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Lamprecht, Editor
DE GIVE
OR
'
THE CITIZEN
Essence,
George G. Leckie.
the Immortality of the
On
or
George G. Leckie.
The
Principles of the
John Locke,
Sherman.
Treatise of Civil
Government and
DE GIVE
OR
THE CITIZEN
BY
THOMAS HOBBES
Edited with
An
by
Introduction
Sterling
P.
Lamprecht
Amherst College
Professor of Philosophy,
APPLETON-CENTURY-CROFTS
INCORPORATED
New
York
CB777
199
Copyright, 1949, bt
APPLETON-CENTURY-CROFTS, INC.
All rights reserved. This boo\, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.
624-3
CONTENTS
Introduction
xv
i
PART
I.
I.
LIBERTY
Civil Society
.
Of the State
I.
of
Men Without
2.
21
The
all
introduction.
is
society
That the beginning of civil from mutual fear. 3. That men by nature
5.
are
Whence the will of mischieving each The discord arising from comparison of wills. 6. From the appetite many have to the same thing. 7. The definition of right. 8. A right to the
equal. 4.
other ariseth.
end gives a right to the means necessary to that end. 9. By the right of namre, every man is judge of the means whic 1 tend to his own preservation. 10. By
nature all men have equal right to all things. 11. This right which all men have to all things is unstate of men without civil society war: the definitions of peace and war. 13. W.ir is an adversary to man's preservadon. 14. It is law All for any man, by natural right, to compel another whom he hath gotten in his power, to give caution of his future obedience. 15. Nature dic-
profitable.
is
I :.
The
mere
siate of
tates the
II.
Of the Law
I.
31
That the law of nature is not an agreement of men, but the dictate of reason. 2, That the fundamental law of nature is to seek peace, where it may be had, and where not, to defend ourselves. 3. That
the first special law of nature right to all things. 4. What it
what
to transfer
it.
5.
to quit
him
that receives
it
is
necessarily
required.
6.
No words
VI
transfer
CONTENTS
any
right. 7.
Words
of the future,
if
there be
in the translation of right. 8. In matters of free gift, our right passeth not from us through any words of the future. 9. The definition of contract and compact.
10. In compacts, our right passeth from us through words of the future. 11. Compacts of mu-
to signify
vaUd
tual faith in the state of nature are of vain; but not so in civil government.
no
12.
effect
and That no
man God
can make compacts with beasts, nor yet with without revelation. 13. Nor yet make a vow to God. 14. That compacts oblige not beyond our utmost endeavor. 15. By what means we are freed from our compacts. 16. That promises extorted through fear of death, in the state of nature, are valid. 17. A later compact, contradicting the former, is invalid. 18. A compact not to resist him that shall
prejudice
my
body
is
is
invalid.
19.
compact
to ac-
invalid. 20.
The
definition of swear-
ing. 21. That swearing is to be conceived in that form which he useth that takes the oath. 22. An oath superadds nothing to the obligation which is made by compact. 23. An oath ought not to be pressed, but where the breach of compacts may be kept private, or cannot be punished but from God himself.
III.
of Nature
is
43
perform contracts. 2. That trust is to be held with all men without exception. 3. What injury is. 4. Injury can be done to none but those with whom we contract. 5. The distincdon of justice into that of men, and that of actions. 6. The distinction of commutative and distributive justice examined. 7. No injury can be done to him that is willing. 8. The third law of nature, concerning ingratitude. 9. The fourth law of nature,
of nature
to
that every
man
10.
The
fifth
The
punishments
regard the future only. 12. The seventh law, against reproach. 13. The eighth law, against pride. 14. The ninth law, of humility. 15. The tenth, of equity, or against acceptance of persons. 16. The eleventh, of things to be had in common. 17. The twelfth, of
CONTENTS
things to be divided by lot. i8. The thirteenth, of birthright and first possession. 19. The fourteenth,
Vll
mediators for an umpire. 21. The sixteenth, that no man is judge in his own cause. 22. The seventeenth, that umpires must be without all hope of reward from those whose cause is to be judged. 23. The eighteenth, of witnesses. 24. The nineteenth, that there can no contract be made with the umpire. 25. The twentieth, against gluttony, and all such things as hinder the use of reason. 26. The rule by which we may presendy know, whether what we are doing be against the law of nature or not. 27. The laws of nature oblige only in the court of conscience. 28. The laws of nature are sometimes broke by doing things agreeable to those laws. 29. The laws of nature are unchangeable. 30. Whosoever endeavors to fulfil the laws of nature, is a just man.
of
the
safeguard
of
them who
are
peace. 20.
The
fifteenth, of constituting
31.
The
How
it
what hath been said of the laws of nature, is not the same with what philosophers have delivered concerning the virmes. 33. The law
comes
to pass, that
is not properly a law, but as ered in Holy Writ.
of nature
it
is
deliv-
IV.
of
Nature
Is
a Divine
Law
PART
Government
II.
DOMINION
63
according to the laws of nature consists in the concord of many persons. 4. That the concord of many persons is not constant enough for a lasdng peace. 5. The reason why the government of certain brute creatures stands firm in concord only, and why not of men. 6. That not only consent, but union also, is required to establish the peace of men. 7. What union is. 8. In union, the right of all men is conveyed to
Vlll
CONTENTS
one.
is.
9.
II.
What What
civil society
it
is
to
is. 10. What a civil person have the supreme power, and 12. Two kinds of cities, natural
Of the Right of Him, Whether Council or One Man Only, Who Hath the Supreme
Power
I.
in
the City
70
There can no right be attributed to a multitude out of civil society, nor any action to which they have not under seal consented. 2. The right of the
greater
3.
number
consenting,
is
sufficient
according to his own free will, so long as there is no regard had to his security. 4. That a co-
power is necessary to secure us. 5. What the sword of justice is. 6. That the sword of justice belongs to him who hath the chief command. 7. That the sword of war belongs to him also. 8. All judicature belongs to him too. 9. The legislative power is his only. 10. The naming of magistrates and other
ercive
the city belongs to him. 11. Also the examination of all doctrines. 12. Whatsoever he doth is unpunishable. 13. That the command his citizens have granted is absolute, and what proportion of obedience is due to him. 14. That the laws of the city bind him not. 15. That no man can challenge a propriety to anything against his will. 16. By the laws of the city only we come to know what theft, murder, adultery, and injury is. 17. The opinion of those who would
officers of
constimte a city, where there should not be any one endued with an absolute power. 18, The marks of supreme authority. 19. If a city be compared with a man, he that hath the supreme power is in order to
20.
city, as the human soul is in relation to the man. That the supreme command cannot by right be dissolved through their consents by whose compacts it was first constituted.
the
VII.
of Government: Democ-
Monarchy
87
That there are three kinds of government only: democracy, aristocracy, monarchy. 2. That oligarchy
CONTENTS
not a diverse form of government distinct from aristocracy, nor anarchy any form at all. 3. That a tyranny is not a diverse state from a legitimate monarchy. 4. That there cannot be a mixed state, fashioned out of these several species. 5. That democracy, except there be certain times and places of meeting
is
IX
prefixed,
is
dissolved. 6. In a
ministration of
democracy the intervals must be shortj or the adgovernment during the interval comone. 7. In a democracy, particulars to obey the people; the
mitted
people
to
some
with
contract
is
particulars
obliged to no man. 8. By what acts arisconstituted. 9. In an aristocracy the nobles make no compact, neither are they obliged to any citizen or to the whole people. 10. The nobles must necessarily have their set meetings. 11. By what acts
tocracy
is
monarchy
is
constituted. 12.
Monarchy
is
by compact
obliged to none for the authority it hath received. 13. Monarchy is ever in the readiest capacity to exercise all those acts which are requisite to good govern-
ment.
14.
What kind
it,
of sin that
is,
and what
sort of
its
men
office
are guilty of
when
towards the citizens, nor the citizens towards the city. 15. A monarch made without limitation of time hath power to elect his successor. 16. Of limited monarchs. 17. A monarch, retaining his right of government, cannot by any promise whatsoever be conceived to have parted with his right to the means necessary to the exercise of his authority. 18. How a
citizen
is
freed
from
subjection.
VIII.
Of the Rights
I.
100
and servant signify. 2. The distinction of servants, into such as upon trust enjoy their natural liberty, or slaves and such as serve being imprisoned or bound in fetters. 3. The obHgation of a servant arises from the liberty of body allowed him by his lord. 4. Servants that are bound are not by any compacts tied to their lords. 5. Servants have no
lord
What
propriety in their goods against their lord. 6. The lord may sell his servant, or alienate him by testa-
ment.
that
is
7.
The
8.
He
CONTENTS
9.
By what means
Dominion
IX.
Of the Right
1.
105
not from generation. 2. Dominion over infants belongs to him or her who first hath them in their power. 3. Dominion over infants is originally the mother's. 4. The exposed infant is his from whom he receives his preservation. 5. The child that hath one parent a subject and the other a sovereign, belongs to him or her in authority. 6. In such a conjunction of man and woman as neither hath command over the other, the children are the mother's, unless by compact or civil law it be otherwise determined. 7. Children are no less subject to their parents than servants to their lords and sub-
dominion
ariseth
jects
to
their
and
lords. 9.
princes. 8. Of the honor of parents Wherein liberty consists, and the difsubjects and servants. 10. There is the
in
institutive
an hereditary governgovernment.
belongs only to monarchy. 12. A monarch may by his will and testament dispose of his supreme authority. monarch dying without 13. Or give it, or sell it. 14. testament is ever supposed to will that a monarch should succeed him. 15. And some one of his children. 16. And a male rather than female. 17. And the eldest rather than the younger. 18. And his brother, if he want issue, before all others. 19. In the same manner that men succeed to the power, do they also succeed to the right of succession.
X.
A
1.
with the
civil.
2.
The
and
4.
be said to be unreasonable in this respect, namely, because one hath more power than all the rest. 5. rejection of
CONTENTS
their opinion who say that a lord with his servants cannot make a city. 6. Exactions are more grievous under a popular state than a monarchy. 7. Innocent subjects are less exposed to penalties under a monarch than under the people. 8. The liberty of single subjects is not less under a monarch than under a people. 9. It is no disadvantage to the subjects, that they are not all admitted to public deliberations. 10. Civil deliberations are unadvisedly committed to great assemblies, by reason of the unskilfulness of the most part of men. 11. In regard of eloquence. 12. In regard of faction. 13. In regard of the unstableness of the laws. 14. In regard of the want of secrecy. 15. That these inconveniences adhere to democracy, forasmuch as men are naturally delighted with the esteem of wit. 16. The inconveniences of a city arising from a king that is a child. 17. The power of generals is an evident sign of the excellence of mon-
XI
archy. 18.
subjects
The
is
that
19.
where the
it
inheritance.
The
aristocracy
further
it
is;
nearer the
of
the
Dis-
128
evil
belongs to pri-
vate persons,
a seditious opinion. 2.
their princes,
is
That
subjects
do
3. 4.
sin
by obeying
a seditious opinion.
That tyrannicide is lawful, is a seditious opinion. That those who have the supreme power are subject to the civil laws, is a seditious opinion. 5. That the supreme power may be divided, is a seditious opinion. 6. That faith and sanctity are not acquired by study and reason, but always supernaturally infused and inspired, is a seditious opinion. 7. That each subject hath a propriety or absolute dominion of his own goods, is a seditious opinion. 8. Not to understand the difference between the people and the
multitude, prepares toward sedition. 9. Too great a tax of monies, though never so just and necessary.
XU
CONTENTS
prepares toward sedition. lo. Ambition disposeth us to sedition, ii. So doth the hope of success. 12. Eloquence alone without wisdom, is the only faculty needful to raise seditions. 13. the folly of the common people, and the elocution of ambitious men, concur to the destruction of a commonweal.
How
XIII.
Them Who
is
Bear
141
Rule
I.
The
right of
supreme authority
2.
distinguished
safety of the people is the behoves princes to regard the common benefit of many, not the peculiar interest of this or that man. 4. That by safety is understood all manner of conveniences. 5. A query, whether it be the duty of kings to provide for the salvation of their subjects* souls, as they shall judge best according
It
The
Wherein the safety of That discoverers are necessary for the defence of the people. 8. That to have soldiers, arms, garrisons, and monies in readiness in
to their
own
consciences. 6.
7.
time of peace, is also necessary for the defence of right instruction of subjects in civil the people. 9. doctrines is necessary for the preserving of peace. 10.
offices
conduces
is
much
namral equity
conduceth to ambitious
that monies be taxed according to spends, not what he possesses. 12. the preservation of peace to keep
down
men.
13.
And
to
break factions.
14.
Laws whereby
costs restrained,
and great
conduce to the enriching of the subject. 15. That more ought not to be defined by the laws than the
benefit of the prince
requires.
inflicted
16.
than
Subjects
must have
How
law
differs
CONTENTS
of nations. 5. The division of human, that is to say, of civil laws, into sacred and secular, 6. Into distributive
XIU
and
vindicative.
7.
That
distributive
and
vindicative are not species but parts of the laws. 8. All law is supposed to have a penalty annexed to it 9. The precepts of the Decalogue of honoring parents, of murder, adultery, theft, false witness, are
civil laws.
10. It is
the
civil
law contrary
both that itself and also the lawknown. 12. Whence the lawgiver comes to be known. 13. PubHshing and interpretation are necessary to the knowledge of a law. 14. The division of the civil law into written and unwritten. 15. The
essential to a law,
giver be
natural laws are not written laws; neither are the wise sentences of lawyers nor custom laws of themselves, but by the consent of the supreme power, 16. What the word sin, most largely taken, signifies, 17. The definition of sin. 18. The difference between a sin of infirmity and malice. 19. Under what kind of
sin
atheism
is
contained. 20.
What
treason
is.
21.
That by
And that therefore it is to be punby the right of dominion, but by the right of war, 23, That obedience is not rightly distinguished into active and passive.
are broken, 22,
ished, not
PART
XV. Of the Kingdom
I.
III.
RELIGION
of
God by Nature
by nature.
3.
....
2.
175
The
Over
whom God
God
5.
said to rule
threefold:
kingdom of God twofold: natural, and prophetic. The right whereby God reigns is seated in his omnipotence, 6. The same proved from Scripture. 7. The obUgation of yielding obedience to God proceeds from human infirmity. 8. The laws of God in his natural kingdom are those which are recited above in Chapters II and III. 9. What honour and
worship
is.
10.
Worship
or in actions. 11. And there is one sort natural, another arbitrary. 12. One commanded, another vol-
XIV
untary.
14. 13.
CONTENTS
What
the
What
natural
What the actions are whereby naturally give worship. 16. In God's natural kingdom, the city may appoint what worship of God it pleaseth. 17. God ruling by nature only, the city, that is
attributes. 15.
we do
man or court who under God hath the sovereign authority of the city, is the interpreter of all the laws. 18. Certain doubts removed. 19. What sin is in the natural kingdom of God, and what treason against the Divine Majesty.
to say, that
Of the Kingdom
nant (omitted)
of
God by the
New
Cove-
XVIII. Concerning Those Things Which Are Necessary FOR Our Entrance into the Kingdom OF Heaven
propounded concerning the repugnancy of obeying God and men, is to be removed by the distinction between the points necessary and
I.
194
The
difficulty
not necessary to salvation. 2. All things necessary to salvation are contained in faith and obedience. 3. What kind of obedience that is which is required of
us. 4.
What
in
faith
is,
fession,
from
science,
believe
Jesus
is
Christ.
and how distinguished from profrom opinion. 5. What it is to 6. That that article alone, that
necessary to salvation,
is
the Christ,
is
proved
scope of the Evangelists. 7. From the preachings of the Apostles. 8. From the easiness of Christian religion. 9. From this also, that it is the
from
the
foundation of
of Christ
faith. 10.
From
the
and
confaith
Old Testament.
12.
How
and obedience concur to salvation. 13. In a Christian city, there is no contradiction between the commands of God and of the city. 14. The doctrines which this day are controverted about religion, do for the most
part relate to the right of dominion.
INTRODUCTION
Thomas Hobbes was born
England, on April
5,
1588.
Armada
He
His
commented,
remark has
an old
late
in
life,
on the circumstances of
his
birth
myself and
fear."
some purport.
to
It reflects
the realization of
man
of
had sought
through a long
moils of
indicates
civil
make
war and
fundamental theme of
philosophy,
He was
in-
Upon
leaving
son of Lord
made
Earl of Devonshire).
life,
And
many
he continued
and dying in
on December
4,
1679.
He was
church
at
On
which covers
Cavendish family
as "a
inscribed
man
XVI
of integrity, well
INTRODUCTION
known
at
of learning."
Hobbes was throughout his life a man of letters. His first work was a translation of Thucydides (1629); and among his last works was a metrical translation of the poems
published
of
Homer
(1673, 1676).
He
spent
much
time on mathematical
circle,
controversy
He was
fact
associated for
from the
that he repeated
edge
is
litde
from Bacon.
He
was profoundly influenced by the thought of Galileo and aimed to make the laws of motion the foundation of an entire system
of philosophy.
He
who
as
published,
work.
metaphysics;
Cive, that time. But
De
thinker of the
and
intellectual achieve-
by his system of
and
political
philosophy.
The
and
political
philosophy came
his reflections
to development in Hobbes's
mind through
on
human
It is
affairs in the
seventeenth century.
INTOODUCTION
XVU
all
else
is
but
some
parts:
and motion.
body
is,
thought,
body
(particularly of
man), and
body (that
of
the state).
clusive schematism:
De
it
Corpore (1655),
De Homine
(1650),
and
De
and
in-
ternal evidence
makes
deduced
materialistic
schematism.
He
to
"The Author's
he
is
De
Give,
and
prin-
known
have had
it
in
mind even
realistic,
earlier.
But the
ciples
are the
work
of a
fresh,
empirical,
sensitive
his reading
critics
attentive
of the
human
his
eyes directly
led
upon men's
civil
He
witnessed the
which
up
to the deposition
the fight-
ing of the
and the
religious
groups in
later
events.
in his
late in
1640, he fled to
France
to escape the
upon
his
own
had composed
of
a sketch
The Elements
Law
this
Natural and
preliminary
De
XVlll
classic
INTRODUCTION
form
to his principles.
The
years
of exile in France
to his
views
government and
religious institutions.
ecclesiastics.
He
For
after
1646,
Hobbes
were
venomously
ernment.
When
in
them with
a furious
Rome and
Presbyterian clergy
and
all
work thus
new (and
not helpful)
and 1642.
earliest
published
it
work on
so-
and
it
political
philosophy.
When
appeared at Paris in
1642,
was
in the
form of a
which
to our day.
it
became
available to those
who wished
to
buy
through
Am-
sterdam in 1647.
in
1 65 1.
An
London
Cive, so
De
that the English text here given has equal authority with that
When
he translated the
De
title
Cive into
English, he gave
it
a long and
cumbersome
which
is
work is called simply, The Citizen. The Citizen is not merely Hobbes's
social
earliest
published
work
on
and
political
It
philosophy:
it is
his best
work.
of 1640
and the
De
Corpore
Politico of 1650
which
is
nothing
INTRODUCTION
more than
fame
certain chapters out of the early sketch.
It
XIX
has been
The
Levia-
by him into Latin in 1668), and has not some of the unfortunate Latinisms which characterize the English text of
Citizen,
far
The
and
As
in vigor of trenchant
is
eloquent
it
as
is
paragraph, quotable as
it
is
when taken
written
sentence by sentence,
bears
many marks
of
bitter controversy. It
was
when Hobbes,
of the
flee
and
fearful
conspiracies
as
against him,
de-
cided to
from France
no longer a
safe residence
and to
make
a
spirit of
moderation,
it
passes in
its
middle chapters
to pas-
sionate rhetoric,
ligious forces
and
"The Kingdom
scholarly
of Darkness."
poise
lacks
the
and philosophical
its
objectivity of
The
Citizen,
The
Citizen
indicates by
The
Citizen
is
direct
by an insistent
than, because
fire
it
of destructive attacks.
Much
is
factors
that
no longer
loom up
Citizen,
as
menacingly
Hobbes's day,
of personal
outmoded. The
free
from
all
traces
animus, remains a
definitive statement of
social
and
political life of
mankind.
XX
Hobbes's
a
political
INTRODUCTION
philosophy was greeted in his
own
day by
more
extensive
Many
of the pamphlets
at
perished.
But
we can name
against
fifty-one
hostile
Hobbes during
lifetime
decade, and
we know
of only
two defenses
him (both
ideas
of
political
be-
gan
to create in
their first
publication in
The
myth concerning
the intent
and
as the nature of
many
Hobbes was
an
called "the
atheist, a
was
of
classified as
Commons
he was likely to
recommended the burning Whenever any one was greatly disliked, be called "a Hobbist" no more objectionable
Hobbism,
Hobbes.
It
therefore,
is
not a
name
for
the philosophy of
Hobbes
attributed to
and
to
draw
distinctions
which Hobbes
clearly gives,
evil in the
world
Hobbes's
own
of
sordidness of character.
is
The
myth
Hobbism
that
it
(like
has survived
and
is
repeated,
more
clearer
or less innocently, in
No
way
of
expounding
INTRODUCTION
the political principles of
trast
I.
it,
XXI
to con-
According
may be called Hobbism. Hobbism, God made man such a beast and
he
is
and
and property
of his
fellows.
is
to preserve himself
by gaining
egoistic
for his
own
And
the exercise of
it
power
nature,
is
what ends
Hobbist.
be exercised.
In his view of
human
is
Hobbes
is
far
from being a
in the state
in the state
He
"man
of nature"
which
from
flattering.
"All
(I,
men
4).*
all
men"
is
"a war of
all
men
against
a complete account of
human
men in The
from
factor
nature
It
is
is
an
historical,
but an analytical
existence
concept.
human
a
which men
within
all
later
is
rather
permanent
social theory
human
societies against
on
their
must
be-
The
"natural
man"
is
procedures of
nature
is
society.
The
like
idea of
that
man
a
in the state of
for
social
science
of
natural
body in
body continues
line unless
no body which not influenced by outside bodies; but the idea of such a body
and
article of
The
Citizen.
XXll
INTRODUCTION
man
human
passions. It
of securing a stable,
men
and refinement.
Men
their
are
Hobbes explicidy
stated,
naturally evil
(Preface to the
And
and
pas-
make them
evil in
some
conditions,
will lead
them
to
conditions.
One can
it
passionless; but
may
men
come
at all,
not
from romantic
trust in
human
nature, but
from
realistic
knowl-
Man
is
human
reason
social conditions
are established
of reason.
2.
is
we
are calling
Hobbism, there
no genuine
upon
the gener-
mankind by some
beyond the
no
validity
frontiers within
is
which those
morality.
rulers exstate is
thus a
fiat
The
the creator of
from the
what men have come to deem virtue, and apart state there would be no moral distinctions or moral
all.
principles at
INTRODUCTION
Readers of Hobbes will find
XXIU
passages which, pried
asserts.
many
from
context,
seem
to
For
example:
all, and to do all, is lawful for all; which is meant by that coming saying, nature hath given all to all, from whence we understand likewise, that in the state of nature, profit is the measure of right (X, lo).
and
this
is
that
Before there was any government, just and unjust had no being,
their nature only
being relative
is
to
action
in
its
own
nature
indifferent;
becomes
just
or unjust,
Properly
understood,
however, they
do not imply
Hobbes
Hobbism.
Two
speaking in
legal,
that
where there
all.
is
of justice
or right at
Justice
exists.
And
might makes
virtue to be
resident in
might,
which the
between
social
emerg-
law
is
beginning to manifest
and respect
for
law
is
conduct.
Secondly, Hobbes
is is
insisting that
social in character
when
XXIV
INTRODUCTION
are considered in their separateness as atomic individuals;
significantly
men
it
is
present
situations
when men
which
call
interrelations in
If
adjustments.
that a
Hobbes by claiming
man,
lower
it,
scale,
Hobbes
He
when
of
The
Citizen he printed
footnotes that were not in the Paris edition of 1642 (cf. foot-
note to
III,
27).
Drunkenness,
cruelty,
he
explicitly
even in the
state of
war (and
There
the state of
is
war
is
the irruption
apart from social institutions; but the big and important concerns of morality arise only in developed societies and in the
as
attributed to him,
that,
law
creates
moral distinctions by
precisely
must be viewed
as a
genuinely social
a civil
If
men
it,
lived without a
power
to enforce
they
their individual
strife
would
is
To
not
is
rather
men
in their individuality
would have
go on
to
view morality
to regard
it
the function of
this fixed
lawmakers merely
INTRODUCTION
in
XXV
principle
(two names
ridicu-
for die
decisions such as
if
would be
lous
if
no law or
fiat
Law
tions,
does not by
it
create
moral
and Hobbes
moral
situa-
never said
does.
create significant
this point
more
clearly
political
3.
naturally
from the
all
second.
his laws
arises
was that a de
acts.
always justified in
and
from the
commands
of princes
and wrong
for those
whom
is
command.
for
bad lawmaker
thus
of
terms;
source
Here
glance,
again, there
are
passages in
Hobbes which,
at
first
seem
to be Hobbist.
For example:
make
the
things
they
command
just,
make some common rules men, and to declare them publicly, by which every man may know what may be called his, what another's, what just, what unjust, what honest, what dishonest, what good, what evil
It
for all
(VI, 9)-
There are no authentical doctrines concerning right and wrong, good and evil, besides the constituted laws in each realm and government (The Preface to the Reader).
is
overstatement
is
But
it
using
His intent
is
to
show
if
that the
are to
we
XXVI
INTRODUCTION
power must
rest
somewhere; that
respect
civil
it
the obligation to
law
as
such.
is
law,
as
if it
bad law
law
at all. Since
law
and
incisive
or irrelevant.
He who
in
Hobbes repudiated
all
Hobbist contento
do no wrong.
He had much
say
who
of Chapter XIII.
Though he "may
diverse
and other
sovereign, as
much
as
any
other man,
other
men
because he
is
is
social welfare
placed.
2).
"The "The
is
the sufor
its
was not
instituted
Good government
of the people, to
number
And
as
will
encouragement to
trade,
abundant opportunity
necessities,
for labor,
and
coma
affairs
as
is
may
may commit
such
vital
INTRODUCTION
his rule involves serious
XXVll
All this
moral
disasters.
Hobbes
re-
fourth point of
Hobbism
what
is
is
the denial of
all
rights to
whims
of a ruler
more
force than
alleged to be law.
this point
Hobbes came
on any
other.
closer to
being a Hobbist on
than
shall
be done by
implieth an universal
Worlds, Vol.
The English
not that
as
men
in civil society
was
that
these
as
rights
common
much
inhering in
men
apart from
laws altogether.
efiFective
realist.
He
discerned clearly
common
and
is
agreement among
at all times,
men
all issues
and
that, consequently,
and
if civil
war
to
men
strife
Wise
rulers
and prudent
of irreconcilable
in producing
mutual com-
the existence of a
power which
and compel
contending factions
peace.
know
to be ready to step in
Furthermore,
as
Hobbes saw,
to alleged rights
is
virtually appeal
from
estal>
whose power
XXVlll
lished those rights.
INTRODUCTION
No
clearly
than Hobbes
clearly
saw more
human
society is
more human
tentative in
ings
upon the
more experimental in its course, more more dependent in its specific meanauthorities who use and interpret it. The nature
objectives,
of property rights
and of the
rights of labor
own
who
amendments
to the
confers
is,
not so
much an
and an
of action
of faith.
The
upon establishment
realization
to factual
instead of leaving
them
to pious wishes.
And
so
Hobbes was
power
its
power by
aritecedent rights.
Legalism
ties
the faults of
its
in theory a release
from
outto
worn
precedent.
It is
in theory a turning
from precedents
in Hobbes's words
him
as a
his
Hobbist, yet
calls
consideration.
Hobbes put
The
INTRODUCTION
theory comes out glaringly.
XXIX
in matters temporal,
Not simply
is,
but in matters
tion
spiritual, that
and of conscience, a
citizen
is no proper alternative Hobbes continued, except to "go to Christ by martyrdom" (XVIII, 13). That is, a citizen must obey or
fully to
And
there
to this submission,
die:
he must not
criticise
and expect
to be tolerated
and
to be
allowed to survive.
And
human
exactly here
is
to be
found a major
fault in
Hobbes.
He
deny that
men
are intelligent
enough
reasonableness.
And
because
men
(a
fact
which can be
abundantly
confirmed
empirically),
Hobbes refused any proper play to reason in human affairs. Hobbes had no sense for what Englishmen call "His Majesty's
Loyal Opposition."
He had no
mark
of the dissolution of
commonwealth.
He
is
one under which reasoning and criticism and discussion are not
visible.
The
historian
may
Hobbes by pointing
the general
from
and
critic
something
of
settled
with
finality.
But the
what the
historian explains.
And
may
XXX
INTRODUCTION
very
if
man
tends to
become the
arbitrary
man, moral
distinctions
tend to become
justified in all his
fiats,
ways.
Had
the opponents of
their attack
upon
pre-
able to
make out
eccle-
a trenchant case.
ferring to appeal to
siastical
some
principle of legitimacy,
some
authoritarianism,
some
hereditary
institution.
Had
Hobbes recognized the role that reason may play in human affairs, he would have preserved his social and political philosophy from the tinge of ruthlessness which now characterizes
it.
But even
as
it is,
that philosophy
and the
citizen.
In the text of
of
The
Citizen
which
is
somewhat
make
it
more
into
most
some long
up
But the
text
is
otherwise Hobbes's
own
it
English translation of
The The
1
is
much more
65 1 than
that of the
The
readers for
more than a
century.
Sterling P. Lamprecht
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W. Molesworth, ii volumes of the EngWorks, 5 volumes of the Latin Works, 1839-1845. Laird, J.: Hobbes, London, 1934. Lamprecht, S. p.: "Hobbes and Hobbism," in The American Political
Hobbes's Wor\s, edited by Sir
lish
XXXIV,
no.
i,
this
article
The
Citizen,
and
wish
to
so.)
thank the
Review
do
Lyon, G.: La philosophic de Hobbes, Paris, 1893. Robertson, G. C: Hobbes, Edinburgh and Philadelphia, 1886. Stephen, Sir L.: Hobbes, London and New York, 1904. Strauss, L.: The Political Philosophy of Hobbes: Its Basis and Its Genesis.
Translated from the
1936.
German manuscript by
E.
M.
Sinclair.
Oxford,
Taylor, A. E.: Thomas Hobbes, New York, 1909, and London, 1908. Taylor, A. E.: "The Ethical Doctrine of Hobbes," in Philosophy, Vol. Xin, October, 1938, pp. 406-424. Tonnies, F.: Thomas Hobbes, Leben tmd Lehre, 3rd edition, Stuttgart,
1925.
WooDBRiDGE,
F.
J.
E.: Selections
from Hobbes,
New
York, 1930.
Philosophical Rudiments
CONCERNING
GOVERNMENT
or,
and
MAN
SOCIETY
In his several
as
the
Member
of a society,
first
Containing
the
In which
demonstrated
Both what the origin of justice is, and wherein the essence of christian religion doth consist.
Together with
By Tho. Hobbes
LONDON
Printed by
at
J.
G. for R. Royston,
May
of king
it
Roman
people (to
as well
whom
the
name
it
was
mouth,
all
no more than
such) that
But what
its
a beast of prey
it
conquering eagles
erected
proud trophies
so far
and
Asiatics, the
many
if
them
to be denizens of
it
Rome? So
that
a wise one,
who
the companies
of his army,
Rome
herself,
as well
as
Sylla,
was
to
be razed; for that there would always be wolves and depredators of their liberty, unless the forest that
To speak impartially, both sayings are very true; that man to man is a kind of God; and that man to man is an arrant wolf. The first is true, if we compare citizens amongst themselves; and the second, if we compare
grubbed up by the
roots.
cities.
is
some analogy
of similitude with
twin
sisters of peace.
But
to
in the other,
them
for
sanctuary the
is
and
violence: that
of war,
deceit
brutal rapacity:
own
all
men, wherein,
as in a mirror,
things
on the
left side
yet the
we
all
receive
from the
it
to be a
though
it
confess
it
to be
an unhappiness.
Now
that with
state,
he should censure
men
perhaps
may have
leisure to admire.
But
was never
of be-
actions
of the Greeks
not so
very
and
(with which
conquering torrent
it,
stream of time.
this,
Wisdom
properly so
called
is
nothing
all
else
but
truth in
registers
matters whatsoever.
things,
Which being
and
that as
and records of
of a
were through
work
3
philosophy. For
of a word,
we
call
that a
way
is
opened to
us, in
which we
travel
Now
look
how many
sorts of
which properly
into
itself.
fall
human
reason,
so
many
philosophy divide
And from
names
motion,
too.
For treating of
of
figures,
called
geometry;
all
of
physic;
natural
right,
morals; put
together,
Just
being diversely
ing
all
together
make up
the ocean.
And
of
part.
For whatsoever
as-
life
observation
earth,
the
heavens, or from
of times, or
finally,
ex-
periments of navigation;
which
of antiquity,
we must acknowledge
I
which we
as hap-
owe merely
to geometry. If the
know
to the
which
is
consistent with
human
ture of
human
actions as distinctly
known,
of
ambition, which
vulgar, as
is
presently faint
would hardly be
4
But
now on
lose
its
beyond
its
be such siding
and
as
much
elevated by
at several
times embrace
own
I
say are so
many
signs,
so
many
made any
progress in
the knowledge of the truth; but yet hath took with the world,
not so
much
of
lie
open
up and down, or the same lot with highways and open streets; some for divertisement, and some for business; so that what with the impertinences of
to all passengers to traverse
The
this;
is
only
that
to
be
amongst
all
not
For we
may
what point we
beginning
is
There
is
whose
we
are led as
to be taken
from
for
and then
doubts.
thither
As
from
And upon
this
it
was, that
when
I
appHed
my
thoughts
justice,
(which
own)
that
my
first
from whence
it
what
nature at
tribute
first
laid forth in
common, men
I
into
several
impropriations),
all
in
rather think
fitting, that
every
man
should
And
community
of goods, there
must needs
arise contention
whose
all
enjoyment should be
greatest,
and from
that
contention
in-
man
is
maxims
part,
human
which
desires
all
every
man
I
to
fly
down,
work
of mine,
first
the ab-
and
contracts,
civil
which
is
done with
God Almighty
my
discourse,
6
civil
I
to say,
in-
fested both
have been in
am
know
book
not.
For being
we
upon our
own
productions.
therefore offer
first;
up
as
this
to
your Lord-
ship's,
periments, that
is
but
to
fortune to please,
to say, if
ofler
it it
be sound,
to
if it
be useful,
if it
be not vulgar;
glory
humbly
my
and
my
protection; but
will yet accept
if
it
in
as a
testimony of
I
my
means
I
of study
which
The God
crown
of days
with a
Thomas Hobbes.
THE AUTHOR'S
Reader,
eyes,
method
of handling
it,
take
it,
men,
first as
men;
then as subjects,
as Christians;
and power of
itself,
justice,
so far forth
it.
measure of
this
my
Which kind
religion) the
of doctrine (excepting
what
relates to Christian
fittest to
be delivered
or clouded
adorned with
verse,
men
it
might
mean
faces,
and motions
natures
without
disadvantage,
is
their
and
causes.
first,
But
said to
who
thoroughly
as
through a
set
8
so great a value
THE PREFACE
on
this, that utterly
ing
all
judging
him
comes
as well
Greek, as Latin.
And now
at length all
men
of all nations,
still
and
prostitute to
for
its
dignity, those
who
do
be
esteemed
and
styled
what you
knowl-
name,
to be
in regard of civil
Whether
of those
worth of
arts
is
of the persons
who
number
who have
certainly this
must carry
it,
which
in the
government of mankind,
most part of
whose
men do
delight them-
The
benefit of
when righdy
shall
delivered,
when we shall
when we
for
in
if
mankind from
as
such matters
are
us,
is
man
itself,
from
tentions,
itself.
TO THE READER
dice these are, such,
this
9
from
kings
and
so great truly
is
doctrine
of
moraHty
declared.
How many
men
How many
for
men
be deposed?
And
to,
how many
which teacheth
that the
mands
monly
those,
cients
justice
now commany things no less dangerous than which it matters not now to recite. I suppose those anforesaw this, who rather chose to have the science of
them?
Besides, in the moral philosophy
received, there are
wrapped up
not sue
for,
did
power and
man
of folly.
Wherefore
was taught
10
THE PREFACE
I say,
the ancients
not only themselves saw, but in one of their fables, they seem
very aptly to have signified
it
when
and
in love,
began
to court
Juno
herself; offering to
a cloud,
men, half
have
only,
is
as
much
as
if
they should
state,
men
and wife
of the
supreme, to their
they have
man now
shall
dispel
those
and by most firm reasons demonstrate that there are no and wrong, good and
and governof none,
ment; and that the question whether any future action will
prove just or unjust, good or
ill,
is
to be
demanded
the
but those to
whom
show us
highway
how
and dangerous by-paths of faction and sedition, than which know not what can be thought more profitable.
Concerning
my
method,
thought
I
it
what
took
my
government, and
first
its
thence proceeded to
beginning of
justice; for
everything
is
best understood
by
constitutive causes.
TO THE READER
well be
II
known, except
it
parts; so to
make
and duties of
dissolved, that
subjects,
is
them
they were
is, that we righdy understand what the quality human nature is, in what matters it is, in what not, fit to make up a civil government, and how men must be agreed
of
to
grow up
into
well-
Having
I
set
down
for a principle by
experience
known
to all
positions of
men
some
other,
man
will
and
as
make
this; truly so
I
it
happens,
to fight
many do deny
I
But
shall
therefore
seem
same men
approve
confess,
and
do
not,
what
their discourses
at peace
We
see all
though they be
and
ports,
pose
is all this, if
no
We
men
travel
and
of domestics.
Can men
of
all.?
How
since they
do
as well as
men, they
publicly profess
12
their
it,
THE PREFACE
mutual fear and diffidence? But
is
in disputing they
deny
that
as
much
as to say, that
Some
object that
being admitted,
it
that all
yet
men w^ere wicked (which perhaps though it seem hard, we must yield to, since it is so clearly declared by holy
this, that
men
we
not from this principle; for though the wicked were fewer
much
less
does
it
who
is
are
from
much
as in
them
is
and that
fly
mind which
arise only
may
be so sometimes,
as
when
and
cry, aye
and
and
all
this
they have from nature, yet are they free from guilt, neither
may
we
properly
call
them wicked;
first,
next, because
wanting the
exempted
come to riper years, having acquired power whereby they may do hurt, if they shall continue to do the same things, then truly they both begin to be, and are properly accounted wicked; in so much as a wicked man is almost the same thing with a child grown strong and
from
all
duty. These
when
they
. ,
TO THE READER
Sturdy,
I3
or a
man
of a
childish
disposition;
and malice
the.
same with
to be better
when
nature ought
Unless therefore
we
men
are naturally
evil,
because
they receive not their education and use of reason from nature,,
that
men may
and
The foundation
civil society
is
therefore
first
^
which
demonstrate in the
men
without
(which
else
state
we may
a
properly
of
call
nothing
all
but
mere war
all all
against
and
in that
all
war
men
do
have_
men
as soon as they.
understanding of
itself
hateful
condition,
desire,
this,
(even nature
all
things.
of
Furthermore
is;
de-;
clare,
compact
how
and.
make
what
rights,
and
whom
of peace,
mean what
may
entitle Liberty.
laid,
show
further
it,
what
civil
gov-
are;
by what means
it
becomes
so,
and what
civil
rights par-
ticular
to constitute
this
government,,
must
so necessarily transfer
it
power, whether
cept they do so
man
all
men, that
civil
qx-
it
no
governis
men
have to
all
I
things, that
remain. Next,
distinguish
the
14
divers kinds of
it,
THE PREFACE
to
wit,
monarchy,
aristocracy,
democracy,
and
compare
their several
it,
and what
his
or their duty
who
all,
explicate the
that
which which
I
which
com-
part of
it,
is
might seem
in the
first
show
place
how
it
right, for as
is,
much
as
God
overrules
rulers
by nature, that
by the
as
much
God
God
doth
now
not at
all,
we
see,
contrary to religion.
necessarily re-
In the
last
place
declare
what
duties are
quired from
those
I
kingdom
of heaven;
and of
testi-
plainly demonstrate,
made by
due from
which
have affirmed
to be
You have seen my method, receive now the reason which moved me to write this. I was studying philosophy for my mind sake, and I had gathered together its first elements in
all
kinds,
sections
by
TO THE READER
degrees, I thought to have written
I
I5
so
as
them
its
In the
first
would have
treated of a body,
and
general properties;
in the second of
man and
first
and
affections;
subjects.
first
Wherefore the
we would
rela-
will,
good and
evil,
honest and
dishonest,
and the
like.
What
have
now
already
only do reason,
I dis-
happened
my
country
was boiling
(all
ripened,
me
I
Therefore
forth
first
it
come
it
in time,
and the
in
saw
that
grounded
have not
I
on
yet
its
own
it
principles
sufficiently
known by
if I
experience
I
sections.
made
had,
might
excuse,
that
very few
who
persuaded myself,
when
this
human
affairs
self-
THE PREFACE
men, but by the laws
of the realm,
advice of private
you
will
no longer
blood to
suffer ambitious
wade
to their
men through the streams of your own power; that you will esteem it
though perhaps
men
meanwhile
for those
civil
either killed, or
will not
consumed with
exempt from
jurisdiction,
age. Furthermore,
to the
who
will
magistrate,
and
will be
public burthens,
for protec-
and yet
tion
and look
you would
not look on
them
as
fellow-subjects,
enemies, and spies, and that ye rashly admit not for God's
word
be
shall
all
which
say
so. I
more
casuist,
man may
lawfully
command,
or that subjects
may
resist,
supreme power;
that ye
names.
He who
all,
I
my
Last of
this
this rule
through
whole discourse;
them
to be
determined
of
is
all
countries
are.
a less proportion
my
the
monarchy
is
con-
TO THE READER
fess in this
I7
where
all
kind
supreme and
which
government. Lastly,
of
I
lest
set forth
somewhat
written,
I
had thus
would not
expose to public
vately dispersed
interest,
wherefore
of
among some
if
my
opinions of others,
obscure,
I
might
correct, soften,
I
These things
I
found most
powers too
civil
by
ecclesiastical
persons; that
had
utterly taken
I
away
liberty of conscience,
had
set princes
I
above the
civil
laws,
who
in
but do their
faster.
own
business) except
for their sakes
it
were
somewhat
But
who
have a
been staggered
at the
and
have not
sense,
I
so
much
common-
whereby
presumed
satisfaction to their
have endeavoured
these
to offend
none
beside
those
whose
are
principles
lightly
contradict,
and whose
difference
of
tender
minds
offended
by
every
opinions.
Wherefore
if
more
of sharpness,
and
less of certainty
not so
much spoken
maintenance of
l8
THE PREFACE
and by one whose
his
is
just
grief
for
the
present
calamities
liberty,
of
it
country,
may
very
charitably be allowed
some
Part
I:
LIBERTY
iii
Chapter
Of the State
1.
of
Men Without
nature
Civil Society
The
faculties of
human
may
beginning of
in the
first
this
place
what manner
of inclinations
declare
are en-
dued with
and whether,
to pre-
and by what
will
we
to be
taken for
this business,
society, or of
human
peace; that
to say,
laws of nature.
2.
The
written aught
us,
or
beg of us
* Since
living
to believe, that
man
is
fit
* for society.
we now
out of it, since we discern all desirous of congress, and mutual correspondence, it may seem a wonderful kind of stupidity, to lay in the
very threshold of this doctrine, such a stumbling block before the readers,
I must more plainly man, by nature, or as man, that is, as soon as he is born, solitude is an enemy; for infants have need of others to help them to live, and those of riper years to help them to live well, wherefore I deny not that men (even nature compelling) desire to come together. But civil societies are not mere meetings, but bonds, to the making whereof, faith and compacts are necessary: the virtue whereof to children, and fools, and the profit whereof to those who have not yet tasted the miseries which accompany its defects, is altogether unknown; whence it happens, that those, because they know not what society is, carmot enter
as to
deny
man
is
to be
born
fit
say, that
it
into
it;
these,
it
brings,
it.
Manifest therefore
that
all
22
LIBERTY
call
The Greeks
this
foundation
the presv^^ere
nothing
certain
else
men
should agree to
make
should then
is
received by most,
slight
contemplation of
human
who
shall
more
nar-
men come
together,
and
delight in each other's company, shall easily find that this hap-
it
by accident. For
(that is) as
if
by nature one
man
man should not equally love every man, as being equally man, or why he should rather frequent those whose society affords
him honour
society for
its
or profit.
We
own
it;
or profit
from
these
How, by what
if
advice,
we may receive some honour we desire primarily, that secondarily. men do meet, will be best known by
when
they are met. For
regards not his
office,
it
plain every
man
some
if
to discharge
a certain
market-friendship
it
is
begotten,
of jealousy in
may
of
arise,
but
good
if
for pleasure,
mind, every
man
wont
to please himself
Many
also (perhaps
or
want
of education,
course of their lives; yet have they, infants as well as those of riper years,
by nature, born in such a condition as to desire it, it follows not, that he therefore were born fit to enter into it; for it is one thing to desire, another to be in capacity fit for what we desire; for even they, who through their pride, will not stoop to equal conditions, without which there can be no society, do yet desire it.
a
human
nature; wherefore
man
is
made
for
society not
man were
LIBERTY
Stir
23
to the nature of
up
laughter,
is
that
which
and
more current
in his
own
opinion; and
it
although
is
much
their
own
meetings,
we wound
the
absent;
their
whole
it
life,
is
sayings,
condemned; nay,
very rare,
but some present receive a fling before they part, so as his reason
was not
ilh,
always
at parting to
go out
last.
And
we
which
good
incident to
precepts,
it
so fall out
memory
of things
men on
But
if
is
so
relating
some
to tell
rest
one which
most greedily
relate
you miracles,
I
if
may
if
somewhat
of
them who
pre-
so
many would
be esteemed masters, or
they not only love not their fellows, but even persecute
is it
them
little
with hatred. So
by experience to
all
men who
more narrowly consider human affairs, that all free congress ariseth either from mutual poverty, or from vain glory, whence the parties met, endeavour to carry with them either some
benefit, or to leave
whom
The same
is
also collected
24
LIBERTY
For when
we
all
is,
those
who
Now
pleasant,
and
mind. But
all
either glory,
(or to have a good opinion of one's self) or refers to glory in the end; the rest are sensual, or conducing to sensuality, which
may
be
all
society therefore
is,
not so
much
no
But no
like
honour,
men
have
it,
man
of
hath
it,
neither doth the society of others advance any whit the cause
my
man must
much
account himself,
such as he can
make
though the
may
I
be
farthered by mutual
may
hope no body
will
doubt but
if
fear
to obtain
society.
We
must therefore
and
mutual good
will
men had
towards each other, but in the mutual fear * they had of each
other.
*It
is
objected:
it
is
so improbable that
men
should
grow
into civil
had been
afraid,
endured each
else
other's looks.
than to be affrighted.
They presume, I believe, that to fear is nothing comprehend in this word fear, a certain foreneither do I conceive flight the sole property of fear,
I
may
not fear,
fear
is
They who go
and
who
travel,
carry
their
swords
with them,
frontiers
because
forts
they
thieves.
cities
Kingdoms guard
their coasts
with
and
castles;
LIBERTY
3.
25
The
equality of
it
men,
partly in their
mutual
will of hurting:
whence
comes
to pass that
we
least security.
For
if
we
look on
how
brittle the
frame of our
men human
body
itself
is,
(which perishing,
it)
all its
strength, vigour,
it
and wisdom
is,
perisheth with
even for
the weakest
man
no reason why
any
man
trusting to his
own
made by
(namely,
kill)
can do equal
therefore
among
we now
4.
discern, hath
civil
law.
All
men
and
will to
equality
which
is
among
us,
much
to others, as he
an argument of a temperate
as
due
to
him
before others,
an argument of a
fiery spirit).
hurt ariseth from vain glory, and the false esteem he hath of
his
own
from the
necessity of defending
are compact with walls, and all for fear of neighbouring kingdoms and towns; even the strongest armies, and most accomplished for fight, yet sometimes parley for peace, as fearing each other's power, and lest they
might be overcome. It is through fear that men secure themselves, by flight indeed, and in corners, if they think they cannot escape otherwise; but for the most part by arms and defensive weapons; whence it happens, that daring to come forth, they know each other's spirits; but then, if they fight, civil society ariseth from the victory, if they agree, from their
agreement.
26
LIBERTY
himself, his liberty, and his goods, against this man's violence.
5.
is
greatest
which
are,
must
it
necessarily arise
from
thii"
is
For not
approve of what a
man
him of an error in that thing which he speaketh; as in very many things to dissent, is as much as if you accounted him a fool whom you dissent from; which may appear hence, that there are no wars so sharply waged as between sects of the same religion, and
saith,
is
no
less
than
tacitly to accuse
factions of the
is
And
since all
mind
it
consists in this,
even to
whom
comparing,
itself;
it
may
find
somewhat wherein
is
impossible but
men must
either
declare sometimes
by
some sign or
do
other;
is
men
desire to hurt
many men
yet divide
at the
an appetite
to the
neither enjoy in
common, nor
must have
whence
it
it,
and who
is
strongest
must be
Among
is
so
many
lusts
of
men do
one's self
if
so be there
will left in
one
is
to
have
for
man
is
desirous of
what
good
is evil,
which
no
is
of nature,
less
LIBERTY
It Is
27
man
endeavours
and defend
his
men
word
account to be done
right
is
and with
right;
neither by the
liberty
ties
anything
to
else signified,
than that
which every
man
hath
make
as
foundation of
natural right
this, that
every
man
much
to
as in
him
lies
en-
life
and members.
But because
if
it is
in vain for a
man
have
a right to the
it
end,
fol-
man
must
also be
all
Now
the action he
of his life
and members, or
nature,
say another
I
man
judge that
it
is
own
peril:
why now,
of things
judge also
which do belong
is, it is
him. Therefore
it
agrees with
judge of his
opinion, that
10.
is,
whether
conduce
to
my
preservation, or not.
all;
to every
one a right to
that
is,
it
was lawful
* This
of nature
is
man
thus to be understood:
injurious to
is
what any man does in the bare state no man; not that in such a state he cannot offend
for injustice against
men
presupposeth
human
truth
of
laws,
this
such
as
there
are
none.
Now
the
proposition
thus
conceived
is
sufficiently
demonstrated to
makes us
28
such time as
LIBERTY
whom
it
he thought
and
to possess, use,
and enjoy
all
get.
Now
to
man
and
therefore seems
good
least
him
really doth, or at
we have
article,
all
him
whether
doth or not, in so
much
as
we
are to hold
and by the
7th article
may
the protection of
and members,
it
of nature, to have
that
all,
and do
that
all, is
lawful for
And
this is
which
is
meant by
common
all to all,
of nature, profit
II.
But
it
was the
all
if
men
mon
any
I
right to
same, almost, as
there
at all.
For although
man might
man
most evident
all
Every
sarily
the
end,
by
the
eighth
article.
means which he
shall
He
of
make
and
to
do
whatsoever he
shall
his
preservation:
is
wherefore by
him
either right, or
fore right.
man
yet
pretend
preservation,
which
against
so,
he
may
is
offend
more
at large
him no
have answered, that a son cannot be understood to be at under the power and command of them to whom he owes his protection as soon as ever he is born, namely, either his father's or his mother's, or his that nourished him, as is demonstrated in the ninth chapter.
injury.? I
any time
LIBERTY
enjoy
it,
29
by reason of
his neighbour,
who having
of
equal right,
now
men,
other,
from a
to
all,
resists,
all
and
whence
and suspicions on
hands,
a thing
it is
to provide against
an enemy invad-
it
cannot be de-
nied but that the natural state of men, before they entered into
society,
all
was
war
of
men
against
in
which the
But
will of contesting
by force
termed peace.
is
easily
judged
how
man,
a per-
war
is.
But
it is
perpetual in
its
own
is
nature, because in
strive, it
cannot be ended
by victory; for in
danger, as
it
conqueror
subject to so
if
much
were
to be
accounted a miracle,
close
up
his life
with
many
and old
They
of
in this present
become
civil
and
flourishing, but
and deprived of
that pleasure,
to bring
and
with
beauty of
life,
society are
it
wont
had been
best to have
all
which
good
all
men, he
contradicts himself.
For every
for
man
by natural necesis
which
all
is
him: nor
esteems a war of
against
all,
which
so
it
necessarily adheres to
such a
state, to
And
fit
we
think
it
30
dition,
LIBERTY
and
to get
some
fellows; that
all
if
there needs
must be
helps.
war,
14.
it
may
by constraint,
when
society to help
conqueror
may by
right
man
may one
that
is
sick,
or he that
is
For
own
wills proceeded
it
from
is
more con-
when
grown and
strong,
And on
more
whom
your power, to
one.
make him at once both an enemy, and From whence we may understand likewise as a
men,
that a sure
and
irresistible
power
not
resist;
insomuch,
the right of
all
done, adheres essentially and immediately unto this omnipotence hence arising.
15.
Yet cannot
men
of war,
by reason of
dued
withal.
Wherefore
it,
where there
any hopes
of obtaining
auxiliaries of war,
the
law of nature,
as shall be
showed
Chapter
II
Of the Law
I.
of
All
of the
natural law,
this
who
make
use of
term in
their writings.
The method
therefore,
wherein
is
we
all
equivocation,
only
proper to them
the
rest, if
any
who leave no place for contrary disputes. For man say, that somewhat is done against the law
it
hence, because
it
general agreement of
all
but
this declares
all
not
who
all
learning of
nations.
mankind; which
it
definition
by no
means
to
men
actually
either
do nought against
or
if
they do aught,
it
is
But
of them,
who
in
truth
unreasonable.
men condemn
in themselves;
the
same things
in others,
on
commend what
more by
And
therefore
it
comes
32
LIBERTY
general accord, or contention, which those writers most willingly acknowledge to be against the law of nature. But since
all
do grant that
is
done by
right,
which
is
reason,
we ought
to
repugnant
cer-
principles.
done,
is
we
it
is
a certain law,
which
(since
it
is
no
less
a part of
human
is I
affection of the
mind)
may
define
is
to
and
members,
2.
is
as
much
first
as in us lies.
But the
is,
that peace
to be sought after,
where
it
may
we showed
in
is
the dictate of right reason; but that the dictates of right reason
* By right reason in the natural
state
of
men,
understand not, as
that
is,
many
do,
an
infallible
faculty,
the
and true ratiocination of every man concerning those actions of his which may either redound to the damage or benefit of his neighbours. I call it peculiar, because although in a civil government the reason of the supreme, that is, the civil law, is to be received by each single subject for the right; yet being without this civil government, (in which state no man can know right reason from false, but by comparing it with his own) every man's own reason is to be accounted, not only the rule of his own actions which are done at his own peril, but also for the measure of another man's reason, in such things as do concern him. I call it true, that is, concluding from true principles righdy framed, because that the whole breach of the laws of nature consists in the false
peculiar
men who
perform towards others in order to their own conservation. But the principles of right reasoning about such like duties are those which are explained in the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh
articles of
the
first
chapter.
LIBERTY
33
are natural laws, that hath been newly proved above. But this
is
the
first,
this,
and they
direct the
3.
ways
this
all
fundathings,
mental one
this:
all
men
to
ought not
to
to be retained,
every
one should
must
some by
natural
right
others,
by the same
right,
He
therefore
acts
whosoever he
4.
be, that
is
things.
But he
said to part
it,
with
it
his
right,
who
either abso-
lutely
renounceth
it,
or conveys
to another.
He
absolutely
renounceth
who
is
declares that he
to
willing that
him
But he conveys
to another,
who by some
he
is
willing
it
should
him
to resist him, in
what
have
in the
resisted
merely in not
understood by
it,
this, that
before
it
was
conveyed, he, to
right to
all,
whom
he conveyed
also a
by reason whereof
is
utterly abolished.
Whosoever
of
therefore acquires
some
men, he only procures himself security, and freedom from enjoyment of his primitive right: as for
34
example,
if
LIBERTY
any
man
away a farm, he
utterly
But
is
requisite not
it.
only of
him
him
If
to one
who
refused to accept of
have not
it
it
my
right, or
conveyed with
to
to
me
to part
man, was
But
if
in
him
there be
will either
words must
if
they be of the
so that
all
this
day
his right
for
if
what
I
is
till
have
parted with
it.
But
shall
pose thus;
be received
to-
signified that
it
and that
to-morrow,
conveyed
to
him
by
me
7.
to-day.
Nevertheless,
although
if
words alone
yet to
are
not
sufficient
words relating
to the future, as
some other
may become
If therefore,
as
words should be
toward
article)
on the declaration
LIBERTY
8.
35
If
any
man
doth not
this for
some
some
compact, a conveyance in
nation.
kind
Is
But
future, they oblige not as words, for the reason given In the
foregoing
tion arise
article.
It
must needs
whatsoever
that wills
to give
It,
voluntarily done.
Is
done
some good
to
him
it;
acquired. But
is
is
acquired,
would
cease to be a free
who
who was
Nor
In
no
sort
engaged to
return a benefit, should desire to have his words so understood, as to oblige himself thereby.
Is It
suitable to reason,
to others, should
af-
that those
who
do well
And
must be
whom
may
free,
alter his
desert.
But he that
deliberates.
so far forth
if
he promise
levity,
often,
and
ought to be condemned of
and be
9.
But the
is
rights,
called a contract.
But
parties instantly
insomuch
as
there
is
no
trust
Is
had from
one performs,
parties
it
the other
Where both
ended, as soon as
Is
36
performed; but where there
LIBERTY
is
one or both,
and
this
kind of promise
10.
vi^ho
is
called a covenant.
v^ith
him made by
vv^ords
the right
most
him whom
the appointed
time;
and by
this
knew
not,
The promises
(which
is,
therefore
which
are
made
for
some
benefit received
(as in the
whereby the
liberty of
non-performance
abolished,
and
But the covenants which are made in contract of muperforming out of hand,
if
there arise *
For he that
first
men
studying their
own
ad-
him with
whom
it
man
if
make good
his
promise
it,
after;
which, whether
it
some new cause of fear, either from somewhat done, or some other token of the will not to perform from the other part, it cannot be judged to be a just fear; for the cause which was not sufficient to keep him from making compact, must not suffice to authorize the breach of it, being made.
* For, except there appear
LIBERTY
must be judge
of nature.
of, as
37
Thus,
I say,
But in a
civil state,
when
power which
parties,
must
first
may
be
made him
performance, ceaseth.
12.
But from
is
and compacts,
it
there
follows, that
no
man
we
And
therefore
we
can
want
of speech
man
him
appears to
him by Holy
Scrip-
authority
to accept of such-like
stead.
13.
as being in God's
who
nature,
tied
by any
of
civil
law, (except by
will
God
to accept their
if
vow
made known
is
to
them). For
contrary to the law of nature, they are not tied by their vow,
for
no man
tied to
perform an unlawful
But
it
is
if
what
is
not their
itself
which
it
ties
them. But
it,
if
he were free
or not do
requisite
make an
is
obligation by vow,
which
call
in the case
propounded
Now
him
the obliger, to
is
whom
under
any one
14.
tied.
as fall
38
LIBERTY
is
him who
de-
come.
No
man,
an impossibility. But
to
do such
from
all
obligation?
The
reason whereof
that he
it.
For
his will,
it,
who
for
its
object, a ceritself
if
it
why
much
as
this only
is,
We
are freed
either by per-
we we
By being
forgiven, because he
is
whom
by forgiving,
conceived to return
we
giving, that
is,
by the fourth
of this chapter, a
is
whom
the gift
made.
from
to
redeem
my
life
will
do no
act
I
whereby
to appre-
justice,
whether
am
tied to
keep
would
life,
follow, that
those promises
to a civil
and by which
LIBERTY
laws were made, might likewise be of none
39
effect; (for it pro-
man
submits
who
is
some
benefit received,
and when
it
to
is
lawful,
my
life,
will of
mine own
to
We
are obliged,
therefore,
law
which
promised becomes
unlawful.
17.
Whosoever
shall contract
maketh not
who by former
is
to another.
vey
no right by
latter
contracts,
and what
promised without
contract; to break
18.
resist
right.
He
is
is
first
which
unlawful.
No man
him who
is
shall
wound,
or any other
way
done
in every
man
which he apprehends
that evil
which
is
him
to be the greatest;
it
necessity
he shuns
wise.
all
he can, and
When
man
is
we
cannot
man
is
who
are
(which
is
enough
to bear
to
endure them.
Furthermore, he that
tied
by contract
is
40
only
is
LIBERTY
the
bond
who
punishment, either
strongly guarded,
or
more
gentle,
or
which
one thing,
if I
promise thus:
if
if I
do
it
thus:
if I
do
it
not,
if
though
you should
offer to kill
first
me,
men,
need be,
contract the
mere
state of
you
insomuch
him,
if
for breach
you
him. But in a
all
civil state,
where
is
the right of
corporal punishment
any private person. Neither need the supreme himself conwith any
this, that
tract
only
no
man patiently to yield to his punishment, but man offer to defend others from him. If in
two
realms, there should a conif it
we must presuppose
there be
no
per-
is
an
hostile state, in
which
Lastly,
evils to
all
things
are
lawful,
and therefore
resisting,
resistance
also.
we
are obliged of
two
make
is
choice of that which seems the greater; for cera greater evil than fighting.
least.
tain death
is
But of two
evils it
fore,
we
should be tied to
Likewise no
man
is
to accuse himself, or
like
Wherefore neither
is
a father
LIBERTY
his wife, nor a son against his father, nor
41
any
man
against any
is
his
which
is
presumed
to be corrupted
from nature.
But although no
man
he may, by
torture, be forced to
make
but
fact,
helps for the searching out of truth; insomuch that whether the party tortured answer true or
at
all,
false,
it
by
right.
20.
Swearing
is
is
God
beast.
with the
I
Romans, do thou
this
slay
same
Neither
this
any
let,
may
But though
in
some
places
it
for sub-
original
introduced, that by
and con-
men might
may
lie
their actions
Whence
brought
it
follows, that
that form,
for in vain
is
any
man
it
swear by a
God whom
is
may
be
to swear by
known him
is
that there
in
is
than what
is
own
proper, that
(as he
who
42
22.
LIBERTY
By
we may
understand, that
no
less,
we
if
are
sworn. For
it
is
the contract
which binds
it
which
the
itself
could not
it
is
be granted.
The
is this,
to
cause
faith,
men who
manner
of
of their words
23.
and
actions.
To
exact an oath,
contract,
if
any
to
do somewhat more
than
is
necessary
unto self-defence, and shews a mind deto benefit itself, as to prejudice another.
is
sirous not so
much
taken in
to say, of
him
who
of
own
him
men; and
omniscient,
who
man
shall see
them.
Chapter
III
of
Nature
perform contracts, or
Another
keep
is,
to
to
trust; for
that the
sary,
to obtain
from each
to be
to
other;
is
and that
shall
happen
done)
called a contract.
But
peace, as
we
shall
we
contract with
contracts
and
in vain
would
be made, unless
to
we
our covenants, or
keep
faith, is a
obtaining of peace,
Neither
is
sons with
whom we
none ought
vice.
For he that
contracts, in that
he doth
against
if
and
it
is
a thing in vain;
and
he
made
in vain.
He
is
therefore
who
contracts with
one with
doth
at
whom
he thinks he
we must
hold trust
is,
with
there
3.
all
men, or
else
either
must be
and
faithful peace.
The breaking
43
44
gift,
LIBERTY
(which ever
consists in
some
action or omission)
is
is
called
much
tract
as
an
injury,
signify
the same thing, and both are the same with breach of con-
and
trust.
And
it
to
his right to
some
the
other.
And
there
is
some
likeness
common
is
course of
life
we
call injury,
in the
Schools
who by
first
argu-
ments
tained,
is
is
main-
an absurdity; in
like
manner,
he
of
mind does
or omits that
which
in the
an injury, and
Schools
is
into
no
less
contradiction than he
who
it,
he wills
at the
is
it
not
done: which
time,
is
to will a thing
same
which
is
a contradiction.
An
injury therefore
is
a kind
a kind of injury
From
these grounds
it
follows, that
to
whom we
some law:
is
to
injury,
to
some person,
as
unjust,
unjust to
all;
but there
may an
injury be done, and yet not against me, nor thee, but some other; and sometimes against no private person, but the magistrate only; sometimes also neither against the magistrate, nor any private man, but only against God. For through contract and conveyance of right, we say, that an injury is done against this or that man. Hence it is (which we see in all kind of government) that what private men contract between themselves
by word or writing,
mischiefs
which
like,
and the
is released again at the will of the obliger. But those done against the laws of the land, as theft, homicide, are punished, not as he wills, to whom the hurt is done,
are
is,
LIBERTY
45
whom
somewhat
is
somewhat
made over by deed of gift, or to whom promised by way of bargain. And therefore damagis
if
a master com-
mand his servant, who hath promised to obey him, to pay a sum of money, or carry some present to a third man; the
servant,
if
he do
it
damaged
civil
government,
con-
any
man
whom
the evil
of
he hath
is
made no
tract,
he damages him to
to
whom
whom
the
power
he
who
I
that did
why
will,
should
since I
rather
do according
to yours
than mine
own
my
mind.'' In
of pre-
contract passed,
5.
what
is
reprehensible.
These words,
and unjust,
as also justice
and
injustice,
at-
when
as
they are
when
is
to actions.
When
what
injury.
they are
is
much
done
with
right,
and unjust,
as
what
is
done with
He who
and he
that hath
we do not therefore say he is an unjust, but guilty man. But when the words are applied to persons, to be just signifies as much as to be delighted in just dealing, to study how to do
righteousness, or to endeavour in
is just;
all
things to do that
which
and
is
to be unjust
to be
is
think
it
my
contract, but
some present
benefit.
mind,
man,
man may
to be ac-
just.
But that
man
is
46
counted
it,
LIBERTY
just,
who
commands
is
who
The
justice
of actions
is
commonly
distinguished
into
distributive; the
former whereof,
and that
is
sell-
there be
commutative
but this
is
so as
to
if
man Kaxd
him
say,
icf)V
d^LOCV,more
him who
less to
and
ariseth distributive
justice, I
an equality simply so
called, as
when two
pound
is
of
silver;
the other
an
be
equality
secundum quod,
as
when
a thousand
pounds
is
to
to forty,
where there
is
no equality
it
between
happens
that there
number
of
them
to
whom
part,
it
is
distributed, every
it
one of them
shall take
an equal
like
whence
is
is
called
equality
what
is all
my
goods for as
much
mine
I
as I
who
of
sought
is
divide
I
more
what
him who
deserves
less,
so long as
to
what
have agreed
for,
do
wrong
either.
Which
truth our
LIBERTY
Saviour himself, being God,
fore
is
47
the Gospel. This thereit
testifies in
no
we
are
by compact.
And
any
let
spoken against
lest
man
else
fit
it
man
receives
may
be derived from
man
why
then,
to
done by his
will,
The
right there-
fore of doing
it is
returns; therefore
it is
done by
right;
wherefore
no
injury.
8.
not
of the natural
for you,
law
is,
that
you
suffer
who, out
of the confidence
he
had in you,
a gift, but
have
no
he
him
would be
lost;
all
and by
this
means
all
beneficence,
and
trust,
together with
mutual
of gaining
would
this
law
48
contract, (for
LIBERTY
we
among
them), therefore
cause good turns and thanks have a mutual eye to each other,
it is
called ingratitude.
9.
The
is,
that every
man
render
we must remember
affections,
that there
is
in
may men
from the
is
found in
and
figure.
For
as a stone,
which
in regard of
room from
other
stones than
fills
up
itself,
of
its
compacted,
is
away, as not
fit
for use: so a
man,
and detaining
by reason of
said to be use-
of necessaries
from
others,
and being
is
incorrigible
commonly
is
others.
Now,
necessity,
supposed with
main might
to intend the
which
own
preservation;
superfluities,
any
man
will
by his default
him
follows,
(which we were
to
show), that
it is
who
breaks
forgive
The fifth precept of the law of nature is, that we must him who repents and asks pardon for what is past.
LIBERTY
having
first
49
The pardon
else
of
what
is
past, or the
nothing
after
but
him
is
that asketh
it,
he hath
warred against
granted to
hostile
us,
and now
become
is,
penitent.
But peace
him
to
him
that retains an
is,
and therefore
is
not
commanded by
is
Now
is
to
him
The
law
is,
that in revenge
at the evil past,
inflict
it is
not lawful to
punish-
ment
rected,
better.
is
for
may be coror that others warned by his punishment may become But this is confirmed chiefly from hence, that each man
any other end, but that the offender
the law of nature to forgive one another, provided
fore-
bound by
he give caution for the future, as hath been showed in the going
article.
if
be only considered,
nothing
else
contemplates
only what
is
past,
is
which
is
directed to
no end,
is
future, proceeds
from vain
glory,
and
But
revenge
of this
12.
we
Now
the breach
law
commonly
all
called cruelty.
But because
all
signs of hatred
most of
to brawling
and
fighting,
most
men
would
rather lose their lives (that I say not, their peace) than
50
suflfer
LIBERTY
slander,
it
it
is
pre-
no man,
either by deeds or
The breach
of
which law
is
called reproach.
scoffs
But
and
jeers of
which neither
men do
act against
The
men
all
civil
state.
For
it
hath been
i.
Art. 3) that
from
law.
I
riches,
come from
the civil
know
book
of Politics, affirms
as a foundation of the
whole
some men
to serve;
men, but by an
reason (as but
ence.
that
is,
certain
is
kind of natural
not only against
now
it
any
man
so dull of understanding
as not to judge
the wiser
and stronger do
contest,
after the
upper
hand
of those.
is
Whether
therefore
men
equality
to
is
every
to
man
As
which law
14.
it
pride.
was necessary
man,
LIBERTY
that he should part with some of his rights, so
it
51
is
no
less
necessary to the
same conservation,
that he retain
some
others,
air,
enjoyment of
water,
and
all
necessaries for
life.
Since therefore
many common
who
and
this
that
many
soever any
as
man
all
due
to
the rest;
For what
in the
is
it
else
to
making up
of so-
whom
But
to
no reason would
engage
to
is
the
proportional to proportionals.
called meekness, the violation
The
it
is
commanded by
man
shew himself
are forbidden
we
to ourselves,
will, for that
than
we
grant
is
to others.
We
may
take
less if
if
we
at
sometimes
an
argument
of modesty.
But
we
law
to
one before
proaches
another
observes
natural
equality,
it
re-
him
whom
is
declared
The
ob-
is
things
The Greeks in one word term it TcpoacoTtoXriipLa. From the foregoing law is collected this eleventh, those which cannot be divided, must be used in common (if
they can) and (that the quantity of the matter permit) every
52
LIBERTY
as
man
much
as
he
lists,
but
if
we have showed
17.
commanded by
it is
may
be the twelfth
and
it
by turns,
it.
be also decided by
is
lot
who
shall
have the
first
use of
For
to be
lot.
had unto
equality: but
no other can
But
all
lot
is
is
that
which
cast
it is
consists in
mere chance
were given by
lot)
divided, nor
possessor; as
which belonged
to the father
are
due
to the son, unless the father himself have formerly conthis therefore stand
The
is,
that
safety
must be assured
the
reason which
commands
the end,
first
commands
also the
is
means
all
dictate of reason
peace;
means
to obtain
it,
safety.
It
is
security to the
men
should agree to
make
these
of nature,
and should
LIBERTY
53
Vi^hether
them unto their acwhat was done, were against the law
the question of right);
or not,
(which
we
it is
call
whence
will
wronged;
remedy can
possibly
be thought on) that both the disagreeing parties refer the matter
to stand to his
judgment
And
he
to
whom
called
an
arbiter. It is
submit them-
21.
But from
this
is
chosen
gather
by the differing
that the arbiter
is
parties to
we
For every
naturally,
man
and
the
presumed
is just,
to seek
what
is
what
fore
commanded by
It is
man
v/ould do.
therefore
man must
22.
that
be judge or arbiter in his own cause. From the same ground follows in the seventeenth place, no man must be judge who propounds unto himself any
profit, or glory,
hope of
from the
is
some controversy
not,
of the fact
is
itself,
to wit,
which
said to be done,
the natural law wills that the arbiter trust both parties alike,
that
is,
neither.
He must
and
may
54
knowledge
signs
LIBERTY
come
to
the
The
joins arbiters
and judges of
fact
certain
of the
From
may
him and
the parties
whose judge he
is
appointed,
by virtue whereof he
may
The judge
is
15th
To
the obligation of
it,
con-
an
arbiter,
who
is
so chosen, as
of nature therefore
com-
mands
precept.
25.
else
which
is
its
nineteenth
man endeavour
knowingly, or
it
is
manifest, that he
who
may be
no difference between a
man
who
who
to
ingly, as
make
it
impossible for
him
do
and weaken
who do
that
which disturbs
LIBERTY
the
55
which most manifestly
therefore sin, in the
mind from
to
its
happens
We
who
is
so hard,
that
it is
they be
this
I
To
answer,
it
is
man
so, as
man who
is
only
rule,
that
now doing
to another,
law of nature, or
stead.
Here
now
him
much. And
this rule
is
anciently cele-
quod
non
vis, alteri
ne
jeceris:
do not that
27.
to others,
to yourself.
of
present
are
reason dictates, those not practising the same, surely they would not follow reason in so doing; nor would they hereby procure
is,
by
56
reason)
LIBERTY
men
of
all
these laws * in
that state
men wherein
We
mind
to
observe
them whensoever
seem
to con-
We
must
and
when
it
may
be done with
28,
safety,
an
act,
if
them,
who
does
it
though the
science
29.
is
against them.
The
we
take
them
for
mind, that
is,
* Nay,
among
it
these laws
some things
(provided
seems rather
all
to
be
the fulfilling, than breach of the natural law. For he that doth
against those that
things
do
all
things,
is a handsome action, and poorness of spirit, and a betraying of one's self, in the time of war. But there are certain natural laws, whose exercise ceaseth not even in the time of war itself; for I cannot understand what drunkenness, or cruelty (that is, revenge which respects not the future good) can advance toward peace, or the preservation of any man. Briefly, in the state of nature, what is just, and unjust, is not to be esteemed by the actions, but by the counsel and conscience, of the actor. That which is done out of necessity, out of endeavour for peace, for the preservation of ourselves, is done with right; otherwise every damage done to a man would be a breach of the natural law, and an injury against God.
is
LIBERTY
57
court of conscience, where only they oblige, and are laws. Yet
actions
may
civil
law, that
what
at
one time,
is
guilty of
iniquity at another;
is
and what
suits
contrary to
it
the
same, and
peace,
means
to attain
we have
30.
evident by
said,
how
easily
whoso
shall
perform,
we may
rightly call
him
just.
For he
who
shows
is
he hath a mind to
fulfil all
we
he
31.
Now
all
obliged
to, is
a just
man.
is
the
same
true.
We
must
they
know,
therefore, that
good and
evil are
names given
to things
them by
whom
diverse, according
we may we apprehend by sense, as by tasting, touching, smelling; but much more in those which pertain to the common actions of life, where what this man commends,
diverse constitutions, customs, opinions; as
see in those things
(that
evil;
is
to say,
calls
as
being
same man
and
it
dispraises the
is
and
strife.
They
evil
58
LIBERTY
easily
men
fore
acknowledge
this state, as
it,
to be evil,
who
work
of reason; for
come
it
to
our
follows by
same
reason, that
all
the necessary
means
trust,
to peace be
good
also;
humanity, mercy,
good manners or
the
habits, that
is,
The law
therefore, in
means
to peace,
commands
it
also
is
tice of virtue:
and therefore
called moral.
off this
32.
petite,
But because
men
cannot put
same
irrational ap-
by
strict
many
unforeseen
all
evils
do adhere) before
agree in the
still
the future,
men do
commendation
For
as
oft
as
another's
man,
vice;
name
likewise the
to
bad
actions,
which
it
please
to
entitled
some
is
virtue.
Whence
comes
same
action
and
dis-
was
in order to peace,
and the
to
itself.
which
is
apparently
false.
For
is
dare
is
commended, and,
it
LIBERTY
be an extreme,
if
59
makes not
liberality,
Neither
is
it
injustice, if I give
I
any
man
more, of what
is
sum
of
moral
philosophy, whereof
those dangers which arise from discord. But there are other
precepts of rational nature,
for temperance also
is
virtues;
And
is,
that
same
are
which
means
him
that resists.
call
to speak properly
and
accurately,
the speech of
him who by
right
commands
as
somewhat
to others to be
God
we
shall see
most properly
called by the
name of laws: for the sacred Scripture is the commanding over all things by greatest right.
speech of
God
Chapter IV
of
Nature
Is
a Divine
Law
is
omitted.)
Part
II:
DOMINION
Chapter
V
Government
It
is
of
itself
men
proceed
as
from the
will,
and the
fear,
insomuch
when
pen
to
hap-
them by
will wittingly
violate
man
openly, or by stratagem.
may disappoint his neighbour, either Whence we may understand, that the
and consequently, that
as
any
there
man
is
in their practice,
long as
re-
mains
to every
man
that
same primitive
right of self-defence,
make
is,
And it is a man be
sufficient for
prepared in
mind
2.
to
It
it
may
all
be had.
silent in the
laws are
if
time
civil,
of war,
and
is
we speak
iii.
of the
men, by chap.
art. 27.
And
as
we mean
is
such a war as
state
is
of all
men
against
all
men; such
the
mere
of nature;
64
DOMINION
who
fit
exercised
it
with valour, not with cruelty. Their custom was, taking away
the rest, to spare
life,
for plough,
is
not
had regard
to their
own
glory herein,
guilty of fear.
is
by too
much
cruelty, they
might be suspected
neces-
and
law security
is
is
no
less necessary, it is
worth the
which
affords
matter nothing
else
man
may
a se-
may
think
it
meddle. But
first, it is
plain,
some few on
undoubtedly
is
make
the victory
is
to attack us. It
therefore neces-
sary, to the
may
be obtained, that
assistance be
the
number
in a
mutual
to the
some few
enemy's party
may
4.
moment
sufficient to assure
the victory.
Furthermore,
how
who meet on
selves of
self-defence,
some
excellent
means whereby
shall
but
every
man
after his
own manner
make
they
of victory,
counsels, or emulation,
DOMINION
65
by some
common
fear.
Whence
it
sent of
many, (which
in
we have
direct
already
their
defined
the foregoing
that
they
all
is
actions to the
that
to say,
agree in the
exercise of the
else
must be done,
who have
common
Aristotle
among
those
animals which he
politic,
not
man
may
and submit
is
to
senting, (that
to say)
common
seditions.
Yet
is
not their
gathering together a
civil
only a consent, or
is
many
wills concurring in
one
object, not
(as
It is
very true
and
appetite, their
consent of minds
is
it,
so durable, as there
is
no need of anything
to
more
to
secure
preserve peace
among them, than barely their natural inclination. But among men the case is otherwise. For, first, among them there is a contestation of honour and preferment; among beasts there is
none: whence hatred and envy, out of which arise sedition and
war,
is
beasts
conformable,
66
and they
desire the
DOMINION
common good which among them differs private. But man scarce esteems anything good
in the enjoyment,
more
which
no
commonweals; but
in a multi-
tude of
men
there are
themselves wiser
in-
mere
distraction,
and
civil
war.
the
may have
want they
to those
that
same
and
is
art of
words which
is
necessarily required
is
represented to
it
is.
it
as being better,
But the
it
tongue of
man
a trumpet of
war and
sedition:
and
is re-
itself.
they
it
and harm;
thence
happens that
their fellows.
long as
it
is
blame not
But those
men
most trouble to
for they use
the republic,
who
idle;
not to contend for public places before they have gotten the
victory over
hunger and
is
cold. Last of
all,
brutal creatures
is
natural, that of
is
men
to say, artificial. It
therefore
for
no matter of wonder
to the
some-
men
live in
without some
men may
be ruled through
that security
make up
many
and
wills to the
same
which
to
make
a lasting
is
DOMINION
concern peace and self-defence, there be but one will of
67
all
men. But
this
his will to
in those things
common
peace,
men
in
general,
Now
gether of
many men who deliberate of what is to be done, or common good of all men, is that which
all
a council.
7.
those
of one
man, or one
council,
is
then made,
them
not
that
supposed
to retain a right of
is
violence)
and
this
called union.
is
But we understand
men
of
whom
we
falls
least of all
under deliberation
and compact;
yet he
who
and
facul-
insomuch
as
when
whom
much
power, as by the
terror of
men
unto
Now
is
and
it is
when
there
is
one will of
all
men,
to
to be esteemed for
it is
particular
as
men,
as
having
own
rights
and
properties.
Insomuch
68
citizen,
DOMINION
nor
all
of
them
together,
is
(if
we
except
him whose
we may define it) is one person, whose will, by the compact of many men, is to be received for the will of them all; so as he may use all the power and faculties of
each particular person, to the maintenance of peace, and for
defence,
city
common
10,
civil
be a
civil
may happen that many citizens, by the permission of the city, may join together in one person, for the doing of certain things. These now will be civil persons, as the companies of merchants, and many other convents;
person
not a
city; for it
but
cities
company
simply, and in
city,
all
things,
and on such
is
ment against the body itself of the sodality; which is by no means allowable to a citizen against the city. Such like societies,
therefore, are civil persons subordinate to the city.
11,
In every
city,
that
man
or council, to
whose
will each
particular
man
clared)
is
or dominion; which
power and
commanding,
all
consists
his strength
and
power
to that
man
man
else
nothing
the chief
command.
said,
it is
sufficiently
showed, in
persons,
fear,
degrees,
many
natural
person,
whom we
have called
DOMINION
a city.
69
fear,
But they
who
either submit to
him whom
whom
not be
They
manner who
slain; they
may
who
that they
may
the natural
constitu-
the latter
who meet
it
together,
Hence
is
two kinds
the paternal
which may be
the
own
command
in chief.
But we
Chapter VI
Of the Right
Only,
1.
of Him,
Whether Council
or
One Man
Who Hath
We
must consider
of
all
what a multitude *
of
men
is,
own
namely, that
it
is
own will and his peculiar judgment conmay be proposed. And though by particular contracts each single man may have his own right and propriety, so as one may say this is mine, the other, that is his;
each one hath his
all
cerning
things that
as
is
we
or
ascribe
any action
own, but
(if all
more
of
them do
men.
agree)
*
it
will not be
an action, but as
many
actions as
The doctrine of the power of a city over its citizens, almost wholly depends on the understanding of the difference which is between a multitude of men ruling, and a multitude ruled. For such is the nature of a city, that a multitude or company of citizens not only may have
enough explained in the first article; but by the objections of many against those things which follow, I discern otherwise. Wherefore it seemed good to me, to the end I might make a fuller explication, to add these few things. By multitude, because it is a collective word, we understand more than one, so as a multitude of men is the same with many men. The same word, because it is of the singular number, signifies one thing, namely, one multitude. But in neither sense can a multitude be understood to have one will given to it by nature, but to either a several; and
clearly
command, but may also be subject Which difference I did believe was
to
command; but
in
diverse senses.
therefore
neither
a
is
to
be attributed
to
it.
Wherefore
right, act,
acquire right,
convey
DOMINION
For although
those only
city,
71
it
in
some great
sedition,
is
commonly
is
said, that
it
true of
who
is
are in arms, or
who
which
Whatsoever therefore
up; and that he,
whom
it
is
made
who
to
sented not, nor gave any helps to the things that were done by
it,
must be judged
said, there
tude not yet reduced into one person, in that manner as hath
been
state of
is
nature in which
all
things belong to
no
place for
meum
and
tuum, which
that security
is
is
called
we have
declared above
Next,
we must
may
be a beginning to
make up
the
rest, that in
shall
approve
of;
for
man
and
the
actions, as men. Wherefore a multitude is no natural person. But if same multitude do contract one with another, that the will of one man, or the agreeing wills of the major part of them, shall be received for the will of all, then it becomes one person. For it is endued with a will, and therefore can do voluntary actions, such as are commanding, making laws, acquiring and transferring of right, and so forth; and it is oftener called the people, than the multitude. We must therefore distinguish thus. When we say the people or multitude wills, commands, or doth anything, it is understood that the cit>' which commands, wills and acts by the will of one, or the concurring wills of more, which cannot be done, but in an assembly. But as oft as anything is said to be done by a multitude of men, whether great or small, without the will of that man or assembly of men, that is understood to be done by a subjected people, that is, by many single citizens together, and not proceeding from one will, but from diverse wills of diverse men, who are citizen's and subjects, but not a city.
72
DOMINION
all
of a multitude of
men,
whose
wills
and votes
differ so variously.
Now
it
if
among
will
Whence
come
its
that
3.
is,
But because we
that there
article,
was required
the security of
men, not
only their consent, but also the subjection of their wills in such
things as were necessary to peace and defence; and that in that
city consisted;
we must
(all
now
which may be
whose
of
common defence. But first man be so far forth proothers, that he may live securely,
long
that
as
is,
that he
may have no
men
altogether
safe
ously killed,
deliberation.
to others,
which
if it
be not had,
was
a care
had of
his security.
of those
who
now growing up
into a city,
do covenant
steal,
with the
kill,
rest, either
not to
and
disposition
manifest to
all,
human known
how
little
men
duties,
We
must therefore
DOMINION
73
and there
is
then
sufficient provision
great punishments
it
it.
prove a greater
have done
it,
For
all
men, by
them appears
5.
Now
is
then understood to be
when
every
man
him
who
to be punished.
But
sword of
justice.
men
for the
most
part,
till
are to suffer.
6.
common
for
peace,
it
is
sword
punishment be transferred
is
some
man
or council, that
to
man
own
or council
necessarily understood
city.
by right
For he that by
all
by right compels
men
which he himself
mand
7.
cannot be imagined.
at
possible for
forces are
them
whose
not united.
And
therefore
it
is
many
dangers and on
all
ful for
common
make
number and
shall find
it
strength
of the
he
expedithere-
ent) to
We
must understand
council;
of
war and
peace, unto
and
that this
right (which
we may
74
same man or
For no
council, to
DOMINION
whom
man
who
of a city,
do belong
to the chief
command.
is
nothing
else
but to
it
at his
own
will,
fol-
judgment of
its
same
the
power
of judging
in vain
commands,
not said to have the power of the sword, but that other, to
whom
he
is
officer.
belongs to
to
Furthermore, since
it
no
less,
nay,
it
much more
them being
just
risen;
and
that
all
controversies
are bred
from hence,
men
differ
concerning
meum
and unjust,
profitable
like, which every man own judgment; it belongs to the same chief power to make some common rules for all men, and to declare them publicly, by which every man may know what may be called his, what another's, what just, what unjust,
what
honest,
evil,
that
is
summarily, what
to
common
course of
life.
But those
rules
laws of the
being the
commands
of
And
the civil
him who hath the supreme power in the city. laws (that we may define them) are nothing else
DOMINION
but the
75
the chief authority in the
commands
of
10.
both those
of
war and
administered by one
subordinate mag-
man,
istrates,
and that
it
common
defence,
that they to
whom
to search into
and on
all
hands warily
should
the chief
command
11.
It is also
and that
good and
evil of the
man
men
much
we may
of
understand
that
that
very
concerns
the
interest
peace,
no
may
may
the
commands
is
of that
man
whom
the supreme
power
committed, or that
is
lawful
denies, than
him
one
command
their
somewhat
forbid
right,
it
to be
own
altois
it
man
he
"jd
DOMINION
It
of temporal death.
man
and
or court, to
whom
and
also that
he forbid
them
12.
Last of
all,
from
this
who
mand
him;
in the city, so as he
it
may
he
who
hath
neither in the worship of God, nor from whence there may not spring dissensions, discords, reproaches, and by degrees war itself. Neither doth this happen by reason of the falsehood of the principle, but of the disposition of men, who, seeming wise to themselves, will needs appear such to all others. But though such dissensions cannot be hindered from arising, yet may they be restrained by the exercise of the supreme power, that they prove no hindrance to the public peace. Of these kinds of opinions therefore I have not spyoken in this place. There are certain doctrines wherewith
is
There
human
sciences,
may
be refused
and that by right they may, nay ought, to oppose and fight against chief princes and dignities. Such are those which, whether directly and openly, or more obscurely and by consequence, require obedience to be given to others beside them to whom the supreme authority that power which many is committed. I deny not, but this reflects on living under other government, ascribe to the chief head of the Church of Rome, and also on that which elsewhere, out of that Church, bishops require in theirs to be given to them; and last of all, on that liberty which the lower sort of citizens, under pretence of religion, do challenge to themselves. For what civil war was there ever in the Christian world, which did not either grow from, or was nourished by this root? The judgment therefore of doctrines, whether they be repugnant to civil obedience or not, and if they be repugnant, the power of prohibiting them to be taught, I do here attribute to the civil authority. For since there is no man who grants not to the city the judgment of those things which belong to its peace and defence, and it is manifest that the opinions which I have already recited do relate to its peace, it follows necessarily, that the examination of those opinions, whether they be such or not, must be referred to the city, that is, to him who hath the supreme authority.
DOMINION
not power enough, cannot punish
77
naturally; so neither can
sufficient
him
he punish him by
13.
It is
right,
who
power.
perfect city
where no
use his
faculties, at his
own
in
or
where the
sword
is
excluded) there
is
supreme power
some one, greater than which cannot by right be conferred by men, or greater than which no mortal
man
can have over himself. But that power, greater than which
cannot by
*
men
be conveyed on a man,
we
call
absolute.* For
oppose
popular state openly challengeth absolute dominion, and the citizens it not. For in the gathering together of many men, they acknowl-
edge the face of a city; and even the unskilful understand, that matters there are ruled by council. Yet monarchy is no less a city than democracy; and absolute kings have their counsellors, from whom they will take advice, and suffer their power, in matters of greater consequence, to be guided, but not recalled. But it appears not to most men how a city is contained in the person of a king; and therefore they object against
that if any man had such a right, the conwould be miserable. For thus they think, he will take all, spoil all, kill all; and every man counts it his only happiness that he is not already spoiled and killed. But why should he do thus? Not because he can; for unless he have a mind to it, he will not do it. Will he, to please one, or some few, spoil all the rest? First, though by right, that is, without injury to them, he may do it, yet can he not do it
absolute
command:
first,
jusdy,
that
is,
God.
And
therefore there
if
some
which
he could jusdy do
or that he
made no account
no reason why he should desire it, since he finds no good in it. But it cannot be denied but a prince may sometimes have an inclination to do wickedly; but grant then, that thou hadst given him a power which were not absolute, but so much only as sufficed to defend thee from the injuries of others, which, if thou wilt be safe, is necessary for thee to give; are not all the same things to be feared? For he that hath strength enough to protect all, wants not sufof his oath, yet appears there
ficiency to oppress
affairs
itself
is
all.
Here
is
no other
difficulty then,
but that
human
And
this
inconvenience
themselves, every
live according to
if men could rule by his own command, that is to say, could they the laws of nature, there would be no need at all of a
man
78
DOMINION
his will to the will of the city,
make
own
by
pleasure, of the
right, truly
strength
this
he
This same
may be confirmed by
experience in
all
the cities
which
there
though
it
be sometimes in
yet ever
doubt, what
is
man
command,
commands made
destroy
it,
out of one.
Now,
who
to
authority,
convey
it
on
civil
others; for
society,
power,
of
all
away
is
and a confusion
so
much
that
city,
is
much
this
as that
may
Now
may
kind of
some reasons
it
sometimes, by
cannot be performed,
we
will call
it
we
have con-
veyed
that,
all
city,
city's
would be
frustrate,
city constituted.
For
it is
nor of a
common
is
no dominion
which indeed
is
not true,
they
for all monarchies, and all other have the chief command, do not
who
what
they
know
who
busied about
and careless of what tends to the public, cannot sometimes be drawn to perform their duties without the hazard of the city. Wherefore princes sometimes forbear the exercise of their right, and prudendy remit somewhat of the act, but nothing of their right.
private interest,
DOMINION
one thing
another,
if I say, I
79
if I say, I
will
command may
asmuch
be such, as
would
which
it.
For-
therefore as no
man
that,
much
to
is
less is
he tied to
be
him
is
If therefore I
commanded
I
to kill myself,
it,
am
not bound
do
it;
for
though
deny to do
dominion
may
it;
be found,
I
who
being com-
manded,
which
ruler
I
do
neither do
refuse to do that
if
the chief
it,
him, he
is
not tied to do
be-
cause
covenant.
Nor
if
he
command
to execute a parent,
cent, or guilty,
others
do
that,
and a son
all
will
and hated of
the world.
cases,
commands
those;
others, obedience
may, by
this,
right, be
performed by
and refused by
and
no
case
is
away from
who
shall refuse to
who
thus
kill
it,
men, although by
if
right, given
that hath
yet
God.
he
man
give
somewhat
to himself; for
himself.
Nor can
he be obliged
obliged and the obliger, and the obliger having power to release
the obliged,
it
man
to be obliged to
this, is
is
8o
laws are the laws of the
she
DOMINION
city,
by which,
if
be
he
will,
in all things
is
comprehended
in the will of
is,
free
when
is
she
is
now
actually free.
But the
will of a council, or
one
who
all
he bound to the
civil
is
to
be
bound
15.
to himself) nor to
any of his
citizens.
Now
the
is
constitution of a city
things belonged to
men, nor
where
which any
same
man
can so
call his, as
any other
all
may
it
not, by the
own,
(for
things are
common,
and
man)
cities
beginning* when
is
received theirs,
that
that
only
whole
him on
whom
its
chief
command
conferred.
Whence we
propriety to
which none
chief ruler
cause they are tied to the same laws; but he hath no propriety
in
which the
single
person,
*
is
constituted the
right.
But
What
is
was found in fathers of families, that objection have already declared, that a family is a little city. For the sons of a family have a propriety of their goods granted them by their father, distinguished indeed from the rest of the sons of the same family, but not from the propriety of the father himself. But the
the constitution of
is
vain,
because
who
common
father
common
right in
things.
DOMINION
although there be
citizens,
8l
its
many
law against
may do who
self, as
and therefore he shall be judge himthough (the equity of the cause being well understood)
injuries are forbid
6.
all
by
what
is
to be called theft,
what muris
what
adultery,
what injury
in a citizen, this
civil
not to be
is
theft;
but what
is
our's,
and what
man-
man
is is
the
civil
law
forbids;
neither
encounter with
women
itself
which the
is
civil
breach of promise
no right
it,
to
there can be
no conveyance
of
Now
As
what we may
is
contract for,
and what
not,
depends
often as a citizen
granted
to
supreme, that is, against the city, the question is not in that action, whether the city may, by right, keep possession of the thing in controversy,
but whether by the laws formerly
IS
made
she
would keep
it;
for the
raise
law
may
money
under two ddes, either as tribute, or as debt, in the no action of law allowed, for there can be no question whether the city have the right to require tribute; in the latter it is allowed, because the city will take nothing from its citizens by fraud or cunning, and yet if need require, all they have, openly. And therefore he that condemns this place, saying, that by this doctrine it is easy for princes to free themselves from their debts, he does it impertinently.
from the
is
82
wholly upon the
civil
DOMINION
laws.
The
city of
Laccdaemon therefore
so take
away
should go un-
punished; for
was nothing
that
but to
make
was
so
acquired
is
Rightly also
man
is
everywhere
slain,
whom we
kill
in
which in one
city
matrimony,
in another will be
judged
do not
same
is,
city;
be-
cause that he
who
by that one
man
any,
contract aught,
hath no right to
it is
make any
contract,
contract
and
so
made by an
Art. 22.
What
therefore theft,
is,
adultery,
is
not
my
it
say,
to live together,
that
law, whether
be a sacrament or not,
surely
a legitimate marriage; but that copulation which the city hath prohibited
no marriage, since it is of the essence of marriage to be a legitimate There were legitimate marriages in many places, as among the Jews, the Grecians, the Romans, which yet might be dissolved. But with those who permit no such contracts, but by a law that they shall never be broke, wedlock cannot be dissolved; and the reason is, because the
is
contract.
city hath commanded it to be indissoluble, not because matrimony is a sacrament. Wherefore the ceremonies which at weddings are to be per-
formed in the temple, to bless, or (if I may say so) to consecrate the husband and wife, will perhaps belong only to the office of clergymen; all the rest, namely, who, when, and by what contracts marriages may be made, pertains to the laws of the city.
DOMINION
must be known by the
civil laws, that is,
83
the
commands
of
him
who
17.
command and
men,
naming
pardy
of
them;
which happens
chiefly
through want of
civil
knowledge, what
also
human
own
if
lust.
this
some
of
them
will
have a
city well
enough
constituted,
they
cer-
who
tain
approved, and do
command them
and
also
to
to
ments prescribed
to be inflicted
on them
the
who
shall
break them.
foreign
To which
dition, that
purpose,
repelling
of a
a certain
and limited
may
call
new convention
of estates.
Who
assembly
who
If therefore the
power
will be per-
But
if
them, and so
is
somewhere
power
punish those
who
shall transgress
it,
how many
which cannot
what
to restrain
power
as a greater can-
is
some
who
man
84
to be limited only
DOMINION
by the strength and forces of the
world. For
if
city itself,
and by nothing
that
else in the
his
power were
limited,
limitation
must
necessarily
limits,
must have
a greater
power
is
who
is
confined by them.
is
Now
that confining
power
than
itself,
and
so
we
power which
hath no other
limit,
all
is
of the forces of
called
the supreme
a
command; and
if
be committed to a council,
of the
to one
city.
Now
command
war and
are these: to
peace, to
controversies, either
all
magistrates, ministers,
there be any
is
man who
man
For those things which by right may not be done by any one
or
many
He
therefore that
city's right,
which
is
the supreme
power.
19.
a city and
its citizens,
with a
man
and
his
all say,
that he
who
power
head
is
in relation to the
it
whole
such as the
already
he
who
is
(whether
be a
man
not as that of the head, but of the soul to the body. For
the soul by
or
nill;
nill; so
man hath a will, that is, can either will so by him who hath a will, that is, can either will or by him who hath the supreme power, and no otherwhich a
and can
court of
DOMINION
counsellors
counsellor,
ruler
office
is
85
rather to be
makes use
of the head
matters of greatest
moment:
is
for the
to
is
command.
constituted by
subject
20.
Forasmuch
as the
supreme command
virtue
of the compacts
which each
single citizen or
all
from the
again,
supreme
if
it
authority
may
Which
since
inference,
were
true, I
arise to the
it is
supposed that
if
any one of
them shall refuse, whatsoever the rest shall agree to do, he is bound notwithstanding. Neither can any man without injury to me, do that which by contract made with me, he hath
obliged himself not to do. But
ever
as
it
it
is
will
happen, that
all
much
any
Wherefore there
ing
no
fear
for
rulers
in chief,
that by
their right
contract
his fellow-citizen,
might
under pretence of
the
for
subjects
command of the city, or seditiously men think that the consents of all are
of the greater part;
most
which in truth
neither
is
false.
For
it is
not from
it
prothat
is
when
man
86
subjects,
DOMINION
by reason of the greatness of their number, allows
elected
will
power
of
who
such
and
matters as are by
him propounded
But
his
to be discussed, to be as
we
who
is
ever convened
subjects
renounces and
abandons
his
government.
Now
because most
men
through
ig-
whole
city,
well seem to
be abrogated,
of the greater
men
its
right
another
tie also
my
on
this party,
upon
which every
is
own man or
advantage,
council for
man had before to use his faculties to now wholly translated on some certain the common benefit. Wherefore what by
made with
the other,
what
man
is
is
bound
due
their
to ratify
him
that
commands,
next,
the
government
upheld by a double
is
obligation
from the
which
to their
fellow-citizens,
that
to
prince.
Wherefore no
right despoil
subjects,
how many
consent.
him who
own
Chapter VII
of Government: Democracy,
Aristocracy,
I.
Monarchy
city
its
We
by institution in
species.
its
genus;
we
will
now
say
somewhat
power
of
As
ference of
to
cities, it is
whom
the supreme
either to
is
committed
consisting of
consists
many men
either
the citizens,
(insomuch as every
man
of
them hath a
right to vote,
if
and an
From whence there arise three sorts when the power is in a council, where
to vote;
and
it is
called a democracy.
all,
The
other,
when
is
it
it is
in
and we
call it
an
The
is
third
that,
is
when
a
styled
monarchy. In the
first,
he that governs
Now,
politics
have
intro-
to these, to
is,
the
command
of
some few,
to aristocracy,
titles
given by those
who were
or
either dis-
with
that
present
government,
those
that
bare
00
DOMINION
own
aflEections,
as love,
and the
like.
Whence
it
man
one
calls
what one
whom
see,
him
a tyrant. So as
we
these
first,
who
sees
no government
at all, that
is,
not any
But how
is it
possible that
no
city
of a city? Furthermore,
oligarchy,
what
difference
there between an
which
signifies the
is
command
of a
few or grandees,
or an aristocracy, which
that of the
more than
that
men
differ so
all
same
by
happens, that
who by some
on
men.
who though
many,
yet
it
they
would
to be well
governed unless
we must
is
what the
difference
tyrant.
But
first,
this,
that a tyrant hath the greater power, for greater than the su-
limited,
is
no
king, but his subject that limits him. Lasdy, neither differ they
in their
manner
of acquisition; for
if
in a democratical or aris-
tocratical
supreme power,
not,
he
DOMINION
is
89
an enemy, not a
tyrant.
They
exercise of their
command, insomuch
brought to
as
he
is
said to be a king,
who
The
case therefore
and
if
him
the appellation
see a
of a king;
him
a tyrant.
Wherefore we
name
to
of a
king
him
in point of
him, and of
fre-
a tyrant in
way
of contumely
original
partly
from
writers,
demo-
and partly
aristocratical,
There
are,
who
indeed do think
it
man
or council,
would
Avoid-
the citizens
must be
slaves.
may
be a certain
we have
call
from each
which they
than the
rest.
For example,
if
the
naming
of magistrates,
and
the arbitration of
judicature to the
war and peace, should belong to the King, Lords, and contribution of monies to the
power
of
call
kind of
if
it
state
would they
together, this
forsooth.
But
state, it
would
long as
For
as
as
much
subject as possibly
war
90
DOMINION
certainly
is
much
no such kind
demonform
to-
Let us see a
little
now
of government,
what the
constitutors do.
city,
were almost
in the very
lasts,
is
clear
the will of
all
the
this conit
vent every
man
it
is
is
follows that
first article
of this chapter.
But
if
up the
they
when
to
same
of
all
to the state
men
warring against
The
the supreme
a certain day
and
will
which whosoever
Most men grant, that a government ought not to be divided, but it moderated and bounded by some limits. Truly it is very reasonable it should be so; but if these men, when they speak of moderating and limiting, do understand dividing it, they make a very
*
part, I wish that not only kings, but all supreme authority, would so temper themselves as to commit no wrong, and only minding their charges, contain themselves within the limits of the natural and divine laws. But they who distinguish thus, they would have the chief power bounded and re-
my
it
who
must needs have some part of the power, whereby they may be enabled to do it, the government is properly divided, not
do
set the limits,
moderated.
DOMINION
may may
resort.
91
determined, they
is,
For except
meet
that be
known and
either
at divers
it
in factions,
or not at
all;
and then
no longer
Sfj^oc;,
a dissolute multitude, to
action
whom we
or
right.
Two
things
therefore
frame a democracy,
is
a plurality of
Furthermore, maintain
its
as
to
known
in the
may
of the defect of
power)
the
may
of
least that
supreme authority
be,
man
or council.
For unless
be done,
not that wary care and heed taken for the defence
of single
and peace
to be,
and therefore
it,
will
name
for
want of
own
pleasure returns to
7.
him
again.
Democracy
is
men
it
appears, in the
first
place, that
is
persons;
ernment
people,
will,
is
it
if
is
whom
own
it
is
supposed to be
dis-
may
at its
will
and pleasure
92
engage
itself,
DOMINION
and by consequence
is
now
actually free.
But
other
city
may
the citizens
city
command
making
must
con-
pacts
must be understood
up
be
of a city, but
(as
it
is
made between
man
tract to
part,
on conon
do the
like.
As
if
thus:
give
up
my
condition, that
8.
you
also deliver
up
An
up
aristocracy
or council of nobles
its
endowed with
su-
preme
gives
tain
title,
authority, receives
its
original
right unto
it,
men
distinguished from
either
by eminence of
to the
elected,
blood, or
some other
character, are
propounded
people,
and by
and being
the
much
right
may
it is
now
do.
Which being
(its
is
done,
one person,
no
now
in
in being.
As
court of nobles
free
from
all
manner
by mutual com-
pacts
among
all
hence also they were tied to that act of the people in resigning
up
its
right of
nobles. Neither,
it
obliged
DOMINION
to anything.
93
is
For being
at
once dissolved,
as
as
had
being a per-
must
also vanish,
it.
Aristocracy
hath
these
together
with
democracy.
First, that
may
meet,
it is
no longer
court, or
its
administration be trans-
ferred to
are the
11.
Now
down
the reasons
why
is
this
happens,
same which we
As an
of
aristocracy, so also a
monarchy
its
derived from
that
is,
the
power
the
people,
transferring
also
right,
its
authority on one
man. Here
we must
understand, that
is
either by
pro-
and
is
that
by
conveyed
on him, insomuch
were
elected, the
as
same in every
may he by
is
right
now
Which being
no longer
And
therefore
neither doth
the
monarch
command
from
the people; but as hath been shewed above, the people, as soon
as that act
is
The
subjects there-
94
the observation of
that
is,
DOMINION
all
command
them,
to obey that
monarch,
13.
But a monarchy
differs as well
from an
aristocracy, as
must be
cer-
and
and consultation of
it
that
is,
in all times
and
places.
person,
must
necessarily have
is
their
meetings.
The monarch,
w^ho
is
one by nature,
his authority.
14.
Because
we have
they
who
command
are by
no com-
man,
it
do no injury
tion
to the subjects.
made
nothing
else
but a breach of
contract;
may
by
as
cruelty, iniquity,
which come
But
if
strict
injury.
the
because each
man
resuming that
right,
And
in a
democracy or
itself,
by whose votes
was decreed;
for sin
is
a consequence of the
is
artificial.
For
if it
whom
if
the
decree
was
But
in a
monarchy,
the
mon-
arch
self,
make any
because in
him
DOMINION
95
15. The people who are about to make a monarch, may give him the supremacy either simply without limitation of
If
simply,
we must
understand that he
who receives it, hath the had who gave it. On the same
make him
a
self-same
grounds,
monarch,
may
make another monarch. Insomuch as the monarch to command is simply given, receives a right not of possession only, but of succession also, so as he may declare
he
whom
the
whom
16.
But
if
the
power be given
we must
itself
its
authority,
any
if
it
meet
at certain times
and
places, or not.
it
Next,
have reserved
this
power, whether
otherwise. Suppose
to
now
up
its
power
let
for
first
term of
only;
us suppose in the
council without
man
where
meet again
to
make
is
new
manifest by the
and
become
an equal, to
divers times,
if
meet with
whom
he
lists at
and
in
what
he can,
his
head.
What monarch
is
soever, therefore,
hath a
such a condition, he
bound by
the law of
good) prudendy
to provide, that
suffer
96
DOMINION
which those
subjects of his
who have
mind
to
it
may
to their
common
re-
He
therefore
who on
this aforesaid
manner hath
ceived his
command during
we
life,
may
place,
at his discretion
if
not from
the
election of the
time and place of meeting after his death, then the monarch
being dead, the authority
is
any new
For
all
the
and
exercise of
it
was only
election
in the temporary
monarch,
right.
as in
if
But
the
temporary
monarch, depart not from the court before they have appointed
certain times
and
made by
the people
And
if it
shall
may
deprive
him
did,
the people of
Rome
when
on Minutius, master
mus,
is,
whom
it is
made
dictator.
The
reason whereof
that
man
or counact,
cil,
who
not to be able
else
but a right
of
commanding,
possible. Lastly, if
from
on such terms,
as
it
shall not
DOMINION
97
who
is
thus declared,
all
is
absolute; forasmuch as
it is
who
hath
now
Nor
per-
matters
it,
to assemble
his subjects
on some
no
son
now
whom
the promise
cases
was made. What we have spoken of these four people electing a temporary monarch will be more
plained by comparing
of a
clearly ex-
them with an
absolute monarch,
is
who
doth
sub-
as there
whom
itself
Besides,
the
of the
meeting
may
be
compared
to those times
wherein the
cease,
monarch
commanding
people;
is
the
death of the
just
as
wake more,
hath no
dying,
is,
is
the death of a
man. As
therefore a king,
who
heir,
if
till
going
to his rest,
any one
power
to convene,
up
to
him
more,
as a
administration of his
it
kingdom
to
to
some
other,
meet
at a certain
day receives
its
supremacy again.
And
king
who
in
the
recall
this
commission
again
when he
who
monarch doth by
98
DOMINION
if
may
the king,
who commits
sleeps, not
he
whom
he entrusted
power and
who
in
hath given the supreme power to a temporary such sort as they cannot assemble without his
the
monarch
the
to
jects together,
may
sufifer
made
by oath or without
of right,
is
null.
For
all
compact
is
conveyance
who
Now
he
who
itself,
no otherwise promised
it
power
shall
it.
Whensoever
therefore
it
must be valued
nature
as not
made, that
18.
is,
of
no
effect.
We
have
seen
how
subjects,
dictating,
have
power.
We
will see
it
And first of all, man cast off or forsake, but convey not the right of his command on some other. For what is thus rejected, is openly exposed to all alike, catch who
happens by
rejection,
catch can;
may heed
own
DOMINION
judgment. In the second place,
if
99
kingdom
fall
the
into the
power
of the
enemy, so
as there
made
against them,
had the
we must understand that he, who before supreme authority, hath now lost it: for when the
done
their full
subjects have
have
other,
with no
less
there
be no successor,
ligations; for
all
no
man
to
whom,
were impossible
to
perform aught.
And
civil
all
from
their
which
all
men have
state
to all things,
to wit, natural
proportion to the
mean
liberty to subjection,
may
soil;
by permission,
he
who
as he
who
is
free
the
latter.
Chapter VIII
Of the Rights
I.
stitutive or
its
framed government,
as being that
which
receives
original
faith
Now
is
follows
what may be
also
government; which
that
may
place
which
gotten by
first
may
is
Where such
a right
is
gotten, there
a kind
kingdom;
for to be a king,
nothing
else
but to
is
many
persons;
kingdom
now
There are but three ways only, whereby one can have a do-
first is,
if
by
(for peace
and
self-
sake)
the power
of this
they have willingly given up themselves to and authority of some man, or council of men; and
already spoken.
we have
The second
is, if
man
taken
own
to
do
all
whatsoever he shall
command
in-
doth receive,
is
life,
which
100
DOMINION
by the right of war in the natural
been deprived
of;
IQI
state of
his service
is
and obedience. By
as to
who
is
man
before he
knows what he
any
simply
all
com-
mands whatsoever.
Now
he that
is
thus tied,
called a servant;
whom
he
is
tied, a lord.
Thirdly, there
is
a right acquired
man
shall
is
somewhat
spared him,
for every one
not supposed to have contracted with his lord; not trusted with so
much
as to be able,
if
he desired
it,
either to
service, or contrive
any mischief
to his lord.
And
irons;
these serve
bound within
and
there-
were
name
serf,
of
un
serviteur,
and un
or
cations.
3.
The
obligation
from
contract; but
where
ii.
is
no
trust, there
can be no
is
art. 9,
is
where
compact
de-
him who
trusted.
There
is
there-
and
trust
benefit of
pardoned
so that
if
life,
him
of contract
had happened,
he might not only have made his escape, but also have killed
his lord,
who was
life.
102
4.
DOMINION
Wherefore such kind of servants
as
are restrained
by
defini-
tion of servants given above, because those serve not for the
suffer.
And
there-
fore
if
they
fly,
law^s of nature.
For
to
bind any
is
man
is
binder supposes
him
that
by
The
is
no
less
is
that
one that
no
less
is
than
this
mine.
his
Whence
it
had before
and whatsoever
he hath gotten,
it
was gotten
man, may
therefore nothing
retain as his
own
against the will of his lord; yet hath he, by his lord's distribution, a propriety
his
own
as
goods, insomuch
as
one servant may keep and defend them against the invasion
same manner
own
against the
all
that be-
longs to
him
man may
lord
dispose of his
either
sell,
own
what manner he
pleases; the
may
lay to pledge, or
own
will
and pleasure.
7.
DOMINION
103
is
who
done with
it.
to
him
that willeth
8.
But
if it
happen
these,
Now
be-
lord's;
now
belong to
this
seem good
And
therefore,
if
sometime
servant
is
servi-
freed from
his
lord
And
this
manis
called
manumission; which
Secondly,
is
if
the lord
in a city
banishment;
neither differs
only.
it
from manumission
is
in effect, but in
manner
the
For
in
there, liberty
/nent:
renounced. Thirdly,
is
if
abolished by the
new;
war,
for as
all
whom
must
protect,
is
if
he will have
for
the servant
freed
want
of
without
104
any testament or
unless he
heir.
DOMINION
For no
man
is
is
understood to be obliged,
know
to
whom
is
he
to
freed
from
no
trust,
is
the lord
who
preme;
his,
for, as
10.
We
same
lawful
if
it is
war which
is
of
all
against
kill men as oft as it shall seem to much more will the same be lawful against brutes; namely, at their own discretion, to reduce those to servitude which by art may be tamed and fitted for use,
to
and
hath
to persecute
rest
by a perpetual war, as
beasts,
original
from the
if
from divine
might have
positive right.
For
no man by
right
he to
whom
writ; a
men
indeed
whom
the beasts
injury,
as
it
may
kill a
man,
also
by the same
right, that a
man may
slay a beast.
Chapter IX
Of the Right
OF Hereditary
I.
Government
is
Socrates
is
right
reasoning,
ful to the
and
is
nothing need-
that the
man, and every one makes up the proposition which was desired, namely this, man is a living
in the definition itself of a
creature.
And
this,
is
Sophroniscus
is
Socrates' father,
and
there^
wherefore
it
is
necessary, to
make
it
more
were of
just as
it
itself
if
evident, that
what
is
be-
gotten by
me
is
is
mine;
a
man
because there
triangle,
its
two
is
right.
Be-
since
as
dominion, that
supreme power
indivisible,
insomuch
is
be acquired by generathis
We
which,
men
I06
to be accounted equal.
is
DOMINION
There by right of nature the conqueror
By
first
belongs to
him who
first
hath
him
is
in his power.
But
it is
manifest that he
who
is
newly born,
as she
in the mother's
others,
insomuch
may
3.
own
will, either
breed
him
up, or ad-
venture
him
to fortune.
If therefore
she breed
is
him (because
is
this con-
grown
which
is,
For
we
all desire
cannot be underlife
man
to another,
at
and
once be-
come an enemy. But each man is an enemy to that he neither obeys nor commands. And thus in the
ture, every
other
whom
state of na-
woman
and
a lord.
comes
trary,
not so
man
woman
their
wills.
and disposed of
day in divers
own
And
at this
places,
women
do
their
which
in truth they
do by the
right
who have
shewed)
it
all
Add
the
cannot be
known who
hers.
is
his
have
it,
and therefore
Where-
DOMINION
fore original
107
to the
mother:
and among
the belly.
4.
men no
The dominion
if
passes
to others, divers
ways. First,
child.
shall
He
up
it
For that
(not by getting,
it;
but nourishing
she
now by
void.
wherelife, is
benefit of
by
this exposition
made
Now
all
to
where
all
men
yet
have a right to
all
things,
may
same
body
else
might do
the
it),
may
Secondly,
if
mother be taken
is
his
who
all
dominion over
also, as
fifth
article.
the mother be
su-
preme authority
mother,
a
also
is
is
bound
to
things. Fourthly,
man on
this con-
dition, that
he
of both parties,
command
woman
bear-
ing rule shall have children by a subject, the children are the
mother's; for otherwise the
woman And
the society of
I08
DOMINION
the male and female be such an union, as the one have subjected himself to the other, the children belong to that
6.
him
or her
commands.
But
in the state of nature,
the
dren are the mother's, for the reasons above given in the third
article,
unless by pacts
it
may by
as heretofore
who
of those children
which
them
the males,
in a civil government,
tween a
in
all cities,
mothers govern-
and such
is
a contract,
if it
be
if
called
matrimony. But
together, the
children are the father's or the mother's variously, according to the differing civil laws of divers
7.
cities.
is
Now
originally
else
less
father, or
somebody
by derived
right,
it
subject to those by
whom
him who
is
bears;
to his
under
his
power.
son also
freed
from
are.
subjection in the
same manner
is
as a subject
and servant
For emancipation
the
ab-
The
now
stand
and
father,
regard be had to
him
less
DOMINION
honour
hath
(as hath been said in the section above)
is
109
nothing
else
least
honour. But
it
is
not to
much
all
acknowledge a
if
benefit, but
things, as
must
there-
who
is
freed
from
subjection,
all
to
be
honoured by
their inferiors.
From whence
title
What
then, will
and
a servant? Neither
do
know
that
fully declared
what
liberty,
and
what
slavery
fancies,
Commonly
do
to
do
all
own
esteemed to be
a civil government,
no
city
without a
command
it,
and
restraining
else
right.
Liberty,
that
lets
is
we may
define
is
nothing
up
in a vessel
it
being broken,
less liberty, as
made free. And every man hath more or he hath more or less space in which he employs
is
himself: as he hath
that
is
more
liberty,
And
large,
than he
be free toward
traveller
is
one
part,
the
bounded on
lest
and
And
and
absolute. In
which
no
sense
all
DOMINION
servants
and
who
and
in a ship
if
is
own may
he
ways a
himself, the
herein consists
or servant,
And here also the more more liberty he hath. And no man, whether subject, son,
how
cruel soever, but that he
may do
all
things,
all
means necessary
to the
I
preservation of his
and
health.
For
my
part therefore
can-
make
complaints,
it
a misery
life,
to be restrained
to receive that
own
idleness
was
forfeited) together
all
manner
of sustenance,
and
all
things necessary to the conservation of health, on this condition only, that he will be ruled.
For he that
is
let
things,
is
privilege free
subjects
and
the
more honourable
offices
also enjoy a
lies
And
herein
the difis
free
also
indeed,
who
is
he
who
an exemption from
city,
father,
called a family.
This family,
of servants
it
if
without casting
DOMINION
the uncertain die of
m
it
war
it
from an
the
it
in-
force,
in
original
and manner
hath
all
the same properties, and the right of authority the same, insomuch as
it
everywhere
is
not needful
to
speak anything of
them
11.
apart.
It
are constituted.
We
must now
briefly tell
they
may
is
be continued.
that
Now
is
the right by
which they
are con-
tinued,
which
Now
it
with the
In like
manner
all
in
and therefore
ex-
die together,
which
no
succession.
The query
For they
who
no
supreme power
But
first,
if
monarch
shall
to succeed
For
if
he be
as
therefore
may he
dom,
every
13.
same
rights as in
an
institutive.
Wherefore,
monarch may by
But what a
his will
make
a successor.
that by the
same
right
transfer
on another by testament,
sell
away.
To whomsoever
therefore
he
make
power, whether by
gift or sale,
rightly
made.
112
14.
DOMINION
But
if
vi^ill
concerning
first,
his successor
by testament nor
otherv^^ise, it is
supposed,
government reduced
to an anarchy
is,
that
had been
his will,
it
for
him
to
we must
It
judge of
is
under-
would have
his subjects to be
under a
condemned
15.
it.
all
men wish
them
from
from
whom
man
men: hence we
be understood therefore,
was that
to be un-
some
is
many
Among
fitter
for
when
it
was
grown
DOMINION
And
or sign do clearly
repugn
it,
is
to
be interpreted in favour of
them.
17.
Now
most
so)
is
if
the brothers
lot.
is
shall be
by
But primogeniture
a natural
lot,
and by
is
power
to judge,
is
whether by
decided.
the matter
to be
Now
if
first-born son,
18.
doth no
less for
But
command
shall
and
sisters, for
if
sisters,
is
and
to
the
same
was
men
succeed to
it
he
And
if
therefore the
nephews
have a
all
say
judged to have
Chapter
What
are,
hath
them tends most to the preservation of the subjects' peace, and procuring their advantages, we must see by comparing them together. But first let us
already been spoken; but which of
set forth the
eral, lest
city in
gen-
man
civil
be
left
to
at
his
society at
Every
gov-
who
by reason of
his
own
own
will,
must
also
himself as
live
well
and
others, as
may
hath
each
make them
every
man
it,
such a right to
Out
of
it,
any
own
forces; in
by the power of
it,
Out
no
man
is
all
men
there
is
dominion of
the
and benevolence.
book and fourteenth chapter of
114
DOMINION
his
Politics,
115
sorts
saith,
that there
are
two
of governments,
where
and
disprofits arising
from gov-
common
befall
some
particular
subjects
through misfortune,
own
luxury,
may
government
itself,
being such as
If
may
same
these
of the
city,
common
to the ruler
common. But
is
the
first
and
and defence,
who
is
comat
manded,
once of
end
may defend
city,
his
life,
makes use
all
And
in the greatest
parties
commanded,
the ruler
levy such a
sum
of vast
moneys from
and
not able to maintain themselves and their families, nor conserve their bodily strength
vigor, the disadvantage
is
as
much
his as theirs,
is
so great a stock or
measure
of riches,
he
raise
no more than
is
is
suf-
due administration of
his
power, that
a benefit
common
peace
is
it
all possibility
Il6
DOMINION
arise
from the
all
ill-institution
or
ernments subjects
of govill
ad-
Now
that
aristocracy,
best
aris-
whole universe
is
and
that
of princes
were held
for
laws;
God
was monarchical;
the artifice of
that other
men *
had
God were
do hold
say, these
more eminent to us, yet because they do it by examples and testimonies, and not by solid reason, we will pass them over.
monarchy
as the
4.
Some
there are
who
ment under
*It seems
one, for
the
is
under
Prometheus pointed at this. They say that Prometheus, having stolen fire from the sun, formed a man out of clay, and that for this deed he was tortured by Jupiter with a perpetual gnawing in his liver, which is, that by human invention (which is signified by Prometheus) laws and justice were by imitation taken from monarchy; by virtue whereof (as by fire removed from its natural orb) the multitude (as the dirt and dregs of men) was as it were quickened and formed into a civil person; which is termed aristocracy or democracy. But the author and abettors being found, who might securely and quietly have lived under the natural jurisdiction of kings, do thus smart for it; that being exposed still to alteration, they are tormented with perpetual cares, suspicions, and dissensions.
ancients
fable
same
of
DOMINION
one; as
so
if It
117
many
all the rest. These men, sure, if they could, would withdraw themselves from under the dominion of one
pleasure to dispose of
God. But
this
is
suggested by envy,
man
in possession of
it
what
all
desire.
For
to be as unreasonable, if a
either were, or
hoped
all
men have
equality
is
we have showed
whom we
longer
to
to,
is
no
be accounted an unreasonable
The
incon-
com-
mand
5.
of one
man, or
many.
their opinion
But
first,
we must remove
which
is
who deny
that to
be any
city at all,
common
is
made
is
out be use
will
by their
all,
own
contracts
as
to
esteemed
the wills of
them
insomuch
he
may
the strength and faculties of each single person for the public
And
by the same
article of the
same chapter,
one person
is
that,
when
the wills of
many
is
are contained in
contained in the
fifth article
of
according to his
all
their forces
and
pleasure. It follows
must needs be a
which
is
constituted
Il8
by a lord and many
to contradict this
DOMINION
servants. Neither can
constituted by a father
For
to a lord
who
hath
no
both his honour and safeguard; neither are servants more subject to their lords,
as
hath been
eighth chapter.
is,
Among
that
the ruler, beside those monies necessary for public charges, as the maintaining of public ministers, building, and defending
of castles,
hold,
his
own
house-
may
he
through his
lust,
whereby
too.
I
favourites,
and
flatterers
confess this
is
number
of those
which
accompany
all
that
how many
new
ones growing), so
children,
flatterers are to
them
illustrious in wealth, as
make their families as potent, may be, but also to oblige others
and
to
for the
because they are not many, without any cost to his subjects,
treasures given
to
a democracy,
ones, this can-
Though
mon-
do
it;
all
it
the popular
is
men
are therefore
supposed to do
because
power
DOMINION
of
119
it
It
would
so increase, as
become dreadful
7.
to those others,
is,
Another grievance
that
same perpetual
fear of death
appoint
that he
what punishments he
lists
may
also in
his
his innocent
subjects,
and those
is
who
And
truly this
form
of
government,
wheresoever
it
is,
happens; for
it
it is
not because
may
be done. But
all
is
government. For
the acts of
Nero
are not
essential to
monarchy;
who
either trouble
control their wills; but they are the cause that that excess of
subject
harmless. Wherefore
some Nero
no men
suffer,
known
to
him, namely,
and such
as are
and not
all
who
are possessed of
what he
desires to enjoy.
offensive,
and contumelious,
Whosoever
therefore in a
monarchy
he
life, let
him be what he
more
out of danger. For the ambitious only suffer; the rest are
protected
from the
injuries of the
potent.
But
in a popular
dominion, there
may
be as
many Neros
who
them can do as much as and they mutually give way to each other's apwere by this secret pact, spare me to-day and I'll
exempt those from punishsatisfy their lust
ment, who, to
120
servedly
slain
DOMINION
their
fellow-subjects.
Furthermore, there
if it
is
which
exceed,
it
may
prove
it
is
necessary
common
weal
When
therefore this
it
power con-
by diminishing
party, without
was taken
practised in democyears'
inflicted a
punishment of ten
who by
this
liberal gifts
were put
to death at
Rome,
as
men
ambitious of a kingdom. In
much
is
done by many,
what
ac-
the
monarch
does,
if
it
said
to
virtues,
which
counted policy.
8. There arc some who therefore imagine monarchy to be more grievous than democracy, because there is less liberty in
that,
than in
this. If
by
is
liberty they
that subjection
which
due
government whatsoever,
is
be few laws,
for-
few prohibitions, and those too such, that except they were
bidden, there could be no peace; then
liberty in
sisteth
I
is
more
as truly con-
with such a
liberty
may
in
large
and ample
letters
is it
DOMINION
but the
city's liberty;
121
word with
better right
be inscribed on a
that
city
which
is
which
is
when
private
men
or
subjects
demand
not for liberty, but dominion, which yet for want of under-
standing they
little
consider.
if
man would
grant the
as
is
same
liberty
to another,
which he
desires
for himself,
state
all
commanded by
which
if
same natural
by right do
as
would
things;
all
men may
would abhor,
kinds of
any
man
is
desire to
demand but
bonds,
is
For whoso
freed
from
lord over
those that
still
jects therefore
have no greater
liberty in a popular,
is
than in a
the
monarchical
participation
state.
equal
of
command and
authority
in
it
is
partake in public
in choosing magistrates
and public
at,
ministers.
And
this is that
which
Aristotle
aimed
dominion
(Politics,
Book
vi,
state there
if
liberty
by supposition;
free out of
which
this
is
no
man were
state.
those
From whence, by the way, we may collect, that subjects who in a monarchy deplore their lost liberty, do
only stomach this, that they are not received to the steerage of
the
9.
commonweal.
But perhaps
is
some
popular state
much
all
men
122
and eloquence,
bred in
ties,
DOMINION
in deliberating matters of the greatest difl&culty
which
is
human
nature,
is
to
them who
and seem
But
is
in a
monarchy,
this
same way
praise
and honour,
is
shut
if
up
this
and what
a grievance,
be none?
his opinion,
whom we
wisdom undervalued
trial
before our
own
faces;
by an uncertain
of a
little
better or the
and advices
But
to all,
of our
own
is
it
family: these,
I say,
are grievances.
from a
trial
eloquent,
say, that
we
will
a grievance to valiant
it.
men
to be restrained
from
many
reasons
why
in
deliberations are
lesser
successful
is,
great
assemblies,
than
councils.
Whereof one
conducing
to the preservation of a
is
to
make
garrisons of; by
what means
manner
the
many
what
con-
power
and wherein
it
what advantage or disadvantage we may receive from them; what their dispositions are both to us-ward, and how
sists;
among
DOMINION
daily passeth
123
very few in a great
assembly of
what can
same number
mere
lets
and impedi-
ments?
11.
is
not so
his
fit
for
consultation
who
delivers
opinion
to gain
it
holds
the
it
necessary to
make
a long-continued speech;
and
his auditors,
Now
the
nature
of
evil, profitable
and unprofitable,
less
is
than indeed
seem
just
which
unjust, accordthis Is
ing as
it
to persuade;
rise
from
which, for the most part, are erroneous; neither endeavour they
so
much
to
fit
speak
of, as to
it
minds
to
whom
is
they speak,
whence
the
all
Nor
this fault in
man, but
whose end
(as
The
third reason
is,
why men
great convent
and
civil
war. For
when
all
studies
means
to
make
124
dicial to the
state;
DOMINION
for thus he hopes to see the glory taken
ovi^n opinion, at
another
call
make
the
rest together;
how
they
may
abrogate the
first
and
earliest
each
man
shall
number
in
of
no
effect to
absent.
And
this
they use to
make
is
commonly
called a faction.
But
when
a faction
inferior in votes,
and
to
comes
But some
do not
necessarily,
He may
in great matters.
when
must needs be
alteration
inconstant,
state
to the
of the
of
now
it
whereas
it
is
oft of great
consequence
that they should be kept secret, they are for the most part dis-
covered to the
enemy
DOMINION
and
their
125
power and
will
is
as soon
known
abroad, as to the
people
15.
itself
commanding
at
home.
deliberato be
of great con-
it
easily
be done
man
should not
mind
his
own
means
whereby and
home
children, rejoice
and triumph
all
behaviour. As of old,
in his warlike actions,
to his mother.
the delight
was
But
if
the
power
of deliberating in matters of
is
to
with the
must be confessed,
are found to be
arise
more
in
or the
administration of
side, to
many, than
the act.
Now
the
power
all
kinds of government
is
monweal,
as they flow
from the
deliberations of
many
or few,
of skilful or impertinent
the conveniences or
not on
him
in
whom
126
DOMINION
that the
for affairs,
who
are
endued
is
ofiEces
and charges.
is
And
that
which
said,
woe
to the land
whose \ing
but
is
it
dom,
many
which
for the
But
is
it
is
archy
even those
which are
command
of
war
to
must
may
subjects).
in the
Monarchy
therefore
is
the best of
govern-
ments
else are
than so
many camps
strengthened
state
mon may
18.
them)
is
nature,
which
is
Lastly, since
to
was necessary
selves
be subject to some
man
or council,
we
cannot on
then comes to
when we are the inheritance of the ruler. For every man his own accord endeavours the preservation of his inheritand monies of the
subjects are not only
DOMINION
the prince's treasure, but their bodies
will be easily granted
127
and wildy minds; which
the
how great rates how much easier it is for men to procure money, than money men. Nor do we readily meet with any example that shows us when any subby those
consider at
who
is
dominion
of lesser countries
valued, and
ject,
despoiled of his
of his authority.
19.
Hitherto
lar state;
We
may
con-
clude of
is
this,
hereditary,
election
of magistrates;
which transmits
able;
deliberations to
imitates the
is
which simply
least of all;
more
Chapter XI
Places and Examples of Scripture of the
Rights of Government
(The
is
omitted.)
Chapter XII
Dissolution
monweals
Hitherto hath been spoken by what causes and pacts comare constituted, and what the rights of princes are over
their subjects.
Now we
somewhat concerning
the causes
which
Now
as in the
the
to
so also in a
commonweal where
our regard;
first,
the doctrines
trary to peace,
and
as-
disposed;
next,
quality
manner how
first
this is
dis-
which
of
that the
knowledge
good
in-
and
evil
man
lives
by equal
right,
command
i.
of others,
we have
also
art.
9.
But we have
rules of
shown
and
were the
good
evil, just
what the
legislator
for good,
and
what he
DOMINION
129
is
who
the
to say,
monarch
monarchy.
We
in chap.
xi. art. 2,
private
men may
evil,
which
his:
appears to them to be
what end
serve those
words of
to
may
discern between
good and
evil?
and
is
evil,
wicked are
a king
who
command
many
other
such
like.
had no being,
becomes
istrate.
some comit
action in
its
own
nature
is
indifferent; that
of the
mag-
make
mand
be even
safety of the
is,
commonweal.
(Gen.
ii.
God's commands
17):
evil;
of the tree of
all
knowledge
of
good and
(Gen.
diabolical temptations,
evil;
iii.
5):
first
and God's
expostulation with
man,
Who
whereof
As
he had
it
said,
seemed good to
me
evil?
is
Whatsoever any
man
a sin;
for he
who
is
doth
so,
That
my
sin indeed,
which committing
do believe to be
130
DOMINION
sin;
my
but what
believe to be another
man's
sin,
may
if
if I
be com-
manded
I
to
do that which
is
a sin in
do
it,
me
I sin
not.
wage war
at the
commandment
I
it,
my
prince,
do not therearrogating to
do
if I
refuse to
is
do
just
and
unjust,
which
per-
my
prince.
this distinction,
is
comthey
either
sin
they declare that they fear not the pains of the world to come;
if
much
as in
them
lies,
abolish
human
society
and the
civil life
who
when
they
is
commands which
it
them seem
those
unjust,
among
which are
we
are
comes
3.
sin
unto
us.
The
root,
that tyrannicide
by many divines,
Plato,
and
of old
it
was by
the philosophers,
rest of the
Aristode,
and the
maintainers of the
Greek and Roman anarchies, held not only lawful, but even
worthy of the greatest
they
praise.
And under
all
mean
those
who
rule in
at
Pisistratus only
who
DOMINION
together,
131
he,
were
all
called tyrants.
But
whom men
either
require
commands
is
by right
or without right;
if
without right, he
must not be
a tyrant, but an
tion takes place:
enemy;
if
by
right,
Who hath
tree
was
a tyrant?
Hast
whereof
dost
why
God how
hath
made
knowledge
is
good and
evil?
But
to all
to that
which
it
is
monarchical,
we may
that by
stands exposed to be
condemned by
murderous
4.
hand
of every
villain.
The
civil
society,
is
theirs
civil
who
laws.
who
from
sufficiently this
argument: that a
can neither
because no
be bound to
itself,
man
because the single wills of the subjects are contained in the will
of the city,
insomuch
that
if
from
all
such
is
a city, that
must be supposed
to be true in a
man, or an assembly
for they
of
supreme authority;
make
a city,
Now
that this
government,
is
evident from
evil,
hence, that by
is
it
the
knowledge of what
good and
is
that
what
is,
and what
laws,
would return
Obedience therefore
commanded
contrary
132
to the civil laws,
DOMINION
and together with
it,
all
coercive jurisdiction,
of the very
supreme power
only.
laws
nature of government,
who
making
of laws, (all
which
Now
although particular
to
subjects
in
judgment, and go
law
the
when
would
do. As,
the
judges
sit
upon the
life
not whether
him
of his
deprived of
law;
ject
is
But
he should,
if
he brake the
was, he should not. This therefore, that a subaction of law against his
may have an
supreme magistrate,
is
is
tied
to his
tied
is
is
evident, that he
not
bound
to himself.
Laws
How-
to unskilful
men seem
fifth
In the
is
divided,
verse
most
it
opinion to
commonweals. But
it
di-
men
divide
diverse ways.
civil
so as to
power
life,
in matters pertaining
and the
benefits of this
on
others.
Now,
be-
DOMINION
cause justice
is
133
it
of
all
men
or strangers,
due
to their princes,
vi^hich they
most feared.
than that
Now
to
any
state,
men
should,
apprehension of everlasting
is
to say,
who
of
divide
power
war and
(whom
money
who
at
all,
thus
it
but
is,
but give
it,
the
name
to another, or
if
they
necessity can
war
common
acquired by study, and natural reason, but are always supernaturally infused,
I
if it
true,
why we should be commanded to give an account of our faith; or why any man, who is truly a Christian, should not be a prophet; or lastly, why every man should not judge what is fit for him to do, what to avoid, rather out of his own inspiration, than by the precepts of his superiors or right reason. A return therefore must be made to the private knowlunderstand not
edge of good and
ruin of
all
evil;
so
of apostates
it
almost become
infinite.
And
who
134
DOMINION
made
men seemed
be a divine
most divine;
speech,
7.
for
to
must
necessarily
seem
to be inspired
from above.
is this,
The
that
is
to say,
all
same
Which
is
not true;
who
all
Now
the magistrate
lord of
society
any proper
therefore,
istrate?
were
common
it,
to all
men. Tell
me
how
gottest
thou
this propriety
How
man
trans-
on him?
he
And
and
up thy
just so
right to him.
Thy dominion
will,
and
propriety,
is
much
as
shall last so
long as he pleases;
men who
we
are
my
his
from
them,
who
re-
show us the present necessity, and they shall willingly receive it. They who talk thus know not, that what they would have, is already done from the beginning, in the very constituquire
it,
tion of government,
as in a dissolute
DOMINION
8.
135
civil
In the
last place,
it
is
a great hindrance to
govern-
man
distinguish not
is
enough
be
somew^hat that
and
to
whom
one action
may
at-
tributed;
said of a multitude.
The
people rules in
the people
commands;
man; but the multitude are citizens, that is a democracy and aristocracy, the citizens
but the court
is
the people.
And
it
the multitude,
people.
and (however
seem
is
the
The common
sort of
litde con-
men
up the
is
And
of
the
do
easily
tumult.
is
And
forasmuch
as in all
manner
government majesty
to
who have
afSicts
There
nothing more
the
mind
of
man
than
for
poverty, or the
want
of those things
the preservation of
life
and honour.
And though
lay the
there be
no
man
evil
but knows, that riches are gotten with industry, and kept
all
by frugality, yet
the poor
commonly
blame on the
as
if
own
sloth
and luxury,
their private
But
men must
who
live,
may
may
who
time built
136
DOMINION
work with one hand, and held government we must conceive
sword
is
all
the
no
less to
subjects' care
man
pro-
and
that customs
and
tributes
the labours
and endeavours of
single
who watch in arms for us, that men may not be molested and that their complaint, who
is
impute
if
not more
just,
than
of
want by paying
their debts.
men
things.
For they
makes men
stifled
Now
it is
a thing manifest of
itself,
that
who seem
to themselves to be
load of the
commonweal,
and that
who
is
theirs,
having
who men
they
chiefly
who
these tion
For
men are invited by their vacancy, sometimes to disputaamong themselves concerning the commonweal, somepolitics, orations,
poems,
it
Now
and
because
if
men
are not
all
to themselves,
they
were, yet
to public offices,
many must
be passed by.
DOMINION
137
These therefore conceiving themselves affronted, can desire nothing more, partly out of envy to those who v/ere preferred
before them, partly out of hope to
success to the public consultations.
if
ill-
And
no marvel
The hope
of
overcoming
is
also to be
numbered among
let
there be as
many men
as
you
will, infected
let
civil
government;
there be as
many
much
wounded and
of them, or
it
them who
there be
no hope
of
appear not
no
sedition fol-
low; every
man
trust,
and commanders. To
is
re-
not sedition,
mean
all
manner
of
neither,
without mutual
nor
all
these,
whom
of their
own
engaged by
command
(for
good
in their
own
If these
men
state,
and
measuring the
by their
own
judgments,
stir
whom
this:
there never
that he
was
had
138
great eloquence,
DOMINION
and
little
wisdom.
an
He
separates
wisdom from
born for
of peace
is
man
as
instructress
and
Now
eloquence
is
twofold.
The one
an elegant
riseth
and
mind, and
partly
from an understanding
words taken in
other
is
own
proper
and
definite signification.
The
sions of the
mind (such
a speech
and
derives
words
That forms
that
from true
principles; this
from opinions
of.
already received,
is
The
art of
is
truth, of this
in
victory.
Each hath
its
is
ex-
things, that
is
to say,
from
wisdom,
them who
easily
solicit
and
stir
up
may
work
itself
to do.
they held
he that knows not whence the laws derive their power, which
are the rules of just
evil;
de-
stroys
what
is
his,
what he would
is
may do
madmen;
make
things to
them who
are ill-affected
evil;
seem worse,
this they
them who
are well-affected
seem
beyond reason:
DOMINION
sort of eloquence,
139
from
that other,
which by moving
minds, makes
all
things
before,
minds prepared
affected
to
civil society,
to the
disposing of
minds
to
sedition,
whilst
they
teach
and
all
Now
they
who
whole en-
deavour in
this:
first,
that they
may
may
into
inter-
faction.
while they
make
themselves
and actions
places,
to
of single
nate the
persons
and
assemble and
may
be reformed,
shall
seem
Now
to the
must be kept
in a faction, that
to say, they
must have
may
whom, and on what subject, and in what shall speak, and how they may draw the powerfullest and most popular men of the faction to their side. And thus when they have gotten a faction big enough, in which they may rule by their eloquence, they move it to
meeting, and by
order each of
them
take
upon
it
the
managing
of affairs,
no other
it,
and introduce a
civil
manner
(as the
140
Thessaly,
DOMINION
conspired
father.
They
by
in
man
him
into pieces,
and
set
him
when he would
live again.
drawn away by
were
consume
Chapter XIII
Concerning the Duties of
I.
By what hath
subjects in
hitherto been
the
duties
of
citizenis
and
power
of the
subjects.
We
must
when he
who
some-
times
it
also,
it
fitter,
being
to
in
the
choice
and
counsellors,
exercise
their
power by them.
ordinary
Now
where
commonweal
is
like
the
government of the
all
world, in which
things,
produceth
means
of secondary causes.
is
But where
whom
all
ent in
judicatures, consultations,
is
and public
the administration
such, as
if
We
will
therefore
in
this
chapter
summarily and
own
or other's
right.
my
142
from
others,
DOMINION
some
princes
may
is
to
be
left
to
commonweal.
this
Now
all
one
sentence,
the
although they
to say, to
men, because
it
to be chief,
all
and
dictories; yet is
their
duty in
things, as
much
as possibly
is
the
was sought
the people,
after
for
who
the safety
is
of
will
act
Now
law by which
princes
know
is
their duty,
so doth
it
also teach
them an
art
how
to
citizens
power
is
By
we
civil
was not
own, but
sake;
and yet a
particular care
no otherwise
most
part,
ill,
and made
it
as lasting as
may
be;
man
suffer
but by his
own
default,
it
or by
sometimes conduces to
most
part, that
wicked
men do
suffer.
But by
safety
sole preserva-
DOMINION
tion of
ness.
life in
143
its
what condition
end did
happi-
For
to this
men
and
their
institute
much
as
human condition v^^ould aflord, live delightfully. They therefore who had undertaken the administration of power in such
a kind of government, would sin against the law of nature (because against their trust
unto them),
if
abundandy, not
but also with
life,
which advance
to delectation.
all
dominion by arms, do
Wherefore
may
be
may
serve
them
the better.
may live, but also with may grow strong and lusty, they would own scope and end.
princes do believe that
it
And
first
of
all,
mainly concerns
eternal salvation,
what opinions
is
and what
manner
of worship he
it
to
be adored with.
Which being
and whosupreme
supposed,
may
rulers,
who
exercise
if
law of nature,
such a doctrine and worship to be taught and practised (or permit a contrary to be taught and practised) as they believe
necessarily conduceth to the eternal salvation of their subjects.
It
is
they will, as
much
if
as in
them
lies,
it
them
to be in a
damnable
state.
But we
difficulty in
suspense.
144
6.
DOMINION
The
benefits of subjects respecting this Ufe only,
i.
may be
3.
foreign enemies.
2.
home.
That
com-
they be enriched as
4.
much
as
may
to
consist with
pubHc
security.
a harmless Hberty.
their
For
civil
supreme
wars, they
happiness, than
civil
may
their
own
7.
industry.
to be
warned and
Neither
to be forearmed.
For the
is
commonis
natural, that
fighting,
is
it
to
say,
therefore
which one
enemy observing
and counsels of
values his security not according to the pacts, but the forces
his adversary.
11.
And
art. 11,
this
by natural
right, as
from
are invalid in the state of nature, as oft as any just fear doth
intervene. It
first,
is
that there be
as near as
may
all
be, search
into
those
who
may
the
For discoverers
to the
human
to say,
therefore are
they no
man. Or
if
they
sides
all
by the
finest threads,
in their small
holes, of all
who
DOMINION
more know what
is
145
necessary to be
commanded
when
8.
Furthermore,
it
is
necessarily
requisite
to be
to
the
people's
is
Now
forearmed
to
arms, ships,
forts,
and monies,
taking
if
up
of
arms
after a
blow
is
given,
is
first felt
But they
who
when the danger begins to show itself, they consider not surely how difficult a matter it is to wring suddenly out of close-fisted men so vast a proportion of monies. For almost all men, what they once reckon in the number of their goods,
do judge themselves
to
it,
it
Now
and customs.
We
must
we
and
to
bound
to use their
subjects,
it
whole
follows,
spies, to
main-
146
DOMINION
and
to
purposes, but
also
also,
not to do thus,
unlawful.
To which
suspect,
to
may
lessening
the
power
of
foreigners
whom
they
whether by
their
slight or force.
For
rulers are
bound according
power
they
9.
may happen through their negligence. But many things are required to the inward peace, because many things concur
showed
conservation
(as
of
hath been
Wc
have
some things
those
there are
minds
of
men
to sedition, others
them
so disposed.
Among
reckoned in the
first
who
commanding, but by
are
not to be
The laws whereby this evil may be withstood made against the persons erring, but against
Those
the
errors themselves.
ter,
we
minds
of ignorant
men,
partly
pulpit, partly
litde
from the
daily discourses of
men, who,
leisure
enough
any
man would
civil
young
men
may afterward, both in private and public, instruct the vulgar. And this they will do so much the more cheerfully and powerfully, by how much themselves
being once endued, they
shall
DOMINION
they profess and teach. For seeing at this day
propositions,
14^
men
receive
man
though false, and no more inteUigible than if a should join together a company of terms drawn by chance
they for the same reason entertain true
own
therefore conceive
to be the duty of
civil
supreme
doctrine to be writ-
ten,
and
to
command them
we showed
that grief of
mind
arising
subjects to sedition,
which want,
own
impute
it
to those
who
namely,
this
complaint
may
be
just,
together
it
is
but a
many withdraw
themselves,
rest:
itself,
will
be very
neither are
men wont
from
com-
as at the inequality.
earnestness therefore
men
strive to be freed
and
brought
is
nothing
else
bought peace,
it
is
commonweal.
that every to
Now
man
it is
the
art. 15,
chap,
iii),
148
all.
DOMINION
Wherefore
rulers are
commonweal
Now
in this place
we
benefits.
For although
all
equally
enjoy peace, yet the benefits springing from thence are not
equal to
again,
all;
for
and
some consume
others more. It
may
therefore be
to the public,
demanded whether
that
is
subjects
ought to contribute
as to
pay
man
if
we
consider,
according to wealth,
there they
another wastes
commonweal: and on
commonweal, according
not what
duty of
and the
exercise
of their authority.
12.
we
mind
For
which
others,
there are
to themselves to
be wiser than
of affairs than
and more
the
managing
who at present do govern, when they can no otherwise declare how profitable their virtue would prove to the commonthey
DOMINION
weal, they
149
show
it,
by harming
it.
men,
stant
it is
it;
application
it,
order
that
way
to
honour
is,
not
men
who
If
who
than
command,
there
to obey,
withstand.
as
Notwithstanding,
so
we must
much
fierce-
must be
when
is
when
say)
the
commander
to cherish
is
in danger of falling.
entire.
all
it.
But
if it
much more
jects
does
factions themselves.
Now
call a faction, a
multitude of sub-
gathered
together,
either
by
themselves, or by the
authority
as
it
power
of
who
faction, therefore,
were a
by an union of
being, so by a
state of
According to
this
a multitude of subjects
who
made any
pacts
mutual defence between themselves against all men, not excepting those who have the supreme power in the
150
city, is a faction.
DOMINION
Also favour with the vulgar,
if it
be so great,
that by
it
an army
may
some other
exceed,
it
because
Forasmuch
therefore as
is
is
among
themselves
natural and
those princes
who
permit factions, do as
their walls,
much
is
as
if
they received an
enemy within
which
contrary
and therefore
law of
nature.
14.
subjects, labour
and
thrift;
there
is
also a third
which
helps,
The two
first
no greater than
may grow
rich
no doubt,
if
may
a greater
militia,
was
of
number
under the
was by mankind,
nothing
but
is
else
war waged with small forces. And namely, that of Rome and Athens, by the
a
tribute,
great
commonweals,
war, foreign
spoils of
and the
territories they
have sometimes so improved the commonwealth, that they have not only not required any public monies from the poorer
sort of subjects, but
to
not
order
DOMINION
to profit,
is
151
lose their estates,
like a die
wherewith many
but
which
com-
manders
For the
arts that
are husbandry
idleness,
and
fishing.
as
all
laws against
art
and such
comprehend
all
the
sciences,
the
whereby
all
and universally
is
which are
forbidden.
Now
specified,
belongs also to
The
liberty
of subjects
consists
who
a
mind
to.
But be-
is
he
lists
man
said to enjoy
and in
to be understood in this
is
granted
and
left to subjects
by the
civil
laws.
As water
inclosed
on
all
still
more passages
it
finds, the
more
152
freely
it
DOMINION
takes
its
current; so subjects,
if
without the commands of the law would grow dull and unwieldy,
if all,
they
would be
dispersed,
is
left
Both
extremes are faulty; for laws were not invented to take away,
The measure
and the
city's
to be taken
first
from the
place,
it
subjects'
is
the authority of
making
are
laws,
good
men
wont
commonly
are
to debate
natural
easily
prohibits not of
least evil
intention,
fall
commanders
are
bound
16.
civil
which
is
harmless to
live
hap-
may
no punishments
at all defined
Where
supposed boundless,
because
ture
it
relates to
an unbounded
evil.
Now
chap.
iii.
art.
much
evil as the
future good;
DOMINION
and they
sin, if
153
ment
set
is
defined, either by a
in plain words, that
law prescribed,
he that
shall
as
when
it
is
down
do thus or thus,
shall suffer so
and
so; or
delin-
is
end of punishment
fashion
set
it,
and
to
make
it
who
hath
the penalty.
it
And
are
deliberation
nothing
else
but a weigh-
ing, as
were in
scales,
of the
fact
we
attempting;
is
more
inclination prevail
with
make our
is
fear
than our
whereby
that
is
sin
is
committed,
and therefore
hath
if
he
inflict
greater
punishment,
than
himself
determined
in
his
man may
rights
in vain to
if
have our
own
by
wrong judgment,
founded. But
it
may
be again con-
out
so,
that
these
do happen where
men
are deterred
from doing
alties
evil, ariseth
are
set,
we
esteem
the future by
what
is
past,
154
happens.
DOMINION
If therefore judges,
itself,
corrupted either by
gifts,
favour,
of the
or even by pity
penalties
in
men
abroad with-
itself
is
dissolved,
own
will
The law
of nature
supreme
commanders,
pointed, to
do righteousness themselves,
to say, that they hearken to
but that they also by penalties cause the judges, by them ap-
is
make
choice of
Chapter XIV
Of Laws and
I.
Trespasses
They who
less
do
sometimes confound law with counsel, sometimes with covenant, sometimes with right.
counsel,
who
think that
it is
to their counsellors,
it
were
were
also followed.
We
must
difis
ference
Now
it,
counsel
is
my
obeying
taken from
is
which
is
advised; but
command
a precept,
my
is
the
commander. For
I
it
will
and
thus
command,
is
Now when
itself,
obedience
but
law
is
is
command, and
is
the
command
God
of that in
it
person (whether
man
in regard of
men,
and univercannot
resist,
who
may be termed their laws. Law and counsel therefore differ many ways. Law belongs to him who hath power over them whom he adviseth; counsel to them who have no power. To
follow what
is
is
prescribed by law,
is
is
duty;
what by
receives
counsel,
it;
free-will.
Counsel
it.
directed to his
is
end that
law,
Counsel
155
156
law even
counsellor
counsel;
to
is
DOMINION
the
unwilling.
To
conclude,
the
to
right
of
the
made
him
whom
he gives
pleasure of
2,
laws to be nothing
6^0X0 yrijiaTa,
this
or forms
common
consent of men.
Among
whom
EOTi
is
Aristotle,
who
defines
law on
manner; No^oq
law
Koivfjv iroXECoq,
is
to say,
is
common
to do;
consent of the
city, deis
we ought
civil
which
it is
definition
not
law. For
divine laws sprang not from the consent of men, nor yet the
if
no
right defini-
For in that
place, a city
is
one
civil
men,
who
for one
are
ill-placed
common
he to have
said, declaring
commanding;
jects.
for
what the
commands
sub-
He
men,
declaring by
common
consent (imagine
living.
it
a writing confirmed
man
sufficient
remedy
who
Laws
nothing
DOMINION
length,
15^
when
there
is
one
either
who
supreme power,
will
shall
become laws
no laws
at
his
Wherefore he confounds contracts with laws, which he ought not to have done; for contract is a
pleasure.
and
promise, law a
command. In
contracts
we
the
say, I will
tie
do
this;
us
fast,
being
contract obligeth of
itself;
is
first
determined what
it;
is
to
be done, before
first
we
are obliged to do
is
but in law,
we
are
to be
done
is
determined
law thus: a
city,
civil
law
is
commanding everything behoveful to be done, which is the same with that we have given above, in chap. vi. art. 9, to wit, that the civil laws are the command of him (whether man or court of men) who is endued with supreme power in
the
3.
city,
who
is
continue
still
to
do what
it
be
forbidden by the
law.
That which
prohibited by the
neither can that
civil,
which
civil.
is
commanded by
is
right, that
why
may
not be forbidden by
may
*To be obliged, and to be tied being obliged, seems to some men to be one and the same thing, and that therefore here seems to be some distinction in words, but none indeed. More clearly therefore, I say thus, that a man is obliged by his contracts, that is, that he ought to perform
for his promise sake; but that the
say, it
law
ties
him being
obliged, that
is
to
make good
punishment
158
DOMINION
Now
absolute. This
first
is
bounded by the
There
is
law; and
For law
traries.
4.
a fetter, right
All law
may be
divided,
first
of
its
human. The
and
to the
will
unto men,
is
positive.
Natural
eternal
this
that
men by
his
reason;
and
that law,
which
is
in this
that,
whole book
have endeavoured to
to us
unfold. Positive
by the
as
word
unto
men
man. Such are the laws which he gave to the Jews concerning their government and divine worship; and they may be
termed the divine
the natural law
civil
laws, because
may
title
cities,
which may be
the
right
of
termed But
nations.
The
precepts
of
both
are
alike.
because
ties
cities
of
men,
the
single
men we
is
call natural,
and
nations,
called
right
nations.
And
and
the
same elements of
natural law and right, which have hitherto been spoken of,
cities
nations,
may
be taken
and right of
nations.
DOMINION
5.
159
state of
All
human law
society,
is
is
civil.
For the
men
considered
out of
civil
hostile,
of natural reason,
which
is
gov-
ernment the
city
only, that
to
say, that
is
man
or court to
is
whom
may
to
the supreme
power
of the city
city
committed,
the
legislator,
are
civil.
The
civil
laws
and worship of
God
to
(to wit,
what
civil
sacred
human
concerning things
sacred;
under a general
Again, the
civil
law (according
is
to
the
two
offices
of
men
it
to acquiesce to his
one
By
the distributive
is
that every
man
to say,
it
sets
is
all
properly ours,
may
not
hinder us from the free use and enjoyment of our own; and
we may
and what
man
to
is
that
whereby
is
defined
what
punishment
7.
shall
be inflicted on them
who
and vindicative are not two several species of the laws, but two parts of the same law. For if the law should say no more, but (for example) whatsoever you
distributive
Now
l60
DOMINION
it
yours,
it
is
in vain.
For
although another should take that away from you which you
have caught,
it
it
still
remains yours.
For in the
all,
state
where
all
things are
common
to
all
one, insomuch as
defines to be yours,
it
be
understood to be so yours, as
interrupt your free use
other
men
be forbidden to
it
at all times,
according to your
own
and
pleasure.
For
this
is
that
which
is
man
is
may
do they
also prohibit
any men,
who do
not withal
is
strike a fear of
juries to be done,
and that which punisheth the doers of them. them which is called distributive, is prohibitory, and speaks to all; the second which is styled vindicative or
The
first
of
penary,
8.
is
From hence
we may
is
civil
either
explicitly
or
im-
who
ment
understood
to be arbitrary, namely, to
lator, that is to say, of the
is
depend on the
that law
9.
Now
man
it
civil
every
another's,
rights,
and
he
is
Thou
DOMINION
give the honour defined by the laws unto thy parents:
shalt not kill the
l6l
man whom
kill:
Thou Thou
shall
by the laws:
Thou
Thou
things,
The
2)
natural laws
command
the
same
but imphcitly; for the law of nature (as hath been said in
chap.
fore
III.
art.
commands
also
to
we have
covenanted
when
his
it
is
determined by the
civil
to another.
But
all
do covenant to obey
is
com-
where
men) nothing did properly belong to another, and therefore it was not possible to invade another's right; next, where all things were common, and therefore all carnal
things to
all
was the
all
state of
war, and
where
by the
the
keep
all
we know what
law whatsoever,
things.
commanded Whence
we
follows, that
no
civil
whom
l62
cities
DOMINION
themselves have no right of their ow^n, and cannot be
said to
make
lav^^s),
command
when
the
Lacedemonians of
to
take
away
commanded
own who
thefts.
took them;
In like manner,
lawful
11.
marriages.
It is
what man
or court hath
making
laws;
what
the law
or
itself says.
is
whom
is
what he
and by
consequence
all. I
in such a condition, as
it is
either
be once known.
the right he
itself,
that
makes him no
bered
12.
it,
obey, since he
had he had a
will to obey.
The knowledge
ferred
own
when from
the begin-
or
when by promise
they
submit themselves
at least, as
when
they
make
use of the benefit of the realm and laws for their proothers.
tection
DOMINION
our good, his dominion
that very request.
163
to
we acknowledge
be legitimate by
And
power
of
making laws, can never be a sufficient excuse; for every man knows what he hath done himself, 13. The knowledge of the laws depends on the legislator,
who must
law
is
the
command
of the law-maker,
it
and
his
command
is
is
is
of the
done by
promulgation.
Now
promulgation
that
he or they
who
publish a law,
make
do
the
who
have
first,
it;
other
itself.
published
proceed from
namely,
the
supreme
command, cannot be manifest (speaking exactly and philosophically) to any, but them who have received them from the mouth of the commander. The rest believe; but the reasons of their belief are so many, that
it
is
And
truly
in
may
be present
at the
making
he
will,
he that
shall be absent,
must
were present.
is
But
to
in
monarchies and
to be present,
aristocracies, because
granted but
of
few
and openly
it
to hear the
to
commands
the
monarch or the
nobles,
was necessary
to
bestow a power
the rest.
And
thus
we
and decrees of
either
to
princes,
which
are
propounded
to
us for such,
office
it
by the writings or
voices of
them whose
is
when we have
prince
or
secretaries,
we have
like
seen the
and
seals,
and the
arguments for
164
DOMINION
from them; that they have been punished who not giving
credit to such like promulgations have transgressed the law;
not only he
who
provided
from
his
it
is
not to be imagined
his
to
that he
power by any of
govern.
Now
it,
the
to
when
is
whom
nothing
else
particular cases.
this office
we know who
to publish laws.
its
Again the
is
civil
law, according to
sorts,
of publishing,
ten,
I
of
two
understand that
manner By writwhich wants a voice, or some other legislator, that it may become a law.
two-fold
For
in
all
more
antiquity
than
the invention of
and the
is
art
of writing.
Wherefore
remembrance of a
law. For
we
The unwritten
is
that
be
dis-
civil,
forasmuch
as
it
commands
the will,
DOMINION
yet so far forth as
it
165
it
relates
to
our actions,
is
civil.
For
example, this same, thou shalt not covet, w^hich only appertains to the
mind,
is
is
a natural
this,
thou shalt
it
not invade,
For seeing
is
im-
all
future
it
contentions,
is
infinite,
may
is
be determined,
to
be understood that in
all
cases
equity
be followed,
which commands us
by the virtue of the
and
this
willingly
do
it
appears
first,
that
authority; nor
into custom;
to be
received
its
among own
suf-
he hath
into
Sin, in
its
largest signification,
means
to the
to say, begin-
ning from most evident principles he makes a discourse out of consequences continually necessary), he will proceed in a
most
direct
astray, that
is
to say,
or endeavour
somewhat
against his
l66
proper end, which
DOMINION
when he hath
done, he will
indeed in
standing.
And
this is the
is
under which
contained
imprudent
action,
whether
against the law, as to overthrow another man's house, or not against the law, as to build his
17.
own upon
signifies
the sand.
sin
is
taken
in
more
strict
sense,
and
not every
is
thing done
which
blameable, and
called
malum
it
But yet
if
anything be culpable,
or fault, but only
therefore enquire
if
it
We
must
what
is
to be
the nature of
man,
good which he
desires,
and
evil
which he eschews.
it
And
happens that
evil;
and the
for good,
he immediately
calls
on
as evil:
good
in himself,
evil
he terms
For we
all
measure
good and
we
or expect hereafter.
Now
strife
of honours
which
is
among them), both seem and to all; and men use to repute
some
fault to their charge
are irksome,
and therefore
evil
those
from
whom
please
they receive
evil; it is
men
what
in-
whom
the
and
displease,
actions are,
adultery,
and the
men
account
DOMINION
those things evil to
167
v^^hich are
we demand
theft,
not whether
what
is
to be
termed
and so concernnot to
by reason blameable,
is
man more
human
nature,
the
city,
is
it
is
to
is
reason
that
which a man
the
city, that
is,
18.
But a
man may
human
rightly blamed,
and
called a sin.
oft as
who
them, no
them
minds
from
their violation.
Not only
of these
men
They who
sin;
sin only
through
infirmity, are
when
they do not
repugnances
irregularity
For the
mind
is
the infirmity
is
no
sin
which
is
is
command of man hath a supreme power which is not bestowed on him by our own consent; in what manner will he be said to sin, who either denies
no law which
not the
that
and
no
that there
is
l68
Other reproach
DOMINION
upon him? For he
will say, that
he never subso
him
much
as
have any being, and granting that his opinion were errone-
ous,
and therefore
were
it
to be
numbered among
though
is it
this
to be referred to sins of
it
should
God
punished by
one enemy
is
to
*Many
by some it is taken so, as if I had not declared myself an enemy bitter enough against atheists. They object further, that since I had elsewhere said that it might be known there is a God by natural reason, I ought to have acknowledged that they sin at least against the law of nature, and therefore are not only guilty of imprudence, but injustice too. But I am so much an enemy to atheists, that I have both diligently sought for, and vehemently desired to find some law whereby I might condemn them of injustice. But when I found none, I inquired next what name God himself did give to men so detested by him. Now God speaks thus of the atheist: The fool hath said in his heart, there is no God. Wherefore I placed their sin in that rank which God himself refers to. Next I show them to be enemies of God. But I conceive the name of an enemy to be sometimes somewhat sharper, than that of an unjust man. Lastly, I affirm that they may under that notion be justly punished both by God, and supreme magistrates, and therefore by no means excuse or extenuate this sin. Now that I have said that it might be known by natural reason that there is a God, is so to be understood, not as if I had meant that all men might know this, except they think that because Archimedes by natural reason found out what proportion the circle hath to the square, it follows thence, that every one of the vulgar could have found out as much. I say therefore, that although it may be known to some by the light of reason that there is a God; yet men that are continually engaged in pleasures or seeking of riches and honour, also men that are not wont to reason aright, or cannot do it, or care not to do it, lastly, fools, in which number are atheists, cannot know this.
to injustice; yea
DOMINION
say,
169
warring against God. For
lord, or
as the giants
to
some common
one
among
themselves.
each subject
13) to
the
city,
that
is
be one
man
all
or council, there
an obligation derived
serve each one of the civil laws, so that that covenant contains in itself
shall
it is
who
once
renounce
the laws.
sin,
by
worse than
worse than
And
called treason;
and
word
or deed
whereby the
that
that he will
no longer obey
man
or court to
whom
the su-
city is entrusted.
And
same
will
of his by deed,
when he
who
cides,
execute his
commands. Of which
as
regi-
and such
fly
take
up arms
a war
And
they
show
the
same
as
will in
word,
to
who
he
who
him (keeping
the obedience
versally;
or in part, as he
right to
had no
diers, levy
aught
else
state
cannot stand.
And
these
and
the like words and deeds are treason by the natural, not the
civil
law. But
it
may
so happen, that
some
170
the
if it
it
DOMINION
civil
will
become such,
be done afterwards. As
shall
is
(that
any
man
shall coin
monies, or
be no
only.
not
so,
per-
sin itself
more
grievous.
is
But that
sin
treason,
is
are valid,
is
before
all
civil
is
it fol-
is
ceded the
civil
violate covenants
and betrothed
faith.
But
if
some sovereign
prince should set forth a law on this manner, thou shalt not
rebel,
he would
effect just
law
of
no
force.
Now
it
what we
all
superfluous.
that
rebels,
traitors,
Hence
is
follows,
and
others
civil,
but natural
enemies to the
acts
which are
undergo
determined by
are expiated,
if
God
of
DOMINION
breaking the natural law (although by breaking the
civil
171
laws,
we
command
us to
keep the
re-
civil)
who
quired; as
fact
punishment were
whereby
a license
might
man might
peril.
bought by
the law
own
But we must
know
that the
words of
as conart.
may be understood
one
(as hath
7),
thou
shall
not do
and revenging,
as,
he that doth
this, shall
be punished;
not do this thing, unless thou wilt suffer punishment; and thus
the law forbids not simply, but conditionally.
stood in the
first
If
it
be under-
sense,
he that doth
if
it
sins,
because he doth
what
first
sense, all
bidden
to
do
it;
of the law obligeth not the guilty, but the magistrate to require
ment
is
obliged to exact
payment whereof,
if
it
be
is
to be taken,
who
it
When
there
meaning
not,
it
we
it,
who do
will be sin
we do
man
doubts whether
it,
it
to forbear
iii.
is
a con-
art.
28, a sin
172
DOMINION
is
that
same
dis-
and
human
is
decrees,
which
the law of
God; or
as
not,
who
sin at their
own
peril.
Part
III:
RELIGION
Chapter
XV
God by Nature
Of the Kingdom
I.
of
We
such as
is
theirs,
who
an anarchy or
thS
state,
hostile state;
no
civil
government without a
this sovereign
command
which
re-
pugn not
and that
the
commandments
of
God. There
is
this
all
one thing
civil
duty,
know which are the laws and commandments of God. For else we cannot tell whether that which the civil power commands us, be against the laws of God, or not; whence it must necessarily happen, that either by too much obedience to the civil authority, we become stubborn against the divine Majesty; or for fear of sinning against God, we run into disobedience against the civil power. To avoid both these rocks, it is necessary to know the divine laws. Now because the knowlto
we must
in
the king-
dom
2.
of
God.
is
The Lord
xcix. i):
may be
And
(Psalm
The Lord
is
men
175
will or not,
God
is
the king
176
over
all
RELIGION
the earth, nor
vi'ho
is
if
there
be any
his providence.
Now
although
God govern
men
so
said to reign,
who
rules not
to say,
by precepts
kingdom
of
of
God, although
the
they be subordinate to the divine power; because they understand not the
atheists,
commands and
is
threats
God; nor
is
yet
those
who
any of
his
in
awe
of his threats.
Those
who
all
things,
and that he
subjects, but
commands The
to
rest
we must
not
call
enemies of God.
3.
who
who
much
indeed
their
may
be taken away.
Men
word
make
universally
known any
by the
tacit
dictates
is
sup-
to the rest, as
worthy of
belief,
Now
he whose voice
God
thus
RELIGION
177
is
makes use
called a prophet.
These three manners may be termed the threefold word of God, to wit, the rational word, the sensible word, and the word of prophecy. To which answer the three manners whereby
we
sense,
and
faith.
God
spoken to
to
men
diverse diversely;
kingdom
been published on
4.
this
people.
is
And
between the
rational
fold
word and the word of prophecy, we attribute a twokingdom unto God: natural, in which he reigns by the
and which
is
universal over
all
who
rational na-
which
is
common
word
to all;
and
prophetical, in
which he
of prophecy,
which
is
peculiar, because
all
men, but
to his peculiar
and some
certain
men
elected
by him.
a right to rule,
God
in his natural
kingdom hath
is
and
to
who
irresistible
How
we have
already
showed
in chap, vi.
And
same right
is
not by nature
when by
nature
all
men had
man had
nature
itself.
fear,
art.
3;
must forego
the
equality
mankind, because
accompanied with
men among
themselves,
necessarily
according to their
was
Now
if
178
any
RELIGION
man had
all
of
have
resisted
why he
of
dominion over all the would have remained with him, by reason of that excess power whereby he could have preserved both himself and
resisted,
and by
consequence
God
itself.
And
as oft as
God
punisheth or slays a
yet
may we
him although he had not sinned. Neither, if the will of God in punishing may perhaps have regard to some sin antekilled
cedent, doth
killing
6.
it
and
of the
ancients,
evil,
is
why
the
same with
this of ours,
by what right
God
dis-
And
with
its diflSculty,
not only staggers the faith of the vulgar concerning the diis
more,
to
Ixxiii.
i,
2, 3:
Truly
God
is
good
feet
my
steps
slipped.
my And
why?
was grieved
at the
in such prosperity.
And how
with
just,
he should yet be
with so
many
diffi-
God
his right
by argu-
from
his
own
power. For
among
guilty, because
their accusation
RELIGION
his
179
both
own
him
of
and them,
injustice
xxxviii. 4):
condemning him
or any sin,
own power
I laid the
(Job
when
founda-
And
God
pronounces
them (Job
had not
man's
is
right, li\e
when,
his
disciples
asking
him
whether he or
his parents
ix.
blind,
he answered, (John
him. For though
into the
man
sinned, nor
in
be said, (Rom.
it
world by
sin:
God by
his right
made
sin.
Now
if
God have
from
his power,
lies
him obedience
on men by reason of
which
II,
rises
from
contract, of
in chap.
can have no place here, where the right of ruling (no coverises
when
to
liberty
is
taken away
say
that
which we
all
creatures,
do obey the
common
laws
when
man,
it is
I
consider,
I
if
there
him with a silent thought were two Omnipotents, whether were bound to
desire
is
obey.
it
believe
he
bound.
If this
be true, then
is
also true
what
are
have
set
down;
that
men
because they
Paul,
not omnipotent.
And
truly
time was an enemy to the Church) that he should not kick against the pricks, seems to require obedience from him for this
(who
at that
cause, because he
to resist.
l8o
fear,
RELIGION
according to which the weaker, despairing o his
to resist, cannot but yield to
is
own
this
power
last
the stronger.
From
to say,
from
fear, or conscience
of our
to pass, that
own weakness (in respect of the divine power), it comes we are obliged to obey God in his natural kingdictating to
all,
is
dom; reason
pricks.
is
sup-
posed to be nothing
kings can be
known by
their
word
set
only,
it is
laws of God, ruling by nature alone, are only the natural laws,
we have
down
in chaps,
ii
and
iii,
and
mercy, and other moral virtues befriending peace, which pertain to other,
men
We
are;
we must
say,
see
that
to
dictate,
9.
Honour,
the
is
nothing
else
but an opinion
to
of another's
honour a
so
man,
is
is
honour
three
Now
which
refers to goodness;
hope and
fear,
which regard
wherewith the
power.
And from
these arise
all
outward
actions,
is
transferred
also
to
those
outward
we
are said to
honour him,
or deed.
of
whose power we
word
RELIGION
to
l8l
as
honour
act,
is
the
same
with worship.
Now
worship
is
an outward
the
sign of
whom we
make them
favour-
able to us,
10.
we
mind
are either
therefore
Now
both the one and the other are referred to three kinds; whereof
the
first is praise,
to magnify,
is
of
I
power secure
say that
all
which
is
called tiaKapia^ioc;.
may be discerned, not in words only, but in deeds too. But we then praise and celebrate in words, when we do it by way of proposition, or dogmatically, that is to say, by attributes or tides, which may be termed praising and celebrating categorically and plainly, as when we declare him whom we honour to be liberal, strong, wise. And then in deeds, when it is done by consequence, or by
kinds of honour
hypothesis,
or
supposition,
as
Now
we
whether we desire
to praise a
man
in
words or
words of
sense,
as
deeds,
all
shall find
signify
honour with
men, such
as
among
virtues
in
ill
good,
and among
actions, obedi-
ever understood.
Others, which signify honour but with some, and scorn with
others, or else neither; such as in attributes, are those
words
re-
As
1 82
RELIGION
that a
man
fled, that
he
is
a philosopher,
or an orator, and the Hke, which with some are had in honour,
as
depend on the
custom of the
to be bareheaded, to
put
ofif
petition
for
Now
that worship
which
is
always and
by
all
men
accounted honourable,
may
other,
12.
may
command
him
that
is
worshipped, and
may
be voluntary, be enjoined,
If it
as they signify
Voluntary
if
is
which
if
is
worship,
not,
may
it
single worshipper,
may
city,
but as
many worships
men were united by the command of one. But private worship may be voluntary, if it be done secretly; for what is done openly
is
restrained, either
is
con-
we may know what the scope and end of worwe must consider the cause why men delight in worship. And we must grant what we have showed elsewhere, that joy consists in this, that a man contemplates
13.
Now
that
shipping others
is,
soever, as being, or as
though
it
were
his
own; and
nothing
RELIGION
else
183
itself
honoured, that
to say, loved
and
feared, that
is
to say,
having
because
men
in readiness.
Now
falls
men
that
whom
by others,
out that
of
honour
true
increased by worship,
is
power
comthis
power
who
either
mands or suffers himself to be worshipped, is, that by means he may acquire as many as he can, either through
or fear, to be obedient unto him.
14.
love
of
God
attributes.
Where,
first,
it
is
is
to be
we
said, that
God was
of
it)
to say, a part
word God we
is
God, they
is
say that
like
it
is
as
much,
as there
no God. In
no cause
of an
eternal thing, in
also that there
is
God. They
also
of
idleness to him,
should
that
take
place with
us,
above
doth
And
seeing there
is
at
all.
sig-
which
signify
some
finite
or
184
RELIGION
all
of an honouring mind.
For
we honour not God worthily, if we ascribe less power or greatness to him than possibly we can. But every finite thing is less than we can; for most easily we may always assign and attribute more to a finite thing. No shape therefore must be
assigned to God, for
all
shape
is finite;
we
conceive
is finite.
And
although
yet
it
this
word
mind,
we have any
conception of an infinite
is
thing. For
when we
nothing
really,
should say,
we know
in our
limited. Neither
who
is
say
we have an Nor
they,
him
mind;
for
an idea
conception
we have
none, except of a
finite thing.
is
who
in
some
certain entire
thing;
which
Nor
that he
is
greatness on
Nor
that
he
is
moved
place.
or
is
them suppose
a being in
some
are
Nor
of
infinites.
unworthy
God which
signify sorrow
metonomy
is
man
should desire, hope, and wish for aught, but what he wants
and stands
in
need
of; or
any passive
upon another.
not to be conif
When we
God,
it
is
which
is
RELIGION
185
God
desires,
man
to say,
is
a con-
tumely; but
we must suppose some resemblance which we canwhen we attribute sight and other
or
understanding,
raised
think
a sign of
power
He
therefore
who would
to
God
great,
most powerful,
&;c.,
or indefinite,
and the
is
like; in
such sense,
to circum-
what he
(which were
scribe
him within
confess our
erty
own
the prop-
of humility
and of
mind
that
yielding
all
the
honour
it
For reason
dictates
is,
God,
he
and one
in order to,
is
and
in relation to
namely God,
under which
15.
God
is
to
a most gen-
command
mind
yielding
first place,
prayers.
Qui
marmore
vultus,
Non
qui rogat,
ille facit.
signs of hope,
and hope
is
an acknowl-
edgment
same
of the divine
power
or goodness.
is
a sign of the
thanks follow
l86
In the third,
gifts,
RELIGION
that
is
to say, oblations
and
sacrifices, for
an imprecation of
his
if
he deceive,
who
if
him
he
to
God. For
hid,
man from whom his subjects' and whom no human power could
suffice
plighted faith
would
In the
of fear,
fifth place, to
is
a sign
follows
and
fear
is
an acknowledgment of power.
It
from
we may
is
it
name
of
God
in
vain, or use
rashly;
That we
in vain.
no need;
which
for that
is
none, unless
be between
cities, to
avoid or
arise
away contention by
is
force,
necessarily
must
where there
no
faith
kept in promises, or in a
city, for
the
we must
all
not dispute
it
is
supposed that
things in the
natural
is
kingdom
of
God
But we are
God,
of
all
that
we
cannot so
understanding
kingdom)
in-
and
rash,
who
with divine
justice.
RELIGION
In the sixth, whatsoever
ings,
is
187
offered
its
up
in prayers, thanksgiv-
and
sacrifices,
must
in
God
in
an image, yet
was
it
and such
or
submission or gratifor
all
tude,
commemorative
of
benefits
received;
these
God must
and publicly
in the sight of
men; because
it
that worship
gets
is
so
much more
acceptable, by
how much
which
is
be-
that
most
In the
we
mand, exceeds
side,
all
is
obedience
more
acceptable than
all
other sacrifices.
And
dictates to every
man. But
to
whole
cities,
and therefore
city, is
not the
city's
is
done by the
of
under-
command
him
or
is
to say, uniformly.
The
kinds of signs, the one natural, the other done upon agree-
155
ment, or by express or
RELIGION
tacit
composition.
Now
because in every
may
also
on,
and derives
force
from the
will of
will
of the
God by
of
the appoint-
ment
of
Now
city
that the
may
The
city therefore
by right (that
to say, they
who have
is
what names
what
less
what
God and
his operations.
Now
actions
do
as the
Whereof some
discovered,
of scorn to
them before
to
whom
and whatsoever
men
are
ashamed
do before those
as
whom
of honour,
to give
to
decently
and humbly,
way
infinite
others, which,
indifferent.
as
much
these,
as belongs
to
Now
so.
by the
institu-
may
both be
made
signs of honour,
and being
made
so,
understand, that
we must
obey the
city in
shall
is
command
say,
to
a sign of honour,
which by the
city's
command
17.
is
We
as
way
of
nature only.
Now
because there
is
RELIGION
in reasoning,
1 89
and that
it
whom God
is
would have
reason, that
And
mean
of a
men
we have
else
demonstratively showed
it
agreeable to rea-
nothing
sequence,
that
everywhere
cities,
that
is
to
say,
who
we must
consider
demonstrated in chap.
ferred as
v. art. 13,
much
right as he could
how God
is
done it. That he could, it appears hence, that the manner of honouring God before the constitution of a city was to be fetched from every man's private reason. But every
man
city.
Moreover,
if
each
man
own
reason in
to
honour God.
to
Even
that
therefore
reason,
would not be
consists
worship
in
this,
that
it
there
others,
Is
and therefore
there
is
no sign
of
a true sign
men becomes
to say, by the
It Is
command
of the city,
190
of God, declared by the
signs of
RELIGION
way
honour
him such command. Wherefore subjects judging the manner of God's worof reason only, to give
him
or
it;
they must do
them who have the sovereign power. Nay, for else all manner of absurd opinions conall
ridiculous ceremonies
at
which
once in the
will believe
it
same
city.
Whence
do
it
man
no
offer
God an
affront; so that
cannot be
God;
for
man
worships
God,
that
is
to say,
who
doth
may
all
(God
ruling by the
city,
way
is
of
that
to say,
man
or counsel, to
whom
the sovereign
power
is
com-
And on
the other
himself.
Against
this,
first,
whether
it
command
us
I say, it
worship
at all,
we obey. For to affront, or not by any man be understood for a manwho acknowledge God
to rule, a
ner of worshipping. Neither also had any one, before the constitution of a city, of those
right to deny
him
of com-
manding any such things. Next, if it be demanded whether the city must be obeyed if it command somewhat to be said or done, which is not a disgrace to God direcdy, but from whence
by reasoning disgraceful consequences may be derived: as for
RELIGION
example,
if it
191
before those
who
is
it
is
to
be
him
thus,
sign
of honour,
manded
to call
signifies, or
so account of
word God;
that also
(and we
a sign
know no
better),
it is
of honour;
and therefore
enlarging of
of
all
we refuse to do it, we refuse the God's honour. The same judgment must be had
may
though
this
kind of commands
may
be sometimes contrary to
right reason,
and
therefore sins in
yet are they not against right reason, nor sins in subjects,
is
which submits
man
or counsel
who
is
command
is,
himself to be wor-
God
obey.
whether
we must
*We
who
attributed limits to
God, transgressed the natural law concerning God's worship. Now they who worship him in an image, assign him limits. Wherefore they do that which they ought not to do, and this place seems to contradict the former. We must therefore know first, that they who are constrained by authority, do not set God any bounds, but they who command them. For they who worship unwillingly, do worship in very deed; but they either stand or fall there, where they are commanded to stand or fall by a lawful sovereign. Secondly, I say it must be done, not at all times and ever>'where, but on supposition that there is no other rule of worshipping
God
human
But in the kingdom of God by way of covenant, whether old or new, where idolatry is expressly forbid, though the city commands us to worship thus, yet must we not do it. Which, if he shall consider, who conceived some repugnancy between this and art. 14, will surely cease to think so any longer.
for reason.
192
RELIGION
God and men; for even men may be praised and magAnd there are many actions, whereby God and men may
only
to
whereby we
is
signify ourselves to be of
any
man endued
is
from God,
like,
or that he
though commanded by
As
also
from those
God
and
fair
weather; to offer
only accept,
which
seem
a
to
God may
tion, prostration, or
may
may
signify
an acknowledgment of the
ship
is
civil
civil,
power
only.
distinguished from
opinion of him
selves
whom we
him
do worship. As
God,
we
cast
down
if
ourthat
before any
of declaring by
sign that
we
is
esteem
divine worship;
we do
civil
power,
it
civil
worship. Neither
civil,
is
tinguished from
reigning by the
first, if
be gathered, that
only, subjects
God
sin,
do
RELIGION
ters
II.
193
and
commands
if
which pertain
to justice. Thirdly,
God Kaxd
men, both
toc vo^iiKa.
Fourthly,
if
they
is
in
that there
one
God most
King
of
of the
world and of
is
to say,
if
they do
kingdom
it
we
man
to
be the sovereign
king,
who
Against
whom
would
to
transgress,
who
should not
kingdom
should
would give
some
who
admit of
this exception,
might
Chapter XVI
Of the Kingdom
(The
of
omitted.)
Chapter XVII
Of the Kingdom
(The
of
God
by the
New
Covenant
is
omitted.)
Chapter XVIII
Concerning Those Things Which Are Necessary for
Our Entrance
I.
Heaven
It
derived from
were one
by the
man
or an assembly of
in spiritual
is
manifest
that all
this,
From whence
dull of apprehension,
is
may
collect, that in a
to say, in a city
all
whose
power,
is
is
side, be-
we must rather obey God than men, there is a difficulty risen, how obedience may safely be yielded to them, if at any time somewhat should be commanded by them to be done which Christ hath prohibited. The reason of this difficulty is, that seeing God no longer speaks to us by Christ and his
cause
men
know
to the
indeed what
princes
that
word
of
God
it
know
were
sailing
who
salvation,
194
RELIGION
not necessary, can have none of this kind of doubt. For
if
195
the
it
command
place
20,22):
And
the
command
sit
of
in
The
Scribes
and Pharisees
they
Moses' chair;
all
On
the contrary,
if
command command
who
kjll
the body,
all
but cannot
J{ill
the soul.
We
must
see therefore
what
those
Now
all
in
two
virtues,
latter of
these,
if
it
suffice to preserve us
from damna-
we have
all
disobedience against
God
this,
is
in
Adam, and
is
we
ourselves
But
kingdom
none but
of heaven,
nothing
is
else
is
requisite to salvation.
sinners, that
shut to
to say, those
who
due obedience
to the laws;
and not
to those neither,
they
if
Now,
it
we
at
shall
know
in
what
points
which
the
we must
do,
command
of cities
and
of princes.
this place
is
3.
But by obedience in
196
as
RELIGION
as
much
we
word obedience
the
full
equivalent to
repentance;
for
the
virtue
which accompanies
remembrance
and
said
But
because they
law,
who love God cannot but desire to obey the divine and they who love their neighbours cannot but desire to
obey the moral law, which consists as hath been showed above
in chap. in. in the prohibition of pride, ingratitude, contumely,
is
a constant
it.
man
itself
his
due)
is
equivalent with
for
salvation,
But that
faith
sufficient
is
of baptism.
For they
who were
and
done
do, he
answered (Acts
ii.
38): Repent
name
God, but to repent and believe in the name of kingdom of heaven is promised by the covenant which is made in baptism. Furthermore, by the words of Christ, answering the lawyer who asked him what he should do to inherit eternal life (Luke xviii. 20): Thou \nowest the commandments: Thou shalt not \ill, thou shalt not commit adultery, &c., which refer to obedience, and (Mark x. 21):
the
kingdom
of
thou
hast,
relates
faith,
And
by that which
said:
The
by
are.
And
by the words
Mark
(i.
15):
The time
is fulfilled,
RELIGION
197
by which
of other
God
is
at hand; repent
ye,
and
words
is
no need
nothing
else
to say, of
is,
which
same
to all
civil
laws, that
to say, the
commands
of sov-
and
known
faith
is,
we
must define
in
general,
and distinguish
it
it is
from those
confounded.
The
is
which
believed,
to say, a speech
affirmative or negative)
which we grant
to
called.
which notwithstanding we
minds; and
by con-
we have
which we
call
which
to profess,
or confess by outward
men
use out
whom
which
is
absolute yielding.
Now
the propositions
which we
of our
itself,
we
own; and
the proposition
by calling to
198
RELIGION
which we
give,
is
called
is
knowledge or
science.
But
if
we
cer-
tainly understood
apprehended by
us,
then
we
are
For example,
if it
three
make
five;
and by
it is
calling to
mind
so appointed by the
common
it
consent
them who
are of the
us, (as
were by
human
be the name of so
many
two and
man
is
therefore true
five:
this
and
it
to
is
nothing
else
For by whose
called two,
and
is
|
is
called three,
to
and
| | | |
is
called five,
is
by
it
comes
true,
two and
shall
make
five.
In like
remember what
that theft
is
that
is
called theft,
be true
is
the
true in
is
word antecedent
in
its
call
And
it
that
know truth, is the same thing as to remember was made by ourselves by the common use of words.
to
it
Neither was
that
own
member
things
is
imposed on
RELIGION
judgment and very great
are
diligence. It
199
happens
too, that there
Of
those
no con-
and therefore
in vain
do
we
propositions,
of the
words themselves. In
we
some
hope
we
have of finding
it,
we
think
sometimes
is
true,
and some-
times
false; either of
which apart
called thinking,
and
also for
which we
proposition
assent to
itself,
some
proposition,
whom we
no reason
grows not
we
see
it
why
he should deceive
of
us,
called faith.
And
by the confidence of
whom we
By
faith
do
believe,
we
between
is
and opinion;
for
depends on our
own
reason, that
lows
it
entire.
The
is
explication
is
after
propounded,
is
conducible
by definition.
But
which exceed
human
capacity,
to
more evident by
200
and harder
to be credited.
to
RELIGION
And
the
same thing
befalls a
man,
who
endeavours
reason,
which happens
pass, that
man, who
will
needs chew
pills;
whence
comes to
We
it is
to believe.
is
But what
is
to believe in Christ?
Or what
proposition
that
which
is
the
For when we
but not what
else
say, I believe in
we
signify indeed
is
whom,
we
believe.
Now,
to believe in Christ
is
nothing
who
of
Israel,
was
to
come
into this
world
kingdom
God.
And
this sufificiendy
xi.
appears
25-27):
am,
and the
life;
he that helieueth
in
live;
and whosoever
liveth
and
She
saith
come
which
is
words,
we
me?
ex-
Christ.
To
believe in
nothing
else
saying that he
6.
is
the Christ.
sal-
vation,
what kind
of obedience that
art. 3.
same
is,
and
to
whom
due,
what
And
I say,
that to a Chris-
tion * there
no other
article of faith
requisite as necessary
* Although I conceive this assertion to be sufficiently proved by the following reasons, yet I thought it worth my labour to make a more ample explication of it, because I perceive that being somewhat new, it may pos-
RELIGION
to salvation, but only this, that Jesus
is
201
the Christ. But
art,
we must
articles
distinguish (as
faith
(if
we have
4) between
and
profession.
profession therefore, of
necessary; for
more
it is
they be
commanded) may be
what
to
a part of
we
enquire not
be distasteful
that Jesus
is
many
I
divines.
is
First
therefore,
when
I
say
this
article,
is
the Christ,
necessary to salvation;
faith only
is
necessary, but
due
to
I
the laws
of God,
to
say,
will
to
live
righteously.
deny not but the profession of many articles, (provided that that profession be commanded by the Church) is also necessary to salvation. But seeing faith is internal, profession external, I say that the former only is properly faith; the latter a part of obedience; insomuch as that article alone sufficeth for inward belief, but is not sufficient for the outward profession of a Christian. Lastly, even as if I had said that true and inward repentance of sins was only necessary to salvation, yet were it not to be held for a paradox, because we suppose justice, obedience, and a mind reformed in all manner of virtues to be contained in it. So when I say that the faith of one article is sufficient to salvation, it may well be less wondered at, seeing that in it so many other articles are contained. For these words, Jesus is the Christ, do signify that Jesus was that person, whom God had promised by his prophets should come into the world to establish his kingdom; that is to say, that Jesus is the Son of God, the creator of heaven and earth, born of a virgin, dying for the sins of them who should believe in him; that he was Christ, that is to say, a king; that he revived (for else he were not like to reign) to judge the world, and to reward every one according to his works, for otherwise he cannot be a king; also that men shall rise again, for otherwise they are not like to come to judgment. The whole symbol of the apostles therefore contained in this one article; which, notwithstanding, I is thought reasonable to contract thus, because I found that many men for this alone, without the rest, were admitted into the kingdom of God, both by Christ and his aposdes; as the thief on the cross, the eunuch baptized by Philip, the two thousand men converted to the Church at once by St. Peter. But if any man be displeased that I do not judge all those eternally damned, who do not inwardly assent to every article defined by the Church (and yet do not contradict, but, if they be commanded, do submit), I know not what I shall say to them. For the most evident testimonies of Holy Writ, which do follow, do withhold me from
Secondly,
altering
my
opinion.
202
proved,
first,
RELIGION
out of the scope of the Evangelists, v^^hich was by
life
and we
(chap,
shall
Evangelists,
i.),
know that such was the scope and counsel of the if we observe but the history itself. St. Matthew
at this genealogy,
beginning
that he
was
men
as
iv.)
that his
the Baptist
and himself;
that he cured
all
kingdom; (chap,
xi.) that
he commanded the
him what
they
had
seen,
namely,
to the Pharisees
and
signs;
of king,
when he
xxii.,
xxiii., xxiv.,
should be; (chaps, xxvi., xxvii.) that he was taken and accused
that a
title
was written on
that all
lastly,
in
heaven and in
earth. All
we
to be the Christ.
Matthew was
expressly
St.
down
RELIGION
in the
203
end of
his gospel
may know
is
Secondly, this
them
Acts
to preach
x.
God
(Luke
ix.
2;
42).
And what
ascension,
may
They drew
Jason, saith
city, cry-
ing,
These are the men that have turned the world upside down,
are
and
all
come
hither also,
whom
do contrary
2-3):
Old
the Christ.
easiness
which the
of those
For
if
which
this
day
is is
divers churches
would be nothing
then would
more
difficult
And how
easy
My
yo\e
is
and my burden
and that
21):
pleased
hanging on the
confession of
cross
sufficiently
whose
faith
was contained
into thy
kingdom? Or how
204
could
St.
RELIGION
Paul himself, from an enemy, so soon become a doctor
of Christians?
9.
Fourthly, by
neither rests
this,
it
is
the foundation of
faith,
23, 24: //
is
any man
it
shall say
ho
here
is
Christ, or
he
there, believe
and
&c.
false prophets,
and
show
great signs
and wonders,
Whence
i.
it
which we have in
saith the apostle,
this article,
8:
we must
we have
him be
accursed.
By reason
we might
selves
(and therefore,
Church
1-2:
neither)
if
John
iv.
Beloved, believe
not every
spirit,
spirits
because
many
false
hjiow ye the
Christ
is
spirit of
God; every
is
Jesus
is
come
in the flesh,
of
God,
That
article therefore
spirits,
of
the
in-
doctors
cannot be denied,
who
at
it
this
from the
doctors, that
those things
to be the Christ.
Yet
it
follows not, that the same persons believed that article for the
doctors' or the Church's, but for Jesus' his
article
own
sake.
xvi.
For that
18), al-
though
it;
upon
is
it,
not
upon
is
the Christ,
so fundamental, that
it
(I
Cor.
For other
which
is if
man
is
lay,
is laid,
the Christ).
Now
RELIGION
any man build upon
stones,
this
205
silver,
foundation, gold,
precious
shall be
made
manifest;
built there-
From
this
whence
stones,
it
is
understood
of Christ;
and
also, that
so, as
doctrines
may
they
must
10.
necessarily be
damned who
teach them,
is
needful to be inwardly
believed,
may
many
John
places
v. 39:
who
and they
Old Testament
New
was
Now,
there
is
was
to
come
he was
born of such
as
parents, that he
was
to teach
by certain
signs,
testify this
who was
such things, was the Christ. Other faith then was not required
to attain eternal life, besides this article,
xi.
26:
Whoso-
ever liveth
and
is
But
to believe
there expressed)
Christ.
is
the
that
shall
was the
He
therefore
article
alone
necessary
believ-
ing, ye
might have
life
have eternal
206
other faith,
Jesus Christ
i
RELIGION
John
iv.
2:
is
come
in the flesh, is of
is
God.
And
is
John
v. i:
Whosoever
the Christ,
born of God.
And
John
Who
is
the Son of
else, to
God?
If therefore
there
the end a
man may be
that Jesus
salvation.
sufficient to
Acts
is
me
all
to
he
baptized?
heart,
And
is
thine
thou mayest.
And
he answered and
Jesus Christ
is
to say, with
inward faith)
for
was
sufficient
is
also sufficient
salvation.
do
and expressly
affirm the
same
thing.
Nay, wheresoever
any one
we
commended
was no other
but
this, Jesus is
II.
But because no
man
who
is
God
is,
and
be contained in
faith of
God and of the Old Testament the New. Seeing therefore that
kingdom of of God by
rules
God by
kingdom
now
in this
RELIGION
nunciation of this article once received, that Jesus
is
207
the Christ.
from
is
inward
faith.
and
either
is
said to justify in
its
kind.
sins of all
men, but
of the penitent
but the
may
faith.
by
Obedience therefore
justifies,
it
maketh
just
in
the
same manner
such a
as
them who
him
justifies in
may
be said to
justify,
who
man;
which
actually saves a
it
and
(for
is
an equivocal
do save
us,
but
said hitherto,
it
is
cannot
command
deny Christ, or
to offer
him
they should
command
this,
they
would
profess themselves to be
208
ernors, excepting those
RELIGION
which
are contrary to the
command
of
God; and
that the
commands
of
God,
cerning temporal
discussed by
city,
human
delivered
the city to
from those who have received authority from make laws and judge of controversies; but concernis
to
say, those
which
are to be
Church,
are the
as
and
who
commonweal, obedience
tema
due
poral.
And
is
that the
Christian
subject,
due
who
are
no
Christians,
spir-
is
For
it is
an hypothesis
God
way
contrary to our
covenant.
What must we do then.'' Go to Christ by martyrdom; which if it seem to any man to be a hard saying, most certain it is
that he believes not with his
Christ, the
whole
heart, that
Jesus
is
the
Son of the
living
God
(for he
would then
desire
to be dissolved,
But some
men
(excepting this
is
one
which only
all
necessary to
RELIGION
obedience, which
209
may
be performed, although a
man
do not
make
is
an outward profession,
as oft as
comes about
many
tenets,
which
are
all
except a
the
man do
kingdom
of heaven. But
is
about
human
sovereignty; in some,
wonder
is
the
less.
The
Church,
being
For
it
known what
Church
is, it
is
known
at
if
once to
whom
every Christian
commanded
bound
is
to say,
him
or
there
which must be
if
way
monarchy, or by some
as-
To
all
mankind,
would be sure
of
all
dominion, as well
temporal
refuse
it.
For
is
if
because
is
it
supposed he cannot
that right of
whom
it
belongs to interpret
210
all
RELIGION
of controversies whatsoever.
manner
But he
vi^ho
hath
this,
command
word
over
of
Scriptures to be the
the
dis-
man,
if
he be in his
man an
absolute obedience,
damned. Hither
subjects as
power of
instituting
depend on him by
whom
they subsist,
in
who
hath as
city.
many
this
an enemy's
judge
To
end
of lawful to
matrimony; for he
whom
him
knowledge of
the goods
and
men
And
hither also in
some
of ecclesi-
astical
men have
it is
less
coherence than
And
besides,
an inconvenience not
must bond
this
priesthood (which
is
a great
no hereditary kingdom. To
tion of saints,
end
he that
bring
may
who
and do anything.
posterity,
but an honourable
name with
after,
which
con-
and a thousand
who
upon
incredible perils?
The
and indulgences,
The
manner
of re-
some
rites
left
in the
Church not
sufficiently
wc
the
RELIGION
211
power, or
profit, or
It is
each other.
almost
all
tenets (after
men grew
some or other
into the
to be necessary to salvation
and
kingdom
of heaven.
Insomuch
as they
who
hold them
condemned
which
as guilty of disobedience
(which
but of
out of
infidelity,
many
him
To which
him
add
this
and
let
God
One man
Let every
man
own mind.
(0
fr
'
Date Due
Due
Returned
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.
Due
Returned
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UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA