Power System Protective

Relaying-Part Two

Wei-Jen Lee, Ph.D., PE

Professor of Electrical Engineering Dept.
The Univ. of Texas at Arlington
Definition

Actual Quantity
• Quantity in per unit = Base Value of Quantity

• Quantity in percent = (Quantity in per unit)*100

Advantages
• More meaningful when comparing different
voltage levels
• The per unit equivalent impedance of the
transformer remains the same when referred to
either the primary or the secondary side
• The per unit impedance of a transformer in a three-
phase system is the same, regardless the winding
connection
• The per unit method is independent of voltage
changes and phase shifts through transformers
Advantages
• Manufacturers usually specify the impedance of
the equipment in per unit or percent on the base of
its nameplate ratings
• The per unit impedance values of various ratings
of equipment lie in a narrow range
General Relations Between
Circuit Quantities

S 3φ = 3V LL I L
V LL = 3V LN ∠30 o

S 3φ
IL =
3V LL
General Relations Between
Circuit Quantities
 General Relations Between
Circuit Quantities
Y − Connection
V LN V LL ∠ − 30 o 3V LL VLL2 ∠ − 30 o
ZY = = * =
IL 3 S 3φ S 3φ
∆ − Connection
VLL S 3φ ∠30
o
I L ∠30 o
ID = = =
3 ZD 3VLL
V LL 3VLL ∠ − 30 o 3V 3V 2
∠ − 30 o
ZD = = = 3V LL ∠ − 30 o * LL
= LL
ID IL S 3φ S 3φ
Base Quantity Selections
• VA, V, I, and Z are four power quantities
• One has to select two base quantities and derive
the other two
Base Conversion
2
MVAbase ( new) KVbase ( old )
Z pu ( new) = Z pu ( old ) * * 2
MVAbase ( old ) KVbase ( new )
Example One: Base Conversion
• A 50-MVA, 34.5:161 kV transformer with 10%
reactance is connected to a power system where
all the other impedance values are on a 100 MVA,
34.5 or 161 kV base. The reactance of the
transformer under new base is:

2
100 KV base ( old )
Z pu ( new) = 0.1 * * 2
= 0.2
50 KVbase ( new)
Example Two: Base Conversion
• A generator and transformer, as shown below, are
to be combined into a single equivalent reactance
on a 100 MVA, 110 kV (high voltage side) base.
Example Two: Base Conversion
• The transformer is operated at 3.9 kV tap.
• New base voltage at high side is 110 kV.
• The base voltage at low side is:
110*3.9/115 = 3.73 kV
100 42
Z gen ( new) = 0.25 * * 2
= 1.15
25 3.73
2
100 3.9
Z Xfer ( new) = 0.1 * * 2
= 0.364
30 3.73
Z eq = Z gen ( new) + Z Xfer ( new) = 1.15 + 0.364 = 1.514
Transformer Polarity
Transformer Polarity
• The ANSI/IEEE standard for transformers states
that the high voltage should lead the low voltage
by 30o with Y-∆ or ∆ -Y banks.
Relay Polarity
• Relays that sense the direction of current (or
power) flow at a specific location and, thereby,
indicate the direction of the fault, provide a
good example of relay polarity.
• A directional-sensing unit requires a reference
quantity that is reasonably constant against
which the current in the protected circuit can
be compared.
Relay Polarity
• Definition of maximum torque line and zero
torque line
• Solid state units can have adjustments for (1) the
maximum torque angle and (2) the angle limits of
the operating zone
Relay Polarity
Relay Polarity
• In Fig. (A), the maximum operating torque or
energy occurs when the current flow from polarity
to non-polarity (Ipq) leads by 30o the voltage drop
from polarity to non-polarity (Vrs). The minimum
pick up of the directional unit is specified at the
maximum torque.
• Higher current will be required when Ipq deviates
from the maximum torque line.
Relay Polarity
• For ground fault protection, the 60o unit of Fig. (B)
is used with a 3Vo reference and the zero unit of
Fig. (C) with a 3Io current reference.
• The Fig. (C) is also used for power or var
applications.
 Relay Polarity
Connection Unit Type Phase A Phase B Phase C Maximum torque
occurs when
30o Fig. 3.7C Ia, Vac Ib, Vba Ic, Vcb I lags 30o

60o Delta Fig. 3.7C Ia-Ib, Vac Ib-Ic, Vba Ic-Ia, Vcb I lags 60o

60o Wye Fig. 3.7C Ia, -Vc Ib, -Va Ic, -Vb I lags 60o

90o-45o Fig. 3.7A Ia, Vbc Ib, Vca Ic, Vab I lags 45o
(max. torque: 45o)

90o-60o Fig. 3.7A Ia, Vbc Ib, Vca Ic, Vab I lags 60o
The 90 -60 Connection for
o o

Phase-Fault Protection
The 90 -60 Connection for
o o

Phase-Fault Protection
Directional Sensing for Ground
Faults: Voltage Polarization
Directional Sensing for Ground
Faults: Voltage Polarization
Directional Sensing for Ground
Faults: Current Polarization
Symmetrical Components

   
1 1 1 1 1 1
I a    I 0  I 0    I a 
 I  = 1 a2
 
a I1   I  = 1 1 a 2 
a   I b 
 b   1 3
 I c    I 
 2  I 2    I 
 2   c 
1 a a  1 a2 a 
   
Zero Sequence Current and Voltage
for Ground Fault Protection
Sequence Networks
• Single-Line Diagram
Sequence Networks
• Positive Sequence Network
Sequence Networks
• Negative Sequence Network
Sequence Networks
• Zero Sequence Network
Sequence Network Reduction
• Consider faults at bus H for the positive sequence
network of the sample system. The Z1 is equal to
the parallel of (Xd”+XTG+X1GH) and (Z1S+XHM)
Fault Studies for Relay Settings
and Coordination
• Three-phase fault studies for applying and setting
phase relays
• Single-phase-to-ground fault studies for applying
and setting ground protection relays
• Fault Impedance: Faults are seldom solid, but
involve varying amount of resistance.
• It is generally ignored in protective relaying and
faults studies for high voltage transmission or sub-
transmission system.
Fault Studies for Relay Settings
and Coordination
• In distribution systems, very large or basically
infinite impedance can exist. High impedance
fault detection relay may be necessary for
distribution system.
• For arcing fault, the arc resistance varies a lot.
However, a commonly accepted value for currents
between 70 and 20,000 A has been an arc drop of
440 V per foot, essentially independent of current
magnitude. Therefore, 440l
Z arc = Ω
I
Fault Studies for Relay Settings
and Coordination
• In low voltage (480 V) switchboard-type
enclosures, typical arc voltages of about 150 V
can be experienced.
• Substation and Tower-Footing Impedance is
another highly variable factor. Several technical
papers have been written and computer programs
have been developed in this area with many
variables and assumptions. The general practice is
to neglect these in most fault studies and relay
applications and settings.
 Fault Studies for Relay Settings
and Coordination
   
1 1 1 1 1 1
I 0    I a  I a   I 0 
 I  = 1 1 2 
a a   I b   I  = 1 2  
a a   I1 
 1 3  b 
 I 2    I   I c   I 
 2  c   2
 2
1 a a 1 a a 
   

 
Z 0 0
 0 
V0  0   I 0 
V  = V  − 0 Z1 0   I 1 
 1    
V2  0     I 2 
0 0 Z2 
 
 
Fault Studies for Relay Settings
and Coordination
• Sequence Interconnections for Three-Phase Faults
Fault Studies for Relay Settings
and Coordination
• Sequence Interconnections for Three-Phase Faults
– Three-Phase faults are assumed to be symmetrical.
– The positive-sequence network can be used to calculate
the fault current.
– Since Ia, Ib, and Ic are balanced, only I1 appears in the
circuit. If there is fault impedance ZF among phases, Z1
should be changed to Z1 + ZF. V-( Z1 + ZF) I1=0

V V
I 1 = I aF = or I 1 = I aF =
Z1 Z1 + Z F
Fault Studies for Relay Settings
and Coordination
• Sequence Interconnections for Single Phase-to-
Ground Faults
Fault Studies for Relay Settings
and Coordination
• Sequence Interconnections for Single Phase-to-
Ground Faults
– A phase-a-to-ground fault is represented by
connecting the three sequence networks
together (either with or without fault
impedance).  
1 1 1
I 0   I a  I a 
Ib = Ic = 0  I  = 1 1  1
a a 2  0  =  I a  Va = Z F * 3I 0
 1 3
 I 2    0  3  I 
 2    a
1 a a
 
Fault Studies for Relay Settings
and Coordination
• Sequence Interconnections for Single Phase-to-
Ground Faults 


 Z 0 0
 0 
V0  0     I 1  − Z 0 I 1 
V  = V  − 0 Z1 0   I 1  = V − Z 1 I 1 
 1    
V2  0     I 1  − Z 2 I 1 
0 0 Z2 
 
 

Va = V0 + V1 + V2 = V − ( Z 0 + Z 1 + Z 2 ) I 1 = 3Z F I 1

V
I1 = I 2 = I 0 =
Z 1 + Z 2 + Z 0 + (3Z F )
I aF = I 1 + I 2 + I 0 = 3I 1
Fault Studies for Relay Settings
and Coordination
• Sequence Interconnections for Phase-to-Phase
Faults
- It is convenient to show the fault between phases b and
c with fault impedance of ZF.
Fault Studies for Relay Settings
and Coordination
• Sequence Interconnections for Phase-to-Phase
Faults
I a = 0, Vb − Vc = Z F I b , and I b = −I c

 
1 1 1  
 
0  0
I 0     
 I  = 1 1 2  1
a a  I b  = aI b − a I b 
2
 1 3  3 2 
 I 2     a I b − aI b 
 2  − I b   
1 a a
 
Fault Studies for Relay Settings
and Coordination
• Sequence Interconnections for Phase-to-Phase
Faults  
 Z 0 0
 0  0 
V0  0     0 
V  = V  − 0 Z1 0   I 1  = V − Z 1 I 1 
 1     
V2  0    − I   Z 2 I 1 
  0 0 Z 2  1 
 
1 1 1  
Va    V0 
V  = 1 2  
a a  V1 
 b 
Vc    V 
 2
 2
1 a a 
 
Fault Studies for Relay Settings
and Coordination
• Sequence Interconnections for Phase-to-Phase
Faults
Vb − Vc = (a 2 − a )V1 + (a − a 2 )V2
= (a 2 − a )(V1 − V2 )
= (a 2 − a)(V − ( Z 1 + Z 2 ) I 1 )
3I 1 Z F
= IbZ F =
a − a2
3I 1 Z F
(V − ( Z 1 + Z 2 ) I 1 ) = I b Z F = = I1 Z F
(a − a )(a − a )
2 2
Fault Studies for Relay Settings
and Coordination
• Sequence Interconnections for Phase-to-Phase
Faults
V
I1 = − I 2 =
Z1 + Z 2 + (Z F )
I aF = I 1 − I 2 = 0
I bF = a 2 I 1 + aI 2 = − j 3I 1
I cF = aI 1 + a 2 I 2 = j 3I 1
• Assume Z1 = Z2, then I1 = V/2Z1. Just considering
the magnitude, 3V V
I bF = I cF = = 0.866 = 0.866 I 3φ
2Z1 Z1
Fault Studies for Relay Settings
and Coordination
• Sequence Interconnections for Double Phase-to-
Ground Faults
• The connection for this type of fault is similar to the
phase-to-phase fault with the addition of the zero
sequence impedance in parallel with the negative
sequence impedance.
Fault Studies for Relay Settings
and Coordination
• Sequence Interconnections for Double Phase-to-
Ground Faults
Vb = Vc = Z F ( I b + I c )  
Z 0 0
I a = I 0 + I1 + I 2 = 0  0 
V0  0   I 0 
Vb = V0 + a 2V1 + aV2 V  = V  − 0 Z1 0   I 1 
 1    
Vc = V0 + aV1 + a 2V2 V2  0     I 2 
V1 = V2 0 0 Z2 
 
Vb = ( I b + I c ) Z F = 3 I 0 Z F  
V0 = − Z 0 I 0
V1 = V − Z 1 I 1
V2 = − Z 2 I 2
Fault Studies for Relay Settings
and Coordination
• Sequence Interconnections for Double Phase-to-
Ground Faults
Vb = 3I 0 Z F = V0 + (a 2 + a )V1 = V0 − V1
3I 0 Z F = V0 − V1 = − Z 0 I 0 − V + Z 1 I 1
V − Z1 I1
I0 = −
Z 0 + 3Z F
V − Z1 I1
I2 = −
Z2
I 1 = −( I 2 + I 0 )
Fault Studies for Relay Settings
and Coordination
• Sequence Interconnections for Double Phase-to-
Ground Faults (Solid faults)
V
I1 =
Z Z
Z1 + 2 0
Z2 + Z0
Z0
I 2 = − I1
Z2 + Z0
Z2
I 0 = − I1
Z2 + Z0
Fault Studies for Relay Settings
and Coordination
• Sequence Interconnections for Double Phase-to-
Ground Faults (Line-to-line fault impedance: ZF
and phase-to-ground fault impedance: ZFG)
V
I1 =
ZF ( Z 2 + ( Z F / 2))( Z 0 + ( Z F / 2) + 3Z FG )
(Z1 + )+
2 Z 2 + Z 0 + Z F + 3Z FG
( Z 0 + ( Z F / 2) + 3Z FG )
I 2 = − I1
Z 2 + Z 0 + Z F + 3Z FG
( Z 2 + ( Z F / 2))
I 0 = − I1
Z 2 + Z 0 + Z F + 3Z FG
Example: Fault Calculations on a
Sample System
Example: Fault Calculations on a
Sample System
• Step One: Transfer all the constants to a common
base
- VG: 100
X = X 2G
"
d = 0.16 * = 0.2 pu
80

- VS: No change

100
- Two winding Transformer: X TG = 0.11 * = 0.1375
80
Example: Fault Calculations on a
Sample System
• Step One: Transfer all the constants to a common
base 100
X HM = 0.055 * = 0.03667 pu
150
100
- Three winding transformer: X HL = 0.360 * = 0.2400 pu
150
100
X ML = 0.280 * = 0.18667 pu
150
1
X H = (0.03667 + 0.2400 − 0.18667) = 0.0450 pu
2
1
X M = (0.03667 − 0.2400 + 0.18667) = −0.00833 pu
2
1
X L = (−0.03667 + 0.2400 + 0.18667) = 0.1950 pu
2
Example: Fault Calculations on a
Sample System
• Step One: Transfer all the constants to a common
base
115 2 * 10 6
Z base = 6
= 132.25Ω
100 * 10
- Line Impedance: 82
X0 = = 0.6200 pu
132.25
X 1 = X 2 = 0.18147 pu
Example: Fault Calculations on a
Sample System
• Develop sequence network for different fault
conditions (Fault at point “G”).
Positive & negative sequence network
Example: Fault Calculations on a
Sample System
• Develop sequence network for different fault
conditions (Fault at point “G”).
Zero sequence network
Example: Fault Calculations on a
Sample System
• For the fault at G, the right side impedance
(j0.18147+j0.03667+j0.03=j0.2481) is parallel
with left side impedance (j0.20+j0.1375=j0.3375).

j 0.3375 * j 0.2482
Z1 = Z 2 = = j 0.1430
j 0.3375 + j 0.2481
Example: Fault Calculations on a
Sample System
• The right side network is reduced for a fault at bus
G by first paralleling X0S + ZH with ZL and then
adding ZM and X0GH (The equivalent impedance is
equal to j0.6709). Paralleling with the left side
impedance (XTG = j0.1375), the zero sequence
impedance X0 = j0.1141.
Example: Fault Calculations on a
Sample System
• Three-phase fault at Bus G
1 100,000
I 1 = I aF = = j 6.993 pu = j 6.993 = 3510.8 A at 115kV
j 0.143 3 * 115

• The division of current from the left (IaG) and the

right (IaH) are:
I aG = 0.4237 * 6.993 = 2.963 pu
I aH = 0.5763 * 6.993 = 4.030 pu
Example: Fault Calculations on a
Sample System
• Single-phase-to-ground fault at Bus G
1 .0
I1 = I 2 = I 0 = = j 2.5 pu
j (0.143 + 0.143 + 0.1141)
I aF = 3I 1 = j 7.5 pu = 3764.4 A at 115kV
Example: Fault Calculations for
Autotransformers
• Autotransformers have become very common in
recent years.
• Consider a typical autotransformer in a system, as
shown in the figure, and assume that a single-
phase-to-ground fault occurs at the H or 34.5 kV
terminal
Example: Fault Calculations for
Autotransformers
Example: Fault Calculations for
Autotransformers
100
X HM = 0.08 * = 0.05333 pu
150
100
X HL = 0.34 * = 0.68 pu
50
100
X ML = 0.216 * = 0.54 pu
40
1
XH = (0.0533 + 0.68 − 0.54) = 0.09667 pu
2
1
XM = (0.0533 + 0.54 − 0.68) = −0.04334 pu
2
1
XH = (0.68 + 0.54 − 0.0533) = 0.58334 pu
2
Example: Fault Calculations for
Autotransformers
• The sequence networks are shown below:
Example: Fault Calculations for
Autotransformers
• When the fault happens at Bus H, the equivalent
sequence impedance for the networks are:
• Positive & negative sequence network
(0.057 − 0.0433 + 0.0967) * (0.08)
X1 = X 2 = = 0.04637 pu
(0.057 − 0.0433 + 0.0967 + 0.08)
• Zero sequence network
(0.032 − 0.0433) * 0.583
X left = + 0.0967 = 0.085177 pu
(0.032 − 0.0433 + 0.583)
0.085177 * 0.28
X0 = = 0.06527 pu
0.085177 + 0.28
Example: Fault Calculations for
Autotransformers
• Single-phase-to-ground fault at H:
1.0
I 0 = I1 = I 2 = = 6.3287 pu
(0.04637 + 0.04637 + 0.06527)
100 * 10 6
I 0 = I 1 = I 2 = 6.3287 * 3
= 1059.1A at 345kV
3 * 345 * 10
I aF = 3I 0 = 3 * 6.3287 = 18.986 pu = 3177.29 A at 345kV
Example: Fault Calculations for
Autotransformers
• Fault current distribution
Example: Open-Phase Conductor
• A blown fuse or broken conductor that opens one
of the three phases results in a serious unbalance
that has to be detected and resolved as soon as
possible.
• The sample system (Assume phase a open at “H”)
Example: Open-Phase Conductor
• The positive sequence network (X-Y indicates the
fault location)
Example: Open-Phase Conductor
• The negative sequence network (X-Y indicates the
fault location)
Example: Open-Phase Conductor
• The zero sequence network (X-Y indicates the
fault location)
Example: Open-Phase Conductor
• It is necessary to consider the load current in this
case. (This is similar to two-phase-to-ground fault
calculation)
Example: Open-Phase Falling to
Ground on One Side
• Same sample system as before.
• Assume phase a conductor on the line at bus H
opens and falls to ground on the H side (right side).
Example: Open-Phase Falling to
Ground on One Side
• Same sequence network
• Since this is a simultaneous fault (an open phase
fault and a phase-to-ground fault), we can insert
three ideal transformers at H to isolate the open
phase fault and phase-to-ground fault. (Load
current can be ignored)
Example: Open-Phase Falling to
Ground on One Side
Example: Open-Phase Falling to
Ground on One Side
Example: Open-Phase Falling to
Ground on One Side
• The other possibility is that the open conductor
falls to ground on the line side. We can use the
same approach as before. However, the load must
be considered in the fault current calculation.