Training - Pressure1

Level 1 - Fundamental Training
Pressure 1
Level 1 Fundamental Training
Level 1 - Pressure 1
Contents
Topics: Why measure pressure? What is pressure? Pressure terminology Inferring non-pressure variables Pressure measurement technology Pressure calibrators Exercises Slide No: 3 4-5 6 - 11 12 - 29 30 - 44 45 46 - 48
Power Point Presentation Handouts
Pressure 1
Why measure pressure?

4 Common Reasons Safety
prevent pressurized pipes & vessels from bursting
3
Process Efficiency
variation of pressure below or above a set-point will result in scrap rather than useable product in some manufacturing process
Cost Saving
preventing unnecessary expense of creating more pressure or vacuum than is required saves money
Inferred Measurement of Other Variables

rate of flow through a pipe level of fluid in a tank density of fluid how two or more liquids in a tank interface
What is pressure?
The Same Weight, Different Pressure
Weight = 100lb 1 sq ins 100 sq ins
4
100 sq ins
1 sq ins
Pressure = 1lb/in
Pressure = 100 lb/in
Pressure 1
What is pressure?
Liquid & Gas Pressures
5
LIQUIDS The pressure exerted by a liquid is influenced by 3 main factors. 1. 2. 3. The height of the liquid. The density of the liquid. The pressure on the surface of the liquid.
GASES The pressure exerted by a gas is influenced by 2 main factors. 1. 2. Volume of the gas container. Temperature of the gas
Note. Gases are compressible whereas liquids are not
Pressure terminology
Pressure Control Loop
6
I/P
PIC
Pressure Loop Issues:

May be a Fast Process Liquid
Small Volume
May Require Fast Equipment

PT
Pressure 1
Engineering Units
7
Pressure is defined as FORCE applied over a unit AREA.
P = F/A
Examples of pressure units:
Units of force per unit area Pascals Pa N / m2 (Newtons / square metre) psi lbs/in2 (Pounds / square inch) Bar Bar = 100,000 Pa Units referenced to columns of liquids ins. water gauge in H2O Pressure applied by a 1 inch column of water at 20C. mm water gauge mm H2O ins. mercury mm mercury Atmosphere in Hg mm Hg atm
Pressure applied by a 1 inch column of mercury with a density of 13.5951 g/cm. Pressure exerted by the earths atmosphere at sea level (approximately 14.6959psi)
Reference Pressure
Absolute Gage Compound Range Barometric Range
Atmospheric Pressure Approx. 14.7 psia Pressure Total Vacuum (Zero Absolute)
8
Gage(psig) - Level of pressure relative to atmospheric Positive or negative in magnitude
Absolute(psia) - based from zero absolute pressure - no mass Typical atm reference: 14.73 psia Compound Range (psig) - Gage reading vacuum as negative value Differential(psid) - difference in pressure between two points
Pressure 1
Quiz ? 19.7 Psia 5 psig
9
Atm. Pressure ? -5 Psig Total Vacuum 5 psi vacuum
14.7 psia ? 9.7 Psia Absolute Zero
Assume: Patm = 14.7psia; 28 inches H2O per psi
35.71 1000 in H2O = ___________ psi

Measurable Pressures The four most common types of measurable pressures used in the process control industries are: 1. Head Pressure or Hydrostatic Pressure.
Pressure exerted by a column of liquid in a tank open to atmosphere, HEAD PRESSURE = HEIGHT x DENSITY 2. Static Pressure, Line Pressure, or Working pressure Pressure exerted in a closed system 3. Vapor Pressure The temperature at which a liquid boils, or turns into a vapor varies depending on the pressure. The higher the pressure, the higher the boiling point. 4. Vacuum Absolute pressure below atmospheric pressure ( a compound range gage transmitter will read a negative pressure)
10
Pressure 1
Measurable Pressure Vapor pressure increases with temperature. Liquid boils when its vapor pressure equals atmospheric pressure. Lower Typical Vapor Pressure Curve Altitute (Sea Level) Pressure(log) liquid gas
11
Higher Altitute
T1 Temperature
T2
Inferring non-pressure variables

Flow Line Pressure Orifice Plate
12
Flow Restriction in Line cause a differential Pressure
QV= K
DP
Pressure 1

Flow Theoritical equations come from 3 sources:
13
Qm= K
DP
Continuity Equation
Flow into pipe equals flow out of pipe and is the same at all pipe cross sections (Conservation of Mass)
Bernoullis Equation
(Conservation of Energy for fluid in a pipe)
Experimentally Determined Correction Factors

Discharge Coefficient Gas Expansion Factor

Flow Continuity Equation The volume flowing into a pipe equals the volume flowing out of pipe, assuming constant density A1v1 = A2v2 A = area of pipe cross section v = velocity
A1V1 Flow A2V2 Flow
14
v1 = A2/A1 x v2 v1 = d2/D2 x v2 v1 = 2 x v2
d2/4 x D2/4 d/D =

Pressure 1

Flow Bernoullis Equation The total energy before the restriction in the pipe must equal the total energy after the restriction. P1 P
2
15
Flow
v1
v2
Three energies: Kinetic Potential Static Pressure
(1/2v2) (gh) cancel - off for level (P) pipe


Flow
16
P1
Before restriction
P 1 P 2
1. . 2 . . 1 2 v 1 g h 1 P 2 ..v 2 .g.h 2 2 2
1. . 2 v2 2 1. . 2 v1 2
After restriction common
dP = (v22 - v12) 2 / x dP = v22 - v12 2 / x dP = v22 - 4 x v22 2 / x dP = (1- 4) v22 v22 = (2 / x dP) / (1- 4)
V12 = (2 x V2)2 common subject Re-arranged

Pressure 1

Flow v2 = [(2 / x dP) / (1- 4)] v2 = (2) x (1/) x 1/ (1- 4) x (dP)
17
Qv2 = A2 x v2
Qv2 = (d2/4) x (2) x (1/) x 1/ (1- 4) x (dP)
constant
constant
assumed constant
velocity of approach constant - E
Volumetric Flow Mass Flow
Qv2 = k (dP/) Qm2 = k (dP x )

k (dP/) x

Flow
18
Quiz: If an orifice plate creates a differential of 50 kPa at 30m/s (i) What would be the differential at 10m/s? Qv = K DP Qv1 --Qv2 DP1 = ---DP2 50/ DP2 5.6kPa (ii) What would be the flow rate at 30kPa differential? Qv = K DP Qv1 --Qv2 DP1 = ---DP2
30/10 = DP2 =
30/Qv2 = 50/ 30 Qv2 = 23.26m/s

Pressure 1

Level
19
Hydrostatic Pressure - The liquid will rise to the same level in each vessel regardless of its diameter & shape.
Unit Area (eg. per cm2)
Liquid
H P P
Which shape gives higher pressure at the bottom of the vessel?
Similar height of column will have same mass acting on the same unit area
SAME PRESSURE

Level
20
The hydrostatic pressure exerted by the column of liquid depends on the S.G. (or density) of the liquid and its vertical height. Density of liquid Average cross-section area of vessel Vertical height of liquid Volume of liquid, V Total weight of liquid, M Pressure at the bottom of liquid =D =A =H =H x A =D x V =D x A x H = weight of liquid cross-section area = (D x A x H) / A = D x H
With reference to inches or mm WATER
S.G x H
Pressure 1

Level
21
P= force / area
mass x g r x volume
g = gravitational acceleration Density = mass/volume = r
height x area
r x g x height x area / area r x g x h

Pascal
Phead =

Level
22
Cancelled off since both L & H sides of transmitter experience it.
DP Transmitter at the bottom of the tank measures HEAD. HEAD = pressure at the bottom of a column of liquid with known relative density (S.G) Phead = S.G x Height Height = Phead / S.G
Ullage or Vapor
100% S.G Height
Phead
XMTR 0% L H
Pressure 1

Level Quiz: Open Tank What is the level if Pmax = 120 inH2O, s.g.= 1.2?
23
Height = Phead / S.G Height = 120 / 1.2

XMTR
Height = 100 inches

L H

Level Quiz: Closed Tank Dry leg: no fluid in low side impulse piping, or leg Ph = 105 psi Pl = 100 psi What is level if s.g. = 1.0? dP = 5 psi = 5 x 28 inH2O Height = 140 / 1.0 Height = 140 inches
24
Ptop= Ullage
Phead
XMTR L H
Pressure 1

Density
25
Pbottom Ptop
= S.G X h2 =
S.G X h1 S.G (h2 - h1) Ptop
H
Ptop Phead(top) h1 h2 Phead(bottom)
Pbottom - Ptop = Hence, S.G =
H Pbottom diff. Pressure / dist. betw. taps
Liquid level must be above the Top transmitter tap.


Density Quiz: Determined the S.G of the process fluid if Ptop Ptop = 20 psi Pbottom = 22 psi H Distance between taps = 50 inches Assuming 1 psi = 28H2O
Ullage
26
50
DP = (22 -20) = 2 psi = 56H2O P H bottom

S.Gprocess = DP / dist. betw. Taps = 56 / 50 = 1.12
Pressure 1

Interface Indirectly measures liquid Interface
Remote Seal
27
Vapor
h2
SG1 100% Total Liquid level must always be above the Top transmitter tap. 0% SG2
SGf
Dist. Betw. Taps (h1 - h2)
Ptop
h1
Pbottom
At 0% Liquid Interface (4mA) DP = Hside - Lside = (SG1*h1) - [(SGf*(h1-h2)) + (SG1*h2)]


Interface Indirectly measures liquid Interface
Remote Seal
28
Vapor
h2
SG1 100%
SGf
Dist. Betw. Taps (h1 - h2)
Ptop
h1
Total Liquid level must always be above the Top transmitter tap. 0% SG2
Pbottom
At 100% Liquid Interface (20mA) DP = Hside - Lside = [SG2*(h1-h2) + SG1*h2)] - [(SGf*(h1-h2)) + (SG1*h2)]
Pressure 1

Interface Application Example: Transmitter calibrated from 120H2Oto 132H2O Determine % of interface of Liquid A with respect to Liquid B If transmitter reads 123 inH2O % interface 123 inH2O = (3/12) * 100% = 25% Vapor
29
Remote Seal
SG1= 1.0 100%
Ptop 10 ft
L H
Liquid B
SG2= 1.1 0%
Pbottom
Liquid A
Pressure measurement technology

Pressure Gauges Barometer
Used to measure Barometric Pressure Reference is 0 psia, due to low vapor pressure of Hg. General operating principle: Tube completely filled with mercury & Invert into the container filled with mercury. The mercury level in the tube will drop until it reaches an equilibrium. This equilibrium height is a measure of atmospheric pressure. P =P
head atm
30
Patm
Phead
Barometric Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure
What is the barometric Pressure?
29.9 inHg
Pressure 1

Pressure Gauges
31
Manometers U-tube with one side reference, one side measured pressure
H
How to check for dP ?
dP = H (SGfill fluid - SGprocess
fluid)
Reference side can be: Sealed (AP reference) Open to atmosphere(GP reference) Connected to reference pressure(DP reference) Typically used for low pressures, non process control

Pressure Gauges
32
Mechanical The mechanical element techniques convert applied pressure into displacement. The displacement may be converted into electrical signal with help of Linear Variable Displacement Transformer (LVDT).
Pressure 1

Pneumatic Pressure Cells
33
Pneumatic Controller Relays modulated output is the controller output which is usually a pneumatic signal that adjusts the final control Process Pressure element (Control valve)
Flapper Nozzle Bourdon Tube
Output to Actuator (or Relay) Constant flowrate maintained (Compressed air)


Pneumatic Pressure Cells
34
Pressure Transmitter Produce a linear output proportional to input pressure Zero Scale: Full Scale: 3 psig 15 psig
Disadvantages Reconfiguration costly Losses occur over long piping runs Performance levels are not comparable to electronic instrumentation
Pressure 1

Electronic Pressure Transmitters Made up of 2 main elements: Transducer Electronic sensor module that registers process variable and outputs a corresponding usable electrical signal eg. resistance, millivolts, capacitance, etc. Electronics Convert transducer output to a standard output signal eg. 4 - 20 mA, 1 - 5 V dc, digital signal, etc.
35

Electronic Pressure Transmitters
(Standard signals)
36
Example of Application
Transmitter configured to operate from: 0 to 50 psi Electronic Output: 4 to 20 mA This mean 0% reading (0 psi) represents 4 mA and 100% reading (50 psi) represents 20 mA.
Signal To Controller
Transmitter Signal from sensor module (Transducer)

(Line / Static Pressure)
Sensing Diaphragm
Process Variable
What will be the output current at 25 psi reading?

4 + (25/50)*16 = 12 mA
Pressure 1

Electronic Pressure Sensor Modules Characterized by the type of sensing element: Variable capacitance Variable Resistance (Wheatstone bridge) Strain gauge
Thin -film strain gauge Diffused, strain gauge
37
Variable inductance Variable reluctance Vibrating wire Piezoelectric

Electronic Pressure Sensor Modules Variable Capacitance
Process pressure transmitted thru isolating diaphragm Distortion of sensing diaphragm proportional to the differential pressure Position of sensing diaphragm detected by capacitor plates Differential capacitance translated to 4-20mA or 10-50mA output dc signal.
38
Pressure 1

Electronic Pressure Sensor Modules Variable Resistance / Piezo-Resistive
Process pressure transmitted thru isolating diaphragm Very small distortion in sensing diaphragm Applies strain to a wheatstone bridge circuit Change in resistance translated to 4-20mA or 1-5V dc signal GP XMTRs - ref. side of sensor exposed to atm. Pressure AP XMTRs - sealed vacuum reference.
39
Thin Film Strain Gauge
Diffused Strain Gauge


Electronic Pressure Sensor Modules Piezoelectric
Piezoelectric crystal is a natural or a synthetic crystal that produces a voltage when pressure is applied to it. Voltage produce by crystal increases with increases in pressure and vice-versa. The produced small voltage is then amplified to a standard control signal. Piezoelectric Crystal Control Signal Process Pressure
40
Diaphragm
Amplifier & electronics

Pressure 1

Electronic Pressure Sensor Modules Variable Inductance
Inductance is the opposition to a change in current flow Alternating current pass through the coil Elastic element connected to core Applied pressure deflects elastic element Position of core changes relative to coil resulting in change in inductance Resistor connected in series with inductor to measure change in voltage.
41

Electronic Pressure Sensor Modules Variable Reluctance
Reluctance is a property of magnetic circuit A moving magnetic element located between two coils Coil turn electromagnet when excited by AC source Position of element with respect to the coils determines differential magnetic reluctance Thus differential inductance within the coils A bridge is used to measure changes in a circuit
42
Pressure 1

Electronic Pressure Sensor Modules Vibrating Wire
Wire located in magnetic field vibrate when current pass through it Wire movement within field induces current into it Induced voltage amplified as output signal Vibration frequency depends on wire tension Elastic element connected to wire. Frequency of wire vibration become a function of measured pressure Direct digital output signal
43

Electronic Pressure Sensor Modules Output Electronics Output Electronics
44
Sensor Module
Diaphragm Seal
Sensor Module
Sensor (transducer) module is part of the transmitter. Sensor will become active only when the transmitter is powered. (Attenuation) Output Electronics in the transmitter translates the userable electrical signal from the sensor into a standard output signal.
Pressure 1
Pressure calibrators
ISO Requirement
ISO Require calibration device to be 4 times more accurate than the accuracy of the instrument being calibrated. If the reference accuracy of a 3051C transmitter is 0.075% of span,
45
What should the accuracy of the C/V pressure source be? the equipment for calibrating the pressure source?
If the diameter of the ball on a dead weight tester is 0.75 inches. The weight of a plate is 723g.
What is the pressure required to freely float that plate on the dead weight tester (g/cm2)?
Exercise
46
1. If the atmospheric pressure drop by 0.1 % and the line pressure remains unchanged, what changes will occur in the readings? 80.psi GP AP 94.7psi (A) AP reading will change. Transmitter Transmitter (B) GP reading will change. Line pressure = 80 psig (C) Both reading will change. Liquid flow (D) Both reading will not change. [ ] 2. If a customer wants to measure vacuum, what type of transmitter should be used? (A) AP (B) DP (C) GP [ ]
Pressure 1
Exercise
c a b
47
80 psig
50 psig
Write down the readings in (psi) that are recorded by the transmitters in the above application (Atmosphere = 14.7 psi). 3. 4. 5. Differential Pressure Transmitter (a): Gage Pressure Transmitter (b): Absolute Pressure Transmitter (c): [ [ [ ] ] ]
Exercise
S.G of Process Fluid @ Temp + Pressure = 1.0 200mm P1 P2 S.G. = 13.6
48
(Note 1 mm H2O = 9.8 Pa)
6. What is the differential pressure (P1 - P2) in kPa being applied to the manometer in the the above application ?

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Level 1 - Fundamental Training

Level 1 Fundamental Training

Power Point Presentation Handouts

Level 1 - Fundamental Training

Why measure pressure?

Inferred Measurement of Other Variables

Pressure = 100 lb/in

Power Point Presentation Handouts

Level 1 - Fundamental Training

Note. Gases are compressible whereas liquids are not

Pressure Loop Issues:

May Require Fast Equipment

Power Point Presentation Handouts

Level 1 - Fundamental Training

Pressure is defined as FORCE applied over a unit AREA.

Gage(psig) - Level of pressure relative to atmospheric Positive or negative in magnitude

Power Point Presentation Handouts

Level 1 - Fundamental Training

Atm. Pressure ? -5 Psig Total Vacuum 5 psi vacuum

14.7 psia ? 9.7 Psia Absolute Zero

Assume: Patm = 14.7psia; 28 inches H2O per psi

35.71 1000 in H2O = ___________ psi

Power Point Presentation Handouts

Level 1 - Fundamental Training

Inferring non-pressure variables

Flow Restriction in Line cause a differential Pressure

Power Point Presentation Handouts

Level 1 - Fundamental Training

Inferring non-pressure variables

Experimentally Determined Correction Factors

Inferring non-pressure variables

d2/4 x D2/4 d/D =

Power Point Presentation Handouts

Level 1 - Fundamental Training

Inferring non-pressure variables

Three energies: Kinetic Potential Static Pressure

(1/2v2) (gh) cancel - off for level (P) pipe

Inferring non-pressure variables

After restriction common

V12 = (2 x V2)2 common subject Re-arranged

Power Point Presentation Handouts

Level 1 - Fundamental Training

Inferring non-pressure variables

velocity of approach constant - E

Volumetric Flow Mass Flow

Qv2 = k (dP/) Qm2 = k (dP x )

Inferring non-pressure variables

30/Qv2 = 50/ 30 Qv2 = 23.26m/s

Power Point Presentation Handouts

Level 1 - Fundamental Training

Inferring non-pressure variables

Unit Area (eg. per cm2)

Which shape gives higher pressure at the bottom of the vessel?

Inferring non-pressure variables

With reference to inches or mm WATER

Power Point Presentation Handouts

Level 1 - Fundamental Training

Inferring non-pressure variables

r x g x height x area / area r x g x h

Inferring non-pressure variables

Cancelled off since both L & H sides of transmitter experience it.

Power Point Presentation Handouts

Level 1 - Fundamental Training

Inferring non-pressure variables

At 0% Liquid Interface (4mA) DP = Hside - Lside = (SG1h1) - [(SGf(h1-h2)) + (SG1*h2)]