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This thesis, written under the direction of the candidates thesis advisor has been
presented to and accepted by the Faculty of Education in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science/Arts. The content and research
methodologies presented in this work represent the work of the candidate alone.




__________________________________ _______________
First Name, Last Name, Candidate Date

__________________________________ _______________
Rosemarie Michaels, Ed. D, Instructor and Date
Program Coordinator







3

Abstract
Since the late 1990's up until the current twenty-first century, one of the greatest
challenges that our nation continues to face pertains to the public health needs of
elementary school children (Cothran, Kulinna & Garn, 2010). As a result of the influence
of federal standardized state tests, scheduling issues, and several sedentary classrooms,
less than four percent of elementary schools provide daily PE or 150 minutes of exercise
per week (Vazou et al., 2012). However, a body of research suggests that by using
different approaches of integrating physical activity into core curricula, teachers may
positively enhance students physical, mental, and socio-emotional skills (e.g., Braniff,
2011 and Vazou et al., 2012). The level of a teachers desire to impact student wellness
needs and a teachers personal interest in wellness both play crucial roles in
implementing physical activity into the classroom (Cothran et al., 2010). The purpose of
this study is threefold. The first purpose of this study is to determine the impacts of
physical activity and movement integration pertaining to the students physical, mental
and socio-emotional growth. The second purpose is to examine factors that have both
reduced and enhanced physical activity and movement integration. The third and ultimate
purpose is to investigate how teachers integrate physical activity and movement into their
classrooms. Therefore, this study will address two research questions: (1) How do
students benefit from the integration of physical activity and movement into their
classrooms? and (2) How do teachers integrate physical activity and movement into their
classrooms? In order to collect data, individual interviews with teachers from California
elementary schools (kindergarten through sixth-grade) will be held. Furthermore, a
survey will be given to principals in California elementary schools. I anticipate the results


4

to be that students will enhance their physical strength and endurance, self-esteem,
confidence, and relationships with fellow peers through physical activity and movement
integration. I also anticipate the results to be that while teachers methods may vary,
teachers successful strategies for physical activity and movement integration will
incorporate fundamental goals that will encourage and motivate students to perform the
activities to the best of their abilities.



















5

Acknowledgments
First and foremost I would like to thank Professor Rosemarie Michaels for her
dedication, support and constant revisions on my Capstone Project. As an aspiring
teacher and professional dancer, this research topic is of major importance to me. I am
extremely thankful for Professor Michaels continuous help with the writing and
presentation aspects (including my presentations at the National Council on
Undergraduate Research, Dominican Universitys Honors Thesis Presentation and at
Dominican Universitys Academic Showcase) of this study. Professor Michaels
enthusiasm for my project and her dedication to my research and paper has been truly
exceptional. In addition, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the five
interviewees and three survey participants who gave up their time to participate in my
study. Their honesty, compassion, reports and discussions all provided me with
invaluable insights and information for this yearlong study. Without my research
participants, this study would not have been possible. Lastly, I would like to thank my
family and friends for listening to me and supporting me as I transformed an initial idea I
had my sophomore year of college into an expansive Capstone research study.









6

Table of Contents
Signature Page ........................................................................................................................ 2
Abstract ................................................................................................................................... 3
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ 5
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................... 6

Section I: Introduction ............................................................................................................ 8
Arrival Story ............................................................................................................... 8
Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................. 9
Significance of the Study ........................................................................................... 10
Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................. 11
Background Information ........................................................................................... 11
Research Questions .................................................................................................... 12
Definition of Terms ................................................................................................... 12

Section II: Review of the Literature ...................................................................................... 18
Movement in the Classroom: The Positive Physical, Mental and Socio-emotional
Outcomes ................................................................................................................... 18
Inhibiting and Enhancing Factors .............................................................................. 30
Teachers Methods ..................................................................................................... 47
Summary .................................................................................................................... 65

Section III: Methods .............................................................................................................. 69
Overview .................................................................................................................. 69
Procedures ................................................................................................................ 69
Participants ............................................................................................................... 70
Data Analysis ........................................................................................................... 72

SECTION IV: Findings ........................................................................................................ 74
Overview ................................................................................................................... 74
Interview Results ...................................................................................................... 74
Theme One: The Positive and Negative Impacts of Physical Activity and
Movement Integration on Students ........................................................................... 74
Theme Two: The Challenges and Limiting Factors .................................................. 78
Theme Three: Teachers Methods and Strategies ...................................................... 84
Summary of Interview Findings .............................................................................. 93
Survey Results ........................................................................................................... 96
Table 1: Physical Activity and Movement Integration Survey .................................. 97
Summary of Survey Findings .................................................................................. 100

Section V: Discussion and Conclusions ............................................................................ 102
Discussion .............................................................................................................. 102
Limitations ............................................................................................................. 111
Implications ............................................................................................................ 111
Practical Implications ............................................................................................. 111


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Research Implications .............................................................................................. 112
Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 113
About the Author ..................................................................................................... 117

References .......................................................................................................................... 118

Appendix A: Interview Protocol ......................................................................................... 120
Appendix B: Principal Survey ............................................................................................. 121
Appendix C: IRB Approval ................................................................................................. 124





















8

Section I: Introduction
Arrival Story
All truly great thoughts are conceived while walking. Friedrich Nietzsche
As I began my capstone project, I first thought that I would be focusing on
implementing creative movement into the classroom. As a career-bound ballet and
contemporary dancer as well as an aspiring teacher, I wanted to combine these two
passions. However, as I continued to do research and volunteer in different school
settings I began to learn about the need for the integration of general physical activity
within the classroom environment. Several schools are currently cutting physical
education courses while others believe that with more sedentary activities, students will
have more time to focus on and develop various academic skills. After starting my
research, I gained insights about the significance as well as the benefits of integrating
physical activity into the classroom. I found that many types of learners have had positive
outcomes as the result of physical activity integration. Therefore, I expanded my topic
from the implementation of creative movement to the integration of physical activity and
exercise within the classroom. As one who loves to take part in different forms of
exercise, has overcome learning differences and has boosted my academic skills through
physical activity, I decided that this topic would be interesting to research as it connected
to me on a personal level.






9

Statement of the Problem
Integrating physical activity into kindergarten through sixth-grade classrooms is a
fundamental practice that many schools within the United States are gradually adopting
nationwide in order to progress with the evolving education system of the twenty-first
century and to help students grow academically, physically, and socio-emotionally.
Physical activity integration corresponds to the inclusion of movement in the classroom.
Some activities include from the incorporation of five to ten minute energizers
(Braniff, 2011) where the class takes a break from the academic work to partake in
group-physical activities. Another example of a physical activity integration program
involves the teacher integrating interactive locomotor skills into core subject areas
(Vazou et al., 2012). The implementation of physical activity into the classroom has
several potential benefits. Research has shown that as a result of integrating physical
activity into the classroom, students with a range of learning styles gain intrinsic
motivation, perceived competence, and determination (Vazou et al., 2012). Furthermore,
studies have shown that students in these active classroom environments have been more
successful at working efficiently, staying still during lessons, producing higher quality
work, paying attention to the teacher, and listening to peers compared to students in
sedentary classrooms (Braniff, 2011).
Unfortunately, with the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, many schools across
the United States are experiencing increasing pressures to meet academic standards to
keep school funding and avoid other negative consequences (Kim, 2012, p. 273). As a
result, this had led to a decrease in physical activity integration and an increase in
sedentary classrooms with teachers determined that their students excel in particular


10


federal standardized tests (Vazou et al., 2012). As a consequence, the United States has a
high rate of childhood obesity, and attempts to prevent childhood obesity have not been
fruitful (Vazou et al., 2012, p.1). Moreover, in the United States, less than four percent
of elementary schools provide daily physical education or 150 minutes of exercise per
week. In addition, 80% of adolescents do not meet the recommended Physical Activity
Guidelines for Americans (Vazou et al., 2012). With more sedentary classroom
environments teachers are impacted as a result of struggling to teach unmotivated and
weary students. Sedentary elementary school classrooms have led to a decline in student
performance, engagement in learning and motivation to improve both academically and
socially. Students are negatively impacted as a result of learning to take standardized tests
instead of learning through engaging in physical activity lessons that promote critical
thinking, teamwork and life skills.
Because of declining physical activity and movement integration into both lower
and upper elementary classrooms as well as the increasing obesity epidemic in the United
States, this study will address the positive impacts of physical activity and movement
integration, the factors that have both reduced and enhanced this type of integration, and
how teachers integrate physical activity into their classrooms
Significance of the Study
This study is important because it addresses an extremely pertinent issue in our
current education system. With several schools creating policies allowing exemption
from required physical education (Kim, 2012), the implementation of standardized
federal and state tests, and a multitude of sedentary classrooms, it is of utmost importance
that schools within the United States reverse this trend in order to nurture active, healthy


11


and eager students. With integration strategies and methods that engage a wide range of
students, the incorporation of physical activity into the classroom has become a pressing
issue.
Purpose of the Study
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine the positive impacts of physical
activity and movement integration on students from kindergarten to sixth grade. Through
the review of literature and from teacher interviews, the first purpose of this study is to
focus on the impacts pertaining to the students physical, mental and socio-emotional
growth. The second purpose is to examine teachers perceptions of factors that have both
reduced and enhanced physical activity integration. The third and ultimate purpose of
this study is to investigate how teachers integrate physical activity into their classrooms.
Background Information
With the onset of childhood obesity and federal standardized state tests (including
the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001), it is not a surprise that elementary students
nationwide are receiving limited physical activity instruction throughout the school day.
As researchers Cothran, Kulinna and Garn (2010) found, the reality of current
scheduling, budgeting, and personnel means that even the highest quality physical
education program may only be offered once or twice a week to most elementary age
childrenIncreased physical education is a much needed and desirable option (p. 1382).
Research has shown that as a result of teachers integrating physical activity into their
daily core curricula, students improve their physical health, mental capacities, and socio-
emotional wellbeing. Teachers may implement physical activity into their classrooms in
different ways: either combining movement with the core-curricula or having fixed


12


portions of the school day solely dedicated to classroom movement activities. With
significant implications of the reduction of childhood obesity and the utility in nurturing
students academic and social skills, physical activity integration into the elementary
classroom is a promising teaching method for student success (Vazou et al., 2012).
Research Questions
This study will address the following research questions:
1. How do students benefit from the integration of physical activity and movement
into their classrooms?
2. How do teachers integrate physical activity and movement into their classrooms?
Definition of Terms
Appropriate/Inappropriate Trials Practice trials of physical activity tasks that are
labeled as either successful (appropriate) or unsuccessful (inappropriate) based on the
difficulty a particular student had in completing the trial and on the criteria given by the
teacher (Constantinides et al., 2013).
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity DisorderA disability in which children consistently
show one or more of the following characteristics over a period of time: (1) inattention,
(2) hyperactivity, and (3) impulsivity (Santrock, 2012, p. 288).
Child Nutrition and WIC Reauthorization Act (CNR Act)With the passage of this
legislation, schools participating in the National School Lunch Program are required to
establish local wellness policiesto improve school nutrition and PA-related practices
(Kim, 2012, p. 273).
Continuous Professional Development (CPD) The newest, most alternative models
of CPD programs for teachers encourage teacher inquiry, research, engagement, reform,


13


need-supportive teaching, and improvement. The two main purposes of CPD programs
are to facilitate the collaboration between teachers and researchers and to address key
issues. The goal of CPD training is to effectively develop teachers practices, strategies,
and essential knowledge in order to improve their classrooms (Aelterman et al., 2013).
ConstructivistA view of learning that encourages students to use active techniques
(experiments, real-world problem solving) to create more knowledge and then to reflect
on and talk about what they are doing and how their understanding is changing[the
teacher] guides the activity (What is constructivism?, 2004).
Core-academic/Core-curricular contentRefers to the central academic subjects
taught in the classroom (including mathematics, science, history, social studies, and
world languages).
EnergizersDeveloped by the East Carolina University College of Health and Human
Performance. These activities provide students with three to five minutes of exercise, and
serve as breaks and transitions from main lessons and core-curricula. Specific activities
include jumping, knee lifts, hopping, and other cardiovascular exercises in addition to
stretching (Braniff, 2011).
Experiential learningThe process of learning from experience.
Fine Motor SkillsMotor skills that involve more finely tuned movements, such as
finger dexterity (Santrock, 2012, p. 127).
Gross Motor SkillsMotor skills that involve large-muscle activities, such as walking
(Santrock, 2012, p. 124).
In-service Professional Development TheoryA theory demonstrating the vital role of
the individual teacher who independently decides the success or failure of any change.


14


Intrinsic MotivationRefers to doing something because it is inherently interesting or
enjoyable, rather than for external pressures and rewards (extrinsic motivation) (Vazou
et al., 2012, p. 253).
Listening ComprehensionA frequently occurring classroom activity that involves
attention to the auditory stimulus, ignoring distracting activities, waiting through a
delayed time period, and answering questions either verbally or in writing (Kercood &
Banda, 2012, p. 21).
Microteaching Microteaching is the process whereby a small group teaches a portion
of their lesson-plan to the entire focus group. These mini lessons typically last between
ten to fifteen minutes.
National Survey of Childrens Health (NSCH) One of the largest surveys on the
health of US children. NSCH obtains information about individual children from a parent
or another adult who is most informed about the sample youth. The survey contains
questions pertaining to the childs weight, height, and additional physical activity-related
abilities.
Need-supportive Teaching Need-supportive teaching follows that, when students feel
supported in their needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness, they better enjoy PE
and acknowledge the value and personal benefits associated with PE (Aelterman et al.,
2013, p. 67).
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) Implemented in 2001, this Act requires each
state to set and meet individual educational standards in order to receive Federal
funding. Standardized tests are used to determine how every public school and school
district in the country is performing academically. (Ahern, 2012, p. 14).


15


Nonspecialists One who has at least two years of teaching experience in physical
education and has a degree in teaching an(other) academic subject(s). A nonspecialist is
certified to teach in an elementary classroom for example, but is not certified to teach
physical education. A nonspecialist may possess a Masters Degree, but not in an area
related to physical education. (Constantinides et al., 2013, p. 71).
Optimal Stimulation Theory (OST)Hypothesizes that organisms will initiate
stimulation-seeking activity to achieve a stimulatory state that might be described as
homeostasisas in individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorders (ADHD)
engage in excessive physical movement in an attempt to generate stimulation and reach
homeostasis (Kercood & Banda, 2012, p. 20).
Peer Debriefing/Analytic Triangulation The process whereby a researcher calls
upon a disinterested peera peer who is not involved in the research projectto aid in
probing the researcher's thinking around all or parts of the research process. This probing
includes, but is not limited to, methodology, interpretation, and analysis of data. As such,
it is regarded as one of a complement of techniques used to enhance the credibility and
trustworthiness of qualitative research through the use of external peers (Nguyen, 2008).
PedometerA scientific measuring device (typically in the form of a watch) that records
the distance a person has traveled on foot by sensing the motion of each step.
Physical Activity (PA) Is defined as any bodily movement produced by skeletal
muscles that requires energy expenditure (World Health Organization, 2013, p. 1).
Physical activity promotes ones physical fitness as well as health and wellness.


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Physical Activity/Movement IntegrationTeachers implementation of physical
activity and movement into their classrooms as part of (or in addition to) the core-
curricula.
Physical Education (PE)Instruction in physical fitness and exercise in schools that is
entirely separate from physical activity/movement integration. Physical education is part
of the core-curricula occurring outside of the main classroom. As Aktop & Karahan
(2012) explain, Physical education is defined as a process through which an individual
obtains optimal physical, mental, and social skills and fitness through physical activity
(p. 1910).
Physical Education-Related State Policy Classification System (PERSPCS)
Provides information of states PE requirements along with other 4 PE-related topic
areas (staffing requirements, curriculum standards, assessment of health-related fitness,
and recess time for elementary schools (Kim, 2012, p. 269).
PressesFactors acting as levers for change to the current system (Cothran et al.,
2010, p. 1381). Three types of presses can operate at different levels. The following
presses include stakeholders, personal, and institutional.
School Health Profiles (SHP)Collects data pertaining to states implementation of PE
and nutrition-related practices in schools. Specifically, SHP collects school health-
related information from a state-representative sample of secondary schools in 50 states,
the District of Columbia (DC), and several local jurisdictions (Kim, 2012, p. 269).
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) SDT provides explanations for the types of
environments that enhance student motivation, engagement, and perseverance. According
to SDT, teachers must learn to support students autonomy, competence, and relatedness.


17


Teachers may do so if they create a well-structured and organized classroom, involve
themselves in the lives of their students, offer choice, allow students opportunities for
initiative-taking, clearly communicate expectations, and provide emotional support.
Specialists One who has at least two years of teaching experience in physical education
and possessing a Masters Degree in physical education or a related field (such as
kinesiology). Specialists also have physical education certifications (Constantinides et al.,
2013, p. 71).


















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Section II: Review of the Literature
This study discusses the significance and positive outcomes of integrating
physical activity (PA) and movement into kindergarten through sixth grade classrooms.
As the Physical Education Framework for California Public Schools states, Physical
education is a time that students look forward to each day. It is a time to move, interact
with classmates, and feel goodEvery student comes to class ready to be active and to
learn (California Department of Education Sacramento, 2009). This study examines how
the incorporation of PA and movement into the classroom (in both core-academic areas
and as additional activities) can benefit several types of students. The first section,
Movement in the Classroom: The Positive Physical, Mental and Socio-emotional
Outcomes addresses the benefits of incorporating PA in the classroom. Specifically, the
studies in this section focus on different areas of a students wellbeing and focus on how
integrating PA into the classroom positively impacts the student. The second section,
Inhibiting and Enhancing Factors includes studies on the elements that have led to a
reduction in PA integration. This section also includes studies that identify the key
elements of successful PA integration. The third section, Teachers Methods examines
how different teachers incorporate PA into their classrooms. This final section also
addresses different teaching styles and discusses the impacts of PA and PE training
programs for teachers in order to refine their teaching methods and strategies. To
conclude this literature review will be a summary of all key findings.
Movement in the Classroom: The Positive Physical, Mental and Socio-emotional
Outcomes
The goal of movement-based instruction is to integrate PA into the classroom in a


19


positive, non-competitive and organized manner. The primary idea pertaining to PA
integration is that students gain a better understanding of the core-curricular subjects and
furthermore, that they develop into confident and motivated individuals who will
incorporate PA as a life-long practice. The following three studies by researchers Braniff
(2011), Vazou et al. (2012) and Kercood and Banda (2012) indicate that as a result of
integrating PA into the classroom, students may be more successful in terms of
improving their physical, mental, and social skills.
In her study, researcher and fourth-grade teacher Braniff (2011) sought to
determine the relationship between PA and students attitudes, engagement in lessons,
academic success, alertness and overall wellness. The issue regarding the integration of
PA in the classroom is particularly important due to the fact that several schools are now
cutting out PE and recess time in order to have more time to teach core subjects and to
help improve students scores on federal standardized tests. As a result, many public
schools in the United States consist of classrooms with inactive, silent and bored
students. According to several researchers, implementing exercise activities throughout
the day helps improve academic performance and reduce disruptive classroom behavior
(Braniff, p. 1-2). Furthermore, there is evidence that allowing students to move and
transition to another location in the classroom can enhance learning. Thus, the purpose of
Braniffs study was to examine whether the incorporation of PA, transitions and stress-
reducing exercises enhanced the academic success and overall wellbeing of students.
The participants in this study consisted of 19 fourth-grade students (eleven boys
and eight girls) ranging from nine to ten years old from a school located in eastern
Nebraska. The studys duration lasted four months. In order to create an active classroom,


20


Braniff (2011) established several guidelines for behavior while implementing strategies
to support students collaboration, opportunities for movement and transition time. The
teacher and researcher Braniff used signals to indicate to the students if they were being
too loud or distracting to the rest of their peers. Furthermore, students were given the
opportunity to perform reading projects (guided by rubrics with clear expectations)
anywhere in the classroom. Additionally, Braniff incorporated several energizers
developed by the East Carolina University College of Health and Human Performance.
These activities provided students with three to five minutes of exercise and included
intervals of jumping, knee lifts, hopping and other cardiovascular exercises in addition to
stretching. The researcher also provided a stress-reduced environment by leading deep-
breathing exercises and encouraging students to write positive messages on top of their
assignments to reduce stress. In order to collect data, Braniff recorded observational notes
during classroom activities for four consecutive months. Moreover, she collected student
journal entries that included comments, reflections and surveys that students completed at
the beginning and end of the study. Braniff organized the observational notes, student
journal entries and surveys into categories and patterns. Braniff organized the data based
on similar themes three separate times. After analyzing the data, six themes emerged
including the effect movement had on classroom management, eagerness to move,
enhanced learning, alertness and attention, students wellbeing as well as the fact that the
physical location of seatwork affected learning. Regarding classroom management, two
students noted that being able to move around the room helped them to work quietly.
Moreover, a student diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (who was
usually very disruptive) performed much better academically and had an easier time


21


focusing during lessons after participating in two-minute exercise activities. Pertaining to
the eagerness to move, the class was consistently excited to perform energizers. Even a
very shy student asked if the class could do some stretches because she felt that she
(along with her peers) needed them. When examining students enhanced learning, the
researcher found that students produced higher quality work when they were able to work
at alternate locations. In particular, several students continued to report that moving
around the room felt good on their brains and attributed to higher grades. Two students
even stated that they knew their grades had improved even though they had not spoken to
the teacher. Therefore, as a result of the integration of movement activities, students
academic confidence and success significantly improved. With respect to the
attentiveness of students, the teacher and students data showed that students were better
able to concentrate on the teacher and schoolwork when they had breaks to move and
exercise. Regarding the general wellbeing of students, after completing energizers, a
number of students reported that exercise decreased their stress, anxiety and exhaustion.
Lastly, regarding the physical location of seatwork, when given choices, group-work was
more productive and students demonstrated an increasing interest and engagement in
their work. During the reading projects and assessments, after being able to select another
physical location to read, students generally answered all of the comprehension questions
correctly and completely. Even after taking the comprehension tests students were eager
to discuss further innovative projects pertaining to the reading due to the fact that they
stayed focused, engaged and interested.
There were several limitations to Braniffs (2011) study. One limitation was that
four months of research was not enough time to gather all the necessary data. Collecting


22


data over a longer period of time would have produced more accurate results. A second
limitation was that the teacher was also the researcher. Therefore, having to multi-task
continued to be a challenge for Braniff who had to document classroom data while
teaching an active classroom. Therefore, Braniff might have missed important data being
the only one conducting the study. The final limitation was that the research was done
with only one class of nineteen students. Therefore, further investigation including
different classroom environments and a larger number of students is necessary. Despite
these limitations, Braniffs data showed that the implementation of movement and the
academic, mental, emotional and physical successes of the fourth-grade students were
positively correlated. Braniff concluded that as a result of her study, she believed that
exercise and physical movement in the classroom helped students to focus, strive to do
their best work, improve their learning, diminish stress, and work efficiently in groups.
Despite her successful results, Braniff stated that further classroom studies need to be
conducted in order to verify and extend her conclusions.
In a larger study, researchers Vazou, Gavrilou, Mamalaki, Papnastasiou and
Sioumala (2012) sought to examine the effects on students interest, enjoyment,
perceived competence and motivational outcomes when PAs were integrated with
academic lessons versus traditional sedentary lessons. The matter involving the
integration of PA is exceptionally significant due to the fact that numerous physical
education (PE) classes are being eliminated from several schools worldwide (especially
in the United States). Several schools are pressured to meet the rigid requirements for
academic achievement with limited budgets. Therefore, as a result of various studies,
Vazou et al. explain that in the United States about 80% of adolescents do not meet the


23


recommended Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans and less than 4% of
elementary schools provide daily PE or 150 minutes of exercise per week. Furthermore,
Vazou et al. (2012) explain that the integration of PA in the classroom yields numerous
positive results including improving students academic achievement across the
curriculum, boosting on-task behavior, allowing students to gain cognitive skills and
stimulating the intrinsic motivation of children. Thus, the purpose of Vazou et al.s
(2012) study was to measure whether integrating PA into the classrooms of fourth to
sixth grade students would lead students to succeed academically, motivationally and
intrinsically.
The participants in this study were enrolled in eight elementary schools in both
urban and rural areas located in Crete, Greece. Of the initial sample of 236 students, 147
students provided complete data and were included in the analyses (45 fourth-graders, 82
fifth-graders and 20 sixth-graders). In this study, each class served as both an
experimental and control group. The study consisted of six consecutive lessons over a
two-week period. All lessons were taught by well-trained senior primary education
university student-teachers. In order to accustom students to these new teachers, the
student-teachers taught the classes in the traditional format (with no integrated PA) for
the first two lessons that served as the baseline controls (C1 and C2). Student-teachers
then integrated PA into third and fifth lessons (named T1 and T2). The fourth and sixth
lessons also served as controls (C3 and C4). Students were not told in advance about the
order of control and intervention days. The goal of the study was to incorporate
movement-based activities while teaching the content of the lesson that, in a traditional
classroom would have been taught using solely sedentary forms of teaching and learning.


24


The intervention lessons incorporated approximately ten minutes of PA games and
exercises within the 45-minute lesson. As Vazou et al. (2012) explain, PAs were based on
developmentally appropriate motor skills with moderate intensity, similar to PE lessons.
These integrated lessons incorporated minimal equipment and avoided emphasizing inter-
individual comparison. For example, in one activity, students used different locomotor
skills to move around the classroom (e.g., skipping, running and galloping). With the
student-teachers signal, students collected a flash card containing a question (the
flashcard was placed somewhere on the floor). Then students individually provided the
answer to the student-teacher and then continued moving around with different locomotor
skills instructed by the teacher. Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) was used to assess
students task-specific subjective experience of the academic lesson. Five IMI factors
were used in this study including Interest/Enjoyment, Perceived Competence, Effort,
Value/Usefulness and Pressure/Tension. Five minutes before the end of each lesson,
students were asked to fill out IMI questionnaires. These questionnaires were
anonymous, participation was voluntary and students were identified for each lesson
based on gender and birthday.
Results indicate that in comparison with traditional lessons, integrating PAs with
the academic subjects in the classroom can significantly increase students intrinsic
motivation, perceived competence, and effort without negatively impacting the value of
the lesson or pressuring students. As the researchers hypothesized, lessons integrating
PAs were perceived as significantly more interesting and enjoyable among children from
fourth to sixth grade compared to traditional lessons. Vazou et al. (2012) also explained
that the results showed that childrens perceptions of academic competence significantly


25


increased after the second integrated lesson. Researchers interpreted these findings
showing that students familiarity with this method probably influenced this result. As
previously mentioned, effort increased tremendously after just the first integrated lesson
and remained high over all subsequent lessons (regardless of the lesson type).
Researchers interpreted these findings to be result of PA, motivating students to continue
to try hard after the integrated lesson. Furthermore, Vazou et al. found that the perceived
value of the lessons did not diminish after integrating PA. Lastly, the researchers found
that incorporating PA in the learning process did not cause students to experience added
pressure despite the newness of these integrated lessons. Overall, positive correlations
were found among interest/enjoyment, perceived competence, effort, and value, while
pressure was negatively correlated with these factors in both traditional and integrated
lessons.
Vazou et al. (2012) highlighted three specific limitations of the study. The first
limitation was that the sample was not equally representative in some subject areas and
grade levels and therefore did not permit the conduction of more advanced statistical
analyses, examining differences at both student and class level. The second limitation
was that there was an absence of an independent control group, as the same group acted
as both the control and intervention group. In future studies, the researchers recommend
implementing a separate control group. The third limitation was that the study had a very
short duration (lasting only two weeks). Therefore, because the short period of this study
involved replacing the usual teachers of the students with new student-teachers, the
researchers recommend that in the future the same teachers apply the integrated PA
lessons. In order to ensure high quality of lessons, Vazou et al. recommend proper


26


training on the content of the activities.
Despite these limitations, Vazou et al. (2012) concluded that integrating PA into
academic lessons significantly increases students academic intrinsic motivation,
perceived competence, and effort without pressuring students or diminishing the value of
the academic lesson. After examining these successful results, researchers Vazou et al.
stated that future studies on how the motivational properties of PA impacts students
(especially pertaining to facilitating academic achievement and encouraging lifelong PA)
are necessary in order to expand the conclusions of this particular study.
In a third study, Kercood and Banda (2012) examined the effect of adding PAs
(one involving gross motor skills and the other involving fine motor skills) on listening
comprehension of children with and without learning and attention disabilities.
According to several researchers, listening is particularly challenging for children,
especially because they are required to concentrate in school for hours while staying
completely sedentary and not having the chance to move around. Kercood and Banda
explicitly demonstrate that it is estimated that up to one in twenty children in the United
States, and approximately 5.9% of school-aged children worldwide have a diagnosis
pertaining to some type of attention-related learning difference. Furthermore, current
research suggests that instead of restricting students from exercising and engaging in
different types of movement throughout the day, teachers should integrate PA into the
curriculum. As a result, Kercood and Banda state that students will not only improve
academically, but they will also have an easier time focusing, staying on task and sitting
still. Therefore, the purpose of Kercood and Bandas study was to investigate whether


27


adding PAs during a listening comprehension lesson would increase students
performance accuracy of tasks and the pace at which they completed these tasks.
The participants in this study consisted of four English-speaking students, two
boys and two girls. All four students were attending two general education classrooms in
a suburban elementary school in the United States. Specifically, the participants included
(1) Nash, a ten-year-old boy who was reported to have attention problems but was never
diagnosed, (2) Zach, a ten-year-old boy with a diagnosis of an attention-related learning
disability, (3) Rosie, a twelve-year-old girl with a diagnosis of an attention-related
learning disability, and (4) Emery, a twelve-year-old girl with no attention problems and
no diagnosis of learning disabilities. Prior to beginning the lessons, all students were
given the Conners Teacher Rating-Revised: Short Scales test to assess the level of their
inattention or hyperactivity.
The dependent measures of this study were the percentage of questions students
answered correctly and the time taken to answer them. During the baseline, students
listened to the recordings of various short stories while sitting at small desks and facing
an audio device. All students were evaluated together in a quiet room. They were not
given any paper or pencils while listening to the recordings. After listening, students were
given multiple-choice question sheets (consisting of twelve multiple-choice questions per
story) as well as a pencil and eraser, and answered the questions based on what they had
just heard. After completing the baseline tests, students participated in the intervention
part of the study. The four students listened to short stories while either (1) sitting on a
chair and simultaneously doodling with a pencil on a piece of paper (fine motor) or (2)
sitting and bouncing on an exercise ball instead of being seated on a chair (gross motor).


28


After these two intervention conditions, students were given multiple-choice question
sheets and a pencil and answered the multiple-choice questions just as they had done in
the baseline. Students completed a reversal phase (where they returned to the baseline)
after taking part in the intervention conditions. All four students participated in the two
interventions. Throughout the entire study, students were given encouragement but were
not told any specific information regarding their test scores. Additionally, the time that
each student took to complete the multiple-choice questions was recorded by an examiner
using a timer. At the end of the entire data collection session, students stated whether
sitting on the ball or doodling helped them in any way with concentrating or answering
the multiple-choice questions.
After collecting the results, Kercood and Banda (2012) found that all four
participants completed the tasks faster and increased their performance accuracy during
the intervention activities (compared to the baseline and reversal phase conditions).
Researchers also found that when the baseline was re-implemented (the reversal phase),
all students continued to work at faster paces, but three out of four participants received
lower scores than they did during the intervention sessions. In fact, the only participant
who continued to have improved performance was Emery, the student with no learning
disabilities.
Kercood and Banda (2012) conclude that the results of this study demonstrate that
the application of intervention and PA (both gross and fine motor) in a classroom would
be useful for students with and without learning differences. As Kercood and Banda
explain, individuals with ADHD prefer to engage in excessive physical movement
activities as a way of reaching homeostasis within their bodies. This preference is called


29


the OST. Kercood and Bandas study supports the OST due to the improved performance
of the students with attention-disabilities during intervention. The data of this study
further indicates that participants preferred both doodling and exercise conditions,
thereby showing that students were learning in a manner of their choice. As a result, it
may have been easier for these students to pay attention and perform to the best of their
ability on the multiple-choice tests.
Kercood and Bandas (2012) study contained four specific limitations. The first
limitation was that the students were not required to give any verbal responses after
listening to the audio recordings. In the future, research should include longer listening
tasks (as the audio recordings were only ten minutes long per story in this study) and
activities should include more descriptive verbal responses by the students. The second
limitation was that most elementary school classrooms in the United States do not have
just four students, but contain a larger number of students as well as constant additional
interruptions. Therefore, future studies could include assessments within a typical
classroom during an ordinary school day. The third limitation was that students were
asked regarding their preference for the exercise ball versus doodling after the
intervention instead of before. Future studies should compare students choices of activity
prior to the intervention session in order to examine the effects on students academic
task performance. The fourth limitation is that doodling with a pencil and paper is less
expensive than obtaining exercise balls for students. Despite these limitations, Kercood
and Bandas study demonstrated that the implementation of movement and motion while
engaging in listening activities enhanced students abilities to work at faster paces with
more efficiency and to perform to the best of their abilities. Despite the successful results,


30


Kercood and Banda concluded by stating that future research must also include feedback
from educators or additional school professionals regarding the outcomes of PA
interventions.
Inhibiting and Enhancing Factors
While some schools have teachers who successfully integrate PA and movement
into their classrooms, others schools do not include any type of integration. Many factors
are involved in schools reduction or promotion of PA. The following three studies by
Kim (2012), Cothran et al. (2010) and Henley et al. (2012) denote that the most common
reasons regarding why some schools thrive more in their PE and movement curricula
than others include state PE policies, the teachers personal interests, PA exemption
policies, health and nutrition courses, school schedules, whether or not students are
encouraged to participate in extracurricular PAs, and the No Child Left Behind Act.
In her study, Kim (2012) investigated whether the level of different states (within
the United States) PE requirement policies were associated with students PA and
obesity. According to the 2007 National Survey of Childrens Health, the highest rates of
overweight and obesity among youth ages ten to seventeen years old are prevalent in the
Southern states. Furthermore, this survey shows that the differences in obesity are much
more varying between children in different states than between adults. As Kim explained,
one of the reasons for this difference between the two populations (children and adults)
might involve school-related factors. Unlike adults, children and teens attend school for
several hours a day. With several schools currently trying to solve the nations epidemic
of childhood obesity, in-state PE policies have received the most attention in order to
increase students PA levels. While there are minimal studies on the effect of state policy


31


levels on students level of PA or weight statuses, one previous study found that having
state PE credit requirements increased the number of days of vigorous PA among girls.
Thus, the purpose of Kims study was to assess whether the extent of state PE
requirements was associated with PA and weight status among primary and secondary
school children.
The participants of this individual sample consisted of eleven to seventeen-year-
old children who had no functional limitations (Kim, 2012). Researcher Kim analyzed
two cycles (2002-2003 and 2006-2007) of cross-sectional data using both individual and
state-level information. In 2003, 25,251 students participated while in 2007, 23,728
students participated in the study. These youth were enrolled in schools that were
connected to the National Survey of Childrens Health (NSCH) and whose states
contained state-level information in both the 2002 and 2006 School Health Profiles data.
Three different systems were used to collect data. One of these systems included NSCH,
one of the largest surveys on the health of US children. NSCH obtains information about
individual children from a parent or another adult who is most informed about the sample
youth. The survey contains questions pertaining to the childs weight, height, and
additional PA-related abilities. The second mode of collecting data was through the 2003
and 2006 Physical Education-Related State Policy Classification System (PERSPCS).
The data from PERSPCS provides information on states PE requirements as well as on
other PE-related elements such as staffing requirements, curriculum standards,
assessment of health-related fitness, and recess time for elementary schools. PERSPCS
scores schools for PE requirement. The score ranges from zero to five points for
elementary, middle and high schools. As Kim explained, The score is assigned based on


32


both the length of required PE time and potential enhancing (specifying daily PE) or
inhibiting (permitting substitution; not requiring PE for the full year) factors (2012, p.
269). Lastly, Kim used the School Health Profiles (SHP) from 2002 and 2006. The SHP
survey used school health and nutrition-related information from 32 states for this
particular study.
In addition to the three aforementioned methods of data collection, data from
additional sources were merged to produce one state-level data set for the two study
cycles. Other measures included residents education levels and adult obesity rates. After
all data had been collected, Kim (2012) performed statistics tests to assess whether state
PE requirements and school PE requirements were linked with PA and obesity among
children. The number of days having twenty minutes of vigorous PA in the past week
served as the PA-related dependent variable. A separate obesity variable served as
another dependent variable. Specifically, using the 2000 Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention growth charts, Kim (2012) considered a 95
th
percentile or higher gender-
specific BMI (corresponding to specific ages) to be obese. The main independent
variables included the extent of state PE requirements for secondary schools (as scored
by PERSPCS) and the percentage of schools with PE as a grade promotion or graduation
requirement. Additional state-level measures included the percentage of schools
providing healthful snack food, the percentage of schools providing unhealthful snack
food, the percentage of the population twenty-five years and over with a bachelors or
higher degree, and the percentage of obese adults. Additional child and family
characteristics that were potentially correlated with PA and weight were also used as
control variables. Furthermore, the number of PA days was used as a control variable to


33


test whether state-level policies and students weight statuses were related. Lastly, Kim
defined a significant interaction term as an associated variable that would suggest
different results from what was expected.
After producing five separate tables, Kims (2012) results indicated that states PE
requirements were not associated with any outcome. In the first cycle, a 10% increase in
the percentage of schools mandating PE was associated with a 28% increase in the
number of days having vigorous PE per week. This association was not significant in the
second cycle. In cycle two, there was a significant interaction between gender and school
PE requirements, particularly with an influence of school PE requirements on girls but
not on boys. Moreover, the association between school PE requirements and PA was not
different by family education or income in either cycle. Kim also found that adding the
variables including time on sedentary activities, race/ethnicity, or family socioeconomic
status did not make the association significant. Furthermore, school nutrition-related
factors did not alter the main effect of school PE requirements and were not associated
with obesity. Lastly, the association between school PE requirements and weight status
did not vary by gender or family socioeconomic status.
In her discussion and conclusions, Kim (2012) emphasized that this was the first
study to examine associations between the amount and prevalence of state PE
requirement policies with students PA levels and weights. Furthermore, this was the first
study to use data from both state-representative samples of secondary schools and
secondary school-age children during two cycles of time. While this study showed that
there was no evidence of an association with state PE requirements and a childs PA level
or weight, Kim highlighted that other factors might be responsible in terms of impacting


34


a childs PA or weight status. First, Kim explained that the No Child Left Behind Act
(NCLB) of 2001 may have undermined the supposed impact of state PE policies
because NCLB puts increased pressure on schools to meet academic standards to keep
school funding and avoid other negative consequences (2012, p. 273). As a result, the
budget shortages and pressure for youth to achieve specific test scores might have
weakened, reduced and limited PE in several schools.
Kim (2012) also addressed that several studies have shown that low levels of PE
requirements in schools might coincide with low levels of PE participation among
students. Moreover, Kim reasoned that in the second cycle of the study, higher rates of
PE exemption among boys than girls might have been due to the fact that more boys were
part of sports teams than girls. Because students can be exempted from PE for
participating in sports teams or sports classes, this reasoning explains the differences
between how girls and boys were influenced by schools PE requirements in this
particular study. Girls might have been positively impacted by schools PE requirements
if a large percentage of them were not participating in extracurricular sports teams and if
they had higher attendance rates in PE than boys. Furthermore, Kim explained that with
the passage of the 2004 Child Nutrition and WIC Reauthorization act, schools involved in
the National School Lunch Program established local wellness policies in order to
improve school nutrition and PA. As Kim reasoned, the implementation of this act along
with an augmented awareness of childhood obesity might have heightened changes in
other variables such as nutrition in schools and homes (during the second cycle).
Therefore, it is possible that school nutrition services were less developed before the
CNR act. As a result, the data from schools in the second cycle of the study might be


35


attributed to stronger nutrition awareness programs and expectations in schools after the
passage of the CNR act in 2004. Additionally, race and ethnicity might have also been
correlated with uncontrolled variables including diet and other types of PA that affect
ones weight. As Kim concluded, gaps existed between states PE requirement policies
and the establishment of these policies in schools. Moreover, while the relationship
between schools PE requirements and students weight statuses was obscure, schools
PE requirements did seem to increase the PA of girls.
Kim (2012) addressed four specific limitations to be considered when analyzing
the results of her study. The first limitation was that this study was based on limited data.
While state- and individual-level information were both used, Kim lacked district- and
school-level data. The second limitation was that grade levels were not separated due to
limited information. Neither the NSCH nor the PERSPCS contained information
pertaining to specific grade levels and SHP only provided data on the PE requirements by
grade level in 2006 (therefore, there was no SHP grade-level data pertaining to the first
cycle of this study in 2002). As Kim explained, because PE requirements vary greatly
across grade levels, analyzing separate grade levels could have produced completely
different results from those obtained in her study. The third limitation of the study was
that a large portion of the collected data came from the parents of the participating youth.
It is possible that the reports from parents on their childs PA level, height, weight, and
sedentary activities could have been inaccurate. Lastly, the fourth limitation was that the
samples in the two cycles were not necessarily from the same schools. Moreover, the
one-year time lag between the two study cycles might have been too short to determine
any change, even if over a longer time period there were significant changes.


36


Despite these limitations, Kim (2012) inferred that the positive influence of
school PE requirements on girls PA indicated the benefits of school PE for students not
involved in PA outside of school PE. Kim also recommended that, specifying funding,
oversight, and evaluation mechanisms in state legislation would enhance local-level
implementation and adherence (p. 274). Moreover, the researcher explained the
importance of maintaining PE and not substituting it with sedentary activities. As Kim
elucidated, in 2003, 28% of state policies had some type of policy that enabled high
school students to be exempted from PE courses. After examining the results of her
study, Kim recommended reevaluating and modifying existing local-level and state-level
policies for PE exemption, in order to minimize the negative effects of PE exemption.
In another study, researchers Cothran, Kulinna, and Garn (2010) examined
American teachers engagement in an extensive primary and secondary school project
involving the integration of PA into the school day. Researchers Cothran et al. focused on
the positive and negative factors that enhanced and inhibited teachers engagement in PA
integration. Previous studies have indicated that teachers work in challenging
environments with multiple presses. Presses can act as levers for change to the current
system (Cothran et al., p. 1381). The researchers suggested three separate presses that
can operate at different levels. Cothran et al. addressed the following presses:
stakeholders (such as the change-influence that parents, administrators and students have
on teachers), personal (comprising of teachers individual methods of change), and
institutional (including the establishment of standards by policy makers and professional
development programs). As Cothran et al. emphasized, one of the most current and
persistent institutional presses on schools and teachers pertains to the public health needs


37


of the nations youth. The researchers explained that with the nations current obesity
trend that pervades in adulthood, the negative physical activity and diet trends have
resulted in significant numbers of children being at risk for serious medical conditions
such as high blood pressure, heart disease and diabetes (Cothran et al., p. 1382).
Because schools tend to act as channels of intervention of the nations problems,
increased PA integration is a desirable option to amend the negative health trends in the
United States. Cothran et al. focused on the in-service professional development theory in
their study, demonstrating the vital role of the individual teacher who independently
decides the success or failure of any change. Therefore, the two main purposes of this
study were to (1) Investigate what presses serve to motivate a classroom teacher to
willingly participate in a change program involving PA, and (2) Examine what presses
inhibited these efforts.
With Native Americans being one of the most at risk minority groups in the
United States for obesity, high blood pressure, heart disease, and diabetes, Cothran et al.
(2010) focused their study on ten schools located in a Native American community in the
Southwest United States. Five of the schools were elementary schools, three were middle
schools and two were high schools. All schools were located on the same reservation, had
small school populations (ranging from 14 to 107 students) and shared similar conditions
such as low student attendance and poor student performance on federal academic
standardized tests. Furthermore, the majority of the students had high health risks of
obesity, diabetes as well as drug and alcohol addictions. The participants of the study
consisted of twenty-three classroom teachers. After receiving approval from the
principals of the schools, the University IRB Committee, the Tribal Council, and the


38


Educational Division of Tribal Council, all teachers were recruited from each of the
schools and were given informed consent.
As part of the study, the teachers agreed to participate in a yearlong curricular
reform program that was constructed to integrate PA into the academic content taught
throughout the course of the school day. Teachers were informed that the main goals of
the integration program were to augment the PA levels of students as well as to provide
students with fundamental knowledge about healthy living through pedagogical lessons.
Throughout the year, teachers received training by attending several workshops. Teachers
took part in sample activity lessons and breaks, discussed their ideas with fellow teachers
regarding PA integration in future curricular plans, and shared their lesson plans with the
focus group. In addition, classroom teachers were also assigned to work with at least one
mentor teacher in order to experience classroom-based PA integration. The mentors were
elite and renowned physical educators who had ample experience in educating Native
American students as well as designing cross-curricular programs. Depending on the
participant teachers needs, the mentors worked alongside and supported the teachers
through observation, co-teaching and/or modeling lessons. Mentors visited each teacher
at least four times throughout the study and were available to the participant teachers via
phone or email. Teachers were also given lesson outlines and basic equipment, including
pedometers. Lastly, the teachers were expected to complete a minimum of ten lesson
series that utilized pedometers while integrating core-curricular subjects such as math and
science.
In order to collect data, all teachers were interviewed close to the beginning and
end of the study. The majority of the teachers were interviewed in pairs in order to


39


encourage the participants to discuss and provide insights regarding their efforts and
views on PA integration. Most conversations lasted between 45 minutes to an hour.
Topics addressed in the interviews included the teachers reactions to the various
elements of the intervention (such as pedometers, mentors, and workshops) and how
teachers modified the lessons to meet the needs of their students. In addition, teachers
were asked questions regarding the context of their schools and their students wellbeing,
motivation and reactions to the teachers integrated lessons. Furthermore, Cothran et al.
(2010) collected data via mentor teachers and classroom teachers reflective journals.
Mentors were encouraged to reflect on teacher issues and lesson implementations and
participant teachers were encouraged to write anything they considered important, while
simultaneously focusing their thoughts on the lessons and student reactions. Researchers
Cothran et al. took field notes throughout the course of the study. Aside from the
interviews, teachers were provided with a list of ten possible motivations to engage in the
PA integration program of this study. The participant teachers were then asked to explain
how significant each individual motivation was to them (and how it might influence other
teachers). Teachers were then asked to select the three most important reasons for their
individual involvement in Cothran et al.s study. Responses to the reasons for
engagement were taken from transcripts and data were recorded in a spreadsheet.
Interview data were reviewed three separate times via analytic induction methods.
Cothran et al. also triangulated data between interview and journal entries. Lastly, a peer
debriefer was used in all stages of the data collection and analysis as a sounding board
and reflection prompt for emerging ideas and themes (Cothran et al., p. 1384). By using
both primary and secondary school teachers from different facilities within the Native


40


American reservation, researchers Cothran et al. were able to triangulate data, context,
and teacher viewpoints.
After conducting this yearlong study, researchers Cothran et al. (2010)
encountered several findings. Regarding the positive presses, teachers eagerness to
participate in the project was connected to the stakeholder and personal levels.
Researchers Cothran et al. found that the stakeholder presses included wanting to meet
the needs of the whole student (physically, mentally and socio-emotionally). At the
personal level, researchers Cothran et al. indicated that a strong influence on teacher
engagement in the project included teachers perceptions of the program requirements as
either additional work or in support of their current work. In their results, Cothran et al.
found that the primary reason for teacher participation in the study was an aspiration to
positively influence student health and wellness needs. The second most prevalent reason
for teacher engagement in the integration program was a personal interest in wellness.
The third highest ranked reason for taking part in this PA integration project included
teachers desires to motivate students to engage academically.
The researchers also found negative presses that inhibited and worked against
teachers attempts to effectively implement PA into their everyday lessons. These
negative presses included scheduling issues, attendance rates (especially in high school),
multi-tasking, and feeling that the importance of the core-academic lessons outweighed
the integration lessons. The most serious press working against teachers attempts to fully
dedicate themselves to the program was federal standardized testing pressures. As
Cothran et al. (2010) summarized, A majority of the students in the schools performed
below grade level and the poor attendance patterns made the teachers accountability


41


requirements even more difficult to attain (p. 1386). As a consequence, some of the
teachers who were initially excited about the project slowly withdrew their support as the
year progressed (Cothran et al., p. 1386). Comprehensively, the pressures on the
teachers (who needed to maintain accountability requirements) of trying help their
students to pass state tests and stay on track with the rest of the academic requirements
was a substantial burden. This strain made it a challenge for teachers to incorporate the
PA integration program of Cothran et al.s study into their classrooms.
In their discussion and conclusions, Cothran et al. (2010) stated that the first
generalization was that teacher engagement in the studys PA integration program was
due to teachers personal presses of caring about students well-roundedness and lifelong
wellness needs. Researchers Cothran et al. stressed the importance of teachers being well
informed about their students lives. They recommended community awareness and
programs that should be necessary components of health based school interventions. The
second positive press at the personal level included teachers own interests in wellness.
The researchers described a study by Guskey (1986) that indicated that teachers must first
implement personal change, further enabling them to develop a classroom where they
would consequentially help their students to take on positive changes (such as increased
PA). Cothran et al. subsequently outlined the negative presses on the curricular
integration program. The most obvious and largest negative presses on the curricular
intervention were at the institutional level: scheduling and standardized testing pressures.
Researchers Cothran et al. suggested block scheduling for schools with scheduling
challenges, as this alternative could potentially support PA integration programs. The
main factor regarding teachers perceptions of scheduling was if they saw the integration


42


lessons as additions to or in support of their academic lessons. Pertaining to standardized
testing, researchers Cothran et al. recommend educating teachers on the benefits of PA
and how PA can boost student attentiveness and performance.
One specific limitation in Cothran et al.s (2010) study was that no measure of
curricular quality was included. The researchers recommended that future studies should
include these measures. Another limitation was that the majority of teachers participating
in this study did not have a fully developed knowledge pertaining to planning integrated
lessons. Specifically, many of the teachers described the concept of integrating other
subject areas (such as PA) into core academic areas to be new to them. Cothran et al.
emphasized that future investigations should consider better and more efficient ways of
presenting academic integration to participant teachers. For example, teachers should be
taught appropriate exercises that promote their own wellness (in addition to the wellness
of their students) and these lessons should suit the teachers values and beliefs about
teaching.
Despite these limitations, Cothran et al. (2010) concluded that the teachers
personal presses likely indicated teachers change efforts in their classrooms. With the
positive presses that the researchers encountered in this study, future studies can
potentially design more effective and improved programs. Those who create these new
programs must be sensitive to the negative presses (scheduling and standardized testing)
that may inhibit teachers to fully commit themselves to integration programs. The
researchers finally recommend involving additional classroom colleagues to support the
health and academic needs of students, in order to guide students to become well-rounded
physical, mental and socio-emotional human beings.


43


In their wisdom article, researchers Henley et al. (2007) sought to examine the
consequences and effects of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation on elementary
schools across the United States. As the researchers explained, throughout the nation,
traditional school days, afterschool programs, recess, visual art, music, performing arts,
as well as programs for gifted students and learning-disabled students have either been
eliminated or severely altered as a result of NCLB. In many situations, parents around the
United States are angry and frustrated by the NCLB legislation. Several parents view the
NCLB Act as a set of standards that are robbing children of activities that develop them
affectively and socially (Henley et al., p. 57). It is without a doubt that there is a strict
division between proponents of the act, who believe that NCLB strengthens students test
scores and report cards, and opponents of the act, who believe that the NCLB Act hinders
the developmental growth of elementary students.
In their scholarly account, researchers Henley et al. (2007) focused on the
negative impacts that the NCLB Act has on recess policies, gifted children, and students
with disabilities. The method that Henley et al. used in order to address these concerns
was through writing from wisdom based upon research, examining surveys and relevant
studies, and interviewing stakeholders. For example, researchers Henley et al. quoted
researcher Charles Corbin who addressed the barriers to PA in schools. In addition,
Henley et al. cited various statewide assessments in their account, such as the Georgia
End-of-Course Tests (EOCT), that all students are required to take regardless of his or
her learning disabilities. Furthermore, Henley et al. referenced specific examples of
special education teachers who have struggled with the EOCTs, as these assessments
consistently fail to reflect the progress that their learning-disabled students have made.


44


This wisdom writing provides scholars with the opportunity to connect a multitude of
research studies with particular examples of teachers and school districts within our
nation.
Regarding the effects that the NCLB Act has on recess, researchers Henley et al.
(2007) found that many school districts were implementing no recess policies in order to
allow for a new emphasis on high-stakes testing. However, as Henley et al. explain,
recess allows students to exercise their stored-up energy and to socialize. Henley et al.
quoted researcher Axtman (2004) who claims in his study (on the positive effects of
recess in elementary schools) that, The loss of recess, according to experts in child
health and psychology, results in a more sedentary, stressed-out youngster who may
encounter significant difficulties learning to socialize (p. 57-58). Henley et al. (2007)
found in a survey of 487 schools in the Chicago, Illinois area that fewer than one in five
schools (eighteen percent) provide daily scheduled recess for all elementary students.
Contrary to these results, the National Association for Sport and Physical Education
recommends that elementary youth get a least one-hour of exercise per day (preferably in
fifteen-minute intervals) (Henley et al., p. 58). In fact, the National Association for Sport
and Physical Education (NASPA) concludes in their 2003 study that making time for PE
and PA in schools does not reduce academic learning and may in fact enhance it (Henley
et al., p. 58).
In addition to examining how the NCLB Act has hindered recess, researchers
Henley et al. (2007) examined the Acts effects on the gifted students. Henley et al.
explained the concerns regarding NCLB, including the issue that the pace of the
curriculum may be slowed down and little support may be given to the individual needs


45


of gifted students. In many situations around the nation, parents are told that because their
gifted child has met the standards, they have nothing to worry about. Unfortunately, as a
result, several gifted students are left to feel unmotivated and bored in the classroom. In a
particular 2006 Colorado study where ten classroom teachers were interviewed with
questions about the impact that the NCLB Act had on students, researchers developed
three particular findings. These three findings included (1) Gifted children who had been
previously overlooked were more inadequately supported than ever, (2) Teachers were
constantly being told that it was most vital to bring the low-scoring children up to the
proficient and the proficient up to advanced (not prioritizing the advanced students) and
(3) Pull-out programs for gifted children were being eliminated in order to include gifted
students in test preparation classes with their fellow average-performing peers (Henley et
al., p. 59). In this particular section on gifted students, researchers Henley et al.
concluded that a fundamental purpose of teachers should be to provide all children
(including the gifted) exceptional learning opportunities and that the NCLB has increased
the lack of attention given to this particular group of students.
Lastly, researchers Henley et al. (2007) investigated the NCLB Acts effects on
students with learning disabilities. The NCLB Act requires grade-level testing for all
students, regardless of his or her learning disabilities. Teachers in many states hire highly
qualified content area specialists, but typically these specialists have very limited
knowledge about educating children with learning disabilities. As researchers Henley et
al. emphasized, putting learning-disabled students in regular classrooms and/or giving
them grade level assessments does not take away a disability. In fact, failing a high
stakes test is just one more affirmation for children with disabilities that they are


46


inadequate, often resulting in stigma of failure, lowered self-esteem, anxiety, an increase
in the number of students dropping out of school, and the loss of educational
advancement and career opportunities (Henley et al., p. 60). Throughout the United
States, several teachers remain confused about how they are supposed to continue
following the standards of NCLB while simultaneously addressing the needs of learning-
disabled students. The primary issue is that teachers are pressured by the NCLB Act to
continue using grade-level goals, regardless of the students skill level and present level
of academic performance and comprehension. While some school districts are allowed to
give alternative assessments, these tests are also very labor intensive and many times
include meaningless tasks that do not effectively assess the learning-disabled student. As
researchers Henley et al. concluded, a report by the Government Accountability Office
estimated that states typically spend between 1.9 to 5.3 billion dollars on producing,
scoring and reporting the tests required by NCLB (p. 61). Educators must ask that if all of
this money was to be put back into schools for teaching students, training teachers,
lowering student-to-teacher rations, and updating school resources, would not our
nations children be better served? (p. 61).
In concluding their academic wisdom article, Henley et al. (2007) explained that
while there are still proponents of the NCLB legislation, increasing evidence continues to
imply that many children are being negatively impacted by its enforcement (p. 61).
There is not just one group of children that is feeling the impacts of NCLB, but children
being affected by the Act represent a multitude of groups spanning the educational
gamut. Because art, music, and PA programs are being reduced and even eliminated, and
programs for the special needs and gifted students are negatively impacted, Henley et al.


47


concluded that the No Child Left Behind Act may be depriving children of their
childhood.
Teachers Methods
In order to thoroughly integrate PA into kindergarten through sixth grade
classrooms, teachers must have clear and organized methods that involve every student
regardless of his or her physical and/or cognitive level of ability. Most importantly,
teachers must be able to fit the needs of a wide range of students. In the following three
studies, effective and ineffective methods of teaching PA and PE are addressed. In their
study, Aktop and Karahan (2012) investigated Turkish PE teachers views about various
teaching methods (from teacher-centered to student-centered). Aelterman et al. (2013)
investigated thirty-five PE teachers views and appreciation of a continuous professional
development training-program (for PE teachers) focusing on need-supportive teaching.
Lastly, Constantinides et al. (2013) compared the teaching methods in fourth-grade
elementary PE classes taught by specialists and nonspecialists in order to determine the
group with the most effective teaching strategies. In the first study, researchers Aktop and
Karahan (2012) sought to investigate Turkish PE teachers views about various teaching
methods and the most current Turkish PE curriculum while also examining gender
differences in the five tables of data collection. The researchers emphasized the necessity
for teachers to have multiple skills and to be able to use an array of teaching methods to
meet the needs of different students with a range of learning styles. Aktop and Karahan
(explained that the Ministry of National Education updated the Turkish PE curriculum for
primary schools in 2006 and secondary schools in 2010 (p. 1910). The aim of the Turkish
government for renewing the PE curriculum was to create an instructional program


48


aimed at the acquisition of the skills, knowledge, and dispositions that makeengaging
in moderate to vigorous physical activity both possible and probable (Aktop & Karahan,
p. 1911). Few studies examine how teachers personally define effective teaching. Thus,
the purpose of this study was to inspect PE teachers individual views on effective
teaching methods and the renewed Turkish PE curriculum and to examine the gender
differences once data was collected.
The participants of this study consisted of sixty-six PE teachers who worked in
primary and secondary schools of the Antalya city center, located in Turkey. Thirty-two
of the participants were male while thirty-four of the participants were female, and all
participated in this study voluntarily. The researchers prepared a questionnaire that
related to teachers demographic characteristics, method selections, and views about the
new Turkish PE curriculum. The teaching method selections originated from the
Mosstons spectrum of teaching styles, which includes a range of eleven different
teaching styles appearing from more teaching-centered to student-centered (Cothran et
al., 2005). The six teaching styles listed in the questionnaire consisted of command,
reciprocal, self-check, divergent, practice, inclusion, and guided discovery. Command
style is the most teacher-centered, with the teacher making all of the decisions and the
entire class partaking in identical activities. Reciprocal includes partner work, with the
teacher providing consistent feedback to students. Self-check involves learners working
individually and checking their own work against the teachers standards. Divergent
methods encourage students to produce multiple responses and answers to single
questions proposed by the teacher. Practice incorporates independent student practice
with teacher feedback. Inclusion concentrates on learners of various levels of skill. As


49


part of this style of teaching, each student selects the difficulty of a task that he or she
wishes to perform while the teacher acts as a guide. Lastly, guided discovery means that
the teacher leads the learner toward encountering a specific solution by proposing
multiple questions.
Aktop and Karahan (2012) produced five data tables. The first data table showed
the average ages and teaching experiences of the participating PE teachers. The second
data table included responses to the question: Which teaching methods do you think have
the best results? The third data table included teachers views on the teaching methods
that are most frequently used in their own classrooms. The fourth data table contained
teachers responses to the question: Which teaching strategies do you prefer? Lastly, the
fifth data table consisted of teachers answers to the question: Do you think the new PE
curriculum is sufficient and effective? All participants were informed about the purpose
of the study, and researchers computed statistical analyses for each data table.
Regarding the first data table, researchers showed that 51.5% of the participants
were female and 48.5% of the participants were male, with a mean age 39.99 +/- 6.68
years and a mean teaching experience of 16.11 +/- 6.84 years (Aktop & Karahan, 2012,
1911). Statistical procedures showed that no gender differences existed in age or teaching
experiences. For the second data table, the majority of women participants preferred the
command method (29.4%) for the best outcomes in teaching PE. Women rated the
divergent and guided discovery methods the lowest (2.9%). Men rated the practice
method the highest (43.8%) in terms of achieving the best results. For men, the self-check
and divergent methods of teaching were not preferred (with zero percent in these
categories). There were no gender differences in the second data table. In the third data


50


table addressing teachers views on their most frequently used teaching methods, 35.3%
of women and 31.3% of men most frequently used the command style in their classroom.
The self-check and guided discovery methods were used very rarely by both genders (one
male and one female teacher used self-check, and one male and one female teacher used
guided discovery). The researchers found no gender difference in the third data table.
Regarding the fourth data table, the data analysis showed that out of a list of six
different teaching strategies, 64.7% of female teachers and 34.4% of male teachers
preferred expository (lecture and teacher-centered) strategies. Among all PE teachers,
researchers found that the student-centered strategies (constructivist, experiential, and
mastery learning) had the lowest ratings (all 4.5%) among all PE teachers. Lastly, in the
fifth data table, results of this study showed that 70.6% of the female and 68.8% of the
male PE teachers viewed the new Turkish PE curriculum to be insufficient and
ineffective. No gender differences existed in this final data table. In summary, the results
of this study showed that the participating PE teachers used the command and practice
styles the most, and the self-check, divergent and guided discovery styles the least.
Furthermore, the PE teachers participating in this study showed a trend of using teacher-
centered rather than student-centered teaching strategies.
As Aktop and Karahan (2012) concluded, the goals of the new Turkish PE
curriculum for both primary and secondary schools aimed to increase students awareness
through meaningful learning experiences, viewing students as active learners instead of
passive learners (as was the case in the previous curriculum). Findings of this study
revealed that there was an incongruity between the participating PE teachers views and
the new PE curriculum. As Aktop and Karahan explained, the reason of this incongruity


51


may be [due to] not discussing new PE curriculum with a wider range of [stakeholders]
like students, teachers, inspectors, parents, coaches and academics (p. 1913). Thus, the
researchers suggested providing teacher and student feedback, modifications based on the
feedback, and the implementation of a large forum. Lastly, the researchers extrapolated
that in-service training-programs for PE teachers that focus on the new PE curriculum
and new teaching strategies should be held more periodically.
In another comprehensive study, Aelterman et al. (2013) examined thirty-five PE
teachers appreciation of a continuous professional development (CPD) training-program
focusing on need-supportive teaching. Need-supportive teaching follows that, when
students feel supported in their needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness, they
better enjoy PE and acknowledge the value and personal benefits associated with PE
(Aelterman et al., 2013, p. 67). Researchers used both qualitative and quantitative
methods in their investigation while implementing iterative cycles. The newest, most
alternative models of CPD programs for teachers encourage teacher inquiry, research,
engagement, reform, and improvement. The two main purposes of CPD programs are to
facilitate the collaboration between teachers and researchers and to address key issues.
The goal of CPD training is to effectively develop teachers practices, strategies, and
essential knowledge in order to improve their classrooms.
Throughout the last four decades, a major theory that has been established as a
widely accepted method of motivating students in several different environments
(including the academic classroom and PE classes) is the Self-Determination Theory
(SDT). SDT describes the types of environments that enhance student motivation,
engagement, and perseverance. According to SDT, teachers must learn to support


52


students autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Teachers can effectively support
students if they create a well-structured and organized classroom, involve themselves in
the lives of their students, offer choice, allow students opportunities for initiative-taking,
clearly communicate expectations, and provide emotional support to every child.
Aelterman et al. (2013) explained that a teacher-training- program is the most successful
when it is utilized in a need-supportive way. The more teachers enjoy the training, the
more they are able to use the strategies and tools that they learned from the program. As a
result of a CPD program, schoolteachers will hopefully incorporate new strategies in their
own PE lessons. Furthermore, researchers Aelterman et al. highlighted the importance of
allowing teachers to voice their opinions and experience a sense of connection with the
trainer and fellow participants throughout the training. Thus, the purpose of this study
was to investigate the systematic development and optimization of a teacher training on
creating an optimally motivating learning environment for students during PE class based
on the principles of a specific psychological theory on human motivation, that is, the
Self-Determination Theory (Aelterman et al., p. 65). Researchers Aelterman et al.
emphasized that there are limited studies testing whether teachers (especially those
teaching PE) can learn to teach using need-supportive strategies. Therefore, this critical
study gave researchers knowledge of teachers perceptions and responses to training and
of fundamental strategies that they could use in the future.
This study included four focus group discussions. Each focus group had about six
to ten participating teachers who were all from the same school. There were thirty-five
PE teachers (twenty men and fifteen women) who represented four different secondary
schools in Flanders, Belgium. Because no significant changes were found from the third


53


and fourth schools (or the third and fourth focus groups), the results of these two groups
were combined. The PE teachers in this study had an average of fourteen years of
teaching experience and more than half had a Masters Degree in movement and sport
sciences. The training procedure consisted of three separate parts. The first part examined
theoretical background. Part I of this training introduced SDT as the framework.
Participants partook in interactive exercises and learned about different types of
motivation (autonomous versus controlled). They also learned about the concepts of need
satisfaction and need-supportive teaching. Lastly, PE teachers were invited to explain
why they were attending this training-program. They also shared perspectives on their
motivation to partake in this CPD training-program and contributed their ideas on how to
motivate their students to stay active.
Part II of Aelterman et al.s (2013) study focused on an overview of specific
instructional strategies to create a more need-supportive class environment promoting an
optimal motivation (p. 67). During this section of the study, the PE teachers were taught
eight different motivational strategies under the categories of autonomy-support and
structure. Pertaining to autonomy-support, the four strategies included adopting an
empathic attitude, providing choice, offering a rationale, and integrating fun elements.
Regarding structure, the four strategies included giving an overview and communicating
expectations, offering help, giving positive feedback, and providing encouragement. For
every strategy, specific examples were provided by using videos of real PE classes. One
hundred sixteen secondary school PE classes in Flanders were videotaped and twenty-
seven of these classes were selected for the study.


54


Part III of Aelterman et al.s (2013) study gave the participating PE teachers the
chance to apply the aforementioned motivating strategies. In small groups of three and
four, teachers were given a hard copy of a volleyball lesson plan and were given the task
of revising the plan by integrating the strategies they learned in Part II. Groups were
given fifteen minutes to complete this exercise and then all of the groups came together
to share their ideas. Following these activities, PE teachers filled out their responses on
an appreciation questionnaire (on the acceptability and practicality of the training) and
provided feedback during focus group discussions. The appreciation questionnaire
contained two sets of items that were rated on a five-point scale (with one meaning
totally disagree and five meaning totally agree). The first set of components included in
the acceptability questionnaire included interaction, innovation, interest, intelligibility,
and essentiality. The second set included practical usefulness and feasibility, the intention
to implementation, and the degree of which one would recommend the training to others.
Data collection for this study took place from October 2010 to January 2011. This
study had three iterative cycles between the four various focus groups. Revisions were
made and evaluated so that the training-program improved from the first group to the
fourth group. For example, PE teachers in the first group recommended providing lesson
plans of different topics (not just volleyball) and doubling the amount of time spent on
Part III (from half an hour to an hour). Teachers also recommended microteaching at the
end of Part III. Microteaching is the process whereby every small group has about ten to
fifteen minutes to teach a portion of their lesson to their entire focus group. These
suggestions were implemented in the proceeding cycles of the study.


55


Regarding the focus group discussions, each participating teacher filled out an
informed consent and a short registration form. A trained moderator guided all four
focus group discussions. The moderator was knowledgeable about the goals of the study.
The trainer (who was not present during the focus group discussions) lectured the
teachers and educated them on various strategies in the first two parts of the study. The
moderator however was present and helped facilitate the discussions. The moderator
worked with a co-moderator who was responsible for taking notes and assisting the
moderator. After each focus group discussion, the moderator and co-moderator
debriefed; they discussed unexpected findings, notable quotes and possible differences
with previous focus group sessions (Aelterman et al., 2013, p. 68). The focus group
discussions tended to last around fifty minutes on average and schools were requested to
provide an empty and comfortable room where the discussions could be held. Every
session was both audio- and videotaped in order for the moderator and co-moderator to
perform content analyses afterwards. The two main themes that were addressed in the
focus groups included the participants thoughts on the content of the training and how
the training was delivered.
Aelterman et al. (2013) obtained several results after completing their
comprehensive study. In Part I of the study, all PE teachers agreed that the theoretical
training was a necessary component. Particularly, the interactive exercises that addressed
different types of motivation gave teachers the opportunities to familiarize themselves
with the concepts of SDT and to understand why it is important for students to engage in
PE. Regarding the motivating teaching strategies in Part II of the study, while most of the
PE teachers agreed that learning about the structure-related strategies were important,


56


they wanted to have more time to discuss the autonomy-supportive strategies (these
strategies were newer and more practical to them). Teachers also stated that the learning
process for Part II should neither be too time consuming nor contain too much
information. Moreover, all participating PE teachers agreed that Part III was the most
essential and beneficial part because it allowed the teachers to apply and practice their
newly acquired knowledge of the motivational strategies. However, many teachers in the
first focus group wrote that they wish that they could have applied their new knowledge
of SDT and motivating strategies to a real life student-teacher situation. Many teachers
also suggested providing lesson plans for different exercise domains, dropping volleyball
(because it was hard to integrate the motivating strategies and this sport was perceived to
be too technical), and doubling the duration of Part III (from half an hour to an hour). As
a result of these concerns, in the following iterative cycles of this study the researchers
removed volleyball as the subject of the lesson plan and replaced it with three other PE
subjects: gymnastics, volleyball and jump rope.
When discussing the method of delivery, several teachers suggested including
video fragments with bad practices and examples in order to get a well-rounded
perspective on need-supportive teaching. Because the videos tended to focus on the ideal
PE class, teachers in all of the focus groups continually suggested using videos where
activities do not necessarily go as originally planned. Several teachers also mentioned
spending more time for all parts of the training. Instead of having the entire training
process within the duration of an hour, several teachers shared that they would prefer to
have an entire day for the training, with more opportunities to practice and implement
and motivating strategies in a rigorous manner. In addition, teachers suggested more


57


interactions among participants throughout the course of the training. Teachers also
explained that they found it useful to have one member of their small group to act as an
observer while the other group members engaged in microteaching. Many groups
mentioned that the observer could take notes and provide feedback regarding how
successfully his or her fellow group members implemented the motivating strategies.
By examining the quantitative results of the study, researchers Aelterman et al.
(2013) came across even more relevant findings. The acceptability scores were all rather
high. With the exception of innovation, all acceptability scores had a mean score above
three for all variables, further implying that the majority of PE teachers in this study
significantly appreciated the training. The researchers also stated that, a significant
positive linear association was found for Innovation and Essentiality, pointing to a
significant increase in PE teachers appreciation across the three parts of the training,
with the application exercise receiving the highest appreciation, followed by the overview
of the motivating strategies and the theoretical background (Aelterman et al., p. 70).
Aelterman et al. also discovered that the appreciation of the application exercise was
positively linked to the practicality and utility of the training and the desires of
implementing the motivating strategies.
Aelterman et al.s (2013) study had two limitations. The major limitation of this
study was that the training was evaluated by four different groups of teachers for each
iterative cycle (instead of the same group throughout the entire study). Therefore,
researchers Aelterman et al. were not able to verify whether the differences in
appreciation were due to the changes made from one focus group to the next or to other
group characteristics (not related to the training). Another limitation was that the


58


appreciation of the training was neither qualitatively nor quantitatively tested any further
after the study came to a close. For future studies, Aelterman et al. recommend measuring
need satisfaction of PE teachers and examining whether this variable predicts how
teachers effectively implement the motivating strategies in their classrooms after
participating in the study. The researchers also suggest investigating one specific school
and using focus groups to determine whether school-related factors impact teachers
appreciation of their training-program. Lastly, future studies may also incorporate data-
collection of teachers beliefs, values, and suppositions about the motivating strategies
prior to participating in the training-program.
Despite these limitations, Aelterman et al. (2013) reasoned that giving teachers
the opportunity to update their knowledge, providing them with the chance to actively
participate with colleagues in similar teaching positions, allowing them to collaborate,
and facilitating their engagement in microteaching would allow teachers to learn from
one another and to reflect on their current teaching practices. Furthermore, researchers
Aelterman et al. concluded that although CPD literature tends to suggest that theoretical
components of training are too abstract and inessential, the PE teachers in this study
placed essential value to the theoretical background information as a starting point for the
training (p. 74). Findings of this study also indicate that the SDTs concepts and the way
it was taught appealed to the participating PE teachers and helped them to apply this
theory to their classrooms. Furthermore, the teachers valued the use of lesson plans,
videos, opportunities for active participation and collaboration. The participating teachers
also enjoyed being able to apply the motivational strategies to microteaching.
Researchers Aelterman et al. deduce that regardless of the theoretical framework, trainers


59


must deliver content clearly and maximize teachers tendencies to absorb and implement
new and significant strategies into their classrooms. From their comprehensive study,
Aelterman et al. infer that the SDT is an excellent example of how to provide teachers
with the appropriate strategies that will help them to maintain organized, supportive,
efficient, and successful classrooms.
In a smaller study, Constantinides et al. (2013) compared the teaching methods in
fourth-grade elementary PE classes taught by specialists (PE teachers) and nonspecialists
(classroom teachers). Both specialists and nonspecialists had at least two years of
teaching experience in PE. As Constantinides et al. emphasized in their article, due to the
augmenting rates of obesity and type two diabetes within our country, as well as other
diseases including heart disease, high blood pressure, and colon cancer, it is vital for our
nations children to engage in PA (p. 68). Participating in PA contributes to the present
and future wellbeing of children and influences the lifestyle choices they make as adults.
Furthermore, to introduce their study Constantinides et al. (2013) also described
quality PE programs. These programs encourage health-related goals and lifetime
activities, and provid[e] maximum practice opportunities and well-designed lessons that
facilitate student learning, can give students the skills they need to be active as children
and as adults, providing both short-term and long-term health benefits (Constantinides et
al., p. 68-69). Pertaining to the benefits of PE, Constatinides et al. stated that recent
research (Basch, 2011 & Kohl & Cook, 2013) suggests that regular PA and PE widely
contribute to students cognitive, physical, and emotional wellbeing. In order to be an
effective PE teacher, one must be able to help students develop into physically literate
individuals (Constantinides et al., p. 69), who will be able to successfully engage in PA


60


on a regular basis and understand the benefits of participating in PA. Additionally,
Constantinides et al., reasoned that when teachers thoroughly structure time for students
to practice skills, give students a clear idea about the expectations, and understand how to
modify practice for students with special needs, it is very likely that students will advance
and progress in the skills being taught. However, Constantinides et al. demonstrated that
while sometimes, elementary PE is taught by PE specialists, other times it is taught by
elementary school classroom teachers. A concern in the current education system is that
while nonspecialists may be aware of the positive impacts of PE, due to a lack of
professional degrees in PE, limited confidence, and a lack of professional support, many
nonspecialist teachers believe that their PE programs may not lead to positive outcomes
(Constantinides et al., p. 69). As Constantinides et al. (2013) reasoned in their
introduction, existing literature (Faucette & Hillidge, 1989 & Patterson & Faucette, 1990)
suggests that there may be differences in teaching processes between PE specialists and
nonspecialists in elementary schools. An important question that must be discussed in
countries with PE courses is: who should teach PE, specialists or nonspecialists? Thus the
purpose of this study was to analyze and contrast the teaching processes in elementary PE
courses taught by specialists (PE teachers) and nonspecialists (classroom teachers).
The participants of this study included twenty PE teachers (ten specialists and ten
nonspecialists). Thirteen teachers were male and seven were female, and all were
recruited from school districts in Manhattan and Queens, New York City. These teachers
represented seventeen public elementary schools in New York. Both specialists and
nonspecialists had at least two years experience of teaching PE. All specialists taught in
urban schools, had master degrees in PE or a related area, such as kinesiology, and were


61


certified to teach PE by the state of New York. Nonspecialists also taught in urban
schools but they were not certified to teach PE. Nonspecialists had degrees in other
subjects and were certified to teach in elementary classrooms by the state of New York,
but were not certified to teach PE. Appropriate school district procedures were
implemented in order to inform every individual involved in this study. Principals,
teachers, students, and parents of students were given written consent forms for their
participation in the study. The New York City Board of Education and the Teachers
College, Columbia University Institutional Review Board (IRB) approved the consent
forms.
All schools participating in this study were located in New York City. Each
school had a gymnasium for its PE program that was large enough to accommodate a full
class. Constantinides et al. (2013) did not report the sizes of the various fourth-grade
classes). All schools were kindergarten through fifth grade with mainly Caucasian and
African American students ranging from five to eleven years of age. Teachers had
adequate equipment in order to enable them to teach their lessons to fourth-grade
students. Each teacher taught two indoor lessons where motor skills remained the focus.
Teachers were not asked to use specific methods and teaching practices, and were given
the freedom to design their own lessons. Every lesson (forty in total) was videotaped. The
duration of each PE lesson was approximately forty minutes. Taping started once the
students and PE teacher first entered the gymnasium and ended once they exited through
the gym doors after the lesson came to a close. Throughout the lesson, the teacher wore a
portable microphone. An electronic stopwatch (that also appeared on the videotape) was
used to record elapsed time. All students participating in the study wore numbered and


62


colored tags for identification purposes (students wore the same tags during both class
sessions).
Additionally, during the course of this study two official coders used two coding
methods. The first coding procedure that was implemented examined three separate
categories of teaching. These categories were (1) instructional behaviors (explanation,
demonstration and monitoring), (2) non-interactive behaviors (handling equipment), and
(3) organizational operations (wait time, team selection, handing out equipment,
transitions, and other methods) (Constantinides et al., 2013, p. 70). The second coding
procedure consisted of the categories (1) task organization, (2) practice time, and (3)
practice trials, with a focus on how much practice students were getting. For data
collection, two trained coders watched and coded randomly selected videotapes. One
coder initially coded the videotapes while the other was given the task as the reliability
coder. Both coders underwent 250 hours of training and had the opportunity to discuss in
order to understand what they were looking for in the videotapes. Coders focused on
teachers instructions and how the students were to perform the tasks. Coders recorded
the time the various lessons started and finished and were allowed to rewind the tape and
reexamine any necessary parts before recording data. Regarding the data collection, nine
randomly selected students were coded for the number and type of practice trials they
executed. Practice trials were coded as appropriate (successful) or inappropriate
(unsuccessful) based on the difficulty the student had in completing the trial and on the
criteria given by the teacher (Constantinides et al., p. 71). Coders examined the
videotapes and followed each individual student until they were all coded.


63


After producing four separate data tables, Constantinides et al.s (2013) results
indicated that PE specialists offered twice as many practice trials in comparison to
nonspecialists. Moreover, the average total percentage of appropriate trials in classes
taught by the specialists was 75.34 percent while it was 62.52 percent in classes taught by
nonspecialists (Constantinides et al., p. 71). Results further indicated that specialists
overall showed relatively higher numbers of appropriate trials for each student.
Correlational analyses further showed that there was a significant positive relationship
between the number of tasks and the number of appropriate practice trials
(Constantinides et al., p. 72). Data from this study indicate that, in general, PE specialists
have clear expectations of behavior and use agendas that support calm transitions
between tasks and activities.
Moreover, results show that the specialists spent significant amount of time
presenting tasks. Specialists spent an average of eighteen minutes across the two classes
while nonspecialists spent an average of twelve minutes over two class periods.
Nonspecialists used well-known games, such as kickball and dodgeball, instead of
practice tasks. Researchers Constantinides et al. (2013) explained that using more games
than practice tasks is less likely to result in skill development. Constantinides et al.
emphasized that these games should be avoided in PE classes, since they do not allow for
equal opportunities and may discourage students who are low skilled, learn at slower
paces and do not yet have the necessary skills. As Constantinides et al. stated,
Allocating time for skill practice, however, as specialists did in this study should lead to
student achievement, and the nearly four times greater appropriate trials per minute
suggests that specialists provided more focused lessons (p. 73). Results of this study also


64


indicated that providing the most time possible for practice would benefit students
learning the most. While the specialists demonstrated this approach within their lessons,
several of the nonspecialists had their students waiting in lines, sitting on the side, and
even playing cards. Thus, these students were not provided with efficient, organizational
time and techniques, and as a result they achieved fewer appropriate trials than students
of the specialist teachers. Lastly, results demonstrate that students in classes of
nonspecialists had about one third of the appropriate trials when compared to students of
specialists.
There were two limitations of this study. The first limitation was that while all
teachers were both assigned to teach PE, they all had different backgrounds and
differential preparation. This differential preparation might have influenced how they
approached their teaching tasks and the ways that they developed their lessons. The
second limitation of this study was that outcome measures were not used and thus it was
hard to directly assess student learning. Because so much of this study focused on the
methods that teachers used and the appropriate and inappropriate trials of their students, it
was hard to address student growth throughout the course of Constantinides et al.s
(2013) study.
Despite these limitations, Constantinides et al. (2013) inferred that students enter
school with different needs and different abilities. Teachers who are driven to
accommodate the needs of all students and modify lessons for those who need
adjustments are more successful in elevating the learning experiences of the entire class
(Constantinides et al., p. 74). In their conclusion, the researchers summarized the results
of the study by explaining that fourth-grade students in specialists classes experienced


65


more practice trials and more appropriate practice trials during skill practice, as opposed
to classes of nonspecialists (Constantinides et al., p. 74). Therefore, policy makers in
countries that mandate PE might want to reconsider hiring nonspecialists as opposed to
specialists. All schools have a duty to maximize student experiences and to develop the
motor skills of all children, no matter the initial abilities of their students. Teachers need
to have proper preparation in order to teach PE. Researchers Constantinides et al.
conclude in their study that a good quality of PE is most likely to come from certified PE
instructors.
Summary
In all of the above studies, the impact of PA and movement integration is
supported through plausible research. In the first section of the literature review
(Movement in the Classroom: The Positive Physical, Mental and Socio-emotional
Outcomes), Braniff (2011) discovered that the integration of PA and movement, and the
physical, mental, and socio-emotional successes of the fourth-grade students participating
in her study were positively correlated. Braniffs findings are due to the fact that exercise
and physical movement in the classroom may help students focus, strive to do their best
work, improve their learning, diminish stress, and work efficiently in groups. Vazou et al.
(2012) further confirmed the overall benefits of PA and movement integration. Through
their large study, the researchers found that in comparison with traditional lessons,
integrating PAs with academic subjects in the classroom significantly increases students
intrinsic motivation, perceived competence, and effort without negatively impacting the
value of the lesson or pressuring students. Lastly, Kercood and Banda (2012)
extrapolated that the application of intervention and PA (both gross and fine motor) in a


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classroom would be useful for students with and without learning differences. Similar to
the two previous aforementioned studies, Kercood and Banda found several positive
effects regarding the integration of PA. The researchers concluded that the
implementation of movement and motion while engaging in listening activities enhanced
students abilities to work at faster paces with more efficiency and to perform to the best
of their abilities.
In the following section of the literature review (Inhibiting and Enhancing
Factors), Kim (2012) found why some students PA levels were higher than others. The
researchers results demonstrated that the positive influence of school PE requirements
on girls PA suggested the benefits of school PE for students not involved in PA outside
of school PE. Furthermore, Kim stressed that in order to prevent obesity and make sure
that students continue to stay active throughout the school day schools should neither
substitute PE with sedentary activities nor implement PA and PE exemption policies. In
another study focusing on the factors contributing to both successful and unsuccessful PA
integration, Cothran et al. (2010) encountered several findings. In their study, Cothran et
al. focused on presses (change efforts). The researchers found that teachers eagerness to
participate in the study was connected to stakeholder and personal levels. The three
primary reasons for teacher participation in the study was an aspiration to positively
influence student health and wellness needs, a personal interest in wellness, and teachers
desires to motivate students to engage academically. The most obvious and largest
negative presses on the curricular intervention were at the institutional level: scheduling
and standardized testing pressures. Relating to Cothran et al.s findings on the negative
presses, Henley et al.s (2007) account extrapolates that increasing evidence continues to


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show the negative impacts of federal standardized tests, such as the No Child Left Behind
Act. Henley et al. show that regardless of their level of academic skill, all children are
being negatively affected by the Act. As a result of the elimination of art, music, and PA
and movement classes in addition to the reduction of programs for special needs and
gifted students, children are being deprived of their childhood.
In the third and final section of the literature review (Teachers Methods),
Aktop and Karahan (2010) found that in a sample of sixty-six participating PE teachers
from Antalya city center in Turkey, teachers use the command and practice styles the
most, and the self-check, divergent and guided discovery studies the least. The
researchers also found an incongruity between the participating PE teachers views and
the new Turkish PE curriculum (primary and secondary). These results suggested the
importance of implementing more in-service training programs for teachers on a regular
basis. Pertaining to teacher training programs, Aelterman et al. (2013) found that giving
teachers the opportunity to update their knowledge, actively participate and collaborate
with colleagues in similar teaching positions, and engage in microteaching would allow
teachers to learn from one another and to reflect on their current teaching practices. By
supporting students autonomy, competence, and relatedness through the SDT, teachers
may be more likely to maintain organized, supportive, efficient, and successful
classrooms. Lastly, Constantinides et al.s (2013) study indicated that the participating PE
specialists were more successful in terms of maximizing student experiences and
successes and developing students motor skills than the nonspecialist participants. The
researchers concluded that teachers who are determined to facilitate the needs of all


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students and modify lessons accordingly are more successful in providing enriched
learning experiences for every single student.
Overall, the recurring theme in all of the aforementioned findings is that teachers
must be both caring and accommodating towards students when implementing PA and
movement into the classroom. If teachers successfully integrate PA and movement,
students will not only improve their levels of physical fitness, but their focus, academic
achievement, perceived competence, motivation, and effort will all increase, while their
levels of stress will decrease. It is also necessary that teachers try their best to incorporate
PA and movement into the classroom despite exemption policies and the No Child Left
Behind Act. Regardless of the factors that may negatively impact PA and movement
integration, the more eager teachers are about PA, the more possible it will be for them to
implement beneficial movement activities into their classrooms. Lastly, while teachers
may differ in teaching strategies, by partaking in training programs and discussions with
fellow educators, teachers will have the greatest potential of updating their knowledge
and improving their methods as organized, accommodating, and effective educators.












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Section III: Methods

Overview
This study examined the positive impacts of physical activity and movement
integration on students from kindergarten to sixth grade. Through the review of literature
and from teacher interviews, the first purpose of this study focused on the impacts
pertaining to the students physical, mental and socio-emotional growth. The second
purpose was to examine teachers perceptions of factors that have both reduced and
enhanced physical activity integration. The third and ultimate purpose of this study was
to investigate how teachers integrate physical activity into their classrooms. This study
addressed the following research questions: How do students benefit from the integration
of physical activity and movement into their classrooms? How do teachers integrate
physical activity and movement into their classrooms?
Procedures
This study triangulated data using both qualitative and quantitative design by
implementing both interviews and a survey. To answer each research question, the
researcher designed an Interview Protocol instrument (see Appendix A) and a survey (see
Appendix B). First, the researcher emailed the principals at four different school sites
around San Francisco Bay area to ask permission to conduct research by using their
teachers as participants. Once the researcher obtained permission from the principals, the
researcher emailed five different teachers from the four elementary schools to ask them to
participate in an interview. The five different teachers were chosen because either the
researcher had previously known them through fieldwork, attended the school, or through
personal contact. All of the teachers had a strong understanding of physical activity and


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movement integration. The researcher asked three of the principals to participate in a
survey on physical activity and movement integration. The three aforementioned
principals agreed to participate in the survey.
Participants
For the interview portion of the study, the researcher interviewed five teachers
who are currently teaching elementary grade levels, between kindergarten and sixth-
grade. Teacher #1 is a Caucasian female third-grade teacher at a private independent
school (where the researcher attended school from kindergarten through eighth-grade) in
the San Francisco Bay Area. Teacher #1 is thirty-eight years old, has taught day-care,
first-, second-, third- and fourth-grade, and has been teaching for fourteen years. Her
highest degree is a Masters degree in Education and Literacy and she has a California
state multiple-subject teaching credential. Even though she just had a baby, she walks
and hikes outside (with her infant), attends dance classes, and occasionally practice
Pilates.
Teacher #2 is a Caucasian male kindergarten teacher at same private independent
school as Teacher #1. He was the researchers kindergarten teacher. He is fifty-four years
old, has taught pre-k, kindergarten, and fifth-grade, and has been teaching for
kindergarten for twenty-eight years. His highest degree is a credential in elementary
education. This teacher reported that he exercises outside of the classroom.
Teacher #3 is a Caucasian female fourth-grade teacher at a public school in the
San Francisco Bay Area. The researcher knows Teacher #3 personally. Teacher #3 is
fifty-eight years old, has taught third-, second-, and fourth-grade as well as mixed fourth
and fifth grade classes, and has been teaching for eighteen years. Her highest degree is a


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Post-Baccalaureate degree, and has a multi-subject bilingual teaching credential as well
as a single-subject teaching credential for Spanish and a single-subject teaching
credential for physical education (PE). This teacher explained that she exercises outside
of the classroom and regularly participates in strength-training classes, teaches yoga,
takes tap-dancing classes, and is trained to teach Zumba fitness classes (which she
occasionally teaches).
Teacher #4 is a Latina female fifth-grade teacher at a charter school in the San
Francisco Bay Area. The researcher is currently completing her fieldwork in Teacher
#4s classroom. Teacher #4 is thirty-eight years old, has taught first-grade through sixth-
grade, and has been teaching for fifteen years. Her highest degree is a Masters degree,
and has a California state multiple-subject teaching credential as well as a Waldorf
teacher training credential. While this teacher has a four-month-year-old infant, she
reported that she hikes frequently and practices yoga.
Teacher #5 is a Caucasian third-grade teacher at a public school in the San
Francisco Bay Area. The researcher completed her fieldwork with Teacher #5 during the
spring semester of 2013. Teacher #5 is twenty-six years old, has taught a two-three
combo (combination of second- and third-grade students in one classroom) and third-
grade, and has been teaching for five years. Her highest degree is a Masters of Art and
Education specializing in reading literacy, and she has a California state multiple-subject
teaching credential that has CLAD (Cross-cultural, Language, and Academic
Development) embedded in it. While this teacher has a six-month year old infant, she
shared that she has been taking dance classes since she was a child and currently takes a
jazz dance class once a week.


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For the survey portion of the study, the researcher gave a survey to three
principals from the San Francisco Bay Area. Principal #1 is a female who is the head of
the private independent school where Teacher #1 and Teacher #2 teach. Principal #1 has
been the head of this school for seven years and holds a Masters Degree in Curriculum
and Teaching. Prior to her title as the head of school, she taught preschool, kindergarten
and third-grade.
Principal #2 is the principal of two public elementary schools in the San Francisco
Bay Area (Teacher #5 teaches at one of these elementary schools). The researcher knows
Principal #2 through fieldwork in the 2012-2013 school year. Principal #2 holds a
Masters Degree in Educational Leadership and has a multiple-subject teaching
credential.
Principal #3 is the principal of a charter school in the San Francisco Bay Area
(Teacher #4 teaches at this school). The researcher knows Principal #3 through fieldwork
in the 2013-2014 school year. Principal #3 has a teaching credential and ample
experience teaching in Waldorf schools throughout the San Francisco Bay Area.
Data Analysis
Since this study contained two methods of data collection, the data was analyzed
according to each method. The individual interviews were analyzed through thematic
analysis of recurring themes. Concepts discussed by the teachers were categorized and
emphasized. All interview data was collected and interpreted qualitatively. Survey results
were examined for similarities and differences between principals. The researcher also
used quantitative methods of data collection when organizing numerical data.


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The Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects at Dominican
University of California approved this study (#10217). All eight participants signed a
consent letter (Appendix A).






















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Section IV: Findings
Overview
For this section of the study, the researcher interviewed five teachers and
surveyed three elementary school principals. All participants held that physical activity
and movement integration in the elementary school classroom are vital to elementary
education, but that there certain are factors that impact how much teachers will integrate
physical activity and movement in their classrooms.
Interview results were divided by their relevance to this studys threefold purpose.
The first theme addresses teachers views on the impacts, both positive and negative, of
physical activity and movement integration. The second theme incorporates teachers
responses pertaining to the challenges and limiting factors of physical activity and
movement integration. This theme includes teachers views on why physical activity and
movement integration is not widespread throughout the United States of America. Lastly,
the third theme includes how teachers incorporate physical activity and movement into
their classrooms. This final theme addresses teachers methods and strategies for
integrating physical activity into the classroom. Survey results were analyzed by each of
the five individual survey questions. Survey results were organized through the use of a
data table (Table 1).
Interview Results
Theme One: The Positive and Negative Impacts of Physical Activity and
Movement Integration on Students. Questions regarding the impacts of physical
activity and movement integration were addressed to all five teachers interviewed. When
asked how physical activity integration impacts students, all of the teachers discussed the


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benefits. When asked if there were any negative impacts regarding physical activity and
movement integration, teachers listed different factors. All teachers maintained that there
were more positive benefits than negative impacts regarding the integration of physical
activity and movement in the elementary classroom.
One major theme that several teachers discussed included the cognitive benefits to
students who are in elementary classrooms with physical activity and movement
integration. Teacher #1 explained that this type of integration makes their memory better
[and] it makes them deeper thinkers. And I see that in the classroom when I am
consistent. In addition, Teacher #1 added that, Theyre more able to focus during the
work time and they can get their wiggles out during the movement time. Teacher #2
explained that for kindergarteners, If they dont have movement, you can tell when
theyve had enough. Their bodies start to wiggle and they start to get distracted. Even the
best kids cant focus for more than maybe half-an-hour on something thats not of interest
to them. Thus, when students partake in physical activity and movement in a classroom
setting, Teacher #2 added that, they attend better. For example, Teacher #2 currently
has a student who needs to move around more than other students in order to successfully
function academically. Thus, Teacher #2 found that as a result of having this student
deliver a note to the first-grade teacher that simply explained that the student needed to
walk, physical activity [enabled him] to focus better. Furthermore, Teacher #3 stated
that, it allows them to absorb whatever is being taught and also it gives them the
opportunity to just not be sedentary and quiet. Teacher #3 explained her findings
regarding a study in Japan. Students in Japanese schools with fewer hours of instruction
and more hours of physical activity and movement had higher results in their testing. In


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Teacher #3s words, It makes sense to me because they have the opportunity to move
around.
Teacher #4 explained further cognitive benefits of physical activity and
movement. She said that, It helps the students take the concept into their long-term
thinking. Its been proven over and over again that students dont just learn with their
minds. That different modalities strengthen what they are studying. Additionally,
Teacher #4 explained that, It also invigorates the subject matter. For example,
students can really see how math is not only on two-dimensional paper, but its
geometric and its musical and its a game, so they have all of these different experiences
of math that take it outside of this one sphere. So it illuminates and enlivens whatever
youre teaching as well. Lastly, Teacher #5 addressed the cognitive benefits of physical
activity integration on students with ADD and ADHD. She articulated that for the kids
with ADD and ADHD, [movement] is a way to focus attention issues so that they can
focus on the academics[movement] kind of wears them out from getting distracted
from the academic task. She further explained that, physical activity and movement keep
students focused because theyre not sitting idly by. Theyre able to have an outlet for
that hyperactivity. Thus, within the realm of the cognitive benefits of physical activity
and movement, all of the teachers contended that a students focus, ability to sit still, and
absorption of academic concepts are all positively impacted.
Teachers also addressed the physical and socio-emotional impacts of physical
activity and movement integration in elementary school classrooms. As Teacher #2
described, A lot of gross motor activity helps [with] coordination and stamina. It
certainly makes kids more independent and confident. Additionally, Teacher #4


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explained that students all complement each other, tend to get along better, and support
one another as a result of participating in physical activity and movement integration.
Regarding the negative impacts, one major theme that teachers discussed was
related to bad teaching practices, especially poor classroom management. Teacher #2
explained that, Only if you didnt have a sense of control would students do wild and
dangerous things. Teacher #4 stated that, If your classroom management isnt strong
enough, children can hurt each other. They can run into each other or there could be an
accident. However, she emphasized that if there is a child who does not have a sense of
spatial awareness, if you know better and have the foresight to separate that child or give
that child another activity, you can also overcome those issues as well. Overall, Teacher
#4 concluded that, I dont think there [are] any negative aspects to physical activity and
movement integration.
A few teachers also described their experiences of having to take time out of the
lesson to redirect the class as a result of too much physical activity. Teacher #5 explained
that a teacher might plan a movement integration activity for the class that he or she
would initially believe to be a fun and successful activity. However, Teacher #5
explained that, then you just watch everybody turn into little tornados with all of this
energy in the room, and you think, there is so much happening right now that I didnt
foresee. Then you have to redirect the entire class. She explained that physical activity
must be integrated into the classroom in a safe way without over-energizing the students.
In her words, sometimes you realize, that was too much movement. Teacher #1 also
discussed that For some classes, coming back from physical activity is
hard[sometimes] youre taking an extra five minutes to bring calm and quiet around


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the room. That affects the social dynamics, the amount of teaching time, and the culture
of the classroom. While the teachers did not list as many negative outcomes of physical
activity and movement integration as the positive impacts, the five interviewed teachers
all believed that some type of negative impact was apparent when integrating physical
activity and movement into the elementary classroom setting.
Theme Two: The Challenges and Limiting Factors. When asked about the
challenges of integrating physical activity and movement into the classroom and when
discussing why this integration is not widespread across the United States of America,
teachers responded with a wide range of reasons. Some of these reasons were more
related to teachers backgrounds and personal beliefs while other reasons connected to
the school dynamics.
One of the reasons why integrating physical activity and movement into
elementary school classrooms remains a challenge is that teachers do not want to leave
their comfort zones. As Teacher #1 explained, Comfort level of teachers [is a major
factor, especially] not feeling comfortable moving [or] being silly in front of the kids.
Ive seen that be an issue. This teacher gave a specific personal example. While she
believes that yoga would benefit her students, she said that, I dont do yoga and that
would be a great technique for the room. Thus, stepping out of ones comfort zone or
trying something new is a major challenge that interferes with the integration of physical
activity and movement in the classroom. Teacher #3 added that physical activity is not
[always] something that teachers are exposed to. Most likely if its not coming from the
district or other teachers, they might not be aware that its helpful. Maybe they
themselves arent active. In addition, Teacher #4 addressed that educational studies


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regarding movement have not been implemented and are not taken as seriously as they
should be. In her words, I dont think that the research thats been tried and proven, in
terms of supporting movement and cognitive capacities has been taken in as wholly as it
could by the educational sphere. And yet, over and over and over again, in neurological
studies theyve proven how vital a component movement is to students learning. She
also stated that, I think the trend in education has been to specialize in a certain subject
matter even at the grade-school level, and so that teachers might feel daunted by the task
[of] incorporating more physical movement into their lesson, and it is a difficult thing to
do. Its not easy. Thus, it is common for many schools and teachers to lack physical
activity and movement integration as a result of being afraid to try new ways of teaching.
In addition to being afraid of stepping out of ones comfort level, Teacher #5
added that one of the main reasons why a lot of classrooms are sedentary and lack
physical activity and movement integration is that teachers like to teach how they were
taught as kids. In her words, You get stuck in your own ways of doing things. She
further stated that when she was in school there were rows of desks. There were no table
groupsyou were by yourself. There was no movement and several teachers still prefer
to teach in this old-fashioned manner because they know that they will be able to control
the class. Lastly, Teacher #5 stated that, I think a lot of teachers think its so much easier
to just make sure [their students] are all sitting in one spot. Its less management stuff to
worry about. When teachers incorporate activities engaging their students in movement,
they also have to set up more expectations for how that movement will look and how
that movement will not look and when that movement can happen. So a lot of it is just
based on the tradition of what weve already been doing that gets teachers stuck. Thus,


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fear of losing what is familiar to them and being afraid of failing due to an unsuccessful
movement activity is one factor that drives several teachers and schools away from
physical activity and movement integration.
Regarding fear, another reason why several teachers do not integrate physical
activity and movement into their classrooms is connected to schools financial situations.
Teacher #2 stated that, I think one big reason is fear. People are afraid of the violence.
People are afraid of being sued. A lot of schools dont build playgrounds anymore
because theyre afraid that someone will get hurt and theyll get sued. Teacher #3 said
that, I think its money. I think its funding. Additionally, she explained that while
teachers might not always want to integrate P.E., if a specialist was willing to integrate
physical activity and movement into the classroom, teachers would be more open towards
scheduling periods for physical exercise. She shared that, Were lucky we have this
grant that weve had for four or five years. Its fabulous. Its allowed the kids to
definitely have P.E. Thus, schools lacking grants (especially for P.E) experience more
challenges with integrating physical activity and movement into their classrooms. While
Teacher #5 stated that her school has incredible financial support and wonderful grants
that support the arts, movement, and unique fieldtrips, a lot of schools lack financial
resources. In her words, A lot of times its because of grant money. Struggling schools
and teachers are put into a box. Whereas there are other schools where its a little bit
more open and free to decide when to do things. The challenges and limiting factors are
related to the programs of these schools. Do they allow you the wiggle room to alter
your day or are you set in this regimented day? Thus, because some schools and


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teachers first priorities tend to revolve around money, physical activity and movement
integration gets left behind.
Another challenge that teachers continue to face is time. Teachers are
continuously pressured to teach a certain amount of curricula day-by-day and must fit in a
range of subject matter throughout the school day. Thus, a major priority is delivering
content to students, which impacts the quality of the lesson and affects whether or not
teachers will want to incorporate physical activity and movement. As Teacher #5
addresses, There are some schools that have so many required programs they have to get
to that its difficult to add in physical activity and movement. Moreover, There are
some schools that have specific ELL programs and specific reading programs and there
are certain rotations that they have to dobut its a lot harder [to incorporate physical
activity and movement] into their classroom because they have so many other
requirements that must be met throughout the school-day. Teacher #3 explained that,
Theres the pressure to teach so much in such little time. Before we had P.E [in our
school] none of us took [the students] out for P.E because there wasnt enough time. And
its so important, the kids need it. Teacher #2 also said that, Some schools, especially
with the little kids, have decided that there [are] so [many] academic [concepts] that they
have to cover that they dont have time for recess, and getting to school or passing from
class to class is the only physical activity they have. Teacher #1 elucidated that, For
most of us, we would be better teachers if we had all of the time in the world, but
everythings a time crunch. To give something you have to take something away. I feel
that we often dont follow the research [regarding physical activity and movement] that
we have learned as teachers because of the stress. Because the stress of time is such a


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huge factor that pressures teachers to eliminate the amount of movement that they
integrate in their classrooms, physical activity integration remains a challenge.
In addition to time, another limiting factor is space. The amount of room in a
classroom has a significant impact on whether the teacher will want to (or will even be
able to) integrate physical activity and movement into the classroom. As Teacher #2
stated, in kindergarten, Space is the biggest [challenge]. There used to be eighteen to
twenty kids in the class and now there are twenty-four. He further elucidated that his
kindergarteners need big bubbles when they are this small, because there is always some
type of collision. Even the gym, which is only a half gym, isnt usually enough.
However, he also described that there cant be too much space either. As he said, Its got
to be just enough so that they hear you and be corralled in, but it cant be so big that they
cant wander off and pick flowers. Teacher #5 also discussed the challenges of finding
the appropriate space in order to successfully integrate physical activity and movement
into her classroom. She explained that a major challenge is, Space. You lay out your
room a certain way to have the certain areas like the library area, the computer area, and
the reading area. But in order to have those areas sometimes it narrows walkways for the
kids. While she is lucky that she has one of the largest classrooms in the elementary
school, Teacher #5 talked about objects that interfere with physical activity and
movement integration within the classroom. For example, she said, Cords can cause a
problem if you have something plugged in. You have to be careful of the kids so they
dont trip over anything or knock things over, because usually the stuff thats plugged in
is pretty expensive equipment. So, space can really be an issue depending on your
classroom set-up and the size that you have.


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In addition to space, classroom management continues to exist as a major limiting
factor and challenge that gets in the way of physical activity and movement integration.
Teacher #1 stated that, The consistency, finding a time and a space, and that wind-down
time after sometimes can be a challenge. Its not true for every classit really depend[s]
on the class. If a teacher has difficulties with handling a more rambunctious class, this
teacher may act more cautiously by eliminating physical activity and movement
integration in order to avoid over-exciting his or her students. Furthermore, Teacher #3
stated that there are always one or two kids that take advantage of [movement activities]
and get kind of silly and goofy. If teachers have a hard time controlling these students,
they will most likely struggle with integrating physical activity and movement into their
classrooms. Furthermore, Teacher #4 elucidated that, if you dont have a good store of
physical activities in your back-pocket, you may find that the students get excited and
you need to make sure that you have movement or activity of the opposite nature so that
the students dont get overly energetic. She further showed that, There is the challenge
of over-exciting the children and not having the tools to lasso them back in. Lastly,
Teacher #5 explained what she has seen occur in her own school setting. In her words, I
know that there are some teachers already back up to thirty-plus students, and managing
kids, especially managing movement of that many kids is a major challenge. She further
stated that some of these teachers struggle with managing large class sizes and would
therefore prefer to have all of their students sitting down because these teachers feel so
exhausted.
A final factor that may reduce the amount of physical activity and movement
integration within a school includes school values and mandates. Some schools believe in


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a certain way of teaching that does not require the integration of physical activity and
movement. Teacher #1 said that a major challenge is The leadership of the school not
thinking [that movement integration is] a priority. Teacher #3s reasoning pertaining to
why certain schools face more challenges with physical activity and movement
integration relates to the schools focus and what their objective is. Some schools think
that more drilling, more challenging academics arise through straight pen and paper
lecture-based tests, and I think others take the risks and really let children move a bit
more. Additionally, she stated that, I think it depends on the region, it depends on
people running the school and really the character of the school and schools in that area.
Lastly, Teacher #1 explained that a major issue that inhibits the amount of physical
activity and movement integration within classrooms is federal standardized-testing. She
described that a huge limiting factor is, The high-stakes testing. She added that teachers
ask, how are we going to get all of the information to the kids? These teachers dont
have time for P.E let alone in the classroom, [and] those extra minutes of movement
have to be eliminated.
Theme Three: Teachers Methods and Strategies. When asked about how they
integrate physical activity into their classrooms and what specific strategies they use, the
five interviewed teachers shared different methods that have successfully and consistently
worked in their classrooms. The games and activities that the teachers described related
to their personal experiences, education, and most importantly, their backgrounds in
physical activity and movement. Teachers also listed more general strategies that could
be applied to any elementary school teacher who is eager to implement physical activity
or movement into his or her classroom.


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When asked about how she integrates physical activity and movement into her
classroom, Teacher #1 said that some years she is better at integrating physical activity
and movement than others. She explained that, As Im teaching, if [Im] seeing kids
wigglewe get up and we do stretching. Through movement, Teacher #1 asks her
students to demonstrate the biggest shape they can make [and] the smallest shape they
can make, even [incorporating] slow motion. Furthermore, Teacher #1 reported that in
the past she has done, focus exercises. So wed all get on the floor and Id teach them
how to plank or do the sitting position against the wall so they can focus their energy. I
wish that I could do it all of the time, but I often do it depending on the class. So if I have
a really wiggly class I notice I do more movement. However, Teacher #1 added that her
inconsistency with integrating physical activity and movement into her classroom is not
ideal. Specifically, she stated that, When [I] see that they need it, thats usually when I
do it, which is really not the best technique. Really it should be integrated so that Im not
putting a Band-Aid on the problem but Im really preventing the problem from
happening. Id say that Im not great at doing that. Teacher #1 acknowledged that some
of her teaching practices are holding her back from regularly integrating physical activity
and movement into the classroom.
However, while Teacher #1 may be inconsistent with integrating physical activity
and movement into her classroom, she did explain that she makes an effort to do so.
Teacher #1 also said that, Some yearsthis year I havent done itwe end the day with
singing, and theres often movement with the singing. She stated that, I try to as much
as possible, put movement into the teaching. I dont know if its really exercise, but when
Im teaching verbs, instead of just [lecturing], well have a movement. For example, by


86


using an action verb, everyone wants to get up and pretend like theyre running, or the
linking verb, [students] have to link hands or link arms. So putting a movement with the
teaching I think helps. Teacher #1 also stressed that implementing physical activity and
movement with the academic lesson (instead of separating the two) helps her students to
develop into well-rounded learners.
When asked about her primary teaching strategies, Teacher #1 elucidated that a
major teaching strategy for integrating physical activity and movement into the classroom
is, Starting out consistent as a teacher. The more consistent I am and have a routine
down, the more likely I am to be consistent and keep it up through the whole year.
Therefore, because she explained that she is less consistent this year (regarding
integrating physical activity and movement into her classroom), it has been more
challenging to incorporate physical exercises with the core academic subjects. Therefore,
she stated that, if I have year where I start off the year really good, that usually
maintains through the whole year. But, if I have a year where I forget about [physical
activity and movement] for the whole year, its really hard to pick it up. Teacher #1
concluded with a strategy that she has maintained throughout her several years of
teaching. When her class is out of control she and her students engage in slow deep
breathing. Teacher #1 reported that, we just all close our eyes. I teach them how to
calm themselves down. Through breathing exercises, Teacher #1 explained that students
are more aware of their bodies and are less likely to fidget.
When asked how he integrates physical activity and movement into his
kindergarten classroom, Teacher #2 was immediately able to think of three primary
methods. Teacher #2 said, One is our Friday fieldtrips. Theres a lot of walking and


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movement and theres usually some time where we stop and play. So Friday is an almost
six-houractivity period. He further explained that,
On Fridays its walking and running. We found that most of the buses stop at Caltrain
and there is a walk along the canal. So almost every fieldtrip now we try to take
that walk. Its very new and safe, and so we make them walk or run. And they like
ittheyre all tired, but [when] we get to the middle of the green space, they all
run around and play. Its selective energy. Theyre too tired to walk but not too
tired to play.
The second way Teacher #2 integrates physical activity and movement into his classroom
is by having dance parties for the kindergartners in the classroom on Fridays. He said
that, We have our dance parties. The kids dance on Fridaydisco, hardrockso that
they all sit still at the assembly. Lastly, the third way that Teacher #2 incorporates
physical activity and movement into his classroom is by teaching his students yoga,
[which] is like a calming down after lunch. Teacher #2 stated that he has consistently
used these three aforementioned techniques (along with others) throughout his teaching
career.
Pertaining to his fundamental teaching strategies, Teacher #2 explained that
physical activity movement integration must be timely. A major strategy of his involves,
Breaking [the day] up between sitting and listening to a story, [and] physical activity.
Not physical activity, physical activity, physical activity, because then [the children] just
wear down. Some of [my students] dont have the same stamina. Kids seem to run in
short bursts. Moreover, Teacher #2 added that, The other thing is having some really
clear structure around whats too much physical activity. For example, jumping off the


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table or climbing. We say a lot that no one in dancing should ever get hurt. So I would
say clear guidelines for whats appropriate for the space and making sure that [there are]
breaks betweenquiet, sitting still time [and] active time are two important teaching
strategies. Teacher #2 showed how in kindergarten, reading involves more physical
activity than one might expect. He stated that, theres a lot of physical activity that
actually ties into reading. There [are] a lot of cross-body [interactions] that [enable] both
sides of your brain [to work]. To conclude, Teacher #2 explained the importance of
accommodating every child, depending on what his or her physical needs are.
Specifically, There are kids in the morning who need to take the chairs down; they need
big movement in order to be ready to sit. Other kids come and theyre ready to sit. Thus,
having a strong understanding of his students needs allows Teacher #2 to effectively
incorporate physical activity into his classroom.
When asked how she integrates physical activity and movement into her
classroom, Teacher #3 first stated that she does a call-and-response activity with her
class. For example, she said that, Sometimes Ill do a clapping, clicking finger pattern,
and thats great for them to integrate their right- and left-brain. Furthermore, Teacher #3
added that Also sometimes during the class, Ill just stop and well do some sort of
movement. Well do some stretching or some yoga. NowI [am] teach[ing] them some
simple dance routines. Teacher #3 explained that a lot of the physical exercises she
incorporates relate to her movement background.
Regarding her teaching strategies, Teacher #3 elucidated that, At the beginning
of the year I have this questionnaire [of] ten questions that provides information
regarding, what type of a learner the kids are. Whether theyre kinesthetic, visual or


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auditory. I try to incorporate strategies that address that. Additionally, she explained, I
use a lot of pair-sharing and interaction[s] with the kids. So they have a lot of discussions
going on between themselves. Finally, Teacher #3 discussed the strategies that have
continued to work well for her when her students are having trouble focusing and are
constantly fidgeting. Teacher #3 explained that, What works really well with the kids is
doing a yoga-breathing, just to get them backbecause sometimes they get distracted. Or
Ill send them out to go run to the fence and back. She added that, If I feel like Im
losing them, Ill take them out. We have a painted circular track and I just let them skip
[or do] any kind of movement that helps.
When asked how she integrates physical activity and movement into her
classroom, Teacher #4 explained that, Because I have been trained as a Waldorf teacher,
a physical aspect to the morning lesson is absolutely essential, and I have done so for my
entire teaching career. Specifically, she reported that, The nature of the activity
depends on the subject matter and the children or the students that Im teaching.
Therefore, if one is doing a thematic unit, where the main focus is language arts, then
[one] may incorporate kinesthetic games that help children learn through movement best
to also solidify their language arts or phonics skills. However, Teacher #4 stated that,
The movement chosen has to be really specific to the outcome or the objective of the
lesson and/or the issue with which the children struggle. So the movement can also be
something that requires them to focus or to come to quiet or to movement [itself]. To
add to the strategy of choosing movement that is appropriate for the lesson, Teacher #4
shared that, Learning doesnt just occur through the head. I know learning doesnt just
occur through the cognitive and in order to manage the class effectively and give students


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that opportunity to breathe out and settle down in quiet focus, [teaching] is most
achievable by having movement in the classroom. Lastly, Teacher #4 elucidated that
another way that she integrates physical activity and movement into the classroom is to,
meet and stretch, via Vigotsky their developmental place. So each child or each student
according to [his or her] age has a developmental phase he or she is going
through. So if you have first-graders and theyre really learning how to solidify
their dominance in terms of their hand dominance or eye dominance or foot
dominance, you want to give them exercises that will enable them to exercise that.
And theyll become better learners because of that.
Pertaining to her main teaching strategies, Teacher #4 related these methods to
her experience as a Waldorf teacher. In the Waldorf School setting The fact that the
subject matter is taught kinesthetically on a daily basis is just as important as the review
or oral part of the lesson. She added that, The more modalities you present any subject-
matter in, the more wholesome and well-balanced and capable will a child be at taking
the subject matter and [applying] it. Furthermore, Teacher #4 explained that, A huge
disciplinarian for me as a teacher in the classroom is rhythm. So if the students know that
this signal means were now doing movement and that signal means were now finishing
movement, you dont have to carry the class so much through your authority. As a
result, Teacher #4 said that students fall into a habit of using movement, further enabling
them to develop into wholesome learners. In the words of Teacher #4, rhythm and
structure both really add efficiency and economy to the lesson.
Since Teacher #4 is experienced in movement therapy, she has worked with
children one-on-one in order to help them overcome certain challenges and disabilities.


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For example, a boy in her class had trouble scanning, and you could see that with a very
informal eye-tracking assessment. While Teacher #4 said, that Its true that
developmental optometry would really benefit a student like that, she elucidated that she
help[ed] the student by giving the child cross-lateral exercises like sweeping or painting
strokes across the breadth of paper and doing whatever therapy [called] the child to cross
his vertical midline over and over and over again. Therefore, Teacher #4 concluded that
through her methods of incorporating movement into the classroom, she has learned how
to benefit all types of students, whether they have disabilities or not.
When asked how she integrates physical activity and movement into her
classroom, Teacher #5 said that, We use a lot of gestures. Sometimes [we use] American
Sign Language, sometimes its just something that the kids help make up or something
that Ive made up that works with whatever word were [focusing on]. Regarding her
students, Teacher #5 stated that, I also try to make sure that theyre not just in one spot
during the day. So, sometimes theyre at their seats. Sometimes we go to the perimeter of
the carpet. I make sure that I use that language with them. Teacher #5 explained that she
values tying physical activity and movement to the core academic content that she is
teaching her class. Another way that Teacher #5 gets her students to move around the
classroom is by using the daily-five in here, so that allows them to be in charge of
moving around as well. The daily-five activity in Teacher #5s classroom includes five
different stations. Some of the stations involve reading independently, some involve
reading to a partner and some involve engaging group activities that incorporate
movement. After fifteen minutes, the teacher signals the class to advance to the next
station, further allowing students to move around the classroom.


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Teacher #5 also shared that in her classroom, We also play some games where
[the students are] standing up or sitting down. Specifically, Teacher #5 stated that, We
play this gameits a math game on the surface. Its called, Buzz. So theyre counting
and working on multiples and listening to each other, but theyre standing while theyre
doing it. Teacher #5 added that her students are able to kind of twist around and use
their fingers while theyre counting and youll see that theyre moving while theyre
doing it. So they sit down if theyre out, but theyre twisting their bodies so they can look
at each other. Therefore, not only does the game, Buzz develop students cognitively
(as they are constantly paying attention to the teacher and calculating mathematical sums
and multiples in their heads), but Buzz also enables students to engage in movement in
a safe way. As Teacher #5 concluded, Theyre not realizing that its a movement
activity, because the overlying theme to it is math, but its movement in-between the
vigorous P.E and vigorous recess. Its [also] calm enough where we can realize were in a
classroom. Therefore, Teacher #5 concluded that she values games like Buzz because
she feels as if she is multi-tasking by addressing the academic core academic content and
also providing the class with a fun, cognitive, interactive, social, and physical experience.
When asked about her teaching strategies, Teacher #5 reported that a primary
teaching strategy of hers involves modeling how to approach something the right way.
Not only does Teacher #5 model appropriate practices, but she also has her kids model.
Several times, she encourages students to model the incorrect way so that they can get
the silly stuff out of them. Then modeling the correct way. Because Teacher #5 has
several students with attention issues and others who just need extra movement, she
explained that, Instead of me passing stuff out, theyll be in charge of going to get


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whatever it is that they need. And theyll sometimes start running. Because running is
not safe in the classroom, Ill ask them to try it again, which gets them moving twice as
much, because they go back and try it again and theyre walking. Theyre able to still
move, but move in a safe way for a classroom. As a teacher, a strategy that Teacher #5
uses for herself in order to become even more effective at integrating physical activity
and movement into her classroom is to attend weekly or at least monthly staff-
development [meetings] within the school. At these meetings, Teacher #5 models with
the staff how to do just a quick, five-minute sponge activity of some sort. She explained
that these activities involve actually moving something on your body. So you can see
that it doesnt have to be cumbersome. It can be something quick and easy and just
thrown in here and there when you do see [students] getting wiggly and talking. Teacher
#5 said that what intimidates several teachers involves complicated movement activities
that they are not familiar with. Teacher #5 concluded that by introducing simple
movement energizers to fellow teachers, more elementary school teachers would be more
likely to adopt these short exercises into their daily curricula.
Summary of Interview Findings. Overall, all five of the teachers interviewed for
this study mostly agreed that integrating physical activity and movement into the
classroom benefits elementary school children physically, mentally and socio-
emotionally. For the first section of this studys findings, Theme One: The Positive and
Negative Impacts of Physical Activity and Movement Integration on Students, the
participant teachers reported that physical activity stimulates students memories, ability
to reason and absorb material, concentration, capacity to sit still, determination to
succeed academically, and overall cognitive performance. One teacher additionally


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addressed that physical activity provides an outlet for children with ADD and ADHD
who need to release movement in order to perform well in school. Teachers also
addressed how physical activity and movement integration impact the wellbeing of
students both physically and socio-emotionally. Two teachers addressed how physical
activity and movement can positively boost a childs coordination, stamina,
independence, confidence, and his or her relationship with fellow peers. While all of the
participant teachers agreed that there are ample benefits of physical activity and
movement integration, each teacher mentioned at least one negative impact of this type of
integration. Poor classroom management skills and the problem of having to take time
out of the day to redirect students as a result of too much physical activity and movement
were the two negative impacts that teachers addressed in their interviews.
In the second section of this studys findings, Theme Two: The Challenges and
Limiting Factors, each participant teacher mentioned their own beliefs as a result of
personal teaching experiences and background knowledge, regarding the challenges of
integrating physical exercise into elementary school classrooms. The participant teachers
emphasized that many elementary teachers are afraid to leave their comfort zones and try
new ways of teaching (such as incorporating physical exercise into the classroom).
Another challenge that many teachers and schools face is connected to the financial
situations of schools. Three teachers explained that money plays a huge role in whether
teachers and schools will adopt physical activity and movement integration. Additionally,
several of the participant teachers discussed how the pressure of time presents a
significant challenge and impacts whether or not teachers will incorporate physical
exercise into their classrooms. Many teachers discussed how they feel pressured to fit a


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large amount of academics into the school day, thereby losing consistent physical activity
and movement integration. In addition to time, another challenge that two teachers
addressed was access to space. With big class sizes, active children, small classrooms and
expensive objects (such as computers or cords), both teachers stated that it is challenging
to safely integrate physical activity into the classroom when space is limited. In addition
to space, classroom management was another major limiting factor that almost every
participant teacher listed. A final factor that two teachers specifically talked about
included the values and mandates of a school. The leadership of the school, the teaching
methods, objectives of the school, the region of the school, and high-stakes testing may
all limit how much physical activity and movement integration takes place in the
elementary classroom.
In the third and final section of this studys findings, Theme Three: Teachers
Methods and Strategies, teachers addressed methods (pertaining to the integration of
physical activity and movement) that have successfully worked in their classrooms.
Teachers discussed specific games and activities that they incorporate into their
classrooms. While the five participant teachers have varying degrees of consistency
pertaining to physical activity and movement integration, they all shared how they
integrate exercise into the classroom. Some of these ways include stretching, yoga, focus
exercises, fieldtrips, dance parties, dance routines, call-and-response activities, math
games (such as the interactive game, Buzz), kinesthetic games, gestures, and having
stations around the classroom. When asked about primary teaching strategies, the
participant teachers had a wide range of responses. Teachers strategies included
consistency, body-awareness exercises, organizing and breaking up the day between


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physical and sedentary movement, having clear guidelines, getting to know students
physical needs, providing students with a questionnaire, pair-sharing interactions,
breathing exercises, going outside to take a break, using rhythm, modeling appropriate
practices, and partaking in staff-development meetings. From their teaching and
educational backgrounds, all teachers were able to list several methods and strategies that
enhance physical activity and movement integration in the classroom.
Survey Results
In this study, one survey was administered to three principals at three different
Northern California elementary schools. The survey contained five questions (see
Appendix B). The first question asked the principal to rate his or her knowledge of
physical activity and movement integration. The second question asked the principal to
circle the percentage of teachers (at the particular principals school) who incorporate
physical activity and movement integration into their classrooms. The third question
asked the principal if physical activity and movement integration within elementary
grade-levels has a positive effect on the classroom as a whole. The fourth and fifth
questions involved rating. The fourth question asked each principal to rate how effective
physical activity is in positively impacting and benefitting elementary students in various
areas of a childs wellbeing. The fifth question asked each principal to rate how effective
different physical activity and movement integration teaching strategies are in developing
and shaping a well-rounded student. Table 1 (on the following two pages) displays the
results of the survey.



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TABLE 1: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND MOVEMENT INTEGRATION SURVEY


1. On a scale from 1 to 3, how knowledgeable are you on the topic of physical
activity and movement integration?

1=not knowledgeable, 2=somewhat knowledgeable, 3=knowledgeable

2 3 3 Avg: 2.67

2. What percentage of your teachers incorporate physical activity and movement
integration in their classrooms?

51-75% 76-100% 26-50% Avg: 63%

3. Do physical activity and movement integration within elementary grade-levels
positively affect the classroom as whole? Please circle one of the following (yes
or no).

YES YES YES YES

_______________________________________________________________________

4. On a scale from 1 to 5, how effective is physical activity in positively impacting
and benefiting elementary students in the following areas?

1=ineffective, 2= a little effective, 3= somewhat effective, 4=very effective 5=extremely effective

Area Principal #1
Rating
Principal #2
Rating
Principal #3
Rating
Conclusion
Confidence and Self-
Esteem
4 4 5 4.3
Intrinsic Motivation
4 3 3 3.3
Academic Achievement
4 4 4 4
Determination
4 5 5 4.67
Social Skills
4 5 4 4.3
Collaboration/Teamwork
Skills
4 5 5 4.67
Attention Span
5 5 4 4.67
Lifelong Wellness Needs
5 5 5 5
Physical Strength
5 4 3 4
Stamina/Endurance
5 4 4 4.3

Principal #1
Response
Principal #2
Response
Principal #3
Response
Conclusion


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Regarding the first question of the survey, all three principals were at least
somewhat knowledgeable on the topic of physical activity and movement integration.
Principal #1 was somewhat knowledgeable while Principal #2 and Principal #3 circled
that they were knowledgeable. Pertaining to the percentages of teachers at the principals
schools who integrate physical activity and movement into their classrooms, results were
mixed. Principal #1 circled 51-75%, Principal #2 circled 76-100% and Principal #3
circled 26-50%. The researcher calculated the mean values of the percentages and then
averaged the three. For example, the mean value of 26-50% is (26+50)/2, which is 38.
The average percentage measured to be 63%. None of the principals circled the option: 0-
25%, meaning that at the three schools, physical activity and movement integration exist
in at least some classrooms. Furthermore, for the third question, all three principals


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circled yes, verifying that they believe that physical activity and movement integration
within elementary grade-levels has a positive effect on the classroom as a whole.
For the fourth and fifth questions, principals were asked to rate different
categories (pertaining to the question) on a scale from one to five. A rating of one meant
ineffective while a rating of five meant extremely effective. For the fourth question,
principals ratings were overall similar for the different areas of students wellbeing. All
three principals gave the following categories: confidence and self-esteem, academic
achievement, determination, social skills, collaboration/teamwork skills, attention span,
lifelong wellness needs, and stamina/endurance high ratings. Therefore, the principals
indicated their beliefs that physical activity and movement positively impact these areas
of students wellbeing. However, two areas received mixed ratings. Regarding intrinsic
motivation, Principal #1 gave a rating of four while the other two principals gave this
category a rating of three. Additionally for the category of physical strength, Principal #1
gave a rating of five, Principal #2 gave a rating of four and Principal #3 gave a rating of
three. Therefore, the principals beliefs regarding the impact that physical activity has on
positively impacting students intrinsic motivation and physical strength varied and
received lower ratings.
For the fifth question where the principals were asked to rate how effective the
following physical activity and movement integration strategies are in developing and
shaping a well-rounded student, responses seemed to be more varied than for the fourth
question. The three principals gave the strategies: incorporating special equipment,
team/group activities and coordination/balance activities high ratings. However, for the
strategy, taking breaks from the core curricula, while Principal #1 and Principal #2 gave


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this strategy a five, Principal #3 gave a rating of three. These results are similar to the
results of the strategy, taking the class outside or to a different location, where Principal
#1 and Principal #2 both gave ratings of five while Principal #3 gave a rating of two.
Lastly, pertaining to independent/individual activities, Principal #1 gave this category a
rating of four, Principal #2 gave this category a rating of three, and Principal #3 gave this
category a rating of two. Therefore, the results of this portion of the survey show a wider
range of responses. At the end of the survey, each principal was provided with a place to
write down any additional comments in order to further explain his or her ideas. While
Principal #1 and Principal #3 did not write down any comments, Principal #2 stated,
Movement is essential in educating young students!
Summary of Survey Findings
Overall, the three principals surveyed in this study agreed that the integration of
physical activity and movement in the elementary school classroom has positive effects
on students physically, mentally, and socio-emotionally. Furthermore, the three
aforementioned principals acknowledged several effective measures in developing and
shaping a well-rounded student through physical activity and movement integration. All
of the surveyed principals were at least somewhat knowledgeable on the topic of physical
activity and movement integration. Furthermore, each principal acknowledged that at
least some teachers at his or her school implement physical activity and movement into
the classroom (this ranged from 26-100%, with an average of 63%). Moreover, results
indicate that all three principals believe that physical activity and movement integration
within elementary grade-levels have a positive effect on the classroom as a whole.


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For the rating sections of the study, results indicate that the principals believe
physical activity and movement to be the most effective in positively impacting students
confidence and self-esteem, academic achievement, determination, social skills,
collaboration/teamwork skills, attention span, lifelong wellness needs, and
stamina/endurance. However, the categories of intrinsic motivation and physical strength
received lower, mixed ratings. Results also indicate that the principals believe the
strategies of incorporating special equipment, team/group activities and
coordination/balance activities to be the most effective in shaping well-rounded students.
On the other hand, the strategies of taking breaks from the core curricula, taking the class
outside or to a different location, and incorporating independent/individual activities
received lower, mixed ratings. Comprehensively, the three principals shared similar
results for a majority of the categories from the two rating questions of the survey.













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Section V: Discussion and Conclusions
Discussion
The three purposes of this study were to (1) determine the impacts of physical
activity and movement integration pertaining to the students physical, mental and socio-
emotional growth, (2) examine factors that have both reduced and enhanced physical
activity and movement integration, and (3) to investigate how teachers integrate physical
activity and movement into their classrooms.
The first research question asked, How do students benefit from the integration
of physical activity and movement into their classrooms? Both literature and research
have shown that physical activity and movement integration have the potential to benefit
students in many different areas of their wellbeing. Researchers Braniff (2011), Vazou et
al. (2012), and Kercood and Banda (2012) all concurred that physical activity and
movement produce various positive outcomes for students physically, mentally and
socio-emotionally. Through her study, Braniff found that as a result of physical activity
movement integration activities in her classroom, students confidence, success,
concentration, collaboration, engagement, and enthusiasm all improved. As Braniff
stated,
The themes that were evident included: movement affected classroom management,
students were eager to move, movement impacted learning, the physical location
of seatwork affected learning, movement impacted alertness and attention, and
movement impacted nerves and well-being of the students. This study found that
exercise in the classroom helped students to reach their potential. It also reduced
stress for the students. Exercise has a valuable place in the classroom (p. 1).


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Similarly, Vazou et al. found that in comparison with traditional lessons, integrating
physical activity and movement with the academic subjects in the classroom can
significantly increase students intrinsic motivation, perceived competence, and effort
without negatively impacting the value of the lesson or pressuring students. Finally, the
results of researchers Kercood and Bandas study demonstrate that physical activity
intervention (both gross and fine motor) in a classroom boosts students with and without
learning differences. Specifically, these researchers found that after participating in
physical activity and movement intervention exercises, students with ADD and ADHD
demonstrated successful academic performance and improved their focus. Kercood and
Banda specifically found that as a result of partaking in movement intervention sessions,
students completed tasks faster and increased their performance accuracy.
Results from the interview portion of the study further support the review of
literature. Pertaining to the cognitive benefits of physical activity and movement in the
classroom, teachers reported that physical activity stimulates students memories, ability
to reason and absorb material, concentration, capacity to sit still, determination to
succeed academically, and overall cognitive performance. Similar to Kercood and
Bandas study where the two researchers presented the optimal stimulation theory (OST),
Teacher #5 also discussed the impact of physical activity and movement on students with
ADD and ADHD. The OST shows that students with ADHD prefer to engage in extra
physical movement activities in order to reach homeostasis within their bodies. Teacher
#5 further explained that movement provides ADD and ADHD students with an outlet for
their hyperactivity. Additionally, the participant teachers of this study addressed the
physical and socio-emotional impacts of physical activity and movement within the


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classroom. Several teachers explained that as a result of movement students improve their
coordination, stamina, independence, confidence, and friendships with one another.
However, unlike the review of literature, teachers also listed the negative impacts of
physical activity and movement integration. Poor classroom management skills and the
problem of having to take time out of the day to redirect students as a result of too much
physical activity and movement were the two main negative impacts that teachers
addressed in the interviews.
With respect to the survey portion of the study, overall the results indicated that
the three principals found physical activity and movement integration to be beneficial in
numerous aspects of a students wellbeing. All three principals gave the following
categories: confidence and self-esteem, academic achievement, determination, social
skills, collaboration/teamwork skills, attention span, lifelong wellness needs, and
stamina/endurance high ratings. However, unlike the review of literature and teacher
interviews, the principals had mixed views relating to how physical activity and
movement integration impacts intrinsic motivation and physical strength of students.
Vazou et al.s (2012) findings indicate that the integration of physical activity and
movement in the classroom positively enhances students intrinsic motivation. On the
other hand, in this study, Principal #2 and Principal #3 gave this category a rating of three
(meaning that physical activity and movement are only somewhat effective in developing
a students intrinsic motivation). Thus, these contrasting results may suggest that how a
teacher implements physical activity and movement into his or her classroom impacts a
students intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, while two of the principals gave the category
of physical strength high ratings, Principal #3 gave this category a rating of three


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(signifying that physical activity and movement are only somewhat effective in
developing a students physical strength). These different ratings may reflect the
principals different physical education programs at their schools or it may pertain to the
principals personal beliefs, backgrounds and experiences. It is interesting to note that
while the literature and findings of this study indicate that physical activity and
movement integration enhance students physically (in terms of coordination, balance and
flexibility), students physical strength was barely discussed.
The second research question asked, How do teachers integrate physical activity
and movement into their classrooms? Both literature and the researchers data indicate
that different teachers incorporate various strategies into their classrooms when
integrating physical activity and movement. Regarding the review of literature, Aktop
and Karahan (2010) found that teachers use the command and practice styles the most,
and the self-check, divergent and guided discovery styles the least. The researchers also
found an incompatibility between the participating PE teachers views and the new
Turkish PE curriculum. While the Turkish PE curriculum aims to increase students
awareness through meaningful learning experiences, viewing students as active learners
instead of passive learners, the teacher participants of this study found the Turkish PE
curriculum to be ineffective. Additionally, Aktop and Karahan suggested providing more
in-service training to teachers in order to keep teachers updated on the most relevant
teaching methods. These results may indicate that teachers using more outdated styles of
teaching need to participate in teacher-training programs in order to keep up with the
essential teaching practices of the twenty-first century. Similarly, Aelterman et al. (2013)
found that providing teachers with the opportunity to update their knowledge, actively


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participate and collaborate with colleagues in similar teaching positions, and engage in
microteaching would allow teachers to learn from one another and to reflect on their
current teaching practices. By supporting students autonomy, competence, and
relatedness, teachers may be more likely to successfully manage their classrooms. Lastly,
Constantinides et al.s (2013) study indicated that the participating PE specialists were
more successful in terms of maximizing student experiences and successes and
developing students motor skills than the nonspecialist participants.
In the teacher interview portion of the study, teachers addressed how they
integrate physical activity and movement into their classrooms and discussed their main
teaching strategies. Unlike the review of literature, the responses of the five Northern
California teachers were more specific and personal. While the five participant teachers
demonstrated varying degrees of consistency pertaining to physical activity and
movement integration, they all shared how they integrate exercise into the classroom.
Teachers integration methods included stretching, yoga, focus exercises, fieldtrips,
dance parties, dance routines, call-and-response activities, math games (such as the
interactive game, Buzz), kinesthetic games, gestures, and having stations around the
classroom. Teachers main strategies included consistency, body-awareness exercises,
organizing and breaking up the day between physical and sedentary movement, having
clear guidelines, getting to know students physical needs, providing students with a
questionnaire, pair-sharing interactions, breathing exercises, going outside to take a
break, using rhythm, modeling appropriate practices, and partaking in staff-development
meetings.
One factor that may play a key role in how effective a teacher integrates physical


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activity and movement integration into his or her classroom has to do with ones own
comfort or familiarity. The review of literature and teacher interviews both support this
finding. For example, in Aktop and Karahans (2010) study, the majority of teachers
might have used the command and practice styles the most because these were the easiest
teaching methods for controlling the class. Thus, in order to safely manage their
classrooms, the participant teachers of Aktop and Karahans study may have avoided
teaching styles that gave students more freedom. These results correspond with Teacher
#5s remarks that teachers will use the strategies they are familiar with. Many teachers
want to keep their original teaching practices because they may feel assured that they will
be able to successfully handle their class. Additionally, Constantinides et al. (2013) found
that a number of PE specialists were more successful in terms of maximizing student
experiences and successes and developing students motor skills than the nonspecialist
participants. Thus, these results also show how a teachers expertise or comfort level with
physical activity and movement may play a key role in how students benefit from their
physical activity and movement integration experiences. Lastly, similar findings from
Aelterman et al. (2013) and Teacher #5 indicate the importance of having consistent
teacher-training programs in order for teachers for feel more comfortable and up-to-date
with the newest and currently most effective teaching strategies of the twenty-first
century.
The second research question of this study also focuses on what teachers define as
true physical activity. While several teachers involved in this study described engaged,
total-body movements such as dancing, running, going on fieldtrips and practicing yoga,
other teachers (especially Teacher #3 and Teacher #5) reported activities that do get


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students to talk or stand-up, but may not be true physical activity. Specifically, while the
pair-share interactions and the Buzz math game stimulate students skills as
mathematicians, active participants, and supportive classmates, there is a discrepancy as
to whether they count as integrated physical activity and movement exercises or just as
active learning games. If physical activity involves movement of different parts of the
body in order for students to improve strength, coordination, balance, and stamina
(among other skills), then the pair-share and Buzz games may not fit the criteria. In fact,
researcher Braniff (2011) emphasizes that physical activity increase[s] the students
blood and oxygen flow (p. 3). If students are simply talking to one another or standing
up, other teachers and researchers such as Braniff might argue that these games do not
embody physical activity. Thus, pertaining to the definition of physical activity, there is
undoubtedly a discrepancy among the literature and various participant teachers involved
in this study.
Regarding the principal survey portion of this study, when the principals were
asked to rate the effectiveness of different physical activity and movement integration
strategies (in developing and shaping a well-rounded student), responses were varied.
The three principals gave the strategies: incorporating special equipment, team/group
activities and coordination/balance activities high ratings. However, the three strategies,
taking breaks from the core curricula, taking the class outside or to a different location,
and independent/individual activities received mixed ratings. For the first two
aforementioned strategies, taking breaks from the core curricula and taking the class
outside or to a different location, Principal #1 and Principal #2 gave ratings of five while
Principal #3 gave the first strategy a three and the second strategy a two. Principal #3s


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beliefs differed from the literature and interview findings. For example, pertaining to
taking breaks from the core curricula, Braniff (2011) incorporated five- to ten-minute
energizers into her classroom. These energizers included intervals of jumping, knee
lifts, hopping and other cardiovascular exercises in addition to stretching. Braniff found
that taking a break from the core curricula and engaging her students in quick and fun
movement activities positively impacted their academic performance. Vazou et al. (2012)
also discussed the importance of switching between integrating physical activity and
movement with the academic content and just focusing on physical activity games while
taking a break from academic content. Furthermore, all of the participant teachers
mentioned various strategies such as teaching yoga classes, going on fieldtrips and giving
students dance lessons. These strategies involved taking a break from the academic core-
curricula, but many teachers explained how they found these activities to be beneficial.
Thus, Principal #3s rating for this category significantly contrasted with the majority of
this studys findings.
Pertaining to taking the class outside or to a different location, Principal #3s
rating of two (a little effective) contrasted with the rest of this studys findings. For
example, Braniff (2011) found that, By having students work at alternate locations
classroom, hallway, and locations they chose for themselves - the students were quieter
and their attention was more focused. Two students noted in their journals that they
believed that being able to move around the room helped them to work quietly (p. 4).
Several of the participant teachers of this study also addressed the importance of
switching the location as a fundamental strategy when integrating physical activity and
movement. Teacher #2 discussed the significance of taking his kindergarten class on


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fieldtrips and giving them the opportunity to run and play in various fields and
playgrounds in order to enhance their development and overall growth. Teacher #3 also
stressed the importance of allowing her students to run outside on the circular track
during or in between lessons. Overall, Principal #3s views on the effectiveness of the
strategy, taking the class outside or to a different location differed from a number of this
studys findings.
Lastly, addressing independent/individual activities, Principal #1 gave this
strategy a rating of four, Principal #2 gave this strategy a rating of three, and Principal #3
gave this strategy a rating of two. The survey data pertaining to the strategy of
independent/individual activities reflects the differing findings of this study in the review
of literature and teacher interviews. Braniff (2011) explained the importance of
incorporating both group as well as individual activities. Additionally, Vazou et al.s
(2012) study consisted of integrated lessons incorporating inter-individual comparison.
For example, in one activity, students used different locomotor skills to move around the
classroom. Students collected a flash card containing a question and then individually
provided the answer to the student-teacher before proceeding to engage in more
movements. Furthermore, Teacher #5 described the importance of using both
independent as well as group activities in her daily-five stations. On the other hand,
several of the participant teachers of this study explained the importance of having
students interact with one another in order to have successful physical activity and
movement integration in their classroom. For example, Teacher #4 described how
physical activity and movement integration positive impacts students relationships with
one another and enhances students collaboration and teamwork skills. Overall, the


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results (pertaining to individual/independent activities) of the three surveyed principals
essentially reflect this studys findings. Teachers have varying views on whether physical
activity and movement integration lessons should engage students independently, in a
group setting, or both.
Limitations
As with all research, this study had some limitations. One limitation is that this
study relied upon a very small sample size, which was also a sample of convenience.
Notably, all of the teachers stated that they engage in physical activity outside of the
classroom, which may have influenced teachers to respond more favorably towards
physical activity and movement integration. Therefore, these findings may not represent
the general population of Northern California elementary teachers and cannot be regarded
as comprehensive. Furthermore, the teacher interviewees and survey participants
represented only four different school sites. Additionally, the researcher knew all of the
teacher and principal participants prior to the study. The researchers family was involved
in Principal #1, Teacher #1 and Teacher #2s school for fifteen years. Moreover, the
researcher knew the other teachers and principals from either fieldwork or personal
contact. These personal connections may have affected participants responses.
Implications
Practical Implications: The quality and amount of physical activity and
movement integration in classrooms seems to be related to teachers personal comfort
levels and values. Research indicates that teachers who value and thoroughly understand
their students wellness and health needs are more likely to positively impact their
students through physical activity and movement integration (Cothran et al. 2010).


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Factors such as a teachers fear of leaving his or her comfort zone, a schools financial
stability and access to funding, time, scheduling, space, classroom management, the
leadership, teaching methods and objectives of a school, The No Child Left Behind Act
of 2001 and high-stakes testing all limit how much physical activity and movement
integration takes place in the elementary classroom.
By incorporating consistent physical activity and movement integration lessons
that include either academic content or just interactive physical exercises, students may
become more familiar and open to engaging in movement starting at a young age. Thus,
elementary school teachers have a responsibility for and an incredible influence on their
students lifelong wellness practices, especially in terms of students engagement in
physical exercise. Participation in teacher training programs, working with specialists,
and finding a consistent way of integrating physical activity and movement into the
classroom throughout the school year are all useful tools for elementary school teachers.
In order for students to partake in effective physical activity integration lessons, teachers
must give movement a priority. An introduction of physical activity and movement into
the Common Core standards and bringing more physical education specialists and
organizations to low-funded schools would further enable movement to become
prioritized in elementary classrooms.
Research Implications: Given the limitations to this study, there are
recommendations for future research that might provide more accurate findings. A larger
sample size with participants having no previous relationship to the researcher would
eliminate bias. A comparison between responses from teachers at movement-focused
schools (such as the Waldorf school in this study) and non-movement focused schools


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might offer an interesting comprehension regarding the differences of physical activity
and movement integration between various schools. Moreover, surveying more principals
would help to further understand how the principal plays a role in impacting how much
physical activity and movement teachers integrate into their classrooms. Additionally, a
future study might examine physical activity and movement integration in low
socioeconomic schools, and the researcher could gather data to see if students
standardized test scores improve as a result of more integrated exercise. Further research
might also investigate how teachers create consistent physical activity and movement
integration activities within their classrooms, and how inconsistent teachers can change
their teaching practices in order to make movement a priority. Lastly, an important future
study might involve interviewing a large number of teachers from around the United
States and examining their definitions of physical activity. In order to have successful
physical activity integration, one must have a clear viewpoint on what defines movement.
Results would allow the researcher to understand how similar or different the majority of
the nations teachers are regarding their understanding of physical activity and
movement.
Conclusions
In summary, if implemented thoroughly and effectively, physical activity and
movement integration can have a significant impact on the classroom as a whole. The
review of literature and research findings of this study indicate that as a result of
successful physical activity and movement integration, students will benefit their
physical, cognitive and socio-emotional skills. Specific skills that may improve as a result
of physical activity and movement integration include coordination, stamina, balance,


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concentration, academic achievement, engagement, participation, collaboration,
teamwork, and positive relationships with ones peers. This study shows that these
benefits apply to all types of children with different learning styles and learning
differences. In fact, movement is essential to students with ADD and ADHD, as they can
release pent-up energy, achieve homeostasis, and more easily concentrate on the
academic material as a result of participating in physical activity integration. This study
also shows that while there may be ample benefits, there are still negative impacts that
decrease the value of physical activity and movement integration lessons.
Moreover, this study demonstrates that there are a number of factors that enhance
physical activity and movement integration as well as a number of factors that inhibit the
incorporation of physical exercise in the classroom. Schools encouraging the involvement
in PE, teachers eagerness to influence students health and wellness needs, teachers
willingness to motivate students to succeed academically, and teachers personal interests
in wellness all contribute to successful physical activity and movement integration in the
classroom. On the other hand, substituting physical movement and PE with sedentary
activities, tight scheduling, standardized testing pressures, and the No Child Left Behind
Act all inhibit physical activity and movement integration.
Furthermore, results of this study demonstrate that the methods teachers use in
order to integrate physical activity and movement into their classrooms are related to
teachers backgrounds and comfort levels. Teachers use a variety of methods including
stretching, yoga, focus exercises, fieldtrips, dance parties, dance routines, call-and-
response activities, math games (such as Buzz), kinesthetic games, gestures, and
having stations around the classroom. These methods correspond to the physical activities


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that teachers currently practice, grew up with, or learned through teacher education
programs. Specific teaching strategies found through literature and in teacher interviews
include: consistency, body-awareness exercises, organizing and breaking up the day
between physical and sedentary movement, having clear guidelines, getting to know
students physical needs, providing students with a questionnaire, pair-sharing
interactions, breathing exercises, going outside to take a break, using rhythm, modeling
appropriate practices, and partaking in staff-development meetings. Results of this study
suggest that the teachers who are more consistent with physical activity and movement
integration in their classrooms tend to have a larger impact on students lifelong wellness
practices.
Finally, the major discrepancy in the third aforementioned section of this study
pertains to how teachers define physical activity. While literature highlights that physical
activity improves students levels of endurance, coordination and physical strength
through engaged, total-body movement and exercises, a few participant teachers shared
different viewpoints on their definitions of physical activity and movement integration.
While some teachers defined movement as exercises that condition the body through
moderate to intense levels of activity, other teachers included standing up or conversing
with ones peers as physical activity. Because teachers tend to have various perspectives
on the definition physical activity, certain students will undoubtedly receive more
movement opportunities than students in other classrooms with different teachers.
Unfortunately, while pair-sharing and math games such as Buzz are interactive, they do
not engage children the same way as total-body exercises that strengthen the
cardiovascular system and muscle groups of students. It is up to teachers to make sure


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that the class has time to engage in safe, physical exercises that challenge and strengthen
students bodies in addition to providing exercises that cognitively stimulate students.
Overall, physical activity and movement integration in the classroom has many
more benefits and positive impacts than negative outcomes. Physical activity and
movement may boost students perceptions of themselves and their physical, mental and
socio-emotional capabilities. As the education system continues to progress, new
teaching methods for physical activity and movement integration will emerge. By
learning to step out of ones comfort zone, develop new and effective teaching strategies,
engage in teacher-training programs, interact with other teachers, and create consistent
physical activity and movement integration strategies, elementary teachers may have the
potential to positively influence their students engagement in lifelong wellness and
exercise.













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About the Author
The author is currently a junior Liberal Studies/Teacher Education major,
mathematics minor and Honors student at the Dominican University of California. In
May 2015, she will graduate with a Bachelors Degree in Liberal Studies/Teacher
Education and a minor in mathematics. In addition, the author is a career-bound ballet
and contemporary dancer. This spring (May 2014), the author will graduate from Marin
Dance Theatres career-bound program and will begin her career as a
modern/contemporary ballet dancer. This summer she will be traveling to New York City
to train and perform in artistic director, Igal Perrys selective international summer dance
program, BLUEPRINT. The author aspires to dance professionally after graduating
college. After her dance career, the author hopes to follow her dream as a teacher and
receive a multiple-subject credential as well as a single-subject credential in mathematics.
As a dancer and lover of exercise, the author plans on integrating physical activity and
movement into her future classrooms and inspiring her students to adopt exercise as a
lifelong practice.


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References
Aelterman, N., Vansteenkiste, M., Van Keer, H., De Meyer, J., Van den Berghe, L., &
Haerens, L. (2013). Development and evaluation of a training on need-supportive
teaching in physical education: Qualitative and quantitative findings. Teaching
and Teacher Education (29), 64-75.
Ahearn, N. (2012). Arts instruction in elementary school classrooms: Limiting factors
and successful programs. Retrieved from
http://moodle.dominican.edu/course/view.php?id=10277.
Aktop, A. & Karahan, N. (2012). Physical education teachers views of effective teaching
methods in physical education. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences (46),
1910-1913.
Braniff, C. (2011). Perceptions of an active classroom: exploration of movement and
collaboration with fourth grade students. Networks: An On-line Journal for
Teacher Research, 13(1), 1-6.
California Department of Education, Sacramento (CDE). (2009). Physical education
framework for California public schools. California Department of Education.
Retrieved from http://www.cde.ca.gov/ci/cr/cf/documents/peframework2009.pdf
Constantinides, P., Montalvo, R., & Silverman, S. (2013). Teaching processes in
elementary physical education classes taught by specialists and nonspecialists.
Teaching and Teacher Education (36), 68-76.
Cothran, D.J., Kulinna, P.H., & Garn, A.C. (2010). Classroom teachers and physical
activity integration. Teaching and Teacher Education (26), 1381-1388.



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Cothran D.J., Kulinna, P.H., Banville, D., Choi, E., Amadescot, C., MacPhail, A.,
Kirk, D. (2005). A cross-cultural investigation of the use of teaching styles.
Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 76(2), 193-201.
Henley, J., McBride, J., Milligan, J., & Nichols, J. (2007). Robbing elementary students
of their childhood: The perils of no child left behind. Education, 128(1), 56-63.
Kercood, S. & Banda, D.R. (2012). The effects of added physical activity on performance
during a listening comprehension task for students with and without attention
problems. International Journal of Applied Educational Studies, 13(1), 19-32.
Kim, J. (2012). Are physical education-related state policies and schools physical
education requirement related to childrens physical activity and obesity? Journal
of School Health (82)6, 268-276.
Nguyen, T.S.T. (2008). Peer debriefing. In The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative
Research Methods. Retrieved from http://srmo.sagepub.com/view/sage-encyc-
qualitative-research-methods/n312.xml
Santrock, J.W. (2012). Life-span development: Fourteenth Edition. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
Vazou, S., Gavrilou, P., Mamalaki, E., Papnastasiou, A., & Sioumala, N. (2012). Does
integrating physical activity in the elementary school classroom influence
academic motivation? International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology,
10(4), 151-163. What is constructivism? (2004). Retrieved from
http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/
World Health Organization. (2013). Physical activity. Retrieved from
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Appendix A: Interview Protocol

1. Demographic info:
What is your name and age?
How many years have you been teaching? What grade levels have you
taught?
What grade level are you currently teaching?
What is the highest degree you have earned?
What specific credentials do you have?
Do you exercise outside of the classroom?
2. What are some ways you have integrated physical activity and movement into
your classroom? What types of physical activity do you integrate into your
classroom?
3. What teaching strategies do you find to be the most effective when integrating
physical activity and movement into your classroom?
4. How do physical activity and movement integration impact students?
5. What challenges do you face when integrating physical activity and movement
into the classroom?
6. Why do you believe that physical activity and movement integration is not
widespread across the United States? Why do some schools implement physical
activity and movement integration while other schools completely lack it?




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Appendix B: Principal Survey
Dear Survey Participant,

This is a 5-question survey regarding physical activity and movement integration and
your knowledge on the topic. In this study, physical activity and movement integration is
defined as teachers implementation of physical activity and movement into their
classrooms as part of (or in addition to) the core-curricula.

If answering this survey via email, simply type Question 1: Your answer in a reply
email. I thank you for your participation and any questions you may need addressed may
be sent to me via email or telephone to:
alyssa.mitchel@students.dominican.edu

(415)-350-4063

Survey Questions:

1) On a scale from 1 to 3, how knowledgeable are you on the topic of physical
activity and movement integration?

1 not knowledgeable 2 somewhat knowledgeable 3 knowledgeable


**********************************************************************


2) What percentage of your teachers incorporate physical activity and movement
integration in their classrooms?

0-25% 26-50% 51-75% 76-100%


**********************************************************************


3) Do physical activity and movement integration within elementary grade-levels
have a positive affect on the classroom as a whole? Please circle one of the
following.

YES NO


**********************************************************************




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4) On a scale from 1 to 5, how effective is physical activity in positively impacting
and benefiting elementary students in the following areas? Please rate each of the
following.

1 ineffective 2 A little effective 3 somewhat effective
4 very effective 5 extremely effective



_______ Confidence and Self-Esteem

_______ Intrinsic Motivation

_______ Academic Achievement

_______ Determination

_______ Social Skills

_______ Collaboration/Teamwork Skills

_______ Attention Span

_______ Lifelong Wellness Needs

_______ Physical Strength

_______ Stamina/Endurance



**********************************************************************


5) On a scale from 1 to 5, how effective are the following physical activity and
movement integration strategies in developing and shaping a well-rounded student?
Please rate each of the following.

1 ineffective 2 A little effective 3 somewhat effective
4 very effective 5 extremely effective

_________ Incorporating Special Equipment (e.g. jump ropes, beams, hula-
hoops, balls, etc.)

_________ Taking breaks from the core curricula to engage in physical


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activity/movement

_________ Combining the core-curricula with physical activity/movement


_________ Taking the class outside or to a different location


_________ Team/Group Activities


_________ Independent/Individual Activities


_________ Coordination/Balance Activities


_________ Stamina/Strength-Building Activities



**********************************************************************


6) Please write any additional comments you have in order to further explain your
ideas.
















**********************************************************************





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Appendix C: IRB Approval







April 11, 2014

Alyssa Mitchel
50 Acacia Ave.
San Rafael, CA 94901

Dear Alyssa:

I have reviewed your proposal entitled Integrating Physical Activity and Movement into the
Classroom: Impacts on Students, Inhibiting and Enhancing Factors, and Teachers Methods
submitted to the Dominican University Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human
Participants (IRBPHP Modification Application, #10217). I am approving it as having met the
requirements for minimizing risk and protecting the rights of the participants in your research.

In your final report or paper please indicate that your project was approved by the IRBPHP and
indicate the identification number.

I wish you well in your very interesting research effort.

Sincerely,



Martha Nelson, Ph.D.
Associate Vice President for Academic Affairs
Chair, IRBPHP

cc: Rosemarie Michaels





Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects
Office of the Associate Vice President for Academic Affairs 50 Acacia Avenue, San Rafael, California 95901-2298 415-257-1310
www.dominican.edu