CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS

(IMPORTANT STATEMENT: These lecture notes are based upon BS5930:1999 and BS1377:1990 but, where appropriate, reference is made to Eurocode 7 related documents. These are namely BS EN ISO 14688-1:2002, BS EN ISO 14688-2:2004 and BS EN ISO 146891:2003). During this transitional stage as the full recommendations of the Eurocode are being implemented during 2010 students are advised to be aware that published text books are likely to make little reference to the Eurocode 7 (ie. EN 1997) and there are some major differences in the way that soils are described. Students should be aware that the final National Annex to BS EN 1997 was published on 31st December 2009 and that sections of BS5930 are currently being rewritten to comply fully with the Eurocode). See: http://www.eurocodes.co.uk

Purpose of soil classification 1. 2. 3. 4. Provides a concise and systematic method for designating various types of soil. Enables useful engineering conclusions to be made about soil properties. Provides a common language for the transmission of information. Permits the precise presentation of boring records and test results.

Object of soil classification Is to provide a soil NAME and symbol, e.g. GRAVEL is G, based on the results of simple and quick to perform (therefore economic) key tests; 1. Particle size distribution (P.S.D.) or sieve analysis. 2. Plastic properties; Liquid limit test Plastic limit test Soil is initially classified into either coarse or fine soil on the basis of particle size. Coarse soil (Granular) Physical characteristics and appearance are influenced by the distribution of particle sizes within the soil, i.e.>0.063mm (1/16mm) A granular soil is classified according to its Particle Size Distribution. Fine soil (Cohesive) Physical characteristics and appearance influenced by cohesion and plastic properties (plasticity) associated with mineral composition and water content. The fine soil is sub-grouped according to its plasticity. CLASSIFICATION OF COARSE SOIL Is classified on the sand (symbol S) and gravel (symbol G) content plus the amount of fines present. Particle size distribution by sieve analysis This test involves passing soil through a series of sieves of decreasing mesh size and recording the weight of soil retained on each. Soil which passes through the finest sieve (63 microns or 0.063mm) collects in a base tray and is also weighed. -1Classification v1.00 September 2010

The results are processed and plotted on a semi-log chart of cumulative percentage passing (y-axis) verses log of particle size in mm (x-axis). NB Where a soil contains fines, a relatively small proportion may cause the soil to form a cohesive mass and dominate the properties of the soil. It is considered that a soil containing 35% fines or more will behave as a cohesive soil (ie silt or clay). The fines content is critical and is indicated with an extra symbol; Symbol G S G-F S-F GF SF % Fines 05 5 15 15 - 35 Terminology Clean gravel Clean sand Gravel with some fines Sand with some fines Fines content Little influence Some influence

Gravel with much fines Considerable influence Sand with much fines

How the laboratory test data is processed and plotted will be explained during the lecture. Grading The shape of the Particle Size Distribution curve indicates the range of particle sizes within a soil. Coarse soils are sub-grouped on whether a soil is well graded or poorly graded. A well graded (symbol W) soil has approximately equal proportions of particles sizes and the curve is usually smooth. Note the Till is a well graded soil and the well graded gravel GW in the PSD chart below. A poorly graded (symbol P) soil may contain a high proportion of material within a limited particle size band or bands. Poorly graded soil may be further sub-divided into uniform soil and gap graded soil: A poorly graded soil (Pu, uniform or closely graded) has a major proportion of the particles lying between narrow size limits. As shown by the Estuary Sand, SPuF, in the PSD chart below. Gap graded soil has particles of both large and small sizes but with a relatively small proportion of particles with intermediate size, see clayey gravely sand, SPg in the PSD chart below.

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Soil description Four elements can be deduced on the basis of the grading curve: Grading Well graded Secondary constituent sandy Sub-divisions Soil name (IN CAPS)

fine and medium GRAVEL

Other physical characteristics can also be included, for example overall colour, strength, presence of root inclusions, layering/banding or organic odours. Some examples of soil descriptions are: Dense, reddish-brown, sub-angular, well graded, gravelly SAND Firm, grey, laminated CLAY of low plasticity with occasional silt partings 0.52.0mm Dense, brown, heterogeneous, well graded, very silty SAND and GRAVEL with some COBBLES: Till Stiff, brown, closely fissured CLAY of high plasticity: London Clay Spongy, dark brown, fibrous PEAT NOTE: A soil description is NOT a soil classification. Analysis of particle size distribution curves Analyse each of the curves A,B and C shown below using the table provided;

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Soil Compositions: Soil A: Gravel..% Soil B: Gravel..% Soil C: Gravel..% Soil classifications: Soil A: ______ Soil Descriptions Soil A: Soil B:

Sand..% Sand..% Sand..% Soil B:

Fines..% Fines..% Silt..% ______ Clay..% ______

Soil C:

_____________________________________ _____________________________________

(Soil C requires further classification of the fines faction according to plasticity)

Class example 1 The results of a sieve analysis on two soils (Soil A, initial mass = 341g and Soil B, initial mass = 410g) are given below:SOIL A SOIL B Sieve Size (mm) Mass Retained (g) Mass Retained (g) 50.0 0.0 0.0 37.5 0.0 12.3 28.0 0.0 12.3 20.0 0.0 12.3 14.0 9.8 24.6 10.0 6.6 20.5 6.3 19.7 41.0 5.0 29.5 12.3 3.35 114.8 41.0 2.0 65.6 49.2 1.18 36.1 24.6 0.60 16.4 45.1 0.425 19.7 16.4 0.30 6.6 12.3 0.212 3.3 16.4 0.150 6.5 8.2 0.063 3.3 16.4 Tray 3.1 45.1 For soil samples A and B; a) b) c) Determine cumulative percentage passing and plot the particle size distribution on the chart provided. Determine the percentage of gravel, sand and fines. Provide a soil classification NAME and symbol.

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CLASSIFICATION OF FINE SOIL The classification of fine soil (F) is based on the property of soil plasticity. Plasticity is a function of a fine soils capacity to absorb water and remain in a cohesive state. There are two sub-groups in fine soil; Sub-group Symbol Particle size (mm) Silt M 0.06 0.002 Clay C <0.002 Water added to coarse soil will fill the voids and saturate the sample, and further water will simply drain off and not be absorbed by the soil. Water added to a fine soil will initially fill the voids. When the soil is saturated it will continue to absorb water due to the properties of the clay minerals and an increase in volume of the soil mass will occur. At the same time the soil is progressively softened by the water which increases the distance between the clay minerals and decreases the attracting forces between them, thus decreasing the cohesion. As the soil gets weaker it becomes pliable and when it is sufficiently pliable to be rolled out into a thread, it is said to be in a plastic state. Eventually the soil loses all its strength and starts to flow under its own weight, when it is said to be in a liquid state. The moisture content at which the soil becomes plastic is defined as the Plastic Limit (PL) The moisture content at which the soil changes from plastic to liquid is defined as the Liquid Limit (LL) The range of moisture content over which the soil remains in a plastic condition is defined as the Plasticity Index (PI); PI = LL - PL Silt and clay have very different mechanical properties; Silt -very low cohesive strength -absorbs very little water to become a liquid -dries to a powder Clay -cohesive -behaves as a plastic material over a wide range of moisture content -becomes brittle on drying It is important to determine which soil type a fine soil belongs to, i.e. silt or clay? The property of plasticity is used to determine whether a fine soil is either silt or clay. Clay has a large range of moisture content in which it is in a plastic state (P.I. value) compared to silt; Moisture content (%) Plastic state Liquid state Liquid Limit Plasticity Index (L.L.) (P.I.) -5Classification v1.00 September 2010

Brittle state Plastic Limit (P.L.)

Tests to determine liquid and plastic limits i) Plastic Limit

The moisture content is determined at which a thread of soil can be rolled without breaking until it is only 3mm in diameter. Mix a small amount of clay with distilled water to form a pat about the size of a marble. Roll out the pat on a glass plate until a thread is formed. The thread should be gently rolled until the diameter is about 3 mm. If a smooth un-broken thread is obtained, roll up the thread into a ball and gently mark in the palm of the hand and repeat the process until the clay just begins to crumble when the 3 mm diameter is rolled. Then carry out normal moisture content determination. Repeat a total of 3 times and average the results. ii) Liquid Limit (Preferred method using the cone penetrometer)

Details of the apparatus are shown below. The soil to be tested is air dried and thoroughly mixed. At least 200g of the soil are sieved through a 425 micron () sieve and placed on a glass sheet. The soil is then mixed with distilled water into a paste. N.B. 1 micron = 0.001mm A metal cup, approximately 55 mm in diameter and 40 mm deep is filled with and the surface struck off level. The is next placed at the centre of the smoothed soil surface and level with it. cone is released so that it penetrates into soil and the amount of penetration, over period of 5 seconds, is measured. The test is now repeated by lifting the clear, cleaning it and filling up the depression in the soils surface by adding more of the wet soil. If the difference between the two measured penetrations is less than 0.5 then the tests are considered valid. The average penetration is noted and a moisture content determination (detailed prctical laboratory work) is carried out on soil tested. paste cone The the a time cone a little

mm in the

The procedure is repeated at least four times with increasing water contents. The amount of water used throughout should be such that the penetration obtained lie within a range of 15 to 25 mm. To obtain the liquid limit the variation of cone penetration (plotted vertically) to moisture content (plotted horizontally) is drawn out (both scales being natural). The best straight line is drawn through the experimental points and the liquid limit is taken to be the moisture content corresponding to a cone penetration of 20 mm (expressed as a whole number). -6Classification v1.00 September 2010

(Although, the above method is preferred for determining the Liquid Limit, the Casagrande method is also widely used - see BS 1377) Use of the A-Line classification chart for fine soil This classification chart plots Plasticity Index (%) against Liquid Limit (%), see below. The main aim is to determine if fine soil is either silt or clay. Clay plots above the A-line and silt below. Generally high Liquid Limit values correlate with high the plasticity. Silts and organic soils have a low Plasticity Index (ie. a small range of moisture content over which they are plastic) compared to their Liquid Limit. Clay soils have a high Plasticity Index in relation to their Liquid Limit. Clay minerals have the capacity to take in moisture and still retain some cohesion. To classify a fine soil according to the ALine chart:

i) ii) iii) iv) v)

Determine Liquid and Plastic Limits, and therefore Plasticity Index. Using values of PI and LL, plot the soil on the chart. Observe which segment the soil comes into (CL, CI, ML etc) Write down the soil name, CLAY for C soils, SILT for M soils. Follow the name with the plasticity ie. CI = CLAY of intermediate plasticity.

Class example 2 Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit tests were carried out on a cohesive soil and the following results were recorded: -

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Plastic Limit Test

Test 1 2 Mass of container (g) 16.06 15.72 Mass of container + wet soil (g) 32.70 31.71 Mass of container + dry soil (g) 29.33 28.44 Liquid Limit Test Mass Mass Mass Cone of container (g) of container + wet soil (g) of container + dry soil (g) Penetration (mm) 15.74 41.57 33.09 15.0 12.76 40.76 30.26 17.0

No. 3 16.15 32.79 29.44

14.62 43.06 30.42 21.0

13.88 41.46 27.97 24.0

Determine the following: i. ii. iii. Plastic limit and liquid limit for the soil. Plasticity index for the soil. Classification for the soil. [PL=25%; LL = 76%; PI = 50%; CLAY, CV]

Particle size distribution of fine soils by sedimentation test For material passing the 63 (0.063mm) sieve, particle size distribution is determined by observing the sedimentation characteristics of the particles as they settle out of suspension in water (BS 1377). This is NOT a soil classification test as laboratory conditions are critical; it takes up to several days and is therefore, expensive. It does, however, give the distribution of particles below the smallest sieve size, from 0.063mm to 0.002mm, and can be used to classify soil.

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Table 1

British Soil Classification System for Engineering Purposes

SOIL GROUPS SUB-GROUPS and in laboratory identification Group Sub-group Fines (% Liquid Symbol symbol less than limit 0.06 mm) GW G GP G-M G-F G-C GM GF GC GPu GPg GWM GPM 5 to 15 GWC GPC GML, etc 15 to 35 GCL GCI GCH GCV GCE SW 0 to 5 SP S-M S-F Clayey SAND Very silty SAND SF Very clayey SAND SC SCL SCI SCH SCV SCE MLG etc CLG CIG CHG CVG CEG MLS etc CLS etc ML etc CL CI CH CV CE < 35 35 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 90 > 90 < 35 35 to 70 50 to 70 70 to 90 > 90 S-C SM SWC SPC SML etc 15 to 35 SPu SPg SWM SPM 15 to 35 GW 0 to 5

GRAVEL and SAND may be qualified sandy GRAVEL and gravely SAND where appropriate Slightly silty or Clayey GRAVEL Silty GRAVEL Clayey GRAVEL Very silty GRAVEL Very clayey GRAVEL

COARSE SOILS less than 35% of the material is finer than 0.06 mm

GRAVELS More than 50% of coarse material is of gravel size (coarser than 2 mm)

SANDS More than 50% of coarse material is of sand size (finer than 2 mm)

Slightly silty or clayey SAND Silty SAND

SW S

FINE SOILS more than 35% of the material is finer than 0.06 mm

Gravelly SILT Gravelly or sandy SILTS and CLAYS 35% to 65% fines FG Gravelly CLAY

MG CG

Sandy SILT FS Sandy CLAY SILT (M SOIL) F CLAY

MS CS M C

ORGANIC SOILS PEAT Primary Letter G Gravel S Sand M Silt C Clay O Organic Soil Pt Peat

SILTS and CLAYS 65% to 100% fines

Description letter O suffixed to Organic matter in significant amount say group or subgroup symbol e.g. MHO organic silt of high LL Pt consists predominantly of plant remains (fibrous or amorphous) Secondary letter W Well graded P Poorly graded M With non-plastic fines C With plastic fines L Of low plasticity (LL<50) H Of high plasticity (LL>50)

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Rapid methods of classification Rapid methods of classification are appropriate for identification in the field, or where laboratory facilities are not available. A combination of sound judgment (based on experience) and simple tests is used in conjunction with Tables 2 to 4 below. If soil sub-group symbols are quoted they should be written enclosed in brackets to indicate that they are based on a rapid (as opposed to laboratory) method. Particle size Gravel sizes (>2 mm) are apparent visually; sands (<2 mm) tend to cling together when damp and they feel gritty between the fingers; silts (< 0.06 mm) feel abrasive, but not gritty; clays (< 2 m) feel greasy. Grading The grading of a soil refers to the distribution of particle sizes: a uniform soil consists of a very narrow range of particle sizes, whereas a well-graded soil contains a wide range. For a rapid estimate of grading, a field-settling test may be carried out in a tall jar or bottle. A sample of soil is shaken up with water in ajar and allowed to stand for a few minutes. The coarsest particles settle to the bottom first, so that a subsequent examination of the layers in the jar will yield approximate proportions of the various size ranges. If over 65% of the soil particles are greater than 0.06 mm, the soil should be described as coarse-grained, i.e. either a SAND or a GRAVEL. If over 35% of the soil is less than 0.06 mm, it is fine-grained, i.e. SILT or CLAY. Amount of fines. The quick-settling test will give a rough indication of the amount of finegrained material present. To distinguish between silt and clay, rub the wet soil between the fingers: clay tends to stick to the fingers, whereas silt only leaves them slightly dusty. Plasticity and consistency If the soil particles stick together when wet, the soil possesses cohesion; if the wet mass can be easily moulded it possesses plasticity. Grades of consistency ranging between soft and very stiff may be identified (Table 4) NOTE: BS EN ISO14688 procedure is DIFFERENT to this !!!

Dilatancy (test for silt) A pat of moist soil is placed on the open palm of one hand and the side of this hand tapped with the other. Dilatancy is exhibited when, as a result of the tapping, a glossy film of water appears on the surface of the pat. When the pat is gently pressed, the water disappears and the pat becomes stiff. Very fine sands and inorganic silts exhibit marked dilatancy. Toughness A thread of moist soil is rolled by the palm of the hand until it dries sufficiently to crumble and break just as it reaches a diameter of 3 mm. The greater the plasticity of the soil, the more easily this can be done.

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Dry strength If a pat of moist soil is dried, preferably in an oven, it will shrink and harden according to the silt or clay content. Its dry strength may be estimated by attempting to break the pat with the fingers. A high dry strength indicates a clay of high plasticity, whereas a crumbly powdery dry pat indicates a silt of low plasticity. Penetration resistance (sands and gravels) At the surface or in trial pits, a spade, a pick or a small wooden peg driven into the soil, will give an indication of compactness (see Table 4). Soil structure From observations in trial pits or at other exposures, the main structural characteristics may be determined; such as the spacing between beds or laminations, whether or not different materials are inter-bedded and whether or not the soil is fissured (Table 4).

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TABLE 2

(NOTE: In table below 60mm is being replaced by 63mm, 6mm by 6.3mm, etc)

Field identification and description of soils (Part of Table 13: BS 5930 :1999)
Basic soil type Very coarse soil BOULDERS 200 COBBLES 60 Course Particle size mm Visual identification Only seen complete in pits or exposures Often difficult to recover from bore holes Easily visible to naked eye; particle shape can be described; grading can be described Well graded: wide range of grain sizes well distributed. Poorly graded: May be uniform: size of most particles lies between narrow limits; or gap graded: an intermediate size of particle is markedly under- represented. Visible to naked eye: very little or no cohesion when dry; grading can be described. Well graded: wide range of grain sizes, well distributed. Poorly graded: not well graded. (May be uniform: size of most particles lies between narrow limits; or gap graded: an intermediate size of particle is markedly under- represented.) Only coarse silt is barely visible to naked eye; exhibits little plasticity and marked dilatancy; slightly granular or silky to the touch. Disintegrates in water; lumps dry quickly; possess cohesion but can be powdered easily between fingers. Dry lumps can be broken but not powdered between the fingers; they also disintegrate under water but more (Lean clay) slowly than silt; smooth to the touch; exhibits plasticity but no dilatancy sticks to the fingers and dries slowly; shrinks appreciable on drying usually showing cracks. Intermediate and high plasticity clays show these properties plasticity to a moderate and high degree respectively. Contains substantial amounts of organic vegetable matter. Predominantly plant remains usually dark brown or black in colour, often with distinctive smell, low bulk density. Can contain disseminated or discrete mineral soils. Particle shape: Angular Sub-angular Sub-rounded Rounded Flat Elongate Particle nature and plasticity

20 Coarse soils (over 65% sand and gravel sizes) GRAVELS Medium

6 Fine Course 2

Texture: Rough Smooth Polished

0.6 SANDS Medium

0.2 Fine 0.06 Coarse 0.02 SILTS Medium 0.006 Fine 0.002

Non-plastic or low plasticity

Fine soils (over 35% silt and clay sizes)

Intermediate plasticity (lean clay)

CLAYS

High plasticity (fat clay)

Organic soils

ORGANIC CLAY, SILT OR SAND PEATS

Varies

Varies

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TABLE 3

Description of composite soil types e.g. SAND or GRAVEL % clay or silt 0- 5 5 10 10 35 e.g. CLAY or SILT % sand or gravel 35 65 0 - 35

Predominantly coarse-grained Descriptive term Slightly silty or slightly clayey Clayey or silty Very clayey or very silty Predominantly fine-grained Descriptive term Sandy or gravelly (non used) TABLE 4

Description of structural or mass characteristics Field identification

Descriptive term Coarse-grained soils Loose Dense Slightly cemented Homogeneous Heterogeneous Stratified Weathered Fine-grained soils Very soft Soft Firm Stiff Very stiff Hard Fissured Intact Stratified Homogeneous Weathered Organic soils (peat) Firm Spongy Plastic

Easily excavated; 50mm sq wooden peg easily driven in. Pick required for excavation; 50mm wooden peg hard to drive Excavated lumps hold together when abraded Essentially one type Mixture of types Alternating layers Signs of weakening; concentric layers Exudes between fingers when squeezed Moulded with light finger pressure Moulded with strong finger pressure Cannot be moulded with fingers; can be indented by thumb Cannot be indented by thumb Can just be indented by thumbnail Breaks into polyhedral fragments Not fissured Alternating layers Essentially one type Crumbly or columnar structure

Fibres already compressed together Very compressible open structure Can be moulded in the hand and smears the fingers

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TABLE 5

Particle Size Fractions (BS EN ISO 14688-1:2002 Table 1) Sub-fractions Large boulder Boulder Cobble Gravel Coarse gravel Medium gravel Fine gravel Sand Coarse sand Medium sand Fine sand Silt Coarse silt Medium silt Fine silt Clay grCl saGr grClsa siFSa fgrcsaSi msaCl fgrCSa Gr/Sa FSa/MSa is is is is is is is is is LBo Bo Co Gr CGr MGr FGr Sa CSa MSa FSa Si CSi MSi FSi Cl Symbols Particle sizes mm >630 >200 to 630 >63 to 200 >2,0 to 6,3 >20 to 63 >6,3 to 20 >2,0 to 6,3 >0,063 to 2,0 >0,63 to 2,0 >0,2 to 0,63 >0,063 to 0,2 >0,002 to 0,063 >0,02 to 0,063 >0,0063 to 0,02 >0,002 to 0,0063 <= 0,002

Soil fractions Very coarse soil Coarse soil

Fine soil

Examples of use;

gravelly clay sandy gravel gravelly clay interbedded with sand is silty fine sand fine gravelly, coarse sandy silt medium sandy clay fine gravelly coarse sand gravel/sand (if present in equal proportions) fine/medium sand

Secondary and further fractions do not determine but will affect the engineering properties of the soil. NOTE: IF coarse secondary fractions are present the term slightly or very shall precede the qualifying term. TABLE 6 Particle Size Fractions (BS EN ISO 14688-1:2002 Table 4) Particle shape Very angular Angular Subangular Subrounded Rounded Well rounded Cubic Flat Elongate Rough Smooth -14Classification v1.00 September 2010

Parameter Angularity / roundness

Form Surface texture

TABLE 7 Very soft Soft Firm Stiff Very stiff

Cohesive Soil Consistency (BS EN ISO 14688-1:2002 Para 5.14) Exudes between fingers when squeezed in the hand Can be moulded by light finger pressure Cannot be moulded by the fingers, but rolled in the hand to 3mm thick threads without breaking or crumbling Crumbles and breaks when rolled to 3mm threads but is still sufficiently moist to be moulded to a lump again Has dried out and is mostly light coloured. It can no longer be moulded but crumbles under pressure. It can be indented by the thumbnail.

NOTE: These terms are NO LONGER related to the Shear Strength of a soil. Many current text books will refer to the old way of description as follows from BS5930:1990; Very Soft = <20kN/m2 Soft = 20kN/m2 to 40kN/m2 Firm = 40kN/m2 to 75kN/m2 Stiff = 75kN/m2 to 150kN/m2 Very stiff = >150kN/m2 Hard = >300kN/m2 TABLE 8 Undrained shear strength of fine soils (BS EN ISO 14688-2:2004 Table 5) old BS5930 term n/a <20 was Very Soft Soft Firm Stiff >150 was Very stiff Hard

Undrained shear strength cu kPa (ie. kN/m2) Extremely low <10 Very low 10 to 20 Low 20 to 40 Medium 40 to 75 High 75 to 150 Very high 150 to 300 Extremely high >300 Materials with shear strength greater than 300kPa may behave as weak rocks and should be described as rocks according to BS EN ISO 14689-1:2003. TABLE 9

Undrained shear strength of clays

Consistency index (Ic) of silts and clays (BS EN ISO 14688-2:2004 Table 6) Consistency index Ic <0,25 0,25 to 0,50 0,50 to 0,75 0,75 to 1,00 >1,00 LL - w LL - PL -15Classification v1.00 September 2010

Consistency of silts and clays Very soft Soft Firm Stiff Very stiff Consistency index, IC, is defined as

TABLE 10

Correlations to classify density terms (BS EN ISO 14688-2:2004 Table 4) Density index ID (%) 0 to 15 15 to 35 35 to 65 65 to 85 85 to 100 BS5930 SPT N Value 0 to 4 4 to 10 10 to 30 30 to 50 >50

Term Very loose Loose Medium dense Dense Very dense

NOTE: You MUST define whether the terms very loose, loose, etc are based upon Density Index (ID) as per BS EN ISO 14688 OR from SPT N Values from BS5930. Density index, ID, is defined as emax - e emax - emin

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