C.

10AB: Aqueous Solutions

Reflect
Here is an interesting activity to try with your friends. Fill a glass to the brim with water. Then guess how many pennies you can drop in the glass before the water spills over. Once everyone has guessed, begin dropping pennies one by one into the center of the glass. Keep count as you make your additions until water begins spilling over the side of the glass. You may be surprised by the outcome. What could account for such a surprising result?

Water has many unique properties.

Waters ability to hold itself together in the activity described above is just one of its many unique properties. The following list summarizes a few more: Cohesion: Cohesion is a property that results from strong forces of attraction between particles within a substance. Cohesion is not observed if these forces of attraction are absent or weak. The attractive force between water molecules is high, which accounts for the ability of water to bulge up over the rim of a glass as pennies are dropped in. Cohesion also accounts for the beading of water droplets on a surface, which you can see in the photograph at left. High surface tension: Surface tension is a measure of the ability of a liquid to resist a downward force through its surface. Water has a high surface tension, which you can observe whenever an insect walks across a body of water. The insect does not sink into the water but remains above its surface because of the high surface tension of the water. Similarly, a small object such High surface tension as a sewing needle can float on top of water even allows insects to walk though the metal needle is denser than the water. If across liquid water. you point the needle down so it pierces the waters surface and then let go, the needle will sink. Laid horizontally on the waters surface, however, the needle floats. High boiling point and high freezing point: Waters boiling point and freezing point are both high compared to those of similar molecules. For
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C.10AB: Aqueous Solutions

example, compare the boiling points and freezing points of hydrogen sulfide and oxygen difluoride to those of water. The data in the following table indicate that even though all three of these substances contain small molecules comprised of only three atoms, only water is liquid at room temperature (about 20C). The other compounds have such low boiling points that they are gases at any temperatures we normally experience in everyday life. Compound Water Hydrogen sulfide Oxygen difluoride Chemical formula H2O H2S OF2 Boiling point 100C 60C 145C Freezing point 0C 82C 224C

High specific heat: The specific heat of a substance is a measure of the amount of heat energy that must be added to that substance to raise its temperature. Water has a high specific heat, which means that a large amount of energy must be added to cause a small change in its temperature. Because water covers more than 70% of Earths surface, its high specific heat plays a critical role in regulating climate on our planet. If waters specific heat were lower, oceans and lakes would be much warmer during the day and cooler at night. This would have a similar effect on air temperatures around the planet. Low density in the solid state: Ice is less dense than liquid water. You observe this every time you see ice floating in water. This property has important implications for aquatic environments where the climate is cold enough to cause freezing in winter. Because ice floats, lakes and ponds freeze from the top down, and plants and animals can survive the winter by living in the liquid water underneath the ice.

Although the surface of a lake freezes solid in winter, the water underneath remains in the liquid state, allowing many organisms to survive despite freezing temperatures.

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C.10AB: Aqueous Solutions

Solvent properties: Water is known as the universal solvent because so many compounds are water solublethat is, they dissolve in water. (A solvent is a substance in which another substance, called a solute, dissolves.) Cells depend on this property for the thousands of metabolic reactions taking place inside their cell membranes. Water makes up 60% of the mass of an adult human. Much of this water is located in the cytoplasm of the bodys cells where it provides a solvent in which the chemical reactions of metabolism can occur.

Waters properties can be explained by its molecular structure.

Lets take a closer look at the molecular structure of water. How does it explain the properties of water we observe? A water molecule contains three atoms: an oxygen atom (O) in the middle and two hydrogen atoms (H) bonded on either side. Each hydrogen atom shares its electron with the oxygen atom. These atoms are not arranged in a straight line, however. Instead, they form an angle of 105. A water molecule therefore has a bent shape. Partly because of its bent shape, and partly because H H hydrogen and oxygen do not share their bonding O electrons equally, a water molecule has areas of partial charge. An oxygen atom has eight positively charged protons in its nucleus, whereas a hydrogen atom has Water is polar because of its only one; therefore, negatively charged electrons are structure and atomic makeup. more strongly attracted to oxygen atoms. As a result, the The oxygen atom carries a partial shared electrons in a water molecule spend more time negative charge (), while the around the oxygen atom than they spend around the hydrogen atoms carry partial positive charges (+). hydrogen atom. This gives the oxygen atom a partial negative charge (), while each hydrogen atom has a partial positive charge (+). Because a water molecule has a distinct distribution of partial charges, such that a positive end of the molecule can be distinguished from a negative end, it is said to be polar.
covalent bond: a The polar nature of water causes strong attractive forces chemical bond that forms between water molecules. More specifically, these strong where two atoms share attractive forces result in hydrogen bonds, which form electrons between pairs of water molecules. A hydrogen bond is not a covalent bond. Instead, it results from the interaction between a partially positive hydrogen atom of one water molecule and the partially negative oxygen atom of another water molecule.
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C.10AB: Aqueous Solutions

Hydrogen bonds are strong enough to result in the properties described earlier: cohesion, high surface tension, high boiling point and freezing point, and high specific heat. In each case, the property results from strong attractive forces that tend to hold water molecules together. Hydrogen bonding accounts for intermolecular attractions in water: attractions that occur between water molecules. Other types of attractions that occur between water molecules and other kinds of molecules can also be explained by waters polar nature. Recall that we described water as a good solvent. Water is a good solvent because of the attractive forces between water molecules and the solute particles. For Hydrogen bonds form between two example, table salt, or sodium chloride (NaCl), is an water molecules. ionic compound consisting of positively charged + sodium ions (Na ) and negatively charged chloride ions (Cl). When you dissolve table salt in water, the solid compound breaks apart. Each individual ion becomes associated with many water molecules through strong attractive forces. The diagram below shows how a sodium ion with a +1 charge associates with polar water molecules in one orientation, and a chloride ion with a 1 charge associates with polar water molecules in the opposite orientation.

When sodium chloride (NaCl) is placed in water, the water molecules break apart the individual ions. Each positively charged sodium ion (Na+) is surrounded by the negatively charged ends of water molecules. Each negatively charged chloride ion (Cl) is surrounded by the positively charged ends of water molecules.

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C.10AB: Aqueous Solutions

Look Out!
Although a water molecule is often shown as having a positive end and a negative end, these charges are only partial charges. Water is not an ion. Its charges are not full positive and negative charges such as those found on ions such as Na+ or Cl.

Only some ionic compounds are soluble in water.

Not all ionic compounds dissolve in water with the same ease as sodium chloride. In fact, some ionic compounds do not dissolve at all in water: they are insoluble. Other ionic compounds are only slightly soluble in water. The dissolution behavior of any particular ionic compound can be thought of as a competition. The competition is based on relative strengths of attraction. The ions making up an ionic compound are attracted to one another and also to water molecules. Whether or not a compound dissolves in water depends on which of these forces of attraction is greater. In some cases, the ions are more strongly Lead iodide is insoluble in water and attracted to one another than they are to water forms a distinctive yellow precipitate. molecules. In these cases, the ionic compound forms a precipitate in water. You can see the precipitate clearly as a separate substance in the water. In other cases, the ions are more strongly attracted to water molecules, and the compound dissolves in water. By running many experiments, chemists have developed a general list summarizing the water solubility behavior of many compounds. The following compounds are mainly water soluble: Soluble Compound All nitrates All acetates All perchlorates All chlorates All chlorites All hypochlorites All cyanides Most chlorides Most bromides Most iodides Most sulfates Formula NO3 C2H3O2 ClO4 ClO3 ClO2 ClO CN Cl Br I SO42 Exceptions None None None None None None None AgCl, Hg2Cl2, PbCl2 AgBr, Hg2Br2, PbBr2 AgI, Hg2I2, PbI2 CaSO4, SrSO4, BaSO4, PbSO4, Hg2SO4

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C.10AB: Aqueous Solutions

The following compounds are mainly water insoluble: Insoluble Compound Most sulfides Most carbonates Most phosphates Most chromates Most dichromates Most hydroxides Formula S2 CO32 PO43 CrO42 Cr2O72 OH Exceptions BaS, SrS, CaS, (NH4)2S (NH4)2CO3 (NH4)3PO4 (NH4)2CrO4 (NH4)2Cr2O7 Ba(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ca(OH)2

In addition, compounds that contain ions of elements in the 1A group of the periodic table are water soluble. (These elements, the alkali metals, include lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium.)

What Do You Think?

A white, crusty deposit of unknown chemical identity forms around faucets and drains in some houses. Tests show the presence of calcium or magnesium ions in the water. Which of the following compounds might account for this deposit, and which can be eliminated as possibilities? CaSO4 CaCO3 MgCl2 CaCl2 MgSO4 MgCO3

Getting Technical: Solubility and Wastewater Treatment

Wastewater is water that has been used and discarded. Wastewater is generated in homes, schools, businesses, and factories. The majority of contaminants present in wastewater must be removed before the water can be released back into the environment. Wastewater treatment plants have been designed to carry out this task. These plants generally use multiple steps to remove various types of contaminants. One removal technique involves the addition of ions that form insoluble precipitates with metal ions. This precipitation method is particularly important in the processing of wastewater Sedimentation tanks at a wastewater treatment facility allow precipitates to be coming from industrial sites. Adding separated from waste liquid. hydroxide ions (OH) to heavy metals such as copper, nickel, lead, chromium, and cadmium can precipitate the metals. Once precipitated, a filtration process can collect these metal ions.
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C.10AB: Aqueous Solutions

What Do You Know?
1. Place the following terms into the correct location in the table below: high specific heat surface tension low density in the solid state good solvent properties cohesion Property of Water Benefit Water provides an environment inside a cell that allows many chemical reactions to occur. Dew drops form on plants, providing a source of water for insects living on or near the plants. Water temperatures in a lake stay relatively cool even though a heat wave makes the air temperature very hot. Leaves falling from trees in autumn land in a stream, but do not sink to the bottom where they would accumulate and clog the water flow. Fish remain active in a region that experiences below-zero temperatures in winter.

2. Use the water solubility behavior summarized in the list above to predict which of the following solids will dissolve when placed in water. Explain your answers in the space below. KOH Fe2S3 PbBr2 Na2Cr2O7 MgCl2 Ca(NO3)2 NH4Br KCN Li3PO4

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C.10AB: Aqueous Solutions

Connecting With Your Child: Testing Solubility
To help students learn more about aqueous solutions, have them compare the water solubilities of three or more compounds. Suggested compounds include: table salt (NaCl), baking soda (NaHCO3), classroom chalk (CaCO3), plaster of Paris (CaSO4), and Epsom salts (MgSO47H2O). Choose at least three of these and follow the steps below: 1. Begin with 100 mL water at room temperature for each solid to be tested. Add 10 g increments of each solid to water, stirring the solution until the solid dissolves. Continue adding increments and stirring until the added solid no longer dissolves. 2. Next, filter each solution through a coffee filter. Check to be sure that the filtrate is clear. If any solid is visible, filter the solution again. 3. Weigh an aluminum pie pan, and then spread the filtrate in the pan. Allow the liquid to evaporate completely over several days, and then weigh the pan and residue to determine the quantity of solid that dissolved. 4. Compare the masses of the solids tested. Rank them from lowest to greatest solubility in water. Here are some questions to discuss with students: Why is it important to have all of the water samples at the same temperature in this investigation? Do you expect all of the solids being tested to have the same solubility in water? Why or why not? Why is there a limit to the amount of a solid that will dissolve in water? What determines that limit?

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