking feasibility studies for specific products in connection with the
appraisal of loan application for small industrialist either via the government
loan scheme or banks e.g. Nigeria bank of industry
vi. Identification of new small industry opportunities and investment of
prospective entrepreneurs on such promising manufacturing lines.

480

vii. Supply of economic information wanted by prospective investors for making
an investment.
Also, solutions provided to solve constraints encountered by Nigerian potential
entrepreneurs include such bodies as:-
i. The Nigeria Association of Chambers of Commerce, Industry, Mines and
Agricultural(NACIMA):
ii. The Manufacturers Association of Nigeria(MAN);
iii. Nigeria Employers Consultative Association(NECA);
iv. Nigeria Association of Small Scale Industrialists (NASSI)
v. Small and Medium Enterprise Development Agency (SMEDAN) (Onifade,
2004).

The above is the views of the scholars regarding militating factors to entrepreneurial
development and growth in Nigeria.
Entrepreneurial Skills Development Programmes
The African governments effort to solve youth unemployment has involved the
vocationalization of education systems (UNESCO, 1984). Despite the vocationalization
of education, unemployment continued even among with people with the technical skills.
This trend had led to the emergence of Entrepreneurial Skills Development Programmes
(EDSPs) in Nigeria. The belief of the Nigerian government is that unemployment can be
tackled by promoting small scale businesses. For the enterprises to be started and
sustained, people with entrepreneurial skills are needed. Rao (1991) defined ESDPs as any
comprehensively planned effort undertaken by individual, a group of individuals, or any
institution or agency to develop competencies in people. Competencies are intended to
lead to self-employment, economic self sufficiency and employment generation via long-
term education or short-term training.
Organized entrepreneurship development activity started in Nigeria with the
establishment of the Industrial Development Centre (IDC) in Owerri. Entrepreneurship
Development Centres were established as a complement to the Central Bank of Nigeria
(CBN) microfinance policy and also to ensure the sustained supply of skilled
entrepreneurs to take advantages of available micro, small and medium enterprises
(MSMEs). The CBN in 2006 initiated plans to support the efforts of the Small and
Medium Enterprises Agency of Nigeria (SMEDAN), National Directorate of
Employment (NDE), National Poverty Eradication Programmes (NPEP), Industrial
Training Fund (ITF) etc by establishing and strengthening Entrepreneurship
Development Centre in each of the geographical zones in the country. This is to
encourage private entrepreneurship, self-employment, job creations, income growth,
poverty alleviation and ultimately economic development.
Entrepreneurial skills are essential skills crucial to starting, developing, financing
and succeeding in all business ventures. Entrepreneurship skill could be defined as the

481

ability to create something new with value by devoting the necessary time and effort,
assuming accompanying financial, psychic and social risks, and receiving the resulting
rewards of monetary and personal satisfaction and independence (Hisrich & Peters, 2005).
Entrepreneurial skill is the ability of an individual to exploit an idea and create an
enterprise, small or big (Olagunju, 2004). Salgado-Banda (2005) posited that
entrepreneurial skills are the ability to have self-belief, boldness, and passionate, tenacity,
and empathy, readiness to take expert advice, desire for immediate result, visionary and
ability to recognize opportunity. Zapalska (1997) observed that the array of possible
entrepreneurial skills encompasses the perception of economic opportunity, technical and
organizational innovations, gaining commands over scarce resources, taking
responsibilities for internal management and for external advancement of the firm in all
aspects of business venture. Thus, entrepreneurial skills are needed to succeed in business.
The pertinent stating point in conceptualizing entrepreneurial competencies is to
first define competence. ward (1993) opined that competence is a work related concept
which is referred to area of work at which the person is competent. Thus competent
employees or individuals are those who meet their performance expectations.
Competence is a useful concept in explaining the vibrant process of evaluation and choice
surrounds the development of entrepreneurial objectives and the subsequent decision to
encourage in entrepreneurial activities. Competence plays important roles in the
development of entrepreneurial objectives. If certain performance is perceived to be
beyond the ability of a person, he or she will not act, even if there is a perceived social
demand for that behaviour.
The scholars in the above have expressed their views as related to prerequisite
skills and competences to be acquired by potential entrepreneurs as well as entrepreneurs
to enable them reach their goals.
Conclusion and Recommendation
This paper has looked at the key roles of entrepreneurship. The specific aspects touched
include: the definitions of entrepreneurship and the characteristics of an entrepreneur, and
qualities. The functional roles of entrepreneur have also been treated. It has also been
stated that potential entrepreneurs must acquire some prerequisite skills and competence
to boost their entrepreneurial businesses.
Consequently, this study recommended the following.
i. That the role of entrepreneurship should be enhanced by the government for rapid
economic acceleration and socio-economic development. Thus, the government
must as a matter of urgency improve on the elimination of the barriers to
entrepreneurship development in the country, for instance infrastructural facilities
such as roads, electricity supplies and easy access to loan facility. This is with a view
to creating self-employment attitude in the minds of the teeming population and to
reduce dependency on the government for white collar jobs.

482

ii. Government should emphasize on the study of entrepreneurship as a matter of
urgency in all our tertiary institutions and all strata of knowledge including
secondary schools education.
iii. Also the un-educated persons in the society who have the entrepreneurial skills
should be assisted to realize their potentials and dreams.
iv. Finally, government at all level of administration should pay much attention to the
road side mechanics so as to transform their entrepreneurial skills toward our quest
for technological development.

References
Balogun, M.O. (2004). Developing entrepreneurship potential for strategic Advantage in
Nigeria.Journal of Nigeria institute of management. Vol. 40, Nos 2, 3 & 4 pg 22
Fairbanks, Michael and Stace Lindsay (1997), Plowing The Sea: Nurturing The Hidden Sources
of Growth in the Developing World, Cambridge: Harvard Business School.
Gana, J.S.S. (1995). Entrepreneurship, jofegan Associates, Kaduna
Google (2003). Definition of entrepreneurship on the web, retrieved on 28
th
November 2003
from http://www.google.com/research
Hisrich, R.D., and Peter, M.P.(2002). Entrepreneurship.Boston: Mc Graw-Hill/Irwin.
Isidore, E.(2010). Poverty Reduction through Entrepreneurship Development in Nigeria.
Second International Conference on Technology and Operations Management
(ICTOM), 5-7 July,2010, Bayview Hotel, Lagkwai, (Unpublished).
Kuratko, D. F. et al (2001), Entrepreneurship; A Contemporary Approach. Texas:
Harcourt College Publishers.
Meredith, G. et al (1996), The Practice of Entrepreneurship, Lagos: University of Lagos
printing press.
NYSC (1991). Entrepreneurship development programme H and book. Lagos: Government
printers, pg 12.
Nwaokolo, P.O. (1997). entrepreneurship in technological education in Africa. A panacca
to youth unemployment. Journal of technical teacher education, 2(1).
Onifade, A.(2004). Small business and entrepreneurship, Abeokuta: kappco, pg 129-131
Olagunju, Y. A. (2004). Entrepreneurship Small Scale Business Enterprises Development in Nigeria.
Ibadan: University Press Plc.
Okpara, F.O. (2004). Entrepreneurship (text and cases), Enugu: precision printers.
Rao, T.V. (1991). Entrepreneurial Skills Development Programmes in Fifteen
Commonwealth Countries. Ed.T.V.Rao & Cream Wright. London: Commonwealth
Secretariat.

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Stokes. D.(2004). Small Business Management, an active learning approach. Second
edition, London: DP Publications ltd.
Timmons, J.A.(2004).New Venture Creation. Retrieved 26
th
, February 204.From
http://www:iitfoundation.org/chapters/sfbay/2000.july-
seminar/slides/tsld040.htm.
Telentino, A.(2004).Training and Development of Entrepreneurs-Managers of Small
enterprises: Pointers and lessons learned. International Labour Organization,
Geneva.
Usman,K.L.(2002).Strategies for providing an enabling environment for Small Scale
Businesses growth in Nigeria. Proceedings of 15
th
annual Conference of Nigerian Associarion
of Teachers of Technology, Minna.
UNESCO (1991). Policy, Planning and Management in Technical and Vocational Education.
Paris: unesco
Ward,E.A.(1995).Motivation of Expansion plans of Entrepreneurs and Small Business
1899-1988. Journal of Management,22(5)pp 747-781.
World Bank (2013). 2013 International ratings for Nigeria. Daily Trust Newspapers, Pg. 4.
Zapalska, A.(1997). A profile of woman entrepreneurs and enterprises in Poland .Journal of
Small Business Management, 35(4), pp76-82.


484

PREDICTIVE EXPECTANCY AS A MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGY FOR
PROMOTING STUDENTS ACQUISITION OF ENTREPRENEURIAL
SKILLS IN NIGERIAN TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS
By
ANGELA OBOSE ORIAZOWANLAN, Ph.D
&
PROF. LILIAN IMUETIYAN SALAMI
Department of Vocational and Technical Education
University of Benin,
Benin City, Edo State
Nigeria
oboseangel@gmail.com

Abstract
The study investigated predictive expectancy as a motivational strategy to facilitate
students academic achievement in entrepreneurship education. A total number of 400
students who have taken entrepreneurial course as part of General Studies (GST)
courses were drawn from the faculty of education, University of Benin, Benin-City.
Two research questions guided the study and two hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level
of significance. Quasi experimental design was adopted using two intact classes of
experimental and control groups. These were to determine the efficacy of the
motivational strategy. Achievement test (pre-test and post-test) was pilot tested for its
reliability on groups outside the sample using test-re-test method and a reliability
value of 0.89 was obtained. The pre-test was administered on both groups but post
tested after the experimental group was taught predictive expectancy skill (treatment).
The data collected were analyzed using t-test statistics. The findings revealed that
students who were exposed to the treatment (predictive expectancy) performed better
than those not exposed to it. It equally revealed that among the students exposed to the
predictive expectancy, the male students performed better than the female students. It
was recommended therefore, that predictive expectancy should be adopted as a
motivational strategy in schools to facilitate students acquisition of entrepreneurial
skills.

Key Words: Predictive Expectancy, Motivational Strategy and Entrepreneurial
Skills Acquisition


485

Introduction
Entrepreneurship education was introduced into the Nigerian tertiary school curriculum
as a means to ameliorate the employment challenges facing young tertiary school
graduates. This was aimed at equipping them with self reliant skills to enable them live
more meaningfully and productively after graduation, even when paid jobs become
unavailable or less lucrative. These skills could make them become giant entrepreneurs
who can generate employment for themselves and others, as well engage not only in local
market competiveness but globally to contribute to national economic growth and
development.
Despite the high recognition of entrepreneurship education to proffer lasting
solution to the unemployment challenges facing young tertiary school graduates,
observations seem to show that lecture method continues to be the most conventional
method used in teaching entrepreneurial course. Moreso, it is disheartening that despite
the numerous teaching methods available such as discussion, demonstration,
dramatization, simulation, field trips and assignment methods among others, lecture
method remains the most commonly used in schools. Teachers impart knowledge and
skills unto the students in the classroom by instruction while the students become passive
learners using lecture method. It pauperizes students and does not allow for their
ingenuity since their active participation in the teaching/learning situation is low. It
therefore becomes doubtful whether the instructional objectives could be attained by
constantly using this lecture method as a conventional method in instructional delivery of
entrepreneurial course.
Many scholars have hitherto criticized lecture method to be highly retrogressive in
this jet age of technological advancement in learning. Akpomi (2009 argues that the
Nigerian educational system is too mechanical and condemned the situation whereby
lecture method remains the only conventional method used in teaching entrepreneurial
course. Therefore, it becomes imperative to adopt a more proactive approach using
motivational strategy to complement the lecture method in order to impel students
ingenuity. Predictive expectancy, the forecasting of a future probable outcome seemed to
be a good platform for this unequivocal task to make students become more committed
to the learning situation for a better academic achievement, to acquire appropriate
entrepreneurial competencies and skills prior to graduation. Anagbogu (2002) posits that
motivation is the hub for academic excellence and without it learning becomes difficult.
Motivation stimulates individual(s) to exact more effort towards activities to attain set
goal/objectives. Employing predictive expectancy as a motivational strategy could
stimulate students motive drive to become more committed to studying and they will
regulate their studying time, style and rate. This could make them become more
autonomous, strategic and dedicated towards higher academic performance.
It is apparent and noteworthy therefore, that the roles of the teachers in ensuring
the use of appropriate motivational strategy to complement their instructional strategies
and techniques particularly lecture method cannot be gloss-over in teaching any course in
educational programme including entrepreneurship education. It is clearly stated in the
National Policy on Education that no education programme can rise above its teacher
(Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004). Therefore, the role of the teacher is crucial in this
task.

486

Statement of the Problem
Nigeria needs a good number of entrepreneurs for economic growth empowerment. The
introduction of entrepreneurship education into tertiary institution curriculum was to
boost this, but the nation has not recorded the added value from entrepreneurship
education. A lot of questions begin to surface and creating doubts whether effective
teaching and learning still take place in Nigerian tertiary institutions particularly in
entrepreneurship education, also could the teaching method be a hindrance to the
expected success.
It is noteworthy that good teachers teaching pedagogy is a key factor to successful
academic achievement. Students require active teaching techniques and stimulation to
learn and improve on their academic performances. It becomes imperative therefore to
explore an improved teaching and learning strategy such as predictive expectancy. It is on
this premise that the study investigated the effect of predictive expectancy as a
motivational strategy to facilitate students academic achievement in order to ensure
appropriate entrepreneurial skills acquisition prior to graduation in Nigerian tertiary
institutions.
Literature Review
Entrepreneurship involves rational decision by individuals or groups in risk taking
to add value and satisfaction to consumers needs in a dynamic society through business
ventures. Esene (2010) and Ezewanfor (2011) defined entrepreneurship as the willingness
and ability of an individual to seek out investment opportunities, establish business,
manage it successfully and make profit. The training provided for individuals or groups to
acquire the required entrepreneurial competencies and skills to successfully take the risk
of uncertainty in business venture is entrepreneurship education. Okolocha and Ile (2011)
defined entrepreneurship education as an educational programme designed to prepare
young people to acquire appropriate business skills, ideas and knowledge that will help
them to live a fulfilled life, increase their economic status and contribute to the
development of the society.
Entrepreneurship education as a General Studies (GST) course came to effect sequel
to the recommendation of the National Universities Commission (NUC) Benchmark
Minimum Academic Standard (2004) and the decision of the National Council on
Education 53
rd
Meeting held in Calabar in 2006. Entrepreneurship education will not only
make youths to be self reliant but equally make them to become more employable and to
contribute their quota meaningfully to economic development. They could become
employers or entrepreneurs who could be self employed and employers of labour.
Entrepreneurs are individuals who take risk of uncertainty in business ventures by
making innovations to add value and satisfaction to consumers needs in a unique manner.
They are optimistic; always daring to make innovations and changes to satisfy the ever
changing needs and taste of consumers in a complex and dynamic society. They are agents
of change who innovatively and creatively combine other factors of production to create
utility and make profit. They could be business, political, social or knowledge
entrepreneurs who add value and satisfaction to the consumers life. According to
Inegbenebor and Igbinowanhia (2008), entrepreneurs are persons who are ingenious and
creative in finding ways that add to their own wealth, power and prestige. Using predictive

487

expectancy to motivate students in entrepreneurship education will make them perform
better.
Predictive expectancy is the forecasting of a probable successful future outcome in
a given achievement task which may either be positive or negative. Tassone (2001)
defined predictive expectancy as an individual perceived probability of success in a
particular achievement task. This perceived probability could be influenced by self-
concept of ability, perception of task difficulty, perceptions of others expectations, causal
attributions, locus of control, sex role identity, personal experiences, cost of success and
affective experiences. Lecturers could employ predictive expectancy to stimulate students
by making them to forecast their outcome in a given task. Apparently, students will
forecast favourably which might not necessary give a positive outcome. Their positive
forecast in the achievement tasks could propel their self concept of ability and locus of
control towards aiming at achieving the set target. Consequently, their study habits, styles,
rate, time and techniques will be geared towards achieving the desired outcome as
predicted. This implies that since they have set high targets for themselves, they will
strategize themselves towards positive attainment of that set targets by being committed
to studying. Their level of efforts will determine the level of reinforcement which could
be both intrinsically and extrinsically rewarding. Adopting predictive expectancy to
motivate students in entrepreneurship education could stimulate their motive-drive and
impel them to be more proactive and become committed, autonomous and strategic
towards goal attainment.
Predictive expectancy could be linked to Vrooms expectancy theory which
advocated that the level of expected outcome is influenced by the level of effort an
individual put into the activity/ activities geared towards the attainment of the outcome.
It is noteworthy that their self-worth will play a pivotal role in determining the level of
reinforcement influenced by their task value. It is also apparent that their task value will
also influence their level of efforts towards the attainment of the set target. Conversely,
their rate of prediction could be affected by their sex role identity, self concept of ability,
perception of task difficulties and affective experience resulting from past performances.
Since the achievement test is based on what the students have learnt in entrepreneurship
course, it becomes apparent that their successful performance in the test will determine
their acquisition of appropriate entrepreneurial skills which will boost employment
generation.
Considering the relevance of entrepreneurship education to facilitate employment
generation and economic transformation, a proactive measure needs to be taken to ensure
that students acquire appropriate entrepreneurial competencies and skills prior to
graduation to enable them contribute their quota meaningfully to economic growth and
transformation. The arduous task of the teacher is to make a paradigm shift from the
conventional lecture method using predictive expectancy as a motivational strategy to
complement its effectiveness in instructional delivering to guarantee quality assurance in
entrepreneurial studies. In order words, to ensure that students are given adequate
preparations to become self reliant to face the challenges of work and life beyond schools
the conventional lecture method of teaching/learning should be complemented with

488

motivational strategy such as predictive expectancy in entrepreneurial studies. Paris and
Winograd (1990) posited that as teachers are pressed to extend their crafts to prepare
more diverse students for the challenge of work and life beyond school, they are
challenged to provide more authentic instructional contexts and activities than the
traditional knowledge based curricula.
Although improvements have been made by lecturers in adopting the traditional or
conventional based instruction method (lecture method), it has been observed that
measurable progress has not been achieved significantly by students in achievement test in
entrepreneurship education. This may have hindered their entrepreneurial skills
acquisition marked for employment generation in the world of work. Since predictive
expectancy can stimulate students motive-drive and impel them to become proactive to
achieve high standard of academic performance, it should be used as a motivational
strategy for better instruction, direction, reflection, metacognitive discussion and other
activities that entails students reflective analysis for appropriate entrepreneurial skills
acquisition prior to graduation.
The main purpose of this study was to determine the effect of predictive expectancy as a
motivational strategy on students learning in entrepreneurship education so as to acquire
competent entrepreneurial skill prior to graduation. Specifically, it was to ascertain
whether;
i. any difference will occur in the performances of students between those exposed
to predictive expectancy strategy and those not exposed to it; and
ii. there will be any difference in the performances between the male and female
students exposed to the predictive expectancy strategy.
Research Question
The following research questions were raised to guide the study.
1. To what extent do the performances of students exposed to the predictive
expectancy and those not exposed differ?
2. To what extent do the performances between males and females students exposed
to the predictive expectancy differ?
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance.
1. There is no significant difference between the performances of students exposed
to the predictive expectancy and those not expose to it.
2. There is no significant difference between the performances of male and female
Methodology
The quasi-experimental design was adopted for this study and a total number of 400
students were drawn from the University of Benin, involving four departments in the

489

Faculty of Education. Two intact classes of experimental and control groups were selected
for the study. A set of achievement test of pre-test and post-test was structured and pilot
tested on a group outside the population sample after the validation of the instrument by
three experts. The test-re-test method was used to determine the reliability and a reliability
co-efficient value of 0.86 was obtained.
Thereafter, both groups were pre-tested and taught entrepreneurial course that
could lead to the acquisition of entrepreneurial competencies and skills for a period of
eight weeks but the experiment group was taught the predictive expectancy skill and both
groups were post-tested. The data collected were analyzed and the hypotheses formulated
were tested using t-test statistic at 0.05 level of significance.
The results obtained are presented in tables based on the hypotheses formulated for the
study.
Ho
1
: There is no significant difference between the performances of students exposed to
the predictive expectancy strategy and those not exposed.

Table 1: Means scores of Respondents in both Experimental and Control groups
Groups N

SD t-calculated t-table
Experimental 200 78.4 26.93
Control 200 64.8 24.33 4.35 1.96

Table 1 shows a difference in the mean scores between the experimental and control
group, more so, the calculated t-value, 4.35 is greater than the table t-value, 1.96 at 0.05
level of significance. Therefore the null hypothesis is rejected. This indicates a difference
in the performance and achievement between those exposed to the predictive expectancy
strategy and those not exposed to it. The null hypothesis is rejected, therefore the
experimental group performed better than the control group.
H
02
: There is no significant difference between the performances of both male and female
Table 2: Mean Scores by Gender of respondents
Groups N

SD t-cal t-table
Male Female
Experimental 100 80.8 19.2 26.29
Control 100 79 21 21.79 3.79 1.96

Table 2 shows that there is difference in mean scores between performances of the male
and female students who were exposed to the predictive expectancy strategy. The
calculated t-value of 3.79 is greater than the critical t-table value of 1.96 at 0.05 level of
significance indicating that there is difference between the students performances. The null
hypothesis is therefore rejected, which implies that the male students performed better
than female students.

490

The result of the findings revealed that students who were exposed to the predictive
expectancy performed better than those not exposed to it. This is in line with Vrooms
Expectancy Theory which states that the level of efforts put into activities towards the
attainment of the set goal in a given task equals the level of success attained. It is an
indication that the students who were exposed to the predictive expectancy strategy were
better committed and dedicated towards achieving their set target and by implication their
study techniques improved because of their high motive drive towards success. It could
be said therefore that predictive expectancy motivates students to develop personal
commitment and self monitoring to studying, therefore become autonomous, proactive
and strategic to developing high self concept of ability and efficacy for higher
performance and achievement.
The findings equally revealed a difference in the performances between male and
female students who were exposed to the predictive expectancy skills; the male students
performed better than the female students. Sex role identity could be said to influence
their rate of prediction and performances. Tassone (2001) quoting March opined that
males students are more oriented towards achievement in school with age while female
students become more concern with potential conflict between their academic goals and
social goals. Apparently, since female students have become more concern with social
goals, the tendency for them to develop poor study habits and predict low scores cannot
be disputable. On the other hand since the male students equally become more oriented
towards achievements in schools with age, consequently their performances will be
rewarded with their efforts of high commitment and dedication.
Students performances in the achievement test and the acquisition of
entrepreneurial skills could be said to be influenced by their concerted effort to be
proactive in studying inspired by high motive drive, self concept of ability and locus of
control resulting in positive perception of task difficulties. The positive perception of
tasks difficulties greatly influenced their predictions, performances and achievements in
the achievement task which apparently is an indication of the high level of effort put into
studying and the optimal level of success attained which could be intrinsically and
extrinsically rewarding.
Conclusion
Ultimately, he study provides an insightful improvement strategy to instructional delivering
in entrepreneurship education to ensure the attainment of the set objective of the course.
The conventional lecture method although constantly and popularly used in schools is
retrogressive and has not yielded remarkable improvement in the teaching/learning of
entrepreneurship course. It became worthwhile to employ motivational strategies such as
predictive expectancy to complement the conventional lecture method. This could make
students become more proactive, autonomous, committed and strategic to goal
attainment in achievement task in entrepreneurship education and could in turn facilitate
their entrepreneurial skills acquisition.

Finally, this study has extensively exposed the relevance of predictive expectancy to
motivate students to be adequately committed to studying in Nigerian tertiary institutions,
while also contributing to the existing knowledge of the use of motivational strategy,
uniquely emphasizing how predictive expectancy can stimulate students motive drive and

491

impel them to regulate their study time, rate, style and be adequately committed towards
achieving their set target in achievement task. This could enable educators to impel
students ingenuity rather than to limit their abilities with the conventional lecture
method. This could ultimately result in the acquisition of competencies and skills needed
for self reliance to boost employment generation. Therefore, predictive expectancy to
motivate students should be adopted in the institutions to facilitate students acquisition
of appropriate entrepreneurial competences and skills prior to graduation.

Recommendations
Lecturers should adopt this predictive expectancy strategy to stimulate students
towards high motive drive to become more proactive, committed, strategic and
autonomous towards attaining higher performance in achievement tests in
entrepreneurship education.
It could be adopted in teaching other subjects since it is capable of developing
students high self concept of ability and efficacies in entrepreneurship education.
Teachers-in-training should be taught the relevance of motivational strategy
particularly predictive expectancy to facilitate effective teaching/learning at all
levels in schools to ensure better capacity building.

References
Anagbogu, E. O. (2002). Foundation of guidance and counselling. Enugu: Academic Publishing
Company.
Gana, J.S.S. (2001). Entrepreneurship. Kaduna: Jofehan Associates Publisher.
Ile, C.M. & Umezulike, A.N. (2007). Poverty reduction through business education:
Evidence from medium scale entrepreneurs in Anambra State. Bussiness Education
Journal. 6(1), 7-17.
Inegbenebor, A.U & Igbinowanhia O.R. (2008). Entrepreneurship in a developing society.
Entrpreneurship a pratical approach. Benin: Mindex Publishing. Centre for entrepreneurship
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vroom.php


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PEACE EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA

By

MRS. VERONICA ODIGIE, Ph.D
Educational Foundation
Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt

&
MRS. EUNICE ODIONYE, Ph.D
Imo State University
Owerri

Abstract
For national development to be a reality in any nation of the world the pursuit of peace
is imperative. The increasing complexities of violence in Nigeria demands new
strategies for combating the social malaise. Things have degenerated to the extent that
the leadership of this nation have become a tool in the hands of riff-raffs who are
driving some people through their untimely death with bombs, kidnapping and armed-
robbery. In a knowledge based world, we cannot just watch helplessly this
deteriorating situation which is capable of undermining our development as a nation.
This paper submits to the fact that if national development depends on effective
integration of schools via peace education then, the culture of intolerance and violence
should be combated.


494

Introduction
The seemingly intractable nature of the security challenges facing Nigeria calls for a
periodic review of the tactics with a view to finding a lasting solution to the problem of
insecurity. In doing so, what should be uppermost in the minds of stakeholders for the
conflicts at this stage should be how to work collaboratively to bring about peace in a
place torn apart by ethno-religious and political strife. There is an urgent need of a new
initiative for peace building. There is no gainsaying that the problem of insecurity has
lingered for too long with the consequent massive human and material losses. So far the
modus operandi of the military has failed to yield any tangible result, which makes it
imperative for a change of tactics.
Over the decades, philosophers and educationists have tried to proffer solutions through
philosophical methods and tools. John Dewey, one of the Americas leading philosophers
conceives human intelligence as a practical instrument or method of solving problems.
Dewey (1957) maintains that this can be done through the formulation of plans and
hypothesis and testing them through their consequences in practice. The method has to
be applied over and over again to specific situations as determined by the content and
need. When the solution continues to work, it continues, but when it can no longer meet
the needs, it can be modified and replaced. This is the pragmatic philosophy or theory of
workability.
This method that involves learning participation can be used to teach some basic concepts
and human values at all levels of educational system in Nigeria especially the peace
education. Such human value includes:
Respect for human dignity and human right
Respect for democracy and freedom
Respect for constitutional authority
Development of good moral character
Social justice
Linking Education, Peace and Development
Education is a force for sustainable peace and development. This development is said to
be sustainable when the policies of today guarantees a better future. In other words the
relationship between education, peace and development is straight forward in meaning.
To develop in this sense, means creating new techniques and new ways of doing things
which allow us to improve the quality of life in all economic, environment and social
dimensions, without impairing the ability of future generations to enjoy quality of life and
opportunities. The strategic position of peace education is that it is synonymous to
national development. If this be the case, the leadership and government of Nigeria
should create and have a focus and insight into the root of violence, using the pragmatic

495

approach to solve conflicts in a just and non-violent way through constructing sustainable
alternative features. Collaboratively, Bush and Salterel (2000) in the world development
report emphasized the creation of sustainable improvement in the quality of life of our
people as the principal goal of development policy.
UNESCO has called attention to the fact that the target of education is not only
about building schools, hiring teachers and providing books; but also about laying
foundations for peace. This right type of education is one of the best conflict prevention
strategies available to any society. The wrong type makes armed conflict more likely.
Invariably, educational system should be based on a well thought-out curriculum. This will
produce the needed manpower for developing the society and avoiding destructive
conflict. Furthermore, education can be used to teach peace and security in the heart of
men and build a culture of tolerance. In sincerity, its main goal is to provide knowledge
that could help eliminate those factors that threaten national development. Peace is inner
silence filled with the power of truth. Philosophically, serenity is not the absence of chaos,
but peace in the midst of it. The question is how can we bring about peace education?
Peace Education and the Curriculum: An Analysis
Though considered to be a specialized academic category, the term peace education is
used at this initial stage generally to refer to all efforts towards disseminating information
on peace to individuals and groups whether in schools or at forums organized by non-
governmental organizations. This type of education is based on the assumption that
individuals, communities and nations are in violent conflict largely because there is no
adequate knowledge on how to handle conflict creatively. A non-formal peace education
refers largely to the kind of training programmes provided by non-governmental
organizations working in the area of training prevention, peace building and conflict
resolution. It is often skill-based and aimed at providing knowledge that can enable people
to relate with one another more peacefully. Formal peace education on the other hand is
provided by academic institutions. It is based on carefully crafted and well-tested
epistemological, pedagogical, theoretical and methodological frameworks. It is process
based and teaching students through lectures, role plays and co-operative learning
activities.
In other words, education with its philosophical methods has consequences in
orientating students towards these possibilities for peace. Peace education aims to provide
learners with the knowledge, skills attitudes and values necessary to end violence and
injustice and promote a culture of peace. To also create a safe world based on justice and
human rights. The conceptual core of human right education is human dignity; anything
that works against it must be intentionally challenged.
Deductively, peace education brings together multiple traditions of pedagogy,
theories of education and national and international initiatives for the advancement of
human development through learning, collaboratively. Reardon (1995) reveals that the
conceptual core of human peace is the control of and reduction of violence. In their

496

work, Bush and Saltarell (2000)

conclusively argued that education becomes an asset when
it is organized in a manner that unites the nation. But it becomes destructive when it is
unequally distributed, when it is used by politicians and the government as a weapon of
cultural repression, when a group of people are denied access to it. This type of situation
can be exacerbated when theres inequality in an atmosphere of

Challenges of Peace, Development and Good Governance
The connection with the issue of peace, good governance and development is not too
difficult to locate. Before we take a look at good governance, there is the need at this
juncture to view the concept of leadership because philosophy of education is a national
activity that establishes what ought to be in order to attain the good life possible for all
concerned. In other words, leadership should focus on establishing the country as well as
point to the process of achieving same good life. Leadership ought to add value to society
by building a system that is capable of sustaining the present and future. To Agwaranze
(1997), leadership is the capacity or quality of an individual or group to direct, organize
and control the actions of other people or groups towards the attainment of the collective
goal of the group or society. When the individuals have shown the ability to successfully
direct the activities of the group to attainment of organizational goals, such leadership is
said to be effective.
The silent question is can leadership and good governance be related to philosophy?
Philosophically, the main concern for leadership and governance is the good life. The
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in its 1999 policy document
enumerated the essentials of good governance to include; participatory, effective,
accountable and equitable government and the promotion of the rule of law.
Dewey (1957) defines good governance as collective decision-taking and action in
which government is one stakeholder among others. This collective decision-taking and
action should unequivocally lead to the common public good.
But must governance be limited to the formal affairs of government? Cant we talk
of governance at any level of human social existence? Good governance can take place at
any level which includes: family, local, state and national levels. In philosophical terms;
especially in the operational content of this paper, good governance according to Shaaba
(2010) can be interpreted to mean adhering to the philosophical characteristics of
eliminating ambiguities, ensuring coherence, consistency and rationality in governance.
Having seen what governance and leadership is all about, there is need to relate it to
peace, development and governance in Nigeria today.

Nigeria Today: Causes and Effects of Violence

497

No nation in pursuit of development can afford to relegate its teachers and if the delivery
of peace education is to improve, the nation must accord teachers their rightful place as
facilitators and engineers of human development through peace education the hidden
curriculum. Crisis in Nigeria has escalated because education has not been given its
values as a result oriented investment. Consequently, education continues to be poorly
regarded. In other words, poor investment in education would easily translate into more
investment in dealing with threats to national security. Before the discussion on the
effects of insecurity and violence which has become a menace in the country where no
one can walk freely on the road, it is imperative that we identify some causes of violence
and insecurity in Nigeria. These include:
Kidnapping: Majority of the citizens are of the view that kidnapping cases began as a
result of undue militarization of the states over a long period of time. A kidnapper
according to section 365 of the Criminal Code, Cap 72, law of the Federation
Republic of Nigeria 1990 is any person who unlawfully confines or detains another
in any place against his will or otherwise unlawfully deprives another of his personal
liberty.
Inefficient Leadership: Many people have been killed for reasons ranging from acts of
terrorism, road and air accidents to natural disasters, especially the recent flooding of
most part of the country whose earlier warning had been neglected by our leaders.
The effect of the Nigerian Civil War, ethnic and communal clashes due to injustice.
Operators of Quasi Military Outfits: For example, the case of four student of University of
Port Harcourt who were brutally killed.
Criminal and Political Violence: The use of thugs by political parties since the emergence
of politics and cultist groups, which has led to barstardisation of democracy and
destruction of properties.
Unfulfilled Political Promises.
Law enforcement agencies who turned around to give their support to a party in the
conflicts. For example the protest of women from Plateau State.
9

Ignorance and attachment of wrong values to education: A sect in the Northern part of Nigeria
believes that Western education has come to corrupt the world and must be
eradicated.
Corruption: Alhaji Yerima Shettima, a Senator in Nigeria attributed the many deaths
and lack of development in the country to corruption and lack of leadership focus. He
added that Theres no leadership in the country and corruption has permeated
everywhere from Federal, States to Local government (Usman, 2012)
Poverty: its not gain saying therefore to infer that the poor cannot sleep because they
are hungry and the rich cannot sleep because the poor are awake.
Rape/Domestic Violence: Prof. Juliana Okoh asked a very disturbing question in her
inaugural lecture that where do battered and raped Nigerian women go to seek
refuge at a time of crisis (Okoh, 2012).

498

Injustice: Emile In Nigeria there is the obvious problem of the inability of the
Nigerian government to enforce its laws in a manner that can assure justice and
fairness to all and sundry, and hence bring about sustainable peace.
All of these problems threaten the international insecurity of Nigeria and give
Nigeria a very bad image. Anybody wishing to restructure Nigeria in its present awkward
and ungainly contraption must look at these offensive cruelties squarely in the face.
Today, the scope of peace education includes not only the causes, the nature and the
terrible consequences of war and communal clashes but also the study of violence in all
forms.
Strategies for Engaging These Problems
The strategies for engaging these problems include; first of all providing jobs for the
teeming population of unemployed youths in Nigeria. Secondly, creating a more efficient
well funded law enforcement system. Thirdly, there is the need to invest heavily in peace
education. The goal of peace education in this respect is to produce a youth population
that would invest less on violence due to their better appreciation of the need for peace.
Fourthly, there should be an independent mediation to resolve the dispute and create
agreement. The government should have an acceptable mediator that will command the
trust and confidence of all parties. Finally, reports of panels set up to address the
grievances of the warring parties should be harmonized and implemented for lasting
peace.
Some Concluding Reflections
In conclusion, we need to reflect on whether peace scholarship and practice can actually
achieve all that we have attributed to them here: ensuring sustainable peace and
development in Nigeria.
Salomon of the Centre for Research on Peace Education at the University of
Haifa, Israel asked some related questions; Does Peace education make a difference in the
context of an intractable conflict? Are all those efforts, investments of time, money,
goodwill and energy paying off in some way? Can people come to move positively to their
adversary during intractable conflict as a function of participation in peace education
programme? Peace education may not affect the core of a groups beliefs but it can help
people see things and their adversary a bit differently. Perhaps more than improving
relations and attitudes, peace education is capable of preventing or worsening them. Peace
education appears to offer a long term solution to threats here and now. However the
point must be made that peace education cannot do it all. It must be associated with good
governance. The state needs to deliver public good. As we teach peace, the youth must be
provided with economic skills and real hope for the future, not abstract promises.
Corruption must end. To bring about lasting peace, the environment in which the people
live must be safer. Finally, peace education should be included in the curriculum and
taught in schools to help promote lasting peace in communities and Nigeria at large.
References

499

Agwaranze. Towards Effective Leadership in Nigeria. Pointer Magazine. Vol. III No. 1
Dec. 1997.
Bush K. and Salterel D. (2000) (eds): The Two Faces of Education in Ethnic Italy.
UNICEF Innocent Research Centre,.
Dewey J. (1957) Democracy. Boston: Beacon press.
Okoh J. (2012) Towards a Feminist Theatre. 95
th
Inaugural Lecture. University of Port
Harcourt.
Okoh, J. (2012) Towards a Feminist Theatre 95
th
Inaugural Lecture. University of Port
Harcourt. 30
th
October, 2012.
Punch Newspaper, Tuesday July 31
st
, 2012.Op. cit.
Punch, Tuesday July, 31
st
2012.
Reardon B. (1995) Educating for human dignity: Learning about rights and responsibility.
Pennsylvania, University of Pennsylvania Press,.
Salomon G. (2004) Does peace education make a difference in the context of an
intractable conflict. Paper presented at the conference on peace education
around the world International expert meeting on Theory and Practice of peace education.
InWEnt conference Centre; Feldafing, Germany, February 9-11.
Shaaba M. (2010) The Relevance of Philosophy of Education to Good Governance
Nigeria Journal of Educational Philosophy Vol. No. 1 Usman (2012) Punch
Newspaper., Tuesday July 31
st
,.


500

DISTANCE EDUCATION IN NIGERIAN HIGHER EDUCATION:
AN ANALYSIS OF THE BASIC ISSUES

By

ABRAHAM ORIJI, Ph.D
Department of Curriculum Studies& Educational Technology
Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

&

NWOSU, EBERE HOPE
Department of Curriculum Studies& Educational Technology
Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

Abstract
Nigeria is rated as one of the poorest in education around the world. Since the quality
of education dictates the quality of the nations human resource, it becomes necessary
to address the mass literacy of the citizenry. Since the traditional method of instruction
has failed to address the yearning demands for higher education in Nigeria, there is
urgent need to look for other methods that will bring more instructional flexibility to
meet the perennial demands for higher education. This method is hoped to provide a
potential means to revitalizing Nigerian education system by moving education
outside the traditional classroom. Consequently, this paper addresses the need to
embrace distance education in Nigerian, in order to provide access to education for
those groups presently and previously excluded from gaining access to the
conventional system of education. The concept, merits, and the challenges of distance
education have been concisely discussed. The scholar also addressed the needs,
characteristics, and future of distance learning in Nigeria, as this will address the
admission challenge confronting Nigerian universities in recent times, and also hope
for the aggressive establishment of more distance learning centers to cope with the ever
rising demand for higher education.


501

Introduction
Sigh, Sharma & Upadhya (2008) reported that Kothari Commission in India states that
Indias Adestiny is being shaped in her classrooms. This means that, the younger
generation is the future of a country and its future lies in the desirable functioning of the
educational institutions of the country. In recent times, the zeal to acquire education at all
levels in Nigeria and the world over is constantly on increase. This phenomenon follows
the promulgation of Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, which declared in
article 26 that, Everyone has right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the
elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical
and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be
equally accessible to all on the basis of merit (Daniel, 2010) as cited in Ifeanyi &
Olakunlehin, 2010). In the same development, the Nigerian philosophy of education also
stress that education is the right of every citizen.
Based on the above premise, the Universal Primary Education (UPE) and Universal
Basic Education (UBE) programmes were put in place by the Nigerian governments in
1976 and 1999 respectively; to ensure increase access to the education of her citizens. In
the same way, it has also been observed that, with the ever increasing population, the
traditional (real) institutions are not able to give the desired admission to candidates that
possess the requisite qualifications to gain entry into the universities of their choice.
Additionally, people who are already old and with families and social responsibilities or
are working may wish to go in for professional training to acquire better education (Ike &
Iwu, 2009). In order to contain these increasing quests for university education, most
countries have embraced alternative means of providing access through the
instrumentality of distance education.
Distance education provides quality university education to students who are not
able to physically present on campus. It has its root in the tradition of correspondence
education and home study (Saddiqui, 2008). Distance education offers educational
opportunities to adults who may lack the opportunity of attending traditional or
conventional universities for the reasons of time and space. So, home study becomes the
only option left for them.
Meaning and Concept of Distance Education
Perhaps, one of the most difficult tasks in the field of practice is to define the field with
some precisions, without being excessively restricted (Rose, 1989). On this note, it is
important to identify the different terminologies used in distance education before
attempting a meaningful conceptualization. Accordingly, Ike & Iwu (2001), Mangal &
Mangal (2009), Ogidan & Atere (2010) have identified most common terms used to
describe distance education to include, distance learning, home study, off-campus study,
telemetric teaching, extra-mural system, independent study, postal tuition, open learning,
open school, open university access, online learning, distance learning. Others are
correspondence education, home study, external studies, continuing distance teaching,
self-instruction, adult education, technology-based or mediated education, learner-
centered education, open access, flexible-education, and distributed learning.
Hence, Jegede (2003) defines distance education as a way of providing learning
opportunities that are characterized by the separation of teacher and learner in time or
place, or both time and place. Newby, Stepich, Lebman & Russell (2006) referred to

502

distance education as an organized instructional programme in which the teacher and
learners are physically separated by time or by geography. The authors opined that when
people think of distance education, they think of an instructor at one site teaching learners
at another site or sites via television, the internet, or another communication channel.
Siddiqui (2008) defines distance learning as any type of education that occurs while
location, time, or both separate the participants. In distance learning, the teacher, through
the use of technology, delivers instruction to a student at a separate location. The teacher
then receives feedback, either immediate or delayed, from the student.
Distance education implies that the majority of educational communication
between the teacher and student(s) occurs non-contiguous. It must involve two-way
communication between teacher and student(s) for the purpose of facilitating and
supporting the education process. It uses technology to mediate the necessary two-way
communication (Garrison & Shale, 1987). Mangal and Mangal (2009), having x-rayed the
characteristics of distance education from the array of definitions, viewed the term as a
system of education run along two-way interaction and communication between the
source of teaching and the learner, maintained through the conventional as well as
advanced information and communication technologies, with an eye on providing
opportunities to the learner to engage in his self-study with a freedom of choice related to
time, space, pace, medium, access, and curriculum. Ozizi (1992) refers to distance
education as a revolutionary concept and innovation in education, which is in response to
growing demand to democratize and liberalize education, which can not be achieved by
the traditional method that is centred on the classroom.
Blended learning (this term blended, hybrid, technology-mediated instruction, web-
enhanced and mixed-mode instruction are often used interchangeably in current research
literature. But in this paper, the use of distance education/learning will be used.
Characteristics of Distance Education
Distance education has been identified with some characteristics, which is mostly derived
from various definitions proffered to it by professionals in the field. The following
characteristics have been enumerated by scholars thus:-
i. the quasi permanent separation of teacher and learner, through the length of the
learning process.
ii. the quasi permanent absence of learning group throughout the length of the
learning process so that people are usually thought as individuals and not in
groups with the possibility of occasional meeting for both didactic and
socialization process.
iii. The number of people involved in distance education is not limited to physical
features.
iv. The presence of more industrialized features than the conventional oral education
v. The use of technical media: print, audio video or computer, to unite teacher and
learner and carry content of the course.
vi. The provision of two way communication so that the student may benefit from or
even initiate dialogue
vi. The privatization of institutional learning
vii. The learner takes greater control over what to learn and when to learn it.
viii. Learners are never too old to study: Distance education is built on lifelong learning,
which affords individuals independent approach to learning.

503

ix. Open access to education: University education and any other levels of learning are not
limited to individuals.
x. No limitation of time: With the flexibility of study offered by distance education,
Students or learners can study in the comfort of their own specified time. They
can also take as many courses as possible (Keegan, 1986), Saddiqui, 2008),
Merriam & Cunningham (1989).

Riding and Rayner (1995) as sourced from http://westga.edu/~distance/iiu23.html
pointed out six technology-based characteristics of distanced education which are
highlighted as follows:
i. Control of the mode of delivery and the presentation rate
ii. Control of order of presentation, pace of instruction and selection of learning
activities
iii. Monitoring of learning performance, storing responses, and conducting
assessments
iv. Provision of simulations which supply learning experiences in a variety of low-cost
and risk-free topics
v. Formation of a collaborative learning group by linking the learner to the instructor
and to other students for support
vi. Access to learning resources and assessment materials
On a general note therefore, the major characteristics of distance education are as
outlined below:-
i. Internal locus of control. This means that consequences stem from ones own
behaviours and efforts.
ii. Self-directedness. Learners manage their own learning and success in their
courses.
iii. Distance learners tend to be more intelligent, emotionally stable, trusting,
compulsive, passive, conforming, self-sufficient, introverted, and expedient than
on-campus students (Thompson, 1999).
iv. Less concrete learning styles, noting that they can learn from a variety of content
types and activities.
v. Less to relate to other students and in the educational environment than on-
campus students
vi. Involves students who lived too far from college campus to attend on-campus
classes
vii. Convenience is a motivating factor
viii. It is not time bound
ix. It is motivated by mode of instruction
x. Learners are committed to their coursework for the purpose of advancing to their
careers
xi. Diligent participation and quality coursework
xii. No-detailed assignment and course logistics due to lack of time. This is in view of
learners family and job demands.
xiii. Most learners are married with dependants, thereby juggle with their coursework
xiv. Most learner hold fulltime jobs.
xv. Learners tend to be, on average, older than the typical on-campus students
xvi. Flexibility there are several intakes in a year. No specific time for admission.

504

xvii. You dont have to take time out from work to or loss job to gain qualification
xviii. Portable not timetabled classes or lectures. You can carry or access materials
with you while travelling.
xix. Relevance learners put what they learnt in practice, thereby benefiting their
organizations
xx. Equivalent learners gain the same qualification as those studying fulltime
on campuses, with the same certificate.
xxi. Courses are accredited like the on-campus courses.
xxii. Majority of the courses are technology-based.

Types of Distance Learning Delivery System Mode
Synchronous
This requires the simultaneous participation of all students and instructors. In this case,
interaction or communication is done in real-times - immediate (e.g., tele-courses,
teleconferencing, web conferencing and internet chats).
Asynchronous
This does not require simultaneous participation of all students and instructors. Students
do not need to be gathered together in the same location at the same time. Rather,
students may choose their own instructional time frame and interact with the learning
materials and instructors according to their schedules. This is more flexible than
synchronous instruction, but experience shows that time limits are necessary to maintain
focus and participation. Examples of synchronous delivery are:- e-mail, listserve, audio
cassette courses, correspondence courses and web-based courses.
Why do we Need Distance Education in Nigeria?
The above question has been succinctly answered by Professor Olugbemiro Jegede in his
keynote address at the Sub-Regional Ministerial Conference on integration of ICTs in
education in Abuja in July 2004. The scholar said that the over-continuing growth in
Africas population, the attendant escalating demand for education at all levels, the
difficulty of re-sourcing in education through the traditional means of face-to-face
classroom-bound mode, and the compelling need to provide education for all irrespective
of environmental, social or cultural circumstances have meant that Africa must of
necessity find the appropriate and cost-effective means to respond adequately to the huge
unmet demands for education. There is the tremendous need to meet the demand for
education at all levels and by all sectors (Ifeanyi & Olakunlehin, 2010).
In accordance with Ike and Iwu (2001) who outlined the following as the main
objectives of distance education, particularly in Nigeria:
i. Provides access to educational opportunities in a cost effective manner for those
who otherwise would have been denied access.
ii. Provides a second chance for those who left school for one reason or the other, but
who having matured further would want a re-entry into the knowledge arena.
iii. Desire to improve education by reducing the high rate of dropouts in the
conventional face-to-face institutions.
iv. To qualify for better job opportunities

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v. Fast promotion at workplaces
vi. To address the problems inherent in the traditional system of education
vii. To reduce the financial pressure faced by students in face-to-face contact.
viii. Learner may be engaged in other money earning ventures
ix. Shortens the unnecessary elongation of graduations periods caused by incessant
strikes in the university system

Merits of Distance Education
Ike and Iwu (2001), Aggarwal (2009), and Ifeanyi & Olakunlehin (2010) have outlined
some of the merits of distance education to include:-
i. It is a remediation platform for the massification of good quality education in the face
of increasing demand and dwindling resources. In fact, it is a quick response to mass
literacy of citizenry.
ii. When one is admitted, he need not travel and can learn any topic any where and
anytime
iii. Filling forms, entrance, exams, enrollment, registration, payment of fees, etc, are done
on the Internet from ones home or offices.
iv. Candidate can choose any course only limited by the credit units
v. Provides numerous courses online
vi. Students can download needed instructional materials
vii. Individualized instruction
viii. Topics can be read as long (many times) as possible vial any teaching methods
ix. Gives room for flexibility; learner can take exam anytime he likes and not time bound
x. A brilliant student can take shorter time to complete his programme of study
xi. Age may not be a barrier to learner
xii. It enables virtual participation of remote students
xiii. Admission is not limited to the immediate geography
ix. It is used for different learning situations, such as fulltime, part-time, graduate and
undergraduates, primary and secondary, etc.
x. It accommodates different learning styles.
xi. Provides just-in-time training for all categories of learners
xii. It is a source of generating revenue for the institutions
xiii. Supplements learning experiences provided in traditional institutions
xiv. Promotes life-long learning.
xv. Promotes the adoption of new technologies in the instructional process
xvii Low-costs: there is a general assumption that online courses are less expensive than
the conventional face-to-face system

506

xvii. It provides opportunity for kind of in-service for working class citizens to update
their knowledge
xiv. Promotes the adoption of educational technology in the instructional process: The
nature of distance learning demands a thorough analysis of factors, task, content and
media for the design, implementation and evaluation of instructional system that will
facilitate learning.

Challenges of Distance Education
Distance learning has been credited with numerous merits; however, a lot of challenges
are inherent in this form of learning, especially in Nigeria. Let us examine some of the
demerits.
i. Language Barrier: Language of communication has sometimes been one of the major
problems of distance education. An English speaking learner will find it very difficulty
to enroll in any other course other than the language he/she understands.
ii. Rare Direct Contact with Faculty. Students and teachers have not direct contact. No
teacher to make fun, and teacher cannot give learners direct guidance. However, this is
depends on the mode of study.
iii. Overdependence on Technology: Most distance education depends on new
technologies, and learners must be technologically reliant in other to meet up with the
programme of choice.
iv. Lack of Discipline: There is lack of seriousness on the part of the learner since there
is no direct guidance on their studies. Therefore, learners need to be discipline and
mature in mind in order to avoid procrastination and subsequent dropout.
v. Lack of personal Contact: Distance education is characterized with loneliness:
Learners are usually detached from their fellow learner, even if they are in virtual
classroom. Lack of social interaction is rarely a very big disadvantage because chat
rooms are not natural
vi. Limited Courses: At present, not all courses can be taught online. This therefore
limits the number and choice of courses a person can offer. Most of the courses that
require practice are hardly taught on the internet.
vii. Not Valued by Most Employers of Labour: There are a lot of skepticism
regarding online programes with regards to quality. Hence, most employers of labour
prefer on-campus programmes to distance programmes.
viii. Distance learning is not for all comers: Distance learners must be independent in
mind (mature), self-motivated to embark on distance programmes. Learners without
these qualities will definitely dropout.
ix. There is no Immediate Feedback: lack of immediate feedback usually frustrate and
disorganize learners, therefore leading to misconception of factual information and
faulty learning.
x. Political instability: Frequent changes in government polices, where there is no
continuity of policies is another factor that hinders distance learning programme in
Nigeria.
xi. Unreliable Technology: Inefficient and/or low level technology hampers distance
education practice in Nigeria. There is erratic electricity supply; poor postal services for
distribution of textual materials in case of blended mode of distance learning

507

xii. Poor Funding: Most of the private and government owned distance education
centers are poorly financed, hence, cannot update the equipment or maintain the
existing ones.
Proliferation of Distance Learning Organizations: Many distance learning
organizations have stated springing up here and there in the cities, and providing low
quality educational services to unsuspected learners, thereby awarding cheap certificates.
(Ike & Iwu (2001), and Aggarwal (2009).
Unqualified Personnel: One of the initial problems of distance education is lack of
qualified personnel. Faculty staff grounded in new distance learning technologies are not
usually available.

The Future of Distance Education in Nigeria
There is no doubt that the road to obtain higher education in Nigeria by her citizens has
been very rough for the past years. A situation where about a million of candidates who
are qualified to attain higher institution are denied the opportunity due to the fact that the
existing institutions could not absorb them. This situation is very sad and needs urgent
attention. However, with the establishment of National Open University of Nigeria
(NOUN), Nigeria has rekindled the hope of her citizens, believing that there will be no
more hindrance to the acquisition of higher certificates, which has eluded them for years.
The introduction of distance learning in Nigeria is a welcome development and a ready
answer to the perennial admission problem.
It will be recalled that the establishment of National Open University of Nigeria has
sprung up other online learning centers in some of the Nigerian universities. Some of
these universities are adopting hybrid or blended modes in other to ameliorate the
admission quagmire that have bedeviled Nigeria for so long a time. There is a high hope
that more universities will venture into open and distance learning centers as the years go
by.

Conclusion
There is need to reduce illiteracy in Nigeria. Many countries are now moving to
experiential learning in order to provide access for those groups previously excluded. This
is affirmed by Ifeanyi and Olakunlehin (2010) who stated, with grossly inadequate access
to educational opportunities at all levels of education in Nigeria, where adult illiteracy rate
stands at 51% and access denied to more than 85% of eligible candidates for higher
education; and given the enormous demand for education at all levels in Nigeria, with
which the conventional educational delivery system cannot cope because of economies of
scale where cost increased with expansion, it became imperative that Nigeria needs a
realistic solution to fulfilling its obligation to the people as contained in the National
Policy on Education.
In order to address the issue of mass literacy in Nigeria, this paper emphasizes the
need for distance learning programmes. It discusses the concepts, need, characteristics,
merits, and challenges facing distance education in developing countries were concisely
addressed. Consequently, distance learning characteristics and the future were succinctly

508

discussed. The author advocates for the establishment of more distance learning centers
in and outside the higher institutions to address the perennial admission problems in
Nigeria in order to massively reduce illiteracy.

References
Aggarwal, J. C. (2009). Essentials of educational technology: Innovations in teaching-
learning. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House PVT Ltd.
Bijeesh, N. A. (n.d.). The HTcampus advantage. Retrieved form http://www.
htcampus.com/article /advantages-disadvantages-distance-learning.612/
Blended learning (2013, November 17). Retrieved from
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blended learning
Characteristics of distance learning students (2014, January 29). Retrieved from
http://m.wpi.edu/ academics/ATC/Collaboratory/Teaching/students.html
Cognitive styles and distance education (2013, August 29) Retrieved from
http://westga.edu/~ distance/iiu23.html
Daniel, J. (2010) in Ifeanyi, P. A. and Olakunlehin, F. K. (2010). Global perspectives in
open and distance learning: Essays in honour of Professor Olugbemiro Jegede
(eds). Lagos: National Open University of Nigeria.
David-West striking points. The Sun: Voice of the Nation. 15 September, 2013. Online:
Retrieved 15 January, 2014 from www.sunnewsonline.com
Distance learning with the University of Leicester. Retrieved from (http://www.
qualitydistancelearning. com/features_of_distance_learning.html)
Gasper and Thompson (1990). Current trends in distance education. Journal of Interactive
Instruction Development 8(2), 21-27. Retrieved from http://westga.edu/~
distance/iiu23.html

http://www.htcampus.com/article/advantages-disadvantages-distance-learning.612/

Ifeanyi & Olakunlehin, (2010). Global perspectives in open and distance learning: Essays
in honour of Professor Olugbemiro Jegede (eds.). Lagos: National Open University
of Nigeria.
Ike, G. A. & Iwu, O. A. (2001). Educational Technology: Innovative technique. Owerri:
Onii Publishing House.
Keegan, D. (1996). The foundations of distance education. London: Croom Helm.
Merriam, S. B. & Cunningham, P. M. (1989). Handbook of adult and continuing
education. London: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1977). National Policy on Education. Lagos: Federal
Government Printer.
Newby, Stepich, Lebman & Russell (2006). Educational technology for teaching and
learning (3
rd
ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.
Rose, A. D. (1989) in Merriam, S. B. & Cunningham, P. M. (1989). Handbook of adult
and continuing education. London: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

509

Siddiqui, M. H. (2008). Technology in teacher education. New Delhi: A.P.H. Publishing
Corporation.
What is distance education? (2014, January 3). Retrieved from http://www.cdipoline.org/
index.cfm?fuseaction=whatis


510

THE SCHOOL IS A LEVELER: A CONCEPTUAL CRITIQUE OF A
COMMON MIS-CONCEPTION OF THE SCHOOL AS THE SOLE
MAXIMUM PURVEYOR OF EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL
OPPORTUNITIES IN SOCIETY

By
IKE P. AGHAOSA, Ph.D
Department of Educational Studies and Management
Faculty of Education.
University of Benin,
Benin City,
Nigeria.
Ikag2003@yahoo.com, 08038172777.

Abstract
The paper is a critique of a common misconception in some educational as well as socio
political circles that the school (the formal agency of education) is the sole provider of
equality of educational opportunities to all learners. Using the qualitative
methodologies of language, logical, analogical analyses, deductions and inferences; and
documentary evidences, the paper assesses critically, the fundamental concepts and
issues involved. It is the papers contention that many of the agitators of leveling - the
school as well as learning opportunity factors are sometimes not quite clear about what
exactly they are advocating for. Is it for equal opportunities: for learning e.g.
facilities, teachers books and other teaching aids; or from learning such as
certification, jobs, and prestige etc? The paper sheds light on why the issues of equality
or leveling of educational opportunities require careful analyses for better
understanding. Two major viewpoints -the equality of input and output of learning
opportunities - their highpoints as well as limitations in rational learning pedagogy
and public sponsored schooling are projected. The paper in concluding highlights the
limitation of the school in offering every learner the desired equality of learning
opportunities. This is because the school can only operate on what the society that
sponsors it provides.


511

Introduction
Quite often in many verbal as well as written discourses, one will be confronted with the
argument that the school the formal educational socializing agency of the society ought
to provide every person equal educational opportunities. These opportunities from
education are often not specified by many of the protagonists. Some other extreme views,
especially among leftist Marxist and socialists agitators aver that the formal schools in
capitalist societies serve only the interest of the wealthy and dominant class, and in the
process perpetuate an un-ending cycle of poverty among the working class and in effect
social and economic inequalities characterize the society. Some scholars and
commentators of education, for example Illich and the de-schoolers have argued and
advocated that societal schools should be abolished and replaced with informal learning
arrangements and systems that are more learner-friendly to all social economic class
components of the society.
Even among some scholars of education, educators, politicians, government
policy makers of education, equality of gender agitators, their speeches and write ups are
often suffused with the idea that the school and educational attainment through it as
being the best arbiter in the quest for equality of education and consequently, social
justice and equity. Assess for example, these purviewed statements which give a birds eye
view of the issue.
Some Sampled Statements about the School as Equalizer of Educational
Opportunities
(1) Not only is education the greatest force that can be used to bring about redress,
(emphasis the writer), it is also the greatest investment that the nation can make for
the quick development of its economic, political and human resources (FRN,
1981).
(2) Equality of opportunity is often interpreted as meaning that all children should
receive same treatment, should receive a common education through the same
procedure, according to the same syllabuses and subject to the same means of
assessment. To treat different children and groups of children differently may not
be to treat them equally and may open the door to conferring advantages on
some. (Thompson, 1981).
(3) To start education on equal footing. To receive equal treatment during education
irrespective of genetic, equipment or social origin. Equal opportunity to succeed
in and through education(Hussein,1972)
(4) Existing schools should be expanded and new classrooms should be built where
necessary(Baikie,1999)
(5) However, we do know that the inability of many may not be owing to inherent
factors but may be as a result of actions which social reform can eliminate. In
some cases the inability may be as a result of the grade of primary schools
attended by a child and which itself may be a factor of his parental background. In
a situation where private schools exist side by side with public schools and where
public schools are almost absolutely neglected in terms of facilities as compared
with private schools, it would be observed that those who are able are almost

512

invariably those who had the opportunity to benefit from the private school
management (Adewole, 1999).
(6) The social inequality factor in the concept of equal secondary educational
opportunity is very apparent in the unity school(s) which has been described as
the perpetuation and extension of the colonial privilege schools(Durojaiye,199)
(7) Unless the problem of educating the girls is squarely addressed and eliminated,
educating this gender will be a mirage. Until this issue is addressed with all vigor,
Nigerias illiteracy will linger and the society will be an uninformed one, left
behind to wallow in ignorance illiteracy and poverty. (Akanbi,1999).

What can be gleaned and surmised from these purveyed arguments and assertions is
that there seems to be rightly or wrongly, undue burdening of the school with
responsibilities and expectations far beyond its scope of operation. The issue often
becomes more compounded and confounding when it is observed that many of the
discussants from their arguments seem to be unobvious of the fundamental conceptual
and practical issues involved in the quest for equal educational opportunities through the
schools of society. It is therefore pertinent to examine this often bandied utopian notion
that the school is a leveler for all aggregates of society. Can schools empirically offer all
members of society equality of educational opportunities in terms of learning facilities;
and attendant opportunistic benefits from learning such as jobs, and social prestige etc?
The problem of this paper therefore is to critically examine theoretically the link (if
any) between the school and the quest for equality of educational opportunities. Can
schools actually level learning facilities, social and economic inequalities in society and to
what extent?
The purpose of this exercise therefore, is to examine and clarify an often re-curing
common conception in educational theory and practice that the school is a leveler of all
learning, social and economic inequalities in societies.
This paper will be significant in the extent to which it can help clarify the
fundamental issues, controversies and contradictions involved; and also guide rational
discussions and practices in any attempt to provide genuine equality of educational
opportunities to learners.
The approach taken to analyze the issues in this argument by this paper is strongly
biased towards the: philosophical methods of language, logical and analogical analyses,
deductions and inferences; and the documentary method of documents inspection of
historical and contemporary discourses on the issue. It must however be stated that a
deliberately conscious effort has been applied to delimit the paper from a very rigorous
philosophical analyses from the aforementioned methodologies. This is because this
paper is a product of the cumulative efforts of these intellectual efforts: departmental and
facultys seminars; debates among teaching colleagues, students and project dissertations
in philosophy of education. There is also the overall intention to make this expedition as
very simple as possible to be comprehensible to philosophers, educational theorists,
educators as well as lay persons alike.


513

The School is a Leveler
That the school is a leveler, is an assertion which seems to convey the impression that the
school (the formal agency of learning in society) is capable of achieving the idea and ideals
of equality; the core issue of leveling agitation among all learners in society. However, the
assertion requires a critical examination to bring to light, the underlying assumptions, the
feasibility or not; and the extent if at all the school can achieve equality in education
through leveling.
As a prelude to this task, it is necessary to analyze and clarity briefly, the key
concepts: leveling equality and education as they impinge on the assertion.
Among the many definitions of leveling in the Chambers Dictionary of English, the
most apt to this discourse are:
(i) level a condition of equality ;
(ii) in the same line or plane ;
(iii) uniform: well balanced; equal in position or dignity,
(iv) to aim to make equal etc,
(B) leveler- (i) one who levels in any sense, one who would remove all social or
political inequalities etc
.
(Chambers Dictionary, 1983)
Equality which is at the core of leveling intentions is an idea concerned with
comparison between entities. To say two things are equal implies that they are identical in
all characteristics. Conversely the lack of or absence of complete similarity between them
denotes inequality. The idea of equality is essentially an estimate. This is because
empirically, it could be difficult if not impossible to determine precisely equality or
inequality between entities (Benn, 1977).
As an ideal in human affairs cherished by some people, equality stems from the
belief of those who desire the removal of all legal, political and economic inequalities
among individuals in society.

This is with the intention of achieving social justice rules
on how to treat individuals as moral persons and allocate social resources to them. But
then is total equality among people in real life situations possible given the variety of
differences among them in terms of their psychological endowments and socio-economic
standings? Is the yearning for equality through leveling then not more of a utopian than
an empirically realizable ideal? To what extent and how can equality be pursued in human
affairs most especially education and schooling?
In some Western societies guided by the Liberal ethics, Bell, (1977) asserts that the
stress of social equality is on the equality of persons as equal moral agents, in spite of
their physiological and psychological differences. This notion of equality deemed
everyone to be equal before the law, as well as having equal political rights and freedom in
principle. This is the basis of adult suffrage in most political democracies globally.
However, in the pursuit of social economic goods, the Liberal ethic (of sharing) would
stress on outcome of shares, based on individuals talents. Such a rule of sharing leads
largely to a meritocratic-Meritocracy society in which individualism is greatly upheld with
their attendant controversies. It is the issue of appropriate rules of sharing and outcome
that is often at the crux of most social problems that has to do with equality or inequality.
Education and Equality of Educational Opportunity

514

The educational arena has its share of the equality or inequality controversies. The first
issue here bothers on what type of equality should be stressed. Should it stress on:
equality in or equality from learning? Equality in learning presupposes that emphasis
be placed on equalizing those factors that enhance learning among students; while equality
from learning should aim at those outcome or gains of schooling e.g. jobs and economic
benefits
4
.
This same issue is also inherent in the concept of education and what should count
as learning opportunities. Consider that only some learning opportunity factors e.g.
school, books and teachers would be social in nature, while others such as intelligence,
motivation and home background are innate and private to the various learners in school.
For as pointed out by Crittenden (1977)
,
learning, the ultimate outcome of education is
not like a neatly packed product like a cake that may be equally desired by all, nor
amenable to equal sharing.
The School and Equality of Educational Opportunity
The school philosophically speaking is the formal agency (among others) of society for
learning. It is in the school that worthwhile norms and skills are to be transmitted in a
critical and rational manner to learners. This is with the goal of making the educated man
who knows the That and How of things (Peters, 1973).
.
Somehow, because of the
crucial role of the school in society, it has been not only at the centre, but sometimes,
also, the butt of the criticisms and controversies generated by the equality of educational
opportunities debate. Is the school capable of leveling? Between whom should the school
level individuals, or groups of learners? Are the individual or groups of learners having
same gender, psychological attributes- endowments and social backgrounds for learning?
More so, is leveling through schooling a psychologically feasible and desirous goal of
learning? It is the attempt to answer these questions that has led to the emergence of two
major viewpoints of equality in education: Equality of input and Equality of output of
learning.
1. Equality of Input: This view holds that equality in education is achieved when all
learners are exposed to the same type and amount of learning opportunity factors
such as schools, text-books, curricula, teachers, classroom space, instructions and
instructional materials. This view critically assessed will show that it offers learners
only formal access to school thereby achieving the liberal view of treating all persons
as equal. However, the view from an educational point of view assumes that every
learner is equal in terms of psychological endowments, social backgrounds and
aspirations to learning. In effect this view of equality of educational opportunity is
inadequate. In Jenks (1972) as well as Jensens (1977) views, given learners varied
psychological endowments, it is inappropriate to expose them to the same type of
learning. In Colemans (1975) view, home background of learners account for much
of their performance and output in school learning. In effect if all learners are
exposed to the same kind of learning opportunities, these still would be inequality of
learning opportunities.
2. Equality of Output: This view stipulates that equality is achieved in education when
all learners in school are not only exposed to the same access and process of learning
opportunities but also attains the same level or outcome of learning. But the


515

questions here are: is equal outcome of learning feasible among all learners given their
earlier noted differences in psychological endowments and social backgrounds which
impact on learning and learning outcome? Whose potential level of learning outcome
should be stressed? That of the: slow or average or fast learner(s)? Which ever level
of outcome is stressed, it would definitely lead to measures which may be counter
productive to the principles of learning. In another dimension, given the differences
in home background, can the school control learners home backgrounds without
infringing on personal liberties and privacy of its citizens (Strke, 1982)? If
compensatory education efforts like head start, scholarships etc. are considered for
dis-advantaged learners, these definitely would raise questions about cost and who
bears the financial and moral responsibilities (Ennis 1982) for such programmes. This
is because it is obvious that the school can only operate on whatever financial and
material provisions the society is able to allocate to it.
From the foregoing, it is abundantly clear that the notion of the school as a leveler
is based on some assumptions which are not empirically tenable when the issues of:
social and psychological differences among individuals; rational pedagogy; social justice,
principles of learning and the supposed role of the school in society are properly
assessed.
The most rational approach for the school to adopt in the pursuit of equality in
learning is differential treatment of learners in terms of their learning potentials ability as
well as needs. Each learner should be allowed to proceed as far as his learning potential
would allow. Assistance should also be rendered those with learning needs- psychological,
social or financial within the societal provisions to the school.
Conclusion
This intellectual exercise appraised the exact role of the school in the quest for equality of
educational opportunities in society. This is especially against the backdrop of leveling
agitators-socialists, some educational theorists and practioners; and policy makers on the
issue who often tend to see the school as the sole and final arbiter in leveling educational
as well as social and economic inequalities. From some of the purveyed arguments and
analyses of the concepts and fundamental issues, it is very apparent that many of the
criticisms against the school in this respect are either ill-informed or misdirected. In effect,
the role of the school as a leveler of learning and social economic inequalities is quite
limited
Recommendations
In the light of the analyses and conclusion, this paper recommends that:
(i) issues of leveling of educational and social economic inequalities require very
careful and critical appraisal and assessment by educational theorist and
practitioners to avoid hasty and sometimes irrelevant conclusions;
(ii) schools by their nature of operation in many societies have limited roles to play in
the quest for learning as well as social economic opportunities to citizens; and
(iii) most of what some of the leveling agitators through the schools are demanding
for are issues best addressed and tackled in places legislative houses, private

516

homes, research organizations etc-far removed from the school which functions
essentially on the provisions made by the society for them.
References
Adewole, A.(1999) Equality of educational opportunity and its application to the Nigerian
system. A philosophical analysis of its problems and prospects. In J. A. Aghenta,
and T. Ishmail. Equalization of educational opportunity in Nigeria., Zaria:Tamaza
Publishing Co. Ltd. 17-28.
Adeloye,J.T.(19990.Fostering equalization of secondary education through psycho-social
restructuring. In J. A. Aghenta, and T. Ishmail. Equalization of educational opportunity in
Nigeria. Zaria:Tamaza Publishing Co.Ltd, 29-39.
Akanbi, A.A. (1999).Strategies for enhancing girls enrolment and retention in schools. In
J. A. Aghenta, and T. Ishmail. Equalization of educational opportunity in Nigeria.,
Zaria:Tamaza Publishing Co. Ltd.
Baikie, A. (1999) Keynote Address to the Nigerian Academy of Education Annual
Congress. In J. A. Aghenta, and T. Ishmail. Equalization of educational opportunity in
Nigeria., Zaria:Tamaza Publishing Co. Ltd. xiv-xxvii.
Bell, D. (1977) .On meritocracy and equality in power and ideology in education. In J. Karabel and
H.H. Halsey (Eds). Introduction. New York: University Press.
Benn, S.I. (1977) .Egalitarianism and the equal consideration of interest. in justice and
equality. In Hugo Bedau (Ed). New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc., 1977.
Chambers 20
th
Century Dictionary, new ed. (1983) S.V. Level
Coleman, et al. (1975). Equality of educational opportunity. Washington: US. Department
of Health, Education and Welfare. In K. Majoribank (Ed). Equal
Educational Opportunity: A
Definition; Editorial Introduction; Oxford Review of Education, 1,1.
Crittenden, B. (1977). Equality in education. Australian Journal of Education, 2, 2; 113-120.
Durojaiye,O.A. Egalitarianism and inequalities in nigerian education. In Ejiogu, A.M and
Ajeyalemi, Duro(eds) Emergent issues in Nigerian education. Lagos: Joja
Educational Research and Publishers Ltd. quoted in J.T. Adeloye, Fostering
Equalization of Secondary Education through Psycho-Social Restructuring. in
Equalization of Educational Opportunity in Nigeria. Eds. J.A. Aghenta and
T.Ishmail, 29-39.
Ennis, R.H. (1973) Equality of educational opportunity. in ethics and educational policy.
In K.A. Strike and K. .Egan. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul; 168-170.
Federal Ministry of Education (1981) National policy on education; Federal Government
Press, Lagos.
T.Hussen, Social background and educational career, OECD,1972.in A. Baikie, Key Note
Address;xxvi.
Jensen, A.R. (1975). The price of Inequality. Oxford Review of Education, 1, 1
Jencks et al., (1972) Inequality: A Reassessment of the Effects of Family and Schooling in
America. New York: Harper and Row Publishers Inc., 1972.

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Peters, R.S. (1973) (ed.) Education and the Educated man. in Education and the
Development of Reasons, Part 1: eds. R.F. Dearden, P.H. Hirst and R.S Peters,
London: Routledge and Kegan Paul; 3-16.
Thompson, (1981) A.R. Education and Development in Africa. London: Macmillan.
Quoted in A. Baikie, Keynote Address to The Nigerian Academy of Education
Annual congress-16
th
-20
th
Nov. 1999 on Equalization of Educational Opportunity
in Nigeria. In J. A. Aghenta, and T. Ishmail. Equalization of educational opportunity in
Nigeria., Zaria:Tamaza Publishing Co.Ltd.
Strike, K.A. (1982) Educational policy and the just society. Urbana: University of Illinois
Press.


518

IMPACT OF POLITICS ON UNIVERSITY EDUCATION POLICIES IN
NIGERIA, 1966 2006.

By

OLAYANJU, OLADAPO JOHNSON, Ph.D
Department of Educational Foundations,
Emmanuel Alayande College of Education, Oyo,
Oyo State, Nigeria
Johnsonyanju@gmail.com
+2348034876223
Abstract
This paper looks into various educational policies formulated on University Education
vis- a- vis the impact of politics on the University Education in Nigeria between 1966
and 2006. The paper reviews the historical antecedents of university education right
from the inception of the military regime in Nigeria up to the beginning of the advent
of the civilian administration put in place during the first phase of President Olusegun
Obasanjos administration. The paper also discusses goals/purpose of tertiary/
university education in Nigeria. The roles of the National Universities Commission
(NUC) in the quality control and recently in granting licences of operation to private
Universities were highlighted. Equally examined was the relationship between politics
and education and their impact on University education in Nigeria. Historical
research method was used to collect data for the study relying mainly on both primary
and secondary sources of information. Findings from the study revealed that since the
impact of politics on education is reciprocal, there is politics in education and there
must be education in politics. The paper recommends that as a matter of urgency, the
federal government should invigorate or redeem University education from its battered
image by rising up to the challenges of evolving a functional University education, so
as to justify the huge amount of money invested on education in the country.

Key words: Politics, University, Education, Policy


519

Introduction
The first university was established in 1948; by the end of 2002, the number of
universities in Nigeria had risen to 51 and today according to Abdulrahman (2013:70),
there are 128 universities, a total of 40 being the federal, 38 state-owned and 50 owned by
private individuals and organisations; providing university education to Nigerians. In spite
of the tremendous increase in the number of University there appears to be limited access
for the teeming population hungry for university education.

The impact of politics on education is reciprocal, there is politics in education and
there must be education in politics. For people therefore employ different strategies such
as lobbying, agitation and negotiation to assist them in getting their own share of the
national cake. It is politics that dictates the way through which the pendulum of education
will swing.

It is crucial to note that university education system although has a well defined
philosophical structure and laudable objectives; which its implementations have always
been faulty as a result of the inability of the government to match words with action. The
genesis of decline in our institutions of higher education, Ajayi (2006) avers that the most
nagging factor has been under funding which can be traced to 1980 soon after the
government agreed on discussions with the national Union of Nigeria students (NUNS)
to experiment the merely announced abolition of tuition fees at the end of 1977.

Ajayi (2006) stresses further that when the University authorities then asked
governments to find ways of making up for university income to replace the fees
abolished, it became clear that the government had not done their sums adequately. That
was what brought the crises over cost of feeding and accommodation that produced the
Ali Must Go nationwide strike in 1978. The crisis over funding of universities has not
been resolved since then.

Ajayi (2006) went down the memory lane by stating clearly the intention of the
federal government of Nigeria. According to him:

The reason was that Government, especially the military
Government that had no great affection for the universities on
account of perennial students unrest and factional trade union
rivalries of ASUU, NASU and SSA, were readily persuaded by
the World Bank to shift their funding priorities from Higher
Education to Universal Basic education which the world body was
willing to assist before then, from 1959 Ashby Report, the funding
of University was guided by the philosophy that Higher Education
was necessity as Instrument in national Development. (Ajayi,
2006 p. 15).

Ajayi lamented further that under the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP), the
Government was persuaded or forced by emphasis from higher education to Universal
Basic Education as the foundation of the whole system of education. Indeed, arguments
from the universities that weakening higher education that produced teachers would
weaken the whole system of education and promote poverty in the whole nation went
unheeded.


520

Statement of the Problem
There was a myriad of problems facing university education sub-sector in Nigeria, ranging
from poor funding, cultism, examination malpractices, educational imbalance and the
manipulation of politics by the aristocrats, incessant industrial actions and abrupt closure of
institutions etc. These have serious implications in the delivery of University education
because he who pays the piper dictates the tune. It is against this background that the thrust
of this paper is hinged on an indepth study of the impact of politics on university education
in Nigeria from 1966 to 2006, where the researcher manifests the various efforts that have
been made by government, private institutions and individuals in increasing access to
university education and show that these efforts have not been able to satisfy the demand
for high quality university education.

Specifically, the study sought to provide answers to the following questions.
i. What were the objectives/goals of University education Tertiary education as
specified by the National Policy on Education in Nigeria?
ii. What were the major landmarks in the formulation of University education policies
from 1966 -1975?
iii. To what extent has politics affected or influenced University education in Nigeria?
iv. What practical solutions can be applied to redeem the image of University
Education?

Methodology
Historical method that is based on the primary and secondary sources of historical
information was adopted to collect data for the study. Secondary sources used were
federal and state governments reports, panels of enquiries, commissions on Nigerian
Universities, University documents, paper cuttings on the management of Nigerian
Universities and the National Universities Commissions memoranda.
Results and Findings
Based on the generated research questions, the findings are treated as follows:

Objective of University Education in Nigeria
Going by the National Policy on Education (FGN, 2004) the goals of higher education
include:
1. Contribute to national development through high-level relevant man power
training
2. Develop and inculcate proper values for the survival of the individual and society.
3. Develop the intellectual capability of individual to understand and appreciate their
local and external environments.
4. Acquire both physical and intellectual skills, which will enable individuals to be
self-reliant and useful members of society.
5. Promote and encourage scholarship and community service.
6. Forge and cement national unity.
7. Promote national and international understanding and interaction.

By the common concept of establishing a university it has the primary responsibility
of teaching and research. Third is community service is by way of consultancy, workshop,
seminars, informing the public about its findings and so on (Okebukola, 2005 p.19).

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University Education in Nigeria
Aremu (2013) remarked that the country has recorded some giant strides in the quest to
liberalise higher education and increase access to higher education. From three universities
and four polytechnics in 1960, Nigeria grew to 107 universities and 183 polytechnics and
monotechnics in 2010. By the end of 2010, the number of universities in Nigeria had
increased to 110, with six newly approved universities in each zone of the country in
November 2010.

It is noteworthy that the number of universities in Nigeria has increased from 2 at
independence in 1960 to 103 by 2010 as reflected in table 1 below.

Table 1: Number of Universities in Nigeria by Ownership
Ownership Number
Federal Government 40
State Government 38
Private 50
Total 128
Source: Abdulrahman (2013:70) Historical Development of Universities in Nigeria.

When these are achieved, social and economic development will follow the desire to
development an appropriate workforce for its activities. This prompted the colonial
government in Nigeria to establish the first University in Nigeria in 1948, the number of
Universities has continued to rise such that by 1970 there were six (6) universities. By
1998, the number was 37 and by the end of 2002. It had increased to 51 University as at
2009 the number increased to 94. As shown in the table below, the country has a total of
128 universities (The Nation, 2009; Ajayi & Ekundayo, 2010, JAMB, 2010/2011; Seweje &
Ayodele, 2010 and Abdulrahman, 2013).

In the same vein, enrolment has been rising steadily. According to Okebukola
(2002) enrolment in Nigeria Universities has been growing steadily over the past 54 years
from an initial enrolment of 210 in 1948 at the University College, Ibadan to 23,000
students in 1962 enrolled at six Universities. By 1996, the total number of universities
stood at 37 with students population of 234,581. As at 2001 2002 academic years, total
enrolment was 500,370.

Historical Analysis of Educational Policies on Universities Education in Nigeria:
1966 -2006

Education Policy is the framework within which education is administered in a given
place and within specific period the time dimension to the definition of educational policy
indicates that the educational policy of a country is not static, it keeps evolving from one
state or form to another (Fabunmi, 2005).

The Education Edicts of 1966 1979 (The Era of the Warring Military, 1966 1979
Adamu and Omoregie (1989) described the period 1966 1979 the era of the warring
military. The first Republic was brought to an end by a coup dtat on 15
th
January 1966,
however this military regime was short lived as another coup occurred on 29
th
July 1966,
but this was equally ousted in a bloodless coup on 9
th
July 1975. This third coup due to

522

the assassination of the then head of state General Muritala Muhammed in an abortive
coup 13
th
February 1976 led to a change of leadership, with General Olusegun Obasanjo
enthroned. Thus between 1966 and 1979, Nigeria had three military regimes, between
them, these various military administrations made significant contributions to Education
through the enactment of various Education Laws, through Decrees and Edits.

Decree No 14 of 1967
A decree was promulgated in 1967, dividing the country Nigeria which was formerly made
of four regions into 12 states. This proliferation was done at the eve of the Nigerian Civil
war through decree No 14 of 1967.

Constitutional Amendments on University Education
On 19
th
of August 1972, the Federal Military Government made a policy statement which
is very significant and led to the amendment of 1963 Constitution by transferring Higher
Education to the Exclusive List. Ajibade (2005) clarifies that the federal government
policy statement on the development of education during this period was contained in the
publication of Daily Times of 21
st
August, 1972, which Taiwo quoted as follows:

The supreme military council has decided that the federal
government should henceforth assume full responsibility for
higher education throughout the country with the proviso that
the status quo in respect of the existing universities should be
maintained. It also decided that education, other than higher
education should become the concurrent responsibility of both
the Federal and State government and be transferred to the
Concurrent Legislative List (Daily Times, August 21, 1972).

The people and teachers welcomed these developments generally, but the high spirit
was short-lived due to the development that followed. By July 1975, there was another
coup, the third since independence. Just six months after this coup, there was yet another,
though aborted, which led to the death of the then Head of State General Murtala
Mohammed in February 1976. Lt. General Obasanjo then became the head of state. His
regime was noted for the purge in the public service, including the teaching service.

The teaching profession suffered a major setback as teachers were either retired,
terminated or dismissed for flimsy excuses and blanket allegation of inefficiency, low and
declining productivity, ill health, old age, misconduct, doubtful integrity, or divided
interest. Under this constitutional amendment, University Education became the sole
responsibility and concern of the Federal Government, while the State Governments were
left to establish non-universally institution such as Polytechnic and Colleges of Education.
This statement of policy radically changed the face of education in Nigeria from then on,
education especially Higher Education became a subject of great budget speech; the then
Head of States General Yakubu Gowon set the constitutional stage for the eventual take
over of the regional now states owned Universities as evident in the following
statement: during the past year, the supreme military council decided to transfer primary
and secondary education to the concurrent legislative list and university education to the
exclusive legislative list of the constitution.


523

In order to ensure that the nation is unified the Federal Military Government through the
Minister of Education - Jubril Aminu, promulgated the National Youth Service Corps
(NYSC) Scheme Decree No. 24 in 1973. The promulgation of this Decree ensured that all
graduates from the Nigerians higher Institutions (including Colleges of Education
graduates) to compulsorily take part in the NYSC exercise where they are posted to
various states in the country other than their own state.

Through the promulgation of this decree by the Federal Military Government
(FMG) in 1974, the National Universities Commission (NUC) was given legal backing.
Through the commission came into being through the recommendation of the Ashby
Commission in 1960, the Education Law which gave the NUC legality and outlined its
functions came into being though Decree No. 1 1974, the commission thus grew from its
initial Advisory role in 1960 as a unit in the cabinet of the Minister of Education to an
Executive role of a statutory body with responsibility for administering Federal
Government functions with regard to University education through the Decree. The
commission among other things was saddled with the responsibility of coordinating the
development, financing as well as maintaining standard and accreditation of Universities.

As a continuation of the Federalization Policy of the Federal Military Government, in
April 1975, government announced the creation of seven (7) New Universities to be
located in states where there were none at the time. This gave birth to the Second
Generation Universities in 1975 at: Calabar, Jos, Maiduguri, Sokoto, Ilorin and Port
Harcourt and Kano.

Thus by 1
st
October 1977 the three of seven (7) new Universities, that is, Ilorin,
Port Harcourt and Kano that were originally established as university colleges were
granted full university status and became autonomous of Universities of Ibadan, Lagos
and Ahmadu Bello respectively. By the promulgation of this decree, the military
Government established and owned all the Universities in Nigeria which then completed
the federation exercise.

On 29
th
July 1975, a bloodless coup ousted the Gowon Regime and brought into power a
third Military Administration under Brigadier General Muritala Ramat Muhammed, who
was assassinated on 13
th
February 1976 in an abortive coup and was succeeded by Lt.
General Olusegun Obasanjo who continued the administration. One of the early
measures of the new administration was the creation of seven additional states in
February 1976. This was in addition to the twelve already in existence, thus Nigeria as at
1976 was made up of 19 states. Also the Third national Development Plan (1975 to 1980)
was developed.

Decree No 9 and No 10 No of 1977
Federal Government set up the National Board for Technical Education through this
decree in 1977 as a statutory body to advice the Federal Government and to coordinate all
aspects of Technical and Vocational education falling outside the Universities. This
includes the general development of polytechnics, College of Technology and all technical
institutions throughout the Federation. The NBTE was also changed with the running of

524

technological institution and directly responsibility to the newly created Ministry of
Science and technology.

Decree No 2 of 1978
The Federal Military Government set up up a Joint Admission and matriculation board
(JAMB) as a statutory body on may 12, 1976, to solve the problem of multiple admission
of candidates into universities. JAMB later received legal status in decree No 2 of
February 12, 1978.
The Era of the Extravagant Civilians 1979 1983
The period 1979 83 brought in the civilians once again to the saddle of political rule in
Nigeria.

This decree was promulgated shortly before the exit of the military Government of
General Olusegun Obasanjo. This decree was often cited as the Establishment of Federal
Polytechnics Decree. Under sections 6 and 20 of the Federal Polytechnics Decree, the
Minister of Education and the Polytechnics Council respectively may touch on financial
matters in the government of the polytechnics.

Higher Education Laws during the Second Republic 1979 - 1983
The 1979 general election in the country ushered in a civilian government after 13 years of
military rule. General Olusegun Obasanjo on 1
st
October 1979 handed over power to a
democratically elected civilian president, Alhaji Shehu Aliyu Shagari and with a new
constitution in 1979. Thus, it can be rightly said that though the military administration
drafted the 1979 constitution, but was used and implemented by the civilian government;
from October 1979.
The 1979 Constitution
Under this new constitution, the Federal Government recognized the need to make
education a state policy matter, therefore Higher Education was placed on the concurrent
legislative list. This therefore empowered the Federal and State to establish and run
Universities, Polytechnics as well as College of Education.

The Federal Government paved the way by establishing seven (7) new Federal
Universities of Technology which were to offer courses mainly in technological
disciplines. These new universities were sighted in Bauchi, Makurdi, Yola, Akure, Owerri,
Abeokuta and Minna. This was done to meet the political demands and expectations of
the seven created by Decree No. 12 in 1976 and which by 1980 had no Federal
Institutions in their geographical areas.

In 1980, the state Government followed the footsteps of the Federal Government
and established eight (8) state universities are as follows:

1. Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port-Harcourt 1979
2. Anambra State University of technology, Enugu 1980
3. Imo State University, Okigwe - 1981
4. Ondo, State University, Ado-Ekiti - 1981
5. Bendel State University, Ekpoma - 1982
6. Ogun State University, Ago Iwoye - 1982

525

7. Cross Rivers State University, Uyo - 1983
8. Lagos State University, Ojo - 1983

Around the same time, 1983 precisely, an Open University and a Federal University
in Abuja were proposed by the Federal Government. The Open University is a system
whereby students take correspondence courses leading to awards of degrees, diplomas
and certificates. This was however, was immediately abandoned because of inadequate
fund and the proposed Federal University slated for Abuja did not manifest itself until
1988. The period under review that is 1983 also witnessed attempts at introducing Private
Universities based on the unspecific terms of the 1979 constitution. Therefore, between
1979 and 1983, Nigeria witnessed the establishment of fifteen (15) new Universities,
among which were seven Federal Universities of Technology and eight state-owned
Universities. In all, there were 28 Universities owned by Federal and State Government as
at the end of 1983.

In summary, the second Republic (1979 1983) could best be described as a period
of educational revolution in Nigeria. This is because the period witnessed an astronomical
increase in the number of tertiary institutions. Many Polytechnics, Colleges of Education
and Universities were established, some for political, others for economic reason without
due regard to the state of the Nigerian economy. The 1979 constitution also aided this
trend by reversing the right to establish a University from the exclusive to concurrent
legislative list, making it possible for states and even private individuals to establish or
own Universities.

The Era of Structural Adjustment Programmes (1985 -1998) - Education Edicts of
1983 1999)
Fabunmi (2005) opines that consequent upon the return of military administration in
1983, several decree were promulgated by the Federal military government. National
Policy on Education had earlier articulated that the National Certificate of Education
(NCE) should ultimately become the minimum basic qualification for entry into the
teaching profession in Nigeria.

In 1985, the Federal government through this decree exempted all non-university
graduates from participating in the National Youth Service Corp (NYSC) scheme. This
decree therefore changed the former system whereby graduates from any tertiary
institution that is University, Polytechnic and College of Education could participate in
the NYSC scheme. This thus means that polytechnic and university graduates are of the
same grade level (8) therefore they are eligible candidates for the scheme.

Decree No 4 of 1986
Through the promulgation of this decree in 1986, the Federal Colleges of Education came
into being. Some of these Federal Colleges of Education include the following: Federal
College of Education, Akoka, Lagos State; Federal College of Education, Asaba, Delta
State; Federal College of Education, Bichi, Kano State, Federal College of Education,
Gombe, Yobe State; Federal College of Education, Potiskum, Yobe State; Federal College
of Education Gusau, Zamfara State; Federal College of Education, Umunze, Anambra

526

State; Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku, Rivers States, Federal College of
Education, Katsina, Katsina State and a host of others. This decree determines the scope
of operations governing the Federal Colleges of Education.

This decree is titled student Loan Board decree. This was an amendment or modification
to the decree of 1979 which established the student Loan Board. Through this in 1988,
the decree repealed the provisions decrees of the Board and acquired all the assets and
liabilities of the previous Board. The Board is now empowered to maintain and administer
a fund know as the Nigerian University revolving Loan Scheme. Through the student
Loan Board, a student in Nigerian institutions receives a minimum Loan of #1,000 per
year and a total loan of # 5,000 for a student in an institution abroad. The maximum loan
which any student can collect is # 5,000 per year for a student in Nigerian institution and
# 20,000 total loan for an institution abroad. The loan attracts an interest rate of 7 percent
and methods of payment and employers responsibilities in assisting the Board to recover
the loan are specified in section 10 of the decree. Through this decree, University students
can obtain loans to assist or reduce their financial constraint.
In 1988, the Federal Ministry Government promulgated the Civil Service (re-organization)
Decree. This decree aimed at creating job opportunities for Nigerian graduates in the civil
service. It therefore leads to the termination of the appointment of all non-Nigerian
(unequalled) teachers. It is important to note that at this time, the minimum qualification
was the NCE certificate. Thus, most of the teachers who were affected by this decree
were Grade II Teachers and Ghanaians who were in the civil service. This decree was
subsequently followed by State Governments Edicts.
Amendment Decree in 1988
In the year 1988, the Federal Government promulgated a number of Decrees which either
modified or amended existing Education Laws or abrogated them altogether. Some of the
decrees are stated below:
1. The University of Ife (Transitional Provision) Amendment Decree No 6 1988
2. The University Teaching Hospital (Reconstitution of Board etc.) Amendment
Decree No 7 of 1988.
3. Academic Staff Union of Universities (proscription and prohibition from
participation in Trade Union Activities) Decree No. 31 of 1988.
4. National Universities Commission (Amendment) Decree No. 49 of 1988
5. Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council Decree of 1988.

Decree No 3 of 1989
The Federal Government established the National Commission for Colleges of Education
by Decree No. 3 in 1989. Though this decree, the National Commission for Colleges of
Education (NCE) through the Minister of Education now advises the Federal
Government, Lay down minimum standards and approves guidelines on the accreditation
of all Colleges of Education in Nigeria. Grants to Colleges of Education also comes in
through the NCCE


527

The Joint Admission and Matriculation Board Decree were amended through this decree
in 1989. This amendment led to the Polytechnic and College of Education Examination
(PCE) which thus became the responsibility of JAM. From then on admission into
Polytechnics and College of Education was taken through JAM Examination.

The National Commission for Nomadic Education (NCNE) was established through this
decree as a parastatal to the Federal Ministry of Education on 12
th
December 1989 to
cater for the Educational needs of the children of the nomads.

Challenges Facing Nigerian Universities
The objectives of tertiary/university education has not been accomplished because
various problems facing University education such as financial problem, Inadequate
facilities, problem of administration.

On tertiary education, Fafunwa (2000) lamented that most universities made no
positive impact on their immediate environment while Obanya (2010) also concluded that
it is sad to note that Nigeria had spent billions of dollars on education, but little on
investment. According to him, money spent on education that will not enhance learning
will amount to a waste. So our politicians should learn how to invest in education that will
yield better results.

From the Punch Editorial on Federal Governments proposed universities, it was
argued that there were five main challenges facing Nigerian Universities today; funding,
quality, and access, relevance of programmes and University governance and
management.

Politics in University
Fabunmi (2005) reiterates that there is politics in education, as people struggle for and
exercise power also in the education industry. Political considerations often underlie the
distribution of educational resources and decision making. Every segment of the society
struggles to have a greater share of educational services in the society. This desire
according to Fabunmi often accounts for the protracted struggle and intense debate that
often precedes the location of educational institutions.

Education is a tool for political socialization; the elites who rule are products of the
educational system. The political system operates funds, staff and control the education
system. The government also provides educational policies which guide the operation of
the system. It therefore implies that there is a bigdirectional relationship between
education and politics as they service each other. This is corroborated by Owolabi (1987),
thus; the massive charge which developing countries have already experienced and those,
whether induced or not, which are in process, render all the more conspicuous the
reciprocal relationship between politics and education in those areas (Owolabi, 1987) the
political class invest in education with the intention that improved investment in
education will enhance national productivity, and thus economic development.


528

Impact of Politics on Education
Babalola (2005) avers that many of the most volatile issues in the politics of education
concern the question of how to protect minority interests from those local majorities. In
Nigeria, the interests of some powerful and opulent minority (such as association of
University Vice Chancellors, etc) concerning fee- paying education at the university level
might subsume the interest of the majorities (including students) who want free education
at that level. For instance, the location of a university in Ekpoma, Nigeria, was as a result
of the political influence of the then Bendel States Governor (Prof. Ambrose Alli) who
hailed from that village. In similar vein, the Governor of Ondo State (Chief Adefarati who
hailed from Akungba) used his political influence to sway the location of Adekunle Ajasin
University from Akure to Akungba, Akoko in Ondo State of Nigeria.

When one considers the blatant use of political patronage in Nigeria since
Independence, and the political corruption and influence on education, one may take side
with those who argue that education and politics should be separated. However, politics is
more than partisan politics. It is true that there is a relationship between those who hold
power and the ability to make or influence decisions but one does not have to be a
member of a particular political party before playing politics. In this case, power is not
visible but necessary to achieve organizational objectives in the interest of the community.

Politics in Educational Leadership
From history, it seems governments control of key officers of public universities is
inevitable for political reasons, if universities continue to be financially dependent upon
government. This is an area where politics cannot be divorced from education. However,
the political appointments should be limited to those of Chairman of Council, lay
members of the Council and Perhaps the Vice-Chancellor through the Council. Interests
of both parties (government and university should be paramount in making appointments
at this level and holders of key offices should protect the interest of the university and
that of society.

Politics in Education Control
In 1975, the federal government of Nigeria took possession of all the existing first
generation universities in the country and established more universities in each state of the
federation. At the University level, the federal government of Nigeria abolished tuition
fees and pegged accommodation fees to a token charge. Government also established
through decrees many education regulators like the National Universities Commission
(NUC) and Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB). Between 1980 and 1999,
the military governments (1983 1999) promulgated several decrees to guide and regulate
education. Decree 16 of 1985 promulgated the national minimum standards; decree 20 of
1986 changed the school calendar from January/ December to October/ September, and
decree 26 of 1988 proscribed and prohibited the Academic Staff Union of Universities
(ASUU) from participating in trade union activities. The National Policy on Education
(1981), revised in 1998) was prominent among the policy documents that regulate the
provision and fianc of education in the last decades.

The appointment of a new Vice-Chancellor is always a subject of political intrigues
and controversy. On politicisation of education is Nigeria, Lassa (2007) has this to say:

529

every state in Nigeria wants to establish a university, this is politicisation of education.
Most of these states, especially in the North, cannot meet their quota in the Federal
Universities around them but they went ahead to establish universities simply to score
political gains.

On the state of tertiary education system in Nigeria, Eso (2007) lamented that:

Rots set in the teachers themselves fell into state of anomic.
Textbooks became virtually a thing of the past. Publish or
perish the golden perception of the Universities system became
anachronistic. Lecture note for sale took the pride of place for
some university teachers. Some professors stopped professing as
they as soon as they attained the status of professor. The take-home
pays adjusted in response to the huge slid in the value of the naira.
Academics were equated with civil servants. The already
inadequate subventions to higher education were reduced to a
fraction of original value (Eso, 2007, p. 16)

According to the eminent jurist, the years from 1992 witnessed an avalanche of
strikes in the university system. There were protests against deplorable working and
indeed, shameful and sordid social/ academic conditions of students. Gangs or cultists
from one university invaded other university campuses. Female hostels were no larger
sacrosanct. Report showed in some universities of girls raping boys. And to the shame of
it all, some academics in lying for the position of Vice-Chancellors to supplement their
inadequacy, were, true or false, reportedly making use of the members of student cults to
achieve their ambitious.

Eso (2007) lamented further that no Nigeria University featured among the topmost
in the world or even in Africa. None of them made the first 6,198 universities in the world
while 29 British universities which were the focus when we started featured among the
first 200 universities. The graduation of our universities have been noted not only as
unemployed but described as unemployable. They are usually retrained at huge cost by
employers in order to remedy their deficiencies. That is paradise lost: lost before our very
ears. We watched the fall of tertiary education which we had laboured so hard to build.

Universities Education during Gowon Regime
Ogunsolu (2006) reiterates that I recall there was a time General Yakubu Gowon asked all
academic staff to check out of the Universities quarters. According to Ogunsolu, that was
the beginning of the instability in the University system. When the staff members knew
that they were more or less naked, in terms of the essential things of life, the eyes of the
operators of the university system became open and they were thinking of getting other
means of survival beyond mere teaching in the universities and so, do dedication to duty
started falling.

Politics of Vice-Chancellor Selection
On selection of vice-chancellor, Egbokhare (2005) submits that the selection of vice-
chancellor in Nigerian Universities is never without its intrigues, scheming and politicking.
One is supervised that in spite of the troubles associated with the officers, each time the

530

office falls vacant, dozens of applicants rush to apply like Kafiri would rush to church on
a Christmas day. I have often asked myself why are people wanted to be vice chancellor?

Conclusion
It was concluded that many of the most volatile issues in the politics of education concern
the question of how to protect minority interests from those local majorities. In Nigeria,
the interests of some powerful and opulent minority (such as association of University
Vice - Chancellors, etc) concerning fee- paying education at the university level might
subsume the interest of the majorities (including students) who want free education at that
level. For instance, the location of a university in Ekpoma, Nigeria, was as a result of the
political influence of the then Bendel States Governor (Prof. Ambrose Alli) who hailed
from that village. In similar vein, the Governor of Ondo State (Chief Adefarati who hailed
from Akungba) used his political influence to sway the location of Adekunle Ajasin
University from Akure to Akungba, Akoko in Ondo State of Nigeria.

Recommendations
Based on the findings of this paper, the writer recommends the following:
1. The federal government of Nigeria should endeavour to be consistent in
formulating policies. The policies formulated should be implemented to the letters,
so as to put university education in the right pedestals.
2. Efforts should be made by the federal and state governments to adequately fund
their institutions. The gross under-funding of the university education and other
level of education have rendered the university system incapacitated. The UNESCO
benchmark of 26% of budgetary allocation to education should be strictly adhered
to.
3. There is need to improve the infrastructure base of the universities, the presents
situation in Nigerian Universities calls for an urgent need for the government to
make available enough funds for the rehabilitation of existing facilities.
4. There is need for a serious expansion of physical facilities and equipment to meet
the increasing student population. Government should therefore intensify efforts in
providing more physical facilities in the Universities.
5. Autonomy should be granted to the Nigerian Universities as a matter of necessity if
quality output is expected.
6. Corporate bodies, philanthropists and the alumni associations of the Nigerian
universities should assist in the provision of ultra-modern infrastructural facilities to
aid effective delivery of teaching and learning activities so as to achieve the
academic goals of university education for national development.
7. Periodic review of university curriculum by the National Universities Commission
(NUC) whereby minimum academic standard be maintained through quality control
mechanism should be put in place so that our students will be relevant in the
current labour market.
8. Autonomy should be given to Nigerian Universities especially in the appointment
of vice chancellors and other key principal officers of the Universities. University
system should therefore be depoliticised. To this end, free hand should be given to
the universities in running their affairs.

531

9. Vice Chancellors should make themselves accessible to their students. Frequent
forums for negotiation, dialoguing and exchange of ideas between students and
university administrators should be established.
10. There is urgent need for re-appraisal of the role of university education and the
world of work. A complete overhauling and restructuring of universities is necessary
so as to improve the performance of the system.

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p.16


534

NIGERIAS STRIDES IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY (ICT) EDUCATION: CHALLENGES IN THE 21
ST

CENTURY

By

BRIGHT OKANEZI, Ph.D
Department of Educational Foundations,
University of Port Harcourt,
Rivers State, Nigeria
blessbrite2006@yahoo.com

&

JOSEPHINE EBERE ELEKWA, Ph.D
Department of Educational Foundations and Management
Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria.

Abstract
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) as one of the latest inventions of
man has great potentials which most nations of the globe are exploiting. Nigeria as a
developing nation has a self set target of becoming one of the top twenty economies of
the world come the year Two Thousand and Twenty which is popularly known as
vision 20-20-20. The achievement of this goal may be impossible unless Nigeria
revamps her education system and inculcate ICT into the education curriculum. On
realizing this need, Nigeria had taken a bold step by investing huge resources on
satellite launch, and is reaping the advantages of the by-products of the satellite
launch. Based on the understanding of the role of ICT in education in the 21
st
century,
Nigeria has incorporated ICT into the education curriculum. On the overall, ICT in
Nigeria has recorded a number of achievements gin spite of some challenges that are
yet to be addressed. It was recommended that ICT centres should be built in every
school irrespective of the level; teachers should be trained and retrained on computer
literacy, there should be a legislation to control and regulate ICT operations among
other things.
Key words: Nigerias stride, ICT, education, 21
ST
Century.


535

Introduction
The social institution known as education is established to address societal needs, and
since the environment or society is dynamic, education responds to those changes to
provide for the desires of the society (Kosemani 1995). Thus the Nigeria nation has been
emphasizing education for self-reliance which is one of the five main national goals of
Nigeria that have been endorsed as the necessary foundation for the National policy on
Education. This of course led to the modification in education system which is a shift
from 6-5-4 system to 6-3-3-4 system. These goals of building a united, strong and self-
reliant nation; and achieving a great and dynamic economy are being pursued vigorously
alongside the rest three national goals.
While the above is on course, towards the end of the 20
th
century and the beginning
of the 21
st
century, Nigeria has started to consider the trend of the International (global)
community with its attendant Information and Communication Technology (ICT). Be
that as it may, the objective of education is the most daunting challenge facing the
development of the ICT sector in Nigeria. It is alleged that Nigeria has not focused
enough on education as a people who see ICT as a golden opportunity-computer
appreciation for the general public and for the first time users, reviewing the content of
the ICT curriculum in schools, massive campaign to teach computer literacy to teachers
(at all levels) and civil servants, retraining existing professionals to capture recent trends
and innovate for the fatherland and setting up incubation centres (Ekeh 2013).
However, it is a well known fact that ICT is important in the globalized world. It is
also understandable that Nigeria has indicated interest in ICT in order to be at par with
other nations of the globe. Nevertheless, it is much more expedient to regurgitate that
ICT can be propagated more effectively in Nigeria if it is inculcated into the education
curriculum, and if the government shall indeed provide basic infrastructure for the
realization of this goal. ICT in turn plays a significant role in education. There is therefore,
a clear symbiotic relationship between ICT and education, and both are indispensable
agents of development. It is on the above backdrop that this paper discusses the concept
of ICT, launch of satellite as an ICT booster, benefits of the satellite launch, incorporation
of ICT into education curriculum, the role of ICT in Nigerian education in the 21
st

century, and the challenges to the growth of ICT in Nigeria.
The concept of ICT
ICT is an acronym for Information and Communication Technology. Information
technology is defined by Ayodele (2002) as electronic based technology generally used to
collect store, process and package information as well as provide access to knowledge.
Ugah (2005) views communication as the exchange of information, ideas, data etc.
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are the application of
computers and other technologies to the acquisition, organization, storage, retrieval and
dissemination of information in the form of data, text, images etc. This information is
stored in the form of database. Database is a collection of files of information, which are
organized in such a way that the said information can be accessed from different
computers in different locations (Tuayerinha and Oghorodi, 2007).
The concept ICT is the processing and maintenance of information, and the use of
all forms of computer, communication network and mobile technologies to mediate

536

information. Communication technologies include all media employed in transmitting
audio, video, data or multimedia such as cable, satellite, fibre optics, wireless (radio, infra-
red, Bluetooth, Wifi). ICT consists of all technical means used to handle information and
aid communication, including computer and network hardware, communication
middleware as well as the necessary software.
In other words, ICT consists of Information Technology as well as telephony,
broadcast media, all types of audio, video processing, transmission and network based
control and monitoring functions. The expression was first used in 1997 in a report by
Dennis Stevenson to the United Kingdom (UK) government and promoted by the new
National Curriculum document for the UK in 2000. ICT is often used in the context of
ICT roadmap to indicate the path that an organization will take with their ICT needs.
Oladepo (2011) cites Batchford as defining ICT as anything which allows us to get
information to communicate with each other or to have effect on the environment using
electronic or digital equipment. ICT is often used as an extended synonym for
Information Technology (IT) but is usually a more general term that stresses the role of a
unified communication and the integration of telecommunications (telephone lines and
wireless signals), intelligent building management systems and audio-visual systems in
modern information technology (Babatunde and Shabani 2011).
Launch of satellite in Nigeria as an ICT booster
Several nations in the world are deploying huge financial resources in technologies,
particularly satellite, to deepen ICT penetration among citizens and bridge the digital
divide. According to Encyclopedia Britainnica, communication satellite allocate radio,
television and telephone transmissions to be conveyed everywhere in the world. If we did
not have satellites, transmissions would be problematic and often impossible at long
distances. The signals, which travel in straight lines, could not curve to mould around the
earth which is spherical to reach a target far away. Satellites are in orbit for this purpose.
The signals are sent immediately into space and then retransmitted to another satellite
where they are then sent unswervingly to their destinations. Satellites can deliver a wide
range of information society services-interactive TV, mobile broadband internet access,
navigation services, weather prediction, military intelligence, space scientific studies and
more-to areas other systems cannot reach, thus helping to bridge the digital divide (Atili
2011).
In 2003, Nigeria joined the league of communication technology nations when it
launched its NIGERSAT-1. In 2007, it launched the second satellite, the NigComSat-1.
This satellite, unfortunately, was dc-orbited in 2008 because of anomaly in its solar arrays.
In 2009, the Federal Ministry of Science and Technology, the Nigerian Communications
Satellite Limited (NigComSat Ltd) and the China Great Wall Industry Corporation
(CGWIC) signed a contract in Beijing, China for the in-orbit delivery of the NigComSat-
IR satellite, to replace the NigComSat-1. According to NigComSat Ltd, the replaced
satellite has a modification on the payload which will provide the most optimal and cost
effective voice, data, video, internet and application services and solutions. The target
applications of NigComSate- IR include but are not limited to telecommunications
broadcasting, internet, real-time monitoring services, and navigational global positioning
systems (Atili 2011).
NigComSat-IR was launched into space on 19th December, 2011 at exactly
17:40hrs. It was launched on a Long March 313, L.M-313 launch vehicle from Xichang

537

satellite launch centre, located in South West China. The spacecraft entered the pre-
defined orbit of perigee being 200km, apogee 41991km and inclination 24.8. NigComSat-
IR is the fourth in-orbit delivery contract signed by China space with its international
customers. China Satellite Launch Tracking and Control (CLTC) is providing tracking
control and ground segment support for the programme. The NigComSat-IR is the 8
th

satellite built on the DFH-4 bus for in- orbit delivery and the NigComSat-IR launch is the
18
th
flight of LM-3B Launch vehicle and the 154
th
flight in the series of the Long March
Launchers.
More than 50 NigComSat engineers spent 31 months in China and followed in
carrying out the project. Two ground stations located in Abuja, Nigeria and Kashi, China
owned by NigComSat respectively, participated fully in the launch. NigComSat-IR
covering Central, Western and Southern Africa, Central and Eastern part of Europe, and
some areas of Mid-Asia, will be mainly used for communications, tele-education, broad
band multimedia service etc.
According to Salami, Obi and Emmanuel (2011), an experimental satellite built
wholly by Nigerian engineers and known as Nigeria Sat X, will also be launched at the
same time with the earth observation satellite called NigeriaSat 2 which is currently in its
seventh year in orbit, is a follow-up to the manifestation of the technological innovation
behind the design and implementation of the satellite system called Nigeria Sat-1, which
was launched on September 27, 2003 with a lifespan of five years. The satellite is a
medium resolution multi-spectral low orbiting sun synchronous satellite. It is part of the
world wide Disaster monitoring constellation system. Images of the country obtained
from the satellite are beamed back to the control station for use by the government
(Salami, et al 2011).
Benefits of satellite launch
Satellite can be used for demography such as mapping and planning of population
surveys, census enumeration areas as well as mapping, planning and monitoring of rural
and urban growth, and to also give advance warning of natural disasters like floods,
earthquake, volcanic eruptions and storms. It would also enhance e-learning, e-commerce,
tele-medicine, tele-education and rural telephony. The satellite project is also expected to
help Nigeria save about $450 million annually spent on the importation of bandwidth
from Europe and America to facilitate internet access, telephony and broadcasting
(Salami, et al 2011).
Nigeria can improve its connectively access by taking advantage of major
advancements in the wireless technologies such as broadband satellite from NigComSat-
IR and new generation mobile systems for last mile deployments. The increased ubiquity
of the internet as a matrix for communication has made the central role of the
communication satellite to become more easily recognized. In the context of our national
diversity, NigComSat-IR is a critical component of national cohesion. This is based on the
fact that Western colonialists were able to exercise extensive control over Africans
because of the far-reaching advantages they had in communication technology.
NigComSat is central to achieving the critical information flow and the strategic
communications form to develop our political process as we seek to achieve our shared
goals. The digital and wireless age has further given a great boost to the potentials of
NigComSat-IR. The satellite will not only serve Nigeria but will transform the
communications map of Africa.

538

Satellite communication and other technology sub-systems would be of immense
benefit to Nigerians if the country maximizes the benefits of communication convergence
to strengthen the sustainability of the project for national development. Nigeria can
escape the digital gulf with complimentary satellite solutions as broadband access can
easily be achieved over communications satellite infrastructure.
Incorporation of ICT into Nigerian education curriculum
According to the Federal Republic of Nigeria, FRN (2004) education has been regarded in
Nigeria as an instrument par excellence for effecting national development.
Accordingly, the potentials of ICT have been realized and education is identified as a
veritable vehicle for its teaching and propagation. Educational reform policies are
therefore geared towards incorporating the use of ICT, especially the computer in the
Nigerian educational institutions. According to Federal Ministry of Education, FME
(1988), the first national attempt was the Federal Governments 1988 policy document on
National Policy on Computer Education. The policy document stressed the necessity for
primary school pupils to be introduced into basic computer skill, computer appreciation,
the use of the computer to facilitate learning as well as rudimentary use for text writing,
computation and data entry. At the post primary school level, the goals were the same as
in primary schools but it should be pursued at a higher level. The additions were the
organization of curriculum for secondary school students on computer education and the
decision to use the unity schools as the pilot institutions for computer education. The
tertiary institutions were also required to teach computer science as a subject discipline,
and also integrate it in school administration and instruction. Other components of the
document include equipment requirement, teacher training, and specific recommendation
on different tertiary institutions. However, as noted earlier, the implementation was not
effective (Babatunde and Shabani, 2011).
The need to integrate ICT into the Nigerian education system was reemphasized
in the National Policy on Education revised in 1998 and 2004. In other words, it can be
said that the 2004 edition of the National Policy on Education is an acceptance of the
need to go beyond computer to the level of ICT and also need for infrastructure.
Meanwhile, the Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) galvanized the integration of ICT into
the education curriculum as stated thus:
In recognition of the prominent role of information and communication
Technology in advancing knowledge and skills necessary for effective functioning
in the modern world, there is urgent need to integrate information and
communication technology (ICT) into education in Nigeria. Government shall
therefore provide basic infrastructure and training for the realization of this
goal at the primary school level.

Role of ICT in Nigerian education in the 21
st
century
The role of ICT in the 21
st
century educational practice is enormous and varied.
Computer-Based Test (CBT) which is an aspect of ICT innovation play several roles. In
the era of globalization of knowledge, the gains of the new Online examination process
are too numerous to be ignored. These include: orderly conduct of examinations and
screening exercises, instant grading and prompt release of results, near elimination of
examination malpractices by dubiously-motivated students, improved computer-literacy

539

amongst students and drastic reduction of manpower required to supervise examinations
(Editorial 2011).
ICT in Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) facilitate students
learning in several ways. It also support the Professional development of the schools or
through the in-service training, ICT strengthen relationships between children and adults,
and between children to children, and communities and families. ICT improves teaching
and enhances students learning and can only be handled by resourceful and capable
schools teachers or educators. Students and Technical Vocational Education Practitioners
can utilize ICT together to scaffold children learning. Also ICT can be used in TVET for
teaching and learning using computer to gather information. ICT offers new
opportunities to strengthen many aspects of TVET because it supports, facilitates and
strengthens teaching and learning experiences. ICT plays the role of improvement of
relationships and communication between students, parents, stakeholders and facilitate
professional development. Furthermore, the role of ICT in education encompass
exploratory play, cooperation, discussions, creativity support, flexible thinking among
students, listening and problem solving (Oladepo, 2011).
ICT applied to education enhances the delivery and access to knowledge, and
improves the curriculum. It produces richer learning outcomes compared to education
without ICT. It also plays the role of encouraging critical thinking and offers unlimited
means of achieving educational goals. Teachers in contemporary knowledge society
require large, rich and easily accessible knowledge base which can be provided through
ICT compliance that supports teacher professional development. ICT therefore plays the
role of guiding teachers to sources of knowledge (Gallimore and Stigler in Babatunde and
Shabani, 2011). ICT also makes teachers life-long learners by keeping them abreast of new
knowledge, pedagogical ideas and technology (World Bank, 2003).
ICT provides new frontiers for providing access to basic education for
disadvantaged children and youth excluded from the formal school system. As modern
ICT are attractive to children and youth, they provide unmatched learning opportunities
for them to learn within and outside the formal school system. They are powerful
motivational tools for learning through games, exploration, collaboration and learning
work-related skills (Fillip, 2002).
Apart from the above, ICT also does the role of enhancing Distance Learning
programmes. ICT provides flexible learning opportunities with collaborative aspects and
rapid communication among learners and between the learners and academic mentors
(World Bank, 2003). The role of ICT is also seen in its provision of opportunities for
individuals with disabilities to have access to quality education. With the latest global
education policy known as Education for All, ICT is on ground to enhance the
realization of this lofty goal in Nigeria if adequate planning and proper integration are
made.
Human resources development is also a role carried out by ICT. It includes all
aspects of training, education and information acquisition that is necessary for one to
contribute to the development of a nation. With the fall in the level of academic
performance in Nigeria, and rise in examination malpractice where students now find it
difficult to study their books, computer and ICT play major role in changing the
orientation of the students. Computer assisted instruction is the use of computer to teach
students which enable them to be viewing what is being taught in the computer screen.

540

This eliminates the boredom that is associated with reading/studying, arouses their
interests in studies and enhances their understanding because what is seen stick to the
brain faster than what is heard (Wiki, 2006).
Challenges to the growth of ICT in Nigeria
Connectivity is largely lacking and over 50 percent of broadband internet connections in
Nigeria are via satellite hence the NigComSat-IR satellite communications technology is
critical to expanding access and improving connectivity. In the same vein, deploying wire-
line infrastructure for last mile access and broadband connectivity, especially for remote
and unserved communities in Nigeria would be nearly impossible because of costs.
Indeed another challenge of ICT is the epileptic power supply on campuses. Most
of the ICT equipments need electric power to be functional. Unfortunately the electricity
supply in Nigeria is quite erratic and this has adverse consequence on the use of ICT.
Even ordinary Global System of Mobile Communication (GSM) commonly called
handset must be charged with electricity and since there is irregular electric supply, the
problem is glaring.
There is also the problem of inadequate computers and accessories. The
installations of computers are very necessary for the 21
st
century education. This is
because without being computer literate, one may be regarded as an illiterate in todays
world. It is factual that financial constraint is fundamental to the problem of ICT in
Nigerian education. This is because most parents cannot afford to pay their childrens
school fees and give them feeding money. How then could parents provide laptop and
recharge it for regular use? Besides, proper contingency plans are not put in place to
ensure that identified computer glitches are promptly fixed to guarantee smooth operation
of the system.
Also Information and Communication Technology Centres (ICTC) ought to
deploy more functional computers and instructors to serve the emergent Computer-Based
Tests (CBT) formal. This is very crucial especially in Nigeria where students are fraudulent
in examinations.
It is also imperative to mention that there is inadequacy of customized buildings
that would be fully equipped with quality computers and accessories to run the Computer-
Based Tests. Indeed most of the schools in Nigeria lack such buildings especially in the
lower levels of education such as primary and Post- Primary Schools.
Also a challenge is full deployment of Internet facilities. Though they are capital
intensive, yet its necessity cannot be over-emphasized. Another challenge of ICT is the
attacks on telecoms facilities. Those frequent attacks maybe due largely to non-legislation
on telecom facilities. Okonji (2012) posits that the attacks on telecoms facilities by the
Boko Haram sect have been described as incidents that posed the greatest challenge to
telecoms operations in the country since independence in 1960.
The menace of cyber crimes in Nigeria is hampering the countrys becoming a
major Information and Communication Technology hub in the continent. The report of
cyber crime in Nigeria was disheartening as the country ranked third in the world as
reported by the American National Fraud Information Centre. The country is said to be
the fastest growing online scam in the world (Akorede, 2012) The implication of this is
that every Nigerian is a target. The negative effect of this on both individuals and

541

corporate bodies was enormous as it has led to diminish consumer confidence, loss of
productivity, loss of trade secrets and refusal by most merchants to include Nigeria in e-
commerce transactions.
The ways forward
For ICT to play its role in the 21st century optimally there are necessary requirements to
be put in place. For instance Aniebonam (2007) suggested ten major interventions which
he believes would assist in integrating ICTs in driving educational system in Nigeria. The
intervention includes:
1. Provision of infrastructure (cyber centres, classroom building, offices, etc);
2. Institutional network (LAN, WAN, WiFi);
3. Systems and applications (Internet, e-learning, education portals etc);
4. Capacity building;
5. Digital library;
6. Technical support in institutions;
7. Computer ownership scheme (for students, teaching and non-teaching
staff);
8. ICT content career development scheme;
9. International Examination Digital Centre (IDEC); and
10. Continuous power supply;
Nigeria can escape the digital gulf as quickly as possible, with complementary
satellite solutions as broadband access can easily be achieved over communications
satellite infrastructure. The president of Information Technology Association of Nigeria
(ITAN), Dr. Johnson Olufuye is of the view that connecting more people to broadband
and increasing Nigerias economic and technological competitiveness would only be
realistic if the country deploys satellite solutions. Stressing further on this, he stated that a
significant segment of the countrys communication satellite bandwidth should be
allocated as critical intervention to universities for research and development and massive
development of local content. This he pointed out is extremely important and key to
Nigerias identity and preservation of culture in the information society (Atili, 2011).
Stakeholders in the ICT industry should intensify move to press government to
carry out legislation for the protection of telecoms facilities in the country. If this is not
done quickly enough, it could make Nigeria perpetually underdeveloped.
On cyber crimes, the Federal Government of Nigeria should establish agencies for
specific cyber security promotion and regulatory agencies considering the amount of
resources and funds that are lost to cyber criminals annually. There is the need for
government bodies to promote awareness and partner with some organizations that are
inclined to cyber security and to regularly conduct research into potential attacks methods,
and technique in order to develop counter measures for cyber attack.
Conclusion

542

This paper acknowledges that ICT plays an important role in education in the 21
st
century.
Having realized this important role, Nigeria decided to take the bull by the horns by
launching a satellite to boost ICT. This giant stride is targeted at not only ensuring that
Nigeria remains relevant among the committee of nations but also to enhance the
advancement of knowledge especially the achievement of educational goals. However,
such educational objectives may still be far from being achieved if certain challenges to
ICT sector are not surmounted.
Recommendations
In order for the role of ICT in education in the 21
st
century to be optimally realized, it is
essential for the following recommendations to be put into consideration:
1. ICT centres should be built in every school irrespective of the level.
2. The ICT centres should be equipped with the basic infrastructural facilities
3. Teachers should be trained and retrained on computer literacy
4. Government at all levels should sponsor the National Association of Computer
Science Students (NACOSS)
5. Organize competitions, workshops and fairs for NACOSS
6. The government should establish an institution that would be entrusted with the
role of checking cyber crimes.
7. There should be a legislation to control and regulate ICT operations.

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544

DANGERS OF COMMERCIAL MOTORCYCLE TRANSPORT
BUSINESS: IMPERATIVES OF ADULT EDUCATION FOR
NIGERIANS

By

MBALISI ONYEKA FESTUS, Ph.D
onyipath@yahoo.com or onyeka.mbalisi@uniport.edu.ng
+234 806 4184 036

MRS NZOKURUM JOY C., Ph.D
Department of Educational Management
joynzokuru@yahoo.com
+234 803 6730 641

&

USUWAH, I.J
+234 806 9304 050

Abstract
Commercial motorcycle as a mode public transportation is now a transport business
that has been widely embraced by many Nigerians, due to its perceived benefits. This
perceived benefits include its flexibility in taking people to the last bit of their
destinations, quick generation of money to meet basic life needs as well as its
characteristic of cheap and easy maintenance. Despite these perceived benefits, the
paper identifies dangers associated with it and sees it as an unsustainable development.
The paper ultimately identifies the imperatives of adult education programmes that are
relevant for the correction of this anomaly of accepting its perceived benefits without
due consideration for the associated dangers. The paper concludes that despite the
perceived benefits of commercial motorcycle transport business, the dangers associated
with it outweigh its benefits. It therefore recommends that serious attention and
recognition from the government and the general public in all ramifications should be
given to adult education in Nigeria.

Keywords: commercial motorcycle, transportation, adult education


545

Introduction
Transportation is the movement of people, animals and goods from one location to
another, as generally defined. It aids trade between peoples which in turn leads to
economic growth, globalization and civilization. On the other hand, public transportation
is a shared passenger transport service which is available for use by the general public as
distinct from modes such as taxicab, car pooling or hired buses which are not shared by
strangers without private arrangement (Wikipedia, 2012). Among the modes of public
transportation is motorcycle.
In Nigeria, commercial motorcycle used as a mode of public transportation is
popularly known as Okada and operated mostly by the youths and a few middle aged
men. This kind of business began in Nigeria in the 1980s when there was an economic
crunch. Some youths who lost their jobs resorted to earning a living by the use of their
motorcycles to convey passengers to and fro their destinations. This practice was found
fashionable by both passengers and the operators because while the passengers are
conveyed to the last point of their destinations, however remote it is, the operators found
a new lease of life in it; having lost their jobs or businesses liquidated. It was also found
useful as most Nigerian roads collapsed and became un-motorable, thereby making it
impossible for people to easily get to their destinations. Motorcycles became an alternative
to cabs and buses that cannot ply the collapsed roads. This made the business to enjoy
acceptance by the public as a means of transportation and it boomed from then till date.
But as people join the trade, many issues began to arise as a result of the way and
manner the operators manifest unwholesome attitude. The issue of impatience and
recklessness of the operators leading to incessant crashes arose. This led to the increase in
road accidents encountered daily in the country as well as the accompanying increase in
the rate of deaths due to road accidents. The issues of its usage to fast track armed
robbery and kidnapping in many cities and villages also arose. This calls for a concern
about the usefulness of commercial motorcycle transport business in Nigeria, hence, the
emergence of this paper to promote the relevance of adult education in exposing the
dangers associated with commercial motorcycle transport business and hence
discouraging the use of it in Nigeria.
Contributions of Commercial Motorcycle Transport Business to Nigeria Economy
Commercial motorcycle business like every other mode of public transportation has
impacted significantly on the Nigerian economy and society. According to Abdulkareem
(n.d), economic activities are primarily concerned with the production, distribution and
consumption of goods and services. Any raw material that is not moved to where it will
be processed cannot be processed and any raw material that is not processed into finished
product cannot be consumed and any goods not consumed cannot yield its full benefits to
economy of the nation. This involves conveyance of raw materials from their point of
production to the point where they will be processed into finished products and
conveyance of finished products from their point of production to the point of
consumption. This movement is made possible by commercial motorcycle especially in
moving the goods to and fro the remote villages with bad roads where vehicles cannot
easily pass.
One important positive contribution commercial motorcycle transport business
has done to Nigerian economy is the provision of employment for millions of
unemployed people. Okada business has empowered many Nigerians economically.

546

Indeed many unemployed youths and retired people have found gainful engagement in
the commercial motorcycle business.

Some state governments in the country anchored on these perceived benefits to
incorporate it into their poverty alleviation scheme by procuring and distributing
motorcycles to the unemployed in their states as part of poverty eradication programme.
Apart from those directly engaged in the riding of motorcycle for a commercial purpose,
many people are into the sale of different brands of motorcycles and motorcycle spare
parts. In addition to this, we have a good number of people engaged in the business of
motorcycle repairs and maintenance. When considered together, it will be discovered that
the economic impact of commercial motorcycle business on the society cannot be
overemphasized. Commercial motorcycle operators have also contributed to the
government revenue generation. Government derives a lot of revenue from money paid
for plate numbers and licenses by motorcycle operators.

Furthermore, the operation of this group of transporters has eased the transport
difficulties encountered by the people. Thus we can say that the Okada transport business
have filled a big gap in the public transport system in Nigeria. With the operation of
commercial motorcycles, people can now go to areas previously impenetrable by
conventional means of transportation. For example, there were some rural suburbs and
streets in Lagos that conventional commercial buses and taxis cannot reach, such as
Ayobo, in Ipasa area of Alimoso Local Government Area, Asara area in Badagry and
Aboru Area in Iyana Ipasa, to mention just a few. The Okada has now provided a means
of transportation to commuters in the areas. In Ogun State, the interior of mowe Ibafo
town has been opened up by the use of Okada.

Risks in Commercial Motorcycle Transport Business in Nigeria
Despite the positive impacts of the use of motorcycles for commercial transportation in
Nigeria, it also has some negative impacts as well. They are discussed below.

Road Accidents
Motorcycle transport business contributes immensely to the high rate of motorcycle-
related accidents recorded daily across the country. High rate of accidents is attributable
to lack of training and traffic education among motorcycle operators, impatience on the
part of the bike riders, flagrant disregard for traffic rules and regulations, reckless riding
by the operators. This leads to loss of lives of either the operators or passengers.

Crime
Another negative effect of the use of motorcycle for commercial transportation is its use
for criminal activities. It has been observed that increase in the number of motorcycles
due to their use for commercial purpose aids a lot of criminal activities such as snatching
of personal effects (like bags, money, phones), abduction, killing and raping. People of
questionable character are among the bike operators. When an unsuspecting passenger
stops a criminally-minded rider, he takes the passenger to spots where he/she could be
robbed or raped. Such criminal activities are usually perpetrated in the early hours of the
morning or late at night.

Pollution

547

Fumes and carbon monoxide emitted by motorcycles are on the increase due to increase
in the use of motorcycles for commercial purpose. This contributes to increase in the
concentration of carbon dioxide and fog in atmosphere which results in global warming
and climate change. The fumes also contaminate the atmospheric air making it impossible
for people to always inhale clean air.

Health Challenges
Health risks are also involved in commercial motorcycle transport business. The negative
health risks on both the operators and the passengers include among others pneumonia,
cold, catarrh.
In recognition of the dangers associated with the business, most state governors
who promoted the trade by incorporating it in their poverty alleviation programmes
initially have also banned the use of motorcycle as a means of public transportation in
their state capitals and other cities in their states. The states include Port Harcourt,
Yenegoa, Calabar, Umuahia and Aba, Enugu, Owerri, Asaba and Warri in Rivers, Bayelsa,
Cross River, Abia, Enugu, Imo and Delta states respectively. Commercial motorcycle
transport business constitutes major traffic problems that were being encountered in these
cities and cities of other states that are considering banning the business such as Lagos
state. This is an indication that the dangers associated with the business outweigh the
benefits in the business.
Unsustainable Nature of Commercial Motorcycle Transport Business in Nigeria
Okada as commercial motorcycle transport business is popularly called in Nigeria is highly
distracting. Youths and adults, who should have been in training for a skill in one
profession or the other, have found okada business as a cheap source of livelihood. This
makes it difficult for them to enlist for training in specialized professional skills. A lot of
people that should have been active in the productive sector of the economy are found in
okada business. The implication is that the country will still find it difficult to attain her
vision of becoming one of the most productive economies by the year 2020. The reason is
because manpower needed to realize this vision is lacking. It is not that the population is
not there, but a large number of the population is unskilled and are found doing okada
business as a cheap source of livelihood. Another implication is that in time to come,
people who are skilled in some technical/vocations will be scarce because young people
are no longer interested in learning the skills in those vocations. Such vocations include
auto-mechanic repairs, bricklaying, plumbing, carpentery, painting, welding, electrical
installation and maintenance, agriculture, baking, to mention a few. It is agreeable that
these vocations contribute to a great extent to the growth of any nations economy. The
skills are lacking and the young people are no longer interested in them. How can our
economy survive?

Furthermore, as a young single person, money made through okada business can
sustain one on a daily basis. But as one grows old and gets married with children, there is
no way one can comfortably sustain his family with the business. The implication is that
his children will not be trained educationally at least up to a graduate level. This scenario
leads to continuous increase in illiteracy with its associated increase in poverty level. This
situation also hampers the growth and development of the country economically, socially,
politically, religiously, technologically as no illiterate society experiences significant growth
and development in these areas. This means that commercial motorcycle transport

548

business can only comfortably sustain a single young man but cannot sustain a family.
This is even worse than other dangers mentioned earlier as it affects both the operators
and the economy
This calls for attitudinal re-orientation for the youths both those who are already
trapped in the business and those who may join later in order to pull them out of this
dungeon called okada business and discourage many who may wish to join later from
engaging in it so that they will not be trapped. Adult education is a useful instrument for
this attitudinal re-orientation.

Imperatives of Adult Education in Nigeria
Adesanya (1998) notes that most of the persons involved in commercial motorcycle
transport business are school dropouts, people who were retrenched, and those who have
no job. This could be the reason why flagrant disregard for traffic rules and regulations is
common among the operators of the business. This people need adult education for
training on traffic laws.

Eheazu (1998:4) notes that adult education in recent times has been misconceived
to mean night school by many who lacked understanding of its meaning and nuances.
This is the reason why it is important to clarify its meaning here in order to enable us
delve comfortably into the roles it could play to pull our youths out of this dungeon called
okada business and discourage many who may wish to join later from engaging in it, so
that they will not be trapped into it. In an effort to clear adult education of its
misconception, UNESCO in its 1976 conference in Kenya came up with what is widely
regarded by adult education scholars as a comprehensive definition of adult education.
According to Bown and Tomori (1979:269), UNESCO sees adult education as:

The entire body of organized educational process, whatever the content, level and
methods, whether formal or otherwise, whether they promote or replace initial
education in the schools, colleges or universities as well as in apprenticeship,
whereby persons regarded as an adult by the society to which they belong develop
their abilities, enrich their knowledge, improve their technical or professional
qualifications and bring about changes in their attitude or behaviour in the two
fold perspective of full personal development and participation in balanced and
independent social, economic and cultural development.

This definition formed the foundation on which various discrete definitions of adult
education are being emanated. For instance, Eheazu (1998) sees it as some specific
functional training/vocational programmes required by adults (who now constitute the
illiterate, unskilled, semi-skilled or semi-professional labour force) to remedy not only
their educational deficiencies but also meet the needs of their various occupations
whether as farmers, artisans or employees of corporate/private organizations. He went
further to define adult education as any form of alternative education that would re-
orientate them and modify their attitudes in order that they embrace new and progressive
ways and actions that would improve their income, living standard and contributions to
societal development as well as bring about in them desired changes in their behaviour.
Nzeneri (2008) defines adult education as any education given to adults based on their
social, political, cultural and economic needs and problems to enable them adjust fully to
changes and challenges in their lives and society. Adult education encompasses all
education and training activities undertaken by adults for professional or personal reasons
(Nnazor, 2005:530). According to Barikor (2002), adult education is:

549

any form of educative experience engaged in by people who are chronogically mature,
socially responsible and mentally alert or deficient but eager to meet their specific needs.
These may include intellectual need, occupational skills, socio-economic responsibilities,
professional competencies and even self-fulfillment or self-actualizing needs, to improve
themselves, by developing their knowledge, insights, tastes, attitudes and skills.

According to Mbalisi (2010), adult education is any educative and purposeful
learning activity organized for adults to initiate them into a new way of life by providing
them with relevant skills, competences, knowledge, information and attitudes required to
excel in that aspect of life. Looking at the relevance of adult education from the national
development perspective, Nzeneri (2002) maintains that adult education trains manpower
at all levels in the areas of need, skills and knowledge to increase output, changes peoples
behaviour and attitude towards work, productivity and profit making.
The Objectives and Programmes of Adult Education
The objectives of adult education in Nigeria are contained in the National Policy on
Education (2004:25) which when achieved would contribute to the transformation of the
Nigerian economy as well as the citizenry. The objectives are to:
1. provide functional literacy and continuing education for adults and youths who have
never had the advantage of formal education or who did not complete their primary
education. These include the nomads, migrant families, the disabled and other
categories or groups, especially the disadvantaged gender;
2. provide functional and remedial education for those young people who did not
complete secondary education;
3. provide education for different categories of completers of the formal education
system in order to improve their basic knowledge and skills;
4. provide in-service, on-the-job, vocational and professional training for different
categories of workers and professionals in order to improve their skills; and
5. give the adult citizens of the country necessary aesthetic, cultural and civic education
for public enlightenment.
Forms of Adult Education in Nigeria
Adult education is organized in three forms of formal, informal and non-formal adult
education. Nzeneri (2002) x-rays the content of the forms as follows:

Formal Adult Education
It is a consciously planned and systematically arranged programme of activities in which
students are registered and they follow specified syllabuses/courses either on full-time or
part-time basis. It is hierarchically organised and the programmes are usually provided
within the walls of social agents of education such as schools, colleges and universities. It
is characterised by registered enrolment, students follow series of lessons on set subjects
and their achievement in these subjects/courses are measured from time to time by tests
and examinations which lead to the award of some certificate. These programmes are
usually parallel to the regular formal schools, colleges and university work/tasks.
Non-Formal Adult Education

550

This is any organized and systematic educational activity undertaken outside the
framework of the formal school system to provide selected type of learning to particular
sub-group of adults as well as children. It is also seen as a systematic enterprise that is
usually outside the formal school system in which admission criteria, staff, content, media,
time units and facilities are adapted for particular students so as to maximise the
attainment of their learning objectives and to minimize their constraint (Nzeneri, 2002).
Eheazu (1998) emphasizes that non-formal education covers training and instruction
outside the formal school system and ranged from individualized apprenticeships to
nationwide literacy. According to him, it may be vocational as provided in the craft
training centers in Nigeria, designed to provide employment opportunities for young
school leavers and for other unemployed persons or the girls vocational centers
established in many African countries which train girls in vocational skills and prepare
young women for marriage and business. Bhola in Nzeneri (2002) indicates that it covers
all out-of-school education programmes such as agricultural extension and cooperative
education, political, community development and environmental education etc.
Informal Adult Education
This is incidental, accidental or unintentional learning gained in day-to-day life of adults as
they encounter changes and challenges in their lives. It is gained through listening to
music, conversations and the media (radio, news paper and television), reading of books,
ceremonies, rituals and other forms of recreations. Its characteristics according to
Okedara (1981) include absence of any form of planning; absence of stated goals,
purposes, or objectives; learning is accidental; it is a life-long experience and there is lack
of awareness of what can bring rich experience of what is to be learnt on the part of the
learner.
From the definitions of adult education, its objectives and forms in Nigeria given
above, adult education is all that is needed to transform both the lives of okada operators
and the economy of the country. Adult education is capable of moving a greater number
of the Okada operators out of the business into the productive sector of the economy as a
result of the skills that will be imparted in them through various adult education
programmes. The objectives of adult education indicates that every category of okada
operators can fit into any of the adult education programmes designed for imparting
specialized skills in them. Adult education programmes can be executed to reach its target
participants through various approaches such as workshops, conferences, seminars, on-
the-job training, in-service training, public enlightenment campaign and so on.
Programmes of Adult Education for Commercial Motorcycle Business Operators
(Okada Riders) in Nigeria

The following programmes of adult education can be adapted for training of commercial
motorcycle business operators in Nigeria. It is expected that at the end of the any of the
programmes as may be undertaken by different participants at different times, skills that
will lead to the movement of the operators from the business into other sectors of the
economy will be imparted into them. The programmes include:

Basic literacy
This is an adult educational progrmame designed to equip the recipients with the basic
skills of reading, writing and computation of figures. The commercial motorcycle business
operators undertaking the programme will acquire the skills of reading and writing that

551

will expose them to other businesses in other sectors of the economy which are attractive
than the commercial motorcycle business. The skills they will acquire will also enable
them to understand the dangers associated with commercial motorcycle transport
business which always outweighs the benefits. This understanding will no doubt facilitate
their movement out the business into other sectors of the economy.

Functional Literacy
This form of literacy education programme combines teaching of literacy and training in
some vocational skills. The aim of this programme is to equip participants with skills that
may provide them with some employment opportunities on completion of training. It is
expected that the programme linked to economic needs will make the adult participants to
preserve and learn what is potentially useful to their socio-economic life. People who have
participated in skill acquisition programmes will think of practicing the skill they have
acquired in the programme. This will invariably divert their attention from engaging in
motorcycle transport business as a cheap source of livelihood.

Remedial Education
The remedial programmes are intended for people who prematurely terminated their
education without acquiring skills that will guarantee permanent literacy. It is an education
intended to make-up educational deficiencies of the participants which will enable them
further their education in order to acquire the higher level skills. The higher level skills will
enable the participants who acquired them to engage in high level tasks rather than
commercial motorcycle transport business.

Vocational Education
This programme includes skills acquisition, professional training, in-service and on-the-
job trainings. The establishment of such government agencies as the Directorate of
Employment (NDE) is in furtherance of governments intention of providing vocational
education to promote industrial and technological development. Since most of the
commercial motorcycle business operators failed in their initial skills and some of them
have not acquired any form of skills at all, vocational adult education is capable of
imparting new skills in different trades in them which will usher them into a new way of
life as rightly indicated in Mbalisi (2010s) definition of adult education. With these new
skills, they will be moved from the okada business into the areas they have acquired new
skills.

Environmental Adult Education
This is a form of adult education programme designed to impart the knowledge and
understanding of the environment and factors that lead to its deterioration. It also
develops in the participants skills for identifying and solving environmental problems.
Commercial motorcycle transport business operators will be made to be aware of the
areas through which they impact negatively on the environment as well as ways by which
they can contribute towards solving environmental problems through environmental adult
education programmes. Furthermore, a sense of commitment and personal responsibility
will be inculcated in them for taking personal or collective actions towards addressing
environmental problems when they discover themselves that they contribute immensely
to major environmental problems. A salient and possible action of them towards solving

552

environmental problems could be leaving the okada business for other attractive and
environmentally friendly businesses.

Conclusion
From the discourse so far, it could be seen that despite the perceived benefits of
commercial motorcycle business, the dangers associated with it outweigh its benefits. It is
revealed here that the benefits are short term. That is, they can only sustain a single
bachelor but cannot sustain a family. It is also revealed that the economy is adversely
affect by it because of its tendency of distracting a large number youths needed in the
productive sector of the economy from acquiring skills needed for them to be employed
in the sector. This makes the business unsustainable.
The paper indicated that adult education is what is needed to get these youths
already in the business fixed back into the productive sector of the economy through its
various programmes designed for skills acquisition. It therefore calls for the serious
attention and recognition from the government and the general public in all ramifications
to adult education in Nigeria. This attention could be in the forms of funding required to
execute various adult education programmes, provision of adequate infrastructural
facilities needed for its programmes as well as employment and giving of relevance to all
graduates trained for the planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of adult
education programmes. All qualified practitioners, instructors, facilitators, educators and
professionals in the field of adult education in Nigeria must be given their rightful
positions in the scheme of things in Nigerian society.
References
Abdulkareem, Y. A. (nd). The roles and impacts of transportation in Nigerian society. Unpublished
Manuscript.
Adesanya, A. (1998). The use of motorcycles for public transportation in Nigeria: The situation in
Ibadan. NISSER Monograph Series, 6.
Barikor, C.N. (2002). Principles and practices of adult and non-formal education. In J.M.
Kosemani (Ed) Introduction to education. Omuoko-Aluu, Port Harcourt: Shapea
Publishers.
Bown, L & Tomori, S.H.O. (1979). Handbook of adult education for West Africa. London:
Hutchinson & Co.
Eheazu, B.A. (1998). The right to learn: Relevance of adult education. University of Port
Harcourt Inaugural Lecture Series No 20.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education (4
th
ed.). Yaba-Lagos:
NERDC Press.
Mbalisi, O.F. (2010). Effectiveness of environmental education in the development of responsible
environmental behavior among adult learners in Rivers State. Doctoral Dissertation,
University of Port Harcourt.
Nnazor, R. (2005). Adult education in Nigeria: The consequence of neglect and agenda
for action. International Education Journal, 6(4), 530-536.
Nzeneri, I.S. (2002). Meaning and scope of adult & non-formal education. In J.M.
Kosemani (Ed) Introduction to education. Omuoko-Aluu, Port Harcourt: Shapea
Publishers.
Nzeneri, I.S. (2008). Handbook on adult education: Principles and practices (new ed.). Uyo: Abigab
Associate.


Okedara, J.T. (1981). Terminologies and concepts in adult education. In L. Bown & J.T.
Okedara (Eds) An introduction to the study of adult education:
cultural approach for developing countries
Usuwah, I.J (2012). Factors leading to commercial motorcycle (okada) transport business:
Implications for adult education in Ikwuano LGA of Abia State. Unpublished
B.Ed Project; University of Port Harcourt.
Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia (2012). Transpor
from http://en.wikipedia
Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia (2012). Public transport. Accessed on December 22,
2012 from http://en.

Commercial motorcycle business operators (okada riders) waiting for passengers.
This place is Aluu, Rivers State, Nigeria.

Commercial motorcycle business operators (okada riders)
An introduction to the study of adult education: A multi-disciplinary and cross
cultural approach for developing countries (pp 9-31). Ibadan, Nigeria: University Press.
B.Ed Project; University of Port Harcourt.
Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia (2012). Transport. Accessed on December 22, 2012
wikipedia.org/wiki/transport
2012 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_transport
Appendix
Commercial motorcycle business operators (okada riders) also waiting for passengers.
Vol. 21, No. 2, 2013.
uniport.com
553
disciplinary and cross-
31). Ibadan, Nigeria: University Press.
t. Accessed on December 22, 2012


waiting for passengers.


An okada operator with a passenger waiting to complete them two per bike. This
constitutes part of the dangers lamented in this paper.

operator with a passenger waiting to complete them two per bike. This
constitutes part of the dangers lamented in this paper.

Vol. 21, No. 2, 2013.
uniport.com
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operator with a passenger waiting to complete them two per bike. This

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DRUG EDUCATION: A TOOL FOR NATIONAL REBIRTH AND
SUSTAINABLE INTEGRATION OF NIGERIA IN THE 21ST CENTURY
By
MOHAMMED SANUSI, Ph.D
Nigeria Football Federation (NFF)
Wuse, Abuja
e-mail: mohaisan62@gmail.com
Phone: +2348060770484

&
MRS. AISHA A. IBRAHIM, Ph.D
Department of Curriculum Studies and Education Technology,
Faculty of Education and Extension Services,
Usmanu Danfodio University
Sokoto, Nigeria
e-mail: liberianspirit@gmail.com
Phone: +2348038983398
Abstract
Drug use, abuse, misuse and trafficking have assumed high dimensions in Nigeria and
the world over. This therefore, calls for exploration effectiveness of tackling these
problems, which this paper aimed all doing. In doing that, it looked at what is drug and
drug education. Equally, it highlighted some of the common drugs of abuse and
misuse. The paper also advocated for drug education campaign as a panacea to
Nigeria's drug problems. As part of conclusion, recommendations were offered in
order to reduce or eliminate drug problems in the country.

556

Introduction
For many centuries, drugs, some of which were used 10 (real diseases and alleviate
sufferings, also served as means of obtaining pleasure, escape and relaxation and also
added experience and meaning to man's life. Drugs and those who abuse them are part of
man's continuing reality. The challenge then is to develop the understanding and
circumstances that will result in the productive use of these substances while at the same
time discouraging the destructive usage (Howard, Bronde, Briggs, Delaria, Deutch,
Diencr, et al. 1972).
Drugs are substances naturally occurring or synthetic that has the capacity of
changing one's behaviour (depressed, stimulate, hallucinate or sedate), would also be
defined as any chemical substance which affect a person in such a way as it bring about
physiological, emotional or behavioural changes. While drug education, according to
Moronkola (1993) is an educational approach designed to make people aware of the
constituents of drugs, laws against drug abuse, usefulness and health risks associated with
their abuse and misuse.
Punishments of different types have been meted to drug sellers, consumers and
traffickers by the Nigerian governments, but the problem still persists. This calls for a re-
think of the best way of tracking the problems. Perhaps the best approach in solving
Nigeria's drug problem could be drug education especially among the youths who were
identified as having constituted the high risk group (National Drug Law Enforcement
Agency, 1991). In fact drug education is one of the low interventions that the community
can employ in solving its drug problems, and which is both preventive and cheap.
Unfortunately, studies conducted by Okalbr (1982) and Sanusi (1994) have all
shown that students have low/shallow knowledge of drugs and their effects on the body.
However, Udoh (1982) observes that students have much more information and
knowledge about drugs, but much of this information is often mixed with
misinformation.
In-further investigation, Sanusi (1994) attributed the lack of knowledge to the
inability of teachers to cover the whole aspects of the syllabus, especially at the time the
research was conducted, and the lack of enough health education teachers, counselors and
materials for health teaching/ health campaign. The other reason for the low knowledge
was attributed to the fact that health education is not a compulsory course in most
Nigerian schools. Udoh (1987) reports that drug problems become more obvious when
one notices that health education is not offered in most Nigerian Secondary School.
This paper therefore shows drug as a tool capable of ensuring the
reduction/elimination of drug problems in Nigeria. In trying to do that, the paper
highlighted some of the drugs often abuse and misuse and then sees drug education as a
panacea for solving Nigeria's drug problem.
Common Drugs of Abuse and Misuse:
Majority of the commonly used psychoactive drugs can be divided into five major
categories as follows;


557

1. Depressants,
2. Slinuilanis,
3. Psychedelic hallucinogens
4. Tranquillizers.
5. Anti-Depressants.
Depressants (Sedatives, Hypnotics and Opiates)
Depressants are drugs that slow down the process of the body. They slow down or reduce
the activity of the Central Nervous System (CNS), particularly the brain. This means a
lower blood pressure, body temperature, muscle action and heart rate. Depressants are
also used to calm people down. Among the most common CNS depressants are alcohol,
sedative hypnotics such as benzodiazapines, barbiturates, chlorolhydrate, paraldehyhate
doriden and meprobamate; the opiates including heroin, morphine, codeine, Demerol,
meperidine and methodone: volatile chemicals like gasoline of totuene (glue) and general
anaesthetic agents such as ether or nitrous Oxide. i.e. laughing gas (Bartlley et al 1972). In
small, do they produce sedation or sleep, and in large, can they produce coma and
death
Stimulants (Amphetamines and Caffeine)
Stimulants are drugs that speed the body's processes. Stimulants increase the heart rate,
blood pressure, and rate of breathing (WHO, 1967). These drugs make people seem more
awake and hide tiredness. Thus, the users seem nervous and jumpy. Some stimulants are
weak. Others are much stronger and much dangerous. The most commonly used CNS
stimulants are caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines phenmatrazine (predulin), and caffeine
(Welsch, 1980).
Anti-Depressants:
The anti-depressants, or mood elevators, include the mono oxide (MAO) inhibitors and
the tricyclics (imipromine). The MAO inhibitors have a number of dangerous side effects
and have been largely replaced by the less toxic tricyclics. In certain individuals, these
drugs elevate mood and increase activity and drive when taken for days or weeks (rather
than an immediate effect). Although their exact mechanism of action is not clearly
understood, they seem to be more effective in treating individuals who demonstrate
severe depression, unmixed with such other compounds, they produce actions such as
anxiety, hostility, and hyper activity. The more these components are involved the less
effective antidepressants seem to be (Barthet et al 1972).
Psychedelic Hallucinogens lysergic Acid Diethy-Lamide (LSD) Cannabis
(Marijuana)
The psychedelic (hallucinogens) are drugs that create illusions, distorting in the user's
mind by creating moods, thoughts, and perception that would otherwise take place only in
a dream. These drugs are also called hallucinogens, detiriants psychotogens and
psycholomimetics among other terms (Levy, Dignan and Shirreffs, 1984). Many drugs
produce hallucinations. Those of chief concern include lysergic Acid Dieihy Lamide
(LSD); Marijuana (from the hemp plant Cannabis sativa); Mescaline (from the Peyote

558

Cactus that grows in Mexico and Rio Grande Valley); Psilo cybin (from the mexicans);
and dimethyly trypiamine (DMT) which is closely related chemically to psilocylin (Turner,
1979). These agents are all psychedelic (mind expanding) because of the sensations they
produce, but there is no evidence that they improve creative endeavour. Abuse of
hallucinogens occurs in different forms in various parts of the world.
Tranquillizers
Tranquillizers are agents that act on the emotional stale by quieting or calming the person
without clarity of consciousness. There are two types of tranquillizers: major and minor
tranquillizers. The minor tranquillizers, such as diazapan (Valium), are used in the
treatment of anxiety and tension or psychoneurosis. The major tranquillizers, such as
chlorpromazers (largactil), are used to reduce psychotic symptoms. They do not make
patient to sleep even after suppressing his tension. Tranquillizers are also used in severe
emotional illness to reduce or eliminate hallucination and delusions, calm the emotion,
and slow down motor activity. When given simultaneously with narcotic or hypnotic
drugs they intensify the effect of those compounds (Baimeyeial, 1972). Although
tranquillizers do not cause physical dependence or tolerance, some individuals who use
phenothiazine tranquillizers such as thorazine, experience toxic side effects, including skin
rashes, light sensitivity, muscle rigidity, hepatitis, and general bunting or their emotions.
Other harmful side effects can result from use of the tranquillizers reserpine, which can
cause drowsiness, nausea, and diarrhea, depression of fertility, impotency and suicidal
depression.
The bad news is that minor tranquilizers, notably valium, enjoy wide casual street
and home use. In deed it is possible that more people misuse and abuse valium for longer
periods than most other drugs (Sanusi 19994).
Drug Education: A Panacea to Nigerian's Drugs Problems
Drug problems have assumed different dimensions in the country. This made the
government of Nigeria to come up with different punitive measures such as jail terms and
even death sentences. Government effort is commendable. However, these measures
employed by the government are only temporary solutions to the problems. The best
weapon of lighting drug problems is drug education. Sanusi (1994) believes that with
proper drug education there may be a time when Nigerians by themselves will be the
security agents in curtailing drug trafficking and consumption because of the correct
information they have on drugs. In addition, many drug experts divorced the belief that
drug abuse represents criminal behaviour. That should be controlled through severe
punishment. Alternatively, suggestions have been made that education and medical
treatment should be the major weapon in combating drug abuse (Smith, Lee and Loh,
1995). Although Okafor (1982) is of the opinion that drug education will not be a panacea
for drug abuse and its attendant disruptive and damaging consequence in our society, he
however believes that the effort will be a useful approach with the promise of producing
lasting and positive effects on pupils.
On the other hand, Carrol (1989) asserts that drug education is an important factor
in the primary prevention of drug abuse and misuse. This is, perhaps, because drug
education has considerable potentials for helping young people, especially to resist social
pressures from using mind-altering substances and to make informed and responsible
decision about health behaviour. Equally, Blum (1978) observes that to deny that

559

education to play a role in the prevention of drug abuse and misuse is to ignore our belief
in the role of education as a road to the achievement of socially accepted lives and values.
To want to use education as a means of establishing desirable behaviour vis-a-vis drug is
thus an expression of our confidence in the schools as molders of citizenship and
inculcators of a kind of conformity, in general good behaviour.
According to Odejide (1991) in drug abuse education, the objectives should be to
impart coping skills for psychosocial stresses and provide factual information on habit
forming drugs and their attendant consequences. Students and workers at various
workplaces, religious settings, market and communities through their leaders should be
the target audience.
Drug education, according to Sanusi (1994) can take place at different settings and it
is better to benefit from drug education to avoid abuse and misuse. Education, unlike
arrest or treatment, can be applied before bad habits or bad outcomes have arisen.
Ajala (1982) suggests that education on drug use and abuse should deal with
antihistamines, LSD, cigarette, tranquilizers and beer to mention a few. Sanusi (1994) is
however of the opinion that education on drug use and abuse should concern all drugs,
their effects, locality, value of medical utilization.
Udoh (1993) believes that fear or scare tactics will never be effective in fighting
drug abuse and misuse nor will exaggeration about the effects of drugs work. What is
needed are carefully constructed programmes of drug education.
In his opinion, Moronkola (1993) says that for drug education to be successful it
has to utilize a team approach as no individual can light drug abuse and misuse alone. He
further stressed that school being an excellent forum for drug education activities, should
do the following in drug education:
1) Teach drug education either as a separate or intergraded course.
(2) Show good examples in training right attitude and practice towards drug issues.
(3) Cooperate with other agencies responsible for drug in the society. Equally, Udoh
(1982) believes that the programme of drug education and prevention in school, in
particular, require very careful preparation because of the high level of curiosity of
the learners (who are mostly adolescents). In fact an effective educational process
should involve factual information, values, attitudes, behaviour and other factors
and the educator alone cannot be left with the job. Other group that must be
involved includes the sociologists, psychologists, pharmacists, pharmacologists,
Doctors, Nurses, other Health workers, Guidance counsellors and Social Workers.
However, it should be noted that lighting drugs problems through drug education
would not be a complete success without the cooperation of the custodians of the drugs,
policy makers and the law enforcement agencies. Their cooperation is necessary because
presently prescription of drugs, including the psychoactive ones are sold freely in our
chemists to whosoever bids for them without restrictions or concern for the intended use
(misuse). The proliferation of patent medicine dealers and street traders, dealing with all
kinds of drugs in unacceptable conditions have further compounded the problems. This is
a matter of public concern, which government cannot ignore in its effort to curtail drug
problems in the country.

560

Conclusion
Drug, though beneficial to man. If not used judiciously, i.e under prescription tends to
have adverse effects on the body. Different drugs have different ways of affecting the
body. Some stimulate the central nervous system while some depress it. There are also
drugs that cause hallucination, etc. In its effort to protect peoples health by preventing
drug abuse and misuse, the Nigerian Government under decree No. 33 of 1990, set up the
National Drugs Law Enforcement agency (NDLEA) with a mandate to control illicit
trafficking, abuse and misuse of narcotic and psychoactive drugs substance in Nigeria as
well as educate people on the dangers of drug use, abuse and misuse (NDLEA, 1991).
Different punishments have been meted to offenders, including death sentences,
but the problem still persists. This calls for the exploration of other avenues of fighting
drug problems in the country. Perhaps, the best option is drug education. This is because
through drug education pupils will, by themselves, see the danger of drug abuse, misuse
and trafficking, which may eventually have lasting positive effects on the way they use
drugs. Therefore, this paper advocates drug education at all levels of our educational
system as well as to the general public. It also calls for a very intensive campaign on drug
use, abuse and misuse in as many languages as possible using people at the grassroots so
that local people could benefit well from the campaign. This could be a panacea to
Nigeria's drug problems for rebirth and sustainable integration of the country in the 2 1
st

century.

References
AJala, I.A. (1992) Role of the school in education as an intervention strategy concerning
drug use and abuse. Nigerian School Health Journal, Ibadan. 4, 1: 41-49.
Barthey, S.H., Brando, A.I.; Briggs, G.M., Delaria G.A.; Deutch, .I.A. Diener .I.A.F. et al
(1972). Life mid Health United State of American Communication Research
Machines, Inc.
Carrol, C.R. (1989). Drugs in modern society. 2nd Dubuque, M.C. Brown Publishers, 15-68.
Howard, B.S. et al (1972). Life and health U.S.A. Communications Research Machines, Inc.
Levy, R.M. Dignan, M. and Sharriffs, J.H. (1984). Life and health USA, Random House,
Inc.
Moronkola. O. A, (1993). Drug education. team approach in answer. Nigerian School Health
Journal. 4 (I): 14-19
National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (1992) Signs, stages and effects of drugs use.
Odejide, A.O. (1991). Drug abuse prention programme in Nigeria: An overview. A paper
presented al the National Workshop on Drug Regulatory function Organised by
the Pharmaceutical Board of Nigeria at US Conference Centre, University of
Lagos.
Okal'or, 0.0. (1982). Crucial factors in abuse of drugs. Nigerian School Health Journal 4(1):
10-15

561

Sanusi ,M.(I994). A Survey of current stains or drug education and use among secondary
school students in Birnin Kehbi Kebbi Slate. Unpublished M.Ed Thesis. Faculty
of Education, University of Ibadan.
Smith, A.P. Lee N.M and Loh. H.H. (1995). Opiates analgesis and antagonists,
Turner. C.E. (1979). Personal and Community Health. 2nd Ed. C.V. Mosby County. Great
Britain.
Udoh, E.O. (1982). An overview or drug use ant! Misuse. Nigerian School Health Journal 4
(I): 12-18.
Welsch. O. (1980) Smoking Cessation: A New Approach through Secondary Prevention
Strategies in the Federal Republic of Germany. International Journal of Health
Education. XXI11 (4):
World Health Organisation (1967). World Health; Drug 4.39


562

MANAGING TEACHERS HEALTH FOR SAFETY AND EFFECTIVE
PERFORMANCE IN NIGERIAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM.

By

AGWU MARY UZOMA
University of Port Harcourt.
e-mail: uzormay@yahoo.com
08037238421, 08053727963

Abstract
This work is concerned with managing teachers health for safety and effective
performance with particular reference to Nigerian secondary schools. It is based on
Maslows need theory. The most famous classification of needs formulated by Maslow
was highlighted starting from the physiological needs leading through a hierarchy of
safety, social and esteem needs to the need for self-fulfilment or self-actualization.
Related literature to this study were reviewed to establish what it takes to achieve safe
and healthy schools that enable teachers be safe and healthy for effective performance.
The discourse focuses on safety statement, safety representative and regular safety
drills. Others are identification of hazards in teaching and in the environment,
assessment of the risks arising from these hazards, specification of the manner in which
safety, health and welfare are to be secured, etc. and voice care. Recommendations
made in this study include: School management should not overload any teacher with
responsibilities as this causes stress or depression resulting to ill health. Federal and
State governments should give adequate health care to teachers and their families since
teachers are responsible for teaching every other professionals and no teacher can teach
well if he or any member of his family is sick. Dilapidated buildings that pose threats to
safety and health of teachers should be repaired by government.


563

Introduction
Education is one of the best legacies anybody can leave for posterity. Educating people in
schools, colleges, universities, etc. is done by teachers and so there is the need that
teachers should be safe and healthy especially in the school environment. If the
government and the society in general fail to protect the teachers in the learning
environment, then there may be no future for this country. Considering the level of
insecurity in the country, the safety and health of the teachers should no longer be treated
as a luxury, but as a necessity.
According to Abraham Maslow in Okoroma (2000), security is a basic human need
and he arranged these needs in a hierarchical order with the understanding that people are
incapable of paying attention to higher level needs when lower level needs remain unmet.
Safety is one of the lower level needs. So, for a school or government to achieve her
educational goals, it is important for such a school or government to help teachers feel
safe and healthy to carry out their duties. When teachers feel unsafe and unhealthy in the
course of performing their duties they will definitely not perform as expected. For
instance, in 2011 a teacher flogged a student in Asa High School Abia State for
misbehaviour; the student ran home, invited her senior brothers who came with their own
canes, flogged the teacher mercilessly to their satisfaction and left without being arrested.
Before other teachers could do anything the hoodlums had already inflicted injuries on
the female teacher and left. The school authority suspended the student and when the
matter was later taken to secondary education management board Umuahia, the teacher
was transferred for safety to another school far from Asa community in Abia State when
she was not ready for it.
According to Armstrong (2009), both health and safety programmes are concerned
with protection against hazards. Their aims and methods are also clearly linked.
Armstrong further noted that occupational health programmes are designed to minimize
the impact of work-related illnesses arising from the work. Designing teachers health
programmes is the duty of Nigeria government to ensure that teachers health including
those of their families are taken care of since no teacher will concentrate to teach when he
or any member of his family is sick. Hence, this work is concerned with managing
teachers safety and health for effective performance with particular reference to Nigerian
secondary schools. It is based on Maslows hierarchy of needs theory. According to
Armstrong (2009), the most famous classification of needs is the one formulated by
Maslow. He suggested that there are five major need categories that apply to people in
general, starting from the fundamental physiological needs and leading through a
hierarchy of safety, social and esteem needs to the need for self-fulfilment or self-
actualization, the highest need of all. When a lower need is satisfied the next higher one
becomes dominant and the individuals attention is turned to satisfying that immediate
need. Armstrong (2009) also stressed that the need for self-fulfilment however can never
be satisfied as man is a wanting animal and only an unsatisfied need can motivate
behaviour and the dominant need is the prime motivator of behaviour. Psychological
development takes place as people move up the hierarchy of needs, but this is not
necessarily a straight forward progression. The lower needs still exist, though temporarily
dominant as motivators, and individuals constantly return to previously satisfied needs. In
other words, safety and health are some of the fundamental needs of man which needs to
be satisfied at every point in time.


564

What is a Hazard?
According to ASTI (2012), a hazard is anything that can potentially cause harm. Each
employer is required to examine the workplace systematically and identify existing
hazards. Records of accidents can assist in the identification of hazards. Some hazards are
obvious, for example, moving heavy loads. Less obvious, but at the root of many
accidents, are hazards presented by untidy workplaces and poor maintenance. A hazard
can be defined as that which can injure a persons physical or mental well-being. High
levels of stress clearly put teachers health and welfare at risk and so act as unseen hazards.
Assessment of Risks
If there is a hazard present it will then be necessary to determine the likelihood of it
happening and the consequences of it happening. Some risks, such as exposure to
chemicals or noise, may require physical measurements to be taken. Such hazards may
take months or even years before damage materialises. A safety representative may inspect
the whole or any part of the place of work after giving reasonable notice to the employer
or immediately, in the event of an accident, dangerous occurrence or imminent danger or
risk to the safety, health and welfare of any person. The employer and the safety
representative shall, having regard to the nature and extent of the hazards in the place of
work, agree with the frequency or schedule of inspections which may be carried out,
which agreement shall not be unreasonably withheld by the employer.
Safety and Health in the School
Holt (2005), posits that the achievement of a safe and healthy school and the elimination
of hazards to safety and health is the responsibility of every teacher as well as non-
academic staff but the onus is on schools management to achieve and indeed go beyond
the high standard in safety and health matters required by the legislation. He further
emphasized that it is the overall responsibility of management to ensure that health and
safety system is put in place in every school.
Holt (2005) added that every teacher has a right to work in an environment that is
both healthy and safe. To achieve this, schools management board should ensure that
every school has the following:
1. A Safety Statement.
2. A safety representative and safety officer.
3. And regular safety drills.
Safety Statement
This is an official account of safety in any establishment. It is a legal requirement that the
management of each workplace produces a safety statement. Therefore, every school is
legally required to have a safety statement and it is very important that the statement is
given to each new teacher who joins the staff. The management should ensure that the
workplace practices conform to the safety statement and corrective action should be taken
as necessary.
A safety statement is required by law and there are penalties for failure to have one. It
is the responsibility of every employer and self-employed person to produce such a safety
statement. According to Holt (2005), the following should be covered by safety statement:

565

1. Identification of the hazards in teaching and in the school environment.
2. Assessment of the risks arising from these hazards.
3. Specification of the manner in which safety, health and welfare are to be secured.
4. Giving details of the arrangements made and resources provided for securing safety.
5. Specification of the co-operation required from employees
6. Specification of the names of people responsible for safety
7. Arrangements for consultation with teaching and non teaching staff on safety and
health matters
8. Details of information available for staff on safety and health.
According to Uwakwe (2007), a safety statement is the managements programme,
in writing, for safeguarding safety and health in the workplace. It represents the
managements commitment to safety and health and specifies the manner, the
organisation and the resources necessary for maintaining and reviewing safety and health
standards. A safety officer as an agent of the management may be responsible for the
implementation of safety procedures within the school. The statement should be brought
to the attention of teachers at least annually and whenever it is revised. A health and
safety inspector is entitled to see the safety statement and can direct the employer to
revise it if it is deemed inadequate.
Safety Representative and Safety Officer
A safety representative is elected by the staff to monitor safety standards and to
investigate complaints by employees (teachers). A safety representative should not be
confused with safety officer. A safety officer is appointed by the management to monitor
the health and safety standards in the school. This the management does to ensure that
teachers are healthy and safe to perform their duties. This safety representative and safety
officer are trained and retrained as the need arises (Saunders, 2001).
Regular safety drills
According to Holt (2007), there should be regular evacuations and regular safety drills in
the school. Holt added that pits or holes should be dug in remote parts of the school
where dangerous objects that pose threats to safety and health should be disposed off and
properly covered.
Hazards and risks of school environment: ASTI (Association of Secondary Teachers
Ireland) (2012) is of the view that schools are the same as all workplaces. However, the
risks and hazards that exist in schools are different from those of other places of work.
Teachers and school employees, like employees generally, face standard workplace risks
such as trips and slips, fire hazards, sophisticated machines and manual handling accidents
and other physical dangers. ASTI however, posits further that the more common
occupational hazards for teachers are in the realm of occupational illnesses such as result
from high levels of stress or pressure of work. Teachers exhibit higher levels of stress
related medical conditions that are found in workplaces generally resulting in depression,
anxiety and other psychological and physical illnesses. To this end, hazard identification
crew must give due regard to the exact nature of workplace illnesses and injuries that
teachers are likely to experience.

566

Holt (2007) supported the above point by positing that stress or anxiety is the most
common cause of occupational illness for teachers. He added that teaching has a number
of specific stresses such as:
1. Dealing with disruptive student behaviour
2. The pressure of school inspections
3. Providing cover for colleagues and
4. Large workload.
Holt equally identified some tips to help teachers manage stress as:
1. It is important that teachers have support from each other and from management
and so should speak up about any stress they are experiencing.
2. If specific aspects of your job are causing you stress, you can talk to your
principal, a colleague or your school steward or representative.
3. Plan ahead and set targets. Use your diary and wall planner to make note of
important dates and deadlines to work towards.
4. Recognise your stress and the reasons behind it. Take action to deal with it one
thing at a time.
5. Try not to become overwhelmed; remember to step back and take a fresh look at
your situation.
6. If you can, separate work and home. Take time out for yourself, do something
you find relaxing read a book, take a walk, and try to clear your head.
7. Sleep well and see your doctor if you are finding it difficult to sleep.
8. Remember you are not alone; your association can help to support you with any
work-related issue you experience.
Voice care
According to Holt (2007), teaching relies heavily on vocal communication, which puts
pressure on ones voice and vocal health. Voice is a vital tool for teaching, so it must be
protected. As directed by Holt, the following points will help for voice care:
1. Dry or cold air can contribute to throat or vocal irritation, so take care to make
sure your classroom is warm and humid.
2. Drink plenty of water if speaking for long periods.
3. When managing your class, consider practical aspects that may conserve your
voice such as location, grouping, concise phrasing and visual communications.
4. Where possible, avoid speaking over noise, reduce unnecessary noise and bring
students close to you rather than trying to make your voice stretch.
5. Watch your breathing and make sure it is rhythmic and relaxed.
6. Pause during speech to allow time to rest and breath.
7. If you are consistently hoarse or having sore throat, consult your doctor and if
necessary, arrange a consultation with a specialist.
8. Silence is golden take a period of silence after class or in the evenings. Vocal rest
is vital for prevention and recovery.
Generally, greater emphasis should be put on the importance of hazard
identification and risk assessment and aimed at a preventive approach to reducing
accidents and ill health at work ( RoSPA, 2008).

567

Safety Responsibility of the Management
According to ASTI (2012), it is the duty of all employers to ensure that their employees
can carry out their contracted duties in safety. In schools this responsibility rests with the
Board of Management. This employer/employee relationship and responsibility is
complicated by the fact that most schools are very dependant on the support of the
Department of Education & Science in the provision of safe and secure school buildings
and facilities. However it is the Board of Management that carries the legal duty of care
for school employees and it is the Boards responsibility to ensure that high standards and
best practices are applied to all aspects of safety.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of this work, it is imperative that both management and employees
(teachers and non-academic staff) should work together to ensure health and safety of
teachers in any school.

Recommendations
From the foregoing, recommendations are made as follows:
1. As we have always emphasized; the best form of security is prevention. School
security plays a pivotal role in alerting officials of suspicious people or behaviours in
or around school grounds and monitoring those entering school buildings to attack
teachers or even students.
2. Additional school security such as cameras and ID systems may prove critical in
preventing such situations. In the event of a terrorist attack, school security
measures will help in formulating emergency exit plans for students and teachers in
the building.
3. Management should not overload any teacher with responsibilities as this causes
stress or depression resulting to ill health.
4. State and federal governments should give adequate health care to teachers and
their families since teachers are responsible for teaching every professional and no
teacher can teach well if that teacher or any member of his family is sick.
5. Dilapidated buildings that pose threats to safety and health of teachers should be
repaired by the government.
6. There should be full co-operation between the safety representative and the school
principal on the issue of a school inspection. The principal should be consulted on
the timing of the inspection. It may be deemed helpful and in the interests of good
health and safety practice if the safety representative and school administrator
together inspected the school. If necessary, the safety representative is entitled to
request time off from work in order to conduct an inspection.
7. Teachers should insist that Health and Safety are discussed at staff meetings on a
regular basis and that Health and Safety procedures are reviewed at least once a
year.
8. A comprehensive inspection of the school should be carried out by the safety
representative at least once a year. Further inspections or partial inspections should
be carried out as deemed appropriate by the safety representative. The
comprehensive inspection of the whole school may be conducted on one day or it
could be done in stages over a number of days. It is estimated that the full
inspection could take approximately two hours to complete ASTI (2012).

568

9. Government should equally pay teachers well to lessen their stress and enable them
perform their duties with concentration.
Educational Implications
It is clear that a school which is concerned about the safety of its teachers and in which an
overall culture of safety exists, will be a safe school for both teachers and students.
Therefore, learning will go on well in such a healthy and safe school environment.
References
Armstrong, M. (2009). Armstrongs handbook of human resource management. India: Replika
Press Pvt Ltd.
ASTI (Association of Secondary Teachers Ireland) (2012) Article. Retrieved April 15,
2013 from http://www.teachers.org.ng/protect-teachers.
Health and Safety Executive (2008). Annual report, HSE. London.
Holt, A. (2005). Principles of Health and safety at work. London: IOSH Publishing.
Okoroma, N. S. (2000). Perspective of educational management, planning & policy
analysis. Port Harcourt: Minson Publishers.
Royal Society for the prevention of accidents (2008). Annual report. London: London.
RoSPA.
Saunders, R. (2001). The safety audit. London. Pitman.
Uwakwe N. T. (2005). Insecurity in Nigeria educational system. Retrieved April 18, 2013 from
http://www.teachers.org.ng/protect-teachers.


569

ROLES OF SECONDARY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS IN THE
PREVENTION OF SCHOOL-BASED VIOLENCE IN NIGERIA

By
MRS AMINI-PHILIPS CHINYERE, Ph.D
University of Port-Harcourt,
Rivers State, Nigeria

Abstract
This work focuses on the role of secondary school administrators in preventing school-
based violence in Nigeria. The paper started by looking at the meaning of violence
generally and school-based violence particularly as presented by many authors and
organizations. It then highlighted forms of violence in schools, noting that school-based
violence places severe consequences on students, teachers, administrators, government
and the larger society. The paper discussed the role of school administrators
(Principals) in the prevention of school-based violence. The paper concluded that
prevention of violence is achievable if administrators implement/enact the roles
outlined.
Keywords: Violence, School-based violence, Role, Administrators, Nigeria.


570

Introduction
In recent times, violence in societies and especially in learning contexts have assumed a
worrisome dimension and thus have become a subject of discussion at both national and
international gatherings. Participants in the gatherings have unequivocally made
substantial contributions and support towards a culture of peace and non-violence for
children of the world. The concerted efforts of the participants in these forums have
advocated prevention and eradication of school-based violence which have impacted
positively on schools particularly and the society at large.
Many International documents stipulate that everyone children, youth, adult and
the aged have the right to live, work and learn without physical, psychological or sexual
harm. The universal declaration of human rights, the international covenant on economic,
social and cultural rights and the international covenant on political and civil rights, all of
which guarantee equal and inalienable rights that derive from inherent dignity of the
human person are examples of such documents.
Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948 p.6) states that
everyone has the right to education and describes two basic functions of education thus:
Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality to the
strengthening of respect for human right and fundamental freedoms. Secondly, it states
that education shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations,
racial or religious groups and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the
maintenance of peace.
Article 13 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966
p.3), states that Education shall enable all persons to participate effectively in a free
society. Moreover, it emphasizes the importance of the working conditions for teachers
the material conditions for teaching staff should be continually improved.
Political rights (1966) prohibits discrimination on any grounds such as race, colour,
sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth
or other status, and guarantees to all persons equal and effective protection against
discrimination.
The Convention on the rights of the child which has been ratified by 192 states
emphasizes that all violence against children should be prohibited, including violence in
school environment. Article 28 reaffirms the right of the child to education and in
addition states that state parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that school
discipline is administered in a manner consistent with the childs human dignity and in
conformity with the present convention.
The aims of education as stipulated by the committee on the rights of a child are:
the need for education to be child-centred, child-friendly and empowering and
emphasized the need for educational processes to be based upon the very rights
guaranteed by the convention. This implies that all schools should respect for example the
childs right to non-discrimination (reflected in article 2 of the convention), freedom of
expression (article 3) and protection from all forms of sexual abuse and exploitation
(article 34). States must also ensure that children are fully protected from exposure to
bullying and other forms of violence by other students. Furthermore, the committee has
noted that failure to protect students from such forms of violence could deny them their
right to education (articles 28 and 29).

571

General comment No.1 of the Committee on Rights of the Child (CRC) states,
children do not lose their human rights by virtue of passing through the school gates.
Thus, education must be provided in a way that respects the inherent dignity of the child,
enables the child to express his or her views freely in accordance with article 12(1) and
allows the child to participate in school life. Education must also be provided in a way
that respects the strict limits of discipline reflected in article 28(2) and promotes non-
violence in schools (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNESCO).
The committee also urges state parties to move quickly to prohibit and eliminate all
corporal punishments and all other cruel degrading forms of punishments of children,
declaring that addressing the widespread acceptance or tolerance of corporal punishment
of children and eliminating it in families, schools and other settings is not only an
obligation to state parties under the Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC), but also
key strategy for reducing and preventing all forms of violence in societies (Ibid).
The UNESCO convention against discrimination on Education (1960) expresses
the fundamental principle of equality of education opportunities and expresses that
education must be accessible to all, especially the most disadvantaged and vulnerable
groups. A safe and violence-free learning environment is an essential part of a quality
education.
The Dakar Framework for Action Education for all: Meeting our Collective
Commitments (2000), adopted at the World Education Forum in Senegal set out a plan of
action aimed at achieving the six Education For All (EFA) goals. The framework
expresses the connection between the right to quality education and the right to safe and
violence-free learning environments. It also lays out strategies to meet the EFA goals.
Some of these according to The World Education Forum, Dakar Senegal (2000) include:
Preventing violence and ensuring a safe learning environment, create safe,
healthy, inclusive and equitably resourced educational environment
conducive to excellence in learning with clearly defined levels of achievement
for all..learning environments should also be healthy, safe and
protective. This should include: (1) Adequate water and sanitation
facilities, (2) access to or linkages with health and nutritional services, (3)
policies and codes of conduct that enhance physical, psycho-social and
emotional health of teachers and learners and (4) education contents and
practices leading to knowledge, attitudes, values, and life skills needed for
self-esteem, good health and personal safety. (p. 3).
Violence in the school which can encompass a continuum of behaviour from
bullying to more serious violence is an issue that has attracted increased attention not only
from the public, but also from educators, social scientists, and politicians over the past
decade (Philips 2007). This is not surprising because the consequences of inaction will be
grave; moreover, the achievement of a violence-free environment requires the
participation of all stakeholders. In a similar vein Ferguson, Miguel, Kilbum and Sanchez
(2007) observed that youth violent behaviours have received increased political and
scientific attention over the past several decades. However, they noted that although
violent behaviour among youth and in the school has declined over the past decade, the
victimization of children by other children in school settings remain a major issue of
concern. This observation is true since news or stories about bullying and fighting

572

especially between junior and senior students is heard on a daily basis and often
constitutes a major disciplinary problem facing teachers and administrators in secondary
schools.
Violence affects children throughout their lives, hindering emotional and cognitive
development, health, behaviour and ultimately society at large. No form of violence is
justified, and violence is preventable.
To address the issue of violence in schools, a number of prevention and
intervention programs have been developed to reduce the incidence. Many of the anti-
violence programs developed and implemented have always focused majorly on students,
teacher, and bystanders and not on administrators (Principals) who set the tone of the
schools. The role of administrators in preventing violence cannot be overlooked because
the administrator as the chief executive of the school directs the actions of the teachers,
students, non-teaching staff and the entire community in which the school is built
(Nnabuo, Okorie & Agabi 2004, Eds.). As the highest official in the school (s)he performs
many responsibilities that make or mar the achievement of the school goals. Their action
or inaction concerning prevention of violence will determine the safety or otherwise of
the school staff and students. It is therefore against this background that this paper
focuses on the role administrators are expected to play in violence prevention in schools.
What is School-Based Violence?
Before defining school-based violence, it is pertinent to define violence. Violence as
defined by the World Health Organization (2002) in Federal ministry of Education (2007)
is the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself,
another person or against a group of persons/community that either results in or has the
likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, mal-development or
deprivation.
The above definition depicts a close link between intentionality and committing of
an act itself, irrespective of the outcome it produces. The definition also excludes any
unintentional incident such as road traffic injuries and burns (Federal Ministry of
Education, 2007). This means that if a student stabbed himself or cuts any part of his
body with a blade, such an act can be classified as violence even though it is self-inflicted.

Aluede (2011) said violence broadly speaking includes any condition or act that
creates a climate in which the individual feels fear or intimidation in addition to being a
victim of assault, theft or vandalism. Furthermore, he noted that violence as a matter of
fact is becoming a growing problem in our schools and wears many faces because it
includes gang activity, locker theft, bullying, and intimidation, gun use, assault, just about
anything that produces a victim.

Specifically, they noted that students these days physically, mentally or verbally
abuse one another. No wonder the use of guns, knives, and other dangerous weapons and
other abuses physical or psychological is now more common than ever in the Nigerian
school system (Aluede, 2006; Fajoju, 2009; Federal Ministry of Education, 2007). School-
Based Violence therefore includes any acts deliberate or intentional within the school
environment that causes fear or intimidation or any other acts that makes the school
environment unsafe for learning.

573

What then are the factors responsible for violence in schools?
The UNESCO guide for teachers on stopping violence in schools notes that there are
many factors responsible for violence in schools. These factors include various cultural
understandings of violence, socio-economic factors, a students home life and the external
environment of the school. However, in schools violence occurs in two forms physical
and psychological violence, but the World Report on violence against children identifies
the following as the main forms of violence:
i. Physical and Psychological Punishments.
ii. Bullying.
iii. Sexual and gender-based violence.
iv. External violence: effects of gangs, conflict situation, weapons and fighting.
Physical Punishment: The Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC) in the
UNESCO guide for teachers defines corporal punishment as any punishment in which
physical force is used and intended to cause some degree of pain or discomfort, however
light in schools. Physical Punishment involves hitting (smacking, slapping, spanking)
students with the hand or with an implement. It can also involve for example, kicking,
shaking or throwing students, scratching, pinching, biting, pulling hair, booking ears,
forcing students to stay in uncomfortable positions, burning, scalding, or forced ingestion
as in washing students mouths out with soap. Corporal punishment in the view of the
committee is invariably degrading.
Psychological punishment: These are non-physical forms of punishment that are
cruel and demeaning. They include punishment which belittles, humiliates, scares,
threatens or ridicules a student. Moreover, the very use of physical force by a person who
is larger and stronger than the student conveys a clear message of power, control or
intimidation, re-enforcing the fact that acts of physical aggression are intentional with
psychological aggression.
Bullying is a form of violence. A student is bullied when (s)he is exposed repeatedly
overtime to aggressive behaviour that intentionally inflicts injury or discomfort through
physical contact, verbal fighting or psychological manipulation. Bullying involves an
imbalance of power and can include teasing, taunting, and use of harmful nicknames,
physical violence, or social exclusion. A bully can operate alone or within a gang of peers.
Bullying may be direct such as one child demanding money or possessions from another,
or indirect such as a group of students spreading rumours about another. Cyber-Bullying
is harassment through e-mail, cell phones, text messages, and defamatory websites.
Children may be more vulnerable to bullying if they live with a disability (as in polio
victims), express a sexual preference different from mainstream, or come from a minority
ethnic group or a certain socio-economic background. Bullying sometimes leads to fatal
physical attack. This was the case in a certain secondary school in Port Harcourt a few
years ago, where some senior students bullied junior students and in an attempt to resist
the senior students, a fight broke out leaving one student dead and several others seriously
injured.
Writing on the situational analysis of bullying problems Aluede and Fajoju, in
press; Umoh (2000) (Aluede, 2011) reported that:

574

In Nigeria, even though cases of bullying had been reported in many schools, this
deviant act is not always given a desirable attention. Furthermore, there are no
available statistical facts to show the actual number of students that are bullied or
victims in schools. This lack of statistical facts and absence of well-documented
evidence have made it difficult for us to appreciate the prevalence of bullying behaviour
in Nigeria. (p.4).
However, Aluede (2011) observed that despite the absence of documented evidence
of the prevalent rate of bullying in Nigeria, Egbochukwus (2007) study on some Nigerian
students in Benin city revealed that almost 4 in every 5 participants, 78% reported being
bullied and 85% of the children admitted to bullying others at least once. Using moderate
criteria, the study further indicated that more than half of the students (62%) were bullied
and 30% bullied others. Similarly, Aluede and Fajojus (2011) study on secondary schools
in Benin Metropolis of Nigeria reveals that majority of the respondents (62.4%) have been
victims of bullying while 29.6% of the respondents indicated that they have bullied others
within the academic session.
In a nationwide situational analysis survey of school violence in Nigeria conducted
by the Federal Ministry of Education (2007) it was revealed that physical violence and
psychological violence accounted for 85% and 50% respectively of the bulk of violence
against children in schools. Furthermore, they reported that across school location,
physical violence was more prevalent in the rural (90%) than in the urban areas (80%).
Across region, physical violence in schools is higher in the Southern Nigeria (90%) than in
Northern Nigeria (70%), so is the case of psychological violence which is 61% in
Southern Nigeria and only 37.8% in Northern Nigeria.
The result of this survey does not pose a surprise, given the fact that the schools in
Southern Nigeria are more populated than those in the North and conflicts are more
likely to arise in schools with high students enrolment as seen in Southern Nigeria.
Furthermore, across gender, physical and psychological violence are almost evenly
distributed among males and females in Nigerian Schools (Aluede, 2011).
Sexual and gender-based violence is another form of violence. Gender-based
violence may take a psychological, physical and/or sexual form and relates to enforcing or
upholding of power imbalances between sexes. Gender-based violence works to actively
re-enforce gender inequality, stereotype and socially imposed roles. Although girls are
more often vulnerable to sexual and gender-based violence than boys, the two are at risk.
External violence which includes efforts of gangs, conflict situations, weapons and
fighting are types of violence which occur outside the school environment. For instance,
the Boko Haram insurgents/terrorists who recently attacked and killed scores of students
and staff of Federal Government College (FGC) Buni Yadi, in Yobe State. Buni Yadi is
about 65 Kilometres drive to Damaturu, the state capital, while Gujba town which
witnessed a similar deadly attack in College of Agriculture last year where over 40 students
were killed is located south and about 35 kilometres drive to the state capital. (Ndahi
2014). According to a survivor of the Boko Haram attack on FGC Buni Yadi on the 25
th

of February, 2014, the insurgents gathered the students in one of the female hostels, made
away with some of the female students and left some others groaning in pains from gun
shots. They also burnt down hostels, classrooms and houses during the attack. (Eyoboka,
Umoru, Aliya, & Agbakwuru, 2014).

575

Some other forms of violence that are often reproduced in the school environment
manifest as political conflict, police brutality and domestic violence. Gang violence in
schools includes beatings, stabbings, and shootings and tends to be more severe (even
deadly) compared to other forms of violence in schools, especially when associated with
the trafficking of illicit drugs.
Sometimes, external violence in the surrounding school community can likewise
infiltrate the school, resulting in weapon-carrying and increased incidents of violence.
Students may carry weapons because they feel threatened, or because guns and weapons
are accepted as part of the communitys daily life. Fighting generally involves conflict
where it is not easy to make the distinction between perpetrator and victim. Bullying can
lead to fighting, with or without weapons.
Consequences of School-based Violence
Different forms of violence affect children in different ways and throughout their lives.
Physical or corporal punishment causes serious repercussion for a students mental and
physical health. It has been linked to slow development of social skills, depression,
anxiety, aggressive behaviour and lack of empathy or care for others. Violence in the
school makes teachers work harder.
Furthermore, it neglects to teach students how to think critically, make sound moral
decisions, cultivate inner control, and respond to lifes circumstances and frustrations in a
non-violent way. Moreover, violent punishment shows students that the use of force be
it verbal, physical, or emotional is acceptable, especially when it is directed at younger,
weaker individuals. This lesson leads to incidents of bullying and an overall culture of
violence in schools. This is the case in many secondary schools today, where a vicious
circle of violence occurs because when one set of final year students are appointed
prefects, they bully the junior students having suffered such negative treatment while they
were junior students. As this is perpetuated, a culture of violence is created and as soon as
another group of senior students are appointed, fear grips the junior students because of
the mere thought of what the senior students would do to them.
UNESCO also notes that for both the bully and the student who is bullied, the
cycle of violence and intimidation results in greater interpersonal difficulties and poor
performance in school. Moreover, students who are bullied are more likely than their
peers to be depressed, lonely, or anxious and have low self-esteem. Bullies often act
aggressively out of frustration, humiliation, anger and in response to social ridicule.
Although, data on students exposure to sexual violence is limited, due to the fact that
they are hesitant to report acts of sexual violence for fear of being shamed, stigmatized,
not believed or retaliated against, sexual assault and other forms of gender-based violence
in schools are significant factors in low enrolment and increased drop-out rate for girls.
Apart from discouraging girls from going to school, gender-based violence may also cause
parents to stop their daughters from attending schools; for fear that they will be
victimized. Sexual violence puts students at risk of sexually transmitted diseases, unwanted
pregnancy, low self-esteem and diminished performance at school.
Conflict situations can impair students ability to learn and to attend school.
Conflicts may also impact school infrastructure, availability of qualified teachers and
distribution of and access to learning materials.

576

The foregoing discussion implies that school-based violence has serious
repercussion for students, teachers, school administrators, government and the larger
society. Therefore, there is the need to prevent violence in schools.

The Role of Administrators in Preventing Violence in Schools
The administrator (Principal) is the chief executive of the school and directs the actions of
his/her teachers, students, non-teaching staff and the entire school community (Nnabuo,
Okorie, Nwedeeduh & Uche, 2006). As the highest ranked official within the school, the
principal is the liaison between teachers and the government and between the
parents/community and the government. (S)He represents the school in community
programs and interprets government programs and policies to members of the
community. The principal sets the tone of the school using appropriate leadership styles.
The roles of the principal in the school include:
Assigning duties to members of staff
Organizing and supervising instruction.
Evaluating teachers to ensure that the educational objectives are accomplished
Ensuring that adequate fund, human and material resources are provided to
enable teachers perform their jobs creditably
Recommends staff for development
Appoints members of staff to special duties
Appoints school prefects to assist staff and help fellow students
Control staff and students to ensure that they carry out their responsibilities.
The responsibility of the Principal enumerated above reveals that the Principal is central
in the administration and critical to the achievement of the goals and objectives of the
school. Thus the role of the Principal in preventing violence in the school cannot be
overlooked.
UNESCO (2009) provided ten actions as guide on how teachers can stop violence in the
school environment. Since the Principal is first and foremost a teacher, the guide is also
applicable to Principals. Therefore, the role of Principals in preventing violence in schools
includes:

1. Advocate a holistic approach involving students, school staff, parents and the
community.
Principals and teachers alone cannot prevent violence in schools. The entire school
community must come together and present a clear message that violence in whatever
form is unacceptable in the school environment. The Principals role here is that of a
coordinator by harnessing the efforts of all to finding solutions to problems of violence in
schools.
The Principal should develop a plan of action in conjunction with other groups in the
community. Violence prevention plans developed in broad consultation and cooperation
are likely to succeed than those prepared by a single group of professionals acting alone.

577

The Principal should look for ways of reducing risk factors, for instance, by ensuring a
well-lit physical environment, or by teaching students non-violent conflict resolution
skills. Minimizing opportunities for violence and providing students with tools to prevent
it are both important in creating a safe school.
2. Make your students your partner in preventing Violence.
This can be done by creating a student-friendly environment through story-telling,
debates, role-playing, games and current events. Students should be taught their rights as
well as the rights of others peers, teachers, family members, etc. Involve students in
setting rules and responsibilities in the classroom, when the students participate in
formulating the code of conduct with their teachers, they will be committed in its
implementation.
3. Use constructive discipline techniques and methods.
The Principal should keep school rules positive, instructive and brief: School rules and
regulations should be simple and clear. Rules should be stated positively and not
negatively as this will clearly guide the students as to how to behave. Positive re-
enforcement should be used to recognize students; they should be immediate, yet
gratifying. Use disciplinary measures that are educative, not punitive.
4. Be an active and effective force to stop bullying.
The Principals role here is to work to develop a common definition of bullying among
teachers, student representatives, school staff and community members so that everyone
involved may enforce the same expectations consistently. Encourage school counsellors
or staff to provide counselling for bullies alongside the enforcement of consequences.
Recognize and encourage the action of students who support each other to stop bullying.
It is also important to ensure that those who report are protected from retaliation.
5. Build students resilience and help them to respond to lifes challenges
constructively.
Principals can build students resilience and their ability to cope with everyday challenges
and stress by helping them build positive relationship with others. This is because
increased resilience reduces the likelihood of a student reacting with violence or falling
prey to it. Principals should serve as role models for positive caring relationships.

6. Be a positive role model by speaking out against sexual and gender-based
violence.
Raise the awareness of gender biases in school and encourage teachers to do the same.
Break the perpetuation of stereotypes and different expectations for girls and boys.
Establish a training program for teachers, students and the community to understand,
identify and respond to cases of sexual and gender-based violence. Train the school staff
on sexual and gender-based violence and to strengthen womens representation in
management structures.
7. Be an advocate for school safety mechanisms.

578

The role of the Principal here is to implement participative and supportive leadership by
developing and implementing policies that focus on elimination of abuse of power, spot
violent activity in its preliminary stage and build community confidence in schools.
Principals should advocate student-friendly reporting mechanisms that encourage
students to speak out against violence. Take students complaints of violence seriously and
keep their well-being in mind.
8. Provide safe and welcoming space for students.
The Principal should provide orderly work environment by identifying places in the
school that are safe and those that are dangerous and when students are most at risk.
Principals and staff should be alerted to dark corners, poorly lit areas, unsupervised
stairways and toilets where students are at risk of sexual or physical abuse.
Provide private and safe toilets for girls to ensure privacy. Lack of safe and clean toilets
and other facilities for girls are responsible for girls not attending schools in some regions
of Nigeria.
9. Learn violence prevention and conflict resolution skills and teach them to
students.
The role of the Principal here is to receive training as well as train staff on non-violent
conflict resolution; human rights based approaches to school management, and peace
education. The Principal should liaise with zonal office or the Ministry of Education to
get information on existing training opportunities.
10. Recognize violence and discrimination against students with disabilities, and
those from indigenous, minority and other marginalized communities.
The Principal should explain to students why some children behave differently, have
difficulties in learning or have limitations in sports and other physical activities due to
their mental, learning or physical disabilities. Emphasize that all members of the school
are different in different ways and this is what makes them unique; encouraging students
to appreciate individual differences. At the PTA meetings, Principals should encourage
parents in the same way.
Talk to your students about how words have the power to hurt. Watch out for physical
violence, however minimal it may seem that can accompany discriminatory remarks.

Conclusion
Literature on school-based violence in Nigeria reveals that there is a high incidence of
violence in our schools today. They manifest in various forms, ranging from simple forms
like shaking, scratching, pinching to more complex forms like extreme physical violence
use of sophisticated weapons, sexual and gender-based violence. For the reason that
school-based violence has many negative consequences for students, teachers,
administrators, government and the larger society.

Recommendations
From the foregoing, there is the need for school administrators to create and maintain a
school climate in which students feel comfortable sharing information with school staff in
order to prevent eruption of violence.
Developing meaningful and emotional connection with students and creating a climate of
mutual respect is critical to keeping students safe. Such Climate motivates all students

579

with information about threats against the school and its students to share information
with teachers and the administrator.
Prevention of violence in schools can be achieved if school administrators implement the
roles outlined in this work. It is therefore recommended that:
1. Teachers with strong sense of duty, good interpersonal skills should be appointed
to administrative positions in schools.
2. The government should formulate policies that would cater for training of
administrators on school-based violence prevention.
3. The administrator should build the capacity of teachers placed in his/her school.
4. Students should be given proper sensitization concerning reporting threats in the
school environment and also prevention of school-based violence.
5. Administrators should operate an open channel of communication with all
stakeholders of the school.

References
Aluede, O. (2011). Managing bullying problems in Nigerian secondary schools: Some
Counselling Interventions for Implementation. The African Symposium, 11(1), June
2011, 138- 145.
Aluede, O. & Fajoju, A.S. (2011). Bullying behaviour among secondary school students in
Benin metropolis of Edo State, Nigeria. Zimbabwe Journal of Educational Research.
Aluede, O. (2006). Bullying in schools: A form of child abuse in schools. Educated Research
Quarterly, 30(1), 37-49.
Eyoboka, S., Umoru, H., Ajiya, B., & Agbakwuru, J. (2014, February 27). Yobe Massacre:
How my mates were killed survivor. Vanguard. Retrieved from
http://www.vanguardngr.com/2014/02/yobe-massacre-mates-killed-
survivor/#sthash.mVaDCnkO.dpuf
Fajoju, A.S. (2009). School Bullying and academic performance of secondary school students in Edo
state. Unpublished Doctoral Research Proposal Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma,
Nigeria.
Federal Ministry of Eduaction (2007). The national strategic framework for violence-free
basic education in Nigeria. Abuja: Federal Ministry of Education.
Ferguson, C.J., Migel, C.S., Kilburn, J.C., & Sanchez, P. (2007). The effectiveness of
school-based anti-bullying programs. Criminal Justice Review, 32(4), December 2007,
404-414.
Ndahi, M. (2014, February 25). Scores of students feared dead as Boko Haram attacks
girls college in Yobe. Vanguard. Retrieved from http://www.vanguardngr.com/
2014/02/scores-of-students-feared-dead-as-boko-haram-attacks-fggc-
yobe/#sthash.0ExLmQRG.dpuf
Nnabuo, P.O.M., Okorie, N.C., Nwedeeduh, S.B., & Uche, C.M. (2006). Leadership &
Supervision in Education. Totan Publishers Limited, 2006.
Phillips, D.A. (2007). Punking and bullying: Strategies in middle school, high school, and
beyond. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22(2), 158-178.

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Umoh, S.H. (2000). Managing the problems of the Nigerian adolescents through counselling. A paper
presented at a workshop organized by the Federal Polytechnic Offa, Kwara State.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO (2009).
Stopping violence in schools: A Guide for Teachers. www.unesco.org/education.
World report on Violence against children. Retrieved April, 25, 2013 from
http://www.violencestudy.org/r229.

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