Chapter 2 Manual Work and Worker-Machine Systems

CHAPTER 2: Manual Work and
Worker-Machine Systems
IMSE-321:
Work Design and Measurement

Prof. Mustapha Nour El Fath
Acknowledgement: These slides were
provided by Dr. Khaled Alali

Manual Work and Worker-Machine
Systems
In terms of the human participation in the tasks
performed, work systems can be classified into
the following three basic categories:
1. Manual work systems
2. Worker-machine systems
3. Automated systems
Manual Work System
Manual work systems:
Consists of a worker
performing one or more tasks
without the aid of powered
tools. The tasks commonly
require the use of hand tools
(e.g., hammers, screwdrivers,
shovels)
Example:
A carpenter using a hammer
Manual Work System
Worker-machi ne system:
Consists of a human worker
operates powered equipment
(e.g., a machine tool).
Example:
A dentist using a dental x-ray
machine
Automated Work Systems
Automati on:
Consists of a machine perform
a process without the direct
participation of a human
worker
Example:
A welding robot welding a car
frame
Automated Work Systems
Manual Work and Worker-Machine
Systems
As shown in the previous figures, the work
accomplished by a work system is almost always
acted upon some object, called the work uni t
In production, the work may alter the geometry of a
work part
In logistics, the work may involve transporting
material from a warehouse to a customer
In service work, a sales prospect is transformed into a
paying customer by a persuasive salesperson
In knowledge work, a designer takes a product concept
and converts it into specifications and engineering
drawings
2.1.1 Types of Manual Work
Two forms of manual work can be distinguished:
1. Pure manual work
2. Manual work using hand tools
1. Pure manual work:
Involves only the physical
and mental capabilities of
the human worker, and no
machines, tools, or other
implements are employed in
performing the task
Pure manual work (Example):
Workers loading furniture
into a moving van from a
house without the use of
dollies or other wheeled
platforms
2. Manual work usi ng
hand tools:
Involves the physical and
mental capabilities of the
human worker while
employing hand tools in
performing the task
Manual work using hand tools
(Example):
A quality control inspector
using a micrometer to make a
measurement
Manual tasks are commonly augmented by the use
of hand tools
A tools is a device or implement for making
changes to some object (e.g., the work unit) such as
cutting, grinding, striking, squeezing, or other
process
A hand tool is a small tool that is operated by the
strength and skill of the human user
When using hand tools, a workholder is
sometimes employed to grasp the work unit and
position it securely during processing
2.1.2 Cycle Time Analysis of Manual Work
2.1.2 Cycle Time Analysis of Manual
Work
Manual tasks usually consist of a work cycle that
is repeated with some degree of similarity
Each cycle usually corresponds to the processing
of one work unit
Work
If the work cycle is relatively short, and there is a
high degree of similarity from one cycle to the
next, we refer to the work as repeti ti ve
If the work cycle takes a long time and the cycles
are not similar, the work is nonrepeti ti ve
The repetitive or nonrepetitive task can be
divided into work elements that consist of logical
groupings of motions performed by the worker
Work
The cycle ti me T
c
is therefore the sum of the work
element times

where
T
ek
= time of work element k, where k is used to
identify the work elements, min
n
e
= number of work elements into which the
cycle is divided
=
=
e
n
k
ek c
T T
1
Work
Example 2.1: A repeti ti ve manual task
An assembly worker performs a repetitive
manual task consisting of inserting 8 plastic
pegs into 8 holes in a flat wooden board. A slight
interference fit is involved in each insertion. The
worker holds the board in one hand and picks up
the pegs from a tray with the other hand and
inserts them into the holes, one peg at a time.
Can the work method be improved in order to
reduce the cycle time?
Work
Work
The cycle time is reduced from 0.62 min to 0.37 min, a reduction of 40%.
Work
A useful concept in work design is the one best
method principle. According to this principle,
of all the possible methods that can be used to
perform a given task, there is one optimal
method that minimizes the time and effort
required to accomplish it
A primary objective in work design is to
determine the one best method for a task, and
then to standardize its use in the workplace
Work
Once the work cycle and associated method are
defined, the actual time taken for a given manual
cycle is variable
Reasons for variations in work cycle times include
the following:
Differences in worker performance from one cycle to
the next
Variations in hand and body motions
Variations in the starting work units
Differences in the physical and cognitive attributes
among workers performing the task
Variations in the methods used by different workers to
perform the task
Work
Worker performance can be defined as the
pace or relative speed with which the worker
does the task
As worker performance increases, the time to
accomplish the work cycle decreases
Work
Normal performance means a pace of
working that can be maintained by a properly
trained average worker throughout an entire
work shift without deleterious short-term or
long-term effects on the workers health or
physical well-being
The work shift is usually assumed to be eight
hours
Work
When a worker works at a normal performance
level, we say he or she is working at 100%
performance
A faster pace than normal is greater than 100%
and a slower pace is less than 100%
Work
The term standard performance is often
used in place of normal performance. They both
refer to the same pace while working, but
standard performance acknowledges that
periodic rest breaks are included in the work
shift
In addition to rest breaks, workers are likely to
have other interruptions during the shift, such as
equipment breakdowns, receiving instructions
from the foreman, personal telephone calls
Work
When a work cycle is performed at 100% performance,
the time taken is called the normal ti me for the cycle
The actual time to perform the work cycle is a function of
the workers performance as indicated in the equation:

where
T
c
= Actual cycle time, min
T
n
= Normal time for the work cycle, min
P
w
= Pace or performance of the worker, in
decimal fraction (e.g., 100% = 1.0)
w
n
c
P
T
T =
Work
Example 2.2: Normal Performance
A man walks in the early morning for health and fitness.
His usual route is 1.85 miles long. The route has minimal
elevation changes. A typical time to walk the 1.85 miles is
30 min. Using the benchmark of 3 miles/hr as normal
performance, determine (a) how long the route would
take at normal performance and (b) the mans
performance when he completes the route in 30 min.

(a) At 3 miles/hr, 1.85 miles can be
covered in 1.85(60)/3.0 = 37 min.

3x = 60(1.85)
x = [60(1.85)]/3 = 37 min
Mi les Mi nutes
3 60
1.85 x
Work
b) If the man takes 30 min to complete the walk,
then his performance can be determined by
dividing the normal time by the actual time
P
w
= T
n
/ T
c
= 37/30 = 1.233 or 123.3%

Work
To account for the rest breaks, an allowance is added to
the normal time in order to determine an allowance
ti me for the worker to perform the task through out the
shift. More commonly known as the standard ti me, it
is defined as follows:

T
std
= T
n
(1 + A
pfd
)

where
T
std
= standard time, min
T
n
= normal time, min
A
pfd
= PFD (personal time, fatigue, and delay)
allowance factor, expressed in decimal fraction
Work
Manual work cycles often include i rregular
work elements, which are elements performed
with a frequency of less than once per cycle (i.e.,
performed once every n cycles)
Example of irregular work elements include
periodic changing of tools (e.g., changing a knife
blade)
In determining a standard time for the cycle, the
irregular element times are prorated in the
regular cycle time
Work
Examples 2.3: Determi ni ng Standard
Ti me and Standard Output
The normal time to perform the regular work
cycle for a certain manual operation is 3.23 min.
In addition, an irregular work element whose
normal time is 1.25 min must be performed
every 5 cycles. The PFD allowance factor is 15%.
Determine (a) the standard time and (b) how
many work units are produced if the workers
performance in an 8-hour shift is standard
Work
Solution:

(a) Normal time T
n
= work cycle normal time + irregular element
normal time = 3.23 + (1.25/5) = 3.48 min

Standard time T
std
= T
n
(1 + A
pfd
) = 3.48 (1 + 0.15) = 4.00 min

(b) Number of work units produced during an 8-hr shift
Q
std
= work shift time / standard time = 8.0(60)/4.00 = 120
work units

Work uni ts Mi nutes
1 4.00
x 8(60)
Work
Examples 2.4: Determi ni ng Lost Ti me
Due to the Allowance Factor
Determine the anticipated amount of time lost
per 8-hour shift when an allowance factor of 15%
is used, as in the previous example
Work
Solution:
T
std
= actual time worked (1+A
pfd
) 8.0 =
actual time worked (1+0.15) actual time
worked = 6.956 hr

Time lost = 8.0 6.956 = 1.044 hr

This is the time lost due to personal time, fatigue,
and delays corresponding to a 15% PFD allowance
factor
Work
Example 2.5: Producti on Rate When
Worker Performance Exceeds 100%
Now that the standard is set (T
std
= 4.00 min),
and given the data from the previous examples,
how many work units would be produced if the
workers average performance during an 8-hour
shift were 125% and the hours actually worked
were exactly 6.956 hr, which corresponds to the
15% allowance factor
Work
Solution:
based on the normal time T
n
= 3.48 min, the actual
cycle time with a worker performance of 125% is

T
c
=
=
3.48
1.25
= 2.78 min

assuming one work unit is produced each cycle, the
corresponding daily production rate is

R
p
=
6.956 60
2.78
= 150 work units
Work
Two common measures used in industry to
assess a workers productivity are:
1. Standard hours
2. Worker efficiency
Work
The standard hours represents the amount of
work actually accomplished by the worker during a
given period (e.g., shift, week), expressed in terms of
time

H
std
= Q T
std

where
H
std
= standard hours accomplished, hr
Q = quantity of work units completed during the
period, pc
T
std
= standard time per work unit, hr/pc

Work
Worker effi ci ency is the amount of work
accomplished during the shift expressed as a proportion
of the shift hours

E
w
= H
std
/ H
sh

where
E
w
= worker efficiency in %
H
std
= number of standard hours of work
accomplished during the shift, hr
H
sh
= number of shift hours (e.g., 8 hours)
Work
Example 2.6: Standard Hours and
Worker Effi ci ency
For a worker performance of 125% in the
previous example (T
std
= 4.00 min), determine:
(a) number of standard hours produced and (b)
worker efficiency
Work
Soluti on:
a) H
std
= Q T
std
= 150 (4.0) = 600 min = 10.0 hr
b) E
w
= H
std
/ H
sh
= 10.0 / 8.0 = 1.25 = 125%
Work
Example 2.7: Standard Hours and
Worker Effi ci ency as Affected by Hours
Actually Worked
Suppose the workers pace in the task is 125%,
but the actual hours worked is 7.42 hr.
Determine (a) the number of pieces produced,
(b) the number of standard hours accomplished,
and (c) the workers efficiency
Work
Solution:
(a) the actual cycle time at 125% performance is
2.78 min, as calculated in Example 2.5. The
number of work units produced in 7.42 hr is

Q = [7.42(60)]/2.78 = 160 units

(b) H
std
= 160(4 min) = 640 min = 10.67 hr
(c) E
w
= 10.67/8.0 = 1.333 = 133.3%
2.2 Worker-Machine Systems
When a worker operates
powered equipment, we refer
to the arrangement as a
worker-machi ne system
Examples of worker-machine
systems include the following:
A secretary using a personal
computer with word
processor in an office typing
pool
A construction worker
operating a backhoe at a
construction site
A factory worker loading and
unloading parts at a machine
tool
2.2 Worker-Machine Systems
Relati ve Strengths of Humans Relati ve Strengths of Machi nes
Develop new solutions to
problems
Learn from experience
Make difficult decisions based
on incomplete data
Perform repetitive tasks
consistently
Store large amounts of data
Perform multiple tasks at the
same time
Apply high forces and power
Why do we use or consider worker-machine systems?
2.2.1 Types of Worker-Machine Systems
2.2.1 Types of Worker-Machine
Systems
The worker-machine systems can be categorized
based on the following:
1. Types of powered machinery used in the system
2. Numbers of workers and machines in the system
3. Level of operator attention required to run the
machinery
Systems
Powered machinery is distinguished from hand
tools by the fact that a source of power other
than human (or animal) strength is used to
operate it. Common power sources are electric,
pneumatic, hydraulic, and fossil fuel motors
(e.g., gasoline, propane)
In most cases, the power source is converted to
mechanical energy to process the work unit
Systems
Powered machineries can be classified into the
following three categories:
1. Portable power tools
2. Mobile powered equipment
3. Stationary powered machines
Systems
Portable power tools are
light enough in weight that
they can be carried by the
worker from one location to
another and manipulated by
hand
Examples include portable
power drills, rotary saws,
chain saws, and electric hedge
trimmers
Common power sources are
electric, pneumatic, and
gasoline
Systems
Mobi le powered equi pment
can be divided into three
categories:
Transportation equipment
(e.g., cars, taxicabs, buses,
trains, airplanes, boats, ships)
Transportable and mobile
during operation (e.g.,
construction equipment such
as bulldozers and backhoes and
material handling equipment
such as forklift trucks)
Transportable and stationary
during operation (e.g., electric
power generator)
Systems
Stati onary powered
machi nes stand on the floor
or ground and cannot be
moved while they are
operating, and they are not
normally moved between
operations
Examples of stationary
powered machines include:
Machine tools (e.g., lathe
machines)
Office equipment (e.g.,
personal computers, fax
machines)
Furnaces and ovens
Systems
One machi ne Multi ple machi nes
One worker One worker one
machine
Example: a worker
loading and unloading a
machine tool
One worker multiple
machines
Example: a worker
tending several
production machines
Multiple workers Multiple workers one
machine
Example: a crew on an
airplane
Multiple workers
multiple machines
Example: an
emergency repair crew
responding to machine
breakdowns in a factory
According to whether there are one or more workers and one or more
machines, the worker-machine systems can be classified as shown in the
following table
Systems
Descri pti on Examples
Full-time attention Worker is engaged 100% of
the time in operating the
equipment
Truck driver driving an 18-
wheeler
Part-time attention during
each work cycle
Worker is engaged less than
100% of the time in
operating the equipment
Worker loading and
unloading production
machine each cycle
Periodic attention with
regular servicing
Worker must service
machine at regular intervals
that are greater than one
work cycle
Worker loading and
unloading production
machine every 20 cycles
Periodic attention with
random servicing
Worker must service
machine at random
intervals that average more
than one work cycle
Maintenance worker
repairing production
equipment when it
malfunctions at random
times
Classification of worker-machine systems according to level of operator
attention required
2.2.2 Cycle Time Analysis in Worker-Machine Systems
2.2.2 Cycle Time Analysis in Worker-
Machine Systems
In terms of cycle time analysis, worker-machine
systems fall into two categories:
1. Systems in which the machine time depends on
operator control, and the work cycle could be
repetitive or nonrepetitive
2. Systems in which the machine time is constant
and independent of operator control, and the
work cycle is repetitive
Machine Systems
1. Systems in which the
machine time depends on
operator control, and the
work cycle could be
repetitive, like:
a typist typing a list of
names and telephone
numbers on a conventional
electric typewriter
In these cases when the
work cycle is repetitive but
the cycle time is not
constant, the analysis
methods in section 2.1.2 (for
manual work) can be used
Machine Systems
1. Systems in which the
machine time depends on
operator control, and the
work cycle could be
nonrepetitive, like:
a construction worker
operating a backhoe
In these cases, estimates
and historical records based
on previous similar jobs are
often used to determine how
long the work should take to
complete
Machine Systems
2. Systems in which the machine time is constant
and independent of operator control, and the
work cycle is repetitive, like:
Operator loading semi-automatic production
machine
Two cases are discussed for the cycle time
analysis:
1. Cycle times with no overlap between worker and
machine
2. Worker-machine systems with internal work
elements
Machine Systems
If there is no overlap in work elements between the
worker and the machine, then the normal time for
the cycle is simply the sum of their respective
normal times:

T
n
= T
nw
+ T
m

where
T
n
= normal time for the cycle, min
T
nw
= normal time for the worker-controlled
portion of the cycle, min
T
m
= machine cycle time, min
Machine Systems
Standard time for cycle

T
std
= T
nw
(1 + A
pfd
) + T
m
(1 + A
m
)

where
T
std
= standard time for the cycle, min
T
nw
= normal time of the worker, min
T
m
= constant time for the machine cycle, min
A
m
= machine allowance factor, decimal
fraction
A
pfd
= PFD allowance factor, decimal fraction
Machine Systems
Example 2.8: Effect of Machi ne Allowance on
Standard Ti me
In the operation of a worker-machine system, the
work cycle consists of several manual work elements
(operator-controlled) and one machine element
performed under semiautomatic control. One
workpiece is produced each cycle. The manual work
elements total a normal time of 1.0 min and the
semiautomatic machine cycle is a constant 2.0 min.
The PFD allowance factor A
pfd
is 15%. Determine the
standard time using (a) A
m
= 0 and (b) A
m
= 30%.
Machine Systems
Soluti on: The normal time for the work cycle is the
normal time for the worker-controlled elements plus the
machine cycle time:

T
n
= T
nw
+ T
m
= 1.0 + 2.0 = 3.0 min

(a) With a machine allowance of 0%, the standard time is
calculated as
T
std
= T
nw
(1 + A
pfd
) + T
m
(1 + A
m
) = 1.0(1+0.15) +
2.0(1.0+0) = 3.15 min
(b) With a machine allowance of 30%, the standard time is
T
std
= T
nw
(1 + A
pfd
) + T
m
(1 + A
m
) = 1.0(1+0.15) +
2.0(1.0+0.3) = 3.75 min
Machine Systems
Example 2.9: Effect of Machi ne Allowance
on Worker Effi ci ency
based on the standard times computed in (a)
and (b) of the previous example, determine the
worker efficiencies for two cases if 150 units are
produced in one 8-hour shift
Machine Systems
Solution:
(a) if T
std
= 3.15 min, the number of standard hours
accomplished is
H
std
= 150(3.15) = 472.5 min = 7.875 hr
Worker efficiency E
w
= 7.875/8.0 = 0.984 = 98.4%

(b) if T
std
= 3.75 min, the number of standard hours
accomplished is
H
std
= 150(3.75) = 562.5 min = 9.375 hr
Worker efficiency E
w
= 9.375/8.0 = 1.172 = 117.2%

Machine Systems
Worker-Machine Systems with Internal Work
Elements:
External work elements: they are operator
elements that are performed in sequence with the
machines work elements
Worker is
working
Worker is
working
Worker is
idle
Worker is
idle
Machine
is idle
Machine
is idle
Machine
is
working
Machine
is
working
Machine Systems
Worker-Machine Systems with Internal Work Elements:
Internal work elements: they are operator elements that are
performed simultaneously with the machines work elements
It is desirable to construct the work cycle sequence so that as
many of the operator elements as possible are performed as
internal elements
Worker is
working
Worker is
working
Worker is
working
Worker is
working
Machine
is idle
Machine
is idle
Machine
is
working
Machine
is
working
Machine Systems
If there is an operator's work elements that are performed
simultaneously with the machine cycle, called i nternal work
elements, then the normal time for the cycle is:

T
n
= T
nw
+ Max {T
nwi
, T
m
}

where
T
n
= normal time for the cycle, min
T
nw
= normal time for the workers external elements,
min
T
m
T
nwi
= normal time for the workers internal
elements, min
Machine Systems
Standard time for the cycle:

T
std
= T
nw
(1 + A
pfd
) + Max{T
nwi
(1 + A
pfd
), T
m
(1 + A
m
)}

where
T
std
= standard time for the cycle, min
T
nw
= normal time for the workers external
elements, min
T
m
T
nwi
elements, min
A
m
= machine allowance factor, decimal fraction
A
pfd
= PFD allowance factor, decimal fraction
Machine Systems
The actual cycle time is:

where
T
nw
= normal time for the workers external
elements, min
T
m
T
nwi
elements, min
P
w
= worker performance level, in a decimal
fraction
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
T
P
T
P
T
T m
w
nwi
w
nw
c
, Max
2.3 Automated Work Systems
Automati on is the technology by which a
process or procedure is accomplished without
human assistance
It is implemented using a program of
instructions combined with a control system that
executes the instructions
There are two types of automated systems:
1. Semi-automated systems
2. Fully automated systems
1. In Semi -automated systems most of the
work cycle performed under some form of
program control and human worker tends the
machine for the rest of the cycle
Example: an automated lathe controlled for most
of the work cycle by the part program but
requiring the worker to unload the finished part
and load the next workpiece at the end of each
machine cycle
2. The fully automated systems has the
capacity to operate for extended periods of
time (i.e., longer than one cycle work) with no
human attention
Example: an oil refinery control room. The
workers monitor the automated operation and
spring into action if something goes wrong

Automated
robotic spot
welding cell
2.4 Determining Worker and Machine
Requirements
One of the problems faced by any organization is
determining the appropriate staffing levels.
How many workers are required to achieve the
organizations work objectives
Why?
Too few workers work cannot be completed on
time.
Too many workers payroll costs are higher than
needed
Requirements
The basic approach to determine the number of
workers in the organization consists of two
steps:
1. Determine the total workload which is defined
as the total hours required to complete a given
amount of work or to produce a given number of
work units
2. Divide the workload by the avai lable ti me per
worker, where it is defined as the number of
hours in the same period available from one
worker or worker-machine system
Requirements
Two general cases are considered:
1. When setup time is not a factor
2. When setup time must be included
2.4.1 When Setup Is Not a Factor
Workload is figured as the quantity of work units to be produced during the
period of interest multiplied by the time (hours) required for each work unit.
The time required for each work unit is the work cycle time in most cases, so
that workload is given by

WL = QT
c

where

WL = workload scheduled for a given period, hr of work/period (e.g.,
hr/wk)
Q = quantity to be produced during the period, pc/period (e.g., pc/wk)
T
c
= work cycle time required per work unit, hr/pc

Normally, the work cycle time T
c
would be the standard time t
std
for the task

w = WL / AT or n = WL / AT

where

w = number of workers
n = number of workstations (e.g., worker-machine
systems)
WL = workload scheduled for a given period
AT = available time of one worker in the period,
hr/period/worker
Example 2.11: Determi ni ng Worker
Requi rements
A total of 800 shafts must be produced in the lathe
section of a machine shop during a particular week.
Each shaft is identical and requires a standard time
T
std
= 11.5 min (machining time plus worker time).
All of the lathes in the department are equivalent in
terms of their capability to produce the shaft in the
specified cycle time. How many lathes and lathe
operators must be devoted to shaft production
during the given week, if there are 40 hours of
available time on each lathe.
Solution:

The workload consists of 800 shafts at 11.5 min per
shaft

WL = 800(11.5) = 9200 min = 153.33 hr

The time available per lathe during the week is AT =
40 hr

w = 153.33 / 40 = 3.83 lathe operators ( 4 lathe
operators)
There are several factors present in most work
systems that make the computation of the number
of workers somewhat more complicated. These
factors influence either the workload or the amount
of time available per worker during the period of
interest
Factors affecting the workload or the avai lable
ti me:
Worker efficiency
Defect rate
Learning curve phenomenon
Availability
Worker effi ci ency:
it is the amount of work accomplished during a
shift expressed as a proportion of the shift hours

Worker Efficiency = E
w
= H
std
/ H
sh

E
w
> 100% reduces the workload
E
w
< 100% increases the workload
Defect rate:
it is the fraction of parts produced that are defective

Q = Q
o
(1-q)

where
Q = quantity of good units produced during the
process
Q
o
= original or starting quantity
q = fraction defect rate
Learni ng curve phenomenon:
refers to the reduction in cycle time that occurs
in a repetitive work activity as the number of
cycles increases
As learning occurs cycle time decreases the
workload is reduced

where
WL = workload scheduled for a given period
Q = quantity of good units produced during
the process
T
std
= standard time per work unit

E
w
= worker efficiency
q = fraction defect rate
( ) q 1
Q
WL
E
T
w
std
=
Avai labi li ty:
it is the proportion of time the equipment is
available to run relative to total time it could be
used. It is the proportion of time that the
equipment is not malfunctioning or break down
AT = H
sh
A

where
AT = available time, hr/worker
H
sh
= shift hours during the period, hr
A = availability, in decimal fraction
Example 2.12: Effect of Worker
Effi ci ency, Defect Rate, and Avai labi li ty
on Worker Requi rements
Suppose in Example 2.11 that the anticipated
availability of lathes is 95% and the expected
worker efficiency during production is 110%. The
fraction defect rate for lathe work of this type is
3%. Other data from Example 2.11 are
applicable. How many lathes are required during
the 40-hour week, given this additional
information.
Soluti on:

The total workload for the 800 parts is

The available time is affected by the 95% availability

AT = H
sh
A = 40(0.95) = 38 hr/machine

n = 143.7 / 38 = 3.78 lathes and lathe operators ( 4 lathe
operators)
( )
( )
( )
hr
q
Q
WL
E
T
w
std
7 . 143
03 . 0 1 10 . 1
60 5 . 11 800
1
=
=
2.4.2 When Setup Time is Included
2.4.2 When Setup Time is Included
Setup time is associated with batch processing
and it consumes available time at a machine
Batch processi ng refers to operations in
which work units are processed in groups (i.e.,
batches)
Setup ti me refers to the time lost for the
changeover of the machine between batches
2.4.2 When Setup Time Is Included
Two cases will be considered:
1. The number of setups is known
2. The number of setups is unknown
Number of setups is known:
here, the setup workload can be computed as the
sum of the setup times for all batches
Example 2.13: Determi ni ng Worker
Requi rements When Number of Setups Is
Known
This is another variation of Example 2.11. A total of 800
shafts must be produced in the lathe section of a
machine shop during a particular week. The shafts are of
16 different types, each type being produced in its own
batch. Average batch size is 50 parts. Each batch
requires a setup and the average setup time is 3.5 hr. The
average machine cycle time to produce a shaft T
c
is 11.5
min. Assume that the fraction defect rate is 3%, and
worker efficiency is 100%. Availability is assumed to be
100% during setup but only 95% during a production
run. How many lathes are required during the week?
Soluti on:
The workload consists of the workload for the 16
setups and the workload for the 16 production
batches:

n = WL / AT
= [WL
setup
/ AT
setup
] + [WL
run
/ AT
run
]
Solution:
WL
setup
= number of batches setup time
= 16 3.5
= 56 hr

WL
run
= = = 158.076
( ) q 1
Q
E
T
w
std
( )
( ) 03 . 0 1 0 . 1
60 5 . 11 800

Solution:
AT
setup
= (H
sh
A)
setup

= 8 5 1
= 40 hr

AT
run
= (H
sh
A)
run

= 8 5 0.95
= 38 hr
Solution:
n = WL / AT
= [WL
setup
/ AT
setup
] + [WL
run
/ AT
run
]
= [56/40] + [158.076/38]
= 1.40 + 4.16
= 5.56
= 6 machines and operators
Number of setups is unknown:
Example 2.14: Includi ng Setup Ti me
When Each Machi ne Must Be Setup Once
In another variation of Example 2.11, suppose
that a setup is required for each lathe that is
used to satisfy the production requirements. The
lathe setup for this type of part takes 3.5 hr.
Assume that fraction defect rate is 3%, worker
efficiency is 100%, and availability is 100%. How
many lathes and lathe operators are required
during the week?
Solution: The fraction defect rate applies to the production
workload but not to the setup workload. Thus workload consists of
two terms, as follows:

WL =
800(
11.5
60
)
(1;0.03)
+ 3.5 = 158.076 +3.5

For A = 1,

AT = 40(1.0) = 40 hr of available time per lathe

dividing WL by AT, we have

n =
158.076:3.5
40
= 3.95 + 0.0875 n

n = 4.33 lathes and lathe operators (rounded up to 5)
2.5 Machine Clusters
When the machine in a worker-machine system
does not require the continuous attention of a
worker during its machine cycle (i.e., no internal
work elements), an opportunity exists to assign
more than one machine to the worker. We refer
to this kind of work organization as a machi ne
cluster
A machi ne cluster can also be defined as a
collection of two or more machines producing
parts or products with identical cycle times and
serviced by one worker (the servicing is usually
loading and/or unloading parts)
Several conditions must be satisfied in order to
organize a collection of machines into a machine
cluster:
1. The machine cycle is long relative to the service
portion of the cycle that requires the workers
attention
2. The machine cycle time is the same for all machines
3. The machines that the worker services are located in
close enough proximity to allow time to walk
between them
4. The work rules of the plant permit a worker to
service more than one machine
n

where
n = number of machines
T
m
T
s
= worker service time per machine, min
T
r
= worker repositioning time between
machines, min
Reposi ti oni ng ti me: it is the time lost because
of walking from one machine to the next
Example 2.15: How Many Machi nes for One
Worker?
A machine shop contains many semi-automated
lathes that operate on a machining cycle under part
program control. A significant number of these
machines produce the same part, whose cycle time =
2.75 min. One worker is required to perform
unloading and loading of parts at the end of each
machining cycle. This process takes 25 sec.
Determine how many machines one worker can
service if it takes an average of 20 sec to walk
between the machines and no machine idle time is
allowed.
Solution:
Given that T
m
= 2.75 min, T
s
= 25 sec = 0.4167
min, and T
r
= 20 sec = 0.3333 min, the number
of machines is:

n =
=
2.75:0.4167
0.4167:0.3333
= 4.22 = 4 machines

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